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THE ROYAL

NATURAL HISTORY

THE RED KANGAROO.

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2017 with funding from
Brigham Young University

https://archive.org/details/royalnaturalhistOOIyde

it« THE ROYAL
NATURAL HISTORY

edited by

RICHARD LYDEKKER, B.A., F.R.S., Etc.

WITH PREFACE BY

P. L. SCLATER, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., ETC.

SECRETARY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON

ILLUSTRATED WITH

Seventy-two Coloured Plates and Sixteen Hundred Engravings

W. KUHNERT. F. SPECHT, P. J. SMIT, G. MUTZEL, A. T. ELWES. J. WOLF,
GBIBIER BOLTON, F.Z.S.; AND MANY OTHERS

VOL. III.

LONDON

F E E D E R I C K -W A E X E & CO.

AND NEAV YORK
1894-95

[All Rights Rcstrvei^

MORRISON AND GIBB, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH

— THE LIBRARY
BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY
PROVO, UTAH

CONTENTS

■ -♦ —

MAMMALS

CHAPTER XXIX. — Cetaceans, — Order Cetacea.

PAGE

General Characters — Distribution — Habits— Classification — Tlie Whalebone Whales (Ratoiidfc)

Right Whales (Balcena) — Greenland Whale — Southern Whale — Fossil Species — Pigmy
Whale (Xeobalmna) — Grey Whale (Bhachianectes) — Humpback Whale (Megaptera) —
Fin-Whales, or Rorquals (Balcenoptera) — Lesser Fin-Whale — Rudolphi’s Fin-Whale
— Common Fin-Whale — Sibbald’s Fin- Whale — Fossil Fin- Whales, . . . 1

CHAPTER XXX.— Cetaceans,—

Toothed Whales (Odontoceti). — Distinction between Toothed and AVhalebone Whales —
Sperm-Whales and their Allies (Physeteridcv) — The Sperm-Whale (Fhyseter) — Ex-
tinct Sperm-Whales — Lesser Sperm-Whale (Cogia) — Bottlenose-Whale (Hyperoddon) —
Cuvier’s Whale (Ziphius) — Beaked Whales (Mesoplodon) — Sowerby’s AVhale — Layard’s
Whale — Ariiux’s Whale (Berardius) — Ancestral Sperm-Whales (Physodontidce) — Fresh-
water Dolphins {Platanistidce) — Gangetic Doljdiin {Platanista) — Amazonian Dolphin
(Inia) — La Plata Dolphin (Stenodelphis) — Allied Extinct Doljihins — The Porpoises and
Dolphins (Delphinidai) — The Narwhal (Monodon) — White Whale (Delphmapterus) —
Porpoises (Phocoena) — Common Porpoise — Porpoise - Hunting — Indian Porpoise —
Heaviside’s Dolphin (Cephcdorhynchus) — Irawadi Dolphin (OrceWa) — Killer, or Grampus
(Orca) — Lesser Killer (Pseudorca) — B\a.ckfish(Glohiocephalus) — Risso’sDolphin(Gr«?np?Ls)

— Short-Beaked Dolphins (Lagenorhynchus) — White-Sided Dolphin — Pacific Doljdiin
— White-Beaked Dolphin — Tnre Dolphins (Delphmus) — Common Dolphin — Allied
Species — Bottle-Nosed Dolphins (Tursiops) — Rough-Toothed Dolphins (Steno) — Long-
Beaked River Doljduns (Sotalia) — Chine.se Dolphin — Squalodonts and Zeuglodonts
(Squcdodontidce and Zeuglodontida’), . . . . . . - *23

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXXL— The Rodents,— Order Eodentia.

PAGE

General Characteristics of the Order — Teeth — Mouth — Distribution and Habits — African
Flying Squirrels (Anomaluridce) — The Squirrel Family (Sciuridm) — Groove-Toothed
Squirrel (Ehithrosciurus) — Spiny Squirrels (A’er us) — True Squirrels (Sc wrus) — Euro23ean
Squirrels — Distribution — North American Squirrels — Oriental Squirrels — Ground-
Squirrels, or Chipmunks (Tamias)- — Susliks, or Go^jliers (Spermophilus) — Prairie-
Marmots (Cynomys) — True Marmots (Arctomys) — Distribution — Old World Species —
American Si^ecies — Allied Extinct Rodents — Flying Squirrels — Lesser Flying Squirrels
(Sciuropterus) — Distribution and Habits — Larger Flying Squirrels (Pteromys)—^Yoolly
Flying Squirrel (Eupetaurus) — Pigmy Squirrels (Nannosciurus) — The Sevellels
{Haplodontidce) — Common Sewellel (Haplodon) — Californian Sewellel — The Beavers
(Castoridce) — Euroj^ean and American Species {Castor) — Distribution of the Euro2)ean
Beaver — Range of the American Species — Habits — Uses and Trapping of Beavers —
Extinct Beavers, .......... 65

CHAPTER XXXII. — Rodents, — continued.

The Mouse-Like Rodents. — The Dormice {Myoxidce) — Common Dormouse (Muscardmus) —
Squirrel-Tailed and Garden Dormice (Myoxus) — Tree-Dormouse — Extinct Dormice
— Jumping Mice and Jerboas {Dipodidce) — The Jumping Mouse (Zapus) — The
Five-Toed Jerboas — Kirghiz Jerboa (Alactaya) — Afghan Jerboa — Yarkand Jerboa
(Euchoretes) — Broad-Tailed Jerboas (Platycercomys) — Tliree-Toed, or True Jerboas
{Dipus) — Habits of Egyptian Jerboa — African Junqiing Hare {Pedetes) — The
Sminthus {Smmthus) — The Mouse Tribe {Muridce) — Australian "Water - Rat
{Hydromys) — Queensland Rat {Xeromys) — Malabar Spiny Mouse {PlatacantJwmys) —

The Gerbils {Gerbillus) — Phili2)2hne Rat {Phlccomys) — Hamsters and M'hite-Footed
Mice {Cricetus) — Common Hamster and Its Habits — S2iecies of "White-Footed Mice —

The Fisli- Eating Rat {Ichthyomys) — Grooved -Toothed Mice {Rhithrodontomys and
Rhithrodon) — W'^ood-Rats {Neotoma) — African Crested Rat {Lophiomys) — The Voles
{Microtus) — W'^ater-Vole — Short- Tailed Field-Yole — Bank-Yole— Alpine Vole — Other
Species — Lemmings {Myodes) — Banded Lemming {Cuniculus) — Musquash {Fiber) —
ilole-Like Voles {Ellobius and Siplineus) — Rats and Mice {Mus) — Brown Rat — Black
Rat — House- Mouse — Long-Tailed Field - Mouse — Harvest - Mouse — Other Species —
Bandicoot Rats {Nesocia) — Bush-Rats {Golunda) — S2hny Mice {Acomys) — Jerboa-Rats
{Hajjalotis) — Lichtenstein’s Rat {Mastacomys) — Mole-Rats {Spalacidcc) — Great Mole-Rat
{Spalax) — Bamboo-Rats {Rhizomys) — Ca2ie Mole-Rats {Bathyergus) — Naked Sand-Rats
{Heterocephalus) — American Pouched Rats {Geomyidce) — Pocket - Go2'>her {Geomys) —
Northern Pocket-Gopher {Thomornys) — Kangaroo - Rats {Dipodomys) — Pocket-Mice
{Perognatlius and Heteromys), ........ 104

CHAPTER XXXIII. — Rodents, — continued.

The Porcupine-Like Rodents. — General Characters of the Groiqi — The Octodont Tribe
{Octodontidce) — The Gundi {Ctenodactylus) — The Degu {Octodon) — The Tucotucos
{Gtenomys) — The Coypu {Myopotamus) — The Hutias {Capromys — Plagiodon — The
Cane-Rat {Aulacodus) — Other Genera — The Porciqiines {Hystricidoe) — Canadian Porcu-
pine {Erethizon) — Tree-Porcu23ines {Synetheres) — Brazilian and Mexican Species — Thin-
S2iined Porcu2)ine {Chcetomys) — True Porcupines {Hystrix) — Brush-Tailed Porciqiines
(Af/ierara)— Gunther’s Porcupine {Trichys) — Chinchillas and Viscachas {Chinchillidce)

— True Chinchillas {Chinchilla) — Common Species — Short-Tailed Species — Cuvier’s
Chinchilla {Lagidium) — The Yiscacha {Lagostomus) — Description of a Yiscachera —

Agutis and Pacas {Dasyproctid.ai) — The Argutis {Dasyprocta) — Common S2iecies — Aguchi
— The Pacas {Ccelogenys) — Branick’s Paca {Dinomys) — The Cavies {Caviidce) — True
Cavies {Cavia) — Restless Cavy — Cutler’s Cavy- — Guinea-Pig — Bolivian Cavy — Rock-
Cavy — Patagonian Cavy {Dolichotis) — Car2iincho, or Ca2iivara {Hydrochcerus), .

154

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXXIV. — Rodents, — concluded.

The Hare-Like Rodents. — Distinctive Features of the Group — Tlie Picas (Lagomyidcc) —
Distribution and Habits — Hares and Rabbits (Leporidcv) — Common Hare (Lepus) —
ilountain - Hare — North American Hares — Asiatic Hares — African Species — The
Rabbit — Its Distribution and Acclimatisation — Domesticated Rabbits,

CHAPTER XXXV. — The Edentates,— Order Edentata.

Characteristics — Distribution — Mode of Life — The Sloths (Bradypodidce) — Three-Toed Sloths
(Bradypus) — Two-Toed Sloths (Cholcepus) — E.xtinct Ground-Sloths (Meyatheriidce) —
— The Ant-Eaters (Myrrnecophayidce) — Great Ant-Eater (Myrmecophaya) — The Taman-
dua (Tamandua) — ^Two-Toed Ant-Eater (Cycloturus) — The Armadillos (Basypodidce) —
The Pichiciago (Chlamydophorus) — Six-Banded Armadillos (Dasypus) — Their Structure
and Mode of Life— Broad-Banded Armadillo {Lysiurus) — Giant Armadillo (Briodon) —
Three-Banded Armadillo (Tohypeutes) — Peba Armadillo (Tatusia) — Other Species —
The Extinct Glyptodonts {Gkjptodontidce) — The Pangolins {Manidce) — Asiatic Species
— African Pangolins — Aard-Varks (Orycteropodidce), .....

CHAPTER XXXVI. — The Pouched Mammals, or Marsupials, — Order Marsupialia.

Distinctive Characters — -Teeth — Mode of Suckling Young — Di.stribution — The Kangaroos and
Their Allies (Macropodidce) — Kangaroos and Wallabies {Macropus) — Rock- Wallabies
(Petroyale) — Spur-Tailed Wallabies {Omjchoyale) — Hare-AVallabies (Layorchestes) — Dorca
Kangaroos (Dorcopsis) — Tree-Kangaroos {Dendrolayus) — Banded Wallaby (Lccyostrophus)
— Rat-Kangaroos — Common Rat- Kangaroo (Potorous) — Brush-Tailed Rat- Kangaroo
(Bettonyia) — Rufous Rat-Kangaroo {yEpyprymnus) — Five-Toed Rat- Kangaroo {Hypsi-
prymnodon) — Extinct Kangaroo-Like Marsupials — The Phalanger Tribe {Phalanyeridcz)
— Long-Snouted Phalanger (Tarsfpes) — Cuscuses (Phcdanyer) — True Phalangers (Tnc/w-
surus) — Crescent-Toothed Phalangers (Pseudochirus) — Great Flying-Phalanger {Petaur-
oides) — Striped Phalanger (Dactylopsila) — True Flying-Phalangers (Petaurus) — Lead-
beater’s Phalanger {Gymnobelideus) — Dormouse-Phalangers (Dromicia) — Pigmy Flying-
Phalanger (Acrobates) — Pen-Tailed Phalanger (Distoechurus) — Koala (Phascolarctus) —
Great Extinct Phalanger {Thylacoleo) — The Wombats (Phascolomyidce) — The Bandicoots
(Peramelidce) — True Bandicoots (Perameles) — Rabbit-Bandicoot (Perayale) — Pig-Footed
Bandicoot (Charopus) — The Dasyure Tribe (Dcmjuridce) — Thylacine (Thylacinus) —
Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus) — Dasyures (Dasyurus) — Phascologales (Phascoloyale) —
Common Pouched Mouse (Sminthopsis) — Jerboa Pouched Mouse {Antechinomys) —
Banded Anteater (Myrmecohius) — The Pouched Mole (Notoryctidce) — The Opossums
{Didelphyidoe) — True Opossums (Didelphys) — Water -Opossum (Chironectes) — Extinct
Marsupials, ..........

CHAPTER XXXVII. — Egg-Laying Mammals, or Monotremes, — Order Monotremata.

Distinctive Features — The Duckbill {OrnithorhyncMdce) — Its Structure and Habits — The
Echidnas {Echidnidce) — Allied Extinct Mammals, .....

vii

PACE

189

202

235

283

CONTENTS

viii

BIRDS

CHAPTER 1. — General Characteristics.

Distinctive Characters of Birds — Skeleton — Skull — External Characters — Plumage — Change
of Plumage — Eggs — Migration — Distribution — Classification, . .

CHAPTER 11. — Perchixg-Birds, — Order Passeres.

Characters of the Order. — The Crow Tribe (Corvida;) — Ravens and Crows (Corrus)— Rook —
Jackdaw — Nutcrackers (Nticifraga) — Magpies {Pica) — Azure-Winged Magpies {Cyano-
pica) — Blue Magpies (Urocissa) — Indian Tree- Pies {Dendrocitta) — Jays (Garrulus) —
Siberian Jay (Perisoreus) — Long-Crested Jay (Cyanocitta) — Urraca Jay — (Oyanocorax)
— Struthidea — Piping Crows {Gymnorliina) — Choughs (Graculus) — Chough - Thrushe.‘<
(Podoces) — Huia-Bird (Heteralocha) — Birds of Paradise (Paradiseidce) — Twelve- Wired
Bird of Paradise {Seleucides) — Allied Genera — Gorget Bird of Paradise {Astrapia) —
Wattled Bird of Paradise {Paradigalla) — Typical Group {Paradisea) — King Paradise-
Bird (Cincinnurus) — Wilson’s Bird of Paradise (Biphyllodes) — Six- Plumed Bird of
Paradise {Parotid) — Standard- Wing (Semioptera) — Superb Bird of Paradise (Lophorhina)
— Bower-Birds (Ptilonorhynchidce) — Satin Bower- Bird (Ptilonorhynchus) — Spotted
Bower-Bird {Chlamydodera) — Gardener Bower-Bird (Amhlyornis) — Starlings (Sturnidcr)
Tyi)ical Group (Sturnus) — Rose-Coloured Starling (Pa.stor)— Other Genera — Ox-
Peckers (Biiphaga) — Glossy Starlings and Grackles (Eulabetidce) — ^ African Glossy
Starlings {Lamprotornis and Lamprocolius) — Grackles or Hill Mynas {Eulabes) — Asiatic
Glossy Starlings (Calornis) — Drongos {Dicrurida;) — Orioles {Oriolidce) — Cassiques and
Hangnests (Icteridce) — Cassiques {Ostinops and Cassicus) — True Hangnests {Icterus) —
Rice-Birds {Dolichonyx) — Cow-Birds {Molothrus) — Red-Shouldered Starling {Agelceus)
— Troupials {Quisccdus) — Weaver-Birds {Ploceidce) — Ox-Birds {Textor) — White-Headed
Weaver {Dinemellia) — True Weaver-Birds {Ploceiis) — Masked Weaver {Hyphantornis) —
Paradise Whydah Birds {Vidua) — Bi.shop- Birds {Pyromelana) — Sociable Weavers
{Philaterus) — Cut - Throat Weaver - F inches {Amadina) — Munias {Munia) — Blood
Weaver-Finches {Estrilda) — Tanagers {Tanagridce)~Y iolet Tanager {Euphonia)—
Scarlet Tanagers {Pyranga) — White -Capped Tanager {Stephanophorus) — Honey-
Creeper {Coerebidce) — West Indian Honey-Creepers (Cerf/woZa)— Banana-Quit, .

CHAPTER III. — Perching-Birds, — continued.

Finx'HE.S {Fringillidce) — Grosbeak Group {Coccothraustmce) — Greenfinches {Ligurinus) — Haw-
finches {Coccothrcmstes) — Rose-Breasted Grosbeak {IIedymeles)—Iled Cardinals {Cardin-
uZZs)— True Finches {Eringillince) — Chaffinches {Fringilla) — Siskins {Chrysomitris)—
Linnets {Linaria) — Snow-Finches {Montifringilla) — Desert Finches {Erythrospiza) —
Rock-Sparrows {Petronia) — True Sparrows {Passer) — Serin Finches {Serinus) — Canary
Rose-Finches {Carpodacus) — Bullfinches {Pyrrhida) — Pine-Grosbeak {Pinicola) —
Crossbills {Loxia) — Laysan Finch {Telespiza) — The Buntings {Emberizince) — Snow-
Bunting {Plcctrophenax) — Lapland Bunting {Calcarius) — Typical Group {Emberiza) —
Reed Bunting — Common Bunting — Black-Headed Bunting — Yellow-Breasted Bunting
— \ellow Bunting — Cirl Bunting — Ortolan Bunting — Meadow Bunting — Allied
Genera, ...........

CHAPTER IV. — Perching-Birds, — continued.

The Larks (AZuMfZZfZffi) — Skylarks {Alauda) — Woodlark {Lidhda) — Crested Larks {Galerita) —
Desert- Lark {Alcemon) — Short-T(jed Larks {Calandrella) — Calandra Larks {Melano-
corypha) — Horned Larks {Otocorys) — The Wagtails and Pipits {Motacillidce) — Wagtails

FACE

289

305

CONTENTS

I-AOB

(Motacilla) — White Wagtail — Yellow-Headed, Gniy, ]>lue-ncad(‘d,and Cape Wagtail? — •

I’ipits (Anthiis) — True Pipit — Meadow Pijjit — Uichard’s Pij)it — Tawny Pipit — The
Creepers {Ctrthiidce) — M'all Creeper (Tichodroma) — Australian Straight Claws (Or-
thomjx) — The Nuthatches (Siftidce) — The Honey-Eaters {Melijdiagidcc) — Parson-Bird
(/'/■osf/icmrtdcra)— Stitch-Biid {Poijonornis) — White-Eyes (Zosterops) — The Sun-Birds
(Nectariniida;) — Typical Grouj) (Nectarinia) — The Honey-Peckers (Dirceidce) — The Tits
{Paridce) — -True Tits (Parus) — Crested Tits (Lophophanes) — Long-Tailed Tits (Acredida)

— Bearded Tits (Panurus) — New Zealand Creepers (C'erf/tj'prtrus)— Allied Types — The
Shrikes {Laniidn) — Shrike Tits {Falcunculus) — True Shrikes (Laiiius) — Great Grey,

Lesser Grey, Red-Backed, Woodchat, Masked and Hooded Shrikes — Minivets {Peri-
crocotus) — Other Genera — The Waxwings (AmpcZzdn;) — Cedar Bird, . . . 417

CHAPTER V. — Perchixg-Birds, — continued.

The Thrushes and Warblers {Turdidai) — True Thrushes (TurdRs) — Missel-Thrush — Song-
Thrush— Redwing — Fieldfare — Blackl)irds(d/erR^a) — Rock-Thrushes(il/o?ih‘coht) — Blue-
Birds (Sialia) — Chats (SaxicoZa) — Wheatear — Blackchat — 'Whinchat — Stonechat— Fork-
Tails (Ilenicurus) — Redstarts (Ruticilla) — Black Redstart — Blue-Throated MMrbler
(Erythacus) — Redbreast — Rubythroat — Nightingales — New Zealand Robins (Miro) —

Dhyal Birds {Copsychus) — Shainas (Cittocincla) — Grey Warbler {Gerygone) — True
"Warblers (Sylvia) — "Whitethroats — Subalpine, Spectacled, Sardinian, Orphean, and
Garden "Warblers — Blackcap — Barred, Hartford, and "Willow MMrblers — Icterine
Wai'bler (llypolais) — Reed Warblers (Acrocephalus) — Grasshojjper "Warbler (Locustella)

— River-Warbler — Savi’s Warbler — Pheasant-Tailed Warbler (Stipit urus malacurus) — •

Cetti’s Warbler (Bradypterus) — Fan-Tailed Warblers (Cisticola) — Accentors (Accentor) —
Hedge-Sparrow — Goldcrest (Eegulus) — Firecrest — Rubycrest — The "Wood Mharblers
(Mniotiltidce) — The Dippers (CmcZidfc) — The Wrens (Troglodytidce) — True "Wrens (Tro-
glodytes)— Cactus - Wrens (Campylorhynchus) — The Mocking - Birds (Mimidce) — The
Babblers (Crateropodidce) — Typical Babblers (Crateropus) — Green Bulbuls (Chloropsis) —

True Bulbuls (PycnonoGis) — Liothrix — The Flycatchers (Muscicapidcc) — True Fly-
catchers (Muscicapa) — Spotted, Pied, White-Collared, and Red-Breasted Flycatchers —
Paradise Flycatchers (Terpsiphone) — Fan tail -Flycatchers (Rhipidura) — The Swallows
(Hirundinidm) — True Swallows (Hirundo) — Chimney and Red-Rumped Swallows —
IMartins (Chelidon) — Sand-Martins (Cotile) — Purple Martins (Progne), . . . 468

CHAPTER VI. — Perching- Birds, — concluded.

The American Flycatchers (Tyrannidm) — Tyrant Flycatchers (Tyrannus) — Bienteveo
Tyrant — -Ant-Birds (Formicivora)— The Chatterers (Cotingidce) — "Umbrella-Bird (Ceph-
(dopterus) — Bell -Birds (Chasmorhynchus) — Cotingas (Cotinga) — Manakins (Pipra) —

Cocks of the Rock (Rupicola) — The Plant-Cutters (Phytotomidce) — The Broadbills
(Eurylcemidce) — The Pittas (Pittidce) — The Wood-Hewers (Dendrocolaptidce) — Oven-
Birds (Furnarius) — Spine-Tails (Synallaxis)— The Lyre-Birds (Menuridcc), . . 527

CHAPTER VII. — The Picarian Birds, — Order Picaria;.

General Characters of the Order — The Jacamars (Galhulidce) — True Jacamars
(Galbida) — Broad-Billed Jacamars (Jacamerops) — The Puff-Birds (Bucconidce) — The
Woodpeckers (Picidcc) — Ground "Woodpecker (Geocolaptes) — Bright - Shafted Wood-
peckers (Colaptes) — Golden-"Winged, and Pampas Woodpeckers — Green "Woodpeckers
(Gecinus) — Grey - Headed Woodpecker — African Green Woodpeckers (Chloron-
erpes) — Red - Headed "Woodpeckers (Melanerpes) — Sap -Suckers (Sphyropicus) — Pied
W oodpeckers (Dendrocopus) — Three-Toed "Woodpeckers (Picoides) — Crimson- Headed
Bay Woodpecker (Lepocestes) — Rufous Woodpeckers (Micr opt emus) — Ivory - Billed

CONTENTS

Woodpeckers (Hemilophus) — Great Black Woodpecker (Picus) — Picnlets {Picumnus)—

Rufous Piculets (Sasia) — The Wrynecks (Ljngidce) — The Honey-Guides (Pidicatoridce)

— The Barbets (Capitonidce) — Tooth-Billed Barbets (PogonorJiynchus) — Tinker Barbets
(Barbatula) — Brown Barbets (Colorhamphus) — Great Barbets (Megalcema) — Crimson-
Headed Barbet {Xantholoemci) — The Toucans {PihamphasHdcP) — Toco Toucan (Ehavi-
p)hastus) — Aracari Toucans (Pteroglossus), ...... 545

Index, ............ 577

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

COLOURED PLATES

MAMMALS

The Red Kaxgaroo, ......

The Greexlaxd Whale, .....

Flying Squirrel, ......

Harvest Mouse, ......

Crested Porcupine, ......

The Two-Toed Sloth, ......

Frontispiece
Facing page 8

144

168

208

BIRDS

Glossy Starlings, ....

Weaver-Birds, .....

Desert Finch and Desert Lark,

Buntings, ......

Wheatear, Stonechat, and AVhinchat,
Dipper, Pied-WagTxUL, and Yellow -AVagtail,

Facing page 349

362

380

408

480

507

PAGE PLATES

MAMMALS

Humpback Whales Disporting, .....

A Colony of Bobac Marmots, .....

Beavers at AA'ork, .......

Philippine Rats, .......

A Scene in South America with Rheas and Patagonian Cavies,
A Herd of Carpinchos, ......

Cape A^vrd-A’arks at Home, ......

Page

121

183

187

232

BIRDS

Group of Crows,

Group of Finches,

Group of Tits, ....
Group of Thrushes,

Great Black 'Woodpeckers E.xploring,

Page

307

376

448

469

550

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

xii

TEXT ENGRAVINGS

MAMMALS

Sibbald’s Fin-Whale, ... 1

Skeleton of Greenland Whale, . . 2

The Greenland Whale, ... 7

Section of Skull of Greenland Whale, . 8

Skeleton of Fin- Whale, . . .18

The Les.ser Fin- Whale, . . .19

The Common Fin-Whale, . . .21

Skeleton of Sperm-Whale, . . 24

Tlie Sperm-Whale, . . .26

Skull of a Bottlenose-Whale, . . 30

Bottlenose- Whale, . . . .32

Skull of So\verl)y’s Whale, . . 34

Skull of the Physodon, . . .36

The Gangetic Dolphin, . . .38

The Amazonian Dolphin, . . .40

Skeleton of Dolphin, . . .41

A School of Narwhals, . . .42

The White Whale, . . .44

The Common Porpoise, . . .46

Porpoise Diving, . . . .47

Heaviside’s Dolphin, . . .49

Teeth of the Killer, . . .51

The Killer, . . . .52

The Blacktish, . . . .54

Risso’s Doljdiin, . . . .56

The Pacific Short-Beaked Dolphin, . 57

The Common Dolphin, . . .59

Red-Bellied Dolphin, . . .60

The Slender Dolidiin, . . .60

Bottle-Nosed Dolphin, . . .61

The Rough-Toothed Dol])hin, . . 62

The Pale River-Doljdiin, . . .63

Skull of Prairie-Marmot, . . .66

Skeleton of Squirrel, . . .69

The Fulgent Flying Squirrel, . . 69

The Abyssinian Spiny Squirrel, . . 71

The European Squirrel, . . .73

The Irawadi Squirrel, . . .76

The Common Chipmunk, . . .78

The Common Suslik, . . .80

The Prairie-Marmot, . . .82

The Alpine Marmot, . . .88

American Flying Squirrel, . . 91

Skeleton and Jaws of Beaver, . . 96

Skeleton and Molars of Dormouse, . 104

The Common Dormouse, . . .105

The Squirrel -Tailed and Garden-Dor-
mouse, . . . . .107

Skeleton of Garden Dormouse, . . 109

Skeleton of Jerboa, . . .110

PACE

The Kirghiz Jerboa,

113

Egyj)tian Jerboa, .

114

The African Jumping Hare,

115

Skeleton of Jumping Hare,

116

Skeleton and Molars of Brown Eat,

118

Jaw and Teeth of Gerbil, .

. 119

Egyptian Gerbil, .

120

The Hamster,

123

Teeth of Vole,

129

Tire Water-Vole, .

130

The Continental Field- Vole,

131

The Alpine Vole, .

1.33

The Norwegian Lemming,

1.35

The iMusquash,

1.37

The Brown Eat,

140

The Black Rat,

142

The House Mouse,

143

The Barbary Mouse,

145

The Great Mole-Rat,

148

The Common Pocket Gopher,

151

The Common Kangaroo-Rat,

152

Skeleton of the Cane- Rat, .

154

The Degu, ....

156

The Magellanic Tucotuco,

157

The Coypu,

L58

The Hutia-Couga, .

160

Tire Cane-Rat,

161

Skeleton of Porcupine,

16.3

The Canadian Porcupine, .

164

Brazilian Tree-Porcupine, .

165

Mexican Tree-Porcupine, .

166

Common Porcupine,

. 167

African Brush-Tailed Porcupine, .

168

The Chinchilla,

170

The Short-Tailed Chinchilla,

171

CuviePs Chinchilla,

. 172

The Viscacha,

173

A Viscachera,

174

Skeleton and Skull of Aguti,

175

The Common Aguti,

. 176

Skull of Paca,

177

The Paca, ....

178

The Guinea-Pig,

181

Skeleton and Teeth of Hare,

189

Siberian Pica,

190

Hare in its Form, .

192

Common Hare,

194

Mountain-Hare,

195

Rabbit, ....

198

Lop-Eared Rabbit,

200

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Xlll

Ilalf-Lop Rabbit, . . . .201

The Great Ant-Eater, . . . 202

Skeleton of Three-Toed Sloth, . . 204

The Coinnion Three-Toed Sloth, . . 200

Skill 1 of Extinct Ground Sloth, . . 200

Skeleton of Great Ant-Eater, . . 210

The Great Ant-Eater, . . .211

The Tamandua, . . . .213

Two-Toed Ant-Eater, . . . 214

Skeleton of Armadillo, . . .210

The Pichiciago, . . . .218

The Weasel-Headed Armadillo, . . 220

The Giant Armadillo, . . . 223

The Three-Banded Armadillo, . . 224

Carapace and Skeleton of Glyptodon, . 225

Sheath of Tail of Glyptodont, . . 220

Skeleton of Pangolin, . . . 227

The Indian Pangolin, . . . 228

The Short-Tailed Pangolin, . . 229

White-Bellied Pangolin, . . . 230

The Ethiopian Aard-Vark, . . 233

Bennett’s Wallaby, . . . 235

Jaws and Teeth of Rat-Kangaroo, . 237

Skeleton of Kangaroo, . . . 238

Skull of Lesueur’s Rat-Kangaroo, . 239

The Great Grey Kangaroo, . . 240

The Pandamelon Wallaby, - . . 242

Yellow-Footed Rock- Wallaby, . . 245

The Common Hare-Wallaby, . . 246

The Black Tree-Kangaroo, . . 248

Common Rat-Kangaroo, . . . 250

Brush-Tailed Rat-Kangaroo, . . 251

Skull of Diprotodon, . . . 253

Skeleton of Phalanger, . . . 254

The Long-Snouted Phalanger, . 255

Spotted Cuscus, .... 257

Common Phalanger, . . . 259

Squirrel Flying Phalanger . .261

Pigmy Flying Phalanger, . . . 262

The Koala, .... 263

Skull of Extinct Phalanger, . . 264

Skeleton of Wombat, . . . 265

Wombats, ..... 266

Skull of Tasmanian Devil . . 268

Skeleton of Thylacine, . . . 269

The Thylacine, . . . .270

The Tasmanian Devil, . . . 271

Common Dasyure, . . . 272

Yellow-Footed Pouched- Mouse, . . 273

Brush-Tailed Phascologale, . . 274

Jerboa Pouched-Mouse, . . . 275

The Banded Ant-Eater, . . .275

Pouched-Mole, .... 276

Feet of the Pouched-Mole, . .276

Skull and Foot-Bones of Pouched-Mole, . 277

Common Opossum, . . . 278

Philander Opossum, . . . 279

Water-Opossum, .... 281

Lower Jaw of Triconodon, • . . 282

Lower Jaw of Amphilestes, . . 282

Lower Jaw of American Jurassic Mammal, 282
Echidna Walking, . . . 283

Skeleton of Duckbill, . . . 284

The Duckbill, .... 285

Skeleton of Echidna, . . . 287

Under- Part of the Skull of a South

African Secondary Mammal, . 288

Lower Jaw of Plagiaulax, . . . 288

BIRDS

A Rookery, .... 289

Pelvis of Kiwi, .... 290

Skeleton of Vulture, . . . 291

Skeleton of Parrot and Skull of Cockatoo, 292

Skull of Teal, .... 292

Vertebra of Moa, .... 293

Shoulder and Breast-Bone of Flightless
Bird, . . . . .294

Metacoracoid of Flying Bird, . . 294

Humerus of Gull, .... 295

Leg-Bones of Moa, . . . 295

Tibia of Crane and Ostrich, . . 296

Skulls of Capercaillie, Duck, and Raven, . 297

Diagram of a Bird’s Plumage, . . 298

Thick-Billed Raven, . . . 309

White-Bellied Crow, . . .310

PAGE

Rook, ....

. 311

Nutcracker and Siberian Jay,

. 313

Magpies, ....

. 315

Azure-Winged Magpie,

. 316

Red-Billed Blue Magpie, .

. 317

Indian Tree-Pie, .

. 318

Common Jay,

. 319

Mexican Long-Crested Jay,

. 321

Urraca Jay,

322

Grey Struthidea, .

. 323

Black-Backed Piping Crow,

324

Red-Billed and Alpine Chough, .

. 325

Pander’s Chough-Thrush, .

. 327

Huia Birds,

328

Twelve- Wired Bird of Paradise, .

. 331

Gorget Bird of Paradise, .

. 333

XIV

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Great Bird of Paradise,

334

Red Bird of Paradise,

335

AAblson’s Bird of Paradise,

337

Head of Six-Plumed Bird of Paradise,

338

Satin Bower-Birds,

341

Spotted Bower-Birds at Home,

342

Common and Black Starling,

345

Rose-Coloured Starling,

346

Red-Billed Ox-Pecker,

348

Superb Glossy Starling,

350

Southern Crackle, .

351

Black Indian Drongo,

353

Golden Oriole,

354

Crested Cassique, .

356

Common Cow-Bird,

359

Red-Shouldered Starling, .

360

Purple Troupial, .

361

Nest of Sociable AVeavers, .

362

Common Ox-Bird and AVhite-Headed Ox-

Bird, ....

364

Abyssinian AAY.aver - Bird and Masked

A\'eaver-Bird,

365

Sociable AVea\'er-Bird,

367

Java Sjrarrow,

369

A'iolet Tanager,

370

AVest Indian Hone}' -Creeper,

373

Red Cardinal and Rose-Breasted Grosbeak,

380

Brambling,

384

Citril Finch, Snow-Finch, and Lesser

Redpoll, ....

386

Group of Sparrows,

391

Serin and Red-Fronted Finches, .

395

The Canary, . . . v

396

Scarlet and Siberian Grosbeaks, .

398

The Bullfinch,

400

Lapland Bunting, .

407

Ortolan and Black-Headed Buntings,

410

Girl Bunting and Meadow-Bunting,

413

The Sparrow-Bunting,

415

Yellow Bunting, .

416

Skylark, AA'oodlark, and Crested Lark

418

Finch-Lark and Desert-Lark,

422

Black, AA^hite-AA'^inged, and Short-Toed

Larks, ....

423

Calandra Lark,

424

Horned Lark,

426

The AA^hite AAMgtail,

429

Blue - Headed AA^agtail, Yellow - Headed

AA'agtail, and Meadow-Pipit,

431

Group of Pipits,

434

The Tree-Creeper, .

436

The AAMll-Creeper,

437

Nuthatch, ....

439

Honev-Eater or Parson Bird,

442

Metallic Sun-Bird, . 445

Long-Tailed Tit, . . . 453

Shrike-Tit, .... 457

Great Grey and Eed-Backed Shrikes, . 458

Lesser Grey Shrike, . . . 460

Woodchat, Masked, and Hooded Shrikes, 462
Indian Scarlet Minivet, . . . 463

Bohemian "VVaxwing, . . . 465

A Flock of "VVaxv.’ings, . . 466

Song-Thrush and Ring-Ouzel, . , 472

Blackbird and Sparrow-Hawk, . . 475

Rock-Thrush, .... 477

Mdieatear, "Whinchat, and Stonechat, . 480

Redbreast and Redstart, . . . 483

Blue - Throated and Ruby - Throated
AVarblers, .... 485

The Redbreast, .... 487

The Nightingale, . . . .488

Malacca Dhyal Bird, . . . 490

Lesser and Common "Whitethroat, . 492

Rufous and Orjdiean "Warblers, . . 494

Barred and Garden "Warblers and Black-
cap, ..... 495

Icterine "Warbler, .... 497

Reed Warbler, .... 498

Grasshopper "Warbler, River "Warbler, and
Savi’s AVarbler, .... 500

Sedge AVarbler, Cetti’s AVarbler, and Fan-
Tail AA'^arbler, .... 501

Pheasant-Tailed AAMrbler, . . . 502

Hedge-Sirarrow and Aljjine Accentor, . 503

Yellow-Browed AVarbler, Firecrest, and
Goldcrest, .... 505

Black-Throated Green AA'^arbler, . . 507

AAYens and their Nest, . . . 509

AIocking-Bird, . . . .511

Abyssinian Babbler, . . .512

Gold -Fronted Green Bulbul and Red-
Billed Liothrix, .... 513

Palestine and AA'hite-A’ented Bulbuls, . 514

Spotted and Pied Flycatchers, . . 516

AA^hite-Collared and Red-Breasted Fly-
catchers, . . . . .518

Chimney-Swallow and House-Martin, . 522

Red-Rumj^ed Swallow and Crag-Martin, . 523

Sand-Martin and Purple Martin, . . 525

King - Bird and Bienteveo Tyrant Fly-
catcher, ..... 528

The Fire-Eye, .... 529

Umbrella-Bird, .... 531

Naked-Throated Bell-Bird, . 532

Banded Cotinga, .... 533

Common Alanakin. . . 534

Cock of the Rock, .... 535

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XV

PAGE

Javan Broadbill, . . • •

537

Indian Pitta, . • ■ •

539

The Blue Pitta, . • ■ •

540

Brown-Fronted Sjune-Tail and Bed Oven-

Bird, . . • •

541

Lyre Bird, . . • • •

544

Great Black Woodpecker, .

545

Green Jacamar, . . • •

547

Common Green Woodpecker,

555

Grey-Headed and White-Backed Wood-

peckers, . . • . •

557

PAGE

Red-Headed American Woodpecker,

559

Spotted Woodpeckers,

560

The Three-Toed Woodpecker,

563

Ivory-Billed AVood])ecker,

564

The Brazilian Piculet,

. 566

Wryneck, . . . •

568

White- Eared Honey-Guide,

. 569

Crimson-Breasted Barbet, .

571

Toco Toucan,

574

Black-Throated Aracari Toucan, .

575

Lesser Spotted Woodpecker,

576

MAMMALS.

CHAPTER XXIX.

Cetaceans, — Order Cetacea,

Under the general title of Cetaceans may be included the whole of those mammals
commonly known as whales, porpoises, and dolphins, which difier from all hitherto
described in their assumption of a fish-like form, and their complete adaptation to a
purely aquatic mode of life. Indeed, so like are Cetaceans in their general outward
appearance to fishes, that they are commonly regarded as belonging to that class.
In all essential features of their organisation they are, however, true mammals,
breathing atmospheric air by means of lungs, having warm blood, a four-chambered
heart, the skull articulating with the first joint of the backbone by means of two
condyles, and the cavity of the body divided into two chambers by a midriff; while
they produce living young, which are nourished by milk di’awn from the bodies
of their mothers.

The assumption of a fish-like form by the Cetaceans is one of the
Form. 111^ ,

best-marked examples of what are known as adaptive characters,

which are merely produced in order to suit the animals in which they exist to their

VOL. III. — I

THE ROYAL NATURAL HISTORY.

CEl^ACEANS.

external surroundings, and have no sort of connection with their affinities. The
fisli-like resemblances of the Cetaceans are, moreover, not so close as they may at
first sight appear ; since the tail-fin, instead of being vertical, is horizontal, Avhile
the structure of the skeleton of the fore-limb is totally different from that of any
fish. The general fish-like form of the body is, however, that best adapted for
progi'ession through the water, which affords sufficient reason for its having been
acquired in the present groiip of animals ; and we may likewise mention that
Cetaceans generally resemble hsh in having the upper-j^art of the body coloured
dark, while the under-j^arts are light, such a coloration rendering the animals in
Avhich it occurs not easily seen, either from above or below, when in their native
element.

No Connection That whales are not even directly descended from fishes is
with Fishes, evident from the fact of their breathing atmospheric air, by means
of lungs, for if they had so originated it would be quite clear that they would have

SKELKTON OF GUEE>:LAND WHALE.

retained fish-like gills, and thus have avoided the necessity of coming periodically
to the surface for the purpose of breathing. It is probably for this reason that
Cetaceans have their tails with the expansion placed in a horizontal instead of a
vertical plane, since the strokes of such a horizontally-expanded organ are the best
calculated to bring an animal rapidly to the surface.

The additional circumstance that Cetaceans retain traces of the
hairy covering, which is so characteristic of mammals in general,
affords evidence that they derive their origin from terrestrial mammals ; and,
taken together with the absence of hind-limbs, is amply sufficient to disprove
any notion that they themselves are in any sort of way connected with the
ancestral stock from wliich the other members of the class have originated.
Cetaceans may, therefore, be regarded as some of the most specialised of all
mammals. With regard to the terrestrial mammals to which these animals ai’e

most closely related, there is still great uncertainty and some difference of opinion
among zoologists. Sir W. H. Flower is inclined to consider that they show more
resemblances to Ungulates, and especially the Even-toed group ; but the teeth of the
earliest forms are (piite unlike those of any Ungulates, and approximate much more
closely to those of Carnivores. It may, therefore, be suggested that the alliance
between Cetaceans and Carnivores may prove to be closer than is often considered

GEXERAL CJIA RA CTERS.

Characteristics.

to be tlio case. It may be noted here tliat tlie few Cetaceans inhabitiiiL^ fi-esh-
water are somewliat less markedly ditferent in structure from ordinaiy mammals
than are the marine representatives of the order ; and this leads the writer last
cited to conclude that Cetaceans were first modified for the assumption of a purely
atpiatic life from land mammals frequenting the banks of rivers, and that after
having accpiired natatorial powers in fresh Avater, their ancestors subsequently
migrated to the sea, where they have attained their jiresent remarkable develop-
ment.

Befox’e making any further remai'ks on Cetaceans in genei’al, it
will, however, be convenient to take into considei’ation the leading
structural features by which they are distinguished from other mammals. As
already mentioned. Cetaceans are characterised by their fish-like form, the head
passing imperceptibly into the body without any distinct neck, and at the other
extremity the trunk gradually tapering to the tail, which terminates in a forked,
horizontal hn-like expansion, commonly known as the “flukes.” The head is
large in proportion to the body, with a wide mouth, often furnished with a few
bristles, at least in the young state. The foi’e-limbs are represented by flippers,
encased in a continuous skin, showing no outward indications of digits, and without
the slightest trace of nails or claws, while of the hind-limbs there is not the lea.st
external trace. With the exception of the afore.said sparse bristles in the neigh-
bourhood of the mouth, the smooth and shining skin is entirely devoid of all traces
of hair, neither has it any structure corresponding to the scales of fishes. Beneath,
it is underlain by the thick layer of oily fat termed “ blubber,” the function of
which is to prevent the absorption of the heat of the body by the Avater. The
majority of the species have a fin on the back, Avhich is entirely composed of
integument, and has no internal skeleton corresponding to the similarly situated
tins of fishes. The eye is exti'emeh' small ; and, as in fishes, the ear has no external
conch, and opens by an exceedingly small aperture behind the eye. The nostrils,
Avhich may hav’e either a single or double opening, are situated on the A^ery summit
of the head, and thus reach the surface of the Avater before any other part Avhen
the animals rise horizontally.

In the skeleton the bones are remarkable for their loose and
Skeleton. ...... , . ,

spongy structure ; and in the liA’ing state are saturated Avith oil.

The majority of the species have teeth, Avhich may be confined to the loAver jaAv,
and these represented only by a single pair. In all cases these teeth are of a
simply conical or compressed form ; and in many of the dolphins they are much
more numerous than in any other mammals. In no instance is there any replace-
ment of the teeth ; but Dr. Kiikenthal has discoA^ered that in some species there
are 'rudimentary successional teeth Avhich iieA’er come to maturity, Avhence it is
considered that the functional teeth correspond to the milk-series of those mammals
in Avhich there is a replacement. With regard to the great number of teeth present
in some Cetaceans, the same iiiA^estigator considers that this is due to the divi.sion
of a number of trilobed teeth like those of certain seals (compare the figure in
\ ol. II. p. 142) into three parts, AAdiereby three distinct teeth liaA’e been produced
out of what AA^as originally a single tooth. In the baleen, or Avhalebone-Avhales, the
place of teeth is taken by the horny structure technically termed “ baleen,” but

CETACEANS.

Neck.

coinuionly known as “ whalebone,” the nature of which will be explained later on.
Even in this group, however, there are rudiments of teeth deeply buried in the gums
of the young ; and the structure of these rudiments is such as to indicate the origin
of at least that group of Cetaceans from mammals furnished with teeth of a
complex type. It is further inferred by Dr. Kiikenthal that these rudimentary
teeth correspond with those of the permanent set in other mammals.

In conformity with the absence of any external indications of a
neck, the vertebrm in that region of the backbone of Cetaceans are
abnormally shortened, so that even in the largest species this part of the column
may not much exceed a foot in length. This shortening of the neck is, however,
not accomplished by any reduction in the number of the vertebrae from the normal
seven, but by the shortening of the body of each of these vertebne until it assumes
the form of a broad, thin plate. The necks of a giratie and a whale present,
therefore, the extremes in the modifications a.ssumed by their constituent vertebrae ;
these joints undergoing the maximum degree of elongation in the one, and of
abbreviation in the other. In many Cetaceans the whole or a certain number of
the vertebra? of the neck are welded together into one solid mass. In the hinder
portion of the backbone the region of the tail is only distinguished from that of
the trunk by the vertebrae (as shown in our figure of the skeleton of the Greenland
whale) carrying chevron-bones affixed to their under-surfaces; there being no
mass of united vertebrae, corresponding to the sacrum of other mammals.

The skeleton of the fore-limbs exhibits all the segments
Limbs. . . , , . “

characterising those of terrestrial mammals, although some of these

are much modified. There are no collar-bones (clavicles) ; but the shoulder-blades,

or scaipuhe, are very large, and are much elongated in the antero-posterior direction.

I’lie humerus, or bone of the upper arm, although much shorter than usual, has a

free movement at its articulation with the shoulder-blade ; but its junction with

the two bones of the fore-arm, like all the joints lower down in the limb, admits of

scarcely any motion. Inde(;d, in all these joints the bones articulate by flattened

surfaces closely applied to one another, and are bound together by fibrous tissue.

The bones of the fore-arm (radius and ulna) are elongated aiid flattened, and lie

nearly parallel, one in front of the other. The number of digits in the flippers is

usually five, although occasionally reduced to four ; and in the second and third of

these there are always more than the ordinary three joints below the metacarpus.

The only rudiments of the hind-limbs are a few small bones beneath the sacral

region of the backbone representing part of the pelvis, and occasionally part of the

limb itself ( /'. and p. in the figure on p. 2).

In accordance with the position of the nostrils at its summit, the

SKUU. Till •111/*

skull departs considerably from the ordinary type. It will suffice to
state here that the supraoccipital bone extends forward to join the frontals, and
thus excludes the jiarietal bones from taking any share in the formation of the roof
of the middle line of the skull ; while in front of the opening for the nostrils there
is a more or less prolonged rostrum.

In regard to the soft parts, it may be mentioned that the stomach
is always complex ; and that the female has two teats, placed fai-
back on the abdomen. In order to enable these animals to swim with their mouths

Soft Parts.

GENERAL CHARACTERS.

Spouting.

A Modem Group.

wide open, tlie tipper part of the windpipe (larynx) is prolonged so as to roach the
opening of the nostrils in the hinder portion of the mouth, and thus form a closed
tube from the external nostrils to the lungs.

As there is fre((uently some misconception as to the so-called
“spouting” or “blowing” of Cebtceans, a few words are advi.sable on
this point. When a whale comes to the surface of the water after a longer or
shorter period of submergence, its first act is to discharge the air from the lungs
previous to taking a fresh inspiration. The air is expelled from the lungs with
great force, and thus rises a considerable height above the surface of the water,
and as it is .saturated with water- vapour at a high temperature the contact with
the cold external air at once condenses this vapour, which forms a column of steam
or spray. Frequently, hoivever, a whale commences to “ blow ” before its no.strils
are actually above the surface, and then a certain amount of .sea-water is forced up
with the column of air.

Cetaceans include the largest animals now existing on the globe ;
and they were only approached in point of size by some of the
gigantic land reptiles which existed during the Secondary period. As a group, they
are compai’atively modern, being unknown before the upper portion of the Eocene
division of the Tertiary period. In the preceding Secondary peiiod their place in
the ocean was taken by huge extinct marine reptiles, such as the ichthyo.saurs and
plesio.saurs ; but as these seem to have died out at the clo.se of that period, while
whales are unknown in the early part of the Eocene, it would seem that there
was an interregnum, during which our seas were not tenanted by any large
animals except fishes.

Difficulty of From their oceanic habits and huge size, the study of the larger

Observing’. Cetaceans is a matter of extreme difficulty ; the majority of the
comparatively few specimens that are cast ashore not being seen by naturalists,
while even in cases where opportunity is afforded for inspection, the bodies are
usually more or less distorted from their proper form, while nothing can, of course,
be learnt as to the habits of the animals. The acquisition of such knowledge as
we possess of the habits and form of the larger whales has con.sequently been
acquired very slowly ; but, thanks to the careful observations of several gentlemen
engaged in the whaling trade, we have a considerable amount of information on
these subjects, although there is room for much further investigation.

Cetaceans are found in all seas, from the Equator to within the
Arctic Circle ; and in former years even many of the larger species
were extraordinarily abundant in certain I’egions, although they have been greatly
reduced in numbers, and in .some instances almost or completely exterminated.
Many of the smaller forms, known as porpoises and dolphins, a.scend rivers for
longer or shorter distances ; while some of these, as well as all the members of one
family are exclusively fluviatile ; the latter inhabiting the larger rivers of South
America and South-Eastern Asia. With the single exception of a kind of dolphin
recently discovered in the large rivers of the Cameruns district on the We.st Coast
of Africa, which is believed to be hei-bivorous, all Cetaceans are carnivorous. Their
food is, however, very varied ; and the size of the animals devoured for food bears
no sort of relation to the dimen.sions of their devourens. Thus while the killer, or

Distribution.

CETACEANS.

grampus, feeds on seals and some of the smaller Cetaceans, and is indeed the only
member of the order which subsists on warm-blooded animals, many of the toothed
Cetaceans prey on fishes of various kinds, wliile others devour small crustaceans,
jell3"-fish, and the molluscs known as pteropods. The food of many of the larger

Habits.

species consists almost exclusively of squids and cuttles; and so small are the
animals on whicli the Greenland whale feeds, that it is commonly said that this
species would be choked if it attempted to swallow a herring.

Although the killer is renowned for the ferocity of its disposition,
the majority of Cetaceans are harmless and timid animals, usually
associating together in companies known as “ schools,” which may sometimes
comprise several thousands of individuals. As a rule, the members of a school are
said to display an affectionate disposition to one another ; and numerous anecdotes
attest the strong attachment and solicitude displayed by the females towards their
offspring. Some of the finner whales appear to produce two young at a birth not
uncommonly, but the usual number is one.

Existing Cetaceans are divided into two great primary gx’oups,
the one comprising the true, or whalebone whales, in which the place
of teeth is taken by baleen or “ whalebone,” and the toothed whales, characterised by
the presence of functional teeth, at least in the lower jaw. These two groups
differ from one another in many important respects, and if they are derived from
a single stock, their common ancestor must have existed at a comparatively I’emote
epoch. Dr. Kiikenthal is, however, of opinion, that the whalebone and the toothed
whales have originated independently of one another from totally distinct groups of
terrestrial mammals. If this view be ultimately maintained, it will be evident
that the Cetacean order, as at present constituted, is a heterogeneous group ; while
we should have a most remarkable instance of the power of adaptation to a
particular mode -of life of producing similarity in form.

Classilicatioii.

The Whalebone Whales.

Family Balaenid^-E.

The whalebone, or true whales, constitute but a single family, and are
characterised as follows. They have no teeth after birth ; but the palate is
furnished with numerous horny plates of baleen or whalebone, which serve to
strain the small animals on which these whales feed from the water, the structure
of this being explained below. The skull is symmetrical ; and the two branches
of the lower jaw are outwardly curved, and are joined at the chin only by fibrous
tissue. The nostrils open externally b}^ two distinct longitudinal apertures. In the
skeleton the ribs are but very loosely united with the backbone, articulating only
with the horizontal transverse processes of the vertebrae, and having no connection
with the bodies of the same. The breast-bone is composed of but a single piece,
to which onl}' one pair of ribs articulate.

As remarked by Sir W. H. Flower, in the substitution of baleen for teeth, as
well as in the loose connection of the ilbs with the backbone and the breastbone,
and in the reduction in the size of the latter, the whalebone whales are more

WHALEBONE WHALES.

specialised tlian the other group of Cetaceans ; this laxity of connection between
the ribs and the other parts of the skeleton, allowing of a greater degree of
expansion of the cavity of the chest, and thus permitting a longer submergence
beneath the water without the necessity of coming up to breathe. On the other
hand, in the retention of the double apertures to the nostrils, and in their
symmetrically-formed skulls, as well as in the position of a distinct olfactory organ,
and certain other features of their organisation, the members of the present group

THE GREENL.VXD WH.VLE (jlij nat. size).

depart less widely from the ordinary type of mammalian structure than do the
existing toothed Cetaceans.

The baleen or whalebone, which does not appear until after
Whalebone. . . . . ^ ^

birth, is composed of a numerous series of flattened horny plates,

placed transversely on either side of the palate, and separated from one another by
an open space in the middle line. The plates vary greatly in length in the different
species, and are triangular in form, with their broad bases attached to the palate,
and their points hanging downwards. Although smooth externally, the inner
edge of each plate is frayed out into a kind of fringe, thus giving a hairy appear-
ance to the whole of the inside of the mouth when viewed from below. The plates
attain the greatest length in the middle portion of the series, from whence they
gradually diminish in size towards the two extremities. Baleen differs greatlj" not
only in length, but likewise in its relative thickness and degree of elasticity, in the

CETACEAA\S.

different species. In colour it may vary from black to creamy white ; while in
some cases it is ornamented Avith strijjes of dark and light. The object of the
baleen, as already said, is to strain the Avater from the small animals on Avhich the
Avhale feeds : and its mode of action is described by Sir W. H. FloAver as folloAvs : —
“ In feeding, the immense mouth is tilled Avith AA'ater containing shoals of these
small creatures, and then, on the AA’hale closing the JaAVS and raising the tongue, so
as to diminish the cavity of the mouth, the Avater streams out through the narroAV

JIEDIAN SECTION, SHOWING THE LEFT SIDE OF THE SKULL OF THE GREENLAND WHALE,

WITH THE WHALEBONE.

Br, brain-cavity ; J,J* upper and lower jaws ; ho, bones of roof of skull ; s, blow-hole,
with arrows leading from the cavity of the nostrils ; w, whalebone ; t, contour of tongue ;

«, aperture of nerve canal in lower jaw. (From Southwell’s British Seals and Whales,

— After Eschricht.)

intei’A^als betAA^een the hairy fringe of the Avhalebone blades, and escapes through
the lips, leaving the living prey to be SAvalloAved.”

^ ^ The Avhalebone Avhales are commonly diA'ided into right-Avhales,

humpbacks, and rorquals or tinners, seA^erally representing as many
genera, in addition to Avhich there are tAvo less Avell-knoAvn forms, each of Avhich is
entitled to generic distinction.

Right-Whales.

Genus Balcena.

The right-Avhales, of Avhich the Greenland Avhale is the best knoAvn repre-
sentative, are characterised by the absence of any tin on the back, and of any
furroAAbs in the skin of the throat ; and likeAvise by the projiortionately large size
of the head, and the arched form of the sides of the mouth, Avhich ascends in the
middle far aboA^e the level of the eye. The flipper is relati\^ely short, and contains
five distinct digits ; and the Avhole of the seven A’ertebrfe of the neck are Avelded
together into a solid mass. The baleen is long, narroAV, very elastic, and black
in colour.

THE GREENLAND WHALE

WHALEBONE WLIALES.

Greenland Whale.

Tlie Greenland whale {liahvna mysiicetm) is a northern species,
characterised by the enormous size of the head, which often exceeds
one-third the entire length of the animal, by the high arching of the mouth, and
the great nund)er and length of the baleen plates. The latter in the middle region
attain a length of 10 or even 12 feet, and their total number may exceed 380 on
each side of the jaw. In order to atibrd room for such enormous structures,
the narrow uj)per jaw is greatly arched from before backwards, while the two
branches of the lower jaw are widely separated behind, and curve much outwards
in the middle of their course.

The manner in which the plates of baleen perform their function has been
explained by Captain D. Gray. When the mouth of the animal is closed, the
slender extremities of the baleen curve backwards in the direction of the throat,
the longer ones in the middle of the jaw occupying the hollow formed by the
shorter ones behind. When the jaws are opened for feeding, the baleen by its own
elasticity springs downwards and forwards, and thus fills up the whole space
between the two jaws, irrespective of their degree of separation. An efiectual
strainer is thus interposed between the sides of the cavity of the mouth and the
external watei’, which prevents the food swallowed from escaping, while the water
taken in at the same time has full means of escape upon the closure of the mouth.
The tongue is of very large size, and fills up the cavity between the two series of
baleen plates when the mouth is shut ; and the stranded prey left upon its surface
after the completion of the straining process is swallowed at leisure. The large
lower lip, rising up at the sides above the extremities of the baleen, prevents them
from being borne outwards by the rush of water as the mouth is closing.

The general colour of the Greenland whale is black, but there is frecjuently
more or less white about the throat, flippers, and in front of the flukes, while some
individuals are pied all over. A rough prominence at the extremity of the muzzle,
known as the “ bonnet,” is frequently present. In some individuals, at least, the
tail is more constricted in advance of the flukes than is the case in our figure,
while the flukes themselves are wider.

The Greenland whale attains usually a length of about 50 feet, but specimens
have been recorded exceeding 60 feet, and it is probable that when the species was
more numei’ous its average size was greater. These whales usually yield about
130 barrels of oil, but specimens were formerly killed from which as much as from
200 to 280 barrels has been obtained. The product of baleen may vary from 1000
to over 3000 lbs. The price of this commodity in 1881 was as much as £1100 per
ton, but in ten years it had risen to iipwards of £2800 for the best quality, the
average price being then about £2520 per ton.

If we follow Sir W. H. Flower in regarding the so-called bow-
head whale of Behring Strait and the Okhotsk Sea as not specifically
<listinct, the range of the Greenland whale will be circumpolar. In the North
Atlantic the southern limits of this species may be approximately indicated by a
line drawn from the coast of Lapland, in latitude 70°, to the southern point of
Iceland, and thence to the coast of Labrador, in latitude 55°. In Behring Sea it is
but seldom seen south of latitude 55°, while in the Sea of Okhotsk it ranges about
1° further south. With regard to the northern limits of this whale, there is some

Distribution.

CETACEANS.

degree of uncertainty. Captain Feilden is, however, of opinion that no whale
could inhabit the frozen sea lying to the north of Robeson Channel, above Baffin
Bay, in latitude 82° X., and that none would be found in the neighbourhood of the
pole. This species undertakes annual migrations of considerable extent, always
travelling northwards in summer as the ice breaks up. Captain Scammon states
that “ everything tends to prove that Bolmna mysticetus is truly an ‘ ice- whale,’ for
amono’ the scattered floes, or about the borders of the ice-fields or barriers is its
home and feeding-ground. It is true that these animals are pursued in the open
water during the summer months, but in no instance have we learned of their
being captured south of where winter ice-fields are occasionally met with.”

The huge size of the mouth and the enormous development of
H3.bits ^

the baleen in this species is in correlation with the nature of the
food, which is composed mainly of small shrimp-like crustaceans and swimming
molluscs belonging to the group known as pteropods ; a vast number of such
minute creatures being necessary to afford sustenance to an animal of the dimensions
of the Greenland whale. When feeding, these whales swim near the surface of the
water, with the nostrils and a portion of the middle of the back showing above.
Captain *Scammon, writing about twenty years ago, says “ they are often met with
singly in their wanderings ; at other times in pairs or triplets, and scattered over
the surface of the water as far as the eye can discern from the masthead. Toward
the end of the season they are seen in large numbers, crowded together. These
herds are called ‘gams,’ and thej' are regarded by experienced whalemen as an
indication that the whales will soon leave the ground. Their manner of respira-
tion is to blow seven to nine times at a ‘ rising,’ then ‘ turning flukes ’ (elevating
them six to eight feet out of the water), they go down and remain twelve or
fifteen minutes.” Captain Gray states, however, that he has known a whale when
harpooned stay under water for fifty minutes.

There is still some degree of uncertainty as to the bi’eeding-habits of the
Greenland whale. Dr. R. Brown states that the pairing-season is from June to
August, and that the young are born in the following March, April, and May.
Some other writers have, however, considered that the period of gestation is
thirteen or fourteen months. The single offspring is believed to be suckled for
about a year, during which time the baleen is gradually developed. The affection
of the female parent for her young is most intense, and if she be captured there is
little difficulty in securing her offspring.

The Greenland whale is a peaceful and timid animal, and appears never to
attack the boats of its pursuers. The accidents which occur in hunting this species
are mainly due either to its descending suddenly to great depths when first
wounded, whereby the boat may be swamped or dragged under water, or by a too
close approach to the animal when in its last terrible death-struggle, or “ flurry,” as
it is called by the whalers. The ordinary speed of a Greenland whale, whether
swimming at or below the surface, is estimated by Captain Gray at about four
miles an hour, while when the animal is frightened or wounded its rate of progress
will be accelerated to about eio-ht miles.

The Greenland whale has for more than a century been systematic-
ally hunted by British whalers, whose head(|uarters are the poiTs of

Whaling.

JVHALEBONE WHALES.

1 1

Peterhead and Dundee. From information given by Capt. Gray to Mr. T. Soutli-
well, it appears tliat between the years 1788 and 1879 no less than four tliousand
one luindred and ninety-five whales were killed by the Peterhead vessels ; Avhile
between 1790 and 1879 four thousand two hundred and twenty were accounted for
by those .sailing from Dundee. When we add to these the numbers killed by the
whalers of other nations, it is not surprising to learn that the Greenland whale has
now become a comparatively scarce animal. In the year 1891 only seventeen
whales were captured by the Scotch whalers, and the.se were of comparatively
small size, yielding whalebone of less than six feet in length. It has, indeed, been
supposed that the species is either well-nigh exterminated, or has been driven north-
ward beyond its ancient haunts. Neither of these suppositions appear, however, to
be true, for it is now ascertained that the whales have not altered their original lines
of mi<rration, while so late as 1891 considerable numbers were seen in the Green-
land .seas. Writing on this subject, Mr. Southwell expre.sses his belief that the
want of success experienced of late years by the whalei-s is “ mainly owing to the
introduction of steam, which enables the modern ships to follow the whales in
localities where formerly they would have been .safe from molestation. The rattle
of the screw also, which can be heard by the whales for long distances, is now to
them a well-known sound ; above all, the eagerness with which they are followed
up — all tlie vessels consorting together — has at length rendered them so wild as to
be practically unapproachable. Even now, however, it appears (juite possible that
a ve.ssel approaching their haunts alone, and in the quiet manner which prevailed
before the introduction of steam, might be rewarded by the success of old.
Certainly the fishery appears to be in a hopeless condition at present (1892) ; but
it is possible that a few years’ rest might restore the confidence of the whales, and
that, if then pursued with due caution by a limited number of ve.ssels, paying-
cargoes might again be obtained.”

The method of capturing whales has been .so frequently de.scribed, that it will
be unnecessary to do more than briefly allude to it here. In former days the
actual pursuit of the whale was always made in open boats, and the harpoon, with
the line attached, tliiown by hand ; the animal being subsequently de.spatched by
long sharp weapons known as lances. Later on, a harpoon-gun was substituted
for the thrower ; while at the present day the ships themselves are in some cases
used in the attack, and the employment of open boats dispensed with. The ves.sels
thus employed are mounted with a massive and elaborately constructed gun fixed
in the boat upon a swivel support. The gunner takes his stand upon a platform,
which is furnished with wings overlapping the small angle of the bows, and thus
allowing him plenty of room to move freely. The projectile is a harpoon, armed
with movable flukes, and containing an explosive in the head. When fired, the
flukes lie flat on the sides of the harpoon, but on entering the flesh of the whale
they open out so as to form a grapnel in its body ; while the act of expansion also
fires the explosive, by which the animal, if hit anywhere near a vital part, is
generally killed outright.

„ ^ _ Although the whale of the North Atlantic has been separated

as a distinct species from the one inhabiting the southern part of
that ocean, while those of the North and South Pacific have likewise received

CETACEANS.

1 2

<li.stinct names, it is, on the whole, probable that all these indicate only local races
of a single widespread species, which may be known as the southern right-whale
(B. (I list rails). This species differs from the last by its relatively smaller head,
in which the contour of the lower lip is much more highly arched, and the baleen
considerably shorter ; while the number of ribs is fifteen in place of twelve. It is
also of smaller size and yields less blubber. In its movements this w'hale is said
to be quicker, more active, and more violent than the other, and is thus more
<lifficult and dangerous to kill. In the North Atlantic it was still not unfrequent
in the latter jiart of the eighteenth century, and ranged as far north as Iceland
and Norway ; but it is now all but exterminated in these regions. Several
instances of whales, probably belonging to this species, having been seen or
captured off the British Coasts previous to the commencement of the present
century are on record ; and it is highly probable that whales seen off Peterhead in
1806 and 1872 were likewise of the same kind. An example was captured in the
harbour of San Sebastian in 1854, a second in the Gulf of Taranto in 1877, and
a third on the Spanish Coast in the following year. The practical extermination
of this species in European waters, appears to be due to the Basque fishermen of
the Biscayan ports, by whom it was persistently hunted from the tenth to the
sixteenth century. It was known to them as the sletbag, and had become exceed-
ingly scarce on the discovery of Spitzbergen in 1596, when the Basque whalers
turned their attention to the far more valuable Greenland species.

On the western side of the Atlantic, where it is known as the black whale,
examples are occasionally met with. In the North Pacific it occurs in Japanese
waters ; and it likewise frequents the Australian and New Zealand seas, as well
as the regions around the Cape of Good Hope. The southern limits of the
southern right-whale are not yet definitely known, but the species certainly does
not peneti’ate the icebound Antarctic Ocean.

Fossil Right- Several species of right-whales have left their remains in the
Whales. Pliocene deposits of Belgium and the east coast of England. One of
these extinct forms appears to have been allied to the Greenland, and a second
to the southern whales, while the other two are smaller species unlike any
now livinof.

The Pigmy Whale.

Genus Neohalcma.

A rare whale {Neohalcuna marginata), from the New Zealand, Australian, and
South American seas, is the smallest representative of the family, and while most
nearly allied to the right-whales, presents certain peculiarities in structure which
entitle it to rank as the representative of a distinct genus. It derives its common
name of pigmy whale fi'om its comparatively small size, the length never exceeding
20 feet, and being sometimes only 15 or 16 feet. Although agreeing with the
light-whales in ha%ing the skin of the throat smooth, and all the vertebraB of the
neck united into a solid mass, the pigmy w^hale differs by having a small fin on the
back, by the baleen, wdiich is of great length and slenderness, being wdiite, and also
by the small and narrow^ flipper containing but three digits in its skeleton. The

WHALEBONE WHALES.

ribs are very broad and fattened, and are seventeen in nuinljer. Tlie wlialebone
of this species is more flexible, more elastic, and toiiglier than that of any other ;
and if it could be obtained in any (quantity would fetch a higher price in the
market than that of the Greenland wliale.

The Grey Whale.
Genus Rhachianectes.

The grey whale of the North Pacific (Rhachianectes glauciis), taking its name
from the bluish grey colour of its skin, is also the single representative of its
genus. This species serves as a kind of connecting link between the right-whales
on tlie one hand and the humpback and tinners on the other, and is in all prob-
ability a very ancient and generalised type. It agrees with the humpback in the
absence of a fin on the back and the narrowness of the flippers, but resembles
the tinners in the relatively small size of the head, the elongated form of the body,
the shortness and brittle nature of the whalebone, and in the almost complete
separation of all the vertebrge of the neck. A further approximation to the
humpback and tinners is made by the presence of a single pair of flutings in
the skin of the throat. The male attains a length of from 35 to 42 feet, and the
female from 40 to 44 feet, the length of the flippers being about 6| feet. The
general colour is a mottled bluish grey, becoming very light in some individuals,
while in others it is nearly black. The whalebone is relatively shorter than in
any other species, scarcely exceeding 18 inches in length, and is yellow in colour.

In the skeleton the ribs are remarkable for their shortness and great width,
and the consequent narrowness of the spaces between them ; while the fir.st two
are more or less completely united together to form a solid shield of bone. In the
flippers the joints of the digits are very short and thick, and appear to be less
numerous than in the finnens. The blubber is solid and tough, with a reddish
coloui', and yields comparatively little oil.

At the present day the grey whale is confined to the North
Pacific, and does not range further south than the 20th parallel
of north latitude. From the evidence of certain bones found in the superficial
deposits of the British Islands, and described under the name of Eschrichtius,
it is, however, not improbable that it formerly frequented the Atlantic.

It is a migratory species, appearing on the coasts of California
and Oregon for the purpose of breeding from November to May, and
going noi'thwards for the rest of the year. Captain Scarnmon says that in its
regular migrations from the hot southern latitudes to within the Arctic Circle this
whale follows the general trend of an irregular coast so closely that it is exposed to
attack from the savage tribes inhabiting the seashores, who pass much of their
time in their canoes, and consider the capture of this singular wanderer a feat
worthy of the highest distinction. As it approaches the waters of the torrid
zone, it presents an opportunity to the civilised whalemen to pi'actise their
different modes of strategy, thus hastening the period of its entire disappearance.
This species of whale manifests the greatest aftection for its young, and seeks the

Distribution.

Habits.

CETACEANS.

sheltered estuaries lying under a tropical sun, as if to warm its offspring into
activity and promote its comfort, until grown to the size nature demands for its
first northern visit. When the parent animals are attacked, they show a power
of resistance and tenacity of life that distinguish them from all other Cetaceans.
This species has of late years become very rare, and is now in considerable danger
of extermination.

The Humpback Whale.

Genus Megaptera.

The humpback whale {Megaptera hoops) belongs to the group characterised
by the presence of a number of longitudinal flutings in the skin of the thi’oat, and
of a fin on the back. It is distinguished from the tinners (described below), by the
comparatively large size of the head, the short and deep body, the small size of the
fin on the back, and the enormous length of the flippers. The flukes are relatively
large, and the flippers are characterised by their scalloped margins. As in the grey
whale and tinners, the vertebrai of the neck are relatively longer than in the right-
whales, and remain perfectly separate from one another throughout life. The whale-
lx)ne, which is of a deep black colour, is short and broad, and of a coarse and but
slightly elastic structure. In length the humpback varies from 45 to 50 feet ; the
flippers measuring from 10 to 14 feet in length. The general colour of the body is
black above, but often more or less marbled with white below, while the flippers
may be either entirely white, or black above and speckled with white below. The
skeleton of the flippers has four digits, with a great number of joints.

The name humpback, according to Captain Scammon, is derived from the
prominence on the back which carries the fin, but there appears to be considerable
individual variation in regard to the degree of its development. Captain Scammon,
from wliose figures our plate is taken, makes this prominence at least as high as
any other part of the back, while in the position assumed by the siickling female
in the lower half of the plate it is the highest point of all. In a figure given by
Sir W. H. Flower the whole back is made more arched, with the highest point only
a short distance behind the base of the flippers ; po.ssibly, however, there may be
individual ditferences in this respect. It may be mentioned here that when a whale
leaps out of the water, as in the topmo.st figure of our plate, it is said to “ breach ” ;
when a fin is shown out of the water, as in the two right upper figui'es, the action is
termed “ finning ” ; while, when the flukes alone are exposed, as on the left side of
the plate, it is called “ lob-tailing.”

Distribution Humpbacks are found in nearly all seas, and at present it appears

impo.ssible to distinguish more than a single species, although some
writers maintain that the one inhabiting the Persian ii%lf is distinct from the
common form. Although they are said to be not uncommon off the eastern coast
of Scotland during the summer, but few examples have been taken in the British
Seas. One was, however, captured at Newcastle in 1839, a second at the mouth
of the Dee in 1863, a third in Wick Bay, Caithness, in 1871, and a fourth in the
Tay during the winter of 1883-84.

HUMPBACK WHAI.ES 1)I«POKTI\0.

WHALEBONE JJ HALES.

Habits.

As regards the habits of the humpback, Captain Scammon states
that this whale generally prefers “ to feed and j:)erforin its uncouth
gambols near extensive coasts or about the shores of islands, in all latitudes between
the Equator and the frozen oceans, both north and south. It is ii-regular in its
movements, seldom going a straight coui’se for any considerable distance ; at one
time moving about in large numbers, scattered over the sea as far as the eye can
discern from the masthead, at other times singly, seeming as much at home as if it
were surrounded by hundreds of its kind, performing at will the varied actions of
‘ breaching,’ ‘ rolling,’ ‘ tinning,’ ‘ lob-tailing,’ or ‘ scooping,’ or, on a calm sunny
day, perhaps lying motionless on the molten-looking surface, as though life were
extinct.” On the coasts of Norway, although generally found in small numbers,
Mr. Collett states that it is occasionally very numerous — so much so that in one
instance a steamer had to exercise great care in steering, in order to avoid coming
into collision with these whales. They were met with in gi’eat profusion by Captain
Gray in 1880 to the north of Ireland, accompanied by numbei’s of the lesser fin-
whales. Two young are frequently produced at a birth.

The amount of oil yielded by a humpback is very variable, a
female with a large young one having scarcely any blubber. Captain
Scammon states that he has known the amount of oil taken from some individuals
not to exceed eight or ten barrels, while in others the yield has been as much as
seventy-five.

Products.

Fix-Whales, or Rorquals.

Genus Balcenoptera.

The remaining living representatives of the whalebone whales are known as
fin-whales, or rorquals, or sometimes fin-backs or razor-backs, and include four
well-defined species. These whales are distinguished from the humpback by their
more elongated and slender form and proportionately smaller head, which measures
from one-fifth to one-fourth the total length, and also by the comparative shortness
of their flippers. The latter are narrow and pointed, and vary from one-seventh to
one-eleventh of the total length. The small and recurved back-fin is placed about
two-thirds of the distance from the head to the flukes, and the latter are smaller
than in the humpback. The whalebone is short and coarse, and the lateral line of
the mouth is consequently nearly straight, and does not rise above the level of
the eye.

Fin-whales are the most common and widely disti’ibuted of all the larger
Cetaceans, and are far more active and speedy in their movements than right-
whales ; and since their yield of blubber is relatively small, while the shortness and
inferior quality of their whalebone renders it of much less value than that of the
right-whales, they wei'e formerly but little molested by whalers. The yearly
increasing scai’city of the Gx’eenland whale, and the enormous advance in the price
of whalebone, coupled with the invention of harpoon -guns, which renders the
capture of these animals far less difficult than in the old days, have, however, led
to both humpbacks and tinners being regularly hunted. Fin-wliales are found in
nearly all seas except those of the Antarctic regions, and the four well-defined

VOL, III. — 2

1 8 CETACEANS.

species have an almost cosmopolitan distribution ; but there is some evidence that
the Indian seas possess two other species with a much more limited distribution.

Most of the hn-whales feed mainly on fish, the larger species consuming an
enormous cpiantity of cod.

Lesser The smallest representative of the group is the lesser fin-whale,

Fin-Whale, or I’orqual {Balcvnoptera rostrata), frequently known, from its pointed
muzzle, as the pike-whale. It is represented in the accompanying figure. The
average length of this species varies from 25 to 30 feet, and a length of 33 feet
is but very seldom exceeded. The general colour of the upper-parts is greyi.sh
black, while the whole of the under surface, inclusive of the fiukes, is white. The
most distinctive characteristic of the species is, however, the broad band of white
running across the upper part of the outer surface of the flippers, which forms a
striking contrast to the black of the remainder. The flippers measure about one-
ei<dith the entire length of the animal, and the number of pairs of ribs is eleven.
The whalebone is nearly white.

This whale is by no means rare on the British coast; and an example was
captured off the Scilly Islands so lately as 1887, while two were taken in the Firth

of Forth in the year following. It is more common on the shores of Norway, where
it is frequently captured in the bays and fjords ; the natives stretching a net across
the mouth, after one or more whales have entered, and then despatching them with
spears. Its habits in North American waters, where it is known as the sharp-
nosed finner, are described by Captain Scammon. He writes that this whale
“ frequently gambols about vessels when under way, darting from one side to
another beneath their bottom.s. When coming to the surface, it makes a quick,
faint spout, such as would be made by a suckling of one of the larger Cetaceans,
which plainly accounts for whalemen taking it to be the young of more bulky
species. At sea the sharp-headed finners are seldom seen in pairs, but wander
solitarily along, frequently changing their course in the depths below, and meander-
ing along the whole continental coast of the North Pacific, occasionally visiting the
large estuaries about the shore. They pass through Behring Sea and Strait into
the Arctic Ocean where they appear to be as much at home as their superiors in
size.” The writer then goes on to say that, like the Pacific grej' whale, “ they
thread the icy floes, and frequently emerge through the narrow fissures bolt upright,
with their heads above the broken ice, to blow. When roaming about the inland
watei's of lower latitudes, they often shoot along the shallow waters of the bays in
search of the myriads of small fry on which they mainlj^- sustain themselves.”

Eden’s fin-whale {B. edeni), from the Indian seas, is only known by skeletons,
and appears to be closely allied to the present species, but attains somewhat

WHALEBOXE WJEILES.

larger dimensions, and is believed to have a few more vertebrae in the back-
bone.

Rudoiphi’s Fin- 'bhe next species in point of size is Rudolphi’s fin-whale {li.

Whale. borealis), which attains a length of from 40 to 45, or occasionally as
much as 52 feet. In colour it is bluish-black above, with oblong white spots,
while the under-parts are more or less white ; the under-surface of the flukes, as
well as both sides of the flijipers are, however, coloured like the back. The
back-fin is smaller, and placed further back than in the lesser tinner ; while the

THE LESSEU FIX-WHALE [-h Hal. sizej.

flippers are very small, equalling only one-fourteenth of the total length. There
are thirteen pairs of ribs ; and the whalebone is black.

This species is much rarer than the other rori^uals, and does not appear to have
been recorded from the Pacific. It ranges as far south as Biarritz, and migrates
northward in summer as far as the North Cape ; and either this or a closely-allied
species occurs in the seas around Java. Of specimens recorded from the British
Islands, the first was stranded on the shores of the Firth of Forth in 1872; the
second was caught in the river Crouch, in Essex, in 1888, a third in 1884 in the
Humber, a fourth in the Thames at Tilbury in 1887, and a fifth in the Medway in
1888. On the coasts of Finmark the numbers of this whale are very variable, and
while it is a constant summer visitor on the Western seas, it only occasionally

CETACEANS.

resorts to these on the East. In 1885 the coasts of that countiy were visited by
enormous numbers of this species, while the larger finners and humpbacks which
usually resort there did not appear at all ; and during that summer no less than
771 specimens were killed.

Rudolphi’s Avhale, according to the observations of Mr. Collett, differs from the
other finners in feeding entirely on minute crustaceans, never touching fish ; and,
in accordance with this difference in its diet, the edges of its whalebone are more
frayed out and curling than in the other species. On the Finmark coast these
whales appear sometimes singly, but more generally in schools of varying size,
which may occasionally include some fifty individuals. When migrating, or not
engaged in feeding, they swim rapidly, and do not require to breathe so frequently
as the other species. When they come up to blow, they make but one or two
respirations, while the others take five or six. When swimming under water, their
course can be traced by the bubbles of air continually rising to the surface ; and
when gorging on the swarms of crustaceans found in the northern seas these
whales swim quite slowly, with the muzzle and half the back above water.
Rudolphi’s whale never appears to utter any sound ; and is timid and inoffensive
in disposition. The occasional accidents that happen to boats engaged in the
pursuit of this whale appear to be caused unintentionally during the death-throes
of the animals. As a rule, but a single young is born at a time, but Mr. Collett
records one instance of twins. The whalers of Finmark believe that this whale,
like the two larger species of the genus, can remain under water when resting for
upwards of eight or twelve hours ; such periods of repose often occurring at
particular hoiu’s of the day. Mr. Collett states that the yield of oil varies from
fifteen to thirty barrels, and that the value of one of these whales ranges from £27
to £33, or about half that of the common fin-whale.

Common Fin- The common ‘fin-whale, or rorqual (R. mucidus) averages from
Whale. (jQ (35 fgg(; length, and I’arely exceeds 70 feet. It is very
elongated in form, with moderately long jaws ; the flippei’s measuring one-ninth of
the total length. The colour of the ujiper-parts and the left side of the lower jaw
is slaty grey ; while the right side of the lower jaw and the under-parts, including
the inferior surface of the flukes and flippers, are white. The whalebone is slate
coloured at the ends, with the first two or three rows white.

The common rorqual is found rarely in the Mediteri’anean, but abundantly
tlu'oughout the more northern seas of Europe, ranging as far as the 70th or 75th
parallels of latitude. It is likewise widely distributed in American waters, where
it is commonly known as the fin-back ; and it appears that the so-called southern
fin- whale of Xew Zealand is not specifically separable. It is not uncommon off the
British coasts, two dead specimens having been found floating in the Channel in
1885, while another was stranded at Skegness in 1887.

The common hn-whale swims with great rapidity and strengdli, being second
in this respect only to the next species ; and is consequently taken with difficulty,
except when explosive harpoons are used. Its habits appear to be generally very
similar to those of the lesser fin-whale ; and it is de.sci’ibed as playing around
vessels under way in the same mannei'. These whales are frequently found alone,
but occasionally assemble in schools of fi’om ten to fifteen or twenty individuals.

]V/{ALEBOXE nifALES.

2 I

When these animals come up to breathe, they inliale tlie air so ra2)i«lly as to produce
a sharp sound wliicli may be heard at a considerable distance, and is said to be
perfectly distinguishable from that j)roduced by any other species. When about
to descend. Captain Scammon says that this finner “ assumes a ^'ariety of positions,
sometimes rolling over nearly on its side, at other times rounding, or perhaps
heaving, its flukes out, and assuming nearly a pex'pendicular attitude. Fre({uently
it remains on the surface, making a i-egular course and several uniform ‘ blows.’ ”

THE CO.M.MON FIN-WHALE, FROM A STRANDED SPECI.MEN (jlj Dat. size).

The food of the species is mainly fish ; and the quantity of cod it consumes is
enormous.

Sibbaid's Fin- The gigantic Sibbald’s fin-whale (5. sihhaldi) — the ‘ sxilphur-
whaie. bottom ’ of the American whalers — enjoys the di.stinction of being the
largest of living animals. It is a somewhat stouter-built species than the last, and
commonly attains a length of from 70 to 80 feet, and occasionally reaches 85 feet,
or perhaps more. The general colour is dark bluish grey, with some white spots
on the chest, the lower edges and under surface of the flippers being white. In
American specimens at least, there is, however, a more or less marked yellowish
tinge on the under surface of the body, which has given origin to the popular
name. The flippers are longer than in either of the other species, measuring one-
seventh of the entire length ; and the jaws are also of more than usual proportionate
size. The back-fin is small, and situated comparatively near the tail. The whale-

CETACEANS.

2 2

bone is black ; and there are usually sixteen pairs of ribs, against fifteen in the
preceding species.

This tinner has a wide distribution, and in the northern hemisphere, after
passing the winters in the open sea, migrates northwards in the sj^ring towards the
coasts for the purpose of breeding. In the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea,
Sibbald’s whale is I’epresented by a closely-allied species or variety {B. indica),
which attains a length of upwards of 90 feet, and is said to have a somewhat more
slender lower jaw than the European form. Whether this whale be a distinct
species, or, as is more probable, a local race, it differs somewhat in habits, as it has
been observed in the warm Indian seas during the summer months when the true
Sibbald’s whale is visiting the cool shores of Norway. In the Pacific this species is
to be found at all seasons on the coasts of California, thus tending to show that the
Indian finner is not specifically distinct. Examples of Sibbald’s whale have been
taken in the Firth of Forth.

During the period of their sojourn on the Norwegian coasts, these whales
subsist exclusively" on crustaceans, and when in pursuit of these small creatures they
may frequently be seen swimming on their sides. At other times, however, they
feed largely on sardines, sprats, and other fish. When near the shore, they may
sometimes be seen playing around vessels at anchor, but as a nxle they do not
exhibit the same boldness as the common rorqual, although they will occasionally
follow in a ship’s wake for long distances. In one instance it is recorded that a
whale of this species, in spite of having been repeatedly fii-ed upon, pursued a vessel
for upwards of twenty-four days. Sibbald’s whale is considered to be the fastest
of all the larger Cetaceans ; it but seldom “ breaches,” yet when it does so, it
exhibits its splendid proportions and its marvellous activity to the fullest degree.
Captain Scammon writes that, “ in contemplating this, the greatest whale of the
ocean, one can but admire its prominent characteristics, which are its enormous, yet
symmetrical proportions, and the muscular development which enables it to excel
in velocity all its congeners, while its whole bearing indicates its superiority to all
the other Cetacean.s. It glides over the surface of the ocean, occa.sionally display-
ing its entire length. When it respires, the volume of its vaporous breath ascends
to a height which reveals at once to the observer the presence of that leviathan of
the deep, whose capture baffles the practical skill of the most experienced whalers.
When ‘ rounding ’ to descend to the depths below, it throws its ponderous flukes
high above the waves, with a swoop that is well in keeping with its matchless
strength and vigour.” The invention of explosive harpoons propelled from power-
ful guns has now rendered the capture of Sibbald’s whale a compai’atively easy
task, and it is regularly hunted from the factoiy at Hammerfest. A specimen
measuring 85 feet in length yielded ninety barrels of oil.

Fossil The Pliocene deposits of Belgium and the eastern coast of

Fin-Whaies. England yield remains of several kinds of fin-whales, and likewise of
a humpback, all of which appear to be more or less closely related to the various
living species. Other whales from the Pliocene deposits of Europe constitute an
extinct genus — Cetotherium — which, while evidently neaii}^ allied to the rorquals,
exhibits certain peculiar features in the structure of the skull whereby it departs
less widely from the ordinary mammalian type.

CHAPTER XXX.

Cetaceans,— co7i^mMec/.

The Toothed Whales, or Odoxtocetes.

The whole of the remainder of the existing Cetaceans form a group dis-
tinguished from the preceding one by the absence of whalebone, and the presence
of permanent teeth in at least the lower jaw. This group, comprising existing
families, is known as the Odontoceti, or Toothed Cetaceans, in contradistinction to
the Mystacoceti, or Whalebone Whales.

In addition to the presence of teeth, the group is also characterised by the
following distinctive features. The two nostrils unite before they reach the surface,
and thus open by a single aperture, which usually takes the form of a crescentic
valvular slit placed transversely to the long axis of the head. In the skull the
bones of the upper surface are arranged unsjnnmetrically on the sides ; the nasal
bones in existing forms being reduced to nodules, taking no share in roofing
over the cavity of the nostrils. The two branches of the lower jaw are nearly
straight, and of great vertical extent behind, while in front they come in contact
with one another by flattened surfaces of larger or smaller extent, as is ordinarily
the case among mammals. The ribs are more hrmly joined to the rest of the
.skeleton than in the whalebone whales, several of the anterior pairs articulating
with the bodies as well as with the horizontal transverse processes of the vertebrae,
while below they are joined to the brea.st-bone by the intervention of .so-called
chest-ribs ; the breast-bone itself u.sually consisting of several distinct portions,
placed one behind the other. In all cases the flippers have five digits.

Sperm-Whales and their Allies.

Family PlIYSETERID.^E.

The well-known gigantic sperm-whale is the typical representative of a family
characterised by the total absence of any functional teeth in the upper jaw; those
of the lower jaw being either numerous or reduced to a single pair. These characters
are sufficient to distinguish the members of this family from those of the two others
now existing, but it may be added that the skull is much elevated in the hinder
region, so as to form a high prominence or crest behind the aperture of the nostrils.

The members of this family include the largest of the toothed Cetaceans, and
the whole of them are exclusively oceanic in their habits ; their food consisting
mainly or .solely of squids and cuttles.

CETACEANS.

The Sperm-Whale.

Genus Fliyseter.

Tlie sperm-whale, or, as it is frequently called from its French title, cachalot
(Phjseter macrocephalus), is one of the largest of the Cetaceans, fully rivalling in
size the Greenland whale. As with many other species, its dimensions have, how-
ever, been considerably exaggerated ; although, on the other hand, it is quite probable
that when the species was more abundant than at present, some individuals attained
a size which is now never reached. Be this as it may, the male sperm-whale is
definitely known to attain a length of from 55 to 60 feet ; but females ai’e said not
to reach much more than half these dimensions, while their form is proportionately
more slender. The essential generic characteristics of the sperm-whale are to be
found in the great proportionate size of the head, which equals about one-fourth of

the total length of the animal, and in the number of the teeth being from twenty to
twenty-five on each side of the lower jaw.

^ In appearance the sperm-whale is ungainly and ugly in the

extreme, this being chiefly due to the great height and abrupt trunca-
tion of the enormous muzzle, upon the summit of which is situated the S-shaped
aperture of the nostrils, somewhat to the left of the middle line. The mouth, which
is of great length and capacity, opens below, and at some distance behind the
extremity of the muzzle. On the upper surface of the skull, as seen in our figure
of the skeleton, is a huge cavity, bounded behind by a tall vertical wall of bone ;
this cavity being filled in the living animal with the substance known as spermaceti,
of Avhich more anon. In front of this hollow protrudes the long rostrum of the
upper jaw; the gum of which contains I’udimentary teeth. The lower jaw is very
long and slender ; its two branches being united in the middle line for about half
their total length. The teeth are implanted in the lower jaw in a long groove,
partially divided into sockets by incomplete bony partitions. These teeth are of
large .size, and, when unworn, are pointed and recurved at their tip.s. They are
composed solely of ivory, and the pulp-cavity at their base remains open for a long
period, although generally more or less completely closed in adult life, when the
whole base of the tooth becomes much flattened from side to side. The tongue and

interior of the mouth are of a glistening white colour ; and the diameter of the
throat is very large. The eye is placed somewhat above the angle of the mouth,
and a short distance behind it is the minute aperture of the ear, which is said not
to exceed a quarter of an inch in diameter.

TOOTHED WHALES.

Distribution.

Size.

At tlie junction of tlie liead witli tlie body there i.s a distinct prominence in
the middle line of the back ; while lialf-way between this and the tail, i.s a larger
])rojection, followed by a number of smaller ones, and technically known as the
“ hump.” There is no back-fin. The flip])ers are placed a little behind and below
the eyes, and seldom exceed C feet in length by 3 in width ; while the maximum
diameter of the flukes is about 15 feet. In colour the sperm-whale is generally
either black or blackish brown on the ujiper-parts, becoming rather lighter on the
sides and under surface, and passing into silvery grey on the chest. Occasionally,
however, piebald individuals are met with ; and old males frequently become grey
in the region of the muzzle and crown of the head.

The sperm-whale is essentially an inhabitant of the open seas,
the individuals that appear on the British coasts being either stragglers
or such as have been carried after death by the Gulf Stream. The range of the
species extends over all the warmer oceans, but does not include the polar seas ;
and that the sperm-whale is in the habit of travelling immense distances is proved
by the circumstance that specimens have been killed in the Atlantic bearing in their
bodies spears that had been fixed there during a sojourn in the Pacific. Formerly,
this whale was much hunted in the Bay of Bengal and around Ceylon ; but
it is now comparatively rare in these regions, while its numbers have been
greatly diminished by constant persecution in its favourite haunts in the South
Pacific.

Captain Scammon states that a very large sperm-whale, captured
off the Galapagos Islands in 1853, yielded eightj’-five barrels of oil.
This quantity was, however, exceeded by one caught in the year 1817 in the same
region bj'’ the ship Adam, belonging to a great-uncle of the present writer ; the yield
in that case being one hundred barrels. A tooth taken from this whale is stated by
Sir R. Owen, to have measured inches in length, and 9 in girth, with a weight of
3 lbs. ; and there is another nearly equally large tooth in the British Museum which
formerly belonged to the writer, and not improbably came from the same whale.
As no sperm-whales killed at the present day have teeth of these dimensions, it
seems not improbable that the old statements as to specimens of 80 feet in length,
may not have been so far from the truth ; and it is possible that the one killed
by the crew of the Adam may have been the largest individual of which there
is any record.

Sperm-whales are gregarious animals, and assemble in “ schools,”
which in former days might comprise from fifteen to twenty to several
hundred individuaLs. Although for a part of the year some of the largest and
oldest males live by themselves, the “ schools ” generally comprise individuals of
both sexes and all ages, and are led by two or three old males. The females
display much solicitude for the safety of one another and likewise for that of
their offspring ; and when one female out of a party is killed, it is generally
easy to capture several others. The j^oung males, which are found associated
together in herds at certain times of the year, are however, according to Captain
Scammon, far less chivah’ous in disposition, and will at once leave a wounded
companion to its fate.

The sperm-whale, as recorded by Beale in 1838, is di.stinguished from all other

Habits.

CETACEANS.

Cetaceans by the regularity with which it comes to the surface to breathe, althougli
there is some variation in this respect according to age. “ When emerging to the
surface,” writes Captain Scammon, “ the first portion of the animal seen is the
region of the hum]), then it raises its head and respires slowly for the space of
al)out three seconds, sending forth diagonally a volume of whitish vapour, like an

THE SPEUM-WH.iLE (ib Hat. size).

escape of steam ; this may be seen from the masthead at a distance of three to
five miles. In re.spiring at its leisure, the animal sometimes makes no headway
thi-ough the water : at other times it moves quietly along at the rate of two or
tliree miles an hour, or, ‘ if making a passage ’ from one feeding-ground to another,
it may accelerate its velocity. Wlien in progressive motion, hardly an instant is
required for inspiration ; when the animal dips its head a little and momentarily
disappears, then it rises again to blow as before, each respiration being made with

TOOTHED WHALES.

great regularity. The number of its spoutings, when in a state of quietude, depends
on the size of the animal. The same may be said fus to the time it remains upon
or beneath the surface of the ocean. With the largest bulls the time occupied in
])erforming one expiration and one inspii'ation is from ten to twelve seconds, and
the animal will generally blow from sixty to seventy-five times at a rising,
remaining upon the .surface of the sea about twelve minutes. As soon as ‘his
spoutings are out ’ he pitches head-foremost downward, then, ‘ rounding out,’ turns
his flukes high in the air, and, when gaining a nearly perpendicular altitude,
descends to a great depth, and there remains from fifty minutes to an hour and
a quarter.” During the spouting there is no sound heard. When swimming in the
ordinary manner, with the hump Just showing above the surface, Beale believes
that sperm-whale can attain a speed of about seven miles an hour, but when
swimming with the head alternately in and out of the water he estimates the
speed at from ten to twelve miles in the hour.

When at the .surface, spei-m-whales frequently indulge in what appear to be
mere sportive gambols. At one time they will violently beat the water into foam
with their flukes, this action being known to whalers as “ lob-tailing,” while at
others they will leap completely out of the water. Beale states that the way in
which the sperm-whale performs this action of “ breaching ” “ appears to be by
descending to a certain depth below the surface, and then making some powerful
strokes with his tail, which are frequently and rapidly repeated, and thus convey
a certain degree of velocity to his body before it reaches the surface, when he darts
completely out. When just emerged and at its greatest elevation, his body forms
with the surface of the water an angle of about forty-five degrees, the flukes lying
parallel with the surface ; in falling, the animal rolls his body slightly, so that he
always falls on his side. He seldom ‘ breaches ’ more than twice or thrice at a
time or in (juick succession.” It is added that the “ breaching ” of a sperm-whale
is discernible at a distance of six miles from the masthead on a clear day. It is
believed by some authorities that these actions of the sperm-whale are not gambols,
but are undertaken to rid its body of certain pai'asite.s. If frightened, the animal
can sink .suddenly to the bottom, even when lying horizontally.

The female cachalot, according to Beale, breeds at all seasons of the year, and
there is generally but a single young one produced at a birth, although twins are
not unknown. At birth the length of the young sperm-whale is said to vary from
11 to 14 feet.

The chief food of the .sperm-whale consists of squids and cuttles,
but considerable quantities of fish — comprising rock -cod, albicore,
and bonito — are likewise consumed. All these different kinds of food are procured
at a considerable depth below the surface of the water, but the mode of capture is
at present unknown. It has indeed been sugge.sted that, when below the surface,
the whale remains stationary and drops its lower jaw nearly perpendicularly, thus
revealing the glistening white interior of the capacious mouth. This, it is alleged,
serves to attract the various animals upon which the creature feeds, and when
a sufficient number have entered the trap, the lower jaw is suddenly closed.
Although the .suggestion is ingenious, it is one that scarcely admits either of proof
or disproof.

CETACEANS.

Products and The sperm-oil yielded by the thick layer of blubber investing the

Hunting. body, and the spermaceti contained in the cavity of the head, are the
two products for which the sperm-whale is hunted ; and since the former fetches a
far higher price than ordinary whale-oil, this animal is one of the most valuable
of all the CetaceaiLS. The spermaceti exists in the form of oil in the living animal,
and is ladled out in buckets from the skull when the carcase is cut up. The
spermaceti of commerce is jDroduced by a process of refining. The use of this
enormous mass of oil in the skull does not appear to be ascertained.

In addition to sperm-oil and spermaceti, the substance known as ambergris is
also a product of the sperm-whale. It is not, however, usually taken from the
animal, but is found fioating in the sea, and has been ascertained to be formed in
the intestines. This sub.stance always contains a number of the beaks of the squids
and cuttles upon which the whale has fed. Although formerly employed in
medicine, it is now iised exclusively in perfumery.

In the old days of sperm-whale-hunting (of which alone we shall speak) the
vessels engaged in the trade were from three hundred to four hundred tons burden,
and were equi2:)ped for a three years’ voyage ; their usual destination being the
South Seas. They each had a crew of from twenty-eight to thirty-three officers
and men, and carried six whale-boats. These boats were about twenty-seven feet
in length, with a beam of four feet, and were built sharp at both ends. Four boats
took part in the chase, each being furnished with a pair of two hundred fathom
harpoon-lines, and carrying a crew of six men. The crew comprised a boat-steerer
in the bow, four hands, and the headsman in the stern. It was the business of the
lx)at-steerer to harpoon the whale, and when this was accomplished he changed
places with the headsman, whose duty it Avas to kill the animal with the lance.s.
When a whale was harpooned, immediately after its first struggles, and when it
was lying exhausted from its endeavours to escape, the boat was pulled close
alongside, and the headsman began the work of destruction by thrusting his lance
into the vital parts behind the flipper. As soon as the whale was lanced, the boat
was backed with all po.ssible speed. When fir.st struck the Avhale frequently
“ sounded,” or descended to immense depths, sometimes taking out nearly the
whole of the eight hundi'ed fathoms of line carried by the four boats. Subse-
qiiently, however, when weakened by loss of blood, it kept on or near the surface,
towing after it one or more of the boats. By hauling in the line, the boat or
boats were once more pulled up alongside, and the monster finally destroyed either
by darting or thrusting the lances.

Whaling, as thus carried out, was full of danger, and there are hundreds of
accounts of hairbreadth escapes from death, and of feats of daring. In the
southern seas Maories were not unfrequently shipped by British Avhalers as
harpooners, and the following narrative of the daring of one of these men is
related by Dr. A. S. Thomson in his History of New Zealand. “One morning,”
writes the narrator, “ a lone whale was seen on the placid Pacific ; the boat was
pulled up to it, and the New Zealander, balancing himself on the gunwale, darted
the harpoon at the creature and missed. After several hours’ chase, under a
tropical sun, the whale was approached a second time, and the New Zealander
darted two harpoons at him, but again missed. Then the bitterest disappointment

TOOTHED WHALES.

arose among the tired boat’s crew, which they expressed in ciirses deep and loud.
These taunts maddened the ]\laori ; and no sooner was the boat again pulled up to
the whale than he bounded on the animal’s back, and for one dizzy second was
seen there. The next, all was foam and fury, and both were out of sight. The
men in the boat shoved off, flung over a line as fast as they could, while ahead
nothing was seen but a red Avhirlpool of blood and ])rine. Presently a dark object
swam out, the line began to straighten, then smoke round the loggerhead, and the
boat sped like an arrow through the water. They were fast, and the whale was
runniniT. But where was the New Zealander ? His brown head was on the boat’s
gunwale, and he was hauled aboard in the very midst of the mad bubbles that
burst under the bows.”

When harpooned or lanced, females and young males generally make the most
frantic efforts to escape ; and being very active in their motions, give the most
trouble to despatch. The larger whales, yielding eighty or more barrels of oil,
being less active animals, are in most cases killed more easily. This is
however, by no means always so ; and there are many instances on record where
large sperm-whales have turned with the utmost fury upon their pursuers, and
destroyed every object that came in their way, either by blows from the enormous
flukes, or by attacking with the head and lower jaw. There are, moreover, well-
authenticated instances, not only of sperm-whales demolishing the boats of a
whaling-ship, but actually attacking and sinking the vessel itself ; and Captain
Scammon thinks it probable that many ships which have perished without leaving
any clue as to their fate, have been wrecked by these whales. In 1820 the Essex
was destroyed in the South Pacific by an infuriated cachalot, which made two
deliberate charges at the vessel, the first of which produced a considerable leak,
while the second stove in the bows. Again, in 1851, the Ann Alexander was sunk
in a similar manner off the Peruvian coast. Whether the ship Union, which was
wrecked in 1807 by striking a sperm-whale in the night, was actually attacked
by the animal, or whether this was a case of accidental collision, can never be
ascertained. As an instance of the ferocity of these whales, it may be mentioned
that in 1851, when the ship Citizen was whaling in the Atlantic, a wounded
cachalot, after attacking and demolishing one boat, made for a second, from which
it was only diverted by its attention being transferred to a third. This third boat
only escaped with difficulty, and the whale thereupon headed straight for the
vessel itself, which was then approaching under full sail. By putting the head
before the wind, the rush of the whale was, however, avoided ; and before the
animal could gather itself for a second charge, it was seized with its death-throes
and expired. In another case a sperm-whale, not content with having smashed a
whale-boat, actually seized the timbers in its jaws and chewed them into match- wood.

Extinct Sperm-whales, belonging mostly to extinct genera, were abundant

Spenn-Whaies. Pliocene period, their remains occurring in the crag deposits of

England and Belgium, and likewise in Australia. Some of these forms (Eucetus)
were of large size, and appear to have been allied to the living species ; but others
{Scaldicetus) were distinguished by having the summits of the teeth surmounted
with a cap of grooved enamel. A third type is considered to be closely allied to
the whale described below.

3°

CETACEAyS.

Lesser Sperm-Whale.

Genus Cogia.

Tlie lesser sperm-whale {Cogia breviceps) is a little-known species, differing
widely both in size and form 'from the sperm-whale ; and more resembling a
porpoise in both these respects. It agrees, however, with the sperm-whale in having
no functional teeth in the upper jaw and a full series in the lower. The rudimentary
upper teeth are reduced to a single pair, or may be wanting ; and there are only from
nine to twelve pairs of teeth in the lower jaw. These teeth, which are rather long

and slender, with curved
summits, differ from
those of the sperm-
whale in having a coat-
ing of enamel ; and the
two branches of the
lower jaw arc united for
less than half their
length. The upper sur-
face of the hinder part
of tlie skull is hollowed,
with a thick elevated
ilm behind and at the
base ; and the rostral
portion of the skull is
shorter and more
I’apidl}" tapei-ing than in
the larger species. This whale attains a length of about 10 feet ; and, as already
said, is not unlike a porpoise in general appearance. The head is aboiit one-sixth
the total length, and has a bluntly-pointed muzzle, with the small mouth opening
on the under surface, far behind the extremity. The back carries a large tin. The
colour of this species is glistening black above, becoming paler beneath.

The lesser sperm-whale is known only from a comparatively small number of
individuals obtained from such widely-separated areas as the Indian and Austi’alian
seas, the Cape of Good Hope, and the North Pacific ; and we may accordingly
assume that it has probably an almost cosmopolitan distribution. Nothing has at
present been ascertained in regard to its habits.

The Bottlexose-Whale.

Genus Hyperoudon.

The bottlenose-whale (Hyperoddon rostratus), which is one of the most
common Cetaceans stranded on the Britisli shores, is the first representative
of a group of four allied genera distinguished from the sperm-whales by the
functional teeth being reduced to a single pair, or in one case two pairs ; these

THE WATER-WORN SKULL, WITHOUT THE LOWER JAW, OF A WHALE
ALLIED TO THE BOTTLENOSE.

(From Sir W. H. Flower, Froc. Zool. Soc., 1882.)

TOOTHED WHALES.

teeth, more especially in the males, sometimes attaining very large dimensions.
The muzzle is produced into a longer or shorter beak or rostrum, behind which there
is a marked and sudden elevation caused by the presence of a fatty cushion on the
top of the head in front of the blowhole ; the latter having a crescent-like form,
and being situated in the middle line. With the exception of one species, the
whales of this group are characterised by the (premaxillary) bones situated in the
skull behind the opening of the nostrils being raised into a pair of crests over-
hanging the latter; these two crests, as shown in the accompanying figure, being
unsymmetrically disposed, and one larger than the other. All the members
of the group agree in having a curved back-fin, placed considerably behind the
middle of the body ; and they also display the common feature of possessing
flutings in the skin of the throat, which are close together in front and diverge as
they pass backwards.

^ Like the sperm-whales, the members of this group are inhabitants

of the open sea, and feed almost entirely upon squids and cuttles.
Except the bottlenose, most of them are known mainly by stranded specimens ; and
when any of these whales approach the shore, they seem to have no idea of saving
themselves, but are almost invariably stranded. In this respect they resemble the
sperm-whales ; and it would thus seem that whales accustomed to live in the open
seas and to seek their food at considerable depths, become confused and help-
less when they reach the neighbourhood of a coast. Most of them go about
in pairs or alone ; but the bottlenose frequently associates in schools of
considerable size.

Characters of The bottlenose derives its name from the elevation of the upper
Bottlenose. surface of the head above the rather short beak and in front of the
blowhole into a rounded abrupt prominence. The lower jaw has merely a pair of
small conical teeth at the extremity, which in the living state are totally concealed
by the gum. In the skull the crests behind the aperture of the nostrils are greatly
developed ; and in addition to these there are a pair of longitudinal bony crests lying
on either side of the base of the beak, which in old males becomes of great size,
with their front surfaces broad and flat. This excessive development of the crests
in the adult males produces a great difference in the appearance of the two sexes
when adult ; the females (like the young) having the beak distinctly projecting,
whereas in the males it is almost buried beneath the elevated and flattened surface
of the upper part of the head, which has a disc-like form when seen from in front.
The flukes are not notched. In length the male bottlenose may reach as much as
30 feet, but the female does not exceed 24 feet. The young individuals are black
above, but with advancing age they gradually pass to a light brown tint ; the
under-parts being greyish white. Verj’’ old individuals turn almost yellow, with a
white band round the neck, and the front of the head and beak also white.
Distribution and The bottlenose is a migi'atory species, confined to the North

Habits. Atlantic. During the summer it ranges as far northwards as Spitz-
bergen, but how far southward it travels in winter is not yet ascertained. In the
eai’ly autumn some specimens are usually stranded on the coasts of Britain, and
the countries bordering the British Channel and North Sea ; but none are recorded
from the shores of Spain, Western France, or the Mediterranean counti'ie.s. The

CETACEANS.

majority of such specimens, according to Sir W. H. Flower, are solitary and gener-
ally young individuals, although occasionally an adult female with her offspring is
taken. The best account of the habits of the bottlenose is given by Captain D. Graj',
of which the following is a summary. In the early spring these whales are to be met
with occasionally after leaving the Shetland Islands, and thence northward to the
borders of the polar ice, where they are more numerous. They also frequent the seas
around Iceland, Greenland as far north as latitude 77°, Western Spitzbergen, and
Davis Strait, and it is highly probable that they may range as far as Novaia
Zemlia. Although they do not venture in among the ice itself, they frequent the
open bays along its margin for the shelter thus afforded from the open sea. They

BOTTLENOSE-WHALE.

are generally to be found in herds comprising from four to ten individuals ; but
many different herds may be in sight at the same time. The adidt males are
frequently solitary ; but sometimes one of them may be seen leading a herd.
These whales exhibit little fear of ships, swimming around them, and beneath the
boats, till their curiosity is satisfied. The herd remain around a wounded com-
panion till its death, upon which they immediately desert. If, however, a second
individual be harpooned before the death of the one first struck, and this process
continued, a whole herd may be killed at once. They exhibit great endurance of
wounds and tenacity of life, old males taking out from three hundred to four
hundred, and occasionally as much as seven hundred, fathoms of line. Captain Gray
describes their activity as very great, stating that they are able to leap out of the
water many feet high in the air, and while so doing have time to turn their heads

TOOTHED WHALES.

to look about them. When descending, they re-enter the wat('r head first, instead
of falling helplessly on their sides like the larger whales. Their ordinary food,
according to the .same ob.serv’er, con.sists of a bluish white cuttle-fish, 6 inches long
and 3 inches in circumference, and pointed towards the tail. The stomachs of
tho.se whales that were examined contained nothing but remains of these cuttle.s.
In their search after food it appears that the bottlenose-whales descend to great
depths, as they remain under water for a long period, and blow very heavily
upon reaching the surface. When wounded, they will sometimes remain below
for as much as two hours at a time, after which they will come up apparently
untired.

Products.

Cuvier’s Whale.

The bottlenose yields spermaceti, and an oil very similar to
sperm-oil and capable of being used for the same purposes. An adult
male will produce about two hundred weight of spermaceti and two tons of oil.
The protuberance on the front of the head of the female contains a small quantity
of colourless oil which is twice the density of that obtained from the blubber ;
while in the male the same region is composed of solid fat.

A fossil bottlenose-whale, apparently closely allied to the living species, has
left its remains in the Pliocene crag deposits of the eastern coast of England.

The rai’e Cetacean, known as Cuvier’s whale {Ziphiiis cavirostris),
differs from the bottlenose in having a pair of well-developed conical
teeth at the extremity of the lower jaw, which are directed forwards and upwards.
In the skull there are but slight indications of the longitudinal bony crests of the
bottlenose ; while the beak is longer and much more solid in structui’e, owing to
the ossification of certain cartilages and their fusion with the adjacent bones.
When viewed from above, their beak is triangular in form, gradually tapering
from its broad base to its narrow extremity. A further point of difference from
the bottlenose is to be found in the circumstance that only the first three, instead
of the whole seven, of the vertebrae of the neck are united together. The colour
is believed to be black above and white below. This whale appears to be known
only from stranded specimens, which have been obtained from regions as remote
from one another as the Shetland Islands, the Cape of Good Hope, Eastern South
America, and New Zealand. Sir W. Turner appears, therefore, to be fully justified
in his opinion that its distribution is as extensive as that of the sperm-whale.

The Beaked Whales.

Genus Mesoplodon.

The beaked whales derive their English name from the great development of
the ro.stral portion of the skull, which is long and narrow, and formed of extremely
.solid and ivory-like bone ; while they take their scientific title from the pi-esence
of a pair of teeth generally situated near the middle of each .side of the lower jaw.
Each of these two teeth is pointed and much flattened, sometimes being elongated
into a strap-like form, so as to overhang the beak of the skull ; their position is
variable, but generally some distance behind the extremity of the jaw. The skull
has the same curving crests over the aperture of the nostrils as in the bottlenose,

VOL. III. — 3

CETACEANS.

but has no sign of the longitudinal crests. Usually only the first two or three
of the vertebra3 are united to£:ether. The massive rostrum of the skull is not
unfrequently picked up on the shoi’es of regions v^here these whales are common ;
and similar rostra are among the commonest of Cetacean remains found in the
Pliocene crag deposits of the Sussex and Essex coasts, thus indicating that beaked
whales formerly aboimded in the English seas. These rostra are, perhaps, the
most solid bones found among the Vertebrates, their material being as dense as
ivory. In some cases a row of miniite functionless teeth are present in the upjier
jaw, and thus serve to show that the whales of this group are descended from
ancestors possessing a full set of teeth in both the upper and lower jaws. In
the Crag period seven species are recognisable ; in these days the beaked whales
are represented by at least two species ; and they range over most seas, although
they appear more common in the Southern than in the Northern Hemisphere.
Nothin tr is known as to their habits.

Sowerby’s Whale

The best-known species of the genus is Sowerby’s whale {Mes-
oplodon hiclens), of which, according to Sir W. Turner, eighteen

SKULL OP sowerby’s WHALE.

specimens have been taken between the years 1800 and 1889 in the North Atlantic
and its inlets, all but two of which occurred on the coasts of Europe. Seven of
these were captui’ed between 1880 and 1888; the one taken in 1885 having been
stranded at the mouth of the Humber, and being the only known English
example. The first specimen known to science was captured off the coast of Elgin
in 1800. By its describer, after whom it is now named, it was then called the two-
toothed cachalot, on account of the feature so well shown in our illustration.

This whale usually attains a length of about 15 feet, and its teeth are of
comparatively small size, and sometimes only project slightly from the sides of
the mouth Avhen the jaws ai'e closed. Above the nearly straight beak the head
rises gently into a marked prominence in front of the blowhole, behind which
is another prominence, with the level of its summit continued backwards into the
line of the back. The opening of the ear is so small as to admit only of the
passage of a fine bristle. In a specimen stranded in 1888 on the shores of the
Firth of Forth the colour of the upper-parts was bluish Hate, while that of the

TOOTHED WHALES.

Layard’s Whale.

under-purt.s was a light slate. The body was also marked with a number of whitish
spots, M'hich were most numerous on the sides ; these spots being in some places
connecteil by narrow streaks. Other individuals are described as being nearly
black above, while in others the tint becomes more decidedly blue. A specimen
captured at New Jersey in 1889 measured 121 feet in length.

Whether Sowerby’s whale ranges into the seas of the Southern Hemisphere
is not definitely ascertained, although, as already mentioned, the genus is more
abundantly represented there than to the north of the equator ; and it is still a
question whether many of the southern forms, to which separate names have been
received, are entitled to rank as distinct species, or whether they should be
regarded as merely varieties of the European one.

Layard’s whale (il/. layardi), from the Cape of Good Hope and
the seas of the other parts of the Southern Hemisphere, is, however
undoubted!}" a veiy well-marked species, characterised by the enormous develop-
ment of the strap-like teeth, to which allusion has already been made. The late
Prof. Moseley, in describing a skull of this species obtained at the Cape during the
voyage of the Challenger, obsei’ves that “ these two teeth in the adult animal
become lengthened by continuous gi’owth of the fangs into long curved tusks.
These arch over the upper jaw or beak, and crossing one another above it at their
tips, form a ring round it, and lock the lower jaw, so that the animal can only open
its mouth for a very short distance indeed. The tusks are seen always to be worn
away in front by the grating of the confined upper jaw against them. How the
animal manages to feed itself under these conditions is a mystery. It is remarkable
that the main mass of each tusk is made up of what appears to be an abnormal
growth of the fang. The actual conical tooth, that is the original small cap of
dentine [ivory] of the tooth of the young animal, which corresponds to the part of
the teeth showing above the gum in other whales, does not increase at all in size,
but is carried up by the growth of the fangs, and remains at the tips of the tusks
as a sort of wart-like rudimentary excrescence.” That these enormous teeth can
be of no po.ssible advantage to their owner appears perfectly clear ; and they must
probably be regarded as affording an instance of semi-monstrous development
analogous to the one displayed by the tusks of the babirusa.

A specimen stranded at the Cape was said to be black above and white
beneath, with the division between the two tints sharply defined. One measuring
something over 16 feet in length yielded eighty gallons of oil of a superior
■quality. The species appears excessively rare ; and the known examples have
been stranded.

The last representative of this group is Arnux’s whale (Berardius
arnuxi), from the New Zealand seas, which attains a length of about
30 feet. It differs from all the other forms in having two pairs of teeth near
the front of the jaw; the fii’st pair being placed close to the tip of the jaw
and larger than the second paii'. They are of moderate size, flattened from
side to side, pointed at the tips, and inclined directly forwards. The skull lacks
the high crests above the opening of the nostrils characteristic of the three
preceding genera ; and the long and narrow beak is less solidly ossified than in
the beaked whales.

Arnux’s V/hale.

from Patagonia has shown that teeth were present in both jaws. These whales
seem, therefore, to represent a distinct family group, from which the existing forms
have probably taken origin.

The Fresh- Water Dolphin.s.

Family Plataxistid^E.

Three species of Cetaceans, two of which are entii’ely confined to fresh-water,
while the third is e.stuarine, differ so markedly from all other living members of the
order as to constitute a family by themselve.s. They are all of relatively small size,
and agree with the true dolphins in having a numerous series of small teeth in
both jaw.s. They differ from them in that the two branches of the lower jaw are
united by more than half their length ; while the head is marked off from the
body by a slightly constricted neck. They are also characterised by the ribs
articulating with the vertebrm in a manner very similar to that we have seen in
ordinary mammals ; and the whole of the vertebree of the neck remain separate
from one another.

In some respects these Cetaceans are less .specialised than the other living
representatives of the order, and are, therefore, probably more nearly allied to the
ancestral stock. This leads Sir W. H. Flower to suggest that Cetaceans originated
in fresh-water from land animals ; but Mr. Blanford considers it more probable that

CETACEANS.

Ancestral Sperm Whales.

Family Physodontida:.

Teeth of a whale from the Pliocene deposits of Europe, de.scribed under the 1
name of Physodon, have been long known; but it is only recently that a specimen i

SKULL OF THE PHYSODON.

FRESH- 1 1 'A TER DOLPHINS.

the existing fresh-water dolphins may have been derived from a family which was
originally widely distributed and marine, and that they have managed to survive
solely by having taken to a fresh- water life. The isolated distribution of the three
living species is somewhat in favour of the latter view.

TheGangetic The Gangetic doljdiin, or susu (Flatcmista gangetica) is the

Dolphin. typical representative of the family, and inhabits the Indus, Ganges,
and Bramaputra Rivei*s, with their larger tributaries, from the regions where they
leave the mountains to the sea. It is characterised by its long and compressed
beak, which is slightly enlarged at the extremity ; by the back -fin being rudi-
mentary and I'eplaced by a low ridge ; by the flippers being triangular and fan-
shaped ; by the eye being very minute and rudimentary ; and by the blowhole
forming a longitudinal slit. The conical and cylindrical teeth are rather large ;
and while they are sharply pointed in the young, in the adult they become much
worn down by use. Towards the extremities of the jaws they are so closely placed
as to be almost in contact with one anothei*. The skull is characterised by the
development of enormous crests at the root of the beak, which almost meet in the
middle line above the latter. In the males the beak is much shorter than in the
females; and there are generally about thirty teeth on each side of the jaws. The
colour of the animal is blackish throughout. Females are larger than males ; the
usual length of adults varies from 7 to 8 feet, but a specimen from the Jumna is
said to measure upwaixls of 12 feet.

^ The Gangetic dolphin is perfectly blind ; and, indeed, as Mr.

Blanford observes, sight would be perfectly useless to it in the turbid
waters of the Indus at all seasons, and in the Ganges and Bramaputra at most
periods of the year. It is never seen out at sea ; but appears to be to a certain
extent migratoiy in the rivers, since none are observed in the Hughli at Calcutta
during the hot season from March to June, although they are commonly visible in
tlie cold months from October to JVIarch. That they also remain in the tidal waters
of the river during the rainy season from June to October is proved by the circum-
stance that they are then frequently caught in fishing-nets, although the animals
rai’ely show themselves above water. “ This fact,” writes Dr. Anderson, to vdiom
we are indebted for a full account of the habits of this interesting Cetacean, “ may
be accounted for on the supposition that the strength of the current is so great when
the Hughli is full that the dolphin is prevented from rising to the surface in the
marked manner it does during the cold weather, when the current has slackened
and there ai’e comparatively quiet reaches in which it can disport. The disturbed
state of the river when it is swollen doubtless renders the presence of the dolphin
very difficult of detection, for at such times it will simply expose its blowhole — too
restricted a surface to be noticed on the troubled waters. In the cold weather its
presence can easily be detected, without its being seen, by the blowing sound it
makes when it rises to breathe ; but, during the rains, the rush of water effectually
drowns this means of becoming aware of its existence.” This dolphin has been ob-
tained one thousand miles above Calcutta ; and its upward range appears to be only
checked by the presence of rocky barriers and the diminishing depth of the water
of the river, aided perhaps by the increasing lowness of the temperature of the latter.

Although this Cetacean does not collect in herds, sevei'al individuals may often

CETACEAN’S.

be observed witliin a small area in the more placid reaches of the Indian rivers.
Dr. Anderson writes that “it is difficult to say whether the Gangetic dolphin
confines itself to limited areas when there is no disturbing cause at work, such as
the rains, leading it to disperse itself over other channels and branches of the river,
which are not accessible to it in the dry weather. In rising to breathe, the
platanista may either simply expose the upper surface of its head, sufficiently to
bring its blowhole above water, or, what is more common, plunge out of the water
upwards, forwards, and downwards, first exhibiting its long snout, followed by
two-thirds of its back. At such times it emits a short, blowing sound, Avhich
doubtless has given rise to the term [susu] generally applied to it along the Ganges
and Bi'amaputi’a. During the cold months, in the quiet reaches, it even becomes

THE GANGETIC DOLPHIN.

at times extravagant in its movements, and will leap altogether out of the water
with the tail curved downwards. As a rule, however, its respiratory visits to the
surface are leisurely executed. I have had the rai’e opportunity of narrowly
observing the respiratory movements of this dolphin from having had one alive for
ten days in captivity. In its place of confinement this individual rose slowly to
the surface, exposing the blowhole and a portion of its back. The blowhole opened
whenever it reached tlie surface of the water, the characteristic expiratory sound
was produced, and so rapid was inspiration that the blowhole seemed to close
immediately after the expiratory act, and then the animal slowly subsided. The
respirations were tolerably frequent, occurring at intervals of about one-half or
three-quarters of a minute, and the whole act did not take more than a few seconds
for its fulfilment.”

The food of the Gangetic dolphin consists principally of fish and
prawns ; many of the fish consumed by it being mud-haunting species

FRESH-WATER DOLPHINS.

belonging to the cat-fish group (Siluridte). These are doubtless captured by the
dolphin probing for them in the mud with its long snout. The captive specimen
above mentioned fed on the fish with which it was supplied only during the night,
but careful observations made on these dolphins in their native state prove that
they feed b^- day as well as by night. Sometimes they may be seen among the
shipping in the Hughli at Calcutta, in search of their favourite prawns during the
daytime. The grain which is sometimes found in the stomachs of these animals
appears to be swallowed unintentionally.

The young are born from April to July, and it is but very rarely
that there is more than one at a birth. The period of gestation is
believed to be from eight to nine months. It is said that the young will hold on
by its mouth to the base of one of the flippers of its parent ; but such a remarkable
habit requix’es confirmation.

The Amazonian The fresli-water dolphin of the Amazons (Inia geoffroyensis)
Dolphin. more resembles a porpoise in general appearance than the last species.
The long cylindrical beak, which carries from twenty-six to thirty-three teeth
on each side of the jaws, is peculiar in being furnished with a number of sparsely
distributed bristle-like hairs. The teeth are characterised by having a distinct
tubercle on the inner side of the base of their crowns ; and the back-fin is repre-
sented merely by a low ridge. The males attain a length of about 7 feet, while
the females are little more than half the size. In general, the xipper-parts are
blackish, and the under-parts reddish ; but individuals are found which are either
entirely blackish or wholly reddish. The eye is well developed ; and the flipjxers
have not the fan-like shape characterising those of the Gangetic dolphin. In the
skeleton, the breast-bone is short and broad, and composed only of a single piece ;
while the horizontal transverse processes of the vertebrax of the hinder portion of
the trunk are remaidcable for their great width.

Distribution. The inia, or bouto, as the animal is called in various parts of

and Habits. South America, is entirely fluviatile, and inhabits the upper portions
of the Amazons and its aflluents ; ranging over the area of country included
between the 10th and 17th parallels of south latitude. In addition to the bouto,
there are the other species of dolphins, belonging to the family Delphinidce, found
in certain parts of the Amazons. One of these, called the tucuxi (a species of the
genus Sotalia), when it comes to the surface to breathe rises, according to Bates,
horizontally, showing first its long, low back-fin. It then draws an inspii’ation,
and finally dives gently, head-foremost, down. On the other hand, when the bouto
rises, “ the top of the head is the part first seen ; it then blows, and immediately
afterwards dips head downwards, its back curving over, exposing successively the
whole dorsal ridge. It thus seems to pitch heels-over-head, but does not show the
tail-fin. Besides this peculiar motion [which seems to be very similar to that of
the Gangetic dolphin], it is distinguished from the tucuxi by its habit of generally
going in pairs. Both species are exceedingly numerous throughout the Amazon
and its larger tributaries, but they are nowhere more plentiful than in the shoaly
water at the mouth of the Tocantins, especially in the dry season. In the upper
Amazon, a third pale flesh-coloured species is also abundant.^ In the broader

1 Solatia jpallida, p. 62.

CETACEANS.

parts of the Amazon, from its mouth to a distance of fifteen hundred miles in the
intei’ior, one or other of the three kinds here mentioned are always heard rolling,
blowing, and snorting, especially at night, and these impressions contribute much
to the impression of sea-wide vastness and desolation which haunts the traveller.”

As the native inhabitants of Amazonia have a great objection to kill the
fresh-water dol})hins, specimens are only procured with difficulty.

THE AMAZONIAN DOLPHIN liat. size).

THe La Plata The small La Plata dolphin {Stenod elphis hlainvillei), from the
Dolphin. estuary of the Rio de la Plata, differs from the preceding forms in the
presence of a well-marked back-fin and the extreme elongation of the jaws, which
carry from fifty to sixty teeth on each side. The blowhole, instead of forming a
longitudinal slit, is crescent-shaped and placed transversely. In the skeleton the
breastbone is long and composed of two distinct pieces. This species does not
attain a greater length than 5 feet, and in some respects serves to connect the other
members of the family with those of the one following.

Allied Extinct The remains of a number of extinct dolphins have been discovered
Dolphins. Tertiary deposits of various parts of the world, which appear

more or less closely related to the existing members of this family. Among these,
two species from Argentina, respectively named Pontistes and Saxirodelphis,
approach the Wxiw^^ Stenoddpltis ; while a third (Argyrodelphis) from Patagonia
is noteworthy from having the nasal bones well developed and roofing over the
hinder part of the nasal cavity in the manner characteristic of whalebone whales.

PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS.

]\Iore remarkable, however, is tlie occurrence of another nearly-allied form
(/a iopsit)) in the Tertiary of the Caucasus, which serves to confirm the view that
the Flatanint idw were a very ancient and widely-distributed family. Numerous
other extinct dolphins, some of which approach those of the next family, have been
desci’ibed from North America and Europe, and referred to the present grouji.

The Porpoises and Dolphins.

Family DelphIXID^E.

The whole of the remaining members of the existing Cetacea, including those
commonly known as narwhals, porpoises, grampuses, and dolphins, are referred to
a single family, which contains a far greater number of species than an}" of the
othei’s. All the members of this family are of small or medium size, and, with the
exception of the narwhal and Risso’s dolphin, are furnished with a numerous series
of teeth in both the upper and lower jaws, the jaws themselves being either

SKELETON OP DOLPHIN.

elongated or short. They are distinguished from the preceding family by the
union between the two branches of the lower jaw being always considerably less
than half the entire length of the jaw itself, and likewise by the manner in which
the ribs are articulated to the backbone, as well as by certain features in the base
of the skull. The vertebrae of the neck are generally characterised by the first
two, three, or four being united together. The blowhole is always in the form of a
transversely-placed crescent, with its two horns directed forwards.

^ The majority of the dolphins (as it is convenient to term

collectively the whole of the members of the family) are of marine
liabits, but many of them fi’equent estuaries and ascend tidal rivers, while a few
are more or less exclusively fresh-water. They have been divided into a considerable
number of genera, but many of these are very closely allied, and mainly distinguished
by differences in the skeleton.

The Narwhal.

Genus Monodon.

The strange -looking animal commonly known as the narwhal {Monodon
nionoceros) differs from all other members of the family by the enormous spirally-
twisted tusk projecting from one side of the upper jaw of the male. This tusk is
nearly always that of the left side, its fellow on the opposite side being only a few
inches in length, and lying entirely concealed within tlie bone of the jaw, while in

CETACEANS

the females both tusks remain in a similar rndimentary condition. The developed
tusk of the male is composed solely of ivory, and its spiral twist always runs from
left to right. In form it is cylindrical, and tapers more or less markedly from root
to tip. Not unfre(|uently the tusk attains a length of from 7 to 8 feet, or more
than half that of the entire animal. Very rarely narwhals are met with in which
the right tusk is developed as well as the left, but there appears to be no known
instance of the right tusk being developed while the left remains rudimentary ; and
it is noteworthy that when the right tusk is developed it has the same left-to-right

A SCHOOL OF NARWHALS (?V iiat. size).

twist as its fellow. A tine narwhal’s skull with two tusks is preserved in the
Cambridge Museum. Apart from a few small rudimentary ones, which are
irregular in their occurrence, the male narwluil has no teeth except the tusk,
while the female — save for similar rudiments — is toothless.

Although the presence of the tusk in the male narwhal, and the pi'actically
toothless condition of the female, are alone sufficient to distinguish the genus from
all other dolphins, it is necessary to say something further regarding the form and
structure of this singular animal. In the first place, the narwhal belongs to a group
of dolphins characterised by their blunt and rounded heads, in which the muzzle
shows no sign of being produced into a beak. A special character of the animal is
to be found in the absence of a back-fin, which is represented merely by a low and

PORrOISES AND DOLPHINS.

Distribution.

ill-defined ridge. The flippers are short, wide, and rounded. In colour the narwhal
is dark grey or dusky above and white beneath, the back and sides being irregularly
mottled with various shades of grey. The entire length nia}' vary from 1 2 to about
IG feet. A tusk measuring 8 feet in length had a basal girth of 7i inches.

The narwhal resembles the Greenland whale in being an inhabit-
ant of the icy polar seas, and like that species is circumpolar in its
distribution ; it is, however, apparently local in its range, being, according to
Captain Scammon, but rarely found in the seas accessible to the whalers who pass
through the Behring Strait. Although seldom occurring to the south of the 65th
parallel of north latitude, there are three instances (one in 1648, a second in 1800,
and a third eight years later) of narwhals visiting the British coasts. From the
extreme rarity of such occurrences, there is, however, no doubt that the individuals
in question had been carried by currents out of their proper habitat. From constant
persecution, the numbers of the narwhal have been greatly reduced in the more
accessible portions of its habitat; and according to Baron Xoidenskiold, it is now
never seen on the coasts of Novaia Zemlia. It is, however, more common at
Hope Island, and large herds are reported from the seas between Spitzbergen and
Novaia Zemlia. It is noteworthy that fossil remains of the narwhal have been
found in the so-called forest-bed of the Norfolk coast, — a deposit laid down before
the great cold of the glacial period, but when the temperature may have been
steadily lowering, whereby Arctic animals were enabled to leave their more
northeidy haunts.

Of the habits of narwhals, unfortunately very little is known.
They are generally found in small schools, comprising fi'om fifteen to
twenty individuals ; and were described long ago by Scoresby as being extremely
playful in their disposition. Much has been written as to the use of the characteristic
tusk, but nothing very definite has yet been ascertained with regard to it. That it
is not employed for the purpose of procuring food, is perfectly evident from the
fact of its absence in the female. A more probable suggestion is that it is used by
the males in combats among themselves for the possession of the females ; in which
case it should be regarded as a sexual appendage, analogous to the antlers of the
deer. The food of the animal is stated to be mainly composed of cuttles and
various crustaceans, together with small fishes. As a rule, but a single young is
produced at a birth, but an instance of twins is on record.

The narwhal is valued both for its ivory and its oil ; the latter
being of superior quality to ordinary whale-oil. The ivory of the
tusk is veiy dense in structure, and of a pure creamy-white colour ; but since the
tusk is hollow throughout the greater part of its length, its value is much less than
it would be otherwise. The pi’ice of narwhal tusks, although very variable is,
however, considerable.

Habits.

Products.

The White Whale.

Genus Delphinapteriis.

Nearly allied to the narwhal is the white whale, or beluga {Delpliinapterus
leucas), which is likewise an Arctic species. It resembles the narwhal in having

CETACEANS.

the hack-hn represented merely by a low ridge ; and it also agrees with that
animal, and thereby differs from the other members of the family, in having all the
vertebrfe of the neck separate. The flippers are short, very broad across the
middle, and bluntly pointed ; and the short and rounded head is separated from
the body by a slight constriction indicating the neck. The teeth are usually nine
or ten in number on each side of the jaws; but vary in size, and are often irreg-
ularly and obliquely implanted. The white whale attains a length of 16 or 16|-
feet. In colour the young are light greyish brown ; but the skin of the adult is a

THE WHITE WHALE liat. size).

pure glistening white. Baron Nordenskiold says that the adult animal is
singularly beautiful, the glistening white hide scarcely even showing a spot,
scratch, or wrinkle.

Distribution white whale ranges as far northward as latitude 81° 35',

while it occasionally straggles as far .southward as Cape Cod, in
Massachusetts, and the Scottish coasts. It occurs in large herds on the coasts of
Spitzbergen and Xovaia Zemlia, and especially frequents the neighboui’hood of the
mouths of rivers, up which it will ascend for considerable distances. Five instances
of the occurrence of this species on the coa.sts of Scotland have been recorded; the
last of these being in the summer of 1879, when a specimen was found near
Dunrobin, Sutherlandshire, at ebb-tide, with its flukes caught between two short

PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS.

posts, to which a net was fastened. Near by lay a salmon, which the white
whale was supposed to have been pursuing when it was caught in this manner.

In regard to its habits. Captain Scammon writes that, like most
Hd>bits ^ ^ ^ ^

of the other members of the family, the white whale “ is fond of

gathering in troops, yet we have observed that it generally advances in lines of

seldom more than two or three abi'east, or more frequently in single file ; spouting

irregularly, and showing little of its form above water. When undulating along

in this manner, it often makes a noise at the moment of coming to the surface to

respire, which may be likened to the faint lowing of an ox, but the strain is not so

prolonged. Sometimes these animals will gambol about vessels as porpoises do ;

but at the slightest noise upon the water, or at the discharge of firearms, they

instantly disappear.” This species is fairly rapid in its motions, more especially in

pursuit of the fish which constitute its chief food. When pursuing fish like

halibut and floundei’s, the beluga frequently enters shoal-water, in which it can

scarcely float ; but in such situations it is said to exhibit no alarm, and to make

but slight efforts to reach deeper waters. In addition to fish, the white whale also

consumes cuttles and various crustaceans.

In captivity the beluga is easily tamed, and exhibits considerable docility. A
specimen was shown alive at the Westminster Aquarium in 1877, and another in
1878 ; but neither lived long.

The white whale is killed for its blubber, flesh, and hide ; a
specimen measuring 16|- feet in length, yielded one hundred gallons
of oil. To give some idea of the commercial importance of this animal, it may be
mentioned that in 1871 the Tromsoe whalers captured no less than 2167 individuals,
each of which was worth about £3 ; the catch that year appears, however, to have
been considerably above the average. The Greenlanders dry the flesh for winter
use, and in parts of Siberia the Eskimo dogs are mainly fed on this meat. The fat
is considered a luxurious dish in winter. In Russia, white whale skin is used for
reins and traces ; and it is now imported in some quantities into England under the
name of porpoise-hide. In some of the Siberian rivers, white whale are harpooned
and lanced in the ordinary manner ; but in other districts they are taken in nets
from June to September.

POEPOISES.

Genus Phoccena.

The common porpoise {Phoccena communis), of the European seas, is the best-
known representative of a genus readily distinguished from all the others by the
characters of the teeth. These are from sixteen to twenty-six in number on each
side of the jaws, and are very small, with flattened spade-like crowns separated from
the roots by a distinct neck ; sometimes the upper border of the crown is entire, but
in other cases it is divided into two or three distinct lobes. In size, porpoises are small ;
and the head has a rounded muzzle, without a beak. There is generally a fin on the
back, although this is wanting in one species. The skull has a very broad palate,
and the union between the two branches of the lower jaw is very short. There are

CETACEANS.

frequently one or more rows of horny tubercles on the front edge of the back-tin,
or of the ridge which takes its place.

Common d'he common porpoise is by far the best-known of all the Cetaceans

Porpoise. frequenting the British coasts, genei’ally keeping near the shores, and
often ascending the larger rivers to considerable distances. It is characterised by
having twenty-live to twenty-six teeth on each side of the jaws, l)y the sloping head,
the equality in the length of the upper and lower jaws, and by the length of the
mouth exceeding half that of the flipper. There is a large tin on the back, which is
triangular in shape, and situated somewhat in advance of the middle of the total

THE co.MMON POKi’OisE uat. size).

Distribution.

length of the animal. In length, the common porpoise measures about 5 feet, or
rather more. The colour of the upper-parts is dark slate, or blackish, while the
sides become gradually lighter till the colour fades into the pure white of the under-
In some cases there is a yellowish or jiinkish tinge on the flukes.

The distribution of this species is extensive, comprising the North
Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans, the North Sea, and the coasts of
Europe. In Davis Strait it extends as far northwards as latitude 07° or 69°, and
it also occurs on the Alaskan coasts ; while southwards it extends in America to the
shores of New Jersey and Mexico. In the Mediten-anean it is comparatively rare.

Porpoises associate in shoals or herds of considerable size ; and
their sportive gambols are probably familiar to most of our readers.

Habits.

rORPOJSES A.xn dolpjiixs.

Few sights are, indeed, more interesting than to watch a slioal of tliese animals
diving and sporting round a vessel, M'hether it be making rapid lieadway, or lying
at anchor. At one moment will be seen the roll ol' the arched back, sixrmonnted
by the tin, as the porpoise swims along in a series of gentle curves ; while at another
the white belly will Hash in the sunlight as the creature turns on its side, or leaps
completely out of the water. In the ordinary nndxdating mode of swimming, the
porpoise Just brings its blowhole to the surface, breathes without checking its course.

PORPOISE DIVING.

and then dips downwards, to expose the back-fin in the manner represented in our
second illustration ; this elegant motion being continued without intermission.
Throughout its course, the flukes are the propelling instrument ; the flippers being
laid close against the sides during the onward movement, and only spread out to
check its speed when the animal desires to stop. The food of the porpoise appar-
ently consists exclusively of fish ; mackerel, pilchards, and herrings, being its
especial favourites, although it also consumes salmon. On the British coasts
porpoises may frequently be seen in pursuit of shoals of mackerel and herrings,
and when thus engaged are often caught in the nets set for the latter. The pairing-
season is said to be in the summer, and it is believed that the single ofispring is

CETACEANS.

produced after a period of six months’ gestation. Thx’ee jxorpoises which wei’e
enclosed by a fence in the Warehain River in Dorsetshire, many years ago, ai*e
reported to have incessantly uttered the most distressing cries, which were continued
by night as well as by da}’.

Porpoise- Formerly porpoises were esteemed in England for their flesh.

Hunting. Piit they are now taken mainly for their oil, although the skin is also
sometimes used. The leather commonly known as porpoise-hide is, however, as we
have already had occasion to mention, generally made from the skin of the white
whale. On parts of the coast of North America, porpoise-shooting is regularly
practised by the Indians ; and this pursuit affords to the Passamaquody tribe their
chief means of support. The average yield of oil will be about three gallons, and
in a good season an Indian may kill from one hundred to one hundred and fifty
porpoises. “ To make a successful porpoise-hunter,” writes Mr. C. C. Ward,
“ re(]uires five or six years of constant practice. Boys, ten or twelve years of age,
are taken out in the canoes by the men, and thus early trained in the pursuit of
that which is to form their main support in after years. Porpoise-shooting is
followed at all seasons and in all kinds of weather — in the summer sea, in the
boisterous autumn gales, and in the dreadful icy seas of mid-winter. In a calm
summer day, the porpoise can be heard blowing for a long distance. The Indians,
guided by the sound long before they can see the game, paddle rapidly in the
direction from which the soxmd comes, and rarely fail to secure the porpoise. They
use long smooth-bored guns, loaded with a handful of powder, and a heavy charge
of double-B shot. As soon as the porpoise is shot, they paddle rapidly up to him
and kill him with a spear, to prevent his flopping about and xipsetting the canoe
after they have taken him aboard. The manner of taking a porpoise on board is
to insert two lingers of the right hand into the blowhole, take hold of the pectoral
fin with the left hand, and lift the creature up until at least one half of his length
is above the gunwale of the canoe, and then drag him aboard. This is comparatively
easy to accomplish in smooth watei*, but when the feat is performed in a heavy sea,
one can hardly I’ealise the skill and daring required. In rough weather, with a
high sea running, the Indian is compelled to stand up in his canoe when he fires,
otherwise he could not see his game. In such work as this, one would suppose that
upsets would be unavoidable ; but, strange to say, they seldom happen, and only
under circumstances where the Indian’s skill or foresight is unavailing.”

Although ]\Ir. True believes that there are two other species of
porpoise with back-fins inhabiting American waters, it will be
unnecessary to allude further to them here ; and we accordingly pass on to the
Indian porpoise (P. phoccenoides). This species is readily distinguished by the
absence of the back-fin, and the reduced number of the teeth, of which there are
about eighteen on each side of the jaws. Of small size, it is less than 4 feet in
length, and is of a uniform black colour. It inhabits the shores of the Indian
Ocean, from the Cape of Good Hope to Japan ; and has been taken in many of the
tidal rivers of India, and in the Yang-tse-Kiang, at a distance of nearly one
thousand miles from its mouth.

The following account of the habits of this species is given by
Mr. F. W. Sinclair, who states that it “ frequents the tidal creeks,

Indian Porpoise.

Habits.

PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS

not ascending very far, and the sounds among the reefs and islands. It feeds
chiefly on prawns, also on small cephalopods and fish. It does not appear to herd
in schools, more than four or five, being rarely, if evei', seen together. Usually
it is solitary ; the pairs seem to consist of female and calf, more often than male
and female. The young (one in number) are born, apparently, about October. The
roll of this porpoise is like that of P. communis. It does not jump or turn somei'-
saults, and is, on the whole, a sluggish little porpoise.” It appears to be found
only in shallow water.

Heaviside’s Dolphin.

Genus Cephalorhynchus.

Heaviside’s dolphin {Cephalorhynchus heavisidei), from the Cape of Good
Hope, is the typical representative of a genus which, according to Mr. True,
includes four .species, all inhabiting the warmer seas of the Southern Hemisphere.
These dolphins are of small size, and remarkable for their peculiar coloration.

Heaviside’s dolphin.

(From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.)

The head is conical, without any distinct beak ; and the teeth are small and sharp,
varying in number from twenty-five to thirty-one on each side of the jaws. The
back-fin is triangular or ovate ; and, except in one species, the flippers have a
characteristic elliptical form. The coloration is black above and white below ; the
white of the under-parts terminating po.steriorly in a trident-shaped form, with the
lateral prongs of the trident extending obliquely upwards on the sides. The total
length of Heaviside’s dolphin is about 4 feet; the number of teeth being from
twenty-five to thirty. The white-fronted dolphin {C. albifrons), from New
Zealand, is a rather larger species, with thirty-one teeth on each side. Nothing
.seems to be recorded as to the habits of these species.

The Ihawadi Dolphin.

Genus Orcella.

The upper waters of the Irawadi River are tenanted by a rather large dolphin
or porpoise {Orcella fluminalis), which, together with a closely allied species, or
variety (0. hrevirostris), from the Bay of Bengal and its estuaries, as well as
Singapore and Boi'neo, constitutes a distinct genus. These dolphins are characterised
by their globe-like head, without beak, and their comparatively few and small
teeth, which occupy nearly the whole length of the jaws, and number from thirteen

VOL. III. — 4

5°

CETACEANS.

to seventeen in the upper, and from twelve to fifteen in the lower jaw. In
form the teeth are conical and pointed, and they are set close together ; those in the
front of the jaws of old animals being directed outwards. The back-fin is small
and hook-like, while the flippers are of moderate size, broad at the base, and
subovate in form. These dolphins attain a length of from 7 to feet, and are of
a slaty or blackish colour. In the Irawadi dolphin the colour is pale slaty above
and whitish below, with numerous ii-regular streaks on the sides ; but in the one
inhabiting the Bay of Bengal the colour is uniformly blackish without any streaks.
The latter form, whether it be specifically distinct from the dolphin of the Irawadi,
or merely a variety, appears never to ascend the rivers beyond the distance
influenced by the tides, while the Irawadi dolphin never descends to the estuaries.

The following account of the habits of the Irawadi dolphin is

Habits. ” . . ^

taken from Dr. J. Anderson, who writes that it “ has much the
character of its }aarine fellows, being generally seen in small schools, which
frequently accompany the river steamers, careering in front and alongside of them,
as is the custom of the dolphins of the sea. Occasionally, howevei’, a solitary
individual may be observed, but this is the exception, as two or three are usually
associated together, hence this may be considered as a gregarious form. In the
defile below Bhamo, where the river i-uns for ten miles over a deep bed forty
to sixty fathoms in depth, and from two hundred to five hundred yards in width,
and defined by high, wooded hills on either side, numerous troops of dolphins may
be observed passing up and down, rising every minute or two to the surface to
emit the short blowing sound, which ends in the more feeble one of inspiration,
and all night through this sound may be heard. They never leave the deep water ;
and when they rise to breathe (which they do in periods varying from sixty to
one hundred and seventy seconds, although occasionally exceeded) the blowhole is
first seen, then at the end of the inspiration the head disappears and the back
comes into view, and is gradually exposed as far as the dorsal fin, but the tail-
flippers are rarely visible. The act of breathing is rapid, so much so indeed
that it requires a very expert marksman to take aim and fire before the animal
disappears. I have observed some of them disporting themselves in a way that
has never yet been recorded of Cetacea, as far as I am aware. They swam with a
rolling motion near the .surface, witli their heads half out of the water, and every
now and then fully exposed, when they ejected great volumes of water out of their
mouths, generally straight before them, but sometimes nearly vertically . . . On
one occasion I noticed an individual standing upright in the water, so much so that
one-half of its pectoral fins was exposed, producing the appearance against the
background as if the animal was supported on its flippens. It suddenly disappeared,
and again, a little in advance of its former position, it bobbed up in the same
attitude, and this it frequently repeated. The Shan boatmen who were with me
seemed to connect these curious movements with the season — spring — in which the
dolphins breed.” The food of this dolphin apparently consists exclusively of fish.
Dr. Ander.son adds that “ the fishermen believe that the dolphin purposely draws
fish to their nets, and each fishing-village has its particular guardian dolphin,
which receives a name common to all fellows of his school ; and it is this superstition
which makes it so difficult to obtain specimens of this Cetacean.”

rORPOISES AND DOLPHINS.

The Killer, or Grampus.
Genus Orca.

Gne of the largest, and at the same time the most ferocious, of all the dolphin
family is the killer, or killer whale, frequently also known as the grampus
{Urea gladiator). It is characterised as a genus by its large size, and the conical
and depressed head, devoid of a beak. The back-fin is of great length, especially
in the males ; and the flippers are large and
broadly ovate. The teeth (as shown in our
flgure) are comparatively few in number, varying
from ten to thirteen on each side of the jaws,
and are much larger than in any dolphins yet
noticed, being often an inch or more in diameter,
and havin<>: an oval-section. The coloration is
striking, the upper- parts and fins being black, six upper teeth of the killer.

while the lower jaw, chest, and under-parts are (From Sir w. H. Flower.)

whitish. The white area of the under-pai’ts does

not, however, extend to the flukes, but ends posteriorly in a trident, of which the
lateral and shorter prongs extend obliquely upwards on the flanks. There is a
large white streak above and behind the eye ; and frequently at least a purple
crescentic area extends across the back behind the fin. The killer attains a length
of at least 20 feet.

Distribution.

Habits.

In spite of many nominal species having been recognised, there
can be little doubt that the killer has a cosmopolitan distribution ;
ranging from Greenland in the north to the coasts of Australia in the south.
Although chiefly keeping to the open sea, killers occasionally ascend tidal rivers :
and three specimens were observed in the Thames in the spring of 1890. These
individuals entered the river during the night, and on the following morning were
seen swimming up and down the reach between Battersea and Chelsea Bridges.
After continuing there for several hours, they at length headed for the sea, which
they probably i-eached, as there is no record of their having been attacked.

When at sea, killers may always be recognised by their tall and
nearly vertical back-fin. They generally associate in small parties ;
and subsist not only on fish, but likewise on the flesh of other members of their
own order, as well as on that of seals. Captain Scammon writes that “ the killers
exhibit a boldness and cunning peculiar to their carnivorous propensities. At
times they are seen in schools, undulating over the waves, — two, three, six, or eight
abreast, — and, with the long, pointed fins above their arched backs, together with
their varied marks and colours, they present a pleasing and somewhat militaiy
aspect. But generally they go in small squads, — less than a dozen, — alternately
showing themselves above the surface of the water, or gliding just below, when
nothing will be visible but their projecting doi'sals ; or they disport themselves by
rolling, tumbling, and leaping nearly out of the water, or cutting various antics
with their flukes. At such times, they usually move rapidly over the surface of
the sea, and soon disappear in the distance.” It appears that at times both the

CETACEANS.

long-finned males and the shorter-finned females may be found in the same school,
while at other times the two sexes keep apart. The swiftness of the killer is very
great, as it is able to overtake the smaller dolphins, which it swallows alive. Its
voracity is apparently insatiable ; Eschricht stating that one of these animals was
known to swallow four porpoises in succession, while from the stomach of another
individual, whose length did not exceed 16 feet, were taken fourteen seals.

Whales attacked Like the other larger members of the order, the Greenland whale
by Killers, jg sometimes attacked by a party of killers. Writing on the subject
of these attacks Captain Scammon says that “ three or four of these voracious
animals do not hesitate to grapple with the largest baleen-whale ; and it is surprising
to see those leviathans of the deep so completely paralysed by the ])resence of
their natural, although diminutive enemies. Frecpiently the terrified animal —
comparatively of enormous size and superior strength — -evinces no effort to escape,
but lies in a helpless condition, or makes but little resistance to the assaults of
its merciless destroyers. The attack of these wolves of the ocean upon their

THE KILLER.

(From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.)

gigantic prey may be likened in some respects to a pack of hounds holding a
stricken deer at bay. They cluster about the animal’s head, some of their
number breaching over it, while others seize it by the lips and draw the bleeding
monster under water ; and when captured, should the mouth be open, they eat out
its tongue. We once saw an attack made by three killers upon a cow whale and
her calf, in a lagoon on the coast of California in the spring of 1858. The whale
was of the Califoi'iiia grey species, and her young was grown to three times the
bulk of the largest killers engaged in the contest, which lasted for an hour or
more. They made alternate assaults upon the old whale and her offspring, finally
killing the latter, which sank to the bottom, where the water was five fathoms
deep. During the struggle the mother became nearly exhausted, having received
several deep wounds about the mouth and lips. As soon as their prize had settled
to the bottom, the three killers descended, bringing up large pieces of flesh in their
mouths, which they devoui’ed after coming to the surface. While gorging themselves
in this wise, tlie old wliale made her escape, leaving a track of gory water behind.”

On the 9th of September 1893, when off* the coast of Minas Geraes, Bi-azil, at
no great distance from the i.slands of Los Abrolhos, in long. 39° W., lat. 18° S., the
attention of the present writer was attracted by the appearance of a whale and
some other creatures at a distance of apparently something less than a quarter of

PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS.

ji mile from the ship. The whale was a finner, or humpback, of no veiy great size,
and was seen spouting, and again descending. Immediately after its fii'st descent
there appeared above tlie surface of the sea what seemed to be the tail-fin of some
animal unknown. This supposed fin was rai.sed in a vertical position, where it
remained vibrating for some seconds and then suddenly disappeared. In colour
it was a pure glistening white ; while in form it appeared to be laterally com-
pressed, with sharp edges and an acute termination. It gave the impression of
belonging to some animal wliich was engaged in attacking the whale beneath the
surface ; and I should estimate its height above the water approximately at 5 or 6
feet. Soon after the disappearance of this strange white object, the broad black
head of what I presume to have been a killer was seen above the water ; and in a
few seconds the whale itself again rose to spout. That these black animals, which
appeared to be harrassing and attacking the whale, were killers, I have no reason-
able doubt ; but the question arises as to the nature of the animal to which the
strange white tail-like object seen standing above the water could have belonged.
My impression at the time was that it must be the upper lobe of the tail of some
enormous shark allied to the thi'eshers {Alopecias) ; and this impression has been
confirmed by a subsequent examination of the stuffed specimens of that genus in
the British Museum. The thresher is, however, a black shark ; while the minute
size of its teeth seems to discredit the common accounts of its attacking whales.
Unless, however, it could have been the flipper of a humpback, I am at a loss to
imagine to what other animal the afox'esaid white tail-like object could have
belonged, save to some gigantic shark allied to the thresher, but of a white colour,
and probably armed with much larger teeth.

The Lesser Killer.

Genus Pseudorca.

An adventitious interest attaches to the Cetacean known as the lesser killer
{Pseudorca crassidens) owing to its having been originally described on the
evidence of a skull dug up in the Lincolnshii'e fens, which was for a long time
regarded as pertaining to an extinct species. This animal is distinguished from
the killer by its smaller back-fin, the pointed flippers, and the cylindrical roots of
the teeth, as well as by certain features in the structure of the skull. In colour
the lesser killer is entirely black ; and it attains the length of about 14 feet. There
are generally eight teeth in the upper jaw on each side, and ten in the lower jaw.
This species appears to be cosmopolitan, having been met with in small herds on
the coast of Denmark, and also in Tasmania. Its habits are probably somewhat
similar to those of the killer.

The Blackfish.
Genus Glohiocepliahis.

The blackfish {Globiocephalus melas) derives its English name from its nearly
uniform black coloration, while its generic title refers to the characteristic globular

54 CETACEANS.

form of the head. In size this species is one of tlie largest representatives of the
family, attaining a length of about 20 feet.

In addition to its beakless globular head, the blackfish is characterised by the
long, low, and thick back-tin, the long and narrow flippers, and the small size and
number of the teeth, which are confined to the front of the jaws. The usual
number of the teeth is from eight to twelve on each side of the jaws, l)ut in a distinct
variety or species from the Bay of Bengal they are rather fewer. The skull is
very broad and much depressed ; and the union between the two branches of the

THE BLACKFISH (3*5 liat. size).

lower jaw very short. In the tj’pical form there is a large spear-shaped white area
on the chest, extending fi’om the corners of the mouth to the flippers. This white
area is, however, absent in certain forms, which have been regarded as indicating
distinct species.

Distribution ordinary blackfish has a wide distribution, having been

obtained from the coasts of Europe, the Atlantic coast of North
America, the Cape of Good Hope, and New Zealand. Mr. True considers, however,
tliat the blackfish of the North Pacific {G. scammoni), and also the one found on
the Atlantic coast to the south of New Jersey, are distinct species ; and there is
also some evidence of the existence of a fourth in the Bay of Bengal. In Europe

PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS.

HabUs.

tlie blacktish or, as it is often called, the pilot-whale, or ca’ing whale, is a frequent
although irregular visitant to the British coasts ; and it occasionally extends as far
north as Greenland. In the ]\rediterranean it appears to be rare.

The blacktish is the most gregarious of all the Cetaceans,
assembling in herds which frequently comprise from two hundred to
three hundred individuals, and occasionally include as many as one thousand or
even two thousand. The members of a herd always blindly follow a leader, after
the manner of a flock of sheep, and from this strange habit the species derives its
names of pilot-whale and ca’ing ( = driving) whale. Curiously enough, if the
leader of a herd happen to run into shoal-water and become stranded, the other
members follow suit ; and in this way large numbei’s are often captured by the
inhabitants of Iceland and the Faroe, Orkney, and Shetland Islands. In disposition
this species is mild and gentle, and thus offers a marked contrast to the killer.
Its chief and favourite food is cuttle-fish, but it is said also to eat fish. The young,
of which there is generally but one at a birth, are said to be born in the late
summer, and suckled throughout the wintei'.

Kegarding their captui’e in the islands of the North Sea and
Atlantic, the late Prof. Bell writes that, on the appearance of a herd,
“ the whole fishing squadron of the neighbourhood is put into requisition, each boat
being provided with a quantity of stones. The first object is to get to seaward of
the victims, then the boats are formed into a lai’ge semicircle, and the whole herd
is driven into some bay or creek. The stones are thrown to splash and frighten
the whales if they try to break back ; and in Faroe ropes are stretched from boat
to boat, with wisps of straw hung at intervals. Should one whale break through the
line all is lost, as the re.st will follow it in spite of every exertion of the fishermen.
But if they are forced into shallow water, they plunge wildly on till they strand them-
selves, and then the whole population rush upon them, armed with harpoons, spears,
hatchets, picks, spades, — any weapon that comes to hand, — and the cries and dying
struggles of the poor animals, the shouts of the men, the clash of the weapons, and
the bloody and troubled sea combine to form an extremely exciting, if somewhat
revolting scene.” It is stated that in this manner no less than 1110 blackfish
were captured in Iceland in the winter of 1809-10, while upwards of 2080
were taken in Faroe within a period of six weeks during the year 1845.

Capture.

Risso’s Dolphin.

Genus Grampus.

Risso’s dolphin {Grampus griseus) is a rare and rather large species, which
appears to be the only representative of its genus, and is easily recognised by the
peculiar striped character of the skin ; the arrangement of the stripes and the
general coloration presenting a large amount of individual variation. It is dis-
tinguished from all other dolphins, except the female narwhal, by the total absence
of teeth in the upper jaw ; while in the lower jaw there are only from three to
seven small teeth on each side, and these confined to the anterior region of the jaw.
In general external characteristics Risso’s dolphin approaches very closely to the

CETACEANS.

blackfish, but the front of the head is less completely globe-like, and the length of the
flippers somewhat less. The mouth is obliquely placed, and the lower jaw shorter
than the upper ; while the back-fin is high and pointed. The flukes are very narrow.
The general colour is slaty grey, mottled, and very irregularly streaked. As a rule,
the back, with its fin, and the flukes are dark grey or blackish, more or less tinged
with purple ; while the flippers ai'e blackish, mottled with grey. The head and
fore-half of the body are light grey, of varying tint, and more or less tinged with
yellow ; the under-parts are greyish white ; and the whole body is marked with a
number of irregular and unsymmetrically arranged light strioe. In the young the
colour is dark grey above, and greyish white below, wdth the head yellowish white;
and the flukes marked with five or more narrow and nearly vertical lines, placed
at almost equal distances from one another. In length the animal measures about
13 feet when full grown.

Risso’s dolphin appears to have an almost world-wide distribution,
although not occurring in the polar seas. It has been recorded from

EISSO’S DOLPHIN.

(From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.)

the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans, the North Sea, the Mediterranean,
the Cape of Good Hope, and Japan. Several examples have been taken on the
British coasts. One of these was killed at Puckaster, Isle of Wight, in 1843 :
while a second was captured in a mackerel-net near the Eddystone Lighthouse in
1870. A third specimen sold in Billingsgate market in the latter year was probably
taken in the Channel ; and a fourth, also caught in the Channel, near Chichester,
was kept alive for a day in the Brighton Aquarium in 1875. The fifth example
was caught in 1886 in the same manner, and near the same locality as the second.
In the autumn of 1889 a shoal of nine of ten or these Cetaceans were observed ofl‘
Hillswick, Shetland, of which six were captured by fishermen ; and in 1892 a
single specimen was taken in the Solway. Beyond the fact that its chief food
consists of cuttle-fish, nothing definite appears to be known as to the habits of this
species.

The Short-Beaked Dolppiins.

Genus Lagenorhynclms.

Under the general title of short-beaked dolphins may be included a group of
several small species, serving to connect the beakless forms with those furnished

PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS.

Avitli distinct beaks, and remai’kable for their strongly-contrasting coloration. They
are generally characterised by the head having a short and not very well-defined
ploughshare-like beak, although in one species the head is pointed and beakless.
The fin and flippers are of moderate size ; and the tail has very prominent ridges.
The teeth are variable in size and number ; the beak of the skull is flat, and not
longer than the hinder part of the same ; and the union between the two branches
of the lower jaw is short. The coloration takes the form of two light-coloured
areas of variable size on the sides, separated from one another by irregular, oblique
dark band.s. Representatives of this genus are found in most of the temperate and
tropical seas, and two species have been taken off the British coasts.

White-Sided Of the two British species, the white-sided dolphin {Lageno-

Doiphin. rhynchus acutus), is blackish grey above, and white beneath, with
a broad band of yellowish brown between the two, in the middle of which is a
large white patch ; while a narrow black band extends from the flukes neaidy
to the line of the back-fin, and another runs from the base of the flipper to a point

THE PACIFIC SHORT-BEAKED DOLPHIN.

(From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.)

between the eye and the mouth ; the eye being surrounded by a black ring. The
length varies from 6 to 8 feet. This species inhabits the North Atlantic and the
North Sea. It is very rare on the British coasts, although said to be not unfre-
quently seen oft' the Orkneys.

Pacific Short- The species figured to represent this genus {L. crucigera) is one
Beaked Dolphin, from the Pacific, which is selected on account of the marked contrasts
of black and white. It has a short beak, only slightly marked off from the skull.
In colour, the muzzle, the forehead, the back, and the fin, flippei's, and flukes are
black ; while a broad black band runs from the eye and the base of the flipper
along each side to the flukes ; the other parts of the body being a more or less
pure white.

White-Beaked The second species of this genus which has been met with on

Dolphin. British coasts is the white-beaked dolphin (L. albirostris) ; this

species resembling the white-sided dolphin in general form, but having a more
swollen head, a narrower and more sloping back-fin, and longer flippers. It takes
its distinctive name from the fact of the muzzle, including the extremities of both
jaws, being white, more or less tinged with grey. The upper-parts are black, the
sides greyish, and the under-parts white, frequently of a creamy hue ; while there
ai’e three more or less distinctly defined whitish areas on the flanks, placed one

CETACEANS.

beliind the other, and more or less mottled with darker tints. Tliere is also a
similar light area behind the blowhole on the back, and another near the root of
the dukes. There is, however, considerable individual variation in regard to
the coloration. When freshly-stranded specimens come under observation, tlie
black of the back is often seen to be shot with a rich purpli.sh tint, and the whole
coloration is then exceedingly beautiful. Tliere are usually about twenty-six
teeth on each side of the jaws ; and the length attained by adults is from
8 to 9 feet. The white-beaked dolphin inhabits the North Atlantic, the North Sea,
and the Baltic, ranging as far northward as Greenland and Davis Strait. Between
the years 1884 and 1885, a total of nineteen specimens of the dolphin had been
taken in British waters ; and since the latter date a specimen was taken on the
Irish coast in 1887, and a third in the idver Colne in 1889.

The True Dolrhin.s.

Genus DelphimiH.

The true dolphins bring us to the first genus of the second great group of the
family, which includes all the forms with distinct beaks, except the short-beaked
dolphins just described. The beak is generally distinctly marked off from the
forehead liy a V-shaped groove ; and in the skull the beak considerably exceeds
the brain-cavity in length. In the skeleton the first two vertebrae of the neck are
united, but the other five remain separate. All the members of the group are of
comparatively small size, most of them not exceeding 10 feet in length. Dolphins
associate in shoals, and feed mostly on fish, although some of them at least also
consume crustaceans and molluscs.

The common dolphin (Delphinus delpJds), which apparently
Common Dolphin. „ „ ^ i t

frequents all temperate and tropical seas, is the typical representative

of the genus Delphinus, which presents the following characteristics. The beak

is long, and the back-fin and flippers are elongated and falcate. In the skull the

bony beak is long and narrow, and generally about twice the length of the region

of the brain -case. The jaws are furnished with a numerous series of teeth,

varying from about forty to sixty-five on each side, which are sharply pointed, with

their bases oval in section. The bony union between the two branches of the

lower jaw is short.

The common dolphin has a slender body and small head ; the beak being long
and narrow, and the flippers about three times as long as broad, with their
extremities pointed. There is considerable individual variation in colour, but
usually the back is dark grey, the under-parts white or whitish, and the flanks
marked by varying bands of grey or fulvous. The length of the animal is about
74 feet, and there are from forty-one to fifty teeth in the upper, and from forty-
five to fifty-one in the lower jaw.

There seems no doubt that this species is the dolphin of the
ancients, although the pictorial representations on old coins, and
the descriptions of the habits of the animal which have come down to us from the
writers of antiquity, are alike untrue to nature. The species is occasionally met

rOR POISES A AD DOLPHIXS.

with around the coasts of Britain, but it is much rarer off Scotland than in the
south. It is not uncommonly captured in fishing-nets, and examples have from
time to time been exposed for sale in Billingsgate market. Like the other
dolphins, this species associate in shoals. “ Tlie excessive activity and playfulness
of its gambols,” writes Bell, “ and the evident predilection which it exhibits for
society, are recoi’ded by every mariner. Large herds of these animals will suiTound
a ship in full sail with the most eager delight, throwing themselves into every

THK COMMON DOLPHIN (A l^t. size).

possible attitude, and tossing and leaping about with elegant and powerful agility,
for no apparent purpose save mere pastime.” In the British seas the chief food
of this species is formed by herrings and pilchards. The dolphin is said to utter a
low murmuring sound. A single offspring is produced at a birth, and is tended by
the female pai'ent with assiduous care. Formerly the flesh of the dolphin was
eaten in England and other European countries.

There are several other species more or less closely allied to the
common dolphin, although some of them are still very imperfectly
known. Such are Dussumier’s dolphin (D. dussumieri), from the Malabar coast
of India, and the Cape dolphin (D. capensis), from the Cape of Good Hope. The
red-bellied dolphin (Z). roseiventrid), from the IMoluccas and Torres Straits, is a

Allied Species.

CETACEANS.

small species, not exceeding 4 feet in length, with forty-eight teeth on each side of
the jaws, which has a skull intermediate between that of the common dolphin
and the next species. The slender dolphin {B. attenuatus) may be taken as an

RED-BELLIED DOLPHIN.

(From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.)

example of a group of several species, distinguished from the common dolphin
and its allies by the palate being nearly flat, instead of deeply hollowed on each
side in its posterior portion. Most of them are further distinguished by the skin

THE SLENDER DOLPHIN.

(From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.)

being either spotted, or marked with longitudinal bands. The slender dolphin i»
a spotted species from the Atlantic and the Cape of Good Hope ; while the Malayan
dolphin {D. vialayanus), from the Indian Ocean, which attains a length of 6] feet,
is uniform ashy grey.

The Bottle-Nosed Holphix-s.

Genus Tursiops.

The bottle-nosed dolphin, or, as it is often incorrectly called, porpoise {Tursiopis
tursio), is the best known of three or four species constituting a genus distinct from
Delphinus. The general form of these dolphins is stout, with the beak shorter and
more tapering than in the true dolphins, and the number of teeth considerably less
— not exceeding from twenty-two to twenty-six on each side of the jaws.

The bottle-nosed dolphin attains a length of from 94 feet to 12 feet. In colour
it is usually purplish grey above, passing gradually into pure white on the under-
parts ; but some specimens are black above and pale grey below, while others are
grey all over.

rOAWISi:S AND DOLPHINS.

Distribution.

Habits.

This species appears to range over all temperate and tropical seas,
being occasionally met with on the British coasts. An example was
taken at Holyhead in the autumn of 18G8 ; a second was stranded in 1888 on the
coast of Kirkcudbrightshire ; while two entered the river Humber in 1889.

Till recently very little was known as to the habits of this species,
but the establishment of a fishery for its capture at Hatteras, in North
Carolina, has enabled Mr. F. W. True to gather some information on this subject.
It appears that these dolphins are abundant off the coasts of Hatteras, and associate
in schools of considerable size. On the 19th of May fourteen of these animals were
secured at one haul of the nets in the morning, while in the afternoon of the same
day no less than sixty-six were taken. In the spring the schools genei'ally comprise
a nearly equal number of individuals of each sex, and include animals of all ages ;
but later on in the season they are more uniform as regards sex and age, some
herds consisting only of old males. It is believed that these dolphins migrate
northward in the spring, and southward in the autumn, although a few remain at

Hatteras throughout the year. The breeding-season commences in the spring,
but in the more northerly districts appears to be continued on into the summer.
When the old ones were captured in the nets, the J^oung would remain close
alongside.

The largest specimen caught at Hatteras measured 12 feet in length and
yielded twenty-four gallons of oil ; but the average product during the winter is
only about eight gallons. Some idea of the number of these dolphins frequenting
the Carolina seas may be gathered from the fact that between 15th November 1884
and the middle of the following May, no less than twelve hundred and sixty-eight
of them were caught at Hatteras.

The Rough-Toothed Dolphixs.

Genus Steno.

The rough-toothed dolphin {Steno front at us), from the Indian and Atlantic
oceans, is the I’epresentative of a genus comprising several more or less nearly
allied species, mostly confined to the warmer seas. They are distinguished by the
great length of the beak, which is distinctly marked off from the head, and in the
dried skull is very narrow and compressed ; and also by the length of the bony

CETACEANS.

union between the two branches of the lower jaw, which exceeds one-quarter the
total length of the jaw. The teeth vary in number from twenty to twenty-five on
each side of the jaws ; and are of rather large size, with the crowns often marked
by vertical groovings. The colour is variable.

The rough-toothed dolphin attains a length of 8| feet; and takes its name
from its coarsely-fluted teeth. The colour of the upper-parts is piu’plish black, the
sides being marked with rather large star-shaped spots, and the snout and under-
parts white, tinged with purple and rose-colour, and ornamented with purple spots.
The plumbeous dolphin {S. plmaheus) of the Indian Ocean, has an exti’emely long

THE ROUGH-TOOTHED DOLPHIN.

(From True. Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.)

beak, and is of a uniform leaden-grey colour, with the exception of the extremity
and under surface of the lower jaw, which are white. A third species from the
Indian seas is the speckled dolphin {S. lentiginosus), which above is of a leaden-
grey colour, with numei'ous long, drop-shaped spots, most of which ai’e pure white,
but othei’S slaty or black ; while below it is white, more or less mottled with grey.

Long-Beaked River-Dolphins.

Genus Sotalia.

Under the above title may be included several species of dolphins closely allied
to those of the preceding genus, but distinguished by their fluviatile or estuarine
habits, and the smaller number of joints in the backbone. Their teeth are always
smooth ; and the flippers very broad at the base. They must not be confounded
with the fresh- water dolphins of the family Platanistidce.

Amazonian Dolphins of this group are abundant in the upper portions of the

Dolphins. Amazon, but there is still great uncertainty as to whether these
belong to one or to three species, or whether all or any of these are distinct from
the Brazilian dolphin {Sotalia hrasiliensis) of the bay of Rio de Janeiro. There
is also a closely allied form (S. guianensis) from Cayenne. Of the Amazonian
dolphins one is commonly known as the tucuxi {S. tiicuxi), a second as the pale
river-dolphin {S. jxdlida), and a third as (S. fiuviatilis), which difter chiefly in
coloration, the relative length of the flns, and the number of teeth. The pale
dolphin, which is figured in the accompanying illustration, has the upper-parts and
flukes yellowish white, and the under-parts and flippei’s white. A notice of some of
the habits of the tucuxi has been given above on p. 39.

SQUALODONTS AND ZEUGLODON'TS.

Chinese White Another representative ot‘ this gi’oup is the Chinese white dolphin
Dolphin. sinensis), from Queinoy Island, in the harbour of Amoy, and the

Foochow and Canton rivers. It is said to be characterised by its general milk-
white colour, pinkish fins, and black eyes. v

Camerun The most interesting member of this group is, however, the

Dolphin. recently described Camerun dolphin (S. teuzsi) from the estuaries and

THE PALE KIVER-DOLPHIN.

(From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.)

rivers of the Camei’un district of Western Africa, which is reported to be of
herbivorous habit. If this alleged habit should be confirmed, this dolphin will
differ not only from all the other members of the family to which it belongs, but
likewise from all other living Cetaceans.

Squalodonts and Zeuglodont.s.

Families SQUALODOXTIDA: and ZeuGLODONTIDA.

In addition to numerous extinct representatives of the existing Cetacean
families, to some of which reference has been made above, there are two extinct
groups which cannot be included in either of the existing families ; one of these
differing very much indeed from all modern Cetaceans.

The name of squalodonts (ffenus Squalodon) is applied to the
Sq,ualodoats. ^ ^ ^

members of the first of these two groups on account of the somewhat

shark-like structure of their cheek-teeth. In the general characters of their skulls
these Cetaceans approximate to the modern dolphins, from which they are, however,
at once distinguished by the teeth being of different characters in different parts
of the jaws, as in ordinary mammals. They have a total of fifteen teeth on each
side of both the upper and lower jaws. Of these the first four are of simple
structure, and correspond to the incisors and canines of other mammals ; the next
four, which are also comparatively simple, appear to represent the preniolars; while
the last seven have two roots, and laterally-compressed triangular crowns, with
sharp cutting edges, ixpon which there are a number of cusps arranged in a saxv-
like manner. The scpialodonts, which are found in Miocene and Pliocene forma-
tions, both in the Old and New World, clearly form one step between modern
Cetaceans and ordinary mammals. And, so far as the structure of their teeth can
be relied xipon, they appear to suggest a kinship between Cetaceans and Carnivores.

CETACEANS.

Very different fi'om the above are the still earlier forms known
as zeuglodonts (genus Zeuglodon), which ajDjDear to be mainly or
entirely confined to the Eocene Tertiary, and have been obtained from regions
as far asunder as North America, Western Europe, the Caucasus, and Australia and
New Zealand. So different, indeed, were these animals from all existing Cetaceans,
that it has even been doubted whether they can be included within the limits of
the same order. Some of them idvalled the larger whales in point of size, while
the Caucasian species was not larger than an ordinary dolphin.

The zeuglodonts had teeth of the same general type as those of the squalodonts,
but those of the cheek-series were fewer in number, the premolars and molars
together being apparently only five on each side. The skull differs from that of
ordinary Cetaceans in having elongated nasal bones, and the cavity of the nose
placed more forwardly, as well as in certain other features ; all these points of
difference being in the direction of ordinary mammals. Unfortunately, we know
but very little of the structure of the limbs. The humerus, or bone of the upper
arm, is, however, proportionately much longer than in modern Cetaceans, although
it has flattened articular surfaces at its lower end, showing that the bones of the
fore-arm had scai'cely any free motion, and thus indicating that the fore -limbs
were modified into flippers. So far as they can be determined, the general
charactei's of these zeuglodonts are such as we should expect to find in an
ancestral group of Cetaceans ; but it is remarkable that the body appears to have
been protected by an armour of bony plates.

CHAPTER XXXI.

The Rodents, — Order Rodentia,

Squirrels, Marmots, and Beavers.

Under the common title of Gnawing or Rodent Mammals are grouped that
extensive assemblage of small or medium-sized species which, like rats, porcupines,
beavei’s, squirrels, and hares, are characterised by their habit of gnawing. At the
present day these creatures are more numerously represented than in any other
^lammalian order, both as regards individuals and species ; the number of the
latter being probably fully one thousand, while the swarms of individuals by which
some species are represented are too well known to need more than passing mention.
Nearly all the Rodents are inhabitants of the dry land, and a large proportion of
them seek protection from enemies by living in subterranean burrows which they
construct for themselves, and wherein they generally associate in larger or smaller
colonies. Some, however, like the water-vole and the beavei*, are aquatic ; while
others, like the squirrels and tree-porcupines, lead an arboreal life. A few, again,
have ac(}uired the power of spurious flight through the development of folds of
skin along the sides of the body and limbs, by the aid of which they are enabled
to take long flying leaps.

The Rodents are some of the most easily defined of all mammals, and are best
characterised by the number and nature of their teeth — especially those in the
front of the jaws. They are distinguished b}^ the presence in each jaw of a pair
of large chisel-like front or incisor teeth, which grow continuously throughout the
life of their owners. As a rule, no other incisor teeth, save these two pairs, are
developed, but in the hares and rabbits and their allies a second smaller pair occur
behind those of the upper jaw. There are no tu.sks or canine teeth in either jaw,
and in the cheek-series the number of premolars is always reduced below the noianal
four, very generally only one of these teeth being present, while in some cases even
this may be wanting. In consequence of the reduced number of incisor teeth,
coupled with the absence of canines and the reduction in the premolars, the skull
of a Rodent is always distinguished by the presence of a long gap between the
front and the cheek-teeth. Indeed, the presence in all Rodents of only a single
pair of chisel -shaped and permanently -growing lower incisors, opposed to a
corresponding pair in the upper jaw, the total absence of canines, the long gap
between the incisors and the cheek-teeth, and the reduction in the number of
the premolars, are of themselves sufficient to distinguish the Rodent order from
all other mammals, with the exception of the aye-aye among the lemurs.

Among other distinctive characteristics of the group, the following may be

VOL. III. — 5

RODENTS.

SIDE VIEW OF THE SKULL OF THE PRAIRIE-MARMOT.

Teeth.

mentioned. The feet are usually furnished with five toes, which generally terminate
in sharp claws, although they sometimes have broad nails. In walking, either the
whole or the greater part of the sole of the foot is applied to the ground, so that
these animals may be described as entirely or partially plantigrade. Rodents are
nearly always furnished with collar-bones (clavicles), although these may be more

or less imjDerfectly developed, and are
thereby broadly distinguished from all
livino; Ungulates. Their skulls are

o o

characterised by the condyle of the
lower jaw being elongated from front
to back, instead of from side to side, and
thus permitting of that backwards-and-
forwards motion of the lower upon the
upper jaw, which is so noticeable when
we watch a rabbit feeding ; this char-
acter serving to distinguish Rodents
alike from Ungulates and from Garni-
vores. Another point in connection with the skull is that the cavity for the ej^e
is not separated behind by a bar of bone from the temporal fossa ; this feature
serving to distinguish the Rodents from the aye-aye, in which the eye-socket is
sui-rounded by a bony ring.

The teeth being so important in the definition of the Rodents
reipiire somewhat fuller consideration. With regard to the incisors,
it may be observed that these teeth are of great length, and curved nearly in the
arc of a circle ; their inserted portion extending far backwards in the jaws, so that
in the upper jaw it comes nearly in contact with the base of the first of the cheek-
teeth, while in the lower jaw it runs beneath the whole of the cheek-series. The
lower incisors form a small segment of a very large circle (roughly speaking), while
the upper ones constitute a much greater segment of a far smaller circle. In the
great majority of Rodents the enamel on the incisor teeth is confined almost
exclusive!}" to their front surface, and is generally thicker on one side than on the
other; but in the hares and rabbits it also extends somewhat on to the lateral
surface.s. In cross-section these teeth are somewhat triangular ; the front enamel-
covered surface being broad and fiattened, and the two lateral surfaces gradually
converging to a rounded posterior edge. Whereas, however, the inner surface,
which comes in contact with the tooth on the opposite side of the jaw, is nearly
fiat, the outer surface is convex. As a natural result of the front surface of these
teeth being composed of the hard enamel (which is very frequently of an orange or
reddish colour), whereas the remaining portion consists of much softer ivory, it
follows that the effect of wear is to produce a sharp chisel-edge at their summits.
Indeed, the structure of an incisor tooth of a Rodent is precisely analogous to a
chisel ; the hard enamel corresponding to the steel with which the latter is faced,
and which forms the cutting edge, while the ivory represents the soft iron forming
the support to the thin plate of steel. As these inci.sor teeth are continually grow-
ing, they always present the same chisel-like edges, which are worn away by use
at a rate commensurate with that of the frrowth. It follows from this that if one

GENERAL CHARACTERS.

of these teeth be broken away during life, the corresponding tooth in the opposite
jaw, having nothing to check its growth by wear, will continue to grow on un-
interruptedly till it forms nearly a circle, when its point will enter the jaw of its
unfortunate owner, and probably lead to a lingering death. Most museums possess
specimens of the skulls of Rodents with such abnormally-developed teeth.

The cheek-teeth of Rodents may be either provided with distinct roots, or
may grow throughout life and never develop such roots. In the cases of those
with distinct roots, the crowns may carry mere simple tubercles; but in other
instances they may have their summits or sides penetrated by infoldings of the
enamel, thus producing a more or less complicated pattern when worn. On the
other hand, the permanently-growing rootless molars always have complex crowns,
which are sometimes interpenetrated by lateral infoldings of the enamel, and at
others are divided into a series of parallel transverse plates. There is, indeed, a
precise pai'allelism in this respect between the molar teeth of the Rodents and
those of the mastodons and elephants ; the molai* tooth of a mouse, which has
distinct roots, and a low crown with simple cusps, being exactly comparable to
that of a mastodon, whereas the high-crowned, laminated, and rootless molar of
a guinea-pig corre.sponds as closely with that of a modern elephant. Rodents are
always furnished with milk-teeth, which, however, in some instances are shed
before birth.

Moutii. Rodents present a peculiarity in the structure of the mouth,

which is quite unknown in any other mammals. In examining the
mouth of any one of these animals — say a rabbit — it will be found that behind the
upper front teeth the outer hairy skin of the face is continued inwards into the
sides of the mouth, which by this means is divided into two distinct chambers,
communicating with one another through a comparatively narrow orifice ; the first
chamber containing only the front teeth, while the cheek-teeth are included in the
second chamber. It appears that this arrangement is designed to prevent the
entrance of extraneous substances into the true cavity of the mouth when the
creatures are engaged in their characteristic operation of gnawing. In addition to
this peculiarity, the whole of the inside of the cheeks in the hares and rabbits is
covered with hair ; while the pouched rats and hamsters have large pouches inside
the cheeks, which are also lined with hairy skin. On the other hand, the gophers
have pouches in the cheeks which open externally instead of internally.

Distribution and The Rodents have a wider distribution than any other group of

Habits. terrestrial mammals, being found in all parts of the globe except the
extreme polar regions. With the exception of the bats, they include the only
representatives of the placental mammals which are undoubtedly indigenous to
Australia. They are, however, but poorly represented in that countiy, and likewise
in the great island of Madagascar. On the other hand, the order attains an
extraordinaiy development in South America, where its largest repi’esentatives
occur, and which may be looked upon as its headquarter.s. In time, the Rodents
certainly date from the upper portion of the Eocene division of the Tertiary period ;
but the whole of the extinct forms hitherto discovered px’esent all the essential
peculiarities of the existing representatives of the group, and we are, therefore, at
present almost completely in the dark as to their relationship to other orders,

RODENTS.

although it has been suggested that they are derived directly from the Mai-supials.
The number of genera of Rodents is great, that in a work like the present
it is only possible to notice some of the leading and more generally interesting
types.

The whole of the Rodents are almost entirely herbivorous in their habits ; and
they all of them obtain their food b}^ gnawing. We have already noticed that
while the majority are tei’restrial and burrowing, some are arboreal, others aquatic,
and a few endowed with the power of spurious flight ; and it may he added that
of the terrestrial forms the hares are among the fleetest runners of all mammals,
while the jerboas and chinchillas are distinguished by their leaping powers. They
are mostly harmless and inofl’ensive creatures, fleeing with the greatest terror and
precipitancy from the smallest of foes; but a few, like the common rat, when
driven to bay, will defend themselves desperately, and will then inflict comparatively
severe bites with their powerful front-teeth.

^ ^ Many Rodents yield furs which are very largely used in commerce,

although of less intrinsic value than those of many other mammals.
The flesh of hares and rabbits is largely consumed in Euiope, while that of other
members of the order is also eaten in various parts of the world ; but the strong
odour which characterises many Rodents renders their flesh more or less un-
palatable.

Coloration.

As a whole, Rodents are characterised by their dull and frequently
uniform coloration, although there are many exceptions to thi.s.
Indeed, many of the squirrels from the warmer regions of the globe, as well as one
of the species of marmot, are among the most brilliantly coloured of all animals.
In the brighter-coloured forms it does not appear that any rule can be laid down
as to the plan of coloration. Thus while in many of the squirrels the brilliant
colours take the form of distinct patches, distribiited over various parts of the body,
in the palm-squirrels and ground-squirrels there are light longitudinal stripes on a
dark ground, and in the pacas there are light-coloured spots. It appears, however,
that no Rodent exhibits transverse bars of diffei'ent colours on the body, and in
none is the tail ornamented with alternate light and dark rings.

The tail is very variable ; being totally wanting in the guinea-
pig, while in the jerboas it attains an enormous relative length.

TaU.

The African Flying Squirrels.

Family AnoMALUEIDjE.

The true flying-squirrels are confined to Asia, Europe, and North America,
but Africa possesses a group of .somewhat similar animals, which difier so decidedly
in structure that they are assigned to a distinct famih'.

Before considering these animals in detail, a few words are necessary as to the
leading characteristics common to all the Rodents treated of in the present chaptei’,
which are collectively spoken of as the squirrel-like Rodents, or, technicall}', as the
Sciuromorpha. Together with the mouse-like Rodents described in the following
chapter, all these animals are characterised by the angular process of the lower

SQC/JA'A^IlLS.

jaw ^ takin*^ its origin from the root of the slieath of the incisor tootli. The
sqnirrel-like Rodents arc especially distinguished by having the two bones of the
lower leg (tibia and hbula), as shown in
the accompanying figure of the skeleton
of the squirrel, quite distinct from one
another. They are further characterised
by the zygomatic or cheek -arch of the
skull being slender, and mainly formed
by the jugale or cheek-bone itself.^ These
distinctive characters, which are some-
what difficult for those not versed in
anatomy to understand, may appear
trivial and unimportant ; but the fact is
that all Rodents are so alike in general
structure, that it is only by such slight
points of diffiei'ence that the various
groups can be satisfactorily distin-
guished from one another.

The African Hying squirrels (Anomalurus) are distinguished from the true
flying squirrels by the parachute-like membrane running along the sides of the

body being supported in front by
a rod of bony cartilage arising
from the elbow-joint (instead of
from the wrist) ; and also by the
presence of a row of overlapping
horny scales on the under surface
of the root of the long and
thickly-haired tail. Their skulls
also difler from those of the true
squirrels by the absence of a bony
projection from the frontal bones
definino; the hinder border of the
socket of the eye. They have,
moreover, but a single pair of
premolar teeth in each jaw.

Most of these flying squirrels
are confined to Western Africa,
but one species (A.
occurs in Equatoria, while
another is found on the east
coast near Zanzibai’. The fulgent
flying-scpiirrel (A. fidgens), from
the Gabun is one of the largest species, measuring 21 inches in total length, of

^ This is the projecting process seen at tlie hinder extremity of the lower jaw in the skull figured on p. 66.

2 In the same figure the zygomatic arch is the bar of bone beneath the socket of the eye, of which the front
portion is formed by the jugale or cheek-bone.

RODENTS.

wliicli a tliird is occupied by the tail ; its colour is bright tawny orange, with a
white spot between the ears, and another on each side of the muzzle. On the
other hand, in the pigmy African flying squirrel— the mboma of the natives — the
length of the head and body is only 11 inches, and that of the tail 5| inches; the
colour of the upper-parts being dark grizzled grey, while beneath it is yellowish
white, with the tail uniform pale brown.

The habits of these animals appear to be very similar to those of
their Asiatic allies. In climbing tree-stems, preparatory to taking
their flying leaps, it is said that they use the scales at the root of the tail to aid in
obtaining a hold on the bark.

The Squirrel Family
Family SCIURID^.

Tlie Squirrel family, which includes the true flying squirrels, ordinary squiiTels,
marmots, and susliks, is distinguished from the last by the absence of scales on the
tail, and the presence of distinct bony (postorbital) processes defining the hinder
border of the upper half of the socket of the eye. Moreover, when a parachute-
like membrane is present, it is supported b}^ a rod of cartilage arising from the
wrist. The palate is broad ; and there are generally two pairs of premolar teeth
in the upper, and one in the lower jaw ; but the first upper premolar is small, and
may be shed or wanting. The molars have roots, and in the young state at least
liave their crowns surmounted by tubercles, but in the adult they often have
deep wavy enamel -folds, forming transverse plates extending partially across
tlie crown.

Till quite recently the members of the family were divided into two gi’oups,
or subfamilies, according as to whether they are arboreal or terrestrial in their
habits ; the first group including the true squirrels and flying squirrels, and the
second comprising the susliks and marmots. From a careful study of their
dentition. Dr. Forsyth-Major has, however, come to the conclusion that this
arrangement is an artificial one ; he accordingly classes them under three groups,
of which the first includes the true squirrels, susliks, and marmots, the second the
flying squirrels, and the third the Oriental pigmy squirrels.

The Groove-Toothed Squirrel.

Genus RJdthrosciurus.

According to the above-mentioned scheme, the first representative of the family
is the Bornean groove-toothed squirrel (Rhithrosciurus macrotis), which is the sole
member of a genus easily characterised by the presence of a number of vertical
grooves on the front of the incisor teeth. Much larger than the common squirrel,
this species has an enormous bushy tail, long tufted ears, and black and white bands
along the flanks. The molar teeth are of a simpler type than in an}" other member
of this family.

SQOV/^A'£LS.

The Spiny Squirrels.

Genus Xerus.

In addition to being the home of a considerable number of true squirrels, Africa
is the sole habitat of a group of s(juirrels constituting a distinct genus of the family.
Tlie t3'pical representatives of these Ethiopian spiny s([uiiTels are characterised by
tlieir coarse and spiny hair, the small size or total absence of the external conchs of
the ears, and the comparative straightness of the long claws. According to the new
classification, certain other Ethiojiian species, formerly included among the true
squirrels, may however find a place in this genus, which will be best characterised
by the skull and molar teeth. As regards the skull, this is distinguished by its

THE ABYSSINIAN SPINY SQUIRREL (J nat. size).

elongate form, which is especially shown in the frontal bones, and the extreme
shortness of the (postorbital) processes forming the hinder border of the upper part
of the sockets of the eyes. The molar teeth, in place of the low-crowned, basin-
shaped form characterising those of the true squirrels, have somewhat taller crowns,
with more or less well-marked transverse plates ; thus approximating to the corre-
sponding teeth of the porcupines, and evidently indicating a specialised type.
Distribution and The genus now includes a very large number of species, ranging
Habits. from Abyssinia to the Cape ; its typical representatives differing from
the true squiri’els in being entirely terrestrial, taking refuge either in clefts and
holes among rocks, or in the burrows excavated by themselves. The Abyssinian
spiny squirrel (Xerus rutilus), which is the species represented in our illustration,
is of a uniform yellowish red colour, with distinct conchs to the ears ; its size being
comparable to that of the English squirrel, but rather larger. ]\Ir. Blanford states
that these animals may be commonly seen in the neighbourhood of Annesley Bay in
rocky places, associating in parties of five or six individuals. The striped Abyssinian

RODENTS.

spiny squirrel (A", leucoambrlmis) agrees with the last in having external ear-
conchs, l)ut (lifiers in its longitudinally-striped body ; in the latter respect it re-
sembles the Cape spiny squirrel (A", setosus), of South Africa, in which, however,
the conchs of the ears are wanting. The small spiny squirrel (A", get ulus), which
is also striped, is the most diminutive member of the group, and in size and appear-
ance much resemldes the Indian 2:)alm-s(piirrel. A fossil species of this genus occurs
in the Miocene deposits of France.

The True Squirrel, s.

Genus Sclurus.

The common squirrel is the sole representative in Western Europe of an ex-
ceedingly lai’ge and widely-distributed genus, of which the following are the leading
characteristics. The tail is very long and bushy ; the ears are in most cases of
considerable size, and may be surmounted with tufts of long hair • and in the fore-
limbs there are only four functional toes, owing to the rudimental condition of the
one corresponding to the human thumb. The claws are long, curved, and sharp ;
while the female may have either four or six teats. From that of the spiny
scpiirrels the skull diffei’S by its shortened form and the elongation of the backwardly-
directed (postorbital) processes defining the hinder border of the sockets of the eyes.
The molar teeth are low-crowned and of a sinqde type, those of the lower jaw having
the grinding surface basin-shaped, with a longitudinal wall on the inner and outer
side, and no transverse plates formed by infoldings of the enamel ; and the first
upper premolar, if present, is small, and may be shed at an early age.

While the common squirrel is of a uniform lirownish red colour on the upper-
parts, many of the tropical species are most brilliantly tinted with orange and other
bright colours, while others, like the little Indian palm-squirrel, have their bodies
ornamented with longitudinal light stripes on a dark ground. One of the Malayan
species, which is ordinarily grey, assumes a brilliant oi'ange-coloured dre.ss during
the breeding-season ; and some of the North American species also undergo a
seasonal change of coloration, one of them having a dark stripe along the sides of
the body in .summei’, which conqiletely disappears in winter. There is great differ-
ence in the size of the various species, the large Malayan squirrel (Sciurus hicolor)
from India and the Malay region, measuring about 40 inches or more in total length,
while the Indian 2)alm-squirrel does not exceed a weasel in size.

^ The true squirrels inhabit the temperate and tropical portions of

the whole globe, with the exception of Madagascar and the Australa.sian
region. The number of species probably does not fall far short of fifty or sixty,
and these are most numerous in the Malayan region, which may be regarded as the
headquarters of the group. There is, however, great difficult}'’ in deciding as to
the real number of species, since a large number of squirrels, especially those from
North America and Africa, exhibit extraordinary local variation in coloration, so
that it is almost impossible to say where varieties end and species begin.

European The common squirrel (*S'. vidgaris), as being the best known

Squirrel representative of the genus, may be selected for special notice, as the

SQU/KRELS.

habits of all the species ap])ear to be very siinilaj-. Belon^in^ to a ^roup in wbicb
the first upper premolar is present, this little animal is so well known by a])pearance
to all, that but few words need be devoted to its description. The general colour
of the beatl and body is brownish red above, and white beneath ; the whole tail
being of the same hue as the back. Jn summer, the edges of the ears are smooth,
but in winter they are tipped with a thick fringe of hair. In winter the scpiii rel in
England is greyer than in summer ; and in the more northern and ea.stern i)art.s of
its habitat, the grey tint, especially in winter, become.s much more marked, while
in Japan the colour is nearly black. Drab-coloured scpiirrels occur in Siberia; and
white or pied specimens are occasionally met with. In some parts of England the
tail is not unfrecpiently cream-coloured in autumn. The total length of the animal,

THE ECROrEAN SQUIRREL liat. Size).

Distribution.

exclusive of the hairs at the end of the tail, is about 151, inches, of which 7 inches
are taken up by the tail.

The geographical range of the European squirrel is very exten-
sive, comprising almost the whole of Europe, Northern Africa, Asia
I\Iinox’, and Asia north of the Himalaya, as far ea.stward as Japan. Indeed,
Ireland and Japan respectively mark the western and ea.stern boundaries of its
range ; while its extreme northern and southern limits are indicated by Lapland
and the north of Italy. In the south of the latter country, and likewise in the
Caucasus and the Crimea, the s(}uirrel is, however, quite unknown.

Like other members of the genus, this species of squirrel is mainly
diurnal and arboreal in its habits, but seldom descending to the
ground, and when aloft leaping from bough to bough with surprising agility. The
extent of these flying leaps shows that the “ flight ” of the flying scjuirrels is but
an ultra development of this mode of progre.ssion. Its chief food consists of nuts.

Habits.

RODENTS.

beech-mast, bark, buds, and young shoots of trees ; but there is evidence that it is
also not averse to a diet of birds’ eggs, and perhaps insects. In feeding, all squirrels
sit lip on their hind-quarters, and hold their food to their mouths with the fore-
paws. The shells of nuts are pierced by the sharp front teeth, and every fragment
removed before the kernel is consumed. Stores of food are laid up by the common
squirrel for winter use, but instead of being deposited in a single place they are
hidden in several repositories. In England and the whole of its more northerly
habit, the squirrel partially hibernates during the winter, but it wakes up at
intervals to feed when the weather is mild, and again retires to slumber. Probably
in more southern regions it is active throughout the year, as are the species
inhabiting the warmer parts of the globe. Squirrels associate in pairs, apparently
for life, and generally frequent the same tree or clump of trees from year to year.
The nest, or “ drey,” in which the young are produced, is built either in the fork of
a branch, or in some hole of the stem of a tree, and is composed of leaves, moss, and
fibres, carefully intertwined. When placed in a fork, it so closely resembles the
boughs in colour that its detection from below is difficult. In England the
blind and naked young are born in June, and are usually three or four in number.
They remain with their parents till the following spring ; and if captured at a
sufficiently early age form docile and affectionate pets. The squirrel can swim
well ; and its flesh is said to be good eating.

Squirrel -fur is extensiv’ely used for boas, linings, and trimmings. The
(juantity formerly imported into England was very great, the total number of skins
in 1839 reaching 2,730,826 ; but of late years the imports have declined, the chief
seat of the industry in this fur being now in Germany. The darker bluish grey
skins are the most valued, most of these being obtained from Okhotsk by the
Alaska Company ; the number imported by that company into London being,
according to Mr. Poland, 43,235 in 1891, but it is sometimes double as many.

North American In North America the place of the European species is taken by
Squirrels. squirrel, or chickari (S. h udsonianus), and the grey squirrel

(.8. carolinensis) ; the former frequenting forests of all kinds, while the latter is
chiefly restricted to those composed of deciduous trees. Dr. Hart Merriam,
describing the habits of the red squirrel in the Adirondack Mountains, near New
York, says that this species exhibits but little fear of man, and is the least wary of
all its tribe. It is on the alert from dawn to sunset, and sometimes, especially
when there is a moon, continues its rambles throughout the night ; while whenever
abroad it enlivens the solitudes of the forests with its continual chatterings.
“ Though an expert climber, delighting in long leaps from bough to bough, which
he executes with grace and precision, he spends far more time on the ground than
the other arboreal scpiirrels, sometimes even making his home in holes in the earth.
Old logs, stumps, wood-piles, and brush-heaps, are favourite places of resort, and,
by excavating burrows beneath, he converts them into the securest of retreats . . .
As might be inferred from the boreal distribution of this animal, he is the hardiest
of our squirrels. Not only does he inhabit regions where the rigours of Arctic
winter are keenly felt, but refusing to hibernate, he remains active throughout the
continuance of excessive cold ; when running upon the snow he often plunges
down out of sight, tunnels a little distance, and, reappearing, shakes the snow from

SQUIRRELS.

liis head and body, whisks his tail, and skips along as lightly and with as much
apparent pleasure as if returning from a bath in some rippling brook during the
heat of a summer’s afternoon.” This scpiirrel is fond of a variety of fruits, and
also sucks the eggs and kills the young of the smaller bird.s. The young are
generally born early in April, and usually include from four to six in a litter.

This species is of small size, with a relatively short tail, and short tufts to the
ears in winter ; its usual colour being greyish, more or less mixed with yellowish
or reddish above, and generally white below. It shows dusky markings on the
back, and sometimes also on the under-parts. Its geographical range includes the
northern half of North America.

The grey scpiirrel is a more southerly species, extending from the south of
Canada to Mexico and Guatemala. In size it is superior to the last, and its tail is
proportionately longer, while there are no ear-tuft.s. Its usual colour is whitish
grey above, varied with fulvous, and white below ; the flanks being marked with
a pale fulvous line. There are, however, numerous varieties, one of which is dark
olive-brown above, and grey beneath. In habits this specias seems to be more like
the common squirrel, being extremely wary and alert, and partially hibernating
during the Avinter. It buries its stores of food just beneath the surface of the
ground in various parts of the woods. In confinement these sqiairrels form
charming little pets. There are at least seven other well-defined representatives
of the genus in North and Central America, and several others in the southern
half of the same continent.

Oriental As already mentioned, squirrels attain their maximum develop-

Squirreis. ment of size and species, as Avell as their most brilliant coloration, in
the Oriental region, and especially in its jVIalayan portion.

In India and Burma Mr. Blanford recognises no less than twenty species of
squirrels, three of which are of large size, measuring not less than a foot from the
nose to the root of the tail, while eleven vary from 10 to 7 inches in length, and
all the remainder are small striped species, averaging from 5 to 7 inches in length.
The medium and smaller species retain the first premolar tooth of the upper jaw,
which is usually lost in those of the largest groups. Among the two first groups
some of the better known are the large Indian squirrel {S. iv die 11.9), Avith tufted
ears, Avhich is not knoAAui to the east of the Bay of Bengal, the large ^lalayan
squiiTel (S. hicolor), ranging from the eastern Himalaya to Borneo, the golden-
backed squirrel (S. caniceps), already alluded to as the one AA'hich assumes a special
breeding-dress, although this is confined to one A’ariety of the species, and the
nearly allied IraAvadi squirrel (S. pygerytlirud), in Avhich the length of the head
and body is about 9 inches, and the ears haA^e no tufts.

Of the smaller striped species, the best knoAAui is the Indian palm-squirrel (»S.
jKdmariim), so commonly distributed in open districts throughout India and
Ceylon, but unknoAA’ii to the eastAA'ard of the Bay of Bengal, and neA’er found in
forests. The length of the head and body of this species is from 5^ to 6 inches,
and that of the tail rather more. The general colour of the upper-parts is some
shade of broAAui, AAuth thi’ee narroAA' AA'hitish or slightly rufescent longitudinal stripes
on the back ; the under-pai’ts A^arying from Avhite to grey. This pretty little
squirrel is one of the most familiar of Indian mammals, exhibiting scarcely any fear

RODENTS.

of man, and uttGring its bird-like chirp in every Indian garden. It is commonly
found in groves and on the rows of trees bordering the roads in most Indian
stations ; but, according to Blanford, exhibits no especial predilection for palms.

It generally feeds on the ground
in the neighbourhood of trees,
and when alarmed seeks refuge
in their boughs by darting up
the stems with lightning-like
rapidity. Dogs newly imported
into India invariably take to
hunting palm - srpiirrels, but
usually give up the pursuit in
a short time as being utterly
hopeless. These scpiirrels fre-
quently take up their abode in
the roofs of houses, and will
freely enter the rooms. In
addition to the iisual food of
its kindred, this species will also
consume white ants and other
insects. The young — two to four
in a litter — are produced in a
large biilky nest of grass or wool,
usually placed either in a tree
or among the rafters of a liouse.
Extinct The European

THE iRAWADi SQUIRREL.— After Aiidcrson. Squirrels. squirrel dates from

the deposition of the Xorfolk
“ forest-bed,” belonging to the earliest seiies of the Pleistocene period ; but extinct
species of tlie genus are found in formations of Tertiary age down to the upper
division of the Eocene.

The Ground-Squirrels, or Chipmunks.

The ground-squirrel of Siberia, portions of Eastern Europe, and North
America, together with several other closely-allied North American species com-
monly known as chipmunks, constitute a group serving to connect the two squirrels
with the susliks. Having molar teeth of the same type, the chipmunks are indeed
so closely allied to the true squirrels that Dr. For.syth-]\Iajor proposes to include
them in the same genu.s. They differ, however, from both the spiny-squirrels and
the true squiiTcls in the possession of pouches inside the cheeks ; on which account
they may, for the present at least, be allowed to stand under the generic title by
which they are commonly known. They are further characterised by the sides, or
the back and sides together, being marked by longitudinal white or greyish white
stripes boixlered by black bands. The ears are of medium size or small, and are
never tufted with long hair ; while the tail is shorter than the head and body.

SQUIRRELS.

llattened, and ratlier wide. The sknll is generally like that of the true squirrels,
hut rather narrower and more slender ; and the first preinolar tooth in the upper
jaw is either absent or very minute.

The common American chipmunk (Tamias sfriatus), together with its
niimerous varieties, is distinguished by having two white stripes, each bordered
with black, and a simple black stripe running down the middle of the back ; and
has also two white stripes, separated by a black one, above and below the eye. It
is about the size of the European squirrel, with which it also agrees approximately
in the general ground-colour of the fur. There is, however, great local variation in
this respect, specimens from the southern portions of the chi})munks’ range being
lighter in colour than those from the north. The distribution of this species
extends from Canada and Manitoba to Georgia and Western Missouri. The long-
eared chipmunk (T. macrotiis), from California, diliers from it in the much greater
length of its ears.

On the other hand, the Siberian chipmunk (2\ asiaticas), which, as we have
said, is common to the Old and the New World, together with some other North
American species, differs by having four light-coloured and five black stripes on the
body. The tail is also relatively longer. In the Old World this species ranges
from the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk westward over the Avhole of Northern Asia,
extending in Russia as far as the river Dwina, and along the whole course of the
Amur. Including under the specific name a large number of varieties, which some
writers are disposed to regard as distinct species, the Siberian chipmunk ranges in
North America from Lake Superior and the neighbourhood of the Barren Grounds
to New Mexico and Arizona, and extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific seaboard.

Chipmunks are amonsf the commonest of North American
Habits ^ ~

Rodents, and their habits are consequently thoroughly well known.

As those of all of the species are probably nearly similar, the excellent account

given by Dr. Hart Merriam of the habits of the common chipmunk will suffice for

all. These animals are migratory, and may be very abundant in a certain district

in one year, while in the next comparatively few will be seen ; their relative

abundance being dependent upon the supply of food. Chipmunks feed not only

on nuts and beech-mast, but likewise on various kinds of corn and roots ; and they

are also partial to the larvae of insects. When beech-mast is abundant in the

Adirondack Mountains, it ma}^ be safely predicted that swarms of chipmunks will

make their appearance in the autumn. In such seasons the forerunners arrive in

September, while by October the woods are alive with these creatures. “ Finding

an abundance of food,” writes Dr. Merriam, “ they immediately establish themselves

for the winter, and begin at once to hoard up large stores. They are the least

hai’dy of our squirrels, commonly going into winter-quarters before the middle of

November, and rarely appearing again in any numbers till the warm sun, in March

or April, has caused plots of bare ground to appear between the snow-banks.

Early thaws sometimes bring them out in Februaiy; and after having once

emerged they often make little excursions over the snow during pleasant days,

though the temperature maj" be several degrees below freezing. In running from

tree to tree, even when not pursued, the length of their bound varies from twenty-

five to thirty-four inches — a long leap for so small an animal.’ The}" commonly

RODENTS.

leave the Adirondack region in July, since it is but seldom that there is a good
crop of beech-niits in two successive years. The young are born in the spring, and
leave the nest by June.

Chipmunks collect an astonishing quantity of food for the winter, which is
carried to its place of deposit in their capacious cheek-pouches. In addition to
regular storehouses, these animals lay up a portion of their winter supply here and
there beneath the leaves of the forest. In a hole tenanted by four chipmunks,
Audubon and Bacliman relate that in the nest itself they found about a gill of
corn, and in the communicating galleries upwards of about a quart of nuts, a peck
of acorns, about two quarts of buckwheat, and a small quantity of Indian corn and
grass seeds. Generally the chipmunk keeps to the ground, although it will often
run some few feet up the ti-unk of a tree, and when pursued, if its hole be not

THE COMMON CHIPMUNK (2 iiat. size).

accessible, will take refuge among the branches. Instances are, however, on record
where these animals have been observed regularly ascending tall trees in search of
food ; and they seemed perfectly at home among the boughs, although they never
leapt from branch to branch after the manner of the true squirrels.

In regard to its general mode of life. Dr. Merriam observes that “ the chip-
munk establishes his headipiarters in some log or stump, or in a hole excavated by
himself in the earth, generally among the roots of a tree. He is partial to brush-
heaps, wood piles, stone walls, rail fences, accumulations of old rubbish, and other
places that afford him a pretty certain escape, and at the same time enable him to
see what is transpiring outside. For, though by no means wary, he delights in
these loosely sheltered hiding-places, where he can whisk in and out at will, peep
unobserved at passers-by, and dart back when prudence demands. If suddenly
surprised, he utters a shai’p clti’p-'per, r, r, r, and makes a sudden quick dash for his
retreat, which is no sooner reached than, simultaneously with the disappearance of

SUSLIKS.

liis tail, out pops his head, his keen dark eyes gazing intently at the source of
alarm. If not pursued farthei*, he is very apt to advance towards the supposed
enemy, betraying his excitement by a series of nervous starts and precipitous
retreats, till finally, making a bold rush, he dashes by the object of his di’ead, and
in another instant is peering out from a hole beneath the roots of a neighbouring
tree.” The chipmunk does not appear to make an agreeable pet, as it is apt to be
sulky and morose, and disposed to bite the fingers of any one who ofiei*s it food.

The Susliks, or Gophers.

Genus Spermophilits.

The suslik or sisel of North-Eastern Europe and Northern Asia, and the
striped gopher of North America are the best known representatives of the fourth
genus of the Squirrel family. Both in this and the two following genera the
incisor teeth are not compressed, while the form of the body is generally stout,
and the tail either short or of moderate length ; the molar teeth being of a simple
type. The whole of the species are confined to Europe, Asia Minor, Asia north
of the southern flanks of the Himalaya, and North America.

The susliks, as the members of the genus SpermopJdhis may be collectively
termed, are characterised by their somewhat slender and squirrel-like form, and
the presence of large cheek-pouches. The external ears may be very small, or
comparatively large and tufted ; and the tail varies from a mere stump to 8 or 9
inches in length. In the fore-feet the first toe is rudimentary, but its nail is
sometimes present. The skull approximates to that of the squirrels, but the
first upper pi'emolar is relatively larger ; and the two rows of upper cheek-teeth
are nearly parallel to one another. The coloration may be either uniform or
striped, but never resembles that of the chipmunks.

The susliks are mainly confined to the colder regions of the
Northern Hemisphere, and have very nearly the same distribution
as the chipmunks, although there is no species common to the Old and the New
World. With the exception of Eversmann’s suslik {S. eversmanni) of North-
Eastern Asia, all the Old World species have short tails, while those of the New
World are nearly all long-tailed, and approach more closely in form to the
chipmunks. In North America no representatives of the genus occur to the east-
ward of the plains and prairies forming the centre of the continent, but they
range westwards to the coast of the Pacific. In latitude the range of the genus
extends from the shores of the Arctic Sea to the plains of Northern Mexico.

The common suslik (S. citillus), which is the species depicted in our illustra-
tion, is common in Central and Eastern Europe and Siberia, and is a uniformly-
coloured animal, scarcely as large as the European squirrel, with a very short tail,
and minute external ears. In America the commonest representative of the genus
is the striped gopher (S. tridecemlineatus), which is some 7 or 8 inches in length,
with a tail of about two-thirds that length, and small ears. In colour it is typically
dark reddish brown above, with six to eight longitudinal light stripes, alternating
with from five to seven rows of light spots ; the under-parts being yellowish brown

RODENTS.

in the middle line, bordered on the sides with yellowish, with a narrow black band
running between the two tints. This species ranges from the Red River in
Canada to Texas. The long-eared gopher (S. grammurus), ranging from Colorado
to California, may be cited as an example of another group of the genus, in which
the ears are very large, and often fringed with long hairs, while the tail is very
long and bushy. Fossil remains show that susliks were more widely distributed
in Europe during the Pleistocene period than they are at the present day ; some of
their remains having been discovered in the brick-earths of the Thames Valley.

All the susliks are social and burrowing animals, generally
selecting open plains, with a sandy or clayey soil, for the construction
of their domiciles, and studiously avoiding forests or swampy districts. The burrows
of the common suslik are as much as from six to eight feet in depth, and have each

THE COMMON SUSLIK (J iiat. size).

but a single entrance. When, however, these animals retire to the depths of their
burrows for their winter sleep, they excavate a second passage from the sleeping-
chandler to within a short distance from the surface of the ground. On awakening
in the spring, an exit is made through this second passage, and the original entrance
blockeil up ; and hence the length of time that a suslik-burrow has been occupied
is indicated by the number of these desex'ted entrances around it. Within the
burrow a large quantity of food, such as roots, seeds, berries, etc., is accumidated
in the summer and autumn for winter use. Susliks will, however, also eat mice
and small birds and their eggs. The young are born in the spring, and usually
comprise from four to eight in a litter. If captured sufficiently young, susliks can
be easily tamed ; and their flesh is much esteemed by the peasants of North-Eastern
Europe and Siberia.

In America all the more northern species pass the colder portion of the year
in a state of hibernation, but in the more southern portion of their range the period

MARMOTS.

of sleep is considerably shortened, "while the species in the extreme south remain
more or less activ’e throughout the winter. The striped gopher seems to be more
decidedly carnivorous in its habits than the common suslik, devouring not only
tield-voles and other mice, but also some of the smaller species of squiiTels, which
cannot even live in a district abounding witli gophers. Dr. Hoy states that, when
a squirx’el is put into the same cage with a striped gopher, the latter “ will in a
moment be all animation and activity, darting at the intruder, inflicting a wound,
and flying back with such rapidity as to leave but little chance of defence. As
soon as it has disabled its antagonist, it seizes it by the back of the neck and
instantly kills it.” The gopher during the combat utters a low snarling growl, and
after tlie death of its victim feasts on the brain and blood. This gopher also
frequently robs hens’ nests, while other species have been detected in carrying off
young chickens and turkeys. More remarkable is the circumstance that Richardson’s
gopher {S. richardsoni) was formerly in the habit of feeding on the flesh of the
innumerable carcases of bison left by the hunters on the pi’airies.

Writing of the habits of Parry’s suslik {8. empetra), from the neighbourhood
of Hudson Bay and Behring Strait, — a species closely allied to Eversmann’s suslik
of Siberia, — Sir J. Richardson observes that “ it is found generally in stony districts,
but seems to delight chiefly in sandy hillocks amongst rocks, where burrows, in-
habited by ditferent individuals, may be often observed crowded together. One of
the society is generally observed sitting erect on the summit of the hillock, whilst
the others are feeding in the neighbourhood. Upon the approach of danger, he
gives the alarm, and they instantly betake themselves to their holes, remaining
chattering, however, at the entrances, until the advance of the enemy obliges them
to retire to the bottom.”

The Prairie-Marmots.

Genus Cynomys.

In addition to being the home of several species of true marmots akin to
those of the Old World, North America also possesses a closely allied, but
somewhat more specialised genus of Rodents, which may be designated prairie-
marmots, although they are often most inappropriate!}'" termed prairie-dogs, while
they are likewise known as barking squirrels. In size these animals hold a
position intermediate between the susliks and the true marmots. They have small
ears, and generally short tails, while their cheek-pouches are much less capacious
than those of the susliks. In their fore-feet the first toe is well developed and
furnished with a claw nearly as large as that of the fifth. The skull is massive,
with the large postorbital processes directed nearly outwards (as shown in the
figui’e on p. 66) ; and the molar teeth are very stout, with thx'ee gx’ooves on their
grinding-surfaces, in place of the two chax'actex’isixig those of the other two genera
of the group. A further peculiarity in connectioxi with the upper molar teeth, is
that the two sexdes, in place of I'unning neax'ly pax-allel, ax-e convex-gent behixid.

There ax-e three species of praix-ie-marmots, two of which ax-e confixied to the
praix’ies of the Rocky Mountain plateau, while the thix-d inhabits Mexico. The
-common praix-ie-marmot {Cynomys ludovicianus) is confined to the dx-ier distx-icts

VOL. II r. — 6

RODENTS.

to the east of the Rocky Mountains, and is entirely an inhabitant of open plains.
The length of the head and body usually vai'ies from Hi to 12^ inches, and that
of the tail, inclusive of the hairs at the tip, from 4 to 5 inches. In colour the
upper-parts are reddish brown varied with grey, and the under parts yellowish or
brownish white, the tail being coloured like the back, but with a brownish black
tip. The Columbian prairie -marmot (C. columhianus) is a smaller species dis-
tinguished by its much shorter tail, which is entirely white, and by the more
yellow tinge of the fur of the body. It occurs in the regions to the west of the
Rocky jMountains, ranging at irregular intervals from Columbia through Colorado

THE I'UAIIUE-MAUMOT (i iiat. size).

and Arizona to the Sierra Nevada, and is a more mountain-dwelling animal than
the preceding, occurring at elevations of as much as ten thousand feet above the
sea. The IMexican prairie-marmot (C. mexicanus) is the largest of the three, and
is distinguished from the common species of the plains by its much longer tail, in
which the black at the tip is darker and extends for a greater distance.

In ffeneral habits the prairie-marmots very closely resemble the
Habits. ® .. ^

true marmots, but it is stated that there is a distinct difference in

this respect between the common and the Columbian species ; the burrows of the

latter being unprotected by a raised funnel-shaped entrance which is so characteristic

of those of the former. The following account of the habits of the Columbian

prairie -marmot is taken from the travels of Lewis and Clark, wlio write that

MARMOTS.

“ tliese animals form large companies, like those on the IMissouri, occupying with
their burrows sometimes two hundred acres of land. The burrows are separate,
and each possesses pei'haps ten or twelve of these inhabitants. There is a little
mound in front of the hole, formed of the earth thrown out of the burrow ; and
frequently there are three or four distinct holes, forming one burrow, with their
entrances around the base of these little mounds. These mounds, sometimes about
two feet in height and four in diameter, are occupied as watch-towers by the
inhabitants of these little communities. The marmots, one or more, are irregularlj-
distributed on the tract they thus occupy, at the distance of ten, twenty, or some-
times from thirty to forty yards. When anyone aj)proaches thej^ make a shrill
whistling sound, somewhat resembling hveet, tweet, tweet, the signal for their
party to take the alarm and to retire into their intrenchments. They feed on
the roots of grass, etc.” In Kansas the common prairie -marmot appears only
to retii’e for a few days at a time during the most inclement portion of the
winter, having been observed in January as active as in summer. Farther to
the north these animals doubtless, however, retire to their burrows for longer
periods.

Some of the burrows of the eastern species are commonly tenanted by a small
kind of owl, while others are occupied by rattlesnakes ; and it is a common popular
error that all these three animals live together in mutual association and harmonj".
This, however, is far from being the true state of the case. The owls, indeed, take
up their abode in some of the deserted burrows, and do no harm to their former
owners, their food consisting mainly of insects and crayfish. On the other hand,
the rattlesnakes resort to the colony for the purpose of feeding upon the young
marmots ; and although they usually dwell in one burrow, from which they have
expelled the rightful occupants, they enter others in search of food.

The True Marmots.

Genus Arctomys.

All who have travelled in the higher Alps or Himalaya, are familiar with the
shrill, piercing, whistle-like screams of the marmots, uttered when they first catch
sight of an intruder on their lonely domains, and preparatory to taking refuge in
the security of their burrows. The true marmots, which are the largest members
of the present group, are distinguished from prairie-marmots by their still stouter
build, the absence of pouches in the cheeks, and the rudimentary condition of the
finst toe of the fore-foot, which has only a flattened nail in lieu of a claw. Their
skulls ai’e, moreover, still broader, with the two rows of upper molar teeth nearly
parallel, and each molar tooth marked only by a pair of transvei'se grooves. The
ears are small, like those of the prairie-marmots ; and the tail is generally shoi’t,
although occasionally equal to half the length of the head and body. In size
marmots vary from about 15 to 25 inches in length, exclusive of the tail; the
measurements of the latter ranging from 3 to about 12 inches. In general appear-
ance, the stoutness of their bodies and the shortne.ss of their limbs are their most
obvious features. The head is wide and short, the small ears are more or less

RODENTS.

rounded, the eyes lai-ge and full, and the tail bushy. Their fur is of moderate
length and rather coarse and stiff ; and their colour is some shade of golden or
reddish brown, shading more or less decidedly into black along the middle line of
the back and on the tail, the tip of the latter being invariably dark.

Marmots inhabit the northern portions of both the Old and New
Distribution. i t ^

World, but in the former have a much more extensive distribution

than either susliks or chipmunks. In the more southern portions of their range
in the Old World, these animals are found only at considerable elevations above
the sea-level, but in more northern districts, like the Siberian steppes, they are
found on the lowland plains. In North America the common marmot, or wood-
chuck, inhabits low elevations in districts where the winter climate is severe ; but
a second species is exclusively a mountain-dweller. None of them are found in
forest districts ; and, whether in the mountains or on the plains, they generally
select open spaces with a sandy soil, and within easy distance of water, for the
construction of their burrows.

Old World In Europe there are two representatives of the genus, of which

Marmots. larger is the Airline marmot (^Arctomys marmotta), now

confined to the three disconnected mountain-ranges of the Pyrenees, Alps, and
Carpathians ; although, as attested by its fossil remains, during the Pleistocene
period, when the climate was different, it was an inhabitant of the lowlands of
Germany and other parts of the Continent. The length of this max’inot is about
20 inches, exclusive of the comparatively short tail.

Tlie bobac {A. hohac), of which a group is represented in our plate, is a smaller
species, measuring only about 15 inches from the nose to the root of the tail, and
with a much wider geographical range. This species has its present westerly
limits on the frontier of Germany, and thence ranges eastwards through Galicia
and Poland, across the steppes of Southern Kussia, and so on to Amurland,
Kamschatka, and Siberia ; the climate of these regions being sufficiently cold to
admit of the existence of marmots at low elevations. In Lapland and Scandinavia,
marmots are quite unknown ; but the southern limits of the bobac do not yet
appear to be ascertained.

Central Asia and the higher ranges of the inner Himalaya are inhabited by
numerous species of marmots, but the genus is quite unknown to the southward of
the latter range. Of these Asiatic species, one of the best known is the short-tailed
Himalayan marmot (A. himalayanus), which is nearly allied to the bobac, but of
somewhat larger size. Its range extends from the mountains of Yarkand and
other parts of Turkestan to Ladak and Eastern Tibet, where it is usually found at
elevations of from twelve thousand to thirteen thousand feet. The largest and
handsomest of the whole Old World group is, however, the long-tailed red marmot
(A. caudatus), in which the length of the head and bodj^- is about 24 inches, and
that of the tail fully half as much. This marmot is readily recognised, not only
by its large size and the great length of the tail, but also by the deep rufous tinge
of the fur, and the large amount of black in the region of the back. This fine
marmot ma}^- be met with on the mountain-ranges to the north of the valley of
Kashmir, and thence to Gilgit in one direction, and parts of Ladak in the other,
while it is also said to extend far into Central Asia. Other kindred but smaller

.«s=a

A COLO>'Y OF BOBAC jrARMOTS.

MARMOTS. 87

species are the Cabul marmot (^4. dichrous) from Nortliern Afghanistan, and the
golden marmot (A. aureus) from the mountains to tlie west of Yarkand.

The districts inhabited by all the marmots of the Old World are desolate and
barren ; being in most cases scorched with fierce heat in summer, while in winter
they are subject to intense cold. In the Himalaya, these animals are not met with
until the traveller has crossed the wooded outer ranges, and entered the bleak
Tibetan districts. The barren nature of the Siberian steppes is too well known to
need more than passing mention. The occurrence of fossil remains of the Alpine
marmot in many parts of Europe, such as Germany, the south of France, Italy
as far south as Mentone, and Belgium, naturally leads to the conclusion that
Western Europe had at one time a more or less steppe-like climate. As milder
and more genial climatic conditions supervened, the Alpine marmot gradually
i-etreated to the nearest mountain-ranges ; and we thus have a complete explanation
of its present isolated distributional areas.

The habits of all the marmots of the Old World appear to be
very similar ; all the species of these animals living in large
companies, and excavating burrows in which they pass the whole of the winter
buried in profound slumber. Indeed, marmots seem to be the most thoroughly
hibernating of mammals, since their sleep is apparently unbroken, and they lay up
no store of winter food. All the species are diurnal in their habits ; and their food
is purely of a vegetable nature, consisting mainly of roots, leaves, and seeds of
various plants. In the Himalaya the burrows are very generally constructed
beneath the shelter of a plant of wild rhubarb ; and the tenants on a fine day take
up their station on the mound at the entrance, or journey for a short distance in
search of food. At the least alarm, they rush at once to the entrance of their
burrow, when they sit up on their hind-quarters to survey the scene and detect the
danger. If the enemy approach too close, the loud whistling scream is uttered, and
the animal dives headlong into its burrow, to reappear after a time and see if the
coast is clear. Both in the Alps and Himalaya marmot-warrens are situated in
exposed situations, generally where there is a considerable open space, and which
in winter ai’e deeply buried in snow. In the case of the Alpine species, the winter-
quarters are made in large burrows, each with a single entrance, and terminating
in an extensive chamber lined with grass ; such chambers, according to Prof.
Blasius, frequently containing as many as from ten to fifteen occupants during the
winter, all lying closely packed together. From two to four young appears to be
the usual number in a litter of the Himalayan species.

The flesh of marmots is said to be of good flavour, and is largely consumed by
the inhabitants of the Siberian steppes, who as soon as the bobac reappears in
.spring, after its winter sleep, organise a regular system of hunting. In shooting
marmots it is essential that they should be killed at the first shot, as the sportsman
is only able to come within range when they are sitting at the mouths of their
burrows, and if only wounded, no matter how severely, they are well-nigh sure
to have sufficient power left to struggle down. Marmots in the Himalaya
will generally reappear after being fired at once, but after a second fright
they are seldom seen again on that day. All the species appear to be readily
tamed.

RODENTS.

American Three well-defined species of max'inot inhabit North America,

Marmots. namely the woodchuck (x4. monax), the Kocky Mountain marmot
{A. flaviventer), and the hoary marmot {A. priiinosus). Of these the last is the
largest, and agrees closely with the Alpine species, though the length of the head
and body is said to reach from 23 to 25 inches. The second does not exceed 18^
inches in length of head and body, but has a much longer tail, of which the length
is from 9 to 10 inches. This species ranges from California through the Rocky
Mountains to about the 49th parallel of latitude ; it appears to be a strictly Alpine
animal, and is to some extent gregarious, like the Old World species.

THE ALEINE MAR.MOT ({ liat. size).

The woodchuck is the smallest of the three species, averaging only 144 inches
in length of head and body, with a tail of nearly half this dimension. It is
generally mixed fxxlvous, brownish black, and grey above, and yellowish or
In’ownish red below ; but some specimens are almost wholly black. The range of
the woodchuck extends from Manitoba to Carolina, and westAvards from the
Atlantic to Missouri and Minnesota.

In habits this species appears to differ considerably from the Old World forms.
According to Dr. Hart Merriam, it delights in the open meadows and rocky hill-
sides in the cultivated area round the Adirondack Mountains, where it feeds
chiefly upon grass and clover. Although generally living in burrows of its own

• J ''

FLYING SQUIRREL

FLYING SQUIRRELS.

excavation, the woodchuck will sometimes take up its abode in rocky ledges or in
the hollow roots of trees. During the summer the greater number of these animals
live in the open fields ; but in the winter it appears that in the Adirondack region
at least they retire for the winter to burrows situated close to, or actually within,
the borders of woods. In the Adirondacks the woodchucks become very fat in the
early autumn, and retire for their winter sleep — no matter what be the temperature
or the state of the weather — about the equinox, fi’om which they do not awake
till the middle or latter part of March. Still more remarkable is the circumstance
that the animal often retires when the weather is genial and food abundant, while
at the time of its reappearance the ground is frequently deep in snow.

“ Woodchucks,” writes Dr. Merriam, “ are both nocturnal and diurnal, the
periods of feeding being determined, in a general way, by the time of the year, the
weather, and the proximity of enemies. In summer, throughout the fanning
districts, they commonly leave their burrows early in the morning, late in the
afternoon, and during moonlight nights ; but may sometimes be found abroad at
all hours. As autumn approaches, and they become more fat and sleepy, they
usually appear only in fine weather, and then but for a few hours in the hottest
part of the afternoon.” Like the Old World species, the woodchuck when much
hunted becomes exceedingly wary and difficult to approach ; but it differs from all
the latter in that it will sometimes ascend trees and shrubs — making these ascents
sometimes for pleasure and at others to avoid foes. Woodchucks live either singly
or in paii'S ; the young, which are born at the end of April or beginning of May in
the Adirondack district, remaining with their parents only a few months. The
number in a litter is usually from four to six. When the j^oung first leave their
parents they take refuge in stone walls, hollow logs, or even hollow trees — habits
quite different from those of their Old World cousins, and showing a marked
approximation towards the chipmunks.

In some parts of New Hampshire woodchucks are so numerous as to cause
serious inconvenience to agriculturists, and rewards have consequently been offered
by the State for their destruction.

Extinct Marmot- Kemains of extinct species of susliks occur in the higher
Uke Rodents. Tertiary rocks of Europe ; in addition to which the Upper Eocene
beds of France yield evidence of an extinct but apparently allied genus, known as
Plesispermojyhilus. More primitive are the forms described as Flesiarctomys,
which, while showing certain resemblances both to the marmots and the squirrels,
have triangular three-cusped upper molar teeth, and no bony process defining the
hinder limit of the upper border of the socket of the eye. These Rodents are
found in the Middle Tertiary deposits both of Europe and North America.

The Flying Squirrels.

Genera Sciuropterus, Pteromys, and Eiipetaurus.

The flying squirrels of the Northern Hemisphere, which are divided into the
three generic groups named above, are sufficiently characterised by possessing a
parachute-like membrane extending from the sides of the bod}'’ to the toes, and

RODENTS.

supported in front by a cartilage attached to the outer side of the wrist. There
is also another membrane connecting the sides of the neck with the fore-limb ; and
there may be likewise one between the hind-legs and the root of the tail. The
molar teeth are of a very complex type, and as their skulls differ considerably
from those of all the preceding genera, the flyii:ig squirrels are now regarded as
indicating a distinct subfamily. Moreover, as the group is known to be of consider-
able antiquity, it is not improbable that it has no generic affinity with any of the
foregoing genera but that it traces its descent to some totally extinct group of
the family. With the exception of one North American species, and a second from
Siberia and Eastern Europe, the flying squirrels are confined to the Indian and
Malayan regions. They are all exclusively nocturnal in their habits, and mainly
inhabit forest regions, although one may frequent rocks alone. Their inode of
flight and general habits appear to be very similar to those of the flying lemur ;
and when leaping from tree to tree they utter sharp piercing cries which are
familiar to all who have travelled in regions where flying squirrels are to be found.

Lesser Flying The lesser flying squirrels, constituting the genus Sciv ropterus,

Squirrels. ^re those which have the lowest crowned molar teeth in the group,
although there is considerable variation in the structure of these teeth. All the
members of the genus are distinguished by the parachute-like membrane along
the sides being of moderate width ; and by the rudimentarj^ condition of the
membrane between the hind-legs, which does not include any portion of the tail.
The fur, as in all other members of the group, is very thick and soft ; but the
tail diflers from that of the other flying squirrels in being broad, and flattened
from above downwards, in order, probably, to act as an aid in flight. In size these
animals vary from 5 to 12 inches in length. The large size of their expressive
eyes, and the beautiful silky softness of their fur, render them exceedingly
attractive creatures. The North American species {S. volucella), which is the
one represented in our illustration, has the fur of an ashy brown above, and
creamy-white below.

Distribution and The lesser flying squirrels include a considerable number of
Habits. species, one of which is an inhabitant of North America, and a second
of Siberia and North-Eastern Europe, while all the others are confined to the
Indian and Malayan regions, extending as far northwards as Afghanistan and
Kashmir. The following notes refer mainly to the habits of the North American
species, of which an excellent account is given by Dr. Hart Merriara. Like ordinary
squirrels, these animals subsist mainly on nuts, seeds, and buds, but the American
species also eats beetles, and probably other insects, and may be taken in traps
baited with meat, while in confinement it will but seldom refuse flesh. The American
flying squirrels construct nests in the hollow ti'ees they haunt, and in the cold
winters of the Adirondack region near New York they retire to these ne,sts, and
probably hibernate. The same habits will doubtless hold good for the species
inhabiting Kashmir and Afghanistan, but those inhabiting India proper and the
warm Malayan region remain active at all seasons. The Kashmir flying squirrel
(S. JimhriatiLs), in some cases at least, produces four young at a birth.

In the daytime these squirrels remain concealed in hollow trees, and only
issue forth at sunset in quest of food. Numbers frequently associate in one tree;

FLYING SQUIRREIN.

Sind if sucli a tree be discovered tlie creatures may be induced to come forth one
after another by tappin^^ the stem. With i-eoard to the Hying leaps of tlie
American Hying stpnrrel, Dr. ]\Ierriam observes that “tlie ease, grace, and rapidity
with which it glides from tree to tree inspires the merest passer-by with wonder
and admiration. Its ordinary mode of progression is by a series of alternate
climbs and leaps. Upon reaching a tree, the Hrst act is to ascend, for, being
unable to sail horizontally, it must attain a considerable elevation before venturing
to leap to the next. Instead of moving oH' in this way when disturbed, it some-
times runs up into the topmost branches of the nearest tree, and, curling itself
into a surprisingly small compass, remains motionless until the intruder has taken
his departure.”

The earlier writers, Audubon and Bachman also describe very grajihically the

AMERICAN IXYING SQUIRREL Hilt. size).

movements of a colony of these animals they once encountered. “ At times, they
write, “ one would be seen darting from the topmost branches of a tall oak, and
with wide extended membranes and outspread tail gliding diagonally through the
air, till it reached the foot of a tree about Hfty yards oH', when at the moment we
expected to see it strike the earth, it suddenly turned upwards and alighted on
the body of the tree. It would then run to the to]) and once more precipitate
itself from the upper branches and sail back again to the tree it had just left.
Crowds of these little creatures joined in these sportive gambols ; there could not
have been less than two hundred. Scores of them would leave each tree at the
same moment, seeming to have no other object in view than to indulge a playful
propensity.” In America the Hying squirrels breed early in April.

The American Hying squirrel, if taken sufficiently young, can be readily ami
speedily tamed, and forms a most charming pet. Indeed, it is said that they
become tame and thoroughly confiding much sooner than any other kind of wild

RODENTS.

creature. When going to sleep, a specimen kept by Prof. F. H. King was in the
habit of first placing its nose upon the table, or other surface upon which it
happened to be standing, and then walking forwards and at the same time rolling
itself up, until the nose almost protruded from between the hind-legs. The tail
was then curved in a horizontal coil around the feet, so that the whole animal
appeared to form a complete ball of soft fur.

One of the smallest representatives of these animals is the pigmy flying
squirrel {8. spadiceiis), from Arakan and Cochin-China, in which the length of
the head and body is only about 5 inches, while the tail is half an inch shorter.
Tliis species is chestnut-red above, with the basal portions of the hairs black, and
white beneath. The polatouche, or Siberian flying squirrel (S. volans) is about
0 inches in length, with the upper-parts of the body in summer tawny brown, and
the under-parts pure white ; the tail being greyish above and rufous beneath.
Extinct representatives of these flying squirrels have recently been recognised
from the middle Tertiary deposits of Europe, and it is probable that the genus is
likewise represented in the corresponding rocks of North America.

Larger Fisong The larger flying squirrels (Pteromys), of which an example is
Squirrels, represented in our coloured Plate, in addition to their superior dimen-
sions, are distinguished from the preceding by the greater relative width of the
flank-membrane, by the presence of a well-developed membrane connecting the
hind-legs and embracing the upper part of the tail, as well as by the perfectly
cylindrical form of the latter appendage. They are further characterised by the
taller crowns and somewhat more complex structure of the molar teeth, which are
nearly similar in all the species.

There are at least ten species of this genus, ranging fi’om India, through
Burma and the Malayan region to the south of China and Formosa, and also
extending northwards into Eastern Tibet. One of the best known species is the
Malayan flying squirrel, or taguan (P. j^etaurista) from the Malay Peninsula and
Islands. Closely allied, is Hodgson’s flying squiiTel (P. magnificus), from the
Ni])al Himalaya and the ranges south of the Assam Valley, at elevations of from
five thousand to six thousand feet. The length of the head and body of this species
is 16 inches, and that of the tail from 18 to 22 inches. Its colour appears to undergo
a seasonal change ; the upper-parts, in what is considered to be the summer-dress,
being of a deep maroon colour, usually with a more or less distinct yellow line down
the middle of the back ; Avhile the sides of the neck and the inner border of the
parachute yellowish, and the rest of the latter reddish or chestnut. On the other
hand, in the presumed winter-coat, the upper-parts are chestnut, without any light
line down the back. The larger forests of peninsular India south of the Ganges, as
well as those of Ceylon, Burma, and Mergui, are tenanted by another very fine
species known as the large brown fljdng squirrel (P. oral), in which the length of
the head and body varies from 16 to 18 inches, and that of the tail from 24 to 25
inches. The general colour is grizzled-brown above, varying from deep chestnut to
grey in one direction, and to black in the other ; the under-parts being white, often
more or less tinged with grey or brown. In the Western Himalaya, at elevations
of from six thousand to ten tliousand feet, and in Kashmir, this species is replaced
by the closely allied large red flying squirrel (P. inornatus), distinguished by its

PIGMY SQUIRRELS.

more rufous pelage. The spotted Hying squirrel {P. 2)iinctatus), rej^resented in
our coloured Plate, is a considerably smaller species from Malacca and Burma, dis-
tinguished by the -white spots on the back.

The habits of all the members of this genus are very similar and closely
resemble those of the lesser Hying squirrels. The large red species probably
hibernates, but most of the others are active throughout the year. The common
brown Indian form inhabits the forest, but in forest-clad districts they may be
found near villages in clumps of mango and other trees. In addition to fruits and
nuts, it is said to eat bark, and also insects and their larvae ; and it drinks by lapping
with the tongue. Its cry is described as a low, soft monotone, quickly repeated.
Mr. Blanford writes that this “ Hying squirrel sleeps during the da}', sitting, like
so many arboreal mammals, with its back bent into a circle and its head thru.st
inside ; or, in hot weather, lying on its back with the parachute extended. It is
not so active as other squirrels, either on trees or on the ground, the parachute
impeding its movements. When passing from one tree to another at a distance, it
leaps, with its parachute extended, from the higher branches, and descends, at first
more directly, then, apparently, by availing itself of the resistance of the air, more
and more obliquely, until its fiight gradually growing slower, becomes horizontal
and finally terminates in an ascent to the trunk or branch of the tree to which its
Hight is directed.” It is stated that these squirrels have been known to traverse
distances of sixty and nearly eighty yards in their fiight from tree to tree. Although
readily tamed, they are very difficult to keep alive in captivity.

WooUy Hying The woolly Hying squirrel {Eupetaurus cinereus) difiers from all
Squirrel. the other members of the family in having markedly high-crowned
teeth, with Hat (instead of ridged) grinding surfaces, and is accordingly referred
to a distinct genus, which must be regarded as the most specialised member of the
gi’oup. This magnificent Hying squirrel inhabits the district of Gilgit, to the north-
west of Kashmir, and is one of the largest species, the length of the head and body
being about 18 inches, and that of the unusually bushy tail about 24 inches. This
species difiers from the members of the preceding genus by its shorter and blunter
claws ; its general colour being dull greyish brown, with a slight greenish tinge
above, and ashy brown below. From the nature of the districts in which it occurs,
and also fi’om the shortness and bluntness of its claws, it is inferred that this
squirrel is in the habit of climbing about on rocks, instead of living on trees. A
magnificent skin of this species was obtained in Kashmir by the present writer
about 1878, but it was not till the arrival in England ten years later of a living
although smaller example of the animal that it was recognised as a distinct species.
It is not improbable that this fine Hying squirrel also occurs in Tibet.

The Pigmy Squirrels.

Genus Nannosciurus.

A small group of tiny squirrels comprising only five species, of which three
are from Borneo, and the fourth is an inhabitant of the Philippines, while the fifth
{Nannosciurus minutus) is West African, are now regarded as constituting not only

RODENTS.

a distinct genus, but likewise a separate subfamily, although they were till recently
included among the true squirrels. Their skulls are remarkable for the elongated
form of the region of the face, while the forehead is much broader than in any
other type ; and the process defining the hinder border of the socket of the eye is
so elongated as to cause the eye to be almost surrounded by bone. In the upper
jaw there may be either one or two pairs of small premolar teeth; and the molars
are much more complex than in any other squirrels, closely approaching those
of the dormice in structure ; the upper molars having only three transverse
plates, instead of the four characterising those of the other members of the
family.

(Jne of the prettiest representatives of the group is Whitehead’s pigmy squirrel
(W. tvhitelteadi), from North Borneo, in which the head and body measure only
about 3| inches in length, and the ears are surmounted by extraordinarily long
tufts of black and white hairs, apparently more elongated than in any other squirrel,
'riiis little animal, which is grizzled olive grey in general colour, may be commonly
seen running up and down the trunks of the forest trees on Mount Kina Balu.

The Sewellels.
Family HafLODONTIDjE.

These North American Rodents differ so remarkably from the other living forms
that they are regarded as constituting a family by themselves, of which the nearest
adinities are supposed to be with the Squirrel family. They differ from all the
members of that family by their extremely flattened and broad skulls, in which
there is no postorbital process defining the hinder part of the upper border of the
socket of the eye. The molar teeth have no roots, and the first pair of premolars
in the upper jaw are exceedingly minute.

Common The common sewellel (Haplodon riifm) is an animal measuring

seweUei. about a foot in length, exclusive of the stump-like tail, which measui'es
little more than an inch. The general colour of the fur is brown, more or less
mingled with black, witli the under-parts greyish ; tlie front teeth being yellow.
The general form of the animal is short and clumsy, with the body relatively large
and cylindrical. Dr. Hart Merriam observes that “ this singular animal, which has
come down to us as a relic of the past, and has no near affinities with any existing
group, inhabits a narrow strip of country on the north-west coast of the United
States. All the specimens thus far obtained have come either from Oregon or
Washington, or from the Chilukweyuk River near its junction with the Fraser,
just across our border in British Columbia.” The animal lives in companies,
constructing burrows in moist ground.

Californian The Californian sewellel (H. onaj or)— the mountain-beaver of

seweUeL inhabitants — is a larger animal, measuring 10 inches in length,

with greyish brown fur above. These Rodents inhabit the Sierra Nevada, and ai’e
largely aquatic in their habits. Mr. C. A. Allen, by whom the species was
discovered, writes that they “ live in small colonies, and inhabit wet ground where
there is plenty of running water. They are very compact and strong, with a head

bi:a vers.

-sviiich resembles that of a pug-do^. They are very shy, timid animals. On first
seeing a human being, they try to hide a^Yay, hut on being aroused are sav’age
enough. . . They come out of their burrows about sundown to get their food, and
again at daylight in the morning.” Mr. Allen pi’oceeds to say that the food of this
sewellel is mainly composed of aquatic plants, especially the stems of a water-lily ;
and he adds that the burrows of these animals are always on the lower part of a
hillside, and frequently have running water passing through them. Their feet are
eminently adapted for grasping, and it is stated that these creatures are in the
constant habit of ascending broken and small trees furnished with branches.
They are generally captured by means of traps set in the watei*.

The Beavers.

Family CasTORIDJE.

From the large relative size of the animals themselves, coupled with their
extraordinary constructive and destructive powers, an amount of interest invai-iably
attaches to beavers which is not vouchsafed to other members of the order to
which they belong. As is so frequently the case in analogous instances, the
constructive abilities and engineering capacities of these animal.s — marvellous
as they undoubtedly are — have, however, been greatly exaggerated in popular
estimation ; and the creatures have been credited with performing ta.sks of which
they are utterly incapable.

Beav’ers, of which there are two species or varieties, — one confined to Xorthern
and Eastern Europe and parts of Western and Xorthern Asia, and the other to
Xorth America, — are the only existing repi’esentatives of the family to vdiich they
belong, and constitute the geiuxs Castor. The family is characterised by the
massive form of the skull, in which there are no postorbital processes defining the
hinder border of the eye-sockets, and the angle of the lower jaw is rounded off.
There is but one pair of premolars in each jaw ; and the cheek-teeth have no roots,
a perfectly flat grinding-surface, and re-entering folds of enamel. The two series
of cheek-teeth converge towards the front of the jaws, and the premolar in each
jaw is larger than either of the molars.

As a genus, beavers are characterised by their stout and heavy bodily
conformation, this being most marked in the hinder quartex’s. The head is large
and rounded, with short ears ; and the tail is of moderate length, much flattened,
and covered with a naked, scaly skin. The limbs are short, with £ve sharp-clawed
toes on both the fore and hind-feet^; all the toes of the hind-feet being connected
by a web extending to the roots of the claws. The portion of the muzzle
suiTounding the nostrils is naked, as are the soles of the feet, while the ears are
scaly. Both the eai*s and the nosti’ils are capable of being closed. The fur is
peculiarly thick and soft, its general colour being reddish brown above, and greyer
beneath. There is, however, some amount of individual variation in this x’espect,
individixals from xxorthex’n X'egions inclining to be dax’ker ixx colox*ation than those
fx’om the southexm distx'icts of the habitat of these axiimals. Occasionally pied or

1 There is an additional claw on the second toe of the hind foot, probably employed in dressing the lur.

RODENTS.

white beavers are met with. Each molar tooth has three folds of enamel on one
side, and one on the other ; the three folds occurring on the outer side in those of
the upper jaw, and on the inner side in the lower teeth. In size, the beaver is the
largest of all the Old World Rodents, its total length being about 40 inches, of
which 10 are taken up by the tail. The weight of the adult animal usually varies
from about 45 to 50 lbs., but may reach as much as 60.

European There has been much discussion as to whether the American

and American beaver {C. canadensis) is entitled to rank as a distinct species, or
Beavers. merely as a well-marked variety of the European Castor fiber ; and
there is still a difference of oj)inion among zoologists on this point. That the two
are very closely allied is admitted on all sides; and, although the matter is not of
very much importance one way or the other, it is, on the whole, convenient to
adopt the view of their specific duality. The main difference between the two
forms is to be found in the characters of the skull ; that of the European beaver
being relatively narrower in front, with the nasal bones extending somewhat

farther back than is the case with its transatlantic cousin. A large series of
specimens show, however, that these characteristics are liable to a certain amount
of variation in the two forms.

Distribution of Owing to iiicessant persecution for the sake of their valuable

the European fur, both the European and the American beaver are doomed to
Beaver. extinction as wild animals at no very distant date ; this fate having
already practically overtaken the European species, which only lingers on here
and there in small numbers. Formerly, beavers were widely spread over
Europe ; and their abundance in the British Isles is attested not only by the
numerous remains found in the fens and cavern-deposits of England, but like-
wise by the number of places, such as Beaverbourne, Beverage, Beaverege,
Bevercater, Beverley, Beverstone, and Beversbrook, which derive their names
from these animals. According to the researches of Mr. J. E. Harting, it does not
appear that there is any historic evidence of the existence of beavers in England ;
but in Wales it is on record that they still lingered in Cardiganshire as late as
the year 1188. That they occun-ed in the south of Scotland is proved by the
occurrence of their remains, but there is no definite historic evidence of their
existence ; while in Ireland we have neither the testimony of their remains nor
of documents.

VOL. III. — 7

Jy'EA VERS.

On tlic Continent beavers were extenninated from Holland in 1825. In
France evidence of the former abnndance of these animals is afforded by their
buried remains, and by the names of places like Bievre and Beuvray. Within the
historic })eriod the Rhine and its tributaries appear to have been their last strong-
holds, although they had become very rare during the last century. Beavers are,
however, still met with in the Rhone and its affluents, where M. Hayet, writing in
1889, estimates that from twenty-five to thirty are annually killed. In the
Pleistocene period the beaver ranged into Italy as far .south as Rome, but there is
no evidence of its existence there since that date. The lake-villafres of Switzerland
afford evidence of the abundance of beavers in that country during the prehistoric
period ; and in the early part of this century they still lingered on in the Rhine,
one having been captured in the year 1829. In North-Western Germany the
Moselle and the Maas were formerly noted for the number of their beavers. The
liippe — one of the tributaries of the Rhine — was likewise a well-known haunt ; and
at Kettlinghausen and Paderborn on that river, there were large colonies of the.se
animals at the beginning of the present century. Again, in the Elbe basin, there
was a considerable colony near Magdeburg in 1829, while at MTttenberg and
Kahnert these animals were abundant in 1801, while no less than eight individuals
were observed in the latter locality .so late as 1878. In Bohemia, the valley of
the IMoldau, forming the upper part of the Elbe basin, abounded in beavers u])
to the year 1848, although this was lai-gely owing to strict protection. (In
the upper Danube and its tributaries there were numerous colonies in the first
half of this centuiy, one of the mo.st noted being on the .small river Amper, to the
north of Munich, which was in a flourishing condition between the years 1837
and 184G. Beavers also existed on the lower Danube in Austria, Hungary, and
Turkey ; and they have been recorded from the uppei- Euphrates Valley and the
Caucasus. On the lower Danube a colony is preserved by the Emperor of
Austria.

From the Caucasus the range of the beaver extended through Russia, Poland,
and Livonia, to Lapland and Scandinavia. Beavex’s wei'e abundant in the Tei’eck
Valley to the noi'th of the Caucasus in 1842 ; and in Livonia they wei’e .so common
in 1724, that their dams wei’e a serious inconvenience to the district. The la.st
Livonian beaver was, however, killed in 1841 ; but a few wei’e still living in the
Dnieper and the Svislocz (Government of Minsk) in 1889. The Russian rivers
Dwina and Petchora, respectively flowing into the White Sea and Arctic Ocean,
were inhabited by beavers till 1842. Through Silesia it is believed that the.se
animals extended as far east as Amurland ; but in the valley of the Obi they are
now extinct in the Irtish, although still lingering in the Pelyin ; and they have
(juite disappeared from the Yenesei in Eastern Silesia. In Poland and Lithuania
a few may still survive; but the last Lapland beaver was killed about 1830. In
Scandinavia three considerable colonies still exist near Arendal in Norway, the
number of individuals livdng in 1883 being about one hundred ; these colonies are
.strictly pre.served. In Denmark we only know of the existence of the beaver by
the evidence of its remains buried in the peat-mosses. It may be added that in
1874 the Marijuis of Bute introduced beavers into the island from which he takes
his title, where they have since thriven.

lOO

RODENTS.

Distribution of time of the discovery of America, the beaver of that

the American continent had a wider distribution than any other mammal except
Beaver. puma. Its range extended from Alaska and the Hudson’s Bay

tlistrict in the north, along the Atlantic seaboard as far south as Georgia and
Northern Florida, and thence along the Gulf of Mexico as far as the Rio Grande in
Texas, and also some distance into Mexico ; while on the Pacific Coast it extended
to California and Arizona. The desert and the prairie districts of the interior, as
being unsuitable to its habits, were, however, of course, not tenanted by the beaver,
whicli was necessarily confined to the valleys of the great livers and lakes.
Writing in 1877, Mr. C. A. Allen observes that “ its present range, however, is
much more restricted, very few being found east of the Mississippi River south of
the great lakes, and it is everywhere less numerous than formerly. Some still
remain in northern Maine and in the Adirondack region of New York, and
probably some still survive thence southwards in the sparsely-settled districts to
Alabama and Mississippi. A recent article states that they are still abundant in
portions of Virginia. Their existence is in great abundance throughout the
Atlantic States, and thence westward to the Pacific.” Since the date when this
passage was penned, the extermination of the beaver appears to have gone on apace ;
and Mr. H. T. Martin, writing in 1892, says that only a few colonies now linger in
the United States, especially on the slopes of the Rocky Mountains, while in Canada
the numbers of the animal are vastly diminished. “ Along the watershed, between
the Hudson’s Bay rivers and the St. Lawrence, in the upper waters of the Frazer
and Peace Rivers, and along the Rocky Mountain Range, may be considered the last
homes of the beaver.” Mr. Martin adds that “ as to the ultimate destruction of
the beaver no possible question can arise, and the evidences of approaching exter-
mination can be seen only too in the miles of territory exhibiting the

decayed stump, the broken dam, and deserted lodge. The passing bear or wolverene
tears open the lodge, partly in the vain hope of finding a meal ; partly from habit ;
the rising waters float the logs away, while the drifting ice in fall and spring
gradually destroys the dam, till within a decade, where once the busy colonj^ spent
their happy domestic lives, no sign remains of all their wondrous toil.”

Beavers are mainly nocturnal, and almost exclusively aquatic
animals ; although it is stated that during the summer they will
sometimes make journeys of considerable length on land, when they subsist upon
fruit and corn, instead of their usual diet of bark and twigs. They are likewise
essentially social creatures, usually associating in larger or smaller colonies ;
although the few still remaining in the rivers of the Old World are — owing to the
lack of companions — for the most part either solitary or in pairs. Needless to say,
these animals are expert divers and swimmers ; their movements in the water being
graceful in the extreme, and effected almost entirely by the aid of their powerful and
webbed hind-limbs. In addition to bark and twigs, they comsume large quantities of
the roots and stems of water-lilies and other aquatic plants. The young, usually from
tliree to four in a litter, are produced at the close of the winter or early in the
spring, in the shelter of the buiTow or lodge, but it is not yet ascei’tained
whether they are born with their eyes open or closed. Beavers do not hibernate,
in the strict sense of the term, although during the depth of the winter they sleep

Habitat.

BE A VERS.

lOI

longer, and move about miicli less than at other times. In the winter, in America
at all events, they swim about beneatli the ice, dragging up water-lily roots for
food and feasting upon the stox’e of branches they have accumulated in the deep
pools during the winter ; and it is for the purpose of securing a sufficient depth of
water in which to swim beneath the ice that they construct their well-known
dams. ]\[ost of the beavers still remaining in the rivers of the Old World live in
burrows in the banks, without constructing either dams or lodges. The colony
near Magdeburg, alluded to above, are known, however, to have undertaken both
these engineering works; and it is hence probable that European beavers were
originally similar as regards their habits to their American cousins, but that
through their reduced numbers and the constant jxersecution which they have
undergone, the building propensity has been lost.

In America beavers generally select as their haunts a well-timbered district
traversed by a narrow stream ; and by felling the trees on the banks, and forming
with the aid of their trunks and boughs a dam and lodges across the stream, the
water is headed back so as to form a large lake or pool. In some cases a series of
such dams and pools may be seen one above another in the coui’se of the sti'eam.
It is believed that the original object of tree-felling is to obtain a supply of food
for winter ; and that the employment of the peeled trunks and branches for the
construction of the dam and lodges is a secondary development. The beaver
fells the trees it requii'es by gnawing through their stems with its sharp front
teeth at a short distance above the ground ; the stem being generally gnawed
nearly equally all round till the tree falls with its own weight. As trees on a river
bank generally incline towards the water, they usually fall in the required direction.
Sometimes, however, the animals miscalculate, and trees which they have felled
may be seen caught in the forks of neighbouring stems. The trees selected for
felling are msually from five to eight or nine inches in diameter, but occasionally
trunks of as much as eighteen across are successfully attacked. The beaver
goes to work in a thoroughly scientific manner, gnawing out very large chips,
which are sometimes as much as nine inches in length. When the trees are felled,
they are stripped of their boughs, and the trunks cut into lengths of five or six feet,
which, after being barked, are rolled into the stream or pond, and employed in the
consti’uction of the dam and lodges.

The term “ lodge,” it may be explained, is applied in America to the abodes
constructed by these animals in the water of their ponds. It is now generally
accepted that the lodge is nothing more than an extreme development of the burrows
or “wash” in the banks. On this subject ]\Ir. Martin writes as follows: “Starting
with the simple burrow, the next step is the accumulation of logs and branches
about its entrance, foianing what is called a ‘ bank-lodge.’ In places where the
water is shallow towards the shore, a great advantage woxild be derived from ex-
tending this artificial covering of brushwood, so that in time a natural evolution
of the lodge disconnected entirely from the shore would take place, and form an
independent and very convenient refuge from landward enemies.” The lodge con-
tains a large internal chamber, lined with grass, and is entered b}' several
approaches beneath the surface of the water. The construction of the lodge is,
howevei', of a much less elaborate nature than has often been stated to be the case.

102

RODENTS.

On this point IVIr. Martin writes that “ the beaver-lodge is generally included in the
list of inarvxds reserved for the investigation of those who visit beaver-districts, and
yet no greater disapj)oiutinent awaits the inquirer than tlie first inspection of one.
Somehow the minds of all lovers of natural history become affected by the fabulous
accounts concerning this structure, and it is a shock to stand for the first time
befoi-e a pile of twigs, branches, and logs, heaped in disorder upon a small dome of
mud, and to learn that this constitutes the famous lodge. Of course the superficial
glance does not convey all that can be learnt in connection with this work, but it
does most completely disillusionise the mind. On breaking through the upper
walls, the interior is found to be similar to the general type of an animal’s sleeping
apartment, and has scarcely any distinguishing characteristic.”

Both dams and lodges are made moi'e or less impervious to water by the
addition of a quantity of mud, which is plastered on by the beavers with the aid of
the fore-feet, and not, as is often supposed, with the assistance of the tail ; the latter
organ acting only as a rudder in swimming. The length of a beaver-dam maj'
occasionally be as much as one hundred and fifty or two hundred yards, and their
ponds may cover many acres. Frequently a formation of peat commences round
the edges of the ponds, and this may extend over the whole area, converting it into
a swampy tract known as a beaver-meadow. A considerable part of the city of
Montreal is built upon such beaver-meadows.

In summer beavers generally forsake the neighbourhood of their lodges to
travel up or down the stream ; occasionally, as already mentioned, taking consider-
able journeys on land. With the advent of early autiimn they return to their
winter-(piarters, and at once set aboi;t the necessary repairs to the dam and lodges,
and the collection of a supply of food for the winter.

Commercial Uses The beaver is hunted in North America not onl}’ for its valuable
and Hunting, likewise for the substance known as castoreum, which is

contained in two elongated glands at the hinder part of the body ; while its flesh is
also used as an article of food. Castoreum is a waxy substance with a peculiar
smell, and is used in medicine, although chiefly on the Continent. It sells, accord-
ing to Mr. Poland, from thirty-eight to forty-five shillings per lb., and no less
than 148G lbs. of this substance were sold in London alone in the j'ear 1891.
Formerly the great demand for beaver-fur was for the manufacture of hats,
l)ut since the supersession of silk for beaver-hair in this manufacture, the fur
has been used for more ordinary purposes. Mr. Poland states that the number of
beaver-skins .sold by the Hud-son’s Bay Company in 1891 was G3,419, while in the
year 1743 iipwards of 127,080 were imported into Rochelle alone. The price,
according to the same writer, varies from 5s. 3d. to G.s. 9d. per skin. The incisor teeth
of the l)eaver were used by the Noi’th American Indians, and also b}^ some of the
ancient inhabitants of the Old World, as cutting insti’uments, the bases being fixed
into a wooden handle with the aid of twine or thongs.

Before the advance of civili.sation a large number of beavers were killed in
America by the native Indians for the sake of their skins and flesh, but the
slaughter was not such as to have any marked efl’ect on their numbers. Some
appear to have been taken in wooden traps, but the favourite method was to attack
a lodge in the months of January and February. A party of Indians — male and

BE A FEES.

103

female — would on such occasions proceed to a beaver-colony, and, after cutting a
series of holes in the ice around eacli lodge, in which nets were placed, the lodges
themselves were dug open. Some of the animals would be killed in their sleeping-
places, others wei'c caught in the nets, while otliers were hunted by the dogs
accompanying the party to their burrows, where they were dug out. Some
individuals were, however, always allowed to escape, in order to re-populate the
colony. With the increasing demand for skins as the country was opened up by
Kuropeans, the Indians resorted to more effectual modes of capture, the rivers and
ponds being .staked acro.ss at the commencement of a raid, in a imuuier which
prevented the escape of a single member of the colony. Subse(piently steel traps
were introduced, but, from the natiare of the beaver’s food, it was long before an
attractive bait could l)e discovered. At length it was found that castoreum itself
was a deadly lure, and from that date the traps have always been baited with some
preparation of that drug. So attractive is castoreum to the animals by which it is
produced, that a beaver which swam away with a trap attached to one leg has
been known to be caught in another trap on the following day ; and there is an
instance recorded where one of these animals, after having gnawed off a leg in
order to e.scape, again suffered itself to be ensnared.

The great natural enemy of the beaver is the glutton, or wolverene, whose
common Canadian name of carcajou is a corru})tion of the Indian word
(juickwahuy, said to mean “ beaver-eater.'’ The glutton either digs the beavers
out of their lodges, or catches them by lying in wait in the woods.

T1 le Hudson’s Bay Compaii}" have wisely a.ssigned certain islands in their
territory as beaver-preserves, where a certain number of the animals are killed
eveiy third year only. It has been proposed to e.stablish “ beaver- ranches ” in
America, but, as Mr. Martin points oiit, the attempts hitherto made to domesticate
the.se animals <lo not hold out much encouragement as to the success of the project.
It is true that beavers live and become fairly tame in menageries (where, from
their nocturnal habits, they are but rarely seen ), but they rapidly deteriorate, losing
the brilliant gloss of their coats, and acquiring dull, listless habits.

’file European beaver makes its first appearance in the “ foi’est-

Bps-Vprs ^ •

bi-d” of the Norfolk coast, belonging to the lower part of the Pleistocene
period. Here it was accompanied by the giant extinct beaver {'TrogontheruLm),
distinguished not only by its superior size, but by differences in the structure of
the skull ancl teeth. Its range extended to Siberia. Beavers belonging to the
living genus occur in the Pliocene strata of Europe ami the Pliocene of North
America. The earliest European beaver is the Fhalicomys, which is found in the
Miocene beds of the Continent, and was of considerably smaller .size than the living
forms, while it differed from all living Rodents in having a perforation at tlie
lower end of the upper arm-bone or humerus.

CHAPTER XXXIL

Rodents, — continued.

The Mouse-Like Rodents.

Families Myoxid^, Murid SPALACiDyE, 'eic.

The Rodents treated of in the present chapter comprise several families more or
less closely related to the rats and mice, and hence collectively termed the mouse-
like group. They differ from the squirrel-like Rodents described in the preceding
chapter in the following points. In the first place, as shown in the accompanying

figure of the skeleton of the dormouse,
the two bones of the lower leg (tibia and
fibula) are united at their extremities.
Secondly, in the slender zygomatic or
cheek-arch of the skull, the cheek-bone
(jugal) seldom extends far forwards, and
is usually supporttal from below by a long
process from the upper jawbone (maxilla).
None of them have any jiostorbital
processes in the skull marking the hinder
boundary of the upper part of the eye-
sockets, and in no case is there more than a single pair of premolar teeth in each
jaw, while frequently even these may be wanting in either one or both jaws.

The Dormice.

Family MyoXID.E.

The elegant little creatures known as dormice, or sleepers, so closely resemble
<liminutive scpxirrels in form and habits, that they are commonly regarded as closely
allied to that grouji. Appai’ently, howevex’, these external resemblances are .solely
due to adaptation to a similar mode of life, the relationship of the dormice to the
true mice being much closer than it is to the squirrels.

The dormice are confined to Europe, Asia (exclusive of the Indian and Malayan
regions), and Africa, and are all of small size and arboreal habits. They are
characterised by their large ears and eyes, and long, thickly-haired tails, the fore-
limbs being short in proportion to the hinder one.s. There is a pair of premolar
teeth in both jaws, so that the total number of cheek-teeth on each side is four;

SKEI.ETON AND .MOLARS OF COMMON DORMOUSE.

DORMICE.

105

<111(1 these teeth aie furnished with distinct roots, and liave tlieir crowns marked
witli transverse folds of enamel. The claws on the feet are short, and the first toe
in the fore-foot is rudimentaiy.

The Common Dormouse.
Genus M iiscardinm.

The common dormouse (^Jluscavdiiius dvcllcmuv ills') is the sole representative
of the group inhabiting the British Isles, and is the type of a distinct genus. This

THE COMMON DORMOUSE (f liat. size).

tiny little animal, which is about equal in size to the common mouse, is so familiar
to most persons from being commonly kept as a pet by children, that any descilp-
tion seems almost superfluous. It is, however, particularly characterised by the
cylindi'ical form of the long and somewhat bushy tail ; Avhile internally it is
distinguished from all its kindred by the complex structure of the anterior portion
of its stomach. Its cheek-teeth have flattened grinding surfaces, witli the folds of
enamel arranged in a complex manner.

This dormouse has a rather large head, and a thick, comp<act bodj’ ; the muzzle
is somewhat pointed, and the ears are about a third the length of the head. The
most striking feature of the animal is, however, the larg(' size and prominence of

io6

RODENTS.

Distribution.

Habits.

the full black eyes, which stand out in marked prominence to the tawny hue of
the coat. In the adult the fur of the upper-parts is of a light reddish tawny colour,
while below it is paler and yellower ; the throat and upper part of the chest being
marked by a white patch. In the young the colour is, however, at first of mouse-
grey, the reddish tinge of the adult appearing first on the head and flanks, and
thence spreading over the body. The length of the head and body is 3 inches, and
that of the tail about half an inch less.

The common dormouse appears to be confined to Europe, ranging
from Sweden and Britain in the north to Northern Italy in the
south, and extending eastwards as far as the north of Turkey, Galicia, Hungaiy,
and Transylvania. Although generally more common in the southern than in the
northern districts of its habitat, it is reported to be less abundant in the south
of France than either of the other two species inhabiting Europe.

In its arboreal mode of life, and the manner in which it holds its
food between its fore-paws when eating, as well as in the nature of
its food, there is much to remind us in the common dormouse (and likewise its
allies) of the squirrel. Whei’eas, however, squirrels are mainly diurnal, dormice
are exclusively nocturnal, remaining curled up during the day in their nests, or in
some hole, asleep, and only issuing forth in search of food vdth the falling shades
of evening. The dormouse is usually to be found in dense thickets and coppices,
or in hedgei-ows ; making its nest generally among the underwood, although some-
times beneath a protecting tussock of grass in the open field. The winter-nest is a
globular structure composed of twigs, leaves, moss, and grass ; and is built in the
autumn, and stored with a small supply of food for winter use. Occasionally small
colonies of either the breeding or the winter-nests niay be placed in the same
thicket; Yarrell having observed as many as ten or twelve together. After
feasting on the abundant nuts and mast of autumn, the dormouse accumulates
a large amount of fat, and with the approach of winter retires to its nest for the
period of hibernation. A warm day in winter serves, however, to arouse the little
creature from its slundDcrs, when it will consume some of its store of food. The
chief food of the dormouse consists of hazel-nuts, acorns, beech-mast, corn, and
haws, and other wild berries. It is reported to extract the kernels from hazel-nuts
without removing them from their stems ; and in climbing from branch to branch
in search of food it exhibits marvellous agility. Bell observes that “ both fore
and hind-feet are well padded internally with fleshy, broadish tubercles, thus
converting them into hands, in the use of which the creature, when creeping
about in a bush of whitethorn, as we have seen it, exhibits an adroitness
which is quite unequalled by the little agile harvest-mouse, and scarcely surpassed
by the squirrel.”

The (hiration of the winter sleep is generally from five to six months, dor-
mice generally retiring about the middle of October, and not resuming activity
before the end of March or April, by which time they have completely lost all
traces of the fat accinnulated in autumn. The young do not generally commence
their hibernation so early in the autumn as the adults. In England the young of
this species are generally born in the spring, although there is evidence that in
some cases they may lie produced as late as September; thus indicating the prob-

DORMICE.

107

ability of tlieir beiii^- two litters in a year. Brehiii, liowevcr, states that on tlie
Continent tlie young are not boi-n till August. The young are born blind and
naked; the \isual number in a litter being three or four. They are produced in
a nest very similar to the one used for the winter sleep, which is always placed at
a height of a yard or so above the ground. In Germany this species is known as
the hazel-mouse {haselriiam).

The Squihhee-T.\iled and Gahden Dormice.

Genus j\Iyoxufi.

By mail}’ zoologists the two larger species of European dormice are each
referred to distinct genera, while certain African representatives of the group
constitute another pair of generic groups. Although clearly entitled to be sej^arated

THE SCJUIUUEI.-TAII.EU DORMOUSE AND GAHDEN DORMOUSE (^liat. .size).

generically from the common dormouse, all these species are, however, .so intimately
allied, that it seems preferable to include the whole of them in the .single genus
Myoxas, di.stinguished from Muscardinus by the .simple sti-ucture of the stomach.

Squirrel Tailed Of the European species the largest is the squiri’el-tailed dor-
Dormouse. mouse (M. f/Us), — the siehen.Hchlafer of the Germans and the loit' of
the French, — easily recognised by its thick, bushy tail (as shown in the left-hand
figure of our illustration), in which the hairs are arranged in two rows. This
species is further characterised b}' the large size of its cheek-teeth, in Avhich the
grinding surfaces of the crowns are tlat, and the foldings of the enamel complex.
The length of the head and body is a little over 0, and that of the tail rather le.ss
than 5, inches. The thick and .soft fur is of an a.shy-grey colour, more or less
shaded with dai-k brown above, while on the under-parts and the inner sides of

io8

RODENTS.

the limbs it is silveiy-white ; near the junction of the dark upper-parts with the
white of the under surface the colour becomes greyish brown. The eyes are
surrounded by dark rings, and the tip of the snout, as well as part of the throat,
are white. The ears are moderate size, and rounded.

This species is found in Southern and Eastern Europe, extending from Spain,
Greece, and Italy, through South and Central Germany to Austria, Syria, and the
south of Russia ; it is unknown in Denmark and Scandinavia.

In general habits this species closely resembles the common dormouse, but it
genei’ally lies concealed during the day in the hollow of a tree, the cleft of a rock,
or the burrow of another rodent ; and its breeding-nest is invariably concealed in
some such situation, and is never built among the boughs of bushes like that of
the English dormouse. In autumn it becomes still fatter than the latter ; and in
this state it was much esteemed as a delicacy by the ancient Romans. The period
of hibernation, according to Brehm, generally endures for upwards of seven months ;
these animals rarely coming forth before the latter part of April. The young,
which are sometimes born in the deserted nest of a starling, are usually from three
to six in number ; and although blind, naked, and helpless at birth, are remarkable
for the rapidity with which they come to maturity. In addition to various nuts
and berries, this dormouse consumes fruit, and is also said to devour small birds
and other animals. In its turn, it is preyed upon by martens, polecats, stoats, and
wild cats. Like the common species, the squirrel-tailed dormouse is easily
domesticated ; and during its period of activity forms an attractive little pet.

The Tree- In Southern Russia, Hungary, lower Austria, and Siberia there

Dormouse, second species of dormouse (2L dryas), nearly allied to the

last, but of considerable smaller size, although larger than the garden dormouse.
It is generally reddish brown above and white beneath (including the lower sui'face
of the tail) ; and is easily recognised by the black line extending from near the
nose through the eye to the root of the ear. The painted dormouse (d/. pictus),
of Eastern Pei’sia, is a brighter coloured form closely allied to the above.

The Garden The garden dormouse (it/, nitela), which is represented on the

Dormouse, i-ight, hand of the illustration on p. 107, is the European repre-
sentative of a group of several species ; distinguished from the preceding by the
thinner and tufted tail, the larger and more pointed ears, and the characters of
the cheek-teeth. These teeth are relatively small, and have their grinding
surfaces concave, with the foldings of enamel very faintly marked. The group is
represented in Africa as well as in Southern Europe.

The garden dormouse was known to the ancient Romans as the nitela, and on
the Continent at the present day is termed in France the lerot, and in Germany
the gartenschldfer. It is smaller than the squirrel-tailed dormouse, although
larger than the common species, the length of the head and body being at the most
5^ inches, while the tail measures about 3|- inches. The head and upper-j)arts are
greyish brown, with a more less marked rufous tinge, and the under-parts pure
white. A black ring encircles the eye, and thence extends backwards as a streak
beneath the ear to the neck ; Avhile there are dark and light spots behind and in
front of the ears. The tail is greyish brown at the base, but at the end black above
and white below.

JUMPING MICE AND JERBOAS.

109

SKELETON 01' GARDEN DORMOUSE.

The garden dormouse takes its name from bein^ commonly found in the
gardens and orchards of the warmer parts of the Continent, wliere it does much
damage to the choicei kinds of fiuit. It is found in Central and Western Europe,
including France, Belgium,

Switzerland, Italy, Germany,

Hungary, Galicia, and the Baltic
provinces of Russia ; and is
stated to be specially common
in the Hartz Mountains. There
is nothing calling for par-
ticular remark in the habits
of this species, except that it is
stated to be more carnivorous
in its tastes than any of its
European kindred. The young may be produced in a deserted thrush’s nest, or in
some hole in a tree, or in a freely suspended nest ; and it is characteristic of this
species that whenever it builds a nest this is always placed between small boughs
and never concealed.

Omitting mention of the other species allied to the garden

dormouse, it maj" be observed that there is a third group of the

genus confined to Africa, the members of which are characterised by the hair being
arranged uniformly on the tail, instead of in two longitudinal rows ; the whole tail
being relatively shorter than in the other groups, with a well-marked tuft at the

tip. These African dormice are further characterised by the very small size of

their cheek-teeth, in which the foldings of enamel are nearl}' obsolete.

Remains of dormice are found not uncommonly in the Tertiary
Extinct Dormice. c 1 1

strata of Europe, as far down as the upper portion of the Eocene

period ; most of the species agreeing approximately in size with some of the living

forms. The extinct giant dormouse from the rock fissures and cavern deposits of

Malta was, however, far larger than any existing species, and more nearlj^ resembled

a guinea-pig; this association of giant dormice with pigmy elephants in Malta

being not a little remarkable.

other Species.

Jumping Mice, Jerboas, etc.

Family Dipodidas.

The Rodents included in this family are all purely terrestrial, and for the
most part characterised by the gi’eat length of their hind-limbs as compared with
the fi’ont pair, and their long and generally hairy tails ; their general appearance
and mode of progression thus being markedly kangaroo-like. They have very
fi'equently four upper cheek-teeth ; and in all cases the incisor teeth are narrow,
and the molars marked by transverse enamel-folds. The skull, as shown in the
accompanjdng figure of the skeleton of the jerboa, is characterised by the shortness
of the brain-case, and the very large size of the apertures in front of the eye-
sockets for the passage of the nerves supplying the face. There are also other

I lO

RODENTS.

distinctive features in the skull, more especially in the large size of the hinder
part of the auditory bulla, into which it would be out of place to enter here.

The jerboas and their allies are mainly Asiatic
and African forms, although there is one outlying
species in North America, and a few range into
Southern Europe. Most of the jumping kinds are
inhabitants of open and dry districts, such as grassy
steppes or sandy deserts ; and approximate in colora-
tion very closely to that of the ground on which
they dwell. They form burrows in clayey or sandy
soil, which are generally situated in the open plains,
but sometimes among thicker or thinner bush-jungle.
In habits they are mostly nocturnal, lying concealed
in their burrows by day, and issuing forth to feed
at night. Their nutriment consists of roots, berries,
seeds, fruits, leaves, grass, and other herbage ; but a
few will also eat insects, small birds, and carrion.
In feeding they sit in a half-erect posture upon their
hind-quarters and tail, and convey the food to their
mouth with the aid of their paws. Their move-

ments are peculiar ; the body being supported on
the hind-limbs alone, perhaps aided, however, at times
by the tail. In walking, the legs are moved alternately
in the ordinary manner ; in which I’espect these animals
differ from kangaroos, which always hop. Progression
at a more rapid rate is, however, always effected by a
series of leaps from the hind-legs ; the length of such
leaps being generally very great in proportion to the
size of the animal. Like all desert-haiinting animals,
the jerboas are extremely quick of hearing and long-
sighted. Although generally silent, many of these
animals have a kind of whining cry, which has been
coirqDared to that of a kitten. In the colder districts
of their habitat, the species hibernate more or less completely; but they never
lay up a store of provisions for winter use.

The family may be divided into four main groups or subfamilies.

SKELETON OK JERBOA.

The Jumping Mouse.

Genus Zapus.

The so-called jumping mouse of North America {Zapus hudsonianus) is the
typical representative of the first group of the family. It is characterised by the
presence of four pairs of rooted cheek-teeth in each jaw, by the vertebrie of
the neck being entirely separate from each other, and by the long hind-limbs
being furnished with five complete toes, of which the metatarsal bones are

JUMPING MICE AND JERBOAS.

1 1 1

separate. In the fore-liiubs the tirst toe i.s nidimental, and furnished with a Hat
nail. Well-developed cheek-])ouches are present.

In general appearance this animal resembles a mouse witli elongatetl hind-
limbs and a very long tail ; the degree of elongation of the hind-legs not being so
great as in some other members of the family. The length of tlie head and body
is a little more than 3 inches, and that of the tail about 5 inches, although there
i.s a considerable amount of individual variation in the relative proportions of the
latter. In the summer-coat the fur is brown above, yellowish on the Hanks, and
white below ; but in the winter it is uniformly brown. The moderate-sized ears
are black with light-coloured edges, and the long and nearly naked tail is tipped
with a pencil of hairs.

Distribution and The geogx'aphical range of the jumping mouse is vexy lax'ge,
Habits. extexxding from the cold regions of the Great Slave Lake aixd
Hudson’s Bxiy to Arizona axxd Mexico ; although in the latter districts it appeax-s
to be restx-icted to the xnoxxxxtaiixs. Iix British North Axixerica and the xxox-thei’xx
Uxxited States it ranges fx’oin the Atlaxxtic to the PaciHc coasts.

This species differs froxix xnost of its allies ixx xxot beixxg strictly xxoctxxrxxal,
genex’ally venturing forth early iix the evexxixxg, axxd xxot xxxxfx-equently beixxg abroad
dux’ing the dxiy. It likewise frequexits xxiox’e wooded axxd daxxiper situations. The
following excellent accounts of its habits was coxnxnxxxiicated to Dr. Hart Merriam
by Mx’. E. Slade, who observes that, “ the loxig-tailed Jxxxnping xnouse inhabits high
laxxd or low laxxd, forest or pastxxre, cultivated field or swamp, and appears to be
equally at hoxne in either, and not xxxxxixex’ous ixx axxy situatioix. It possesses a
momentary agility secoxxd to xio other rodeixt, axxd a xmiscular strexigth of
eixox’mous power for so small a cx'eature. When sxiddenly distxxx’bed, it oftexx
xnoves away ixx a dix’ect lixxe, the Hrst three or four leaps being 8 or 10 feet ixx
leixgth, but these distances x’apidly declixxe to about 4 feet. This is xxot always
the case, howevex’, for it fx'equently takes axi ix-regular coux’se and juxxxps at divex's
angles for several successive leaps, keepixxg the same gexxeral direction, or changixxg
at will. It can double, and quickly too, if pux'sued, axxd by its nxaixoexxvi-es axxd
instantaneous squattiixgs can elude a hawk or axx owl, axxd its spoixtaneoxxs ixTegu-
lax’ities enable it to escape beixxg bx’aixxed by a weasel, or swallowed whole by the
coixxmon black sixake. It feeds xxpoxx the bxxds, leaves, axxd twigs of xnany kixxds
of plaxxts; upoxx seeds, gx’aixi, wild berxaes, chestxxuts, xxcorixs, gx-ass, axxd to some
extexxt upoxx the bark of shx'ubs. As a x-ule, three litters are prodxxced in a seasoix,
each consistiixg of from two to foxxr yoixxig.” Ixx leapixxg, the sxxccessive sprixxgs
ai'e made with such x-apidity that the feet of the animal seexix scax’cely to touch
the ground. The nest is placed ixx a variety of sitxxatioxxs, sonxetiiixes ixx the
hollow stump of a tx’ee, mox’e frequexitly xxxxder logs of tixnber, often iix clefts of
rocks, and occasionally a short distaxxce froixi below the surface of the gx’ound ixx
an opeix field.

The juixxping ixxouse hibex’nxites dxxx’ing the wixxter ixx a hole deep dowxx ixx the
gxound; but the length of the sleep appears to depexxd upoxx the latitude of
the locality and the texxxpex-atux’e of the seasoxi. In mild wixxtex’s the hibexaxxxtioxx
is often interrupted for loxxger or shox'ter periods. The xxxxdergx*ouxxd xxest is
carefully made of grass, ixx which the little axxixxxal lies tightly cux'led up, with

1 12

RODENTS.

the nose closely presseil to the belly, and the long tail cui’led round the body,
which assumes an almost ball-like form. So deep are the slumbers of these
animals, that they may be handled for a long time without evincing the slightest
signs of life. The young of the various litters are to be met with from May
till August. Fossil remains of the jumping mouse occur in the Pleistocene deposits
of the United States.

The Five-Toed Jerboas.

Genus Alactaga, etc.

The jerboas, of which there are several genera, may be divided into two
groups, according to the presence of five or three toes on the hind-feet, and
constitute the second subfamily. The whole subfamily is characterised by the
cheek-teeth, of which there may be either three or four pairs, having distinct roots ;
by the vertebrie of the neck being more or less completely united together ; and
by the long metatarsal bones of the hind-limbs being joined together so as to form
a cannon-bone, as shown in the figure on p. 110. In all cases only the three
middle toes of the hind-feet are of any functional importance ; the lateral digits,
when present, being small and not reaching the ground.

The Kirghiz The kirghiz jerboa, or alagdaga {Alactaga decmnana), is the

Jerboa. known representative of the genus to which it belongs, and is

one of the most characteristic mammals of the steppes of Central Asia. The genus
Alactaga, in addition to the presence of five toes on the hind-feet, is characterised
by its long and tufted tail and large ears ; there are a pair of premolar teeth in the
upper, but none in the lower jaw, and the incisor teeth are not grooved.

Tlie alagdaga (as the animal is designated by the Mongols) is one of the
largest members of the group, the length of the head and body being about
7 inches, and that of the tail considerably more. The general colour of the fur is
reddish yellow, with a tinge of gvey on the upper-parts ; while below, as well as
on the inner sides and lower parts of the hind-legs, it is white ; a white patch also
occurring on the outer sides of the thigh.s. The tail is brown, with a black-and-
white tip.

The range of this jerboa includes the whole of the steppe
districts of Central Asia, and also extends into Persia as far as
Bushire, and into South-Eastern Europe as far as the Crimea and the region of the
Don. During the Pleistocene period this jerboa inhabited parts of Germany.

The alagdaga is a social animal, dwelling in small companies, and
also selecting .such portions of the steppes as possess a clayey soil for
the construction of its large burrows. It is strictly nocturnal in its habits, issuing
from its burrow at the commencement of darkness, but, according to Radde, not
remaining abroad the whole night. Its speed is said to be considerably greater
than that of the true jerboa, and the length of its leaps are enormous ; indeed, it is
stated that even when mounted on a swift horse it is impossible to overtake these
creatures. The burrows con.structed by the Kirghiz jerboa are very complicated,
liaving several branches radiating from a central chamber ; one of these branches,
it is said, always stops a short distance below the surface of the ground, and is only

Range.

Habits.

JUMPING MICE AND JERBOAS.

used as an exit in time of danger, when the animal removes the barrier and escapes
in an unsuspected direction. Usually two or three pairs occupy the same burrow.
In addition to the us\ial vegetable diet, the alagdaga also eats insects, and the eggs
and young of the steppe-lark, if not the old birds themselves. The 3’oung are born
in summer, in a nest placed deep down in the burrow, and are usually from five to six
in number, although occasionally there may be as many as eight in a litter. How long
the young remain with their parents is unknown, but it is (piite probable that they
do not depart till the spring following their birth. In cold weather these animals do
not leave their nests ; and the winter sleep is a long one, enduring, according to Radde,
from the beginning of September till the latter part of April. The flesh of the
alagdaga is eaten by the Kirghiz and other dwellers on the steppes; the capture being

effected by surrounding the burrows with a fence and pouring water down the

open holes, when the animals seek to escape by breaking through the closed entrance.

The Afghan jerboa (A. indica) is a smaller species of the same
Afghan Jerboa. -i - ii

genus, with proportionately longer ears and tail ; the length of the

head and body being about 3| inches, and that of the tail, inclusive of the tuft at

end, upwards of inches. This species inhabits Afghanistan, the south-east of

Persia, and Xorthern Baluchistan ; and is found commonly on the plains of Quetta

at an elevation of about six thousand feet. In habits, this jerboa seems to be very

similar to the larger species ; its period of hibernation lasting from October till

April. Central Asia is also the home of other species of the same genus.

The recently discovered Yarkand jerboa (Euchoretes naso) is the

x3«rK3.tlQ J6rD03<. _ -i • 1 ♦/»

sole representative of a distinct genus characterised by certain features
in the skull, the great length of the nose, and the enormous size of the ears, which
are longer than the head. The fur is sandy-coloured above and white below ; the

VOL. III. — 8

114

RODENTS.

tufted tail being black near the end, but white at the extreme tip. The length of
the head and body is 3-|- inches, and that of the tail inches.

Broad-Tailed Certain species of jerboas inhabiting the desert regions of Central

Jerboas. and Northern Asia and Nubia are distinguished from those of the
two preceding genera by their flattened and lancet-shaped tails, in consequence of
which they have received the name of Flat]) cer corny s. They are further dis-
tinguished by the absence of premolar teeth in both jaws. There is nothing worthy
of special notice in the habits of these species.

The Three-Toed, or True Jerboas.
Genus F 1)0118.

The true jerboas, as typically represented by the common Egyptian species
'{Dipiis jaculus), are the most specialised representatives of the subfamily, having
completely lost the two small lateral toes on the hind-limbs. They are further

EGYPTIAN JERBOA.

distinguished by the presence of vertical grooves on the front of the incisor teeth ;
while they have a pair of premolar teeth in each jaw. They resemble the alagdaga
in the great length of the hind-limbs and tail, and the comparatively large size of
the ears ; the tuft of hair at the tip of the tail is, however, smaller. Usually the
premolar teeth are wanting.

In size, the Egyptian jerboa is rather inferior to the alagdaga, the length of the
head and body being about G| inches, while the tail, exclusive of the hairs at the
end, measures a little over 8 inches. The general colour of the upper-parts is a
sandy grey ; the under surface of the body being white, and a broad white stripe
extending down the hind-limbs. The tail is yellowish brown above and whitish
beneath, with the usual black-and-white tip.

The range of the Egyptian jerboa extends from the north of Arabia westwards

JUMPING MICE AND JERBOAS.

through Lower Egypt to Oran in Algeria. Tlierc are, however, nunierou.s othei-
species of the genus, some of whicli inhabit Eastern Persia and Central Asia.

The name of two-legged mouse was a})plied to the Egyptian jer-

xl A D1 vS«

boa on account of the fore-legs being applied so closely to the chest
when the animal is jumping that it has an almost bird-like appearance. The home
of this species is arid and desert districts, where the ground consists solely of sand
and })ebbles, and the vegetation is so scant that it is a marvel that even such a tiny
creature can find the wherewithal to live. Here it lives in companies, frequenth’
of considerable size, in association with sand-grouse, the small desert-lark, the cream-
coloured courser, and various lizards. So exactly does the colour of the jerboa
harmonise with its surroundings, that when at a shoi’t distance it is scarcely
possible to recognise the presence of a li\-ing creature. Although very abundant,
it is, from its extreme shyness, but seldom seen. Like its kindred, this jerboa

THE AFRICAN JUMPING HARE (J liat. size).

is essentially a nocturnal animal ; but it generally comes out to feed before sun-
down, while it not unfrequently sits at the mouth of its hole, or a short distance
otf, even in the full sunshine. It digs a burrow in the hard gravelly soil with its
fore-feet, aided sometimes by its incisor teeth ; these burrows generally having four
enti’ances. According to Arab reports, the whole colony take part in the construc-
tion of the burrows ; and at the slightest sound the animals immediatel}’ take
refuge in their retreats. In walking gently the jerboa moves one foot after the
other, but directly the pace is quickened, it progresses by means of leaps ; and so
rapid are then its movements, that travellers liken them to the flight of a bird.
When leaping, the tail is carried stuck out nearly straight behind. The jerboa is
very impatient of rain and damp ; and when such conditions are prevalent it
relapses into a kind of torpid condition, analogous to the hibernation of species
inhabiting more northern regions.

RODENTS.

1 16

According to Brehm, very little is definitely known regarding the breeding
of this species. The Arabs state that it forms a nest from its own fur within the
labyrinths of its buiTow, where from two to four yoiing are produced at a birth.

The Arabs capture these tiny creatures by stopping up all the entrances to a
buri’ow except one, where they place a net, and then digging down into the central
chamber, when the jerboas are either caught in the nets or by the hands of their
pursuers. Many are thus taken alive, while the flesh of those killed is eaten.
'I'he chief foes of the jerboa, next to men, are fennecs, caracals, and owls, by all of
which large numbers are destroyed.

This jerboa, like its allies of Central Asia, is easily tamed ; and from its
beautiful form and delicate build, as well as its engaging manners, is always highly
esteemed as a pet by its owners. In its wild state the jerboa eats not only leaves,
fruits, and seeds, but likewise insects and carrion.

The African Jumping Hare.

Genus Fedetes.

By far the largest representative of the long-limbed members of the family
is the South African species, designated by the Cape colonists, inappropriately,

the jumping hare— the spriughaas of the Boers. This
animal {Fedetes caffer) constitutes not only a distinct
genus, but also a separate subfamily ; being distinguished
from the jerboas by the following characters. In the neck
the whole of the seven vertebrm are separate ; the hind-
feet have four toes, and their comparatively short meta-
tarsal bones are not united together; while the cheek-
teeth, of which there are four on each side of the jaws, do
not develop roots.

In size the jumping hare may be compared with the
common hare, to which it also approximates in general
coloration ; the length of the head and body being about
24 inches, and that of the tail rather more. The head is
relatively large, with long pointed ears ; the fore-limbs
are proportionately longer than in the jerboas ; and the
long tail is thickly haired throughout its extent. There
are five toes, provided with long, sharp claws on the fore-
feet, while in the hind -feet the claws are wider and
blunter, and approximate somewhat to nails ; the middle
hind-toe being much larger than either of the othei-s. The
long and soft hair of the upper-parts is reddish brown,
more or less mingled with white ; while beneath the colour is pure white.

Distribution The I'ange of the jumping hare extends from the Cape to

and Habits. Angola on the west, and Mozambique on the east coast. Its habits
approximate very closely to those of the jerboas. Thus it inhabits more or less
desert districts, where it constructs complex burrows, in which several families

SKELETON OF AFRICAN
JUMPING HARE.

THE MOUSE TRIBE.

117

dwell together; and is thoroughl}’ iioctunial. At the Cape it is found in consider-
able numbers, and frecjuents both tlie mountains and the open plains. When
feeding, the jumping hare goes on all fours; but when at speed progresses with
the leaps characteristic of the family. Ordinarily the length of each spring is from
six to nine feet ; but it is said that the leap may occasionally cover a space of as
much as twenty or even thirty feet. The j^oung are born during the African
summer, and are usually from three to four in number; and during the I’ainy
season young and old alike seldom stir from their burrows. The food appears to
be entirely of a vegetable nature. The flesh is largely eaten by the Hottentots,
who catch almost as many of the creatures as they please by the simple expedient
of pouring water down their holes, upon which the owners immediately bolt.

The Smixthus.

Genus Sminthus.

Three rat-like Rodents — the one (Sminthus suhtilis) from Ea.steni and
Northern Europe and Central Asia, the other (S. concolor) from North-Western
China, and the third (S. leathami) from Kashmir — are interesting in showing that
the long hind-limbs are not an essential attribute of the members of the present
family. Indeed the former of these Rodents — for which there is unfortunately no
English name — is so rat-like in appearance that it was long referred to the next
family. It diflers, however, from all the members of the latter by the presence of
a pair of premolar teeth in the upper Jaw (although there are none in the lower),
while its skull agrees in essential features with that of the jerboas. The common
sminthus has rather long and pointed ears, and a tail of nearly the same length as
the body, and clothed with short hairs. The pi'emolar and last upper molar teeth
are very small ; and the whole of the cheek-teeth have a complex pattern on
their crowns.

The Mouse Tribe.

Family MuRIDJE.

The Mouse family, which includes mice, rats, hamsters, voles, lemmings, etc., is
by far the most extensive group in the whole Rodent order, having a cosmopolitan
distribution, and being the only family represented in Austi'alia. The majority of
the mice — as we may conveniently term all the members of the group — are of
terrestrial habits, and have naked and scaly tails of varying length ; while in most
cases there is no great disproportion between the length of the fore and hind-limbs.
The incisor teeth are naiTow ; and, owing to the invariable absence of premolars,
there are never more than three pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw.

In structure these teeth exhibit great variation in the different groups, being
either furnished with roots, or rootless, while in some cases their cro\^^ls are
surmounted with simple cusps, and in others with folds of enamel arranged in a
series of angles. In all cases the first toe of the fore-foot is rudimental. The skull
is the most characteristic part of their entire organisation, although it is difficult

ii8

RODENTS.

in a popular work like the present to point out its distinctive peculiarities without
the aid of a series of figures. It may be mentioned, however, that the frontal
region between the eye-sockets is mucli narrowed ; and that in the zj'gomatic, or

cheek-arcli, the cheek
(jugal) bone is usually
reduced to a mere
s])lint occupying the
middle of the arch.
Again, the lower sur-
face of the process
arising from the upper
jawbone to form the
front half of the
cheek-arch is more or
less flattened out into
a nearly perpendicular
plate ; while the vacuity in the front of the eye for the passage of the nerves of
the face is generally of considerable height, and wider above than below.

The number of genera and species belonging to this family is so great that it
is impossible to notice more than a small moiety in this work. Accordingly, only
representatives of the various subfamilies into which these Rodents are divided,
and such forms as are of general interest, are selected for description.

The Australian Eats.

Genus Hydromys.

Idle Australian rats, of which there is one aipiatic species, together with an
allied terrestrial form from the same region, constitute a subfamily distinguished
from all the other mice by having only two pairs of molar teeth in each jaw ; these
teeth being rooted, and having their crowns divided into distinct lobes.

The Australian water-rat {Hydromys cltrysoyaster) is a rat-like aquatic Rodent,
with broad and partially-webbed feet, the webs and claws being larger in the
hinder than in the front-limbs. The fur of the back is black with an admixture
of golden-coloured hairs ; the under-parts being of a dark golden hue, save for a
narrow stripe of flaxen running from the lower part of the neck to the middle of
the belly. Except for its terminal fifth, which is flaxen-coloured, the tail is black.
The tip of the muzzle is thickly covered with hairs, by means of which the nostrils
can be closed. The length of the head and body is about 2 feet, and that of the
tail half as much. The skull differs in the form of the front portion of the cheek-
arch from the ordinary murine type. This species is confined to Australia and
Tasmania, where it is known to the colonists as the beaver-rat. It is thoroughly
aquatic in its habits, and is not uncommon on the banks of the rivers ; while it is
at times seen on the seashore. It is an inhabitant of Australia, Tasmania, and
New Guinea.

The Queensland rat {Xeromys myoides) is a terrestrial species of about double

SKEI.ETON AND JIOLAES OF BROWN RAT.

THE MOUSE TRIBE.

119

tlie size of an ordinary mouse, whicli, wliile possessing teeth like tliose of the
Australian water-rat, has unwebbed toes and the external form and skull of a
mouse. It is, therefore, of interest as serving to connect its acpiatic cousin with
the more typical members of the family.

The Malabar Spiny-IVIouse.

Genus Platacanthomys.

The pretty little murine known as the Malabar spiny-mouse (Platacanthomys
lasmrus), from elevations of about two thousand feet in the hills of Southern
India, is interesting as being one of the few members of the family which assume
a dormouse-like appeai’ance and have arboreal habits. It represents a subfamily by
itself, characterised by the crowns of the molar teeth when worn showing oblique
and nearly parallel bands of enamel, and by the long tail being thickly haired.
This little mouse has long pointed ears ; and a number of broad flat spines mingled
with the hair of the upper-parts. In colour it is reddish brown above, and white
beneath ; the length of the head and body being 4^ inches, and that of the tail,
with the hair at the end, half an inch more. This mouse lives in large trees, in
which it hollows out small cavities that it fills with leaves and moss. It is stated
to feed on jack-fruit and the pods of the pepper-tree.

The Gerbils.

Genus Gerbillus.

The elegant little Kodents commonly known as gerbils constitute the typical
representatives of a third subfamily, and are easily recognised by their elongated
hind-limbs, long and hairy tails, and their general jerboa-like appearance and
habits. Indeed, they might be mistaken at first sight for
members of the latter group ; but a close examination will show
that they differ externally by their longer muzzles, smaller eyes,
and the presence of five functional toes to the hind-feet. They
are further distinguished by their molar teeth being divided
into transverse laminae, of which there are three in the first, two
in the second, and one in the third tooth of each side. The upper
incisor teeth are narrow and grooved ; and the bullae of the
auditory region of the skull are generally very large. Ihe
true gerbils, of which there are moi’e than half a hundred species, inhabit Asia and
Africa ; but there are some allied genera confined to the latter continent.

One of the best known species is the Indian gerbil (Gerbillus indicus), ^\hich
is about the size of a rat, with moderate-sized rounded ears, and the fui light
brownish rufous above, and white beneath. W ith its large, bright eyes, and long
tufted tail, this gerbil (like its cousins) is one of the most graceful of the smaller
Rodents. In common with the other species, it inhabits open .sandy plains, v here
it lives in companies, constructing extensive burrows approached by numeious

LOWER J.\.W AND TEETH

120

RODENTS.

chambers, and containing large central chambers containing dried grass. The
Indian gerbil is a thoronglily nocturnal animal, seldom leaving its burrow during
the daytime. It is £re({uently found near cultivated grounds, where it does much
damage to the corn crops, sometimes apjiearing in such numbers as to constitute a
veritable plague. Away from cultivated districts, its food consists niaiidy of grass
and roots. It has been stated that gerbils lay \ip stores of food in their burrows,
but it does not appear that this is really the case. Gerbils resemble jerboas in
progressing by a series of leaps from their long hind-legs ; the length of the leaps

EGYPTIAN GERBIL.

in the Indian species being from twelve to fifteen feet. So active are these
animals, that they are generally able to elude such dogs as may pursue them,
sometimes even jumping upon their backs. The Indian gei-bil is one of the most
prolific of Rodents, frequently producing from twelve to fifteen young at a birth,
and occasionally, it is said, even more.

The Philippine Rat.

Genus Phlceomys.

The Philippine Islands are the habitat of a peculiar species of rat {PhlcBomys
cumingi), which differs so markedly from all others that it must be regarded as
constituting a subfamily by itself. While having the ordinary murine form, these
rats resemble the gerbils in having their molar teeth divided into transverse lamime.

THE MOUSE TRIBE.

123

of Avhicli there are tlirec in the first tootli of the series, and two in each of* tlie
others. Tlie incisor teeth are very broad, with smooth front surfaces. The muzzle
is unusnally short, the profile convex, and fhe ears rather small; while the feet are
characterised by their great breadth, and the large size of their claws. The tail is
shorter than the head and body, and spar.sely-haii'ed. The hair is rather long and
coarse, and darker on the muzzle, the sides of the face, the back of the head, the
shoulders, and the fore-part of the back than elsewhere.

The Hamsters and White-Footed iMicE.

Genus Cricefus.

d'he well-known hamsters of the Old World, together with the American
white-footed mice, constitute an extensive genus of murine Rodents, which, with
others, represents a distinct subfamily. These Cricetines, as all the members of

THE HAMSTEK liat. sizf).

the subfamily may be called, are characterised by the crowns of their molar teeth
caiTying a number of distinct tubercles or cusps, which in the upper jaw are
arranged in two longitudinal rows separated by a median groove ; these teeth being
always implanted in the jaw by distinct roots. Ihe whole of the Old orld
Cricetines are characterised by the shortness of their tails ; but in some of the

124

RODENTS.

American forms these appendages are considerably longer. The Cricetines are
distributed nearly all over the world, with the exception of Australia, and include
the only representatives of the Eodent order found in Madagascar. In structure
they appear to be the most generalised grouji of the entire murine family, and it is
accordingly believed that they represent the ancestral stock from which came the
more specialised rats and mice constituting the murine subfamily. This hypothesis
is supported by the circumstance that the hamsters are some of the oldest types of
the family with which we are accjuainted, their remains being comparatively
common in the Miocene strata both of Europe and North America.

Common The common hamster (Cricetus frmnentarius), of Eiirope and

Hamster. Northern Asia, is the typical representative of the genus under
consideration ; the leading characters of the genus being that the incisor teeth are
not marked by grooves, while the first upper molar tooth generally has six
tubercles on its crown. Cheek-pouches, which may be of large size, are frequently
present ; and the tail is often very short.

The hamster itself is a decidedly handsomelj'-coloured Rodent, and is by far
the largest member of the group, measuring about a foot in length, of which some
2 inches are taken up by the tapering haiiy tail. It is stoutly built, with a
thick neck, a rather pointed muzzle, medium-sized membranous ears, large and
brilliant eyes, short legs, and small claws. The thick glossy coat is composed of
hair and a woolly under-fur. The general colour of the ujiper-parts is usually
light brownish-yellow, but the upper surface of the snout and the region of the
eyes, as well as a band round the throat, are reddish brown. Tliere is a yellow
patch on the back, the mouth is whitish ; and the under-parts, the greater portion
of the legs, and a strij:)e on the forehead are deep black, but the feet are white.
There is, however, great individual variation with regard to colour, many examples
being entirely black, while others are pied, and others, again, wholly white.

The hamster inhabits suitable localities from the Rhine in Germany to the
Obi in Siberia ; but its distribution is somewhat pai'tial. In Germany it is wanting
in the south and south-western districts, and also in East and West Prussia, but it
is abundant in Thuringia and Saxony. Its favourite haunts are in soft dry soils,
but it avoids those of a sandy nature as being unsuitable for its burrows, although
it will sometimes select gravelly ground.

The hamster has always attracted a considerable amount of interest, from the
elaborate structin-e of its burrows, and the provident nature of its habits. The
burrow always comprises a large dwelling-chamber, situated at a depth of from one
to two yards below the surface of the ground, with a nearly perpendicular entrance-
passage and an oblique exit. There is also a store-chamber or granary communi-
cating with the dwelling-chamber by means of a gallery ; and it appears that the
young, the females, and the males generally occupy distinct burrows, which may be
distinguished by the size of their entrance-passages, those of the males being the
largest. When a burrow is tenanted, the passages are kept scrupulously clean,
and the presence of any litter in them would at once proclaim that the habitation
was deserted ; chaff and straw majq however, be generally seen near the entrance
of a burrow. Although the entrance-passage goes nearly straight down into the
earth, it also has a turn before opening into the dwelling-chamber ; and in old burrows

'THE MOUSE TRIBE.

125

the entrance and exit passages are polished smooth hy the constant friction of the
coats of their occupants. Of the chambers, the dwelling-place is the smaller, and
has smooth Avails and the floor strewn with tine straw ; it has three apertures —
two communicating Avith the exterior, and the third Avith the granary. Young
hamsters have but a single granary in their burroAvs, but the old males, Avhich
spend the Avhole summer collecting, frequently have from three to five such
chambers. These are completely filled Avith corn, the passage communicating Avith
the dAvelling-chamber being frequently stopped up Avith earth. All kinds of corn
are equally acceptable to these industrious little animals ; and it Avill often be
found that, Avhile one part of the store-chamber is filled Avith grain of a particular
kind, the other portion may contain a difierent sort. In addition to corn, Avhich
forms their main Avinter nutriment, hamsters in summer eat peas, beans, roots,
fruits, grass, and other green herbage ; and in captivity these animals Avill eat almost
any kind of food that is put before them.

Buitoavs of the nature described above are constructed solely for Avinter use ;
and Avhen the Aveather becomes cold in October the hamsters retire to their inner-
most recesses for their hibernation ; the entrance and exit of each burroAV being
then closed Avith earth. In February or March the animals aAvake from their
slumbers, although they do not for some time open their burroAvs, Avhere they
remain feeding upon the stox’es of corn. About the middle of March the adult
males make their first appearance abroad ; and these are folloAved early in April by
the females. At this time they devour ravenously almost anything that comes
before them, not refusing an occasional young bird, a mouse, or a beetle. Soon
aftei’Avards they set about constructing their summer-buiTOAVs ; on the completion
of Avhich the sexes pair: These summer-burroAvs are of simpler construction than
the Avinter habitations, being seldom more than one or tAvo feet in depth. Usually
these burro Avs contain but a single chamber of about a foot in diameter. In the
case of the females the nest-chamber has one exit passage, but from tAvo to eight
entrances ; although until the young go afield but one of the latter is used ; the
advantage of these numerous entrances Avhen there is a large number of young
being sufficiently obAuous. The nest-chamber is furnished AAuth a bed of soft hay.
ToAvards the end of April the males visit the burroAvs of the females ; and if tAA’O
indiAuduals of them should happen to meet in the same domicile, a fierce en-
counter ensues, the hamster, for its size, being an extremely ferocious and quarrel-
some animal. In from four to fiA^e Aveeks after the pairing-time the first litter of
young is produced, the number in each litter varying from six to eighteen ; and as a
second equally numerous brood comes into the Avorld in July, the rate of increase
of these animals is exceedingly rapid. When born, the young, although furnished
Avith teeth, are naked and blind. The hair, hoAvever, quickly groAvs, and by the
eighth or ninth day the eyes are opened ; Avhile Avithin a fortnight the young are
able to burroAV, and are soon after driv'en away by their parents to shift for them-
selves. Although hamsters do not attain their full growth for a tAveh^emonth, it
appears certain that a female born in May is capable of producing offspring in the
ensuing autumn.

With these marvellously rapid poAvers of repi’oduction it is no Avonder that
hamsters frequently appear in countless sAvarms, Avhen they inflict incalculable

RODENTS.

1 26

other Species.

harm upon the harv^est. Fortunately, however, they have a host of enemies, and
buzzards, owls, ravens, and other predacious birds thin their ranks b}^ hundreds ;
while among four-legged foes, polecats and stoats follow the track of the advancing
legions, and kill them where and when they can. The polecat and stoat are,
moreover, able to follow the hamsters into the recesses of their burrows, where they
probably destroy them by hundreds. Man, too, joins the ranks of the destroyers
of these mischievous rodents ; and in some cases organises regular hunts for their
destruction. Government rewards are sometimes ofiered to aid in ridding the
country of these pests; and Brehm relates that in the year 1888 no less than
97,519 hamsters were destroyed in the single district of Aschersleben, for which
a reward of 1950 marks was paid. In digging out the hamsters, the stores of corn
which they laid up for winter use form not the least important part of the enter-
prise ; the grain being carefully dried and used for human consumption. In many
districts the flesh of the hamster is eaten, and is said to be not unlike that of the
s(piirrel. The fur too, although not of high value, is extensively used for linings,
some thousands of skins being annually imported into England.

In Ea.stern Europe there are smaller species of hamster in which
the black of the under-parts only occupies a small area on the chest ;
and from these a transition is ea.sy to the small uniform grey hamsters of Central
Asia, one of which ranges as far south as Gilgit, while another occurs in Persia.

White-Footed The New World possesses not a single indigenous representative

Mice. Qf pats and mice of the Old World, all the American

members of the family belonging either to the Cricetine or to the closely allied
Microtine subfamily. The great majority of the species belong to a group which
may be conveniently designated white-footed mice, from the general prevalence of
white on their feet and under-pai’ts. These American mice, which liave representa-
tives from one end of the continent to the other, are frecpiently regarded as
constituting a number of distinct genera ; but as they all po.ssess molar teeth of
essentially the same structure, it is simpler to include the whole of them in the
genus Cricetus. They exhibit, however, great variation in regard to bodily form
and the relative length of the tail. Thus there are some species with long tails
and a general dormouse-like appearance, other long-tailed forms are mouse-like,
othei’s again have short hamster-like tails and vole-like bodies, while one species
has spines mingled with the fur.

The best known representative of the group is the common white-footed
mouse {C. leucopiis) of North America, which may be regarded as taking the place
filled in Europe by the house-mouse. It is, however, far more attractive in
appearance than the latter, although of approximately the same size and general
configuration. In addition to its long tail, large ears, and bead-like eyes, this mouse
is characterised by having the fur of the upper-parts of the body of a rich fawn
coloiu*, which forms a striking contrast with the snowy-white of the under-parts
and feet. Indeed, when we add to this the natural grace and agility of its move-
ments, we have in this animal, as Dr. Hart Merriam observes, one of the most
beautiful and interesting inhabitants of the forests of North America.

The white-footed mouse is an inhabitant either of forests or open fields ; and
in the wild state feeds chiefly upon beech-nuts, of which it accumulates large

THE MOUSE TRIBE.

127

stores for winter use. These stores are generally accumulated in hollow trees or
logs, and sometimes may contain two or three quarts of beech-nuts or clover-seed.
This mouse, unlike the hamster, remains, however, active throughout the winter ;
and may be seen running about on the snow, where its long tail leaves a character-
istic track. It is an agile climber, running up tree-stems with the activity of a
s(]uirrel, and frequently disa2)pearing in some hole at a great distance above the
ground. In addition to nuts and seeds, the white-footed mouse will readily eat
the flesh of such animals as come in its way, and it is possible that it may occasion-
ally kill small birds for itself. From three to six young are produced at a birth,
and there appear to be several litters during the year. The first coat of the young
is of a uniform dull grey colour. In the northern portions of the range of this
mouse, the nest is generally built either in the hollow of a tree or a log, or in a
burrow; but more to the south these animals construct an “outside nest” of moss,
grass, leaves, or bark, which is generally more or less cocoanut-shaped, and may be
as much as a foot in diameter. It is usually suspended from a horizontal branch
at some distance from the ground, and has its entrance on the under surface. The
group to which this particular species of white-footed mice belongs is distinguished
b}^ having only five tubercles on the first molar tooth in the upper jaw. The rice-
field mouse (C. ixdastris), which attains the size of a small rat, does much damage
to the rice crops in the Southern States.

The Fish-Eating Rat.

Genus Ichtliyomys.

A remarkable species (/. stolzmanni) inhabiting the mountain -streams of
central Peru is allied to the preceding group, but distinguished by its aquatic and
probably fish-eating habits, as well as by its Avebbed and fringed hind-feet. In
size it comes near the bi'own rat, but has the head much flattened, larger whiskers,
and very small ears and eyes ; while in colour it is dark above and whitish
beneath, Avith a black-and-Avhite tail.

The Ghooved-Toothed Mice.

Genera Rldtlirodontomys and Rliitlirodon.

Tavo groups of American Cricetines are distinguished by their upper incisor
teeth being marked by parallel grooves. Of these, the American harvest-mouse
{Rhithrodontomys humilis) resembles the rice-field mouse in external ajipearance,
and is found in the southern United States as far north as loAA^a ; the tA\'o other
species of the genus being also North American.

The Rhithrodonts, on the other hand, are exclusively South American, and
are characterised by their rabbit-like appearance, the liead being A’ery short, AA'ith
a highly convex profile, very large eyes, and rather large rounded ears. The
rabbit-like rhithrodon (Rhithrodon cunicidoides), from Patagonia, is one of the
be.st knoAvn species. The length of the head and body is inches, and that of

128

RODENTS.

the tail about half as much again. Its general colour is yellowish grey mixed
with black, with the under-parts pale yellow, and the rump, feet, and lower surface
of the tail white.

The Wood-Rats.

Genus Neotoma.

The Florida rat (Neotoma jioridana) is the best known representative of a
small genus of North American Cricetines, distinguished by their large size and
the circumstance that the cusps on their molars show some approximation to the
type of structure obtaining in the voles. The Florida rat, which inhabits the
southern United States and the north of Mexico, is about the size of an ordinary
rat, to which it also approximates in general coloration, although the under-parts
and feet are entirely white. This species has a thin scaly tail, but in the bushy-
tailed wood-rat (N. cinerea) from the north-western and western districts of North
America, this appendage resembles that of a dormouse. The wood- rats are active,
climbing animals, sometimes found in forests, but in other cases iidiabiting rocky
districts. In woods or near streams they frequently make heaps of twigs, straw,
etc., in which to form their nests. The young, of which there are from three to six
in a litter, cling to the sides and back of the female parent when she is walking
about, somewhat after the manner of certain opossums, and two litters are generally
produced in the year. In addition to vegetable food, the Florida rat will also eat
crayfish and frogs.

other Cricetines.

There are several other genera belonging to the Cricetine sub-
family which cannot be mentioned here. It may be observed,
however, that HyjMgeomys, together with four other genera, are confined to
Madagascar, where they are the sole representatives of the Rodents.

The African Crested Rat.

Genus Lophiomys.

A rare and remarkable Rodent from North-East Africa diffei's from the
preceding Cricetines in certain features, which have been regarded as entitling
it to rank as the representative of a distinct family, but there can be little doubt
that it is merely a highly-specialised member of the present group. The African
crested rat (Lophiomys imhausi) derives its name from the great crest of long
erectile hairs running down the back and tail, some of which are as much as Sj
inches in length, and at their bases have a peculiar spongy structure. The tail is
long and bushj", the limbs short, and the ears small. In the hind-foot the small
front toe can be opposed to the others. The genei’al colour is blackish brown, but
there is a large triangular white spot on the front of the head, and a white streak
beneath each eye, while the tip of the tail is also of the same hue. Moreover, the
long hairs of the body have only the middle portion dark-coloured, their two
extremities being white. Internally the crested rat difters from all other members
of the family by its rudimentary collar-bones, and also by the circumstance that

THE MOUSE TRIBE.

129

the sides of the hinder part of tlie skull are completely roofed over with bone, as
in a tui-tle. This Rodent inhabits the district of Shoa, and is doubtless arboreal,
although nothing definite is known of its habits in a wild state.

The Voles.

Genus Microtus.'^

The voles, together with their near allies the lemmings and the musquash,
constitute a group closely allied to the Cricetines, but distinguished by the peculiar
character of their molar teeth. Indeed, the voles and their allies are evidently
nothing more than a specialised modification of the
Cricetine type, and it is more as a matter of convenience
than from any well-founded distinctive characters that
they are placed by themselves in a distinct subfamily.

The whole group is characterised by the molar teeth being
usually rootless or with imperfect roots, and composed of
two longitudinal rows of alternately-arranged triangular
prisms. These prisms, as shown in the accompanying
figure, decrease in number from the first to the third
tooth in each jaw, but are variable in number in the
different species, and thus form a valuable aid in their
discrimination. The tail of the voles is either short or of
moderate length ; and these Rodents are distinguished
from the true rats and mice not only by this character,
but likewise by their more corpulent form, their smaller
eyes and ears, their more obtuse muzzles, and proportion-
ately shorter limbs. The subfamily has a wide distribution
in the Northern Hemisphere, but is quite unknown in Asia
in the Malayan region, and in Africa and South America. It is connected
with the Cricetine subfamily by a North American genus known as Phenacomys,
in which the molar teeth are furnished with roots.

The water-vole, or, as it is commonly termed, the water-rat
Water-Vole. . . .

{Microtiis amphibius), may be taken as a typical example of the
widely-distributed group of voles, of which there are about half a hundred species,
ranging from Britain through Europe to China, and thence eastwards to North
America. The genus is sufficiently characterised by the molars being rootless and
the soles of the feet naked.

From its diurnal habits and wide distribution the water-vole is one of the best
known of the indigenous British mammals. In size it agrees approximately with
the brown rat, the length of the head and body being about inches, and that
of the tail slightly more than half as much again. The fur is dense and shining,
and of a full reddish brown colour mingled with grey above and yellowish grey
below. The feet are not webbed, and the tail is hairy. The number of the prisms

1 Tlie name Arvicola lias been commonly applied to the voles, but by the rules of zoological nomenclature it
has had to give place to Microtus.

VOL. III. — 9

CROWN-SUKFACE OF THE UPPER
AA'D LOWER MOLAR TEETH
OF THE CHI>fESE VOLE.
(From Thomas.)

south of the Himalaya,

at a considerable distance from tlie watei'. Although the water-vole has been
accused of carnivorous propensities, it is very doubtful if the charge can be
substantiated. Its favourite food in summer appears to be the sweet inner pith
of certain kinds of water-flags, but it will also eat many other aquatic plants,
such as duckweed and horse-tails. In winter, when hard pressed for food, the
water-vole turns its attention to the bark of trees and shrubs, and at this season
frequently inflicts very serious damage on osier plantations. In cultivated districts
it will also tlien readily eat mangold, turnips, potatoes, etc. When feeding upon
duckweed. Bell says that “the creatui’e sits, like a squirrel, on its haunches,
near the water’s edge, and, taking up a lump of the soft and slimy-looking
mass in its fore-paws, eats a small part only, and, letting the remainder fall,
takes up some more, wliich is similarly treated and rejected.”

In IMa}' or June, and occasionally as early as April, the female gives birth to
five or six young in the depths of its burrow ; and it is probable that when the

130 RODENTS.

in the molar teeth are different from those in the smaller British voles, but since
the species is sufficiently distinguished by its superior size, it will be unnecessary
to enter into the consideration of this point. A black variety of the water-vole is
sometimes met with.

The water-vole lias a wide distribution, extending from England in the west
to China in the east, and occurring throughout continental Europe. Curiously
enough, however, it is unknown in Ireland, where the other two species of British
vole are likewise wanting.

Every English brook and river is tenanted by the water-vole, whose long
burrows in the banks are sometimes a source of considerable inconvenience to the
agriculturist. The burrows are, however, by no means confined to the banks of
rivers, being not unfrequent in water-meadows, and occasionally in ploughed fields

THE WATER-VOLE (f Hilt. .size).

THE MOUSE TRIBE.

litter is produced early in the spring, a second one follows during the suininer.
When their holes are rendered inaccessible by frost, water-voles are found to take
shelter on shore, sonietiines frecpienting the cover allbrded by an osier-bed, and on
other occasions taking refuge in pollard willows. In spite of its feet not being
webbed, the water-vole is an expert swinnuer and diver ; and its coat is of such a
nature as to throw off the water as readily as does the plumage of a duck. Fossil
remains of the water-vole are found in the cavern -deposits of England, and
also in the “forest-bed” of the Norfolk coast; while those of extinct species of the
genus to which it belongs, occur in the Pliocene crag-deposits of Sutiblk and Essex.

Short-Tailed In addition to the water-vole, the British Islands (exclusive of

Field-Voles. Ireland) possess two other species of the same genus, the commonest
of which is the short-tailed tield-vole, or tield-mouse (d/. agrestis). This species is

THE CONTINENTAL FIELD-VOLE (5 uat. size).

about the size of an ordinary mouse, and is greyish brown in colour above, and
greyish white beneath, with dusky feet ; the tail being about one-third the length
of the body, while the under surfaces of the hind-feet have six naked pads. It is
specially characterised by the circumstance that the second molar tooth in the
upper jaw has five prisms. This character, unimportant as it may seem, serves to
distinguish this species from the continental field-vole (d/. arvalis) — represented in
the accompanying illustration — in which, in common with the other continental
short-tailed members of the genus, the corre.sponding tooth has but four
such prisms.

The common short-tailed field-vole is found all over England and Scotland, as
well as the greater part of the Continent ; its range extending from the north of
Italy to Finland, and from Spain and France to Russia; but in the southern
portion of its habitat it is less numerous than the continental field-vole. The
English species is commonly found in meadows — especially those where the ground
is moist, and makes extensive runs beneath the grass, in which it roams both by

132

RODENTS.

night and day, although it is more active during the dark hours. In addition to
these runs, the field-vole also constructs burrows of considerable size. The food of
this species consists of seeds, roots, and herbage of all kinds. In gardens it
displays an especial taste for the bulbs of crocuses and newly-sown peas and beans,
among which it frequently does great damage. In winter, when other food is
scarce, the field-vole will not unfrequently ascend trees to feed upon their bark.
It is also by no means averse to a diet of insects and flesh.

The field-v’ole is an unusually prolific animal, producing from three to four
litters in a year, and each litter containing from four to six young. The nest in
which these are boi’ii is composed of moss and leaves, and is usually placed beneath
a tussock of grass in some slight hollow in the ground.

The most remarkable peculiarity in connection with this field-vole is the
swarms in which it occasionally makes its appearance in various parts of the
country. According to Mr. J. E. Harting, one such “ mice-plague ” appeared in
1580 in Essex, a second visited Hampshire and Gloucestershire during 1813-14,
while a third was recoi'ded in Wensleydale which lasted from 1874 to 1876. In
the second of these visitations, upwards of thirty thousand voles were destroyed in
the Forest of Dean, and eleven thousand five hundred in the New Forest. Quite
recently (1892), another such plague has made its appearance in the south of Scot-
land, especially in parts of Dumfriesshire and Roxburgh ; the area over which the
voles extended being estimated at from eighty thousand to ninety thousand acres.
The mildness of the winter of 1890-91, coupled with the scarcity of owls, kestrels,
and weasels (due to the over-zeal of gamekeepers), are supposed to have been the
inducing cause of this last visitation. It is reported, however, that, as on similar
occasions, numbers of owls arrived in the affected districts for the purpose of prey-
ing on the voles, which by the end of 1893 had well-nigh disappeared.

The habits of the continental field-vole are similar to those of the English
species. It is stated, however, to be even a more prolific animal, the number of
young varying from four to eight, Avhile as many as six different litters may be
produced in a single season. Moreover, it is probable that the young produced in
the spring will themselves be parents in the following autumn. On the Continent
the plagues of voles are even more serious than in England. Thus, accoi’ding to
Rrehm, during a visitation of these animals which took place in Germany in the
year 1822, upwards of 1,570,000 were taken in one district, 590,327 in another, and
271,941 in a third. Again, in the summer of 1861, a total of 409,523 voles were
taken in a sinMe district of Ehine-Hessen.

The third species of the ffenus in Britain is the bank-vole
Bank- Vole. ^ .

(M. glareolus), which may be distinguished externally from the field-

vole by the colour of the back inclining more or less markedly to rufous, and also
by its larger ears, and propoidionately longer tail, which is equal to half the length
of the head and body. The molar teeth differ from those of the field-vole not
only by the circumstance that in the second one of the upper jaw there are but
four pri.sms, but also in that in the adult state these teeth form imperfect roots.
The whole proportions of the bank-vole ai’e moi’e elegant than those of the field-
vole, while its fur is more smooth and glossy, its coloration more brilliant, and the
eye larger. It is found locally over England and pai’ts of Scotland, as far north as

2'HE MOUSE TRIBE.

133

Morayshire, •while abroad it ranges from France aci’oss Asia to China. Its general
habits are tlic same as tliose of tlie field-vole, hut it is said to he more generally
found in sheltered situations, and is especially fond of visiting gardens.

There is, however, a great probability that both the bank-vole and the red-
backed vole (M. gappet'i) of North America, are merely local varieties of the Arctic
vole (J/. ridilus), Avhich inhabits the circumpolar regions of both hemispheres ;
their differences in coloration being merely such as might well be due to the
varying climatic conditions of the countries they severally inhabit.

Ai ine Vole Alpine vole (il/. nivalis), which is the last species to which

we refer at any length, is interesting on account of the elevated
regions forming its habitat. It is a small species with a relatively long tail : the

THE ALPINE VOLE (f uat. size).

total length being about 7 inches, of which slightly more than half is taken up
by the tail. The cars are large ; and the number of prisms in the first upper molar
tooth is the same as in the water-vole. The colour varies from brownish gre}"
above and greyish white beneath to pure white. This species has an exceedingly
limited distribution, being confined to tlie Alps and Pyrenees, where it ranges from
an elevation of about four thousand feet to the limits of perpetual snow. It is,
indeed, most abundant near the snow line, above which it also sometimes wanders
in search of the scanty vegetation which exists at such altitudes. Not only is the
Alpine vole found in these dreary regions during the short season when the ground
is more or less free fi’om snow, but it likewise remains there from year’s end to
year’s end. Accordingly, for upwards of nine or ten months of the year, it lives
beneath a deep pall of snow. Here it makes regular runs, along which it travels in
search of food when the supply hoarded for winter use becomes exhausted. No
other known mammal leads a similar existence.

134

RODENTS.

The list of species of voles being almost endless, space only per-
mits of passing references to a few of the more interesting. In North
America the commonest species is the meadow-vole {M. riparius), which in the
northern regions during the winter abandons its frozen burrows and forms nests on
the surface of the ground, which soon become buried in the snow. The heat of the
little animal inside melts and cakes the surrounding snow, which thus forms a con-
tinually increasing dome -shaped mass around the nest. The root-vole (if.
ceconomus) of Siberia and Kamschatka, is interesting on account of the large stores
of food it accumulates in its burrows, and likewise on account of its migratory
habits, which resemble those of the lemming. Numerous voles occur in the
Himalaya, Tibet, and Central Asia ; the earliest described Himalayan species being
Hoyle’s vole (21. roylei).

The Lemmings.

Genus Ilyodes.

Closely related to the voles are the lemmings, of which one species, commonly
known as the Norwegian lemming (21yodes lemmus), inhabits the mountains of the
Scandinavian peninsula and thence northwards to the North Cape, while the second
is confined to North America. Lemmings are distinguished from voles by their
lieavier build, more convex and obtusely snouted head, extremely short tail, and by
tlie soles of the small feet being covered with hair. They have also longer claws,
thicker fur, and very small ears ; while there ai'e likewise important differences in
the structure of the skull and teeth. There is considerable individual variation in
regard to size and coloration in the Norwegian lemming. Usually, howevei’, its
length is about 5 inches ; while the general colour of the fur is yellowish brown,
darker above than below, more or less spotted and streaked with blackish
brown.

Lemmincis are the most abundant rodents found in Norway, and
Habits. ^

they have always attracted great interest from the circumstance,
that at certain intervals countless swarms descend from the mountains to the cul-
tivated plains, and thence make their way, apparently under the influence of some
blind impetus, to the sea, into the waters of which they boldly plunge to meet a
death by drowning. In the course of such migrations, the lemmings take a straight
line across country, swimming rivers or lakes, climbing mountains, and eating their
way through fields of coi-n or grass, and thus leaving a track of desolation in tlieir
rear. The line of march is marked by flights of predaceous birds hovering above
the hosts ; the flanks and rear of the army being harassed by four-footed foes, who,
however, at first make but little apparent diminution in its numbers. Disease also
claims its victims ; and from these combined attacks, the numbers which eventually
reach the sea, sometimes after an intexwal of from one to three years from the time
of starting, form but a small minority of the original swarm.

In general appearance, lemmings look not unlike small marmots or hamsters ;
and they resemble the latter to a considerable extent in their mode of life. Although
in Finmai’k they occur at the sea-level, in the more southern parts of Scandinavia
they are found oidy high up in the mountains above the level of fii’S, in the belt

THE MOUSE TRIBE.

135

and squeaking, as if to warn him off from their territories, while their gestures are
such as to give the impression that they are about to attack the intruder. Indeed,
they will sometimes bite vigorously at the trousers of any person who approaches
too close to their holes. The squeaks and grunts uttered on such occasions by the
lemmings are said to closely resemble those of guinea-pigs. In the winter, they
form large nests in their tunnels through the snow, which are exposed to view
when it melts ; several tunnels radiating from each nest, which are formed partly
in the peat and partly in the snow. The chief food of the lemming in its native
haunts consists of grass, reindeer - moss, the catkins of the birch, and probably
various descriptions of roots. It appeal’s that the young are born in the nests,
which are usually made of dry grass with a lining of hair, and that there are

clothed with birch and juniper. Here they select dry spots in the swampy ground,
making their shallow burrows either beneath stones or in the peaty soil. Generally
they do not form well-marked tracks from one hole to another, except when the
ground is covered with snow. They are on the move by day as well as by night.
Except when migrating, lemmings show a great aversion to water, always selecting
the driest portions of the swamps, anti if forced to enter a river, manifesting their
dislike by squeaks and grunts. Generally they sit tpiietly during the day, in or
near the entrances of the burrows, but should a human being appear on the scene,
they at once become violently excited, raising themselves up on their hind-tpiarters.

NORWEGIAN LEMMINGS MIGRATING (| Hat. size).

RODENTS.

■136

usually from live to six young in a litter. It is considered by Brehm that there
is probably more than one litter in a season ; but precise information as to the
breedingf-habits of these creatures is still a desideratum.

It is probable that the periodical migi’ations of the lemmings ai’e induced by a
scai'city of food. Brehm remarks that if an early spring following a wild winter
is succeeded by a hot and dry summer, everything will be favourable for an un-
wonted increase in the number of these animals. The dry summer will, however,
equally tend to diminish the quantity of vegetation available for their support, and,
accordingly, a migration to more fertile regions will be rendered necessary. Why,
however, the migration should be continued in this extnxordinary manner is a
question which has not yet received a satisfactory answer. The number of lem-
mings taking part in a migration has been estimated at many millions ; and on
such occasions every bush and every rock or large stone has a lemming hiding
under it, wliile sometimes even the towns swarm with these creatures. Not only
do the lemmings attempt to swim rivers and lakes which are too wide for them to
cross, but, writes Mr. T. T. Somerville, “ they tumble into holes, wells, and brooks,
the sides of which are too steep for them to scramble out of again, so that frequently
jieople are at a lo.ss to obtain water that is not polluted by their bodies. Doubtless
this accounts for an epidemic popularly termed ‘lemming fever,’ that is said to
prevail after the migration, and which is described as resembling ordinary typhoid.”

The Banded Lemming.

Genus Cunicidus.

The banded lemming (Guniculus torqiiatus), from the circumpolar regions of
both hemispheres, differs in several important points from the true lemmings, and is
accordingly referred to a distinct genus. Externally it is distinguished by the
absence of conchs to the ear, the shorter and more thickly-formed feet, the practical
loss of the first toe of the fore-foot, which has only a rudimental nail, and also by
the great length of the claws of the third and fourth toes in the same limb. The
molar teeth are more like those of the voles than in the case of the true lemmings,
but the first of these teeth in the upper jaw is peculiar in having seven distinct
prism.s. The banded lemming is so variable in coloi’ation as almost to defy descrip-
tion. It may be said, however, in general that the fur of the upper-parts presents
a kind of “ watered ” appearance, owing to the intimate mingling of chestnut, rufous,
black, grey, and tawnj’-; the under-parts being leaden-grey. Usually a more or
less distinct black line runs along the back from the muzzle to the tail ; while there
may be a greyish collar on the nape of the neck.

The habits of the banded lemming are probably very similar to

Habits. . “ ^ . .

those of the other species, although it does not undertake similar

periodical migrations to the same extent. Baron Nordenskibld states that there

are no lemmings in Spitzbergen, but that they must be exceedingly numerous at

certain seasons in Novaia Zemlia, where, in early summei’, the grass is seen to

be traversed in all directions by the tracks made by these animals beneath the

snow.

THE MOUSE TRIBE.

137

It IS interestinf^ to note that remains of both the iSorwetrian and
Possil Lemmings. i 1 , • , , .

the banded lemming have been found in the Pleistocene deposits or

Britain, apparently indicating the prevalence of different climatic conditions to those

of the present age.

The Musquash.

Genus Fiber.

The musquash, or musk-rat (Fiber zibet) l icuF), is a North American species,
considerably exceeding in size all other members of the vole subfamily.
Although resembling a vole in its general external appearance, as well as in the
structure of its molar teeth and skull, the musquash differs by its compressed and

THE JIUSQU.^.SH iiat. size).

proportionately longer tail, of which the length is nearly equal to that of the body,
exclusive of the head. In addition to its compressed form, the tail is also char-
acterised by being nearly naked, and covered with scales. The feet, which are
partially webbed, differ from those of the voles in having their soles entirely
naked.

The musquash is a massively-built animal, with the head and body attaining
a length of about a foot, and the tail about 10 inches. The head is unusually wide
and not separated from the body bj^ any distinctly constricted neck ; while the eyes
are relatively small, and the ears scarcely project above the fur. With the exception
of the small area immediately surrounding the nostrils, the muzzle is completely
covered with hair. The limbs are short, with the first toe rudimentary in the front
pair, although well developed in the hinder. The compressed form of the tail is
increased by the presence of a line of hairs on both its upper and lower surfaces.
The fur, of which the general colour is blackish brown, passing into grey on the
muzzle and under-parts, has the soft and velvety texture of that of the beaver. It

138

RODENTS.

is, however, mostly shorter than in the latter, although on the back and flanks there
are interspersed a number of longer bristle-like hairs.

Distribution The geographical range of the musquash is large, extending from

and Habits. so-called barren grounds of Arctic America to the genial climate
of the Rio Grande, while it also reaches from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

Musk-rats are thoroughly adapted for an aquatic life, and generally frequent
ponds, swamps, and sluggish streams. Although their food consists mainly of the
roots of grasses and water-plants, they consume considerable quantities of river
mussels ; they will likewise catch and eat fish, while they are said at times to
devour the flesh of such individuals of their own species as they may find dead, or
wounded and helpless. Occasionally they wander considerable distances from the
water ; and Dr. Merriam relates an instance where two of these creatures were
discovered comfortably ensconced beneath the hearthstone of a room.

The musquash is an excellent diver, being able to remain below the surface of
the water for a considerable time. It is much less strictly nocturnal in habits than
the beaver, and may be frequently observed swimming about in broad daylight,
more especially if the sky be overcast. In leaping into the water to dive, it
makes a loud noise by striking the flat tail against the surface. The long burrow
always has its entrance beneath the surface of the water, from which it inclines
upwards in the bank for a distance of from 10 to 15 feet, when it expands into a
large chamber, in which may be a nest. Usually one or more galleries lead from
this chamber further into the bank. In certain districts where the water is deep
these animals in the autumn sometimes collect large heaps of vegetable matter in
the form of haycocks. Such heaps are known as “ musk-rat huts ” or “ houses.”
After mentioning that some of those built in the water attain enormous dimensions,
Dr. IMerriam observes that “the summit of the structure is commonly high enough
out of water to admit of an air-chamber within, which communicates with the out-
side world by means of a hole through the centre of the mass, the enti’ance or
entrances being under water. Many of the houses contain no mud or sticks, but
consist wholly of balls and knots of roots and swamp-gras.ses. It seems clear that
the animals make no attempt to construct a dwelling of any particular shape, but
merely heap the mateilals together without plan or ordei’, the resulting mound
natui’ally assuming, in a general way, the form of a flattened cone. . . . The
materials of which the hut are composed, it will be observed, are such as serve as
food for the animals during the long winters ; hence the musk-rat’s house is in
reality a storehouse, which he devours piecemeal as the winter advances.”

The nest is usually placed in a burrow in the bank, although occasionally in
the aforesaid hut. Here from five to nine blind and naked young are produced at
a birth, and it is reported that there may be as many as three litters in the course
of a season.

Although not of much value, the fur of the musquash is much
used, both in America and Europe. According to Mr. Poland, from
three to four million skins come into the market annually ; the Hudson’s Bay
Company alone having sold over half a million in 1891. Dr. Merriam states that
although the flesh of the musquash is red and rather flabby, yet that, failing other
meat, it is eatable.

THE MOUSE TRIBE.

^39

The Mole-Like Voles.

Genera Ellohius and Siphneus.

Certain representatives of the vole group are specially adapted for a sub-
terranean mole-like life, and, therefore, differ considerably from the other forms,
although they retain the ordinary type of molar teeth. In form they are
characterised by the blunt and rounded head passing imperceptibly into the
cylindrical mole-like body, the absence of external ears, the short tail and limbs,
and the broad feet, each provided with live claws. The incisor teeth project
considerably, and their enamel is usually white, instead of having the yellow
or orange tinge so prevalent among the ordinary voles.

These mole-like voles, of which there are but few species, are mainly confined
to Central and Northern Asia, although one species ranges as far south as
Afghanistan and Quetta, and another extends into Eastern Europe. They are
divided into two genera, according as to whether the claws of the fore-feet
are short or long; Ellohius including the short-clawed and Siphneus the long-
clawed species. The so-called Quetta vole {E. fuscicapillus) is about 5 inches in
total length, of which half an inch is occupied by the tail. It is brownish white
above, with the exception of the greyish brown head, while the under-parts, feet,
and tail are white ; the fur being long and soft. It is reported to construct
horizontal galleries in the ground, with heaps of earth thrown up at intervals,
after the fashion of the mole.

The Rats and Mice.

Genus Mus.

The true rats and mice, together with certain allied forms referred to distinct
genei’a, are the representatives of the last subfamily of the Muridce, which is
exclusively confined to the Old World. They are primarily characterised by the
crowns of the unworn upper molar teeth carrying a number of tubercles arranged
in three longitudinal rows ; these teeth always having distinct roots. When worn
by use, the crowns of the molars exhibit transverse bands of enamel. The tail is
always long and scaly, and in most cases almost destitute of hairs. Moreover,
the ears are large, and the eyes bright and prominent, while the muzzle is sharply
pointed, and the build light and elegant. Their movements are quick, active, and
graceful, and their coloi’ation is in most cases uniform and sombre, as would
naturally be expected from the nocturnal and buri’owing habits of the majority
of the species.

The Murine subfamily includes a considerable number of species, by far the
greater majority of which are comprised in the genus That genus is chai’acter-

ised by the incisor teeth being smooth, and the molars distinctly tuberculated.
The ears and eyes are proportionately large, and the tip of the muzzle is naked,
M'hile the tail is long and scaly. The first toe of the fore-foot has a short nail in
lieu of a claw ; and the fur is soft, although in some cases intermingled with

140

RODENTS.

spines. The genus is the largest in the wliole inaminalian class, comprising not
far short of a hundred and fifty species, which are di.stributed over the whole of
the Old \\ orld with the exception of Madagascar ; some of these, by human aid,
having now acquired a cosmopolitan range. With such a multitude of S2:»ecies, it
is of course only possible to allude to a few of the more interesting.

Brown Rat brown or, as it is often inappropriately called, the Norway rat

(dA decumanus), offers one of the most remarkable instances of a
successful usurpation to be foinid in the animal kingdom ; this creature having
ousted the black rat from most parts of England and a large area on the Continent.
So far as can be ascertained, its original home appears to have been Western China,
from whence it gradually travelled westward to continental Europe, finally reach-

THE BROWN RAT (h uat. size).

ing tlie shores of the British Islands by tlie involuntary aid of ships. Its westerly
migration was, however, by no means limited to Europe, as it has been carried by
vessels aci'O.ss the Atlantic, and is now as abundant in many parts of North
America as it is in the Old World. The migration of the rat into Russia is known
to have taken place about 1727, in which j’ear large troops of these animals
crossed the Volga from Central Asia, and made their way westwards. In Paris it
appeared about the middle of the eighteenth century, and it is generally supposed
to have first reached England in 1730.

In appearance the brown rat is unfortunately too well known to need much
description, although it is advisable to point out the features by which it is
distinguished from its cousin the black rat. In form this species is characterised
by its heavy build, massive blunt muzzle, comparatively small ears, and relatively
short tail ; tlie length of the tail being always less than that of the head and

THE MOUSE TRIBE.

141

body (8 to 9 inches), and usually not exceeding that of the body alone. The colour
of the upper-parts is usually greyish brown, while the under surface is white ; but
black varieties are often met with, which in Ireland have been re<rarded as indicat-
ing a distinct species.

The brown rat is a far more powerful animal than the black
species, which has not a chance against its stronger rival, although
curiously enough it is stated that on some ships the two kinds may be found
living together. The following anecdote, related by the late Mr. Frank Buckland,
illustrates in a striking manner the superior power and at the same time the
extreme ferocity of the brown rat. “ A London rat-catcher,” writes the narrator,
“shut up together in a cage the result of his day’s work, consisting of several
dozen rats, of both species, and put them away carefully for the night, their
intended fate being to afford sport for his employer’s dogs the next morning.
What was his astonishment when he came to fetch them, to find none but brown
rats remaining ! these cannibals having cruelly devoured all their sable brethren.”

Rats are practically omnivorous in their diet, devouring every kind of human
food with avidity, and inflicting untold damage on the hen-roost, the dove-cot, and
the rabbit-warren. Their devastations to corn -ricks, or to grain stored in
insufficiently protected granaries, are too well known to need more than passing
mention. Not only will they, as in the instance recorded above, prey on their
cousin the black rat, but they will likewise slay and devour members of their own
kind which have been caught in traps or otherwise disabled. In robbing poultry-
houses, it is a well-ascertained fact that rats will convey the eggs in an unbroken
condition for considerable distances, although it is not yet ascertained how this
difficult feat is accomplished. The partiality of these animals for fish is well
known, but that they will occasionally catch young eels for themselves has been only
recently discovered. Mi’. Harting adds that snails — both land and fresh-water —
also form a portion of their diet ; while on the sea-coast they will eat prawns and
other crustaceans.

The prolific nature of the brown rat is little short of marvellous, and
thoroughly accounts for its enormous numbers when in favourable situations.
Several litters are produced annually, each of which generally contains from eight
to ten, and sometimes as many as twelve or fourteen young ; and a female rat will
breed when only half-grown, although the number of its progeny is then but three
or four at a birth. When these animals obtain access to small islands inhabited by
sea-birds or rabbits, the abundant food soon leads to a prodigious increase in their
nunffiers ; but sooner or later they practically exterminate the indigenous
inhabitants, and then have to seek a more precarious livelihood by preying upon
the crustaceans and molluscs on the shores. Some years ago the number of rats
in the slaughter-houses around Paris was so great, that as many as 2650 were
killed in a single night, and over 16,000 within a month.

Rats, impelled by scarcity of provisions, at times make migrations in large
bodies — generally, or always during the night ; and on such journeys they will
not hesitate to plunge boldly into and swim over such rivers as may come in their
way ; and it is related that instances have occurred of their being suddenly
hemmed in during such voyages by a rapid formation of ice. Some years ago the

142

RODENTS.

rats that frequented the London Zoological Gardens were in the habit of regularly

swimming to and fro across the Regent’s Canal. When brought to bay, the

ferocity with which a rat will defend itself against a human or canine foe, is

known to most persons. When pressed by hunger, rats will, however, occasionally

attack human beings without provocation ; and it is on record that an unfortunate

man on entering a coal-pit which had been closed for some time, was actually

killed and devoured by a starving host of rats.

The black rat (M. rattus) is smaller and more elegantly built
Bld.ck Ra.t ^ o t/

than the brown, with a longer and thinner tail ; the length of the head

and body being about 7 inches, while that of the tail varies from 8 to 9 inches.

Its snout, moreover, is longer and more slender, projecting to a greater distance

THE BLACK RAT (j nat. size).

beyond the lower jaw, while its ears are considerably largei'. In Europe the black
rat, as its name implies, generally has fur of a deep bluish black colour ; but in
India and other parts of the East there are varieties, in one of which the tint is
usually brown above and white below, while in a second the hue is rufous or
yellowish brown, and spines are mingled with the fur. When domesticated, white
and pied varieties are readily produced ; and most of the rats thus coloured which
are exhibited by showmen, belong to this species. In one of the Indian varieties
the length of the head and body is not more than 5 inches, while in another it
reaches 8 inches.

Distribution. The black rat is very commonly spoken of as the indigenous

and Habits. British species ; this, however, is incorrect, as this rat was also intro-
duced from the East, although at a much earlier date than its brown cousin. The
exact date of its arrival in Europe cannot, however, now be determined, although
it is known to have existed on the Continent in the thirteenth century. At the

THE MOUSE TRIBE.

143

present ilay the European variety of tliis species is almost cosmopolitan ; hut the
brown ami rufous varieties extend from Northern Africa through India to Burma,
and are doubtless indigenous to both these regions.

The black rat, in addition to its inferior size, is a far less ferocious animal
than the brown species, which accounts for the ease with which it has been
conquered by the latter. In England it is now comparatively rare — the Isle of
Dogs being one of its last strongholds ; but it is more common in certain parts of
the Continent. In Europe its habits are generally very similar to those of the
brown rat; but in India it frequently ascends trees, where it makes its nests
among the branches ; while in some of the islands of the tro])ics it lives exclusively
in the crowns of the cocoanut palm, upon the fruit of which it feeds.

THE HOUSE MOUSE (f nat. size).

In Britain, from the absence of any species of intermediate size.
House Mouse. . . 1 ^ i

it IS ea.sy to distinguish between the rats, or larger species of the

genus, and the smaller mice ; but in other countries it is impossible to draw any
line of distinction, and the two terms must consequently be employed in a some-
what arbitrary manner. The typical representative of the mice is the common
house mouse {M. musculus), which is now of almost world-wide distribution,
although probably originally a native of Asia. The characteristic features of this
.species are its relatively large ears, long tail, and nearly uniform brownish colora-
tion, which is only slightly paler below than above.

The distinctive peculiarity of this species is its partiality for hiiman habitations
and their neighbourhood ; its tastes being practically omnivorous, although its

144

RODENTS.

chief food consists of grain and other vegetable articles of human consumption.
It is noteworthy that in corn-stacks rats and mice live in perfect harmony together,
without any trace of that mutual antipathy existing between the brown and the
black rat. This mouse is nearly as prolific as the brown rat, producing from thi’ee
to five litters in a year, each of which includes from four to eight blind young. In
habits, the house mouse is more active than most of its kindred, being able to
ascend vertical walls with ease, and also having the j^ower of springing to
considerable distances. In domestication, white and pied breeds of this species
are common.

This mouse exhibits a peculiar susceptibility to musical sounds, to which it
listens with marked attention. Occasionally, in common with other members of
the family, individuals of this species are endowed with considerable vocal powers.
A lady writes that although the song of one of these “ singing-mice ” was not very
effective, yet it was a distinct vocal effort. Sometimes the mouse in her
possession “ would run up an octave, and end with a decided attempt at a tx'ill.
Sometimes it would try to trill up all the notes. An octave seemed to be about its
range. I could distinctly see the expansion and vibration of its throat and chest
as one can in a song-bird. Its favourite position when singing was an erect one,
standing: on its hind-feet.”

Long-Tailed Since the term “ field mice ” is popularly applied to the voles as

Field Mouse. -vyeP as to the true mice, it is necessaiy to prefix the epithet “ long-
tailed ” to the common British species {M. sylvaticiis) of the present genus. This
field mouse is rather larger than the field vole, from which it can be distinguished
at a glance by its lighter build, longer and more pointed muzzle, much larger ears,
and greatly elongated tail, which is nearly equal in length to the head and body.
The general colour of the fur is reddish grey above, and whitish beneath, with a
spot of light bi’own on the chest. This species is common in many parts of England,
and is also widely distributed over the temperate regions of Europe, while eastwards
it is replaced by the closely allied Persian field mouse, ranging from Persia over a
large portion of Central Asia.

This held mouse is generally found in England in gardens, hedgerows, and
cornhelds, but in winter it sometimes takes shelter in houses, while it also frequents
corn-stacks, although in less numbers than the house mouse. It commonly burrows
in the ground, and lays up large stores of food for winter use ; whole handfuls of
corn, nuts, or seeds being sometimes discovered in these subterranean retreats.
Since these mice are exceedingly prolihc, the amount of damage they sometimes
do to cornhelds and gardens is almost incalculable ; and additional harm is fre-
quently effected by pigs in their search after the concealed hordes of these little
Rodents.

The elegant little creature of which a group is represented in the
Harvest Mouse. ® ^

coloured Plate is the most beautiful, and also almost tbe smallest

of the British mammals ; the one inferior to it in point of size being the pigmy
shrew. The harvest mouse (ilT. mhiutus), as the creature is called, was hrst dis-
covered in England by Gilbert White of Selborne, and is so small that its weight is
only about one-sixth of an ounce ; the total length being about 4| inches, of which
nearly one-half is taken up by the tail. The ears and tail are proportionately

HARVEST MOUSE.

lAinirri

THE MOUSE TRIBE.

145

rather small ; and the colour of the fur is yellowish red above and white
beneath.

The harvest-mouse, although local, is widely distributed in the British Islands,
and extends over the great part of Europe, ranging eastwards through Kussia into
Siberia, and occurring as far south as the north of Italy. This species usually keeps
far away from human habitations, frequenting cornfields and pastures ; but is often
carried home with corn-sheaves, and then spends the winter in the rick where they
are deposited. In the latter situations, the harvest-mouse remains active throughout
the year; but when living in the open fields it constructs a burrow in which to pass
the winter months in a state of torpor. The summer nest is a globular structure of
grass and leaves suspended among the coni-stalks at some distance from the ground ;

THE BAUBARY MOUSE (nat. size).

and when ascending or descending the stems to reach this nest, or in search of food,
the little creatures are much aided by their prehensile tails. Xo better description
of this nest exists than the one given by White, which although often quoted will
bear one more repetition. He writes that the structure was “ most artificial!}’
platted, and composed of the blades of wheat ; perfectly round and about the size
of a cricket ball, with the aperture so ingeniously closed, that there was no discover-
ing to what part it belonged. It was so compact and well filled that it would roll
across the table without being discomposed, though it contained eight little mice that
were naked and blind.” The number in a litter varies from five to eight or nine,
and it is probable that there are several broods in the course of a summer. The
numbers of the species are, however, kept down by the hosts of predaceous birds
and small carnivorous mammals that make it their prey. Like the long-tailed field-
mouse, the present species is partly insectivorous in its diet. Mr. Harting states
that he has several times kept harvest-mice in captivity, and succeeded in rearing

VOL. III. — 10

146

RODENTS.

other Species.

their young to maturity. He describes them as charming little pets, allowing
themselves to be handled without making any attempts to bite, and readily taking
food from the hand.

The only other species of the genus Mils that can be noticed here
are two, one of which is remarkable for its coloration, and the other
on account of its habits. The Barbary striped mouse (M. harharus) is the most
strikingly coloured member of the group, the ground-colour of the fur of the upper-
parts being a yellowish brown, upon which are a number of longitudinal blackish
brown stripes ; the under-parts being pure white. This mouse inhabits Northern
and Central Africa, being e.specially common in the Atlas Mountains, and also occum
in the desert regions of the interior as far as Kordofan. There appears to be

nothing worthy of special note in its habits.

The Australian brown-footed rat (M. fiiscipes) is remarkable as being nearly
or quite as aquatic in its habits as the watei’-vole.

The Bandicoot-Rats
Genus Nesocia.

The bandicoot-rats of Southern Asia differ from ordinary rats in the much
gi’eater width of their incisor and molar teeth, and also by the tubercles on the
crowns of the latter being so completely connected as to form transverse ridges.
Members of the genus extend from Palestine to Formosa, and from Ceylon to Central
Asia ; but they are most abundant in India and the adjacent region.s. The great
Indian bandicoot-rat {Nesocia handicota) is the largest member of the subfamily,
measuring from 12 to 15 inches from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail,
and wei<rhing: between 2h and 3 lbs. It is common in cultivated districts and near
human dwellings in most parts of India, although unknown in Lower Bengal. It
is a burrower, like other species of the same genus, some of which turn up mounds
of earth like mole-hills. When disturbed, this rat utters grunts like a pig ; but it
has far less pluck than the brown rat, and makes but a poor fight against a dog.

Other Genera.

There are about eleven other genera belonging to this family, of which a few
of the more interesting may be briefly noticed.

The bush-rats (Golunda) are represented by one Indian and one
African species, and are distingui.shed by the presence of a groove on
the front of the upper incisor teeth. The length of the head and body in the
Indian species {G. ellioti) is about inches, and that of the tail half an inch less.

The spiny mice (Acomys), of which there are several species of
the approximate size of the house-mouse, are peculiar in having the
liinder portion of the back covered with thick, rigid, grooved spines in lieu of hair,
and thus look almo.st like minute hedgehogs. They are desert-loving creatures,
ranging from Syria to Eastern Africa as far south as Mozambique, while a single
example of one of the species has been found in Sind.

Bush-Rats.

Spiny Mice.

MOLE-RATS.

147

J boa Rats sandy deserts of Australia are inhabited by cei'tain elegant

representatives of the present group distinguislied by their elongated
hind-limbs, long ears and tail, and general jerboa-like appearance. Indeed, these
jerboa-rats {Hiqxdotis) seem to take the place of the true jerboas in the regions
they inhabit.

Lichtenstein’s A peculiar species from Tasmania, known as Lichtenstein’s rat
{Ma.^^tacomys), differs from ordinary rats in the great width of the
molar teeth, and also by the circumstance that the female has but four teats. It
somewhat resembles the water-vole in size and form, although the body is clothed
with longer and softer fur.

The Mole-Kats.

Family Spalacid.^.

The strange-looking creature shown in the illustration on p. 148 is the
typical representative of a small family of Old World Rodents, all of which are
adapted for a purely subteri’anean mole -like life. Except for their large and
projecting incisor teeth, which at once proclaim them members of the Rodent
order, the mole-rats have a general mole-like appearance, their eyes and external
ears being small or x'udimentary, the limbs short and provided with large and
powerful claws, and the tail usually short or practically wanting, while the body
is cylindrical and not marked off from the head by any distinct neck. Their molar
teeth are furnished with roots, and have I’e-entering folds of enamel on their crowns,
and premolars may or may not be present. It may be remarked here that the
assumption of mole-like habits and a more or less mole-like bodily form is common
to several groups of smaller mammals. Thus, among the Insectivores, we have the
true moles and the Cape golden mole ; while in the Rodents we find mole-like
forms in the mole-voles in the present family, and also in the South American
tucutuco, belonging to the family Octodontidca, described in the next chapter.
The marsupial mole of Australia presents us with an example of the Pouched
Mammals, having a similar form and mode of life.

The great mole-rat {Spalax typhlus), which is the only repre-
sentative of its genus, is characterised by the absence of premolar
teeth, by the minute eyes being completely covered with skin, and the rudimental
wart-like ears. The fur is soft, and so arranged as to be reversible, by which
means the movements of the animal in its burrow are much facilitated. The
general colour is yellowish brown tinged with ashy grey above, and ashy grey,
mingled with spots and flecks of white, beneath. This species inhabits South-
Eastern Europe, whence it extends eastwards to Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia,
and also occurs in Lower Egypt.

The great mole-rat constructs tunnels very much resembling
those of the mole, their course being marked by heaps of earth thrown
out at intervals. But while the mole constructs its lengthy burrows for the sake
of feeding upon earth-worms, the present species and its allies make their sub-
iterranean journeys in search of bulbs and roots. In Egypt, according to Dr. J.

Great Mole-Rat.

Habits.

148

RODENTS.

Anderson, the burro\v:i of the inoic-rat ai’e made in sandy soil containing quantities
of bulbs of asphodels and hyacinths, ujion which the creature feeds. The tunnels
are of great extent and complexity, some of the passages being as much as thirt}'
or forty yards in length, and are generally about eighteen inches below the surface.
In certain spots the boidngs descend, however, to a depth of some four feet, and
here some of them terminate in chambers packed full of bulbs, while others open
out into sleeping apartments, from which secondary passages again radiate. Dr.
Anderson states that “ the tunnels ai'e perfectly smooth and cylindrical, and in
digging through the soil above them numerous bulbs of the same kind as those
found in the storehouse were observed.” When taken from its burrow, the first
instinct of the animal is to dig headlong into the soil ; and when underground it is
able to move with equal facility either backwards or forwards.

In Northern India, Tibet, China, Burma, and the Malayan region,
Bamboo-Rats. . ’ ^ .

as well as in Abyssinia, the family is represented by a group of species,

commonly known as bamboo-rats (Rhizomys), which differ from the preceding by

THE GREAT MOLE-RAT {h nat. size).

the minute eyes not being covered with skin, as well as by the presence of small
external naked ears, and of a short tail partially covered with hair. The bay
bamboo-rat (R. hadius), ranging from the Eastern Himalaya to Siam, is one of the
best known representatives of this genus, and attains a length of from 7 to 9 inches,
exclusive of the tail, which is about 2h more. This species generally makes its
burrows among tall rank grass, but sometimes at the roots of trees, and in their
construction uses its teeth as well as its claws. There is some doubt whether these
animals drive tunnels in search of roots, as they are known to issue forth at night
in order to feed on the young shoots of grass, and probably bamboo, but it is
generally believ^ed that they also eat roots. W hen above ground, they move
slowly, and they are said to be so fearless, or stupid, as to allow themselves

.\[OLE-RATS.

149

to be caiiglit witliout resistance, although when taken they bite savagely and
severely. From thi’ee to four young are produced at a birth. The hill-tribes of
Burma are in the habit of eatint; the flesh of these animals. The Sumatran bamboo-
rat {li. siimatrensis), ranging from Tenasserim to Siam, is a much larger species,
measuring from 15 to ID inches in length, exclusive of the tail. Remains of an
extinct bamboo-rat occur in the Pliocene rocks of the Siwalik Hills at the foot of
the Himalaya.

Cape Mole-Rats.

Africa, south of the Sahara, is the habitat of several types of mole-
rats differing from these above mentioned in the formation of the lower

jaw, and also by the general presence of premolar teeth. At the Cape there are
two species, one of which (Bathyerc/iis 'tiuiritimus) is nearly a foot in length, with
the upper incisor teeth grooved, no external ears, and extremely powerful claws ;
the silky hair being of a light greyish brown colour. This second species (Georychus
capensis) is about half the size of the former, with smooth upper incisors, and
w'eaker claw.s. The late Prof. Moseley states that the strand-mole (Bathyergus),
which is always found on the flats near the shore, constructs numbers of tunnels
and hillocks, the former of which are large enough to easily admit the hand and
arm. On the other hand, the runs of the smaller species are generally constructed
on higher ground, although sometimes with those of the .so-called strand-mole.
The hillocks constructed by the latter are generally about a foot in height ; those
freshly made being of a dark colour. Prof. Moseley writes that “ one has not long
to watch, standing a few yards ofl‘, before the fresh heap is seen to heave up, three
or four times in succession, as the strand-mole foi’ces freshly .scooped-out earth up
into it from below. I tried at first shooting into the heap as it w^as thus heaving,
in the hope of getting the mole, but never wdth any success. In order to shoot the
workei’, the earth should be quickly thrown back from the fresh heap, and the hole
laid open to the air. One then only has to retire about ten paces and wait patiently.
The sti’and-mole does not like the fresh air, and in the course of five minutes or so
comes back to fill up the hole, but usually puts its head out for a moment first to
find what’s up, though it certainly cannot see far with its minute eyes, wdiich are
not bigger than the heads of carpet-pins, the whole eyeball when extracted being
not bigger than a tenth of an inch in diameter.” When trapped, the animal bites
the air fiercely with its enormous front teeth, at the same time uttering a half-
snarling, half-growling noise.

Although there is but a single species of Bathyergus, there are several of
Georychus in different pai'ts of Africa. In addition to these there is an allied form,
known as Myoscalops, characterised by having usually three pairs of premolar teeth
in each jaw, in addition to the three molars.

The sandy deserts of Somaliland and Shoa are inhabited by two
Naked Sand-Rats. i , ...

members of the present family, which are some of the most extra-
ordinary-looking little creatures in exi.stence. In size the naked sand-rats {Hetero-
cephalus) may be compai'ed to a common mouse, but in appearance they are likened
by Mr. O. Thomas, on account of their nearly naked skin, small eyes, and peculiar
physiognomy, to tiny hairless puppies. They have small heads, with projecting
incisor teeth, and no external ears, while the limbs and tail are of moderate length.
The eyes ai’e almo.st functionless ; and, although the feet are fringed with hairs.

15°

RODENTS.

the yellowish skin is almost naked, save for a few sparsely scattered hairs. One of
the two species has three pairs of molar teeth in each jaw, while in the other there
are but two.

These sand-rats are entirely subterranean in their habits. Mr. Lort Phillips
states they throw up “ groups of miniature craters, which exactly represent
volcanoes in active eruption. When the little beasts were at work I used frequently
to watch them, and found that the loose eaiTh from their excavations was brought
to the bottom of the crater, and sent with great force into the air in a succession of
rapid jerks, but they themselves never venture forth from the shelter of their
burrows.”

The American Pouched Rats.

Family Geomyid^.

The possession of large cheek -pouches lined with hair, which open externally
to the mouth at the lower edges of the cheeks, forms the distinctive peculiarity of
a family of rat-like Rodents confined to the New World. The forms included in
the family vary con.siderably in external appearance and habits ; its larger and
burrowing representatives being known as pocket -gophers, while the smaller
terrestrial types are respectively termed kangaroo -rats and pocket -mice. In
addition to three pairs of molar teeth with transverse plates of enamel on their
crowns, and which may or may not be rooted, all these Rodents have a single pair
of premolar teeth in each jaw. Their skulls are characterised by the great twisting
of each branch of the lower jaw, and likewise by the forward extension of the
cheek-bone.

Pocket-Gophers.

Genera Geomys and Thomomys.

The pocket-gophers include large rat-like species, with burrowing habits, and
are characterised by their small eyes, rudimental external ears, and the equality
in length of their comparatively short limbs. The whole of them are confined to
North and Central America.

Common Pocket- The common pocket-gopher (Geomys hursarius) is selected for
Gopher. illu.stration as the best known representative of the group, and as
being the type of the genus Geomys, characterised by the presence of a deep groove
on each of the broad upper incisor teeth. This species attains a length of from 7
to 8 inches from the muzzle to the root of the tail ; while the hairy tail itself
varies from 2 to 3 inches. The fur is of a soft and mole-like texture ; and of a
beautiful reddish brown colour above, becoming greyish beneath, while on the feet,
and generally also on the tail, it is white.

This pocket-gopher is an inhabitant of the extensive plains of the valley of
the IMississippi and its tributaries, extending somewhat beyond these limits to the
northwanls. Here it lives a mole-like life, constructing subterranean tunnels and
throwing up at intervals conical heaps of earth, after the fashion of the “ little
gentleman in black velvet.” The tunnels generally run at a distance of about a

AMERICAN rO UCHED RA TS. 1 5 1

foot below the surface ; but sometimes, as when passing beneatli a garden path,
they descend deeper. They are driven for the purpose of obtaining access to the
roots of plants on which these animals chiefly subsist. The tunnels generally com-
municate with one another by cross-passages; and in a certain spot — generally
beneath the roots of some large tree — the animal sinks a deep shaft, at the termina-
tion of which is constructed a dwelling-chambei’. This chamber is generally as
much as from four to five feet below the surface, and is entei’ed by a tortuous
passage. It is of large size, and generally lined with soft grass, upon which the
owner reposes. The nest of the female is constructed in a similar chamber, which

THE COMMON i’OCKET-GOPHEK (| Hat. size).

is, however, encircled by a horizontal gallery, after the manner of the residential
chamber of the mole. Here in the latter part of March or beginning of April are
produced from five to seven young ; their nest consisting partly of soft fur from the
body of the mother. Generally a passage proceeds from one side of the nest-
chamber to a store-chamber, which is filled with roots, nuts, and seeds — in cultivated
districts potatoes often forming a large proportion of its contents. The food is
said to be carried to this storehouse in the capacious cheek-pouches of the animal.
Usually the pocket-gopher works at its tunnels or domicile from about four to ten
o’clock in the morning, during which time it excavates from twelve to twenty feet
of tunnelling, and will throw up from two to five hillocks. Other .species of pocket-
gophers belonging to this genus are found in the Southern United States, Mexico,
and Central America.

R0DE2\^TS.

Northern Pocket- The northern pocket-gopher {Thoinmnys talpoides) is the best
Gopher. known representative of a second genus, containing at least two
species, and distinguished by the absence of grooves in the upper incisor teeth.
This species measures from 6 to 8 inches in length, and the tail some 3 inches
more ; while its general colour is very similar to that of the brown rat. The
animals of this genus are distributed over the whole of Canada and North America
west of the Rocky Mountains. In habits they precisely resemble the preceding
genus.

The Kangaroo-Rats.

Genus Dipodomys.

The kangaroo-rats and their smaller allies the pocket-mice are utterly unlike
tlie ])ocket-gophers in external appearance, having elongated hind-limbs and tails.

THE COMMON KANGAEOO-RAT (J Hat. Size).

large eyes, and well-developed ears, while their habits resemble those of the
jerboas. They agree, however, with the former in the possession of large external
cheek-pouches, and their general internal structure, although their upper incisor
teeth are proportionately much narrower, and there are certain peculiarities in the
conformation of the skull.

Common The kangaroo-rats are characterised by the molar teeth being

Kangaroo-Rats, rootless, and their best known representative is the common species
{Dipodomys pltillipsi) depicted in our illustration, which inhabits the desert
regions to the eastward of the Rocky Mountains, and is characterised by the
posses.sion of four toes on the hind-feet. The head and body of this animal
measure a little over 4 inches in length ; while the tail is very long and tufted
at the end, and the general build of the creature light and elegant. The colour of

rOCKET-MICE.

^53

the U2^per-parts is mouse-brown, becoming tawny on the ilanks, while the under-
parts, the ti]) of the tail, and a sjiot above each eye are white or yellowish. In the
Rocky ^lountains the place of this species is taken by Ord’s kangaroo-rat {D. ordi),
which is a rather larger and more stoutly built animal, with a relatively shorter
tail, and having five toes on each hind foot.

The habits of the kangaroo-rats are very similar to those of the
jerboas, these Rodents frequenting the most arid di.stricts they can
find, and living in burrows made beneath rocks or stones. In such districts there
is no water, and but little vegetation save gigantic cactuses ; and it appears that
the food of the kangaroo-rats is formed by the roots, blades, and seeds of the
scanty grass that manages to struggle into existence. Probably the only water
that these creatures drink is that derived from dew collected on the cactuses.
Little or nothing seems to be known of their breeding-habiis.

The Pocket-Mice.

Genera Perognathus and Heteromys.

The tiny little Rodents known in the United States as pocket-mice are dis-
tinguished from the kangaroo-rats by the 2)resence of roots to their molar teeth,
and also by their inferior size — the whole length of the head and body seldom
exceeding 2 inches. The genus Perognathus, as rejiresented by the banded
pocket-mouse (P. fasciatiis), of North America, is characterised by the hair being
coarse and bristly; whereas in the genus Heteromys, of which rejiresentatives
extend as far southwards as Trinidad, the fur is mingled with a number of
flattened sjiines. Most of these animals are bi’ownish above and white beneath,
with a tawny stripe on the flanks dividing the dark from the light area.

CHAPTER XXXIIL

Rodents, — continued.

The Porcupine-Like Rodents.

Families OCTODONTID^, HystrigiDjE, etc.

The Rodents described in the present chapter, which include the whole of the
remaining members of the order, with the exception of the hares, rabbits, and
picas, are distinguished from all those described above by the conformation of the
lower jaw. In both the squirrel-like and mouse-like gi’oups, the angular, or lower
posterior process of the lower jaw, it will be remembered, takes its origin from the
inferior edge of the socket of the lower incisor teeth. In the present group, on

SKELETON OF THE CANE-RAT.

the other hand, this process originates from a prominent ridge on the outer side
of the jaw ; the position of this ridge being shown in the figure of the skeleton of
the cane-rat. All the members of the group are further characterised by the
stoutness of the zygomatic or cheek-arch of the skull ; and also by the bones of
the lower leg (tibia and fibula) being perfectly distinct from one another.

The porcupine-like Rodents are very characteristic of America, and more
especially of the southeim half of that continent. Thus the whole six families
into which the group is divided occur in America, while only two of them have
any Old World repi-esentatives. Of the latter, the porcupine family is almost
cosmopolitan ; while the Octodontidce are represented in the Old World only in
Africa, south of the Sahara. With the exception of one species, these Rodents
have one pair of premolar teeth in each jaw.

THE OCTODOHT TRIBE.

155

The Octodont Tribe.

Family OCTODONTIDJE.

As there is no collective English name for the various members of this
extensive family, we are compelled to adopt a modification of its Latin title.
These Rodents are more or less rat-like animals, characterised by having complete
collar-bones, and their molars marked by enamel-folds on both sides. In the skull
the jugal portion of the cheek-arch nearly always has an angle on its lower edge.
The feet, which are armed with long curved claws, generally have five toes. The
teats are placed high up on the sides of the body ; the ears are shoi’t and but
thinly haired ; while the tail, which varies greatly in length, may be either clothed
with short hair, or scaly. With the exception of a few African forms, and others
from the West Indies, this family is characteristic of South America.

The Gundi.

Genus Ctenodactylus.

One of the most remarkable of the African representatives of the family is
the gundi (Ctenodactylus gundi) from the regions bordering the Sahara, chai'acter-
ised by the two inner toes of the hind-feet being furnished with a horny comb and
bristles, which are employed in cleaning the fui\ In size this animal may be
compared to a water-vole, with relatively long hind-legs. It has no premolar
teeth, the feet have only four toes each, the ears are small, and the tail is reduced
to a mere stump. The gundi inhabits rocky districts, and is diurnal ; its mode of
life being very similar to that of the jerboas.

In Somaliland the gundi is replaced by a closely allied species,
known as Pectinator spekei, distinguished by its moderately long and
bushy tail, and the presence of a small premolar tooth in each jaw.

Pectinator.

The Degu.

Genus Octodon.

The degu (0. degus), which is the typical representative of the family, is a species
inhabiting Chili and Peru, and distinguished from the last group by the feet having
five toes, without any comb-like appendages, in the hind-limb. The molar teeth are
alike in both jaws, and are simply indented on both sides by the folds of enamel.
In general form the degu is like a rat, and it is slightly inferior in size to the water-
vole ; the length of the head and body varying from to 8 inches, while the tail,
exclusive of the tuft at the end, measures about 4 inches. The fur is remarkable
for its softness, the eai’s are of moderate size, and the nearly naked tail terminates
in a distinct tuft. The general colour of the fur on the upper-parts is brownish
yellow, mottled with black, while the under-parts are yellowish, and the feet white ;
the tail is dusky above and whitish below, with the hair at the tip blackisli.

RODENTS.

The de^us are some of the commonest Rodents in Chili, and
Habits. . . ® . .

associate in large companies. They are generally found in hedges or

bushes, and in the neighbourhood of towns may frequently be observed running

across the high-roads, while they often resort to gardens and orchards, where they

commit considerable damage. Their burrows are constructed in hedge-banks or

under bushes, and those of the whole colony communicate more or less freely with

one another. When disturbed, they scamper oil’ at once to seek refuge in their

burrows, with their tails raised over their back.s. In many respects they resemble

squirrels in their habits, climbing trees with facility, and laying up stores of food

for winter use, although, owing to the mildness of the climate of the regions

they inhabit, they do not hiliernate. Their food usually con.sists of the varion.s

IIS'?#

TgE DEGU (§ nat. size).

plants growing round their burrows, supplemented in winter b}^ bark. It is
believed that two litters are produced annually, each containing five or six
young.

There are other species of Octodon inhabiting Chili and Bolivia ;

Habrocoma. . . . ^ ”

and in addition to these the latter country possesses two representa-
tives of the allied genus Hahrocoma, so named from the extreme softness of the
fur, which approaches that of the chinchilla. The habrocomas are about the size
of an ordinary rat, and distinguished by tbeir larger ears, the absence of a tuft to
the tail, and by the lower molar teeth being more complex than the upper one.s.
Another allied Rodent from the Southern Andes, known as Acoixoimys, is
distinguished by the enamel-folds of the molars meeting in the middle line. The
regions where these animals are found are buried in snow for several months of
the year.

THE OCTODOiXT TRIBE.

157

The Tucotucos.

Genus Ctenomys.

The tucotucos, of wliich there are several South. American species, are
characterised by their adaptation for a subterranean life. They have small and
ahno.st I'udiniental ears, small eyes, and short tails. Their inci.sor teeth are
extremely broad ; and their molars are rootless, with kidney-shaped crown.s. On
the fore-feet the curved claws ai’e longer than the toes ; while the hind-toes are
furnished with a number of bristles. The species of tucotuco vary in length from
8 to 12 inches, exclusive of the tail, which is about one-fourth as long again; and
the general colour of the soft fur is greyish, while the incisor teeth are red.

THE M.\GELLANIC TUCOTUCO (J liat. Size).

Distribution. There are four species of these animals, ranging from Brazil and

and Habits. Bolivia to the Straits of Magellan ; our figured example being the
Magellanic species {Ctenomys inagellanica). The name tucotuco is derived from the
peculiar cry of these animals, which, from their subterranean habits, are also termed
oculto. In many districts, especially where the soil is sandy, these Rodents are
found in large numbers ; whole tracts being frequently undermined by their long
and shallow burrows, of which the course is indicated by lines of hillocks. They
are nocturnal in their habits, feeding mainly upon the roots of plants, of which
they are saved to lay up a store. Mr. W. H. Hudson writes that on the Argentine
pampas wherever there is a stretch of sandy soil, or a range of sandhills, the
tucotuco is to be found ; “ not seen, but heard ; for all day long and all night
sounds its voice, resonant and loud, like a succession of blows from a hammer; as

RODENTS.

158

if a company of gnomes were toiling far down underfoot, beating on their anvils,

first with strong measured strokes, then with lighter and fastei’, and with a swing

and rhythm as if the little men were beating in time to some rude chant unheard

above the surface.” The tucotucos seem to be somewhat gregarious in their habits,

as several may be often taken from a single burrow.

Chili is the home of two species of Rodents known as cururo
Cururo. . ^

{Spalacojms), nearly allied to the last, but distinguished by their

rudimental cars. Somewhat curiously, another nearly related form (Petroinys

typicus) is found in South Africa, which differs from its American cousins by the

harshness of its fur, the shortness of the thumb, the rather bushy tail, and the

partially rooted molar teeth.

The Coypu.

Genus Myopotamus.

Widely different in its habits from the tucotuco is the coypu {Myopotamus
coypu) of South America, which is one of the largest members of the order,

THE COYPU (J nat. size).

attaining a length of from 20 inches to 2 feet, exclusive of the tail. It belongs to a
group of several genera distinguished from the preceding American examples by the
very harsh nature of the fur, and depth of the folds of enamel in the half-rooted
or rootless molars. Tlie coypu itself is characterised by the very large size of its
incisor teeth ; and by the upper molars having two folds of enamel on each side,
while in those of the lower jaw there are one external and three internal folds.
Tlie molars are partially rooted, and the last one is larger than either of the others.
The ears are of moderate size ; and the tail, which is scaly, Avith a thin coating of
short hairs, is about two-thirds the length of the head and body. Each of the feet

THE OCTODONT TRIBE.

159

lias five toes, Avhich in the hind-limb are connected by webs. The fur of the
coypu is long, but beneath there is a dense and soft under-fur. The colour of the
upper-parts is a mixture of dusky and brownish yellow, the sides and under-pai*ts
being pure brownish yellow, the tip of the muzzle and chin white, the feet dusky
brown, and a patch below each ear yellow.

Distribution. coypu is found in the rivers and lakes of South America, on

both sides of the Andes, from Chili and Peru to about the 48th parallel
of south latitude. In the Chonos Archipelago, according to Darwin, coypu
are found exclusively in the channels and bays separating the various small
islands.

In general appearance and habits the coypu is not unlike a
beaver, being thoroughly aquatic, and making its burrow in the banks
of the rivers and lakes it frequents. When, however, the banks are not sufficiently
high to allow of this, a platform-like nest is constructed among the reeds. The burrow
is generally three or four feet in depth, and expands at the end into a chamber of
some two feet in diameter. They are generally found in pairs, but in Argentina
the writer has seen them coming out in lai-ge parties in the evenings to swim and
sport in the water. Here they utter peculiarly mournful cries ; the females, at the
proper season, being each accompanied by some eight or nine offspring, which
endeavour to obtain a seat on their pai’ent’s back, those that are unable to attain this
position of security swimming behind. Although a first-rate swimmer, the coypu is
said not to be an adept at diving ; and its movements on land are always awkward
and ungainly. These animals usually select for their haunts the .stillest parts of
the rivers, lakes, or ponds ; and their food consists of the foliage, seeds, and roots
of the water-plants growing hard by. In the Chonos Archipelago, where they
make their burrows in the forest at some distance from the shore, the}^ are said,
however, to subsist partly on mollusc.s.

In Argentina Mr. Hudson states that at one time the coypu became very scarce
owing to the numbers killed for their fur. An enactment was then passed forbid-
ding the killing of these animals ; the result being that they “ increased and multi-
plied exceedingly, and, abandoning their aquatic habits, they became terrestrial and
migi’atoxy, and swarmed everywhere in seai’ch of food. Suddenly' a mysterious
malady fell on them, from which they quickly perished and became almost extinct.”
The under-fur of the coypu is an important article of commerce, the average
number of skins annually collected varying from three hundred thousand to five
hundred thousand. In Argentina the coypu is universally known as the nutria,
which is properly the Spanish name for the otter ; the same term being applied in
commerce to the fur.

The Hutias.

Genus Capromys.

The large Kodent known as the hutia-couga (C. pilorides), is one of a group of
four or five species confined to the West Indian Islands, where they appear to be
the only indigenous members of the order. They are all allied to the coypu, from
which they are distinguished by their arboreal habits and more rat-like appearance.

i6o

RODENTS.

as well as by certain structural peculiarities. Thus the incisor teeth are narrower
than in the latter, while the upper molars are characterised by one fold of enamel on
the inner side, and two on the outer side. The ear is relatively small, and the tail
generally of considerable length, thick, and sparsely haired. The hutia-couga, which
is the species represented in our tigure, is confined to Cuba, and is somewhat smaller
than the coypu, the length of the head and body being about 22 inches. The fin-
is very long and coarse, its general colour being a mixture of yellowish grey and
brown, becoming reddish brown on the back and loins, while beneath it is dusky
brownish grey, with a more or less marked yellow tinge. The paws are black, the

THE HUTIA-COCGA (J iiat. size).

ears dark, and the chest and a streak down the middle of the belly grey. Internally
this species is remarkable in that the liver is split up into a number of small lobules.
Another Cuban species is the hutia-carabali (C prehensilis), distinguished, among
other characters, by the tip of the tail being prehensile. In Jamaica there is the
short-tailed hutia (C. hrachyurus), while in the Bahamas the genus is represented
by Ingraham’s hutia (C. ingrahami).

The liutia-coutra inhabits dense forests, and is an expert climber.
Habits. . /

ascending trees both to avoid pursuit and in search of food. It sub-
sists mainly on fruits, leaves, and bark ; but it also eats the flesh of small animals,
particularly that of a kind of lizard. This species can be easily tamed ; and its
flesh is considered a delicacy by the natives of Cuba, who either hunt the creature
with dogs, or capture it by means of snares. The smaller hutia-carabali is said to
confine itself to the most remote districts of the forests, and to fre(pient the top-

THE O CTO DO NT TRIBE.

i6i

most branches of the trees. It is more shy and less easily tamed than the
tii*st species ; and, like the latter, tights fiercely in self-defence when attacked.
In one of the species, at least, there are but four teats in the female, from which
it may be inferred that the number of young in a litter is small. The nipples,
as in the coypu, are situated high up on the sides of the body ; and this seems
to disprove the suggestion that in the latter animal they are thus situated in
order that the young may be able to suckle while the parent is in the water.
In Hayti and Jamaica the hutias are also represented by a nearly allied rodent
known as Flagiodon oedium, distinguished by the extreme complexity of the
enamel-folds of the molar teeth, which in the upper jaw form a kind of zigzag
pattern.

Africa possesses a single representative of this group of the
family, known as the cane-rat {Aulacodus swinderianus), which is a
large species of burrowing habits, easily recognised by three deep grooves on each of

THE CANE-EAT (| Uat. size).

its broad red upper incisor teeth ; these grooves giving the name to the genus of
which this animal is the only representative. The molar teeth resemble those of
the hutias. The cane-rat attains a length of about 21 inches to the root of the
tail ; the tail measuring from to 8h inches. Its general appearance is rat-like,
with the fur very coarse, and the tail but sparsely haired. In the fore-feet the
thumb is rudimentary and the fifth toe small ; while in the hind-foot the first toe
is entirely wanting. The general colour of the fur is brown, richer in tint on the
back than on the flanks ; the chin and upper lip being whitish, while the throat is
a dirty yellow, and the under-parts pale brownish yellow. The feet are pencilled
with black and yellow. A full-grown male will weigh as much as 9 or 10 lbs.

VOL. III. — II

i62

RODENTS.

Tlie cane-rat has an extensive distribution in Africa, ranging from the Upper
Nile (where it is represented by a variety with partially- webbed hind-feet) through
Eastern and Central Africa to the Cape ; while on the western side it ranges as far
north as Guinea. In Guinea it is known to the natives as the yumba, while in
South-Easteni Africa it is termed the ivondue. In Sierra Leone it is said to
feed chiefly upon ground-nuts and roots, in search of which it digs in the soil,
while it also forms burrows for its residence. In South-Eastern Africa the habits
of these rodents appear to be somewhat different. For instance, Mr. W. H.
Drummond states that cane-rats “ do not form burrows of their own ; but when
forced out of the thick tangle of overgrown grass or reeds in which they
lie, a task by no means ea.sy of accomplishment, they take refuge in any hole
or crevice among rocks or stones, or in the deserted burrows of the ant-eater or
porcupine. They are not only destructive to a degree among sugar-cane, gnawing
down stem after stem, but most difficult to extirpate. In spots such as these, they
live in what fields happen to be lying fallow, which, being covered with an impene-
trable thicket of grass and weeds, offer them a secure retreat from which the}" can
nightly issue forth into the canes.” The cane-rat is largely hunted by the natives,
and in some cases by Europeans, for the sake of its flesh. Schweinfurth remarks that
its flesh “ is excellent when roasted ; it is rich, and without being sweet and insipid
like that of the hyrax, it is free from any unpleasant flavour. In (piality it is about
efpial to poultry, whilst in taste it may be described as being intermediate between
pork and veal.”

There are numerous other South American representatives of the
other Genera. . .

Octodonts. These are mostly smaller rat-like forms than the preceding,

with long cylindrical tails ; many of them being remarkable for the intermixture of
flattened lance-like spines with the fur. Some of the best known genera are Loncheres
and Ecliinomys, and these are mostly characterised by the possession of the above-
mentioned spines. The majority of the species of these two genera inhabit Guiana
and Brazil, but one species of Ecliinomys ranges into Central America. Most of them
are brown above and white beneath, but in some cases the white extends on to the
flanks, shouldei’s, and head, thus giving them somewhat the appearance of long-
tailed guinea-pigs. A third genus, Carterodon, of which there is but one Brazilian
species, is distinguished by a longitudinal groove on each upper incisor.

The Porcupines.

Family Hysteicid^-e.

The well-known porcupines, which have the widest geographical distribution
of any family of this section of the order, are distinguished from their allies by
the presence of a number of large (juill-like spines in the skin. Their build is stout
and massive ; and the fore and hind-limbs ai’e of subequal length. In the skull,
the region of the face is comparatively short and bi’oad ; while the cheek or jugal
bone in the zygomatic arch is devoid of the angle on its lower edge, distinctive of
most of the members of the pi’eceding family. The ’molar teeth are partly or
completely rooted with folds of enamel on each side. Porcupines derive their

PORCUPINES.

163

name from the French porc-epiu (s2)iny -pig), probably in allusion to their grunting
pig-like cries. They are common to both the Old and New Worlds ; although the
representatives of the group found in the two hemispheres constitute two distinct
subfamilies.

Canadian The common Canadian porcupine as) belongs to

Porcupine. ^ group confined to ^Vmerica, all the members of which are arboreal
in their habits, while most of them have prehensile tails. They are all characterised
by the absence of a cleft in the upper lip, by the naked soles of the feet being
covered by a number of tubercles, by the want of the first toe in the fore-foot, and
the presence of only three teats in the female, llieir molar teeth have complete
roots; and the collar-bones are fully developed. E. dorsatus ditfers fi'om its allies
in having a short and nonprehensile tail ; and also in the presence of live toes in the
hind-feet. It is a heavy and clumsily-built animal, with long bi’own hair, almost or
completely concealing
the short spines, which
are white with brown-
ish tips. The length of
the creature is about 2
feet, and its weight
from 15 to 20 lbs. The
limbs, neck, ears, and
muzzle are short ; the

ears being almost con- skeleton of porcupine.

cealed by the long bristly

hair at the sides of the head. The claws are very long and powerful ; and the tail
massive and almost four-sided in shape. The stout spines vary in length from less
than one inch to more than four inches in different parts of the body ; they cling
loosely to the skin, and are thus easily detached, and as they are slightly barbed at
the points they make their way completely through the flesh of any animal in which
they may become fixed. As in other members of the family, the quills, when the
animal is in repose, lie smoothly and are directed backwards ; but under the influ-
ence of excitement they can be erected by the aid of a sheet of muscle underlying
the skin. The Canadian porcupine extends in the country from which it takes its
name as far northwards as the limit of trees, while in the United States it extends
on the eastern side as far south as Virginia, and on the western coast from Alaska
to Arizona and New Mexico. Despite its heavy form and nonprehensile tail, it
is an adept at climbing, and spends the greater part of its time among the
branches of trees. Dr. Hart Merriam states that although largely nocturnal,
these animals may at times be seen abroad during daylight. Their lair is
usually made among the clefts of rocks, but sometimes in a hollow tree or heap
of bushes. Even in the cold climate of the Adirondacks, this porcupine, although
less active in winter, never hibernates. Dr. Merriam Avrites that when one of
these animals “ has selected and settled himself in a tree to his liking, he may not
leave it, day or night, until he has denuded it of the whole of its foliage. I have
seen many hemlocks thus completely stripped, not a green twig remaining, even
•on the smallest bough. It seems incredible that so large and clumsy an animal

164

RODENTS.

should be able to climb out far enough on the branches of trees to reach the
terminal leaves ; but he distributes his weight by bringing several branches
together, and then, with his powerful paws, bends back their ends and passes them
through his mouth. When high in the tree-tops he is often passed unnoticed,
mistaken, if seen at all, for the nest of a crow or a hawk.”

The food of this animal consists not only of the leaves of various trees —
especially the hemlock-spruce — but likewise of their twigs and bark ; while beech-
mast is also a favourite article of its diet. The pods of water-lilies are also eaten ;
while a partiality for salt is very marked. The nest is constructed in the same
situations as the sleeping lair. The young in the Adirondack region are born
early in May, and are usually one or two in number. At birth, according to Dr.

THE CANADIAN PORCUPINE nat. size).

Merriam, they are very large for the size of the animal, being actually larger, and

proportionately more than thirty times the size of the cubs of the black bear.

This porcupine uses its tail as a weapon of offence, inflicting severe blows by its

lateral action. Few animals care to attack the porcupine, although, as previously

mentioned, both the puma and fisher-marten make these animals their prey, and

are frequently found with their flesh bristling with quills.

The tree-porcupines are distinguished from the Canadian porcu-
Tree-Porcupines. .i,.,,., -iii r>i />

pine by their long prehensile tails, and the presence of only tour

toes on the hind-feet. They are also of lighter build ; and their spines are short,

closely set, and parti-coloured, sometimes almost concealed by long hairs. In the

absence of the first toe, the inner side of each hind-foot is furnished with a large

fleshy lobe which can be bent inwards to a certain degree, and forms an efficient

aid in climbing ; more especially as the whole foot is set so obliquel}^ on the leg

that the rough sole is directed somewhat outwardly. The tail is thick at the

rORCUPIXES.

165

base, but slender at tlie end, where its upper surface is devoid of hair. It is this
upper surface which is applied to the branch, and the tail is, therefore, coiled in the
reverse direction to tliat of the spider-monkeys, as shown in our illustration.
The muzzle is thick, and oblicpiely truncated, so that the upper lip somewhat
ovei'hangs the lower portion, with large nostrils; the whole being clothed Avith
line velvety hair. Both the eai’s and eyes are small. The quills have numerous
exceedingly minute spines at their extremities, with their points directed back-
wards, so as to act as barbs.

Brazilian Tree- The Brazilian tree - porcupine (>S'. lirehensilis), which is the
Porcupine, species commonly seen in menageries, is found in Brazil, Guiana, and
part of Bolivia, and has the spines projecting freely above the fur. In length the
head and body measure from 16 to 18 inches ; the tail being about an inch shoi-ter.

BRAZILIAN TREE-PORCUPINE (J nat. size).

These animals, like the other species of the genus, are usually solitary, passing the
greater part of the day in slumber, and feeding in the morning and evening.
Their food consists of the leaves, young shoots, and bark of the trees on which
they dwell. In climbing it is said that they ascend the trunks of trees by the feet
alone, the tail being employed only when among the smaller branches, which these
animals but seldom leave. When sleeping, they generally rest in the fork of a
branch. Comparatively little is known of their habits in a wild state ; but in
captivity they are harmless, stupid creatures. Their flesh is eaten by the natives
of Brazil, by whom they are known by the name of cuandu.

Mexican Tree- The Mexican tree-porcupine (Synetheres novcehis2xinice), belongs
Porcupine, ■to a group which has the hair so long as almost to conceal the spines.
It is distinguished by the nearly uniform black colour of the fur, and also by the
presence of numerous spiny bristles mingled with the hair of the lower parts of the
body. These bristles arise in small clusters from tubercles, and being white for

i66

RODENTS.

tlie greater part of their length form star-like spots among the dark fur. These
bristles and the spines on the back are black at the tip.s.

This species inhabits the forests on the eastern coasts of Mexico. Nothing
special is recorded of its habits ; but it may be mentioned that from observations
made on captive individuals of other species, it is probable that none of the tree-
porcupines ever drink. It is stated that in those long-haired species in which the
fur is of a greyish tint, the general appearance of the animal when reposing on the
arm of a tree closely simulates a gnarled and lichen-clad knot.

MEXICAN TREE-PORCUPINE liat. size).

Thin-Spined A peculiar porcupine (ChcDomys sahspinosas), from Central and

Porcupine. Northern Brazil, differs from all the members of the preceding genus
by the shape of its skull and the more complicated structure of its molar teeth, as
well as by the slenderness of its spines, which may be described as half-way
between those of the other groups and mere bristles. It is a large species, of a dull
brown colour, with the under-parts inclining to rufous, and the feet and tail
brownish lilack. The tail, although long, is not prehensile ; and the habits of the
animal are less completely arboreal than those of the preceding group. Remains
of a species of Erethizon occur in the superficial deposits of Pennsylvania, and those
of Sy net! teres in the caverns of Brazil.

With the true porcupines, as typically represented by the
True Porcupines. ^ ^ • •

common South Buropean species {Hystrix cristata), we come to

the second subfamily, all the members of which are confined to the Old World,
and differ from their Transatlantic cousins by the following characteristics.
Externally the soles of the feet are perfectly smooth, the fore feet have a small
thumb, and the female is provided with six teats. In the skeleton, the collar-
bones are incomplete ; and the molar teeth have imperfect roots. In habits all

PORCUPINES.

167

COMMON PORCUPINE.

tliese porcupines are purely nocturnal and terrestrial ; consequently, the tail is
never prehensile.

Common The common porcupine, of which a group is represented in our

Porcupine, coloured Plate, and a single individual in the accomj)anying woodcut,
is the best known member of the first of these irenera. As is the ca.se with the other
species of the genus, it is characterised by its massive form, its large size, the great
length of the (piills on the body, and by the short spiny tail terminating in a cluster of
short slender-stalked (piills, which are hollow and open at their extremities ; these tail-
(piills making the peculiar rattling
noise noticeable when a porcupine
is in motion. The genus is further
characterised by the great eleva-
tion and convexity of the skull,
in which the chamber of the nose
is frecpiently more capacious than
the brain-case.

Next to the beaver, the porcu-
})ines are the largest of the Old
World Rodents, the common
species measuring from 26 to 28
inches in length, exclusive of the
tail. The prevailing colour of this
species is brownish Vilack, with a
white band cro.ssing the front of

the neck, and about half-way up the sides, when it becomes gradually narrow.
The neck is furnished with a crest of long bristles, which are mostly brown at the
base and white aliove. The quills on the bodj" are of two kinds — the one distin-
guished by their great length, slenderness, and flexibility, while the others are shorter
and stouter, and are mostly concealed by the longer ones. These (piills are mostly
marked with broad rings of black and white; both extremities being of the latter hue.
Those on the rump are, however, chiefly black; while the open quills at the end of the
tail, as well as most of those clothing the rest of that appendage, are entirely white.
This porcupine inhabits Southern Europe and Northern and Western Africa.

In India the common species is rejflaced by the closely allied
hairy-nosed porcupine {H. leucura), distinguished b}' the muzzle
being densely clad with hairs, as well as by the quills at the base of the tail, and
sometimes a row in the middle of the hinder part of the back, being mo.stly white.
The skull, moreover, is less con\'ex, with smaller nasal bones. This species is found
from Ceylon to Kashmir, and appears to extend westwaixls as far as the Black Sea.
Two other species inhabit India; of which the Bengal porcupine {H. hengalensis)
has a much shorter crest on the neck, while in Hodgson’s jiorcupine this crest is
totally wanting. The latter occurs in the Eastern Himalaya, and is represented by
allied forms in Borneo and the ^Malayan region. The South African porcupine {H.
afrcu-auftfrali/^) is a third representative of the crested group. Fossil porcupines
occur in the Pliocene rocks of Northern India, and also in the upper and middle
Tertiaries of Europe.

other Species.

i68

RODENTS.

As the habits of all the true j)orcupiues appear to be very similar,
they may be treated collectively. In the first place, it should be
mentioned that the old idea of porcupines being able to eject their quills at an enemy
is a pure fable. Although a belated individual may occasionally be seen making its
way homeward in the early morning, porcupines remain concealed during the day-
light hours, either in caves or clefts of rocks, or in bur-rows excavated by themselves.
They generally prefer rocky hills, and although in Europe they are usually found
either solitary or in pairs, in India they are frequently gregarious. Their food is
entirely vegetable, and consists mainly of roots, although in cultivated districts
they do much damage to crops, garden vegetables, and such fruit as they can reach.
In Europe the pairing-season takes place early in the year; and in the spring or
commencement of the summer the female produces from two to four j^oung, in a nest

AFRICAN BRUSH-TAILED PORCUPINE Hat. size).

formed of leaves, grass, and root-fibre.s. The young are born in an advanced state,
having their eyes open, and their bodies covered with soft flexible spines, which
soon harden by exposure to the air. \\^hen frightened or irritated, porcupines
erect their quills, with a peculiar rattling of the hollow ones at the tip of the tail,
at the same time stamping with their hind-feet. If attacked by dogs or other four-
footed foes, they rush backwards and inflict severe wounds with the long quills on
their hind-quarters, which are sometimes driven deeply into the flesh of their
antagonists. Dogs, according to Dr. Jerdon, readily follow the scent of porcupines,
and thus track them to their lairs. Leopards are said to despatch them easily by a
single well-directed blow on the head. From the large size of their teeth and jaws,
porcupines have great gnawing powers ; and the writer has seen in India tusks of
elephants which have been half-eaten by these animals as they lay in the jungles.
The flesh of porcupines is excellent eating, and is said to resemble something
between pork and veal in flavour.

CRESTED PORCUPINE.

CHINCHILLAS AND VISCACHAS.

169

Brush-Tailed The brush-tailed porcupines, of which one species {Atherura
Porcupines, africaiia) inhabits Western and Centi’al Africa, and tlie other
(A. macrura) Burma and the Malayan I'egion, are much smaller and more rat-like
animals than the true porcupines, from which they are distinguished at a glance
by their long and scaly tails terminating in a tuft of bristles. The bod}" is covered
with flattened and grooved spines, which are not much longer on the hind-quarters
than on the back and shoulders. In the Indian species the length of the head and
body may reach as much as 22 inches ; that of the tail being about 10 inches. In
colour this species is dark brown, with the tips of the spines sometimes paler. The
longer spines on the hind-quarters are mostly white ; the under-parts, and the
bristles at the end of the tail, are whitish.

Gunther’s A rare porcupine from Borneo (Trichys guentheri) differs so

Porcupine, markedly from the preceding in the characters of its skull, that it is
regarded as indicating a third genus of the subfamily. It is distinguished exter-
nally from the brush-tailed porcupines by its shorter spines, and the narrow
parallel-sided bristles of the tail.

Chinchillas and Viscachas.

Family CniNCHlLLlD^.

The remaining porcupine-like Rodents are conflned to South and Central
America and the West Indies. Those included in the present family are few in
number, and are characterised by their terrestrial habits, elongated hind-limbs,
long bushy tails, and extremely soft fur. Internally they have complete clavicles ;
their molar teeth are divided into a series of parallel transverse plates by the
extension of the folds of enamel completely across their crowns ; and the incisors
are remarkable for their shortness. In the skull the palate is very narrow in
front, while behind it remains unossified for a considerable distance in advance of
the last molar teeth.

The chinchillas are characterised by bavins: four toes on the hind-
ChincMllas. „ . jo

feet, and flve on the fore-feet, by the length of the bushy tail, and

also by the enormous size of the bullae of the internal ear on the base of the

skull, which are so much enlarged as to appear on the sides of its upper surface.

Common The common chinchilla {Chinchilla lanigera) is a squirrel-like

Chinciima, Rodent, with very large ears, and a tail about half the length of the

head and body; the latter measuring 10 inches. The fur, M"hich is about an inch

in length, is of extreme softness, and of a delicate pearly grey, mottled with black

above, and yellowish white beneath ; while the tail is mostly black, with lighter

bands on the sides. The front surfaces of the incisor teeth are of a bright orange.

This species inhabits the higher Andes, from the south of Chili to the north of
Bolivia ; and in certain districts is very abundant. Chinchillas live in burrows,
where they associate in large companies, and may frequently be seen abroad during
the daytime, keeping, however, to the shade thrown by the rocks. On the ground
they run much after the fashion of mice, but when feeding they sit up on their
hind-quarters in a squirrel-like manner, and grasp their food between the fore-paws.

RODEXTS.

170

The regions which these animals inhabit are lonely and hari’en, with but very
small amount of vegetation. In such places there are numerous perpendicular
faces of rock, up and down which these tiny creatures dart with such lightning-
like rapidity as to render it almost impossible for the eye to follow them. Although
by no means shy, the report of a gun is sufficient to send them at once to their
holes ; and a spot which at one moment may be seen covered with hundreds of
these creatures, will be left deserted in an instant. The natives hunt them with
the aid of a species of weasel, which enters their burrows. From its peculiar
softness and delicacy, the fur has long been highl}" appreciated in Europe, where
large qua:itities are annually imported.

THE CHiNCHiLm (i nat. size).

Short-Tailed The short-tailed chinchilla iC. hrericaadafa), IVom Pei'U, is an

Chinchilla, animal very little known to naturalists, some of whom have even
doubted its right to rank as a distinct specie.s. It is, however, decidedly larger
than the common chinchilla, with relatively shorter ears and tail. The general
colour of the fur of the upper-parts is a very pale bluish grey, mottled with slaty
black ; the under-surface of the body, as well as the feet, being white. The tail
gradually becomes bushy towards the tip : its fur being a mixture of greyish white
and greyish black, becoming darker towards the tip on the upper-surface.

Cuvier's This (LarjuJ iam ciivieri) is con.sideraldy larger than either of

Chinchilla, preceding, the length of the head and body varying from

about 10 to 20 inches, and tliat of the tail, exclusive of the hair at the tip.

CJ/IXCJIILLAS AXD VI SC AC I IAS.

171

from 11 to 12 inches; and since it ditiers by having only fonr toes on each
foot, it is considered to represent a distinct genus. The ears, moreover, are longer
and more pointed ; vdiile in the sknll the bullm of tlie internal ear are relative!}'
smaller. The general hue of the long and soft fur is ashy grey, tinged with
yellow and pencilled with black ; while on the under-parts it is pale yellow,
gradually becoming deeper in hue on the flanks. The feet are grey ; while the
tail is black below, with very long hairs above, some of which are also of the same
jetty tint. One of the most remarkable features about the animal is the length
of the black whiskers, in which some of the hairs may measure sev’en
inches. This species is also an inhabitant of the higher Andes of Chili,

THE .SHORT-TAILED CHINCHILLA (| Hat. Size).

Peru, and Bolivia, ranging to elevations of some sixteen thousand feet above
the sea-level. In habits these animals seem to be almost identical with the
true chinchillas, dwelling in barren rocky districts, and exhibiting the same
marvellous activity. Their food is composed of grass, roots, and moss, to procure
which they have frequently to ti’avel long distances from their homes. Theii-
pi’incipal enemies are the condor, and the dogs of the shepherds. They are
captured by the Indians in snares for the sake of their fur, which is, however, far
less valuable than that of the chinchilla.

^ ^ The thii'd generic modification of the present family, which is

represented only bj' the viscacha (Z«i/o.s/o77iits tricJiodacty I us), differs
from its cousins in being an inhabitant of the open pampas, ranging from the Kio
Negro to the Uruguay Kiver, instead of the heights of the Andes. These animals

172

RODExVTS.

are primarily distinguished from the last by the toes of the hind-feet being
reduced to three in number; -while the claws on these feet, and to a less degree
those of the fore-feet also, are relatively longer. The cheek-teeth, with the excep-
tion of the last in the upper jaw, are also distinguished by having only two
transv^erse plates of enamel, and their squarer form.

In its stoutly-built body and sturdy limbs the viscacha, as remarked by the
late Mr. G. K Waterhouse, presents a contrast to the delicately-formed chinchillas
exactly similar to that existing between the squirrels and the marmots ; this

Cuvier’s chinchilla (j nat. size).

difference in form being accompanied by a precisely similar difierence in habits,
the viscachas being purely burrowing I’odents.

In the viscacha the length of the head and body varies from some 19 to 23
inches ; that of the tail being about a third as much again. The ears are rather
small, and distinctly notched behind, the tail is bu.shy throughout the greater part
of its length, and the fur is rather short. The colouring of the fur is somewhat
striking. Above, the general hue is gre}’, with some dusk}" mottlings and black
markings ; while the whole of the under-parts are white or yellowish white.
From the muzzle a blackish band extends across each cheek; above which is a
broad white stripe terminating in front of the eyes, while a third narrower dusky
band crosses the lower part of the forehead. The tail is blackish brown.

CIIIXCHILLAS AND VI SC AC HAS.

173

The visciiclia is by far the most common rodent on the Arfifentine
Habits. ^

pampas ; and an excellent account of its habits is given by Mr. W.

H. Hudson, from which the following- summary is compiled. These animals live

in societies usually numbering from twenty to thirty individuals ; they form

warrens known as viscacliera, each of which may contain from twelve to fifteen

burrows, some of them being double or triple. Such a viscacliera will cover

from one to two hundred scpiare feet of ground. The burrows vary much in

extent ; some opening out into wide chambers, from which other tunnels radiate ;

while others communicate with their neighbours. The whole viscacliera forms a

raised mound of earth which has been brought up from the burrows. It is always

formed on the open plains ; and the entrances to some of the compound burrows

THE viscACHA uat. .size).

are sometimes as much as a yard in diameter. Usually the burrow takes the form
of the letter Y. A passerine bird (Geositta) belonging to the wood-hewer familj',
makes its breeding-holes in the sides of the viscacha-burrows ; while when deserted
by their rightful owners they are occupied by a kind of swallow (Atticora).
IMoreover, on the mound of the viscacliera may frequently be observed a pair of
burrowing owls {Speotito), which generally excavate a domicile for themselves, but
sometimes occupy one of the burrows on the flanks of the mound. The whole of
the ground in the neighbourhood of the burrows is carefully cleaned from all
vegetation, the refuse of which is heaped up near the entrance ; and it is this
habit which renders these animals so obnoxious to the farmer. Their usual food
is grass and seeds, but they sometimes also eat roots ; while in the dry season they
are reduced to withered grass and thistles. When the herbage is green the
viscachas re(|uire no water ; but the first shower in the dry season brings them at
once out of their holes to imbibe the much-needed fluid.

174

RODENTS.

Viscaclias are essentially nocturnal. Mr. Hudson states that in winter they
“ seldom leave their burrows till dark, but in summer come out before sunset ; and
the viscachera is then a truly interesting spectacle. Usually one of the old males
first appears, and sits on some prominent place on the mound, apparently in no
haste to begin his evening meal. When approached from the front he stirs not,
but eyes the intruder with a bold indifferent stare. If the person passes to one
side, he deigns not to turn his head. Other viscaclias soon begin to appear, each
one quietly taking up his station at his burrow’s mouth, the females, known by

their greatly inferior size
and lighter grey colour,
sitting upright on tlieir
haunches, as if to command
a better view, and indicat-
ing by divers sounds and
gestures that fear and curi-
osity struggle in them for
the mastery. With eyes

A VTSCACHERA.

fixed on the intruder, at intervals they dodge the head, emitting at the same time
an internal note with great vehemence ; and suddenly, as the danger comes nearer,
they plunge simultaneously, with a startled cry, into their burrows.” When driven
to the recesses of their burrows tliey utter a peculiar kind of growling sound.

The viscacha is a far from prolific animal, the female producing in September
a single litter, which usually contains two, but occasionally three young. As the
animal takes about two years in I’eaching maturity, the vast numbers in which it
existed on the pampas, previous to a war of extermination waged against it by the
agriculturists, is not a little remarkable.

The habit of accumulating the remains of its food aroiind the entrance of its

AGUTIS AXD PACAS.

>75

burrow lias been already ineutioned ; but, iu addition, tlie viscacha collects every
hard object with which it meets. Darwin writes that “around each grouj) of holes
many bones of cattle, stone.s, thistle-stalks, hard clumps of earth, etc., are collected
into a heap, which fre(piently amounts to as much as a wheelbarrow would contain.
I was credibly informed that a gentleman, when riding one dark night, dropped his
watch ; he returned in the morning, and by searching in the neighbourhood of
every viscacha-hole on the line of road, as he expected, soon found it.

„ „ Remains belonging to the same genus as the viscacha are met

Fossil Forms. , . r, , . , ”

with in the superhcial deposits of South America ; while in the older
formations there occur those of allied extinct genera. One of these extinct rodents
{Megumys) was the largest member of the order; its size approaching that of
an ox.

The Agutis axd Paca.s.

SKELETON AND SKULL OP AGUTI.

Family DasyphoctiI)^^.

The South American Rodents, respectively known by tbe names of aguti and
paca, constitute a small family with the following characteristics. The limbs are
of nearly equal lengths, and
furnished with hoof - like
claws ; the tail is short or
wanting ; the molar teeth
have imperfect roots, and
enamel -folds on both sides
of the crowns ; and the
incisor teeth are long. In
the skeleton the collar-bones
ai’e rudimentary, the palate
is broad, and the lower jaw

lacks the di.stinct ridge on the outer side characteristic of the preceding families.

The agutis are elegantly-formed Rodents, with a superficial
resemblance to the chevrotains among the Ungulates ; and are char-
acterised by their long and slender limbs, and the presence of only thi’ee toes on
the hind-feet ; the fore-feet, however, having the full number of digits. The hair
is coarse, more especialh'^ on the hind-quartens, where it becomes longer than
elsewhere. The crowns of the molar teeth are rounded ; and when worn exhibit a
single lateral fold of enamel, with sevex'al islands of the same on their summits.
There are several species of aguti inhabiting the greater part of Central and
South America as far as Paraguay ; and there is one species in the West
Indies. The common aguti {Dasyproda aguti) may be taken as the chief
example of the genus, all the members of which are very similar to one
another in form and habits. This species, which occurs abundantly in the dense
fore.sts of Guiana, Brazil, and Northern Peru, attains a length of from 18 to 20
inches, and is of general olive-brown colour. The middle line of the under surface
of the body is, however, yellow or whitish ; while the long hairs of the hind-
([uarters are mostly of a bright orange tint. Tlie feet are pencilled with black and

Agutis.

176

RODENTS.

yellow, and the toes dusky. The large ears are pinkish, except on their margins •,
and the small fleshy tail is naked, and of a dusky hue.

Although essentially forest-dwelling animals, agutis are sometimes seen in the
early morning or evening on the open spaces. They are mainly nocturnal,
remaining concealed during the day in hollow trees or in cavities or burrows
among their roots ; such burrows, according to Bates, being in some cases two or
three feet in depth. Their movements are extremely active and graceful When
going slowly they advance at a kind of trot ; but when running their pace takes
the form of a series of rapid springs, which succeed each other so quickly as to
give the appearance of a gallop. Cutias, as these animals are called on the
Amazons, can swim well, but are unable to dive. Their food consists of the

THE COMMON AGUTI (| nat. size).

foliage and roots of ferns and other plants, as well as fallen fruits ; their sharp
incisor teeth enabling them to perforate the shells of the hardest nuts. In culti-
vated disti-icts they do much harm to plantations of sugar-cane and plantains.
Of their reproduction in a Avild state but comparatively little is known. They
breed, however, at least twice in the year, — generally once in May, before the
commencement of the period of drought, and again in October, at the setting
in of the rainy season. In captivity, where these animals not unfrequently
breed, there are usually only one or two at a birth ; but in a wild state it is
quite probable that the number may be greater. For a considerable portion of
the year tlie two sexes remain apart ; but at the pairing-season each male selects
a female, which he follows with squeaks and grunts, and Avith AAdiom he remains
until after the birth of their offspring. The female brings forth her young
in a lair or nest carefully formed of leaA^es, roots, and hair; and attends them
sedulously for some AA^eeks, preA'enting the male from liaA’ing any access to them

AGUTIS AND DA CAS.

177

until some clays after birth. When first born the young closely resemble their
parents. If captured at a sufficiently early age, agutis can be readily tamed ; and
it is not uncommon in South American houses to find one or more of these animals
roaming at large. The nocturnal foes of the aguti are the ocelot and other
species of cats, and also the Brazilian wolf. They are much hunted by the
natives for the sake of their flesh. Bates writes that on the Amazons they are

hunted with dogs; the method

being

for one hunter to proceed in the early

Aguchi.

Pacas.

morning to beat the forest in the neiglibourhood of a river, while his companion
takes his station in a boat. On being hard pressed by the dogs, the agutis at once
make for the water, where they are shot by the man in waiting.

The onlj’ other member of the genus to which we shall allude is
the aguchi (D. cristata), which inhabits Northern Brazil and Guiana
as well as parts of the West Indies. This species is distinguished from the others
by its smaller size, and its longer and more slender tail, which is clothed with
silver- white hairs. Its general colour is rich chestnut-brown, with a characteristic
bright golden yellow, or rust-coloured patch behind each ear.

It may be added that fossilised remains of agutis are met with abundantly in
the caverns of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil.

Tlie Rodent known in South America by the title of paca
{Caslogenys paca) is readily distinguished externally from all its allies
by the longitudinal rows of light spots ornamenting
its fur; while internally it is remarkable for the
extraordinary structure of its skull. Its hind-feet
are distinguished from those of the agutis by having
five distinct toes ; and the limbs are much shorter
and the whole build far more massive than in the
latter. In the skull, as shown in the accompanying
figure, the zygomatic or cheek-arches are greatly
expanded from above downwards, so as to foian
huge bony capsules on the sides of the face, each of which encloses a large cavity
communicating by a narrow aperture with the mouth. Externally the paca is
stout-bodied, measuilng about 2 feet in length, with I’ather short limbs, and a
broad head, terminating in a blunted muzzle covered with fine hair. The ears are
rather small, and but scantily clothed with hair ; the feet are naked below ; and
the tail is reduced to a fleshy tubercle. The fur is coarse, and closely applied to
the body. Its general colour varies from fawn to blackish; and the number of
longitudinal rows of spots is likewise variable, being in some instances only three,
while in others there may be five such rows. The female has two pairs of teats,
placed at a considerable distance apart.

The common paca has a very extensive range, being found throughout the
greater part of South America as far as Paraguay. In Brazil it is faiidy common,
but it is much scarcer in Paraguay, while in Peru it is rare. It occurs in Tobago
and Trinidad, but is unknown to the westward of the Andes. In the highlands of
Ecuador, at elevations of from six thousand to ten thousand feet, it is represented
by Taczanowski’s paca {C. facza/)iou'f>Jiii), distinguished by its inferior size, and the
difference in the form of the skull, as well as in coloration.

VOL. III. — 12

lyS

RODENTS.

The habits of the common paca appear to be very similar to those
of agutis ; these animals going about either singly or in pairs^ and
being strictly noctiirnal. Their resting-place during the day is either some cavity
among the roots of a forest-tree, or a burrow excavated by their own exei’tions,
and reaching to a depth of from four to five feet. Their food is precisely similar
to that eaten by the agutis. In disposition they are shy and timid ; and when
pursued they invariably make for the water, in which they swim well and
with considerable rapidity. During the summer the female produces a single

(occasionally two) offspring, which is believed by the natives to remain in the
burrow during the period of suckling — several months in duration. The Ecuador
paca is said to be not uncommon in the forests on both sides of the Andes. It
makes a burrow with two entrances, in which a male and female take up their
residence. The natives, who hunt these animals for the sake of their flesh, pursue
them in the forests with dogs, and then drive them out from their bui’rows by
lighting a fire at one of the entrances.

A tame individual of the common species noticed by Rengger was at first very
shy and suspicious, biting fiercely at the hands of any person approaching it.
During the day it endeavoured to conceal itself as much as possible, but at night it

CA VIES.

179

would wander about the house, uttering a grunting noise, and consuming such food
as was placed for it. In the course of a few months its shyness and ferocity gradu-
ally disappeared, and it learned to distinguish between its master and strangers,
although it never exhibited friendliness to anyone. It would eat almost any kind
of human food, except flesh ; and was remarkably cleanly in its habits, frequently
dressing its fur with its claws. Bright sunlight seemed to blind the creature ;
while in the dark its large eyes gleamed like those of a cat.

The skin of the paca is so thin, and its hair so coarse and harsh, that its
pelage is of no commercial value. Its flesh is, however, white and well-flavoured ;
and on this account the animal is much sought after by the natives of the countries
it inhabits. During the months of February and March pacas become most
extraordinai'ily fat, and it is at this season that their flesh is most esteemed. In
the woods of Brazil pacas and agutis, together with certain edentates, are the
only mammals whose flesh is eatable ; and they are accordingly most accept-
able to the traveller, who is often compelled for long periods to subsist on a
vegetable diet.

This animal is interesting as apparently forming: a connecting:
Branick’s Paca. . o 1 x o o

link between the true pacas and the other families of the present
group, and on these grounds it has been made the type of a family by itself. In
size and general form of the head and body, as well as in coloration, this animal
closely resembles the paca ; from which it is distinguished externally by its rather
long and thickly-haired tail, by each foot having four toes, and by the vertical
cleft on the upper-lip. Internally it differs by the complete clavicles, and by the
molar teeth being divided into transverse plates of enamel, as in the chinchillas
and cavies. The only known example (Dinomys hranicki) was di.scovered one
morning at daybreak, rather more that twenty years ago, wandering about the
courtyard of a building in Peru ; and from that day to this nothing more has ever
been heard of the species.

The Cavies.

Family Ca VIIDM.

The cavies, familiar to us all from childhood in the foi’m of the domestic
guinea-pig, form a well-marked family distinguished by the following characters.
The limbs are generally similar to those of the agutis, and are furnished with four
toes in front and three behind. The collar-bones are imperfect; and the molar
teeth are divided by continuous folds of enamel into transverse plates. As
indicated by the well-known proverb concerning the guinea-pig, the tail is
small or rudimentary. The incisor teeth are short ; and the lower jaw differs
from that of the agutis in having a strongly -marked ridge on each external
surface. The majority of the members of the family are terrestrial, but one
genus is aquatic.

Tlie true cavies, as represented by the guinea-pig, are comparatively small
Rodents, characterised by their stout build, short and subequal limbs, small ears,
and the total absence of a tail. All the wild species are uniformly coloured, and
their range comprises the whole of South America.

i8o

RODENTS.

Restless cavy known of the many species is the restless cavy

(Cavia j^orcellus) of Uruguay and Brazil, which measures rather
more than 10 inches in length, and attains a weight of about a pound. The
colour of the rather long and coarse fur is greyish brown ; and the incisor teeth
are white. This species is common in certain districts in the neighbourhood
of the Rio de la Plata, where it is known by the name of aperea. According to
Darwin, it is occasionally found on the sandhills or the hedges of aloes and
cactuses; but its more usual and favourite haunts are marshy spots covered
with aquatic plants. In the latter situations it lives among the shelter of the
vegetation, but in sandy districts it excavates burrows. It usually comes forth
to feed in the evenings and mornings ; but in cloudy weather may sometimes
be seen abroad at all hours. In Paraguay Dr. Rengger states that it is
invariably found in moist situations on the borders of the forest, where it
lives in societies comprising from six to fifteen individuals, among the dense
masses of bromelia. Here it makes regular beaten paths, and never wanders
far afield. It breeds but once a year, j^roducing only one or two young. Cutler’s
cavy (0. cutleri), from Peru, is a rather smaller species, distinguished by the
general black hue of the fur, although the flanks and more especially the under-
parts tend to brown.

Much discussion has arisen as to the origin of the domestic
Guinea-Pig’. . . „

guinea-pig. It was long considered to have been derived from the

restless cavy ; although several writers pointed out that from its avei'sion to wet

and cold such an origin was improbable. From the researches of Dr. Nehring of

Berlin, it appears, however, that the real ancestor of the domestic breed is the

above-mentioned Cutler’s cavy. It has been ascertained that the latter species

was domesticated by the Incas of Peru, from whence it was carried to Colombia

and Ecuador ; while, on the other hand, no cavy was ever dome.sticated in Brazil.

The domesticated cavies of the Incas were either uniformly white or reddish brown,

or a mixture of those two coloui’s. In Europe guinea-pigs are generally either

white or white marked with yellow and black. Occasional] 3', however, they ma^"

be white marked with pale j^ellow, and in such cases they invariably have pink

eyes. Sometimes, again, the}' may be marked with brownish black, mouse-colour,

or yellowish grey ; while in certain cases the black may be replaced by ashy

grey, when the eyes are pink. Of late years a breed has been formed with

exceedingly long coai’se hair, and of larger size than ordinary. Guinea-pigs

were introduced into Europe by the Dutch during the 16th century, shortly

after the discovery of America ; the name being probably a corruption of

Guiana-pig. From their pretty appearance and ways, as well as the ease with

which they are kept and the rapidity with which they multiply, guinea-pigs

liave always been favourite pets with children ; although it must be confessed

that from their stupidity and want of affection they cannot be i-egarded as very

interesting creatures. When, however, a number of these rodents are kept

together, they certainly form a pretty sight; and the manner in which they

follow one another round and round their place of confinement in unbroken order

is very remarkable. In some respects they resemble rabbits in their habits, while

in others they are moi’e like mice. Their pace is by no means swift and consists

C A VIES. iSi

])artly of a sei'ies of sliort spriii^^s; wliilc tlie peailiar manner in whicli the body is
elongated when creeping is familiar to all. Their food consist.s of roots, corn, and
various vegetables ; and it is essential to the ■well-being of these animals that the
place where they are kept should be dry and ■wai’in. If supplied with abundance
of fresh vegetables, guinea-pigs do not re(|uire water; and when tlwy do drink
they take but little, and this with a lapping action. When pleased, guinea-pigs
utter a soft murmuring cry ; when alarmed, this changes to a squeak ; while a
series of short grunts (from which they probably derive their name) appear to be
their mode of expressing their wants and desires. The two sexes live in company,

THE GU1>'EA-ITG uat. bize).

but each male selects a partner from the herd ; and during such selection conflicts
not unfrequently take place between rival males.

Few animals exceed the guinea-pig in fertility, and this is the more remai-k-
able, since, as Mm have seen, the M’ild cavies increase but sloMd}^ In Europe the
female M’ill px-oduce from tM'o to three littei's in a year, each of M’hich mTII contain
from tM’o to five young ; Mdxile in M’ai’iner regions the number pi'oduced at a birth
may be as many as six or seven. The young aim brought foiTli in a highly advanced
state of development, M’ith their eyes fully opened, and, cui’iously enough, their milk-
teeth alimady shed. In a few houi’s they are able to run by the side of the mother;
while by the second day they aim able to nibble not only soft jxlants, but even com.
They are suckled for a foi’tnight, dui-ing M'hich period they aim carefully tended by
the dam ; but after this the parental affection rapidly M^anes, and in three Mmeks
(by M’hich time the parents have again paired) the young are left to shift by them-

i82

RODENTS.

Bolivian Cavy.

selves. In from five to six months the young guinea-pig is able to reproduce its
kind, although it does not attain full maturity till eight or nine weeks. With
care, these animals will live for six or eight years. Although guinea-pigs seem too
stupid to display the slightest affection for their owners, they have the great
advantage of never making any attempts to bite, and may therefore be handled by
children with impunity.

The Bolivian cavy {G. boliviensis), which is of rather smaller
size than the restless cavy, is interesting from its habitat. It lives
among the higher regions of the Bolivian Andes at elevations of from ten to
twelve thousand feet ; dwelling in large societies, and forming buiTows which
completely undei'inine the whole ground in certain districts. In colour this species
has the fur of the upper-parts grey, with a yellowish tinge, while the throat and
under-pai’ts are white, and the feet whitish. The incisor teeth are orange in front.

The last species of the genus that we shall notice is the rock-
cavy (0. rupestris), differing from those mentioned above by the
extreme shortness of its claws, which scarcely project beyond the toes. It has
the fur greyish above, and whitish beneath. This species inhabits rocky districts in
certain parts of Brazil, dwelling in cracks and crevices, and not constructing
burrows. It is much hunted by the Indians, and it is known to them as the
hoki.

Rock Cavy.

The Patagonian cavy, or mara (Dolichotis patachonica), is readily
Patagonian Cavy. . . ® ^ ^

distinguished from the true cavies by its longer limbs and ears, and

the presence of a short tail, which is always turned to one side. Its skull is

characterised by the extreme narrowness of the front portion of the palate ; this

being cai’ried to such an extent that the premolar teeth of opposite sides are

actually in contact at their front edges. In length it is from 30 to 34 inches, and

it stands about 13 inches at the shoulder. Its fur is thick and crisp, and of a

greyish colour on the upper-parts, while on the flanks it becomes rusty yellow, and

beneath white. The rump is black, with a broad transverse band of white running

from the hocks to just above the tail ; and the limbs are rusty yellow, but greyish

in front. The hair of the throat is elongated into a fringe. Both in habits and

general appearance the mara has a superflcial resemblance to the hare, but the legs

are longer and the ears shorter and wider. It inhabits not only the barren country

from which it derives its name, but likewise extends northwards into the grassy

pampas of Argentina, where it ranges as far as Mendoza, in lat. 33° 30'. On the

Atlantic coast, however, where the climate is moister, it only ranges as far north as

37° 30' ; while its extreme southern limit is about the 48th parallel.

Absolutely dry and more or less desert -like districts are

Hd,bits

essential to the well-being of the mara ; and it is probable that its
original home was the Patagonian wastes. In Patagonia the mara is so common
as to form almost a characteristic feature in the landscape, Darwin observing that
it is usual “ to see in the distance two or three of these cavies hopping one after
the other in a straight line over the gravelly plains, thinly clothed by a few thorny
bushes, and a withered hei’bage.” Generally these rodents are found either in pairs
or in parties of from four to eight individuals, but occasionally in large flocks of
thirty or forty. They live in burrows, generally excavated by themselves; and

SOEKE IN SOUTH AMERICA WIIII ItTIICAS AM) PATAGONIAN CAVIES.

CARPIXCJIO.

185

ditier from the other cavies in being diurnal. To protect its eyes from the glare of
the midday sun, the mara has Avell-developed eyelashes, Avhich are wanting in its
nocturnal allies. In disposition these cavies are extremely shy and timid, taking
to flight at the least alarm, and generally trusting to iheir legs, rather than to the
shelter of their hurrows, for safety. Their footl consists chiefly of grass and the
roots and stems of such other plants as grow near their buiTows. Of their repro-
duction, it is only known that the female produces twice in the year from two to
five young, which are horn and nurtured in the burrow. They have been introduced
by Sir E. G. Loder into his park near Horsham, having bred there several times.

Maras are among the few mammals that habitually enjoy basking in the
full sunshine. When thus reposing it usually lies stretched out on its side or
Hat on its belly ; and in the latter postui’e, as shown in the central figure of our
engraving, bend the fore-foot backward in a manner uidike any other rodent.
When disturbed, they at once assume a sitting position, resting on their fore-feet
and heels, and raising their heads as high as possible in order to see whence the
danger comes. After taking to flight, they generally stop when thej' have run
fifty or a hundred paces, and turn to look round; rej)eating this process after
having again run a short distance. When caught young, they can be tamed
without much difficulty, although they require to be tethered. By the natives
mai'a are hunted for their flesh ; but this, although white when cooked, is described
as being dry and tasteless.

Fossilised remains of three species of these animals have been obtained from
the caves of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil ; one of these being probabl}" inseparable from
the existino; form.

Carpinctio.

The carpincho or capivara {Hydrochoerus capivara), which takes
its second name from a Spanish modification of the native term
capugua, is the largest of living Kodents, reaching a length of about 4 feet, and
weighing 98 lbs. From this large size, coupled with its bristly hair and grunting
cry, the animal is often designated the water-hog. It is a I’odent of bulky build,
with moderately long legs, small ears, cleft upper lip, no tail, and short webs between
the short-nailed toes. The neck is short ; the head long, broad, and much flattened
above ; the eyes large and widely separated ; and the ears with a notch in their
hinder border. The hind-legs are considerably longer than the front pair. The
skin is clothed somewhat sparsely with long and coarse hair, of a reddish brown
colour above, and brownish yellow beneath ; the bristles around the mouth being
black. The upper incisor teeth are marked with a broad and shallow groove in
front ; while the molars are characterised by the great complexity of the last tooth
of the series. Thus in the upper jaw the last molar comprises some twelve trans-
verse plates, and exceeds the united length of the three teeth in front of it ; while
in the lower jaw the corresponding tooth is somewhat less complex, although still
much larger than either of the others. This complexity of the last molar, which is
quite unparalleled elsewhere among the rodents, presents a condition analogous to
that existing in the wart-hogs.

The carpincho is distributed over the whole of Eastern South
America, as far south as the Rio de la Plata ; and also extends west-
wards into the lowlands of Bolivia and Peru. The existing species occurs in the

Distribution.

i86

RODENTS.

caverns of Brazil ; while in the Tertiary deposits of Argentina fossil remains
indicate an extinct species of 5 feet in length, and another considerably larger.

^ This gigantic cavy is thoroughly aquatic in its habits, frequenting

the margins of lakes and rivers, and swimming and diving with great
speed. Darwin, for instance, writes that these rodents “ occasionally frequent the
islands in the mouth of the Plata, where the water is quite salt, but are more
abundant on the borders of fresh- water lakes and I'ivers. Near Maldonado three
or four generally live together. In the daytime they either lie among the aquatic
plants, or openly feed on the turf plain. When viewed at a distance, from theii-
manner of walking, as well as from the colour, they resemble pigs; but when
seated on their haunches, and attentively watching any object with one eye, they
resume the appearance of their congenei’s the cavies. These animals were very
tame ; by caiitiously walking, I approached within three yards of four old ones.
This tameness may probably be accounted for by the jaguar having been banished
for some years, and by the gaucho not thinking it worth his while to hunt them.
As I approached nearer and nearer, they frequently made their peculiar noise,
which is a low, abrupt grunt, not having much actual sound, but rather arising
from the sudden expulsion of the air ; the only noise I know at all like it is the
first hoarse bark of a large dog. Having watched the four, from almost within
arm’s length for several minutes, they rushed into the water at full gallop, with
the greatest impetuosity, and emitted at the same time their bark. After diving
a short distance, they came again to the surface, but only just showed the upper
parts of their heads.”

In other places the carpincho occurs in larger herds, which may comprise
twenty or more individuals. The usual pace of the animal is a long trot, of no
great swiftness ; but when pressed it will advance in a series of leaps. It has no
regular lair, although the herd generally returns to the same part of the river-
bank. The general food consists of water-plants and the bark of young trees ; but
in the neighbourhood of cultivated lands carpinchos will consume large quantities of
water-melons, maize, rice, and sugai’-cane. In disposition these animals are quiet
and peaceful, not to say stupid ; and they never appear to indulge in sportive
gambols. Tliey occupy their time either in feeding, or in reposing in a listless
manner on the banks of the rivers or lakes they frequent. When thus reposing,
one individual will from time to time raise its head to see if any foe be approaching;
and if an alarm arise they soon plunge headlong into the water. In the settled
portions of Uruguay they are but seldom seen, although their footprints, as the
writer can testify, are very numerous on the sandy banks of the rivers.

The female produces from five to eight young ones in the year ; but it is not
yet ascertained whether a regular lair is prepared for their reception. The young
follow their parents closely, although not exhibiting any marked signs of affection
towards her. Azara states that each male appropriates two or three females.
When captured young, carpinchos are capable of being completely tamed, and may
be siiffered to run about a house like a dog.

HEHl) or CAUPINCIIOS

CHAPTER XXXIV.

Rodents, — concluded.

The Hare-Like Rodents.

Families Lagomyid^ and Leporid^.

The whole of the Rodents described in the preceding chapters are characterised
by having but a single pair of incisor teeth in the upper (as in the lower) jaw ;
and they are hence collectively spoken of as the single-toothed Rodents, or Rodentia
Simplicidentata. On the other hand, the hares and rabbits, together with their
cousins the picas, have a second smaller pair of incisors placed behind the large
front pair in the upper jaw, as shown in the accompanying cut. These Rodents
are accordingly regarded as con-
stituting a group of equal value
with the one containing all the
other families, for which the term
double-toothed Rodents, or Rodentia
Duplicidenta, is adopted. In the
young of this group three pairs of
incisors are present in the upper
jaw, but the hindmost pair soon
disappear, and are not succeeded by
permanent teeth. In addition to skeleton and teeth of hare.

these extra incisor teeth, these

Rodents are characterised by the enamel extending all round the large incisors,
instead of being confined to their front surfaces. In the skull the palate is
distinguished by the shortness of its bony portion, in which there are very large
vacuities in front ; while its hinder border is situated between, instead of behind,
the molar teeth. In all cases the latter teeth have tall crowns without roots, and
are divided into parallel transverse plates surrounded by enamel. In the hind-
limb the bones of the lower leg (tibia and fibula) are united together. The upper
lip is invariably cleft.

These Rodents, which are divided into two families, are all strictly terrestrial
in their habits, and have a wide geographical disti’ibution, although more abundant
in the Xorthern than in the Southern Hemisphere.

RODENTS.

190

The Picas.

Family LAG02IYID.T.

i\Iost travellers in the Himalaya are familiar with the pretty little Kodents,
known as picas, tailless hares, or mouse-hares, which may he seen in the higher
regions, cautiously poking their noses out from between broken rocks, and again
disappearing with the rapidity of lightning directly they catch a glimpse of the
intruder. These creatures constitute a famil}’- of the present gi’oup, of which there
is but the single genus Lagomys, and present the following characteristics.

All the species are of comparatively small size, being considerably inferior in

SIBERIAN PICA (j nat. .size).

this respect to a rabbit ; and are easily recognised by their small ears, and the
absence of any external traces of a tail. The fore and hind-limbs are short and
of nearly equal length. In the skeleton the collar bones are complete ; and the
skull has no descending (postorbital) processes defining the hinder border of the
socket of the eye. In the living species there are two pairs of premolar teeth, in
addition to three molars, in each jaw. The picas have the soles of the feet well
covered with hair ; and the fur of the body is generally thick and soft.

Picas, of which there are a considerable number of species, may
be considered as especially characteristic of Northern and Central
Asia, one species alone ranging into Eastern Europe, Avhile another inhabits North
America. In Asia the genus extends into Eastern Persia, Afghanistan, the
Himalaya, and Tibet. The best known species is the Siberian pica {Lagomys
alpinus), inhabiting the steppes of Eastern Europe, Siberia, and Kamschatka.
Tliis animal may be compared in size to a guinea-pig, its length being from 9 to

r/CAS AND HARES.

191

Oi inches. Tlie general colour of the long and soft fur is greyish brown on the
upper-parts, although the individual hairs are of a deep gi’ey near the skin ; while
beneath it is grey tinged with yellow. The feet are pale, sufiused with brownish
3’ellow ; and the ears have white inargin.s. The connnon Himalayan pica (//. roijlni),
which ranges to elevations of from eleven thoirsand to fourteen thousand feet, or
more, is a much smaller species, measuring only hi inches in length, with fur of a
dark brown or bay colour. Other species from the inner Himalaya, such as the
Ladak pica {L. ladacensis), are, however, larger ; the one named measuring 9 inches
in length, and inhabiting regions situated at an elevation of from fifteen thousand
to nineteen thousand feet above the sea-level. Durins: the Pliocene and Miocene
divisions of the Tertiary period picas were common in Central and Southern Europe,
while in Sardmia they lived on into the Pleistocene. Some of these Tertiary picas
differed from the living forms in having only one pair of premolar teeth in the
lower jaw ; while in others there were but a single pair of these teeth in both jaws.

Picas inhabit only cold and desert regions, and, therefore, in the
Habits. p . ’ >

greater part of their range, are found at great elevations, although in

Siberia they can exist at much lower levels. They either form burrows among

rocks, or live in the crevices between the rocks themselves; in the Eastern

Himalaya Lagomys roylei is, however, found in the pine-forests. Although mainly

nocturnal in their habits, picas will often venture abroad in the daytime, especiall}’’

if the sky be overcast ; and the writer has several times seen them in the Himalaya

darting about in the full glare of the sun. Their movements are so quick, that

they are exceedingly difficult to shoot. Their food consists of various plants, more

especially grasses ; and of these a large store is accumulated for winter use. In

Siberia this provender is piled up into heaps like small haystacks, which gx'adually

disappear during the winter ; unless they are plundered by the sable-hunters as

fodder for their horses. None of the picas appear to hibernate, although in most

of their haunts they must be buried deep beneath the snow for several months in

the year. Although often found in the Himalaya in pairs or small parties, picas

are generally more or less gregarious, sometimes as.sociating in very large

numbers. In Northern and South-Eastern Mongolia, where they are exceedingly

abundant, their burrows consist of a vast number of separate holes, which may be

counted by hundreds, or even thousands. Fi’om the peculiar loud chirping or

whistling cries uttered by many of the species whilst feeding, picas are often

termed piping-hares ; but this habit does not appear to have been observed in the

Himalayan forms.

All the picas drink but little. In summer some amount of rain falls in many
of the districts they inhabit, while in winter the snow supplies them with as much
liquid as they require ; but in spring and autumn there is scarcely even dew in
the Mongolian steppes, so that at such seasons they must exist entirely without
water. According to Pallas, the females give birth at the commencement of the
summer to about six naked young, to which she attends with the greatest care.

In Central Asia picas have many foes, among which the most prominent are
the manul cat, the wolf, the corsac fox, and many eagles and falcons ; while in
winter they are harried by the great snowy owl. The fur-hunters of Siberia do
not, however, consider these creatures worth the trouble of killing.

192

RODENTS.

Hares and Rabbits.

Family LepobidjE.

The hares and rabbits, all of which are included in the single genus Lepus,
constitute a family distinguished from the picas by their elongated hind-limbs,
sliort recurved tail, long ears, and imperfect collar-bones. The skull is distinguished
by the extremely narrow frontal region, and the presence of large wing-like
(postorbital) processes defining the hinder border of the eye-sockets ; while there
are three pairs of premolars in the upper, and two in the lower jaw, the total

HARE IN ITS FORM.

number of cheek-teeth thus being ^ on each side of the jaws. The eyes are large
and full, and devoid of eyelids.

In all the species the fore-limbs are furnished with five, and the hinder pair
with four toes each ; the soles of the feet being as densely clothed with hair as are
the legs. The inner sides of the cheeks are also lined with haii’. The females
have teats both on the breast and on the belly.

With the exception of one remarkable Indian species, noticed in the sequel, all
the members of the family are very much alike in appearance and coloration ; the
usual tint of the fur on the upper-parts being a mixtui-e of grey and reddish brown,
although in some cases the red, and in others the grey tends to predominate.
This coloration harmonises well with the general tint of the open country on which
most of the species dwell. A noteworthy feature (which, however, is absent in the
above-mentioned Indian species), is the pure white of the under-surface of the up-
tinmed tail. This, in the case of the rabbit at least, is considered by Mr. Wallace
as serving the purpose of a guiding signal to other individuals in the presence of
danger, so that when the leader of a flock is in full retreat towards its hole, the
remainder at once see in which direction to follow.

7VCAS AXD HARES.

^93

Distribution.

Habits.

Haros, as all the ineinhers of the family save the rabbit are
called, have an almost cosmopolitan distribution, although none are
indigenous to Australasia. Of some thirty known species, by far the greater
majority are, however, confined to the Northern Hemisphere ; the whole of South
America having only a single species, the Brazilian hare {Lejms brasilieiif^is).

With the exception of the rabbit and the curious hispid hare of
Northern India, all the members of the family dwell either in open
country among gi-ass and other herbage, or among rocks and bushes. They are
solitary ; and each inhabits a particular s^wt known as its forr)i ; such form being
either a flattened resting-place among grass or bushes, or merely the sheltered side
of some rock or stone. As a rule, a hare returns to its form, sometimes day by
day, for a considerable portion of the year ; but the situation is changed periodicalh'.
Hares are mainly nocturnal, going forth at evening in quest of food, and not
returning to their forms till after sunrise. Their speed is great ; but, owing to the
great relative length of their hind-limbs, they are better adapted for running
uphill than down. All the members of the genus are remarkable for their extreme
timidity, and their long ears are admirably adapted to collect the least sound, and
thus to give the earliest possible notice of danger. It will not fail to be observed
that the ears are the shortest and the legs the less elongated in the rabbit and the
hispid hare, both of which dwell in burrows, and have not, therefore, such need of
protecting themselves by acuteness of heaidng and extreme speed. All the members
of the family breed with great rapidity ; the young being able to reproduce their
kind within about six months after birth. Whereas, however, the young of the
true hares are born fully clothed with hair and with their eyes open, those of the
rabbit, and ^^robably also of the hispid hare, come into the world blind and naked.

The Common Hare (Lepus europceus).

Such a well-known animal as the common hare requires but a comparatively
brief description, although it is necessary to point out such features as serve to
distinguish it from the mountain-hare. The length of the head and body is
generally a little short of 22 inches ; the ears being rather longer than the head,
with black tips. The general colour of the soft fur of the upper-parts and flanks
is tawny grey, more or less mingled with rufous, but tending to a purer grey in
winter than in summer. The under-parts are white ; while the tail, of which the
length is nearly equal to that of the head, is black above and white beneath. The
usual weifjht is from 7 to 8 lbs.

With the exception of the north of Rus.sia, the Scandinavian
Peninsula, and Ireland, the common hare is found over the whole of
Europe, ranging as far eastwards as the Caucasus ; but in the north of Scotland
the species is confined to the low grounds and valleys. It may be mentioned
here that this species is commonly alluded to under the name of Lepvji timidus ;
that name was, however, applied by the Swedish naturalist Linne to the hares of
his own country, and therefore clearly rightly belongs to the next species. In the
more northern pai'ts of its habitat the hare tends to become white in winter; while
the maximum of rufous in its coloration occurs in the more southerly districts.

VOL. III. — 13

Distribution.

194

RODENTS.

Habits Itare, like other iiieiiibers of tlie genus, is an exclusively

vegetable feeder, its food consisting of grass, corn, bark, etc. In
cultivated districts hares often inflict much damage on growing wheat, and like-
wise on garden vegetables ; while the destruction these animals cause among j’oung
trees by nibbling away the bark is sometimes very great. In flue weather hares
are usually to be found in the open, while during rain they show a decided prefer-
ence for cover ; but while on some days they sehjct the bare fallows, on others they

COMMON HARE (j iiat. size).

I’epair to fields with long grass or other herbage. On some occasions, eithei’ when
lying in the open or in their forms, they will almo.st allow themselves to be trodden
upon before stirring ; and it is then that they are sometimes captured by the
poacher merely walking silently up and throwing himself suddenly upon them.
On other occasions they are so wild that it is difficult for the sportsman to come
within range ; Prof. T. P>ell observing that they are generally most wild in bad
weather, and more so in the afternoon than in the morning. The hare will take
readily to the water, not only to escape from pursuit, but likewise to obtain food

JUCAS AXD J/ARES.

195

or a mate ; ami there is a record of one actually swimming across an arm of the
sea about a mile in witlth. The author last mentioned writes that “on hearing an
unusual sound the tirst impulse of a hare is to sit ujiright with erected ears to
reconnoitre; then it either endeavoui’s to conceal itself by ‘clapping’ close to the
ground, or at once takes to tlight. It is a cunning animal, and the sharp turns or
‘ wrenches ’ by which it strives to bathe the lleeter but less agile greyhound, con-
stitute one of the principal beauties of the sport of coursing.”

The female produces several litters in the course of the year, the earliest of
which may arrive in January and the latest in November. The number of young

MOUMAiN-HAKE (j iiat. .size).

Mountain-Hare.

in a litter varies from two to five ; and the “ leverets ” are suckled for about a
month, after which they are left to shift for themselves.

The mountain or Alpine hare {Lepus timid us) is a species with a
very wide distribution, ranging over the greater part of Northern
Europe and Asia, from Ireland in the west to Japan in the east, and also met with
in the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Caucasus. It is represented by a variety known
as the Polar hare in Arctic America, which extends as far south as Nova Scotia.
In the British Isles this species is not met with except in Scotland and Ireland ;
and in the former country is commonly termed the blue hare. Its present distribu-
tion is doubtless to be accounted for by the glacial period, when it was able to exist

196

RODENTS.

ill the lowlands of the greater part of Eurojie ; but it is somewhat curious that it
should tind the wild climate of Ireland suitable to its existence.

The mountain-hare is intermediate in size between the common hare and the
rabbit ; and has a relatively smaller and more rounded head, with shorter ears,
hind-legs, and tail than the former. Throughout the year in Ireland and the
south of Sweden, and during summer in the greater part of the rest of its habitat,
the general colour of the pelage is light fulvous grey ; the tips of the ears being-
black. With the commencement of winter, however, excej^t in the regions named,
the fur gradually becomes more and more flaked with white, until at length it
assumes a uniformly white hue, save on the black tips of the ears. It is believed,
however, that in the extreme north the fur is white throughout the year.

In general habits the mountain-hare appears to agree very closely with the
common species. Its “ form ” is generally made in the clefts of rocks, or between
stones ; and during the winter its food consists largely of lichens and pine-seeds.
In summer it ascends the higher mountains, produces from four to six young at a
birth, and it is doubtful if thei’e is more than one litter in a yeai’. It seems to be
more inclined to seek shelter under tree-stems, thick evergreens, etc., than the
common hare ; and the young are believed to be produced in sheltered cover. In
Arctic America the Polar hare remains active throughout the winter, feeding
chiefly on the berries of the arbutus and the bark of dwarf willows.

North American lu addition to the polar hare, North America is the home of

Hare. several species of the genus, two of which turn white in winfer,
although the bases of the hairs retain their normal colour. The two species in
([iiestion are the prairie-hare {L. campestris), distinguished by its large size, long
ears, and the white hue of both surfaces of the tail ; and the smaller varying hare
(A. americanus), with shoider ears, and the tail dark above.

Of the North American species, which do not turn white in winter, the best
known is the small wood-hare (A. sylvaticus), not unfi’equently termed the gi'ey
rabbit ; the usual colour of the upper-parts being grey, varied with black, and more
or less tinged with yellowish brown, while the under-parts are white. This hare is
a southern species, not ranging further north than the Adirondack region of New
York. In habits this species approximates somewhat to the rabbit, frequently
dwelling in hollow tx’ee-stems or the deserted burrows of other mammals. Mr.
Kennicott states that it “ is very prolific, producing young three or four times a
year, and usually from four to six at a birth. In open ground the female scratches
a shallow hollow, in which to bring forth her young. In this she forms a nest of
soft leaves and grasses, well lined with fur from her own body ; and when she is
absent the young are always completely covered and concealed in the nest, which
they leave at an early age, and separate from the mother as soon as able to take
care of themselves.” The Brazilian hare (A. brasiliensis) is very closely allied to
the wood-hare, but has the under surface of the tail yellowish brown.

There are a large number of species of hares inhabiting Central
Asia, India, and the regions to the eastward. Of these the Indian
black-naped hare (A. 'nir/ricollis) is distinguished by the presence of a black patch
on the back of the neck, which is wanting in the common Indian hare (A. riifi-
caudatus). Both these sjxecies a})pear to be much less prolific than the European

Asiatic Species.

P/C.IS AND HARES.

'97

.species ; ainl when pursued generally take refuge in holes. (Jf the 'Fibetan species,
the Afghan hare (7>. tibetanus), which is found as low as five hundred feet above
the sea, is distinguished by the black upper surface of the tail ; while in the woolly
hare {L. oiostolus) and upland hare {L. hypsibius) both surfaces of the tail are
nearly or quite white. The latter species does not occur below fourteen thousand
or fifteen thousand feet ; and I have found it in swarms among eleagnus bush in
the higher valleys of the Ladak.

The most remarkable of the Indian species is, however, the hi.spid hare {L.
hisjndus), inhabiting the foot of the Eastern Himalaya. In this hare the ears are
shorter than the skull, the eyes small, the ears coarse and bristly, the tail dark both
above and below, and the hind-legs scarcely longer than the front pair. Although
not gregarious, this species is said to burrow like a rabbit; and pi'obably, therefore,
produces blind and naked young. Its flesh is reported to be white. An allied
species {L. nitscheri) inhabits Sumatra.

In Africa hares are found from Egypt to the Cape ; those from
African Species. . . , ^ '

South Africa afford but poor sport, as their speed is not great, and

when pursued they almost invariably run to ground. Moreover, some of them at

lea.st, are very foul feeders. The Egyptian hare {L. cegyjytius) is considerably

smaller than the common .species, but with relatively longer ears, and paler fur.

(If the Cape species, the rock -hare (L. saxatilis) is nearly equal in size to the

common European hare, and has relatively long limbs and ears, with the fur rufous

above and dirty white below. The Cape hare {L. capensis) differs by its shorter

legs, and the absence of a rufous tinge on the back of the neck, and the yellowish

colour of the throat ; when hunted, it always carries the ears erect. Lastly, we

have the small thick-tailed hare {L. crassicaiidatus), which is not larger than a

rabbit, and is of a foxy-red colour above, paler beneath, with the large and thick

tail of the same rufous tint as the body. This species, which has very short legs,

is confined to the highlands, ranging from the Cape Colony to the Transvaal.

The Rabbit {Lepus cmiicidus).

From the foregoing account of the non-European species of hares it will be
gathered that .some of them show a transition, both as regards form and habits
from the European hare in the direction of the rabbit, although none of them are
as gregarious as the latter, and, with one probable exception, none produce blind
offspring. On these grounds the rabbit cannot be separated generically from the
hare. The I’abbit is characterised by its small size, relatively short ears, which about
equal the length of the head, its small head, and the comparatively slight elongation
of the hind-legs. The general colour is greyish brown, with the neck reddi.sh fawn,
the under-parts and lower surface of the tail white, and, at most, only the margins
of the tips of the ears white. Black, fawn, or parti-coloured individuals are, how-
ever, at times met with even in the wild state. The length of the rabbit is usually
about 16 j inches; and its weight from 2| to 3 lb.s., although it may occasionally
reach as much as b lbs.

These rodents which, as compared with the hare, are deficient in speed, arc
eminently gregarious, forming in suitable soils numerous burrows, collectively
termed “ warrens.” Sandy soils, especially tliose clothed witli heath or gorse, are

RODENTS.

198

their favourite resorts ; but in damp situations rabbits sometimes content them-
selves with forming a series of runs among the thickly-matted gorse or heather.
Occasionally, it is stated, they will take possession of a hollow tree, and ascend
the stem for a considerable height. Although mainly nocturnal, rabbits when
undisturbed may be seen abroad at all hours; but their favourite feeding-
times are in the evening and early morning. The prolific nature of the rabbit

K.ABBIT nat size).

is proverbial ; several litters being produced in the coui'se of a year, both during the
summer and the winter, and the number of young in each litter usually varying
from five to eight. The young are born in a blind and nearly naked condition ;
and at the age of six months are themselves able to breed. The ordinary buri’ow
usually has two entrances, but the young are born in a special excavation to which
there is but a single approach. In this breeding-burrow the mother forms a soft
nest from her own fur ; and during her absence in the day she covers over the
entrance with earth. It does not appear to be generally known that these animals
can swim ; but a rabbit startled by a dog belonging to the present writer, from a
tuft of grass on the margin of a river, at once plunged into the water and reached

r/CAS AmYD hares.

199

In Australasia.

the opposite bank in safety. Rabbits, from their numbers, do even more damage
to young plantations than is inflicted by hares. Tlie chief foes of these animals are
weasels, stoats, and polecats, which either hunt them in the open, or attack them
within the recesses of their subterranean haunts ; the curious kind of paralysis
which seems to seize the rabbit when pursued by one of these carnivores has been
already mentioned under the heading of the stoat.

Distribution. Although now widely distributed, it is believed that the original
home of the rabbit was in the countries on both sides of the western
portion of the Mediterranean, where it is still abundant at the present day. Thence
it is considered to have spread northwards, and to have reached England and
Ii'eland by human agency. In Scotland it has increased and spread enormously of
late years, having been formerly but sparsely distributed, and unknown in the
moi’e northern parts of the country. On the continent its distribution is somewhat
local ; and it is unknown in the more northern and eastern parts of Europe. It
should be observed that remains of rabbits occur in the caves of England in
company with those of the mammoth and other extinct mammals, which would
seem at first sight to disprove the view that these rodents are immigrants from the
south. It is, however, quite probable that the association of the remains of the
rabbit with those of extinct mammals may be due to its burrowing habits.

The rabbit has been introduced by human agency into several
countries beyond Europe, where it has flourished and multiplied to
a degree beyond conception ; — so much so, indeed, that in Australia and Xew
Zealand these animals have become a perfect pest and a serious hindrance to
agriculture. Rabbits were first introduced at the period of the highest prosjierity
of Australia and Xew South Wales by a patriotic gentleman who thought it would be
a good thing to import a few rabbits into the colony, as they would serve for food
and for sport. He accordingly imported three couple of rabbits, and they were
turned loose. It was not long before it was found that the district in question had
been transformed into a gigantic rabbit warren. Indeed it was discovered that a
single pair of rabbits, under favourable circumstances, would in three j'ears have a
progeny numbering 13,718,000. The inhabitants of the colony soon found that
the rabbits wei’e a plague, for they devoured the grass, which was needed for
the sheep, the bark of trees, and every kind of fruit and vegetables, until the
prospect of the colony became a very serious matter, and ruin seemed inevitable.
In Xew South Wales upward-s of fifteen million rabbit skins have been exported
in a single year ; while in the thirteen years ending with 1889 no less than thirty-
nine millions were accounted for in Victoria alone. To prevent the increase of
these rodents, the introduction of weasels, stoats, mungooses, etc., has been tried ;
but it has been found that these carnivores neglected the rabbits and took to
feeding on poultry, and thus became as great a nuisance as the animals they were
intended to destroy. The attempt to kill them oft' by the introduction of an
epidemic disease has also failed. In order to protect such portions of the country
as are still free from rabbits fences of wire-netting ha\'e been erected ; one of the.se
fences erected by the Government of Victoria extending for a distance of upwards
of one hundred and fifty geographical miles. In Xew Zealand, where the rabbit
has been introduced little more than twenty years, its increase has been so

200

RODENTS.

enormous, and the destruction it inflicts so great, that in some districts it has
actually been a question whether the colonists should not vacate the country rather
than attempt to tight against the plague. The average number of rabbit skins
exported from New Zealand is now twelve millions.

In other Tame rabbits were introduced into the island of Porto Santo,

Countries, near Madeira, in the year 1418 or 1419, and their descendants have
now formed a breed di.stinguished by their small size, the reddish colour of the fur
of the upper-parts, and the grey tints of that below. So diflerent, indeed, are these
rabbits from the oi’dinary kind, that the two kinds will not even breed together ;
and if the histoiy of the Porto Santo race were not known, it would undoubtedly
be regarded as a distinct species. Tame rabbits which have run wild in Jamaica
and the Falkland Islands have not reverted to the ordinary wild form, but still
exhibit distinct traces of their origin. Introduced rabbits are also numerous in
Tenerifle and the Crozet Islands. In Tenerifle, where the breed is small, they do
not burrow, but live in ci’annies among the rocks.

Domesticated The rabbit has long been kept in a domesticated state, in which
Rabbits. varies not only in colour but likewise in size, in the length of the

fur, in the form and direction of the ears, and also to some extent in the conforma-
tion of the skull. The usual colours are brown, fawn, reddish brown, or black, more
or less mingled with white ; and there is also an albino race with pink eyes.

Lop-Eared Among the most remarkable changes produced by domestication

Breeds. assumption of a pendent position ly one or both ears, which

become greatly enlarged, accompanied by a modification in the skull. Whereas in

the ordinary wild rabbit the length of the
ears from tip to tip when extended is
rather less than 8 inches, and the breadth
of each not more than 2 inches ; a “ lop-
ear” has been exhibited in which these
dimensions were respectively 23 and 5^
inches. The weight of these rabbits is,
moreover, frequently from 8 to 10 lbs.;
while, according to Mr. Darwin, it has been
known to reach 18 lbs. When only one
ear hangs down the rabbit is called a “half-
lop ” ; and in some cases this pendent ear is
larger than the upright one. IMany lop-
eared rabbits have large dewlaps, or folds
of skin beneath the throat. Neither whole nor half-lops bx'eed at all truly ; and in
all lop-eared rabbits the skull is proportionately longer than in the wild race.

The Angora breed is readily distinguished by the length and
fineness of its fur, which is even of considerable length on the soles
of the feet. Mr. Darwin states that these rabbits are more sociable in disposition
than the other domestic breeds ; and that the males do not exhibit that tendency
to destroy their oflCspring which is so characteristic of the rest.

The hare-coloured or BeDian rabbit diflers mainlv from other
other Breeds, it,,. . . . "

large breeds by its colour ; while other .strains which breed true to

LOP-EARED RABBIT.

Angora.

P/CAS AXD HARES.

201

colour are the so-called silver-^reys and chinchillas, which, are born black, and
assume their characteristic colours later on. Sih’er-greys generally have black
heads and legs, and the tine gi’ey fur of the body is intermingled with a number of
long black and white hairs. These rabbits have long been kept in warrens; and
when crossed with the wild breed, one-
half of the progeny, or thereabouts, takes
after the one parent, and the second half
after the other. On the other hand,
chinchillas, or tame silver-greys, have
short, paler, mouse-coloured, or slaty fur,
among which are long, black, slate-
coloured, and white hairs. Darwin
remarks that silver-gi’eys may be re-
garded as black rabbits, which become
grey at an early jDoriod of life. By
crossing silver-greys with chinchillas a
certain number of the resulting offspring
belonc; to what is known as the Hima-
layan breed. When first born these rabbits are generally true albinos, having pure
white fur and pink eyes ; but in the course of a few months they gradually become
blackish brown on the ears, nose, feet, and the upper surface of the tail. In spite
of their sudden production, Himalayan rabbits generally breed true ; and Darwin
suggests that their remarkable change in coloration may be due to both chinchillas
and silver-greys having descended from a cross between black and albino parents.
Lasth', we have the Nicard or Dutch rabbit, distinguished by its very small size ;
some examples not weighing more than a pound and a quarter.

CHAPTER XXXV.

regard the term as indicating tlie absence of front teeth alone, it will be applicable
to the whole group, so far as existing forms are concerned.

In addition to this absence of front or incisor teeth, the Edentates are also
characterised by the simple structxire of their cheek-teeth, which are composed
solely of ivory and cement, without any trace of enamel. Moreover, these teeth
never form distinct roots, but grow continuou.sly throughout life, and have their
pulp-cavities open inferiorlj'. Then, again, these animals usually lack a functional
series of milk-teeth ; although in two instances such teeth are developed, which in
one case cut the gums and come into use.

The Edentates, — Order Edentata.

The Mammals described in this chapter, which include the sloths, ant-eaters, and
armadillos of South America, together with two Old World gi'oups, are collectively
characterised by the total absence of front teeth, while in a few instances their
jaws are entirely toothless. Strictly speaking, therefore, the title of the group
applies only to those of its I’epresentatives as present the latter feature ; but if we

THE GREAT ANT-EATER.

GENERAL CHARACTERS.

203

The foregoing arc almost tlie only characters common to the whole of the
Edentates. It may be added, however, that all these animals are of a comparatively
low degree of organisation, although many of them are specialised for particular
inodes of life. In general their brains are relatively small, with the hemispheres,
or anterior portion, devoid of convolutions, and not extending backwards to overlap
and conceal the hinder portion or cerebellum. In some cases, however, the hemi-
spheres of the brain are distinctly convoluted. Very frequently the shoulder-blade,
or scapula, is characterised by the great development of the anterior portion of its
lower extremity ; this so-called coi’acoidal portion (of which we shall have to speak
more fully when we come to the Egg-laying Mammals), being sometimes, as shown
in our figure of the skeleton of the sloth, marked otf from the remainder of the
bone by a perforation, and suturally united with it. Certain members of the order,
such as the armadillos and their extinct allies, are peculiar among Mammals in
possessing a bony cuirass in the skin ; while the pangolins are equally remarkable
for the coat of overlapping horny scales with which the entire body is invested.

From the absence of enamel in their teeth, and the presence of rudimental
milk-teeth in some of their I’epresentatives, it is probable that the Edentates should
be regarded as somewhat degenerate types, descended from ancestors provided
with a double set of enamel-coated teeth. There are, however, no indications of
any close relationship between the Edentates and any other of the IMammalian
orders ; and it is accordingly pi’etty evident that they are de.scended from extinct
primitive Mammals quite independently of all other members of the class.

As already mentioned, the sloths, ant-eaters, and armadillos, are
entirely confined to the New World ; and since it is these alone which
form the typical Edentates, the order is essentially an American one. Indeed,
there is a considerable degree of doubt whether the Old World pangolins and
aai’d-varks, which form its only other representatives, are rightly included within
the order ; their organisation being very different from that of the typical forms.
Be this as it may, the typical Edentates appear to have been always confined
to the New World, in the southern half of which they attained their greatest
development ; for while fossil forms are abundant in America, they are unknown
elsewhere.^ Some of these extinct types are of the greatest importance to the
zoologist, since they serve to connect together most intimately such widely different
forms as the arboreal sloths and the terrestrial armadillos.

Although varying greatly in their mode of life, the whole of the
Edentates — both living and extinct — are either arboreal or terrestrial,
none of them being modified either for flight in the air or for swimming in the
water. While the purely arboreal sloths are entirely vegetable feeders, all the
other members of the order, of which a few are likewise more or less arboreal in
their habits, subsist on flesh or insects. Moreover, several of these carnivorous
forms are buiTowing animals ; and it is remarkable that the members of three
distinct groups, namely, the ant-eaters, the pangolins, and the aard-varks, subsist
mainly, or exclusively, on white ants or termites ; the only other purely ant-eating
members of the class belonging respectively to the Pouched IMammals and the Egg-

Distribution.

Mode of Life.

1 Certain remains from the Tertiary rocks of France have been considered to belong to armadillos, but this
determination is exceedingly doubtful.

204

EDEXTATES.

laying Mammals. It is further noteworthy that while among the ant-eating
Edentates the true ant-eaters and the pangolins have entirely lost their 1-eeth, those
organs are retained in a comparatively high state of development among the aard-
varks. At the present day the Edentates are evidently a waning group, the whole
of the larger inembei's of the order having died out ; while those which remain
have sought protection by the acrpiisition of either arboreal or burrowing habits,
or by the development of a protective coat of mail to their bodies.

The Sloths.

Family Bradypodid^-E.

Although by the older zoologists the sloths were regarded as ill-formed
creatures destined to lead a miserable life on account of their mis.shapen limb.s,
no animals are in reality better adapted to their peculiar mode of existence. We

SKELETON OF THREE-TOED SLOTH.

see this not only in their elongated limbs, which have been modified into hook-like
organs of suspension, with the I’emoval of all superfluous digits and the great
<levelopment of the claws of those which remain ; but likewise in the extraordinary
resemblance of their coarse coat of hair to the shaggy lichens clothing the gnarled
and knotted boughs of their native forests. It is noteworthy that while the monkeys
of the same regions have mostly acquired a fifth limb by the development of the
prehensile power in their tails, the sloths have ahno.st dispensed with tails
altogether.

The sloths are characterised exteimally by their short and
' rounded heads, in which the ears are very small and buried among
the fur, their rudimentary tails, and the excessive elongation of their fore-limbs, of

SLOTHS.

205

wliich the length far surpasses that of the hinder-pair. Both pairs of limbs are
furnished with long and slender feet, in wliich there are never more than three
toes ; while the toes themselves are invested for nearly tlieir whole length in a
common skin, and terminate in long curved claws of great strength. The tliick
coat of long, coarse, and somewhat brittle hair with which the whole of the body
and limbs is invested, is generally of a brownish or dull ashy-grey colour, mingled
with a greenish tint ; each individual hair having a fluted or roughened external
surface. The most remarkable feature connected with the pelage is, however, the
growth of a vegetable — a kind of alga — on the hairs themselves ; the alga attach-
ing itself to the aforesaid flutings, and growing luxuriantly in the moist atmo.sphere
of the South American forests, although quickly withering when the animals are
brought to Europe. It is this extraneous vegetable growth which communicates
the greenish tinge to the hair during life ; and its object is doubtless to render the
coloration of these creatures in still closer harmony with their inanimate surround-
ings than would have been otherwise possible. It may be mentioned here that it
is almost impossible to conceive that any sort of so-called natural selection could
have given rise to this peculiar and unique kind of protective resemblance. In
the region of the back between the shoulders many sloths exhibit a patch of fine
woolly under-fur marked by longitudinal stripes of rich brown and orange ; the ex-
posure of such patches being due, according to Brehm, to the animals having abraded
the long hair by rubbing or resting their backs against trees. The coloration of
this patch of under-fur appi'oximates to that obtaining in the coat of the ant-eaters,
from which it may be inferred that both these groups of animals originally had
bright-coloured fur, and that the long external dull-hued coat of the sloths has
been a special development suited to the needs of their environment.

Tlie sloths have five pairs of teeth in the upper, and four in the lower jaw ;
the individual teeth, with the exception of the first pair in one of the two genera,
being nearly cylindrical in form, and in all cases consisting of a core of ivor}'
invested with a thick coating of cement. The skeleton is characterised by the
presence of complete collar-bones ; while in the fore-arm the two bones are completely
separate, and allow the hand to be supinated like that of man. The claws are,
however, permanently fixed parallel to one another, so that the hand, like the foot,
can be used merely as a claw. In the hind-limb the foot is articulated obliquely
to the bones of the leg ; so that when on the ground the animal can walk only on
the outer sides of its feet. Of the soft parts, it will suffice to mention that the
tongue is short and soft ; while the large stomach, as in so many leaf-eaters and
grass-feeders, is divided into several compartments. The windpipe is peculiar
in being folded before reaching tlie lungs, — a feature found elsewhere only in
certain birds. Finally, the female sloth has but a single pair of teats on the breast.

Three-Toed The typical members of the family are commonly known as

Sloths. three-toed sloths, or, from their native title, ais, and constitute the
genus Bi'aclypus, readily characterised by tlie presence of three toes on both the
fore and the hind-feet. The teeth are all of nearly the same lieight, with their
grinding surfaces deeply cupped ; the first tooth in the upper jaw being consideralily
smaller than either of the others, while the corresponding lower tooth is bi’oad and
compressed. The most remarkable peculiarity connected with the genus is, how-

2o6

EDENTATES.

ever, the presence of nine, instead of the usual seven, vertebr® in the neck ; that
is to say, it is the tenth vertebra from the head which first carries ribs articulating
with the breast-bone, although the ninth, and occasionally the eighth vertebra, is
furnished with a pair of free floating ribs, which stop short of the breast-bone.
Tliere are several sj^ecies of the genus characterised by difierences in coloration, or
by the relative length of the hair on the face ; but the precise number of species is

THE COMMON THKEE-TOEB SLOTH (j nat. size).

not yet definitely ascertained. In some kinds the coloration is uniform, while in
others there is a dark stripe across the shoulders; the presence of the above-
mentioned bright-coloured patch on the back cannot, however, as was once thought,
be regarded as a specific character. The typical B. iridactylus inhabits the drier
regions of the forests, while others, as noticed below, frequent the permanently
flooded districts. As a rule, these animals appear to be silent ; but it is recorded
that a captive specimen, when dragged from the branch to which it was clinging^
uttered a shrill scream.

SLOTHS.

207

Two-Toed Sloths.

Habits.

The two-tced sloths, or iinaiis, of which tliere are two well-
defined species, constitute the genus CJiolvepus, characterised hy
having only two functional toes on the fore-foot ; these two digits repi’esenting the
index and middle finger of the human hand. The hind-foot has, howevei*, three
toes, as in Bradypus. The unaus are further distinguished hy the characters
of their teeth ; the first pair in each jaw being longer and stouter than the
others, from which they are separated by a considerable interval. These anterior
teeth assume, indeed, the characters of tusks, and have their summits obliquely
woi*n away by mutual attrition. That they do not correspond to the true tusks, or
canines, of other mammals is shown, however, by the circumstance that the lower
ones bite behind, instead of in front of those of the upper jaw. In the common
unau (C. didactylus) the number of vertebrfe in the neck is the u.sual seven,
but in Hoffmann’s sloth (C. hoffmanni) it is reduced to six. Of these two species
the former is restricted to Brazil ; while the latter extends from Ecuador to Costa
Rica. Hoffmann’s sloth utters at I’are intervals a cry like the bleating of a sheep,
while when suddenly seized it gives vent to a loud snort.

The haunts of the sloths are the primeval forests of South and
Central America, whei’e vegetation attains its highest development,
and the warm air is heavily laden with moisture. The darker and denser the
forest, the more thickly is it tenanted by these creatures, which are as thoroughly
arboreal as the squirrels and spider-monkeys, and seldom or never descend of their
own accord to the gi’ound. Indeed, on the ground the sloth is but a helpless
creature, walking uneasily on the edges of its in-turned feet, and seeking as soon
as possible to regain its native trees. Writing of the habits of the common three-
toed sloth (B. tridactylus), Bates observes that the Indians call it ai' ybyrete, or sloth
of the mainland, to distinguish it from the B. infuscatus, which has a long black
and tawny stripe between the shoulders, and is called a'i ygapo, or sloth of the
flooded lands. Some travellers in South America have described the sloth as very
nimble in its native woods, and have disputed the justness of the name which has
been bestowed upon it. “ The inhabitants of the Amazon regions, however, both
Indians and descendants of the Portuguese, hold to the common opinion, and
consider the sloth as the type of laziness. . . It is a strange sight to watch the
uncouth creature, fit production of these silent shades, lazily moving from branch
to branch. Every movement betrays, not indolence exactly, but extreme caution.
He never loosens his hold from one branch without first securing liimself to the

next, and when he does not find a bough to immediately grasp with the rigid
hooks into which his paws are so curiously transformed, he raises his body,
supported on his hind-legs, and claws around in search of a fresh foothold.” Bates
goes on to say that after watching its movements for some time, he shot the
specimen under observation ; its body remained, however, firmly suspended to the
bough to which it was clinging, and it was not till the muscles became relaxed
that it fell. He adds that on another occasion he saw a three-toed sloth swimming
a river, about five hundred yards wide.

Sloths are mainly nocturnal ; and in their usual attitude they hang suspended
back downwards. When sleeping, they roll themselves into a ball, with the
head tucked between the arms; in this position they somewhat resemble the

2o8

EDENTATES.

pottos among the lemurs, and it is then that they present the most striking
resemblance to a lichen-clad knot. They are found usually either in pairs or in
small family parties ; and are harmless and inoffensive in disposition. They are
most active in the dusk and at night ; and will then wander slowly for consider-
able distances through the forest. Their food consists exclusively of leaves,
young shoots, and fruits, the moisture contained in which renders drinking
luinecessary. Their favourite food is afforded by the large-leaved and milky
cecropia trees, which are so abundant in the South American forests; and it
is said that they seldom desert a cecropia so long as it affords them nutriment.

The sense of hearing in these animals seems but imperfectly developed ; and
their small, dull and reddish eyes do not appear capable of very acute vision.
Indeed, on fii’st observing a sloth its eyes look so devoid of brightness as to give
the impression that the creature must be blind. But a single young is pro-
duced at a birth. When it first comes into the world the young sloth is fully
developed, having the body thickly clothed with hair, and the claws on the toes
of the same proportionate length as in the adult. With these claws it clings
fast to the long hair of its mother, clasping its arms around her neck.

Sloths are capable of enduring deprivation from food for protracted periods,
and they are also remarkable for the severe bodily injuries they are capable of
sustaining, while they appear to be unaffected by doses of poison which would
immediately prove fatal to other animals of larger size. It is related that on one
occasion a three-toed sloth kept in captivity at Turin took no food for upwards of
a month, and appeared none the worse at the end of its long fast. All these
circumstances clearly point to the low organisation of these animals ; it being a
well-known fact that reptiles exhibit a far greater tenacity of life than the higher
mammals. Indeed, as a rule, the lower we descend in the animal kingdom, the
greater becomes the power of sustaining injury.

The Extinct Ground-Sloths.

Family Megatheuubje.

No account of the Edentates would be complete without some reference to the
gigantic ground-sloths which were formerly so abundant in South America, as it
is by their aid alone that we are able to comprehend the relationship of the true
sloths to the ant-eaters. The best known of these creatures is the megathere,
which rivalled the elephant in bulk ; while the mylodon and scelidothere were
somewhat smaller forms. They may be described as possessing the skulls and
teeth of sloths, and the back-bones, limbs, and tails of ant-eaters. The megathere
differs from most of the others in having the crowns of the teeth square and
divided into wedge-shaped transverse ridges, owing to the variation in the hardness
of their constituents ; but in most cases the teeth were subcylindrical, with depressed
centre.s. They agreed with the sloths in having large and complete collar-bones ;
but, as we infer from the conformation of the lower jaw, they approximated to the
ant-eaters in the elongation of their tongues. The majority of the ground-sloths
were South American ; but one species of megathere ranged into North America,
while an allied genus, Megalonyx, was apparently exclusively North American.

THE TWO TOED SLOTH.

ANT-EATERS.

209

That the ground-slotlis were herbivorous is evident from the structure of tlieir
teeth ; while it is obvious that creatures which must have weighed several tons
when in the flesh could not have been climbers. Their bodies were pi’obably
clothed with coarse hair some-
what like that of the ant-eater ;
but there is evidence that the
mylodon had also a number of
small bony plates embedded in
its skin. From the enormous
width and massiveness of the
pelvis of the ground - sloths,
coupled with the extraordinary
size of the bones of the tail, it
is probable that these creatures
were in the habit of procuring
their food by supporting them-
selves on the tripod foi’ined by
their hind-limbs and tail, and rearing their bodies against the trunks of trees, from
which the boughs were then dragged down by the powerful arms. Possibly, how-
ever, the megathere, as suggested by the late Prof. Parker, may in some cases have
bodily uprooted trees, by first digging a hole at their roots with its powerful front
claws, and then grasping the trunk with its arms, and swaying it to and fro till it
fell with a crash. It may be added that the ground-sloths resembled the ant-eaters
and sloths in walking on the outer sides of their enormous fore-feet ; but they
differed from the latter in also applying only the outer side of the hind-feet to the
ground. All these gigantic forms lived during the Pleistocene period ; but in the
lower Tertiaries of Patagonia they are represented by the much smaller Eucholoeops,
in which the skull was only some 5 inches in length ; the teeth resembling those of
the megathere.

PALATAL VIEW OF SKULL OF EXTINCT GROUND-SLOTH
(MYLODON).— After Owen.

The Ant-Eaters.

Family Myrmecophagida:.

The ant-eaters, or, as they are often called, ant-bears, differ so widely in
appearance and structure from the sloths that it is difficult to believe at first sight
in their close relationship ; indeed, had it not been for the fortunate preservation
of the remains of the ground-sloths, it may be questioned whether even zoologists
would have fully understood the alliance of the two. As it is, we have an excellent
example of the effects of adaptation to widely different modes of life in modifying
the organisation of nearly allied animals. In the present instance the extinct
ground-sloths are probably the least removed from the original common type.
In the sloths the needs of a purely arboreal life have led to a great elongation of the
fore-limbs, coupled with the reduction of the digits to a few hook-like claws, and
the functional loss of the tail. In the other group, the ant-eating habit has led
to an extraordinary elongation of the skull, with the loss of all traces of teeth.

VOL. III. — 14,

210

EDENTATES.

All the ant-eaters are characterised by the body being clothed with hair, and
by the more or less marked elongation of the head, in which the mouth is tubular,
and provided with a long worm-like tongue, while teeth are wanting. The mouth
has only a small aperture at its extremity, through which, when feeding, the long
extensile tongue, coated with viscid saliva, is rapidly protruded and as instantane-
ously withdrawn. The tail is always long, and in two species is prehensile. In
the fore-feet the middle toe is enlarged and furnished with an enormous curved
claw, while the other digits are reduced in size, and some of them may be rudi-
mentary. The hind-limbs are as long as the front pair ; and their feet terminate
in four or five equal-sized and clawed toes. In the skeleton the collar-bones are
generally rudimentary, although in one genus well-developed; and the ribs ai’e
remarkable for their breadth. In the soft parts the stomach is comparatively
simple, the brain much more convoluted than in the sloths. The heart is very
small. As their name implies, ant-eaters are purely insectivorous.

SKELETON OF GREAT ANT-EATER.

Great Ant-Eater.

The great, or maned ant-eater {Myrmecophaga juhata) — known
in Paraguay as the yurumi, and in Surinam as tamanoa — is the
largest member of the family. Externall}’’ it is characterised by the extreme elon-
gation of its narrow head, and the enormous mass of long hair clothing the tail.
The anterior portion of the head forms a kind of cylindrical beak, which is of
far greater length than the hinder half, and carries the small nostrils at its tip.
The eyes are minute ; and the oval ears small and erect. The body is somewhat
compressed laterally, and is about equal in length to the tail, which is not
prehensile. In the fore-feet claws are present upon all the toes except the
fifth ; that of the third being far larger than either of the others ; when walking
the toes are bent back, and the weight of the body supported on the upper
surfaces of the third and fourth, aided by a hard pad at the extremity of the fifth.
The hind-feet, in which the toes are of nearly equal length, are comparatively
short, 1 and have the soles applied to the ground in walking. The hair is stiff and
bristly ; although short on the head it is of considerable, though varying, length on
the body. On the neck and back it forms an upright mane; while on the fore-

1 Tliey are somewhat too long in the figure.

AiXTEATERS.

211

limbs and Hanks it becomes still more elongated and pendent, but attains its
maximum development on the tail, where it may measure as much as 16 inches in
length. The general colour of the hair over a large part of the body is ashy grey
mingled with black, this tint prevailing on the head, neck, back, flanks and hind-
quarters, fore-legs and tail. The throat, chest, under-parts, hind-feet, and under-
surface of the tail are blackish brown ; while a broad black band, margined with
white, extends obliquely upwards and backwards to terminate in a point on the
loins. The length of the head and body is about 4 feet, the height at the shoulder
being about two.

THE GREAT ANT-EATER, WITH THE TAIL ELEVATED size).

In addition to these external features, there are certain points in the internal
anatomy of this ant-eater which demand some attention. In the first place, the
exceedingly elongated skull is characterised by the zygomatic or cheek-arch being
incomplete ; and also by the circumstance that the passage above the bony palate,
through which the creature breathes, instead of stopping short near the middle of
the skull, is prolonged nearly to its hinder extremity. This is brought about by
the union in the middle line of descending plates from the bones known as
pterygoids; this feature occurring elsewhere among mammals only in certain
dolphins and one genus of armadillo. In consequence of this arrangement the
posterior or inner nostrils of the great ant-eater open at the back of the skull.

212

EDENTATES.

instead of near its middle. Another peculiarity of the skull is the absence of any
postorbital process defining the hinder border of the socket of the eye, which is
consequently continuous with the temporal fossa, or large open space at the side of
the hinder portion of the skull. Then, again, the lower jaw is very long and
slender, with an extremely short union in front between its two lateral branches,
and without the process which usually ascends behind the socket of the eye for the
attachment of the muscles of mastication. Like the sloths, the females of the great
ant-eater have but a single pair of teats on the breast.

Distribution and Although distributed over the whole of the tropical portions of
Habits. South and Central America, the great ant-eater is nowhere common ;
and from its nocturnal habits but seldom seen. It frequents either the low, wet
lands bordering the rivers, or swampy forests ; and is strictly terrestrial in its
habits. Its strong claws might lead to the supposition that the creature was a
burrower, but this is not the case. It has, howevex’, usually a regular laii', or at
least an habitual place of resort, genei'ally situated among tall grass, where it
spends the day in slumbei’, lying on one side, with its head buried in the long fur
of the chest, the legs folded togethei', and the huge tail cuided round the exposed
side of the body. Except in the case of females with young, the ant-eater is, as a
rule, a solitaiy creatui-e. Its usual pace is a kind of ti’ot, but when pursued it
bi'eaks into an awkward, shuffling, slow gallop. The food of the gx’eat ant-eater
consists exclusively of tei-mites and ants, together with their larvge. In order to
obtain these insects, the ant-eater teai’s open their nests or hillocks with the power-
ful claws of its foi’e-feet. As soon as the light of day is let into their domicile, the
ants or termites rush to the surface in order to investigate the cause of the dis-
tui’bance, and ai-e foi’thwith swept up by hundi’eds adhei’ing to the viscid tongue
of the ant-eatei*, which is pi’otruded and withdrawn with lightning-like i-apidity.

The breeding-habits of the animal are still very imperfectly known. A
single young is, however, produced by the female in spi’ing, which is cari’ied about
on the back of its pai’ent for a considerable time. The pei’iod of suckling lasts for
.several months ; and even when the young ant-eater has taken to feeding on
insects, it does not leave its pai’ent until she is again pregnant.

Usually the ant-eater is a hai’inless, inoffensive ci’eature, which may be di’iven
in almost any direction so long as it is not pressed too hard. If, however, di’iven
to close quarters, it turns furiously on its assailants, whom it attacks by hugging
with its immensely muscular arms. It has been asserted, on the authority of the
natives, that the ant-eater will even face and attack the jaguar ; and although the
truth of this statement was denied by the traveller Azara, a later explorer believes
that it may be founded on fact. Like the sloths, ant-eaters are exceedingly difflcult
to kill, their skin being so tough that an ordinary small hunting-knife will make
no impression on it, while their skulls may be battered with a heavy stone without
producing any other effect than temporarily stunning the creatures.

These ant-eaters thrive fairly well in captivity in Europe ; but spend most of
their time in sleep, with the head, limbs, and tail folded up in the manner already
mentioned. On awakening, the animal generally unfolds itself with considerable
deliberation, usually sitting up at first on its hind-quarters, with its legs stretched
out rigidly in front, and its bird-like head swaying slowly from side to side. “ In

AXT-EATERS.

213

its slow and nieasurod walk,” writes Sclater, “the tail is stretched out in a
straight line with the back (as in the illustration on p. 211), and the animal then
presents a length of between 6 and 7 feet, of which the head occupies 1 foot, and
the tail 3.” The small mouth and face are cleaned from any of the viscid saliva
which may have adhered to them by being rubbed from time to time against
the slightly bent knee. The flesh of the great ant-eater, although black in
colour, and musky in odour, is largely eaten by the natives and negroes of South
America.

Tamandua. lesser ant-eater, or tamandua {Tamandua tetradactyla) is

an animal of scarcely half the size of the preceding, from which it is
distinguished by its much shorter head, longer ears, uniformly short bristly hair.

THE TAMANDUA (J nat. size).

and the prehensile tail, of which the extremity, together with the whole length
of the inferior surface, is naked and scaly. The three middle toes of the fore-
foot have well-developed claws, of which that on the third is much lai'ger than
either of the others ; while the first toe has only a minute claw, and the fifth is
clawless, and concealed within the skin. The hind-foot is veiy similar to that of
the great ant-eater, and has five subequal clawed toes. The structure of the skull
is essentially the same ; and the collar-bones are likewise rudimentary. The whole
length of the head and body is about 2 feet, and that of the tail 6 inches less.
As regards coloration, there is a great amount of individual variation. The
general hue of the fur is, however, yellowish white, with a more or less marked
rusty tinge ; but a broad black band extends from the sides of the neck along the
flanks, and becomes so deep on the hind-quarters as to appear the predominating
colour. The tip of the snout, together with the lips, eyelids, and the soles of the
feet, are naked and black ; and the ears are but sparsely haired.

214

EDENTATES.

Distribution and Tlie tainandua (which, by the way, is the Portuguese term for
Habits. ^1^0 creature, tlie native name being caguari) ranges througli the
tropical forests of South and Central America. It is mainly an arboreal animal ;
its climbing powers being largely aided by the prehensile tail. Generally nocturnal,
it may be sometimes seen abroad during the day. Its movements are more rapid
than those of the great ant-eater; and when asleep it lies on its belly, with the
head bent under the chest and covered with the fore-feet, while the tail is curled
along the side. Its food apparently consists mainly of ants, and termites — probably
belonging to arboreal species ; but it has been suggested that honey may likewise
form a portion of its diet. Like the great ant-eater, it produces only a single
young one at a birth. It is a much commoner animal than the tamanoa, and is
said to be generally found on the borders of the forests. Frequently it ascends

TWO-TOED ANT-EATEli uat. size).

to the top of the tallest trees. When pursued, it endeavours to escape by flight ;
but if hard pressed it turns on men or dogs in the same manner as its larger
cousin, sitting up on its hind-quarters, and trying to hug its foes in its arms.

Two-Toed The third and last representative of the family (Cycloturus

Ant-Eater. cUdactylus) is no larger than a rat. Its skull is only slightly
elongated. The length of the head and body is only 6 inches, and that of the
highly prehensile tail a little over 7 inches. The fore-feet have four toes, of which
those corresponding to the index and third fingers of man alone have claws ; the
claw of the third toe being very much larger than that of the second. In the
hind-feet there are four nearly equal-sized toes, which are placed close together so
as to form a hook -like organ somewhat after the fashion of the foot of a sloth.
The fur is soft, thick, and silky ; its colour being generally foxy red above and
grey beneath, -with the individual hairs greyish brown or black at the base, and
yellowish brown at the tips. The skull differs from that of the other ant-eaters

ARMADILLOS.

215

by its shorter muzzle, and by the absence of the backward prolongation of the
nasal passage on the palate, to which allusion has been already made. The lower
jaw is less widely removed from the ordinary type. Another peculiarity in the
skeleton is the pi’esence of well-developed collar-bones ; and it may also be noted
that the ribs are so extraordinarily wide as to come nearly in contact with one
another, and thus render the bony casing of the body well-nigh continuous.
Distribution and The two-toed ant-eater is an exclusively arboreal animal, with a
Habits. somewhat restricted geographical range. It inhabits Northern Brazil,
Guiana, and Peru, between the 10th parallel of sotith and the 0th parallel of north
latitude, and it also extends into Central Amex'ica ; its range thus including the
very hottest portions of the continent. In the mountains it ascends to an elevation
of some two thousand feet above the sea. It is either a rare cx'eature, or one but
seldom seen, evexi by the natives ; fx’equenting the thickest portions of the forests,
and escaping observation thx’ough its arboreal habits and diminutive size. Like
its larger x’elatives, it leads, except during the pairing-season, a solitary existence ;
aixd it is likewise xxocturnal, sleeping during the day among the bough.s. Its
movements ax-e generally .slow and deliberate ; but whexi so disposed, it can climb
(juickly, always with the aid of the tail. Ants, tex’inites, bees, wasps, and their
larvxe, ax’e its food. Wheix it has captured a lax’ge insect, it sits up on its haunches
like a squixTel, and conveys the px’ey to its mouth with its paw.s. Bates had one
of these axit-eaters bx'ought to him which had been captux-ed while sluxnbex-ing
in a hollow tx'ee. He kept it in the house for twexity-four hours, where “ it
X’emained nearly all the time without motion, except when ix’x’itated, ixi which case
it reax'ed itself on its hind-legs from the back of a chair to which it clung, and
clawed out with its fore-paws like a cat. Its manxier of clinging with its claws,
and the sluggishness of its motions, gave it a great resemblance to a sloth. It
uttered no sound, and reixiained all night on the spot where I had placed it in
the morning. The next day I put it on a tx’ee in the open aix', and at night it
escaped.”

The Armadillos.

Family Basypodidje.

The armadillos, together with their near ally the pichiciago, constitute a well-
defined South American faxnily distinguished fx’om other living mammals by the
development of a number of bony plates ixi the skin, so as to fox’in a mox-e or less
complete shield enveloping the body ; and it is fx’om the px’esexxce of this bony cuirass
that the members of the family dex'ive their distinctive Spaxiish title of ax’inadillos.
In general the bony shield of the back is fox’xned by the union of quadrangular
or many-sided plates, and is divided into an anterior and posterior solid portion,
separated by a series of movable tx'ansvex'se bands, vaxyixig in number fx’om three
to thirteen. The anterior shield, into which the head and fore-limbs may be more
or less completely \vithdrawn, is tex-med the scapular shield ; while the posterior
portion, which is notched for the tail, is knowxi as the luxnbar, or pelvic shield.
The movable bands ax'e composed of parallel rows of similar plates coxinected
together by flexible skin ; and in some cases the degree of flexibility in this x'egion

EDENTATES.

216

is so great as to allow of the animal rolling itself into a complete ball. One
peculiar genus of extinct armadillo differs from all living forms in that the whole
body-shield was composed of these movable plates. Usually a certain number of
hairs protrude between the bony plates of the armour ; and in some cases these are
so numei’ous as almost to conceal the armour, and give the appearance of a furry
animal. Each bony plate is sculptured, varying in pattern in the different
genera ; and it is ovexdain by a horny shield, developed in the cuticle or epidermis ;
the bones themselves belonging to the true skin. The upper surface of the head
is also protected by an armour of similar structure ; and the tail is usually en-
circled by a series of bony rings. The limbs are likewise protected externally by
a number of bony plates embedded in the skin, which do not, however, articulate
together by their edges. The foi’e-feet are provided with very powerful curved

claws adapted for dig-
ging, and varying in
number from five to
three ; while in the hind-
feet the claws are of
smaller size, and invari-
ably five in number.
The numerous teeth are
small and simple, looking

SKELETON OF ARMADILLO.

like small pegs fixed in the jaws ; and in one genus the anterior teeth are preceded
by a deciduous milk series. The tongue is considerably elongated, although to a
less extent than in the ant-eatei’S.

The elongated skull is characterised by the full development of the zj^gomatic
or cheek arch; and the collar-bones are complete. In the hind -limbs the
bones of the second segment — tibia and fibula — differ from those of the other
existing members of the order by being united together at their lower extremities.
Another peculiarity is that a variable number of the vertebrm in the middle of the
neck are likewise immovably welded together. In the development of additional
facets for mutual articulation, the vertebrae of the loins of the armadillos resemble
those of the ant-eaters. The ribs are of considerable width ; and the upper lateral
processes of the back are specially developed for the support of the carapace.
Most of the species are of comparatively small size ; the lax’gest living one not
exceeding 3 feet in length, exclusi^'e of the tail ; but in the Pleistocene of Ai'gentina
thex’e occurs the gigantic Dasy pother ium, with a skull about a foot in length. In
the Ax'gentine pampas the armadillos are as a rule diurnal, in other distxdcts many
appear to be cx-epuscular or nocturnal. The majox-ity are maixily or exclusively
insectivox’ous, but one species consxxxnes not only flesh, but vegetable substances.
In disposition these Edentates ax’e mostly harmless and inoffensive little cx-eatux’es ;
a Gaucho x-emarking to Mr. Dax’win, as he sharpened his knife on the back of one,
“ they are so quiet (son tan mansos ”). All of them buxTOw iix the gx’ouxxd ; axid so
x’apid is the act of bux*rowing, that, as the wx’iter has witnessed, if a hox-seman sees
one of these animals, it is almost necessaxy for him to tumble off his hox’se in ox’der
to captux'e it before it disappears in the soft soil of the pampas. They x’un with
considerable speed, some of the species merely touching the ground with the tips of

ARMADILLOS.

2 I 7

Pichiciago.

their claws, ami carrying the body elevated high on the limbs. They are found
both on the open pampas and in the forests ; and, with the exception of a single
species which ranges as far north as Texas, they are restricted to the warmer
parts of South ami Central America. Their burrows are frequently found in the
neighbourhood of the mounds erected by ants and termites ; and although most of
the species wander abroad in search of food, a few lead an almost exclusively
subterranean and mole-like life. Except in the pairing-season, armadillos are
solitary creatures ; and they nearly always prefer flat, open country for their
habitations. Although generally found in dry districts, they are said to be able to
swim well and swiftly. In spite of the nature of their food (which in addition to
ants and other insects includes snails and worms), the flesh of most armadillos is
free from unpleasant flavour.

The smallest, and at the same time the most curious repre-
sentative of the whole group, is the tiny creature known as the
pichiciago, or pink fairy armadillo {Cldamydophorus truncatus), which diflers so
remarkably from the true armadillos as to constitute a subfamily by itself. This
Edentate was discovered by the American naturalist Harlan, at Mendoza in 1824,
much to the astonishment of the natives, who had no knowledge of its existence.
For many years it was known only by two examples — the one preserved in
London and the other at Philadelphia ; but of recent years a considerable number
of specimens have been obtained; and it has been kept alive in the Zoological
Gardens at Buenos Aires.

The pichiciago is only about 5 inches in length ; and, while the shield or
mantle covering the head and body is pink, the fur is of a snowy white. The
head is short, widest behind, and gradually tapering to the muzzle, where it
terminates in a short and abruptly truncated snout, with small and rounded nostrils.
The small and almost rudimentary eyes are nearly concealed among the long hair ; ^
and the ears are quite invisible, having scarcely any external conchs. The mouth
is very small, with the lips hard and stiff ; and the rather long and fleshy tongue
is conical, and covered above with warty protuberances. The teeth, of which there
are eight in the upper and eight or nine in the lower jaw, are small and nearly
cylindrical ; those in the middle of the series being larger than at the two
extremities. The neck is short and thick ; and the body long and depressed,
becoming gradually wider from the shoulders to the abruptly truncated hinder
extremity. The limbs are short, and the front pair much more powerfully made
than the hinder ones. Both are provided with five toes ; but whereas in the fore-
limbs these are connected nearly to the bases of the claws, in the hind-pair they
are entirely free. The second claw in the fore-foot is the largest, and the fifth the
smallest; while the claws of all the hind-toes are comparatively small. The tail^
which protrudes through a notch in the lower border of the bony shield on the
hind-quarters, is short and inflexible, terminating in a flattened and pointed paddle-
like expansion, and covered with a leather skin, dotted over with small horny
plates. The whole of the upper surface of the body is covered with a continuous
shield, or mantle, of quadrangular horny scales, \inderlain b}' very thin, bony
plates. This mantle commt^ices in a point a short distance above the muzzle, and

1 They are matle too conspicuous in our figure.

2i8

EDENTATES.

gradually increases in width to the hinder extremity of the body, where it is
abruptly tnuicated. Instead of being hrinly attached to the body throughout its
extent, the mantle is only affixed along the line of the backbone, and consequently
lies quite loosely on the hairy sides of the body ; on the head it is, however, firmly
joined to the bones. There are usually about twenty transverse rows of plates in
the mantle ; and while the number of plates in each row at the hinder extremity of
the head varies from seven to eight, on the loins there may be as many as twenty -
four in a row. The abruptly truncated hinder extremity of the body is protected
by a solid shield, composed of firmly welded plates of bone, overlain by thin scales
of horn. This shield is slightly convex, and forms a segment of a circle, the centre
of which would be the notch in its inferior border through which protrudes the
tail. It is firmly welded to certain bony processes arising from the pelvis, and

THE PiCHiciAGO (J nat. size).

comprises five or six concentric rows of plates ; the number in the uppermo.st row
being about twenty, and that in the lowest only six. The entire shield is placed
in a nearly vertical plane. Both externally and internally the mantle is smooth
and devoid of hair. With the exception of the tail, the soles of the feet, the snout,
and the chin, which are nearly naked, the whole of the skin is covered with a coat
of long, silky hair, forming a fringe along the edges of the mantle. This hair is
longest on the flanks and limbs, and shortest on the upper surface of the feet, where
it is intermingled with wart-like masses of horn. The female pichiciago has a single
pair of teats situated on the breast, as in the armadillo.s.

Distribution and The pichiciago is a rare animal, confined to the western part of
Mode of Life. Argentina, and is least uncommon in the neighbourhood of Mendoza ;
where, as elsewhere, it frequents open, sandy dunes, or their proximity, the
vegetation in such spots consisting of thorny bru.shwood and cacti. The best
account of the habits of this creature is given by Mr. E. W. White, who writes that,
when walking, the pichiciago “ plants both the fore and hind-feet on the soles, and

ARMADILLOS.

219

not on the contracted claws, carrying its intlexihle tail, which it has no power to
raise, trailing along the ground, and much inclined downwards from the body.
As it commences to excavate, tlie. fore-feet are first employed; and, immediately
^ifterwards, supporting its body on the tripod formed of these and the extremity of
the tail, both hind-feet are set to work simultaneously, discharging the sand with
incredible swiftness. The burrows, which are never left open, usually have but
^jlight, if any, inclination to the horizon. Sluggish in all its movements, except as
a fodient, in which capacity it perhaps excels all other burrowing animals, the
Chlamydophorus performs the operation of excavation with such celerity that a
man has scarcely time to dismount from his horse before the creature has buried
itself to the depth of its own body.” Mr. White believes that the use of the bony
shield at the hinder extremity of the body is to act as a rammer in closing up the
entrance to its burrow , and he is further of opinion that when the creature desires
to come above ground, it emerges by digging a new exit. When in search of a
spot in which to burrow, the pichiciago utters a sniffing sound, but is otherwise
silent. “ So exti'emely sensitive is this delicate little bur-rower to cold,” writes Mr.
White, “ that my living example, after passing a night in a box of earth covered
Avith flannels, was found the following morning in a very exhausted condition.
Wrapped in warm clothing, and placed near a fire, it soon revived. On taking it
in my hand under a Mendozan midday sun it shivered violently ; but whether
through fear or chill it is impossible to say. Its normal paradise seems to be when
the temperature of its residence is such as is produced by sand so hot as almost to
scorch the hand ; and yet, if cold be unfriendly, no less so is wet, for although its
winter is spent beneath the earth, a fall of rain quicklj’- drives it from its retreat.
During summer it leaves its burrow at dusk to search for food ; and being truly
nocturnal, moonlight nights are very favourable for discovering it.” A second,
and rather larger species of pichiciago {C. retusus) inhabits Bolivia, and is dis-
tinguished from the typical form by the mantle being attached to the skin of the
back throughout its whole extent.

The remaining: members of the family, with the exception of the
True Armadillos. , . ” . ''

peba armadillo and its allies, are included in a single subfamily,

characterised by the division of the bony carapace on the back into scapular and

lumbar shields, separated from one another by a variable number of movable

bands. They all have moderate-sized ears, set at a considerable distance apart ;

and the first and second claws of the fore-feet are, when present, slender ; while

the females have but a single pair of teats on the breast.

Six-Banded The weasel-headed, or six-banded armadillo {Dasypits sexcinctus)

Armadillos, jg fype of a genus characterised by having usually six or seven,
but occasionally eight, movable bands in the carapace ; each bony plate of which is
marked by an elliptical row of punctures. The head is bi’oad and flattened, with
an obtusely pointed muzzle, and rather small or moderate-sized ears; and the
body is broad and much depressed. In length the tail is less than the head and
body ; and the plates on its basal portion form well-defined rings. Of the five toes
in the fore-feet, the first is the most slender, the second is the longest, while the
three outer ones are the stoutest, and gradually diminish in size from the third to
the fifth. They have a rounded inner border, and a sharp outer and lower edge.

220

EDENTATES.

The teeth may be either nine in the upper and ten in the lower jaw, or one less in
each ; they are of large size, and the first upper pair are generally implanted in
the premaxillaiy bones. The figured species, which attains a length of about 16
inches, exclusive of the tail, inhabits Brazil and Paraguay ; but is replaced in
Argentina by the closely allied peludo, or hairy armadillo {D. villosus). The
fleecy armadillo {D. vellerosiLs), from Argentina and the north of Patagonia, and
the })ichi, or pigmy armadillo (D. minutus) of Argentina, are much smaller
forms ; of which the second is distinguished by the absence of any teeth in the
premaxillary bones.

Habits different species of the genus vary somewhat in habits ; the

pichi being mainly diurnal, while in the cultivated districts of
Argentina the peludo has become nocturnal. The pichi, according to Mr. Darwin,

' THE WEASEL-HE.\DED ARMADILLO (i nat. size).

prefers a very dry soil ; and the sand-dunes near the coast, where for many
months it can never taste water, are its favourite resort ; it often tries to escape
notice by squatting close to the ground. All of the species live in burrows, where
in winter or spring the young ai’e born ; the number in a litter varying from two
to four, although the female has but a single pair of teats with which to afford
them nourishment. The 3’'oung are born blind, but with their armour fully formed,
although soft and flexible. They grow with great rapidity, and remain for several
weeks in the burrows ; it is believed, however, that they are not suckled for any
very lengthened peidod, and that they soon learn to shift for themselves. The
armadillos of this genus are usually found alone ; and most of them feed chiefly on
ants and other insects, although they will also attack and devour small snakes.
On the other hand, the peludo is omnivorous. Dr. E. Peard writes that this species
“ comes forth for a short time only by day ; on a moonlight night he may be met

ARMADILLOS.

22 1

with at any hour. I liave very often made a peludo po.st-inortem examination,
and several times found his last meal consisted of putrid flesh, as well as insects
and vegetable fibre. I do not mean to assei't that he cannot live on vegetables
alone ; but he evidently does not prefer them, and looks on a dead lamb or other
animal as a bonne houche by no means to be despised. A fresh peludo-burrow may
almost invariably be found by or underneath a stinking carcase. This is not
merely that the occupant may avail himself of the maggots bred in the carrion,
for pieces of the flesh may frequentlj’^ be seen drawn pai’tly into the buiTow,
and the softer parts chewed and eaten.” These flesh-eating pi’02:)ensities of the
peludo frequently lead to its destruction, since these animals often devour the
poisoned meat spread for wandering dogs and foxes. It is also stated that in some
districts, where peludoes are so numerous as to render riding dangerous, on account
of their burrows, flesh poisoned with strychnine is exposed for their destruction.
The foregoing observations are confirmed by Mr. W. H. Hudson, who v'rites
that the peludo, like its fast-disappearing congeners, “ is an insect-eater still, but
does not like them seek its food on the surface and on the ant-hill only ; all kinds
of insects are preyed on, and by means of its keen scent it discovers worms and
larvae several inches below the surface. Its method of taking worms and lai’vae
resembles that of probing birds, for it throws up no earth, but forces its sharp
snout and wedge-shaped head down to the required depth ; and probably while
working it moves round in a circle, for the hole is conical, though the head of the
animal is flat. Where it has found a rich hunting-ground, the earth is seen pitted
with hundreds of these neat symmetrical bores. It is also an enemy to gi’ound-
nesting birds, being fond of eggs and fledglings ; and when unable to captvu’e prey
it will feed on carrion as I’eadily as a wild dog or vulture, returning night after
night to the carcase of a horse or cow as long as the flesh lasts.” Mr. Hudson adds
that this armadillo resorts to a vegetable diet only when animal food fails ; and
states that on such occasions it will eat not only clover, but likewise grains of
maize, Avhich are swallowed whole. The peludo also displays marked intelligence
in capturing some of the animals on which it preys. Mr. Hudson had a tame one
Avhich was an adept at catching mice in a most ingenious manner. After stating
that the creature had a most keen sense of smell, and was in the habit of trotting
along with its nose to the ground like a beagle, Mr. Hudson writes that “ when near
his prey he became agitated, and quickened his motions, pausing frequently to
sniff the earth, till, discovering the exact spot where the mouse lurked, he would
stop and creep cautiou.sly to it ; then, after slowly raising himself to a sitting
posture, spring suddenly forwards, throwing his body like a trap over the mouse
or nest of mice concealed in the grass.” Still more remarkable is the manner
in which a peludo has been observed to kill a snake, by rushing upon it and
proceeding to saw the unfortunate reptile in pieces by pressing upon it closely
with the jagged edges of its armour, and at the same time moving its body
backwards and forwards. The struggles of the snake were all in vain, as its
fangs could make no impression upon the panoply of its assailant ; and eventually
the reptile slowly dropped and died, to be soon after devoui’ed by the armadillo,
which commenced the meal by seizing the snake’s tail in its mouth, and gradually
eating forwards.

222

EDENTATES.

Hunting.

Both the peluclo and the Aveasel-headed armadillo are hunted for
the sake of their flesh, with dogs specially trained for the purpose.
A moonlight night is generally selected for the pursuit; and the hunter arms
himself with a stout cudgel, pointed at one end. As soon as the armadillo perceives
the dog, it either makes straight for its burrow, or endeavours to bury itself by
digging a hole where it stands. If the dog come up with the creature before it
gain its retreat, its fate is sealed. As the carapace aflbixls no hold, the dog generally
seizes the armadillo by the head, or a paw, and holds it till the arrival of his
master, by whom it is despatched with a blow on the head from his stick. A
specially clever dog will, however, endeavour to overthrow the armadillo as it
runs by thrusting his nose under the edge of the carapace. The creature is then
promptly seized by the soft under-parts, and soon killed ; the teeth of the dog
crunching up the edges of the carapace as readily as an egg-shell is crushed
in the hand.

Broad-Banded The tatouay, or broad-banded armadillo (Lysiurus unicinctus),
Armadiuo. of Surinam, Brazil, and Paraguay, is the best known representative of
a small genus distinguished from the last by the presence of twelve or thirteen
movable bands in the carapace, and likewise by the teeth. The latter are either
eight or nine in number on each side of both the upper and lower jaw, and are of
moderate size; while in the upper jaw the last of the series is placed considerably
in advance of the hinder extremity of the bony palate, instead of close to it, as in
the preceding group. The head has the same general form as in the six-banded
armadillos, with rather widely separated, large, and rounded ears ; and by the
presence of from twenty to twenty-five teeth on each side of the jaw^s. The slender
tail, which is considerably shorter than the body, is nearly naked, except for a few
bony plates on its under-surface and near the tip. In the fore-foot the third toe
has a huge curved claw, much larger than that on either of the others ; the claws
of the fii’st and second toes being slender. The hind-feet have short triangular nails,
of which the first is the shortest and the third the longest. The bones of the
armour are ornamented with an indistinct granular sculpture. Next to the under-
mentioned giant armadillo, the present species is the largest of the group. Its
habits are probably very similar to those of the six-banded armadillo, although
our information is somewhat scant on this point.

By far the largest living member of the family is the giant
Giant Armadillo. : . ® .

armadillo (Priodon gigas), from the forests of Surinam and Brazil,

which attains a length of nearly a yard from the tip of the snout to the root of the

tail, and is the sole representative of its genus. While agreeing with the broad-

banded armadillo in the number of five bands in the carapace, and the general

structure of its feet, this species is distinguished by the still greater relative

development of the thii’d toe, and the small size of the claw of the fifth. It is

further characterised by the small size and elongated form of the head, on which

the ears are oval and rather small ; and b}’’ the tail, which is nearly equal in length

to the body, being covered with large scales arranged in spiral I’ows. There are ten

rows of plates in the scapular, and sixteen or seventeen in the pelvic shield. With

the exception of the head, tail, and a band on the sides, which are whitish, the

colour is blackish brown. The immensely powerful front claws of this armadillo

223

ARMADILLOS.

clearly pi'oclaini its fossorial habits ; and it is said to feed chiefly on ants and
termites, although not averse to carrion.

Three Banded The common three-handed armadillo, or apar, {Tolypeides

ArmadUios. tricinctiis), is the typical representative of a genus comprising three
rather small species, distinguished by the great development and solidarity of the
scapular and lumbar shields of the carapace, and the reduction of the movable
bands to three. The teeth, of which there are nine on each side of the lower jaw,
and either nine or eight in the upper Jaw, are relatively small, and extend back

THE GIANT ARMADILLO (J nat. size).

nearly to the end of the palate. The head is long and narrow, with the elongated
and oval ears placed rather low down on its sides. The third claw in the fore-feet
is even more developed than in the giant armadillo ; the first and fifth claws being
very minute or wanting. In the hind-foot the three middle toes have short hoof-
like nails ; while those of the first and fifth digits are smaller and compressed.
The plates of the carapace are small and polygonal, with a strongly-marked
granular sculpture. Both the scapular and lumbar shields of the carapace are
very large, and much produced on the sides of the neck and tail, thus forming
large chambers into which the limbs, tail, and head, can be withdrawn. The
conical tail is less than a third the length of the body, and is covered with
bony tubercles. The total length of the head and body is about 15 inches; and

224

EDENTATES.

the general colour is dark grey, with a more or less marked brown tinge; the
skin between the movable bands being whitish, while that on the under-surface
of the body is dusky.

The apar is found throughout the Argentine pampas ; and, in common with
the other two members of the genus, differs from the rest of the armadillos in
being able to roll itself up into a complete ball, with the shield of the head and
the bony upper-suiTace of the tail packed away side by side, and thus completely

filling up the notches in
the scapular and lumbar
shields. In this state the
creature is perfectly safe
from nearly all foes save
man. For instance, when
a dog attempts to seize
one of these armadillos, it
is compelled, from the size
of its mouth, to make a
bite upon one side, upon
which, as ]\Ir. Darwin tells
us, the ball immediately

THE THREE-HANDED ARMADILLO. 1 olls awa^ f 10111 itS graSp.

The apar is mainly diurnal

in its habits ; and trusts for defence to its power of rolling itself into a ball, not
dwelling in burrows like the members of the other genera. When running, these
armadillos tread only on the tips of the claws of the fore- feet, and consequently have
the edges of the carapace raised high above the ground. Our figure represents a
specimen with the fore-legs stretched out in front preparatory to digging up an
ant’s nest. In captivity these armadillos will eat fruit and green vegetables ;
although, on account of the small size of their mouths, it is necessary that all the
food with which they are supplied should be chopped up into small pieces. Fossil
remains of armadillos of this species, together with others belonging to all the
genera except Friodon, are met with in the cavern-deposits of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil ;
and are mostly referable to species still existing in the country.

The Peba armadillo (Tatusia novemcincta), ranging from Texas
to Paraguay, together with the mulita — “ little mule ” — (T. hyhrida),
of Argentina and other parts of South America, and certain allied species, differ from
all the members of the family yet noticed by the elongated ears being closely
approximated at their roots, by the female having a pair of teats on the abdomen, in
addition to the two on the breast, and by the circumstance that the permanent teeth,
with the exception of the last pair in each jaw, are preceded by deciduous milk-teeth,
each furnished with two roots. The permanent teeth, wliich are either seven or eight
in number in each side of both the upper and lower jaws, are very small in
proportion to the size of the skull, and do not come into use until the animal has
well-nigh attained its full dimensions. The head is narrow, and produced into a
nearly cylindrical snout, obliquely truncated at the extremity ; and the bony
palate of the skull has a backward prolongation formed in the same manner as

Peba Armadillo.

GL YPTODONTS.

225

that of the groat ant-eator. The body is long and narrow, with from seven to
nine movable bands between the scapular and lumbar shields ; the former being
produced on either side of the shoulders, and having a deep notch at the neck.
Each bony plate is ornamented with a series of pits arranged in the shape of a V.
The tail is nearly or quite as long as the body, and surrounded for the greater part
of its length with complete bony rings. The fore-feet have four long claws, of
which the inner pair are considerably larger than the others ; while the hind-feet
carry five claws, of which the third is the longest, and the fourth and fifth the
shortest. The length of the body of the peba armadillo is about 16 inches, and
that of its tail some 2 inches less. In producing from six to twelve young at a
birth the peba armadillo differs from all the species hitherto noticed. It inhabits

CARAPACE AND SKELETON OF GLYPTODON, WITH THE TAIL-SHEATH IMPERFECT

(^'jj nat. size). — After Zittel.

burrows in the open plains, and feeds largely on carrion, which is said to be stored
up in the burrows for future consumption. In spite of this unsavoury diet, the
peba is much hunted for its flesh, which is stated to be of delicate flavour,
other s ecies above-mentioned mulita is a smaller species, with a relatively

shorter tail. A very remarkable form is the rare shaggy armadillo
(T. pilosa) from Peru, in which the cheeks and the whole of the carapace, except
the front margin, as well as the upper parts of the limbs and the under surface of
the body, are covered with a thick coat of light brown hair, of about an inch and
a half in length. So dense is this haixy covering that the carapace is completely
concealed, giving to the creature, save for its mail-clad head, the appearance of an
ordinary hairy mammal

The Extinct Glyptodonts.

Family GL YT^TOBOXTIDJE.

As we have seen, the carapace of the largest existing armadillo scarcely
exceeds a yard in length ; but during the Pleistocene, or latest, geological period,
there existed in South America a number of gigantic armadillo-like animals, in
some of which the carapace attained a length of between 6 and 7 feet. All these
Edentates differed from the living armadillos in having complex teeth (eight in

VOL. III. — 15

226

EDENTATES.

number on each side of the jaws), which were divided into three prisms by a pair
of deep vertical grooves on each side. In all of them the carapace consists of a
single solid shield, formed of a number of polygonal bon}" plates, which are
firmly united together by suture. A peculiar form from Brazil known as the
chlamydothere serves in some respects to connect the glyptodonts with the arma-
dillos, having the carapace of the latter, and the teeth approximating to those of
the former. The typical species was about the size of a rhinoceros ; but others
were smaller.

In all the glyptodonts the skull was short, the feet were short and massive,
generally with five toes in front and four behind ; and the limbs wei’e likewise
short and massive. In the lai’ger forms the bony plates of the carapace were fully

an inch in thickness ; and in all the species the head
was protected by a bony shield, somewhat similar in
structure to the carapace. In the larger types, constitut-
ing the genus Glyptodon, the cai'apace was much vaulted,
and its margins ornamented with a number of large
projecting tubercles; while the tail was protected by a
series of bony rings, also ornamented with bosses,
gradually diminishing in size from root to tip. In one
species the total length, along the curve of the back,
from the nose to the end of the tail was 11^ feet, while
the carapace measured 7 feet in length and 9 in width,
inclusive of the curves. On the other hand, in the
mostly smaller forms known as Lomaphorus, the carapace was less vaulted, and
devoid of bosses on the margin ; while the tail had several movable smooth rings
at the root, and terminated in a long bony tube of more than a yard in length.
The extremity of such a tube, showing the large bony plates with which its
surface is covered, is shown in the accompanying cut.

Another gigantic kind from the pampas, distinguished by the tail terminating
in a huge flattened club, armed during life with horns, is known as Dcedicurus.
In the Miocene beds of Patagonia all the glyptodonts were of smaller size.

The Pangolins.

Family MANIDA2.

Stranger even than the armadillos are the Edentates commonly known as
pangolins, or scaly ant-eaters, which may be compared in appearance to an animated
spruce-fir cone furnished with a head and legs. These creatures constitute a family
by themselves, in which there is but a single genus — Manis, and, like the remaining
representatives of the order, they are confined to the Old World. As already
mentioned, the relationship of the pangolins to the typical New World Edentates,
is remote ; and it may be even questioned whether the group is rightly included
in the same order. Their internal anatomy is of a different type ; and the joints
of the backbone lack the additional articular processes characterising most of the
American Edentates.

END OF SHEATH OF TAIL OF A
GLYPTODONT, MUCH REDUCED.

PANGOLINS.

227

The pangolins may be briefly characterised as a family by the total want of
teeth, and by the upper surface and sides of the body and tlie whole tail being
covei'ed with a number of large, overlapping horny scales. Their limbs are short,
with five toes on each foot ; and the long, worm-like tongue is capablti of being
protruded a great distance from the small mouth. The head is small, long, and
pointed, with the eyes small, and the external conchs of the ears minute or rudi-
mentaiy. The scales of the body extend on to the outer sides of the limbs ; but
they are absent from the inner surfaces of the latter*, as well as from the sides of
the head and the inferior aspect of the body, all of which are sparsely covered
with hair. There are often a few coarse, bristly hairs arising from between the
scales. All the toes have slightly curved claws, which are much longer in the
front than in the hind-feet, and of which the third is larger than either of the
others. In walking, the front toes are bent under the feet, and the weight of the
body supported mainly on the upper and outer sides of the fourth and fifth toes.
On the other hand, the hind-feet are of the ordinary plantigrade type, and have

the whole sole applied to the ground in walking. The female has a pair of teats
situated on the breast. In the skeleton the skull is remarkable for its smooth and
.solid structure, and almost conical form. The zygomatic, or cheek-arch, is incom-
plete, and there is no di.stinction between the sockets of the eyes and the fossae at
the hinder extremity of the skull ; while the palate is much produced backwards.
The lower jaw is extremely slight and slender, without any ascending or descending
pi-ocesses. In many of these respects the skulls of the pangolins approach those
of the true ant-eaters ; but it must be remembered that such resemblances are
purely adaptive, and are brought about by the identical modes of life of the two
groups. Two other points may be noticed in the skeleton; — firstly, that collar-
bones are wanting; and, secondly, that the terminal joints of the claws are
deeply cleft.

Distribution and The pangolins, of which the largest species attains a length of
Mode of Life, about G feet, are exclusively confined to Africa south of the
Sahara, and South-Eastern Asia. Africa possesses the largest species, and the
greater number of forms. The pangolins are essentially burrowing and nocturnal
animals, feeding exclusively on ants and termites, which are captured on the long
extensile tongue. They have the power of rolling themselves into a ball as a

228

EDENTATES.

protection against foes ; and when thus coiled up their muscular sti'ength is such
as to set at defiance any attempt to unroll them.

Asiatic Asia is inhabited by three species of the family, namely, the

Pangolins. Indian pangolin {Manis ])entadactyla), confined to India and
Ceylon, and represented in the accompanying figure ; the Chinese pangolin
{M. aurita), ranging from Nipal and Assam to China; and the Malayan pangolin
{M. javanica), inhabiting the regions to the westward of the Bay of Bengal as far
as Celebes, and also occurring in North-Eastern India. All these species agree
with one another in having the whole of the outer surfaces of the limbs covered
with scales, and in their tapering tails, on which the middle upper rows of scales is
continued uninterruptedly to the extremity. In the first two species the front

THE INDIAN PANGOLIN (J uat. size).

claws are about twice the length of the hinder ones ; the Indian pangolin being
distinguished by having from eleven to thirteen rows of scales round the body,
against from fifteen to eighteen in the Chinese species. On the other hand, the
more slenderly-built and longer-tailed Malayan pangolin differs from both the
others in having the claws on the fore-feet only slightly exceeding in length those
of the hind-feet. In the Indian pangolin the length of the head and body is just
over 2 feet, and that of the tail a foot and a half.

The habits of all the three kinds are believed to be similar.

Habits.

although the Malayan species is probably less of a borrower than the
others. The Indian pangolin dwells either among the crevices and clefts of rocks,
or in burrows of its own construction ; such burrows extending to a depth of from
eight to twelve feet below the surface, and terminating in a large chamber, which
may be as much as six feet in diameter. Here a pair of these animals take up
their abode, and in the winter or early spring give birth to their young. The

PANGOLIXS.

229

}'Oung, wliieli are one or two in number, are covered with soft scales at birtli, but
it does not appear to be ascertained wlietlier tliey are born blind. When inhabited,
the entrance to the burrow is stopped with earth ; and it is rarely that its
occupants are seen abroad after sunrise. The food consists chiefly of termites ; the
pangolin tearing open the nests of these insects with its powerful front claws, and
thrusting its long glutinous tongue into their runs. The tongue is rapidly with-
<lrawn with a swarm of the white ants clinging to it. In captivity pangolins will
readily eat finely-chopped raw meat, hard-boiled eggs, and rice. Their stomachs
have a somewhat gizzard-like structure ; and frecpiently contain a few small
pebbles, 2:)robably introduced to aid in triturating the food. In ca2:)tivit3' j:)angolins
<lrink freel}^ by rapidly extending and withdrawing the tongue : but IMr. Blanford

THE SHORT-TAILED PANGOLIN (J nat. size).

<loubts whether this habit is natural to them, as they are often found in 2:)laces
where there is no water. When irritated, j:)angolins will give vent to a hissing
sound ; but at other times they are believed to be silent.

African Thei'e are four African species of pangolin, all of which are

Pangolins, characterised by the middle row of scales on the upper surface of the
tail bifurcating at a short distance from the tip. They are also distingui.shed by
the absence of any external conch to the ear, and the lack of an3" hairs growing
between the scales ; while in some of them the scales do not extend all the way
<lown the outer surfaces of the limbs. Of the four species, the long-tailed joangolin
(3/. macrura) is easily recognised by the great length of its tail, which is nearly
twice as long as the bod3% and also by the absence of scales at the lower part of
the outer surface of the fore-limbs. A nearl}' allied form is the white-bellied
jjangolin (M. tricxispis), distinguished by its larger and tricuspidate scales, and

230

EDENTATES.

the white under-parts. The short-tailed pangolin (71/. temminchi) is readily
distinguished by its short and blunt tail, in which the under surface of the tip
lacks the bare patch found in all the other species except the next. The outer
surfaces of the limbs are also fully scaled. The giant pangolin (71/. gigantea) is
sufficiently distinguished from the last by its superior size. It is remarkable that
the remains of a closely-allied species have been found in a cavern in Madras. The
whole of the four African species inhabit the West Coast; but the short- tailed
species also extends to South Africa and ranges aci’oss the Continent to Zanzibar
and Southern Somaliland.

The general habits of the African pangolins appear to be very

H D1 v5« •

simdar to those of their Asiatic cousins. While, however, the long-
tailed and the white-bellied pangolins are partially arboreal, the other two are purely
terrestrial Most of the observations as to their habits have, however, been made

from captive specimens. In 1878, Mr. F. Holwood, in sending a young example of
the short-tailed pangolin to the London Zoological Gardens, wrote as follows to the
secretary. These pangolins “ always appeared to burrow in hard or stony ground,
and I saw them always in the daytime. The mother of the specimen I sent you
lived three months in Zanzibar. She only fed at night, and remained curled up in
a ball all day. She regularly retired to the dark corner of my haimess-room at
daylight, and left for the garden at sunset. There were very few ants, but she
seemed to get plenty of insects. She burrowed at intervals all round the garden
walls, but this was evidently only trying to escape, as she never made a hole large
enough to give cover.” Although the scales of this young pangolin were quite
soft at birth, they had completely hardened by the second day. Mr. L. Fraser
relates how his pangolins would climb the somewhat roughly-hewn square posts,
which supported a building, and sometimes roll up into a ball and thi’ow themselves
down, apparently without suffering any inconvenience from the fall.

CAPE AAHD-VAKKS AT HOME.

AARD- VARKS.

233

The Aahd-Varks.

Family OrycterOTODIBJE.

The name aard-vark, or earth-pi^, has been applied by the Dutch Boers of the
Cape to the southern I'epresentative of the second ^roup of Old-World hklentates,
of Avhich there are two living species exclusively confined to Africa. To the
English colonists of South Africa the Cape species is known as the ant-bear ; while
b\" the zoologist the aard-varks are termed Orycteropus, and collectively constitute
A very distinct family groxip. In addition to the two living forms, the remains of

THE ETHIOPIAN AARD-VARK. (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1876.)

an extinct species have been discovered in the Pliocene deposits of the island of
Samos ; while those of another have been recorded from the Oligocene beds of
France.

In appearance both species of aai’d-vark are singularly ungraceful, not to say
ugly. Thus the body, which may be either almost naked or sparsely clad with
bristly hairs, is heavy and ungainly; the head greatly elongated, with a small
tubular mouth, and somewhat pig-like snout ; the eai’s of enormous length, and the
tail thick, cylindrical, and tapering, and nearly equal in length to the body. The
neck is very short ; the fore-quarters are short compared with the hinder part
of the body; and the back is much arched. The tongue is long and extensile,
although not so completely worm-like as that of the pangolins ; and the round
nostrils are situated at the extremity of the truncated muzzle. The fore-limbs
are rather short, but very powerful ; they have four toes, with moderate-sized,
strong nails ; and, in walking, the entire sole of the foot is applied to the ground.
The hind-feet have five toes of nearly equal size, each carrying a nail. The skin

234

EDENTATES.

is of remarkable thickness ; its general colour being yellowish brown, with a tinge
of red on the back and sides, while the head and under-parts are light reddish
yellow ; and the hind-quarters, the root of the tail, and the limbs brown. A full-
grown aard-vark measures a little over 6 feet in total length.

The jaws are fux’nished with a considerable number of well-developed teeth, of
which all but the last three in each jaw have milk-predecessors, which do not,
however, cut the gum. In full-grown specimens there are usually five teeth on
each side of both upper and lower jaws ; but the total number of teeth developed is
from eight to ten in the upper, and eight in the lower jaw ; the anterior ones
falling out as the animal attains maturity. When unworn, these teeth, which are
of considerable size, have rounded summits. They are composed of a number of
closely-packed denticles, which by mutual pressure assume a polygonal form, and
are traversed by a series of radiating tubes ; such a structure being unknown
elsewhere in the whole mammalian class. The skull has a complete cheek-arch ;
and the lower jaw is far less slender than in the pangolins. It has been considered
that the aard-varks are nearly-allied to the pangolins, but the result of more
recent observations has been to disprove this view ; and it is even doubtful
whether they should be included in the Edentate order, with the typical forms
of which these animals have but little in common, except so far as regards
the want of front teeth, and the absence of cement in the teeth of the cheek-
series.

Distribution.

Habits.

The typical Cape aard-vark {Orycteropus afra) inhabits South
and South-Eastern Africa; it is replaced in North-Eastern Africa
by the Ethiopian aard-vark (0. cethiopicus) ; the former being distinguished by
the thicker coating of hair, more especially on the back and flanks, as well as by
the thicker and less elongated tail, and the longer head and ears.

The aard-varks are essentially nocturnal and buiTowing in their
habits ; and feed exclusively on termites and ants. In South Africa
their deep bun*ows are generally constructed in the neighbourhood of the tall
conical mounds formed by the termites ; and, in the old days, before these animals
were hunted for their skins, it used to be said that wherever termite-hills were
numerous, there an aard-vark might confidently be expected. Wherever these
animals are abundant, a number of half-formed holes are seen in the ground and
on the sides of the ant-hills, which have been commenced and abandoned. Aard-
varks usually spend the whole of the day asleep in their burrows, but may
occasionally be seen abroad in the early morning. Their powers of digging are so
great, that in a few minutes they can bury their large bodies, even when the
ground is hard and sun-baked. In digging, they work with their fore-feet, and
throw out huge clods of earth between their hind-legs. Aard-varks are quick of
hearing, and very shy, making off at the slightest sound to their burrows with
considerable speed. But little definitely is known as to their breeding-habits ;
although it has been ascertained that the Ethiopian species gives birth during
May or June to a single offspring. At birth the young is naked and flesh-
coloured ; and is suckled by its parent for a long period.

BENNETT’S WALLABY.

CHAPTER XXXVI.

The Pouched Mammals, or Marsupials.

Order Marsupialia.

Distinctive The whole of the Mammals treated of in the preceding chapters
Characters. collectively characterised by certain peculiarities connected with
the development of their young. In all of them the young are brought into the
world in a more or less high state of development ; this high grade of development
being due to the circumstance that during the greater portion of intra-uterine life the
circulatory system of the foetus is connected with that of the maternal parent by a
special vascular organ termed the placenta ; this placental connection between
the blood-vessels of the parent and offspring allowing the blood of the latter to be
oxygenated almost as completely as by breathing. On account of the development
of this placenta, the whole of the foregoing orders of Mammals are brigaded
together into a single large group, or subclass, and are collectively termed either
Placental, or Eutherian Mammals ; the latter term referring to their general high
degree of development, as compared with those remaining for consideration.

On the other hand, in the Mammals of which we have to treat in the present
chapter, the young are born at a very early stage of development, and in an
exceedingly imperfect and helpless condition, — being, in fact, little more than

236

POUCHED MAMMALS.

animated lumps. Previous to birth there is no placental communication between
the blood-vessels of the foetus and the parent; and at birth the rudimental j'oung
are transferred to the teats of the female, to which they adhere tightly for a long
period, their lips being specially modified into a cylindrical sucking-organ. In
most cases the young thus su.spended are protected by a fold of skin on the
abdomen of the female, which forms a pouch in which the teats are contained.
From the universal absence of a placenta, these Mammals are regarded as forming
a subclass of equal rank with the Placentals or Eutherians, and are spoken of as
Implacentals or Metatherians ; the latter term indicating their lower position, as
compared with the Eutherian, or highest Mammals.

The Placental, or Eutherian Mammals are, as we have seen, divided into
numerous orders ; and it may be thought that similar divisions could be instituted
among the Implacentals or Metatherians. It happens, however, — so far at least
as existing forms are concerned, — that this is not the case ; but so as to render
our classification symmetrical, it is necessary to have a name for the one order of
Implacentals, the term Pouched Mammals, or Marsupials, has been selected, and we
.shall speak of these Mammals under either of these terms ; it must, however, be
constantly borne in mind that they also have the higher designation of Implacentals,
or Metatherians, ranking with the term Placentals, or Eutherians.

In addition to the primary distinction of the absence of a placenta, the
Pouched Mammals present cei'tain other more or less distinctive peculiarities.
Mention has already been made of the general presence of a pouch, or marsupium,
in which the abdominally-placed teats of the female are concealed ; and to this it
may be added that, with the single exception of the thylacine, the front brim of
the pelvis always has a pair of divergent splint-like bones projecting forwards in
the form of the letter V. These so-called marsupial bones — shown in all our
figures of the skeletons of this group — were originally considered to be for the
purpose of afibrding siipport to the pouch ; but this view is discredited by their
presence in both sexes. A peculiarity of the skull of all Pouched Mammals save
one, is that the so-called angle, or lower posterior projection of the lower jaw, is
more or less bent inwards, or inflected, as seen in the figure of the skull of Gray’s
rat-kangaroo, given in the sequel. This peculiarity is not, however, distinctive of
the Older, since it also occurs in some of the Insectivores. The skull of every
marsupial is further characterised by the presence of larger or smaller vacuities, or
unossified spaces, in the bony palate. As regards their brains, it may be observed
that all the Pouched Mammals display a low grade of organisation; the whole
brain being small in proportion to the size of the body, while the foldings on the
surface of its hemispheres are never of a very complex nature, and only developed
at all in the largest members of the order. The reproductive organs of the female
are likewise constructed after a lowly fashion ; the oviducts always remaining
perfectly separate from one another, and never uniting, as they do in so many of
the Eutherian Mammals, to form a common chambei', or womb.

Certain peculiarities connected with the number and mode of
replacement of the teeth also aid in distinguishing marsupials from
other Mammals. In the first place, as shown in the figure of the skull of the
Tasmanian devil given later on, there may be more than three pairs of front or

GENERAL CHARACTERS.

237

incisor teeth in the upper jaw ; ami in sucli cases the number of pairs of these
teeth in tlie upper jaw always exceeds those in the lower by one. More
important is the circumstance that but a single tooth on each side of botli
the upper and lower jaw ever has a milk
predecessor. This tooth, marked pm in the
accompanying figui’e, corresponds to the
fourth or last premolar of the dog (Vol. I.
p. 10) ; and consequently all the four teeth
behind it are molars. Now, as we have
already seen, it is but very rarely that there
are more than three of these molars in
Placental Mammals, whereas in the present
order there are nearly always at least four.

On the other hand, there are never more than
three premolar teeth, which in the adult of
some forms, as in the figure, may be reduced
to one. It may be added that, according to
recent researches, all the teeth in advance of the last premolar appear to represent
the milk-series of the higher Mammals, which are here permanently retained.

Mode of The fact that the new-born young of the Pouched Mammals, when

Suckling Young, transferred to the teats of the mother, are little more than mere
animated lumps of flesh, renders it imperative that some special arrangement
should be made for their nutrition, as they are quite incapable of sucking by
themselves. For this purpose the mammary gland of the female is overlain by
certain specially-developed muscles, the periodical contraction of which injects a
supply of milk into the stomachs of the helpless young. In order to prevent the
young marsupials from being choked during this injecting process, their throats
are provided with an arrangement similar to that obtaining permanently in the
Cetaceans. That is to say, the larynx, or upper terminal expansion of the wind-
pipe, is prolonged upwards so as to extend into the hinder aperture of the nostrils
at the back of the palate ; and consequently there is a closed tube fi’om the nostrils
to the lungs, on either side of which the milk can flow without danger of choking
the young animal. When there is no longer any necessity for this special arrange-
ment, the larynx is shortened, and respiration and swallowing are carried on after
the usual manner. It may be added, that in the Pouched Mammals the teats are
confined to the region of the abdomen, and that the number of teats is frequently
greater than that of the young. Such teats as have been in use may always be
recognised by their great elongation, owing to the weight of the young suspended
from them.

Geographical With the exception of the opossums, which are confined to

Distribution. America, and are most numerously repi’esented in the southern half
of that continent, the living representatives of the order are restricted to
Australia, New Guinea, and the adjacent islands as far west as Celebes and
Lombok. Exclusive of the Egg-laying Mammals, the Marsupials form almost the
whole Mammalian fauna of Australia, where the chief other types are certain
Rodents and Bats. In the more western islands they are, however, mingled with

JAWS AND TEETH OF THE KUFOUS

hat-kangaroo.

Tlie letters i indicate the front or incisor teeth ;
c, the upper tusk, or canine ; ;pm, the premolars ;
and m, the molars.

238

POUCHED MAMMALS.

Placental Mammals, thus showing that these islands have had some connection
with those of the Malayan region. The channel separating Lombok and Celebes
from Java and Borneo is, however, of much greater depth than those dividing the
other islands ; and it may accordingly be inferred that any land-connection which
formerly existed between the two groups must have been remote.

In the Tertiary period opossums were distributed over a large portion of
Europe ; and recent discoveries indicate the existence during the same epoch of
marsupials allied to the Australian thylacine in South America. In the preceding
Secondary period, as we shall show later on, Pouched Marsupials appear to have
ranged over the whole world, and were then, together with Egg-laying Mammals,
tlie chief, if not the sole representatives of the class.

The Kangaroos and their Allies.

Family MACROPODID.K

We commence our survey of the Pouched Mammals with their most aberrant
and specialised representatives, or those commonly known as kangaroos, wallabies,

rat -kangaroos, etc. And it may
be mentioned here, that whereas
kangaroos are very frequently
spoken of as typical Marsupials,
this is really very far from being
the case. It is true that they con-
form in all essential characteristics
to the Marsupial type of structure ;
but they have been specially
modified for a particular kind
of progression — namely, leaping.
This has profoundly modified their
whole organisation, and rendered
them some of the most specialised
of all Mammals ; and they retain
accordingly but little resemblance
to what may be termed a typical,
or generalised marsupial, such as
a bandicoot, or thylacine.

The kangaroos belong to a
group or suborder of Marsupials
characterised by the adaptation of
their teeth to a vegetable diet.
Thus the front, or incisor teeth,
as shown in the figure on p. 239,

SKELETON OF KANGAROO. ” ^

are never more than three in
number on each side of the jaws, and are usually three in the upper and one in
the lower jaw ; while in all cases the innermost pair in each jaw are of large size,

KANGAROOS.

239

SKULL OF LESDKURS RAT-KANGAROO.

c, tusk, or canine tooth.

and adapted for cutting. As a rule their ujiper canine teeth, or tusks, are small,
or -wanting; and this invariably holds good for those of the lower jaw. As
regards their molar teeth, these are invariably characterised by having broad,
flattened crowns, surmounted either by tubercles or transverse ridges, and adapted
for the trituration of vegetable substances.

The members of the kangaroo family vary greatly in size, and in the relative
length of the hind-limbs, but they are collectively characterised as follows. In the
upper jaw there are three pairs of incisor teeth, with sharp and cutting edges ;
while the lower jaw is furnished with a large single pair inclining forwards, and
sometimes biting against one another
with a scissor-like action. The upper
canine, or tusk, if present at all, is of
small size, as in the accompanying
flgure ; while there is no corresponding
lower tooth. In the adult the cheek-
teeth are five in number on each side,
of which the first is a premolar ; this
condition obtaining in the figured skull.

In young animals there are, however,
two milk - molars in place of this
premolar; the number of cheek-teeth
then being six on each side. The molar teeth themselves may carry either a
pair of transverse ridges, or four blunt tubercles. A characteristic feature of
the family is to be found in the lower jaw, which has a deep pocket in the outer
side of the hinder portion, communicating at its base by a large perfoi’ation with
the canal on the inner side. The pocket is shown in the accompanying figure,
but the communicating aperture is concealed by its outer wall. In all the
members of the family the fore-limbs are short and feebly developed, with five
complete digits. The hind-limbs, on the contrary, are very powerful, and more
or less elongated. Usually they have but four toes, of which the one corre-
sponding to the fourth in the typical series of five is much larger than either of
tlie others, and terminates in a huge claw. The outermost toe is considerably
smaller, but still stout. The two toes on the inner side of the large one, corre-
•sponding to the second and third of the typical series, are, however, reduced to
small slender rods, lying parallel to one another, and enclosed in a common
skin. These rudimental digits are of course useless in progression, and their
aborted condition is technically known as syndactylism. The head, e.specially
in the larger forms, is small in proportion to the body, and tapers towards the
muzzle. Generally the tail is long, cylindrical, and tapering ; while it fi’equently
aids in supporting the body, and may be prehensile. The female is provided with
a large pouch, of which the aperture looks forwards.

All the members of the kangaroo family ai’e purely vegetable feeders, and are
mainly confined to Australia and Tasmania, where, before the introduction of
sheep and cattle, they took the place of the ruminants of other regions. They are
divided into numerous genera, of which the first includes the true kangaroos
and wallabies.

240

POUCHED MAMMALS.

<■ The True Kangaroos and Wallabies.

Genus Macrojms.

Ill the summer of the year 1770, when Captain Cook was refitting his vessel
at the mouth of the Endeavour River in Xew South Wales, a party of his crew
who had landed to procure food brought back reports of a strange animal of large
size, which sat upright on its hind-limbs and tail, and progressed by a series of
enormous leaps. Excitement among those on board was naturally raised to the
highest pitch by this account — especially as a naturalist, Sir Joseph Banks, was a

member of the ex-
pedition ; — and soon
after a specimen of
the animal in ques-
tion was killed.' This
creature was the one
we now know by the
name of the great
grey kangaroo {Mac-
ropus giganteiis) ;
and was the fir.st
member of the family
which came fully
under European
notice, although one
of the smaller forms
from the Aru Islands
had been partially
made known as early
as the year 1711.
The name kangaroo,
it may be observed,
is said to be of Australian origin, although it appears to be now unknown to the
native.s. The kangaroos and wallabies, which include the largest members of the
family, are characterised by the great length and powerful development of the
hind-limbs as compared with the front pair ; and the enormous size of the tail,
which is regularly tapering, and evenly covered with fur from end to end. In the
hind-foot the claw of the fourth toe is enormously developed, and the first toe
is wanting. The head is small, with an elongated and usually completely naked
muzzle, and large upright ears. The females have four teats. The skull is
characterised by its smooth and rounded contours, and the absence of any
inflation in the bulla of the internal ear. The tusk in the upper jaw is minute,
and shed at an early period ; and the upper incisor teeth are of nearly equal
length, and form a regular open curve. The lower incisor teeth have sharp inner
edges capable of cutting against one another in a scissor-like manner; and the
crowns of the molar teeth carry a pair of transverse ridges, which are nearly

THE GRE.VT GREV KANGAROO, WHTH YOUNG IN POUCH.

KANGAROOS.

241

always connected by a longitudinal bridge. The true kangaroos and wallabies
comprise twenty-three living species, as well as several whicli are extinct; and
they are found not only in Australia and New Guinea, but also in some of the
islands to the eastward. While the larger species are as tall as a man, the smallest
do not exceed the dimensions of a rabbit. They may be divided into three groups,
distinguished by size, and partly also by coloration.

Under the common title of true kane-aroos may be included all
True Kaug^axoos. . . .

the larger forms, characterised by their generally uniform and sombre

coloration, and their large and massive skulls, in which the hinder portion of the

skull is well ossihed. The best known of all the species is the great grey kangaroo

(J/. giganteas) — the “boomer,” “old man,” or “forester” of the colonists, to which

allusion has been already made, and which is represented in the figure on p. 240.

A full-grown male will measure 63 inches from the tip of the nose to the root

of the tail, the length of the tail being 52 inches ; while the entire animal

will weigh some 200 lbs. This species is of rather slender and graceful

build, with soft woolly hair, which is greyish brown above, and nearly white

beneath on the under-parts and limbs, without any white markings on the face.

It is further characterised by the middle of the muzzle being hairy between the

nostrils, and also by the shortness from back to front of the permanent premolar

tooth. It is an inhabitant of open plains, and is found over the great part of

Australia and Tasmania.

On the other hand, the red kangaroo (M. rufus), represented in our coloured
Plate, and the antelopine kangaroo (il/. antilopinus), together with certain allied
species, are inhabitants of rocky districts, and have their muzzles completely naked,
and the pei’inanent premolar tooth of greater length from back to front. Their
colours also may be more brilliant. The great red kangaroo is of slender build,
with reddish coloured and very soft woolly fur, which corresponds to the under-fur
of other species ; the face having light markings and a black streak. This species
inhabits South and Eastern Australia. The antelopine kangaroo, from Nortli
Australia, is distinguished by its massive build, and heavy, clumsy head, as well as
by its short, coarse, straight, reddish hair, without any under-fur, and the absence
of face-markings. It is stated to attain a weight of from 120 to upwards of
170 lbs. Another well-known species is the wallaroo (J/. robiistus), from Queensland,
New South Wales, and South Australia, in which the fur is long and thick, and of
smoky grey colour ; the build being also stout and heavy.

Under the designation of large wallabies, or brush-kangaroos.
Large WaUabies. . ® ”, ” .

may be included a group of smaller and brighter coloured species,

distinguished by the more incomplete ossification of the hinder part of the bony

palate, and by the third incisor tooth of the upper jaw having a single distinct

notch near the middle of the crown. All these species frequent dense scrub-jungle,

known in Australia as “ brush ” ; and their leaping powers are nearly as great

as those of the true kangaroos. One of the largest species is the red-necked

wallaby (M. rujicollis), in which the length of the head and body may be as much

as 41 inches, and that of the tail 31 inches. It occurs in New South Wales and

Victoria, and is represented in Tasmania by a smaller variety known as Bennett’s

wallaby. Other well-known species are the black-tailed wallaby (M. ualabatus),

VOL. III. — 16

242

POUCHED MAMMALS.

from New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland; Pany’s wallaby (M. ixirryi),
from mountain districts in Queensland and the north of New South Wales; and
the agile wallaby {M. cigilis) of New Guinea, Queensland, and part of South
Australia, distinguished from all the others by the uniform sandy colour of the
short fur of the back, and the presence of a distinct white stripe on the hips.

The “ padamelon ” wallaby of the colonists {M. theditis), which is
very common in New South Wales and Yictoi'ia, and measures 26
inches from the muzzle to the root of the tail, is one of the best known representa-
tives of the group of small wallabies, several of which are not larger than a rabbit.
All the species are lightly built, with perfectly naked muzzles, and the outer incisor
tooth smaller than in the last group. Their hind-feet ai’e also relatively shorter ;

SmaU WaUabies.

THE PADAMELON WALLABY (| nat. size).

and their jumping powers, therefore, probably proportionately less. This group
has a wider distribution than either of the othei’s, the Aru Island wallaby
(M. hritnii) — the earliest known member of the family — occurring in the islands
from which it takes its name. Other well-known species are the rufous-bellied
wallaby (71/. hillardieri), fx-orn South Austi’alia, Victoria, and Tasmania ; and the
small short-tailed wallaby (M. hrachyurus), fi'om Western Austi’alia ; the latter
being I’emarkable for the shoi’tness of its tail, and the small size of its eai’s.

As ali’eady mentioned, all the kanfrai’oos are exclusively vegetable
Habits. , ^ ” T

feedei’s, the larger kinds browsing solely on gi’ass and other herbage,

Avhile many of the smaller wallabies also eat roots. Although, when feeding,

kangaroos occasionally move about in an awkward manner on four feet, their

habitual position is the upi’ight one, when they are suppoi’ted by the hind-limbs

aided by the tail ; and the whole structure of their skeleton is modified to suit

KANGAROOS.

243

this position. Thus, as shown in the figure of the skeleton on p. 238, the bones of
the lower leg (tibia and fibula) are innnensely elongated, while the thigh-bone
(femur) is comparatively short, and the narrow pelvis set very obli<piely to the
axis of the back-bone. Consequently, when the animal is re.sting in the usual
position, with the whole of the foot applied to the ground, the knee-joint forms
the summit of a solid support from which the whole body is .su.spended, as it were
on pivots. The kangaroo can, however, raise itself so as to be supported oidy by
the tips of the toes and the tail ; and when in this position is enabled to take a
wide survey of the country, and thus to obtain early warning of approaching
danger. “ When running,” says the Old Biiskman, “it springs from the ground in
an erect position, propelled by its powerful hind-legs and balanced by its tail,
holding its short fore-arms well into the chest, after the manner of a professional
runner. Thus it bounds lightly and easily along, clearing any obstacles, such as
fallen trees, and even low fences, in its stride. I never faii’ly measured one of
these strides or springs, but I am cei'tain, when hard pressed, an ‘ old man,’ or
‘ flj'ing doe,’ will clear nearly ten yards at a spring. The long tail materially
assists them in running, and its measured thumps may be heard on the ground long
before the kangaroo itself appears in sight in the thick forest. It is a curious fact,
that a wounded kangaroo very often breaks the hind-leg in struggling ; and I once
knew an ‘old man’ snap the bone just above the hock, as short as a carrot, in
taking a spring.” In general habits, the writer continues, kangaroos much re-
semble sheep and deer. “ Timid and shy, their senses of sight, hearing, and .smell
are most acute. Like the hare, they appear to be unable to see an object directly
in front of them when running ; — at least I have often stood still and shot one down
as it came running up to me in the open forest. They are very gregarious, and are
always to be met with in smaller or larger droves. I have often seen as many as
one hundred and fifty in a drove, and our general ‘ mobs ’ used to average fifty or
sixty. After the rutting-season, the ‘ old men ’ will often draw away from the
‘ mobs,’ and retire by themselves to the thickest scrub. Each drove frequents a
certain district, and has its own particular camping and feeding-grounds. The
‘ mobs ’ do not appear to mix, and when the shooter once obtains a knowledge of
the country, he has no difficulty in planting himself for a shot. Their camping-
grounds are generally on some open timbered rise, and they have well-trodden
runs from one ground to another. They feed early in the morning and at twilight,
and I think also much at night. The kangaroo lies up by day, during the hot
summer weather, in damp, thickly-scrubbed gullies ; in tlie winter, on dry, sandy
rises. Here, unless disturbed, they will remain quiet for hours ; and it is a pretty
sight to watch a ‘ mob ’ camped up, some of them playing with each other, some
quietly nibbling the young shrubs and grass, or basking in the sun half asleep on
their sides. About Christmas the young ones appear to leave their mothers’ sides,
and congregate in ‘ mobs ’ by themselves ; I have seen as many as fifty running
together, and very pretty they looked.” When on the move, kangaroos invariably
follow a leader ; and when once started, it is impossible to divert a drove from the
direction they have taken. Except during the pairing-season, when the males
engage in fierce contests, these animals are as peaceful and harmless as sheep.
When hard pressed, a kangaroo will take readily to the water ; and there is an

244

POUCHED MAMMALS.

instance on record of one swimming across an arm of the sea two miles in width, —
half of the distance being against a strong wind and current.

The writer just quoted states that the principal food of kangaroos “ appears to
be the tender sprouts of small shrubs and heather, quite as much as grass ; but
there is a small kind of spike-grass, brown on the undei'-side, called the kangaroo-
grass, to which they are very partial. They will also come at night into the small
bush-enclosures, and nibble off the young blades of wheat, oats, etc.” When
feeding off the ground, they do not always use the fore-paws as a support, but
often merely crouch down. Occasionally they may be seen in the upright position,
browsing from trees. As regai'ds breeding-habits, it appears that in the great grey
kangaroo the pairing-season is either in January or February, although there is
some irregularity in this respect. Only a single young is produced at a birth, after
an exceedingly short period of gestation ; and when tirst transferred to the pouch
of its mother, the length of the offspring is scarcely more than an inch. When the
young kangaroo is sufficiently developed to move freely by itself, it becomes
detached from the teat to which it at tirst adhered ; but it remains chiefly in the
pouch till able to run by the side of its parent. “ Even then, when danger is near,
it tumbles head-over-heels into the pouch for protection ; and it is wonderful how
quickly the old doe can pick up the ‘joey’ when I'unning at full speed, and shove
it into the pouch, its pretty little face always outside. There she carries it till
hard pressed, when the love of life overcomes the love of the mother, and she then
casts it away to save herself.” The “joeys” become strong runners; and by
Christmas, leave their parents and learn to shift for themselves.

The half-dozen medium-sized species collectively known as rock-
wallabies, one of which is represented in the accompanying illustra-
tion have the extremity of the muzzle completely naked, and difter from the true
wallabies by the shortness of the claw of the fourth hind-toe, and also by the long
cylindrical tail being thinner and more or less distinctly tufted at its extremity.
None of them have any trace of a tusk in the upper jaw. The yellow-footed
rock-wallaby {Petrogale xanthopiis) — that given in our figure — is the largest
species, and is distinguished from the rest by its brilliant coloration, more
especially the alternate brown and pale yellow rings on the tail. The general
colour of the long and silky fur is grey on the back, with a well-defined black
streak running from between the long ears to the middle of the trunk. The
cheeks are marked by an oblique white stripe below the eye, and by a yellow spot
above the same. The ears are yellow externally, with their inner sides edged
with white, except at the tips ; and the sides of the body are marked by a pure
white stripe from the elbow to the hip. The chin and under-parts are also pure
white ; and there is likewise a patch of the same colour on the outer side of the
knee ; while the lower portions of the limbs, including the feet, are yellow. On
tlie tail the rings occupy only the upper surface, the inferior aspect being uniformly
yellowish. This species is restricted to South Australia. The common brush-
tailed rock-wallaby (P. p)enicillata), from the coast districts of the eastern side of
the continent, is more soberly coloured ; the general tint of the coarse hair being
dull brown, tending to rufous on the hind-quarters. In the male, the length of
the head and body reaches 281 inches ; and that of the tail, exclusive of the hair

Rock-Wallabies.

WALLABIES.

245

at the tip, 24 inches. The ivmaining four species are all smaller; the north-
western short-eared rock-wallaby (i^. hracJnjotis) being distinguished by the
character from which it takes its name. The whole of the rock-wallabies are
confined to continental Austi’alia, and, as their name implies, frecjiient rocky
districts, whereas the true wallabies are plain-dwelling animals. Their tails lack
the stiffness of those of the latter, and appear to be used rather in balancing the
body when leaping, than as a third support. The bnish-tailed rock-wallaby.

YELLOW-FOOTED EOCK-WALLABY uat. Size).

according to Gould, collects in large flocks, and forms regular well-beaten tracks
on the mountain-sides.

Spur-tailed Three species of wallaby differ from all other mammals, with

waUabies. single exception of the lion, in having the extreme tip of the tail

furnished with a horny spur or nail, the use of which is at present unknown.
They are further distinguished by the hairy muzzle, by the length and narrowness
of the fourth toe of the hind-foot, and by the length of the tajiering tail, on which
the hair is short. The upper incisor teeth are x'elatively small, and decrease in size
from the flrst to the third. They are all of moderate or small size, with short hair,
and are some of the most graceful members of the family. The nail-tailed wallaby
{(Jnychogale ungiiifera) is of a general fawn-colour, and di.stingui.shed by the great
length of the tail, and the large size of its terminal nail ; the length of the head
and body being 2G inches, and that of the tail an inch more. It is a rare species

246

POUCHED MAMAIALS.

from North - Western and North - Central Australia. The bridled wallaby
(0. frenata) and the crescent wallaby (0. lunata) are smaller species, with relatively
shorter tails ; the former inhabiting Eastern, and the latter, which is not larger
tlian a rabbit. West and South Australia. All the species appear to frequent rocky
and arid district.s.

Hare-Wallabies.

The hare-wallabies, so called from their resemblance in size,
and in some re.spects appearance, to the common hare, likewise form
a group of three species exclu.sively confined to Australia. They are characterised
by the muzzle being partially or completely covered with hair, by the claw of
the fourth toe of the hind-foot being long and not concealed by hair, while the
tail is rather short and evenly furred, without either a brush of hair or a spur

THE COMMON HAE{E-WALLABY (1 liat. size).

at the tip. Their skulls are characterised by the shortness of the interval between
the incisor and cheek-teeth ; and by the inflation of the auditory bulla on the
inferior surface — the latter feature at once distinguishing these animals from the
true wallabies. The upper tusk is always present ; and the incisor teeth in the
same jaw are small.

Our illusti'ation represents the common hare-wallaby (Lagorchestes leporoides),
from South Australia and New South Wales, which measures 19| inches to the
root of the tail ; and is clad in fur closely resembling that of the common hare
in general colour. This species is faiidy abundant in the open country of the
interior, more especially near the Murray River. Its habits are in many respects
very similar to those of the hare.

The West Australian rufous hare- wallaby {L. hirsutus), distinguished by the
ruddy tinge of the hair on the rump, and the absence of a black patch on the

mEE-A’ANGAROOS.

247

elbow, appears to be very similar in its habits. In the north of the continent, and
on some of the small adjacent islands, the genus is represented by the spectacled
hare-wallaby {L. conspicillatiis), distinguished by its broader and heavier muzzle,
shorter ears, the rufous tinge round the eyes ; and the presence of two light bands
on the flanks.

Muller’s kangaroo (Dorcopsis muelleri) is one of a group of
Dorca Kangaroos. . . , 01

three Papuan species connecting the true kangaroos with the under-
mentioned tree-kangaroos. They are medium-sized animals, the length of the
head and body in Muller’s kangaroo being about four inches greater than in the
brush-tailed rock-wallaby ; while in D. luctuosa it is about as much less. These
kangaroos difl'er from the forms hitherto noticed in that the hair on the nape of
the neck is either completely or partially directed forwards ; while the dispro-
portion between the fore and hind-limbs is very much less marked. The large
and broad muzzle is devoid of hairs, the ears are small, the tail has an almost
naked tip, and the claws of the hind-feet are not concealed by hair. The teeth
are distinguished by the great length, from front to back, of the permanent
premolar in each jaw, which has a development similar to that which obtains in
the potoroos. There is a well-developed upper tusk ; and the molar teeth have
low, rounded crowns, in which there is scarcely any trace of a longitudinal bridge
connecting the two transverse ridge.s. Moreover, instead of converging at their
extremities, the two series of cheek-teeth run nearly, or quite parallel. Muller’s
kangaroo has short, close, and glossy fur, of a general uniform chocolate-brown ;
but with a white sti’ipe on the front of the hips, and the fore-arms and feet
whitish. Externally this animal presents a remarkable resemblance to the Aru
Island Wallaby {Macroims hrunii).

^ ^ In the dense tropical forests of New Guinea and the north of

’ Queensland are found tree-kangaroos ; and it is evident that these are
specially modified types which have taken to this mode of life, and are in no
way connected with the ancestral forms of the family. The tree-kangaroos are
easily recognised by the general proportions of the two pairs of limbs to the body
being normal : the length of the front pair being only slightly less than that of the
hinder. The broad muzzle is only partially naked ; and the hair of the nape, and
in one species that of the back also, is directed forwards. In the hind feet the
claws of the united second and third toes are nearly as large as those of the others ;
the latter being curved. The tail is very long, and thickly furred. In the teeth,
the permanent premolar is less elongated from front to back than in the last
genus. Of the four well-defined representatives of the genus, the figured black
tree-kangaroo of New Guinea (Dendrolagiis ursinus) is characterised by its genei'al
black colour and whitish face ; the length of the head and body of the female being
20i inches, and that of the tail 23 inches. On the other hand, the brown tree-
kangaroo {D. iniistus) of New Guinea, and the Queensland tree-kangaroo {D.
I amholtzi), have the back greyish, and the face (and in the Queensland species the
paws) black. Finally, Doria’s tree-kangaroo (D. dorianus), of south-eastern New
Guinea, difters from all the others in having the fur of the back directed forwards.

Comparatively little is known of any of the species in their native haunts ;
although it appears that they spend most of their time in the trees. Dr.

POUCHED MAMMALS.

Giiillemard, who had two of these animals alive on board ship, which he had
captured in New Guinea, writes that the tree-kangai’oo “ is as yet a tyro in the
art of climbing, performing this operation in the slowest and most awkward
manner. Our pets, for instance, would take a full minute or more in ascending the
back of a chair, but their hold is most secure ; and if we wished to pull them off,
we had considerable difficulty in doing so, so tightly do they cling.” It is added
that the tail, although not actually prehensile, is pi'essed against the branches in
climbing, and appears to be of considerable assistance. Of the Queensland species,

THE BLACK TREE-KANGAROO (l Hat. size).

locally known as the bungari. Dr. Lumholtz, its discoverer, writes that it frequents
the densest and most inaccessible portions of the highest mountainous scrubs, where
even the aborigines are scarcely able to penetrate. From the marks of its claws on
the trees of the more open districts, the animal appeared to have been once common
there, but is now nearly exterminated by the blacks. When di.sturbed, these
kangaroos are stated to travel considerable distances ; and thev are also reported
by the blacks to be most commonly seen abroad on moonlight nights. Two or
three are often found sleeping in the same tree ; and it is stated that they affect
only one particular kind of tree, which grows to a considerable height. In rainy
weather, lower trees are selected.

/^A T-KANGAROOS.

249

B ddWailab The little banded wullaby fasciatiis), oi Western

' Australia, which is about the size ol; a hare, and is easily recognised
by the dark transverse bands crossing the hind-(|uarters, forms the single re-
presentative of a genus. It is specially characterised by the presence of long
bristly hairs on the hind-feet, which completely conceal the claws. The muzzle
is naked ; and the ears are small and rounded. The skull is characterised by
its narrow miazzle, and inflated auditory bulla ; while there is no tusk, the two
series of upper incisor teeth meet in an angle, and the two halves of the lower
jaw are welded together at their union. These pretty little wallabies inhabit tho
scrub-jungle and the margins of swamps on the west coast of Australia and tho
small adjacent islands. On the islands they form tunnels beneath the dense bushes
by gnawing off the lower branches on certain lines ; and they can only be beaten
out from their cover by the aid of dogs. On the mainland they are said to skulk
in the open like hares.

The whole of the members of the family hitherto considered

Rat-Kangaroos.

form a single subfamily primarily characterised by the circumstance
that the three incisor teeth of the upper jaw are of nearly equal height, while the
tusk, or canine tooth, if present at all, is very minute. We now come to a second
group or subfamily, including a number of small forms known as rat-kangaroos
or potoroos, which difler in many important respects from the preceding. These
creatures, none of which are larger than an ordinaiy rabbit, are characterised by
having the first incisor tooth on each side of the upper jaw (as shown in the figures
on pp. 237 and 239) considerably taller than either of the others, and narrow and
curved in form ; while there is always a rather large and blunted upper tusk.
Then, again, whereas in the preceding subfamily, with the exception of Midler’s
kangaroo and its allies, the permanent premolar tooth is comparative!}" short from
front to back, in the group under consideration the same tooth, as shown in the
aforesaid figures, is much elongated in this direction, and has a straight cutting-
edge, and its two surfaces generally marked by vertical grooves and ridges.
Sometimes, moi'eover, the same tooth may be bent slightly outwards, instead of
forming a continuation of the line of the molai’s. The latter have blunt tubercles
at their four angles, instead of complete transverse ridges ; and the last of the
series is, instead of being larger, always smaller than the one in front of it. The
rat-kangaroos are further distinguished by their narrow fore-feet, in which the
three middle toes are much longer than the other two, with long, narrow, and
slightly-curved claws ; whereas in the broader front paws of the preceding group,
the whole five toes are nearly equal in length, and have highly-curved claws. All
the rat-kangaroos have small rounded ears, and long furry tails, of which the
extremities are partially prehensile in some of the species. Externally, the rat-
kangaroos cannot well be distinguished in general appearance from some of the
smaller short-eared representatives of the preceding group ; and it is accordingly
of prime importance that the foregoing distinctive characteristics should be
thoroughly understood. The group comprises nine species, which are confined to
Australia and Tasmania, and are divided into four genei’a.

Common Rat- The common rat-kangaroo {Potoro\is tridactyliis), that figured in
Kangaroo, illustration on the following page, may be taken as our representa-

250

POUCHED MAMMALS.

tive of the first of the four genera. The distinctive characters of the genus being
the long and slender form of the head, the few (three or four) perpendicular ridges
on the permanent premolar tooth in both jaws, the shortness of the foot, the naked
muzzle, and the rather large ears. In the skull the auditory bulla is somewhat
swollen, and the unossified spaces in the palate are large. The figured species,,
which is the largest of its genus, is confined to Eastern Australia and Tasmania,
and is variable both in size and colour ; the length is, however, frequently about
15 inches, exclusive of the tail. It is specially characterised by the great elonga-
tion of the muzzle ; the general colour of the coarse, long, and straight hair being
dark grizzled greyish brown, with a more or less marked tinge of rufous. The

COM.MON RAT-KANGAROO (J liat. Size),

West Australian P. gilherti is a smaller allied form ; while P. iilatyops, from the
same side of the continent, is still smaller, and has a broader and shorter muzzle.

Brush-tailed The brush-tailed rat-kangaroo (Bettongia penicillata), repre-

Rat-Kangaroo. gented in the figure on p. 251, appears to be the commonest and
most widely spread of the group, and is one of four species having the following
characteristics in common. The head is comparatively short and wide, with very
small and rounded ears, and a naked muzzle ; the foot is elongated ; and the
permanent premolar tooth (figure on p. 237) is characterised by its numerous
(fourteen or fifteen) and slightly oblique ridges. The tail is thickly furred, with
the hairs longer on the upper than on the lower surface, and somewhat prehensile.
In the skidl the auditory bulla is generally much swollen ; and the unossified
spaces in the palate are large. The figured species is a somewhat smaller animal
than the common rat-kangaroo ; and is characterised by the great development of
the tuft of hair on the upper surface of the end of the tail, of which the under
surface is brown. It inhabits nearly all Australia, but is replaced in Tasmania by
the much larger jerboa-kangaroo (B. cuniculufi), in which the tail-tuft is scarcely
developed. Lesueur’s rat-kangaroo (B. lesueiiri), of which the skull is figured on
p. 239, is a South and West Australian species distinguished from the one here
figured by the small size of the tail-tuft, which is almost always white at the tip.

A\4 T-KANGAROOS.

25‘

The plain rat-kangaroo {(‘dloprymnufi cam2)estris) of Soutli Australia, diti'ers from
the foregoing by the naked portion of the muzzle extending somewhat less back-
wardly on the nose, and the absence of any crest or tuft of hair on the tail; and
on these and other grounds it is made the type of a distinct genus.

Rufous Rat- The largest member of the group is the rufous rat-kangaroo

Kangaroo. (^jEpyprymnus rufescens), of Netv South Wales, distinguished from
all the others by the partially hairy muzzle, and the unusually broad and short
head ; the tail being evenly furred. The permanent premolar tooth in each jaw
has a medium number (seven to eight) of vertical ridges ; and the skull is
characterised by the absence of any tmossified spaces on the palate, and the

BRUSH-TAILED RAT-KAXGAUOO (J liat. size).

unswollen auditory bulla. The head and body of this species may measure as
much as 20 inches, and the tail about 4 inches less. The general colour of the long
and soft fur is bright rusty red on the upper-parts, more or less pencilled with
white ; while the under-parts are dirty white, and the ears black.

Habits Although the different groups of rat-kangaroos vary to a certain

extent in habits, the whole of them agree in being nocturnal, and in
feeding not only on leaves, grass, etc., but likewise on roots and bulbs, which are
grubbed up tvith the fore-paws. They generally frequent scrub-jungle, and get up
before the .sportsman after the manner of rabbit.s. Usually but a single young is
produced at a birth ; and, as appears to be the case with all I\rarsupials, there is
not more than one birth during the year. In accordance with the reduced size of
their hind-feet, the leaping powers of the common rat-kangaroo are less developed
than those of the other genera. It is stated, indeed, that although these species
habitually stand on their hind-limbs alone, when running they employ both pairs

POUCHED MAMMALS.

252

of limbs in a kind of gallop. IVIoreover, they never kick ont with their hind-legs
after the manner of kangax’oos and wallabies. The brush-tailed rat-kangaroo and
its kindred employ their prehensile tails in carrying grass and other substances for
the construction of their nests ; the extremity of the tail being curled downwards
below the bundle. The nest, according to Mr. Gould, is made in a hollow specially
dug in the ground for its reception ; and as its upper surface thus becomes level
with the herbage, only the practised eyes of the blacks are able to detect its
jxresence. ])uring the day either one or two of these animals occupy a nest, in
which they completely conceal themselves by dragging herbage over the entrance.
Hei’e they remain till evening, when they sally forth in quest of food. The rufous
rat-kangaroo may either form a somewhat similar nest beneath a fallen tree-trunk,
or under the shelter of some low bush, or may repose during the day in a seat
among the herbage like the “form” of a hare. On being pursued, this species
runs for a short distance with great speed, but as it always takes shelter in
hollow trunks it falls a prey to the blacks, by whom it is relished as food.

Five-toed The rat-like little animal, scientifically known as Hypsiprym-

Kangaroo. nodon moschatiis, and which may be termed in popular language
the five-toed kangaroo, is one of those connecting links so interesting to the
evolutionist, but so extremely inconvenient to the systematic zoologist. This
creature stands, indeed, almost exactly midway between the common rat-kangaroo
and the plialangers, to be immediately mentioned ; although the kangai'oo-like
structure of its lower jaw has led to its being placed in the present family.

The five-toed kangaroo is confined to Queensland, and is very nearly the size
of a large rat, to which it also presents a general external resemblance. Tlie body
is clothed with close, crisp, velvety fur, of a grizzled rusty orange-grey colour ; the
orange tinge being strongest on the back, and almost disappearing on the lighter
under-parts. The head is sharply pointed, with rather large and nearly naked
ears ; and the tapering cylindrical black tail is likewise naked, and also scaly.
Tlie relative proportions of the fore and hind-limbs are not far removed from the
ordinary mammalian type. The fore-paws are small, with five toes, each provided
with a delicate claw ; and the hind-feet diftei’ from those of all the other members
of the family in having a fii'st or “ great ” toe, in addition to the usual four. This
first toe is clawless and opposable to the others, and is placed high up on the foot,
near the heel ; the second and third toes, as in all the other members of the family,
are slender and united in a common skin. The teeth generally resemble those of
the rat-kangaroos, but the permanent premolar in each jaw is short from front to
back, and is bent outwards from the line of the other teeth in the manner char-
acteristic of the phalangers.

The be.st description •of the habits of the animal is the one given by Mr. P.
Ramsay, who wi’ites that the five-toed kangaroo “ inhabits the dense and damp
portions of the scrubs which fringe the rivers and clothe the sides of the coast-
range in certain districts. Tlie animal is by no means rare, yet, from its I’etiring
habits, and the dense nature of the parts frequented by it, it is at all times
difficult to obtain. Its habits are chiefly diurnal, and its actions when not dis-
turbed by no means ungraceful ; it progresses in much the .same way as the
rat-kangaroos, but procures its food by turning over the debris in the scrubs in

PHALANGERS.

253

senrch of insects, worms, and tuberose roots, frecjueiitly eating the palm-berries,
which it holds in its fore-paws after the manner of the phalangers, sitting up on
its haunches, or sometimes digging the bandicoots. Seldom more than one or two
are found together, uidess accompanied by the young.” It is added that, at least
in some instances, there are two young at a birth ; and that the breeding-season
is during the rains, which last from February to May.

Extinct Kangaroo-like Marsupials.

In addition to those of several of the existing species of kangaroos, wallabies,
and rat-kangaroos, the caverns and superficial deposits of Australia contain
numerous remains of kangaroos, or kangaroo-like types, some of which attained
gigantic dimensions.

One of these {Mac-
ropiis titan) was
allied to the great
grey kangaroo, but
of larger size ; while
others, as M. hreliUK,
appear to have been
gigantic wallabies,
with skulls of as
much as a foot in
length. Other species,
distinguished by the
characters of their
permanent premolar
teeth, or by the bony
union of the lower jaw, constitute extinct genera, which have been named
Sthenurus, Procoptodon, and the Falorchestes ; the skull of the single representa-
tive of the latter measuring upwards of 16 inches in length.

All the above-mentioned types may be included in the Kangaroo family', but
there were other forms which cannot be included in any existing group. Largest
of these is the gigantic diprotodon, with a skull of about a yard in length, huge
chisel-like first upper incisor teeth, and no perforation in the side of the lower jaw.
This creature, which must have been fully as large as the lai'gest rhinoceros,
evidently walked on all four limbs in the ordinary mannei’. Another allied but
somewhat smaller animal was the notothere, characterised by its extremely short
skull ; it appears to have been to some extent intermediate between the kangaroos
and the wombats.

SKULL OF AN EXTINCT KANGAROO-LIKE ANIMAL (THE DIPROTODON).—
After Sir R. Owen.

The Phalanger Tribe.

Family Pealaxgjsjiid.^’.

Under the general term of phalangers — a name referring to the union of the
second and third toes of the hind-foot — may be included a large number of small

254

POUCHED MAMMALS.

or medium-sized Australasian marsupials of arboreal habits, which are so closely
connected with the kangaroo tribe through the five-toed kangaroo as to render the
distinction between the two families a matter of some difficulty.

The whole of these animals are characterised by their thick, woolly coats ;
and, with the single exception of the koala, they have long tails, which are
frequently endowed with the power of prehension. The fore and hind -limbs
instead of presenting the disproportionate relative lengths characteri.sing most of
the kangaroos, are of the normal proportions ; and the front paws are provided
with five neax'ly equal-sized and clawed toes. The structure of the hind-feet is
essentially the same as in the five-toed kangaroo ; that is to say, there is a nailless
first toe which can be opposed to the others, while the second and third are slender
and enclosed in a common skin. Whereas, however, in the five-toed kangaroos the
fourth toe is much longer and more powerful than all the others, in the phalangers
it is not much larger than the fifth. The whole group differs from the kangaroos
in the absence of any pit on the outer sides of the hinder portion of the lower jaw,

as shown in the accompanying
figure of the skeleton ; while if
there is any perfoi’ation in this
portion of the jaw, it is extremely
minute. As regards the dentition,
there are always three pairs of
upper incisor teeth, of which the
first is elongated, and likewise a
well -developed tusk or canine;
while in the lower jaw the single
functional pair of incisors are large and pointed, although they lack the scissor-like
action characterising those of the kangaroo.s. In the adults there are usually five
functional cheek - teeth, of which the last four are molars, and the other the
permanent premolar. The premolar in each jaw has a tall cutting crown, set
obliquely to the line of the molars ; while the latter, of which the fourth may be
absent, have usually blunt tubei’cles on their crowns, although they may be of a
cutting type. In young animals there are two milk-molars in advance of the first
molar in each jaw ; and between the fir.st of these and the functional front teeth
there occur several minute teeth in each jaw, very variable in number and quite
useless, which it is impossible to name correctly, several of these rudimentary
teeth usually persisting throughout life. While some of the phalangers are mainly
or exclusively herbivorous, others are more or less omnivorous ; and it is in this
family alone among Marsupials that we meet with species endowed with the power
of spurious flight.

Long-snouted The elegant little creature known as the long-snouted phalanger
Phaianger. (Tarsipes Tostratiis), may be compared in form and size to the com-
mon shrew ; and is the sole representative of a special subfamily of the phalangers.
In spite, however, of this superficial resemblance to a shrew, the creature is a true
marsupial, the female having a well-developed pouch for the young. Externally,
the most characteristic feature of this animal is the extremely long and pointed
muzzle, in which the opening of the mouth is very small. From this tinj^ mouth

niALANGERS.

-’55

can be protruded at will a long, slender, and highly extensile tongue, sharply
pointed at its extremity. The rather small ears are rounded and clothed with
very short hairs ; and the beady black eyes are small and prominent. The feet
ai’e of the same general type as in the typical 2)halangers ; but from the small
size of their nails, which are mostly embedded in fleshy parts, they appear more
adapted for grasping small twigs than for ascending tree-trunks. The tail slightly

THE LONG-SNOUTED rHALANGEK (| uat. size).— Alter Gould.

exceeds the length of the head and body, and is cylindrical and tapering, with
but a scanty clothing of extremely short hairs, and endowed with prehensile
power. The fur is short, close, and somewhat coarse. The colour is subject to
considerable individual variation, but its general tint is grey, more or less suffused
with rusty red above and yellow beneath. A black line runs from the head along
the middle of the back to the root of the tail ; and on either side of this line are
two greyish bands, each bordered by a rusty brown stripe passing im2ierceptibly
into the rufous of the flanks. The upper part of the head is brown, passing into

256

POUCHED MAACMALS.

rufous on the sides of the face. Although the central pair of lower incisors are
relatively large and well-developed, all the other teeth, of which the number is
very variable, are simply conical, and placed at considerable intervals apart. This
rudimentary condition of the teeth, together with the peculiar characters of the
tongue and mouth, clearly indicate that the creature is a very specialised member
of the family.

Habits.

The Cuscuses.

The long-snouted phalanger is an inhabitant of Western Australia,
where it is known to the natives as the tait. Although in some
districts stated to be very rare, in others it appears to be far from uncommon ; its
favourite resorts being low scrubby bushes. It is strictly nocturnal ; and
constructs its nests in the taller plants and shrubs, among the branches of which
it climbs in search of its favourite food, honey. This food is procured by thrusting
the long extensile tongue into the cups of the flowers ; and as nearly all the
Australian flowering plants are honey-yielders, it is obtainable at all seasons.

With the beautiful animals commonly known by the name of
cuscus, one of which {Phalanger macidatus) is I’epresented in the
accompanying figure, we come to the first generic gi'oup of the typical phalanger.«,
which present the general characteristics noticed under the heading of the famil}’.
The members of the present genus are relatively large or medium-sized animals,
with thick woolly coats and long prehensile tails, of which the terminal portion
is completely naked. Their ears are short or of medium length, invariably covered
with hair externally, and sometimes also on their inner surface. In the fore-feet
the toes are of nearly equal length, and furnished with long, stout, and curved
claws ; while the soles of both fore and hind-feet ai-e naked and striated, with
several large and ill-defined fleshy pads. The crowns of the molar teeth have
four cusps; of which the outer pair in those of the upper jaw are somewhat com-
pressed from side to side.

Altogether there are five different species of cuscus, mostly of about the size
of a large cat ; and among these the spotted cuscus herewith figured is by far the
handsomest. In the male of this species the ground-colour of the fur of the back
is usually a dirty yellowish white, marked with numerous irregular blotchings of
reddish brown and black ; the chin and under-parts being white, often tinged with
yellow or red, and the head or limbs grey or reddish. There is, however, great
individual variation, some specimens being almost uniformly grey or red. The
smaller female (as shown on the right side of our figure) is generally of a uniform
grey and black above, and white beneath, although sometimes red. A much more
sober-hued animal is the black cuscus (P. ursinus), of Celebes, in which the fur is
of a uniform black or dark brown colour, with the exception of that on the inside
of the ears, which is white.

With the exception of the spotted species, which ranges to North Australia,
the cuscuses are mainly confined to the islands of the Indo-Malayan region, as far
westwards as Celebes. Only the spotted cuscus and one other species are even
found in New Guinea; and they ai'e the sole Old World Marsupials occurring to
the westward of that island. The grey cuscus (P. orierdalis), of Amboyna, Timor,
and some of the smaller islands, was the first Australasian mammal known in
Europe, having been discovered and described as far back as the year 1611.

C U sc USES. 2^1

All the species of ciiscus are dull and sleepy creatures by day, but become
more active at night, which is their chief feeding-time ; the comparatively large
size of their eyes being in accordance with nocturnal habits. Mr. Wallace writes
that the.se animals “ live in trees, feeding upon the leaves, of which they devour
large ipiantities. They move about slowly, and are difficult to kill, owing to the
thickness of their fur, and their tenacity of life. A lu'avy charge of shot will

THE srOTTEi) CUSC'L'S (jJ iiat. .size).

often lodge in the skin and do them no harm, and even breaking the spine or
piercing the brain will not kill them for some hours. The natives everywhere eat
their flesh, and as their motions are so sIoav, easily catch them by climbing, so that
it is wonderful they have not been exterminated. It may be, however, that their
den.se woolly fur protects them from birds of prey, and the islands they live in are
loo thinly inhabited for man to be able to exterminate them.’' These animals
appear to be nowhere common, and in most parts of their habitat are very rare.
In addition to leaves and fruit, they will catch and eat birds and other small

VOL. III. — 17

258

POUCHED MAMMALS.

animals, and are indeed reported to be more carnivorously inclined than any of the
other members of the family. They frequent only forests containing large trees,
and pass from the boughs of one tree to another after the manner of squirrels,
sometimes swinging themselves by the tail in order to reach a branch which would
otherwise be inaccessible. There are four teats in the pouch of the female, which
usually contains from two to four young; and it is said that a female is never
killed without at least one being in the pouch. So tightly do the young adhere
to the nipples, that they cannot be torn away without causing blood to flow.

The True The true phalangers (Trichosurus), of which there are two

Phaiangers. species, from Australia and Tasmania, where, in common with the
members of the next genus, they are called opossums, are reailily distinguished from
the cuscuses by the character of their tails. Thus, instead of being tapering and
naked for about half its length, this appendage is thickly covered with bushy hair
up to its very tip, which, together with a narrow line on the lower surface extending
about a third of the length, is alone naked. The ears are more or less hairy behind ;
and there is also hair on the hind -feet behind the heel. The relative lengths
of the toes of the fore-feet are somewhat different from those obtaining in the
cuscuses ; and there is also a gland on the chest not found in the latter. The
common phalanger (Trichosurus vulpecula) is one of the most abundant animals
in Australia, where it is found everywhere in forest-regions, with the excep-
tion of the Cape York peninsula ; it is represented by a variety in Tasmania.
Deriving its specific name from its general resemblance in size and form to a
small fox, it is especially characterised by its comparatively long and narrow
ears, in which the length considerably exceeds the width. In the ordinary form
the general colour of the soft and close fur is grey above and yellowish white
beneath ; the ears being white, and the tail black. In the larger and stouter-built
Tasmanian variety the fur is longer, and of a more decided brown or rufous colour,
with little or no white on the ears. The short-eared phalanger {T. caninus), of
Queensland and New South Wales, comes very close to the latter variety, from
which it differs by its short and rounded ears.

While the common phalanger inhabits forests, the short-eared species
fx-equents scrub-jungle ; but in other respects the habits of the two ai-e prob-
ably veiy similar, both being pui-ely noctunial cx’eatui’es. During the daytime
the common species lies secui'ely curled up in some hole in a giant gum-ti'ee, but
soon after sundown issues foiTli to pi’owl in seai’ch of food, and I’emains abroad
until the laughing jackass commences its morning notes. Leaves — especially
those of the peppennint-gum — constitute their chief food ; but their diet is
occasionally varied with the flesh of a bii-d. In their movements among the
forest trees they ai’e very nimble ; and they ai’e much aided in their evolutions
by their highly pi-ehensile tails. They utter, especially during the pairing-
season, a loud, chatteiing ciy, which echoes far thi’ough the foi’est stillness.
The female phalanger gives birth to one or two young, which ai’e I’etained for a
long period in the pouch, but afterwards cling to the back of their pax’ent till able
to shift for themselves.

Crescent-Toothed Yei’y similar in external appeai’ance to the ti’ue phalangers are a
Phalangers. group of ten species, which, fi’om the peculiar stx’uctui’c of their

PHALANGERS.

259

by the Herbert River phalanger (Fseudochirus herhertensis), and tlie widely spread
ring-tailed phalanger (P. iieregrinus), first discovered by Captain Cook, the ears
are of medium length, and longer than broad, while the tail is tipped with white.
This group is confined to Australia and Tasmania. In the second group, on the
other hand, the ears are very short, and wider than long ; while, with one exception,
the tail is not white at the tip. The exceptional species is Archer’s phalanger
(P. archeri), of Queensland, which is the only representative of the group found
of Xew Guinea. Consequently, all the Australian crescent-toothed phalangers are
distinguished from those of Papua by their white tail-tips.

Great Hying- The Hying representatives of this family belong to three groups,
Phalanger. severally allied to as many non-volant types. The largest of these
forms is the great or taguan flying-phalanger (Petauroides volans), of Queensland
and Victoria, which is the sole representative of its genus, and appears indeed to
be nothing moi’e than a crescent-toothed phalanger whicli has accpiired a flying-

molars may be termed crescent-toothed plialangers. Externally they differ from
the preceding group by the tail being tapering, and having shorter hair on its
terminal third and under surface than elsewhei'e, with the lower surface of the
tip naked for a short distance. There is, moreover, no gland on the chest ; and
the two inner toes of the front paw are very markedly opposable to the other
three. In addition to certain features in the skull, these phalangers are readily
distinguished from the last by having the whole four cusps on their upper molar
teeth distinctly crescent-shaped ; thus simulating those of the ancestors of the
Ruminant Ungulates.

These phalangers inhabit Australia, Tasmania, and Xew Guinea; and are
divided into two groups each containing five species. In the first group, as represented

COMMON PHALANGER.

26o

POUCHED MAMMALS.

ineiubraue ; being like it in skull and teeth, while the tail, which is prehensile, is
similarly naked on the under surface of the tip. The flying-membrane extends
from the wrist to the ankle, but is reduced to a narrow striji on the fore-arm and
lower leg. In size this species may measure as much as 20 inches to the root
of the tail. It is characterised by its large and thickl3'’-haired ears and long silkj"
coat ; its general colour being blackish brown with white beneath.

striped The striped phalanger (Dactylopsila trivirgata), ranging from

Phaianger. Xew Guinea to Queensland, together with a second Papuan species
{D. 2Ml2Mtor), represent a non-flying genus, agreeing with the two last in having
the under surface of the tip of the tail naked, but distinguished bj" having the
fourth toe of the fore-foot much longer than either of the others. These
phalangers, which are of medium size, are, moreover, easil}^ distinguished from
their kindred b^^ the back being ornamented with broad longitudinal stripes of
black and white. Although nothing definite is known as to their habits, it is
probable that the elongated fourth digit of the fore-paw is for the purpose of
extracting insects and grubs from beneath the bark, or out of holes in trees.

True Flying- The true flying-phalangers (Fetaurus), of which there are two

Phalangers. exclusively Australian species, and one common to Australia and New
Guinea, are small or medium-sized forms, closely allied to Leadbeater’s phalanger,
noticed below. The\’ are readily distinguished from the preceding groups by the
tail being evenly bushy to its extreme tip, without any naked portion, and not
prehen.sile. The flying-membrane is broad, and extends from the outermost toe
of the fore-foot to the ankle. The best known species is the squirrel flying-
phalanger {Fetaurus sciureus) — the sugar-squii’rel of the coloni.sts — which is the
one represented in our illustration. It is confined to Eastern Australia. The
length of the head and body in this pretty little animal is about 9 inches, and
that of the tail rather more. The ears are of medium length, the tail extremel}^
bushy, especially near its root, and the fur very soft. The general colour is a
delicate ashy grey ; but a longitudinal black band commencing near the nose runs
down the back, to stop short of the root of the tail. The ej^es are ringed with
black ; the ears are black at the base externallj^ but white at the hinder angle ;
the cheeks are white, save for a black patch immediately below the ear; while
the chin, under-parts, and edges of the flying-membrane are also white. The tip
of the tail is black, and there is a black line on each side of the flying-membrane
internally to the white margin.

The following excellent account of the habits of the 3'ellow fljdng-phalanger
(P. australis), from mountain districts in New South Wales and Victoria, is
given by Gould, who says that “ this animal is common in all the bu.shes of
New South Wales, particularly in those which stretch along the coast from
Port Phillip to Moreton Bay. In these vast forests ti’ees of one kind or
another are perpetualh^ flowering, and thus offer a never-failing supply of the
blossoms upon which it feeds ; the flowers of the various kinds of gums (eucalj^ptus),
some of which are of great magnitude, being the principal favourites. Like the
rest of its genus, it is nocturnal in its habits, dwelling in holes and in the sprouts of
the larger branches during the day, and displajdng the greatest activity at night
while running over the small leafy branches, frequently even to their veiy

P/IALAXGERS.

oxtreniities, in search of insects and the honey of the newly-opened blossoms. Jts
structure being ill-adapted for terrestrial habits, it .seldom descends to the ground
except for the purpose of jiassing to a tree too di.staMt to be reached by ilight.
When chased or forced to ilight, it ascends to the highest branch and performs the
most enormous leaps, sweeping from tree to tree with wonderful address ; a slight
ascent gives its body an impetus which, with the expansion of its membrane,
enables it to pass to a considerable distance, always ascending a little at the
extremity of the leap ; by this ascent the animal is prevented from receiving the
shock it would otherwise sustain.”

SyeiKUEt, KLYINU-1'H.\LANGEU iiat. size)

Leadbeater's The little Leadbeater’s phalanger (Gi/mnobelideus leadheaieri),
Phaianger. Yvhich is rather smaller than the lesser Hying squirrel, is of interest
as being apparently a representative of the parent form from which the true
Hying squirrels were derived. This animal may, indeed, be concisely described
as a Hying squirrel, minus the Hying-membrane. It is an inhabitant of Victoria.
Dormouse- The dormouse-phalangers, of which there are four species from

Pbaiangers. Western Australia, Tasmania, and Xew Guinea, arc small creatures
somcAvliat resembling dormice in general appearance, and readily distinguished
by their cylindrical mouse-like tails, which are covered with fur at the base, then
scaly for the greater part of their length, but naked and prehensile at the tip. In
the smallest species (Dromicia concinna) the length of the head and body may be

262

POUCHED MAMMALS.

le.ss than 2|- inches, while the tail is slightly longer. They are all nocturnal and
arboreal in their habits ; one of the species being stated to conceal itself during
the day beneath the loose bark of large gum-trees. They feed upon honey and
young shoots of grass, and probably also insects.

Pigmy Flying- On© of smallest and at the same time the most elegant of
Phaianger. mammals is the exquisite little creature commonly known as the
pigmy flying-phalanger {Acrohates i^ygmcea), in which the length of the head and
body only sliglitly exceeds 2| inches ; that of the tail being somewhat more. This
phaianger is readily distinguished from those yet noticed by the long hairs on the
tail being arranged in two opposite fringes like the vanes of a feather. The general
build of the animal is extremely light and delicate ; the flying-membrane is very
narrow, extending from the elbow to the flank, where it almost disappears, and
thence to the knee ; while the toes are furnished with expanded pads at their tips.

PIGMY FLYING-PHALANGER (ll.at. .size).

The fur is long, soft, and silky ; its general colour on the upper-parts being brownish
grey ; while on the margins of the flying-membrane and beneath, together with the
inner sides of the limbs, it is white. The teeth are sharp, and apparently adapted
for an insectivorous diet. In spite of its diminutive proportions, the female has
a well-developed pouch containing four nipples ; but it is difficult to imagine the
minuteness which must necessarily characterise the newly-born young.

The pigmy fljdng- phaianger is confined to Queen.sland, New South Wales,
and Victoria ; and is I’eported to be very abundant in the neighbourhood of Port
Jackson. Its food consists of honey and insects ; and its agility in leaping from
branch to branch is described as little short of marvellous.

Pen-Tailed The little pen-tailed phaianger (Distoechurus pennatus), of New

Phaianger. Guinea, has precisely the same relation to the preceding animal as is

KOALA.

263

presented by Leadbeater’s phalanger to the nienibers of tlie genus Petaurus, being
in fact a pigmy flying -phalanger Avithout the parachute. Tlie foot-pads are
however, wanting. The general appearance of the animal is very dormouse-like ,
the head being ornamented with stripes of white and dark brown, while the fur of
the body is uniformly buff.

This curious and somewhat bear-like creature is an aberrant
Koala. ... . . . .

member of the family, constituting not only a distinct genus

but likewise a separate subfamily by itself. To the natives it is known by

the name of koala, while by the colonists it is generally termed the native

bear; its scientific title being Phascolarctus cmereus. The koala has been

compared in size to a large poodle dog, the length of the head and body being

about 24 inches. It is a heavily-built animal, differing from all the other members

of the family in the absence of any external tail, and also readily recognised by its

large, squared, and thickly-fringed ears. The fur is extremely thick, woolly, and

THE KOALA (J iiat. size).

moderately soft; its general colour on the upper-parts being ashy grey, with a

tinge of bi'own, but becoming yellowish white on the hind-quarters, Avhile the

under-parts ai'e whitish. All the feet are provided with long claws, and the two

innermost toes of the fore-feet are completely opposable to the remaining three.

A peculiarity of the koala is the possession of pouches in the cheeks for storing

food ; while the dentition differs from that of the typical phalangers in the absence

of the minute rudimentary teeth referred to above. The upper molar teeth have

very short and broad cx’owns, somewhat resembling, in the structure of their

tubercles, those of the crescent-toothed phalanger.s. In its internal organisation

the koala approximates to the wombats.

_ . The koala is confined to Eastern Australia, where it ranges from

Habits. ”

Queensland to Victoria. Like the other members of the family it is

264

POUCHED MAMMALS.

chiefly arboreal, moving awkwardly when on the ground, and when pursued
always endeavouring to gain a tree with all possible speed. Its movements are
usually compai’atively slow and sluggish, and, although mainly nocturnal, it may not
unfrequently be seen abroad in the daytime. Koalas are generally found in pairs ;
and spend the day either high up on the tree-tops or in hollow logs. They are
purely herbivorous, and subsist chiefly on the leaves of the blue gum-tree, although
at night the}^ descend to the ground in order to dig for roots. In the evenings
these animals slowly creep along the boughs of the giant gums, the females often
having a solitary cub perched on their backs. When irritated or disturbed, the
koala utters a loud cry, variously described as a hoarse groan, and a shrill yell.

Giant Extinct The superficial deposits of Australia have yielded evidence of
Phaianger. the former existence in that country of a phalanger (Thylacoleo
carnifex) far exceeding any of the living forms in point of size, and remarkable
for the exceedingly specialised character of its dentition. The functional teeth, as

shown in the accompanying figure of the
skull, were, indeed, reduced to a pair of
large incisors, and a single elongated cut-
ting premolar on each side of both the
upper and lower jaws; the latter tooth
evidently corresponding to the permanent
premolar of the rat - kangaroos (see the
figure on p. 237). Such other teeth as
remain were small, and of no functional
importance. The skull is unique among
Marsupials in that the sockets of the eyes
are completely surrounded by bone.

This huge phalanger received its
technical names on the supposition that it was of purely carnivorous habits ; but
from the resemblance of its dentition to that of the existing members of the
family, it seems more probable that its diet was maiidy of a vegetable nature.

SKULL OF THE GIANT EXTINX'T
PH.ALANGER (J Hat. size).

The WoiMBATS.

Family PffASCOLOMTIDyE.

The wombats of Australia and Tasmania, where they are represented by three
existing species all referable to the one genus Phascolomys, constitute the last
family of the herbivorous IMarsupials. These animals are of considerable size, and
characterised externally by their massive build, short and flattened heads, broad flat
backs, and extremely short and thick legs ; their hind-feet being plantigrade.
Their ears are small or of moderate size, and more or less pointed ; the eyes are
small, and the tail is reduced to a mere stump. The fore-feet have five toes, of
which the fii’st and fifth are considerably shorter than the i-emaining three, all being
furnished with powerful and somewhat curved nails. In the hind-feet the inner
or “great” toe resembles that of the phalangers in being unprovided with a nail,
although it cannot be opposed to the rest ; the others have strong curved nails and

JVOMBATS.

265

are of nearlv' equal lengtli, bat the second and third are relatively slender and
partially united by skin, thus foreshadowing the “ syndact3dism ” of the two fore-
going families. The most distinctive feature of the wombats is, however, their
dentition. The teeth, twenty-four in number, all grow uninterruptedly^ throughout
life, and thus never develop roots. The incisors are reduced to a single pair in
each jaw, these being exceed-
ingly^ powerful chisel - shaped
teeth, with enamel only' on their
front surfaces, thus resembling
the incisors of Rodents. The
cheek - teeth are tive on each
side, of which the first is a
premolar, and separated by a
lone: interval from the incisor.

Each molar is much curved, and
consists of two triangular prisms;
but the premolar comprises but one such prism. It will thus be evident that, so far
as their teeth are concerned, the wombats simulate the Rodent.s, to many' of which
they' also approximate in habits. In general appearance these Marsupials are
however, curiously like diminutive bears, as shown in the illustration on p. 266.

Of the three species of the genus, the smallest is the Tasmanian wombat
(P. ursinus), inhabiting Tasmania and the islands in Bass Strait. It is characterised
by' its small and somewhat rounded ears, the naked extremity of the muzzle, and the
coarse and rough hair; the colour being uniform dark grizzled grey'ish brown. About
one-fourth larger than this species is the common wombat (P. mitchelli), from New
South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia, in which the length of the head and body'
is about 30 inches, while the colour may vaiy from y'ellow, through y'ellow mingled
with black, to nearly' pure black. The third species is the hairy'-nosed wombat (P.
latifrons), from South Australia, intermediate in size between the other two, from
which it differs by' its longer and more pointed ears, haiiy muzzle, and soft silky hair.

All the three species seem to afjree in their habits, and are
H3.bits ^ ^

exclusively herbivorous, living either in burrows excavated by them-
selves, or in clefts and crannies of rocks. Like most Marsupials, they are
exclusively' nocturnal ; and their food consists of grass, other herbage, and roots.
They' walk with a peculiar shuffling gait ; and utter either a hissing sound or a
short grunt when irritated. In disposition they are shy' and gentle ; although their
powerful incisor teeth are capable of inflicting severe bites. On the rare occasions
that these animals are seen abroad in the day'time, they suffer themselves to be
caught with ease, and often make no resistance after their capture.

The Bandicoots.

Family PerAMELID.E.

All the members of the preceding families are characterised by' the presence of
not more than three pairs of upper incisor teeth, and also by' those of the lower jaw

266

POUCHED J/AHJE4LS.

being reduced to a single functional pair of large size, which are invariably inclined
forwards. On account of this single pair of functional lower incisor teeth, they are
collectively termed Diprotodonts. The upper canine or tusk is small in all the
group, and the corresponding lower tooth absent or represented by a rudiment.
On the other hand, in the remaining families of the order the incisor teeth, as
shown in the woodcut on p. 268, are of a more normal type; that is to say,
they are numerous, and the innermost pair is not greatly developed at the expense
of the others. The tusks are large and prominent ; and whereas in the
Diprotodonts the molar teeth have broad and often squared crowns, surmounted

TASMANIAN WOMBAT (ON THE LEFT) AND HAIUY-NOSED WO.MBAT (oN THE BIGHT). (J liat size.)

by transverse ridges or blunt tubercles, those of the present group have sharp
cusps, and are generally more or less triangular in form, thus indicating a partially
or wholly carnivorous diet. On account of the number of their lower incisor teeth,
the name of Polyprotodonts has been suggested for this second great group of the
Mai-supials, which occupy the place in the order held by the Carnivores and
Insectivores among the Placental Mammals. Instead of being restricted to the
Australasian region, the Polyprotodonts are represented in America by the
opossums ; while in former epochs they had apparently a world-wide distribution,
and included some of the oldest mammals known.

The bandicoots are small or medium - sized animals of fossorial habits,
living either on insects or a mixed diet, and are readily characterised by the
structure of their hind-feet. They have long and sharply pointed noses ; and the

BANDICOOTS.

267

pouch is complete, with its opening directed towards the hinder end of the body. In
the fore-feet the three middle toes, or two of them, are of nearly e(|ual size and
furnished with well-developed and somewhat curved claws, while the first and fifth
toes are rudimentary or absent. The hind-feet are constructed on the same type
as in the kangaroos ; the fourth toe being much larger than the others, while the
second and third are small, slender, and united by skin, the first being rudimental or
wanting. The terminal bones of the larger toes in both feet are peculiar among
Marsupials in having their extremities cleft by a longitudinal slit, in the same manner
as are those of the pangolins. As regards their dentition, the bandicoots are char-
acterised by having either four or five paii’S of incisor teeth in the upper jaw, and
three in the lower ; while their upper molars are more squared than in the other
families, with their cusps arranged in the form of the letter W. The similarity
between the hind-feet of the bandicoots and the kangaroos is a very remarkable
feature ; — more especially if, as is now generally considered to be the case, this
structure has been independently acquired in the two groups.

The true bandicoots (Perameles), of which there are eleven
True Bandicoots. . ...

species, are characterised by having the three middle toes of the

fore-foot large and functional, and the first and fifth present, although small and

nailless ; while on the hind-foot there is also a rudiment of the first toe. The

ears, although variable, are never of enormous length, and the tapering cylindrical

tail is devoid of a crest of hairs near its extremity. In all, the build is stout

and clumsy, and there is no great disproportion between the fore and hind-limbs.

The various species of bandicoots inhabit Australia and Papua ; one of the

best known being Gunn’s bandicoot (P. gunni), from Tasmania. The length of the

head and body in this creature is about 16 inches, and that of the tail 4 inches.

It belongs to a group characterised by the ears being long and pointed, reaching

as far as the eyes when turned forwards ; and also by the hinder-half of the sole

of the foot being covered with hairs. The fur is soft, and of a general grizzled

yellowish brown colour above, with four or more pale vertical bands, separated by

dark bi'own intervals on the rump ; the chin and under -parts being white or

3"ellowish white. The smaller short-nosed bandicoot (P. obesula), which is common

to Australia and Tasmania, re2:)resents a second group, in which the ears are very

short and rounded at the tip, the soles of the hind-feet completely naked, and the

fur intei’mingled with short spines. These two groups are closely connected by the

Papuan representatives of the genus.

Bandicoots are the commonest of the Austi-alian carnivoi’ous Marsupials;
and are cordially detested by the colonists on account of the damage they do to
gardens and cultivated fields. Omnivorous in their diet, consuming, with
equal gusto, roots, bulbs, berries, fallen fruits, or other vegetable substances,
as well as insects and worms, they are chiefly nocturnal, and pass the day
either in holes or hollows or logs ; to which retreat they at once fly when pursued.
In addition to their burrows, some of the species at least construct nests.

Rabbit- The rabbit-bandicoot {Peragale lagotis), together with a closely

Bandicoot, allied species, constitutes a genus i-eadily distinguished by the
enormous length of the ears, by the terminal half of the tail having a crest of long
hairs on its upper surface, and by the great relative length of the hind-limbs, in

268

POUCHED MAMMALS.

which all trace of the inner toe is wanting. The molar teeth are, moreover,
curved; and in the type species have longer roots and shorter ci’owns than
in the true bandicoots. The rabbit-bandicoot is about the size of an ordinaiy
rabbit, and is clothed with fine silky hair of considei-able length. The general
colour of the upper-parts is pale grey, passing into rufous on the flanks, and
becoming white beneath ; the feet, as well as the end of the tail, being white.

Pig-Footed The pig-footed bandicoot (ChcBropus castanotis) is a delicately-

Bandicoot. built and rather small animal, measuring from 10 to 11 inches in
length, exclusive of the short tail. It has long ears ; and a rather short but sharp
muzzle, naked at the extreme tip ; but its most characteristic features are to be found
in its feet. In the fore-limbs, which are much shorter than the hinder-pair, the
functional toes are reduced to the second and third, these being furnished with
short, symmetrical, and slightly cuiwed claws; while the first and fifth toes are absent,
and the fourth I’epresented merely by a small rudiment. In the long and slender
hind-limbs the whole strength is concentrated in the long and stout fourth toe,
the iinited second and third toes being very small, and the fourth altogether
rudimentary. The fur is coarse and straight ; its general colour on the head
and body being a uniform grizzled grey, with a tinge of fawn ; while the chin,
chest, and undei*-parts are white, and the feet pale grey or white, with a yellowish
tinge. This animal inhabits the greater part of Australia, with the exception of
the extreme north, north-east, and east ; its favourite haxnits being open grassy
plains, where it constructs nests like those of the ordinary bandicoots.

The Dasyure Tribe.

Family DasyuiUD.-E.

Dasyures are distinguished from the members of the preceding family b}'"
having the second and third toes of the hind-foot perfectly separate from one
another, and as well developed as
the fourth and fifth ; the first toe,
if present at all, being small and
without a claw. The dentition
difiers from that of most of the
bandicoots in that there are four
in place of five incisor teeth on
each side of the upper jaw ; both
groups having three pairs of these
teeth in the lower jaw.

In all the members of the
family the fore and hind - limbs
are of approximately equal length ;
and the fore-feet have five well-

J , 1 -.i 1 FROXT VIEW OF SKULL OF THE TASMANIAN DEVIL.

d0Velop6(l toes, all arn^od with cla^\ S. (From Sir W. H. Flower, Quart* Journ* GeoL Soc* vol. xxiv.)

The tail, which may be either

medium or long, is hairy, and without the power of prehension ; and the pouch.

BASYUKES.

269

when present, opens downwards and forwards. In the more typical forms tlie
incisor teeth are small, and the tusks large, as shown in the figure on p. 2G8; the
number of cheek-teeth being cither six or seven on each side of both jaws. At
the present day the family is confined to Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea,
although in the Tertiary period it was represented in South America, where some
of the extinct forms appear to have been very closely allied to the existing thylacine.
While the larger species are purely carnivorous, catching and killing their own prey,
the smaller representatives of the family ai’e mainly insect-eaters. In structure
these animals are the most generalised of all Marsupials, and come nearest to the
extinct forms from the Secondary rocks.

The largest of the carnivorous Marsupials is the animal com-
Thylacine. . . .

monly known in Australia as the iasmanian wolf, but better desig-
nated the thylacine {Tliylacimis cynoceplialus). In ajipearance this creature is
extraordinarily wolf-like ; and the unscientific observer would probably at fir.st

sight regard it as a member of the canine family. Nev'ertheless, the female has
a well-developed pouch ; although the marsupial bones are wanting, being repre-
sented merely by cartilages, of which the position is indicated by the * in the
figure of the skeleton. In size the thylacine is rather smaller than the European
wolf; from which it is readily distinguished externally by the tapering and
thinly haired tail, as well as by the dark transverse stripes on the hinder part of
the back and loins, and the shortness and closeness of the fur. The ground-colour of
the fur is greyi.sh brown, while the transverse bands are black. In the hind-foot
the first toe is wanting ; and there are seven cheek-teeth on each side of the jaws.

Tasmania is now the only habitat of the thylacine ; although remains of a species
near akin to the living one are met with in the superficial deposits of the mainland.
Like most IMarsupials, the thylacine is mainly nocturnal. Its favoiuite haunts
are caverns and clefts of rocks among the deep glens of the mountains in the more
remote districts of Tasmania ; the settlers having nearly exterminated the animal
from the more populated regions on account of the damage it inflicts on their flocks.

POUCHED MAMMALS.

of the head and body is thick and close, -with a lar^-e quantity of under-fur, which
is nearly equal in length to the straight fur. In colour the fur is mainly black or
blackish brown, but there is a white collar or patch on the throat, and a variable
number of white spots on the neck, shoulders, and rump. The incisor teeth (as
shown in the figure on p. 268) differ from those of the thylacine in that the outer-
most pair are not markedly larger than the others ; while the cheek-teeth are six
instead of seven in number, on each side, and are closely packed together, in place
of being separated from one another by intervals. It is an even more exclusively
nocturnal animal than the thylacine, being almost blinded if exposed to the rays of
the sun, and passing the day coiled up in some dark and secluded lair, which may
be either a natural cave or cleft among the rocks, or a burrow excavated by

270

The animal reioicing in the name of the Tasmanian devil
Devil ^

' {Sarcopltilus tirsinus) is the sole living representative of its genus.
Like the thylacine, it has, however, an extinct cousin on the Australian mainland.
The Tasmanian devil is an ugly and powerfully-built animal, with an exces-
sively large head, terminating in a short and broad muzzle ; its size being
approximately that of the common badger. The ears are large and rounded on
the outer side ; and the tail is of moderate length, and thickly, although evenlj^
haired. As in the thylacine, the hind-foot has no trace of the first toe ; but, instead
of being digitigrade, both fore and hind-feet arc markedly plantigrade. The fur

THE THYL.\CIXE, Oil TASMAMAN WOLF (j'„ liat. size).

DASYURES.

271

the aiiiinal’.s powerful claws at the root of a tree. In its ^ait and movements
it presents a considerable resemblance to a badger or small bear. Except those
which are too large to be attacked, living creatures of all kind.s — whether vertebrate
or invertebrate — form the prey of the Tasmanian devil ; even sheep being
destroyed in large numbers by these comparatively small marauders.

On the mainland of Australia the carnivorous Marsupials are
represented by the civet-like dasyures, or native cats (IJasyurus),
the largest of which are about equal in size to an ordinary cat. They have the
same number of teeth as in the Tasmanian devil, but the cheek-teeth are less
massive and powerful. The general form of the body is also much longer
and more slender, and the tail more elongated ; while in all cases the body is
profusely spotted with white, upon a grey or brown gi’ound-colour. The muzzle

THE TASMANIAN DEVIL (I’o nat. size).

is sharp, the ears long, narrow, and pointed ; and the long tail evenly and thickly
furx’ed. In some of the species there is a rudiment of the first toe of the hind-foot.
The dasyures, of which there are five species, are common to Australia, Tasmania,
and New Guinea. The largest is the spotted-tailed dasyure (D. maculatus), from
Eastern and South-Eastern Australia, distinguished from the othei’s by the tail
being spotted as well as the body; but the best known species is the common
dasyure (7). viverrinus), inhabiting both Austi'alia and Tasmania. The dasyures
are arboreal animals, and in habits resemble the martens, of which they appear to
take the place in Australasia. They feed on small mammals, birds and their eggs,
and probably also lizards and insects, and are especially destructive to poultry.

Far moi’e numerous than the dasyures are the smaller phascolo-
Phascoiogaies. (Phascologale), the largest of which is not bigger than a good-

sized rat. They are distinguishable from the dasyures by the absence of white spots

272

POUCHED MAMMALS.

on the fur, and by the presence of an additional preniolar in each jaw, thus bringing
up the number of cheek-teeth to seven on each side. The crowns of these teeth are
more minutely cusped, and the canines relatively smallei’ than in the dasyures. The
muzzle is rather long and pointed, the ears moderately rounded and nearly naked,
and the feet short and broad; the hind-foot always having a distinct, although nailless,
first toe. The long tail is subject to considerable variation in the difierent species,
being in some cases bushy, in others furnished with a crest of hair, and in others
nearly naked. The pouch is rudimentary, being represented merely by a few loose
folds of skin. Probably these animals produce a larger number of young at a birth
than any other Australasian Mai’supials, seeing that in some species the number of
teats may be as many as ten. There are altogether thirteen distinct species of the
genus, distributed over Australia and New Guinea, and also ranging into the Am
Islands. Of these thirteen, nine are distinguished by the absence of any stripe down
the back, and are mainly confined to Australia. This stripe is present in the remaining

COMMON DASYURE (J nat. size).

four, which are exclusively Papuan. Of the two species figured here, the yellow-
footed pouched-mouse (P. flavipes) is a small form, liable to considerable variation
in point of size and colour, and inhabiting a large portion of Australia, although
unknown in Tasmania. It belongs to a section of the first group, characterised by
the tail being evenly covered with short hair. In general appearance it is a mouse-
like creature, with close and rather crisp fur, of which the prevailing coloui* is
clear grey more or less suffused with yellow or rufous. The under-parts, together
\\ ith the feet, in the typical East Australian vai’iety, are vellow : this colour
sometimes deepening to rufous and spreading over the whole bodv- The variety
inhabiting Western and Northern Australia differs in that the whole of the under-
parts and limbs are more or less nearly pure white instead of yellow.

The brush-tailed phascologale (P. penicillata) is a larger species, inhabiting
the whole of Australia except the extreme north, although likewise unknown in
Tasmania. It belongs to a section of the unstriped group, characterised by the
extremity of the tail being evenly tufted on all sides. It is a more stoutly-built

POUCHED MICE.

273

uniiiuil than the last, witli sliort and coarse fur. The gtuieral colour of the upjier-parts
is pale grizzled grey, while the chin is white, and the lower surface of the ])ody
pale grey or white. The head is characterised by the large size of the ears, and tlie
presence of a more or less indistinct black streak down the nose. These pretty little
animals are arboreal and insectivorous in their habits ; and appear to fill the place in
Australia occupied in the Oriental region by the placental tree-shrews, which they
much resemble in general habits. All seek their insect-prey by climbing the boughs
of trees; and at least some make nests in the hollows of the trunks and branches.

Common The tiny creature, known as the common pouched-mouse {Smin-

Pouched-Mouse. thojysis murina), constitutes, with three other nearly-allied species, a
distinct genus, differing from the last by the extreme narrowness of the hind-foot,
and also by the circumstance that the soles of the feet are covered with hair or
granulated. This species measures 8} inches in length to tlie root of the tail ; the

YELLOW-KUUTED I'OOCHED-MOUSE (liat. size).

length of the tail being a little less than 3 inches. The pouched-mice of this genus
are confined to Australia and Tasmania ; and since they are terrestrial and in.sectiv-
orous, they may be compared to the shrews among placental mammals. In all
the pouch is well-developed ; and the number of teats varies from eight to ten.

Jerboa The last and apparently the rarest of the typical section of the

Pouched Mouse, family is the jerboa pouched -mouse {Antechinomys laniger), from
South Queensland and New South Wales, which constitiites a genus by itself.
This little creature, which has much the appearance of a sharp-nosed jerboa, with
very large oval ears, and a long tail, becoming bushy at the end, is distinguished
from the membei's of the preceding genus by the great elongation of the hind-
limbs, and the total absence of the first toe from the hind-foot. Its form is very
slender and graceful ; and the soft and fine fur composed almost entirely of under-
fur. The general colour is ])ale grizzled grey, with the chin and feet pure white,
and the hairs of the under-parts gi'ey at the base and white at the tips. The tail,
of which the length considerably exceeds that of the head and body, is fawn-

VOL. III. — 18

274

POUCHED MAMMALS.

coloured. This pouched-mouse inhabits open sandy districts, and is mainly if not
exclusively terrestrial. It progresses by leaps like a jerboa, and is accompanied in
its haunts by the placental jumping mice of the genus Hapalotis.

One of the most curious and interesting of all the Australian
Banded Anteater. jg little banded anteater {Myrmecobius fasciatus) ;

which derives its special interest from the circumstance that it comes closer to
some of the extinct Marsupials of the Secondaiy rocks of Europe than does any
other living type. This animal, which may be compared in size to a squirrel, differs
from the other members of the family in that there are more than seven cheek-teeth
on each side of both the upper and lower jaws, and also in the tongue being elongatetl

BRUSH-TAILED PHASCOLOGALE uat. size).

and cylindrical, and thus capable of being protruded a long distance from the mouth.
The banded anteater takes its name from the broad transverse bars of white on
the dark ground-colour of the hinder-half of the back and loins ; the general hue
of the fur of the upper-parts being dark chestnut-red, with the under surface of
the body white, and a dark line running from the ear through the eye towards the
nose. The fur itself is of a somewhat coarse and bri.stly nature. In form the
animal is characterised by its long but broad head, and narrow, elongated muzzle,
moderate-sized and somewhat pointed ears, elongated body, short limbs, and long
bushy tail. In the fore-feet the first and fifth claws are considerably shorter than
the others ; while in the hind-foot there is no external trace of the first toe. The
banded anteater is one of the few Marsupials in which the female has no pouch ;
the young, when first born, being merely concealed by the long hair of the belly as

BANDED ANTE A TEE.

275

they cling to the teats (four in number). The teeth are all small, and are mostly
separated from one another by distinct intervals; tho.se of the cheek-series are

jKHBo.v roucHED-Mor.sE (5 iiat. size).

either eight or nine in number on each side of both the upper and lower jaw, thus
making a total of either fifty-two or fifty-six teeth — a greater number than in

THE BANDED ANTEATER (J nat. size).

any other existing members of the order. In many of the above-mentioned points
this creature differs widely from all the other Dasyuridcv, and there is considerable
justification for the view that it ought to con.stitute a family bj’ itself. The banded

POUCHED MAMMALS.

276

aiiteater inhabits Western and Southern Australia, and lives mainly on the ground,
although it will sometimes ascend trees. Its nutidment consists entirely of insects,
and chiefly of ants and termites, which are collected by the long extensile tongue.
Its favourite haunts are sandy regions, where there are numerous hollow tree-stems
and ant-hills.

UNDER SURFACE OF THE POUCHED-MOLE (5 nat. .Size).— After Stirling

The Pouched-Mole.

Family XOTORYCTIDM.

In general bodily conformation the pouched-mole {Xotoryctes typhlojpa) is a
mole-like creature, measuring about 5 inches in total length, and covered with long,

soft and silky hair of a
light fawn colour, deepen-
ing in parts to golden.
Tliere are no external
ears, and the eyes are
represented merely by
small black dots buried
in the skin. The nose
and upper lip are pro-
tected by a peculiar
quadrangular leathery shield, the use of which to a burrowing animal is sufficiently
obvious. The short limbs, which are covered with hair down to the claws, are very
remarkable in structure. Both pairs are
of nearly equal length, powerfully made,
and furnished with five toes. In the
fore-paws the third and fourth toes are
enormously enlarged and furnished with
huge triangular claws of great power;
while in the hinder-pair the first toe is
small and furnished with a small claw, and
the others decrease in size from the second
to the fifth. The short, cylindrical, and
stumpy tail is hard and leathery, and
marked by a series of distinct rings. The
pouch opens backwards, and contains two
very small teaks. The teeth are small and
weak, and appear to be forty in number. Of
these three pairs in each jaw are incisors, and
seven are cheek-teeth ; the molars having
triangular three-cusped crowns, and much
resembling those of the golden mole. This
mole appeal’s to be a very rare and locally
distributed animal, restricted to the deserts

of Northern South Australia, lying to the north-east of Lake Eyre. Here it inhabits
flats and hills of red sand, upon which grow porcupine-grass(TriofZia)and acacias. Dr.

FEET OF THE POUCHED-MOLE (about § Uat.. size).

1. Outer aspect of left fore-foot. 2. Profile view of
same. 3. luner aspect of same. 4. Upper surface of
left hind-foot. 5. Palmar surface of same. — After
Stirling:.

0J^0SS17MS.

-77

Stilling, bj \\lioni tlie marsupial mole was first made known to science, states that
most of the specimens he obtained were “captured by the aboricrinals, who, with th.eir
phenomenal po\\eis of tracking, follow up their traces until they are caught. For
this leason the^y can only be found with certainty after I'ain, which sets the surface
of the sand aiul enables it to retain
tracks that would be immediately
obliterated where it is dry and loose.

Nor are they found except ditring
warm weather, so that the short period
of semitropical summer rains appears
to be the favourable time for their
capture.” Perpetual burrowing seems
to be the characteristic trait of this
animal. On “ emerging from the sand,
it ti’avels on the surface for a few
feet, at a slowish pace, with a peculiar
sinuous motion, the belly much flat-
tened against the ground, while it
rests on the outsides of its fore-paws,
which are thus doubled in under it.

It leaves behind it a peculiar sinuous
triple track, the outer impressions,
more or less interrupted, being caused
by the feet, and the central continuous line by the tail, which seems to be pressed
down in the rear. It enters the sand obliquely, and travels underground either for
a few feet or for many yai’ds, not apparently reaching a depth of more than
two or three inches, for whilst underground its pi’Ogress can often be detected by
a slight cracking or moving of the .surface over its position.”

SKULL (1 and 2) and skeleton of the hind (3) and
FORE (4) FEET OF THE POUCHED - ilOLE (about § nat.
size). — After Stirling.

The Opossu.m.s.

Family Didelphyid^.

The last family of the existing Marsupials is constituted by the well-known
opossums, which are now confined to America, although during the early portion
of the Tertiary period they also ranged over Europe, Closely allied to the
Australian Dasyuridce, the opossums are mainly distingui.shed by the hind-foot
having a well-developed inner toe, which, although nailless, is capable of being
opposed to the other digits. They are further distinguished by the number of their
incisor teeth, of which there are five pairs in the upper and three in the lower jaw.
The tail is generally of considerable length, pai’tially naked and prehensile at the
extremity; and the feet are likewise devoid of any hairy covering. Although com-
plete in a few of the species, the pouch is generally either wanting altogether, or
represented merely by a coujile of longitudinal folds in the skin of the abdomen, which
partially conceal the numerous teats. As a rule, opossums may be compared in
general outward appearance to rats, although they have longer snouts terminating

278

POUCHED MAMMALS.

in a perfectly naked muzzle; while in the larger species the body becomes
proportionately stouter.

As i-egards habits, all the opossums, with the exception of the water-opossum,
are arboreal, and omnivorous or insectivorous in their diet. They are nocturnal,
and spend the day concealed either among the foliage of trees or in hollows in
their trunks or boughs. The opossums take the place in America of the
Insectivores of the Old Woi’ld. They are naturally forest-loving animals , but
a few are found on the pampas of Argentina, where they have adapted themselves
to a terrestrial life. In those species in which the pouch m rudimental or wanting,
the young after leaving the teats are carried upon the back of their female parent,
where they maintain their position by curling their tails round that of their mother.

COMMON OPOSSUM (i nat. size).

which is bent forwards for the purpose. Opossums are essentially characteristic
of Central and South America, only one out of some twenty-four species ranging
into North America, where it extends as far north as the United States.

The true opossums, of which there are about twenty-four living
True Opossums. . ^ i i ”

species, are characterised by the absence of webbing between the

toes, and by their arboreal habits. The common or Virginian opossum (Dulelphys

marsupialis) is the sole representative of the first group, and likewise the only

species found in the northern half of America. It is from three to five times

the size of any other species, and characterised by its long, scaly, prehensile

tail, and by the fur consisting of a mixture of long bristle-like hairs and a fine

xander-fur. It may be compared in size to a cat, the length of the head and

body reaching 22 inches in large specimens, and that of the tail 15 inches.

It is, however, subject to great variation both in size and colour, and on this

account has received a number of distinct names, the common South American

OJ’OSS[/J/S.

279

form being' generally known as the crab-eating opossum. The genei’al colour of
the fur may, indeed, vary through all the intermediate shades from black to white,
while the hair on the face shows an almost ec^ual amount of variation, the northern
forms being almost wholly white in this region, while those from the south are
darker, and often nearly black. In all cases the pouch is complete ; but the
number of teats may vary from five to thirteen.

The range of this widely-spread species includes the whole of temperate
North America, and extends southwards through the tropical regions of the other

PHILANDER OPOSSTJ.M {i nat. size).

half of the continent. In many parts it is one of the commonest animals, and may
be met with even in towns, where it lies concealed during the day in drains and
other lurking-places. Its diet is a mixed one, comprising fruits, root.s, birds,
and other small animals, eggs, and carrion ; and it is reported to be very destnictive
to poultry. With the aid of its prehensile tail, this opossum is one of the most
expert of climbing mammals ; and when caught, it has, in common with some of
the other members of its genus, the habit of feigning death. Like so many
marsupials, it is extremely tenacious of life. The young arc born in the spring,
and comprise from six to sixteen in a litter. They remain in the pouch till they

28o

POUCHED MAMMALS.

are aboiit the size of a mouse, after which they venture abroad, although return-
ing to its shelter for the purpose of being suckled or sheltering for a considerable
time. The female exhibits the most marked attachment to her offspring, and
endeavours by every means in her power to pi'event her pouch from being opened.
Rat-Tailed The rat-tailed opossum {D. nuclicaiulata) is a well-known

Opossum. representative of the second group of the genus, which includes
three medium-sized species, characterised by their short, close fur being of one
kind only, and their long tails, which in two of the species are naked, although in
the thick-tailed opossum (1). crassicaudafa) the tail is hairy nearly to its tip.
Although in the two species above-named the pouch is rudimental or absent, it is
well-developed in the Quica opossum (D. opossum).

Philander The philander {D. pihilander) and the woolly opossum

Opossum. (^J). lanigera) are easily distinguished from the members of the
preceding group by the presence of a distinct brown streak running down the
middle of the face. The pouch is represented merely by two longitudinal folds of
skin. The philander attains a length of from 9J to 11 J inches to the root of the
tail; the tail itself varying from 12^ to 15 inches. The fur is thick, soft, and
woolly, and of a dull yellowi.sh or rufous grey colour, with the face pale grey, save
for the dark brown streak down the forehead, and similar dark areas round the
eyes ; the under-parts being some shade of yellow. This species is restricted to
Guiana and Brazil, but is I’eplaced in most other parts of tropical South America
by the somewhat larger woolly opossum. In both species, the young, which may
be a dozen in number, are carried on the back of the mother, and it is marvellous
with what rapidity the females when thus loaded manage to climb trees.

The murine opossum {D. murina), ranging from Central Mexico
to Brazil, may be taken as an example of the fourth group of the
genus, in which all the species are small, with short, close hair, very long tails, and
no dark streak down the middle of the face. The pouch is absent in all the group.
In size the murine opos.sum may be compared to a common mouse ; the general
colour of its fur being bright red. From their small size it may be inferred that
all the opossums of this group live exclusively upon insects.

Three-striped The last group of the genus includes its smallest representatives.
Opossum. among which the three-striped opossum (D. americana) of Brazil is
conspicuous for its coloration. The whole ten species which constitute this gi’oup
are shrew-like little creatures, easily recognised by their short and generally non-
prehensile tails, which are less than half the length of the head and body. The
three-striped species, which is by no means the smallest, measures from 4^ to 5]
inches to the root of the tail ; while the length of the tail is rather less than
inches. Its general colour is reddish grey, with three black bands running
down the back. Another species (D. unistriata) has a single dark line down the
back ; but in nearly all the others the colour is uniform. The smallest of all is
the shrew-opossum (D. sorex), from Eio Grande do Sul, in which the length of the
head and body is less than 3 inches.

The water-opossum or j^apock {Chironectes minivia) differs from
all the other members of the family in having the hind-toes webbed,
and the presence of a large tubercle on the outer side of each fore-foot, giving the

Murine Opossum.

Water-Opossum.

OPOSSUMS. 281

appeuriiiice of a sixth 1 his animal I'an^os from Guatemala to Brazil, ami

is distinguished its pt'cxdiar coloration and acpiatic habits, d'he fur is short and
close, and the long tail naked and scaly lor the greater part of its length. The head
and body measure about 14 inches in length, and the tail about J5A inches. The
giound-colour of the tur is light grey, upon which there is a blackish brown stripe;
running down the middle of the back, and expanding into large blotches on the
shoulders, the middle of the back, the loins, and rump. 'I'he face has also blackish
maikings, ^\ith an imperlect whitish crescent above the eye.s j while thei'e is a

w.\TEK-oros.su.M iiat. .size).

certain amount of the dark tint on the outer surfaces of the limbs, the under-parts
being pure white. The female possesses a complete pouch. In habits the yapock
closely resembles an otter, to which group of animals it was indeed referred by the
earlier naturalists. Its food consists of crustaceans, small fish, and other aquatic
animals.

Extinct Marsupials.

From their low degree of organisation it would be expected that INfarsupials
are some of the oldest of mammals; and this expectation is borne out by the
facts. So far as can be determined, no placental mammals are knoAvn to have

282

POUCHED MAMAIALS.

existed before the Tertiary period, that is to say, in the rocks lying below
the London clay. The cretaceous rocks of North America, and the under-
lying Jurassic or Oolitic rocks both of that continent and of Europe have,
however, yielded a number of remains of small mammals which may be pretty

confidently assigned to the
Polyprotodont section of the
present order. In one form,
known as Triconodon, the
molar teeth, of which there
were four in the fully adult
state, although only three are
shown in the lower jaw here
figured, are characterised by
carrying three compressed
cones arranged in a line one before the other; while the premolars, three in
number, were simpler. The groove {g) seen on the inner side of the lower jaw,
corresponds to one found in the banded
anteater and a few other living Marsupials,
but unknown in any other mammals. In
a second type, as represented by Amplii-
lestes from the Stonesfield beds near Oxford,
the cheek-teeth were much more numerous,

1 , , T1 1 lower JAW OF A MARSUPIAL FROM

anti the molars less unlike the premolars. .jgj. stonesfield slate (twice nat. size).

In the molar teeth tlie front and hind-

cones were relatively smaller in proportion to the middle one than is the case in
Triconodon ; and in the number and form of these teeth this early mammal comes

exceedingly close to the living
Australian banded anteater. A
third type is represented by
jaws from the Purbeck rocks of
Dorsetshire, known as Amihlo-
therium, closely allied to which
is the jaw from America repre-
sented in our third figure. Here
the front and hind-cones have

(twice nat. size).-After Marsh. become twisted I’OUnd to the

inner side of the main cone, so
that the crown of each molar forms a triangle, as in the living bandicoots and
opossums. The number of the cheek-teeth is, however, much greater than in the
latter, and thus indicates relationship with the banded anteater.

LOWER JAW OF TRICONODON (3 times iiat. size). — After Mar.sh.

ECHIDNA WALKING.

CHAPTER XXXVIL

Egg-Laying Mammals, or Monotremes, — Order ^Monotremata.

The Australasian mammals, known as the duckbill and the echidnas, differ from
the other members of the class not only in certain important structural points, but
also by their young being hatched from eggs laid by the female parent. In their
structural differences, and in their mode of reproduction, they resemble reptiles,
although they agree with other mammals in that the young, when hatched, are
.suckled by milk secreted by the mother. Owing to these great differences, the
Egg-laying Mammals, or Monotremes, as they are technically termed, constitute not
only a distinct order {Monotremata) in the class, but form a separate subclass
known as Prototherians (Pr ot other ia). Consequently we find that Mammals are
divided into three primary groups or subclasses, viz. :

1. Eutheriaxs, or Placextals, containing the first nine orders.

2. Metatheriaxs, or Implacextals, including the Pouched Mammals.

3. Prototherians, represented only by the Egg-laying Mammals.

These Egg-laying Mammals have no immediate relationship to Birds, but are
closely allied to certain extinct orders of Reptiles and Amphibians ; and the
present representatives of the group are higlily specialised creatures, and thus
widely different from the original ancestral types of the Mammalian class,
which we may fairly presume to have once existed as members of the Prototheria.
Such ancestral types were doubtless furnished with a full series of teeth of a

284

EGG-LA YING MAMMALS.

simple type of structure, and it is possible that certain imperfectly known
mammals from the earliest Secondary rocks may turn out to be such missing links.

In regard to the distinctive features of the Egg-laying Mammals as a subclass,
it may be mentioned that they differ from all other members of the class in having
but a single excretory aperture to the body ; whence their name of Monotremes is
derived. Then, again, in their skeleton the shoulder-blade (scapula), instead of
forming the sole support for the arm, is connected with the breast-bone (sternum) by
another plate-like bone termed the metacoracoid, in advance of which is a third
element known as the coracoid; the metacoracoid being always present in the
lower Vertebi'ates. Another resemblance to Reptiles is found in the presence of a
'f-shaped bone overlying the breast-bone, and collar-bones (clavicles), and known

SKELETON OE DUCKBILL.

as the interclavicle ; such interclavicle being similar to that of lizaiMs and certain
other reptiles, and unknown among higher mammals. Another feature of these
animals is connected with the milk-glands, which instead of opening by nipples or
teats, communicate with the exterior by a number of small pores situated in a cup-
like depression in the skin of the abdomen. Although there are many other
peculiarities in the structure of these animals, if we add to the above that their
brains are of an exceedingly low and simple t3’pe, and that their j’oung are pro-
duced from eggs, we shall not have much difficulty in understanding why they are
referred by naturalists to a distinct subclass. It may be added that their skeletons
possess “ marsupial ” bones similar to those of the Pouched Mammals.

The Duckbill.

Family Ornitiiorhynchid.^.

The duckbill, or duck-billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus), derives
its name from the duck-like bill forming the extremity of the head. In length the
adult male duckbill measures from 18 to 20 inches from the tip of the beak to the
extremity of the rather short tail. The muzzle is expanded and flattened, and has
both the upper and lower jaws invested with a blackish naked beak not unlike that
of a duck. This beak is bordered by a naked sensitive skin, forming a lappet-like
fold at the base of the snout ; the nostrils being situated near its anterior extremity.
The depressed and oval-shaped body is covered with short, close, and somewhat
mole -like fur, comprising both longer hairs and a W00II3" under-fur; its usual
colour being deep brown, becoming paler underneath. There are no external conchs
to the ears ; and the ej^es are small, and in the living state inconspicuous. The tail

DUCKBILL.

285

IS broRil ciiul soiiicwluvt llcittoucd, with <1 coiit ol course liuirs, which 011 tlic viiidor
surface become more or less worn off in old iiidiviiluuls. The short limbs have
their feet moi’e especially the trout pair — expanded and webbed for the purpose
of swimming. Each foot has five complete toes furnished with strong nails ; but
while in the fore- feet the web extends considerably beyond the extremities of the
nails, in the hind-pair it reaches only to their bases. The extension of the web of
the fore-feet might appear to be a hindrance in burrowing ; but this difficulty is
avoided by the web being then folded back on the palm of the jiaw. The nails of
the fore-foot are somewliat Hattened and expanded, while those of the hind-foot are
longer, narrower, and much curved. To the heel of the male is affixed a long.

THE DUCKBILL (|^ nat. size).

horny spur, curving upwards and back^'anls, and nearly an inch in length. A
canal traversing this spur, and opening near its summit, is connected with a gland
on the leg, which appears to secrete a poisonous fluid.

The tongue is small and non-extensile ; while the cheeks are provided with
pouches of considerable size, doubtless used for storing food. If it be a fully adult
specimen that we examine, it will be found that in lieu of teeth each jaw carries
two pairs of horny plates, of which the more anterior are sharp and narrow, while
those behind are broad and flattened. Between these plates the palate is thrown
into a number of transverse wrinkles, like those in a duck. In young specimens,
however, two or three pairs of cheek-teeth may be observed in the upper, and two
pairs in the lower jaw ; most of these teeth being broadly (|uadrangular in form,
with two cusps on one side, separated by a hollow from a longitudinal creiudated
ridge on the other. As these teeth are gradually worn away by the sand taken
into the mouth with the food, the horny plates grow up beneath and around them,

286

EGG-LAYING MAMMALS.

till they are eventually shed. That the ancestors of the duckbill were provided
with a full series of persistent teeth is thus evident.

Distribution. The duckbill is restricted to Southern and Eastern Australia and

and Habits. Tasmania, where it is fairly common in places suited to its habits.
Thoroughly aquatic in their habits, and exclusively frequenting fresh waters,
duckbills are remarkably shy creatures, and rarely seen, except at evening, when
they come up to the top of the water, and look like so many black bottles floating
on the surface, — sinking down immediately if alarmed. By quietly watching the
stream in the evening they may be easily shot, and they will readily take a bait
on a hook. Although gregarious when in the water, these animals live in pairs
in the burrows consti'ucted in the banks ; their favourite haunts being where the
sti'eams expand into wide, still pools. In the banks of such sequestered spots
are constructed their burrows ; each of which usually has one enti'ance opening
beneath the water, and another above the water-level, hidden among the herbage
growing on the bank. The burrow runs obliquely upwards from the water to
a great distance — sometimes as much as flfty feet — into the bank ; and ends in a
chamber, lined with grass and other substances, where the young are produced.
Two eggs are laid at a time, enclosed in a strong, flexible, white shell, measuring
about three-quarters of an inch in length, and two-thirds of that in diameter.
They resemble the eggs of birds in the large size of their yolk, of which
only a small portion goes to the formation of the embiyo, while the remainder
serves for its food. When first hatched, the young are blind and naked, with
the beak very short, and its margins smooth and fleshy, thus forming a nearly
circular mouth, well fitted to receive the milk ejected from the glands of the
mother. The duckbill feeds on various small aquatic animals, such as insects,
crustaceans, and worms, which it obtains by probing with its beak in the mud
and sand near the banks; the food being first stored in the capacious cheek-
pouches, and afterwards devoured at leisure. The large front paws are the
chief agents in swimming and diving. On land these creatures move somewhat
awkwardly, in a shuffling manner; and when reposing in their nests curl them-
selves up in a ball-like fashion. The aborigines capture the duckbill, by digging
holes with sticks into the burrow from the ground above at distances from one
another, until they light upon the terminal chamber.

The Echidnas.

Family ECHIDNID^^.

The echidnas, or spiny anteaters, of which tliere are two species, representing
as many genera, are widely different in appearance and structure from the duckbill,
and have a more extensive distribution. Instead of mole-like fur, the echidnas
have the upper surface of the head and body covered with a mixture of stiff'
hairs and short thick spines. The head is rather small and rounded, and has a
long, slendei", beak-like snout, covered with skin, at the extremity of which are
situated the small nostrils. There are no external conchs to the ears ; but the ej^ea
are of fair size. The opening of the mouth is very small ; and the extensile tongue

ECHIDNAS.

287

has the elongated cylindrical form characterising anteaters of all kinds. The sknll
is devoid of all traces of teeth, and remarkable for the slenderness of its
lower jaw, and its generally bird-like form. Although there is nothing corre-
sponding to the horny plates of the mouth of the duckbill, both the palate and the
tongue are thickly beset with small spines. The body of the echidnas is remark-
ably broad and depressed, with a sharp line of division between the spine-covered
area of the back and the hairy under-parts. The tail is a mere stump ; and the
short and sturdy limbs are armed with enormously powerful claws, varying in
number from three to live on each foot. Although the front-feet are applied to
the ground in the usual way, the hind-feet, in walking, have the claws tunied
outwards and backwards. The males resemble those of the duckbill in ha\ ing a
hollow spur at the back of the hind-foot, which is probably employed as a weapon
in the contests between rival males during the breediim-season. The brain of
the echidnas differs from that of the duckbill in that the surface is extensively
convoluted.

The common echidna {Echidna acideata), is a variable species, found in
Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea; and characterised by having five toes

on each foot, all provided with claws ; those on the fore-feet being broad, while
the others are narrow and more curved. In length the beak is about equal to
that of the remainder of the head ; and it is either straight or slightly turned
upwai’ds. The smallest variety inhabits Port Moresby, in New Guinea, and
attains a length of about 14 inches ; its distinctive feature being the shortness
of the spines on the back. The variety from the Australian mainland is
larger, and the spines are of great length. Larger than either is the la-smanian
variety, in which the length may be 19 inches ; the very shoi't spines on the back
being partially or completely hidden by the fur, the dark brown hue of which
is frequently relieved by a white spot on the chest ; while the beak is unusually
short.

The three-toed Echidna {Proechidna hriiijnii), of North-M estern New
Guinea, is larger than any of these. Usually it has but three claws to each foot,
but there is considerable variation in this respect, one specimen having five
claws on the front, and four on the hind-feet. The beak is bent downwards,
and attains a length equal to about double that of the rest of the head, llie
short spines are generally white, and the colour of the fur is dark brown or black,
although the head may be almost white.

Echidnas are fossorial and mainly nocturnal animals frequenting rocky

288

EGG-LAYING MAMMALS.

districts, and subsisting almost exclusively on ants. They are generally found
in the mountains, and the three-toed species has been taken at an elevation of
between three and four thousand feet. Although it is definitely ascertained that

they lay eggs, much less is known of their breeding-
habits than is the case with the duckbill ; according,
however, to native reports, the young, which are
probably two in number, are born during the Aus-
tralian winter, generally in the month of May.
Remains of a large extinct echidna have been obtained
from the superficial deposits of New South Wales.

Allied Extinct Mammals.

Certain forms from the Secondary and early
Tertiary rocks of Europe, Africa, and North Amei’ica
are believed to belong to the Prototherian subclass, of
which they probably indicate a distinct order. Their
molar teeth have a distant resemblance to the teeth
of the duckbill, while the bones of the shoulder seem
to have comprised the two elements chai’acterising
the Egg - laying Mammals. The peculiarity in the
teeth of these mammals is that the molars are traversed by one or two longitudinal
grooves, on either side of which are ridges canying a number of small tubercles ;
and from this feature the name of Multituberculata has been proposed for the
group. The number of ridges in the upper
molars is always one more than in those
of the lower jaw. In some species, as in
Tritylodon, represented in our first figure,
the premolar teeth are similar to the molars ;
but in others, as in our second figure, the
molars are small, while the premolars are
large and have sharp cutting edges. When
unworn, such cutting premolar teeth gener-
ally have a series of oblique grooves on the
sides, and as the incisor teeth (a) are large
and often reduced to one pair, the jaw resembles that of the rat-kangaroos. The
molar teeth, however, are different, and if these Secondary Mammals are really
Prototherians, the character of their teeth indicates that they cannot be the
ancestral types of the higher groups of the class.

LOWER JAW OF PLAGiAULAX (nat. size and
enlarged). — After Marsh.

UNDER PART OF THE SKULL OP A
SOUTH AFRICAN SECONDARY MAM-
MAL (I nat. size).

BIEDS.

CHAPTER 1.

General Characteristics, — Class Aves.

A TRAVELLER may in man}" paiBs of the world jonrney from one week’s end to
another without comino- across a sin<^le IMammal or Reptile, hnt few indeed are the
regions where bird-life, in some form, will not present itself more or less abnndantly
to his J^aze ; and in no conntry is this exuberance of bird-life, as contrasted
with the apparent scarcity of IVlammals and Reptiles, more remarkable than in the
British Islands. This abundance is largely due to the eveat majority of Birds
bein^' diurnal in their habits, whereas most IMammals are noctuimal, but it is
chiefly owino- to the Birds being more numerous in most i)arts of the world, both
as regards individuals and species. On this account alone Birds have always
aroused a widespread interest even among those who pay no ])articular attention
to Natural History ; and in addition to it we have the beauty of their form, the
gorgeous hues with which their ])lumage is so fi’e(|uently adoiaied, and the jtower
of melodious song with which so many membei-s of the cla.ss are endowed. ’I'hen,
again, the many intere.sting points connected with theii' habits, and more espcciall}'
their conjugal affection and the care they bestow on theii’ heljiless young, ha\(‘
combined to aid in producing the universal enthusiasm lor what have been most
VOL. III. — 19

2go

BIRDS.

appropriately designated “ our feathered friends.” As the result of this widespread
popularity, the literature devoted to Birds is far more extensive than that relating
to any other grouj) of animals of equal size. And it may, perhaps, be (pestioned
whether, in spite of their many undoubted claims to special interest. Birds have
not attracted rather moi'e than their fair share of attention ; for, after all, the
whole of the members of the class are wonderfully alike in general structure, even
its most divergent representatives presenting no approach to the difterences dis-
tinguishing nearly allied mammalian orders. It is to a great extent owing to
this remarkable structural uniformity that such ditferent views still exist as
to the classification of Birds.

Distinctive Char- Birds form a class in the Vertebrates ranking on the same level
acters of Birds, as the IVIammalia, and technically known as Aves ; and from the
aforesaid structural uniformity of all its members, there is no difficulty in defining
a Bird, nor is thei’e any possibility of mistaking any other animal for a Bird.
All living Birds, and so far as we know all fossil ones likewise, are sharply
distinguished from every other creature by the possession of feathers ; these

corresponding in essential
structure to hairs, and being
similarly developed from pits
sunk in the superficial layer
of the skin or epidermis.
This is the grand and essential
characteristic of Birds, most
of their other peculiarities
being shared by some of the
other groups of Vertebrates,
either living or extinct.

Birds agree with Mam-
mals in having a four-
chambered heart ami hot
blood, and also in that the
Ijlooil is carried to the body by only a single great arteiy or aorta; but while
in Mammals this aorta passes over the left branch of the windpipe or bronchus,
in Birds it crosses the right. In producing their young from eggs laid by
the female parent. Birds resemble not only the Egg - laying Mammals, but
likewise most of the lower Vertebrates. All living members of the class possess
two pairs of limbs ; of which the hinder pair are always adapted either for walk-
ing or swimming, while the front pair are generally specially modified for flight,
although in the flightless species they are small and moi’e or less rudimentary.
Excejot to a small degree in the penguins, they never subserve the purpose of
walking, at least in the adult condition. The power of true flight, which is such
an essential characteristic of the majority of Birds, is found elsewhere among
Vertebrates only in the bats among Mammals, and the extinct pterodactyles among
Reptiles. An especial peculiarity of Birds is the manner in which their whole
structure is permeated by atmospheric air taken in through the windpipe. Thus,
whereas in IMammals the lungs are enclosed in complete sacs (the pleuron), and

il, liauncli-boiie or ilium ; p, p' , pubis ; is, i.scbiiim ; a, cup I'or bead
of tbigb-boue.— After Marsb.

C.KjSERAJ. C//ARA CTKRISTKJS.

2lj I

are freely siispeiKlei I in the cavity of tlie chest, in the present class they are
' inonhled to tlie form of tlie back of that cavity, while some of the ^reat air-tnbes
pass completely through tliem, and thus carry the air to all parts of tlie body.
In most Birds even the bones, which are hollow, are thus permeated by air; and
in the dried state they show a small aperture (pneumatic foramen) by which the
air-tube enters. It is in consequence of this arrangement that it is impo.ssilile to
kill a “ winged ” bird by compressing its windpipe, the process of respiration being
carried on by means of tlie air entering the broken end of the bone. In addition
to the hollow bones. Birds also have a number of air-sacs disposed beneath the
skin. Curiously enough, there appears to be no sort of relation between the power
of flight of a bird and the degree of development of pneuniaticity, as the aeration
of the body and bones is called. The hornbills, for instance, which are poor and
heavy fliers, have the whole of the bones, including the vertebne, so hollowed that
they are reduced to little more than shells, while in their not very distant cousin
the ra])id flying swift, the aeration is reduced
to a minimum. Among swimming birds a
similar difl'erence may be observed, the gannet
having a remarkably pneumatic skeleton and
large air-sacs, while in the allied cormoi’ants
there are no air-sacs, and the bones are but
slightly or not at all pneumatic. According
to the old theory, the heated air in the sacs
and hollow bones made the bird lighter than
the medium in which it flew, and thus rendered
flight easy ; but, as ]\Ir. Headley well observes,
the sight of an eagle flying ofl‘ with a lamb
ought to convince anyone that the saving of
a fraction of an ounce cannot make the
slightest difference to its flight. Moreover, the
swallow has all the bones solid. That the
air-sacs aid to some extent in general respira-
tion, and thus help in maintaining the high
temperature of the blood in birds (reaching
in some cases 112° F.) is probable, but this
cannot be their sole function, and it is most
likely that during flight, when a bird’s breath-
ing must be rapid, they are the chief agents
in maintaining an equable tempenxture of the
system. The function of the pneuniaticity
of the bones is not at present decided, and it would therefore be only entering on
controversial matters to discuss it here. That one of the objects of the coat of
feathers, Avhich forms a most efficient insulator, is to assist in the maintenance
of a uniform high temperature, cannot be doubted.

An impoi’tant structural diflerence between 1\I animals and Birds is to lie found in
the absence in the latter of the partition or diaphragm, which in the foiiner separates
the cavdty of the chest containing the heart and lungs from that of the abdomen.

1, head ; 2, neck ; 3, back ; 4, tail ; 5, ribs ;
6, breast-bone ; 7, furcula ; 8, metacoracoid ;
9, thumb ; 10, humerus ; 11, ulna ; 12, meta-
carpus ; 13, phalanges ; 14, pelvis ; 15, lemur ;
16, tibia ; 17, metatarsus or cannon-bone ; 18,
toes.

BIRDS.

2y2

Ah the skeleton of Birds afibrds many important charactei's,
wliereby the class is distinguished from Mammals, it is advisable to
enter at once U2)0n its consideration. In the first jdace, the skull of a bii’d, as
shown in the figures given later on in the cha2)ter, ditlers from that of a mammal

SKELETON OK P.UIROT AND SKULL OF COCKATOO.

in that it is attached to the first joint of the backbone by a single knob or condyle,
instead of by two such condyles. Secondly, each half of the lower jaw is com2:)Osed
of several j^ieces, instead of but one ; and instead of the lower jaw articulat-
ing directly with what is
known as the squamosal region
of the brain-case, it does so by
the intervention of a separate
bone, termed, from its form,
the ([uadrafe, the j:)Osition of
which is indicated in the
acconq^anying figure. It may
be mentioned here that in all
existing Birds both jaws are
encased in horn, and are devoid
of teeth ; while the two halves
of the lower jaw are conqdetel}" soldered togethei- by bone at their junction, or
sym2)hysis. Certain extinct Birds had, however, a full series of teeth, and the two
halves of tlie lower jaw se))arate.

SIDE VIEW OF SKULL OF TEAL, WITH THE LOWER JAW DISPLACED.

The bone immediately to the left of the one marked Pt is tlie
quadrate. (From Hnxley, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1867.)

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

293

As rc'^anls tlie backbone, existing Ibrds differ from ^ranniials in that tlu*
bodies of the vta-tebra-, at least in the ivoion of the neck, are articnlated to one
another by saddle-shaped surlaces, instead of by a cnp-and-ball joint or twa^ nearly
flat surfaces ; and there is no constancy in the number of joints in the neck.
A further peculiarity is that a number of the vertehrm of the back, to((ether with
some of those of the tail, are solidly united with the jn-oper sacrum, while the
whole lon^ series of welded vertebrm are themselves as firmly attached to the

ANTERIOR ASPECT OF THE DORSAL VERTEBRA OF A MOA (Pachyomis.)

ns, upper or neural spine ; n, neural canal ; pz, prezygapopliysis ; d, transverse process ; r. pedicle of arch ;
p, facet for rib ; ac, anterior surface of body or centrum ; hy, lower or haemal spine. — Alter Owen.

haunch-bones of the pelvis. In all livinoj Birds the bones of the tail are very few
in number, and terminate in a triano-ular bone (as seen in our figure of the
skeleton of a parrot), termed the ploughshare-bone. It is to this region of
the body that the tail-feathers of a bird, commonly called the tail, are attached ;
and it will thus be apparent that the so-called tail of a bird does not correspond
with the tail of a mammal. In the earliest known bird the tail was, however,
long, and composed of a number of vertebrfe, each carrying a pair of feathens.
The pelvis of a bird is remarkable for the great elongation of the haunch-bones,
and also for the circumstance that the pubis (p, p' in the figure on ]>. 200) is

294

BIRDS.

LKFT SIDE OF SHOULDER AND BREAST-BONES OF A
FLIGHTLESS BIRD.

s, blade-bone or scapula ; c, metacoracoid ; h, arm-bone
or humeriLS ; /, furcnla ; st, breast-bone or sternum. — After
Marsh.

directed backward parallel with the element termed the ischium ; the three
elements being united together as in Mammals, but <litiering from them,
with two exceptions, in that neither the ischium nor the jmbis unites with its
fellow of the opposite side in the middle line. IMoreover, the cup in the pelvis for
the head of the thigh-bone is always open at the base. The firm union of the
haunch-bones with such a large portion of the backbone is necessary to afford
a solid basis of support for the rest of the skeleton in flight.

Eipially essential is a solid union
between the bones of the shoulder
and the breast-bone. Accordingly,
we And that, as in the Egg-laying
]\Iammals,the blade-bone or scapula
(.9) is connected with the breast-
bone (st), by a metacoracoid (c) ;
the scapula and metacoracoid thus
jointly forming the cup for the
articulation of the head of the arm-
bone or humerus (//.). Although in
flightless Birds the metacoracoid is
short and broad, in other species it
is more or less elongated ; and in
either case its lower expanded end
is received in a groove on the
summit of the breast-bone. Usually
the collar - bones, or clavicles, are
well-developed, and united together to form a V or U-shaped bone, now known as
the “ merry-thought,” or furcula (/) ; this furcula generally articulating with a
process on the metacoracoid (a), and aLso with the anterior
end of the breast-bone. The breast-bone in flying Birds is
provided with a strong keel up the middle of its inferior
surface, as shown in the figure of the skeleton of a parrot
on p. 292, in order to afford support for the powerful muscles
moving the wing ; but in flightless Birds, as in the figure on
this page, it is smooth and rounded. To the sides of the
upper part of the breast-bone are attached the lower segments
of the ribs ; the ribs themselves being few in number, and
distinguished from those of Mammals by the presence of
oblique (uncinate) processes j:) rejecting from their hinder
borders.

With regard to the limbs, the bones of a bird’s wing
correspond generally to those of the arm or fore-leg of a
mammal ; the arm-bone or humerus having distinct condyles
(a, h) for the articulation of the bones of the fore-arm (radius
and ulna) ; and being sometimes furnished with a projecting
process above the outermost of these two condyles. The
two bones of the fore-arm always remain se])ai’ate from

FRONT SURFACE OF THE
LEFT .METACORACOID OF
A FLYING BIRD.

a, process for articulation
of furcnla ; h, c, d, surface
for junction with breast-
bone.

GENERAL CI/ARA CTERJSTICS.

295

FRONT VIEW OF THE RIGHT HUMERUS
OF A GULL.

01U1 aiiotlu'r. In tlu* wrist the nuiiK'roiis hont's louiid in Maiiiinals are, how-
ever, rtMlucei I to two; ami tlie iiietaearpus and liaiid an* llatteiied and specially
moditied. Tims there arc never more tlian three dibits, which are visnall}’ witliont
claws, although among recent birds two may be
thus armed. The thumb, or tirst digit, is repre-
sented merely by one or two joints (as shown
in the skeleton on p. 292), and carries the so-
called bastard-wing ; while the other two digits
repi’esent the index and middle fingers of the
lunnan hand. Their respective metacarpals, as seen in the figure cited, are united
at their two ends so as to form a single bone ; while the index finger has two
ilattened joints, and the third finger (not present in the figure) Imt one.

In the hind-limb there is a still wider departure from the i\Iammalian t^^pe.
The uppermost bone in a bird’s leg (A of the accompanying figure) is the thigh-
bone, or femur ; below this comes the tibia, or larger bone of the lower leg, on the
outer side of which is a small splint (not shown in the figure) I’epresenting the

fibula. Below^ the tibia comes another long bone,
terminating (except in the ostrich, where they
are reduced to two) in tliree pulley -like sur-
faces, known as trochlcae, to which are articu-
lated the toe-bones. Obviously, then, this third
long bone corresponds to the metatarsus of a
mammal, consisting in fact of the three middle
metatarsals of the typical five-toed limb welded
together, in the same manner as two such
metatarsals are united in the hind-limb of a
ruminant mammal. It may, therefore, be called
either the metatarsus or the cannon-bone. The
reader will, however, now ask what has become
of the ankle or tarsus in the bird’s leg. To
this it may be replied that its upper bones have
united to the lower end of the tibia ; while the
lower row has joined the upper end of the
cannon-bone. The figure on p. 29(1 exhibits the
lower end of the tibia of an adult crane and
of a young ostrich ; and it will be seen that in
the latter the upper ankle-bone is still distinct,
while in the former it has become completely
united with the tibia. A precisely similar state of things takes place in the for-
mation of the cannon-bone. It will, therefore, be apparent that the tibia of a bird
corresponds to the tibia, the upper half of the ankle, of a mammal ; while the
cannon-bone repi’esents the metatarsus, 'plus the lower half of the ankle. Hence,
while the ankle-joint in a mammal occurs between the tibia and the upper row of
ankle-bones, in a bird it is placed between the upper and lower rows of the ankle.
The bony bridge seen at a in the tibia of the crane is very commonly px-esent in
bii’ds ; it acts as a pulley for the tendons of the muscles of the front of the leg

A, BONES OF THE RIGHT LEG OF A MOA ;
B, CANNON - BONE OF SAME ON A
LARGER SCALE.

BIRDS.

29f>

which pass licneath. Sucli pulleys enable the fleshy portions of the muscles to he
placed high up in the limb, and thus cause the centre of gra\'ity of the body to
be near the wings, an arrangement essential for flight. In addition to the three
toes articulating with the lower end of the cannon-bone, most birds have another

toe, corresponding to the first or great toe of
the human foot, of which the metacarpal is
loosely attached to a facet on the inner edge
of the hinder surface of the cannon-bone — as
shown in the figure of the cannon-bone of a
buzzard in our fourth volume. No bird has
any trace of the fifth toe. The number of
joints in each toe, in place of not exceeding
three as in ordinary mammals, increases I’egu-
larly from the first to the fourth toe.

As the structure of the base
Skull. I 1 , ■

ot the skull IS of some import-
ance in classitication, a few words are neces-
sary on this point. In the first place, the
skull of a bird is characterised by the great size
of the sockets for the eyes, which are separated from one another merely by a
thin bony partition. The apertures for the nostrils (immediately below Na in the
figure on p. 292) may be either short and rounded, when the skull is said to be
holorliinal (as in that iigure) ; or they may form elongated slits, as in a pigeon,
wdien the condition is termed scliizorh/inal. In all Birds most of the component
bones of the skull are completely united together, without any trace of the original
lines of division, in the adult state ; and in ornithology it is usual to apply the
terms upper and lower mandible to the two parts of the beak.

With regard to the bones of the palate, the introduction of a number of
technical terms is unavoidable. In the middle of the hinder part of the lower
surface of a bird’s skull can be seen a pointed rod of bone, known as the
ftpJienoidal rostrum, which may carry, as in (A) of the figure, a pair of hasipierygoid
facets (j-). In advance of this is a single or double bone, termed the vomer (Fo).
On the two sides of this central axis are two pairs of slender bones, of which the
hinder are termed pterygoids (Pt), and articulate with the basipteiygoid processes
when pi’esent ; Avhile the front pair are named (PI). From the sides of

the upper jaw or maxilkc (Mx), are given off two maxillo-palatine p)'>'occ8se8 (il/a'p),
projecting in the middle line towards the vomer. Now when the vomer, as in the
fowl and capercaillie (A) is pointed in front, while the maxillo-palatines remain
sepai’ate both from it and from one another, the skull is said to be schizogvathous
(cleft palate). When, on the other hand, as in the duck (B), the maxillo-palatines
unite in the middle line, so as to form a bridge in front of the vomer, the construc-
tion is termed desmognathous (bridged palate). In a third modification, as
exemplified in the I’aven (C) and all other living passerine birds, the maxillo-
palatines, although extending beneath the vomer, do not unite either with that
bone or Avith one another, while the vomer itself is expanded and abruptly
truncated in front; this arrangement being termed aujithognatlams (passerine-

LOWEH END OF THE LEFT TIBIA OF A
CRANE (a), and a young OSTRICH (b).

GEXE RA L C//A RA CI'ERJSTICS.

297

paliite). Various minor modifications of tliesc three types exist, Imt a little
))raetic(^ will ('liable the student to (h'ti'rndiu' to which of the three any ^iven skull
conforms. A fourth modification, met with only amon^ the ostrich-like birds and
the South American timimus, need not be referred to till a later chapter.

Bc'fore leaving the subject of the skull, it may be mentioned that the outer
coat or “ white ” of the eye of a bird contains a movable ring of overlapping bones
surrounding the pupil and iris, which by their contraction or expansion are con-

UNDER VIEW OF SKULL OK CAPERCAILLIE (a), DUCK (b), AND RAVEN (c).

Jfxp, niaxillo-palatine ; Vo, vomer ; Pa, palatine ; Ft, pterygoid ; f, liasipterygoid
facet. (From Proc. Zool. Soc., 1867. — After Huxley.)

sidered to alter the degree of convexity of the aqueous humour and cornea, and
thus to render the eye focally adapted to the constantl}' varying distance of objects
during flight.

External When clothed with its feathers, the bodil}’ conformation of an

Characters, ordinary bird is that best adapted for cleaving the air with the least
possible resistance ; the head being more or less sharpened, the bodj" gradually
swelling to a point some distance in advance of the middle, and then as rapidly
decreasing in girth, while the feathers are all directed from the head towards the
tail. In those birds in which the neck is not unduly elongated the whole contour
is, indeed, spindle-shaped, and may be compared to two cones placed base to base
at the thickest part of the body. It is essential to the exigencies of flight that the
centre of gravity should be on the lower aspect of the body, as nearly as possible
immediately below the points of suspension by the wings ; and, in order to ensun'

BIRDS.

298

this, tluM-o is tlu' concentration of innscles and otlier organs 'n tliis region, to wliicli
some allusion has been already made. Not only are the lleshy portions of the
muscles of the legs mainly contined to the upper regions of these limbs, but the
muscles which elevate the wings are actually placed on the under instead of on
the upper surface of the body. In the breast of a flying bird the great superficial
muscle known as the pectoralis major is for the purpose of depressing the wing;
beneath this is, however, a second muscle — the pectoralis minor — of Avhich the
function is to raise the wing-bone, or humerus. This is eflected by the muscle
terminating in a tendon, which passes through a pulley over the head of the scapula

and metacoracoid, and then being attached on the upper surface of the humerus.
The result of this arraimement is that the humerus is elevated when the muscle
contracts.

The same tendency to the concentration of structures is exhibited by the organ
of voice (syi’inx) of a bird being placed within the chest, whei’e the windpipe
divides into the two bronchi, instead of, as in Mammals, immediately beneath the
lower jaw.

An important external feature in Birds is the frequent presence of a gland
termed the oil-gland, on the upper surface of the rump, the function of which is to
secrete oil for the lubrication of the feathers. This gland, which is most developed
in aquatic birds, may be absent, and when j^resent may be either naked or crowned
with a tuft of feathers.

1 For tins cut the Editor is indebted to Mr. Rowland War<1, in who.se ^Sportsman's Ilandhook it origin.ally
appeared.

GENERAL CHA RA C TER/STICS.

290

Oniitliolo^ists have devised a numher of terms to indicate tlic diti'erriit pai'ts
ol a body ol a l)ii'<l, several wldch ai‘i“ located in tlie acconijitanvinj^' <lia^rain ;
the otliers it will he unnecessary to mention here. Jt may be ohser\'ed, however,
that the ears of Birds are unprovided with external conchs, merely opening Hat on
the sides of the head, usually a little behind and below the eyes. The eyes, which
are in most cases placed laterally and near the middle of the head, are provided
with a third eyelid, or nictitating membrane, which can be drawn obli(piely like a
shutter over the eyeball, while the proper eyelids remain open ; as may be observed
in a captive owl or eagle, when the glistening white membrane Avill be seen from
time to time to sweep across the eye with extreme rapidity.

The beaks of birds, which, as we have said, are always encased in horn or
leathery skin, have different terms applied to them, according to their relative
length and form ; the meaning of most of such terms, as fissirostral, dentirostral,
conirostral, etc., being self-apparent. A horny investment is also generally
present on such portions of the lower paiT of the legs as are devoid of feathers ;
although in some cases, as in the ducks, this is replaced by a more or less leathery
skin. The horny covering of the metatarsus may consist of small pieces, with the
edges in apposition, as in the plovers, when it is said to be reticulate ; but frequently
the front surface, as in the fowls, has a number of broad overlapping plates, when
it is termed scutate. Occasionally each side is invested by a single greave-like
plate, meeting its fellow in a prominent ridge at the back.

The feathers of birds, being all-important, need a somewhat fuller
Plumage. . * r. , ■ • ^

notice. A feather in its most complete state of development con.sists

of a main stem, and a secondary stem, or after-shaft ; but the latter is frequently

wanting. The base of the main stem is formed by the hollow horny quill, the

lower end of which is pointed and inserted into the skin. The upper part of the

quill passes into the shaft, or rachis, at a point marked by a small aperture termed

the upper umbilicus. The shaft is four-sided, elastic, pithy, and less horny than

the quill ; and gradually tapers at its extremity to a fine point. On either side of

the shaft are the two webs, collectively forming the vane of the feather. Each

web or half of the vane, one of which is generally considerably \^'ider than the

other, is composed of a series of flattened plates closely applied to one another, and

diverging from the shaft at an open angle, each plate terminating in a point.

These plates form the barbs, and they are held together by barbules, given off in

the same manner as ai’e the barbs from the stem ; while the barbules may again

give off hooJdets. The after-shaft is, when fully developed, a miniature of the main

stem, from which it is given off at the junction of the quill with the shaft. Such

is the structure of a typical feather ; but the soft feathers known as down have

the stem short and weak, or even wanting, while the barbs are soft and not held

together by fully-formed barbules and booklets. Sometimes the ends of such

feathers break up into powder, and they may then be spoken of as powder-d oxer

feathers. In another type of feather the vane is rudimentary, and the Avhole

structure then becomes more or less hair-like ; to such the term thread -feat hers is

applicable. Finally, the feathers covering the body and concealing the underljdng

down are conveniently referred to as the contoux'-feathex's.

Instead of being evenly distributed over the body of a l)ird, the feathei-s grow

300

BIRDS.

from certain well-defineil tracts, l)etween wliich are f)are spaces. Altliongli sncli
tracts have received distinct nanu'S, and arc of some importance in classification, it
will suffice to mention their mere existence ; and we pass on to the consideration of
the names applied to the feathers of the tail and wings.

As shown in the diagram on p. 298, the tail-feathers, which are very generally
twelve in number, ai’e termed rpctricefi ; and are usually firm and full}" developed.
Above and below the rectrices are the upper and under tail-coverf.^^ ; although
generally small and unimportant, in the peacock the upper tail - coverts attain
an extraordinary development, and constitute w’hat is commonly designated
the tail. Premising that the feathers clothing the shoulders are termed
scapulars, and those between them ini er scapulars, we pass on to the consideration
of the feathers of the wrings. First of all, we have the little group of feathers
forming the bastarcl-wing, or alula, which JU’e carried by the first digit, or thumb,
and lie on the front border of the back of the wing. Next, we have the flight-
feathers, reiniges, or quills, which arise from the bones of the arm and pinion
(or hand, exclusive of the thumb) ; all are strong, firm feathers, giving rise to the
main contour of the wing. Such of the reiniges as take their origin from the
pinion are termed primaries ; wdiile those attached to the fore-arm (ulna) and
upper arm (humerus) are entitled secovdaries, though the reiniges arising from
the humerus used to be distinguished as tertia.ries, and the term secondaries con-
fined to those attached to the ulna. The primaries are the firmest and stiffest
of the wing-feathers, and are very generally either nine or ten in number.
As the rectrices of the tail have tail-coverts, so the reiniges have iving-
coverts, both above and below. Of the upper wing-coverts, we have first the
'primarg coverts overlying the primaries ; while the secondaries are overlain
by three series, respectively known as the greater, median, and lesser upper
seconda/rg wing - coverts. Of these the greater coverts are the largest and
the most important in classification. The under wing-coverts, which are less
important in classification, are likewise <livided into a primaiy and secondary
series.

Change of When first hatched. Birds are covered with some kind of down,

Plumage. very scanty in those which are reared in nests, but thick in all
those able to run about at the time of birth. The true feathers are, how'ever, soon
developed, those of the wings and tail being usually the first to make their appear-
ance, and the rapidity with which feathers grow is one of the most remarkable
features of Birds. In order to preserve the idumage in good condition, it is
essential that it should be renew'ed at least once a year. This renewal of the
feathers is termed moulting, and frequently takes place twice during the year ;
while in the ptarmigan there are three moults. The chief moult usually takes
place soon after the breeding-season ; but in those birds which, like ducks, have
a special breeding-plumage, a second moult takes place previous to that period.
In the ptarmigan the third moult is for the assumption of the white Avinter di’ess.
Usually the wing-feathers are shed in pairs one after another; but among the
ducks, w"hich are enabled to conceal themselves among water plants, and can thus
protect themselves without flight, the shedding of all the wing-feathers is
frequently almost simultaneons.

GENERA L CIIA R. 1 C 1 ERISTICS.

3°'

As already iiientioiied, bii’ds produce tlieir youn^ by means ol‘
eggs, covered with a liard calcareous shell, often remarkable for the
beauty of its coloration. Into the structure of an egg it will be (juite unnecessary
to enter in this work ; but the following remarks, chielly taken from the
descriptive account of a series of some of the most remarkalde forms in the
central hall of the British IVluseum, will be found of general interest. Although
the number of eggs laid and incubated together is generally pretty constant in
each kind of bird, yet there is great specific variation in this respect. The l\Ianx
shearwater, for instance, lays but a single egg, while clutches of the long-tailed
tit and red-legged partridge may contain from nine to twelve eggs. In form, eggs
vary from an almost spherical shape, as in owls, to different modifications of the
elliptical or oval. The latter shape, in which one end is smaller and more pointed
than the other, although far from being universal, is decidedly the most common ;
this conical shape allowing a larger number of eggs to be accommodated in a
circular nest than would otherwise be possible ; and it may be noticed that, M-hen
only a pair of eggs is laid, this form is but seldom assumed. Such eggs as narrow
very rapidly, and thus take a pear-shaped form, mainly pertain to the wading-
birds and their terrestrial allies the plovers, of the order Limicohe ; four of these
being laid in a nest. Their size being large in proportion to the bulk of the bird
by whom they are laid, their position in the nest, with their pointed ends meeting
together in the centre, causes them to occupy the smallest possible amount of space.
Sea-birds, like the guillemot and razorbill, which lay one or two eggs on barren
ledges of rock, likewise have them pointed, as being much less liable to roll than
would be the case if they were spherical.

Although the size of the eggs generally varies proportionately to that of the
parent bird, yet this is by no means invariably the case ; and it appears that
in birds of which the young are hatched in a helpless condition, the eggs are
relatively smaller than in those in which the young come into the world fully
fledged. Moreover, it is the birds that have helpless offspring that usually
make the most carefully constructed nests ; while those that have fully fledged
young lay their eggs in very rude nests or on the bare ground. As examples of
birds of equal size, laying difiei’entl}^ sized eggs, may be mentioned the curlew and
the raven ; while the bird which has the relatively smallest egg is the cuckoo,
and that with the largest the kiwi.

The texture of the outer surface of the shell is liable to much variation.

tinamus and kingfishers laying smooth ai\d poi'cellaneous eggs, while those of the
ibises and ducks are dull and chalky, those of the flamingos coated with a
calcareous outer film, and those of the emeu rough and pitted. As regards
coloration, no relation can be traced between eggs and the lairds bj^ which they are
laid ; and it is probable that originally Birds resembled Reptiles in laying white
eggs, this want of colour being retained, or perhaps reacquired, in the eggs of the
majority of birds which lay in holes. The larger number of eggs are, however,
variously coloured ])y the deposition of pigment on or near the outer suitact; oi
the shell. The colour (as in tlie tinamus) may be either unifoi-m over the whole
surface, or it may take the form of irregular waslies, l)lotches, lines, or more or
less nearly circular s})ots, upon either a white or uniformly-coloured ground.

302

BIRDS.

Migration.

\'ery little is, however, at present niulei'stood with re^^ard to the signitication ol'
egg-coloration. Fixapiently the ditierent species of a group lay very similarly
coloured eggs, as is exeniplitied hy the wai-blers and huntings ; but this is hy no
means invariably the case, as is well shown by the different meinhers of the thrush
faniih*. In man}- cases the coloration of the eggs is evidently adapted to the hue
of their natui-al surroundings, as is well exemplified by sandpipers, dunlins,
plovers, and their allies, and likewise by pheasants and partridges.

Since no bird hibernates, while a large number breed in regions
where they could not possibly exist di;ring the cold winter months,
it is essential that they should migrate to warmer regions in which to pass that
season of the year. Such migrations may be very partial, as is the case with
many British species, when the individuals jDassing the summer in the more
northern paids of the country come further south during the winter; while those
from the area into which the immigrants arrive likewise move southwards. From
such pai’tial migrations there is a gradual transition to complete migrations, when
the bii’ds of one country travel to a far distant land for the winter. As the great
masses of land enjoying a cold climate are mainly confined to the Northern
Hemisphere, it is obvious that bird migrations must take place from south to
north, and the following general laws of migration are now accepted. With the
exception of purely tropical species, every bird breeds in the coldest or most
northern part of its range ; such nesting-grounds being generally reached by
a horizontal migi’ation, although in a few instances birds may ascend mountains
until they meet with the required degree of temperature. This northerly
migration is always for the purpose of breeding, while the soiithward return is
for food and wai’iuth. Those species which go furthest north often also range
furthest to the south ; while every species has its particular period of migration.
Finally, no species ever breeds during its sojourn in the southern portion of its
migratory area.

It would be (juite out of place to enter into any discussion as to the origin of
this migratoiy instinct ; but it may be mentioned that as the young frecpiently
make the autumn migration unattended by the old, it is (juite evident that the
journey is made independently of any knowledge of the route. Moreover, as most
migrations take place in the night, it is clear that this alone will preclude any
guidance of tlie host by landmarks. Then, again, from the circumstance that
during astronomical observations flights of birds have been seen crossing the
moon’s disc at an immense elevation above the earth, there is good reason to
believe that at least many migrations take place at heights whence the con-
figuration of tlie continents and oceans woiild be invisible even during the day.
Nevertheless, it appears that thei'e are certain definite lines along which vast
numbers of birds, subject to conditions of weather, habiUially migrate ; one of
these trunk-routes passing through the island of Heligoland and along the
western coast of Europe.

Althoue:h, from their power of flioht and mi^ratorv habits, it
Distribution. i A ,

might seem that Birds would have no definite di.stributional areas, yet

this is by no means the case; and the difierent zoological regions into which the

world is now ma])ped out were originally defined from the various groups of Birds

GENERAL CJIARA CTERISTICS.

303

by wliich they are inliabited. For instance, wliile the Palinarctic re^non, that is to
say, the greater part of Europe and Asia nortli of the line of tlie Himalaya, is
characterised by the sole possession of the capercaillie, and its abundance of grouse,
huntings, etc.. North America is the sole home of the turkey, while humming-birds
are mainly characteristic of South and Central America, as are birds of paradise,
lyre-birds, and cockatoos of the Australasian region. Many birds, especially some
of the humming-birds, have indeed a very local distribution ; and, as might have
been expected, the various groups of flightless Birds are now respectively confined
to particular continents and islands. It would be impo.ssible to pursue the subject
further in the space available, but the reader will be enabled to gather many of
the leading facts of avian distribution in the course of our description of the various
groups.

As regards their geological distribution, it may be mentioned that most of the
birds from the Tertiary formations are more or less closely allied to existing ty^ies.
When, however, we reach the antecedent Cretaceous (chalk) epoch, we find that at
least several of the birds were furnished with teeth ; while in the still older Jurassic
or Oolitic epoch the one definitely known bird (Archicopteryx) was not only
furnished with teeth, but had a long tapering tail, and exhibited several other
features indicative of reptilian affinity. While Birds present no sort of relationship
to Mammals, they show manifest indications of being nearly allied to certain
extinct groups of Beptiles ; but the nature of that relationship can be best indicated
in our consideration of those group.s.

On no subject is there gi’eater diversity of views among zoologists
Classification. . . T .

than with regard to the classification of Birds ; scarcely any two

ornithologists being in accord on this point. To a great extent this is owing to

that structural uniformity among the members of the class to which reference has

been already made, which renders it almost impossible to determine what features

should be regarded as of primary importance. With such conflicting views it is

inevitable that schemes of classification are to be counted almost by the dozen, and

scarcely a year passes without one or more new ones being proposed. As it is

unlikely that any one of these latter classifications will be permanently accepted,

it has been thought advisable, in a popular work of the present nature, to revert to

a modification of a scheme proposed some years ago by Dr. Sclater. Including

certain extinct groups, the class, according to this scheme, may be divided into the

following twenty-four groups, of which the first twenty -one may be reckoned

orders — such orders, be it understood, being for the most ])art far less distinct from

one another than are those of IMammaLs.

Orders of Birds.

1. Passeres — Perching Birds.

2. PiCARLE — Woodpeckers, Cuckoos, HornbilLs, etc.

3. PsiTTACi — Parrots.

4. Strides — Owls.

5. Pandione.s — Ospreys.

(). Accipitres — Eagles, Falcons, \'ultures, etc.

304

BIRDS.

1. SteganoI’odes — I’elicaiis, Connonint.s, and Gannels.

8. Hekudioxes — Herons and Storks.

9. Odoxtoglossi — Flamingos.

10. Axsekes — Ducks, Geese, and Swans.

1 1. Palamede.e — Screamers.

12. ColumE/E — Pigeons, Dodo, and Sand-Grouse.

13. GALLiXiE — Fowls and Game-Birds.

14. Fulicarle — Rails and Coots.

15. Alectohides — Cranes and Bustards.

10. Llmicol.e — Plovers, Curlews, Snipe, etc.

] 7. Gavre— Gulls and Tern.s.

18. Tubixares — Petrels and Albatro.sses.

19. Pygopodes — Divers, Auks, and Grebes.

20. 1MPEXXE.S — Penguins.

21. Odoxtorxithes — Toothed Binls (extinct).

22. Crypturi— Tinamus.

23. Ratit^: — O.striches, Emeus, Cassowaris, etc,

24. Saurur^e — Long-Tailed Birds (extinct).

(Jf these groups the first twenty-two, which are reckoned as orders, ai'c
brigaded together to form the subclass of Carinate Birds (Carinatm), the great
majoi-ity of which possess the power of flight, and have a strong keel (carina) to
the bi'east-bone. The twenty-third group, or Ratitm, constitutes, on the other
hand, a second subclass, characterised by the absence of a keel to the breast-bone,
and the loss of the power of flight ; while the extinct long-tailed birds (group
24) form a third main division diftering from all the others by the retention
of the long reptilian tail.

The number of existing species of birds being in all probability considerably
over ten thousand, it will be obvious that in the space at our command the various
groups must be treated much more briefly than were the Ivlammals ; and in many
instances we shall be able to allude only to the families, without referring to the
genera, and in some cases not even the whole of the former are mentioned.

It will be noticed that in the course of this Introduction practically nothing
has been said as to the anatomy of the soft parts of birds ; for this we must refer
the reader to other works.

CTr AFTER n.

The l^ERciiiNa Birds,— Order Passeres.

Crows to Honev-Creepers.

Families CoRVID^ to CcEREBiDAJ.

The order of Passeres, wliich includes by far the great majority of existing birds,
and especially those popularly termed song-birds, may be regarded as occupying
a position analogous to that held by lizards among the Reptiles, and by tlie
bony fishes in the Fishes, all its members being more or less specialised and
highly organised. On this account the group is now, by general consent, regarded
as the highest in the class. All these birds are characterised by having the palate
constructed on what is termed the a^githognathous modification, the structure of
which is described and illustrated on p. 801. They are further distinguished by
producing their young in a helpless and nearly naked condition, having merely a
few patches of down scattered here and there ovei- the bod}^ In the skeleton tlie
slender metatarsus has its three nearly equalised coiuBdes placed almo.st in tlie
same transverse line ; while the arm-bone, or humerus, has a Avell-marked bifurcate
process at the outer side of its lower end ; and, as a minor character, it may be
mentioned that the breast-bone has but a single notch. The first toe is alwaj's
present, and is mobile and directed backwards, in addition to being worked by a
muscle independently of the other digits. A covering of feathers invests the legs
as far down as the ankle-joint. There are usually twelve feathers in the tail ;
while the primary quills of the wings vary in number from nine to ten, the latter
being the usual complement among the typical members of the order.

With three exceptions, the perching birds of the Old Woi’ld belong to a section
characterised by having the intrinsic muscles of the syrinx, or organ of voice,
attached to the cords of the open rings of the bronchial tube, and technically
termed the Acromyodi. The Indian members of the order • provided with ten
primary quills in the wings may be divided, according to an arrangement sug-
gested by IMr. Oates, into five groups. In the first of these the nestling resembles
that of the adult female ; this is likewise true of the second group, in which the
coloration of the young bird is more brilliant than that of its parent, being in the
Indian forms generally sufiused with yellow. On the other hand, in the third
group, the nestling is transversely barred ; while in the fourth it is striated ; and
in the fifth group the nestling-])lumage is either mottled or squamated.

Although certain species of the perching birds, such as the snow-bunting and
the sand-marten, have a circumpolar distribution, numerous genera of this ordei-

VOI.. lU. 20

3o6

PERCHING BIRDS.

are restricted to the New World ; while in spite of the fact that many species, as
well as families, ran^e across the whole of the north tenn)erate parts of the Old
World, IVom the British Isles to .Japan, comparatively few families can be termed
strictly cosmopolitan. Among those families, which are variously represented in
almost every region of the globe, may he ranked the finch tribe, the swallows,
and the true crows. For lustre of plumage and striking combinations of colour,
the perching birds of the Indo-Malayan region excel all others ; but South America
possesses a larger and more varied assortment of these birds. Among the number,
tanagers and chatterers form specially interesting groups. While the mocking-birds,
I’epresented by closely allied species in both the northern and southern divisions of
the New World, have the best claim to be considered the finest songsters in the
entire order, in Europe it is probable that the blue thrush possesses the most
beautiful notes of all the passerines.

In such a large and difficult group as the perching birds it is but natural to
expect diverse views among ornithologists in regard to classification. To a
great extent the scheme of Dr. Sharpe is here followed, which differs very
considerably from that recently proposed by Mi*. Oates in the Birds of British
India. Without attempting to weigh the value of the two, the former has been
adopted, as being that more generally known. It will be obvious that in such
a vast assemblage all that can be attempted in the limits of our space is to notice
some of the more generally interesting types.

The Crow Tribe.

Family ColiVWJE.

Frequently conspicuous by a black or pied plumage, often variegated with grey,
and occasionally with brown, although some species, like the blue jays of South
America, are much more gaudily coloured, the members of the crow family form a
group which, while having few characters in common, are yet easy of I'ecog-
nition. Possessing a stout and generally large beak, without a distinct notch in
the upper mandible, and generally straight, the crows have the chin-angle, or union
of the two branches of the lower jaw, almost always produced in front of the line
of the nostrils ; while the tongue is non-extensile. The toes are of the normal
passerine type, but although the first toe is strong, it is inferior in length to the
third. The nostrils are clear of the line of the forehead, and are protected by a
number of stiff’ bristles reaching to the middle of the beak, which are, however,
shed in the adult of the European rook. The wing always has ten primary quills,
and the tail twelve feathers. Mr. Oates, who includes the tits in the present
family, points out that the crows may be distinguished by having the first primary
quill longer than half the length of the second ; while the plumage is more or less
firm and glossy, and the length of the bill considerably greater than its depth.
P)Oth gi'oups agree in that the plumage of the two sexes is alike, and undergoes but
one moult (in the autumn) ; while the plumage of the young is paler.

Some representatives of this specialised family are found in all the great
continents; and even islands have in some cases their peculiar species. The piping

GROUP OF CROWS.

CROIV J 'RIliE.

3°'^

crows :irc only lound in Australia ; while magpies, iiutcracUors, and choughs, ai c
characteristic of the northern and central j)arts of the Old World. South America
possesses some jays of brilliant plumao-o ; those of the <^enus Xaathara havin^r
beautiful blue leathei’s, associated with black or deeper blue markings.

THICK-BILLKt) KAVEN.

Ravens and The genus Corvus includes all the true ravens and crows,

Crows. distinguished by a stout compres.sed bill, straight at the base, arched
towards the point, and sharp at the edges. The wings are long and graduated,
and the tail is more or less graduated. The feet are powerful, the metatarsus ex-
ceeding in length the middle toe. The plumage is identical in both sexes ; and
black, more or less glossed with green or piirple, decidedly predominates. Birds
of this genus are found throughout the whole of Europe and Asia north of the
line of the Himalaya, ranging into Noi'th-Western India, iVustralia, North America,
and Mexico.

The type of this well-known genus is the large raven (Corvus
corax), familiar to the natives of the northern parts of both
hemi.sphere.s. In Ja])an its place is occupied by the Oiaeiital raven, which is also
found in India, ('eylon. South (duna, and the islands of tlu' iMalay Archi])elago.
The common raven of temperate Eiu'ope may be i-egarded as the pai'eiit form, and
Ihrives in a wide diversity of regions, ranging fi’om (Ireenland to Spain and from
Portugal to Palestine, contriving constantly to adapt its habits to its immediate

310 rERClIlA'G BIRDS.

enviroiiiiient. The raven is an eai'ly breedei’, and tlie birds of the Englisli
fells annually repair their nests while snowdrifts are lying in deep folds on the
inonntain sides, ft .sometimes haj^pens that a raven’s ne.st becomes swamped by
rain and driving sleet to such a degree that the egg.s are chilled and rendered useless.
In the event of such a contingency arising, the breeding ravens retire to .some other
favourite haunt, in which the female lays a fresh complement of egg.s. The latter
are four or five in numlier, rarely six; and are u.sually of a bluish green colour,
blotched and S2:)otted with dark olive-brown, although a reddish variety is occasionally
obtained. The raven performs valuable services as a .scavenger, and the damage
it does the game-pre.server is infinitesimally .small ; but it mu.st be confes.sed that

WHITK-BELLIED CliOW (J Iiat. size).

African Crows.

shepherds have only too gooil reason to complain of the injuries inflicted upon
ewes when dropping their lambs, for the raven readily attacks any defenceless
animal sucli as a weak lamb or a feeble fawn.

In Afi'ica the genus is re})resented by the black African rook
{i\ capeuKis)] the white-necked raven (('. albicollis), which is
brown and black with a conspicuoiis white collar ; the thick-billed raven
( C. crassiro.^t ri,9) ; and the white-bellied crow (C. ■sc^apulafa.'^). This last is a
handsome bird, easily recognised by its black and white or parti-coloured
])lnmage. It obtains mucb of its food about the high I'oads, examining the
ih-oppings of the animals that pass by, and })icking the carcases of .such as perish
on their jcjurneys. It makes its nest in trees or in the recesses of rocks, and

LROIV TRIUE.

3> '

lays about six eg^s, li^ht blue in colour, profusely s])Otte(l witli bi'owii. It soiiie-
tiiiies nests in gardens, approacbin^^ the haunts of men ; at other times it is shy
and retiring, especially Avhen breeding.

_ , , _ Although hybridisation is comparatively rare amon<r the true

Hooded Crow. i i ^ ^

crows, naturalists have long been aware that the hooded crow

{C. cornix) occasionally interbreeds with the carrion crow (t'. coronc) notably in
such parts of Scotland as both species frecpient during the summer. Jt was,
however, reserved for ]\lr. Seehohm to discover that these two s})ecies inter-
breed to an extraordinary extent, the hybrid oHspring of the original stocks
apparently proving fertile for several generations, in the valley of the Yenesei in
East Siberia. This is the more remarkable because both forms possess a well-
defined distribution, and only occasionally overlap one another in the breeding-
season. Many naturalists (among them I’rofessor Newton) consider that the
carrion crow is only a black form or variety of the hooded crow, which has
lo.st the dun-coloured portions of the plumage peculiar to the hooded crow
of both sexes and all ages ; and it must be confessed that the flight and cries
of these two forms are to all intents and piirposes identical. While, however,
the carrion crow lives chiefly in wooded valleys, nesting in isolated pairs, and
harrying the nests of other birds, the hooded ci'ow fi-e(iuents the wildest coasts
of Westei’n Europe, ranging from the northern islands that fringe the continent
to the forest-regions of Central Russia, rearing its young with e(pial .siiccess
upon the ground, in the top of a tree, or on the face of a frowning precipice.
The nest of the hooded crow is often a cumbrous collection of heather-roots,
sticks, and seaweed, lined with softer substances well felted together. The eggs
vary from four to six in a clutch, an<l are greenish in ground-coloured, blotched
with dark olive-brown.

The ordinary “ crow ”
Rook. .

to naturalists as the rook

best known and most familiar of
European birds. The sooty plumage
differs fi’om that of its Eastern repre-
sentative, the Siberian rook (C. iiasti-
nator) chiefly in having a bluish purple
gloss in lieu of the reddish purple of
the Asiatic species. The latter to a
large extent retains the feathers around
the bill, which are generally moulted
by the western bird when arriving
at maturity. Like many other crows,
the rook is an early breeder, nesting
sometimes in shrubs or even on the
roofs of houses, but chiefly in tall trees,
often in the midst of crowded streets.
The 3'oung ai’e maiidy I’eared upon
noxious insects in their vai’ious stages,
on field - voles, and waste substances.

of the Bi’itish public has long been knoAvn
(t/. fragilegus), and as sucb is almost the

KOOK.

312

FERCHING BIRDS.

Ill the {lutuniii the rooks hand together to plunder cornfields. They also do
much inischiet' to young turnips, often tearing up thousands of newly-planted
seedlings ; and in severe weather they attack the roots of the turnips, or devour
such small birds as have become too enfeebled by want of food to elude their
enemies. During the greater part of the year they are gregarious, and many of
their established “ rookeries ” contain myriads of birds every night. Tlieir sagacity
enables them to evade the vaiious forms of destruction which reduce the numbers
of other birds, and, as they are extremely long-lived, the rapid increase in their
numbers has become somewhat alarming. Though less easily reconciled to captivity
than other members of the family, they are nevertheless lively and amusing pets.

^ The daw or jackdaw ((/. munedula) is readily distinguished from

other crows by its small size, less powerful bill, and slaty-grey collar,
the remainder of the plumage being entire black in the western form. The
typical European daw is replaced in Northern Asia and Japan by Pallas’s daw
{C. dcturiciis), which wears a broad collar of ashy white and has a white belly.
The daw is distributed locally throughout temperate Europe, and is very abundant
in parts of Algeria. A highly gregarious species even in the breeding-season, it
forms colonies in low clifis, nesting numerously in the holes and recesses formed
by weathering. Elsewhere single pairs appropriate disused I’ooks’ nests, adapting
them to their own purposes. Not the least remarkable of the many idiosyncrasies
of this familiar bird, is the readiness with which it contents itself with eveiy
variety of nesting site, rearing its young as happily in a disused rabbit-hole as in
the belfry of a church. The nest is often a cumbrous pile of sticks, carefully lined
witli hair, wool, or other soft material. The eggs vary in number from four to
six, and are bluish green spotted with grey and brown. Mr. Tait says that the
jackdaws frequenting the islands on the coast of Galicia breed in holes under the
stones, and follow the droves of pigs, in order to secure the insects which these
animals turn up when grubbing in tlie soil with their snouts. While the 2)ig
^doughs ujD the ground, they may often be seen 2:)erching on its back, Avaiting their
0232)oi’tunity. During seasons of drought jackdaAvs are sometimes coinjAelled by
hunger to commit serious dejAredations ujaou the jjheasant-coops, in consequence
of the eartliAA'orms ujAon Avhich these birds largely subsist having retired from the
surface to secure moisture at a greater dejAth. This sjiecies does not aj^pear to
make the migratory journeys frequently accomjDlished by rooks and hooded crows,
the daw being in fact of a somewhat sedentary character, as evinced by the
attachment which it dis2)lays for fa\’ourite nesting sites. A black wariety of the
EurojAean jackdaw, in Avhich the usual grey collar has become entirely suppressed,
lias been regarded ly some naturalists as a A^alid species. Altliough these are
rare, Avhite jackdaAvs are suliiciently jAlentiful. Exanqiles of a uniform silver-grey
occur from time to time, but are less frequently met Avith than Avhite or pied
birds.

The ffenus Nucifraqa contains only four species, three of Avliich

T1i6 Nutcrfl-ckcrs ^ o 1/ x ^

are designated nutcrackers from their jiartiality for nuts and other
fruits. The American representatiA^e of the genus is Clarke’s croAv {N. columhianci),
a plain grey-coloured bird Avith glossy black Avings, most of the secondaries broadly
tiiA^)©^ Avith Avhite, and the tail Avhite, AAuth the excejAtion of the black central

CROIV TRIJU:.

leathers. '1 his unspotted bird ranges thrcnij^h the coni I’erous woods of Western
America, nestino- in hin-li pines in mountainous and nortliei-ly localities.

1 he nutcrackers ol the Ohl \\ oi'ld are birds ot well-marked torm and colour,
not only sharing the possession ot a long, straight, pointed liill with their American
relative, and a black-and-white tail which is always conspicuous in llight, long
wings, no.strils covei-ed with bristly feathms, but exhibiting, in a special degree,

NUTClt.VCKEU .\XJ) S1UE1<I.\.N J.VV (J lUlt. size).

a general uniformity of coloration among themselves, all three species being
constantly of a general chocolate-brown, more or less spotted with white. Two
of these species belong to the higher parts of the Himalaya, where they are
resident throughout the year in forests of pine and cedar. The best known species
is the European nutcracker {N. carijocatactei^), which inhabits the northern and
central portions of Europe and Northern A.sia, ranging into Northern China and
Japan. A conspicuous species during many months of the year, sometimes
approaching the neighbourhood of human dwellings in search of food, in the

314

PERCHING BIRDS.

breeding-season the nutcracker becomes shy and cautious, so that its \vhereal[)onts
is no longer easy to ascertain. The difficulty of discovering the vicinity of its nest
is enhanced by the nutcracker being one of the very earliest birds to nest, and
consequently the forests in which it breeds, usually vast extents of jiine trees, often
at an elevation of several thousand feet above sea level, are covered with deep
snow at the time when the eggs have to be sought. These are usually laid in the
month of March, and are pale bluish white in ground-colour, thickly spotted with
olive-brown. The young are easily reared by hand if supplied with a sufficient
variety of food, and exhibit a marked predilection for insects. Mr. Howard
Saunders gives the following description of the habits of the nutcracker, as
observed in the Prattigiiu : — “Between September 14th and 18th this species was
(piite common among the hazel bushes, and the top of a low wall, within live
mimites’ walk above the village where I was staying, was a favourite anvil on
which to hammer the nuts, their shells lying thick on it. Every few minutes a
bird might be seen flitting along the hillsides — its widely-spread tail-feathers dis-
playing the white spots on their tips — with a somewhat dipping flight, less laboured
than that of the jay. Often alighting on a sloping patch of sward, the nutcracker
would draw itself up till its neck seemed unnaturally elongated, then give a few
skips, and, taking a short flight, make a furious attack on a bush, tearing off a whole
cluster of nuts. This was sometimes rejected, after a comically critical examination,
and another cluster would be torn off, after which the bird would fly up to some
tolerably wide branch of a fir, and hammer the nuts energetically to free them from
their shucks, joausing to look up as if for admiration. Then the bird would hop
rapidly up the branches — as if on the rungs of a ladder — to the top of the tree,
dash away across a ravine, settle on a bush, and be lost to view for a time, retum-
ing with its crop ({uite distended with nuts.” One of the notes is a peculiar gurre,
giirre ; but there is another, like a sprung i-attle. Hancock records the fact that a
nutcracker which lived in his possession for six years had a sweet, low, delicate,
warbling song ; this was uttered only when everything was perfectly quiet.

Characteri.sed by their stout and compressed beaks, which are

Magpies.

sharp at the edges and arched towards the tip, short and rounded
wings, strong feet, and long, graduated tails, the magpies have typically a black-
and-white plumage, although many of their Oriental representatives are gorgeously
coloured. The common magpie {Pica rvMica) is foiind throughout the more northern
portions of the Old World, from Biatain to Xorthern China, and likewise occurs in
the western districts of the United States. On the other hand, the Moorish magpie
{P. mcmritanica) is peculiar to North-Western Africa, although certain Spanish
specimens tend to bridge over the distinctions of colour distinguishing the typical
representatives of the two forms. Familiar enoxigh in many parts of the British
Islands, magpies in the north of Europe may be seen hunting for insects on the
roofs of cottages ; but elsewhere they lead a wandering life, feeding on carrion,
snnall birds, and such other animal food as they can obtain. Breeding in a variety
of situations — fi-e(|uently in a tall ])oplar, but at other times in a low bush or
heilge- -they con, struct a domed nest of dry branches, .secui'ely ])rotected by
projecting thorns. Even in China, where they nest in February, their choice of a
situation of a site for building is quite as varied as in Europe, Swinhoe stating

CROW TRIBE.

3‘5

that he has seen nests on tlie j)oles in
front of a mandarin’s house, and in the
crown of a cocoa - nut palm. Tlie e^gs,
from five to seven in number, are hluisli
wliite, Avitli greenish brown or brownisli
spots. A nonmigrant, as a rule, and fre-
(pienting open rather than forest districts,
the magpie affords excellent sport before
the hawk, Sebright stating that “ it is far
superior to every other kiiid of hawking.
The object of the chase is fully a match
for its pursuers — a requisite absolutely
necessary to give an interest to an}- sport
of this kind, and it has the advantage
of giving full employment to the company,
which is not the case in partridge-hawking.
A down or common whei'e low trees or thorn bushes are dis-
persed at distances of from thirty to fifty yards apart, is the
place best calculated for this diversion. When a magjjie is seen
at a distance, a hawk is immediatel}’ to be cast off. The magpie will take refuge
in a bush the moment he sees a falcon, and will remain there until the falconer
arrives, with the hawk waiting on in the air. The magpie is to be driven from his
retreat, and the hawk if at a good pitch will stoop at him as he passes to another
bush, from whence he has to be driven in the same wajq another hawk having
been previously cast off, so that one or the other may alwa^-s be so situated as to
attack him with advantage. Four or five assistants besides the falconer are
required for this sport. The magpie will always endeavour to make his way to
some strong cover ; care therefore must be taken to counteract him and to drive
him to that part of the ground where the bushes ai’e fai’thest from each other.”

Azure-Winged The azure- winged magpie {Cyanopica cooki), on account of certain
Magpies. differences, is regarded as representing a genus apart from the typical
pies; and is one of the handsomest of European birds. In colour, the head and
upper part of the neck are coal-black, the back and mantle brownish grey, the
throat greyish white, the under-parts light fawn grey, and the wings and tail
light greenish blue. This bird is selected for notice on account of the remark-
able geogi‘a])hical di.stril)ution of the gteius to which it belongs. Thus the ty])ical
azui'e - winged magpie is confined to cei tain districts of Spain and I’oi'tugal,
where it is far from common, and very local, breeding in small colonies, and

3i6

rERCHIi\G BIRDS.

ovin'i'allv resorting to districts where evergreen oaks are abundant. Unknown
elsewhere in Europe, tins bird is replaced in China by an almost identical
I'orin, distinguished by its superior size, and generally greyer tone of coloration,
the same form also occurring in Japan. Such an instance of discontinuous

AZUliE-WINGED MAGPIE (i lUlt. .size).

(hstribution is scarcely paralleled among the Passerines. In di.sposition the
azure-winged pie is described as being an active and intelligent bird, building a
nest very like that of the common jay.

The magpies included in the genus Urocissa are distin-
Blue Magpies. . . . .

guished by having the nostrils covered with soft plumes instead of

stiff bristles, and situated near the base of the bill. They further differ from

the pies in having the bill either red or yellow, but never black; and they are

all characterised by the predominance of azure-blue in their plumage. Unlike

the true magpies, they build open nests. One species is found in Formo.sa, China,

and Burma, and two others inhabit the Himalaya and Xipal. The Chinese blue

mag])ie ( U. inhabits the hills of Eastern China, sometimes extending

its range into the more wooded portions of the plains. Styan states that it

is a noisy bird, and po.sse.sses a great variety of notes. It wanders about the

wooded hillsides in large parties, composed exclusively of members of its own

kind. The upper-pai'ts are la\'ender-brown, slightly shaded with bluish purple,

rAV)/r nuBE.

3' 7

tlio win^s (lull azure, brio-liter ou the (juills, the primaries l)eiu^ spotted witli
wldtc ; the tail is ;izure-l)lu(\ broadly tipped with white; the head and entire
throat ai'e lilaek, all the feathers fit the fore-]tart of the ei’owii beiii^ tip}»ed

RED-BILLED BLUE JlAGl'IE (f liat. size).

with lavender -p^rey, and the under surface
of the body being light gre}^. The red-
billed species {U. occipitalis), which is the
one represented in our figure, extends
throughout the Himalaya, from the north-
west to Nipal, where it is chiefly confined
to the outer ranges. It lives in small
parties containing from two or three to
half a dozen birds, and breeds from IMarch
to July. The open nest is built at a
variable elevation above the ground, and
is formed of twigs and branches, lined
with fine roots. The number of eggs
ranges from three to five ; their colour
being similar to that characterising those
of the common magpie. When feeding,
these birds are generally on the ground. The head, neck, and hreast of the red-
billed magpie are black ; a large patch on the najie is white ; back, .scajmlars. and

PERCHING BIRDS.

318

rump are purplish blue ; the wings are brown ; the first primaries are edged with
blue ; the tail is blue broadly tipj)e<l with white ; the lower plumagt! white tinged
with i)Ui-ple.

'I'lie genus Dead roc if hi' contains a grou[) ol Indian species
Indian Tree-Pies. resembling the pies of the Old World, but distinguished

by short curved bills and the constant possession of a chestnut coloration varied
with black. One species inhabits the island of Formosa ; another is peculiar to the
Andaman Islands ; and
a third is found in the
Himalaya and Assam.

The most generally dis-
tributed is the common
Indian magpie (Den-
drocitta rufa), which
is very common in well-
wooded districts, especi-
ally in the plains ; and
in travelling further
north is to be seen in
pairs and small parties
in every grove and
garden, and about every
It builds a
nest of sticks
usually in some lofty
tree, and lays three or
four eggs of a light
greenish - fawn colour,
usually indistinctly
blotched with brown.

It preys upon insects,

small birds, and even bats ; but at times feeds
principally upon fruits. The adult has the upper -
parts orange-brown, shading off into a brighter
orange-buff' on the lower back and rump ; the
wings are black, the tail-feathers grey, with black
tips, the lores and throat blackish, and the rest of
the under-parts orange-buff

Under the general title of jays
may be included a group of several
genera of closely allied members of the present
family, in all of which the wings are relatively
short, the tail being always more than three-
fourths the length of the wing. In the typical
genus the short and compressed beak is shorter
than the head ; the nostrils are placed at the

village.

large

INDIAN TREE-PIE uat. size).

The Jays.

CROW TRIBE.

319

^ Tlio true jays ot‘ the o-oiius Oormliis are j)i iuci})ally inliabitaiits

of the northern and temperate regions of the Old World, although
one species is found in Burma, a second is peculiar to Algeria, and a third is
confined to Japan. The common European jay {G. (/lanJurius) ranges through-
out Europe from Northern Russia and Scandinavia to Spain and Italy; but is
replaced in Asia Minor by the black-headed ]ny {G. kijnicki) : while in Eastern
Russia its place is taken by Brandt’s jay (G. hrandti), and in Syria by G. sijriacu,s.
Shunning open country, the jay frecpients large woods, where it often nests at only
a moderate elevation above the ground, laying usually six eggs, of a greyish white

base of the beak, and are hiddiai by stitf, foi'wardly-directed b'athei’s; whihi tlu*
feathei's ol the crown ol the ht'ad are long and erectile. ’I’he majority of the
spt'cies ha\<' white u))p('i’ tail-coveiJs, and tht' wings barred with light blue; the
general colour ol tin* body-plumage being lawn-ri'd. ( ’hiefly fi’e(|uenting woods,
where their presence is I’evealed by their harsh, discordant cries, jays are
omnivorous, living on almost every description of animal ami vegetable substance,
but changing their diet according to the .sea.son.

CO.M.MUN JAV (1 ii:it size).

320

PERCHING BIRDS.

Siberian Jay.

colour speckled with brown. Although a shy bird, never dwelling in the open
country and seldom seen on the ground, the jay is thoroughly arboreal in its
habits; ami, as its name implies, is especially fond of acorns and other forest
fruits. Nevertheless, when dwelling in woods bordering gardens, it is frequently
tempted forth during the fruit-season to plunder the latter. Not content, however,
with the v^egetable diet, the jay rifles and destroys the nests of the smaller birds,
consuming both eggs and callow young alike ; while it also destroys a considerable
number of pheasants’ eggs and chickens. In consequence of these thieving propen-
sities, the jay is most cordially detested by the gamekeeper, who seizes eveiy
opportunity for shooting it ; and in many districts of England, owing to such
perseciition, these hand.some birds have become scarce.

The jay flies with an undulating and somewhat heavy motion, accompanied
by much flapping of the wings ; and generally takes only short flights from tree
to tree, although when on migration it can fly for long distances. Unlike the pre-
ceding members of the family, when on the ground, the jay progresses by hopping
instead of by walking. In its movements, when perching, it is lively and apparently
self-conscious, the head being continually turned from side to side, the crest
alternately raised and depressed, and the wings and tail in motion.

A characteristic bird of the north of the Old Woidd is the Siberian
Jay {PerUoreuH infcmstiis), figured on p. 313, and distinguished
by the possession of a soft fluffy plumage, well adapted to protect its owner
from an Arctic winter. The adult bird has the crown and nape sooty-brown,
gradually fading in tinge as it joins the colour of the back ; the upper-paids being
dull lead-grey, washed with reddish brown, and the rump and tail bright foxy red,
excepting the two central tail feathers. The chin, throat, and breast are grey, while
the under-parts and flanks are bright rufous. The Siberian jay breeds early in
the year, biiilding its nest close to the stem of a pine or fir tree, and forming it
principally of grey lichens closely interwoven with dry fir twigs, a few of its own
feathers and those of the ptarmigan being inserted here and there, as also stalks of
dry grass. The eggs vary in number from three to five, and in colour are dirty
white, blotched with purplish grey and brown. Professor Newton Avrites : “ IMore
sprightly and cunning birds than these jays cannot well be, whether caged or not.
In their own woods one hears their deep ringing kooh, kook, kook, followed by a
series of noises which sound like a conversation carried on by two or three people
in an unknown tongue. One puts up a family-party off* the ground where they
have been feasting on the berries, and away they go through the trees with their
wavering unsteady flight, every here and there a gleam of sunshine catehing their
tails, and turning them into gigantic redstarts. Or when one halts for any
purpose, there comes a Siberian jay, at first stealthily ; but soon, if he sees no sign
of danger to him, he displays himself openly, perching almost within arm’s length,
ruffling his long, loose plumage, and calling to his neighbours.”

Long-Crested A common bird in Western America, represented in Mexico by
the bluer Mexican jay, is the long-crested jay (Cyanocitta macrolopha),
which inhabits large pine forests. The upper-parts of this bird are sooty brown,
passing on the rump and upper tail-coverts into beautiful, light, cobalt blue, which
also occupies the lower parts. In habits it is caixtious and cunning, displaying

CA^OJy TRIBE.

321

in a marked degree tlie acuteness common to most members of the crow family.
It nests in trees and bushes, and lays from five to six eggs, which fire pale bluish
green, profusely spotted with light and dark brown. The ^Mexican species {C.
(iiademata) is represented in our figure.

Urraca Jay. urraca jay {Cyanocorax chrysopi) is a well-known Brazilian

species, found also in Paraguay and Uruguay. In colour it is black

MEXICAN LONG-CIIESTED JAY (4 nat. size).

above, glossed with purple, the feathers of the crown forming a crest ; the nape is
greyish blue, deepening into purple on the hind neck ; above the eye there is a
blue spot; while the under surface is creamy yellow. According to Azara’s
account, this jay, of which we give a figure, is an abundant bird in Paraguay,
where it is as familiar as is the magpie in England, not even hesitating to enter the
houses of the inhabitants. Not ranging into the colder regions of Argentina,
this bird seems to suffer from the cold during winter in Ui’uguay ; and at that
season it is by no means uncommon to see a party of from ten to twenty of these

VOL. III. — 21

322

PERCHING BIRDS.

jays crowding together in the most sheltered part of a tree, to obtain protec-
tion from the wind. If tlie tree or Inish he small, and the best space limited, it
may ha})pen that some of the birds will perch on the back of their fellows, and
thus form a regular pyramid. Like most gregarious pies and jays, when the
flock is on the move, one bird flies off first, followed soon by another, and then
by a third, till the whole party is on the wing. As a rule, the nest is built in a
tall and thorny tree, and though it is strongly constructed, so coarsely made is it.

URRACA JAY (f nat. size).

that the eggs can always be seen from below, and sometimes actually fall through
the chinks. With a blue ground-colour, and a chalky incrustation, the eggs are
generally six or seven in number, although upwards of fourteen have been taken
from a single nest.

The Grey Distinguished by the arched form of the short bill, which

stnithidea. Gould regarded as specially adapted to enable the bird to feed upon
the seeds extracted from the cones of a tree found only in the district which it

CROW' TRIBE.

323

inhabits, tlie grey stnitliiclca {Struihidea cinerm) is confined to the rocky liill-
lidges of bonthein and hastei'ii Australia, d’he arc tour in nuiuher, anil arc

white in colour, blotched with ri'ddish bi'own and j^i'cy ; tlu^ nest is of mud,
thickly lined with tine c-rass. The struthidea feeds princij)ally upon insects,
chielly beetles. Ihe two sexes are so nearly identical in size and colour that they
can only be distin<ruished by dissection. This species differs from many other

GREY STRUTHIDEA liat. Size).

Australian birds by reason of the sober colour of its dress, which is inconspicuous

and little likely to attract attention. The general colour both above and below

is grey, each feather being tipped with lighter grey ; the wings are brown, and the

tail is glossy black, with a gi’eenish lustre on the outer webs of its feathers. By

many winters this and the next genus are placed among the shrikes.

The small e-enus Gmnnorhina includes only throe species,
Piping Crows. ° . s • ^ ^

popularly known as Australian magpies by reason of their black

and white plumage, which is common to both sexes, and never varies.

324 PERCHING BIRDS.

The best known ineinlier of this genns is the lilack-backed piping crow (G.
tibicen), which is universally distributed over New South Wales ; the white-backed
piping crow {G. leuconota) being restricted to the southei-n aial western parts of the
Australian continent, and very abundant in Southern Austi'alia. A thii-d species {G.
organica), known to the colonists as the organ-bird is peculiar to Tasmania, and will
pour forth from the branch of some dead tree a succession of the strangest notes that
can be imagined, much resembling the sound of a hand-organ oixt of tune ; it is very
easil}’ tamed, and can be taught to whistle various tunes as well as to articulate words.

The black - backed species, which is the one given in our illustration, is

BLACK-BACKED PIPING CROW (/j uat. size).

bold and showy, enlivening and ornamenting the lawns and gardens of the
colonists by its presence, and with the slightest protection from molestation
becoming so tame and familiar that it approaches close to their dwellings and
perches around them and the stock-yards in small families of from six to ten in
number. Gould states that it prefers cleared lands, or open plains skirted by belts
of timber; hence the interior of the country is more favourable to it than the
neighbourhood of the coast. Its lively and intelligent habits and fine vocal powers
render it a favourite cage-bird both at home and abroad. The crown, back, and
under-parts are black ; and the nape, wing-coverts, and upper and under tail-coverts
white. Insectivorous in their habits, the piping crows live chiefly on grasshoppers,
of which they consume an enormous quantity. The breeding-season commences in
August and lasts till January, during which period each pair of bii’ds nests twice.

CAOII/ TRIBE.

325

The round and open nest is lorined ot twi^s and leaves, with a sotter lining ; the
three or four ef^'^s are oi a bluish white ^u-ound-colour, which may often have a
reddish tinge, ujwn which are large blotches of brownish red or light chestnut-
brown. It is noteworthy that although these birds seem always to thrive in
captivity, yet their vocal powers in that state vary considerably, some specimens
pouring forth the lull song, while others sing only in a subdued undertone.

HED-BILLED, AND ALl’INE CHOUGH liat. size).

The two species of the ffenus Graculus, while resemblinir the
The Choughs. . . ^ .” . . . . .

true crows in form and coloration, differ in possessing long and pointed

wings, as well as in the comparatively slender beak. Unlike other crows, they have

a smooth metatarsus, and the feet and beak brightly coloured. Of the two species,

the common or red-billed chough {G. (‘r(un I'anges fi’om Western Kurope to China

and Eastern Siberia, being no less at home in the deseidsof Ladak than on the cliffs

1 When the generic name Graculus is adopted for tliese birds, tlie common species is generally termed G. graculus,
but this is a combination the Editor cannot admit, and the alternative Linncan name is therefore taken.

PERCHING BIRDS.

Alpine Chough.

of the English coast. Formerly this species was a comparatively common bii’J on
the western coasts of CJreat Britain and Ireland, nor was it entirely a coast-loving
one, since individual pairs nested in the recesses of limestone precipices inland, such
as Whitbarrow Scaur in Westmoreland. The chough has, however, latterly de-
ci'eased in numbers in most of its strongholds, partly owing to human interference ;
although there is some reason to suppose that its extermination may be partially
accounted for by the special predilection of the peregrine falcon for its flesh. The
chough nests in the spring of the year, breeding principally among the precipices
of dizzy cliffs and headlands, deemed impregnable by all but professional cragsmen ;
but occasionally it rears its young among the broken pinnacles of some ruined
cathedral. The eggs are white in ground-colour, streaked with brown and grey.
The Isle of Man was formerly a great stronghold of the species, and when Jardine
visited that island in 1827, he found the “ red-legged crows ” most abundant.
Even in Britain the chough occasionally wandei's from its maritime haunts ; and
in Ladak it dwells in the very heart of Asia. Not the least interesting feature in
the life-history of this bird is the constancy with which individual pairs endeavour
to rear their young for many successive years in the same nesting-places. Choughs
obtain much of their food on the grassy borders of the cliffs which they frequent,
as also in the adjacent fields, feeding either gregariously or in single pairs.

Among.st the Alps and other mountain-ranges of Central Europe
the red-billed chough is in many cases replaced by the Alpine
chough (C. alpinus) which has a yellow instead of a red beak, and is somewhat
smaller in dimensions. Mr. Fowler says that the Alpine chough is the character-
istic corvine of the Alps, as it also is of the Apennines ; and its lively chatter,
breaking suddenly on vast and silent solitudes, recalls to memory the familiar
jackdaw. The Alpine chough nests amongst the crags of its native precipices; the
eggs being four or five in number, and in colour white, varied with dirty yellow
mottlings. This chough is a recognised article of commerce, and as such is
frequently imported to England as a cage-bird.

Chough- We now come to a small but interesting group of birds of some-

Thrushes. what doubtful affinity, though probably not distantly related to the
choughs, from which they are at once distinguished by the relative shortness of
their wings, which fall short of the tip of the tail by more than the length of the
metatarsus. They are further di.stinguished by the possession of a peculiar style
of coloration, and also by their inferior size. Comparatively little is known of the
habits of the choiigh-thrushes, these birds being found only in certain parts of
Central Asia, and having rai’ely come under the notice of field-naturalists. The
whole of the four species known to science inhabit desert regions and sterile
plains. Of these the first discovered was Pander’s chough - thrush {Podoces
jHinderi), and although many yeai’s have elapsed since its existence became known,
it is still very rare in collections. Nor is this surprising, since its home is the
lower Oxus, and the inaccessible deserts of Turkestan. It is not a gregarious
specie.s, nor does it as.sociate with other kinds of birds, living for the most part in
couples, which presumably pair for life, and constantly as.sociate together, sub-
sisting upon the insects and other food to be found in the vicinity of their favourite
sandhills. Unlike its congener, the plain-col oui’ed chough-thrush, the present

CROW TRIBE.

327

species is a handsome bird, and attractive in appearance; tlie npper-parts of tlie
adult being clear grey ; the wings white, with black at the base and at the tip ;
while the tail is glossy purplish black ; the throat whitish ; a huge black patch
adonis the fore-neck ; and the lower-parts are vinaceous, fading into white.

pander's chough-thrush (-? na,t. size).

The genus Heteralocha includes a single species, variously
Tbe Huia Bird. ” . ” h . .

referred to the hoopoes and crows ; while Garrod considered its

relations to be most intimate with the starlings, a view also adopted by Sir Walter
Buller and Dr. Sharpe. The bill of the male is rather short and straight, and
acutely pointed, with the sides compressed, and the nostrils at its base ; while in
the female it is long, curved, and slender; the difference being so great that
the two sexes were at first regarded as distinct species. The wings are long and
rounded. The huia bird {H. gouldi), which is peculiar to New Zealand, has an
extremely restricted habitat, being confined to certain mountain - ranges, with
their divergent spurs, and the intervening wooded valleys. The natives, who
prize the bird very highly for its tail-feathers, which are used as a badge of
mourning, state that, unlike other species which have of late years diminished
and become more confined in their range, the huia has from time immemorial
been limited in its distribution to its present haunts. Sir W. Buller, who com-
ments on the readiness with which the huia becomes reconciled to the loss of
its liberty, so long ago as 1864 received a pair of these birds from a native in
exchange* for a valuable stone. They were fully adult, and had been caught in
the following simple manner. Attracting the birds by an imitation of their cry
to the place where he lay concealed, the native, with the aid of a long rod, slipped
a running knot over the head of the female and secured her. The male, emboldened
by the loss of his mate, suffered himself to be easily caught in the same manner.
When liberated in a large room, writes their owner, “ it was amusing to notice

328

PERCHING BIRDS.

tlieir treatment of the hu-lui. This grub, the larva of a large nocturnal beetle,
which constitutes their principal food, infests all decayed timber, attaining at
maturity the size of a man’s little finger. Like all grubs of its kind, it is furnished
witli a horned head and horny mandibles. On offering one of these to the huia,
he would seize it in the middle, and, at once transferring it to his perch, and placing
one foot firmly upon it, he would tear off the hard parts, and then, throwing the
grub upwards to secure it lengthwise in his bill, would swallow it whole. For the

MALE AND FEMALE HUIAS nat. size).

first few days these birds were comparatively quiet, remaining stationary on their
perch as soon as their hunger was appeased, but they afterwards became more lively
and active, indulging in play with each other, and seldom remaining more than a few
moments in one position. I sent to the woods for a small branched tree, and
placed it in the centre of the room, the floor of which was spread with sand and
gravel. It was most interesting to watch these graceful birds hopping from branch
to branch, occasionally spreading their tail into a broad fan, displaying themselves
in a variety of natural attitudes, and then meeting to caress each other Muth their

BIRDS OB PARADISE.

329

ivory bills, uttering at the same time a low affectionate twitter . . . But what
interested me most of all was the manner in which the birds assisted each other in
their search for food, because it appeared to explain the iise, in the economy of
nature, of the differently-formed bills in the two sexes. To divert the birds, J
introduced a log of decayed wood infested with the hu-hu grub. They at once
attacked it, carefully probing the softer parts with th§ir bills, and then vigorously
assailing them, scooping out the decayed wood till the larva or pupa was visible,
when it was carefully drawn from its cell, treated in the way above described, and
then swallowed. The very different development of the mandibles in the two
sexes enabled them to perform separate offices. The male always attacked the
more decayed portions of the wood, chiselling out his prey after the manner of
some woodpeckers, while the female probed with her long pliant bill the other cells,
where the hardness of the surrounding parts resisted the chisel of her mate.
Sometimes I observed the male remove the decayed portion without being able to
reach the grub, when the female would at once come to his aid and accomplished
with her long slender bill what he had failed to do. I noticed, however, that the
female always appropriated to her own use the morsels thus obtained.” Buffer
subsequently studied the habits of the huia in the bush. The huia never leaves
the shade of the forest ; and moves along the ground, or from tree to tree, with
remarkable celerity, by a series of bounds or jumps. In its flight it never rises like
other birds above the tree-tops, except in the depths of the woods, when it happens
to fly from one high tree to another. The old birds as a rule respond to the call-
note in a low tremulous whistle or whimper, and almost immediately afterwards
answer the summons in person, coming down noiselessly, and almost with the
rapidity of an arrow.”

The huia builds its nest in hollow trees, lining it with coarse grasses and bits
of coarse herbaceous plants, twined into a basin-like form. A specimen of the egg
brought to Buffer was of a very delicate stone-grey, inclining to greyish white,
without any mai'kings except at the larger end where there are some scattered
rounded spots of dark pui'ple - grey and brown ; but another specimen is
described as pure white, without any trace of markings. The whole of the
plumage is black, with a green metallic gloss, the tail being banded with white.
Both sexes are adorned with large rounded wattles, which are of a rich orange
colour in the living bird. The biff is ivory-white, darkening into blackish grey
at the base. The young differ from the adults in having the entire plumage
of a duffer black, and the terminal bar washed with rufous. It may be added that
in the superficial deposits of the North Island remains of the huia have been found
in association with those of the extinct moas.

* Birds of Paradise.

Family Paradiseid.i:.

In spite of their gorgeous plumage, which seems to run riot in the way of
exuberance and eccentricity, the birds of paradise, accoi'ding to the system we are

* Note. See p. 374.

33°

PERCHING BIRDS.

following, are regarded as near allies of the crows, from which they may be
distinguished by the abnormal structure of the toes. Thus, the outermost or fourth
toe is inferior in length to the third, which is longer than the second ; while the
first is very large, and ecjual to or longer than the third. According to Di-. Sharpe’s
arrangement, the birds of paradise may be divided into two groups, in the first of
which the beak is short and more or less stout, with its culmen shorter than the
metatarsus ; while in the second it is long and slender, the culmen being longer than
the metatarsus.

These birds, which are represented by nearl}’ fifty species, are almost wholly
confined to New Guinea and the adjacent Papuan Islands (especially the Aru group),
although one genus is found in the Moluccas, while three genera extend to North
Australia. Although the females are at best generally plain and ordinary-looking
bii’ds, often of a uniform chocolate-colour, the adult males of all the species are
characterised by an extraordinary development of plumage, quite unparalleled in
any other group. “ In several species,” writes l\Ir. Wallace, “ large tufts of delicate
bright-coloured feathers spring from each side of the body beneath the wings,
forming trains, or fans, or shields ; and the middle feathers of the tail are often
elongated into wires, twisted into fantastic shapes, or adorned with the most
brilliant metallic tints. In another set of species these accessory plumes spring
from the head, the back, or the shoulders ; while the intensity of colour and of
metallic lustre displayed by their plumage is not to be e(|ualled by any other birds,
except, perhaps, the humming-birds, and is not surpassed even by these.”

Although but very little is known in regard to the habits of these lovely
birds, it appears that as regards food they are generally omnivorous, feeding on
fruits and insects, and showing a marked preference for figs, grasshoppers, locusts,
leaf-insects, and caterpillars. Even, however, when supplied with food of this
nature in captivity they almost immediately pine and die. While the long-tailed
species are purely arboreal, some of the short-tailed kinds, like the six-plumed
bird of paradise, are frecjuently seen on the ground ; and in all cases the cock-birds
are fond of assend)ling for mutual display. Till recently their eggs have been
almost unknown, but such as have been obtained recall those of some of the
rails in appearance. They are two in number, and laid in a nest built high up in
the tree-tops. The eggs of the Empress Augusta paradise-bird have a pale pinkish
bull' ground-colour, upon which are streaks and spots of reddish brown and grey.
Several of the species have a very small distributional area, but in no case is
the range more restricted than in the red bird of paradise, which is entirely con-
fined to the small island of Waigiou, at the north-western extremity of New
Guinea, in which spot it replaces the members of the genus to which it belongs
found in the other islands.

Twelve-Wired Commencing with the second of the two groups referred to
Bird of Paradise, above, or the one in which the beak is relatively long and slender,
we may take as a first example the beautiful twelve - wired bird of paradise
{Seleacides niffricavs), which is tlie .sole repre.sentative of this genus. Having
a short, .scjuared tail, much inferior in length to the body, this genus is di.s-
tinguished by the absence of a jugular shield of metallic plumes on the throat
and fore-neck ; and still more so by the feathers of the fianks, which are

JilRDS OF /’RA\l/.)JSF.

3i‘

^ cllow isli like those of the lireiist, heiii^’ jirodueeil uiid their shutts eloii^utisl
into six pairs of bare wire-like liristh's, which an* bent forwards in a bold curve.
As ree-ards the pluniaev, the head is covered with slioil \-elvety feathers of a
purplish bronze colour; the lireast appears at first iiearK' black, but in
tlifferent lights shows various metallic tints, (‘sjiecially ^reeii and ])ur])l{^, the

TWELVE-WIRED BIRD OF I'ARADISE Uat. size).

outer edges of the feathers being margined with emerald-green. The whole of
the back and shoulders is I'ich bronzy green, while the closed wings and tail are
of the most brilliant violet-purple ; and the whole jilumage has a delicate silky
gloss. Posteriorly to the fore-breast, the whole of the under-parts are of a rich
buff}^ yellow, the same tint characterising the plumes of tlank-feathei-s, which
extend about an inch and a half beyond the tail. The total length of the biid is
about a foot, of which two inches are taken up by the compressed beak. The

332

PERCHING BIRDS.

female, although less sombre than in some of the group, has none of the bright
plumes of her partner, being bright chestnut-red above, with the crown of the
head and back of tlie neck brown, while the under-parts are bufiy brown, irregularly
barred with blackish brown.

Inhabiting the island of Salwatti and the north-western parts of New Guinea,
the twelve-wired bird of paradise, according to Mr. Wallace, “ frequents flowering
trees, especially sago-palms and pandani, sucking the flowers, round and beneath
which its unusually large and powerful feet enable it to cling. Its motions are
very rapid. It seldom rests more than a few moments on one tree, after which it
flies off, and with great swiftness, to another. It has a loud, shrill cry, to be heard
a long way ofl’ consisting of call, call, repeated flve or six times in a descending
scale, and at the last note it generally flies away. The males are quite solitary in
their habits, although, perhaps, they assemble at certain times like the true
pai'adise-bii'ds.” Both Mr. Wallace and Dr. Giiillemard have been fortunate enough
to see this splendid bird in the living state. To capture them, the natives search
the forest until they discover a roosting-place, where the hunter conceals himself
beneath the tree, and having marked the particular bough on which the bii’d
is accustomed to perch, ascends the stem at night, and secures his prize by the
simple expedient of stealthily putting a cloth over it.

There are three other genera included in the long-beaked group.
Allied Genera. . , . n -t , • • 7 1 ^ .

or Einmackmai, namely, PhLor/ns, L'lnmackus, and Drepanorms.

The first of these three are inhabitants of Northern Australia and New Guinea,
and are commonly known as rifle-birds. While agreeing with the twelve-wired
paradise-bird in the relative proportions of the tail, they differ in having a jugular
shield of metallic plumes occupying the throat and fore-neck, as well as by the
absence of the “ wires.” The scale-breasted bird of paradise (P. magnifica)
is the Papuan representative of this genus, and is characterised by the shield
of stiff metallic green feathers on the breast, and a small tuft of somewhat hairy
plumes on the sides of the same ; the back and wings being velvety black,
faintly glossed with purple. The long - tailed bird of paradise {Epimaclnis
speciosus), together with an allied Papuan species, represent the second of
the three genera, sufficiently distinguished by the great elongation of the gradu-
ated tail, which is much longer than the body. Kesembling the twelve-wired
species in its dark velvety plumage, glossed with purple and bronze, this bird has
the tail, which exceeds two feet in length, tinted above with a splendid opalescent
blue ; but its chief ornament is the group of broad feathers arising in a fan-like
manner from the sides of the breast, which are dilated at their exti’emities, and
banded with vivid blue and green ; the beak being long and curved, and the feet
black. In total length this bird measures between 3 and 4 feet. It is an inhabitant
of the mountains of New Guinea, sometimes found near the coast.

The fourth genus is represented by the Albertis bird of paradise (Drepa^iornis
alhertisi), which differs from all the others in having a long, slender, sickle-shaped
beak, downy plumage, a moderately long graduated tail, and the flank-feathers
developed into a brown fan-like shield. “ Above the beak,” writes its discoverer,
Signor Albertis, “ ai-e two tufts or horns, formed of small feathers deeply marked
with green and copper-coloured reflections. The long feathers which grow from

BIRDS OF PARADISF..

333

tlie sidos of the l)ronst are, wlien closed, ^n-ey, si lot with a violet tint; hut when
spi’ead they lorni almost a semicircle round tlu* hody, and in cc'rtaiu lights shine

(iORGET BIRD OF PARADISE (f uat. size).

like gold, in others like tire. Long feathers
of a greyish violet colour grow from the sides,
their edges being of a metallic violet lustre.
The upper-parts of the wing and tail-feathers
are of a darkish yellow, as are those of the
back, but sometimes of a still darker hue.
The feathers of the throat are black, shading
oti‘ into olive colour ; those of the breast of
a greyish purple, with an olive band ; the
abdomen is white. The beak is black, the
eyes chestnut, and the feet dark lead-colour.
When the bird raises the long feathers on his
sides and breast, they form two semicircles,
and he presents as extraordinary and beauti-
ful a si<rht as one could behold.” The female
of this Papuan species is chestnut above, and
yellower beneath.

334

PERCHING BIRDS.

The Gorget Bird This species (Astrapia nigra), from the mountains of Central
of Paradise. Xew Guinea, is tlie sole representative of its genus, and brings us to
the short-beaked or tyjiical group of the fantily. Having a long and graduated
tail, of which the central plumes are not elongated into wire-like shafts, it is
especially distinguished by the thick feathering of the lores and angle of the
mouth, by the presence of an erect frill surrounding the head, and another frill
of a golden coppery tint round the throat. In the adult male the general
colour of the upper-parts is velvet}' black, with a purplish gloss; the two long
central tail-feathers are glossed with purple ; the frill round the head is golden-
green ; while the feathers of the throat are steely black, with the above-mentioned
gorget of brilliant copper ; a rutf of black plumes springs from the shield on the
neck ; the flanks are dusky black, and the under-parts velvety grass-green.

Wattled Bird An allied genus is represented by the wattled paradise-bird

of Paradise. (^Paradigalla cariincidata) of New Guinea, distinguished by the lores
having an erect orange-yellow wattle, while another of azure blue hangs from each
angle of the mouth ; the tail being shorter than the body, and the head and throat
devoid of frills.

Typical Birds of The great bird of paradise {Paradisea apoda), which was the
Paradise. known representative of the entire family, derives its specific

name from having been described by LinnjBUs from a skin prepared in the Papuan

fashion, with the wings
and feet cut off. The
genus, which is repre-
sented by sevex’al species
from Papua and the
Aru and other islands,
is chai’acterised by the
production of the cen-
tral pair of tail-feathers
into extremely long,
horny, wire-like shafts,
the absence of a shield
on the back, and the
elongation of the flank-
plumes into two huge
bunches of feathers
reaching far beyond the
tail. The great bird of
paradise, of the Aru
Islands, is the largest

representative of the genus, measuring from 15 to 18 inches in total length, and is
described by Mr. Wallace, as follows : — “ Tlie body, wings, and tail are of a rich
coffee-brown, which deepens on the breast to a blackish violet or purple-brown.
The whole of the top of the head and neck is of an exceedingly delicate straw-
yellow, the feathers being short and close set, so as to resemble plush or velvet ;
the lower part of the throat up to the eye is clotlied with scaly feathers of an

GREAT BIRD OF PARADISE.

BIRDS OF PARADISE.

335

cnieral(l-"reon coloui’, and witli a ricli nudallic ^loss, and velvety pinnies of a still
deeper ^reen extend in a broad liand across tlu' fortOiead and chin as far as the
eye, which is brio-ht yellow. d’he beak is pale leail-blui'; and the feet, which
are rather laro-e, and very strono-ly an<l well formed, are of a pale ashy ])ink. The
two middle feathers of the tail have no webs, exct'pt a very small one at the
base and at the extreme tip, forming wire-like cirrhi, which spread out in an elegant

double curve, and vary from 24 to 30 inches in
length. From each side of the body, beneath the
wings, springs a dense tuft of long and delicate
plumes, sometimes 2 feet in length, of the most
intense golden-orange colour, and very glossy,
but changing towards the tips into a pale brown.

This tuft of plumes can be elevated and spread
out at pleasure, so as almo.st to conceal the body of the bird.” In the female the
whole of the ornamental plumes are wanting, and the colour is a uniform coffee-brown.
The lesser bird of paradise (P. minor), from Xew Guinea, and several of the adjacent
islands, although considerably smaller, is very similar in general characteristics.

On the other hand, the handsome species commonly known as the red bird of
paradise (P. from the islands of Waigiou, Ghemien, and Batanta is a

RED BIRD OF RARADISE (J- liat. size).

PERCHING BIRDS.

very distinct form. Measuring from 1,3 to 14 inches in length, it has the flank-
plumes shorter, and of a rich crimson hue, while in structure they are rigid, their
tips being horny, and nearly white. The forehead, sides of the liead, and the whole
throat are a brilliant metallic green, with the plumes of a velvety texture ; the
sides of the neck and entire mantle are bright golden -yellow, deepening into
orange on the sitles of the mantle and the middle of the back ; the rump is straw-
yellow, the two central feathers consisting of two long shafts, 21 inches in length, of a
metallic horny structure ; the wing-coverts are golden yellow ; the primaries ruddy
chestnut; and breast deep purplish chestnut. The female and young have the
sides of the head and forehead purplish brown ; the hind-part of the head, neck,
and mantle straw-yellow, deepening into orange; the remainder of the upper
surface, including the wings and tail, being chestnut-brown, as are the lower-parts.

Thoroughly arboreal in their habits, the birds of this genus live
both upon insects and fruits; and occasionally they may be seen
running along the lower boughs of trees almost like woodpeckers, with the long,
black filaments of the tail hanging gracefully down on each side. In motion
throughout the day, they are active and vigorous ; and while small flocks of females
and immature males are constantly met with, the adult cocks are less commonly
seen, although their presence near by is revealed by their loud and hai’sh cries.
At certain seasons of the year the adult males flock together in a selected tree for
the purpose of display, forming what the natives term dancing-parties. “ On one
of these trees,” says Mr. Wallace, “a dozen or twenty full-plumaged male birds
assemble together, raise up their wings, stretch out their necks, and elevate their
exquisite plumes, keeping them in a continual vibration. Between whiles they fly
across from branch to branch in a state of great excitement, so that the whole tree
is filled with waving plumes in every variety of attitude and motion.” When thus
assembled, the birds are shot with blunt-headed arrows by the natives, who climb
silently into the “play-tree,” and seat themselves in some convenient fork. From con-
tinual persecution to supply the European market with skins, the great bird of para-
dise, according to Dr. Guillemard, has of late years greatly diminished in numbers.

King Paradise The beautiful little king bird of paradise (Cicinnurus regius)^
Bird. from New Guinea and the adjacent islands, forms the type of a
distinct genus, distinguished by the flank-plumes not extending beyond the tail,
by the presence of a large tuft of fan-like plumes on each side of the breast, and
by the two central tail-feathers being long and racket-like. Measuring only
about G|- inches in length, this lovely species has the head, throat, upper-parts,
wings, and tail red, the fan-like plumes on the sides purplish, tipped with green,
a green gorget below the red of the throat, and the rest of the under-parts white.

wuson’s Bird The remarkable species (Diphyllodes wilsoni) we illustrate may be
of Paradise, included in a Papuan genus, typically represented by the magnificent
paradise-bird (D. magnified), and distinguished from the preceding by the presence
of a shield of feathers on the back, and the absence of elongated flank-plumes ;
while from an allied genus (Rhipidornis) it differs in having no fan-shaped shield
of feathers springing from each side of the breast. Whereas, however, in the
magnificent paradise-bird the head is thickly feathered, in the species under
consideration, with the exception of a few narrow tracts of feathers, it is bare ; on

BIRDS OF PARADISE.

337

\\lucli nccount some writei's refer Wilson’s bird of paradise to a distinct ^enus.
Describing this remarkable species, Dr. Guilleniard writes that “ behind the head
a lutt of canary-coloured feathers stands erect above the scarlet back and wings,
the breast is covered by a shield of glossy green plumes, which towards the throat
aie maiked with metallic green and violet spots of extraordinary beauty. The
two ceutial feathers of the tail, prolonged for 5 or 6 inches beyond the others, cross

v\ iLsox’.s BIRD OP P.VRADISE. (From Guillemard’s CrMwe q/' J/arcAfSfl. )

one another, and ai’e curved into a complete circle of bright steely purple. But
the chief peculiarity of the bird is the head, which is bald from the vertex
backwards, the bare skin being of the brightest imaginable blue. The bizarre
effect thus produced is still further heightened l)y two fine lines of feathei’s, which
running lengthways and from side to side form a dark cross upon the brilliant
azure background.” This bird is of small size, and is confined to Waigiou and
Batanta Islands, where it appeal’s to be very locally distributed, freijuenting
forests of no great height, at an elevation of some eight hundred feet above the sea.

VOL. III. — 2 2

338

PERCHING BIRDS.

Six-Plumed Bird Another strange and beautiful representative of a group in which
of Paradise. ^11 are lovely beyond description is the six-plumed bird of paradise
(^Parotid sexpen nis) of New Guinea, which is the only known member of its genus.
In common with the remaining members of the family, this bird has a short tail,
without any elongation of the central pair of feathers, while it is specially chai-
acterised by three pairs of very long racket-feathers springing from the sides of the
head. With the exception of a vivid steely-green bar across the crown of the head,
and a tuft of silvery feathers at the base of the beak, together with a green and
bronze gorget on the breast, the plumage is almost entirely black 5 the tuft of
silvery feathers on the beak being capable of erection or depression at will. For
many years this splendid species was known only by skins badly prepared by the

HEAD OF SIX-PLUMED BIRD OF PARADISE.

(From Guillemard’s Cruise of the Marchesa.)

natives; but eventually it was observed in the living state by Signor Albertis,
who writes as follows of his first sight of it in its native haunts ; — “ After standing
still for some moments in the middle of the little glade, the beautiful bird peered
about to see if all was safe, and then he began to move the long feathers of his
head, six in number, from which his name is derived, and to raise and lower a
small tuft of white feathers above his beak, which shone in the rays of the sun
like burnished silver ; he also raised and lowered the crest of stiff feathers, almost
like scales, and glittering like bits of bright metal with which his neck was
adorned. He spread and contracted the long feathers on his sides in a way that
made him appear now larger and again smaller than his real size, and. Jumping
first on one side and then on the other, he jdaced himself proudly in an attitude
of combat, as though he imagined himself fighting with some invisible foe. All this
time he was uttering a curious note, as though calling on some one to admire his
beauty, or perhaps challenging an enemy.” From this account it would appear that
the species is much less arboreal in its habits than the other members of the family.

The Standard- Even more remarkable than the last is the standard- wing (Semi-
Wing. optera wallacei), from the islands of Batchian and Gilolo, which like-

BIRDS OF PARADISE.

339

wise forms a ^enus by itself, and is characterised by tlie absence of long thread-like
plumes on the head, and the presence of two long projecting feathers from each
wing, which are capable of being erected at the pleasure of their owner. Its dis-
coverer, ]\Ir. Wallace, describes this bird as being generally of a delicate olive-
brown colour, deepening to a kind of bronzy olive in the middle of the back, and
changing to a delicate ashy violet with metallic reflections on the crown of the head ;
the feathers covering the nostrils and extending half-way down the beak being loose
and upwardly curved. On the breast the scale-like feathers are margined with a
rich metallic bluish green ; while the same colour embraces the throat and sides
of the neck, together with the long pointed plumes arising from the sides of the
breast. The two long projecting white feathers springing from near the bend
of the wings are fully 6 inches in length, and are spread out, whenever the bird
is excited, at right angles to the wings. The beak is horny olive, the iris deep
olive, and the foot bright orange. In total length the bird measures 11
inches. The standard-wing, which resembles the rest of its tribe in being in
constant motion, frequents the lower boughs of the forest trees, “ flying from
branch to branch, clinging to the twigs, and even to the smooth and vertical
trunks almost as easily as a woodpecker. It continually utters a harsh, croaking
note, somewhat intermediate between that of a Paradisea cqmda and Cicinmirus
regius. The males at short intervals open and flutter their wings, ei’ect the long
shoulder-feathers, and spread out the elegant green breast-shields.” It is noteworthy
that the examples of this species from Gilolo difter somewhat in coloration and the
conformation of the plumes from those inhabiting Batchian, so that an expert is at
once able to say from which of the two islands any given specimen was obtained.

Superb Bird of The acme of strange plunial adornment (which in all these cases
Paradise. jg probability developed to attract the admiration and attention

of the female, since it can have no other conceivable object) seems to be attained
by the superb bird of paradise (Lophorhina superha), which is chiefly characterised
by the presence of an enormous erectile forked shield of velvety black feathers,
arising from the nape of the neck, and when in repose lying flatly on the back.
So strange and apparently incongx’uous is this shield that it might suggest to the
beholder that the tail of some other bird had been stuck on to the skin, were it
not that its feathers are of a different t^^pe. The ground-colour of the plumage is
of the deepest black, but with bronze reflections on the neck, while the feathers of
the head are metallic green and blue. Spreading over the breast is a shield
composed of narrow and rather stiff feathers, which extends in a pointed form
along each side, and is emarginate in the middle. In colour this is bluish green,
with a satiny sheen ; the back-shield, on the other hand, is velvety black, with
reflections of bronze and purple, its outermost feathei’s exceeding the primaries
of the wino; in lenijth. So far as Dr. Guillemard could gather from native reports,
it would seem that the enormous crest, as it appears displayed during the
courtship of the female, is not only raised, but spread widely out in a fan-
like manner, while the chest-shield is similarly expanded. Hence the head of
the bird forms the centre of an irregular circle of feathers of velvety black and
emerald, completely concealing the rest of the body when viewed from the front.

The remaining genera of the family, such as Pliunygama of Xew Guinea and

340

PERCHING BIRDS

Nortli Australia, ManiLCodia of North Australia and the adjacent Papuan Islands,
and Lycocorax of the iVloluccan and Papuan Islands, must here be passed without
fux'thcr mention.

* The Bower-Birds.

PAmily PriLONORHYRCHID^E.

By no means easy of definition, the bower-birds, most of which are, however,
characterised by building the structures from which they take their name, have
given rise to some difference of opinion among ornithologists as to their affinities,
and they have been included in the preceding family, although they are now
placed by Dr. Sharpe in his catalogue of the birds in the Museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons between the birds of paradise and the starlings. While
the so-called regent -bird approximates to the former group in the nature of
the feathers on the head, and the gorgeous coloration of its plumage, the true
bower-birds are more thrush-like in appearance. The group is mainly peculiar to
Australia, although one Australian genus extends to the Papuan Islands, and
another genus {Amhlyornw), with a single species, inhabits New Guinea only.

They all have the base of the beak fully feathered, and the foot of the normal
Passerine type. In the position of the flexure of the lower mandible, immediately
below the aperture of the nostrils, the skull resembles that of the birds of paradise ;
but, in a slight backward projection of the hinder extremity of the mandible, they
approximate to the starlings, in which it is more developed, while the flexure
is further back.

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ The satin bower-bird {Ftilonorhyncltas holosericeus) is the type

of a genus characterised by the short, convex, and laterally com-
pressed beak, in which the nostrils are basal and concealed by the silky
feathers of the forehead ; the wings being pointed, the tail somewhat rounded,
and the feet stout and furnished with moderately long claws. These bower-
bii'ds beloncr to the eastern and northeim districts of Australia.

The localities frequented by the satin bower-birds are the luxuriant and
thickly foliaged brushes stretching along the coast of New South Wales. Their
popular name owes its origin to their extraordinary habit of constructing
what the colonists commonly call “ runs,” which are used by the birds as a
play ing - house, and are constructed in avenue form, built of pieces of stick
or grass and adorned with stones, bright-coloured shells, and even bleached
bones, as well as the blue tail-feathers of certain parrakeets. The natives
are so well acquainted with the propensity of these birds for canying off any
attractive object, that they always search the runs for any small article that
may have been dropped in the bush ; and in one Gould found a small neatly-
worked stone tomahawk, together with some slips of blue cotton rags, which the
birds had doubtless picked up at a deserted encampment of the natives. This
is a stationary species, but roams from one part of the di.strict to another in
search of food. It appears to have particular times in the day for feeding, and
when thus engaged may be approached within a few feet, although at other times
the old males are shy and watchful. In autumn these bowei’-birds associate in

BOWER-BIRDS.

341

siiuill Hocks, and may often be seen on tlie ground near the sides of the rivei-s.
llie adnit male is entirely of a deep, shining blue-black, closely I’esembling satin,
with the exception of the wings and tail, which are of a deep velvety black.
Ihe female has all the upper-parts greyish green; the under surface being siniihu',
but lighter and washed with yellow ; and each feather of the under sui'face
having a crescentic mark of dark brown near the extremity. Young males
closely resemble the females. There are other species of the genus.

SATIN BOWER-BIRDS AND NEST nat. Size).

Spotted Bower- The five species of this genus differ from the preceding group
Birds. leaving the nostrils exposed, instead of completely hidden by silky

plumes ; while from an allied form they are distinguished by the nostrils being
oval in shape and overhung by a membrane behind, as well as by the longer and
more slender beak. In colour the upper-parts of the common spotted bower-
bird {CJilamydodera macidata) are deep brown, as are also the wings and tail ;
each feather of the back and rump, as well as the scapularies, being tipped with
a large buff patch ; the under-parts are greyish white. The male is ornamented
with a broad crest of rose pink, which is wanting in his partner.

Much similarity exists between the habits of the satin bower-bird and
those of the spotted bower-bird. The latter species is, however, extremely shy.

these were considerably longer and more avenue-like than those of the satin
bower-bird, being in many instances 8 feet in length. “ They ai’e outwardly
built of twigs, and beautifully lined with tall grasses, so disposed that their heads
nearly meet ; the decorations are very profuse, and consist of bivalve shells, crania
of small mammalia and other bones, bleached by exposure to the rays of the sun
or from the camp-fires of the natives. Evident indications of high instinct an*
manifest throughout the whole of the bower and decorations formed by this

342 PERCHIXG BIRDS.

and would often escape notice Avere it not for the harsh grating note with
which it receives the intrusion of a stranger into its haunts. When disturbed
it takes to the topmost branches of the loftiest trees, and frequently flies off
to another neighbourhood. Gould states that he found several of the bowers or
runs of this bird during his journey into the interior of New South Wales, both
on the plains studded with small trees and in the brushes clothing the lower hills ;

SrOTTED liOWEH-BIHDS AT HO.ME (h liat. size).

STAJ^L/XGS.

343

species, particularly in the manner in which the stones are placed within the
bower, apparently to keep the grasses with which it is lined fixed finnly in their
places. These stones diverge from the mouth of the run on each side so as
to form little paths, Avhile the immense collections of decorative materials is
placed in a heap before the entrance of the avenue, the arrangement being
the same at both ends. In some of the larger bowers, which had evidently
been resorted to for many years, I have seen half a bushel of bones, shells, etc.,
at each of the entrances. I frequently found these structures at a consider-
able distance from the rivers, from the borders of which they could alone have
procui'ed the shell sand small round pebbly stones ; their collection and trans-
portation must therefore be a task of great labour. I f\illy ascertained that
these runs, like those of the satin bower-bird, formed the I'endezvous of many
individuals.”

Gardener Bower- The Papuan representative of the next genus (Amhlyornis
Bird. inornatus) has the beak less elevated than in the other genera, and
the nostrils completely concealed. It is remarkable for building a kind of hut-
like structure, fronted with what may be termed a garden, which displays a
.striking appreciation of beauty in its mode of arrangement. The hut, which is
always placed at the foot of a large tree, is .some two feet in height, and is
formed of the stems of orchids, radiating and sloping from a central support, and
roofed with a mass of moss, while round it runs a gallery. One side of the hut is
left open, and in front of this is the garden, which is decorated with the bright-
coloured berries and flowers, these being removed as soon as they Avither. It may
be mentioned here that the “ bowers ” of the whole group have nothing whatever
to do with nesting, and appear to be erected solely for the amusement of the bird.s.

There are several other genera pei’taining to the family, among which may be
mentioned jEliiraediis, as represented by the Australian cat-bird {jE. viridis).
Instead of building a bower, this species merely clears a .space of ground, Avhich
may be some 8 feet in diameter, where the birds sport.

The Starlings.

Pamily Sturxid^E.

Following the arrangement of Dr. Sharpe,
the next family on our list is that of the star-
lings, although Mr. Oates, in his Birds of British
India, assigns it a very different position. All
these birds agree in possessing a wing with
five primary quills, and twelve tail - feathers ;
the beak being generally, although not invari-
ably, slender and curved. The nosti’ils are clear
of the line of the forehead ; but the length of
the metatarsus is variable. The characters
in which the skull differs from that of the
birds of paradise are noticed under that family.

COMMON STARLING.

344

PERCHING BIRDS.

.Starlings are found throughout the Eastern Hemisphere, with the exception of
New Zealand.

In the typical genus (Sturnus) the beak is as long as the
head, and blunt at the tip and depressed, its edges being quite
smooth ; the wings are long and pointed, and the tail is short and squared.
The members of the genus principally inhabit the temperate regions of Europe
and Asia, as well as Northei-n Africa.

Common Breeding commonly in most parts of temperate Europe, although

starling. more rarely in the north than in the central districts of the Continent,
the common starling (Stumus vulgaris) is one of the most adaptive of birds, in
consequence of which its range is steadily increasing. In the British I.slands it
has increased of late years to an extraordinary extent. .So long as the starling con-
tented itself with nesting sporadically in the pigeon-houses of farms and in hollow
trees, as, for example, in the London parks, the public naturally desired to afford
protection to so charming a bird ; and there can be no doubt that it merits much
interest, since it works assiduously to destroy the larvse of such injurious insects
as the crane-fly.

At the same time it is only right that we should take into account the
heavy loss which fruit-growers frequently sustain from the inroads of hordes of
hungry starlings ; the extraordinary numbers of these birds which visit orchards
of ripe fruit almost defying description. Quite recently the starling has
developed an alarming fondness for ripe pears and apples ; nor does he altogether
disdain wild fruit ; even the berries of the mountain-ash are much to his taste,
and he constantly strips them with extreme pertinacity. When feeding on grass
lands, in company with thrushes, the starling is apt to play the part of a
bully, robbing his gentler neighbours of their fairly-earned subsistence.

In addition to being a vocalist of no mean order, the starling is a fir.st-class
mimic, and delights in reproducing familiar sounds with the greatest fidelity
to truth. We liave heard individual starlings reproduce the call - note of
the skylark, goldfinch, wagtail, and other small birds ; sometimes we have been
startled on a winter’s day to recognise the cry of the common sandpiper or the
grating call-note of a fern-owl in the middle of a crowded city, and have di.scovered
the aiithor of our astonishment in the person of a starling, that is pouring forth
his rhapsodies from some neighbouring chimney-top. Perfection is not easily
acfiuired ; but the starling practises his performances until he accpiires a high
measure of proficiency.

The starling does not, however, confine his attention to the reproducing the notes
of other birds; any sound that strikes his fancy being rehearsed time after time, until
the sharpest expert might be deceived. Not long ago, one of these birds astonished
its human neighbours by reproducing the hammering of a stonemason, who had been
engaged in dressing stone. The starling nests in April, and the young usually fly
.about the end of May ; many pairs rearing two broods of young in a season. .Some
birds nest in the recesses of sea-caves in company with rock-doves and black
guillemots ; others I’ear their broods in the interior of old stone walls ; while others
again inhabit and enlarge the burrows of sand-martins in some perpendicular cliff;
b3^ far the greater number nest, however, about human habitations. In some

STARLINGS.

345

dustricts the tiedo-ed youiio- ^-ather too-ether in dense Hocks as early as .July; and
with the advance of autumn young and old congregate at their favourite roosts in
prodigious numbers, feeding during the day in widely ditferent localities, hut flock-
ing together at their favourite rendezvous before nightfall. Myriads of starlings
migrate along the British coasts in spring and autumn ; hence their presence at one
or other of our lighthouses is freciuently the subject of remark. Idany individuals

COMMON AND BLACK STARLING (S uat. size).

bred in northern Britain winter in the midland counties, frei^uenting half-flooded
meadows and other attractive haunts.

The male in summer has the plumage black brilliantly shot with purple-green
and steel-blue ; the feathers of the nape and upper-parts generally being
tipped with buff in the form of triangular spots. Professor Newton points out
that after the autumnal moult the starling is profusely spotted with buff, especially
on the lower-parts, but in the spring many of these spots become obsolete. The
plumage of the young is a dull brownish grey.

346

PERCHING BIRDS.

In Soutliern Europe the spotted starling of the Britisli Isles is
replaced by the black or Sardinian starling {8. uivicolor), which is
abundant in some parts of Spain and Portugal. Mr. Tait says that it is very
common in the interior of Portugal, and that it is a very restless bird, often seen
hjdng up and down in small flocks. Although some individuals reside in the
Peninsula all through the year, the bulk of the black starlings, which breed in
Spain, appear to pass the winter in Algeria, where they feed upon the fruit of the
date-palms. Tins starling nests both under the eaves of outhouses and also in
ci’evices of rocks. Its nesting habits are said to be identical with those of the

HOSE-C'OLOUKED STARLING (S liat. size).

common starling, and the egg is of a similar pale blue colour. The black starling
has the entire plumage black, glossed with purple, without any spots whatever ;
the smaller feathers being very long and tapering. It is shown in the lower
figure of the illustration on p. 345.

Rose-Coloured The single representative of the genus Pastor diflers from the true
starling. starlings in having the head furnished with a long and conspicuous
crest, reaching to the upper part of the back. One of the most beautiful of
European birds, the rose-coloured starling (P. ruseiis), has its winter-home in
India, from which country it is, however, absent during the breeding-season.
Occasionally wandering as far north as the west of Scotland, this bird is very
erratic in its habits, and many years have pas.sed since it has been seen in any

STARLINGS.

347

considerable numbers in the British Islands. In the .summer of 1875, vast
numbers visited \ ilia b ranca ; a small flock makinj^ its appeai’ance on June drd,
and alif^hting on the high ruined walls within the ca.stle, and being followed in
about half an hour by another flock of about one liundred. In a sliort time
many people assembled at tlie places, and soon witne.ssed another sight, for
towards evening appeared many thousands of these starlings, which, joining
witli fir.st comers, stopped there till dusk, when they dispersed in numerous
troops over the open country. On the following day from twelve to fourteen
thousand rose-coloured starlings arrived and took entire po.ssession of the
ca.stle ; driving away by the force of .superior numbers the common starlings,
])igeons, and all other birds that nested in the ruins, and proceeding to
fill every available hole and fissure. The birds began to lay about the l7th
of June, the eggs being of a uniform white colour with a greenish tinge.
The young were hatched about the 10th July, and were fed exclusively upon
locusts. The old birds foraged in the country in flights of from ten to twenty,
or even forty, returning in the .same united fashion to their offspring. Tlie rose-
coloured starling is one of the most sociable and cheerful of bird.s. “Always
busy and restless,” says Signor de Betta, “ it may be seen running liere and there,
accompanying every movement with its cries. Tlie song of the male is a continual
chatter, mixed with harsh and disagreeable sounds ; both one and the other begin
in the earlj" morning, continuing for a length of time, and renewed at intervals
after feeding. The males, always at strife, may be seen jiur.suing one another and
exchanging blows with their bills, while in the most curious attitudes and with
their long black crests elevated and expanded. They exhibit great affection for
the hen birds which, never leaving the nest during the period of incubation, are
protected and fed by them with all assiduity.” These birds will not unfrec^uently
associate with the common starling ; and they retain their vivacious character even
in captivity, where they form some of the most charming of aviary birds, darting
to and fro on rapid flights or singing from some favourite perch. The male in
summer-plumage has the head, crest, wings, and tail black, with a blue or violet
glo.ss ; the back and breast being of a beautiful rose colour, which is suffused with
brown in the winter plumages. The young are uniform light greyish brown above,
with the wings and tail dai'k brown edged with buff ; the throat and lower parts
being dull buffish-white.

There are numerous other genera of the family into the consider-
ation of which the limits of our space forbid our entering. Among
these are the true mynas (Sturnia) of India, distinguished from Stiunius by
the beak being more .slender, .shorter than the head, and narrowing to a point ;
and differing from the allied Agropsar by the middle tail feathers being longei-
than the outer pains. The pied starling (Sturnopastor) of India, as well as the
African wattled starling (Dilophus), likewise belong to this group.

Among the most useful of South African birds, from their habit
of feeding on the parasites which infest domestic and other cattle, the
ox-peckers are very unlike starlings in general ap2)earance ; from which they are
distinguished by the beak being stout, broad at the base, and nearly straight,
with the nostrils bare. The wings are long, with the fir.st (juill very shoid, and

other Genera.

Ox-Peckers.

34«

PERCHING BIRDS.

the second nearly equal in length to the third; the tail being long, broad, and
wedge-shaped ; while the feet are strong, and furnished with sharp-curved claws,
by means of which the birds retain their hold on the slippery skin of buffaloes.
One species of ox-pecker inhabits North-Eastern Africa, Senegambia, and the
Transvaal; while the South African ox-pecker {Buphaga africana) is found in
Natal, and the red-billed species {B. ergtitrorinjncha) in most parts of Central Africa.

RED-BILLED OX-PECKER (\ liat. size).

These birds ffy in small parties of six or eight, and have a somewhat laboured
rtight ; they may be observed climbing over the oxen in a team, much as a wood-
])ecker climbs a tree ; and the cattle for the most part enjoy the operation of being-
freed from the ticks and other pests with which they are infested. On the first
arrival of a flock of these birds, the cattle are, however, apt to be alarmed, and start

GLOSSY STARLINGS

GLOSSY STARLINGS.

349

oil' Ji.s if they liad been attacked by ^ad-llies. It ninst not be supposetl tliat these
birds confine their attention to cattle, since they perhnin the same kind offices for
rhinoceroses, elephants, antelopes, and probably almost all the larger African
mammals.

Although not loud, the notes of the ox-peckers are harsh and grating ; and
are always uttered when a flock approaches cattle to feed. Nothing appears
to be ascertained as to the breeding-habits of these birds. In the figured species
the general colour of the \ipper-parts is greyish brown ; the wings being black,
the tail brown, the throat grey, the under-parts pale fulvou.s, and the beak I'ed.

* Glossy Starlings and Grackles.

Family EulabetiBjE.

Whereas the true starlings and their allies have no trace of bristles at the
rictus of the gape, and lay uniformly coloured eggs, the members of the present
African and Asiatic family possess such bristles, and lay spotted eggs. Moreover,
the members of the present family are mainly or entirely arboreal, instead of hunt-
ing for a large portion of their food on the ground.

African Glossy The most beautiful members of all the starling-like birds are
Starlings. undoubtedly the African glossy starlings, of which a group of three
species is represented in our coloured illustration. All the African glossy starlings
are neatl3'’-built birds, with the beak strong, of moderate length, compressed,
swollen at the base, and notched ; the nostrils being situated about the middle.
The wings are large, the feet long and strong, and the tail of variable length ;
while the plumage is remarkable for its bi'illiant gloss, being generally adorned
with shades of bluish green, violet, purple or copper-colour. Such species as have
long graduated tails may be included in Lamprotornis, while those in which the
tail is short and squared are classed as Lamprocolius. The glossy starlings are
gregarious birds, ranging all over Africa, and feeding on vegetable as well as
animal substances. Uttering harsh clamorous notes, they are rapid in their flight
and lively in their movements ; and while generally dwelling high up in the
branches of the forest trees, they descend at times to pick up insects and other
food on the ground. From the retiring habits of most of the species, they are
but seldom seen. They either build in holes of trees, or make large cup-sluiped
ne,sts, in which are deposited five or six spotted eggs.

Long Taiied This species (L. cencus), which is the one represented in the upper

Glossy starling, ffgm-e of our coloured Plate, is a denizen of West Africa, although
also ranging into the southern, eastern, and central districts of that continent.
Measuring about 20 inches in total length, of which two-thirds are occupied by the
long, graduated tail, this bird has the head, chin, and upper part of the throat
black, with a golden lustre ; the upper-parts and wings being dark metallic gi’een,
and the upper wing-coverts oi’namented with small black spots ; the middle of the
throat, as well as the upper tail-coverts, tail, and under-parts being dark purple -
violet, marked with darker ci'oss-bands ; while the middle of the breast is copper-
red. The upper wing-coverts have black spots. The iris of the eye is yellow ;

PERCHING BIRDS.

350^

aud the beak and feet are black. Feeding largely upon insects, these birds are
more terrestrial in their habits than many others of the group.

Green Glossy The green glossy starling {LamprocoUus chalyheus), which is

starling. shown in the lower figure of our Plate, is an inhabitant of North-
Eastern Africa, and is selected as a good example of the second genus of the group.
With the exception of a spot in the region of the ear and the under wing-coverts,
the whole plumage is of a steely bluish green, the secondax'ies and the feathers of
the upper wing-coverts being marked at the end with a round blackish spot. Such

THE SUPERB GLOSSY STARLING.

is the wonderful shimmer of the plumage, which is similar in both sexes, that it
shows totally different tints according to the light, and indeed can scarcely be
described in words. In the young only the upper-parts are metallic green, the
under-parts being dark brownish grey, devoid of lustre.

Although typically an inhabitant of Abyssinia, this beautiful bird ranges into
Senegambia. It frequents alike the thickly-wooded river-valleys and the high
mountains, ascending in Abyssinia to an elevation of some ten thousand feet ;
and while generally going about in pairs, in the breeding-season congregates in
small flocks. Both in flight and general habits it resembles the European starling.

White-Bellied The pretty little bird (L. leucogaster), depicted in the middle figure
Glossy Starling, of the Plate, is our last representative of the group, and differs

DRONGOS.

35'

considerably in coloration from the foregoing species. The whole of the upper-
parts and the throat, as tar as the breast, are purplish blue, with a wonderful violet
.shimmer in certain lights ; while the remainder of the under-parts are white, and
the wings blackish brown, with a violet tinge ; the whole of the darker portion of
the plumage being shot with a coppery lustre. This bird is distributed over the
whole of Central Africa, and extends northwards into Abyssinia and Western
Arabia. A truly arboi’eal species, it is found both on the plains and in the

SOUTHERN CRACKLE (f liat. size).

mountains, generally associating in parties of from six to twenty individuals ; its
general habits being very similar to those of the other members of the group.

The Crackles, Not to be confounded with the true mynas, mentioned later on,
or Hiu-Mynas. grackles, 01* liill-mynas of India and the adjacent regions, are birds
of glossy black plumage, easily distinguished by the presence of fleshy yellow or
orange wattles on the head. The beak is thick, high, curved, and shorter than the
head ; while the feathers of the crown are short and inwardly curved, with a kind
of parting down the middle of the head ; the wing being rather blunt, the tail shoid
and nearly squared, and the foot strong.

The southern grackle {Eidahetes religiosa), of Southern India and Ceylon
may be taken as a well-known example of the genus ; and is distinguished from
the others by having bare skin on the sides of the neck, and two long jiatches on
the neck. Its whole plumage is glossy black, with the exception of a patch of white

352

PERCHING BIRDS.

at the base of most of the primaries ; the wattles ai*e naked, being rich yellow, the
beak orange-j^ellow, and the legs and feet citron -yellow. The total length of the
adult is about 10 inches. Young birds have a dull black plumage, and are devoid
of wattles.

Like its kindred, this bird is either resident in one spot throughout the year,
or only locally migratory; it is chiefly confined to the large forests of Western
India or Ceylon ; but other species inhabit the outer Himalaya. The southern
grackle breeds from March to October ; generally laying only a pair of eggs, which
are deposited in holes in trees. Its food consists entirely of various fruits, which
it obtains among the higher branches of its native forests. All the grackles learn
to whistle and talk when in captivity, and as they are excellent mimics they are
much prized by the natives of India as cage-birds.

Asiatic Glossy These birds difter from the grackles in having no wattles ; their
starUngs. plumage is highly glossy ; the beak is short, with the culmen curved ;
the no.strils are small and round ; and the wing is long and sharp, and the tail of
moderate length, and graduated. Mr. Oates remarks that he is not aware how
nearly related these birds are to the African glossy starlings, although there appear
to be important difi'erences between some of them. The I’ange of the genus extends
from Soutli - Eastern Asia to Australia ; the Indian glos.sy starling {Calornis
calybeius) being the only representative in the country from Avhich it takes its
name. The whole plumage is black, with a brilliant green gloss on most of it.

* The Droxgos.

Family DlCltUllIR^E.

The drongos, or king-crows, of South-Eastern Asia and Africa, form an easily
recognised family, which is placed here by Dr. Sharpe, although Mr. Oates
considers that its affinities are rather with the creepers, while other writers
place it with the shrikes. Their generally black plumage, and deeply-forked tail
of ten feathers, serve at once to distinguish drongos from all other members of
the order. The edges of both mandibles are smooth, with a single notch in the
upper one ; the wing has ten 2:)rimary quills, and the nostrils are clear of the line
of the forehead. Both sexes are alike ; and the j'oung differ from their parents
only by their plumage being paler. Several of the species have the head crested,
and there are always bri.stles at the base of the beak. Entirely insectivorous, the
drongos are habitually upon tlie wing, darting from a tree to catch an insect, and
returning speedily to the same or another perch ; and they are likewise fairly
endowed with vocal powers.

Much alike in general characters, these birds j^resent considerable difficulty in
<listinguishing the genera and species. In addition to the typical genus Dicrurus,
as represented by the Indian black drongo, or king-crow (Z). ater), ranging from
Afghanistan to China, and several other sjiecies, Mr. Oates recognises no less than
six genera of the family in India. Two species, which may be included in the type
genus, are found in South Africa ; while Australia has but a single representative
(Chihid hracteata). The black drongo, which has the entire plumage deep black

ORIOLES.

353

with a steely-blue gloss, but the under tail-coverts generally tipped with white, is
one of the most familiar of Indian birds, both in the hills and the plains, generally
selecting the most exposed and barren tree or post for its perching-place. The nest,
which is generally placed in a thickly-leafed bough, is composed of fine twigs and

THE BEACK INDIAN DUONGO.

grass, covered externally with cobwebs. Usually four, although occasionally five in
number, the eggs may be either uniformly pure white, or salmon colour with
brownish spots. Not unfrequently this bird may be observed perched on the back
of cattle searching for insects.

The Orioles.

Family OraoLiDJE.

The orioles comprise a number of birds from the temperate and tropical
portions of the Old World, in which the bill is as long as the head, and gently
curved to the tip, where it is notched ; the head is never crested ; the wings are long,
with the first three quills equally graduated, and the third and fourth longest :
while the tail is moderate and rounded ; and the toes are free at the base, and
have long curved claws. The nostrils are bare, and placed well in front of the base
of the beak, and this character, together with the presence of twelve tail-feathers,
at once distinguishes them from the drongos. Brilliant yellow generally adorns
the plumage of the male orioles ; in others the lower-parts are variegated with rich
crimson. They are birds of frugivorous habits, ami freipient forest trees in
VOL. nr. — 23

354

PERCHING BIRDS.

preference to smaller covei'. They are divided only into two genera, of which
Oriohis has the lores feathered, while in S pi tecotl teres they are naked. Orioles
inhabit the temperate parts of Europe, the whole of Africa, India, China, the
Malayan Provinces, the Indian Islands, and Australia.

Of the numerous bii’ds visiting Xorthex’n Europe in the spring
no species is better known than the golden oriole (0. galbula), at
which time this bird may be observed migrating in small numbers; both sexes
journeying in company. At this season the birds ai’e silent, and seem anxious to

THE GOLDEN ORIOLE (i liat. size).

escape notice, although, as they arrive before the beech trees (which clothe the
mountain-sides in the north of Spain) have unfolded their leaves, they have some
difficulty in concealing their brilliant plumage among the bare twigs. The oi’iole
on the Continent reaches its nesting-haunts about the end of April, and at once
claims its own peculiar area of forest. Each pair confines itself to a certain
portion of a great wood, the intrusion of a strange male into the haunts of a
pair of breeding birds being certain to result in a fight. Although the golden
oriole is shy and retiring in Europe, its cousin is by no means so in India,
where it often perches on a tree immediately over the tent of the traveller,
and there pours out its flute -like notes. In addition to these flute -like tones,
both sexes have also a cat-like call. The ne.st is u-sually placed on a bough.

■CASSIQUES AiVn HANGNESTS.

355

Green Oriole.

and the young are attended witli remarkable care by the parents. Although
feeding mainly upon insects, which are often taken on the ground, the golden
oriole during the fruit-season lays toll on the orchard. The range of the golden
oriole includes the whole of Eurojie, except the extreme north, as well as Persia
and other parts of South-Western Asia. In winter this .species visits South Africa.
The bright colour of the male golden oriole renders it peculiarly liable to be
attacked by the sparrow-hawk ; and, in such a contingency, the oriole does not
tru.st to his thrush-like flight enabling him to elude his tormentor in the open, but
on the earliest opportunity seeks refuge in the densest thickets available as cover.
The oriole forms a good cage-bird ; although old birds are not easily reconciled to
the loss of their freedom, and are apt to pine away. Young birds, on the other
hand, are easily tamed.

The adult male of this species is rich golden-yellow above ; the wings being
black, the primary coverts broadly edged with yellow, which forms a conspicuous
spot ; the tail is black, tipped with yellow, the outer feathers having more yellow
than black ; while the entire under-surface is golden-yellow. The female diflers
from the male in having the back and scapulars tinged with green.

Among thirty odd species of the genus, we may select for
mention the green oriole (0. viridis) of New South Wales, which
frequents orchards and gardens, whei'O it tills the summer air with its melodious
notes. This oriole, says Prof. Ramsay, may often be seen perched on some .shady
tree, with its head thrown back, showing to perfection its mottled bi'east, singing
in a low tone, and imitating the notes of many birds, such as the black magpie.
While feeding, it frequently utters a harsh guttural sort of squeak ; and, during
the breeding-season, which commences at the end of September, and ends in
January, it confines itself to a monotonous although melodious cry, the first part
of which is quickly repeated, and ends in a lower note. This oriole builds a
cup-shaped nest, principally composed of shreds of the bark of a species of
gum-tree, strongly woven togethei’, and lined with leaves, or grass and hair ;
which is generally suspended between a fork at the extreme end of some horizontal
bough, often in an exposed situation. The eggs vary in ground-colour from cream
to dull white or very light brown, minutely dotted and blotched with umber and
blackish brown. Green orioles feed principally on berries and wild fruits,
particularly figs ; although they sometimes capture insects on the wing. The
adult male is dull yellowish olive above ; the wings and tail being brown, washed
with grey ; while the throat is dull olivaceous ; the fore-neck greyish, and the
breast and sides of the body white, washed with olive-yellow, each feather having
a dark central streak. The sexes when adult are almost identical in colour, but
the male has the olive of the upper-parts of a deeper tint than the female.

* The Cassiques and Hangnests.

Family ICTERID^.

To a certain extent intermediate in structure between the crows and the
finches, and agreeing with the starlings in the general stnicture of the skull, and

356 PERCHING BIRDS.

especially the backward prolongation of the hinder extremity of the lower
mandible, the large assemblage of American birds known as cassiques and hang-
nests may be regarded as the New World representatives of the starlings of the
Old World, althongh, so far as habits are concerned, it does not appear that there
is any very marked structural affinity between the two families. Distinguished by
the length and slenderness of the beak, which in most cases equals the head in

THE CRESTED CASSIQUE (f liat. Size).

length, these birds generally possess pointed wings, which have never more than
nine primaries ; they have strong feet, and chiefly black plumage. Among the
numerous genera onlj" a few can be selected for notice. Congregating in flocks,
after the manner of starlings, many of these birds build the long, pendent, bottle-
like nests, from which the name of the family is derived. The family may
be divided into three groups, the first comprising the rice-birds and cow-birds, the
second the true hangnests, and the third the troupials ; the characters of which
are pointed out below.

CASSIQUES AND HANG NESTS.

357

„ The first subhuiiily iCassicinte) is reiiresented by several closely

Cassiques. i,- i

allied genera, among which the crested cassique {Ostinops decumunus)
of South America, and the yellow cassiipie {Casnicic.'i i)ersicus), which is likewise
South American, are well-known species. It will be unnecessary here to mention
the characters by Avhich these genera are severally distinguished from one
another; and it will suffice to say that the subfamily to which these belong
is characterised by the naked exposed nostrils, and the presence of a shield on
the forehead at the base of the beak. The crested cassique is chai'acterised by the
small crest from which it takes its name ; and while the general colour of
the upper-parts is deep black, with the feathers of the mantle and shoulders
shaded with brown, and the upper and lower tail-coverts chestnut, the live
outermost pairs of tail-feathers are a brilliant citron-yellow. The elongated form
of the nest characterising the crested cassicpie is sufficiently indicated in our
illustration.

The True The true hangnests, as represented by a large number of species

Hangnests. ranging from North and Central America to Southern Brazil and
Bolivia, constitute (together with an allied genus containing one species) a second
subfamily" {Icterince) in which the nostrils are more or less covered by a membrane,
while the culmen of the beak is more or less incurved, and there is no shield on
the forehead ; the metatarsus being short, the feet adapted for perching, and the
tail rounded. As a rule, the plumage is bright orange and yellow, relieved with
black and white ; the sexes being in some cases similar, and in others very
dissimilar. Unlike the members of the preceding subfamily, these hangnests are
thoroughly arboreal in their habits, and while the majority construct pendant
nests like those of the cassiques, others appear to build open cup-shaped nests.
The eggs are bluish or pinkish white, profusely spotted with purple and red.
The best known species is the Baltimore hangnest {Icterus galhida), frequently
termed the Baltimore oriole, of the United States. These birds build in large
companies, the males generally arriving first at the breeding-places, where they
are soon joined by their partnei’S. The nest is wider and less elongated than
that of the crested cassique. On a single tree sometimes as many as forty nests
may be observed; and during November they will be found to contain both eggs
and young birds. All the numerous species of the genus Icterus are good
songsters, the notes of the Baltimore hangnest being especially melodious.

Belonsfinff to another subfamily (Arielceinoi) differing from the last
Rice-Birds. o j \ »/ / n

by the straight culmen of the beak and the elongated metatarsus, this

genus, as typified by the common rice-bird or bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus), is

characterised by the short and conical beak, the long and pointed wings, the rigid

acuminate feathers of the tail, and the stout and long-clawed feet. An iidiabitant of

North America, where it is especially common in the States, this well-known bird

winters in Central America and the West Indies, returning northwards in vast flocks

along the Atlantic coast in spring, when the males are in nearly full breeding-plumage,

and are thus veiy conspicuous as they flock to the meadows and orchards. “ Their

number,” says Dr. Cones, “ seems out of all propoi’tion to that of the females, but

this is probably due to the silent and more retiring ways of the latter sex. They

really pass through, in the vernal migration, quite rapidly, though they do not

358

PERCHING BIRDS.

appear to be at all in a huriy, as we see them by day. They throw themselves in
a held, scatter on the ground feeding, and at the slightest alarm, or in mere wanton-
ness, suddenly fly en masse to the nearest tree, fence, or bush, and begin to sing,
producing an indescribable medley, hushed in an instant only to be resumed.
Sometimes they sing as merrily, though with less concerted action, while they are
rambling in the grass. Their daytime leisure for song and food is easily explained ;
for they migrate at this season almost entirely by night. Every night in early
May, as we walk the streets, we can hear the mellow metallic clinking coming
down through the darkness, from birds passing high overhead, and sounding clearer
in the stillness. By the middle of May they have all passed ; a few, it is stated,
linger to breed south of New England, but the main body passes on, spreading
over that portion of the Union and the neighbouring British provinces, occupying
in pairs almost every meadow. The change of plumage is completed before the
return movement is made.” Millions return on their southern journey, late in the
summer and during September. They are now songless, but have a comfortable,
self-satisfied chink, befitting such fat and al^andoned gourmands as they are,
thronging in countless hordes the wild rice-tracts and the grain-fields. So they go
until the first cold snap that sends them into winter- quarters at once. The
bobolink nests upon the ground, making a rude and flimsy structure of dried gi’ass,
which is artfully concealed. It lays four or five eggs, bluish-white in ground-
colour, blotched and spotted with dark chocolate. The male in the breeding-
season has the head and lower-parts black ; the hind-neck buff ; the scapulars,
rump, and upper tail-coverts ashy white ; the interscapulars streaked with black,
buff, and ashy ; and the outer quills edged with yellowish. The nuptial garb just
described is, however, unlike the plain plumage worn by both sexes after the
breeding-season, when the general colour of the plumage is yellowish brown above,
and brownish yellow below ; the crown and back being conspicuously streaked
with black, and the wings and tail blackish.

Nearly allied to the last genus, the cow-birds possess a short, conical
Cow-Birds. . ^

bill, long and pointed wings, slightly rounded tail, and strong feet. In

the majority of the species black is the prevailing colour, being sometimes lustrous,
with bronzed reflections. The cow-birds are mainly a South American genus,
although one species is only too well known in the United States. Some of the
species seize upon the nests of other birds, and having driven away the rightful
possessors, proceed to rear their own young in their new home. The majority, how-
ever, are more truly parasitical, depositing their eggs in other birds’ nests, and
leaving the strangers to hatch and rear their own offspring. The common cow-bird
{Molotlirus yecoris) of the United States is a polygamous species ; the sexes never
mating, and their association being merely a herding together in quest of food. “ In
the West,” says Dr. Cones, “ every waggon-train passing over the prairies in summer
is attended by flocks of these birds ; every camp and stock coral, permanent or
tempoi’ary, is besieged by the busy birds, eager to glean subsistence upon the
wasted forage. Their familiarity under these circumstances is surpidsing. Per-
petually wandering about the feet of the draught animals, or perching upon their
backs, they become so accustomed to man’s presence that they will hardly get out
of the way. I have even known a young bird to suffer itself to be taken in the

CO W-BIRDS.

359

hand; and it is no uncommon thin^ to have tlie birds fluttering witliin a few feet
of one’s head. The animals appear to rather like the birds, and sufler them to
perch in a row upon their backbones, doubtless flndino; the scratching of their
feet a comfortable sensation, to say nothing of the riddance from insect parasites.”

The cow-bird’s foster-parents are numerous, notably the summer yellow-bird,
the Maiyland yellow-throat, and the red-eyed vireo. It is rare to find more than
two eggs of this cow-bird in a single nest, although as many as five have been
found together. In colour the eggs are white, speckled with brown. The adult

THE COMMON COW-BIRD (J liat. size).

of the common cow-bird is of a lustrous greenish black, with blue and purple
reflections ; the head and neck being deep wood-brown, with some purplish lustre.
The female is dull coloured, of a nearly uniform greyish brown above, and paler
beneath.

Writing of a South American member of the gen\is, Mr. M . H. Hudson
observes that the male of the “screaming cow-bird of La Plata, when perched,
emits a hollow-sounding internal note that swells at the end into a sharp metallic
ring, almost bell-like ; this is uttered with wings and tail depressed, the whole
plumage being puffed out as in a strutting turkey-cock, while the bird hops

iiig colour of the male birds, but the females are more soberly attired. Several species
are found in Central and Southern America, while others are peculiar to the United
States. The type of the genus is the red-shouldered starling (Ageloeus gyliceniceus),
a bird commonl}^ distributed throughout temperate North America, and especially
abundant among the marshy tracts of the Eastern States. It nests in reeds and
bushes near the ground or in a tussock of grass, building a bulky nest of coarse
fibrous materials, such as strips of rushes or marsh grass. The eggs are pale
blue, dotted and blotched with dark markings. In autumn this bird becomes
highl}^ gregarious, thronging in the grain-fields, where it does much mischief.
The male is lustrous black, with the lesser wing-coverts scarlet, broadly bordered

360 PERCHING BIRDS.

briskly up and down on its perch as if dancing. The bell-like note of the
male is followed l)y an impetuous scream from the female, and the dance ends.
Another species, the common Argentine cow-bird (d/. honariensis) of La Plata,
when courting, puffs out his rich violet plumage, and, with wings vibrating,
emits a succession of deep internal notes, followed by a set song in clear, ringing
tones ; and then suddenly taking wing he flies straight away, close to the surface,
fluttering like a moth, and at a distance of twenty to thirty yards turns and flies
in a wide circle round the female, singing loudly all the time, hedging her in with
melody as it were.”

Red-Shouldered The bill in this genus is about as long as the head, stout at the
starling, etc. p^se, and tapering rapidly to an acute point ; while the wings ai’e
pointed, and the tail broad. Black associated with red or yellow is the predominat-

UED-SHOULDERED STARLING (| Iiat. size).

TROUPIALS.

361

with brownisli yellow; while the female is blackish brown above with pale
streaks, and below whitish with many dnsky streaks. The yoiin^ male bird
at first resembles the female, bnt is lar^’er, and generally suffused with buff

Troupials Omitting mention of several genera of the family, we come to a

genus, Qiiiscalus, of the third subfamily or group, rejoicing in
a variety of names, such as crow-blackbirds, grackles, and boat-tails, but ;is the
first two of these are liable to lead to confusion, it is better to adopt for them the
French name of troupials, which, however, is often applied to the familv. In

THE PURPLE TROUPIAL (f liat. size).

these the beak is equal in length to the head, and somewhat crow-like in shape ;
the wings are relatively short, the tail of varying length, and the feet long. The
best known member of the genus is the purple troupial {Q. of the

Atlantic States, the other species being more southern in their distribution. It is
a migratory gregarious bird of very general distribution, building in a tree or
bush, and making a large nest, usually of mud. The eggs are generally green
or blue in ground-colour, variegated with dark brown and pur2:»le markings.
These bii'ds at times inflict great injury upon the crops, much to the annoyance
of the agriculturist ; but they also destroy large quantities of injurious insects.
They have a pi’opensity for destroying the eggs of other birds, especially those

362

PERCHING BIRDS.

of the American robin or migratory thrush, lurking about the robin’s vicinity
until the parents are away, and then pouncing on the nest, seizing an egg or
young one, and hastily retreating. The adult male is black above and below,
vai'iously glossed with green, purple, blue violet and bronze ; the female is
similar but her tints are more subdued.

* The Weaver-Birds.
Family Floceid^.

NEST OF SOCIABLE WEAVERS.

The weaver - birds, which derive their
name from the extraordinary textile nests they
construct, comprise a large group of birds
very abundant in Africa, and represented by
many genera in South - Eastern Asia and
Australia. While very similar to the finches
in external appearance, they differ in having
ten primary quills in the wings, and likewise
in some of them undergoing a partial moult in
the spring. Resembling the hangnests to a
certain extent in the structure of their nests,
they differ both from those birds and the
starlings in having no backward prolongation
of the hinder extremity of the lower mandible.
Having a strong conical beak, with the culmen projecting on to the forehead and
arched at the tip, they have the nostrils pierced within the line of the forehead or
close to it, while the space between the nostril and the edge of the mandible is

WEAVER BIRDS.

IFEA VER-BIRDS.

363

greater than that between the former ami the cuhnen ; there is never any distinct
notch in tlie ujiper mandible. The wings are somewhat rounded, with the first
primaiy cpiill very short, wliile the legs and toes are stout and strongly scaled.
The family may be divided into two groups or subfamilies, namely, tlie typical
weaver-birds, or Ploceince, in which the first primary of the wing is nearly as
long as the metatarsus, and there is a spring moult ; and the whydah birds and
their allies, or Viduinoi, in which the first primary is much shorter than the
metatarsus, and the only moult is autumnal.

The Ox-Birds and Commencing with the first or typical subfamily, we have first
their Allies, to notice the small African genus of true ox-birds, which have a rather
long, conical, and laterally compressed beak, the wings somewhat rounded and
reaching a little below the base of the tail, with the second primary quill only
a little shorter than the third and fourth, which are the longest ; the tail being of
moderate length and somewhat rounded, while the claws ai’e strong and curved.
This genus is typically represented by the common ox-bird (Textor alector) of
Western Africa, shown in the background of the figure on p. 364. This bird has
a nearly uniform shining black plumage, with the bases of the contour feathers
white, the beak being horny yellow, with its tips and edges bluish, and the feet
hlackish grey.

The red-billed black weaver (T. niger) is found in the Transvaal, Damaraland,
and the lake regions ; the possession of a red bill easily distinguishing this
large finch-like and very noisj?’ bii’d. It is gregarious in its habits, breeding in
colonies, the members of which construct many nests in a single tree. The nests
consist externally of an immense mass of dried grass, twigs, and sticks, in which
are to be found from four to six separate nests or holes of an oval form, composed
of grass only, but united to each other by intricate masses of sticks defying the
ingress of any intruder except a small snake. In each of these sepai’ate holes are
laid three or four eggs exactly resembling sparrows’ eggs, but much larger.
Curiou.sly enough, the birds roost in these nests which are used year after year,
any injury to the structure being at once repaired by all the members of the
community. Sir Andrew Smith found this bird frequenting herds of buffaloes,
and pei'ching on their backs in search of the parasitical insects which infest their
hides. Like other birds of the family, it feeds upon berries, seeds, and insects.
The general colour of the adult male is black, with the first half of each wing-
feather white ; but the young bird has some whitish patches on the neck
and breast.

White-Headed This weaver (D. leucocephala), which represents another genus.
Weaver. jg comparatively small species found in the interior of Africa and
Abyssinia. Like other members of the family, the present species is absent from
dense forests, preferring to dwell upon grass-lands in the more open portions of
the country. It is by choice somewhat gregarious, taking up its abode on
rough meadow-lands, and seeking out the neighbourhood of cattle. Although a
true weaver, it does not construct so neat a nest as most of its allies. The adult
male has the head and under-parts white, the back wings and tail chocolate-brown,
and the rump and tail-coverts scarlet ; it is depicted in the upper figure of the
illustration on the next page.

3^4

PERCHING BIRDS.

The True The true weaver-birds form the comparatively small group,

Weaver-Birds, common to East and West Africa and the Oriental region, exclusive
of the Philippine Islands. While in all the preceding genera the cuhnen of
the beak is flattened at the base and sometimes crested, in the present and
allied genera it is rounded at the base ; the true weaver-birds being specially
distinguished by having the nostrils rounded and exposed, and the claw of the

COMMON AND WHITE-HEADED OX-BIKDS liat. size).

flrst toe very strong and highly cui’ved. The genus Ploceus is confined to the
Indian and Malayan regions, and is typically represented b}’ the common weaver-
bird, or baya (F. haya) of India and Cejdon. All these bii’ds construct long
flask-shaped nests, with a tubular entrance, and lay pure white eggs.

Masked Weaver- The masked weaver-bird {Hyphaniornis larvata), of Abyssinia,
may be taken as a well-known repi’esentixtive of an exclusively
African genus, with over thirty species, which may be distinguished from the
last by the exposed oval nostrils being partly reached b}^ the plumes at
the base, and also shut in by a horny membrane. The figured species may be

IF£A VER-BIRDS.

365

reco^'nised by the scarlet iris ol tlie eye, the hlack he;ik, and greyish black legs.
It is reported to lay 2)ale bluish green eggs, with a few violet-brown spots
at the larger end. An allied species from the same district is the Abyssinian
weaver-bird (//. galinda), in which the iris is orange-brown, the beak black
(except in the breeding-plumage of the male, when it becomes horn-coloured),
and the leg llesh-coloured. A third form is the olive weaver-])ii-d (H. C(ipensis)
of South Africa. Generally living in Hocks, the members of the la.st-named
species are more numerous in the Ti-ansvaal than in Natal. According

ABYSSINIAN AND MASKED WEAVER-BIRDS (| Bat. size).

to IVIr. Ayres, they are fond of sucking the honey from the scarlet flowers
of the Cape broom. The ne.st is constructed of coarse grasses, and formed
somewhat in the shape of a chemist’s retort, with the neck cut short and the
aperture downwards ; while across the entrance runs a kind of bar to prevent the
eggs from falling out. This nest is lined with the soft flowering heads of grass,
which furnish a warm bed for the young. The eggs are of a beautiful, spotless
green colour. Mr. Layard says that these weavers become very tame in confine-
ment, and will readily answer to the call. If they are supplied with cotton or
thread, they will weave it most industriously into the bars of the cage, forming a
den.se mass which it is impossible to unravel. This work thej’ perform entirely

366

PERCHING BIRDS.

with their bills, clinging the while to the sides o£ the cage with their powerful
claws. They have a loud churring cry. The adult has the crown of the head
and the sides of the neck gamboge-yellow ; the nape, back, and rump ai-e
lemon-yellow; the back of the neck and shoulders greenish yellow; the wing-
feathers a dark purplish brown edged with yellow; the tail olive -brown tinted
with yellow ; while the throat and lower-parts are saffron -yellow.

Paradise Whydah With this exclusively African genus ( Vidua) of long-tailed and
Birds. strikingly -coloured birds we come to the second subfamily, the
distinctive characters of which have been alread}^ indicated. The paradise-
whydah birds, of which there are several species, may be taken to include all
those in which the two central pairs of tail-feathers of the males are greatly
elongated, although they are frequently subdivided into distinct genera,
according as to whether some or all of these feathers are attenuated and
wire-like. The long -tailed whydah bird (Vidua paradisea), repi’esented in
the upper part of our coloured Plate, is an inhabitant of South Africa, where
it frequents swampy ground and the long reeds about ponds. Its flight is
feeble. In the bi’eeding-season especially, when the male has assumed his
nuptial livery and long tail-feathers, the flight is so laboured that the children
constantly run them down. They are quite unable to fly against the wind, and in
rainy weather can hardly be got to move out of the thick bushes in which they
conceal themselves. The Kaflir children stretch bird-limed lines across the fields
of millet and Kaffir corn, and take great numbers of the males by their tails
becoming entangled in the lines. This bird builds its nest in long grass close to
the ground, generally placing it in a tussock of herbage, to the blades and stalks
of which it is I’oughly joined. The nest itself is rather a rough structure, composed
of fine grass lined with the seed-ends ; the opening is at the side. Mr. Bowker
states that the average number of females is as fifteen to one male. He adds that
the long tail worn by the male in tlie breeding-season is not an inconvenience ; and
the bird never seems to enjoy himself so much as during a high wind in which
he shows off’ to advantage, spreading his tail out like a fan. The male in nuptial
plumage is of a general glossy black ; the feathers of the shoulders are fulvous
and brilliant crimson, and the tail is enormously developed. The female plumage
is of a pale yellowish brown, but the wing-feathers ai’e black with pale yellowish
brown edges.

Nearly the whole of the remaining genera of the subfamily have
Bishop-Birds. .

the tail shorter than the wing ; and among these some of the most
remarkable are the gorgeously-coloured bishop-birds of Africa, a group of which is
depicted in the right lower half of our coloui’ed illustration. These birds have the
tail squared, with the two central feathers not markedly produced beyond the rest ;
while the feathering of the body is soft and velvety ; and thei’e is a distinct winter
and summer plumage, in the latter of which a frill is developed round the neck.
Among the handsomest of the group is the red bishop-bird, or red Kaffir finch
(Pyromelana oryx),oi the Cape Colony, Natal, and the Transvaal. A bird of social
habits, gathering together in immense flocks both in winter and summer, which during
the latter season appear to consist almost entirely of males in their gaudy red and
black plumage, the red bishop-bird breeds in the month of September, constructing

Jr£A VER-BIRDS.

367

It breeds in the neighbourhood of water, constructing its nest of strong grasses and
suspending it between the stalks of two or three reeds. The eggs are very pale
green, thickly marked with dark greenish brown blotches and spots. This bishop-
bird generally lives in small companies in the open fields, and feeds chiefly upon
grass seeds. The adult male has the head and uppei'-parts rich velvety black, the
rump and shoulders brilliant yellow, and the wings brown.

Sociable The birds of this genus, Philoiteriifi, which are likewise exclusively

Weaver-Birds. African, differ from the bishop-birds in having the plumage similar
throughout the year, and no frill round the neck, while they are distinguished from
several allied forms by having the nostrils clearly exposed and placed well in front
of the plumes at the base of the beak, and by the small size of the bastard-primary.

its nest of fine grass and suspending it among the reeds of the rivers. The eggs
are pure light blue. In winter the flocks of bishop-birds do much damage to the
grain-fields. It is often imported into Europe as a cage-bird. The adult male in
nuptial plumage has the upper-parts, throat, and vent, brilliant scarlet ; the wings
and tail are brown, and the forehead, cheeks, and chin black. After the breeding-
season is over, the male assumes the brown plumage of the female. Another
common bird throughout the Cape Colony is the black-and-yellow bishop-bird
(T* . capensis'), affecting alike the loneliest swamps and the homesteads of fanners.

SOCIABLE weaver-bird (J nat. size).

368

PERCHING BIRDS.

Among the four representatives of the genus the best known is the common sociable
weaver-bird (P. socius), of the interior of South Africa. This species congregates
in large flocks, many pairs incubating their eggs under the same roof, which is
composed of whole cartloads of grass piled on a branch of some camel-thorn tree
in one enormous mass of an irregular umbrella shape, looking like a miniature
haystack and almost solid, but with the under surface (which is nearly flat)
honeycombed all over with little cavities, which serve not only as places for
incubation, but also as a refuge against rain and wind. Dr. Guillemard remarks
that the nests of the sociable weaver-birds probably last for a great number of
years. They are constantly being repaired by their active little inhabitants. It is
curious that even the initiated eye is constantly being deceived by these peculiar
domed-topped structures, since at a distance they closely resemble native huts. The
nesting-chambers themselves are warmly lined with feathers. The sociable weaver-
bird subsists chiefly upon seeds, and often feeds in company with many individuals
of its own kind. The eggs are drab in ground-colour, closely speckled with purple-
grey. The male birds are somewhat pugnacious, frequently indulging in fights
with their rivals. The plumage of the adult males is drab-brown above, edged
with grey. The chin is black and the under-parts are pale isabelline brown, the
flanks being varied with black, edged with whitish.

Cut-Throat With these birds we reach a group of genera in which the

Weaver-Finches, nostrils are more or less completely hidden by the nasal plumes, and
which are specially distinguished by the tail being somewhat elongated and its
feathers narrow, as well as by the pointed tving and the swollen and rounded
bciik, in which the cutting-edge of the upper mandible is festooned near the
base. The genus Ainadina includes three African species, one (A. fasciata) having
the throat marked by a crimson band extending to the ear- coverts. This species
ranges across Central and Northern Africa, and is represented in South Africa
by another (A. erythrocephala), in which the whole of the head and throat
are red.

It would be impossible in the limits of our space to point out

The Munias. . ^ . . . ,. . ^ ^ .

how the munias are distinguished from all their allies, but it may

be mentioned that the central tail-feathers are produced and pointed, while the

whole tail is wedge-shaped. They possess a powerful, swollen, and rounded beak,

which is most strongly developed in the common Java sparrow. The wings are

moderately long ; and the tail is graduated and rounded at the extremity. Some

thirty species of munias are known, ranging through the Oriental region to New

Guinea and Timor, while several species also inhabit the African continent ;

Sharpe’s munia being a native of West Africa, while Mitnia nana is found in the

island of Madagascar. The Java sparrow is also known in Africa, but as an

introduced bird, and in Zanzibar, Mauritius, and Rtmnion, just as it has become

wild in parts of India, as at Madras and in Tenasserim.

One of the commonest of cage-birds in Europe is the well-known rice-bird,
paddy-bird, or Java sparrow (il/. oryzivora), which has long been domesticated.
Latterly, indeed, pure white specimens have been extensively bred in confinement,
and have become an article of trade, being valued for their snowy plumage, which
harmonises with their pink bills. In Java and other parts of Asia this munia is

TANAGERS.

369

The Blood The last group of the family to which we shall refer is that

Weaver -Finches, of the blood weaver-finches. These birds have the tail longer than
the wing, the inner secondaries so elongated as to equal the primaries in length,
the beak curved, and the nostrils entirely hidden by plumelets. As typically
represented by the waxbill weaver-finch {Estrilda astrilda), they take their name
from the prevalence of scarlet in their coloration, and are naturally confined to
Africa and Arabia, although some have been introduced into Madagascar and
St. Helena. There are about a dozen species.

* The Tanagers.

Family TakagriDjE.

Numerous both as regards species and genera, and brilliant in coloration, the
tanagers have been not inaptly described as dentirostral finches, since they possess

VOL. III. — 24

regarded as a pest on account of the I'avages which it inflicts upon growing fields
of rice. The nest is constructed of diy grass or other available materials, and the
eggs are white. The adult male has the crown of the head black ; the cheeks
are pure white ; the upper and lower parts, including the wings, are uniform slate
grey ; the rump and tail are black. Some individuals possess a song of consider-
able sweetness, but the usual note of this species is commonplace and unattractive.

JAVA SPARROW.

37°

PERCHING BIRDS.

:i conical, linch-like beak, triangular at the base and notched near the tip. The
notch in the beak is, however, scarcely apparent, or obsolete in some of the genera,
while in others it is greatly developed. Chiefly remarkable for their gay colours,
the tanagers feed much more upon fruits and insects than is the case with the
finches, while some members of the group possess vocal powers of a high order.
All have but nine primary quills in the wing. Exclusively American, the family
is represented by upwards of four hundred species, the majority of which are
restricted to the inter-tropical regions of Central and South America, although
a few migrate as far north as the United States in summer.

VIOLET TANAGER (liat. size).

Violet Tanager Of the six subfamilies into which the tanagers are divided by
and its Allies, gclater, the violet tanager {Eiiphonia violacea) and its allies constitute
the typical representatives of the second. In this group the beak is short, swollen
at the base, but not veiy much broadened ; while the hooked upper mandible usually
has two or three slight serrations behind the terminal notch. The wings are
moderate, with the first three primaries longer than the rest, and nearly equal in
length, while both the tail and metatarsus are short. The violet tanager is a lovely
little bird, with a rapid flight, frequenting the very tops of the trees in which it
<lwells, its soft, tuneful note often denoting its presence before the musician itself is
seen. The nest of the violet tanager is comparatively large for so small a bird,
spherical in shape, built of dry grass, the finer stems of creepers, and tufts of cotton.
The interior is lined with tufts of grass. From three to four eggs are laid in a
clutch, reddish yellow in coloui’, spotted with small brown spots. The strain of this

7'AiVAGEJ^S.

37'

tanager consists of a succession of pleasing notes, softly poured forth and long
sustained. Tlie violet tanager is a little gourmand, and feeds eagerly on ripe fruit ;
preferring soft fruits, such as bananas, and plundering the gardens .so eagerly as
sometimes to fairly strip a whole tree. It flourishes as a cage-bird if supplied with
plenty of room, fed upon an adet^uate variety of fruits, and kept in a warm room,
'rhe latter precaution is necessary, since this bird is susceptible of cold and cannot
bear frost. The adult male has the upper-parts violet ; the forehead and lower-parts
are pure yellow ; the tail-feathers are steel blue above, dark beneath. The female
lacks the ornamental colours of her partner, being of a dull olive-green above,
beneath yellowish grey.

The splendid scarlet tanagers belong to the typical subfamily, in
Scarlet Tanagers. . ii* i ^

which the beak is more lengthened and awl-like than in the last, with

a single terminal notch, which may be obsolete ; while both the tail and metatarsus

ai’e long. Of some two hundred species included in the subfamily, the typical

tanagers (Tanagra) have the plumage blue and yellow, while in the present genus

scarlet generally predominates in the coloration of the males. Writing of the species

(Pyranga rubra) in the United States, Mr. Nuttall observes that “this splendid and

transient resident, accompanying fine weather in all his wanderings, arrives in his

winter station in tropical America from the beginning to the middle of IVIa}^ and

extends his migrations probably to Nova Scotia as well as Canada. With the shy,

unsocial, and suspicious habits of his gaudy fraternity, he takes up his abode in the

deepest recesses of the forest, where, timidly flitting from observation, he darts from

tree to tree like a flashing meteor. A gaudy sylph, conscious of his brilliance, and the

exposure to which it subjects him, he seems to avoid remark, and is only solicitous

to be known to his humble mate, and hid from all beside. He thei’efore rarely

approaches the habitations of men, unless, perhaps, the .skirts of the orchard, where

he sometimes, however, builds his nest, and takes a taste of the early and inviting

though forbidden cherries.” The nest is ])uilt on the horizontal branch of some

shady forest tree, constructed of stems of dry weeds, or slender fir twigs loo.sely

framed together, lined with slender roots and wiry stems, the whole nest being so

loosely welded together as to admit the light between the interstices. The eggs

are dull blue, spotted with two or three shades of brown or purple. The female

scarlet tanager is a devoted parent, and shows great maternal solicitude for the

safety of her young. Even the male of this species has been known to follow one

of his brood for half a mile, feeding it with insects through the wires of the cage

in which it was confined. The scarl6t tanager is the “ red-bird ” of Americans.

Unfortunately, its crimson body, contrasting with wings and tail black as night,

makes it only too conspicuous an object, the never-failing bait to the greed of the

dealer in bird skins. The adult bird is uniform scarlet above, with the wings and

tail pure black. The female is far less exposed to danger than her mate, being clear

olive-green above, and below greenish yellow, with the wings and tail du.sky,

glossed with green. Adult males often show abnormal colouring, the bod}' being

yellow, orange, or flame colour, or red patches appearing on the wings.

Crimson-Headed Another gorgeously-coloured I’epi’esentative of the tanagers is the

Tanager. crimson-headed tanager (P. I udov iciana) of the M estern United States

and Mexico. In Southern Colorado i\Ir. Henshaw found this tanager in small numbers

372

PERCHING BIRDS.

among' cotton-woods along the streams, at an elevation of about seven thousand five
hundred feet, and much more abundantly among the pines, up to nine thousand
feet and even ten thousand feet above sea level. He afterwards observed that it
was common in Southern Arizona, and found it lingering along the Gila River,
even so late as the middle of October, at which time nearly all these birds had
migrated southward. As others had done, he noted the close similarity that
obtains between this and the scarlet tanager. “ It is busy the whole time gleaning
from among the pines and spruces the larger beetles and insects which infest them,
and generally keeps well up among the higher branches, whence it makes its
presence known by occasional bursts of melody.” Dr. George Suckley gave the
following account of this species : — “ The beautiful Louisiana tanager is quite
abundant in certain seasons in the vicinity of Fort Steilacoom. In 1854 but a
limited number made their appearance, while, on the contrary, in the summer of
1856 I could readily have obtained a hundred specimens. I have had frequent
opportunities of studying their habits, and have never yet seen them descend to
ground as stated by Nuttall, the reverse being the x'ule (at least at Paget
Sound) ; the difficulty being generally to find the bird sufficiently low down on
fir-tree branches to allow fine shot to reach it with any degree of certainty. . . .
The favourite habitat of the species, in those localities where I have observed it,
is among the tall, red fir trees belonging to that magnificent species, the Abies
doiKjlasl. They seemingly prefer the edges of the forest, rarely retiring to its
depths unless for concealment when alarmed. In early summer, at Fort Steilacoom,
they are generally seen during the middle of the day, sunning themselves in the
firs, occasionally darting from one of these trees to another, or to some of the
neighbouring white oaks on the prairies. Later in the season they may be seen
very actively flying about in quest of insect food for their young. Both sexes
during the breeding-season are much less shy ; the males during the daytime
frequently sitting on some low limb, rendering the scene joyous with their
delightful melody.” The eggs of this tanager are green, sparingly dotted with
very dark purplish brown.

White-Capped One of the loveliest of the family is the white-capped tanager
Tanager. (Stephanopkoriis leitcocepludus), a summer visitor to Argentina, where,
says Mr. \V. H. Hudson, “it makes its appearance in spring in the woods bordering on
the Plata River, and is usually seen singly or in pairs. The nest is built in a tree ten
or twelve feet from the ground, and is somewhat shallow and lined with soft dry
grass. The female lays four eggs, white and spotted with red. During incubation
the male sits concealed in the thick foliage close by, amusing itself by the hour
with singing, its performance consisting of chattering disconnected notes, uttered
in so low a tone as to make one fancy that the bird is merely trying to recall
some melody it has forgotten, or endeavouring to construct a new one by jerking
out a variety of sounds at random. The bird never gets beyond this unsatis-
factory stage, however, and must be admired for its exquisite beauty alone.”
Azara named this species the “ Blue White-Headed Beautiful,” and the term
was justified, for the entire plumage of both sexes is a lovely deep corn-flower
blue, surmounted by a cap of silvery-white feathers ; a crimson spot ornamenting
the forehead, looking like a drop of blood.

no XE } •- OR EE PER S.

373

The Hoxev-Creepehs.

Family C(EREBII)a:.

These birds constitute a small ^rroup of some forty species. They are allied to
the true warblers, .so closely indeed, that some of the latter possess the deeply
bifid, pencillate tongue, which was once .suppo.sed to be peculiar to the honey-
creepers. Unlike the creepers of the Old World, the honey -creepers have .soft-

WT:ST INDIAN HONEY CREEPER OR BANANA-QUIT (i nat. size).

feathered, squared tails. They are almost wholly confined to the tropical
parts of South America, only a single species ranging as far noi'th as Florida;
but they are most numerously represented in the islands of the West Indian
group.

West Indian Among the various genera of the family, we select for notice the

Honey-Creepers. West Indian honey-creepers, of which a species (Certhiola flaveola) is
represented in our illustration. The members of this genus have the beak rather
shorter than the head, stout at the base, but tapering rapidly to the extremely acute
tip, and the whole bill much curved ; the wings are long, but the tail is short and
rounded.

374

PERCHING BIRDS.

Banana-Quit.

The habits of this, the figured species, have been best described
by Gosse, in his work on the Birds of Jamaica. Scarce!}' larger
than the average size of the humming-birds, this little creeper is often seen in
company with them, probing the same flowers and for the same purpose, but
in a very different manner. “ Instead of hovei’ing in front of each blossom, a task
for which its short wings would be iitterly incompetent, the banana-quit alights
on the tree, and proceeds in the most business-like manner to peep into the flowers,
hopping actively from twig to twig, and throwing the body into all positions,
often clinging by the feet with the back downwards, the better to reach the
interior of a blossom, with its curved beak and pencilled tongue. The minute
insects which are always found in the interior of flowers are the objects of his
search and the reward of its perseverance. Unsuspectingly familiar, these birds
often resort to the blossoming shrubs of gardens and yards. A large moringa
tree, that is profusely set all the year through with fragrant spikes of bloom,
is a favourite resort of both these and the humming-birds. One within a few feet
of my window is, while I write this note, being actively scrutinised by two active
little creatures, that pursue their examination with a zeal perfectly undisturbed
by my looking on, while the same blossoms are rifled on one side by a minute
humming-bird, and on the other by that gorgeous butterfly, Urania sloaneiis — an
interesting association. The quit often utters a soft, sibilant note as it peeps
about. The nest of this bird is very frequently, perhaps usually, built in those
low trees and bushes from whose twigs depend the paper nests of the brown
wasps, and in close contiguity with them. The grass-quits are said to manifest
the same predilection ; it is a singular exercise of instinct, almost of reason, for
the object is doubtless the defence afforded by the presence of the formidable
insects, but upon what terms the league of amity is contracted between the neigh-
bours I am ignorant. It is in the months of May, June, and July that the creeper
performs the business of incubation. On the 4th of May I observed a banana-quit
with a bit of silk-cotton in her beak, and on searching foiind a nest just commenced
in a sage-bush. The structure, though but a skeleton, Avas evidently about to be
a dome, and so far was constructed of silk-cotton. Since then I have seen several
completed nests. One before me is in the form of a globe, with a small opening
below the side. The walls are very thick, composed of dry grass, intermixed
irregularly with down.” The eggs are greenish white, speckled with reddish at
the larger end. In colour the upper-parts of this species are dark brown, with a
conspicuous white eyebrow ; the breast and the rest of the under-parts being
bright vellow.

II. A. IMACPHERSOX.

[Note. — The account of those faniilie.s to which an asteri.sk is prefixed has been entirely or in great j)art
written by the Editor.]

GROUP OF FINCHES.

1, Hawfinch ; 2, Greenfinch ; 3, Linnet; 4, Brambling ; 5, Chaffinch.

CHAPTER III.

The Perching-Birds, — continued.

The Finche.s.

Family Fringillid.E.

The iinclies comprise a large number of genera of small hard-billed and seed-eating
birds, distributed over the northern and temperate regions of both the Eastern
and Western Hemispheres, although unknown in Australia. The}’ are characterised
by the smooth edges of the mandibles ; the doubly laminated hinder-surface of the
metatarsus ; the presence of nine primary quills of which the first and second
are approximately equal in length ; while the secondary quills reach about
three-quarters the length of the wing. The tail has twelve feathers ; the beak is
more or less conical in shape, with the nostrils pierced close to the line of the fore-
head, and near the culmen ; and the bristles at the rictus of the gape are few and
short. The lower mandible has no backward prolongation behind the quadrate
bone. In the nestling the plumage is variable ; and the sexes are generally unlike.
By Mr. Oates the finches are divided, from the chai’acters of the skull and beak,
into three subfamilies, of which the first is

The Grosbeak Group.

Subfamily COCCOTHRAUSTIh\K

A general stoutness of beak is accompanied in this group by marked develop-
ment in the depth of the lower mandible ; many of the species, such as the evening
grosbeak of North America, being noticeable for the beauty of their coloration.
The members of the grosbeak group are inhabitants of the northern regions of
both the Old and New Worlds, and extend as far south as India.

These birds have the bill moderately stout and I’ather acute ;
the distance between the nostrils being equal to the depth of the
mandible. Green and yellow predominate in the plumage. The greenfinches
inhabit the whole of Europe, as well as North-West Africa, Palestine, and
Turkestan ; while they are also represented in Eastern Siberia, J apan, and China.
The common greenfinch (Ligurinus chloris) is fond of gardens and small planta-
tions, especially during the summer, when its monotonous song is heard at intervals
throughout the day. It has, however, some soft and plaintive notes which, once
heard, will always be remembered with pleasure. Nor is this bird devoid of

Greenfinches.

378

PERCHING BIRDS.

imitative talent, becoming excessively tame and confiding, and having been known
to reproduce the song of the canary. Yarrell states that the greenfinch is a late
breeder, but while fresh eggs may sometimes be found in a nest as late as the month
of September, we once saw a newly-fledged greenfinch taking short flights from
hough to bough as early as the 19th May. The greenfinch builds a coarse, untidy
nest of fibrous I'oots, moss, and wool, lined with finer roots, horse-hair, and a few
feathers. A remarkable combination of two nests of the greenfinch built on a single
platfoi’in, and placed in a large ornamental heath, is recorded by Gurney. The
greenfinch is fond of bvxilding in the neighbourhood of water, hence the young birds
occasionally tumble out of the nest and are drowned. The eggs are white, spotted
with reddish brown and grey. The greenfinch not unfrequently pairs with the canarj'
in confinement ; and in a wild state occasionally mates with the goldfinch. The
liybrids resulting fi'om the latter cross most resemble the greenfinch in shape and
colour, but the head and wings never fail to show the goldfinch blood. The gi-een-
finch also interbreeds with the linnet, and in confinement has produced offspring
by pairing with the bullfinch and twite. During the autumn greenfinches range
the fields in large flocks, feeding on the seeds of wild mustard and many other pests
of the husbandman. The male greenfinch is olive-yellow above, overshaded with
ashy grey; the under surface of the body being yellow. The South European form
is smaller and brighter than the birds which breed in the British Isles and Northern
Europe. Yellow, black, white, and cinnamon varieties of the greenfinch have come
under our notice.

The hawfinches are readily distinguished by their large and
Hawfinches. . . j ^ j t>

clumsy bills, which are adapted to enable them to feed upon hard

kernels. Hawfinches are found in suitable localities throughout Europe and Siberia.
The Japanese form is paler and lighter in colour than the European (C'occofArawsfcs
vidgaris) ; while Hume’s hawfinch {C. hiimei) is an Indian species, differing from
the Eui’opean birds in having a lighter and less richly-coloured head, and by the
sides of the body being pale tawny or orange-brown instead of vinaceous. The
hawfinch is a well-known bird in many parts of Europe, and is locally disti'ibuted
over England, although rarely visiting Scotland, and uncommon in Ireland.
It frequents the skirts of forests, especially where hornbeam flourishes, since it
feeds on the seeds of that tree. Seldom seen in open country, it resides in
gardens and orchards, especially during the summer months ; its flight being
rapid and undulating. The male should be seen in bright sunshine, if his beauty
of plumage is to be appreciated ; the light being admirably adapted to burnish
up his deep brown back and blue-black wings. The hawfinch is a shy bird, and
seldom courts attention ; when alarmed, its first action is to crouch close to the
Ixranch upon which it happens to be perching, so as, if possible, to escape un-
noticed. Mr. Seebohm remarks that “ the hawfinch is not much of a songster.
It has few notes, which can scarcely be called more than a low chatter. There is
nothing very striking in its performance ; but when several are twittering away
together the general effect is very pleasant. Its call-note is said to resemble the
well-known zk of the greenfinch. The hawfinch pairs about the middle of April,
and its nest is rarely built before the trees are in full foliage. The site of the nest
differs considerably. A favourite place is in the apple or pear-trees in an orchard.

FINCHES.

379

or in iin old whitethorn often in quite an exposed situation; and when it breeds
in woods it sometimes selects a hornbeam, and less frecpiently a holly. The haw-
finch does not often breed in shrubberies, and its nest is somewhat rarely placed
in evergreen trees ; but it has been found amongst ivy. It will also breed in tall
oak-trees, and occasionally nests in fir-trees and plantations. Sometimes the nest
is only a few feet from the ground, while at others it is as much as foi-ty feet.
Building is usually commenced by the latter end of April or early in i\Iay, and
sometimes several nests will be found in the same plantation. The nest is a very
beautiful piece of handiwork, similar to that of the bullfinch, on an enlarged scale.
The outside is invariably made of twigs, frequently intermixed with lichens, and
sometimes with dry plants ; and the cup is formed of dry grasses lined with fine
roots, and often a little hair. As a rule it is very flat, and somewhat bulky, and
the cup is generally shallow and neatly finished. The eggs vary fi-om four to six
in number, and are usually laid about the second week in May, sometimes earlier.
There are two very distinct types ; the usual one is pale olive or bluish green in
ground-colour, streaked with dark olive-brown, and having a few spots of the
same colour on the surface, and with underlying mai-kings of greyish brown. The
second differs in having the ground-colour buff, and the underlying spots more
inclined to violet-gi'ey.” During the autumn the broods of young hawfinches lead
a family life, making frequent inroads into the kitchen gardens to feed upon peas ;
the pods of which are easily opened by their powerful mandibles. In winter the
hawfinch sometimes conquers its shyness sufficiently to approach houses, and even
to partake of crumbs thrown upon the lawn ; but this is in hard weathei-, when the
l)irds are driven to extremities. It should be noted that the injuries inflicted on
the garden are compensated by the destruction which the hawfinch carries out
among noxious insects ; its food during the early months of the summer consisting
j)rincipally of caterpillars. The general colour of the adult male is chocolate-brown
above, with a broad collar of ash-grey separating the crown of the head from the
mantle ; the lower-back, rump, and upper tail-coverts are cinnamon-brown ; the
wings black, glossed with steel blue at the end of the square-shaped inner
primaries and outer secondaries ; the primaries have a large spot of white about
the middle of the inner web ; the tail-feathers are blackish, edged with brown,
the outer feathers being tipped with white on the inner web ; while the throat
is black, and the lower-parts vinaceous brown.

Rose-Breasted In these birds the bill is very heavy, the lower mandible being

Grosbeak, etc. ^s deep as the upper ; the wing is longer than the tail, and pointed,
the secondaries falling short of the primaries by more than the length of
the metatarsus, while the feet are short and stoxtt. These birds are found
in North America generally, ranging throughout Central America to Colombia,
Ecuador, and the Antilles. The common rose-breasted grosbeak (Hedyrades
rirginianus) is well known in the United States, where it is valued for its
handsome plumage and charming song. Dr. Coues gives the following account
of its habits : — “ I have nowhere found this beautiful bird more abundant than
along the Ked River of the north, and there may be no locality where its
nidification and breeding-habits can be studied to greater advantage. On
entering the belt of noble timber that borders the river in June, we are sure

380

PERCHING BIRDS.

to be saluted with the rich, rolling song of the rose-breasted male ; and, as
we penetrate into the deeper recesses, pressing through the stubborn luxui-iance
of vegetation into the little shady glades that the bird loves so well, we may
catch a glimpse of the shy and retiring female darting into concealment, dis-
turbed by our approach. She is almost sure to be followed the next moment
by her ardent spouse, solicitous for her safety, and bent on reassuring her by his

RED CARDINAL AND ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK (§ nat. size).

pre.sence and caresses. Sometimes during this month, as we enter a grove of saplings,
and glance carefully overhead, we may see the nest placed but a few feet from the
ground in the fork of a limb. The female, alarmed, will flutter away stealthily,
and we may not catch another glimpse of her nor of her mate, even though we
hear them both anxiou.sly consulting together at a little distance. The nest is not
such an elegant affair as might be desired ; it is in fact bulky and rude, if not
actually slovenly. It is formed entirely of the long, slender tortuous stems of
woody climbers and similar stout rootlets ; the base and outer walls being very

DESERT FINCH and DESERT

FINCHES.

381

Red Cardinals.

loosely interlaced, the inner more compactly woven, with a tolerablj' firm l)rim of
circularly disposed fibres. Sometimes there is a little horsehair lining, oftener not.
The eggs are of a light and rather pale green colour, profusely speckled with dull
reddish brown.” The summer range of this groslieak extends to Labrador. The
general colour of the adult male is black above ; the lower back and rump lieing
pure white, slightly mottled with black tips ; the wings black, with the secondaries
tipped with white ; the tail-feathers black, the three outer ones marked with white,
on the inner web ; the crown of the head, lores, the sides of the neck, and throat
are black ; the fore-neck and chest ai’e beautified with a large patch of rose-colour,
extending in a line down the centre of the breast ; the breast and flanks are white,
the thighs spotted with black; and the under wing-coverts rose-colour. This
beautiful dress is only gradually assumed, three years being needed for the assump-
tion of the perfect adult male plumage.

The red cardinals have the bill very large and stout, pointed, and
conical ; the wings very short and rounded, and the tail longer than the
wings, and rounded ; while a long crest is present. They offer an instance, not very
common among birds, of a group in which the males are nearly all alike, so that the
specific characters depend upon the females. There can, however, be no doubt about
the differences in the latter ; although the males differ from one another mainly in
intensity of coloui’, and to a slight extent in sizes. The most brilliant forms appear
to be those from tropical localities. These birds are found in the United States,
ranging south into Mexico and British Honduras. One of the best known of North
American birds is the common red cardinal, or Virginian nightingale {Cardinalis
virginianus). Dr. Coues says that this cardinal inhabits by choice, thickets,
tangle, and undergrowth of all kinds, whence issue its rich, rolling, whistling
notes, while the performer, brightly clad as he is, often eludes obsei’vation by his
shyness, vigilance, and activity. The nest, built loosely of bark-strips, twigs, leaves,
and grasses, is placed in a bush-vine or low, thick tree; and in this the cardinal
lays rather a peculiar egg, some specimens recalling those of a night-hawk’s, in
coloration at least, while others are more like those of the rose-brea.sted gro.sbeak in
the pattern of markings. While the ground-colour was white in all of about fifty
cases noticed, the spotting is of every shade of brown, from pale reddish to heavy
chocolate ; but it is usually rather dark, and there is a great show of the various
purplish brown or stone -grey markings. The typical form of the \ irginian
niglitingale ranges westward from the Eastern United States to Kansas, ^vebraska,
the Indian Territory, and Texas ; where it may be either stationary or slightly
migi’atory. A smaller form is found in Eastern Mexico, which is a deeper red, being
of a rich rosy scarlet. The Californian form has a larger bill than the type, and is
rather smaller in size ; the black mask on the face not being continued across the
forehead. From Western Mexico there comes a form similar to the last, but smaller,
and of a much more rosy red, the crest feathers being elongated and stiffened. The
adult male of the typical form is deep scarlet-vermilion, or rosy-red above, with the
forehead, chin, and upper throat black; the wings dusky, externally rosy, and the
under surface rich vermilion. The female is dull ochreous brown above ; the long,
crested feathers, wings, and tail being dull vermilion, and the under -parts bufl,
washed with vermilion.

382

PERCHING BIRDS.

The True Finches.

The Chaffinches.

Subfamily FrIXGILLIX.^.

The true finches are distinguished from the grosbeak group by their less
powerful bills, and different cranial characters ; and although their bills arc
variously modified to meet their manner of life, on the whole they possess many
common characteristics. They are found principally in temperate climates.

Chaffinches possess a rather long and slender bill, conical in shape ;
and the wings are furnished with a first primary so small as to seem
wanting, the rest of these feathers varying in their comparative length. The tail
is moderately long and decidedly forked. These finches inhabit Europe generally, as
well as Western Siberia, Persia, Turkestan, Madeira, and the Canaries and Azores.

Common The common chaffinch {Frill gilla ccelehs), is abundant in most parts

Chaffinch. of Europe, being in some districts even more plentiful than the house-
sparrow. In the British Isles, as on the Continent, it is a general favourite, nesting
in close proximity to dwelling-houses, and rearing its young almost under the
windows. During the winter, chaffinches consort in large flocks, which break up
at the close of the cold weather, when their familiar notes enliven groves and
orchards with their melody. In early .spring the chaffinch begins to pair,
when the male birds are no longer tolerant of the society of their fellows, but
exhibit a high degree of jealousy towards their rivals. Even in the middle of
June we have seen cock-birds engaged in combat, although such contests usually
precede the nesting-season. The chaffinch builds its nest in a fruit-tree or tall
hedgerow ; and we recollect one nest built on the trunk of a large tree, which
looked as if it had been placed there by accident rather than by design, so exactly
did its grey trimming hannonise with the colour of the bark. ]\Ir. Gray remarks
that the chaffinch “ varies the structure of its nest according to the locality which
it happens to frequent. In rural places, away from the dust and smoke prevailing
near cities and large towns, the nest is a perfect model in its way for neatness and
compactness of form ; l)ut in less favourable situations, where the building materials
are not so fresh, it is slovenly and untidy. Any large series of nests gives ample
proof of this, some being composed entirely of moss closely interwoven, others of
lichens laced all over with spider.s’ webs, while those obtained in the outskirts of
Glasgow are built of dirty straws, pieces of paper, and bits of blackened moss
intermixed.” Mr. Dresser describes a nest which he took in Finland as being of
the mo.st artistic structure. It was placed upon a birch-tree, and neatly ornamented
with pieces of yellow and grey lichens and small bits of birch-bark, so as to
resemble a portion of the tree itself ; and was finally most carefully lined with soft
moss and bits of down and wool, through which some fine roots showed every here
and there. A remarkable nest found in Denmark was decorated all over the
outside with small pieces of newspaper. The eggs of the chafirinch are generally
purplish grey in ground-colour, washed with green, and blotched and spotted with
dark red ; but we have seen perfectly blue, unspotted eggs, although this variety
is rare. The chaffinch feeds during the spring and summer months principally
upon insects, and we have watched a male chaffinch gathering aphides from off the

FINCHES.

383

under surface of tlie leaves of some beeches, clinging heail downwards like a tomtit.
A trait noticed in a village on the Rhine was that the chaffinches to a large extent
deserted the shelter of the trees when singing, preferring at such times to occupy
a more conspicuous position upon some cottage roof, or the gable of a barn. The
chaffinch is to a large extent a bird of passage, moving from one part of the
country to another, according to the supply of food and the condition of the
weather. In the breeding-season isolated pairs of chaffinches may be foinid
nesting in localities little adapted by natural circumstances to afford them a home,
as, for example, when a pair of these birds elect to take up their summer quarters
beside some northern farm where they have to perch upon the stone walls in
default of timber; but the chaffinch is a bird of resource, and if hard pressed will
even nest upon the ground. The young birds frequently associate together as
early as the middle of July, the sexes then being hardly distinguishable. The
chaffinch is a fairly early nester ; and we have known the young to fly as early as
the 19th of May even in the West Highlands, although they do not usually hatch
before the last days of that month. On the Continent we have found the chaffinch
plentiful on mountain-ranges of moderate elevation, as in Central France and the
Black Forest. In Switzerland it is a common bird about the summer chalets,
descending into the plains before severe weather sets in. The chaffinch is subject
to considerable variation of plumage ; and some few years ago we saw an entirely
yellow specimen, which was identified by the discovery of a tiny patch of pink
feathers on the breast. We have also seen others of a uniform bright yellow, and
others again of a very light cinnamon. The male in summer has the mantle, back,
and scapulars, chestnut-brown, the wing-coverts white, or black tipped with white ;
the quills black margined with pale olive-yellow ; the inner primaries white at the
base, forming a speculum ; the secondaries white at the base, forming a band with
white tips to the grey covei’ts ; forehead black, the crown slaty blue, the chin and
breast pale vinous red, and the lower-parts vinous white. The female is ashy
bi'own above washed with olive-yellow, the wings being conspicuously pied with
white, and the lower-parts are ashy brown.

Teydean This chaffinch {F. teydea) is peculiar to Teneriffe, inhabiting the

Chaffinch. dreary heights of the Peak and surrounding plateaux. It frequents
the pine-forests, feeding on the seeds of the pines, and breaking the cone with its
powerful beak in order to get at its contents. The note of this bird is plaintive
and often repeated, and bears some resemblance to that of the serin finch. A
somewhat rare species, and only occurring on the lower grounds when driven by
a heavy fall of snow from its usual haunts, this chaffinch is known to the goat-
herds, tending their flocks in the highest parts of the mountain. The adult male
has the entire upper-parts rich dark blue ; the wings and tail black, edged with
slate blue ; and the under-parts blue, fading into dull white on the abdomen. In
the female bird, the blue garb of the male is replaced by dull gre3dsh brown.

The brambling (F. montifringilla) is one of the characteristic
birds of the northern parts of the Old World, nesting in the forest-
regions of the Arctic circles, whence it journe\’s to winter in Southern Europe,
Persia, and even India. In Siberia, Dr. Radde states that “ the brambling remains
occasionally during the summer and breeds there. On the IGth Ma^^ 1859 I found

Brambling.

3^4

PERCHING BIRDS.

it not far from Tunkinsk ; and on the 14th July 1855 I met with a family of them
a few versts above the village of Kotchiidkowa, the young birds of which were
fledged. The male then killed was in moult, the ci’own being almost featherless.
Only a few visit the high steppes of Dauria in spring ; thus, for instance, a male
was shot in the hedge of the kitchen garden at Kulssutayefsk ; on the other
hand they were numerous during the autumn migration at the Tarei-Nor. On
the 15th of August I saw only a few males, on the 16th only a female; and
on the 26th large flocks, consisting of young birds of both sexes, arrived. On
the 30th they increased in numbers and frequented the neighbourhood of the
kitchen garden. Later, when the night frosts set in, they took refuge at night in

the high reeds which grow round the
ponds. Here they remained till the
11th of September; but then the large
flocks were wanting, and I only saw
stragglers up to the 15th of September.”
Usually the brambling lays a larger
number of eggs than any other of the
finches, seldom less than six and more
generally seven ; and when compelled to
leave its nest to seek food, or for any
other purpose, the bird is in the habit
of covering its eggs, which are laid late
in May or early in June. According to
Mr. Collett the brambling generally
builds in a birch or spruce close to the
main stem, and about six or seven yards
from the ground. The nest is con-
structed like that of the chaffinch, but generally more of moss. The eggs
closely resemble those of the chaffinch ; but in the latter the general colour
is greyish brown, not greyish blue, and the spots are smaller. Gould states that all
the nests which he observed were composed of green mosses and fine, dried grass,
interwoven with cobwebs and externally decorated with flat pieces of white lichen
and thin threads of birch bark. They were lined with fine wool and some feathers
of the white grouse ; but we have seen quite a variety of feathers in the nests of
these birds, including those of the nutcracker. During the autumn considerable
numbers of bramblings cross the North Sea to winter in the British Isles ; their
arrival being usually heralded by the reiteration of their harsh call-note. They
frequent stubble-fields and farm-yards in common with chaffinches, greenfinches,
and sparrows, but prefer to subsist upon beech-mast. The adult male in breeding-
plumage has the general colour above blue-black, with generally a few sandy
margins to the feathers ; the lower back and rump being white, the wing-coverts
orange-rufous, tipped with white ; the wing-quills black, the primaries being edged
with pale yellow, and the inner ones white at the base forming a speculum, the
tail-feathers are black, with the outer pair broadly white for more than half the
outer web ; the crown and sides of the face ai’e black ; the throat and breast
pale orange-rufous, and the flanks spotted with black.

FINCHES.

385

Goldfinch.

The goldfinch {Cardiiells elegans) occupies an intermediate
position between the true finches and the siskins, to the latter of
which it is so closely allied that by many it is included in the same genus. To
point out its distinctive generic characters is unnecessary ; while, as tlie bird is so
well known, its description may likewise be omitted. The goldfinch is locally
distributed all over England, and

THE GOLD^T^•CH.

its breedins: - range extends
Norway as far north as latitude,

C5°, and in the Urals to 00'’. It
is a partial migrant in the ex-
treme north of its range ; it is a
resident in Madeira, the Canaries,

North-West Africa, Syria, Asia
Minor, and Persia, but it only
visits Egypt and Turkestan in
winter. The nest, although some-
what smaller, is very like that of
the chaffinch. Mr. Seebohm writes
that “ it is often made of moss,
lichens, vegetable-down, fine roots,
and grass-stems, and lined plenti-
fully with feathers and down and a few long hairs. Nests taken in Greece and
Asia Minor were almost entirely made of stems of a plant with round flat seed-
cases attached, strengthened by rootlets, and lined with vegetable down. . . . The
eggs are four or five in number, and are laid by the middle of May. They are
greenish white in ground-colour, spotted and streaked with purplish brown, and
with underlying markings of violet-grey.” In Eastern Asia the genus is re2)re-
sented by the Eastern goldfinch (C. orientalis).

This group comprehends a number of small finches, characterised
by the possession of a long and acute bill, long wings, and a short,
deeply-forked tail ; green and yellow predominating in their plumage. All are
highly gregarious in habits. They belong to both the Old and New Worlds,
having representatives in Abyssinia, the Himalaya, Siberia, the United States,
and especially South Amexdca, where several species are found in Chili, Bolivia,
Ecuador, and other parts of that continent.

One of the most charmirifr birds of the United States is the

yellow-bird or American siskin (Cht'ysomitris tristis), which is also
common in many parts of Canada. It is a lively, graceful species, full of vivacity,
and leads a social life, roving about in small communities. Even in the breeding-
season these birds are partial to the company of their fellows, and fly in flocks
between their nest and their favourite feeding-grounds, where they consume
the seeds of various wild plants. The nest is small and compact, built of soft,
downy substances. The eggs are white, with a rosy blush when fresh. After the
breeding-season, the family parties unite permanently, and rove over the prairies
in search of weedy places where they can find subsistence. The adult male in
summer is bright golden yellow above and btdow ; the crown and wings being

VOL. III. — 25

The Siskins.

American Siskin.

386

rERCHING BIRDS.

black, the great covei’ts tipped with white ; and the tail black, spotted with white.
In September the general plnmage changes to jxile flaxen brown above, and whitish
l)rown below.

From Japan to the British Isles the common siskin ((' spinus)

Common Siskin. .„

is lonnd in suitable localities, breeding chiefly in the northern part
of its range. During the breeding-season the cock -birds are restless and lively,
singing nearly all day, generally while on the wing, and sending their joyous call-
notes ringing through the air. The nest is very like that of the goldfinch, although

CITRIL FINCH, SNOW-FINCH, AND LESSF.R REDPOLL Iiat. size).

not so neat ; the one example that has come iuider our notice having been placed
in a fir-tree about twelve feet from the ground. Although only occasionally nesting
in England, the siskin breeds regularly in Scotland ; and it has been recorded as
breeding in Ireland. In winter it frequents alder groves, living in flocks, and
searching the catkins for their seeds; and we have also seen it feeding on thistle-
heads an<l the see<ls of wild grasses. It occasionally intex’pairs with the lesser
redpoll and gohlfinch in confinement. The general colour of the male siskin is
yellowish green above, the rump being bright yellovy ; the (piills are blackish, the

FfXCffES.

387

Citril Finch.

primaries bcin^ edged witli briglit yellow ; the tail-feathers are blackish, edged
with yellow, and all hut the central feathers yellow at the base; the chin is black,
and the throat and breast are bl ight yellow.

.\ less well-known member of the siskin group is the citril finch
(('. clfrinelld), which is an inhabitant of the Tyrol, many parts of
Switzerland, Greece, and other districts in the south of Europe. Avoiding the
plains, this bird generally nests among pine-forests, as far as possible from human
habitations. In the Jura, Mr. Scott Wilson states that after some search his party
at length discovered a nest of this finch “ placed high up in a spruce-fir, at the
extreme end of a branch. The chdsseur climbed up, and brought down the nest
with three eggs. This nest, which contained several feathers of the nutcracker,
was cup-shaped, and constructed chiefly of dry grass stems, moss, and thistle-down,
woven together with fine roots and hair, lined with thistle-down and feathers.
Another nest contained no feathers, being lined entirely with thistle-down. A
third was lined entirely with hair, and very little thistle-down had been used
in its construction.” The eggs are greenish blue in ground-colour, speckled with
reddish grey and blood-re<l. The citril finch is a favourite among continental bird
fanciers, being easily tamed, and occasionally hybridising with other finches in
captivity. Although it passes the summer among the mountain forests, it descends
from the higher grounds during severe weather. It is valued as a cage-bird,
principally because it possesses a loud, pleasant song, sometimes compax’ed to that
of the canary. The adult male in breeding-plumage has the general colour above
dull olive-green, with dusky shaft-streaks to the feathers ; the rump and upper
tail-coverts being brighter yellow ; the nape and sides of the throat are ashy grey ;
the wings and tail dusky brown, edged with ashy yellow ; and the crown of the
head, as well as the feathei'S I'ound the eye, the fore-part of the cheeks, and the
throat and chest olive-yellow.

The linnets have a hard and conical bill, a somewhat pointed
wing, the tail rather long and forked, the metatarsus short, and the
toes stout. They are also characterised by the possession of a nearly uniform
brown or whitish brown plumage, generally associated to some small extent with
pale crimson. Chiefly found in the northern parts of the Old World, they are
also represented in the Arctic portions of North America.

The common linnet (Linaria cannabma) inhabits most parts of
Europe, being genei’ally common from Spain eastwards to Central
Asia, although assuming brighter plumage in Turkestan and other distant parts of
its range. The linnet in England frequents commons covered with gorse, in which
its nest is often placed ; but sometimes it nests in a hedge or small ti’ee. Generally
an early breeder, we have seen the young in the nest as late as the month of
August. It builds a loose, untidy nest of fine twigs and fibres lined with hail-,
wool, and sometimes a few feathers, in which it lays from four to six eggs of a
greenish white ground-colour, blotched with red. After the breeding-season linnets
range through the fields in vast flocks, often composed of one sex almost exclusiv^ely.
As autumn advances, many of the linnets that have been bred in the English
woodlands cross the sea to other countries ; while others again join company
with bands of greenfinches in search of food. The linnet is fre(iuently white

Linnets.

Conamon Linnet.

388

PERCHING BIRDS.

or pied, but the most beautiful variety is of a cinnamon-brown which harmonises
with the rose-coloured breast. The male linnet is wai’in reddish brown above ;
the foreliead, fore-neck, and chest, being ci’imson ; and the breast and under-parts
dull bully white.

T>y some ornithologists tlie lesser redpoll (/>. ruf(;.scen.s) is
regarded as a variety of the mealy redpoll {L. livarld) of Northern
Eui’ope, the former being chiefly confined as a breeding species to the British Isles
and parts of the Alps, though it has also nested on the island of Heligoland. The
lesser redpoll is an early breeder, selecting a variety of trees to contain its nest,
including alder, hazel, crab, birch, willow, and walnut ; as many as five nests

The RedpoUs.

having been seen at once in a single hawthorn hedge.

The height from the ground

Snow-Finches.

at which the nest is placed varies from four to twenty feet ; and the composition
of the nest also varies, the exterior generally consisting of moss and dried grass,
with a lining of beautiful down from the catkin of the willow ; but we have seen
nests composed of dead hr twigs, and others built of hawthorn stems. The nest is
often lined with hue grass and hairs, together with a few feathers ; but one was
composed exclusively of cotton-waste.

Much less liable to exhibit white or pied phases of plumage than the linnet,
the lesser redpoll is occasionally of a nearly uniform cinnamon-brown. In captivity
it interbreeds with the canary, but the ofispring of this cross are small and
insignihcant brown birds, devoid of the hne musical powers which most canary
males possess. The mealy redpoll is light brown above, with dark centres to the
feathers ; the forehead being dark crimson, while the throat and breast are suffused
with rosy pink, especially in the breeding-season. The small insular form of
redpoll, which for many years was supposed to breed only in Great Britain, differs
from the former bird in being smaller and of a more reddish colour. The sexes
are generally alike, but the female does not assume the rosy tint upon the breast.

The snow-finches form a small group possessing the characteristic
form of the true finches, but with the long wings falling short of
the tail by less than the length of the metatansus. Chocolate or reddish brown
appears to predominate in the plumage of this group, often associated with rose-
colour, but the type of the genus is conspicuously pied with white. Snow-finches
are chiefly found in the mountains of Central Asia, but some species range over
the northern parts of Siberia, Japan, and Northern China. The best known
is the common snow-finch, of the mountains of Southern Europe, and ranging
eastwards to Palestine, but replaced in Persia, Turkestan, and Afghanistan by the
eastern snow-finch.

Common The common .snow-finch {Montifringilla nivalis) breeds in the

Snow-Finch, highest regions of the mountain ranges of Central Europe, adapting
its habits to the desolate regions in which it pa.sses the .summer ; and we owe to
Mr. Scott Wilson the following account of its habits. “ It was observed at a greater
height than any other Alpine bird. At the foot of the Lammern glacier, seven
thousand six hundred feet, we found it breeding at the summit of the Furka Pass,
as well as at the Gemmi. It lays about the end of May or the beginning of June,
at a time when the ground in these Alpine regions is entirely covered with snow ;
from which cause I suppose it is obliged to place its nest under the roofs of

FINCHES.

389

buildings, or, wliere there are no buildings, in rocks which do not hold the snow,
the former not only affording them a dry nesting-place, hut one which also protects
the nest from the storms of snow and sleet, which have by no means ceased to fall
by the end of ]\Iay. A nest obtained on the Furka is principally made of dry
grass-stalks, intermingled with which are tufts of hair, wool, leaves, shavings of
wood, and a few feathers. The inside walls are lined with ptarmigan’s feathers,
both white and brown, these being woven together very compactly with horsehair,
and in a nest before me also with strands of green worsted. The bottom of the
nest is not lined with feathers. The outside diameter, which is nearly round, is
8| inches; the inside diameter inches; thus the inside cup is small in proportion.
The eggs are pure white, and from three to five in number.” Mr. Wilson adds that
the snow-finches in winter descend from the Alpine regions to the lower valleys.
The snow-tiuch is a beautiful bird, rather larger than the greenfinch or sparrow,
with long wings, in which the primaiy quill-feathers are much longer than the rest,
as in some other birds of airy and graceful flight. The strong contrast of jet-black
and purest white in the plumage, notably in the tail, which has two black feathers
in the middle, while the rest are as white as snow, makes the bird conspicuous at a
long distance, and a more striking object than the browner snow-bunting, which
occasionally strays from the north to the Alps. There are few more beautiful
sights than the wheelings and whirlings of a flock of snow-finches, with their white
feathers glistening in the sun one moment, while the next their black ones will
show clear against the snow. The adult snow-finch has the upper-parts brown,
with light edgings to the feathers ; the hind-neck and sides of the neck are ashy
grey ; the wings and tail are black and white, some of the feathers being edged
with brown ; Avhile the lower-parts are white throughout.

This group has been found to contain the palest forms of the
ro.se-finches, the only two species known being inhabitants of desert
countries. The bill is short and much arched, with both mandibles much curved.
The wings are very long, reaching within a third of an inch of the end of the tail,
when closed, and the metatarsus is comparatively long. The plumage of both
sexes is grey or brown, suffused with pink. The common desert-finch (Erythro-
spiza githaginea), the western representative of the genus, is found in the Canaries,
the Sahara, and Egypt, extending eastwards through Afghanistan and Baluchistan
to the Punjab, while the Mongolian desert-finch {E. mongolica) inhabits the deserts
of Central Asia, extending its range eastwards into Western China.

The common desert- finch is an inhabitant of the most sterile regions. Its habits
in the Canaries have been described by Dr. Bolle, who writes that “ it is always
found in sociable little groups, when the cares of the breeding-season do not keep
it solitary. The cheerful little bird dances from stone to stone, or glides about
near the ground ; but seldom can our sight follow it far into the landscape, for the
reddish grey feathers of the old bird mix closely with the colours of the stones
and leafless stems and twigs of euphorbia, as the buff of the j'oung does with the
pale yellow of the sand or chalk. We should lose it if its voice, which is one of
its most striking peculiarities, did not guide us to it. Listen ! A n(.)te like that of
a small trumpet trembles through the air and vibrates continuously ; and if we are
very attentive, we shall hear, just before and just after it, two gentle, light notes.

Desert-Finches.

39°

PERCHING BIRDS.

ringing like silver bells through the still desert, or tlie almost imperceptible choi’ds
of an harmonium played by unseen hands. Again it changes, and this time its
notes resemble the deep croak of the green frog of the Canaries, but less coarse,
hastily rejieated one after another. . . . The desert-tinch does not appear frequently
on the steep, rocky hills. ... It is much more partial to the black lava-streams of
the desert, which, full of gaping rents and chasms, hardly permits a blade of grass
to become green. They feed entirely or almost so on the seeds either of grasses,
which are found like a mealy kind of bread in their stomachs when killed, or the
oily seeds of composite and cruciferous plants, which they shell, like other finches,
by moving them most carefully backwards and forwards between the mandibles of
their strong beaks.” This bird will also eat tender young leaves, Mr. Hume having
observed it in Sind feeding in desert places in patches of mustard and other
cultivation. It cannot long dispense with water, and must often fly some miles
daily to get it ; and the presence of these finches in the desert is always a good
omen for the thir.sty traveller. “ I have constantly seen them,” continues our author,
“ fly to drink in flocks. They drink much at a time in long draughts, between
which they lift up their heads. After drinking they are very fond of bathing. I
have never seen them roll about in the dust like sparrows. The breeding-time
begins in IVIarch, and like those of most true desert-birds the nest is well concealed,
and witli such foresight that it can hardly ever be found. ... I know, however,
from the goat-herds of Fuertaventura, that the moras, as they are called there,
build in crevices under large overhanging stones upon the ground. The nest has a
tolei’ably strong texture, and is woven with the coarse straws of the desert-grass
and lined within with great feather.s, mostly of the ostrich and bustard, as well as
the wool of the camel and hair of the goat. The number of eggs is fi'om three to
five. . . . They are rather large for the bird, pale sea-green, or lighter, with small
spots and points of reddish brown. These finches certainly breed twice, if not more
frequently. The second moult takes place in July.” The desert-finch occasionally
strays from its southern home into the ^Mediterranean region. The adult male in
the breeding-season has the upper plumage, including the crown, ashy grey ; the
forehead, cheeks, rump, and all the lower plumage of a beautiful rose-pink;
and the wings and tail brown, edged with rose-pink. The female is similar, but
with all her tints duller.

The members of this gi’oup resemble the typical sparrows in
structure and habits, but difter in having a much stronger bill and
longer wings. Unlike the true sparrows, the female rock-sparrows have
however, no di.stinctive plumage of their own, but resemble more or less closely the
male birds of their own species. The rock-sparrows are found in Southern
Europe, extending into Central Europe, and ranging eastwards into Central Asia
and Siberia, as well as Northern China. One species is found in India as a
winter visitor, while two are resident in Africa.

The European rock-sparrow (Pefronid .Gidf<() is found in some districts of
Spain and Portugal, and the South of France, as well as in Creece and Palestine.
Its habits resemble those of the common sparrow ; but it is generally a very sh}’
bird, flying away on the approach of danger, and constantly keeping a good
lookout. It nests in the ruins of old castles and crevices of the rocks, building a

Rock-Sparrows.

HNCHES.

391

large, untidy nest, composed of stems of gi-ass and plant fibres, lined with hair,
feathers, and other materials. It lays two or three eggs in a clutch, ^\■hite in
ground-colour, streaked and spotted with ash-grey and brown. d'he parents
wait assiduously upon the young, and manifest the greatest distress if the safety
of their progeny he endangered. In autumn they gather into flocks, and some
migrate from their higher breeding-grounds. The flight of this bird is rapid

and well sustained ; and the usual note a harsh chirrup. Although partial to fruit,
the rock-sparrow feeds principally upon insects during the summer months,
visiting the stubble-fields in autumn. Upon the approach of winter, rock-
sparrows often consort with other small birds, in the company of which they
fre(]uent the roads and even villages. The general colour of the male is brown
above; the mantle and back being broadly streaked with black, and having a
whitish brown spot at the tip of the outer webs of the feathers ; while the crown

ROCK-SPARROW, SPANISH SPARROW, TREE-SPARROW, AND UODSE-SPARROW uat. size).

392

PERCHING BIRDS.

is light brown in the centre, bordered with dark brown, and followed by a broad
whitish brown eyebrow ; the wings and tail are blackish brown ; the cheeks,
throat, and under surfaces pale ashy brown ; and the lower throat varied with a
patch of pale yellow.

The genus Passer contains the true sparrows, which are repre-

True Sparrows, over the greater j^art of the Old World ; and, as restricted

by Mr. Oates, are characterised by both sexes exhibiting a peculiar pattern upon
the outer webs of the first primaries. The bill is stout and short, and the
abbreviated wings fall short of the tail by more than the length of the metatarsus.
Originally absent from the New World, the true sparrows have been introduced
into the United States, where they have become a serious pest, their injurious
character becoming moi'e and more appreciated as the species spreads ; they are
indigenous to the greater part of the Old World, excepting Australia and the
Moluccan Islands.

^ ^ The house - sparrow (P. domesticus), which nests only too

' numerously in many country districts, is essentially a dweller among
men. With the members of its earlier brood ready to leave the nest in May, it
produces many broods in the season, sometimes evicting tlie house-martin from its
mud-plastered home, though occasionally the troublesome intruder is walled up by
tlie irate martins. The eggs of the house-sparrow are greenish white in ground-
colour, blotched or spotted with ashy grey and dusky brown. When the young
are hatched, the old birds redouble their diligence in procuring food. It is
generally supposed that sparrows feed largely upon insects, and there is no doubt
that in many districts this is the case for a considerable part of the year. In
autumn these birds band together in flocks, and, leaving their haunts in street and
alley, join tlieir country brethren in anticipating the farmer’s harvest. Few
persons but practical men are at all aware of the vast injury annually inflicted
upon the farming community by the hordes of sparrows which ravage the corn-
fields. Nor is their mischief limited to assailing standing crops of grain. On the
contrary, they inflict considerable injury upon gardeners by picking up freshly-
sown seeds of every kind. They destroy green peas quite as effectually as the
hawfinch, and are in many other respects most undesirable neighbours. In
America the influence of the house-sparrow has ah’eady proved disastrous to many
of the indigenous birds, which have been driven from their proper haunts by the
intruder. Even in remote districts of the Highlands of Scotland, the sparrow is
gaining ground every year, and taking the place of more welcome guests. The
sparrow builds a cumbrous nest of straw, hay, dry grass, rags, or any other
material that comes handy ; the nest being often placed in a waterspout, a chink
of a wall, the thatch of a barn, or the frieze of a building. Occasionally it is
placed in an open tree or hedgerow, but the nest is then domed as a protection
against the weather; and it is almost always ju'ofusely lined Avith feathers.
Taking great pains to maintain its plumage in good condition, the sparrow not
only indulges in frequent baths, like mo.st of the finch tribe, but in summer shows
a partiality foi’ dusting its feathers in lark fashion. Sparrows exhibit some pretty
variations of plumage ; all the birds in a brood being occasionally spotted with white,
or at any rate cream-coloured ; male birds in particular being frequently variegated

FINCHES.

393

with white, whicli most affects the quill-feathers. The adult cock in summer lias
the plumage of the upper-parts chestnut, streaked with black on the mantle and
back ; the primaries being blackish, edged with pale rufous ; the median coverts
black, tipped with white, forming a wing-bar ; the tail-feathers dusky brown ; the
crown of the head and nape ashy grey ; a broad streak of chestnut extending
downwards from the upper-parts of the eye ; the cheeks ashy white ; the throat and
fore-neck black ; the sides of the breast brownish ash ; and the under-parts white.
The female is a dull brown bird, lacking the black gorget of the other sex.

The haunts of the tree-spaiTow {P. montanus) are more remote
Tree-Sparrow. . '

from human dwellings than are those of its congener the house-

sparrow. Sometimes, it is true, a pair or two of tree-sparrows may take up their

abode in some old wall beside a cottage or farmhouse ; but trees are their favourite

resorts. Not unfrequently the tree-spaiTows build under old nests of rooks ; the

nest being not so bulky or untidy as tliat of the house-sparrow. The eggs are

bluish wdiite in ground-colour, blotched and spotted or suffused with hair- brown.

Sometimes tree-sparrows nest in the crevices of a chalk cliff; and a colony has

been found established under the iron girder of a railway bridge. The movements

of the tree-sparrow are more graceful than those of the common bird, from which it

can also be distinguished by its more musical and shriller chirp ; while, unlike the

house-sparrow, the tree-sparrow possesses a short but pleasing song. Far more shy

than the house-sparrow, the tree-sparrow, instead of courting observation, shuns

publicity; and its flight is more rapid than that of its cousin. On one or two

occasions we have seen the two species consorting together ; and we have observed

the tree-sparrows flying with flocks of greenfinches during the autumn migration.

The majority of those we have seen in confinement seemed too wild to give their

confidence readily to any human being ; but a male of this species, caught in the

month of February, lost its dread of man in a very few weeks, and sang freely in

a cage. Although, as already said, the house-sparrow is so subject to variations of

plumage, we never yet met with a white or pied specimen of the tree-sparrow.

The adult is fawn-coloured above, the feathers of the mantle having ashy edgings

and broad black streaks ; while the lesser wing-coverts are uniform chestnut ; the

medium wing-coverts black, with broad white tips forming a wing-bar ; the chin

black ; the cheeks white, spotted with black ; and the under-parts ashy.

The Spanish sparrow (P. hispaniolensis) replaces the English
Spanish Sparrow., . , . ^ t, • -it o t •

bird in many parts of the Mediterranean region, including Sardinia,

Corsica, Sicily, and Malta, nesting in the walls of houses and the crevices of

rocks. It is abundant in Algeria, especially amongst the reeds in the salt-mar.shes ;

and Mr. O. Salvin gives the following notes upon its habits in the Atlas, observing

that it “ is found in great numbers during the breeding-season among the tamarisk

thickets on the Chenioria and in the high sedge at Zana. The Arabs destroy the

eggs, nest, and j’oung wherever they find them, as their great numbers do much

damage to the crops of corn. The nests are placed as thickly as they can stand,

the whole colony, consisting of perhaps one hundred pairs, occupying only five or

six trees. The noise and ceaseless chattering proceeding from one of these

sparrow-towns can easily be imagined ; and, guided by the sound alone, one may

walk directly to the spot for a considerable distance. One Sunday morning four

394

PERCHING BIRDS.

Arabs came to our tent, and, gravely sitting down in a row, opened the hoods of
their burnouses and displayed eight hundred or a thousand sparrow eggs, which
they arranged in four heaps before them, and remained in their sitting posture
contemplating them with evident satisfaction. We were rather taken by surprise,
but reserved the best for our collections, leaving the rest for omelettes.” The egg
of the Spanish sparrow is somewhat smaller than that of the house-sparrow, white
in ground-colour, blotched and streaked with dark grey. The male has the
crown and nape dark chestnut ; the back black, streaked with cream-colour ; the
cheeks and eye-stripe pure white ; the lesser wing-coverts chestnut, tipped with
white ; and the throat and upper breast deep black. The female is dull brown.

A well-known bird in many parts of South Africa is the Cape

Cape Sparrow. /ti7-” n i n- i

sparrow \P. diffusus), which takes up its abode near dwelling-houses,
and reproduces exactly the habits of the European house -sparrow. In some
districts the Cape sparrows build their nests in low, thorny bushes ; but they are
equally partial to holes in walls and the eaves of thatched roofs. The nest is a
large structure loosely put together, consisting of sticks, straws, and feathers lined
with wool ; the eggs being light green in ground-colour, blotched with brown.
Having all the pert ways of its European relative, the Cape sparrow is partial to
corn, but also consumes many insects. The adult male has the crown, throat, and
breast black ; the back of the head and neck brown ; the back and rump rufous ;
a white eye-stripe running backwards from above the eye ; the wings and tail
brown ; and the lower-parts dirty white.

The type of this small grroup of little finches possesses a short.
Serin Finches. ^ . o i ^ r

hard, conical bill, with the upper mandible slightly exceeding the

lower ; the wings being moderate in length and the tail rather deeply forked.

The metatarsus is slender, and scutellate in front, while the toes are small.

Yellow usually predominates in the plumage of the serins ; the females generally

having the flanks much sti'iated with dark brown. Of the nineteen species of

serins, sixteen are peculiar to Africa ; and of these the greater number are found

in the southern portions of that continent.

The serin finch, which forms the type, ranges through Central and Southern
Europe to Asia Minor, Palestine, and Egypt ; Tristram’s serin inhabits Palestine ;
while the red-fronted serin is found in the Caucasus and Turkestan. The true
serin finch (Serinus hortidaniis) is partial to orchards and gardens, and is a
bright vivacious bird, often to be seen upon the wing, indulging in irregular
flights, trilling all the time. Wintering on both sides of the Mediterranean, it is a
summer visitor to Central Europe and an occasional visitor to England. Its
nest is a neat structure, generally placed at the extremity of a bough
composed of vegetable fibres, moss, and fine stems, lined with feathers and some-
times a little horsehair. Generally preferring fruit-trees to the beech, oak, or
alder, we have seen it nesting in fir-ti’ees in walled gardens. Mr. Dresser gives the
following account of its breedino;-habits, observino; that “ the serin finch inhabits
the foot of the mountains skirting tlie plains, but does not appear to affect the
plains them.seh'es ; nor is it found in the mountains, being there replaced by the
citril finch. It is usually to be met with in the orchards and gardens and in the
vineyards, frequently in gardens which are surrounded by houses, in which last

FINCHES.

395

locality it is toleral)ly tamo, — tliou^li, so far as my own oxporicnce ^oos, it is very shy
and (litlicnlt ol’ approach. During the fortnight I spent at Stanton, I never got
within range of one ontsi<le the town, though on several occasions 1 saw and heard
it. In the town itself 1 several times saw specimens ; hut as they donhtless had
nests in the neighbourhood, and as, besides, it would not well do to shoot in the
town, 1 did not obtain a specimen. It may easily be recognised by its call-note
and liight. The former somewhat resembles that of the canary, but may easily be
distinguished by anyone who has heard it. Its song is poor, and lacks both dejdh
and melody, being merely a continuous twittering warble, generally uttered, it
would seem, as the bird is seated on the topmost spray of some tree, usually a fruit-

SERIN AND RED-FRONTED FINCHES (i liat. size).

tree. Its flight is exceedingly swift, and may not inaptly be compared to that of a
sand-martin, which it far more nearly resembles than that of any other finch. It
sometimes sings whilst on the wing ; that is, it will fly iip from the spray on which
it has been seated like a tree-pipit, and will continue its song during the short time
it is in the air. It feeds chiefly on seeds of various kinds — at least, all those I have
at different times shot, and the contents of whose stomachs I examined, had been
feeding on these alone — grass-seeds and those of the various wild plants and weeds,
chiefly such as arc oily ; and it appears always to shell the seeds and discard the
husks before swallowing them. It .seeks after food in fields, gardens, and especially
in the vineyards, in which last it is usually to hi' found. The nest is a very neat,
compact, little structure, very carefully made, and neatly shaped. It is built of
tine roots and grass-bents, and neatly lined with featliers and horsehair. The

396

PERCHING BIRDS.

outer j^ortion of the nest appears to be interwoven with spiders’ webs ; and a few
bits of lichen and grey moss are affixed hei’e and there. A nest in the possession
of Mr. Carl Sachse, taken near Frankfort, is built in the fork between three up-
right small branches of a lilac tree, and is constructed entirely of fine grass-stems
and rootlets, intermixed with cotton and woollen threads. These latter are utilised
more especially to bind the structure to the branches, which is most effectually and
strongly done, one of the branches being encircled at least a dozen times with a
long piece of tolerably stout, woollen thread. The lining consists merely of some-
what finer grass stems than those used in the construction of the exterior portion.”
The eggs vary from four to five in number, and are blotched with dark reddish
brown. When migrating in the north of Spain, these birds do not seem to travel
in large flocks, but rather in small parties, sometimes even singly, though the

THE CANARY (f liat. sizej.

latter were presumably only stragglers from the main detachment of the migrating
host. The serin finch bulks considerably amongst the small birds netted in the
environs of Paris ; and occasionally it even straggles to the south coast of Great
Britain, where it has been taken on the southern shores on a good many occasions,
especially in the neighbourhood of Brighton ; its visits to Britain generally taking
place in the spring of the year. The plumage of the male serin finch is pale brown
above, with dark centres to the feathers ; the forehead and nape being yellow ; the
lower back and rump bright yellow ; the cheeks ashy grey ; the quills blackish or
dusky brown, edged with yellow ; the throat and breast yellow ; and the sides of
the body and flanks ashy brown, washed with yellow and streaked with black.

Found in most of the islands from which it takes its name, in Las

Canary.

Palmas the caiiaiy {S. canarius) is wonderfully abundant, and may be
seen in great flocks throughout the breeding-season, as if there was not room for all to

FINCHES.

397

Rose -Finches.

Scarlet Grosbeak.

pair and breed. In Teneriffe, it commences brcedinfr near the coast in January, while
in tlie high mountains it nests in June and July, ascending to its elevated haunts in
the end of JMay ; the nest being generally placed in an evergreen tree or shrub. The
eggs are bluish green in ground-colour, and spotted with reddish brown. The song
of the wild male is sweet and powerful, but does not possess the variety of notes
heanl from cage-birds. The wild canary has occasionally reached the southern
shores of Great Britain as a storm-driven wanderer. The male has the upper-parts
ashy brown washed with yellow, and streaked with blackish brown ; the forehead,
rump, and lower-parts being yellow ; and the sides ashy streaked with black.

The brightly dressed tinches of this group have the bill of pro-
portionately smaller dimensions than the pine grosbeak, to which they
are nearly related. The sides of the bills are convex, and the culmen moderately
curved ; the wings are long and pointed ; the tail is much shorter than the wings,
and considerably forked ; while the feet are small and weak. The males are
remarkable for their crimson plumage ; the females and young males being plain
coloured. Kose-finches are found in North-Eastern and Eastern Asia, Asia Minor,
Palestine, the Indian region, and China, one species bi'eeding as far west as
Pomerania ; and although the vast majority belong to the Old World, four species
are peculiar to North America, one of which closely resembles an Old World form.

A common bird in the North of Europe is the scarlet
grosbeak or rose-finch {Cavpodaciis erythrinus), regarding wliich
Dr. Taczanowski, after mentioning that they only come to Poland to breed,
observes that “they first appear generally about the loth of May; and after
a few days they are found at their regular nesting-places. They arrive singly,
and take up their habitation in the bushes near water in the middle of fields and
marshes ; nowhere numerous, they are generally rather rare. The males announce
their arrival by a characteristic song which is easily recognised even at a great
distance. They are very restless, whereas the female on the other hand is quiet.
When singing, the male generally perches on top of a tree or bush, always in full
view, and during the short intervals of the song utters a deep, clear whistle which
may be rendered as follows — Hit Hit ft tiu, Hit, Hit ji Hit Hu ; after having
repeated this about ten times, it descends amongst the branches and searches
after food. While thus engaged it sometimes warbles in a very low tone. After
about a quarter of an hour of repose it reappears in full view and I'ecommences
its song. In singing, it raises the feathers of its crown and throat, and in the sun
looks much more beautiful than it really is. The food consists chiefly of the
various seeds of trees and bushes, tender buds, etc. They seldom feed on seeds of
plants, but sometimes they resort to the fields to pick up hemp-seed. They are
not often seen on the ground, and only go there in search of materials for their
nest. The latter is placed on small bushes generally on thorns, wild rose-trees,
hawthorns, and among hops. In form it resembles that of Sylvia cinerea, and is
constructed of fine, elastic, dry bents, particularly of ranunculus and hop, clover,
and umbelliferous plants. The interior is formed of delicate, dry roots and shoots
of plants, often interlaced with a few horsehairs or other coarse hairs. The nest is
loosely constructed and the exterior almost carelessly, but it is regular and neat
in the inside and in form is almost sem/circular. It is placed in a fork of the

398 PERCHING BIRDS.

bush without l)ein(T fastened to the branches, and is always well hidden in
the foliage. . . . The general conipleinent of eggs is five, rarely four or six.
They are slightly elongated, slender, oval, or soinetiines almost pyriform. In
colour they are of a beautiful hlue-green, almost like the eggs of the song-thrush,
and are marked with spots of reddish black, more numerous at the larger end and
but few on the rest of the surface. ... In general character they resemble those
of the common hulltinch, but are less in size, and the ground-colour is more intense
and pure, while at the same time the spots are deeper. During the period of
incubation, and when the young are still small, the male sings continualh’, but in
different places and often far off, hut it frequently returns to the vicinity of the

scarlj;t and Siberian grosbeaks (i iiat. size).

nest. When any person approaches, it calls exactly like a canary, and the female
uses the same alarm-note. As soon as the young commence to he feathered, the
male ceases his song and becomes as shy as the female. Wlien they leave
the nest, the whole family conceal themselves in the foliage, and it is very difficult
to get sight of them, and they remain thus until they leave. Owing to their shy
habits then, I cannot say when they do leave, hut suppose it is as soon as the
young birds can travel. In Siberia they are common, and remain longer there
than they do here. They nest thei-e upon young conifers.” Mr. Seebohm, who
appears to he one of the few British ornithologists who have studied the habits of
the rose-finch in Northern Europe, states that “ its song is a very striking one,
and not to he confused with that of any other bird. It is a loud clear whistle,

FINCHES.

399

‘ tU-whit' tti-tu-V Althou^li never varied, the song is sometimes repeated twice
in rapid succession, and wlien it is heard, tlie bird may usually be seen perched
conspicuously on the top of a bush or low tree. The marshy forest-banks of the
great Siberian rivers are a favourite resort of this bird ; and in the Maltic ])rovinc(*s,
where it is common, and in the valley of the upper Volga it is described as
frequenting willows and other low trees in marshy districts.” In winter the
scarlet rose-finch ranges over the plains of India, sometimes in large flocks, but
more generally in small parties, frequenting alike groves, gardens, and jungles ;
at this season of the year its hal)its much resembling those of the true finches.
In Gilgit it breeds at an elevation of ten thousand feet above the sea, fresh eggs
having been obtained there in the second half of July. Earlj^ in September it
leaves the hills and comes down into the valley, soon after migrating to winter
quarters. In Central and Western Europe the scaidet grosbeak is only known
as a rare straggler, generally on an autumnal migration, and as such, it has
occurred in the British Isles. The general colour of the adult male is dark
brown above, washed with rosy or pale crimson ; the wings and tail are dark
brown ; the lower back and rump dull rosy ; the crown of the head dull crimson,
extending to the hind-neck ; the cheeks, throat and breast bright crimson ; the
centre of the breast and under-parts dull white, slightly washed with crimson ;
Indian specimens as a rule being much more brilliant than those obtained in
Northern Europe. The female lacks the bright colours of the other sex, being of
an olive-brown above, with the lower back and rump olive-bi’own ; the wing-
coverts dark brown, etlged with olive and tipped with yellowish white, forming
a double wing-bar ; the wing-quills and tail dark brown, edged with olive ; the
throat dull white streaked with brown ; the fore-neck and breast ochreous buff
with distinct dusk}^ centres to the feathers ; the under-parts white ; and the sides
of the body and flanks brown with dusky stripes. Mr. Seebohm states that males
in the first winter plumage are scarcely distinguishable from adult females, and
even in summer plumage are sometimes indistinguishable fi’om them.

The bullfinches can fjenerally be i-ecognised by their large head,
BuUflnclies. ® ° •, i • • ”

short, swollen beak, and abbreviated wings, the tail being either square

or slightly forked. Their pattern of plumage assists identification, since both sexes

unite the characters of a white rump, together with deep black wings and tail. The

common bullfinch (Pyrrhula rubicilla) inhabits the woods and thickets of Northern

Europe and Siberia, giving place in Central and Southern Europe, as well as in the

British Isles, to a similar form, identical in the arrangement of colours, but of duller

tints and inferior size. The Azores possess a peculiar species of bullfinch, which has

almost entirely lost the bright colours adorning the males of the other members of

the genus ; and another plain-coloured species is the brown bullfinch of the

Himalaya, whose range apparently overlaps that of yet another Himalayan species,

the red-headed bullfinch. The orange bullfinch is found in Kashmir and the

adjoining territories. During the summer the habits of the common bullfinch are

shy and retiring, but in the spring this bird appears commonly in gardens, where

it commits serious ravages upon the buds of fruit-trees. IMr. Seebohm observes

that there can be little doubt that bullfinches pair for life ; and it may be con.sidered

certain that these birds are of an affectionate disposition, the cock being rarely absent

400

PERCHING BIRDS.

from its mate at any time of the year. Generally commencing to build about the
middle of ]\Iay in ordinary seasons, the bullfinch may lay a full clutch of eggs as
early as the middle of April ; and the nest is generally placed in a low tree or bush,
seldom at a greater height than live feet from the gound. Composed of slender
twigs, it is hat and shallow, but hrmly woven together, and lined with root-hbres ;
the eggs varying from four to six in number, and being greenish blue in ground-
colour, speckled and spotted with purplish grey, and dark purplish markings. Two
or even three broods of young are sometimes reared in a season, in all of which the
male sex largely predominates ; indeed, there are cases where all the young in a bi’ood
have been of this sex. When the young leave the nest, they live with their parents
in family parties, searching the hedgerows for the berries of privet and other wild
shrubs. In the breeding-season the cock bullfinch is a pugnacious bird, always
ready to do battle with any intruder who may venture into his territory. The

bullfinch does not appear to be migratory
to any lai'ge extent, although it wanders
considerable distances when pressed by
hunger. In England it is seldom that
more than nine or ten are seen in a flock,
but in Southern Sweden the large form
wanders about in big droves, sometimes
composed exclusively of the male sex.
Generally feeding almost entirely on wild
seeds, fruit - buds, and berries, in severe
weather the bullfinch devours the seeds of
the common plantain. The flight of the

but at times these birds may be seen
flying at a considerable elevation, and
alighting on the tops of the tallest forest trees. The natural song is feeble and
without pretension ; not that this species is devoid of musical taste, for the young
males, if unti’ained, essay to sing their natui’al notes as soon as they are about four
weeks old, but rather that the bird stands in need of a tutor, b37- whose patience
its capacity for reproducing a lively air may be turned to practical account. The
Germans bestow great pains upon the teaching of their tiny pupils, and are con-
tent to turn out only a limited number of really accomplished birds. The call-
note is low and plaintive, and one of the most familiar of the varied sounds that
from time to time break the silence of English woodlands. The plumage is
subject to considerable variation, even in a wild state ; one of the most remark-
able varieties being creamy-dun coloiir, contrasting strongly with the jetty black
crown, wings, and tail. The cock-bii’d sometimes combines a rosy breast with
upper-parts of snowy whiteness. Typically the adult male is bluish grey above ;
the crown, wings, and tail, being glossy black ; the rump white, and conspicuous
when the bird is seen upon the wing ; and the lower-parts pale vermilion, varying
much in intensity. The female’s breast is chocolate-brown.

The Pine- Included by some writers among the bullfinches, but by others

Grosbeak. referred to a distinct genus, the pine-grosbeak {Pinicola enucleator)

bullfinch is generally low and undulating ;

THE BULLFINCH.

FIXCHES.

401

is an inhabitant of tlie pine-woods of the northern regions of both the Eastern and
Western Hemispheres. A gorgeonsly-coloured bird in its adult })lumage, the pine-
grosbeak seems to be remarkable for the variation in the time of the assumption
of this dress ; there being little doubt that cock-birds have bred while in their im-
mature plumage. The wings are of moderate length ; the tail being of medium
length, and distinctly forked ; while the feet are small, and the metatarsus does not
exceed the third toe in length. The sexes are easily distinguished by the crimson red
plumage of the adult male, although immature cocks cannot thus be distinguished.
]\Ir. Seebohm remarks that the summer home of the pine-grosbeak is in a very
picturesque country. “ Almost all the forest districts of Siberia arc hilly, and in
the north, as the trees become smaller, they are also more thinly scattered over the
ground, and the interminable extent of wood is broken by occasional flat, open
marshes, which become gay with flowers as soon as the snow melts. The scenery
is more park-like than farther south, and birds are much more plentiful and more
easily seen. The pine-grosbeaks arrive at their breeding-grounds in small flocks
in April, and continue to be gregarious until summer comes, when they disperse
for the purpose of building their nests. They appear to be somewhat shy and
retiring birds, because they do not frequent the roads like the bullfinches, the snow-
buntings, and the mealy redpolls. But this is by no means the case ; they confine
themselves principally to the woods where they are not difficult to approach, even
when the sportsman is obliged to hunt them in snow-shoes, six feet long, to support
his weight upon the untrodden surface. In the large pine-foi’ests they prefer the
banks of the idvers or the outskirts of some open place, and may often escape
detection from the habit of frequenting the tops of the trees. Within the Arctic
Circle many of the trees are small, and on the hilly gi’ound they are scattered in
small clumps, or sometimes as isolated trees, the drooping boughs of the spruce-
firs looking veiy graceful on the white snow. In places like these the pine-grosbeak
may often be seen perched conspicuously on the top of a spruce-fir, twenty or
thirty feet from the ground, but looking so much like the last spike of the tree as
frequently to escape notice. . . The call-note is a plaintive single note, somewhat
like that of our bullfinch, but incapable of being expressed on papei*. The song is
very melodious, not very loud or long, but flute-like. When I first heard it, I
took it for the song of some rare Siberian thrush, and was quite disappointed when
I shot the bird to find it oidy a pine-gi’osbeak. The flight is undulating and
powerful. We found several nests which coidd oidy have belonged to birds of
this species, but our search for eggs was unsuccessful. The breeding-season is
said to be the end of May or beginning of June. The nests are generally placed
in a spruce-fir tree ten or twelve feet from the ground, on a thick branch close to
the main stem. The nest is made on the same model as that of the hawfinch and
bullfinch, but of coarser materials. The outside is a framework of slender fir
twigs ; and the inside, which projects above the outside, is composed of roots of
line grass, and a lichen which grows upon the branches of the trees, and might
easily be mistaken for hair. . . The number of eggs varies from three to four. . .
The ground-colour is pale greenish blue, boldly spotted, principally at the larger
end, with surface-spots varying from rich brown to almost black, and with under-
lying spots of greyer brown.” The general colour of the adult male is ro.sy crim.son,

VOL. III. — 26

402

PERCHING BlRDE

with ashy bases to the feathers ; the wings and tail being dusky brown, with the
feathers edged with rose-coloui'. The female has the general colour of the upper-
parts ashy grey ; the crown of the head and sides of the face golden olive-yellow,
spreading on to the mantle ; and the throat and under surface ashy grey, washed
with golden-olive.

The crossbills are distinguished from all the other members of

OitossIdiIIs

the avian class by the crossing of the tips of the two mandibles of
the beak. In genei'al conformation the beak is hard, strong, and thick at the
base, with the lower mandible curving ujDwards, and its point crossing that of
the upper one ; a structural conformation enabling these birds to extract with
facility the seeds deeply buried beneath the overlapping scales of the fir-cones
on which they feed. This peculiar structure is, however, develoj^ed only in the
adult, young birds in the nest having the beak of normal conformation. As
regards other characters, the crossbills have the wings long and pointed, and the
tail forked and relatively short in 2:)roportion to the wing.s.

While the males of the crossbills are gaily attired in scarlet crimson and
orange plumage, green and yellow are the predominating hues of the females.
Crossbills inhabit the pine -forests of both the Old and New Worlds, extending
from Siberia to the Himalaya in the Eastern Hemi.sphere, and in the Western
ranging from Arctic Nortli America into IMexico.

Wlien wandering througli the pine-forests of Northern Scotland or Western
Norway, the cry of the crossbill {Loxia curvirostra) often greets the traveller
from amongst the fir-cones, directing his attention to the bright-plumaged birds
skilfully extracting the seeds of the conifers, whilst hanging gracefully in every
variety of attitude. One such scene is firmly implanted on our memory ; where,
while the edge of a pine-wood, richly carpeted with blaeberries, lay in the back-
ground, in the foreground a little flock of crossbills were swinging gaily round the
branches of an isolated forest tree ; and visitors to Bournemouth will recall
memories of these birds among the pines which form their favourite nesting-resort.
One of the most recent descriptions of the habits of the crossbill in the nesting-
season is by Mr. Ussher, who writes that he has had unusually good opportunities
of observing these birds, since no less than four pairs built within a short distance
of his house. Among them, one was a male in the immature yellow plumage,
while the other three cock-birds were red, or red mingled with brown. Early in
]\Iarch one of these crossbills was observed carrying twigs to the top of a Scotch
fir, in which the nest was subsecpiently discovered, although it could only be seen
from the ground by a person standing immediately below it and looking sti'aight
up through the tree against the sk}'. “ This tree,” writes IVIr. Ussher, from whose

description the remainder of this account is abbreviated, “ is the outer of a group,
and is bare of living branches to within a short distance of its top, which consists
of a mass of green, bending over from the west winds, in the midst of which the
nest was built among the thick tufts. The finder saw the crossbills visit it
frequently with building materials ; and I saw sev^eral times the birds fly to
and from it, and recognised the male by his redness. This pair probably reared
their young in safety, for, on 10th May, a pair of ci’ossbills were seen feeding
their young on larch-trees in the vicinity of this nest. A second nest was subse-

FINCHES.

4oi

(]ueiitly discovered, wliich was in tlie top of a Scotch tir about two hundred and
fifty yards from the first. It was built in tlie fork formed by several small lateral
branches with the leader, which at that point takes a bend ; and the nest, which is
small for so large a bird, might easily be mistaken from the ground for a knot or
enlargement of the crooked leader. It was placed in a perfect little cluster or
bower of smaller branches ; and was composed externally of fine dead twigs of
larch and Scotch fir, and within them of green moss, interwoven with wool, a few
horsehairs, and flakes of finer bai’k. The birds used not to cease their call-notes
while flying to a neighbouring tree and thence into the nesting-tree ; and the call
of the female was heard apparently coming from the nest itself. It was like the
syllables yep yep, or yup yup, while that of the male is much sharper, like gij) gip.
In a young bird taken from this nest the points of the mandibles were straight,
not crossed, but the edges of the upper one ov’erlapped the lower on both sides.
The down was all gone, and the plumage exhibited dark spots on a lighter ground
both on the upper and under surfaces. It was I’eplaced in the tree, from
which it must have subsequently fallen, for a nestling was found in the adjoining
held and placed in a cage near the nesting - tree, where the old crossbills,
which had other 3'oung in the trees, continued to feed it, often in the pi’esence of
observers. In the meantime it became accustomed to feed on bruised hempseed
when it was removed to the house, where it soon became full-grown, and tame.
The notes of the last pair of crossbills, when excited, used often to attract
another pair — the male a red one — that frequented the neighbouring trees, and
which on such occasions would join their neighbours in the excitement ; their
nest was discovered by the birds being seen carrying building materials to it.
They picked up bits of hay off the ground, not heeding the observer standing
near them.”

Although the crossbill appears to reside permanently in many parts of its
range, there can be no doubt of its roving habits ; in certain years great flights
appearing in the British Isles, and taking up their abode in parts of the countiy
well planted with belts of fir - trees, as was the case in 1888, when numbers of
the.se birds were reported as having made their appearance in different parts.
Sometimes, too, large flocks appear on their journey across the North Sea ; and
in June 1888 crossbills visited the island of Heligoland in numerous flights,
varying from ten to fifty birds. Hawthorns in the gardens were then crowded
with them, and on some days there must have been hundreds dispersed amongst
the foliage. A single straggler was caught about the same time on board the Bull
light- vessel, off the mouth of the Humber. The change in coloration of the plumage
of the crossbill has given rise to some amount of discussion ; but we are inclined to
adopt the views set forth in the British IMu.seum Catalogue of Birds. In the full
plumage the adult male is pale vermilion above, the feathers having dusky bases ;
the crown of the head is pale vermilion, like the back and under surface ; the prim-
aries and tail-feathers are dark brown ; and the lower abdomen, the sides of the
body, and the flanks ashy brown washed with vermilion. After the first moult the
tints of the male become more orange and uniform, but the flanks are striped, and
there are also more or less striped feathers about the other portions of the body.
It is now almost undoubted that the bright colours of the male are gradually

404

PERCHING BIRDS.

assumed, and that it takes two or even three moults before tlie full red plumage is
gained. The plumage of the female differs from the male in being olive-yellow,
where the latter is red ; the head, lower back, and rump being much brighter
than the mantle, which is dusky brown, while the under surface of the body is
yellow, with ashy bases to the feathers.

There has been some doubt whether there is more than one species of crossbill,
and on this subject Mr. Oates, in his Birds of British India, writes as follows : —
“ The crossbills of the Himalaya {L. himalayana) form a very small race, which
I think it advisable to keep distinct. There is a veiy marked difference in size
between the Himalayan birds and L. cnrvirostra, from Northern Europe, on the
one hand, and L. japonica, from Japan, on the other; and the only crossbills
which approach the Indian birds in size are from America. Sharpe’s view, that all
these crossbills form but one species is no doubt correct ; at the same time, the
Himalayan crossbills are in my opinion quite distinguishable from all others in
size, and it is consequently more convenient to retain them as distinct.” The
range of the small Himalayan form extends from China and Ladak to Sikhini, and
thence into Tibet and Western China; and recently a crossbill {L. luzoniensis) has
been found in the Philippines.

Nearly allied to the crossbills is the scarlet finch {Hcematospiza sipahi), from
the mountains of Nipal and Sikhini, distinguished by the very strong and stout
beak being of normal form. The cock-bird of this species is red, while the hen is
green ; a remarkable feature of both sexes being the white colour of the bases of
the feathers of the head and neck, which are seen conspicuously when the feathers
are at all ruffled. The wing is of considerable length, reaching beyond the middle
of the tail. The scarlet finch is an inhabitant of both forest and bushy districts,
and utters a loud whistling note.

The genus Telespyza includes a handsome finch recently dis-
Laysan Finch. . ” . ^ ^ ^ . . . .

covered in the Pacific, and is characterised by the bill being short and

much arched, with the ujijier mandible showing a tendency to cross the lower, as in
the crossbill ; the wings are of moderate length, reaching to about the end of the
basal third of the tail-feathers ; the tail is slightly forked ; and the feet are remark-
ably large and strong. This bird is peculiar to the island of Laysan, in the Pacific ;
and we owe its discovery to Mr. Scott Wilson, who obtained a specimen at
Honolulu. Tills was one of about forty brought there by Captain Bohm, who had
found the birds common among the scrubby bushes covering the surface of their
island home, where they were so excessively tame and unsophisticated that their
capture with the hand was an easy matter. Mr. Wilson says that a specimen which
he brought alive to England has a very clear metallic note, which may be rendered,
chwit, chwee. It also twittei’s and chirps as it hops from side to side of the cage,
and is altogether lively in its movements ; while it is able to force the wires of its
cage by means of its powerful bill. The adult has the head and sides of the face
olive-green, shading behind into dark chestnut-brown on the back, where each
feather has the centre black ; the rump and upper tail-coverts are chestnut- brown ;
the primaries black, edged with yellowish ; the tail is black, having each feather
edged with greenish yellow ; and the throat and breast are bright greenish yellow
passing into white on the under-parts.

BU.VTLVGS.

405

other Finohes (Oriental genera Propj/rrhvht, and Pi/7n'hnspiza,\ntermod\aU'

l)otAV(HMi tlio crossbills and I’osc* - tinclics, an; aiiion^ the. most
interesting of the ivmaining members of the siil)family. 'L’ho red-headed rose-
linch {Pt‘oj>y >'7'hul(t suh/iintaldijenshs) is iound in the more open parts of tlie woods
in Xortli-W estern India. The male lias a brownish crimson body with bright
crimson forehead, cheeks, and throat, the brown wings and tail having reddish
margins ; the female is not unlike the female of llwmatospiza sipaln (p. 404), but
much yellower in coloration. The female of the n.'d-breasted rose-finch (Piji'7'ltospizct
piuiiceci) is almost exactly like the females of all the species of Carpodacas, includ-
ing not only the common species, 0. erythriniis already noticed, but the Caucasian
species C. ruhicilla and the Central Asian Severtzow’s finch, C. sevcrtzoici. The
male, however, is easily distinguishable, being a brownish bird with crimson forehead
and throat and breast, the crown being black, like the back, the feathers being each
margined with light brown. The horn-brown bill is stouter and shorter than that
of the red-headed rose-finch, but it is of much the same shape as that of the scarlet
finch. The red-breasted ro.se-finch is a Himalayan bird, ranging from Kashmir to
Tibet and Western China at elevations of from ten thousand to seventeen thousand
feet. A nest of this species was found in Ladak, built of coarse grass in a furze-
bush, and containing greenish brown spotted eggs. Mr. Oates includes in this
species P. huviei, which is also found in the Himalaya, and has the head and breast
rosy instead of crimson, while the brown of the back is quite pale.

The Buntixgs.

Subfamily Emberizix.e.

The birds of this large group possess a conical and sharply-pointed bill ; but
the edges of the two mandibles, unlike those of the other finches, are not in contact
tlu’oughout their length, forming a gap or angle about midway between the gape
and the tip of the bill. The upper mandible, moreover, has the palate furnished
with a hard, horny knob. In a few of the species the claw of the first toe is
elongated like that of a lark. The great majority of the buntings belong to the
northern parts of the Old World, although some species inhabit Central Asia or
reside permanently in India ; many of them possessing an extensive range. The
snow -bunting supports life further north than any other of the smaller birds.

The Snow- In the genus Plectrophenax the bill is small and conical; the

Bunting. wings are very long and pointed ; and the tail is moderate and slightly
forked ; while the claw of the first toe is straight and elongated. The genus is
repre.sented solely by the snow -bunting {P. nivalis), which is an Arctic form, common
to all the northern portions of the world, and occasionally straying on migration into
Central and even Southern Europe. Many species of birds migrate over England
during the hours of darkness ; and on a frosty night at the commencement of winter
we have been able to recognise the joyous sound of the twittering of the “ snowflake ”
ringing through the still air as the birds sped on their way thi’ough the darkness.
Although some snow-buntings pass the entire year upon certain Scottish mountains,
it was not until the summer of 1885 that several parties of these birds were

4o6

PERCHING BIRDS.

observed on the higher mountain-tops of the west of Sutherland by IVIi’. Peach, who
in the following year captured the young of this species in a corrie. In 1888 ]\Ir.
-J. Young announced that during the previous slimmer he had taken a nest of the
snow-bunting in the north of Scotland, containing the only eggs of the species
discovered up to that time on the mainland of Great Britain. Upon that occasion
the observer in question was searching for ptarmigan upon the mountains between
Sutherland and Caithness, and while descending some difficult ground he recognised
the call-note of the snow-bunting, and with some difficulty reached the nest, which
contained five richly-coloured eggs, and was composed of bents and moss, lined
with a few ptarmigan’s feathers, and one or two small pieces of wool. Since then,
several nests of the snow-bunting have been found in Scotland, one of the
number having been secured for the national collection. Professor Newton says
that a considerable number of snow-buntings pass the summer in the Faroes, where,
on the south islands, they are restricted to the mountain-tops ; although, on the
northern ones, they frequent the lower grounds in small colonies. Throughout
Iceland the species is perhaps the commonest of small birds, a pair or more being
established in nearly every convenient locality, even amongst the most desolate
lava - streams ; and it breeds there almost on the sea-level as well as up to the
snow-line. As is shown by the accumulation of old materials often found therein,
the birds commonly use the same nest -hole moi’e than once. The eggs vary
from four to six in number, and are white in ground - colour, more or less
tinged with palish greenish blue, splashed with dull lilac, and spotted with
brownish I’ed. They are laid in a nest built of dry grass and roots lined with
hair or soft feathers, especially those of the ptarmigan. The snow-bunting has
occasionally nested, and even hatched its young in confinement ; but we are not
aware of the young having been brought to maturity under artificial condi-
tions. The adult male has the crown ruddy brownish black ; the scapulars
are black, edged with reddish brown ; the primaries black ; the secondaries
white, the outer ones being marked on both edges with black ; the central tail-
feathers are black tipped with white ; the under tail-feathers white streaked with
black on the outer edges ; a rusty band crosses the breast, and the lower-parts are
white. In summer the light tips to the feathers of the upper-parts are shed, and
the bird then appears to be black and white, black predominating.

One of the most widely distributed of small birds is the Lapland
bunting {Calcarius laiyponicus), a circumpolar bird, inhabiting the
high northern regions only during the summer months, and migrating southwards
to more congenial winter quarters before the arrival of frost and snow in its
northern home. It is also found throughout the northern parts of North America.
During the summer season this bird frequents the fell-mosses of Norway and
Sweden, especially such as are covered with grass and willow-scrub and are
situated below the snow region. Not inhabiting the high mountains on which
the snow-bunting breeds, it prefers the upland swamps, and Mr. Seebohm states
that in Northern Europe the Lapland bunting seeks the swampiest ground it can
find, so long as there are tussocks of dry grass full of flowers where it can breed.
If there be also a few stunted willows or birches upon which it can perch, so much
the better. The nest is nearly always placed in some hole in a side of the little

/iC/A^TnVGS.

407

-mounds or tussocks ubouiidiiig on the umrshy parts ot‘ the tundra, and is com])osed
of dry grass and roots, and profusely lined with feathers. 'I’he eggs vaiy from
pale grey to pale brown in ground-colour, and are streaked with dark bi'own with
underlying blotches of brown. Nests of this species found in Norway were built
of dry grass and lined with feathers; one in particular being lined with the
feathers of a snipe, and thus having an unusually pretty appearance. The newly-
hatched young are said to be clothed with dark down. The song of this bunting,
which is sweet and musical, is usually poured forth when the bird is in the air.

LAPLAND BUNTING (j liat. size).

soaring like a lark, and is continued until it alights on some gi-assy knoll or
stunted bush. Oddly enough, the female has almost as rich a song as the male.
Formerly the Lapland bunting rarely straggled so far westwards as the British
Isles during its autumnal migration, but nowadays it not only breeds nearer than
it used to do, but small numbers of this bird visit the southern shores of Great
Britain yearly. Before 1892 the Lapland bunting had been captured most
frequently in Kent, moi’e particulaidy near Dover; but in the autumn of that
year great numbers visited Eastern and Southern England ; the first arrivals being
observed in Norfolk during September, and these being soon after followed by
large flocks. Numbers were also obtained during the winter of 1892-3 on the
downs near Brighton ; and the species has occurred in equal abundance in
Northumberland. Lapland buntings, according to Mr. Gurney, become tame

4o8

PERCHING BIRDS.

sooner than snow-bnntino-,s, wliile their notes are soinewliat inore silvery in tone.
“ In captivity tlieir habits seem no more terrestrial than snow-bnntings. As
spring drew on, the tints of the birds in my aviary were observed to deepen, and
they even showed a disposition to nest by carrying about bents of hay.” The
male Lapland bunting in breeding-plumage has the entire head, throat, and upper
breast black ; a rich chestnut collar reaches from behind the head on to the back ;
and the upper-parts are brownish black margined with bull' and white. The
adult female difters from the male in having light margins to the feathers of the
head, throat, and flanks, while the feathers of the chin and \apper throat are
huffish white, with half-concealed black bases. After the autumnal moult, all the
feathers have light edges. Males of the year closely resemble adult females, but
differ from them in having no black centres to the feathers on the nape.

The Typical genus Emheriza includes the typical buntings, all of

Buntings. which are crestless, and have forked tails ; the bill being hard, short,
and conical ; the first primary small, and the fourth or fifth commonly the longest
in the wing, and considerably longer than the next ; while the metatarsus is
covered with scales in front and on the sides, with an entire plate forming a sharp
ridge behind. These buntings are represented by numerous sjiecies from the tem-
perate and northern parts of the Old World, as well as from North Africa and India.

The reed-buntiiip; or reed-sparrow (Emheriza schoeniclus) is
Reed-Bunting. ® ^

found on swampy ground over almost the whole of continental

Europe from the South of Spain to the North Cape. Among the aits and osier

beds of the Thames and its tributaries, it forms a conspicuous object in the summer

time, as it chants its sweet snatches of song from some prominent position by the

waterside. The female builds her nest among rushes or long grass on the side

of a bank, or in a dense tussock of the morass which forms her home, not unfre-

quentl}^ amid a tiny forest of cotton-grass, whose white tufts of delicate down

transform a few acres of black bog into a miniature paradise of beaiity. The eggs

are drab in ground-colour, and streaked with black and dark purple. The young

of this bunting, like those of certain other species which nest upon the ground,

frequently leave their nest before they can fly, trusting to their protective coloiirs

to secure their safety. Ilesident in some districts, this bunting in others is a

partial migrant, a considerable nnmber passing the winter in the British Isles,

where they occasionally seek shelter in the centre of large woods at a distance

from their usual aquatic haunts. Their food consists of seeds of water-plants, small

molluscs, and insects ; Imt occasionally they feed in the stubble-flelds. The bird is

gregarious, and fond of associating in small and even large flocks during the winter

and spring months. We have but rarely come across white individuals of this

species, nor have we yet examined a pied specimen. The general colour of the

adult male in the breeding-season is rufous, with bixiad black centres to the feathers

of the back ; the wing-coverts are chestnut ; the primaries blackish, edged with

rufous ; the tail-feathers dark brown, the two outer ones being edged with white ;

the crown of the head as well as the sides of the face and ear-coverts are entirely

black, and separated from the back by a broad band of white, which fonns a

collar joining the white sides of the head ; the throat is black, and the remainder

of the under surface white, sti’eaked with black on the sides of the body.

BUNTINGS,

1. Reed; 2. Yellow; 3 Common; 4 Lapland; 5 Snow.

BUNTINGS.

409

Ainon^ the Arctic l)ir(ls from time to time strayiiiir into Western
Little Bunting. , . , . ... , ^

hnrope dni-in^ their seasonal mij^rations, must lie mentioned the little

bunting 2nisill(i). Near Archangel JMessrs. Alston and Jlarvie-Hrown found it

very common in the summer, although local in its choice of nesting-grounds.

They often heard its low, sweet song, which is compared rather to that of a

warbler than of a bunting, and they observed that it frequented the pine-woods

and mixed timber. JVIr. Seebohm supplies the following account of his finding the

eggs of this bunting in the valley of the Yenesei. There “it was exti-emel}'

abundant, and its unobtrusive and cpiiet song was constantly heard before the

snow, which was lying to a depth of five or six feet up to the first of June, had

sufficiently melted to make the forest penetrable. I found the first nest of this

bird on the 23rd of June. I was on the south bank of the Koorayika,

a tributary of the Yenesei, and was scrambling through the forest down the hill

towards my boat, amongst tangled underwood and fallen tree-trunks, rotten and

moss-grown, when a little bunting started out of the grass at my feet. It did not

fly away, but flitted from branch to bi*anch within six feet of me. I knew at once

that it must have a nest; and in a quarter of a minute I found it, half hidden in

the grass and moss. It contained five eggs. I have seldom seen a bird so tame.

The nest was nothing but a hole made in the dead leaves, grass, and moss, copiously

and carefully lined with fine dead grass. I took a second nest in the forest, on the

opposite bank of the river, on the 29th of June, containing three eggs ;

this nest was in a similar position to the foregoing, and the behaviour of the parent

bird precisely the same. On the 30th of June we cast anchor about one

hundred and “ten versts below the Koorayika, and I went on shore to shoot, and

found a third nest of this interesting little bird, containing five eggs which were

slightly incubated ; this nest was lined with reindeer-hair. On the 6th of July,

a few miles further down the river, I went on shore again and found another nest

of the little bunting, this time containing six eggs ; it was similar to the last, rather

more sparingly lined with reindeer hair, but the tameness of the bird was just the

same. The eggs in the first nest are very handsome, almost exact miniatures of

those of the corn-bunting. The ground-colour is pale grey, with bold twisted

blotches and irregular round spots of very dark grey, and equally large underljdng

shell-markings of paler grey. The eggs in the second nest are much redder, being

brown rather than grey, but the markings are similar.” The adult male little

bunting in breeding-dress has the upper-parts rufous brown, with broad black

centres to the feathers ; the centre of the crown is vinous chestnut, with a broad

black streak on each side, forming a band ; a superciliary line, lores, sides of face,

ear-coverts and throat, are all vinous chestnut. The remainder of the lower-parts are

dull white, the lower throat, fore-neck, and breast, as well as the sides of the body,

streaked with black. The adult female scarcely differs from the male, but is not

quite so bright coloured.

This dull-coloured heavy bird (E. miliaria) is common in many
^ parts of Europe, from Southern Spain to the Hebrides ; but being to a
large extent dependent upon grain-crops for its existence, its distribution naturally
varies with that cereal. Sometimes it resorts to the pastures, uttering its droning
song from the top of some tall hedgerow tree ; but more olten it frecjuents arable

410 PERCHING BIRDS.

fields, where it utters its short mechanical song from a clod of eai'th, a clump of
dockweed, or the coping of some stone wall or turf dyke. Although Mr. Dresser
asserts that the corn-hunting, as this species is often termed, is seen only in pairs
during the breeding-season, we have seen as many as a hundred of these birds
flying together at the end of May, and can vouch for their associating together in
numbers even in the nesting-time. Sometimes they roost upon the ground like
skylarks, but we have known them roost habitually in a tir-plantation. They feed
partially on insects, but in autumn and mid- winter they appear to subsist almost
entirely on grain. The nest of the common bunting is a loose structure, built

ORTOLAN BUNTING AND BLACK-HEADED BUNTING (f liat. size).

upon the ground in a tuft of rough herbage, and constructed of dxy grass bents
and pieces of moss, lined with finer stems of grass and sometimes a little hair.
The eggs vary greatly in coloration, being either white or buff in ground-colour,
blotched and streaked with purplish brown, grey, and pale brown. Not unfre-
quently the common bunting assumes a white or cream-coloured plumage ; one
shot a few years ago being as yellow as a canary. The usual colour is dull brown
above, streaked with darker brown ; the under-parts being buffy white, and the
breast and flanks streaked with black.

Black-Headed South-Eastern Europe is the home of the handsome black-headed
Bunting. bunting {E. melanocephala), which but rarely strays into Western
Europe, though it has been obtained repeatedly upon the island of Heligoland, and

BUNTINGS.

411

on two occasions in Great Britain. In Greece and Turkey, on tlie other liand, it is
a connnon sununer bird. Lindermayer ^ives the following account of its habits
“This buntin^^ arrives always in the last five days of April in Greece, and, like
other migrants, appears everywhere at once, so that the Hats near the sea, which
are covered with vines and other creepers, and also places where the olive-trees are
scattered about, are alive with this lovely and melodious bird. It is peculiarh'
partial to vineyards, where it builds on the vines, pomegranates, thorns, or almond
trees. Its nest is alwaj’s formed of dried straws, and is carefully made and lined
with horsehair. Five eggs are the usual complement, and these are pale sea-green,
covered with scattered dark brown spots, though sometimes (juite unspotted. I
have received hundreds of nests, and often found them myself, as they are not
difficult to discover, the bird not being at all shy, and only leaving the nest when
approached within a distance of about a yard. I have often known the female to
lay afresh after her eggs have been removed. During the breeding-season the male
sits near the nest, on a branch or a tree-top, and continually serenades his mate
with his sweet song. If scared away, even by a shot, it retreats to the nearest tree
and continues its song.” This bunting much reseuddes the common species in
general habits, often sitting on the top of a bush or low tree, and pouring forth
its simple notes, or flying from one elevated part to another with its legs dangling
down. The adult male in the breeding-time has the crown and sides of the head
black, the entire back and scapulars chestnut, the primaries and tail-feathers brown,
the whole under surface, as well as the sides of the neck, rich canary-yellow, and
the sides of the breast and flanks chestnut. The female is a dull-plumaged bird bj'
comparison with her brilliant mate, having the upper-parts nearly uniform brown,
but the under-surface yellow, with ashy margins to the breast feathers, and the
flanks tinged with ash colour.

YeUow-Breasted This beautiful bunting {E. aureola) is distributed over the northern

Bunting. parts of the Old World from Russia to the Pacifle, and has even strayed
as far west as Heligoland, and been captured also in Italy. Dr. Dybowski found
this bunting to be one of the commonest birds in Eastern Siberia, where it
frequents the valleys, particularly on the plain, and where bushes abound. It
generally perches on the top of a plant or bush, and there sings continually, its
song being short and often interrupted, but sweet. The peasants look on it as the
best songster in Dauria ; but that is according to their taste, for there are many
other birds there which sing better. These birds arrive on their breeding-ground
about the middle of May, and commence building their nests early in June, although
most of them only begin breeding late in this month. Their nests are placed on
the ground and constructed of dry bents, lined with horsehair. The female sits
hard, and will permit anyone to approach quite close to her ; while, when driven
off her eggs, she keeps flying about with the male closely in attendance, perching
every now and then on the neighbouring bushes, and uttering a note of lamentation
like that of the whinchat. The eggs of this bunting generally resemble those of
the reed-bunting, but the ground-colour is tinged with greenish. In the neighbour-
hood of Archangel the yellow -breasted bunting constantly frequents swampy
meadows, or marshes overgrown with birches and willows. The general colour of
the male is deep chestnut ; the forehead, sides of the face, and upper throat being

4 I 2

PERCHING PHRbS.

Yellow Bunting.

jet-black, an<l the umler-siirt'ace of the body briglit yellow, except that the chest is
banded by a zone of cliestnnt. The female is o-reyish In-own, like a hen-sparrow,
above ; the lower-parts bein^ pale yellow, striped on tlu', flanks with dark brown.

The yellow bunting {E. citrivella) is a common l)ird in Northern
Europe, extending eastwards into Siberia, and frequenting alike the
more cultivated valleys of Norway and the south of Europe. IMr. Dresser observes
that it is to be seen on almost every hedgerow in many parts of England. “ Perched
on the top of the highest available twig, the male may be heard incessantly pouring
out his monotonous but not disagreeable song, and during the breeding-season his
notes fall upon the ear from the early morn till late into the evening. As twilight
sets in, the yellow bunting may still be heard, and is perhaps the last bird to
give a ^oarting note to the retiring day, with the exception of his congener the
corn-bunting, who sings till it is quite du.sk.” The yellow bunting generally nests
upon some bank, occasionally in a furze bush. The eggs are white, scribbled over
with fine, hair-like markings. In autumn the yellow buntings collect in flocks,
feeding on blackberries and other wild fruits, as well as upon all the grain that
they can glean in the open fields. As the season advances, they seek the neigh-
bourhood of homesteads, and search for worms and other insects upon heaps of
manure. Although the yellow bunting is generally supposed to be a resident
species in Great Britain, there can be no doubt that it is only a summer visitant to
its more northern breeding-grounds. Large numbers of this species sometimes
occur on migration in Heligoland. The male has the head and throat bright yellow,
and the back brown, inclined to rufous, all the feathers having dark centres ; the
wincrs and tail are blackish brown, the outer tail-feathers having the inner webs
partly white. In winter the plumage is rendered more dingy by fulvous edgings
to the feathers. The female is greyish brown above, having the lower parts of the
back, tlie rump, and upper tail-coverts pale cinnamon ; the uiider-parts being citron
yellow and the upper breast mottled with brown and tinged with olive-
green.

Closely allied to the last, but more pleasing in both character
and coloration, is the cirl bunting (E. cirlus), which is thinly dis-
tributed through Central Europe, being in some districts even more common than
the yellow bunting, but generally taking rank as a .scarce bird. English ornithologists
know it best as a resident in the southern counties, particularly in the west; but it
has nested as far north as Yorkshii’e. It is numerous in North Devon, around
Barnstaple especially, where it is a shier bird than the yellow bunting, and is fond
of concealing itself in the spring and summer in thick hedges. Both in the spring
and again in the autumn the male bird is often to be seen perched on the branch
of .some hedgerow elm, from whence he delivers his very impretending song.

In Germany the cirl Imnting is migratoiy, leaving its northern habitat in
November, perhaps even much earlier, and wintering far to the .southward, and
returning in April. It frequents the same kind of places as the yellow bunting,
such as the bushy banks of streams, meadows, and hedges, small groves and
mountainous di.stricts in the neighbourhood of fields and gardens. In many other
respects the cirl bunting resembles the yellow bunting. In spring it prefers to take
up its position in a Ifigh and open place on the tops of trees, but later in the season

Cirl Bunting.

BUNTINGS.

413

is iound lower down, and always likes to hide in dense thickets. It hops a ^ood
deal upon the o-ronnd, is hy no means shy, and when IVij^htened np, soon settles
on the nearest low hush and shows little fear. In its llifjht it also resemhles its
near relative, and it is e(pially (piarrelsome, ami at times as restle.ss as that bird,
quarrellin<r and snapping at it when none of its own species are near with whom it
can fall out. These buntings eat both insects and seeds. Although Mr. Seebohm con-
siders that the song of the cirl bunting bears some resemblance to that of the lesser
redpoll and lesser whitethroat, it still more closely resembles that of the yellow
bunting, but is never ended with the long-drawn note which marks the song of the

CIKL I3U>TING AND MEADOW BUNTING (g uat. size).

latter. The cirl bunting breeds early, nesting in positions similar to those adopted
by the yellow bunting, and constructing its nest on a bank or amongst briars and
brambles, usually at no great distance from the ground. The nest is built of dry
roots and grasses, lined with line roots and a little hair. The eggs are bluish white,
in ground-colour streaked and blotched with very dark brown ; two clutches being
usually laid in a season. The song of the male commences early in the year, and
is usually delivered from the lower branches of an elm or the top of some hedgerow
tree, but occasionally from a bare telegraph wire. It is continued throughout
August and September. In hard weather cirl huntings associate Avith other birds,
such as larks, in the open fields. In confinement the cirl bunting is a shy species,
very difficult to tame ; although IMontagu reartal a young one from the nest, which

414

PERCHING BIRDS.

was sufficiently tame to take insects from the hand, showing a great partiality to
such a repast, and, when let out of the cage, catching flies in the windows. The
cirl bunting bears some resemblance to the yellow bunting in plumage, but the
male is readily distinguished by the fact that the head and nape are olive-green,
and the rump and upper tail-coverts olive -green streaked with dusky; while a
bright stripe extends over the ej-e, and another below it. The wings and tail are
similar to those of the yellow bunting, but the lesser wing-coverts are olive-green
in.stead of chestnut. The throat is dull black, below which is a broad patch of
yellow, and a zone of olive-green extends across the breast, shading into chestnut.
The female cirl bunting can always be distinguished from the female yellow bunting
by the head never showing any trace of yellow, the under-parts being not so
bright a yellow; while the rump and upper tail -coverts are olive instead of
chestnut.

The far-famed ortolan {E. liovtulana), shown in the upper figure
' on p. 410, for which fabulous prices were sometimes paid by the
epicures of the last century, is a near relative of the cirl bunting ; and, like that
species, is more common in Southern Europe than further north. The tameness
of the ortolan buntings outside the city of Pampeluna, in Spain, is almost ludicrous.
So little do they apprehend injury, that they will allow visitors to lie on the grass
while they forage round for earth-worms ; these birds feeding partly on grass seeds
and partly on worms. The ortolan bunting often resorts to the edges of thickets
and the skirts of fir-woods ; and its song somewhat resembles that of the j^ellow
bunting. In Sweden the ortolan sings both during the day and throughout the
light nights of the Arctic summer. The nests, which are invariably placed upon
the ground, and generally in the open fields, are built of dry grass or roots,
and lined with fine fibres or hair. The eggs vary in ground-colour from bluish
white to pale salmon colour, spotted and blotched with rich purple-brown. Mr.
Seebohm observes that “ it is somewhat remarkable that a bird so common on
the Continent, and all the countries adjacent to the British Islands, should be so
rare in Britain. I found the ortolan bunting breeding on the mountains in the pine
regions both of Greece and Asia Minor. When I was at Valconswaards we con-
stantly heard its plaintive, monotonous song as it sat perched for a long time on
the branch of a tree, in the lanes or in the hedges that surrounded the fields close
to the village ; and in the wilder districts of Norway it was by no means un-
common in the trees by the roadside. It is not a shy bird, and frequently remains
for a very long time on the same twig, generally near the top of the tree, especially
in the evening, when its simple song harmonises with the melancholy stillness of
the outskirts of the country village. Throughout Europe it is a strictly migratory
bird ; in Greece and Asia Minor, where the season of the spring migration may be
said to be the months of March and April it ranks amongst the later migrants.
In South Holland the season of 1876 was a somewhat late one, and the arrival of
migi'atory birds began during the last week of March and ended during the last week
of May ; and it was not until the middle of the latter month that we heard the song
of the ortolan bunting. The.se birds leave Europe in September, arriving in North
Africa in large flocks. On their way south great numbers are caught in nets and
fattened for the table, and many are sent to this country alive from Holland and

BUNTINGS.

415

Belgium. Tlie adult male has the head grey, tinged with greenish yellow ; a ring
of feathers roi;nd the eyes and throat being ])ale citron-yellow ; the general
colour of the uj)per-parts is i-eddish brown with black streaks to the feathers of
the mantle and back ; the eyelid is white ; the fore-neck and chest are dusky
greenish olive, and the remainder of the under-parts is reddish cinnamon.

. _ . . The meadow - bunting (E. da) is a lively member of the

family met with, locally, in many parts of Central Europe, living
chiefly in mountain- valleys such as those to be found in Central France. Each
pair generally occujiies its own particular district, and, tvhile the females incubate
their eggs, the males rehearse their songs, generally perching in a prominent
position on the top of some bush. The nest of the meadow-bunting is made of

THE SPARROW-BUNTING.

dry stalks and moss, lined with horsehair and wool. ]\Ir. Dresser found this bird
numerous in the neighbourhood of Barcelona, where it frequented the cactus
hedges, flying when disturbed from plant to plant, and often perching on the very
top of the cacti, uttering its call-note, zi zi zi. This species chiefly affects the hill-
sides and barren dry places where but few stunted bushes are scattered about ;
but in some parts of Europe it has been found frequenting the vineyards. It feeds
on various seeds of wild plants, and to some extent on insects. The eggs are easily
distinguished by their continuous markings, which appear as if they were made by
a pen without taking it from the surface of the egg. In colour they are pale grey,
marked with blackish bx'own lines. The adult male has the head and neck bluish
grey, with two black bands along the sides of the crown, and two other black
bands passing through the eye, forming a moustache ; while the upper-jiarts are
bright russet, sti’eaked with black ; the rump chestnut-red ; the throat white ; the

4i6

PERCHING BIRDS.

neck and chest delicate bluish grey ; and the rest of the under-parts russet-red.
The female has the head, nape, and body varied with black and russet ; the rump
and under tail-coverts bright russet ; the front of the neck and chest shaded with
dull grey and spotted with brown ; and the flanks of a deeper russet, and more or
less spotted with brown.

There are sevei’al genera more or less closely allied to the true

i^XliOd GGQBlTdr ^ ^

buntings, which can only be incidentally alluded to here. Among
these, the crested bunting {Meloplius melanicteris), of the Himalaya, Upper India,
Burma, and China, is the only representative of a genus characterised by the
presence of a crest on the head, which is larger in the male than in the female.
The tail is less forked than in the true buntings ; and the sexes differ in coloration,
although both display a considerable amount of red on the wings and tail. This
bunting is solitary in its habits, and generally found on rocky hills and the banks
of streams. The American bunting {Ev^spiza americana) I’epresents a second
genus, and the Cape bunting {Fringillaria capensis) a third, in which there are
several species. The sparrow-bunting (Zonotrichia albicollis), belonging to a
group of genera in which the tail is longer than the wing, differs from the true
buntings by the exposed nostrils, which are protected by an operculum ; and is
especially characterised by the spotted back and sparrow-like form. The genus,
which includes numerous species, is exclusively American.

H. A. MACPHERSON.

CHAPTER IV.

The Perchixg-Bikds, — continued.

Larks to Waxwings.

Families Alaudidje to Ampelidje.

Represented by upwards of a hundred species, arranged under sevex’al generic
heads, the larks form a family which is almost entirely confined to the Old World in
its distribution ; some of the more highly -specialised forms being peculiar to desert-
regions, where they have become specially adapted to their environment both in
structure and in their protective coloration. The shape of the bill varies too much
in different genera to be of value as a diagnostic character ; but the feet are well
defined. Thus the metatarsus is scutellated, and blunt behind as in front ; that is to
say, it is covered with two series of plates behind and before, which meet on the inner
sui'face of the limb. Other characters are the very long straight claw of the first
toe, the long pointed wing, and the lengthened inner secondary wing-feathers. Save
for a notch in the upper one, the edges of both mandibles are perfectly smooth.

The birds of the genus Alaiida are distinguished by having
The Skylarks. , . „ , ° . i, .1 i .1 • f

the hrst of the ten primaries very small, while the second, third,

and fourth are nearly equal, although the third is somewhat the longest ; the

secondaries are comparatively long; and the tail is moderate and slightly

forked. The bill is rather slender, long, arched, and slightly compressed,

with plumelets covering the nostrils. The skylarks, of which there are but

three species, are jirincipally found in the temperate portions of Europe and

Siberia, although extending their range southwards into China and the plains

of India. The common skylark {A. arvensis) is one of the most abundant of

European birds, nesting in the British Isles, which are also visited by myriads

of this species from the Continent during the autumn and winter months. So

great is their abundance that they have become an extensive article of commerce ;

and on the Sussex Downs extraordinary numbers are netted to supply the poulterers.

Popular sentiment has never failed to recognise the exceeding beauty of the liquid

notes of the lark, its cheery carol far surpassing that of all other British birds save

the nightingale. Frequenting heaths and pasture lands, and generally most

abundant in open country, during the winter the skylark is a gregarious species ;

and on a sharp frosty morning many hundreds may be observed congregating in a

single field, flving restlessly hither and thither, with low warbling call-notes to

their companions. The salt-marshes bordering upon many parts of the British

coasts are well adapted to the habits of the skylark ; the birds generally placing

VOL. III. — 27

exposed situations ; one pair having built their nest on the bank of a cricket-
held, innnediately abutting upon a highroad. In the breeding-season it is a
singularly fearless bird ; and the parents of a young bx’ood will often allow
a stranger to approach within a very few yards before they take wing. Waited
upon by their parents most sedulously, the young birds leave the nest long
before they are strong xxjxon the wing ; these “ pushers ” being often caught
alive by boys, who take advantage of their feeble flight to capture them
when exhausted, after a short but persistent chase. In confinement the skylark

418 PERCHING BIRDS.

their nest in the side of a tussock of lOugh grass. It is a simple structux’e,
lined with fine gras.s. The young are exposed to the attacks of ground vermin,
owing to their being reared upon the ground ; but they are screened from their
enemies by the highly protective character of their first plumage, which is
spotted with buff, and assimilates to the colour of dried grasses even more closely
than the darker tints of the adult birds. The skylark sometimes nests in very

SKYLARK, WOODLARK, AND CRESTED LARK (f nat. size).

LARKS.

419

retains its kindly character, a fact well known to bird-dealers, who often place
an old skylark in a cage with a brood of young birtls, knowing by experience
that the former is sure to take compassion upon the helpless nestlings. The young
birds reared from the nest become exceedingly attached to their owners, and readily
acquire the notes of any bird under whose tuition they may be placed. Such birds
as are captui’ed adult, and in open weather, are, however, apt to pine for the loss
of their liberty ; but those that are caught when deep snow is lying on the ground
are more susceptible of domestication, and soon begin to sing. The eggs of the
skylark are white in ground-colour, thickly blotched and freckled with brown and
grey. Young birds may bo found in the nest at any time from April to September.
Skylarks do not wash, but delight in cleansing their plumage by dusting their
feathers in dry earth ; this being done in order to remove ticks or other parasites that
may be adhering to them. On their migrations, skylarks often appear at the light-
houses in dense hordes, and vast numbers are killed upon the island of Heligoland.
Although the song is principally uttered during the spring and summer months,
we have often heard wild larks singing in snatches in Xovember, and in the High-
lands the skylark begins to sing in summer about an hour before daybreak.

The food of the skylark consists of the seeds of oats, wheat, barley, and wild
plants, together with such insects as it meets with in the ploughed fields. In
plumage these birds are subject to considerable variation, so much so as to
constitute local races. Black, white, and cream-coloured varieties occur occa-
sionally, but only in very small numbers in comparison with the abundance of
birds in ordinaiy plumage. The adult has the upper-parts brown, tinged more
or less with rufous, many of the feathers having dark centres ; the wings ax’e dark
brown, the primaries being narrowly edged with white on the outer webs ; the tail
is brown, with the exception of the outer feathers, which are nearly all Avhite ; the
throat and breast are buffj sti’eaked with brown ; and the rest of the under surface
creamy white. Both sexes are alike.

Although formerly included in the same genus with the skylark.
The Woodlark. » e> j ’

the woodlark (Lidlula arhorea) is now very generally referred to

a genus apart, of which it is the sole representative. It may be readily
distinguished from the former by its shorter tail, more distinctly marked breast,
and by a distinct light streak over the eye and eai’-coverts ; while its size is
considerably smaller. It is figured on the illustration on p. 418. Unlike the
skylark, which frequents open country, the woodlark prefers fields that border
upon woods, — “in localities,” writes ]\Ir. Dresser, “where the soil is sandy
and partially covered with second growth, large trees being sparsely scattered
here and there ; this species is generally numerous but it does not frequent
the dense forest. In its habits it is lively and sprightly, fond of the society
of its congeners, and not quarrelsome, but rather more shy than the sky-
lark. It frequents the ground far more than is commonly supposed, and
indeed only perches occasionally upon the outer branches, chiefly during the
breeding-season, when singing. It seeks its food almost always, if not solely, on
the ground, and runs with celerity and ease. It roo.sts on the ground in open
places close to the woods, under weeds or grass, or in the old weed-covered furrows,
and retires early to rest. It is more affected by the cold weather than the skylark,

420

PERCHING BIRDS.

and migrates earlier to the southward than that species. Its song is sweet and
tiute-like, more melancholy than that of the skylark, and is generally uttered
from the top of some tree, or else when the bird is on the wing. It rises to some
height before commencing, then ascends, singing, higher and higher, throwing
itself from side to side, hovers and floats in the air, and when the song is ended
drops with closed wings to the ground again. It sings not only in the mornings and
evenings but also at other times of the day, and in the night, especially at night.”

The woodlark constantly builds upon the ground, usually in a tuft of grass,
or in a depression of the earth, sheltered by a low bush. Built of stems of grass
and moss, and lined with hair and wool or flne bents, the nest is more compact
tlian that of the skylark. The eggs are generally white in ground-colour, finely
freckled, and blotched with brown and purplish markings, which are often bold, and
sometimes arranged in a zone. The woodlark occasionally nests in confinement.
A very local bird in the British Isles, especially in the breeding-season, when it is
chiefly found in the southern and western counties, particularly Devonshire, the
woodlark is common in Southern Xorwcxy and Sweden, and extends eastwards
through Central Russia, ranging south to Spain, Morocco, and Egypt. The
plumage of tlie adult is brown above, each feather being striped with dark
brown and edged with rufous ; a broad, yellowish white stripe extends from
each eye to the nape, forming an irregular collar ; the rump and upper tail-
coverts are greyish brown ; and the tail is dark brown, with the central pair of
feathers much lighter than the others, while the outer pair are dirty white towards
the tip, and their outer webs bordered with white.

The Crested The crested larks, as typically represented by the European

Larks. species {Galerita cristata), are sufficiently distinguished from both
the foregoing genera by the presence on tlie head of a crest composed of a
few very long feathers springing from the centre of the crown. The common
species is a partial resident in Continental Europe, and a rare accidental visitor to
the shores of Great Britain. In the spring of the year it may be seen in the north
of Spain ti’avelling in flocks apparently composed exclusively of its own kind,
which generally frequent the ploughed fields in preference to grass-lands. These
large flocks are relativel}^ wild ; but on other occasions crested larks may be
observed running tamely on the turf bordering the highroad, elevating their
crests as they run along together. Mr. Dresser states tliat “ in its habits the
crested lark is confiding and fearless, and in the neighbourhood of villages and
inhabited ])laces is one of the most unsuspicious and tame birds. When in
Southern Germany and Hungary, where it is very common, I observed it on
almost all the highroads and in the streets of the small towns and villages
pecking about amongst the horse-droppings almost as tamely as a London sparrow.
They appear very fond of inhabited places, and frequent highroads, seldom being
found very far from these, and when disturbed by a passing vehicle will either
run on one si<le and let it pass, or fly on, again and again, as the traveller
approaclies them. In different parts of Europe they are resident or migratory
according as the locality is suitable or not for winter quarters; but in most parts
they are partial migrants, merely shifting their quarters according to season.” In
Germany, Naumann writes, “the}" leave their northern haunts in the winter, which

LARKS.

421

tliey spend in smaller or larger companies in milder climates. i\Iany Avinter on the
i\rain and Rhine, and in Franconia and Thnrin^ia, arriving there in October and
November, and disappearing at the tirst commencement of spring. Here in
Northern Germany these larks are resident or partially migratory, the.se latter
rambling in pairs or small companies from place to place, and arriving in winter
where they are not observed in snnimer, but seldom remaining there long. The time
of migration is in November and December. Old pairs remain year after year at
the same breeding-place. They migrate from the one inhabited place to the other
in the daytime, generally in the forenoon, and fly at a considerable altitude.”
The song of the crested lark is sweeter and in .some respects more pleasing than
that of the skylark. This lark nests upon the ground in any small depression
of the .soil or behind a clod of earth ; the nest being loosely and simply constructed
of stems of dry grass and tine roots, sometimes lined with a little horsehaii-.
The eggs are greyish white in ground-colour, marked with dark or light bi'own
and grey. Fresh eggs may be found from the middle of April until the middle of
J uly. The crested lark is a favourite cage-bird in Germany ; and it may be .seen
from time to time exposed in the Paris bird-market. In India the crested lark
is frequently caged, and kept in darkne.ss by its cage being wrapped in a cloth.
In this state it learns to sing very sweetly, and even to imitate the songs of other
bird.s. The crested lark has the upper-parts brown ; the feathers of the neck and
back having dark centres fringed with bufl‘; the crest is conspicuous, and con-sists
of nine or ten narrow feathers, blackish brown in colour, edged with buff ; the lower-
parts are creamy white ; while the sides of the throat are spotted with blackish
brown ; the feathers of the breast and flanks being streaked with dark brown.

In the genus Alminon the bill is very long and slender, gently
The Desert-Lark. . ” . . ^ ^ j

curved on its terminal half, while the no.strils are fully exposed to

view ; the first of the ten primaries of the wing being small, but exceeding the

primary coverts. The toes and claws are very short, and the latter are stout.

The plumage is the same in both sexe.s.

The desert-lark {A. clesertorum) inhabits the deserts of Arabia and
Northern Africa, extending eastwards into Afghanistan and Western India. It is
thinly distributed throughout the desolate wastes in which it finds its home, living
in pairs, each of which enjoys the run of its own territory. This lark traverses the
.sandy plains with great celerity. The song of the male is often uttered in the
breeding-, season, but it is short and unpretentious. Breeding in May and June,
when it makes a small nest of dried grass on the sand, the desert-lark lays eggs,
which are greyish white, marked with yellowish bi’own. The plumage of many
birds has become modified in order to serve the purposes of concealment from their
enemies ; and the desert-lark, like other species that haunt sterile wildernesses, has
gradually assumed a plumage of an isabelline grey, tinged with ash on the forehead
and upper tail-coverts. The first primaides are black, with white bases ; the tail-
feathers black margined with fulvous, the two central feathers being sandy brown,
broadly edged with very bright fulvous ; a black .streak passes through the lores
with a white band above and beneath ; a black band passes backward from the
eye ; the chin and throat are white, as is the abdomen ; but the fore-neck and
breast are pale fulvous, spotted with black.

422

PERCHING BIRDS.

Another genus {Ammomanes) belonging to the group with ten
' primaries to the wings is formed by the finch-larks, of' which the
African finch - lark {A. deserti) is represented in the left - hand figure below,
while other species inhabit India. Having the fii’st primary long, as in the pre-
ceding genus, these larks are specially distinguished by the thick beak being much
shorter than the head, and the nostrils concealed by plumelets. They inhabit

THE AFRICAN FINCH-LARK AND DESERT-LARK (J nat. size).

open arid plains, from which they rise singing in the air for a short distance, and
then suddenly drop.

There are several other genera of the group, such as the Asiatic bu.sh larks
(Mirafra), which may be distinguished from the finch-larks by the open nostrils.

The Short-Toed The short-toed larks, genus Calandrella, are inferior in size to

Larks. most of the family, and have the bill short and stout, with the upper
mandible arched; while there are only nine primaries in the wing, of which
the first is long and reaches to the tip ; the inner secondaries being lengthened
and reaching to the end of the primaries, or nearly so; and the tail being rather
long and slightly forked. The claws are slightly curved and very short. Five
species of short-toed larks inhabit Europe and Northern Asia, and three others
are found in India.

Tlie European short-toed lark {C. hrachydactr/In) is a common species in
Southern Spain, and is one of the most characteristic of birds of Malta during

LARKS.

423

the sixiniuer months, fro(|UCuting the wildest parts of the island, where its song is
frequently uttered, as the male thus encourages his mate in the duties of incuba-
tion. Its range extends eastwards to Turkestan, and in winter it visits Upper
India. Its mode of ascending in the air ditfers from that of the skylark, consisting
of a succession of jerks. The short-toed lark is caught in considerable numbers by
the French bird-catchers, to judge from the frequency with which we have found
the species for sale in the Paris bird-shops. Its food seems to consist almost
exclusively of small seeds, the husk of which it has the faculty of breaking

BLACK LARK, WHITE-WIKGED LARK, AND SHORT-TOED LARK {\ liat. size).

in its bill ; but we may presume that insects of some sort are supplied to the
young. On the ground this lark runs quickly, and it is especially fond of
grovelling in sand. When at large, it never perches on shrubs or bushes, though
in confinement, like the skylark, it will readily take to a perch. Ihe cock has
a lively song, given on the wing both in the morning and evening, but seldom
in the middle of the day. The nest is formed of a lew bits of grass collected in a
depression of the ground, often a horse’s footprint; and the eggs, lour or five in
number, are of a French white, generally minutely freckled with pale haii'-brown.
The adult has the upper-parts sandy grey, the leathers having dark centres ; the
wings and tail are blackish brown, some of the feathers being margined with buff;

424

PERCHING BIRDS.

the sides of the head are marked with blackish brown, a creamy white stripe
extending over and behind the eye ; on each side of the upper part of the breast
is a blackish brown patch ; and the under-parts generally are white washed
with buff. Individual specimens vary considerably in tint, some being more
rufous or grey than others.

The caiandra This group comprehends a small assemblage of large, stout- billed
Larks. larks, characterised by black patches of feathers on each side of the
breast. The wing has ten primaries, the first being very minute, and is very long.

CALANDRA LARK (| nat. size).

reaching nearly to the tip of the tail ; the claw of the first toe being long and
straight. This Old World group is chiefly found in Southern Europe, Algeria,
Egypt, Nubia, and India; the Eastern representative of the Western bird inhabiting
Northern China.

Common The calandra {Melanocorypha caiandra) is one of the finest of

Caiandra. Eui’opean songsters, which it would be difficult to overpraise, as it
would also be difficult to exaggerate the beauty of its glorious song which is full
of changes; although individuals vary in the proficiency of their vocal powei’s.
In appearance, it somewhat recalls that of the corn-bunting. It is a heavily-built
bird, and somewhat similar to the latter in shape, but it does not dangle its legs in
the air when flying. A permanent resident in the south of France and Spain, in

LARKS.

425

Black Lark.

pjvrts of Italy and in Greece, the calandra is common also in Turkey ; while many are
shot in winter, as they are large, plump birds, and much in reejuest for eating. Mr.
G. F. IMathew states that “the male on commencing his song s})rings from the
ground, and with a graceful undulating motion describes a series of large circles
until he rises to an immense height; his song is then clear and beautiful, but at
close quarters it is piercing and unpleasant. The call-note is loud and harsh, and
somewhat similar to that of the corn -bunting. With the Portuguese it is a
favourite cage-bird, and in many of the streets of Lisbon maj' be seen hanging
outside every door in cages. At Gibraltar it is frequent, and manj' are caught on
the neutral ground by bird-catchers who use clap-nets with decoy call-birds.” The
calandra lark makes its nest in a depression of the ground, often at a depth of three
or four inches. The nest is a careless structure built of grass stems. The eggs are
<lull grey in ground-colour, blotched with brown and pale amber, with underlying
markings of grey and light brown. The adult is greyish brown above, the
feather's having dark centres ; the under surface of the body is white tinged with
fulvous, and streaked finely with dark brown. The distinguishing character of this
species is a large patch of black adorning the sides of the neck.

The black lark (d/. yeltoniensis), which is figured on p. 428,
inhabits the steppes of Central Asia, migrating westward into
Southern Russia in the autumn and winter. After rearing their progeii}', these
larks congregate, especially in August, and wander over the Ijrackish places of the
desert throughout the whole autumn, especially in the region of the .salt-lake Yelton.
In the middle of winter, when the snow covers the land, the}’ approach the towns
and suburbs.

In summer, when on the ground, the black lark emits a feeble piping,
generally singing from a hillock, but its song is not powerful. Its nest is
merely a slight hollow in the ground, lined with a few vegetable fibres, mo.ss, and
dried grass. The female lays four eggs, bluish in colour, and spotted with yellow ;
these being deposited from the end of April till the end of July. In plumage, the
black lark varies at different seasons ; in spring, the entire plumage of the male
being black, with the feathers of the back, runq), and breast, edged with light
sandy, but these markings become almost completely obsolete in the height of
summer. The general colour of the female is sandy brown, the lores and super-
ciliary stripe being whitish, the wings and tail dai’k brown, edged with sandy ; the
under surface of the body white tinged with bufi*; the upper part of the breast
mottled with brown ; and the flanks striated.

White-Winged This Siberian lai’k (31. sibirica) has only once or twice wandered

Lark. Western Europe ; its home being in the steppes of Eastern

Russia, whence it extends eastward as far as the Yenesei. It has once occurred in
Great Britain, a female having been captured near Brighton in 1809, whilst
consorting with a flock of snow-buntings ; and it has likewise been obtained in
Belgium and Western Germany. Arriving on its breeding-grounds in Russia in the
spring much later than the skylark, it affects gras.sy and open districts ; and when
singing, often soars aloft, but does not ascend so high as the skylark. It ])airs about
the middle of May, and builds its nest of grass upon the ground. The eggs, four or
more in number, are greyish white, closely marked witli dull brown. The adult male

426

PERCHING BIRDS.

in suniiner-pluinage has the upper-parts rich brown, bordered with russet, becoming
lighter on the nape ; the crown, lesser wing-coverts and upper tail-coverts being
a brilliant red-russet, which gives the bird a marked and distinct character ; the
primaries are dark brown, the first white on the inner web, and becoming almost
entirely so in the middle ; the tail-feathers are brown edged with white on the
inner webs ; the throat and sides of the neck are spotted with brown and russet ;
and the under-parts are Avhite. The female is similar, but duller and less pure
in tint.

The Horned The horned larks are distinguished in the adult male plumage by

Larks. of feathers springing from each side of the crown ; the bill being

rather short, and slightly arched ; the nostrils are densely covered by plumes, the

HORNED, OR SHORE LARK (i nat. size).

wings are long, and the claw of the first toe is straight and about as long as the toe.
These birds are remarkable for the constancy of the pattern of their plumage ;
yellow and black being usually associated with vinaceous brown. This genus
(Otocorijs) is strongly represented in the Xew World, the northern parts of which
possess several species, one of the number at least being virtually identical with the
common horned lark of Europe. The latter bird (0. alpcstris) appears to inhabit
tlie whole of the northern ])arts of Europe and Siberia ; and other species ai’e

LARKS.

427

found in the Himalaya and adjoining plateaus, two of the number l)eing peculiar
to very high altitudes; Mr. Blanford having met with Elwes’ horned lark in
Sikhim at nearly eighteen thousand feet elevation.

The horned lark breeds on the tjelds and tundras of Northern Europe,
extending southwards into Central Norway. Formerly it was regarded as a rare
straggler to the coast of Great Britain, but it is now known that considerable
numbers of these birds annually cross the North Sea to Avinter upon the eastern
shores of England. Certain spots are frequented by these birds j’ear after year,
where they feed chiefly on the seeds of marine plants. For many years the
horned shore-larks that visited Britain proved to be males almost exclusively ; but
females have latterly been taken in considerable numbers, although not in the
same proportion as the males. The shore-larks, which Avinter on the British coast,
rarely Avander inland, although they sometimes migrate across England from the
Yorkshire coast to that of Lancashii’e. They arrive during the last months of the
3’ear, and remain until the end of Februaiy, or even the middle of March. Mr.
Seebohm Avrites that “ the shore-lark is as much a bird of the tundra as the snoAv-
bunting and the Lapland bunting, but it breeds at a loAver latitude than the former
species, and is almost as abundant as the latter is more local. It aA'oids the
marsh}^ districts, and confines itself to dry sand}^ plains or rock}' hills, though it
comes doAvn to the mud-shores of the rivers to drink. It is one of the earliest of
the small birds to arriA'e at its breeding-grounds. The snoAV-bunting and the
mealy redpoll arriA'e first, and may be seen running about on the snoAv some AA'eeks
before the ice breaks up ; but as soon as the thaAV begins in earnest a batch of
small birds arriv'es, among Avhich is sure to be the shore - lark . . . During
migration the shore-lark is a gregarious bird, and though the first flocks consisted
of shore-larks onl}', as soon as the Lapland buntings began to arriA’e, they seemed
to be on the best of terms together, and the later flocks usuall}' consisted of both
species. Flocks of pipits AA'ere migrating about the same time, and it Avas A’ery
strikino; to contrast the Avildness of these birds Avith the tameness of the shore-
larks. The shore-lark often sings on the ground, and Avhen apparentl}' too busA'
feeding to mount in the air for the purpose, Avill occasionallj^ utter snatches of
song. At their breeding-places they sing continually, mounting up into the air
like a skjdark, and singing their charming song as the}' sail about Avith Avings and
tail expanded. The song is A'ery melodious though short; and among its feAv
A'ariations a long draAvn-out note often occurs, Avhich resembles much the song of
the corn-bunting. The bird remains some time in the air and sings its little song
seA’eral times OA’er before it descends. It Avill also sing from the roof of the
Avooden houses. Its call -note is loud and clear, but scarcely capable of being
ex|)ressed by a AA'ord. In Lapland, the shore-lark lays its eggs from the middle of
May to the middle of June, but in Siberia not before the latter date. The nest is
ahvays built on the ground, generally in some slight holloAV. I found one in
Finmark in the middle of a mountain-pass, in the holloAV formed by the foot of a
hoi'se in the soft mud Avhich the sun had afterAvards hardened. Others Avere
among.st stones on the bare ground, and one under the shelter of some rushes in
the grass. The nest is loosely made of dry grass and stalks ; and the inside, Avhich
is rather deep, is lined Avith AvilloAA’ doAvn or I'cindeer hair. Four is the usual

428

PERCHING BIRDS.

number of eggs, but very often only three are laid, and sometimes as many as live.
They may be said to be characteristic larks’ eggs, and only ditfer from those of the
skylark b}-’ their more olive shade of colour. The ground-colour is a pale greenish
or pale brownish white, often so coloured by the profusion of markings as to be
scarcely visible. The overlying spots are small and irregular in shape, of an
almost neutral brown colour, and nearly conceal the paler and greyer underlying
spots.” The adult male shore-lark in breeding-phnnage has the forehead, and a
stripe over each eye, the chin, and upper throat pale yellow ; the crown, and tufts
of the head, the lores, and a band across the lower neck are black ; tlie upper-parts
are vinaceous brown, and the under-parts dirty white. The female is similar,
but all her colours are duller, a remark which applies to the bird of the year. In
winter-plumage the shore-lark lacks the ruddy vinaceous tinting characterising
the breeding-plumage. The intensity of the latter is obtained by a change in the
actual colour of the feather itself, and is not produced by a moult. The young
have the whole of the upper plumage dark brown spotted with dull yellow ; the
throat being pale yellow streaked with black ; the lower-parts are dull white.

Wagtails and Pipits.

Family MOTACILLIDHl.

The members of this family are a group of slender-bodied birds, possessing
among their common features a slender bill adapted to an insectivorous diet, a
wing composed of nine primaries, long slender feet, and a long tail generally about
equal in length to the wing. The wagtails are distinguished from the pipits by
their proportionate longer tails ; and also by their gay colours, in which yellow
usually predominates; they are migratory, and perform long and arduous journeys
to and from their breeding-grounds. The wagtails and pipits are chiefly
inliabitants of the Old World, especially the northern portions of Europe and
Asia, being represented in North America by two species found in Alaska, but not
in the eastern portions of that Continent.

The white wagtail and its congeners are small, eleo-antly-shaped

The Wagtails. n, • , , , • ^

birds ; all in the habit of running over grass in pursuit of insects.
The bill is slender, nearly straight, and very slightly notched at the tip ; while the
wings are moderate, the first three primaries being about equal and longest, and
the inner secondaries very long ; the tail consists of twelve long narrow feathers ;
and the metatarsus is long and slender. The white wagtail is found throughout
Northern Europe, extending as far East as the Yenesei, and wintering in North
Africa ; while an allied species is found in Persia ; a third breeding in Northern
China, and wintering in Burma. Seven species of the genus Mofacilla are found
in South Africa ; while no fewer than thirteen visit India durinsf the winter
season, at least one of these being a permanent resident in that country.

The White The white wagtail (M. alba) is a common summer visitor to

Wagtail. northern and central portions of Europe, delighting in public

parks and gardens, where it may be seen running at the roadside in pursuit of its
insect prey. In Portugal its provincial name signifies “ washerwoman,” the

J FAG TAILS.

429

analogy having been suggested by the habits of the rural laundresses, who, wading
into the streams, cleanse the clothes on a stone. It is partial to the neighbourhood
of old buildings and outhouses, and often nests in such situations; and in Switzer-
land it seeks the mountain-chalets and cow-sheds, in search of the insects to be found
in the neighbourhood of domestic animals. The nest of this wagtail may be either
among the roots of a tree, or in a baidc by the riverside, or occasionally on a shelf
in some outbuihlings. Mr. Seebohin says that, in Siberia, the white wagtail is one
of the first of the soft-billed birds to arrive on the Arctic Circle in any nuinljers.
This wagtail nests two or three times in the season, rearing four or five young
ones in a brood ; the nest being built of dry stems of grass, moss, and fibres, closely
worked together and neatly lined with wool, hair, and often feathers. The eggs

THE WHITE WAGTAIL (3 nat. .size).

ai'e white in ground-colour, spotted and speckled with greyish brown. \\ hen the
young leave the nest, they live for some weeks with their parents, haunting
garden-lawns and meadow-lands in search of food. The flight of the white wagtail
is rapid and undulating. The call-note is loud and sibilant, and the song some-
what pleasing, although far from powerful. The white wagtail sometimes migrate.s
in large parties, and is fond of roosting in the cover supplied by aquatic reeds. All
the movements of this bird are elegant and rapid, pei’haps even more so than those
of the closely -allied pied wagtail {M. luguhris'), so Avell-known in the Briti.sh
Islands as a summer visitor. White varieties of this wagtail are occasionally
seen, in whicli the characteristic pattern of plumage has become almost
obsolete. The adult male in the breeding-season has the forehead and sides of
the head pure white, the crown, back of the head, and nape jetty buick ; the
back, rump, and upper tail-coverts ])ure pearl grey ; the primaries and wing-co\'erts

43°

PERCHING BIRDS.

dusky ])lack, edged with greyish white ; the tail black and white ; the chin and
throat black ; and the lower-parts pure Mdiite.

YeUow-Headed The yellow-headed wagtail (d/. citreola) is a native ol' Siberia

Wagtail. Eastern Russia, wintering in most parts of the Indian Empire,

and apparently finding its westward summer limits in the valleys of the Petchora
and Volga. It breeds in Kashmir, where the nests are placed under clods in the
ploughed fields. The proper home of this beautiful bird is, however, amongst the
dreary tundras of the far north ; Mr. Seebohm having observed it perching on
alder-bushes in the neighbourhood of fiooded land on the banks of the Petchora.
There it breeds in June, and its habits resemble those of other yellow wagtails, its
light dainty form assimilating closely to that of the blue -headed and yellow
wagtails. The adult male in summer has the entire head and neck deep yellow, as
are the under-parts ; the upper plumage being ashy grey tinged with bluish.

The species which haunts the streams and mountain torrents of
Central Europe is the grey wagtail (J/. melanope). A common
summer visitant and partial resident in the British Isles, shunning the neighbourhood
of sluggish, turbid rivers, and delighting in tiny cascades and rippling waterfalls,
the grey wagtail is fond of wading daintily in the shallows of a stream, and
running over the rocks rising out of the bed. Never found at anj" distance from
water, the nest is placed in a variety of situations, often in the recesses of some
loose stone wall, or mossv shelf of rock overhangincr runnino- water ; while a hole
in a wooden bridge is occasionally selected. Nesting year after year in the same
place, the grey wagtail is a very early breeder, full complements of eggs being laid
early in April ; and it breeds twice in a season, the second brood being generally
fully fledged about the middle of July. The nest is biiilt of dry stems of grass
and a few roots, usually lined with horsehair; six eggs being laid in a clutch,
which are white in ground-colour, suffused with pale brown or olive. The grey
wagtail has a pretty little song, often uttered from the toj^ of some Avillow or other
riverside tree ; the males are very jealous, each choosing his own territory from
which eveiy intruder is ousted. Even when the first broods of young are already
fledged, and actively searching for food in compaii}'- Avith their parents, the old
cocks are always on their guard against the possible intrusion of a stranger, Avhose
approach is invariably heralded Avith a challenge to combat. During its migrations
the grey Avagtail A’isits many loAV-lying districts far remote from its haunts by
rocky rivers, occurring near London every Avinter. This AA’agtail bears confinement
Avell, and has been knoAvn to pair Avith the pied Avagtail in captivity and produce
hybrid young. The adult male in summer has the croAvn and upper-parts slaty
grey, the upper tail-coverts greenish yelloAA^, a Avhite stripe passing above the eye
and another beneath the lore ; the chin and throat are black, and the loAver-parts
bright yelloAv. In Avinter the chin and throat are dirty Avhite, the breast dull buff,
and the under-parts greyish Avhite tinged Avith yelloAV.

Blue-Headed One of the prettiest of all the Avagtails is the blue-headed species

Wagtail. ('3/ fiava), Avell knoAvn in most parts of Europe, though but a chance
summer Ausitor to the British Islands. In Holland, on the other hand, the present
species is of general distribution, though most numerous on the banks of streams
.and in the neighbourhood of morasses. Its flight is SAvift, graceful, and undulating,

IV AG TAILS. 43,

often accompanied by a cheery call-note which can be heai-d at a considei-able
distance. Sometimes it Ireipients gravelly islets like the grey wagtail, Init this is
rather the exception than the rule, since the bird prefers the envii-ons of sluggish
rivers and the banks of canals to more rapid streams. The blue-headed wagtail
nests in meadow-lands, generally in a tuft of grass or a tus.sock of i-ushes, but
sometimes a number of pairs nest together in a single field. The nest is built of

BLUE-HEADED WAGTAIL, YELLOW-HEADED WAGTAIL, AND MEADOW-PIPIT (h liat. size).

dry stems of grass and scraps of moss, lined with fine bents and hair ; the eggs
being yellowish white in ground-colour, mottled and clouded with pale brown.
When the eggs are hatched, the old birds wait eagerly upon their offspring,
continuing to watch over their safety long after they are fledged. These birds
are exceedingly fond of the neighbourhood of horses, running in and out lietween
the feet of the animals with singular unconcern. The adult male has the upper-
parts yellowish green ; the forehead, crown and lores, a beautiful slat}' blue, .set

432

PERCHING BIRDS.

Cape Wagtail.

off to great advantage by the white eyestripe, the under-parts being pure yellow.
The female has the crown of the head greenish brown instead of blue, and the
eyestripe is less pure ; the under-parts being of a duller yellow. A figure of th’s
bird is given on the left side of the woodcut on p. 431.

The European wagtails are replaced as familiar birds in South
Africa by several allied species, of which the best known is the
Cape wagtail {M. ccqoensis). Frequenting the crowded cities no less than the
outlying farmhouses, this wagtail is everywhere protected, in recognition of its
charming ways. Like their European cousins, these birds consort much with
cattle, for the sake of the small flies found about those animals ; and they also
frequent the sea-beach to procure the flies bred in the putrefying seaweed. The
nest is generally constructed in the side of a bank, or a crevice of a stone wall ;
it is cup-shaped and constructed of dry grass lined with cows’ hair and fur. Some-
times it is built under some projecting stone or overhanging root on the bank of a
stream. The eggs are brownish cream -colour, freckled with brown. The Cape
wagtail has the dipping flight peculiar to the genus, and like other wagtails is fond
of seeking its food on the margins of muddy streams ; and it has a pretty
song, which however is seldom littered. Sometimes it is seen in flocks, especially
when the birds are gathering to roost in some favourite tree ; at other times it
lives chiefly in pairs, preying upon insects, which it takes both upon the ground
and on the wing. The adult male has the head and hind-neck ashy grey, the
eye.stripe, cheeks, and throat white, the uppei'-parts brown, washed with olive, the
tail-feathers blackish brown, with the exception of the outer feathers which are
chiefly white ; a black crescentic band crosses the neck, and the breast and under-
parts are yellowish white, and the sides of the body brown.

The pipits of the genus AntJms form a large group of plain-
coloured birds, characterised by the possession of a slender bill very
slightly notched at the tip. The legs are proportionately slender and generally
adapted for terrestrial progression ; the wings are moderate in length, but the tail is
comparatively shoi't, and often slightly forked. Unlike the larks, the pipits have
the nostrils unjirotected by feathers ; but in certain species the first toe is much
elongated. Practically cosmopolitan in their distribution, pipits are represented in
all parts of the world except the islands of the South Pacific ; they are, however,
really an Old World race, since only two, out of a total of some forty known species,
ai’e inhabitants of North America.

Even in Northern Europe, the tree-pipit {A. arhoreus) is a fairly
well-known bird, but its favourite haunts are the mild climate of the
British Isles and Central Europe ; and it shuns high and barren regions, preferring
the shelter of well-timbered valleys and the undulating hollows of English parks.
All the pipits are quarrelsome and fond of fighting individuals of their own kind ;
and on one occasion we observed a tree-pipit chase another of the same species
against the side of an hotel in Switzerland, the pursuer following up the chase
with such energy that he was unable to check his course, and, dashing against the
window, dropped stunned on the ground. Another time a tree-pipit chose to take
up his abode in a small garden which was also a favourite hunting-ground of a
robin, and although the fight was sharp the robin was eventually vanquished.

Pipits.

Tree-Pipit.

PIPITS.

433

The tree - pipits migrate in flocks, and in the spring the birds soon pair, when
each couple selects its own area of breeding-ground. The song is melodious, its
notes bearing a strong resemblance to those of the canary. Sometimes this pipit
sings upon the ground, threading its way furtively through the stems of the hay
crop, pouring forth in snatches a volume of melody. Oftener the song is uttered
while the bird is perching on one of the larger branches of a tall tree by the
roadside, or when on the wing. Mr. Seebohm writes, that it is a pretty sight in
early spring to Avatch the tree-pipit essaying his short flights, as he “ springs up
from the topmost twig of 'some branch, and mounts nearly perpendicularly into
the air warbling his pretty song. He soon begins to hover in the air, and, as if
fatigued by his recent journey, almost immediately descends with tail and Avings
extended like a parachute, and at last finishes his song on the ground, in a tree, or
on a Avail. His doAvnAvard course is in a semi-spiral curve, and he alights Avhere
the curve of his flight Avould make a tangent to the surface of the ground. All
this time he has been singing melodiously, the clear, rich, joyous notes folloAving
each other in rapid succession, until, as he reaches his perch, he concludes his song
Avith scA^eral long-draAvn notes expressive of almost impatient anxiety.” The tree-
pipit nests upon the ground, often upon a bank skirting the edge of a Avood ; the
nest being ahvays Avell concealed, and built of dry stems of grass and moss, lined
Avith fine bents and hair. At times se\"eral pairs nest on a single strip of moorland,
although this is unusual. The eggs vary greatly in colour, but the most usual
type has the ground-colour Avhite, so closely suffused Avith deep broAvn as to be almost
entirely of the latter colour. The young birds leave the nest early and soon
become independent of their parents. In autumn these birds flock together, and
many are captured by the bird-catchers. The upper-parts of the tree-pipit are
broAvn, the feathers having dark centres, and the loAver parts bufiish Avhite, pi-o-
fusely spotted Avith dark broAvn.

Upon the Avaste moorlands of Western Europe the meadoAA^-pipit
{A. pratensis), figured in the illustration on p. 431, generally replaces
the tree'pipit, and finds a congenial abode among peat-bogs and dreary Avastes only
redeemed from ugliness by large strips of cotton-grass. A partial I'esident in most
of its haunts, many individuals, merely shifting from the higher grounds to the
plains before the arrival of Avinter, the meadoAv-pipit lov^es rough marshy ground
and treeless Avastes of heather, rearing its young in the most remote and forbidding
solitudes. Although its song is inferior in compass to that of the tree-pipit, it is
chanted on the AAung. The meadoAA^-pipit nests on rough ground and undrained
meadoAvs, building a slight nest of dried stems of grass, often in a tussock of
herbage, sometimes a very little aboA^e the tide-mark on the sea-beach. The eggs
are Avhite in ground-colour, closely mottled Avith broAvn or broAvnish grey. The
cuckoo is exceedingly fond of depositing her eggs in the meadoAv-pipit’s nest ; and
it is diverting to AA^atch a pair of these birds endeaA’Oui'ing to oust one of these
undesirable neighbours from their A’icinity. It is often assumed that the
cuckoo finds a Avilling dupe in the meadoAA-pipit, but such is not the case in
actual fact. When the cuckoos first arriA'e in England, and commence to pair and
lay, the meadoAA^- pipits assail the strangers Avith persistency, not only mobbing
them with angry cries, but also using physical means to enforce their opinions ;

A'OL. III. — 28

434

PERCHING BIRDS.

pied with white. A small pale race is foiind in Madeira. The meadow-pipit
is olive-brown above, with dark centres to the feathers, often tinged with olive
green ; the under-parts being huffish white, thickly streaked with dark brown.

Richard’s Pipit ^ large species of pipit, known as Richard’s pipit (A. richardi),
breeds in North Siberia, whence stragglers often wander to Britain
during the autumn and winter. Mr. Seebohm states that he found this pipit
“ exceedingl}?’ abundant in the meadows on the banks of the Yenesei near Yenesaisk.
The country is almo.st a dead flat for miles, and is intersected with half dried-up

the small birds not hesitating to alight uj^on the back of the cuckoo. As soon,
however, as the young cuckoo has become the sole object of the charge of the
pipits, the latter accept the situation with admirable fortitude, working early and
late to satisfy the hungry maw of their foster-child. The meadow-pipit is very
subject to a variation of phiinage, especially when young; one of the prettiest
varieties being of a bufl’ canary-yellow throiighoi;t, and Ave have seen others

RICHARD’S PIPIT, WATER-PIPIT, AND TAWNY PIPIT (J liat. size).

PIPITS.

435

river-loeds, and chains of swampy lakes, full of tall sedges and reeds and water-
plants of various kinds, and half-concealed by willow-bushes and alders, whilst far
away in the distance the horizon is bounded on eveiy side by the forest. These
oases of grass in the boundless forest are the paradise of Richard’s pipit. As 1
wandered away from the town this bird became more common. 1 found it
difficult to shoot them on the ground, as they ran about on the grass ; but 1 soon
obtained as many examples as I wanted, as they hovered in the air almost like the
kestrel. . . . Dybowski found them equally common on the plateaus near Lake
Baikal, at an elevation of five thousand feet above the level of the sea. They arrive
about the middle of May, and build their nests upon the ground in the grass. They
usually choose a hollow in the meadows, such as the footprint in the soft earth of
a cow or a horse. The first nest is made in the first half of June, and frequently a
second brood is reared, the eggs being laid in the second half of July. The nests
are said to be very difficult to find. The male keeps watch, and, on the approach
of danger, he gives the alarm to the female, who leaves the nest and runs along
the ground for some distance, when she rises and joins the male in endeavouring
to entice the intruder from the nest with anxious cries. If their little manoeuvres
are successful, the female drops to the ground and runs back to the nest through
the grass. In this district the nest of Richard’s pipit is the one usually selected
by the cuckoo in which to deposit her eggs. They leave for their winter quarters
late in September.” The eggs vary in number, from four to six; some are
profusely spotted all over with minute specks and blotches of greenish brown
upon a pale greenish white ground-colour, whilst in others the spots are reddish
brown upon a pinkish white ground-colour. The adult male has the upper-parts
nearly uniform brown, beneath huffish white darkest on the breast, which is
streaked with dark brown. The sexes ai’e identical. Richard’s pipit may always
be known by the long metatarsus and gi-eatly developed claw of the first toe. A
figure of this bird, as well as of the tawny pipit, is given in the woodcut on p. 434.

The haunts of the tawny pipit (A. campestris) are chiefiy in
Tawny Pipit. l l \ ± / •/

desert-regions, at least through a large portion of its range. In

Europe it is chiefly known as a summer visitor to certain favoured districts, such

as the sierras of Spain and Portugal, the sand-dunes of the Baltic coast-line, and

sparingly on high ground in Central France. It is a shy and wary species, even

on the breeding-ground. Mr. Seebohm found it very common in Greece, where it

is the only pipit that nests. It there prefers the open plains, being especially

common on the undulating prairie country, half rock and half grass and heath,

between Athens and Marathon. It runs on the ground with great agility, and has

a restless zigzag flight, which appears less undulating than that of the meadow-

pipit. The nest, according to Mr. Seebohm, “ is sometimes under a bush,

sometimes beneath a tuft of dense herbage, or under the shelter of a clod of

earth ; at others in the open plain amongst the growing crops, and often near a

dried-up streamlet on a bank beside a convenient stone. It is made of dry

grass, often intermixed with a few stems of coarse hei’bage or straws, together

with roots, and lined with horsehair.” The eggs are white in ground-colour,

profusely spotted with reddish brown and underlying spots of grey. The tawny

pipit migrates from its breeding-ground in August, at which season it has occa-

436 PERCHING BIRDS.

sionally been captured in the British Isles and on Heligoland. The adult male is
nearly uniform brown above ; the wings and tail being conspicuously edged with
bull’, while the chin is butiy white, and the lower-parts bullish, slightly streaked
with brown upon the breast.

The Creepers.

Family CerTUIIL^^.

The creepers bring us to a small group of birds modified to pursue their prey
( comprising spiders and insects) upon the surface of cliffs or the trunks of trees ;
the best known forms being small and plain-coloured birds, typified by the common

THE TREE-CKEEPER.

European tree-creeper (Certiria familiar is). All have the beak relatively long,
slender, sharp, and curving downwards ; the wings including ten primaries, and
the tail consisting of twelve stout and pointed feathers, which are often stiffened to
aid climbing. The claws ai’e long and curved, and the metatarsus is scutellated.

Some divergence of view obtains among ornithologists as to the limits and
serial position of the family. Dr. Sharpe, for instance, who places it near the
wagtails and pipits, would include in this family the nuthatches ; while, on the
other hand, Mr. Oates excludes the latter and includes the wrens within its limits,
placing the family between the drongos and the warblers. Employing the term in
the original more restricted sense, the Cerfhiidce are widely spread over the northern
I’egions of both the Eastern and Western Hemisphei’es ; several species also inhabit-
ing the Indian region, while others are peculiar to Australia.

CREEPERS. 437

Passing by the tree-creepers {(^erthia), in wliicli the tail is composed

of stilt' feathers, and also the Indian spotted -^rey creeper {Salj)oritis), j-e-

niarkable for building an open cup-shaped nest upon a branch, and in which the

tail-feathers are soft, we select for special notice the wall-creeper.

The beautiful creeper (TicJiod ronta mararia), Avliich alone
WaU-Creeper. ^ ^ . . , . ,

represents the genus, passes its entire existence in traversing the

surfaces of precipices in jmrsuit of the spiders and flies con.stituting its food.

* Hence the bill is long, slender, and almost straight, adapted for probing interstices
and cracks, such as usually constitute the haunts of its prey. The wing is large
and rounded, like that of a butterfly, thus affording an easy support as the bird
half flies, half flits about the mural precipices in which it makes its home ; the tail
is slightly rounded, and composed of twelve feathers ; the metatarsus is smooth,
r and the claws are sharp and curved. Residing in the mountain-ranges ot Kurope,
and ranging eastwards into Central Asia, the wall-creeper is found throughout the

THE W.U.L-CKEEl’EU (i liat. sizt).

438

PERCHING BIRDS.

Himalaya, although only as a winter visitor. During the summer months it makes
its home among precipitous rocks, either in rugged ravines or upon the faces of
cliffs. The ffight of this bird almost recalls that of a large butterfly, as it makes
its way from one crevice to another, hanging momentarily with expanded wings
in one spot, thence shuffling upwards for a foot or two, and then suddenly
darting off’ to explore another corner of the rocks, ever in restless motion,,
save when it creeps to roost in some secure fissure. The wall-creeper nests
from April till June, depositing four or five pure white eggs, sparsely speckled
with red, in a nest built of straw, grass, and moss, intermingled with wool and
feathers.

The Australian Certain somewhat remarkable Australian birds, placed by Gould
Straight-Claws, among the present family, may be conveniently noticed here, although
their serial position is open to considerable doubt, and they are placed by Di’.
Sharpe with the Crateropodidcv. The genus, of which there are several species, such
as the spiny-tailed {Orthonyx spinicauda), and yellow-headed straight-claw (0..
ochrocejdial as), is characterised by the short and straight beak, in which the culmen
is arched, the moderate and rounded wings, with the first four quills graduated
and shorter than the fifth, and the long tail, in which the feathers are broad, and
furnished with soft webs, but with stiff’ rigid shafts, terminating in naked points.
The feet are very large and strong. Inhabiting South and Eastern Australia, the
common species frequents remote situations in the bush, rapidly traversing the
surface of moss-covered stones and the fallen trunks of trees in search of food.
It never climbs, and is solitary in its habits, seldom more than two being seen
together. Its oft-repeated cry of cri, cri, cri, crite, betrays its presence, when its-
native haunts, the most retired forests, are visited. Its food consists of insects and
wood-bugs. The eggs are white and large in proportion to the size of the bird.
The situation of the nest is the side of a slanting rock, the entrance being level
with the surface. The adult male has the head and upper-parts reddish brown ;
the wings are brown, the coverts largely tipped with grey ; the primaries are
crossed with grey at the base ; the tips of the secondaries are tipped with dark
brownish grey.; the tail is dark brown; the sides of the head and neck are dark
grey ; the throat and chest white, separated from the grey of the sides of the
neck by a lunar-shaped mark of deep black ; and the flanks and under tail-coverts
grey, stained with reddish brown. The female diff’ers from her mate, in having
the throat rich rusty red instead of white.

The Nuthatches.

Family SlTTlD^E.

Regarded by Dr. Sharpe as inseparable from the creepers, the nuthatches are
retained as a distinct fajuily by Mi’. Oates, who considers them to be most nearly
related to the Grateroj)odidai. These birds have the edges of both mandibles
smooth, or the upper one slightly notched ; the hinder surface of the metatarsus is
smooth, and covered ivith two entire longitudinal plates ; the wing has ten
primaries ; the nostrils are clear of the line of the forehead, and overhung by some

NUTHA'rCJIES.

439

hairs ; bristles are present at the rictus of the gape ; there are twelve tail-feathers ;
and the first and second toes are of very une(jnal lengths. In all the group there
is but one annual moult, and the plumage of the nestling resembles that of the
female ; while in most cases the coloration of the plumage is different in the two
sexes. With the exception of South America and Africa south of the Sahara, nut-
hatches are pretty generally distributed, extending to Australasia. They are small
climbing birds, with the first toe greatly developed, and the second jjroportionately
shortened ; and feed both on insects and nuts. Resident in their habits, they nest
in the holes of trees or the crevices of rocks, very generally reducing the size of the
aperture of the hole by building it up with mud. In addition to the type genus,
the family is represented by the Australian genus Sitella, and likewise by a third
known as Hypositta.

Common Abundant in many parts of Central and Southern Europe, as

Nuthatch, Jjj England, in the spring of the year the common nuthatch

(Sifta ccvsia) invariably indi-
cates its whereabouts by its
merry call-note, which rings far
and wide through the beech
woods, which the bird chiefly
frequents. The nuthatch pairs
at the close of winter, and chooses
for its nestino; - site a hole in
some hollow tree, plastering up
the entrance with clay, and
only leaving a small orifice
through which the birds pass
into the nest ; the interior of
the nest being lined with dry
beech leaves. The eggs are
Avhite, spotted with bright red ;
and, when the young are fledged,
they live for a time with their
parents, but soon become in-
dependent, and rove through the
If a nuthatch be watched, it will be found that it sometimes perches across a
bough like any little singing bird ; but when feeding it generally runs up and down
the trunk of old ti’ees something like a woodpecker. The call-note of the nuthatch is
a loud tiuet tiuet, which may be compared to the words fetch it, fetch it, but this
ciy must not be confused with the spring whistle of the male. If encouraged,
it becomes a tame and confiding bird, laying aside much of its fear of man,
and readily leai’iiing to avail itself of the resources of civilisation. In winter,
especially, the nuthatch approaches dwelling-houses, and willingly partakes of
scraps of food with tits. During the summer it feeds chiefly upon insects,
but in autumn subsists more upon nuts and beech-mast. lew sights are
prettier than to watch a nuthatch opening nuts ; the bird swinging its body freel}'
forward as it brings down its long bill with accuracy on the right part of the shell.

NUTHATCH.

woods in company with tits and other small birds.

440

PERCHING BIRDS.

S5rrian Nuthatch.

Nuthatches liave rather a habit of entering houses through open windows, prob-
abl}^ out of curiosity ; and we owed to this habit a pet nuthatch, which became
extremely tame, and used to take flies from our finger. They are decidedly
pugnacious, and if two males are placed in the same cage in the breeding-
season, the probability is that the stronger bird will kill his rival. The devotion
which paired birds show to one another is a marked trait in the character of
the nuthatch. Once we saw a great deal of a pair of nuthatches which used to flit
about the apple-trees in a garden at Montreux ; and we noticed the feaidess way in
which they foraged for food amongst the dead leaves, often approaching close to us
with imperturbable confidence. The adult male has the upper-parts slaty blue ; a
black line passes from the base of the bill through the eye to the nape ; the wings
and tail are slaty blue, the outer tail-feathers showing, when open, white edges ; the
flanks are bright chestnut-red ; and the lower-parts bufty white. A vai'iety with a
black throat and ci'own has been recorded.

The Syrian nuthatch (S. neumayeri) might more properly be
called the rock-nuthatch, for its habits in Southern Europe differ in a
very remarkable way fi’om those of its congeners ; this nuthatch building its nest
of earth, small stones, etc., and placing it upon the face of a rock, and constructing
a round, funnel-shaped entrance, an inch or more in length. Mr. Seebohm, who
found this nuthatch building in the crags near Smyrna, gives the following account
of its nidification : — “ The nest of this bird is a very curious structure. A recess in
the rock is selected, and a funnel made of mud and little bits of dry gi'ass is biiilt
in front of it. It is quite an important affair ; the base is frequentl}^- twenty-four
inches in circumference, and the walls vary in thickness from half an inch to an
inch and a half. The tube of the funnel, which, of course, serves for the ingress
and egress of the bird, is about four inches long, with an intei’nal diameter of an
inch and a quarter at the entrance. The outside of the nest is carefully made to
resemble the appearance of the rock against which it is built. One which I brought
home with me is curiously corrugated or granulated, to imitate the calcareous
deposits on the inside of the cave where I found it. The nest is wariidy lined with
goats’ wool, thistledown, and all sorts of soft materials. As might be expected in
a bird which remains in its summer home during the winter, it is an early breeder,
laying its eggs about the middle of April ; and it would not appear to breed a
second time in the year, as all the nests I found in June were empty. The number
of eggs varies from six to ten. They are very beautiful, well marked, and unlike
any other egg with which I am acquainted. The typical egg is about the size of
that of the wryneck, but rather wider and flatter at the top and straighter at the
sides. It has the same pearly-white ground colour, spotted with large rust-
coloured blotches.” This nuthatch seems to confine itself entirely to rocks, and
never alights on the trunk of a tree. The adult male has the entire upper-parts
leaden blue ; a black stripe passes through the eye ; the quills are bluish brown,
(‘dged with I'usset ; the tail is blackish brown, with the outer feathers tipped with
russet ; and the throat and lower-parts are white, tinged with russet on the flanks
and abdomen.

^ One of the most abundant of the nuthatches of North America is

Pi^my Nuthatch. ....

the widely distributed pigmy nuthatch (aS^. pygmoea), which roams

HONEy-EATERS.

through the woods in Hocks composed of its own kind, occasionally joining com-
pany with tits and warblers. As many as twenty or thirty may sometimes be seen
together, calling incessantly to one another. They feed partly upon the tiny
insects which they find lurking in the crevices of the tree-bark, partly upon the
seeds of fir-trees. Their notes are very varied. The eggs of this nuthatch are
deposited in the hole of a tree, which is sometimes lined and sometimes left bare ;
the eggs being pinkish white dotted with reddish. The young birds leave the nest
in the month of June. Mr. Trippo furnishes the following notice of this bird,
which he found breeding up to an elevation of eight thousand five hundred feet
in Colorado : — “ The pigmy nuthatch is a delicate little fellow, with more of the
habits and voice of B. canadensis than of the Avhite-breasted species ; a similarity
carried out by the coloi'ation of the tail, and their half warbler-like movements at
times. They are very active and incessantly on the move, creeping over the trunks
and limbs of the pines, and tapping vigorously here and there like a woodpecker,
and far louder than the other nuthatches do.” The adult bird has the upper-parts
ashy blue ; the top of the head and sides to below the eyes olive-brown bordered
with black ; the tail-feathers are blackish spotted with white, except the two
central ones, which are blue ; and the under-parts vary from buftish white to a
rich rusty colour.

The Honey-Eaters.

Family Melipeagid^.

Distinguished from all the families hitherto noticed by their long extensile
tongue, adapted for extracting the honey upon which they subsist from the fiowers
of gum-trees and other trees of the Australasian forests, the honey-eaters form
a large and interesting group. In all, the beak is long and slender, with the upper
mandible curved, but there are no bristles at the rictus of the gape ; the feet are
generally large, and the wings of moderate length. The group is confined to
Australasia and the islands of the South Pacific ; and although comprising many
genera, our space allows of mention of only a few.

The Poe honey-eater (rrosthemadera novce-zealo ndice), com-
Farson Bird. " ' . , , i ^ • i

monly known as the parson-bird, has the long, slender, and consider-
ably curved beak, broad at the base, while the tail is long and broad. The sole
representative of its genus, this bird is found on both the main islands of New
Zealand, whem it is one of the most abundant of the indigenous species. Sir
Walter Buller writes, that in a state of nature, the tui, or parson-bird, is even
more lively and active than in captivity. “ It is incessantly on tlie move, pausing
only to utter its joyous notes. The early morning is the period devoted to melody,
and the tuis then perform in concert, gladdening the woods with their wild ecstasy.

. . . When engaged in song the tui pufis out the feathers of his bodj', distends his
throat, opens wide his beak, witli the tongue raised and slightly protruded, and
gesticulates with his head, as he pours forth tlie wild harmony of his soul. A pair
may often be observed scarcely a foot apart on tlie same branch performing in
concert, for both sexes sing. The notes are rich and varied, now resembling tlie
striking together of metallic rods, then a long-drawn sigh, a warble, and a sob,

442

PERCHING BIRDS.

followed by a note of great sweetness like the touch on the high stop of an organ.

. . One of its finest notes is a clear silvery toll followed by a pause, and then
another toll; the performance lasting sometimes an hour or more. This is generally
heard at the close of the day, or just before the bird betakes itself to roost for the
night. I have, however, on one or two occasions heard a sweet tiii toll long after
the shadows of darkness had settled down upon the forests, and all other sounds
were hushed. At other times it may be heard uttering a sweet warbling note,
followed by a sneeze, after that a pause, then a sharp cry of tu-whit, tu-whit, ooo,
a pause again, and then its warbling note with variations, very soft and liquid, but

roii HONEY-E.ITER, OU PARSON-BIRD.

ending abruptly in a sound like the breaking of glass.” In confinement the parson-
hird readily reproduces the cries of other species. It feeds upon ripe berries, flies,
and other insects, and the honey of certain wild blossoms ; it builds its nest in the
foi-k of a bushy shrub, generally only a few feet from the ground ; it is a large
structure, composed chiefly of sprays or dried twigs, intermixed with coarse moss,
and lined with fine grasses. The eggs are generally white, finely spotted with red
or brown. The parson-bird builds twice in the year, the first nest being found in
August. The newly-hatched bird is almost entirely bare, but the feathers soon
appear, and the growth of the nestling is rapid. The adult male has the general
plumage shining metallic green, with bluish purple reflections on the shoulders,
rump, and upper tail-coverts ; the middle of the back and the scapulars are bronze-

/lONEY-EATERS.

443

brown ; the primaries and tail-feathers are metallic ^a-een ; the hind-neck is orna-
mented with a collar of soft plumes, having a white line down the centre ; and the
lower part of the breast is metallic green, changing into purplish blue. The sides
and abdomen are blackish brown, and the throat is ornamented with two tufts of
white filamentous feathers.

stitch Bird honey - eater (Pogonornis cincta) has a moderate bill,

much compressed and slender, and the gape furnished with slender
bristles ; the wings are moderate, with the fourth quill the longest ; the tail is
moderate and forked ; and the metatarsus long, robust, and covered in front with
transverse scales. Formerly abundant in the southern parts of the North Island
of New Zealand, it was never found in the South Island. The stitch-bird is
I’emarkable for the bright plumage of the male, on which account it has been almost
completely exterminated by the nativ’es, in order that the chiefs might wear the
canary -yellow feathers from the wings in their gorgeous feather robes. Always a
shy and retiring species, and difficult to shoot, the Maoris used to take this bird
in snares baited with flowers. Sir W. Buller observes that when disturbed by
the report of a gun, this bird will fly ofl‘ to a neighbouring tree with a light and
graceful movement of the wing; but when descending to a lower station it
adopts a different manner of flight, elevating the tail almost to a right angle
with the body, and scarcely moving the wings at all. The male bird erects the
tail and spreads the ear-tufts when excited or alarmed ; but the female habitually
carries the tail perfectly erect, and the wings drooping. The male utters at
short intervals, and with startling energy, a melodious whistling call of three
notes ; but at other times he produces a sharp, clicking sound, like the striking of
two quartz stones together, the sound having a fancied resemblance to the word
“ stitch.” The nest is a slight, shallow structure, built of sprays and fibres, lined
with fine grass and cow-hair. The egg is j'ellowish white, thickly spotted with
pale rufous. The adult male has the head, neck, and upper back velvety black ;
a tuft of snow-white feathers is present on both sides of the head ; the wings and
tail are black ; a band of rich canary-yellow encircles the back neck ; and the
under-parts are light greyish brown. The female is plain brown.

The group of honey-sucking birds known as white-eyes (genus
Zosterojys) have long been a bone of contention among ornithologists.
Dr. Gadow placing them among the honey-eaters. Dr. Sclater with the sun-birds,
Mr. Wallace among the flower-peckers, and ]\Ir. Oates in the Crateropodidee, while
Professor Mivart makes them the type of a family by themselves. Under these
circumstances we have placed them here, preferring to leave their family position
open. They are characterised by having the beak curved, slendei', and pointed,
and the nostrils covered by a large membi’ane, Avhile the eye is surrounded by a
characteristic circle of small white feathers. The tongue, according to Dr. Gadow,
is pi’otractile and bifid, with each half broken up into numerous stiff horny fibres,
so as to form a brush. The wing has ten primaries, but the first is very minute ;
and the tail is short and quite square. Twelve species of white-eye are found in
Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, which Canon Tristram divides into the
green-backed and grey -backed groups ; while five inhabit India, and several
Australia. Japan also posse.sses a species ; and several others occur in Africa.

444

PERCHING BIRDS.

Taking as an example the green-backed white-eye {Z. gouldi) of Australia,
we find this bird is well known to settlers as being exceedingly partial
to garden-fruit. Being particularly fond of ligs and grapes, it consequently
abounds in all the gardens where those plants are cultivated, and it is as often to
be seen and as numerous as sparrows in England ; besides feeding upon fruits, it
catches flies while on the wing, after the manner of the true flycatchers. Its note
is a single plaintive one, several times repeated ; and its flight is irregular and of
short duration. The breeding-season commences in August and ends in November ;
the nests during the earlier part of the season invariably contain two eggs, but
in those found in October and November the niamber is increased to three, and
rarely to foixr. The nest is small, compact, and formed of dried wiry grasses,
bound together with the hairy tendrils of small plants and wool, the inside being
lined with very minute fibrous roots. The eggs are greenish blue, without spots
or markings. In South Australia the white-eye just described is replaced by a
grey-backed species which frequents gardens, building its nest and rearing its
young in shrubs and rose-trees bordering the walks. This species make a very
neat nest, and its eggs are of a beautiful pale blue. The green-backed white-eye
has the crown and upper-parts olive-green ; the wings and tail are brown edged
witli olive-green ; the throat and under tail-coverts light greenish yellow ; and the
breast and under-parts grey, tinged with brown.

The Sun-Birds.

Family Nectaririid.^.

The sun-birds are a tropical family corresponding in the Old World to the
humming-birds of the New ; and are characterised by the long, slender, curved
bill, with the sides compressed along to the tip, which is acute, and in which both
mandibles are finely serrated for the terminal third of their edges, the wings being
of moderate size, and consisting of ten primaries, the tail being more or less
elongated, with the middle feathers sometimes prolonged beyond the rest, the
metatarsus being usually short, and the toes of moderate size, the claws being
curved and sharp. The sexes are very diflerent ; the males having bright
metallic tints in the plumage, while the females are dull in colour. Most numer-
ously represented in the African continent, the sun-birds are fairly plentiful in
the Indian region, and likewise occur in Australasia.

Typical Tlie birds of the genus Nectarinia have the bill long, curved,

Sun-Birds, acute, while the wings are moderate and rounded, the tail broad

and slightly rounded, with the central feathers lengthened and narrowed, the
metatarsus short, and covered in front with very broad scales. The majority of
these sun-birds are found in Africa, but the Australian sun-bird represents the
genus in Australasia.

Malachite One of the best known of the South African sun-birds is the

Sun-Bird. malachite sun-bird ( N. famosa). According to Captain Shelley,
this species is partial to the blossoms of the aloe, among which it finds an
abundance of its insect food ; but it feeds also upon saccharine juice, extracted from

SUN-BIRDS.

445

blossoms by means of its lon^r, brush-tipped toneme. It has a shrill, not unpleasing,
but short song. \\ hen pursuing a rival uttering a piercing scream, it is very
combative, and if two males meet about the same bush, a fight is sure to ensue, to
the great detriment of the beautiful tail-feathers. The males lose their beauty in
the winter sea.son ; and the young birds are just like the females. The domed nest
is built of cobwebs, lichens, and dry leaves, and usually suspended on the outside
of a bush, or the branch of a tree ; the eggs, two in number, are of a dull greyish

MALE AND FEMALE OF THE METALUC SUN-BIKD (} uat. size).

brown colour, minutely mottled all over. In Natal this sun-bird frequents the
open country, feeding upon the nectar of the various kinds of aloes, and also on
that of some species of lilies, which are numei’ous in many of the valley.s. ^Ir.
Andersson observes that “ this sun-bird is permanently established where it has
once taken up its abode. Its food consists of insects and the saccharine juices of
flowers, in seai’ch of which it flits incessantly from one flowering tree to another,
now settling and now hovering, but glittering all the while in the sunshine like
some brilliant insect oi’ precious gem. The male, in addition to the beauty of its
plumage, possesses a very pleasant warble.” The adult male has the general

446

PERCHING BIRDS.

piuinage, a shining malachite-green with the tufts of the breast brilliant yellow ;
the two centi'al tail-feathers are prolonged three inches beyond the rest ; and the
wings and tail are blackish. The female is dull brown above, tinged with green,
and beneath is greenish yellow.

Metaiuc Sun- The sun-bird {N . metallica), represented in our illustration on

Bird. p 445^ inhabits Equatorial Africa, living in pairs wherever the
mimosa is abundant. During the heat of the day its actions become most animated ;
and at noon, when all the other birds seek rest and shelter from the parching heat,
this sun-bird flies from blossom to blossom, accompanied by its faithful little mate.
►Standing beneath a mimosa tree in full flower, an observer may hear its quick
whirring flight as it alights upon the branches of the thorn-bushes, and begins to
probe the blossoms in search of honey and the insects which enter the interior of
the flowers in search of sweets. It feeds also upon flies and other winged insects
which it takes in flight ; and as soon as a male has exhausted the contents of
the blossoms of one tree, he darts off to another, always followed by his mate.
The male bird is much devoted to his companion, whom he frequently entertains
with a lively song; and he is jealous of any intruder, darting angrily against an}’’
stray male that may happen to invade his territory, and promptly expelling him
from the neighbourhood. The nest is suspended in the centre of some mimosa-
tree, and is built of the down of plants and cobwebs ; the eggs being reddish white
in ground-colour, variegated with dark grey and violet. The adult male is
brilliant green above, with the addition of a violet gorget ; the wings and tail
being bluish black, and the under-parts bright yellow. The female is olive-brown
above, and sulphur-yellow beneath.

The Indian genera of the family are five in number, four of which are included
in one subfamily and the fifth in another.

The Honey-Peckers.

Family BiCuEIDj^.

If we exclude from this family the white-eyes, the birds to which the above
name is applied comprise a group of small and mostly gaily-coloured species,
distributed over the whole of the Oriental and a part of the Australian region, and
nearly allied to the sun-birds, from which they may be distinguished by the beak
being short and triangular, instead of long, .slender, and cylindrical. Moreovei’,
while all the sun-birds have ten primary quills to the wing, in the honey-peckers
the number of these feathers may be either ten or nine ; in all cases the tail is
short, and the metatarsus is never elongated. In the majority of the species the
two sexes differ markedly in plumage, although in a few they are alike ; and in
all instances the young resemble the female.s. None of them migrate, not even
locally ; while all are remarkable for the beauty of their nests, which, are frequently
suspended from branches, and pear -like in form. In India the family is repre-
sented by four genera, of which three, and among them the typical Dicceum, have
nine primaries, while in the other three a small tenth primary is retained. A
Avell-known representative of the typical genus is the scarlet-backed flower-pecker

1, GREAT TIT ; 2, BLUE TIT ; 3, CRESTED TIT ; 4, MARSH-TIT ; 5 COAL-TIT.

TITS.

449

(Dicccum ementatuni), nin^iiig from India to Sumatra and China. Still moro
beautiful is the Australian diamond-bii-d {Panlalotun affinis), a small short-tailed
species, the loveliness of whose plumage it is almost impossible to <lescribe.
The general colour is, however, ashy grey, spotted and spangled all over
with red, yellow, orange, and black, with the tail-coverts rich dark red. Common
in some places among the large gum-ti’ees of the deep forest, this bird has a
remarkably loud call-note, which can be heard from long distances. Generally
only a summer visitor to Victoria, although occasionally seen there during the
winter, it nests in hollow logs, or more rarely in a hole in the ground.

The Tits.

Family Parid^K

Included, as we have already had occasion to remark, by Mr. Oates among
the Crows (from which they may be distinguished by the first primaiy (piill
never exceeding half the length of the second, and being generally still shorter),
the tits are by most ornithologists regarded as constituting a distinct family, which
is placed by Dr. Sharpe near the honey-eaters. They constitute a considerable
group of small, agile birds, obtaining their food on trees, and living principally
upon insects, although they will also eat seeds and blos.soms. They are all very
much alike, and have a short, conical, and entire beak, about one-third the length
of the head, the bristles at the rictus of the gape short, while those covering
the nostrils, although likewise short, are straight and very thick. The wing,
which contains ten primaries, is weak and rounded ; and the metatarsus is
scutellated. Thoroughly arboreal in their mode of life, seldom descending to the
ground, and often going about in parties of three or four, the tits are chiefly
denizens of the Old World, some inhabiting the forest-i’egions of Xortheim Europe
and Asia, while others are indigenous to the Himalaya, and others peculiar to
North America, there being one genus in New Zealand.

The true tits are specially characteidsed by the absence of a
crest on the head ; and by the rounded tail, in. which the outer pair of
feathers fall short of the tip by the length of the claw of the first toe. Dis-
tributed over a large portion of the world, these birds are numei’ously represented
in Europe, while four are denizens of the Indian region ; and they are also common
in North America. The beak is generally strong and conical, and thus well adapted
to extract insects from their hiding-places in the bark of trees ; while the wings
are somewhat rounded, and the tail comparatively short.

The great tit {Pams major) is a common bird in the northern parts
of the Old World, living in companies which haunt woods and gardens
during the greater part of the year. In England, writes Mr. Dresser, it “ is a )-esident,
frequenting during the summer season woods and large gardens, where its food,
which at that season of the year consists almost exclusively of insects, is best to
be found. They are excellent desti'oyers of the latter, and for tliat reason are
welcomed in any garden where the owners are sufficiently enlightened to know and
esteem their value. During the winter season they flock togetlier in families, and

VOL. III. — 29

The True Tits.

Great Tit.

45°

PERCHING BIRDS.

either roam about wherever there are trees, in company with creepei's and
other small birds, diligently seeking after insects and their eggs in the bark of
tx'ees, or else remaining in the neighbourhood of inhabited places, picking up what
refuse they can find. They are remarkably fond of picking a bone, and may often
be seen near the kitchen door, watching for any stray scraps which may be thrown
out. Some friends of ours, who are fond of enticing them to remain about
their gardens, feed them during the winter by hanging lumps of suet in a small
net on a piece of wire fixed across a high stick, in order that they may be out of
reach of the cats ; and I have often been astonished to see how soon a large piece
of suet is demolished by these little birds. Often two or three may be seen cling-
ing to the same piece, pecking at it vigorously, evidently enjoying the good fare
prepai'ed for them. . . . When hunting after insects, etc., in trees, they appear to
examine every part most carefully, moving along and round the branches, now
clinging head downwards, now moving along the limbs of the tree almost like a
creeper, or clinging to the end of a small branch, examining carefully a bud to see
if any insect is harboured therein. This is done in a most business-like, quiet
manner, and only now and then a low call, ze, is uttered ; but when taking a short
flight from tree to tree or bush to bush, they utter their cheerful loud note.” The
great tit has a variety of notes, .some of which are har.sh and unmelodious ; its
song being inconsiderable but characteristic. Building early in spring, it places its
nest in a variety of situations, one having been found in the roots of an elm-tree,
quite a foot below the ground. IVIost nests are, however, placed in holes in
trees, sometimes in the deserted nest of a hornet, and some have been found
in garden - pumps, flower-pots, and other unlikely situations. Probably one of
the most extraordinary nests ever discovered was found in a rough corner-cupboard,
fixed at one end of an old shepherd’s house, erected in a plantation for the use of
the gamekeeper. In the centre of the cupboard was a .single shelf, and the door
being kept shut, the pair of tits could only obtain access through a small hole in the
woodwork above ; but through this opening the large amount of material employed
in the construction of the nest must have been introduced. The eggs of the great
tit are pure white, blotched with bright red; the bird frequently rearing two
broods in the same nesting-hole in the coui’se of the .summer. The adult male has
the crown of the head and the sides of the neck and throat glo.ssy black, and the
sides of the face white ; the back is yellowish green ; the lower part of the back and
upper tail-coverts is slaty grey, as are the wings and tail ; while the under-parts are
bright yellow, with a black median stripe.

An inhabitant of the fir-woods of Central and Northern Europe,
Coal-Tit. . . . ^

the coal-tit (P. ater) breeds early in the year, generally in a hole

in the wall or chink in some rotten tree-stump ; the nest being lined with fine roots,

moss, hair, and feather.s. The eggs are white, spotted and blotched with red ;

and a nest of this .species was once found in the burrow of a sand-martin.

The British form of the coal-tit is regarded by some ornithologists as distinct from

the Continental race, inasmuch as it has the back of an olive-brown, whereas the

back of the Continental bird is slaty blue. Nevertheless some specimens of coal-

tit obtained in the noi’th of Scotland are intermediate between the British and

Continental forms ; while the habits of both appear to be precisely identical. The

Tirs.

45'

Maxsh-Tit.

Blue-Tit.

coal - tit is an inquisitive bird ; and we have known one voluntarily enter an
empty mouse-trap, apparently tempted only by curiosity. The adult male has the
crown black ; a distinct white patch adorns the nape ; the sides of the head are pure
white, the upper-parts slaty blue, the throat black, the centre of the body
whitish, and the flanks bull'.

Generally frequenting gardens, orchards, and woods near swampy
ground, the marsh-tit (P. palustris) displays a marked partiality for
rabbits’ fur as a nesting material ; some nests being almo.st entirely composed of it.
One taken from a hole in a birch-tree was compact, cup-shaped, smooth both exter-
nall}" and internally, and mainly composed of rabbits’ fur, interwoven on the inner
side with minute chips of dried grasses, and on the outer side with fine moss ; while
another from Berkshire was a thick matted structure of moss and dogs’ hair, the
moss predominating on the outside and the hair inside. The eggs are pure white,
dotted all over with red. The adult male has the crown glossy black, the sides of
the neck white, the back greyish brown, the throat black, the wings and tail
greyish brown, and the breast white tinged with buff.

Common in most parts of Europe, where it frequents gardens,
orchards, and the neighbourhood of houses, the blue-tit (P. cairuleus),
is a familiar biixl, and often exhibits its antics in full view of any passer-by. Its
laughing call-note is well known to every .schoolboy, and scai'cely less so are its
nest and eggs. Rearing its young in a great variety of situations, the same site
being resorted to for many generations, the blue tit often nests in a hole upon the
ground, while a pair have been known to rear their brood in the steeple of a church.
The blue tit sits very close upon its eggs, which, like those of other tits, are white
spotted with pale red. Both the present species and the great tit are migratory in
their habits, not only crossing the North Sea upon their joui-neys, but sometimes
venturing into the heart of London. The forehead is white ; the crown, back of
the neck, and collar are bright blue ; the back is yellowish green ; the wings and
tail are blue ; the throat is dusky black and the under-parts are pure yellow.

Another member of the family that calls for notice, on account of
the beauty of its plumage, is the azure tit (P. cyaneus) of Siberia,
which occasionally wanders into Europe, having been captured more than once in
the neighbourhood of the Russian capital. According to an account of its habits,
published by Dr. Dybowski, it appears that this tit breeds in holes in old trees,
especially willows, sometimes making use of a deserted woodpecker’s nest. The
nest is composed of the fur of the white hare and squirrel, with a few pieces of
.slender grass. The azure tit lays ten or eleven eggs ; and one nest is on record
composed of dried green moss intermixed with fine cow-hair. The eggs are white,
spotted with dull red at the larger end. The adult male has the head snowy white,
appearing in life as if powdered over with blue ; the back is pale bluish gi'ey ; the
upper tail -coverts are Pru.ssian blue tipped with white; the wings are greyish
brown, white at the base of the inner web, and the outer web Prussian blue ; while
the tail is very long and bright Prussian blue, with the exception of the outer
feathers, which are white, as are the lower-parts.

^ Oi'iginally included in the typical genus, the crested tit (Loph-

ophanes cristatus) of Northern Europe, is now generally considered

Aziire Tit.

452

PERCHING BIRDS.

by ornithologists to represent the type of a genus including several other species.
Distimmished from the true tits by the presence of a crest on the head, the members
of tbe genus differ from an allied group of crested tits {Macroloplius) by the tail
being square or slightly forked, whereas in the latter it is rounded. Moreover, the
black abdominal band, found in the last-named genus, is wanting in the present
one. The home of the crested tit must be sought in large pine-forests, or extensive
stretches of beech-wood and mixed timber. It is a shy and retiring species, not
courting observation like many of its cousins, but shunning the haunts of men even
in winter. In the spring we have met with it in small droves, in pairs, and even
singly. Though shy and timid, if conscious of being pursued, the crested tit when
left alone often allows a quiet observer to enjoy a close inspection of its plumage,
and the pale grey crest, jet-black throat, and huffish under-parts form a pleasing
harmony of colour. It has rather a knack of perching overhead, especially if the
observer be riding, probably impelled to the survey by curiosity. Anyone who has
trained his ear to recognise the cries of birds, will soon become familiar with the
liquid call-note, prrlt or chrrit, which may often be heard before the tiny musician
has revealed its whereabouts. The crested tit has a pretty little song, generally
uttered when a male bird is playfully pursuing one of his companions in mock
anger. Mr. C. Thusnall says : “ I have generally seen them in the top boughs of
the firs, but they frecpiently come on to the ground, apparently to pick up a seed
that may drop from the tir-cones ; at anyrate, you see them fly down, look in the
grass, and fly up again immediately. They appear to remain in families, as you
seldom see a single one. As a rule, they prefer the rotten stem of a fli’, about
twelve or fourteen feet high, and Ijore a hole in the tree from two feet to eight feet
above the ground. I have also found the nest in old stumps of very large trees within
six inches of the ground. Their nidittcation is therefore more like that of the coal-
tit in that respect.” In Rhenish Prussia, the crested tit lays in the deserted nests
of the crow, magpie, or squirrel, as well as in hollow trees ; the nest being made
of moss, wool and feathers. The eggs are white, spotted all over with bright red.
When the pairing-season is over, the crested tits band together with tree-creepers,
goldcrests and other tits, and scour the woods in search of food ; the crested tits
leading the van. They do not work the branches as minutely as other tits,
preferring to range more widely.

The crested tit possesses an elongated crest, often raised ; the forehead and
sides of the head are white, mottled slightly with grey, the feathers of the crown
black, edged with white, the cheeks and sides of the head white, the throat deep
black. The i;pper-parts are greyish brown, so that the bird a2q:)eai’s sombre upon
the wing ; the lower-parts are fulvous.

Agreeing with the true tits in the absence of a head -crest.
Long Tailed Tits. . C . t- •

the long -tailed tits, as represented by the European species, are

sufficiently distinguished lyy the elongation of the appendage from which they take

their name. We select for illustration the white-headed long-tailed tit (Acred ida

caudata), as being the t;^qie of the genus. Inhabiting the northern districts of

Europe, and occurring also in many parts of Germany, its range somewhat overlaps

that of the form termed the British long-tailed tit. The species under consideration

is a tolerably common and well-known bird throughout the whole of Switzerland,

TITS. 453

i-iing-ing up into tlie mountains to an elevation of five thousand l'e(‘t. It avouM lui
ditlicult to name a more sociable or confiding species, for this tit lives in flocks
during the greater part of the yeai-, and roves about with its fellows in (juest of tlu;
small insects, es})ecially certain grubs found in the catkins of willows, which form
its subsistence. Flying in an undidating fashion, and exhibiting a rather peculiar

WHITE-HEAUED LOXG-TAII.EU TIT liat. Size).

appearance on the wing, as it flits gaily from one tree to another, uttering its loud
and shrill call-note almost without cessation, this tit builds a beautiful nest
composed of mosses, interwoven with wool and feathers, and excpiisitely trimmed
on the exterior with grey and white lichens ; the interior of the structure being
copiously lined with a vaidety of soft feathers. A peculiarly shaped nest of this tit
taken in Denmark, resembled in shape a plain honey-jar, placed horizontalU on

454

PERCHING BIRDS.

the upper part of a long cleft between two large branches, to the base of which a
pouch twice or three times as long as the jar itself was attached perpendicularly,
tilling up the face of the fork between the branches ; the entrance hole being the
mouth of the jar. This nest was built of moss closely covered with pieces of
lichen. An early breeder, this tit lays from ten to fourteen white eggs, spotted
with red; the young being sometimes hatched as early as the month of April.
Both the old birds participate in the labours of incubation, and we have known
the young of this species reared from the nest by hand. Indeed, long-tailed tits
have been kept in confinement for no less a period than two years. The method
of treatment was to confine these birds between lai’ge double windows where ivy
was growing, on the leaves of which numbers of plant-lice were found, and upon
these the freshly caught tits fed, and by degrees got accustomed to confinement,
and would take ants’ eggs and other food. About a dozen species of the genus are
now known ; the most I’ecently discovered being the Macedonian long-tailed tit.
Possessing a black chin, this tit otherwise resembles the British long-tailed tit with
black instead of white lores. Irb3^’s long-tailed tit inhabits Spain and Italy, while
the Tiirkish long-tailed tit x’esembles the last-named in having the centre of the
back grey and not black, but diffei’s in the presence of a large blackish patch on
the centre of the throat. A sixth species inhabits the northern slopes of the
Caucasus, and has the forehead pale brownish, and the sides of the crown brown
instead of black. The adult has the whole of the head snow}’' white, the hind-part
of the neck deep black, the sides of the back and scapulai's vinous red, the wings
and tail black and white, and the undei’-parts whitish tinged with pink.

The single representative of this genus, Panurus, possesses a
short, subconical bill ; the wing has the first primaiy very minute,
the tail is long and graduated, the metatarsus is also long, and the feet are com-
paratively stout ; but the distinctive character is the elongation of the feathers of
the sides of the throat into a moustache. The bearded tit (P. hiarmicus) is peculiar
to Central and North Europe in its typical form, being replaced in Central Asia
by a paler variety^ Throughout its range it haunts large reed-beds and marshes.
Norfolk was formei-ly its home, and a few pairs still breed in some of
the more favoured parts of the broads ; Mr. Stevenson writing that “ when
shooting at Surlingham, in the winter months, I have more than once
observed the arrival of a flock from some neighbouring broad, their presence
overhead being indicated by the clear ringing of their silveiy notes uttei’ed
preparatory to their pitching into the nearest reed-bed ; and in autumn, after
I'oosting in small parties on the reeds, they will fly up simultaneously soon after
sunrise, swarming for a while like a flock of bees, and uttering in full chorus their
pretty song, disperse themselves over the reed-beds for their morning meal.
Delicate as these little creatures appear, I have found them during the sharpest
frosts, when the snipe had left the half - frozen waters for upland springs and
drains, still bus}^ among the reed - stems as lively and musical as ever.” The
writer also saj^s that he has often found the nests completed ly the end of the
first week of April These are generally placed amongst the reed-stems close
to the edge of the water, supported on the loose herbage forming the foundation of
the reed-beds, but never in any way suspended ; they are constructed of the

The Bearded Tit.

TITS.

455

dead steins of sedges and reeds, intermixed witli a few pieces of grass, and
invariably lined with the tops of reeds. The eggs are pure white, sprinkled all
over with small purplish red spots. The food of these tits during the winter
is principally the seed of the reed, and so intent are they in searching for it
that they have been taken with a bird -limed twig attached to the end of a
fishing-rod. When alarmed by a sudden noise or the passing of a hawk, they
utter their shrill notes and hide among the thick bottom of the reeds, but soon
resume their station, climbing the upright stems with the greatest facility. In
feeding they approach near to the long - tailed tit, often hanging with the head
downwards and turning themselves into curious attitudes. Their food is not
entirely the reed seed, but insects and their larvae, and the very young shell-
nails of difierent kinds which are numerous at the bottom of the reeds. i\Ir.
Keulemans, describing the finding of a nest near Rotterdam, states that “ both old
birds made a great noise when I captured their little home ; both incessantly
uttered their anxious note, churr churr, flying about me and performing a series
of rapid movements . . . Bearded tits have no real song, their vocal powers being
rather limited ; nevertheless, they produce peculiar notes for expressing their
difierent feelings. When rejoicing in each other’s presence, or when one perceives
the arrival of its mate, they utter repeatedly their note 'ptjink, fjinck. When
disturbed, frightened, or caught, both sexes utter a very peculiar sound, like tsjirrr-
irr irr rrrr. Distress or anxiety is expressed by er-arrh ee arr-chieur. When
uttering the latter, they erect the body, bow the head downwards, and puff the
feathers of the head and neck.” In Holland many bearded tits are captured,
chiefly during the early part of October, when the old birds go on foraging
expeditions, accompanied by the young ones, to the number of six or seven in
a flock. They are then caught by means of nets, which are laid down among
the reeds, while decoy birds are placed at a short distance. The adult male
has the head clear bluish grey ; the lores and moustache stripe are black ; the
back is rich fawn-colour; the primaries are brown, edged with white ; the tail-
feathers deep rusty red ; the throat and upper breast greyish white ; and the sides
of the body rich fawn-colour. The female is greyish fawn above, and grejdsh
white beneath.

New Zealand The tits of this genus {Certkiparus) have a bill of moderate size.
Creepers. curved and compressed, the wings are moderate and rounded, the tail
is aLso long and rounded, and the metatarsus comparatively long and broadly
.scutellated in front. Its representatives are peculiar to Xew Zealand, the common
form, C. novoi-zealandice, being confined to the wooded portions of the South Island ;
where it frequents low undergrowth and the outskirts of the bush where insect
life is abundant. During severe seasons it has been known to leave the shelter of
the bush to frequent the sheep stations, flitting about the meat stores, and picking
off morsels of fat from the bones and skins of the butchered animals. Its ordinary
food consists of minute beetles and other insects. The New Zealand creeper
breeds late in the summer, the young being sometimes found in the nest in
December. The eggs are white, spotted with brown and purple. Sir \V. Duller
says that the nest is of a rounded form, and not unlike a large pear in shape. In
structure it is composed of dry vegetable fibres, fragments of wool, moss, spiders’

456

PERCHING BIRDS.

webs, and other soft materials closely felted together. The entrance is placed on
the side about one-third the distance from the top, and is perfectly round with
smoothened edges ; the interior being lined with soft white feathers. The adult
male of this tit has the upper-parts bright cinereous brown, inclining to rufous ;
the quills of the wing are light brown ; the tail is pale rufous ; the sides of the head
and nape are grey ; and the throat, breast, and under-parts rufous white.

There are several other genera of tits, such as the Oriental
Allied Types. . , . . . ®

yEgitltahscus, which comprises some small species differing from

the true tits in the more graduated form of the tail, the longer and more copious
feathers on the crown of the head, and the absence of a dark band on the under-
parts. The yellow-browed tit {Sylvipariis modestus) of the Himalaya represents a
second genus, distinguished from the preceding by the squared or slightly forked tail.

In the neighbourhood of the tits Mr. Oates would place the so-called crow-tits
{Conostoma, Faradoxornis, Suthora, etc.), which are restricted to the mountains of
North-Eastern India and parts of China, and are referred by some ornithologists to
the Crateropodidoi. Mr. Oates writes that “ the position of these birds has been
much disputed, but looking to the facts that they have ten primaries, that the
young are identical in plumage with the adult, and that the nostrils are completely
hidden by stiff bristles, their location with the crows and tits seems the proper
course to adopt.” Those species of which the nesting is known, build cup-shaped
nests in trees, and lay eggs marked with yellowish brown and purple.

The Shhikes.
Family Laniibn:.

A somewhat variable group, including such different forms as the gay-coloured
mini vets, the cuckoo-shrikes, the crested jay-shrikes, the plainer wood-shrikes, and
the Indian pied shrikes, the members of this family have the edges of both
mandibles either smooth, or the upper one simply notched or toothed, or both
together ; the hinder surface of the metatarsus is smooth and covered with two
longitudinal j^lates ; the wing has ten primaries ; the tongue is of ordinary form ;
the nostrils are clear of the line of the forehead, and more or less overhung with
bristles ; and there are twelve tail-feathers. The plumage of the nestling is cross-
barred, and there appears to be only an autumnal moult. The family comprises a
large number of genera, and, with the exception of South America, has a cosmo-
politan distribution, although most numerous in Africa.

The species composing the genus Falcuncidiis have been de-
scribed as uniting the form of a shrike with the habits of a wood-
pecker ; they possess a strong toothed bill, with which they are able to tear off
pieces of rotten wood, and even the bark of gum-trees in search of food, and they
have a crest of feathers. Inhabiting the larger branches of trees, and resembling
the tits in many of their habits, when attacked by an enemy they defend
themselves with ferocity. All being exclusively Australian, the white - bellied
shrike-tit {F. leucogaster) is a native of Western Australia, while the frontal shrike-
tit {F. frontatus) inhabits South Australia and New South Wales.

The Shrike-Tits.

SJ/A’/A'JlS.

457

Frontal Shrike Tliis shrike-tit is ;i Inrd of frreat aniniiition and si)n^ditliiiess ; its
chief food cousistino- of insects, wliich are obtained either anion^ the
foliage of trees or under the bai’k of the larger hi’anclies and trunks. 3n ])i'ocnrin^
tliein, the bird exliibits ^n-eat dexterity, strippin^r off tlie baik in the most
determined manner, for which i)Ui-poso its jiowerfnl bill is admirably adapted.
Whilst searching the branches for food, it fre(piently erects its crest and assumes
many pei’t and lively positions ; and no bird of its size possesses greater strength
in its mandibles, or is capable of inflicting more severe wounds. Its song
consists only of a few ])iping notes. The male has the crest pure black, the sides

FRONTAL SHRIKE-TIT (g Iiat. size).

of the head white, divided by a black line, the back, shoulders, and wing-coverts

olive, the primaries, secondaries, and tail blackish brown margined with grey, the

two outer tail-feathers and the tips of the remainder being white ; while the

throat is black, and the under-parts are bright yellow.

The true shrikes (Lanins) have the large compressed bill, hooked
True Shrikes. ^ ^ ^ i

and toothed, and thus adapted to enable them to tear the flesh

of the small mammals and birds upon which they often prey. The wings are

moderate in length but comparatively powerful, the tail is generally much longer

458

PERCHING BIRDS.

than the wings, and graduated, the central feathers being the longest. The
relativel}^ strong metatarsus and toes are of assistance in enabling the shrikes to
retain hold of beetles and other insects. The great grey shrike inhabits Western
and Central EurojDe, being replaced to the eastward chiefly by a single-barred
speci'es, which extends through Asia, merging into the great northern shrike of
North America. The brightly-coloured shrikes belong chiefly to Africa.

GREAT GREY SHRIKE AND RED-BACKED SHRIKE (i Hat. .size).

Great Grey The great grey shrike {Lanins excubitor) is a common bird

stirike. the northern and central parts of Europe, frequenting the skirts

of forests in the summer. It is a shy and retiring species when unmolested, but
when it has lost its ne.st or young becomes most vociferous. Willughby was
perhaps the first English naturalist to describe the employment of this shrike in
the capture of passage-falcons. On the Khine they are persecuted by the game-
keepers, and the shrike that has lost his mate will often fly to the top of a
very tall poplar tree and thence pour forth his woes. The plan adopted for

SHRIKES.

459

destroying tliese birds is to mark down their nests and kill the young birds and
one or both parents, before the former can lly. The great grey shrike builds in a
variety of situations ; Mr. Seebohm found a nest of this species in the toj) of a
Scotch fir, and Mr. Collett observed another in Finmark, containing six j’oung
ones, in a birch -tree on a sterile terrace. The nest was easily seen, and con-
structed of dry twigs together with straw, thickly lined with white feathers of the
willow-grouse, and a little wool. In Central Europe lai'ge forest-oaks are most
frequently chosen by this species to contain its nest, the tree selected being
always on the edge of a belt of timber, never in the centre of a big wood ; such
nests being generally placed at the apex of a forked bough a long way out from
the main trunk, built on a knot in the fork, at an elevation of some thirty-five or
forty feet. The nest itself is a bulky structure composed of fine twigs interlaced
with a few stout straws, bents, and fibres. Within, it is quilted with a profusion
of soft substances, feathers of the pheasant and buzzard, a little of the white fur
from the belly of a hare, and some of the shed coat of the roe deer, sheep’s wool,
or any convenient substitute. The eggs of this shrike are greenish white in ground-
colour, blotched with olive-green, wood-brown, and dull lilac. The great grey
shrike is most assiduous in the care which it bestows upon its young, and it is
touching to see the distress and consternation which it exhibits if it imagines that
the safety of its charge is endangered.

To a large extent migratory in its habits, this bird does not breed in the
British Isles, although a considerable number visit England and Scotland in
the fall of the year. They have occurred on Heligoland as early as the middle
of August ; and whilst a few individuals yearly pass along favourite “ fly-lines ”
in certain years their numbers have increased tenfold. Those which winter
in England for the most part lead lives of solitude, frequenting a particular beat
of country for a week or two at a time, during which the familiar outline of the
butcher-bird may at any moment be detected pei’ching upon the top of some
leafless tree, watching incessantly for field - voles, shrews, and small hedgei’ow
birds. The flight of the shrike is sometimes high and sometimes low, but
constantly undulating. With the arrival of spring the great grey shrike in
England moves eastward to the coast, from which it takes its departure in March
and April, though an occasional straggler is sometimes reported as having been
seen during the summer. In common with other butcher-birds, the great grey
shrike is in the habit of impaling the carcase of its prey upon some convenient
thorn, in order both to facilitate the flaying of the bird or small mammal, and also
to provide a larder. The great grey shrike has the upper-parts nearly uniform
slaty grey ; the lores, cheeks, and ear-coverts are black ; the wings are black with
white bases to the quills ; the graduated tail is black and white ; and the under-
parts ai’e pure white, often finely barred with crescentic grey markings.

Lesser Grey The lesser grey shrike {L. minor) is a migratory species, winter-

siirike. Africa, and passing the summer months in Central and

Southern Europe, Asia Minor, and Persia. Mr. Seebohm says that in Eastern
Europe this shrike frequents the outskirts of cultivation, where trees and bushes
of various kinds struggle for existence amongst the broken rocks. This species
breeds early in J une, and the nests found in Slavonia are built in acacia trees ; in

46 o PERCHING BIRDS.

size they are as large as those of the blackbird, and chielly composed of chickweed,
freshly plucked feathers, and wool. Some contained as many as six eggs, these being
bluish green in ground-colour, spotted and blotched with greenish brown. This
shrike feeds principally upon beetles, butterflies, grasshoppers, and other insects.
Its flight, like that of its congeners, is undulating, but easy and comparatively
noiseless ; the bird skimming through the air like a partridge for a moment or two
before it alights on some perch, on to which it drops with a scuffle of the wings.
The song is a not unmusical chatter, something like the twitter of the swallow or

LESSER GREY SHRIKE liat. size).

starling, but louder and mixed with some harsher notes. The bird has a variety of
notes, some very harsh, which are probably alarm notes, and others somewhat
plaintive. In the mlult the forehead, lores, and ear-coverts are deep black ; the
crown of the head and all the upper-parts pearl-grey ; the wings black, the primaries
having wliite bases which form a single white wing -bar; the tail is black and
wliite ; and the under-parts are white tinged with reddish-buff.

Red Backed The red-backed shrike {L. colhirio), Avhich is represented in the

Shrike. lower figure of the illustration on p. 458, is another migratory bird,
spending many months of the year beneath the burning rays of an African sun,
and returning northwards in the spring of the year in order to rear a fresh family
in its haunts in Central Europe and the British Isles. Those individuals that

S//RIKES.

461

visit England (tor in Scotland tlie bird is very rare), apparently journey to their
suininer (juarters by way of the valley of the Khine. The red-backed shrike arrives
somewhat later than the majority of summer migrants. Each pair becomes estab-
lished in a certain area which it rarely if ever leaves; the male bird being conspicu-
ous as he perches on some tall spray of hawthorn. We have never seen this shrike
build in a tree of any kind, and it seems invariably to build in a hedge or low bush ;
the nest, although this circum.stance is exceptional, being at times placed in a tiny
bush barely eighteen inches from the ground. The nest is built of dry stalks and
moss, lined with fibrous roots and a little hair ; the egg.s vai'y, being sometimes
yellowish white with markings of olive and lilac, and sometimes salmon-coloured
marked with light red. No sooner has this shrike reared its young than it
prepares to leave Britain, hurrying south in advance of many other summer birds,
in order that it may perform the operation of moult in the heat of a tropical
winter. So long as it remains in England, it always exhibits the same alert
character — vigilant, resourceful, always ready to anticipate danger. It is a bird
of rapid flight and considerable agility \ and when in the act of seizing .some
winged prey, shoots forward like an arrow released from the bow, and rarely misses
the quarry. It will swoop upon a humble-bee, impaling the unfortunate insect
with perfect deftness upon the sharpest thorn available. Although the red-backed
shrike is generally content to feed upon insects, it has been known to attack a
lizard, and is partial to small birds, field-mice and frogs, and .sometimes attacks
the decoys of bird-catchers like the great grey shrike. The adult male has the
head, back, and .sides of the neck bluish grey; the middle of the back and
scapulars dull brick -red; the wings dull black edged with rufous; the tail
black-and-white; the forehead, lores, and ear -coverts black; the chin white;
and the under -parts rose-colour. The female is browni.sh grey above with a
reddish brown tail ; the under-parts being dull white closely barred with transverse
brown markings.

The woodchat shrike (L. porneranus) is rather a rare bird in

Woodchat Shrike.

many parts of its summer quarters in Central Europe, although it is
the commone.st of all the shrikes in Portugal. Preferring to nest amid extensive
orchards, it is absent from forest-land, and frequents sunny valleys and the gentle
slopes of low hills commanding a southern aspect, rather than more elevated and
exposed situations. A trained eye soon learns to recognise the woodchat at a con-
siderable distance, and we have often pointed out to oui' companions a woodchat
when the bird appeared to the naked eye, or even to the binoculars, to be merely a
small white patch on the side of a bush. This is easily explained by the fact that
the woodchat, true to the watchful character of its congeners, invariably perches
(at lea.st during migration, to which alone these remarks apply) upon the outside
of a bush, its white breast facing outwards towards the quarter fi’om which it
apprehends the approach of danger. Tlie flight is strong and undulating.
During migration these birds travel constantly in the wake of their fellows,
and although two days may often interrupt the migration, when it is re.sumed, it
will be found that .shrikes adhered to the line taken by the advance-guard. In
Ea.stern Algeria this shrike breeds in numbers on the hillsides, constructing its
ne.st almost entirely of the .stalks of a small grey flower. As a rule, the eggs

462

PERCHING BIRDS.

are bluish grey in ground-colour, spotted and blotched with dark grey and brown.
Captive specimens will eat not only insects, but likewise small frogs ; and, in
default of thorns, will hang their prey on the crossbars of their cage. The adult
male has the crown of the head and lower neck bright chestnut ; the forehead and
ear-coverts jet black; the scapulars and rump pure white; the wings and tail
black-and-white ; and the lower-parts white, slightly tinged with huffish red.

WOODCHAT, .MASKED, AND HOODED SHRIKES liat. size).

The masked shrike (L. n uhicus), represented in the left-hand figure
riasked Shrike. » . . . . S ”

of the illustration above, is a Nubian species, Avhich passes the

summer in Greece as well as the northern parts of Africa. It arrives in the Morea

at the commencement of IMay, and proceeds to take up its quarters in cultivated

valleys, generally nesting in the vicinity of pasture-land. This shrike builds its

nest in olive-trees and bushes, the nesting materials consisting of leaves of plants,

grass-stems, and fibres. It lays a pale greenish grey egg, clouded with yellow and

SIIK/KES.

463

iiTOgularly spotted with black. It feeds principall}’ upon beetles and other insects,
like the woodchat, and possesses a plea.sant song. The adult male has the forehead
white, this colour extending behind the eye, the scapulars being also of the
same hxie ; the crown and entire upper-parts are bluish black, the wing-coverts
being edged with whitish ; the tail-feathers are black-and-white, and the lower-
parts white tinged with reddish yellow.

Hooded Shrike hooded shrike {L. erythvopteriis), is an Algerian bird,

breeding in well-bushed situations, where it runs about with great
rapidity in search of its food. It is a skulking species, and keeps out of sight as
much as possible. The call-note is a harsh cry, tscho.gra tschagra chagra chrug.
Canon Tristram says that this shrike never exposes itself in any conspicuous
situation, but always remains concealed in the thickest recesses. The only nest

INDIAN SCARLET JIINIVET (J uat. size).

he took was placed in the centre of an arbutus bush, and was large and coarsely
constructed of twigs, with a thick lining of wool and hair. It contained four
eggs, which were white in ground-colour, spotted with brown and blotched with
red. The adult has the crown of the head and nape black, the ej’ebrow white,
the scapulars black margined with chestnut, the wing-covei’ts bright chestnut,
the wings black, bordered with red, the tail black, broadly tipped with white,
the chin white, and the under-parts ashy grey.

The shrikes of the gfenus Pericrocotus possess a bill shorter

TII6 TVTinivptg ^ ^

than the head, moderately broad at the base, hooked and notched ;
the nostrils are concealed by the frontal plumes ; the wing is long and pointed ;
the tail long and greatly graduated ; and the feet are short and compax-atively
feeble. Mr. Oates points out that the membei’s of this genus are remarkable
for the stiffened shafts of the feathers of the rump. The minivets are peculiar

464

PERCHING BIRDS.

the Siberian ininivet, inhabiting Mantcliuria in the

g through China to winter in the Philippine Islands

other Genera.

to India and Eastern Asia
summer time, and migratin
and the Malay Peninsula, being the hardiest of the family. It is grey above
and white below, but the majority of minivets are gaudy in their attire, scarlet
and yellow predominating in their plumage, or at least in that of the male
bird, for the females are less gorgeous. The brilliantly -coloured Indian scarlet
mini vet {Feriarocofus speciosus), like other members of its genus, is ai’boreal in
its habits, and lives in family-parties, which lly briskly about the branches of
their favourite trees in active jmrsuit of their insect prey. The call-note of the
species is lively and frequently repeated. Nesting in April, this ininivet constructs
a beautifully cup-sha^ied nest of moss trimmed with lichens, which is placed in a
slender branch. In colour the eggs are greyish white, marked with brown and
inky purple. The adult male has the whole head, back, and scapulars glo.ssy black ;
the lower surface from behind the throat, together with the rump and upper tail-
coverts are vivid scarlet ; while the wings are black, barred with scarlet ; and the
tail is scarlet except the middle pair of feathers which are black.

The number of genera included in the shrike family renders it
impossible to allude to all, and we can conse(piently refer only to a
few. Among these the pied shrikes (Hemijms) of India and Malaysia differ
from the true shrikes by the broad and flattened beak, in which the edge of the
upper mandible is merely notched near the tip, in place of being strongly notched
and toothed. The wood-shrikes {Teplirodornis), of which there are three Indian
representatives, ai’e distinguished both from the preceding genus and the true
shrikes by the squared tail ; the general coloiar of the plumage being grey. The
Australian piping crows {Gymnorhina), which are here placed among the crows
(p. 328), are by some writers included in the present family ; and the same is the
case with Stritfhidea (p. 322). On the other hand, the crow-shrikes (Sfrepera) of
Australia are more generally referred to the Corvidce ; but Dr. Sharpe places the
whole three genera in the Laniidce. There is also some difference of opinion as
to whether the cuckoo-shrikes (CVi?7ipop/i(:/r/« and Graucalus), which range from
India to Australia, ai’c likewise membei's of this family. Dr. Sharpe referring them
to a distinct family {Campophagidcii), while Mr. Oates places them here. Agreeing
with the minivets in their spiny rump-feathers, the cuckoo-shrikes differ in having
the tail but moderately instead of greatly graduated, while the outer feathers are
more than three-quarters (instead of less than half) the entii’e length of the tail.

The Waxwings.

Family AMrELlD..TS.

The waxwings, together with the allied South American family of the gi’een-
lets {Vireonidcb), are generally placed between the shrikes on the one hand, and
the thrushes and warblers on the other. Containing only five genei'a, with not
more than some nine species, they are characterised by a short and slightly hooked
bill, broad at the gape, long wings, and short legs ; their j^lumage is very soft and
silky. The waxwings ai'e inhabitants of the northern half of both hemispheres.

IVAXIVINGS.

4C>5

and form a single genus, AmpelU. The metatarsus is short ; the feet are weak ;
and the inner cjuills of the wings are tipped with curious red liorny appendages,
com^aired to pieces of sealing-wax. The Bohemian waxwing inhabits tlie nortlieni
parts of the Old and Xew Worlds; tlie Japanese waxwing breeds in South-
Eastern Siberia, and winters in Japan, China, and Formosa; while a third
species, the cedar-bird, is peculiar to Xorth America. Great interest for man}'
years attached to the nesting- habits of the Bohemian waxwing (A. (jarruluft),
which were surrounded by mystery until solved by IMessrs. Dresser and W’olle}'.
ihe lormei' of these ornithologists found the waxwing breeding in Finland in

BOHEMIAN WAXWING (i liat. size).

the year 1858, only two years after the latter had obtained the nest of a waxwing
in Lapland.

W^riting of his nest-hunting experiences, IMr. Dresser says that, after finding a
tree in which a waxwing built, “ I climbed up to the nest, which was in the fork
between the main stem and the first branch, and not above nine or ten feet from
the ground. The moment I touched it, the young ones (five in number) flew out.
I jumped down, and made a cut at the largest with my cap, and secured him.
Directly the young one which I had cauglit began to cry out, several waxwings
flew from the neighbouring thicket, all, however, keeping out of gunsliot, except two
VOL. ni. — 30

466

PERCHING BIRDS.

which came close round me, and both of which I shot. I then sat down and imitated
as M'ell as I could the call of the old birds. I was soon i-ewarded for my trouble by
a young one coming out of a blueberry bush, close by, and calling lustily. I then
climbed up again and took the nest away carefully, so as to preserve the shape,
and to my great delight found one egg in it. We hunted for several hours in the
higher part of the island for another nest, but, although we saw about nine old
birds, Ave didn’t succeed in finding another nest.” The eggs of the AA'axwing are
pale blue, marked Avith purjilish underlying shell-markings and black OA^erlying
surface-spots. In certain Avinters large numbers of AvaxAAungs cross the North Sea
to Avinter in the British Isles, AA'here, unfortunately, their pretty plumage and
strange appearance mark them as a certain prey of the loafing gunner. In its
habits the AA^axAving is confiding and tame, though much less so in the spring and

A FLOCK OF WAXWIXGS.

summer than in the AA'inter. “ At the latter season of the year,” Avrites ]\Ir. Dresser,
“ I used to see large flocks in Southern Finland, usually frequenting the mountain-
ash trees, and A^ery often seen in the gardens quite in the centre of the toAAUis. So
tame are they that, Avhen fired at, and one or tAA'O killed, the remainder Avill only fly
to a short distance, and soon return to the same tree again. The flocks are often
very large ; and I haA^e knoAvn of more than tAventy specimens having been killed
at one shot ; I once killed as many as fourteen at a shot off a large mountain-ash
tree, on Avhich a flock Avas perched picking ofi’ the berries. It is a peculiarly
silent bird ; and I AA’atched a flock for some time Avithout hearing any of them
uttering a sound. The only note I have heard is a Ioav plaintive AA’liistle, from
which, I imagine, it is called by the Finns by the name of tilhi, as this giA’es some
idea of the sound of its call-note. When frightened, or suddenly disturbed, the same

WAX WINGS.

467

note is uttered, but is then shriller and louder in tone. The bird sits very erect,
and carries its crest so that it is distinctly seen ; when frightened, it at once raises
its crest, slighly spreading it. A tlock busy feeding on a rowan tree, especially if
the ground and tree are covered with snow, is a most plea.sing sight; and I have
often sat and watched them from a window close to which was a small mountain-
ash, to which they often came to feed on the berrie.s, which latter haviim lar<re
clusters, like bunches of coral beads, forming a rich contrast to the pure white
snow.” Waxwings in confinement are somewhat inactive birds. Sometimes, it is
true, they will hop restlessly from perch to perch, or even take a brisk fly around
the aviary ; but for the most part they prefer to squat upon some favourite perch,
occasionally uttering a short succession of running note.s. They feed somewhat
greedily, and show a preference for dried currants. During the winter months small
docks of waxwings may often be seen in Southern Sweden, dying hither and thither
at a considerable height, and presenting somewhat the appearance of starlings,
from their long wings and comparatively short tails. The adult male waxwing has
the upper-parts generally light greyish brown ; the forehead and the crest are
reddish chestnut ; a broad black streak passes throxigh and above the eye from the
base of the bill; the primaries are blackish, with the outer web towards the tip
white on the outer feather, and yellow on the inner ones, and the inner weh broadly
tipped with white ; the secondaries are blackish grey, tipped with red wax-like
appendages ; the tail is grey at the base, black towards the tip, and terminated In*
a broad bar of yellow ; the throat is black ; and the under-parts are vinous red.

A well-known bird in the orchards and {gardens of the United
Cedar-Bird. . . .

States is the cedar-bird, or cherry-bird (A. cedrornm), a smaller

species than the Bohemian waxwing, and less beautifully coloured, but still pos.sess-
ing considerable interest. The cedar-bird nests somewhat late, generally building
in an orchard or garden ; the nest is placed in a bough, or upon a limb of tbe
tree. The nest is built of coarse, dry stalks of grass, lined with very fine stems
of the same. The eggs are bluish Avhite, thickly marked with blackish s])ots.
The young are at first fed upon insects, but, as they advance, berries become their
chief diet. A young bird reared from the nest proved to be very impatient of
confinement, but when suffered to fly at large descended from the trees in which he
passed the day, in order to perch upon his owner’s arm. The cry of the young bird
for food is loud and incessant. The cedar-bird flocks in July and August, and
betakes itself to regions in which whortleberries are plentiful, in order to gorge
iipon the fruits. In October these birds descend to the lower parts of the country,
to feed upon the berries of the red cedar ; thirty or forty birds may sometimes
be seen fluttering among the branches of one small cedar-tree, plucking off the
berries. In the fall and beginning of summer the cedar-bird becomes extremeh'
fat ; hence it was formerly esteemed for the table. The adult bird has the head,
neck, breast, upper part of the back, and wing-coverts purplish cinnamon, shading
into ash on the rump ; the forehead, lores, and eye-stripe are black, the wings slaty
grey, with the inner feathers tipped with red horny appendages ; and the tail is
grey, tipped with yellow.

II. A. MACPHKKSOX.

CHAPTER V.

The Perching Birds, — continued.

Thrushes and Warblers to Swallows.

Faniilie.s TuRDiDJE to Hirundinid^r:.

If we follow Dr. Sharpe, in including the warblers in this family, it will be an
extensive one, embracing not only the thrushes proper, but likewise the chats,
ouzels, warblers, grasshopper-warblers, and leaf-warblers. Mr. Oates, on the other
hand, regards the warblers as a distinct family, which he does not even place in
juxtaposition with the thrushes. Used in the wider sense, the family is charac-
terised by the beak being slender but rather depressed, and variably modified in
the different groups ; the wings are comparatively long and slender, with ten
primary quills ; while the tail-feathers may be either ten, twelve, or fourteen in
number. Although variable, the feet are generally slender, and the metatarsus is
elongated ; while the nostrils are free from hairs. In the typical members of
the family, the plumage of the nestling is mottled or squamated, but in the
warblers it is like that of the adult female, but more brightly coloured. With
the exception of Xew Zealand, members of the family are found throughout the
woi'ld.

The true thrushes (Tardus) and their allies constitute a subfamily
True Thrushes. ,rriT\t i c- ^ ^ i i n

(i ardinoi), the members of which, togetlier with the chats and red-
starts, agree in tlie mottled or squamated plumage of the nestlings ; there is but
one complete moult in the year, the number of tail-feathers is never less than twelve,
and the metatarsus is smooth behind. In the present subfamily bristles are present
at the rictus of the gape. More frugivorous in their tastes than the chats, the
thrushes spend a larger proportion of their time on the ground, more especially in
open meadowlands, searching for worms and slugs. All possess fine vocal powers ;
and they all build cup-shaped nests, generally composed in part of mud. The
true or spotted thrushes (Tardus) have the beak of moderate size, decurved and
notched near the extremity ; the wings and tail are long, and the tail is slightly
graduated ; there is no pattern on the underside of the wing ; and the metatarsus
is longer than the fourth toe. The feathers of the throat and breast are more or
less spotted at all ages. The true tlu’ushes are most abundant in South America,
which is the home of no fewer than twenty-four species. Ten breed in North
America, while only five breed in Europe and Northern Asia, namely, Pere David’s
thrush, and the four species next described. Nine species are peculiar to Africa,
such as the olivaceous thrush of the Transvaal, another .species from Natal, and

GROUP OF THRUSHES.

1, Missel-Tlirush ; 2, Redwing ; 3, Song-Tlirnsli ; -4, Fieldfare ; Blackbird.

C’., '

• .A-f

A -I -

♦ -i#! -.-' f < ■

♦#- '-r-’

• ;* ^ ■
*■ ' 3!- jJH ,? i

’ ■ '* ’■ '^ *'^.'% - ■

* ' !•

; ;f‘: ' .

THRUSHES.

471

the South African tliru-sh; tliis last uttering a peculiar half song, half call, as if it
were troubled with a cold.

Missel-Thrush ^ niissel-thrush t’i.srit'oru.s) is found in nearly eveiy

part of Lurope at the one or other season of the year, l)reeding in the
northern regions, and wintering partially in the southern parts. It has enoi-mously
increased its breeding-range in the British Isles during the present century ; and

.V PAlll or KOCK-THKUSHES.

in the autumn and winter months is shy and retiring, hunting the open fields in
flocks, which exercise extreme \dgilance over their common safety. Although this
bird feeds principally upon worms and berries in the wint('r, its common name is
derived from its passionate fondness for the berries of the mi.stletoe, which are
rejected by the majority of small birds, even when pressed by hunger. The missel-
thrush pairs early in the season, and the nest is generally placed in some conspicuous-
position. In districts where magpies are numerous it often builds its nest in a bush

472 PERCHING BIRDS.

or low tree close to a cottage, as though recognising a certain protection in the
neighbourhood of man. The nest is built of stems of dry grass, moss, and vegetable
fibres, often trimmed externally with grey lichens; the eggs being greyish green
in ground-coloui', spotted with chocolate. During the breeding-season the missel-
thrush exercises a watchful surveillance over the orchard or garden in which its
nest is built, boldly mobbing jackdaws and even larger intruders, if they attempt

SONG-THRUSH AND EING-OUZEI. liat. size).

to rob its belongings. The old birds exhibit much devotion to their young, and
will permit of a very close approach whilst feeding them. When the young are
fledged, they gather into family parties, which scour the country in search of new
feeding-grounds. The song of the storm-cock, as it is frequentl}^ called, can be
heard to the best advantage on a stormy day in springtime, when the bird sends
forth his loud sonorous notes, as though in defiance of the elements. A migratory
species, and often snared on its autumn journey thi’ough Central Europe, the
missel-thnish is not so subject to abnormal variations of plumage as is the song-

THRU SUES.

473

tlirush. The adult male is grejdsh brown above, washed with golden on the
rump ; the sides of the neck are greyish brown, streaked with darker ; in the
tail the greater part of the outermost feathers are greyish white ; the throat is
white, finely spotted with brown ; and the under-surface butiy-white, closely spotted
with black.

Song Tlirush favourite in many parts of Europe, the song -thrush (7'.

musicits) is in no degree dependent upon man for its existence,
being, at least, as much at home among the surf-beaten rocks of the Hebridean
shores, as in the parks and orchards of the south of England. Breeding early in
the year, or rather commencing to do so, it rears several broods during the season.
Most nests are built of stems of grass and fibrous roots, interwoven with mosses, and
lined with clay ; but the prettiest we ever saw was entirely constructed of bright
green moss. The nest is often placed in a hedge or low shrub, sometimes in a niche
in an ivied wall, sometimes in a fruit - tree. Such sono- - thrushes as rear their
young amidst the treeless straths of the north of Scotland are content to build
their nests upon the ledge of some convenient boulder of rock, sheltered from the
weather. The eggs are bright blue, well spotted with dark brown. The song of the
thrush is generally poured forth from the bough of a tree ; but in Scotland thrushes
often sing from the roofs of houses, and even from a grassy knoll on the hillside.
The food of the song-thrush consists principally of earthworms and insects ; and
this bird confers a great benefit upon the gardener by the warfare which it wages
against snails. Near the sea, also, it feeds in the winter upon whelks and other small
molluscs, which it obtains upon the rocks of the shore when the tide has begun to
ebb. On the other hand, it must be admitted that the song-thrusli consinnes a
great deal of ripe fruit. In Norway it is a special favourite, and holds the same
place in Scandinavian poetry that the nightingale does in the songs of other
countries. The adult male is dark brown above, tinted with golden brown ; the
throat is buft’; the under-parts being golden or bufiy Avhite, closely spotted with
brown. The song-thrushes, which breed in the Hebrides, are of a greyer color-
ation than more southern specimens.

The most delightful song to be heard in the solitudes of the
forest in Northern Europe is that of the redwing (71 iliacus), which
generally chants its flute-like melody from the top of a fir-tree. Never nesting
in colonies the redwing appears to seek the society of the fieldfare, since one is
sure to find a pair of redwings wherever a colony of the latter species exists.
Professor Collett says that in the eastern part of Norway the redwing builds
its nest in bushes and low trees, but in the barren, treeless portions of the west
coast of Norway, like the song-thrush of the Hebrides, it modifies its habits to
suit its surroundings ; the nest being often placed upon the ground, between stones,
on fences, or in stunted birch-trees. Redwings, like other thrushes, show great
anxiety if their nest be approached, snapping their bills, and uttering a mournful
cry. The eggs of this species are pale bluish-green, profusely covered witli greenish
brown markings. In the fall of the year, redwings unite in large flocks, and many
of them cross the North Sea to the British Isles and Germany, migrating chiefly
at night, when they can often be heard passing over the housetops of our towns,
calling at frequent intervals to their companions. The redwing is not a very hardy

474

PERCHING BIRDS.

Fieldfare.

bird, sutiering severely in protracted frost, even while other birds are able to retain
sound condition. The explanation of this must be sought for in the fact that
it subsists upon worms and other insects rather than upon berries. The
adult is olive-brown above ; a broad line of butfy white passes over the eye ;
the under-parts are white, streaked with brown ; and the flanks and under wing-
coverts are bright rufous.

The fleldfare {T. inlaris) is the most abundant of all the northern
thrushes, alike in the pine-clad valleys and in the regions of birch. It
breeds in colonies, and the nests are placed in fir-trees and birches at various eleva-
tions, some being as much as fifteen feet from the ground. They are generally

built of long, dry, fine grass,
with a coating of mud or
clay between the outer and
inner layers of that material.
Professor Collett relates that
a fieldfare once nested in a
milk - pail inside a dairy,
and successfully reared its
3"Oung ; and ]\Ir. Dresser
found a nest in a hollow top
of a rotten stump, not a foot
above the ground. When-
ever an intruder approaches
their nest, the old birds fly
round, uttering loud and
harsh cries, and thus attract
attention to the whereabouts
of their treasure. The eggs
of the fieldfare resemble
those of the blackbird, being
round-colour, speckled and blotched with reddish brown. The
young are fairly tame when they first leave the nest, but soon become shy and warj’
even on their nesting-grounds. It is po.ssible that their shyness or boldness may
depend upon the extent to which the birds are molested. Myriads of fieldfares
annually cross the German Ocean to winter in the Biltish Isles and Central Europe ;
and on one occasion a solitary straggler landed as far west as Iceland. The adult
male has the head and hind-neck ashy grey, the feathei’S of the crown having
dark centres ; the back and wing-coverts are rich chestnut-brown ; the wings and
tail blackish brown ; the eyebrows whitish ; and the under-parts rich ochre, thickl}^
spotted with black.

The birds of the genus Merida are true thrushes in all
sti’uctural characters, and differ from the foregoing chiefly in the
irnpoi’tant particular that the plumage of the adult male is more or less widely
distinct from that of the female. In a number of species the male bird is black
or slaty grey. Xo fewer than sixteen of the species referred to this genus are
peculiar to South America ; while twelve inhabit Au.stralia, and fourteen are found

THE FIELDFARE.

bluish green in

The Blackbirds.

THRUSJIES.

475

in tlio Oriental region. Nine species
inhabit Northern Asia, and two otliers
are well-known European birds. The
common hhickhivd (M. viih/dris) does not
usually inhabit the most northern ])arts
of Europe, but breeds in most districts
of this region, migrating from the colder
regions before the approach of winter.
It is resident througlunit the year in the
south of Spain, Algeria, and the Canaries.
During the summer months the blackbird
fre([uents gardens and orchards, nesting in
shrubs and hedges, sometimes upon the
ground. The nest is composed of grass-
stalks and mosses, together with dead leaves ;
and, under pressure of circumstances, can be
completed in a coi;ple of days, the female alone
working at the structure. The eggs are bluish
green in ground - colour, closely freckled with
light brown. The song lacks the compass and
variety of the song -thrush, but is neverthele.ss
powei’ful and well sustained. The blackbird
is specially liable to sport white feathers,
especially in the case of the male ; the
tendenc}' to such variations having been
proved to be hereditary. Albinos are some-
times taken in the nest, uniting the
possession of red irides with bleached
white plumage. The adult male has
the plumage uniform black
throughout ; but the female is
quite unlike her mate,
being dusky olive-brown
above, and reddish
brown on the
u n (1 e r-
parts.

BLACKBIRD AND SPARROW-HAWK.

The ring-ouzel (M. torquata), represented in the illustration on
Ring Ouzel. ^ 472, is a mountain-loving species, spending the summer months
among the heaths and pine-forests of the hills of Central and Northern Europe.

476

PERCHING BIRDS.

In Northern Europe the cock ring-ouzel arrives upon its ground in April and May,
and the females soon after join their partners. Generally nesting in some wild
solitude, building in the rocks that overhang a mountain burn, especially where the
<>-round is rough and well covered with heather, the ring-ouzel is shy and wary, and
rarel}^ permits a very close approach to the nest. In Switzerland, however, a fir-
tree is the more common site for the nest, which is always built of dry grass and
heather, and lined with fine stems. The eggs are blue, finely spotted with reddish
brown. The young occasionally fly as early as the beginning of June. All
throucdi the early siimmer months the ring-ouzels live among the sheep on the
hillside ; but when the fruits ripen in autumn, the fell-throstles or mountain-
blackbirds, as these birds are often called, approach the neighbourhood of orchards
avd gardens, and jn’oceed to levy blackmail upon the crops. They are especially
pai 'al to cherries, though when the berries of the mountain-ash ripen, the ring-
ouzels gorge themselves to repletion upon their favourite fruit, so that they become
fat and in high condition before they leave the shores of Europe to seek a more
genial climate in Northern Africa. Flying strongly and direct, the ring-ouzel
utters a song which is both sweet and powerful, and audible at a great distance,
although inferior to that of the blackbird. The harsh, chuckling notes which
this bird utters when its haunts are invaded cannot well be confused with those of
any other bird. Mr. Howard Saunders says that the ring-ouzels, which breed in
the Swiss forests, frequent the vineyards by the lakes in the autumn time, levying
toll upon the grapes, which the owners guard so jealously. During migration, the
ring-ouzel is sometimes found with blackbirds and thrushes at lighthouses. The
adult male, in l)reeding-plumage, has the upper surface blackish brown ; the wings
being brown with whitish edgings ; most of the feathers of the under-surface have
pale grey margins; and a broad Avhite gorget extends across the breast, and is
always conspicuous.

The representatives of this small group (MonticolcC) have a stout,
Rock-Thrushes. .. . ^ .

straight bill, arched towards its extremity ; and while the wings are

moderate in length, the tail is shoi’t and even. The legs are stout, strong, and well

adapted to progression over irregular surfaces. The rock-thrushes are peculiar to

the Old World, three species inhabiting South Africa, and a fourth Abyssinia,

while two breed in the Himalaya, one of which extends eastward into Western

China. The two best known species, the blue thrush and the rock-thrush of

Western Europe, range from Northern China to Spain and Italy.

Common The rock-thriish {Moiiticola saxatilis) is a summer visitant to

Rock-Thrush. more barren jiortions of the principal mountain ranges of Central
Europe and Siberia, but does not reach the far north in its annual wanderings.
Like its cousin the blue rock-thrush, it is partial to rocky gorges among the hills
and regions far removed from any human habitation, save for the chance presence
of a shepherd’s hut or farmstead in some hollow among the mountains. It is a
shy and Avary species, constantly vibrating its tail like a redstart, and migrating
to its breeding-ground in flocks, whei'e it commences to nest in May. The
nest is generally built in a precipitous position among crags of rock, often close
to some mountain waterfall ; although the rock-thrush sometimes nests in holes
in the stone walls that are built to protect the Rhenish vineyard.s. The nest is

THRUSHES.

477

composed of fine roots, moss, and dried lierbs; and tlie e^gs are pure blue,

.without spots. The youny; are often reared from the nest by hand, es})ecially in
the north of Italy, and are much prized as cage-birds; the song of the rock-thrush
being extremely beautiful, though not so tine as that of the blue rock-thrush,
which we incline to place first in the rank of European songsters. Timid and
fearful as is the rock-thrush in a state of freedom, if reared from the nest it
becomes a charming pet; and we have kept both old and young birds, and found
them tame and confiding. Although the rock-thrush is a veiy local and even rare
bird in most paids of its range, and does not ordinai'ily migrate faidhei- north than

uocK-THRUSH (i nat. size).

Central France, stragglers have been identified in Great Britain, as well as in
Heligoland. The food of the rock - thrush consists principally of beetles and
other insects, but the bird shares the fondness of its congeners for wild berries
and garden fruits. The adult male has the head and neck ashy blue ; the scapulars
are blacki.sh, slightly washed with blue ; the centre of the back is pure white ; the
tail and upper tail-coverts are light red ; the entire throat ashy blue ; while the
rest of the under-parts are rufous orange.

Blue The blue rock-thrush (M. cijaniLs) is chiefly found in the countries

Rock-Tiirush. bordering tbe Mediteri'anean, and is a wild, shy bird of solitary
disposition, resident in single pairs in rocky districts. Canon Tristram has shown
that this bird is the “ sparrow that sitteth alone upon the housetop ” of the Psalmist.

478

PERCHING BIRDS.

Colonel Irby writes that “ a pair nested in a hole outside the wall of my stables at
Gibraltar, in June 1869. Five eggs were laid, which were hatched about the 20th.
The nest was of small dried roots, and was very scanty. When the young were
hatched, I broke through the wall from the inside of the stable to the nest, making
the hole large enough to admit a small cage, in which I placed the nest and young ;
over the inside hole I then hung an old coat so as to shut out the light from the
inside, cutting a small slit in the coat, through which I used to watch the old birds
feeding their young within six inche.s. Both birds fed them at intervals of not
more than five minutes. The food consisted almost entirely of centipedes, with
now and then a large spider or bluebottle-fly by way of change. Two of the live
young died in the cage, from the old birds not being able to get at them. Of the
other three, only one attained maturity, living till October. He was very tame,
and of most engaging habits and disposition, in fact what the Spaniards call
‘ simpatico.’ In his younger days he was fed on soaked bread and bruised snails.”
The blue thrush is a well-known bird at Rome, at Malta, and in many other
Furopean I’esorts of tourists. Eveiywhere it frequents rocks, ruins, and old walls,
pouring forth its delicious music in solitary wastes. It is a favourite cage-bird,
and as such commands high prices ; but it is excessively delicate and difficult to
keep. The adult male is of a general dull bhie above, the head and breast having
a silvery gloss, while the under-parts of the body are dull blue. The female differs
from the mate, in being greyish brown above, tinted with blue, and reddish buff on
the lower-parts.

Possessing a characteristic plumage of sky-blue (associated

Bluebirds. • i , , • • , i , i i i /cy • 7 • x

with chestnut in two instances), the bluebirds {Siaiia) are easily
distinguished from all other North American birds. The bill is straight and
compressed, notched near the extremity ; while the wings are pointed and much
longer than the tail, which is slightly forked ; the feet being stout and short, and
adapted for perching, and not for running, as in the chats. Bluebirds are peculiar
to the American continent, and have no nearly allied representatives in the Old
World. No more charming bird is to be found in the United States than the blue-
bird or blue robin (Sialia ftialis), which breeds as far north as Southern Canada,
and passes the winter months in great numbers in the Southern United States.
It is one of the first birds to arrive in the States in spring, preceding the
swallows and many other species ; indeed, it is occasionally observed as early as
January and February in its summer home. The male is a cheery songster, and
all his movements are characterised by grace and energy. The nest is placed in
the hollow of some tree ; the eggs are pale blue, and unspotted ; and several broods
are reared in a season. The bluebird is often imported to Europe as a cage-
bird, and has often bred in confinement. Mr. A. G. Butler gives the following
account of some pet birds of this species : “ my blue robins made friends early
in June, the cock-bird giving every insect he got hold of to the hen, to induce her
to receive his attentions ; the hen was very coy, and refu.sed his advances until
about the end of the first fortnight ; the pairing was a noisy affair, as the cock-
bird kept up an incessant shrieking noise, with his body elongated, and his beak
tiirned up to the ceiling, for fidly half an hour beforehand, and for quite ten
minutes afterwanLs. On Sunday the 16th of June the hen spent the whole day

CJIATS.

4 79

in canyin^r up hay to a large, deep box, nailed against the wall near to the
ceiling, and on the surface of this she formed a saucer-shaped depression, in
which shortly afterwards she laitl three eggs; while sitting she Mas fed hy
the cock-bird, but Mdienever he gave her an insect she invariably left the nest
to eat it. In thirteen days the eggs hatched, and tM'o days later tvo of the
young birds M’ere carried out dead; the third bird M'as safely reared, and
moulted into his adult ])lumage toM'ards the end of August. The young bird left
the nest vdien tv’enty-three days old. I had been led to suppose that he M'ould
resemble the hen ; but, in addition to his greatly inferior size and .s])otted breast,
he Muis altogether of a far more cinereous tint. In about eight or ten days he was
perfectly able to feed himself.” These bluebirds preferred to feed their young
upon insects, Md\ich they invariably SM^allowed and disgorged several times before
carrying them to the young. The adult male has the head and upper-j)arts
deep azure-blue; the throat, breast, and sides of the body chestnut; and the
loM’er-parts white; wdiile the female is blue, mixed and obscured M’ith reddish
broMui.

.. . Occupying an intermediate position betM^een the robins and the

true thrushes, the chats {paxicula) form a second subfamily char-
acterised by possessing a strong bill and M^ell-developed rictal bristles; the
Mung is pointed and equal to the tail, and the metatarsus and foot are adapted
to their desert-loving habits. Resembling the fly-catchers in the mode of taking
their insect-prey, the chats differ from other small birds by their fixapient vibra-
tion of the tail when perching and running. They are most strongly represented
on the African continent, five species inhabiting North Africa, Mdiile six are
peculiar to the south of the Ethiopian region, and five others iidiabit Alw-ssinia
and Nubia. Eight belong to the European avifauna, M'hile four species breed
only in Persia, and another four in Turkestan. The M'heatear, M'hich may be
considered the best known form of the genus, has a straight bill, bi'oadest at the
base and slightly curved toM' ards the extremity ; the legs and bill being black,
and the metatarsus not sciitellated. The bastard-primary feather is small, and
the wings are comparatively flat and pointed. In all the more typical .species,
the rump, upper tail-coverts, and the base of the tail are pure white in both sexes :
the tail consisting of tM’elve feathers of nearly equal length. The rus.set chat
(Saxicola melanoleivca) breeds in Italy, Greece, South Russia, and Palestine ; the
western form summering in Morocco, Algiers, Spain, and the south of France.
The isabelline chat (S. isahellina) breeds in Asia Minor, South Russia, and Siberia,
and has been obtained in Madagascar ; M’hile the Indian desert-chat (S. defierti)
passes the summer in the cultivated districts of Turkestan, M’intering in North-

West and Central India.

One of the earliest of the many migrants that traverse the

Wbeatcar t/ o

length and breadth of Europe during their annual migrations is the
common M^heatear (S. oenanthe), so Avell knoM’n in most parts of the British Isles.
Arriving in March and April, the M’heatear is both a moorland and mai’itime
species. Many may be seen on a Scotch grouse-moor or any sheep-farm in the
north of England ; and some remain very late in the ploughed fields of the midland
countie.s. Numberle.ss pairs spend the .summer months ])laying about the rabbit-

48o perching birds.

holes whicli line the sand-banks that form the coast-line in many districts of
Britain, d'he wheatear builds its nest in a variety of situations ; sometimes in a
loose heap of stones, sometimes in a rabbit-hole or bene.ath a heap of dried peats ;
and we once found a family packed into an old tin pot lying in a hollow of a
shingly sea-beach. The eggs are light blue. The song consists of some very
sweet notes, generally uttered upon the wing. These birds leave the British

WHEATEAR, WHIXCHAT, AXD STOXECHAT (i liat. size).

shores chiefly in August and September, although some commence their journey
in July, while other belated stragglers linger on into early winter. The range
of the wheatear is very extensive, including, according to season, a great part of
Asia north of tlie Himalaya (including Gilgit), Africa, and North America. The
adult male in the breeding -season has the crown and most of the upper-parts
greyish blue, the lores and the ear-coverts black, the upper tail-coverts pure white,
and constantly dis] flayed ; while the tail is black and white, and the throat and
under-parts are huffish white.

WHEATEAR, STONECHAT and WHINCHAT.

CHATS.

481

Black Chat.

Tlie black chat (S. leucara) inhabits the rocky districts of Spain,
Italy, and Xorth-W est Africa, being replaced in India by a closely-
allied species. Partially resident in its breeding-grounds, it is only a sunnner
migrant to many districts; and it is essentially a bird of de.solate mountains, Avhich
it enlivens with its lively, active figure. Pi’eferring the wildest and mo.st rugged
situations, it is a shy, cautious bird, avoiding the haunts of men ; ami as, even when
wounded, it generally manages to creep into some deep fissure to die, it is difficult
to secure. Brehm states that the male black chat often “ either dances about on a
precipice or a stone, or runs up the precipice, spreading its tail and wings like a
blackcock, nods its head, turns sharp round, rises singing into the air like a tree-
pipit, and then gimlually sinks with outspread wings to the ground, where it
finishes the last strophes of its song in the neighbourhood of the female bird, which
(juite silently watches the antics of her mate. In all its comical postures it knows
how to show its beautiful white tail to the best advantage. If there are any trees
or prickly-pear bushes in the mountains, it will also repose on them during the
intervals of its dance and song ; otherwise it selects the most prominent positions
for its resting-places.” The black chat builds about the middle or end of April,
placing its nest in some hole or fissure of the rock, frequently in a precipitous
situation. The nest is large, loosely constructed of dry stalks of grass, and the finer
stems of various wild plants, and lined with soft fibres and hair. The eggs are pale
light blue, Avith a zone of pale reddish spots around the larger end. The song of
the black chat is wild and sweet, and has been compai*ed, when heard in aiitumn,
to that of the blue thrush, although it is not so loud and clear, and generally
concludes with a peculiar churring sound, resembling that of the black red.stai-t.
The adult male in the breeding-season has the entire plumage of the upper and
lower parts of the body sooty black, with the exception of the rump and upper
tail-coverts, which are pure white. The two central tail-feathers are black, and
the remainder white, broadly tipped with black ; while the under tail-coverts are
pure white. The female is a duller bird than her mate, being blackish brown
instead of sooty black.

The whinchat (S. rubetraY Avinters in Africa, extending its range

Whinf*hat. ^ ^ r> o

farther north than the stonechat in the breeding-season. Passing
through Spain in the month of April, it makes its Avay to the Arctic Circle bj^ the
end of May ; one of the principal routes by Avhich its spring journey is accom-
plished lying along the A^alley of the Rhine, Avhere the species is extremely
abundant. The Avhinchat loves the neighbourhood of grass-meadoAA^s, from which
the song of the male may often be heard resounding, Avhile his mate is engaged in
the duties of incubation. The call-note of the species is loud and monotonous,
representing the Avord “ iitich.” The nest, usually placed upon the ground and
adroitly concealed, contains eggs of a bluish green coloui*, often spotted Avith fine
specks of reddish broAvn. When the young are fledged, they live in a family-pai-ty
Avith the old birds, Avhich exhibit the greate.st anxiety over the safety of their
progeny. Subsisting upon insects, and especially beetles, the Avhinchat is \-ery
partial to Avarm, sunny situations, especially if they are Avell bushed and command

1 By many ornithologists the whinchat and its allies are separated as a distinct genus, Pratincola, on account
of their broader beak and more numerous rictal bristles.

VOL. III. — 31

482

PERCHING BIRDS.

a southerly aspect. It leaves its home in Central and Northern Europe in August
and September, rarely, if ever, delaying its departure into late autumn. The adult
male has the crown and upper-parts blackish brown, many of the feathers having-
light bvxfi’ edges. The tail is white, banded with blackish brown for the terminal
half, while the throat and under- parts are pale fawn colour, varying much in
intensity. A conspicuous white eyebrow is also present.

The stonechat {S. ruhicola) is found throughout Central and
several parts of Northern Europe, being a resident in many places,
while to others it is but a summer or winter migrant. During the summer, generally
to be found on common lands, chalk-downs, or other open places, the stonechat is
an early bi-eeder, nesting in April, and concealing its choice of a site with much
care. In Oxfordshire stonechats seem to be very partial to aquatic situations, one
old male havinw- haunted a certain wet ditch close beside the Isis for several months
during one winter ; and they have been known to build at the bottom of a hedge
adjoining a flooded meadow. The stonechat builds its nest of moss and dried grass,
lining it with feathers and hair ; the eggs being pale greenish blue, finely spotted
with reddish brown. The stonechat has a short but rather pretty song, and is a
somewhat noisy species when its haunts are invaded. The adxilt male in
summer has the entire head and back glossy black, with a white collar ; the tail
is blackish brown, the outer feathers having the outer web light buff'; and the
under-parts are rufous, but vary considerably in different individuals. The female
is a browner bird than her mate. This group of the genus is represented by
several species in India, where they are commonly known as bush-chats.

The redstarts and robins, together with the Indian group of fork-
Fork-Tails. ^ o 01

tails, bring us to another subfamily {Ruticillince), differing mainl}"

from the chats in their habits ; these birds being terrestrial, and capturing their
insect-prey on the ground, instead of flying from a perch and returning thereto,
after the manner of the fly-catchers. They have a slender, compressed beak, a
long metatarsus, and feet well adapted for running; and the majority of' the
species are denizens of Europe and Asia, north of and including the Himalaya.
The first genus of this subfamily is formed by the Indian fork-tails (Henicurus),
which are small birds, having the general appearance of pied wagtails, but differing
from them in possessing a foi’ked tail and ten primaries, together with a coarse
bill. The type has the bill nearly as large as the head, stout and straight ; the
rictal bristles are well developed ; the wing is large, the first primary being about
half the length of the second ; and the tail is much longer than the wing, and
deeply forked ; the outer tail-feathers being one-third longer than the innermost
ones. Fork-tails ai-e chief!}" found in the Himalaya, and generally in the neighbour-
hood of mountain-streams, but they also range into Tenasserim. All are solitary in
their habits, and move their tails incessantly up and down after the manner of
wagtails, and are in the habit of generally perching on rocks or bare branches near
the gi’ound.

Exclusively confined to Europe, Northern Africa, and Asia

xvocis t3>rxs.

north of the Himalaya, the redstarts (Ruticilla) are characterised by
the short, slender, black beak, and finely developed rictal bristles, and the black
and smooth legs ; while most of them have the rump and tail red. In Europe

KEDSTAKTS.

483

the ^^onus has half a dozoii n'pri'sentatives. Anioii^^ tl>o prettiest of the smiiinei-
inio-rants to Xortheru and Centi-al Europe is the gracefid and attractive bird
popularly known as the firetail, or connnon redstart {li. jilup.niruras), partial to
parks and gardens, and on its first arrival often perching on the lower branches of
large trees ; the male possessing a very charming song. The redstart commonly
builds in a hole in a wall, or the interior of some hollow tree, or upon a shelf in
some outhouse ; and we once lound an open nest of this species placed in the top of
a thick bush. The (‘ggs are pale blue, sometimes slightly speckled with i-ed ;
while the young are easily reared from the nest by hand, and are rather liable

UEDBIiEAST AND KEDSTAKT (i Uat. size).

to sport a few white feathers in the first plumage. Foraging among dead leaves
for insects, they spend more time upon the ground than the 3'oung of any of the
allied forms. Often rearing two broods of 3’oung during the course of the
summer, the redstart in its flight is swift and elegant. Although the male birds
generally sing from the branches of trees (unlike the male l)lack redstarts), we
have known them to sing habituall}’ upon the roof of a house, exact!}’’ as the
latter would have done. Leaving their breeding-ground in early autumn, stray
birds of this species are often to be met with on the British coast at that season
when waiting for an oppoi'tunity of taking their departure. The adult male,
in summer, has the forehead pure white, the top of the head, scapulars, and back
leaden grey ; the nxmp and upper tail-coverts are Iwight chestnut, as is the tail.

484

PERCHING BIRDS.

with the exception of the two central feathers ; the chin and throat being jet black
and the lower-parts bright bay.

The black redstart (R. titys) is a well-known bird in many parts
Black Redstart. , . . r i •

of Central Europe, ti'equently seen even in large cities. JViotlitying

its habits accordino- to the region it inhabits, in Switzerland the black redstart

o o

breeds chiefly about the chalets on the mountains, attaching itself to the neighbour-
hood of farm-buildings, and obtaining most of its food around the outhouses.
In Germany it is quite a common garden-bird, dwelling near human habitations,
and generally chanting its notes from the gable of a roof. It begins to sing very
early in the morning, and continues until late in the evening ; no bird being more
self-conscious or more frequently seen in a prominent position. The males are
pugnacious and desperately jealous of rivals, although they do not perhaps take to
fighting quite as naturally as redbreasts. The nest is built of stems of grass,
moss, and dry leaves lined with hair and feathers, thus forming a comfortable
cradle for the young. The eggs are white, and five or six in number. The female
sits very closely during incubation ; and when the young first leave the nest, the
old birds continue their devotion, and cater for them with unremitting industry.
The greater part of their food appears to consist of flies, at least during the finest
period of the summer; and even when they first leave the nest the young
birds catch midges on their own account. The young of the first brood
generally have to be independent of their female parent early, because, as
soon as they are qualified to quit the mother, she lays a fresh clutch of
eggs ; and it falls, therefore, to the male chiefly to feed the fledged young of
the first brood, and his usual practice is to take them to the top of a stone
wall, or some other sunny place within view of his favourite point of observation,
and gradually leave them to shift for themselves. The young that are reared late
in autumn have a harder sti’uggle for existence, especially in Switzerland, where
the weather often breaks up in August. Black I’edstarts are birds that like fine
weather ; and in stormy weather they are apt to become somewhat disconsolate,
and sit moping, with their feathers puffed out. In the summer the species is home-
loving though certainly somewhat restless, and never seen in the same position for
more than half an hour at once. When the season for migration arrives, this red-
start loses, however, its domestic habits, becoming shy and unobtrusive, and setting
forth on its journey with a restless energy. Although never breeding in the British
Islands, many of these birds annually visit the south-western parts of England
during the autumn, and even pass the winter under the shelter of cliflCs or in
the neighbourhood of houses. They generally arrive in Devonshire in parties of
two or three in the autumn ; while those that winter in England assemble again
in l\Iarch on the coast for their departure. The plumage of the adult male
is a dark bluish grey above, with a conspicuoiis white patch upon the wings ;
the forehead and throat are black ; the tail is chestnut, tipped with blackish
brown, excepting, of course, the two central tail-feathers, which are blackish
brown thx'oughout ; the breast and lower -parts being slaty grey. The female
and young males have the upper-parts brownish grey, and lack the black throat
of the adult male ; the males of the year breeding in the grey plumage just
described.

BLUE-TJ/ROA TED WARBLER.

485

Blue-Tiiroated So much diti'ercucc of opinion prevails ainon^ ornithologists as to
Warbler. the generic limitation of the birds here included under Knjthacus,
that it will not be of much use to attempt to define the genus. For instance, wliile
Professor Newton includes the blue-throated warbler in Ruticilla, ]\lr. (4ates makes
it the type of a distinct genus, Cijanecula ; and while the same ornithologist
separates the nightingales (as Ddidian) from the redbreasts. Dr. Sharpe places
both in the pi’esent genus. \\ e accordingly proceed to notice some of the better-
known species without further preliminaries. One of the loveliest of all the

BLUE-THROATED AKD RUBY -THROATED WARBLERS (J nat. size).

group is the blue-throated warbler (Erythacus sueciciLs), the Arctic form of which,
represented in the woodcut, has the blue gorget spotted with chestnut-red ; while
on the other hand the variety of the bluethroat breeding south of the Baltic has
the throat spotted with white, or even entirely blue without any spots at all. The
Arctic form of bluethroat twice annually crosses the length and breadth of Europe,
but it is so seldom noticed on migration through Central Europe as to have given
rise to suggestions of impossible distances, conjectured to have been accomplished
without rest. It should be observed that iMr. Oates, with whom we are disinclined
to agree, regards these two foi-ms as specifically distinct. The ^Vrctic bird reaches
its northern breeding-grounds at the end of IMay, and takes up its residence in

486

PERCHING BIRDS.

willow-swamps and other damp situations. Its song has been compared by Mr.
Seebohm to that of several other birds. “ His first attempts at singing are harsh
and o-ratincj-, like the notes of the sedge-warbler, or the still harsher notes of the
whitethroat ; these are followed by several variations in a louder and rather more
melodious tone, repeated over and over again somewhat in the fashion of the song-
thrush. After this you might fancy that the little songster was trying to mimic
the various alarm-notes of all the birds he can remember; the chiz-zit of the
wagtail, the tip-ti'p-tvp of the blackbird, and especially the U'hit-whit of the
chaffinch. As he impi’oves in voice he sings louder and longer, until at last he
almost apjoroaches the nightingale in the richness of the melody that he pours forth.
Sometimes he will sing as he flies upwards, descending with expanded wings and
tail to alight on the highest bough of some low tree, almost exactly as the tree-pipit
does in the meadows of our own land. When the females have arrived, there comes
at the end of his song the most metallic notes I have ever heard a bird utter. It is
a sort of ting ting, resembling the sound produced b}^ striking a suspended bar of
steel with another piece of the same metal. The female appears to shun the open
far more carefully than her mate ; and while he will be perched upon a topmo.st
.spray, gladdening the whole air around him with his varied tuneful melody, she will
remain in the undergrowth beneath him gliding hither and thither more like a
mouse than a bird through the branches.” The nest of the bluethroat is very well
concealed in the side of a tussock of grass and is lined with flue roots and hair ;
and the eggs are olive-coloured. When the young leave the nest, they forage about
for insects in the undergrowth, peering at a stranger with the pretty wistfulness
of young robins, to which they bear a rough resemblance in their actions. In Spain
the bluethroat is to be met with in very dry situations, but that is only when the
birds are on migration ; and the same is probably true of its occurrence in the arid
districts of Ladak. From our own observations the bluethroat seems to migrate
singly or in couples, but Mr. Gaetke states that they arrive in flocks upon Heligo-
land, both in the month of IMay and in early autumn. On Heligoland they are
chiefly to be found in the potato-fields in autumn, while in spring they frecpient
the gooseberry and currant bushes of the garden.s. We have seen bluethroats
sheltering in dry scrub on migration ; when every now and then a bird would flit
out of its cover, dart upon an insect, and then steal away into the recesses of the
bushes, to emerge a moment after for another rapid sally. On the Norfolk coast
the bluethroat is well known as a September visitant, and has even appeared in
considerable numbers when weather -stayed. We met with bluethroats in the
neighbourhood of the Lake of Geneva, one of which, with an entirely blue gorget,
frecpiented a garden, although most of those seen inhabited reed-beds in the
marshes of the Rhone. The adult male has the upper-parts brown, with a con-
spicuous white or buft‘ eyebrow ; the throat and upper-breast are metallic cobalt-blue,
centred with a large spot of pure white or chestnut, a band of black succeeding
the blue, bordered by another band of chestnut ; the rest of the under-parts being
bufty white.

An inhabitant of the ijreater part of Europe, the redbreast or
Redbreast. . . ” . W ^

robin (E. rubecula) is such a familiar and well-known bird as to

require but scant notice here. Breeding alike in our gardens and shrubberies and

JWJUAS, ETC.

487

in the middle of lonely woods, it constructs its nest of dry leaves, moss, and dead

<;rass, lined with a little hair. The
light red. When the young birds
are fledged, they flit about the
gardens and outhouses iratherinir
a variety of insects. Many of
them migrate in autumn, while
others linger to utter their silveiy
notes during the dead months of
the year, drawing near the cottages
and farmhouses at the approach
of frost. The plumage of the male
robin is olive-brown above, tinted
with grey ; the neck, forehead, and
throat being: brig-ht orange, the
remainder of the lower-parts olive-
brown. The robin of the Canary
Islands has been classified as a
distinct species.

eggs are white, blotched

and streaked with

THE REDBREAST.

„ ^ ^ Another beautiful species of warbler is the rubythroat

Rubythroat. , .

{E. calliope), represented on the right side of the illu.stration on
p. 485, which makes its summer home in the extreme north of Russia and Siberia,
breeding among the tundras of the Arctic Circle, after the ice and snow have
thawed and disappeared. ]\Ir. Seebohm says that the song of the rubytliroat “ is
very fine, decidedly more melodious than that of the bluethroat, and very little
inferior to that of the nightingale. When first I heard him sing I thought I was
listening to a nightingale ; he had his back towards me when I shot him, and I
was astonished to pick up a bird with a scarlet throat. The feathers were as
glossy as silk, and when I skinned him I thought I had rarely if ever seen so
beautiful a warbler. The rubythroat appears in the south of Siberia as early as
the beginning of April. Its nest is said to be a slight structure, and the eggs are
olive-grey. It is a bird of shy and solitaiy habits, frequenting thickets and close
cover, and obtaining its food chiefly upon the ground. It loses the brilliant colour
of the throat in confinement. It winters in the Philippine Islands, South China,
Burma, and Xorthem and Central India, occasionally straying into Europe. Jerdon
once met with a rubythroat on board ship a little south of Bombaj’, when a single
bird of this species took refuge on board his vessel in the month of November.
The adult male has the upper-parts of a uniform olive-brown ; the eye.stripe and
cheeks being white ; while the chin and throat are glossy scarlet ; and the breast

Nightingale.

ash-grey shading into buffy grey.

The nightingale {E. liiscinia) is celebrated in Western Europe
as an incomparable songster, and has from all times enjoyed just
reputation for the perfection of its vocal powers. Wintering in Africa, it reaches
its summer home in the British Isles about the 13th of April, the males being the
first to arrive. Its range in the British Isles is somewhat circumscribed ; and it
<loes not breed north of Yorkshire. The ne.st is a loose structux’e of stems of grass

488

PERCHING BIRDS.

and dry leaves, generally raised a little from the ground by a deposit of dead twigs,
and screened from observation by a profusion of wild brambles or a crop of stinging
nettles ; the eggs being uniform olive-brown or coffee-coloured. The female, though
shy, is much devoted to her charge, and
will allow a stranger to stand close
beside her without exhibiting her agita-
tion further than by a slight nervous
movement of the head which only
enables him to obtain a better view of
the little russet bird, her dark eye
beamino; out of its whitish orbit. The
nightingale is easily trapped, and was
formerly an object of eager pursuit
among bird-catchers, who used to imitate
the cry of the bird in order to lead it up
to the trap which they had prepared for
it, bated with a live insect. One bird-
catcher informed us that he once caught
two male nightingales in this manner in
less than ten minutes ; this occurred, of
course, in a locality where nightingales were plentiful, and upon the first arrival
of the males. When the nightingale has hatched her young both parents become
absorbed in catering for their progeny. The song is chiefly heard during the
night, simply because other birds are then comparatively silent, but the nightingale
sings with great power even during the middle of the day. The male has the
upper-parts russet-brown shading into chestnut on the upper tail-coverts and tail ;
the lower-parts being bufhsh white shading into grejdsh white on the breast and
flanks.

Eastern In the east of Europe the English nightingale is replaced by a

Nightingale, somewhat larger bird {E. 'pliilomeld), which has a distinct song,
differing from that of its congener in its greater volume and inferior perfection.
It breeds generally in thickets in the neighbourhood of watei’, and builds a similar
nest to that of the well-known bird. The plumage of the easteim nightingale
differs from that of the common species in being of a more olive-brown, especially
on the upper tail-coverts, in having a more pointed wing, a smaller bastard-primary,
and in being slightly spotted or streaked on the breast with grey. A third species
is the Persian nightingale {E. golzi).

New Zealand Here may be noticed two Australasian genera of birds, placed by

Robins. some among the flycatchers, but regarded by Dr. Sharpe as allied to
the stonechat and whinchat. It should be observed, however, that the same
ornithologist separates (as Pratincola) the last-named birds from Saxicola to place
them among the flycatchers. The New Zealand robins {Miro) are characterised bj^
having a slender bill, straight, and furnished with I’ictal bristles ; the wings being
moderate and extending to half the length of the tail, and rounded ; while the tail is
broad and even, the feathers being sharply cut off at their tips. Tlie metatarsus
is very long and slender. This genus belongs to the avifauna of New Zealand and

«S \

THE NIGHTINGALE.

DHYAL BIRD.

489

the Cliathani Islands ; the species peculiar to the latter group of islands being
entirely black. The North Island robin {M. australis) is contiued to the gloomy
forests of the interior of the North Island ; and the following description of its
habits is given by Sir Walter Buller, who writes that, “ as the popular name implies,
it is naturally a tame bird ; and in little-frequented parts of the country it is so
fearless and unsuspicious of man that it will approach within a yax’d of the
ti’aveller, and sometimes will even pex’clx 0x1 his head or shoulder. It is a favourite
coxnpaxxioxx of the loxiesome woodcutter, exiliveixiixg him with its cheerful notes ;
and when sitting on a log, he pax’takes of his huxnble xneal, it hops about his feet
like the traditioxial x’obixx, to pick up the crumbs. Like its xxaxiiesake in the old
countxy, xnoreovex', it is xioisy, active, axxd cheerful. Its xiote is generally the fir.st to
hex’ald the dawn, while it is the last to be hxxshed whexi evexxixig shades bx'ixig gloom
ixxto the fox’est. But thei'e is this xioticeable difiex’exice betweexi the xiiorniiifr and
the evening perfox’xixance ; the former consists of a scale of xxotes, coxnxxiexxcing vexy
high and running down to a low key, uttex-ed in qxxick successioxx, and with all the
exiex’gy of a challenge to the rest of the feathex'ed tribe. The evening pex’formaxice
is xnei'ely a shox’t, chix-ping note, quickly repeated, and with I'ather a melaxicholy
souxxd ; thx’ee or foxxr of thexn will soxxietimes joixi in a chirping chorus, axxd coxxtimxe
it uxxtil the shades of advancing twilight have deepened into night. It lives alxxxost
exitirely on sxnall insects, axxd the wox'xns and grubs that ax-e to be foxxxid axiiong
decaying leaves and other vegetable xxxatter oxx the surface of the gx-ouxxd iix evexy
part of the woods. Its nature is pxxgnacious, and in the paixnxxg-seasoxi the male
birds oftexi engage in sharp exicounters with each othex\” The North Island i-obin
goes to nest ixi October and Novexnber. The nest is gexiex'ally against the bole of
a tree at a moderate height fx’oxxx the grouxid, built of coarse xnoss, lined with
fern-hair and vegetable fibres. The eggs ax’e creaxny white in gx’ound-colour,
thickly freckled, and speckled with pux'ple axxd bx'own. It is xnuch to be
regx’etted that this chax’xning little bix'd has recexxtly becoxne coxixpax-atively x’arc,
though the robin fouxid ixx the South Islaxid is still fairly abuxxdaxit. The
adult male has the upper-parts dull ashy gx’ey, the feathex’s having whitish shafts ;
the wings are dax’k brown, with white bases to the secoxidax'ies ; the tail-feathex*s
ax’e dusky bx'own, xnax’gixied with ash ; the throat, bx’east, and sides of the body are
hoaxy grey ; and the abdoxnexx is white.

We conxe xxext to a sxixall gx’oup of birds closely related to the
hyai Bird. x'obins, but distixxgxxished fx’oxix all other xnexxxbex’s of this

subfamily by the black and Avhite tail, equal ixx length to the wing, axxd considex'-
ably graduated. Peculiar to the Old Woxld, these bix’ds ai’e most abuxxdaxit in the
Indian region ; the finest songster amongst thexn being tbe white-bx’owed wax’bler
{Copsychus albospecidaris) of Madagascar, the xxotes of which x’ival those of tlie
sweetest European bix'ds. The common dhyal bix’d {C. saularis) of India, repre-
sented in the woodcut, occux’s in every part of the empix'e. It is x*esidexxt in Ceylon
and Southern China, but is I’eplaccd by C. mindanensis in the Philippines. The
Indian species is a common and familiar bix\l thx’oxxghoxxt its x’ange, exhibiting a
confiding axxd fx’iendly disposition like the European x’edbx’east. The cocks are
highly pugnacious in the bx’eedixxg season, and engage in frequent scx'immages with
their rivals. The nest is a x'ough structux’e, built in a hole of a tree, ixx an old

490

PER CHI XG BIRDS

stump, or in the crevice of a 'wall. The nesting; holes of the barbels and
woodpeckers are otten iitilised by the dh^'al bird. The male has a pleasing song,
not unlike that of the redbreast, but of greater compass. This species is often
kept as a cage-bird, and has been trained to turn somersaults at a gesture from
its owner. The adult male has the head, neck, breast, and upper-parts glossy

black ; the wings and
tail are black, varied
with white ; and the ab-
domen and under tail-
coverts white. The
female has the upper-
parts of a uniform dark
brown glossed with
bluish ; the throat and
breast are dark grey ;
and the wings and tail
dark brown varied with

The
s h a m a s
{Cittocinda) are closely
related in structure to
the last, from which they
are distinguished by the
proportionately greater
size of the tail, which
considerably exceeds the
wing in length. The
shamas are shy and
retiring birds, avoiding
the neighbourhood of
houses, and obtaining their food in the woods and jungle. The black shama {C.
nigra) inhabiting the Malayan region, is a skulking species, haunting the dense
cover near to the coast. One has been recently discovered in the Philippines {C.
cehiiensis); while the Andaman shama (C. alhiventris) is peculiar to the islands
from which it takes its name. The best known is the Indian shama (C. macrura),
a permanent resident in the plains of India, and a timid but graceful bird, much
sought after by Indian bird-catchers, on account of its beautiful song. For
this reason the shama is often imported into Europe as a cage-bird, but it is
delicate, and requires care in the colder climate of Great Britain. The shama
nests from April to June, retiring into the depths of the jungle, and constructing
its nest of grass and dead leaves in the hollow end of the broken branch of a tree.
The eggs are greenish marked with reddish brown, and vary in number from
three to four. The adult male has the head, breast, back, and wing-coverts
black ; the rump and upper tail-coverts are white ; the tail-feathers are black
and black-and-white; and the abdomen and under tail -coverts bright chestnut.

WARBLERS.

491

The glossy black and chestnut colours of the male are replaced in the female by
dark brown and pale rufous.

Grey Warbler '''ai’l^lor and its congeners {Geri/yove) possess a slender

straight bill slightly curv’ed and compressed ; the wings are rather
short and rounded ; the tail is long and rather rounded ; and the metatai’sus long
and slender. The birds of this group arc found in Australia and Xew Zealand,
ranging also to New Guinea and adjacent islands. The grey warbler
{G. jiaviventvis) is mentioned here, because it performs the function of a foster-
parent for the young of the two species of cuckoos found in New Zealand. It
is a bird of sombre plumage and unobtrusive habits, but utters at short intervals
a note of much sweetness ; and is plentiful in every part of New Zealand, where it
appears to be as much at home in the woods as in the open scrub. Its food consists
of small insects, which it obtains in the leafy tops of forest trees as well as in the
dense foliage of thick bushes. Sir Walter Buller says : “ In the Hot Lakes district
I have found it Hitting round the steaming geysers, apparently unatfected by the
sulphur-fumes, and catching the minute flies that are attracted thither by the
humid warmth. Down by the seashore its note may be heard in the low vegetation
that fringes the ocean beach ; whilst far up the mountain-side, where the semb is
.scarce and stunted, it shares the dominion with the ever-2)resent Zosterops. Its
sweet thrilling warble is always pleasant to the ear, being naturally associated in
the mind with the hum of bees among the flowers, and the drumming of locusts in
the sunshine.” The grey warbler is remarkable for the form of its nest, which is
a domed structure, belonging to one of two types — the bottle-shaped nest with a
porch entrance, and the pear-shaped form without a porch. The materials used in
nest-building are dry moss, grass, vegetable fibres, and spider-webs. The eggs are
white, often spotted with red. The grey warbler is an attentive parent to the
young of the cuckoos, which are foisted iipon it ; and pi’obably owes its preservation
to the fact that it builds a pensile nest, out of the reach of rats and other vermin.
The adult male is olive-brown above ; the sides of the neck are dark ashy grey ;
the tail feathers are ashy brown, shaded with black ; and the throat, breast, and
sides cinereous grey.

The True While the chats, redbi’easts, nightingales, and other members of

Warblers. the subfamily RiiticiUince are included by IMr. Oates among the
Turdidie, the true warblers and their kindred are regarded l)y the same ornithol-
ogist as constituting a separate family, SylvUdce. On the other hand. Professor
Newton includes the Rid icillince in the Sylviidcc; thus showing how very close
is the I'esemblance between the true warblers on the one hand and the thrushes on
the other. Accordingly, we prefer to follow Dr. Shai’pe in including all those birds
under one great famil}', of which the true warblers will constitute a separate sub-
family {Sylviince). Having thus indicated how extremely difficult it is to separate
the thrushes and their allies from the true warblers {Sylvici), it may be mentioned
that the latter are generally of small size, and usually of plain-coloured plumage.
!More insectivorous in their habits than the thrushes, and also more migratory in
their movements, they usually possess slender bills, adapted to the pui’suit of
insects. Their wings are variable in size ; and the feet slender, and furnished with
fine toes. The young of the warblers, unlike those of the typical thrushes, do not

492

PERCHING BIRDS.

Whitetliroat.

differ materially from adults in colour. This group of birds, in common with the
Ruticillince, is of almost universal distribution, but so preponderates in the Eastern
Hemisphere, that Mr. Wallace describes it as an Old World assemblage only
meagrely represented in North America.

The common whitethroat (Sylvia rufa) is one of the most
abundant of summer birds throughout Europe, arriving in its

breeding-haunts in
April, and speedily com-
mencing to make its
artless nest, composed
of dry stems of grass
and flowering plants,
lined with finer bents
and sometimes a little
horsehair. The eggs
are white, mottled with
olive-green specks. The
male sings noisily upon
the wing, generally
starting up from the
top of a hawthorn
hedge, and then slowly
descending, with the
tail at an angle to the
body. It may fre-
quently be seen picking
small moths off the
blossoms of the gorse,
as it flits actively from
one plant to another,
and utters a harsh

croak. The adult male has the upf)er-parts greyish brown, the wing-coverts and
innermost secondaries being edged with chestnut, the outer tail-feathers margined
with white, and the lower-parts buffy white.

Lesser The lesser whitethroat (S. curruca) is a scarcer bird than the

Whitethroat. pretty song may be heard about the hedgerows and

bushes in many parts of Europe. The nest is placed in a bush or shrub, firmly
built of strong bents, lined with finer bents, fibre, and horsehair ; the eggs being
white, spotted with olive-brown. The lesser whitethroat is very partial to gardens,
this being partly accounted for by its fondness for fruit, which is especially mani-
fested when raspberries become ripe. It becomes very tame in confinement, and
eats pears and other fruit with avidity. The adult male has the ujiper-parts slaty
grey, suffused with brown on the back, the wings and tail are brown ; the under-parts
white, the breast tinged with pink, and the ear-coverts dark brown, and conspicuous.
Subaipine The subalpine warbler (S. subaljnna) has a wide range, inhabiting

the whole of the Mediterranean region, as well as North Africa and

LESSER AND COMMON WHITETHROAT (| nat. size).

Warbler.

WARBLERS.

493

tlie Canaries. It is an a^ile bird, building a "lo])c-shaped nest, placed in thick
bushes, and situated from tliree to live feet above tlie ground, which is built of
stems of grass, lined with line libres. The eggs are greenish white, linely spotted
with brown. The subalpine warbler is full of activity, and Hits alx»ut the bushes
catching insects. The adult male has the upper-parts slaty grey, the wings are
brown, with pale edges, the tail brown, with more or le.ss white on the outer
feathers, and the throat and breast chestnut, shading into paler chestnut on
the Hanks, and to nearly white in the centre of the breast.

Spectacled This pretty little bird {S. conspicillatiC) is another Mediterranean

Warbler. species, resident in some parts of its habitat, and in others a summer
visitant. A migrant in the north of Spain, it is there somewhat shy and retiring,
flitting about the roadside in a furtive, uneasy fashion, and quite solitary. The
spectacled warbler builds its nest in a small bush about a foot from the ground,
and the eggs are white, blotched with green. The short, sweet song has been
compared to that of the goldfinch. The adult male has the crown .slaty grey,
shading into greyish chestnut on the centre of the back ; the wings are dark
brown, edged with chestnut, the tail-feathers dark brown, the outer ones being
partially pied ; while the chin is white, fading into slaty grey on the throat,
which again fades into vinous red on the brea.st and flanks.

Sardinian Another South European bird is the pretty black-headed Sar-

warbier. dinian warbler {S. sarda), an active, restless species, partial to the
neighbourhood of undergrowth. It builds in a branch of some tree, generally at
a small distance from the ground ; and constructs its ne.st of blades of grass and roots
lined with fine bents. The eggs are greenish white blotched at the larger end
with greenish grey. This warbler is common in the pine- woods around Cannes, as
also in the gardens near the sea ; and its habits have been compared to those of the
Avhitethroat. The male sings from a bush, and then darts off in a jerking flight into
the air still singing ; while the old birds, like the blackcap, simulate the appearance
of being injured when they find their young endangered, trailing their wings in
the dust and exhibiting the greatest distress. The song is not unlike that of a
garden-warbler, but is more intermittent. The plumage of the adult male is slate-
grey above, shading into black on the nape, head, and ear-coverts ; the wings are
dark brown edged with grey, and the tail is dark grey tipped with white, the
throat being white fading into greyish white.

The Orphean warbler {S. orphea) is one of the larger represent-
atives of the group in Europe, which it visits in April, not continuing
its journey north of the Baltic. Mr. Seebohm writes that “ the song is louder than
that of the blackcap, but I thought it somewhat harsher. Its alarm-note is very
loud, as loud as that of the blackbird. In the Parnassus I found it very common,
and obtained thirteen nests between the 3rd and 21st May. They were easy to
find in the bushes which were scattered over the rocky ground above the region of
the olive and the vine ; but when we got into the pine-region they disappeared.
My friend Captain Verner informs me that he has found ne.sts of this bird in Spain
placed near the summit of young cork-trees, about twelve feet from the ground.
The nest is a tolerably substantial one and deep, composed of dry grass and leafy
stalks of plants. Inside it is built of finer gras.ses, and lined sparingly with thistle-

Orphean Warbler.

494

PERCHING BIRDS.

down or the flower of the cotton-grass. . . . The ground-colour of the eggs of the
Orphean warbler is white, sometimes faintly tinted with grey and sometimes tinted
with brown. . . . The colour of the overlying spots varies from olive-brown to
nearly black.” Tlie Orphean warbler is a large form of the blackcap, and decidedly
more elegant in shape than that species. The adult male has the crown sooty
black ; the general colour of the upper-parts is dull slate-grey ; the wings and tail
are brown, and the under-parts white shading into grey upon the breast and flanks.

EUB’OUS AND ORPHEAN WARBLERS (J uat. size).

A more skulking species than the last is the garden-warbler
Garden Warbler. _ . . . ” . ^ ”

(o. salxcaria), wliicli arrives in its summer haunts in Europe about

the same date as the blackcap. It is rather a retiring bird, and is consequently often

overlooked. It has a sweet song, generally poured forth from the centre of some

thick bush or other cover ; its nest is of dry stems and moss, lined with fibres and

a few hairs ; its eggs are greenish white blotched with grey and olive-brown. The

garden-warbler is partial to fruit, but we have not seen it strip the berries from

the elder-bushes in the same way as the blackcap. The adult male has the upper-

parts olive-brown, darker and grejmr on the wings and tail ; and the under-parts

greyish white.

, Among the sweetest songsters that visit the gardens and shrub-

Blackcap. n . tV ... . ■ n ■ -n

beries of Europe is this slim and attractive species (S. atricapilla),
which arrives in the British Isles in April, and at once takes up its abode in

\VA RULERS.

495

orchards and woodlands. The male bird upon its first arrival t’refpiently sin^s in
highly exposed situations ; indeed, he can hardly do otherwi.se, since in hackwar.l
seasons his progeny are hatched before the leaves of many trees have unrolled.
I he lemale constructs her nest of dry stems of gra.s.s and fihre.s, lining it with tine
roots and hair ; the eggs b(‘ing generally yellowish brown, clouded with a dai-ker
colour. Ihe song of the blackcap is rich and well .su.stained ; and from the rich
quality of its notes the bird has been termed the Norfolk nightingale. The black-
cap is a mo.st anxious parent, exhibiting lively distress if the safety of the young

BARRED WARBLER, GARDEN WARBLER, AND BLACKCAP (i liat size).

be menaced. The young feather very rapidly and leave the nest proportionately
earlier than do many other birds. In July the song of the blackcap becomes
soft and subdued, and the bird then sings in close cover, shunning notoriety.
The blackcap is a favourite cage-bird; we have seen hundreds caged in Paris, and
many more in Berne and other continental cities. In the Canaries there occurs a
curious variety in which the black of the cap extends over the nape and shouldei’s
as well as round the throat. The typical adult male has the forehead and crown
pure black, the upper-parts bluish grey, siiffused with olive-brown, the M'ings
and tail brown ; while beneath it is blui.sh grey. The female has the cap of a
rusty red ; and in captivity sings sAveetly, although less powerfully than her mate.

496

PERCHING BIRDS.

The barred warbler {S. nisoria) arrives in its summer quarters

Sd'i'i'Gd • • •

" ill Europe somewhat later than the majority of migrants, and takes
up its abode chiefly in gardens ; constructing a bulk}^ nest, more compact than that
of most warblers, of roots and dry stems neatly lined with horsehair or fibres.
The nest is generally built in a thorn bush not far from the ground, and the eggs
are huffish white sjiotted with brown and ash-colour. The barred warbler is shy and
skulking in its habits, and even in confinement it retains this shyness, although
this does not extend to birds reared from the nest. The adult male has the upper-
parts brownish grey ; the under-parts being greyish white, finely barred with brown.

The Dartford warbler (S. undata) ^ is a resident but local bird
in the temperate parts of Europe, breeding also in the mountains of
Algeria. It is a small, retiring species, fond of thick covert, and used to be tolerably
common even in the neighbourhood of London until exterminated by several severe
winters. Mr. Swaysland wrote to us in 1883 : “ I have taken several hundreds of
eggs of the Dartford warbler within a few miles of Brighton, but the birds were
all exterminated in a recent severe winter. I have not heard of any since, though
formerly we could find a dozen pairs within a few miles. I have taken the eggs
of a single pair three or four times in a season. If the nest contained three eggs
when I first robbed it, the next clutch usually contained five eggs, but if it contained
four eggs the first time the second laying usually consisted of the same number.”
The Dartford warbler builds a very slight nest, composed of dry stalks and lined
with finer stems added to a little wool. The nest is usually extremely difficult to
find, and can only be di.scovered by patient observation of the old birds. Mi*.
Newman often observed the Dartford warbler in the neighbourhood of Godaiming,
and has left the following sketch of its winter habits : — “ When the leaves are off
the trees, and the chill winter winds have driven the summer birds to the olive-
gardens of Spain or across the straits, the furze-wren is in the height of its enjoy-
ment. I have seen them by dozens skipping about the furze, lighting for a moment
upon the very point of the sprigs and instantly diving out of sight again, singing
out their angry impatient ditty for ever the same. They prefer those places where
the furze is very thick, high, and difficult to get in.” The egg of the Dartford
warbler is white or buff' in ground-colour, suffused with olive or reddish brown.
The song of the male is lively, and often uttered upon the wing. The nestlings
which Montagu reared began to sing as soon as they assumed adult plumage. The
plumage of the adult male is very dark sooty brown, shading into slate-grey on
the head ; tail dark grey, the outside feathers tipped with white ; the under-parts
are chestnut-brown, shading into white on the centre of the belly, and having the
feathers of the chin and upper throat tipped with white ; the under tail-coverts
are grey tipped with white.

The Wiuow The yellow-browed warbler (Phyllo,9copus superciliosus) figured

Warblers, on p. 505, is an example of a genus differing from the preceding by the
supplemental bristles in front of those of the rictus of the gape being stronger and
more numerous, while the beak is short and stout. The genus includes the chiff-
chaff (P. colly bita), wood-wi’en (P. sihilatrix), willow- wren (P. trochilus), etc. The
yellow-browed warbler passes the summer in North Siberia, where Mr. Seebohm

1 Frequently separated generically a.s Melizophilus.

If^ARBLEJiS.

497

first discovered its eggs, of wliicli he gives the following account : — “ As we
were walking along a little bird started up near us, and began most persistently
to utter the alarm note of the yellow-browed warbler, a note which 1 ha<l learned
in Gaetke s garden in Heligoland. As it kept fiying around us from tree to tree
we naturally came to the conclusion that it had a nest near. We searched for
some time unsuccessfully, and then retired to a short distance and sat down upon
a ti’ee trunk to watch. Ihe bird was very uneasy, but continually came back to
a birch-tree, frecpiently making several short tlights towards the ground, as if it
were anxious to go into its nest but dare not wdiilst we were in sight, d'his went

ICTERINE WARBLER (if liat. size).

on for about half an hour, when we came to the conclusion that the treasure we
were in search of must be within a few' yards of the birch-tree, and we again
commenced a search. In less than five minutes I found the nest with six eggs in
it. It was built in a slight tuft of grass, moss and bilberries, semi-domed exactly
like the nests of our 'willow’-Avarblers. It Avas composed of dry grass and moss
ends lined with reindeer haii’. The eggs w'ere very similar in colour to those of
our willow--warbler, but ■were rather moi’e spotted and smaller in size. The
yellow-browed Avarbler occasionally straggles into Europe on the autumnal
migration. The adult male has the upper-parts olive-green ; a Avell-defined nari'ow'
greenish yellow eyestripe extends over the eyes; the wing-coverts are tipped wdth
yellow forming tw'o bars across the wings, the w'ing (|uills and tail are brown, the
lower-parts wdiite suffused wdth yellowish green.

VOL. III. — 32

498

PERCHING BIRDS.

As ail example of another <j^eiiiis ditferin^ from Si/Ivia hy the
Ictenne Warbler, from tlie ^iipe exceeding (instead of falling short

of) the third toe and its ehiw, may be mentioned the icterine warbler (Hypolais
philomda); (hglit other species of the genus being known. Annually visiting
temperate Europe south of the Baltic, tlie icterine warbler is a graceful slender bird,
and on its first arrival may be observed Hitting actively about the lower branches
of trees and bushes in (piest of insect prey. Although in coloration this warbler
bears some resemblance to the willow-warblers, it does not form a dome to its nest
like those birds, nor does it build near the ground. On the contrary, its pretty
nest is of dry stems of grass interwoven with moss, wool, and other materials, in
some small tree, generally eight or ten feet from the ground. The eggs are brownish

THE REED WARBLER.

pink in ground-colour, spotted with dark purplish brown. Mr. Seebohm gives the
following description of the song of the icterine warbler ; — “ Perhaps on the whole
the song of the common tree-warbler comes nearest to that of the marsh- warbler,
but often it reminds you strongly of the sedge-warblers. At other times you may
trace a fancied re.seml)lance to the chirping of the sparrow, the scolding of the
whitethroat, or the scream of the swift.” The adult male in spring is olive-green
above, the wings and tail are brown, and the under-parts uniformly of a very
beautiful and delicate yellow. The female is identical in plumage with her mate
but rather duller.

Reed-Warblers.

Yet another genus {Acrocephalus) of warblers is typically repre-
sented by the reed- warbler, and is distinguished from all the foregoing

WARBLERS.

499

hy tlic Foiithers of tlie forolu'iKl b('iii^ short and i-onn«lod, instead of disintegrated
and with elon^atcMl shafts. ^Moreover, tliere are no liairs oi- l)ristles on the foreliead,
with the exception of thu ordinary ones at the rictus of tlie j^a[)e. In this particulai'
^enus of tlie jrroup display ino- tlie above characters, the first primary (piill of the
wing is much less than one-third fhe length of the second, while the rictal bristles
are strongly developi'd, and the tail is hut slightly graduated. The reed-warhler
{Acrocephaliis sfre}>eriis) is an annual visitor to most parts of temperate Europe,
arriving in April and IVlay, and generally taking up its abode in extensive morasses.
The nest is a singularly beautiful structure, built in the middle of a wood a long
way from water ; one which we found was composed of delicate green moss ; while
another from Romney IMarsli was almost wholly constructed of sheep’s wool. The
eggs are greenish white in grouiul-colour, clouded or freckled with dark olive. The
song of this warl)lcr is rich and much varied. The adult male in spring has the
upper-parts rufous brown, the colour being most pronounced upon the rump and
upper tail-coverts, while the chin and throat are dull white, and the breast and
flanks pale huff.

The sedge-warbler (A. schoenohcenus), shown on the left figure on p. 501, is
common in many parts of Europe, arriving in April from North Africa, and
speedily taking up its residence in some suitaljle haunt, genei’ally a scrub near
the waterside. It generally departs again for the south in September, wintering
in Africa. Its song is loud and varied, and often delivered during the stillness
of a summer night. The nest is a slight stri;cture, of dry stems without any
lining, or of dry stems and a little green moss, lined with the feathers of the
gad wall. The eggs are jmllowish brown. The adult male in spring has the
upper-parts rusty russet-brown, with dark centres to the feathers, the eyestripe
being huffish white ; while the wings and tail are brown, and the under-parts
huffish white.

Grasshopper- Nearly allied to the last, the grasshopper-warblers (Lociistella),
Warbler. of which there are some eight species, may be distinguished by the
smaller development of the rictal bristles, as well as by the more markedly
graduated tail, in which the outermost feathers are less than three-fourths the
total length. They derive their name from their peculiar chirping notes. The
grasshopper-warbler (L. ncevia) is a regular but local summer visitant to Europe,
arx’iving in Britain in the month of April in small flocks which soon break up, each
pair taking up its residence in some secpiestered nook either on a heath on the
margin of large woods or in the bottom of a deep hedge. On its first arrival
the hedges are generally bare or nearly so, a circumstance which naturally
facilitates the observation of the movements of this shy bird. Both the male and
female sing, but most of the ventrilo(iuising efforts proceed from the male bird.
The grasshopper-warbler sings its curious song principally during the early hours
of day and shortly before dusk, although it would be a mistake to suppose that
it does not sing at other times, for it often sings lustily in the middle of the day.
The nest is cunningly concealed in thick herbage ; the best plan of discovering
its whereabouts being to visit the spot, which the birds are known to frequent,
shortly before sunset. If every likely corner be thus explored with the aid of
a long stick, the female will almost certainly be detected in the act of slipping

500

J^ERCHING BIRDS.

ott’ lier eggs, ci’eeping awaj' through the undergrowtli witli the stealth and rapidity
of a mouse. The eggs are pinkish white freckled with darker reddish brown. The
adult male has the upper-parts olive-brown with dark centres to the feathers,

GRASSHOPPEIi, RIVEI!, AND SAVl’s WARBLERS (§ nat. size).

River-Warbler.

while the chin and centre of the belly are white, shading into bufhsh brown on the
breast and flanks.

Among the finest of European songsters is the river-warbler
(L. fluviatilis) of Eastern Eurojie, which spends the summer months on
the shores of the Elbe, the Danube, and other large rivers, where it frequents
thickets and dense undergrowth, building a cup-shaped nest of dry stems. The
eggs are greyish white, spotted with reddish brown. The song for which the river
warbler is remarkable has been compared to the chirping of grasshoppers ; during
the early hours of the day the bird sometimes sings in exposed situations, but under
ordinary circumstances skulks in the most impenetrable thickets. Both sexes have the

WARBLERS.

501

upper-parts iiniforiiily dark olive-bi'own witli a scarcely j)erceptible eyestiape, the

under-parts being greyish brown, shading into white on the throat and belly.

One of the rarer and more interestini>: of Euro])ean warblers is
Savi’s Warbler. .

the little obscurely coloured bird known as Savi’s warbler {L.

lascinoides), which nests in Holland, building a nest of blades of dry sedge firmly

interwoven, which cannot well be mistaken for that of any other bird. The eggs

ai’e white, sprinkled with ashy brown spots. In the Rhone marshes this bird may

be observed actively running up and down the reeds, occasionally uttering a curious

cry which has been compared to that of a tree-frog. The male has the upper-parts

uniform russet-brown, and the under-parts are pale huffish brown, shading into

nearly white on the centre of the throat and belly.

SEDOE-WAUBLEK, CETTl’s WAHBI.ER, AND FAN-TAIL WARBLER liat. size).

Cettian Cetti’s warbler (Bradypterus cettii) may be taken as the best

Warblers. known European representative of another large group of genera
differing from all the foregoing in having only ten (in place of twelve) tail-
feathers. As the number of these genera is far too large to be even mentioned
here, it will suffice to say that Cetti’s warbler holds a high position among the
song-birds of Southern Europe, and that it passes the summer in the Mediterranean
region, inhabiting close and impenetrable covert during its summer sojourn. It
builds its nest of dry stems and blades of grass in the neighbourhood of water.
The eggs are brilliant red, and without any spots. In some parts of its range

502

J’EJ^CJJJXG BIRDS.

Cetti’s warbler is resident throughout tlie year. It sings in every inoutli, and it
is somewhat startling in winter to liear a loud and abrupt burst of song, resembling
that of a nightingale, from a thick bush. The a<lult male has the upper-parts rich
russet-l)rown ; the eyestripe is greyish white, bi;t indistinct ; the wings and tail
are dark russet-brown ; the chin and throat are white, shading into ashy grey on
the sides of the breast, and into brownisli grey on the flanks and upper tail -coverts.

To the same group Ijelongs the Australian pheasant-tailed warbler (St ijyiturus
inalacu)'i(s), distinguished by the elongation and peculiar structure of the three
central pairs of tail-feathers, as shown in the figure.

rHE.\S.\NT-T.\II,ED W.MUil.EU.

Accentors.

Fan-Tail Another group is represented by the fan-tailed wnvhler (Cist icola

Warblers. cursitans), which is one of the smallest of the European reed-warblers,
and is easily recognised by its curved beak and fan-shaped tail. It appears to
reside all the year tlirough in many parts of the Mediterranean countries, constantly
frecpienting swampy gi'ounds, and obtaining its food near water.

d’he meiidiers of the genus Accentor posse.ss a fairly strong bill,
broad at the base, with a neaily sti'aight culmen, about half the
length of the head; the wings being long and pointed, and the tail nearly s(piare.
Tlie legs and feet are sti'ong and generally adapted to pi’ogi’ession over rocks
ami rougli sui'faces ; while the plumages is genei-ally dai-k brown, vai’ied with
rufous. Belonging to Euro])e, North Africa, and Western Asia, the accentors
usually inhabit mountain ranges, although tin; hedg(‘-.sparrow frecpnmts bushes
and scrub. Common among the mountains of Europe, the Alpine accentor

W'ARBJ.ERS.

503

(^•l. coUaris) inhabits the I’yi-euees and Al[)s, occasionally wandering far from
its nsnal haunts, and reaching tlm British Islands and Heligoland. It begins to
buihl in iMay ; the nest is round, somewhat shallow, fairly compact, and composed
mainly of dry grass stems and very small pieces of moss, the inside being lined
entirely with the same kind of moss and the small white feathers of the ptarmigan.
The eggs are light greenish bh;e and unspotted. The adult male has the head and
neck grey; the U])per-parts are dark brown with light brown edges; the wing-

HEDGE-SPARHOW AND ALPINE ACCENTOR (i liat. size).

Hedge-Sparrow.

coverts tipped with white ; the throat white spotted with black ; and the breast and
under tail-coverts dark grey, shading into rich chestnut upon the tlaiiks.

Although generally nesting in the vicinity of dwelling-houses,
the hedge-spa rrcHv (A. mod iduris), which is very widely distributed
in Europe, may be found in Spain living far away in the depths of the forest. Its
cheeiy song is often uttered from the top of a small shrub or spray of hawthorn ;
and, as it is an early breeder, its eggs are often laid before the leaves of the hedges
have sufficiently expanded to save them from being chilled by heavy showers of
rain. The nest, built of fine roots and moss, is placed in the shelter of a hedge on
a bank, under a hawthorn bush, or in the side of an ivied wall, and generally
contains four or five blue unspotted eggs. The young when first hatched
ai‘(‘ invested with black down, but the}' feather rapidly. In the Hebi’ides the
hedge-sparrow nests in the sides of burns adapting its existence to a moorland
lile. During tlu; winter-time, this bii’d obtains most of its subsistence in
gardens, and may often be seen stealing in and out among the growing plants like

504

PERCHING BIRDS.

a mouse. Its call-note is loud but monotonous. The hedge-sparrow is very
subject to variation of plumage, specimens being often seen prettily pied with
white, sometimes symmetrically arranged, while pure white specimens are
occasionally met with. The adult has the head and sides of the neck bluish
grey, purest in the breeding-season ; while the wings and tail are dusky brown,
the back reddish brown streaked with darker brown, and the chin and thi’oat
grey, the lower -parts being white. Altogether, thirteen representatives of the
genus ai’e known.

While some ornithologists refer the accentors to one distinct family
(Accentoridce) and the goldcrests to a second {Regidida}), we prefer
to follow Pi’ofessor Newton in including both in the same family as the warblers,
as is done in his edition of YarreU’s British Birds. In addition to their small
size, the goldcrests (Reg ulus) are characterised by the straight and slender beak,
which is compressed towards the point, Avhere it is notched. The basally-placed
nostrils are covered by a single bristly feather, and there are numerous bristles
at the rictiis of the gape. The rather long wings have the first primary nearly
half the length of the second, which is somewhat shorter than the third, and this
exceeded in length by the fourth and fifth. The tail has twelve feathers, and is
slightly forked ; the legs are long and slender, with elongated claws. An inhabitant
of the pine-forests of Europe, the tiny goldcrest (R. cristatus) is an exceedingly
hardy bird, contriving to obtain subsistence when others are famishing with
hunger. During the summer months it haunts gardens and the skirts of woods,
building its beautiful little nest upon the under surface of some coniferous tree
at very varying distances from the ground ; the nest itself — an exquisite
structure, chiefly of the softest moss and lined with the most delicate of feathers
— being sometimes finished as early as the middle of March, while fresh eggs may
be taken in the middle of July ; considerable latitude thus existing in the breeding-
season. The brooding female is never long away from the nest, and even if
disturbed only flits anxiously about the tree which contains her treasure,
uttering a low, troubled cry so long as she is conscious of being under observation.
If surveillance be removed, the little bird slips hastily on to her eggs, and probably
remains in the nest, trusting to the decorative skill with which she has adorned its
exterior to render her detection difficult. The eggs are white, suffused with reddish
buffi Montagu found that the female goldcrest would even venture into a room in
order to feed her caj^tive young, and this not once in a way but all through the day.
When a brood of yoiing goldcrests is going to roost, a scramble takes place among
the young for the warmest place ; all roosting in a row, and each endeavouring to get
an inside position. Although many of the goldcrests haunting the English hedge-
rows in winter have been bred in the country, the largest proportion congregating
in the coverts at that season are birds which have crossed the North Sea; thousands
annually arriving upon the east coast of England, often much exhausted by their
travels. The adult male has the forehead olive-green, the crest being bright yellow
or orange, banded by a black stripe on either side ; while the upper-parts are olive-
green tinged with yellow, the wings dark brown edged with greenish yellow, and
the lower-parts greyish olive. The female has the crest pale yellow instead of
orange, and all her tints are more obscure than those of her partner.

WARBLERS.

505

Altlionirli ii imich more local bird than the ijoldcrest, the tirecrest

FixccTSSt; ^ ~

(A*. i( j n leap ill m) is fairly coiuiuon in the pine-forests of a {^ood many
parts of Europe, often frecpienting hushes and scrub as well as the larger hi’anches
of trees. Pairing by the middle of Apiil, its whereabouts is generally intimated
by its shrill call-note, which is louder and less tremulous than that of the goldcrest.
The hrecrest builds a similar nest to that of the gohlcrest, but the eggs are of a
warmer coloration. It is a partial migrant, crossing the North Sea in autumn,
but only in very small numbers. ]\Ir. Seebohm writes that these birds “ twist

YELLOW-BHOWED WAEBLEB, FIKECHEST, AND GOLDCREST (| liat. sizej.

in and out among the slender twigs, sometimes with head down and sometimes
with feet up ; but by far the most curious part of the performance is when they
come to the end of the twdg and examine the under surface of the leaves at its
extremity. They have nothing to stand upon ; so they flutter more like bees than
birds from leaf to leaf, their little wings beating as hard as they can go. The male
has the forehead buff, the crest bright orange, bordered with black on either
side; two other black stripes pass through the eye and from the base of the
bill downwards ; the upper-parts are olive-green varied with gold on the sides of
the neck, and the lander-parts dull huffish vdiite.

The I’ubycrest {R. mlendula) is a well-known bird in tlie
United States, returning from the far north, in which it breeds, in

Rubycrest.

5o6

PERCHING BIRDS.

September, when it presses gradually south into all the Southern States, a few
continiaing their joiirney into South America. Dr. Coues gives the following descrip-
tion of its habits : — “ To observe the manners of the rubycrown one need only repair
at the right season to the nearest thicket coppice or piece of shrubbery. These are its
favourite resorts, especially in the fall and winter ; though sometimes, more pai’ti-
cularly in the spring, it ap2)ears to be more ambitious, and its slight form may be
almost lost among the branches of the taller trees. We shall most likely find it
not alone but in straggling troops, which keep up a sort of companionship with each
other as well as with different birds, though each individual seems to be absorbed in
its particular business. We hear the slender wiry note, and see the little creatures
skipping nimbly about the smaller branches in endles.sly varied attitudes, peering
in the crevices of the bark for their minute insect -food, taking short nervous
flights from one bough to another, twitching their wings as they alight, and always
too busy to pay attention to what may be going on around them.” The rubycrest
builds a tiny nest consisting of a mass of hair and feathers mixed with moss and
some short bits of straw ; commonly breeding in the heavy pine and spruce
forests on the mountains of Colorado and also in Arizona. It was of the rubycrest
that Audubon himself wrote : “ When I tell you that its song is fully as sonorous as
that of the canary-bird, and much richer, I do not come up to the truth ; for it is not
only as powerful and clear, but much more varied and pleasing.” The male has a
rich scarlet crest ; the upper-parts are greenish olive, and the wings and tail dusky ;
the under-pai’ts being yellowish-white.

The Wood-Warbleks.

Fam ily Mr 10 riL TIDN:.

The American family of birds known as wood-warblers may be con-
veniently mentioned here, not only on account of their popular name, which
causes them to be associated with the warblers of the Old World, but also from
the circumstance that they are probably more or less closely related to the
Goerebidce, among which they are placed by Brehm. It would be useless
to attempt to define the whole family, or to mention the numerous genera ;
and we consequently select for illustration the black-throated green warbler
{Dendrcvca virens) as a well-known example of a large and widely-spread genus.
Small in build, the numerous species of this large gi-oup have the beak of
variable size, conical in shape, and provided with rictal bristles ; wliile the wings
are long and pointed, the first and second primaries being the longest. The
metatarsus is long, and the claws are rather small and much curved. The coloration
of the tail-feathers is a good clue to any member of this genus, since these are
almost invariably blotched with white. Of thirty-five reputed species of this
genus of wood-warblers, twenty-six have been ascribed to North America, one of
the best known of these being the summei’ yellow-bird of the United States, an
abundant and familiar denizen of parks and orchai’ds ; while another is the lovely
orange-breasted Blackburn’s wai'blei’, of which Dr. Ooues says, “ then As nothing
to compare with the exquisite hue of this Promethean torch.” The black-

QIPP^R^ PIED WAGTAIL, and. YELLOW WAGTAIL

J A

DIPPERS.

507

throated ^reeii warbler whicli annually ai'rives in the Eastern parts of the United
States early in May, nesting' chielly in tir-woods, and building in the obliijue fork
of a bough, generally at some distance from the ground, constructing its nest of a
variety of materials, such as vegetable fibres and dry stems, lined with finer gi’ass,
horsehair, and feathers. The eggs are white in ground-colour, variegated with
purplish spots. The song of the male is plaintive and prolonged, and generally to
be heard among the pine-trees. As a straggler, this bird has occurred upon the

BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER (§ liat. size).

island of Heligoland. The adult male has the \ipper-parts olive-green, yellower
on the rump, the forehead and sides of the head bright yellow, the chin, breast,
f and throat jet black, the abdomen white, and the wings and tail dusky, the wings
being barred with whitish.

The Dippers.
h'amily CiNCLiDJE.

The dippers fonn a small group apparently allied to the thrushes, but specially
adapted to a semi-aipiatic life. They possess a narrow, straight bill, slightly bent
and notched ; a very short and rounded wing ; and a short and broad tail ; the
metatarsus being long and smooth ; while the feet are furnished with long claws.
The sexes are alike ; and the young, unlike the adults, are always sjiotted on the
lower surface. Tlie plumage is close and dense, and the body is covered with
down. Tlie dippers frecjuent tlie beds of clear sti‘(‘ams in the northern parts
of both hemispheiT'S ; while tlu’ee species exist in South America, one of the
latter being Schulz’s dipper — a dark, grey bird with a pretty rufous throat, but

5o8

PERCHING BIRDS.

similar in size and shape to the European species. The whole of the twelve
known species are included in the genus Cinclus. The mountain-streams of
Europe are all frecpiented by one or other form of the white-breasted dippers,
which agree in habits wherever they are found. The common dipper {G. aqaaticus)
is occasionally to be seen sporting upon the seashore at the mouth of some fresh-
water burn ; but we connect it more naturally with the eddying rapids of the
salmon river, or the rippling waters of the fellside beck. It is a very early breeder,
building at the end of winter, sometimes in the branches or the roots of a tree, but
generally beneath a bridge, or overhanging rock. The nest is constructed of fine
stems of grass, lined with dead leaves, and enclosed in a beautifully formed case of
green moss ; the eggs being pure white. Although the dipper delights in frosty
weather, its song may be heard at any season . of the year. The adult has the
upper-parts slaty grey ; the head brown ; the chin, throat, and upper breast pure
white ; and the rest of the lower-parts chestnut-brown, varying much in intensity.
I’he European species is replaced in the Himalaya by the brown dipper (C.
(isiaticus), which is found at elevations from one to fourteen thousand feet,
accoi’ding to the sea.son. This dipper lays at very different periods, according to
elevation, sometimes nesting as early as December ; the nests found by Mr. Hume
were large balls of moss, wedged into clefts of moss and fern-covered rocks, the
one, half under a little ca.scade, the other about a foot above the water’s edge in
the side of a rock standing in the midst of a broad, deep stream.

The Wrens.

Family TroGLODYTID^.

Tlie wrens are a group of very small birds showing a considerable variety of
form among upwards of a hundred representatives. They are characterised by a
moderate or slender bill, either straight or slightly curved ; the nostrils being-
narrow, or broadly oval, and expo.sed ; while the wings are short and generally
rounded ; and the tail is of variable length, often rounded, and frequently carried
over the back. These birds are most abundantly represented in South America,
but have their typical representatives both in North America and the northern
parts of the Old World. Certain forms are also found in the Himalaya and Tibet.
Among a large number of generic types (nineteen), our limited space admits of our
noticing but three.

The common wren and its congeners have the beak of moderate
size, pointed and slightly curved ; the wing being very short and
rounded, and the tail also comparatively short and rounded. The feet are strong
for so small a bird, and the metatarsus is comparatively long. Typically a
European bird, the common wren {Troglodytes mdgaris) is represented in the
Kurile Islands by a race remarkable for its long bill ; while the Japanese wren is
darker and more rufous on the under-parts than the British form. Mr. Seebohm
considers, however, that in the colour of the upper-parts the various forms of
wrens completely intergrade, so that it is impossible to draw a line anywhere
between the palest desert forms from Algeria and Turkestan and the darkest

True Wrens.

509

tropical typos from Kaslimir and Sikhim. A palo form of wivn inhabits even tin*
desolate Behriim Island.

The common wren is one of the most familiar of European birds, its sweet
ringing song being heard at almost every season of the yeai-, not excepting frosty
weather. The wren builds a pretty domed nest, varying in material with the
situation ; one of the most unattractive that we have seen being built of strong
wheat straws with a little hay added to the dome. Other nests have been made of
green moss studded with lichen on the outside, but whatever the material employed
the nest is always domed. The eggs are white, finely spotted with red. l\Ir.
Dresser remarks that
“ the wren has a peculiar
habit of building nests
which are not required
for the purposes of in-
cubation. Althoimh it

does not appear that any-
one has been able satis-
factorily to show for
what purpose these are
constructed, my own
opinion is that they are
intended as houses of
refuge during cold or
inclement weather ; and
this has been shared by
many other naturalist.s.

The wren appears to be
susceptible of cold ; and,
during the winter, an
entire family will creep
into a convenient hole,
and by huddling close
together retain as much wrens and their nest.

heat as possible.” We

have captured wrens in their roost in winter, but failed to keep them alive,
although they are often exposed for sale in the Paris bird-market. The wren
generally rears several broods in a season, and the old birds attend their offspring
with the utmost assiduity.

The adult cock-bird of the common wren has the upper-parts reddish brown,
banded, except the head, with numerous blackish brown bars ; the eyebrows being
dull white, as are also the under-parts, although varied with rufous. In Iceland
and the Faroes this wren is replaced by the northern wren (T. horedlifi), which is
larger, darker, and has the under-parts more strongly barred.

The European wren is not, it must be confessed, much of a
musician, but some of the South American representatives of the
family are renowned for their powers of song. Among them stands pre-eminent

Warbling Wren.

PERCHING BIRDS.

Sio

the so-called or^an bird, or warhlino^ wren {Cuphorliinus canfavs) of the forests of

writes

Cactus-Wrens.

Amazonia. “ When its sino’ular notes strike the ear for the first time
Hates, “ the impression cannot be resisted that they are produced by a human
voice ; some musical boy must be gathering fruits in the thicket, and singing a
few notes to cheer himself. The tones become more fluty and plaintive ; they are
now those of a flageolet, and, notwithstanding the utter impossibility of the thing,
one is for a moment convinced that someone is playing that instrument. ... It
is the only songster that makes an impression on the natives, who sometimes rest
their paddles whilst travelling in their small canoes along the shady bypaths, as if
struck by the mysterious sound.”

Some twenty species are included in this group, all of which
possess a stout compressed bill. The wings are broad, the tail
gi-aduated and fan-shaped, and the claws of the feet strong and much curved.
They are chiefly inhabitants of Central and South America, but the true cactus-
wren {CampylorhyncJiUS hrmi/tieicajnllus) is found in California and Texas. Of
the habits of this wren, Dr. Coues gives the following description, observing that
in “ the most arid and desolate regions of the South-West, where the cacti
flourish with wonderful luxuriance, covering the in^poverished tracts of volcanic
debris with a kind of vegetation only less ugly and forbidding than the very
scoria, this wren makes its home and places its nests on every hand in the thorny
embrace of the repulsive vegetation. True to the instincts and traditions of the
wren family, it builds a bulky and conspicuous domicile ; and when many are
breeding together the structures become as noticeable as the nests which a colony
of marsh-wrens build in the heart of the swaying reeds. But it is not a globular
mass of material, nor yet a cup ; it is like a purse or pouch and also peculiar in its
position, for such nests are usually pensile. In the present case, the nest resembles
a flattened flask — more exactly, it is like the nursing-bottle with which all mothers
are familiar, and this is laid horizontally on its flat side in the crotch of a cactus.
It is constructed of grasses and small twigs woven or matted together, and lined
with feathens. Ineluding the covered way or neck of the bottle, leading to the
nest proper, the structure is some ten or twelve inches long and rather more than
half as much in breadth. The bird appears to be an early breeder. Dr. Cooper
found it preparing to build nests about San Diego so early as the 26th February.
The eggs are white, but so thickly flecked with small salmon-coloured spots, that
a rich cast of this tint is given to the whole surface.”

The Mocking-Birds and their Allies.

Family Mimid^B.

Space admits of only the very briefest reference to the American family typified
by the well-known mocking-bird {Mimus p>olyglottus) ; this family being generally
placed between the wrens and the babblers, to the latter of which it is nearly
allied. So closely, indeed, do the mocking-birds agree with the babblers, bulbuls,
and wrens, that they have all been placed by Dr. Sharpe in a single family —
the Timeliidce. The Mimidce, as a family, are distinguished from the related
groups by the following assendjlage of characters. The metatarsus is long.

BABBl.ERS.

5”

found as far south as Santa Cruz, in Patagonia. Audubon writes that the
imitative powers of mocking-birds “ are amazing, and they mimic with ease all
their brethren of the forests or of the waters, as well as many (pxadrupeds. I
have heard it asserted that they possess the power of imitating the human voice,
but have never met with an instance of the display of this alleged faculty.”

The B.tuHLERS.

Family CRATEROPODJD^.

This family contains a very large number of birds, the affinities of some of
which are doubtful, thoxxgh the majority agi’ee in possessing short and rounded
wings, together with large and powerful legs and feet. The bill is variously
modified, but always adapted to an insectivorous <liet, and is furnished with rictal

exceeding the length of the, beak, measui’e<l fi'om the gape; and rictal bristles,
although varying in number, ar(' constantly ])i‘e.sent. Cnlike the babblers, tlu^
mocking-birds are, for the most part, e.xcellent songsters, some of them being,
indeed, uin-ivalled in this ivspect. Tlieia; are a considerable numbei' of genera in
the family. Of, these, the genus contains the typical mocking-birds, of

which there ai-e neai’ly a score of sjxecies. Whereas the common mocking-bird
{M. us) is a Noi'th American form, ranging as far north as latitude 40°,

but wintering in i\lexico and Central America, another kind {M. jxifaffonucus) is

MOCKINO-BIRD.

51f2

PER C 111X0 PIRDS.

bristles. The babblers belonjj^ j)rineipally to the Ox'iental region. The
langhing-thrushes (Trochalopteriim) of the Himalaya and Southern China are
well-known repi'esentatives of this group, as are the ti'ue babblers (Argija), which
wander in flocks all over the plains of India and Burma. The scimitar-babblers
form another section of the family, highly characteristic of tropical Asia, and
distinguished by their long curved bills.

ABYSSINIAN BABBLER ( J, liat. size).

Typical Babblers.

The typical babblers have a fairly stout beak, with the upper
’mandilile distinctly arched, while the wing is short and rounded; and
the metatarsus, toes, and claws are remarkably strong. The style of coloration is
generally plain and entirely devoid of gorgeous tints. Several species of the true
babblers are found in the African continent, while others are peculiar to the Indian
region. Among these Crateropus lexicoj^ygitis, here illustrated, inhabits the
dense scrub on the slopes of the Abyssinian mountains. It principally lives
in flocks, which seek their food in company. The flight is laboured, the bird
generally rising bxxt little above the ground, in passing from one bush to
another. The adult is dark umber-brown above ; the sides of the head and
chin and tail-coverts are Mdiite ; the lower-parts dark brown edged with white.

BABBLERS.

5*3

Assi^'ued l)y many ornitliolo^'ists to a distinct family, — Pycno-
iwti(h(', — tlie true bulbuls, to<;’etlier with the j^'reen bulbuls (Chlor-
opsis), live regarded by Mr. Oates as not entitled to be separated from the babblers;
the green bulbuls belonging to one subfamily of this great assemblage, and the
true bulbuls to another. The subfamily (/Aotz-ic/aacc) containing the green bulbuls
presents the following characters : — The sexes are unlike, the lairds being either
solitary or associating only in small parties; while their habits are entirely
arboreal, their plumage brilliajit, and their eggs generally spotted. The green

GOLD-FRONTED GREEN BULBUL AND RED-BILLED LIOTHRIX.

bulbuls are characterised by the possession of a slender curved bill equalling
the head in length, the tip being notched, and the nostrils oval ; the wing is
rounded, the tail is short and square, and the feet are short and weak. The
birds of this group are only found in Southern and South-Eastern Asia, seven
species occurring within the Indian Empire. One of the best known is the gold-
fronted green bulbul (Chloropsis aurifrons), which forms an excellent cage-bird.
Feeding upon the insects which it picks off the surfaces of leaves, this bird is
exceedingly difficult to detect amid a profusion of foliage, since its bright
grass-green plumage harmonises closely with the green leaves. It lives in pairs or
singly. Its range extends over a considerable portion of Bengal and the adjacent
States, as well as British Burma and an outlying portion of the spurs of the
Himalaya. Jerdon states that it has a sweet song, and is also an excellent

VOL. III. — 33

PERCHING BIRDS.

Liothrix.

mimic of the notes of other birds. Mr. Oates gives the following description of
the male : — “ The forehead and front of the crown orange-yellow, ear-coverts and
lower-throat black, chin and upper-throat purplish blue; a yellow collar passes
round the black of the throat ; the remainder of the plumage is bright green.”

The typical representative of the family Liotrichinai is the red-
billed liothrix {Liothrix lidea) of India, which is shown on the right
side of the figure on p. 513. It is the only member of its genus. It is a mountain-
dwelling species, sufficiently characterised by the feature from which it takes its
common name. It is also easily recognised by the circum.stance that the feathers
of the slightly forked tail are curved outwai’ds.

The true bulbuls, of which there are several genera, among
which Pycnonotus may be regarded as typical, form a subfamily
(ifrffc/iyporZfucc), difFei’ing from the preceding by the following characters : — The
sexes are alike. The metatarsus is very short, and never exceeds the length of the

True Bulbuls.

PALESTINE AND WHITE-VENTED BULBULS (J liat. size).

middle toe and its claw ; while the wing is rounded and moderately long, and the
nape generally furnished with some hairs. As regards their general habits, and the
coloration of their eggs, the true bulbuls resemble the green bulbuls. While many
of the bulbuls have a moi’e or less largely developed crest, those of the genus under

FLYCATCHERS.

515

consideration are practically crestless. They are fnrtlier characteri.sed l)y liavin^
a hill of moderate size with the enhnen curved and the sides compre.ssed to the tip ;
the j;ape being furnished with a few short, weak bristles, while the no.strils are
basal and placed in a groove, the wings are moderate and rounded, the tail is fairly
long and roumh'd, and the feet ai’o furnished with strong claws. Well represented
in Africa, this genus is also found in India. Among the species, the Pale.stine
bulbul {Fijcnovotus nigricavs) is very common in Syria, Arabia, Cypru.s, and
Rhodes, al.so visiting the Cyclades; while the white-vented Imlbul (P. (irsinoe)
frequents the mimosa groves of Northern Africa. It is considered the tine.st
.songster of all the family. Mr. Gurne}', who met with this species at Faioum,
was told by the natives that it was very partial to apricots, and found it singing
among tall palm-trees. In South Africa the i-ed-eyebrowed bulbul {P. capensis),
the kinf-kop of the colonists, is well known for its partiality to figs and grapes;
and is a bird of .sociable temperament, generally living in small flock.s.

The Flycatchers.

Family M U.^CICA Pin.E.

The large group of birds now claiming our attention are insectivorous in their
habits, and, like the chats, pursue their prey in short flights from a perch,
to which they retuxTi after the capture. Exhibiting much variety of form and
plumage, some species are for the most part plain and liomely-coloured birds,
while others, such as the Indian paradise -flycatchers (Terpsiphonje), almost vie
with the birds from which they take the first half of their name in the bright
coloration of their plumage and the elongation of the central tail-feathei's of the
male. As a group, Mr. Oates considers that the flycatchers may be best recognised
by the mottled plumage of the nestling, and the presence of numerous hairs (distinct
from the rictal bristles) stretching from the forehead over the no.strils. There are,
however, many connecting links between the most specialised flycatchers with their
flattened beaks, and the more warbler-like forms. With smooth, simply notched
beak, ten primaries, and twelve tail-feathers, they all have feebly developed legs
and feet, which prevent them from walking on the ground, and thus serve to
differentiate them from the more typical members' of the thi’ush family. Most
abundant in the tropical regions of the Old World, the flycatchers are quite
unknown in America.

The typical flycatchers {Muscicapa), of which there are a con-
True Flycatchers. number of species, with a wide distribution in the Old World,

have the tail considerably shorter than the wing, the second pi’imary equal in length
to the fifth, and the wings when closed not reaching beyond the middle of the tail.

Spotted Among the commonest of European summer birds is the spotted

nycatcher. qj. grey flycatcher {Muscicapa griseola), which does not, however,
reach its haunts until later in the spring than the majority of small migrants, not
being met with even in Spain until the latter part of April, and being still later
in the more northern parts of its habitat. Unlike most English migratoiy
.songsters, this flycatcher may be met with throughout the summer in the London

PERCJIING BIRDS.

516

parks, although its sombre plumage, and its habit of perching high up on trees,
render it far from conspicuous. Variously placed, the nest of this species may be
situated on an ivy-clad wall, in the middle of a shnd), or i;pon wooded rocks over-
hanging rivers, while it lias been found in the hole of a tree, in a dower-basket
hanging at a window, and even in an empty cup. The nest is made of moss, grass,
and horsehair, and the eggs are white, much blotched and sudused with light red.
Although not disdaining larger insects, the parent bix’ds feed their odspring chiedy
on dies, caught in the well-known manner characteristic of the group. In the
adult cock the plumage of the upper-parts is uniform brown, with dark central

SPOTTED AND PIED FLYCATCHERS (§ nat. size).

lines to the feathei’s of the crown of the head ; the wings and tail are likewise
brown; while the sides of the head and under-parts are dull white, the breast
being streaked with grey.

. , „ Spending the summer in central and northern Europe, and passing

Pied Flycatcher.

on migration through the Spanish peninsula in April, the pied d}^-
catcher (M. atricapilla) as.sociates its presence with scenes of picturesque beauty
in many lands. The male po.ssesses a sweet song, which commences like that
of the great tit, and then passes into a sweet strain suggestive of that of the
common redstart. The constancy with which a pair of pied dycatchers will often
return to the same nesting-hole, during a period of several successive years, is one
of the most remarkable traits in its character. The nest is sometimes built in a

FLYCATCHERS.

517

chink of a stone wall or ruined buildino- ; the stump of a felled tree often
supplies a convenient hole ; while sometimes we may find a nest in a birch-tree
at from four to seven feet from the ^Tound. Another couple will be found to have
seized a fissure in one of the dead limbs of a tall Scotch fir ; and yet another nest
may be in the hollow branch of an ash-tree, while a decayed thorn-bush sometimes
holds the nest for several seasons. The nest is only slightly put together, com-
posed almost entirely of small fibrous roots and dried grass, always lined with a
little hair, and generally a few decayed leaves on the outside. The eggs, which
vaiy in number from five to six or even seven, are of a pale green, and so closely
resemble those of the redstart that it is frequently difficult to distinguish them
unless they are contrasted together. The males soon after their arrival will
frequently perch for a considerable time upon a branch of some decayed tree,
constantly repeating their lively song between their sallies in pursuit of passing
insects, but the females are somewhat coy, and rather shun the other sex. Pied
flycatchers are birds of strong passion, and do not hesitate to fight for the love
of their female companions, but paired couples are devotedly attached to one
another. So long as the hen is sitting upon her eggs, her mate caters to supply
her appetite with constant activity; and when the young are hatched the old
birds are devoted to them, the female feeding them at more frequent intervals
than her companion. While the call-note of the male somewhat resembles the sound
produced by clattering together two pebbles, the female has a cry like that of
a hen chaffinch. Individuals breeding in districts where woodpeckers are plentiful
frequently adopt the deserted holes of the latter birds for their own nests. The
pied flycatcher I’arely spends more than three months upon its breeding-grounds,
and, long before the trees have begun to change from green to red and orange, the
pied flycatchers in England slip quietly away almost unnoticed, to seek an asylum
on the southern side of the Mediterranean. In Switzerland, however, and other
parts of Centi'al Europe they seem more loth to bid farewell to the scene
of their summer life ; and in the former countiy they are often to be seen
poised upon the lower branches of the walnut ti'ees. In the summer they
obtain much of their prey upon the ground, and after capturing a victim usually
alight upon a fresh perch. In confinement the pied flycatcher is shy and retiring, but
contrives to dart upon any insects that ma}’^ be introduced into its cage with surprising
velocity. The plumage of the male in the breeding-season is black above, with
here and there a shade of brown ; although we have never seen a specimen in
which the black plumage was entirely unsullied by a brown tinge. The wings are
dark brown, with the primaries white at the base of the outer web ; the tail is
black-and-white ; the forehead is white, as ai-e the cheeks and under-surface.
wiiite-CoUared The white-collared flycatcher (2f. collar is) visits the south of
Flycatcher. Europe in considerable numbers, but is always a local bird. Like its
congener the pied flycatcher, it frequents the neighbourhood of old timber, and
builds its nest in hollow trees ; the eggs being greenish blue. The song is distinct
from that of the pied flycatcher, as is also the call-note, the latter being a sharp
disagreeable whistle. It is ])ossible, however, that the two species interbreed,
since the form found in the Caucasus is intermediate between the white-collared
and the pied flycatcher. The adult male is black above, the lower back and rump

PERCHING BIRDS.

518

being asliy grey ; the wing-feathers black with white bases, the tail-black-edged
Avith Avhite on the outer webs ; the forehead white, Avith a AA’hite collar completely
encircling the hind-neck ; the throat and loAA'er-parts are pure AAdiite.

Red-Breasted The red-breasted ti}'catcher {M. ‘parva) is a summer visitant
Flycatcher, Eastern Europe, occasionally AA^andering into the Avestern part
of the Continent. Ahvays a rare local bird, though frequently overlooked, and
occasionally straggling to the shores of the British Isles on autumnal migration,
it breeds in beech-forests, constructing its nest in some natural cavity, or betAveen
a bunch of small tAvigs and the main stem. The nest is built almost entii’ely

WHITK COLLAKEU HKD-BU£AbTED FLY-CATCUEK (,g liut,.

of moss, Avith a little lichen and hairs ; and the eggs are pale bluish green in
ground-colour, freckled AA’ith reddish and greyish broAvn. The song is simple and
unpretentious, but the actions of the bird are full of life and energy. The adult
male has the upper-parts ashy broAvn ; the tAvo central tail-feathers being dark
broAvn, and the remainder for the greater ])art Avhite ; Avhile the cheeks, throat,
and fore-neck are clear orange, and the rest of the under surface Avhite.

Paradise- Commonplace and deA^oid of anything striking in their plumage.

Flycatchers, typical flycatchers agree Avith a large assemblage of genera in

having the tail considerably shorter than the Aving. Leaving these, AA’e pass on to
consider briefly a much more beautiful but smaller group of genera, in Avhich the
tail equals or exceeds the Aving in length. From their allies, the paradise-
flycatchers (T(’rpsij)h<rne) ai-e distinguished by the crested head, and the great
length of the middle ])air of tail-feathers. The bill is very large, much depressed.

FLYCATCHERS.

519

and swollen, with numerous lon<r and coarse bristles at the rictus. Distributed
all over India and the adjacent countries the ])aradise-tlycatchers have the sexes
almost or completely alike for the first two j^ears, when the prevailing coloration
of the plumage is chestnut. This dress is never changed by the hen birds ; but
sometimes after the second autumn the cocks assume a beautiful white plumage,
and it thus happens that in some cases both members of a pair may be breeding
in the chestnut dress, instead of the male being far more gorgeous than his
partner. Writing of the Indian paradise-flycatcher (2'. paradisi), whose range
extends from Ceylon to Kashmir, Leith Adams observes, that in the plains of
India “its singularly attractive plumage can scarcely escape observation. The
adult male has a blue head and white body, with two of the tail-feathei’s prolonged
for upwards of eight inches beyond the tip ; those in the female scarcely extending
be^'ond a quarter of an inch. The young birds are chestnut. The paradise-
flycatcher does not possess great power of flight, except when hunting for insects ;
then its movements are quick, it suddenly appears on a bi'anch beside you, and the
next moment is seen shooting like an arrow through the grove, at times uttering a
harsh chirp — now perched on the upper bough of a tamarind, now on the lower
one of a neighbouring tree — spectre-like it suddenly appears, and is as quickly
gone.” The five eggs laid by the hen are pink spotted with brownish red.

Fantail- Our notice of the family may be brought to an end by a brief

Flycatchers, mention of the fantail-flycatchers (Rhipidtira), which, while differing
from the members of the preceding genus by the absence of a crest on the head,
are distinguished from the other crestless fonns of the group by the length of the
tail considerably exceeding that of the wing. Possessing a short depressed bill,
broad at the base, with the culmen arched, and the upper mandible notched, these
birds have the nostrils oval, basal, and nearly covered by the rictal bristles ; while
the tail is ample and rounded, and the feet are moderate and slender. Full of
life and energy, hopping merrily from bough to bough, the fantails construct
beautiful little nests covered with cobwebs.

Between forty and fifty species of fantails are known, inhabiting the Oriental
and Australian regions, and ranging to Tasmania and the islands of the Malay
Archipelago. Thus Layard’s fantail inhabits the Fiji group of islands, while the
white-bellied fantail is found in the islands of the Philippine Archipelago, and the
sooty fantail is peculiar to New Zealand. The white -browed fantail ranges
from Ceylon to tlie Himalaya ; while the Javan fantail inhabits Tenasserim, Siam,
Cochin China, and the Malay Peninsula. One of the best known of the Indian
fantails is the white-browed species (R. cdbifrontata), which breeds all over the
plains of India, sometimes nesting in a bush but generally in a mango tree. The
nest is cup-shaped and deep, framed of fine stems of grass, and lined with fine grass
roots and a little hair ; the exterior being coated with cobwebs. It is generally
placed upon the upper surface of a nearly horizontal bough ; and the eggs are
white in ground-colour, with many minute brown specks, and a fine zone of
greyish brown at the larger end. This fantail rears two broods in a season.
The adult male has the crown, lores, and ear-coverts black; the forehead white;
the wings and upper-parts ashy brown; the cheeks and throat black, tipped with
white ; the sides of the breast black ; and the remainder of the lower-parts white.

520

PERCHING BIRDS.

In tlie wooded tracts of the lower Himalayan ranges the white-throated
fantail i^R. albicollis) is to be seen in the summer months, generally frequenting a
thickly wooded country ; being very partial to mango trees, darting out occasion-
ally with a tumbling flight as if falling from the tree and suddenly returning to
its perch. Keeping up an almost incessant snapping sound with the beak as it
hawks about the tree for insects, and indulging occasionally in a not unpleasing
little song, it nests in some slender upright fork ; the nest being composed of dry
grass-stems and pieces of dry blades of grass, with here and there fragments of
vegetable flbre, and entirely coated with cobwebs ; while in form it resembles
an inverted cone and is comparatively solid. The eggs of this species are
slightly smaller than those of the last ; and are wanting in gloss, and of a very
pale fawn, or greyish white ground colour, with an irregular zone of grey specks
and spots. The adult male is of a general smoky black above with a white eye-
stripe ; the wings are browner than the back ; the two central tail-feathers are
black, the remainder being broadly tipped with white ; a dull patch of white
extends across the lower throat ; and the rest of the under surface is slaty
black.

One of the tamest and most familiar of Australian birds is the little black
fantail (R. motacilloides). Goifld says that it passes much of its time on
the groiind, over which it runs and darts with the utmost celerity, and when
skirting the stream with tail erect and shaking from side to side it presents
an appearance very similar to that of the pied wagtails ; the movements of the
tails of the two birds, however, are very diflerent, that of the European being
perpendicular, while that of the Australian is a kind of lateral swing. Its song,
which consists of a few loud and shrill notes, is continually poured forth
throitghout the entire night, especially if it be moonlight ; and the flight is at times
gracefully undulating, but always of very short duration. It commences to
build in September, often placing its beautiful cuji-shaped nest upon some branch
overhanging the water. Sometimes it nests upon the upper side of a fallen branch
without the slightest shelter from the sun and rain, and at an elevation of only
three or four feet from the ground. The nest consists of dried grasses, strips of
bark and roots all firmly matted together and covered ov^er with cobwebs, so that
the entire nest looks like an excrescence of the wood ; it is lined with fine
grass, roots, or feathers. The eggs are dull greenish white, blotched and
spotted with blackish and chestnut-brown. The old birds are very tame at
the nest, and will even perch upon it while the eggs are being removed, uttering
a jieculiar cry. The adult male has the upper-parts black ; the great wing-
coverts are brown, as are the primaries ; the tail is black, as are the sides of the
face, throat, and sides of the breast; and the I’emainder of the lower surface
is white.

The Swallows.

Family HlRUNDlNID^.

Possessing a short and wide bill, deeply cleft, with the gape very wide, and
the mouth ojiening to about the line of the eye, the swallows have the wings

SIKILLOIVS.

521

iiiucli elongated, and comparatively narrow, consisting of only nine primaries, of
which the two onter ones are about ecpial in length, although the inner ones
decrease, while the secondaries are veiy short. The feet are small and weak, and
very imperfectly adapted for progre.ssion ; while the tail consists of twelve feathers,
and is generally forked. As a family, the swallows are cosmopolitan, some species
entering the Arctic Circle ; the common swallow having strayed to Spitzhergen and
Novaia Zemlia.

_ , The true swallows (Hirmido) have a short, depressed bill ;

True Swallows. . 1 -i .

their wings and tail are very long, and the outer tail-feathers of

the adult enormously elongated. The plumage is of a purplish blue above,

often correlated with a more or less perfect zone of the same on the breast. The

swallows construct their nests of fine clay, carefully welded into a compact mass,

and lined with feathers.

Africa is the home of many remarkable swallows, and it is in that continent
that the members of the genus seem to reach their largest dimensions, the great
African mosque swallow (//. senegalensis) measuring upwards of nine inches in
length, and Monteiro’s swallow (IT. monteiri) being nearly as large. The elonga-
tion of the outer tail-feathers is most marked in the wire-tailed swallow (H.
smifhi), which has their shafts prodiiced as much as seven inches, this species
inhabiting India and some parts of Africa. Sclater’s swallow (H. sclateri) is a
lovely green and white bird, from San Domingo.

Chimney The migrations of the chimney or house-swallow {H. rustica)

Swallow. and its allies, have long excited the interest of mankind ; and we
confess to sharing iii the sentiment which welcomes the return of the swallows
to their home in the rafters of the old barn or the cornice of their favourite
porch. The Gth of April is the earliest date on which we have observed the
swallow migrating through Great Britain, but some forward individuals gener-
ally contrive to report themselves at a lighthouse or other haven of safety a
week or two before the arrival of the majority of their fellows. Even in the
autumn months we have seen a good deal of the migration of the swallows,
although the movements of the birds are less generally noticed at that season,
because their departure is extended over so many weeks. A few springs ago
we left the North of England, and it was only when we reached Abbeville, on the
14th of April, that we fell in with the first bird flying north alone. Early on the
following morning at Bordeaux, we saw a flock of swallows evidently newly
waking up from a night of slumber ; and south of that town we continued to see
occasional stragglers, but never met with the species in pairs except in one or two
exceptional instances. On our return through France, swallows were to be
counted by thousands migrating between Bayonne and Bordeaux ; the actual
passage of these and other migrating birds being much more prolonged even in
the spring than is generally admitted. Whilst we were staying at the village of
Burguete, small parties of swallows passed very frequently ; we generally saw
them flying over the hills to the right and left of the Ronceveaux Pass. There
was no hesitation as to what they should do, at least with the great majority :
although we witnessed one solitary straggler approach the cloud-capped hills only
to swerve from its course and come flying back in a southerly direction, mani-

rERCHlSG BIRDS.

t'estly unwilling to cross the hills until the clouds had lifted. Unless interfered
with, the swallows that come to England build their mud-nests in the same corners
mail}' successive years, the nest being generally placed in a situation which affords
some support. Nests in trees are very rare; yet the bird does not always I'equire
a ledge or shelf for its nest, as in Germany we have seen a good many built in
outhouses. The nest is lined with feathers and dry grass ; and the first brood

will leave it as a rule during the last days of June, while the second broods arc
able to fly before August has expired. Some birds even rear late broods during
October, l)ut the struggle for existence among the young has then become very
severe. The swallow lays from four to six eggs, white in ground-colour, and
spotted with bi’own and grey. The male in summer has the forehead and throat
chestnut, a band on the breast, and the up])er - parts steel - blue, glossed with
purple; whiles the tail-feathers are spotted with white, and tlie under-parts pink
or white

CHIMNEY-SWALLOW AND HOUSE-.MAKTIN (i liat. size).

SWALLOWS.

5^3

Red-Rumped This pretty swallow (7/. nifala) spends the suninier in the
SwaUow. eastern portion of the ^Mediterranean, whence it extends eastwards
to the Himalaya and Turkestan. Many red-rumped swallows breed in Greece,
inhabiting the mountain-ranges of that country. In I’alestine this species nests in
cav’es, although the birds do not consort in colonies ; the arches of the monastery
on Mount Carmel being a favourite breeding-j)lace. d'he nest is a beautiful

RED-RUMPED SWALLOW AND CRAG MARTIN (i liat. size).

structure built of the same materials as that of the house-martin ; the eggs being
four in number, and pure white in colour. This swallow is common in warm
sheltered valleys in the highe.st parts of the vine-regions of Greece and Asia
Minor, where it may often be seen hawking for insects in company with the
swallow and house-martin. It cannot, however, be mistaken for either of these
species, as it possesses the long forked tail of the swallows in addition to the white
rump of the house-martin; and it may Ix' distinguished by its not<‘, which is
lower than that of the swallow. The nests are built of mud, and are similar to

524

PERCHING BIRDS.

Martins.

those of the house-martin, although having a curioTis funnel at the top, so that the
whole structure recalls a chemist’s retort. The adult male is purplish blue above,
the feathers of the upper back being streaked with white ; while the rump is pale
rufous, merging into creamy white on the upper tail-coverts ; the tail-feathers are
blackish, glossed with dull blue; and the under-parts cinnamou-bufi'.

Some of the martins {Chelidon) have the tail forked, while others
have it scpiared ; though all have the same short, broad bill and deep
gape as the swallows proper, correlated with great length of wing and weak feet.
The feathers of the i-ump are always Avhite, and all the known species have the
metatarsus and toes feathered. Of this widely distributed genus, one species is
indigenous to Nipal, while another, the Siberian martin, breeds in Northern Asia,
building its ne.sts in crowded rows under the eaves of houses, and also I’earing its
young among the crags of limestone precipices. Blakiston’s martin is a well-
known Japanese species, which appears to pass the winter in Borneo. No bird is
better known in Northern Europe than the black and white house-martin {C. urbica),
which usually arrives there during the tii’st spring months of the year. The birds
which come to Britain are not the first migrants of their race ; for we have seen
house-martins nesting in Southern Europe in the middle of April, while many of
their companions were still migrating in squads. Most people from long observation
have come to believe that the house-martin never builds its nest in any position
except against the side of some building ; but it is a bird which adapts its habits in
the breeding-season to whatever locality it happens to find itself established in. For
example, in Norway Mr. Chapman found house-martins breeding in the crags of the
river banks ; and we have seen them nesting in precipitous cliffs, as they do genei’ally
in some parts of Europe. The house-martin builds its nest generally during the
month of May, but frequently finds its labours frustrated by the intrusion of a pair
of sparrows which proceed to oust the rightful owners from their domicile. The
nest is lined with feathers, and the eggs are pure white. It should be understood
that the British Isles lie directly in the line of many birds when migrating from
their breeding-grounds in Northern Europe to their usual winter-quarters in Africa ;
the birds that breed in the north of Europe naturally nesting later than those
which breed fuidher south. Consequently these northeimers, or at least a propor-
tion of their number, chiefiy young birds, make their appearance in the Bidtish
Isles in the month of November almost as a matter of course ; and it is therefore
only natural to expect that a few young house-martins tarry in England until the
commencement of winter. Like the swallow, the house-martin is subject to some
variation of plumage, although albinos are much rarer than amongst swallows.
This species is the most gregarious of all the European swallows, and may often be
seen clustering in hundreds upon the roofs of houses. The adult male has the
crown and sides of the head, back, and wing-coverts rich bluish black ; the rump
and central upper tail-coverts are pure white ; the wings and tail dull black ; and
the chin and all the lower parts dull white. The sexes are identical in colour, but
the adults very unlike their sooty-brown young.

The slender, jJain-coloured martins of tlie genus Cotile possess
a small depressed bill, broadest at the base; while the wings are long
in proportion to the tail, which is slightly forked ; and the feet are small and

Sand-Martins.

SWALLOWS.

525

slender. The inetfitarsus is bare, save foi- a tuft of feathers at its base. Tlie
sand-martins are pre-eminently ^i\‘o-;irious in tlu* lu'stin^-si'ason ; the l)est known
and most widely distrihnti'il member of the o-cnus hein<; tlu* Kuropean sp('ci(‘.s
(iX rijHir/d), which extends its ran^’e to Northern Asia ami Noilh Amei'ica. Tlu?
Indian species {(\ side n sis) is resident throughout the northern portions of the
Indian Empire; while Cowan’s sand-martin is pecidiar to the island of ^Madagascar ;
several species also inhabiting Africa. The common sand-martin {C. rijHirid) arrives
in the northern parts of its breeding-range a week or two in advance of the largei’
swallows, and may generally be seen in sheltered situations during the last days

SAND-MARTIN AND PURPLE MARTIN {i nat. size),

of March, frequently hawking flies under the crags that overhang salmon-river.s.
It soon proceeds to the nesting-grounds, and commences to tunnel the chamber
intended to contain its eggs in some sandy bank, gravel-pit, or railway cutting ;
although sometimes it digs a hole in the bank of a small stream, or even burrows
in a heap of sawdust. The male sand-martin is a somewhat jealous bird, and often
indulges in a struggle with some rival. The eggs, which are pure white without
spots of any kind, are laid in a hole lined with stems of grass and feathers. When
the young are able to fly, they join the company of other swallows and martins,
and are constantly to be found by the riverside. The sand-martin leaves its
summer-quarters earlier than its congeners, and its movements are less extended.
On one occasion we fell in with thousands of these martins steadil}^ migi’ating along
the east coast of England, the air being literally full of birds for half an hour, flock

526

PERCHING BIRDS.

Purple Martins.

after flock streaming away soutli in the wake of their predecessors, and many small
parties followed the main detachment during the day. The upper-parts of the
sand-martin are uniform lirown, as is the band on the breast; the lower-parts
being dull white, ddie crag-martin ((7. rupestris) spends the summer months
among the mountain-ranges of Central and Southern Europe; as a rule frecpienting
rocks and old ruins, and nesting in inaccessible jilaces in the month of March,
the nests being often placed in the roofs of caverns in the rocks. Mr. Scott
Wil.son writes that he saw the crag-martin flying about the perpendicular crags
of the Gemini in June 1885, but observed it more particularly and found it
breeding on the 1st June 1886 near Meiringen. In the Eastern Pyrenees the crag-
martin builds under the eaves of the houses in the centre of the towns, the nests
being large structures of mud, cpiite open at the top, and lined with feathers. The
eggs of the crag-martin are white in ground-colour, profusely spotted with pale
greyish brown. The general colour of the adult bird is a light ashy brown above,
the lower-parts being creamy-bufl‘; and the tail-feathers are dark brown, the
central and outer pairs being conspicuously spotted with white.

Dr. Sharpe divides the swallows into two groups, according to
the character of the outer primary ; the majority of genera belonging
to the smooth- winged group; while the purple martins (Progne) of America and a
few African species constitute the rough- winged group, in which the outer margin
of the first primary presents a serrated edge in the adult male. The purple martins
are birds of robu.st and elegant form, possessing a long and stout bill, broad at
the base, long and pointed wings, and a tail much forked. Although they are
most numerous in Brazil and the adjoining states of South America, one species
summers in the United States, and another is a native of Patagonia. Daiwvin’s
purple martin is apparently confined to the Galapagos Islands ; while the Caribbean
purple martin is peculiar to the West Indies. The common purple martin (P. pur-
pitrea) is one of the most familiar of North American birds, and enters the southern
borders of the United States as early as February, gradually extending its range
over the country, the highest latitudes being reached oidy in the middle or end of
May. In its habits the purple martin diflers from most of its congeners in its
predilection for nesting in cavities in hollow trees, such as the deserted holes of
woodpeckers ; this being especially the case in the Western United States. The
nest-cavity is lined with fine stems of grass, leaves, and small twigs, quilted with
feathers and other soft substances ; and the eggs are pure white. Several pairs of
birds often occupy the same nest, and the majority of couples are double-brooded.
The purple martins leave their summer home in August, retreating into the
interior of South America. The adult male has the entire body of a lustrous
steel-blue ; and the wings and tail bluish black. The female is dark greyish
brown, but has the head and back glossed with blue.

H. A. MACPHER80N.

CHAPTER VI.

The Perching Birds, — concluded.

Families Tyrannidje to Menuridje.

The American Flycatchers.

The members of the Passerine order described in the fonr preceding chapters
are characterised by having the muscles of the syrinx, or organ of voice,
attached to the ends of the half-rings of cartilage forming the windpipe ; such
muscles being generally of a very complex type. Hence these birds are tei’ined
the Acromyodi. Those remaining for consideration have, on the other hand,
these muscles, which are simple and frequently consist of only a single pair,
attached to the middle of the half-rings of the windpipe ; and they are accordingly
known as the Mesomyodi. Since none of them possess the high vocal powers of
the first group, they are frequently spoken of as the songless perching birds. As
their name implies, the members of the fii’st family of this group are exclusive!}’
confined to the New World, where they are represented by upwards of four
hundred species, the majority of which are South American. Insectivorous in
their habits, the typical members of the family have the beak broadest at the base,
from whence it tapers to a fine point, the upper mandible being slightly notched ;
while the nostrils are basal, and overhung, although not concealed, by bristles.
The wing has ten primaries ; and the tail, which is generally nearly even, although
sometimes forked, is composed of twelve feathers. The metatarsus is relatively
short, and the foot weak. The range of these birds extends from the Arctic region
to Tierra-del-Fuego.

Tyrant- The king-bird, or bee-martin {Tyranniis carolinensis), is well

Flycatchers, known in the United States for the audacity with which it attacks
crows, owls, and hawks, and drives them away from the neighbourhood of its nest ;
and we have heard of a party of king-birds harassing a swallow-tailed kite, which
eventually struck down one of its tormentors before it sailed away. The king-
bird builds a conspicuous nest, usually choosing an isolated ti'ee, often in an
exposed situation ; the nest being constructed of vegetable fibx’es and twigs, lined
with horsehair, fine roots, and grasses. The eggs are rosy white in ground-colour,
spotted and blotched with purple and reddish brown. Not possessing a true song,
the king-bird merely utters a monotonous succession of twitterings. This species
owes its trivial name of “ bee-bird ” to its fondness for the honey-bee ; Dr. Coues
stating that the king-bird desti’oys a thousand noxious insects for every bee it
eats. Feeding largely upon winged insects, its flight when in pursuit of in.socts

528

PERCHING BIRDS.

Bienteveo Tyrant. ,

We owe a graphic account of the hienteveo tyrant sidf wratus)

to ]\Ir. W. H. Hudson, who writes that in Buenos Aires “ tlie bienteveo
is found in every orchard and plantation ; it is familiar with man, and invariably
greets his approach with loud notes, especially with a powerful three-syllabled cry,
in which people fancy there is a resemblance to the words Bien-te-veo (‘ I see you
Avell ’) while its big head and beak and strongly contrasted colours, especially the
black and white head-stripes, seem to give it a wonderfully knowing look as it
turns its head from side to side to examine any intruder. It is a loud-voiced,

is accomplished by rapid vilwations of the wings, the bird seeming to float in the
air in the manner of a swallow. The king-bird arrives in its. summer haunts in
April and May, and prolongs its sojourn until September, when it migrates south.
The male has tlie crown flame-colour; the upper-parts blackish ash; the wings
dusky, edged with whitish ; the tail black, tipped with white ; and the lower-parts
pure white, except the breast, which is shaded with grey.

KINU-BIKD, AND BIENTEVEO TVKANT-ELYCATCHER nut. size).

AMERICAN FLYCATCHERS. 529

garrulous bird, and lias a great range of sounds, from grating screams to long clear,
almost mellow, call-notes. It has one pretty habit which brings out strongly the
pleasant feature in its character. The male and female are greatly attached ; they
do not go afield to hunt in company like the short-winged tyrant, but separate to
meet again at intervals during the day. One of a couple (say the female) returns
to the trees where they are accustomed to meet, and after a time, becoming im-
patient or anxious at the delay of her consort, utters a very long clear call-note.
He is perhaps a quarter of a mile away, watching for a frog beside a pool, or
beating harrier-like over a thistle-bed, but he hears the note and presently responds
with one of equal power. Then perhaps for half an hour at intervals of half a
minute the birds answer each other, though the powerful call of the one must

THE FIRE-EYE (i Uat. size).

interfere with his hunting. At length he returns ; then the two birds perch close
together, with their yellow bosoms almost touching, crests elevated, and, beating
the branch with their wings, scream their loudest notes in concert, a confused
jubilant noise that rings through the whole plantation.” In its nidification, the
bienteveo departs widely from the traditional habits of its congeners ; unlike the
majority of tyrants, which build small and shallow nests, this species constructs a
I very elaborate domed nest, which sometimes takes weeks to elaborate. It is

r placed in a tree without any attempt at concealment, and is composed of a variety
of soft materials, especially wool. The eggs are cream-coloured, spotted with
chocolate and purple, chiefly at the larger end. The bienteveo preys chiefly upon
large insects such as beetles, which it invariably beats against the perch before
swallowing them ; but sometimes it carries off the callow young of other birds
from their nests. It is also fond of fishing in shallow pools, preying upon tadpoles
and small fishes ; while occasionally it enters the slaughter-house in search of

VOL. III. — 34

53°

PERCHING BIRDS.

pickings. It is a common thing to see a bienteveo waiting on a rural butcher’s
cart in hopes of securing some tit-bit. In the fall of the year it feeds largely upon
ripe grapes, hgs, and other fruit. The adult has the head black, with a large
yellow crest and a white eyestripe ; the upper-parts are brown ; the wings and tail
brown edged with rufous ; and the lower-parts sulphur-yellow.

The type of this group (Formicivora) possesses a short conical
bill, with the upper mandible hooked ; while the wings are moderate,
with the fourth feather the longest. The tail is fairly long and rounded, and the
feet are furnished with long toes, adapted to progression over the earth, the claws
being short and narrow. All the ant-birds are inhabitants of the forests of Brazil,
a well-known species being the fire-eye (F. domicella), which frequents dense
portions of the primeval scrub, creeping about the bushes, and rarely venturing
into the open. It po.ssesses a pleasing warbling note, and feeds upon a vai'iety
of insects. Its fondness for ants induces it to lay aside its usually cautious and
retiring habits, and at times many individuals assemble together to devour ants in
woodpecker-fashion. The adult male is nearly all black, and his plumage is set off
to great advantage by his white wing-coverts and the fiery I’ed irides of the eye,
from which this species takes its name.

The Chatterers.

Family COTINGID^E.

Some of the most gorgeous birds of South America are to be found in this
family, which is remarkable for the variations of plumage exhibited by certain of
its representatives. The chatterers have usually an arched bill, bi'oad at the gape,
and adapted to a frugivorous diet ; the wings being generally of moderate length,
although sometimes reaching almost to the extremity of the tail. The metatarsus
is stout and scutellated in front. The greater number of the chatterers are in-
habitants of the vast equatorial region of the Amazon, frequenting the interior of
the forests, and leading an arboreal life ; one of the loveliest being tlie Pompadour
chatterer, so named after the famous Frenchwoman, to whom this and other
specimens of birds were being sent, when the ship that bore them from Cayenne
fell a prize to a British cruiser.

The siimular bird for which the ffenus Cephalopterus was
UmbreUa-Bird. . ^ ^

established has a stout, robust bill, with a strongly-arched upper

mandible ; the nostrils being open and longitudinal in shape, while the wings are

long, and the tail is rounded. The umbrella-bird is, however, best distinguished

by the possession of a curious crest, composed of straight, elevated feathers, the

extremities of which curve outwards and form an elegant line of drooping plumes.

The sides of the neck are naked, but long feathers spring from beneath the throat

and from the sides of the neck, to form a loose lappet. Confined in its I’ange to

tlie forests of the plains of the Upper Amazon, the umbrella-bird {Cephalopterus

ornatus) is a shy, retiring species, living in the higher bi’anches of forest trees,

where it readily obtains the wild fruits upon which it chiefly subsists. It has been

seen by very few naturalists in its native wilds, but no doubt exists regarding its

C//A TTERERS.

531

peculiar vocal powers. Bates says The Indian name of this strange creature is
UivA 'tnirnhen, or tife-bird, in allusion to the tone of its voice. We had the ^ood
luck, alter remaining (piiet a short time, to hear its 2)erformance. It drew itself
up on its jjerch, spread widely the umbrella-formed crest, dilated and waved its
glossy breast-lappet, and then, in giving vent to its loud piping note, bowed its
head slowly foi’wards. The ne.st of the umbrella-bird is built of small branches,
placed in the top of a tall tree.” The eggs are white and two in number. In flight

UMBRELI..V-BIKD (f iiat. size).

the helmet or crest is depressed, and the lappet is placed close to the body. The
plumage of the male is deep black throughout, the lappet being glossed with steel-
blue. The female has only the rudiments of the crest and lappet, and is altogether
duller-coloured than the male.

Long known to travellers, in consequence of their remarkable
BeU-Birds. ^ ,

vocal powers, so closely resembling the ringing of a Ix'll as to have

conferred upon them their popular appellation, three of the four known species

of the bell-birds (Cha-smorynchu-s) have the plumage of a pure unspotted vdiite, an

PERCHING BIRDS.

532

unique feature among the chatterers. The fourth species is, however, characterised
by a brown head and black wings ; although white predominates in its plumage.
The bell-birds possess a moderately-curved bill, broad at the base and deeply cleft ;
the wings extending to the end of the upper tail-coverts, the metatarsus being
strong and scutellated, and the toes short and strong. The variegated bell-bird
is found in Venezuela, while the snow-white bell-bird inhabits the forests of
Surinam, Cayenne, and Demerara, and the naked-throated bell-bird is found in
Brazil. Dr. Sclater gives the following account of the naked-throated bell-bird
(C. nudicollia), which is figured in our engraving This bell-bird was first

made known to science by the French naturalist Viellot, in 1815, from specimens
in the collection of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris. But the best and in fact
only gooil account of it in a state of nature, is that given by that excellent and
observing naturalist. Prince IMaximilian of Xeuwied, in his Contrihutiovs io the
Natural History of Brazil. Prince Maximilian tells us that this remarkable bii’d
is one of the most singular features in the fauna of the wooded coast-region of
Brazil, and attracts the stranger’s notice as well by its brilliant white plumage as
by its clear ringing voice. It seems to be very generally distributed through the
woods, resorting especially to the thickest and most secluded parts of them. Hence
it resulted that the prince and his party, during their expeditions in the neighbour-
hood of Rio de Janeiro, became well acquainted with its singular notes some time

NAKED-THIIOATED BELL-BIRD (| liat. size).

CHATTERERS.

533

before the}" obt!iiiie<l specimens of tlie producer of them. Prince Maximilian describes
these notes as resembling the sound of a clear-ringing bell, sometimes re])eated
at intervals, sometimes following each other in (piick succession. In the latter ca.se
they are more like the soiaiid produced by a blacksmith when he strikes a piece of steel
upon an anvil, whence the bird has obtained its Portuguese name ferreiro (smith).
The song is heard at all hours of the day, and when, as often happens, sevei'al of
these birds are in the same neighbourhood, and begin singino- against and answei’ing
one another, a most wonderful vocal concert is the result.” Of this extraordinary
bird a living specimen was first ac([uired for the aviaries of the Zoological Society

BANDED COTINGA (§ uat. size).

of London in ]\Iay 1867. Shortly after it arrived in the Society s gai'dens it
commenced its song, and continued to pour forth its peculiar notes at intervals of
more or less frequency for several weeks. These notes have been described by an
accurate observer in the following manner : — “ The fir.st note is a loud, harsh, and
somewhat grating noise ; this is followed by six or eight fine, clear, metallic, ringing
notes, with an interval of about a second between each of them. The resemblance
of these to the sound of an anvil is most extraordinary. The clear metallic ring,
repeated at about the same rate that a blacksmith strikes upon the anvil, is so
perfect that many persons on hearing it ai'e unwilling to believe the sound could
be produced by the delicate organs forming the vocal appai’atus of so small a bii'd.”
So admirable is the imitation that, when the first bell-bird reached the London

534

PERCHING BIRDS.

Zoological Gardens, his clear ringing note was mistaken by one of the officials for
the sound of a blacksmith ringing on an anvil, and inquiry was made by him as to
the work that was going on.” The adult male of the naked-throated bell-bird has
the plumage pure white throughout, the space round the eyes and throat being
covered with a naked skin, only spaidngly invested with minute black feathers,
which becomes of a tine green in the breeding-season. The female has a blackish
head, and the upper-parts dull green ; beneath, yellowish, varied with green.

The cotingas are a group of chatterers, distinguished from their
Coting'd.s ® o L ^ o

near allies, the bell-birds, by the brilliancy of the coloration of the

males. The type has the bill depressed, broad at the base, and narrowed towards

the extremity, the upper mandible slightly arched ; the wings being of moderate

COMMON MANAKiN {% nat. size).

size and pointed ; the metatarsus short, and the toes stout, and furnished with fine
claws. The cotingas inhabit the forests of Southern Brazil. The banded cotinga
(Cotinga cincta) is a bird of solitary habits, keeping to the topmost branches of
trees, and generally residing in a dense forest, though at times it approaches the
cultivated gi’ounds in search of food. It feeds upon a variety of fruits, which its
wide gape enables it to swallow with ease. The adult male has the upper-parts
and the band across the breast full ultramarine blue, while the under-parts are of
a deep plum-coloiir.

These birds (Pipra) are of gay appearance, generally exhibiting
rich tints of blue, crimson, scarlet, orange, or yellow in combination with
chestnut, deep black, black-and-white, or olive-green ; and among their most obvious
characteristics are their short bill and feeble feet, of which latter the fourth toe is
united to the third toe for a good part of its length. Some few are crested ; and the
tail is very short in the majority of species, but in others the central feathers are much

CHATTERERS.

535

elongated. Although the whiteheaded iiiaiiakiu has a wide distribution, ranging
from the valley of the Amazon to the Isthmus of Panama, the majority of the species
are contined to Brazil. Among them, the common manakin {Pipra manacus), which
is spread over a large portion of South America, is a lively, active, restless species,
generally to be seen in motion. Making its home in the dense .scrub of aboriginal
forests, avoiding large trees, and flitting through the bushes at a sliort distance
from the ground, with a short but swift flight, it is a bird of social disposition,
being rarely found solitary, electing to live a common life with its fellows. The

COCK OF THE ROCK (/j nat. size).

most curious fact about this manakin, and certain of its allies, is the circumstance
that its wings are modified by the thickening of the shafts to produce a loud noLse,
which has been compared to the whirr of a spinning-wheel. The adult has the
crown and upper-parts black, as are the wings and tail ; the rump being grey, and
the throat and under-parts white.

Cocks of the The birds of the genus Ritjncola are remarkable for their brilliant

Rock. coloration, especially that of the males, in all of which orange-red
predominate.s. The type has the bill of moderate size, curving towards the
extremity ; the upper mandible being as wide as it is high, compressed at the
base, and notched at the points ; while the nostrils are oval, and hidden by the

536

PERCHING BIRDS.

feathers of the elevated crest ; the wings sliort and rounded, with the fourth and
fifth ([uills the longest ; the tail of variable length ; the metatarsus partially invested
with feathers ; and the feet large and strong. (Jf the group the best known species
cvocm) inhabits Guiana and the lower countries of the Amazon ; while
farther to the westward it is replaced by the Peruvian cock of the rock ; a third
species inhabiting Ecuador.

Althoiigh in confinement a somewhat indolent species, such is not the chai’acter
of the cock of the rock in its native wilds. Sometimes a score or so of male and
female birds of this sjDecies are observed to have assembled in the neighbourhood of
an open .space, and to be engaged in watching the performance of the most amorous
males. While the dance is in pi'ogress the male appears to be entirely absorbed in
the proper performance of his task ; he gradually hops upwards, accomj)anying
his movements with the most peculiar stej^s, swaying his head on all sides, and
extending the wings ; the exhibition is continued until the performer becomes tired,
when he gives a cry which is understood by his fellows, and retires from the ring,
leaving it to other male birds to continue the entertainment. It is much to be
regretted that the brilliant plumage of the cock of the rock causes it to be sought
out and shot for the purpose of trade ; the adult male being almost wholly of a
In’illiant orange coloiir, but possessing a helmet-like crest, which adds to its beauty.
The female lacks the brilliant coloration of the other sex, being almost entirely of
a more or less uniform reddi.sh brown.

The Plant-Cutters.

Family PhyTOTOMIDIE.

Remarkable for the serrations in the cutting edges of the mandibles, these
birds were formerly placed by naturalists between the finches and the hornbills ;
but they are now known to be more nearly related to the chatterers. They have
the wings relatively short, and the tail long and even ; their most marked
characteristic being the short compressed bill, the cutting margins of which are
minutely serrated like the teeth of a saw. The whole of these thick-billed birds
are peculiar to the temperate regions of South America, being found in Chili,
Bolivia, and Argentina, where they are represented by four species, all included
in the typical genus Phyiotoma.

The Chilian plant-cutter {P. rara), has long been known to naturali.sts for its
destructive habit of feeding upon plants, which it cuts down, often Avantonly, with
its powerful bill. It builds in lofty trees, but the nests are frequently desti’oyed in
consequence of the bird’s mischievous habits ; and, like others, this species has
also suffered from persecution, owing to the ravages which it sometimes inflicts upon
gardens and plantations. It is a plain-coloured bird of a dull grey above and below ;
with the wings and tail blackish, the covei’ts being tipped with white. Its voice is
harsh and grating. A common bird in Patagonia is the redbreasted plant-
cutter (P. rutila), generally found alone, but sometimes associating in small
flocks. Not migratory, it resides thi’oughout the 3’ear in its usual haunts; the
male being often to be seen perching upon the top of a bush. Mr. Hudson says

BROADBILLS.

537

that tlio bright red breast ot the male liird gives it (juite a gay appearance among
tlie (hill phnnaged species that people the thickets of Patagonia. It builds a slight
nest of tine twigs, lint'cl with fibres, and generally lilaced in a thorn-bnsh : the eggs
being blnish-green in gronnd-colonr, with brownish Hecks. The male bird has the
upper-parts dull grey, with the tijis ot the tail-feathers and a wing-bar white : and
the forehead and under - surtace deep brick-red. The female is yellowish grey
above, obscurely mottled, and the breast and under-parts buff with dark spots.

The Bhoadbills.

Family Euryl^EMID.B.

Deriving their name from, and readily distinguished by, the enormous breadth
of their bills, which are generally associated with the possession of bright colours.

JAVAN BROADBILL (1 liat size).

the broadbills are the eastern representatives of the chatterers of the New World.
They are birds of fairly powerful make, having the upper mandible dilated at its
base, and the tip of the beak abru2:)tly hooked ; while the wings are rather short,
and the tail is short and rounded. The broadbills, which Wallace considers to
be the survivors of a once extensive group, possess a very limited distribution.

538

PERCHING BIRDS.

ranging from the lower spurs of the Himalaya, through Burma and Siam, to
Sumatra, Borneo, and Java.

The type of the genus Eurylcemus has the bill broader than the head, the under
mandible being very thin, particularly at the base ; while the nostrils are basal, the
primaries are slightly graduated, the tail short and rounded, and the feet moder-
ately strong. These broadbills are found in the forests of tropical India, as well as
those of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. Among the species the figured Javan
broadbill (E nrylcemus javanicus) was discovered upwards of ninety years ago
by Dr. Horsfield in the ea.stern extremity of the island from which it takes its name.
Sir Stamford Raffles found it frequenting the banks of rivers and lakes, feeding
upon worms and insects ; and it seems partial to the neighbourhood of water, building
its nest in its aquatic haunts, often overhanging a pool. It is generally found in
situations difficult of access, such as are covered with extensive forests, and are in-
tei’sected with marshes and rivers. The plumage of the head, sides of the neck,
and under-parts is violet, vaiying in intensity. The forehead is nearly black ; the
upper neck brown ; the wings deep blackish brown, vai’ied with yellow ; the tail-
coverts yellow, the feathers being black at the base ; while the central tail-feathers
are black, and the outer ones are black, with a white transverse band near the
extremity.

The Pittas.

Family PiTTID^.

The pittas, or Old World ant-thrushes, are distinguished by the structure of
the syrinx and the form of the wing, the first primary of the latter being of large
size instead of being nearly suppressed, as in the other Passerines with ten primaries.
They are birds of lovely plumage, blue and crimson adorning many of the species.
The pittas are most abundant in the forests of the Malay Ai’chipelago, especially
in the islands of Borneo and Sumatra. The blue-naped pitta inhabits the Himalaya
from Nipal to Assam; while the fulvous pitta is found in the ever-green forests
of the hills of Pegu ; and Sumatra is the home of the giant pitta. The rainbow
pitta of Australia is a beautiful bird, golden green above with bright metallic blue
shoulders, velvety black head and throat, and crimson abdomen ; but the Malayan
pittas are the most gorgeous of the family. Strange to say, a single species of
pitta is found in West Africa.

The typical pittas {Pitta) possess no crests of elongated feathers,
but are plain-headed, having a strong, thrush-like bill, gradually
curved ; while the wings are of moderate size, the first and second quills being
but slightly graduated. The tail is very short, almost hid by the coverts, and
may be broad and rounded or narrow and pointed. The feet are very long, and
adapted to a terrestrial life ; for the pittas pass most of their existence on the
ground in the midst of dense jungle. They rarely fly long distances, except on
migration, but their flight is sti’ong and well sustained. These pittas may be
regarded as the most characteristic birds of Borneo, where six species are found,
three of the number being peculiar to the island. Of Ussher’s pitta, IMr. Whitehead
says ; “ The bright scarlet breast when turned towards one is not easily distinguished

Typical Pittas.

PITTAS.

539

from the scarlet fruits and bright red dead leav’es which carpet these forests.
The bird wlien alarmed generally keeps its dark back towards one, which is still
more dithcult to see in the dusky shades of the forest.”

The Indian pitta {P. hrachyura) ranges from the lower slopes of the Himalaya
to Ceylon. i\Iost common in forest-regions, in the Central Provinces, IMr. Oates says
that it breeds in July and August, building a huge globular nest of twigs and leaves,
on the ground or in a low branch. Mr. Hume says that few Indian eggs are more
beautiful than those of this species, these being glossy white in ground-colour, marked
with marone and pui’ple. In the Carnatic, the Indian pitta occurs chiefly in hot
weather, when the land-winds first begin to blow with violence from the west ; and in

INDIAN PITTA (J nat. size).

many instances it appears to have been blown by the gale from the eastern ghats, for,
being a bird of comparatively feeble flight, it is not well able to contend against
the full force of the wind. At such times the pitta takes refuge in huts, outhou.ses,
or any building that will afford it a shelter. The Indian pitta is a taciturn bird,
though it possesses a fine loud whistling note ; and it appears to be a migratory
visitor to Ceylon, ari'iving from the north with the snipe. Although this pitta is a
local migrant, being found in the southern part of its range in winter, and in the
central and northern portions in the hot weather and rains, yet a certain number
of birds appear to be con.stant residents in all parts of its range .suited to its habits.
During its sojourn in Ceylon, the Indian pitta is shy and wary, resorting chiefly to
tangled brakes and ill-kept native gardens. It rarel}' alights on a tree, and is
oftenest seen alone : but three or four individuals are sometimes met with in
company. It feeds on beetles and other insects. The adult has the forehead, crown.

540

PERCHING BIRDS.

and lower-parts fulvous ; a broad median band extends from the forehead to the
nape; the back scapulars and ujiper-rump are green; the lower-rump, upper
tail - coverts, and lesser wing - coverts pale blue ; a broad black band passes

over the eye ; the primaries are
black, tipped with gre}’ ; the tail
is black, tipped with dull blue ;
the chin and throat are white,
and the lower abdomen and
under tail-coverts crimson. The
blue pitta (P. cyanea) which
is found in Bhutan, Arrakan,
Pegu, Tenasserim, and as far east
as Siam, is a bird of considerable
beauty, though far inferior in
lustre to many of the Malayan
species of the genus. Like other
members of the family, it lives
principally in dense scrub and
jungle, obtaining its insect-prey
upon the ground. It begins to
build its nest in the month of May, making a huge globular structure of dry
leaves and twigs, placed upon the ground, and lined with fine twigs and grass
roots. The eggs are white in ground-colour, marked with various sha<les of purple.
The adult male has the forehead and crown greenish grey, changing to red, and
giving place entirely to red on the nape, where the feathers are long and form a
crest ; the upper-parts and tail are blue, the primaries brown, with a white basal
jiatch, the loi'es and a bi'oad streak from the eye to the nape black, the chin and
tliroat whitish, and the lower-parts light blue, barred with black.

THE BLUE PITTA.

The Wood-Hewers.

Family DeXDROCGLAPTW^R.

The wood-hewers are birds chiefly of a brown coloration, with more or less
rigid tail-feathers ; having the bill long or moderate and laterally compressed, and
rather strong, straight, or curved ; while the third, fourth, and fifth quills of the
wing are the longest, the tail-feathers are stift', pointed, and often of a ferruginous
colour, and the claws of the feet are much curved. Upwards of two hundred and
twenty species of wood-hewers are found, ranging from ]\Iexico to Patagonia ;
no fewer than thirteen of these genera being confined to the high Andes and
south temperate America, while fourteen are restricted to the tropical parts
of South America. A single species is found in the Falkland Isles. Among
this vast assemblage, the limits of space prevent our referring to more than two
of the genera.

The oven-birds (Furvariu.I) have the bill shorter than the
Oven-Birds. , , , ,, , -i • , i n ti i i •

head, laterally compressed and pointed, the upper mandible being

WOOD-HEiVERS.

541

curvetl; tho wind’s are iiioderate, the tail consists of twelve feathers,
and the leet are strong and adapted to tei-restrial progression. The ineinbers
of this genus I’ange all over South America, eighteen species being restricted
to the temperate regions. A well-known species in Paraguay {F. riifus),
Uruguay, and Argentina is the red oven-bird, which enjoys a wide popularity
on account of its familiarity with man, its loud ringing voice, and the

BROWN-FRONTED SPINE-T.VIL AND RED OVEN-BIRD (i liat. size).

■wonderful mud-nest which it prefers to build near a human habitation, often
upon a projecting beam or the roof of the house itself. Mr. W. H. Hudson says
that in favourable seasons the oven-birds begin building in the autumn, and the
work is resumed during the winter whenever there is a spell of mild, wet weather ;
the matei'ial used being mud, witli the addition of hoi'sehair or fibrous roots, which
make the structure harder, and prevent it from cracking. When finished, the
structure is shaped outwardly like a baker’s oven, only with a deeper and narrower
entrance. It is always placed very conspicuously, and with the entrance facing a

542

PERCHING BIRDS.

building if one be near, or, if at the roadside, looking towards the road. When the
structure has assumed the globular form, with only a narrow opening, the wall on
one side is curved inwards, reaching from the floor to the dome, and at the inner
extremity an aperture is left to admit the bird to the interior, or second chamber,
in which the eggs are laid. The interior is lined with dry and soft grass, upon
which flve white pear-shaped eggs are laid. The oven is a foot or more in diameter,
and is sometimes very massive, weighing eight or nine lbs., and so strong that,
unless loosened by the swaying of the branch, it often remains unharmed for two
or three years. The birds incubate by turns, and when one returns from the
feeding-grounds, it sings its loud notes, on which the sitting bird rushes forth to
join in the chorus, and then flies away, the other taking its place on the eggs. The
young are exceedingly garrulous, and when only half-fledged may be heard practis-
ing trills and duets in their secure oven in shrill tremulous voices, which change to
the usual hunger-cries of young birds when the parent enters with food. After
leaving the nest, the old and young birds live for two or three months together,
only one brood being raised in each year. A new oven is built every year, and
occasionally a second may be built on the top of the first, when this has been placed
advantageously, as on a projection and against a wall. A somewhat curious cir-
cumstance occurred at the estancia house of a neighbour of Mr. Hudson at Buenos
Aires one spring. “ A pair of oven-birds built their oven on a beam-end projecting
from the wall of a I'ancho. One morning one of the birds was found caught in a
.steel-trap placed the evening before for I’ats, and both of its legs were crushed
above the knee. On being liberated, it flew ujd to and entered the oven, where it
bled to death, no doubt, for it did not come out again. Its mate remained two or
three days, calling incessantly, but there were no other birds of its kind in the
place, and it eventually disappeared. Three days later it returned with a new
mate, and immediately the two birds began carrying pellets of mud to the oven,
with which they plastered up the entrance. Afterwards they built a second oven,
using the sepulchre of the dead bird for its foundation, and here they reared their
young. My neighbour, an old native, had watched the birds from the time the
first oven was begun, feeling greatly interested in their diligent ways, and thinking
their presence at his house a good omen; and it was not strange that, after witnessing
the entombment of one that died, he was more convinced than ever that the little
housebuilders are pious birds.” The plumage of this oven-bird is earthy brown
above, with a slight reddish tinge ; the breast and flanks are pale sandy brown ;
the upper tail-coverts and tail are bright reddish brown. There is no diflerence in
the colour of the sexes.

The spine-tails possess a short straight bill, laterally com-

pressed ; the wings are very short and much rounded, with the
primaries scarcely exceeding the inner secondaries ; the tail is broad, with the
shafts rather rigid, and the tips are pointed ; while the feet are very large and
furnished with slender claws. The white-throated spine-tail, like its congener the
bi’own-fronted species (Synallaxis frontalis), is a native of the Argentine Republic,
and Mr. Hudson says is a summer visitant to Buenos Aires ; its arrival in spring
being easily recognised by the utterance of its harsh persistent note, which is
remarkably strong for so small a bird, reiterated for half an hour at a time with

Z YRE- BIRDS.

543

only intervals of a few seconds. The nest is placed in a low thorn bush, sonietiine.s
only two or three feet above the ground, and is an oblong structure of sticks twelve
or fourteen inches in depth, with the entrance near the top, and reached by a tubular
passage made of slender sticks six or seven inches long. From the top of the nest
a crooked passage leads to the cavity near the bottom ; this is lined with a little
tine grass, and nine eggs are laid, pear-shaped in form and bluish white in colour.
The nests are often entered through a long tube, built at a point about halfway up
the side, and formed by the interlocking of thorny twigs ; and although the
diameter of the passage is only large enough to admit the old birds one at a time,
yet they pass out with ease and rapidity. In Colombia this spine-tail varies the
form of its nest, making it as large as that of an English magpie, and roofing the
top with a mass of large leaves to protect it from the heavy rains. The adult bird
has the forehead grey ; the crown of the head pale chestnut ; the sides of the head,
neck, back, and tail, pale earthy brown; the upper wing-coverts pale chestnut;
the primaries olive-brown ; and the lower-parts white tinged with brown.

The Lyre-Birds.

Family MenuriBjE.

The last representatives of the order that can be mentioned here are the
aberrant lyre-birds of Australia, where they are represented by three species, all
included in the genus Menura, of which the typical and best known form is the
common lyre-bird (If. superba) of New South Wales. Altogether abnormal in
their structure, these remarkable and highly specialised birds can scarcely be
assigned to either of the two great groups into which the Passerines are divided, and
they must accordingly be regarded as standing to a great extent b}’’ themselves.
Of very large size, the lyre-birds are especially characterised by the great develop-
ment of the tail-feathers of the male, which assume a lju'ate form, the majority
being devoid of booklets, and thus having the webs formed of separate plumule.s.
The general colour of the plumage is brown ; but while in the typical species the
large pair of outer tail-feathers have reddish brown transverse bars on a light ground,
in Prince Albert’s lyre-bird (if. alberti) these feathers are uniformly coloured.
The lyre-birds are remarkable for their power of imitating the cries and songs
of other birds, this faculty being most developed in the species last mentioned ; and
they are also peculiar in making playing-grounds somewhat similar to those of
some of the bower-birds. After remarking that he had never seen more than a
single pair together, Gould observes, of Prince Albert’s lyre-bird, that each bird
appears to have its own walk or boundary, and never to infringe on the others’
ground ; for they may be heard day after day in the same place, and seldom nearer
than a quarter of a mile to each other. Whilst singing, thej^ spread their tails
over their heads like a peacock, and droop their wings to the ground, and at the
same time scratch and peck up the earth. They sing mornings and evenings, and
more so in winter than at any other time. The young cocks do not sing until
they get their full tails, which apparently is not until the fourth year; the
two central curved feathers being the last to appear. Feeding upon small insects,

544

PERCHING BIRDS.

THE LYRE-BIRD.

liorse-hair ; tlie whole
structure bein^ roofed ^
in, and entered by an
aperture on one side.

But one efro- is ]ai<l,
and this is of a very dark colour, looking almost as though it had been smeared
over with ink ; the young bird, which is coated with down for the finst month,
remains in the nest for a period of about six weeks.

and more especially beetles, they commence nesting in May ; the eggs being laid
in June, and the young hatched in the following month. The nest is constructed
of small sticks, interwoven with moss and fibres of roots ; while internally it is
lined with the skeleton leaf of the parasitical tree-fern, which in texture resembles

H. A. MACPHERSOX.

The Picariax Birds, — Order Picarre.

Jacamars to Toucans.

Families Galbulid^e to Rhamphastid^e.

GREAT BLACK VTOODFECKEK.

The assemblage of birds commonly known as
Picarians presents at first sight a marked resem-
blance to the perching birds just considered, and
3'et possesses certain common features not found
amongst them. They have, for instance, the
hinder margin of the bi*east-bone doubly notched ;
such a feature being very rarely seen among Pas.serines.
Then, again, nearly all the members of the group lay
white eggs, which are deposited, often without any
attempt at constructing a nest, in some concealed position,
such as a hole in a tree or bank. It is true that the
Picarians are by no means the only birds which adopt this
mode of nesting, since many Passerines also lay white
eggs and equally conceal them; the sand-martin, for instance, burrowing out a
tunnel like the kingfisher, and depositing its eggs deep in the ground. There
are, moreover, instances to the contrary, as in the case of pigeons, which lay two

VOL. HI. — 35

546

PICARIAX BIRDS.

white eggs in an open nest, while hunnning-birds, which are also Picarian, likewise
build an open nest and lay white or light-coloured eggs. No definite rule can be
laid down as to the nesting of the Picarians, and there are further exceptions,
though of a nioditied kind, and capable of a ditlerent explanation, such as occur
in the case of the cuckoos, some of which lay white eggs, and others variegated
and coloured ones. Although, in addition to the above not very important
features, there are certain osteological characters peculiar to the Picarians,
such as the form of the upper arm-bone or humei'us, which exhibits well-marked
differences from the corresponding bone of the perching birds, the definition
of the order by means of well-marked and exclusive features is by no means easy.
The palate is sometimes of the so-called fegithognathous type, and at others of
the bridged or desmognathovis form ; while the structure of the foot is variable
in eveiy degree, some Picarians having a foot in which the fourth toe is directed
l)ackwards, while in others the foot has the front toes joined together, ,so as to form
a very fiat perching surface. The Picarians may be divided into three chief
sections, which may be called Scansores, or climbing Picarians ; Coccj’ges, or cuckoo-
like Picarians; and Coraciiformes, or roller-like Picarians; the chief differences
between these groups occurring in the arrangement of the tendons of the feet, which
need not be explained in a work of the ^‘•I’esent nature.

The Jacamars.

Family Galbulidje.

Commencing with the climbing section of the order, our first representatives
are the South American jacamars, of which about twenty species are known. All
these birds have the so-called zygodactyle type of foot, in which the fourth toe is
directed backwards parallel to the first. The bill is peculiarly long and straight;
there is an aftershaft to the body-feathers, Avhich does not occur in the allied group
of the puft-birds ; and there are some further difierences in the arrangement of the
feathers of the under surface, the tract on the breast having a branch on the throat,
'rhe number of tail-feathers varies in a somewhat peculiar manner, the normal
number being twelve, but in two genera out of the six (BracJiygalba and Jaca-
maralcyon) the outer feather on each side is wanting, thus reducing the number
of feathers to ten. Although nothing absolutely decisive is known as to the
breeding-habits of the jacamars, it is stated that in Tobago they build in holes in
mud-banks, like the motmots, and lay pure white and nearly spherical eggs ; while
the three-toed Brazilian jacamar has been seen boring holes in banks as if for the
purpose of nesting.

True Jacamars.

Together with four other genera of the family, the true jacamars
con.stitute a subfamily group; Galhula and the allied genus Urogalha
having the middle pair of tail-feathei's elongated, while in the others the tail is
short and scpiared ; the three-toed jacamars (Jhxichygalha) being notable for the
feature from which they take their name. In these jacamars the prevailing colour
of the plumage of the upper-parts is in most cases bronzy or metallic green. The
green jacamar (Galhula viridis) is the best known species of the family, and is

WOODPECKERS.

547

found all over Guiana as far as the Lower Amazons to the south, and as \ enezuela
to the W(‘stward. ft is of a coi)j)t‘iy-^'reen coloui’, with a bluish sheen on the
crown, the under surface hein^ chestnut, the throat white, followe<l by a hand oi
brio'ht o-reen acro.ss the hrea.st, and the outer tail-feathers blackish. An allied
species is the red-tailed jacamar (G. rvpcn wla), which closely resembles the fore-
^’oin^, but is distino-uished by its rufous outer tail-feathers. It is an inhabitant of
the same part of South America as the first, but does not extend into Amazonia,
being found, however, further to the west, viz. in Colombia. In Trinidad, Mr. F.
]\I. Chapman says that it is not uncommon at and near the borders of the forests. “ Its

appearance, at first sight, would seem to support its reputation for stupidit}’, but
clo.ser observation will, I think, induce one to believe that these bii’ds are by no
means so stupid as they have been said to be. They are the most expert flycatchers
I have ever seen, and this in spite of the fact that the shape of the bill would
seem better to tit them for almost an}' other mode of existence. Sitting all
drawn in on a dead limb, generally near the ground, they may be compared to
a set spring. Their watchfulness permits no insect to pass in safety. They
maintain a constant look-out, turning the head quickly from side to side, above,
or even half-way I’ound. The dart into the air is made with wonderful celerity.
Sometimes it is straight up, again at various ang s, and they go as far as thirty
or thirty-five feet from their perch. As a rule they return to the same ])erch after
each sally, and may occupy this for many minutes. As they re.st they utter a
singular call— a loud, clear, piping whistle, not unlike the call of a lost duckling.

GHEEN JACAMAK (f ll.at. size).

548

FICARIAN BIRDS.

This is delivered in a variety of ways. Sometimes it is given as a single
whole note, hut it may be repeated at intervals of a second for minutes at
a time. The dart into the air for an insect interrupts this musical reverie only
momentarily, and, on returning to their jDerch, the plaintive calling is continued ;
at other times their notes are uttered more rapidly, and may rise into a high,
prolonged trilling. This may be ground out as revolutions of sound, when the
effect is most peculiar.” Mr. Richmond says that on the river Escondido in
Nicaragua he met with the black-cheeked jacamar {G. melanogenia) on three or
four occasions. “ It has a piercing cry re.sembling hee-u, with the fii'st syllable
very shrill, and strongly accentuated. The bird jerks its tail after the manner
of a kingfisher.”

Broad-BiUed A single species (Jacamerops grandis) is the sole repi’esentative,

Jacamar. j^iot only of this genus, but likewise of the second subfamily of the
jacamars. This bird is found from British Guiana to Amazonia, and thence to
Ecuador, Colombia, and Panama. It is a bird of large size, fully lOi inches in
length, of the usual metallic-green colour above, chestnut below, with a large spot
of white on the throat. It has a broader bill than any of the other members of
the family, and is further easily recognisable by its large size.

The Puff-Birds.

Family BUCCOXID^E.

Much resembling the Passerines in external appearance, and like them having
twelve tail-feathers, as well as a shrike-like beak, the puff-birds are nevertheless
true Picarians, having a bridged palate and zygodactyle feet ; while the tendons
which serve the toes are of the same type as in woodpeckers and honey-guides.
There is no aftershaft to any of the contour-feathers ; the oil-gland is naked ; and
the wing-coverts rather resemble those of the Passerines in their arrangement than
the rest of the Picarians. Like the other members of the present order, pufF-birds
are believed to nest in holes, and to lay white eggs, but really very little is known
about them. Confined to South America, the puff-birds have no representativ^es in
the Old World, or even in North America. Seven genera are admitted by Dr.
Sclater, the names of which it will be unnecessary to mention, and forty-three
species ; the range of the family being from Hondui’as in Central America south-
ward over the whole of South America, as far as Bolivia and Southern Brazil.
Puff-birds are said to be genei’ally woodland birds, being found singly or in pairs,
and are considered to be of a rather sluggish and stupid nature. Dr. Sclater says
that they are a “ purely arboreal and forest-frequenting group of birds, seeming to
pass the greater part of their lives sitting upon the topmost or outermo.st branches
of trees, generally selecting twigs that are dry and withered for their perch, and
looking out for insects, which are captured flying, and which constitute their only
food. The swallow-winged pufF-birds {Cltelidoptera) nest in holes in banks like
kingfishers, and lay white eggs.” Mr. Richmond, when in Eastern Nicaragua, met
with Dyson’s puff-bird {Biicco dysoni) in the forest on the Escondido River, where it
was catching insects, and behaving very much like a tyrant-flycatcher. He says that

''t

(UiKAT Jil.ACK WOODPECKERS EXPLORING,

WOODPECKERS.

55'

on making a capturo it would seek a new perch, living in a leisurely way, and
showing considei-able hesitancy about selecting a place on which to settle. The same
observer also found the Panama puti'-bird {Malacoptila panamen-sis) on the above-
named river, where it was rather rare ; stating that it is apparently confined to the
thick forests, where it keeps among the lower branches, at times even descending
to the bushe.s. A female bird shot by i\Ir. Richmond on the 2drd of ^lay was
“ about ready to deposit eggs ; it was shot from a twig directly in front of a hole
in a bamboo, in which its nest was probably located. The stomach was distended
with insects, principally locusts.”

The Woodpeckers.

Family PiciD^i:.

Forming a kind of connecting link between the Perching Birds and the other
members of the present order, the woodpeckers constitute a group of considerable
intei’est. Like the majority of the order, the woodpeckers nest in holes, and lay
spotless white eggs ; but instead of having either the Pas.serine or the bridged type
of palate, they have a somewhat intermediate form, in which the front of the bone
termed the vomer is slender, pointed, and slit, instead of being truncated. IMor'eover,
these birds have a distinctly climbing foot, thereby showing their affinity to the
other climbing members of the order, such as barbets, cuckoos, or toucans. The
.structure of the tongue in woodpeckers is, however, entirely peculiar to the family,
a similar arrangement of the extensile tongue-bones being elsewhere found only in
the humming-birds and the sun-birds among the Passerines. The mechanism of the
woodpecker’s tongue is somewhat as follows. In the majority of these birds the
tongue is long, worm-like, pointed, and barbed at the tip. To permit of its being
projected or withdrawn as recpiired, the extremities of the supporting bones are
prolonged backwards, sliding in a sheath curving round the top of the skull ; and
the glands beneath it are greatly developed, secreting a viscid fluid, covering the
tongue and causing insects to adhere to it. The peculiar modifleation of these
organs and their application in procuring food are, indeed, closely analogous to
those found in the anteaters and several other mammals, and the chameleon among
reptile.s. In some species the extremities of the tongue-bones slide backwards and
forwards in the sheath as the tongue is retracted or protruded ; while, in others,
as in the common English green woodpecker, their ends are flxed to the sheath,
and the protrusion of the tongue is caused by the action of a certain muscle
-diminishing the curve in which the extremities of the tongue-bones lie when the
tongue itself is withdrawn. In only two American genera of the family is this
remarkable structure absent. The bill in all the woodpeckers is strong and chisel-
shaped, and is th\is admirably adapted for hewing holes, and prising off bark to
capture insects ; the viscid secretion on the tongue being of great iise in the latter
function ; but in the ground-haunting species the bill is less powerful.

There is veiy little variation in the habits of the member of this family ;
nearly all climbing trees, in the stems of which they bore out holes for their
nesting-place ; the direction of the aperture being at first horizontal and then

552

FICARIAN BIRDS.

descending to a depth varying from a few inches to several feet. No nest is
formed, the eggs, which are always glossy white, or pinkish white, being
deposited on the chips which are accumulated by the birds during the excavation
of the hole. They vary from two to seven or eight in number, but the average
clutch is four or five. The young are hatched naked and blind ; and in this state
they remain for some time, although they soon become vigorous ; the clamour with
which they greet their parents, when the latter bring food to the nest, being
proverbial. They soon learn to climb to the mouth of the hole, and even sleep in
a hanging position. The tenacity with which the claws grasp the bark of a tree is
often illustrated even in death, for sometimes a woodpecker, when fatally wounded
by shot, automatically grips the trunk with such vigour as to remain suspended.
The geographical range of the woodpeckers includes the whole of America, Africa,
Europe, and northern and tropical continental Asia, although no species are
found to the eastwards of Celebes, the group being entirely unrepresented in
Australasia and the Pacific Islands. The only fossil repi'esentative of the group
hitherto described appears to be one from the Tertiary strata of the Uinta
Mountains, in the United States, and hence named Uintornis; but how close
this comes to existing forms does not admit of determination.

Constituting a single family, the woodpeckers may be subdivided into two
minor groups, namely, those with stiffened tails and those with soft tails. As
with other climbing-birds, such as the creepers and wood-hewers, among the
Passerines, the stiffened tail is an accessory to ascending trees. In the present
group it is the shaft or stem of the feathers which is stiffened and elastic ; the
ends of the same being generally narrowed to a point, and the webs often showing
signs of wear and tear, as the tail is constantly dragged along the rough bark of a
tree, or is used as a support for the body of the bird, when the latter hammers
away at the bark to procure its insect food. In some instances the tail-feathers
assume a more remarkable shape, the hardened webs being turned inwards from
their outer edges, so as to make a kind of hollow half-tube ; this being particularly
observable in the imperial woodpecker. The tail of some of the larger kinds of
Avoodpeckers must,, in fact, work ha\’oc amongst the insects on the bark of a tree
Avhen the bird is climbing up ; and Ave liav^e seen the tail of a I’ufous Avoodpecker,
in Avhich the feathers Avere co\"ered Avith the heads of ants on the under-side,
numbers of the insects being attached to the tail-feathers of the bird.

Ground-AVood- The Cape ground- Avoodpecker (Geocola.'ptes olivaceits), the sole
pecker. member of its genus, may be taken as our first representative of the
typical subfamily of the group, in all the genera of Avhich the tail is spiny, and
has stiffened shafts to the feathers. The species under consideration is a dull-
plumaged bird, of moderate size, and about 10 inches in length. The general colour
is oliA^e-broAvn, Avith yelloAvish broAvn shafts to the quills, and orange-broAvn shafts
to the tail-feathers. There is some crimson on the rump, and also on the under
surface of the body. The head is slaty grey, Avith a slight crimson moustache ;
and the colour of the eye is orange, but it has also been described as Avhitish pink.
This curious Avoodpecker is common in certain parts of South Africa, Avdiere it
enjoys a A-ery limited range, being found in the Cape Colony, extending to the
Orange Free State and Natal, but apparently not to the TransA^aal. Mr. Laj'ard

WOODPECKERS.

553

observx.s : “ This singular bird pi’esents a roinarkablo instance of the adaptation of
creatures to the localities -wherein their lot is cast. Though belonging to the
■woodpecker family it never jiecks -wood, but bores its -way into the banks of
rivers, sides of hills, or the walls of mud-buildings, in search of its prey, and for
a home for its young. It also seeks for food on the ground, in the same manner
as the golden-winged woodpecker of North America ; its flight also struck me as
very similar. It excavates a hole, sometimes several feet in d(!pth, in which to
deposit its eggs, which are pure white, and fi’om three to five in number. Families
seem to keep in company, until the arrival of the breeding-season separates them.
They feed together, and roost together in some deserted hole, while their loud,
harsh cries, as they call to each other, may be heard for a considerable distance.”
In Natal Mr. Thomas Ayres noticed this woodpecker on the Mooi River, creeping
with much agility among the crevices and holes in some loose stone walls
erected by the Kaffirs as enclosures for their cattle. Some of the birds were
climbing up the face of a perpendicular rock, searching for insects exactly in the
same manner as other woodpeckers examine a tree. These birds are fond of
perching in twos or threes, sometimes in family parties, on a big rock or ant-hill,
with the head and neck only visible to the intruder. Colonel Butler says that a
nesting-place found by him in August, contained four fresh eggs, and the nest-hole
was bored in soft earth on the face of a precipitous rocky bank or clifl overlooking
a running stream. The eggs were laid in a depression in the ground, with no
attempt at a nest, about a foot and a half from the entrance, the passage inclining
slightly upwards. The general impression among.st naturalists, who have seen
this woodpecker in a state of nature, is that the bird never perches on trees ; but
in the Orange Free State Mr. Symonds says that he saw a number of them
sitting on the mimosa trees, chattering and making a great noise.

Bright-Shafted Peculiar to the New World, these woodpeckers are distributed

■Woodpeckers, over nearly the whole of North and South America, with the excep-
tion of some of the forest-districts, as in British Guiana, Venezuela, and parts
of Amazonia and Ecuador, but representatives of the genus {Colaptes) occur again
in Brazil, as well as in Peru, Chili, and Patagonia. The term golden-winged is due
to the bright yellow shafts to the quills, the inside of the wing being also bright
yellow ; but there are some species to which the name does not strictly apply, such
as C. mexicanus, in which the shafts of the quills and the quill-lining are red
instead of yellow. In certain districts in North America where the golden- winged
woodpecker (C. auratus) is defined as being chiefly a bird of the Eastern States,
and the red-winged species (C. mexicanus), as a bird of the more Western States,
there occurs a connecting species (C. ay resi) with an intermediate habitat between
the two. It is not yet satisfactorily determined whether this curious form has
been produced by the interbreeding of the golden and red-winged species, but the
intermediate bird certainly partakes of the characters of both of them. The bill in
these woodpeckers is rather more curved than in ordinary woodpeckers, and it is
also weaker; while the birds themselves are less decidedly frequenters of trees,
being more ground-feeders than the rest of the family. They excavate, however,
their own nest - hole like the majority of woodpeckers ; and they also perch
horizontally on branches like ordinary Passerine birds instead of flying to a

554

riCAJUAJ^ BIRDS.

tree trunk und climbing continuall}’, after the manner of the other members of
the family.

Golden-Winged This species (luratas), familiarly known in the States as the
Woodpecker, flicker, is a bird about 11 inches in length, of a drab-brown colour
above, barred with black, tlie I'ump being white ; the head smoky grey, followed
l)y a scarlet naiie-band ; while the sides of the face and throat are drab with a black
moustache-band, and a crescentic patch of black on the chest ; the remainder of
the under surface being white, spotted with black ; and all the shafts of the quills
anil tail-feathers golden yellow. A summer visitor to the sub-arctic parts of
North America, and breeding even in the high north, in the middle and southern
States this woodjiecker is a permanent resident. It feeds largely on ants, and
wandei’s over the open country in search of these insects, being far less of a forest-
haunting species than most of its relations. An interesting account of the feeding
of the young birds by the parents is given by Mr. Brewster, who saj's that when
first he saw the iiestlings there were five of them, al)out as large as plucked house-
sparrows, and perfectly naked. Their eyes were tightly closed, and they appeared
to be less than a week old. They were writhing and shivering pitifully, the air
being cool and damp at the time. He watched the nest for about an hour, but
saw nothing of the parent birds, and as a cold rain-storm began soon after, and lasted
through the following night, he concluded that the young tlickei’s would soon be
dead. On the 1st of Jxily, however, he found them all alive and vigoi’ous ; and then
by dint of patience and careful observation he discovered the method by which the
young were fed. After a little time the male bii'd became more accustomed to his
presence, and visited the nest when he was not more than fifteen feet away from it.

Pampas This woodpecker (C. agricola), is a remarkable bird, with a weaker

Woodpecker, flflj than usualh' found in the family, while it has also longer legs
and a less stiffened tail than is customary Avith woodpeckers ; these modified char-
acters being probably brought about by the peculiar habits of the bird, which, as
its name implies, is an inhabitant of the pampas of Argentina. In size it is a some-
what large species, measuring 121 inches, and has golden shafts to the wing-quills,
but black ones to the tail-feathers, which are entirely black. The quill-lining is
golden-bufl‘, the crown of the head is black, while the sides of the face and neck
as well as the fore-neck are golden yellow, inclining to orange, the chin and throat
being Avhite ; the male has a red moustache, and the female a black one.
Mr. W. H. Hudson Avrites that these birds “perch horizontally and crossAvise,
like ordinary birds, and only occasionally cling vertically to trunks of trees,
using the tail as a support. They also seek their food more on the ground
than on trees, in some cases not at all on the latter ; and they breed oftener in holes
in banks or cliffs than in the trunks of trees.” In Patagonia he found the species
breeding in the cliffs of the Kio Negro, but on the pampas of Buenos Aires, Avhere
the conditions are different, there beiim no cliffs or old mud-AA^alls suitable for
breeding-places, the bird resorts to the big solitary ombAi-tree, Avhich has a A’ery
soft Avood, Avhere it excavates a hole seven to nine inches deep, inclining upAvards near
the end, and terminating in a round chamber. In the treeless region, about the
Sierra de la Yen tana, in UruguaAq Mr. BarroAVS says that he noticed the birds
about holes in the banks of streams, Avhere they doubtless had nests.

IVOOD PECKERS.

555

Green Sti’ictlv birds o^ tlie Old World, those 'woodpeckei’s an^ ])lciili-

Woodpeckers. fully distrilmtod in the temperate ])ortioiis of Kuroj)e ami Asia,
several species occurrine- in the Himalaya, and hence extending thi-on^di the
Jbirmese countries to the l\Ialayan I’eninsula, -Java, Snmatra, and Hoi-iu'o. Jii
Kurope there are three species, Gc.ciiuis viridix, (i. s/mrjx'ij and G. c(ri)iis, whih^ in
Al^t'ria there is a fourth sf)ecies of the same <;'ronp, G. vaUlontl, a species allicsl
to the European ones ; G. dwokera occurs in .Japan. All the other ^reen w(jod-

COMMON GREEN WOODPECKER (f liat. size).

peckers are tropical. The principal characteristic of this genus of woodpeckers is
the green plumage, and they are likewise remarkable for the small outer or
dwarf tail-feather, which is veiy short for the size of the bird. One of the
most interasting of European birds, not only on account of its habits and bright
coloration, but from its association with the poetry of Chaucer, who mentions
it by the name of yaffle, by which it is known to the present day in many
parts of the south of England, the green woodpecker {G. viridin) still “laughs
loud ” in many a woodland district. Its green colour, ciamson crown, and yellow
rump, i-ender it conspicuous, and its dipping flight is peculiar, being a series of

556

PICARIAN BIRDS.

long drops and ascents, unmistakable to the observer. Like many other birds
of bright plumage, the green woodpecker is extremely shy, and is oftener heard
than seen. If undisturbed, it may be seen to settle near the bottom of a tree and
work its way up to the top, which it does very rapidly, hammering at the bark
or prising it off, and gathering in its insect-food with its long suctorial tongue. It
feeds largely on ants, and pla3"s great havoc with the ant-hills, into which it digs
great holes with its powerful bill. It is also said to attack wasps’ nests for the
sake of the grubs, and it will, according to Xaumann, catch bees, as well as feed
on acorns and hazel-nuts. The green woodpecker undoubtedl}^ makes mistakes on
occasions, so that it is not uncommon to find holes driven into trees by the birds
and abandoned when the inside of the trunk or branch proved to be sound
throughout. The beautiful symmetry with which the bird cuts the hole has often
been remarked upon, the circular opening appearing as if it had been drilled in the
tree. No nest is made, and the eggs, glossy white, and sometimes seven or eight
in number, are deposited on the chips of wood accumulated during the pi’ocess of
excavation. Found in suitable localities throughout Europe, this species does not
occur bej'ond the Ural Mountains, though it extends to Asia Minor and Western
Persia. In Spain and Portugal its place is taken by Sharpe’s green woodpecker
{Gr. sharpei), and in Algeria by Le Yaillant’s green woodpecker {G. vaillanti).
Of one of the Himalayan species, the black-naped green woodpecker (G. occi-
pitalis), a curious nest was found near Darjiling, and is recorded by Mr. Hume,
who writes that “on the 17th of June Mr. Gammie took five hard-set eggs of this
species out of a large regularly-formed nest placed at the bottom of a hollow
in a tree ; the nest being for all the world like that of some babbling-thrush, com-
posed chiefly of coarse moss, roots intermingled with a little moss, and portions of
a few broad dry flag-leaves. This was below Rungbi, near Darjiling, at a height
of about five thou.sand feet. It was simply impossible, in my opinion, that the
woodpecker should have had anjThing to do with the making of the nest ;
but it is veiy remarkable, I think, that it should even have accepted some other
bii’d’s nest as the receptacle for its eggs. The parent bird was captured on the
eggs, so that there can be no mistake about the fact.”

Grey-Headed The grej’-lieaded woodpecker {G. canus) ranges over the greater

Woodpecker, of Europe, but does not visit the British Islands ; and it also

occurs in Siberia, Xorthern China, and the island of Yezo. Its habits are
similar to those of the green woodpecker, which it also greatly resembles in size
and colour, being about 12 inches in length. The under surface of the bod}", how-
ever, is perfectly uniform, without an}" crescentic marking as in most of the green
woodpeckers ; and the moustache-streak is black both in the male and female,
the male usually having a red moustache. The nape is always grey, but the male
has a red head and the female a grey one.

African Green Passing over the American green woodpeckers {Chloronerpes),

Woodpecker, of which seventeen representatives are known, we come to the
African green woodpeckers, all of which are confined to Africa south of the
Sahara. Representing in that continent the American green woodpeckers, they
ha\"e a similar coloration, but a more rounded wing. Fifteen species are known,
but nothing remarkable has been recorded about their habits, and the published

WOODPECKERS.

557

notes only serve to show tliat these liiil)its are like those of other woodpeckers
of temperate climates. Thns i\Ir. Ayres writes of the golden-tailed woodpecker
{Ccimpothera chri/.simt) : “ These woodpeckers are to be observed throughout Natal,
wherever there is bush-land, singly or in pairs ; their note is loud and harsh ; they
are very re.stless in their habit.s, con.stantly hunting for food as if they had never
obtained a sufficiency. Ants and other insects appear to be their usual food, which

GKEY-HEADED AND AVHITE-BACKED WOODPECKERS (| nat. size).

they search for and catch on the rouc^h bark of trees. They also hammer away at
dead boughs, from which they extract soft grubs, etc. ; and their flight is heavy and
dipping. This woodpecker makes a hole, for the purposes of incubation, in the
trunk of a decayed tree, just large enough at the opening for the bird to enter,
but becoming wider inside and reaching downwards to the depth of a foot oi’
eighteen inches ; it lays its eggs on the bare wood, withoiit making any nest.”

Several allied genera present no particular feature.s. Such are CJtrysoptilns
of South America, with eight species; Chrysoplilerjnia of India, Burma, and the

558

PICARIAN BIRDS.

Malayan countries, also with eight species. The last-named genus is remarkable
for its large yellow or red crest. Lewis’s woodpecker {Asyndesmus torquafus) is
an inhabitant of \Ve.stern North America, extending into Arizona and Western Texas;
and is remarkable for the structure of the body-plumes of the under surface, these
being hairy in appearance, owing to the want of barbicules or booklets to the web
of the feathers. Its habits are also somewhat jieculiar ; and it is one of the few
species in which the colour of the male and female is exactly alike. Dr. Coues
writes : “ This is chiefly a bird of the vast forests that clothe most of our mountain
ranges with permanent verdure. My own experience with the bird in life is
confined to the vicinity of Fort Whipple in Arizona, where it is a very common
species — a bird of singular aspect, many of its habits are no less peculiar. One
seeing it for the first time would hardly take it for a woodpecker-, unless he
happened to observe it clambering over the trunk of a tree, or tapping for insects,
in the manner peculiar to its tribe. When flying, the large, dark bird might rather
be mistaken for a crow-blackbird ; for although it sometimes swings itself from
one tree to another, in a long festoon, like other woodpeckers, its ordinary flight is
more firm and direct, and accomplished with regular wing-beats. It alights on
l^oughs, in the attitude of ordinal-}" birds, more frequently than any other American
woodpecker, except the flicker, and, with the same excejition, taps trees less
frequently than any.”

Red Headed The well - known North American red-headed woodpecker

woodpeckers. {^Melanevpef^ erytliroccphal us) is a representative of a genus exclus-
ively American, and embracing thirty-three species, ranging from the United
States to Argentina. In habits these woodpeckers seem to resemble the
other members of the family, so that there is nothing particular to record
respecting them. In the British iMuseum there may, however, be seen an
illustration of the way in which one of these woodpeckers stores up acorns
supposed to be for its winter supply of food. A ];)iece of pine-bark has been
pierced with a number of holes, drilled for the purpose of receiving the acorns.
The species to which this habit has been proved to belong is the white-
fronted red-headed woodpecker {M. foi'micivorus), inhabiting Central America,
from Mexico to Panama.

Three species of this genus are known, all of them North

Sap -Suckers. . ^ .

American and Central American in habitat ; one of them {Sphyropicus

varius) also occurring in the West Indies. The genus does not possess the long
extensile tongue of the other woodpeckers, sharing the want of this essential
character with another North American genus (Xenopicus). Writing of the
habits of the yellow-bellied sap-sucker (S. varius), Mr. F. Bolles observes :
“ I found a sap-suckei-’s ‘ orchard ’ of about a dozen canoe-birches and red
maples, most of which were dead, some decayed and fallen. The tree most
recently tapped was a red maple about forty feet high, and two feet through
at the butt. The drills made by the woodpeckers began at eighteen feet
from the ground, and formed a girdle entirely round the trunk. This girdle
contained over eight hundred punctures, and was almost three feet in height. In
]flaces the punctures or drills had run together, causing the bark to gape and show
dry wood within. The upper holes alone yielded sap, and from this I inferred

// 'OODPECKERS.

559

■was unnoticed by the survivors. The next day the male, female, and one
young bird were present, the tree being seldom left by all at once. Ten visits
were paid by humming-birds ; in five cases they reached the drills, and, hovering,
drank sap from one or more of them. In the other ca.ses, the v'oodpeckers being
present, the birds were driven away. The work of the woodpeckers seemed
to me, armed as I was with an excellent opera-glass and sitting not more than
thirty feet from the drills, to be perfectly plain in character. Dui-ing the moi-ning
the female drilled four or five new holes : they were above others in perpendiculai-
series, and yielded sap freely. She was closely attended Iw the young one, who
occasionally swallowed pieces of tlie soft bark, or cambium-layer, taken from the
bottom of the drills ; the female also ate some of it. When not drilling or resting,
the female dipped sap from the holes near by. The male drilled no holes, but

that wliat the birds obtained was the elaborated sap descending from tlie leaves
through tlie fibres of tlie inner bark. 1 tasted tlie sa]), and found it unmistakably
sweet. The leaves on branches above the drills drooiied, but tho.se below were in
good condition. I watched the drills on this tree from I'i.dO l>.M. until 2, and fi-om
4 until () P.M., being concealed in the bushes to the north-west of the tree. During
nearly the v hole of this perioil of three anil a half hours, one or more woodpeckers
■\\ ere in the tree engaged at the drills: they were a male, temale, and two voung
birds. lour ^ isits were paid by humming-birds in the time named, but the visitors
were driven away by the woodpeckers. At o.dO I shot one of the young birds in
order to determine the number of individuals using the ‘ orchard." His absence

BED-HE.\DED AMEIUCAN WOODFECKEU.

560

PICARIAN BIRDS.

(lipped in those yielding sap. The dipping was done regularly and rather quietly,
often two or three times in each hole. The sap glistened on the bill as it was
withdrawn, and I could sometimes see the tongue move. The bill was directed
towards the lower, inner part of the drill, which, as I found by examination, was
cut so as to hold the sap. I looked carefully, again and again, to try and find
insects in the sap, but none were there, although numbers crawled upon the bai’k.
Occasionally, with a nervous motion of the head, the birds caught an insect. There
was no doubt as to when they did this, either on the bark or in the air, for in
swallowing an insect they always occupied an appreciable time in the process.”

Mr. Bolles states that the birds con.sume the sap in large quantities for its own
sake, and not for insect matter which such sap may chance occasional!}" to contain ;
that the sap attracts many insects of various .species, a few of which form a
considerable part of the food of this bird, but whose capture does not occupy its
time to anything like the extent which sap-drinking occupies it ; that different
families of these woodpeckers occupy different “ orchards,” such families consisting
of a male, female, and from one to four or five young birds ; that the “ orchards ”
consist of several trees usually only a few rods apart ; that the forest-trees attacked
by them generally die, possibly in the second or third year of use ; and that the
total damage done by them is too insignificant to justify their persecution in
well-wooded regions.

Pied Tlie genus Dendrocopus is not only widely distributed over the

Woodpeckers, g^lobe, but to it belong the best known English species, such as the
greater and lesser spotted woodpeckers. There are altogether forty-six .species
.spread over the greater part of Europe and Asia, as well as North America; but
the genus is absent from Africa below the Sahara, although represented in Algeria
and Morocco, as in Palestine and Syria. A resident species in mo.st joarts of the
British Islan<d.s, a considerable number of immigrants arriving in the autumn,
during which season a large number regularly pass over Heligoland, the greater
spotted woodpecker {Dendrocopus major), with its con.spicuous pied plumage, is a
handsome and .striking bird. A notable difierence exi.sts, however, between the
coloration of the two sexes, the males having a red patch at the back of the head,
totally wanting in the females, in which the entire head and nape of the neck is
black. The young birds, on the other hand, have the ci'own red, thus possessing
a more striking coloration than either of the parents, a feature not often
to be seen in birds. So shy is the great spotted woodpecker, that but few people,
are acquainted with it in a state of nature, and even where the bird is known to
occur, it is by no means easy to get a sight of it. Its single note, resembling the
knocking of two stones together — a sort of cJtit — can be often heard, but the
bird is not visible, having probably placed the trunk of a big tree between itself
and the observer, after the manner of woodpeckers in general. In the spring
it makes a peculiar drumming noise on the smaller branches of the trees or on
the trunks of dead trees, and this noise, which appears to be a sort of signal-code
between one bird and its mate, can be heard for a considerable di.stance. The
.species is found in wooded districts, bnt generally in park-lands, where hollow
trees occur here and there ; and in these the great spotted woodpecker bores for its
nesting-place. The bird seems to pursue a kind of regular round of trees in search

WOODPECKERS.

561

of insects, beginnino- generally at the bottom and pui’sning the uneven tenor of its
way towards the top of one tree, sometimes visiting the larger branches on its way
up, and betokening its 2)resence by the loud taps which it bestows upon the bark,
or by the fall of its pieces, as the bird prises them otf with its awl-like bilk
Although its chief food consists of insects, secured with great rapidity by means
of its long and glutinous tongue, this woodpecker visits orchards and feeds on

GREATER, MIDDLE, AND LESSER SPOTTED WOODPECKERS (J liat. size).

plums and cherries, while in the autumn and winter it will devour nuts, acorns,
and berries. The least of the European species of the genus, and easily recognised
by its small size and the five white bars on the wing, the lesser spotted woodpecker
(i). minor) has in the male the crown red, while in the female the forehead and
crown are white, with no red on the head at all. In general habits the present
species closely resembles the last, but at certain seasons of the ycnv it is found
hunting for insects in orchards or on trees in the vicinity of houses, which is not
the case with its larger relative. Being, like most of its kin, a shy bird,

VOL. III. — 36

562

PICARIAN BIRDS.

it is not often seen, and, indeed, its presence is generally to be detected by its
tapping on the trees, or when flying from one tree to another, at which times the
black-and-white bars on the extended wings render it rather conspicuous. It
often sits on a branch horizontally, or runs along the under side like a nuthatch.
It has the habit, in the breeding-season, of making a drumming noise on the bark
of trees, which can be heard for a great distance, and is evidently a call from one
bird to the other, as its note is so weak that the sound of it would not travel far.
This drumming is performed on the smaller branches of a poplar tree at a great
height from the ground, and the nest-hole is also often drilled in the small
branches of a poplar, near the top of the tree, making it a matter of some
difficulty and danger to procure the nest. The range of this woodpecker is almost
the same as that of the px-eceding species, aixd both kinds are represented in North
Africa and in Asia by allied species. Another species found in most parts of
Europe, and supposed to have occuiTed once in England, is the white-backed
woodpecker {D. leitconotus). As its name implies it has a white back, with a
black mantle, a red crown, and broad black streaks on the flanks. The female,
as in most other species of this genus, has a black head. Its I’ange extends aci'oss
Northern Asia to Manchixida and Coi’ea. Genei'ally placed in the same genus as
the last, the middle spotted woodpecker (D. medius) is by some regai’ded as th_e
I’epi’eseixtative of a distinct genus {Dendrocoptes), on account of its differently
shaped beak, and its distinct style of plumage. Unknown in England, this species
is distributed over the gi’eater part of Europe, as far east as the Caucasus ; but
is I’eplaced in Asia Minor and Pei'sia by St. John’s woodpecker {D. sancti-
johannis).

Three-Toed Agi’eeing with thi’ee other Indiaix geixera in the absence of tlie

Woodpeckers, seven species of thi’ee-toed woodpeckei’s are I’ather

densely feathei’ed biixls, with xm Arctic or Alpine habitat. Thus we find them
disti'ibuted over the high north of America, Eui’ope, and Asia, occun-ing only
elsewhere on mountainous areas, where the same tempei'ature is experienced,
as, for instaixce, on the Rocky Mountains xis far south as Mexico, the mountains
of Germany and Switzerland, and similar localities in Asia, including the mountains
of China, but not occurring in the Himalaya. One of the best known species is
the European thi’ee-toed woodpecker (Picoides tridactylus), a bii'd of moderate
vsize, measui'ing i-ather more than 8 inches in length, and easily I’ccognised by the
yellow head xind white bi'east of the male.

Pigmy Merely mentioning that the Afi’ican cai’dinal-woodpeckei'S (Den-

Woodpeckers. dropiciis) are small-sized birds, diffei’ing fi’om European forms by
their shorter tail and leather longer legs, while most of them have yellow shafts to
the cpxills of the wings, and the wing markedly I’ounded, we pass on to the pigmy
woodpeckei's {lyngipicus). As their name implies, these ai’e bii’ds of small size,
and genei’ally of brown plumage, with white bxu’s, while most of the species, instead
of a red head, have a little oi’iiamental tuft of i*ed feathei’S on the side of the
ci’own. The pignxy woodpecker’s have xdso a more pointed wing than their allies,
and their distribution is peculiai', since they ai’e found in Senegambia and Noi’th-
Eastei’ii Afi’ica whei’e they are vexy x’are, and then the genus reappeax’S in India,
whex’e it is b}’ no means xxxxcommon, and thence extends through the Burmese

WOODPECKERS.

563

countries to Cliiiia, and nurtli to Eastern Siljeria an<l -Japan, while to the southward
it is ioiind throughout tlie wliole of the Malay countries and islands, extend-
ing’ eastwards to the islands ot J^oinbok and Flores. The habits of these
woodpeckers are similar to those of the rest of the family, but they are stated
to nest in horizontal boughs like a barbet, instead of hollowing out a hole for
themselves in the trunk of a tree.

Crimson-Headed This (Lepucestes pyrrops) and the other species of the same
Bay Woodpecker, genus are characterised by their very long and stout bills; the
nostrils being exposed, and not, as in the case of most woodpeckers, hidden by

THE THUEE-TOED WOODPECKER.

plumelets. This feature, and the very short tail in proj^ortion to their size,
may have been brought about by the peculiar habits of the birds, for
Davison says that he was greatly puzzled when he fii'st came across the species,
and could hardly believe that it was a woodpecker at all.

Rufous Remarkable for their entirely rufous plumage, and for their

Woodpeckers, nearly obsolete first toe, the claw on which is scarcely to be traced,
the rufous woodpeckers {Microptermis) also lack the nasal “ shelf ” on the bill.
Five species of the genus are known, ranging from India and China to the INIalayan
countries and islands. ]\rr. Oates describes the Burmese .species {M. phaioeepfi)
as a very silent bird, seldom uttering a note, and ci’eeping about in a quiet

PICARIAN BIRDS.

5(^4

stealthy way. Both he and Mr. Davison call attention to the bodies of the bil’ds
having a peculiar smell, and being smeared with some gummy substance. The
latter writer adds : “ They nearly always have their tails more or less studded
with ants’ heads. These are the large red ants of the jungle, who, when once they
seize anything, never loose their hold. You may pick them to pieces, but their

IVORY-BILLED WOODPECKER (J liat. size).

heads hold on still. They are the sumput-api or hre-ant of the Malays, and
they bite unpleasantly. They seize hold of the tail-feathers of these woodpeckers ;
their bodies get rublied off, lint the heads remain, sometimes in scores, adhering to
the lateral webs of the tail-feathers.” In the Eastc'rn Himalaya the present
species also occurs, and builds in ants’ nests ; ]\Ir. Hume stating that a nest of this
bird was one of the most remarkable he has ever seen. From the end of a large

WOODPECKERS.

5^5

iiiano-o-branch ants of some species lunl constructed a hn<;e almost ^dobular nest
about thirteen inches lon^- and eleven in diameter, involvint^, as these nests com-
monly do, all the leaves and twin’s springino- from that part of the branch. The
nest is a grey brown mass of a half felt-like half papier-nuiche-like substance,
into which the woodpecker had bored a circular entrance about two inches in
diameter, and inside it he had scooped out a circular cavity some five inches in
diameter.

Ivory-billed With this genus we come to the second division of the more

Woodpeckers, typical representatives of the famil}’, which may be known as narrow-
necked woodpeckers ; the narrowing of the neck by which they are distinguished
causing the head to appear disproportionately large. Common to both hemispheres,
one genus of the group occurs in Celebes, and is thus the most eastern representative
of the entire family. The group likewise includes the largest members of the
assemblage, the great grey ^lalayan woodpecker {Ilemilophxis pulverulentus) being
upwards of 18 inches in length. The ivory-billed woodpecker (Campojxhihis
principalis), which is the typical representative of the genus under consideration,
is now only met with in the coast country of Florida and the Gulf States of North
America, although some half century ago it had a much more extended range,
reaching to parts of the Southern and Central States. It appears always to have
been a very shy bird, so shy, indeed, that Audubon relates that he once found
a nearly completed nest, which was deserted by the birds when they perceived
that their breeding-home was discovered.

Great Black Although the generic term Ficus was taken by Linnaeus to

Woodpecker, include the whole of the members of the family, it is now restricted
to the great black woodpecker {F. murtius) represented in the Plate at the
commencement of our notice of the family. The largest of the European wood-
peckers, this species is a member of the narrow-necked group, but the plumage
on the neck is denser than in any of its allies, probably on account of its inhabiting
a more northern area and higher altitudes than an\' other member of the section.
It has the third toe longer than the fourth, and further has the tarso-metatarsus
clothed with feathers, indicating a woodpecker of a cold climate. It is a large
species, measuring 17 inches in length, entirely black, with the top of the head and
crest crimson in the male, the red in the female being confined to a triangular
patch on the occiput. The species inhabits the pine-forests of Europe and Siberia,
and occurs in Northern China and the north island of Japan. It has often been
chronicled as a British bird, but no reliable evidence of its capture exists, and, as
Mr. Seebohm well observes, “ there is no bird less addicted to migration than the
present species, and it is a bird of too powerful flight to be driven from its native
pine-forests even by the heaviest gales.”

While the whole of the preceding members of the family may be
The Piculets. . ^ ^ . . , . .

included in one subfamily, those remaining for consideration form a

second. Diminutive in size, the piculets have the beak and the ways of a wood-
pecker, but they have a soft tail like the wrynecks, and not a spiny one like the
majority of the family. Little is known about them beyond the fact that there are
four genera, with a geographical distribution which is one of the most curious of
any birds in the world. Two of these genera, Ficiunnus and Xesoctites, have the

come to the conclusion that both these Oriental birds are absolutely of tlie same form
as the South American ones ; the resemblance being carried even to the pattern of
the tail, which is peculiar among birds. Not onl}^ are the centre feathers half white,
bi;t the outer feathers are also for the most part white, and these characteristic
markings run through the whole of the species, be they American or Oriental.
Of the American species, although .so numerou.s, scarcely any details of habits have
been published, except that they seem to act the parts of tiny woodpeckers ; but
of the Indian species (P. innominatus) a little more is known. Inhabitants of
the Himalaya and the adjacent ranges, reoccurring in the Wynaad district and
extending down the high mountains of the Burmese Provinces, the Malayan
Peninsula, Sumatra, and Northern Borneo, these piculets nest in holes which they
excavate themselves, laying as many as seven eggs, for Mr. Thompson says that he

566 PICARIAN BIRDA.

face feathered, and are chiefly i-epi-esented in the New World, the last-named genus
being peculiar to the island of San Domingo. Verreauxia and Aasia, the other
two genera of piculets, are Old World forms, the former being an inhabitant of the
forest-district of West Africa, and the latter of the Indian region. The largest of
the piculets does not exceed 5 inches in length, and many of them are not more than
8 inches.

Until recently these tiny woodpeckers {P IcuDiniis) were supposed
’ to be peculiar to South America, which contains no less than thirty-
two species, but in certain parts of the Indian region a .similar green piculet is
fo\;nd, together with a second species in Southern China. ]\Ir. Hargitt has

BRAZILIAN PICULET.

/FA’ YNECKS.

567

has seen as many yonn^ ones constituting a family and flying about with their
parents. J\Ir. Gaminie has found the species nesting in Sikhim, in deciiying stumps
of small trees, about three feet from the ground, in holes bored by the birds them-
selves, the entrance being only about an inch in diameter. The hole was three
and a half inches deep, and little more than an inch wide all the way ; and as with
other woodpeckers there wei’e no nesting materials.

Rufous Picuiets I’utous piculets (Sasia) differ from the preceding genus in

having the sides of the face around the eye bare. They have only
three toes, the first being absent. In the Himalayan species {S. ochracea) the
general colour is rufous-olive above, rufous below ; the forehead is golden-yellow
in the male, rufous in the female, with a white sti'ipe above the eye. In Tenasserim
Mr. Davison found it frequenting moderately open country, especially where
bamboos flourished. “It keeps to the undergrowth and secondary scrub and
bamboo-jungle, working about the fallen logs. It is wonderful what a loud sound
one of these little fellows can produce when tapping a bamboo. I have more than
once thought that it must have been some large woodpecker, and was astonished
when I could not see it, and when at last I did discover the tiny object I felt quite
as much surprised at the sound it was able to produce as it was by my sudden
advent. It is very fond of knocking about in low brushwood. I do not know its
call, nor do I think that I ever heard one. It is usually alone, but sometimes pairs
are met with.” Mr. Hume has received a piece of bamboo selected by the bird for
its nesting-place, which was only two and a half inches in diameter. It was a dry
bamboo, and into this, at a height of about three feet from the ground and six inches
above the joint, the bird had drilled a small circular hole. Interiorly it had
grooved with its little bill the whole inner aspect of the lower surface of the
compartment, and the little, long fibrous strips thus obtained were collected at the
bottom to form a bed for the eggs.

The Wrynecks.

Family / YNGID^E.

Of this family only four species are known, one enjoying a wide range in
Europe and Asia, while the other three ai’e confined to Afi’ica south of the Sahara ;
these being lynx pectoralis, inhabiting the eastern disti’icts of the Cape Colony,
Natal, and the Eastern Transvaal, and extending to the Lower Congo district in
West Africa ; /, pulclivicollis known from Eastern Equatorial Africa, where it
was discovered by Emin Pasha; and /. cequatorialis, inhabiting the southern
provinces of Abyssinia and Shoa. The wrynecks may be termed soft-tailed wood-
peckers ; and have the tail rather long, and not spiny ; while the nostrils are not
concealed by bristles, but partially hidden by a membrane. Their plumage is very
remarkable, the whole of the upper- surface being mottled or vermiculated, as it
is called, with a crowd of little wavy black lines. The English species is also known
as the snake-bird, because of the curious way in which it twists and turns its
head about, and elongates its neck, hissing all the way most vigorously, and spread-
ing out the feathei'S of its head. It has an extensile tongue, like that of the wood-

568

PICARIAN BIRDS.

peckers, but even longer than is usual in that family, and the way in which it darts
its tongue out rapidly, completes the resemblance of the head to that of a snake,
and has doubtless had something to do with its sobriquet of snake-bird. The
common wryneck (7. torquilla) is a summer visitor to Europe and Northern
Asia ; in many parts of Great Britain being known, besides its name of snake-
bird, as the cuckoo’s-mate, since it generally arrives a little before that bird,
and is supposed to be a harbinger of the cuckoo’s arrival in the spring. It is
also called in some parts of England the pee-pee, doubtless from its curious note,
which I’esembles the words 'pee-jpee-'pee uttered in a somewhat shrill voice. In

summer the wryneck is found over the
greater part of Europe and Asia, extending
even to Japan; its northern range being about
C2° north latitude. Both the Indian and
the Japanese birds have been considered to
be distinct, bi;t Mr. Hargitt recognises but
one form. The Asiatic birds which breed
in the countries north of the Himalaya,
and even in Kashmir, winter in the Indian
Peninsula, and the Japanese birds in China
and the Burmese countries. The European
wrynecks appear to winter in Northern
Africa and extend to Abyssinia, and on the
Avest coast to Senegambia. The wryneck
does not climb trees like a Avoodpecker,
though it clings to the trunk of a tree in
pursuit of its insect-food. It feeds largel}^
on ants, and is often seen on the ground
in pui’suit of its prey; and, unlike the
Avoodpeckers, it does not bore a nest-hole, but selects one in a tree, generally a
decayed fruit-tree, as it is fond of frequenting orchards. The eggs are sometimes
as many as ten in number, but the average number is seven or eight. They
are Avhite like those of a Avoodpecker, but not quite so glossy.

WRYNECK.

The Honey-Guides.

Family Indicatorid^.

Long classified with the cuckoos, Avhich they resemble in the structure of their
feet, Avhile they are also belieA'ed to lay their eggs in the nests of other birds, the
honey-guides are now recognised as a distinct group. In place of selecting totally
different birds, the honey-guides appear to choose for victims their OAvn nearest
kindred, such as the barbets and Avoodpeckers ; the little honey -guide depositing its
Avhite eggs in the nests of the red-vented AAmodpecker, the little tinkei'-barbet, or
the pied barbet, Avhile the large Avhite-backed honey-guide selects the banded
barbet as its victim. In structure the honey-guides are uoaa^ admitted to be akin to
Avoodpeckers and barbets, liaAung many characters in common with both those groups.

HONEY-GUIDES.

569

cspociall}^ as regards tlu; zyo'odactyle foot, d'lio oil-^laiid is tufted, and thei’c are
tio blind appeudajj^es (ca'ca) to the int('stine. d'lie lioiiey-^uiiles ai’e principally
African, no less than ten species out of twelve being found in the Ethiopian region.
In the Himalaya, howevei', the j’ellow-hackeil honey-guitle is a resident, and in the
mountains of the Malay heninsula and in IJorneo occurs the most eastiuai represen-
tative of the genus, the Mala^’an honey-guide.

Two genera only are known, the true honey -guides {Indiador) and the
dwai’f honey -guides (Prod arise as). The latter genus contains two specie.s, one
from South-Eastern, the other from We.stern and E([uatorial Africa, both of them

WHITE-EARED HONEY-GUIDE nat. size).

having only ten tail-feathers instead of twelve, like the rest of the honey-guides.
Sir John Kirk states that “ the honey-guide is found in forests, and often far from
water, even during the dry season. On observing a man, it comes fluttering from
branch to branch in the neighbouring trees, calling attention. On being followed,
it goes further ; and so it will guide the way to a nest of bees. When this is
reached, it flies about, but no longer guides ; and then some knowledge is needed
to discover the nest, even when pointed out by the bird to within a few trees. I
have known a honey-guide, if a man, after taking the direction for a little, then
turns away, to come back and offer to point out another nest in a different part.
But if it does not know of two nests it will remain behind. The difficulty is
that it will point to tame bees in a bark hive as readily as to those in the

57°

PICARIAN BIRDS

Torests. This is natural, as the bee is the same ; the bark-liive, Musinga, as it
is named, being simply fastened up to a tree, and left for the bees to come to.
The object the bird has in view is clearly the j’oung bees. It will guide to nests
liaving no honey, and seems etpially delighted if the comb containing the grubs
be torn out, when it is seen pecking at it.” The little honey-guide (/. minor) is
only 6 inches in length. It is said to be of no repute as an honey-guide, but
it catches bees like a H^xatcher. The white-eared honey-guide (/. sparmanni),
is one of the larger members of the genus, about 8 inches in length, of an ashy
brown colour above, whitish below, with a brownish shade on the throat. The
three outer tail-feathers have their bases white, and there is also some white on
the lower back and upper tail-coverts ; on the shoulder is a yellow band, formed
by some of the lesser wing-coverts. This species is found over the greater part of
Africa, from the Eastern Cape Colony to the Transvaal, and thence throughout
Eastern Africa to Abyssinia, and again occurring in Senegambia, so that it is an
inhabitant of the open portions of the continent, but does not occur in the fore.st-
regions of the West Coast. It is a favourite with the natives, who do not like to
see one killed. Mr. Buckley, during his journey to Matabililand, says “ that the
birds were extremely pertinacious in following us, in order to conduct us to a bee’s
nest, chattering incessantly iintil tliey gained their point.”

The Barbets.

Family CapitONID/E.

This family occi:pies an intermediate position between the woodpeckers and
the toucans ; in many of their ways these birds being like the former, while some
of their number bear a remarkable resemblance to the toucans. In structui’e they
also have many points in common with these two families, the peculiar zygodactyle
foot being exactly like that of the woodpeckers and the other allied families.
The barbets have a tufted oil-gland, no blind appendages to the intestine, and
possess ten tail-feathers. They have little in common with the puff-birds, which
are also called barbets in many woi’ks on natural history. The barbets are found
in the tropical portions of both the Old and New Worlds, in the latter being peculiar
to Central and Soi;th America. From Brazil and Bolivia Tip to Costa Rica the
American barbets range, but no species has yet been found in Guatemala or in
IMexico. In most of the Old World barbets the bill is toothed or ridged, but in the
American genus Gapito the bill is smooth, not toothed, and has the ridge rounded.
In South America also occurs the singular genus Tetragonops, wherein the bill is
four-sided and the lower mandible widened at its tip, so as to form a sort of
cradle in which the end of the upper mandible rest.s. Two species of the genus
are known, one from Costa Rica {T. frcmtzi) and the other from Ecuador, the
latter being a brightly-coloured bird, named T. rhamphastinus, from the similarity
of its colours to that of a toucan. Barbets are found in the tropical portions
of Africa and Asia, but do not extend beyond the IMalayan Islands. Of the
seventeen genera recorded from the Old World, Africa claims ten and the Indian
region the other seven.

BARBETS.

571

Tooth billed I’hc'sc birds {J*0(f(iiK>r/i if itc/ms) aic <listiiinuislRMl by thti prcseiict!

Barbets. notclu's oi- teeth in tlie edge of the bill, and

in some of tlie species there are deep grooves or i-idges, similar to those wliicli
occur ill some of the hornbills; wliile there is a sort of beard of coarse bristles on
the chin in the red barbet of West Africa (P. i/uhins).

The genus Melanobucco, also one of the group of tooth-billed barbets, has
thirteen species distributed over various districts of Alrica. They are described
as freipienting the neighbourhood of woods and bush -con 11 try, feeding on fruits

ciUMSox-BKEAbTED BARBET (§ iiat. size).— After Keuleiiiaiis.

and berries, seeds and insects, and nesting in holes of trees, but not making the
holes themselves. The black -collared barbet (2f. torqiuifvs) is said bj- i\Ir. Ayres
to have a particularly loud note, of which the syllables kook karoo, repeated eight
or ten times, would giv’e a good idea. Fretpiently both male and female call at the
same time, and, when perched close together, keep up a (|uick succession of bows to
each other, bowing at the repetition of each note. Of the pied barbet {M. leucomelasi),
Mr. Andersson says that in Damaraland it is found singly or in pairs, and is re-
markable for its clear-ringing and far-sounding notes, which, heard at all hours of
the da}^ are most fretiuent in the early morning. Its food consists chiefly of fruit

572

PICARIAN BIRDS.

and seeds, but it will to some extent accommodate itself as regards food to the
produce of the locality in which it happens to be located. It is rather a lively
bird, and sometimes suspends itself below the fruit on which it is feeding, and
makes its repast while hanging in that position. Mr. Layard designates the note
of this bird as of three syllables, poo-poo-])Oop, resembling those of the copper-
smith of India.

Tinker-Barbets.

There are thirteen of these tiny birds {Barhatida), the largest of
which is only G inches in length, while the majority of the species
scarcely exceed 3 inches. They are all inhabitants of tropical Africa, occurring
everywhere from Senegambia and Abyssinia south to the Cape Colony. Of the
little tinker-barbet of Natal {B. pmilla) Mr. Ayres writes that “ the note of this
curious little bird so much resembles the tapping of a hammer on an anvil (having
that peculiar metallic ring) that it is called in Natal the tinker-bird. It is silent
during the winter months, commencing its monotonous cry in the spring, and
continuing it throughout the summer. The colour of the tinker-bird is black,
streaked or spotted with yellow ; the forehead being red or yellow. In some
of them there is a white or yellow eyebrow, and a band of red or yellow across
the rump.

Like the last, the brown barbet (Calorhamphus hayi) is a member
Brown Barbet. . . . '

of the smooth-billed section of the family. It ranges from Southern

Tenasserim through the IVIalay Peninsula to Sumatra, and is remarkable for its
sombre plumage, being dark brown, washed with olive-yellow on the upper-parts
and yellowish white below, with the throat tinted with red. The bill is black in
the male, and reddish or ochre-brown in the female. The length of the bird is
about G1 inches. In Borneo a second species occurs, with a brighter and more
brick-red throat (C. fidiginosuH).

This genus {Megaloima) contains only two species, which are the
largest of the whole family, measuring over a foot in length ; one
(71/. raarsltallorum) inhabiting the Himalaya, while the other (71/ virens) extends
from Burma to Southern China. The colour is gi'een, with a brownish mantle, and
the hind-neck streaked with yellow ; the head is blue, as is also the under surface,
except on the sides of the body, which are green, and the fore-neck, which is dark
brown marked with greenish blue ; the bill is pale yellow. The Himalayan species
is a well-known feature of the hill-country, where its curious wailing cry is often
heard, especially in all the warmer and well-wooded valleys. According to Mr.
Thompson, the hillmen have a story that a person who suffered unjustly from law-
suits, and who died in consequence, was changed into this bird, whose cry is,
un-nee oiv, tin -nee ow, meaning, “Injustice, injustice.” This species and its
Burmese ally both appear to make their own nest-holes, which they drill into a
tree like a woodpecker ; many of the barbets laying their eggs in holes on the
under side of a branch. All the larger green barbets of the genera Cyanops and
CJiotorJiea also hollow out their own nest-holes, and Colonel Legge says that, in the
case of the Ceylonese barbet the same nest-hole is not used twice ; “ but, having
found a tree with wood suited to its work, it perforates it each year for the new
nest, as many as eight or ten holes being sometimes visible in a tree by a jungle
roadside. It is only when sounding wood before making its nest that these birds

Great Barbets.

TOUCANS.

573

tap with their bills, the blows being very slowly repeated, with perhaps an interval of
ten seconds between each.” Colonel Legge also states that there are generally a few
bents and grass-stalks collected for the eggs to lie on, but they are scarcely worthy
of the name of nest. IVlr. Hume once discovered in tlie nest-hole made by a blue-
faced barbet a large pad consisting almost exclusively of coarse vegetable fibre,
apparently strips of the bark of some herbaceous plant, but a few pieces of grass,
a piece of red wool, and one or two other similar mi.scellaneous scraps intermingled
in the pad.

Crimson-Headed Like the African barbets, which are called tinker - birds, the
Barbet. crimson-headed barbet {Xantholcema hcamatocepluda) gets its name of
coppersmith from its metallic note, which much resembles tlie clinking of metal
when struck by a hammer; this note being heard at all times of the day, and
given out with monotonous regularity. Tlie writer heard one of these birds at
Ajmir, and on creeping up beneath the tree in wliich it was sitting, found it
perched cross-wise on a branch, like a Passerine, and uttering its note at regular
intervals, accompanying each utterance with a jerk of the head, first to the right
and then to the left. Tlie coppersmith is one of the smaller barbets, measuring
about half a foot in length. It is green in colour above, pale yellow below, with
green streaks on the flanks. The head is variegated in colour, the forehead being
scarlet, with a black band acro.ss the crown extending to the sides of the face,
which are ornamented with a yellow streak above and below the eye. The throat
is bright yellow, with a scarlet band across the fore-neck. The nesting-hole is
generally fixed upon by this species in the under side of a hollow bough, and
sometimes the eggs are placed at a distance of four or five feet from the original
entrance. Jerdon narrates an instance where a pair of these little birds had thus
perforated a beam in his vinery, and when they had lengthened the cavity year by
year to about five feet they made a second entrance, also from below, about two
and a half feet from the nest. This practice of making additional holes for
entrance and exit near the nest seems to be adopted by the birds in a wild state
also.

d'HE Toucans.

Family RliAMPHASTlD^.

Gaudy in plumage, and ungainly in appearance, these large-billed birds are
denizens of the tropical forests of Central and South America, also extending to
those of Northern Mexico, almost within sight of the Kio Grande. Resembling
the woodpeckers and barbets in the internal structure of their zygodactyle
feet, they differ in having the front entl of the vomer truncated in the
Passerine manner. For the size of its owner the bill among the toucans is of
enormous dimensions, giving to these birds an almost ludicrous look. If solid, the
appendage would be far too heavy to carry ; but in reality it is extremely light,
being very thin, and the interior occupied by a fine network of bony fibres, aiTanged
so as to give great strength to the extei’nal surface, without weight. The tongue
of these birds is likewise peculiar, the anterior portion consisting of a bony,
narrow, thin plate, flattened horizontally, and suj)purted by a process ot the tongue-

574

PICARIAN BIRDS.

bone, wliich forms a ridge beneath it. iMeasnring nearly G inches in length in
the laro-er species, at about 4 inches from its extremity it is oblic^uely notched
on both sides ; these notches becoming deeper and deeper towards the apex, thus
giving it a bristly appearance. Resembling the barbets in having a tufted oil-
gland, the toucans also agree with these birds in the presence of ten feathers to
the tail. The beak is generally highly coloured ; while frecpiently the bare face
partakes of the same brilliant hues. When asleep, toucans have a curious way of

THE TOCO TOUCAN iiat. size).

carrying the tail, which is turned up over the back, while the enormous beak is
buried beneath the scapular feathers. According to Dr. Sclater’s arrangement,
toucans may be divided into five genera; namely, Rhamphafitiis with fourteen,
Andigena with six, PterogJossus with eighteen, Selenidera with seven, and
AidacorJiamjjJtiLS with fourteen species; the mnnber of toucans 2iow known
thus being fifty -nine. According to the account of Prince Maxmilian, “these
birds are very common in all parts of the extensive forests of the Brazils,
and ai’o killed in great numbers at the cooler ]20i‘tion of the year, for the
purposes of the table. To the stranger they are of even greater interest than

TOUCANS.

575

to tlio ii!vti\ os, tioiii their roin;irk;iblo lorm, and troiii the rich and stroii^ly-
coiitrastod stylo of thoir colourin^r, thoir lilack and ^rreen bodies hoin^^ adoniod
with inarkinos of the most brilliant hues — rod, orange, blue, and white; the
naked parts of the body bein^ dyed M'itb brilliant colours; the legs bine or green;
the irides blue, yellow, etc.; and the large bill of a ditfereiit colour in every specie.s,
and ill many instances very gaily marked. In their habits the toucans offer

BLACK-THROATED ARACARI TOUCAN {% Hat. size).

some resemblance to the crows, and especially to the magpies ; like them they are
very troublesome to the birds of prey, particularly to the owls, whom they
surround and annoy by making a great noise, all the while jerking their tails
upwards and downwards. The flight of these birds is easy and graceful, and
they sweep with facility over the loftiest trees of their native forests, their strongly-
developed bills, contrary to expectation, being no encumbrance to them. The voice
of the toucans is short and unmeloilious, and somewhat different in every species.”

576

PICARIAN BIRDS.

Toca Toucan.

Aracari Toucans.

The general colour of this bird (Rhampliastus toco) is black, with
a broad white band across the rump ; the under surface of the body
is also black, with the vent crimson ; the throat is white, fading into yellow on
the neck, and followed by a crimson band on the fore-neck. The length is nearly
2 feet, and the bill is nearly Oi inches long. The toco has a very wide distribution in
South America, being foiind from Guiana to the Lower Amazon, and extending
through Brazil and Bolivia to Argentina. Mr. White met with it near Oran,
frequenting the high forest trees in large Hocks.

Of the smaller-billed toucans, some of the best known are the
so-called aracaris (Pteroglossus) ; and an incident recorded by Mr.
Stolzmann, during his travels in Peru, shows how difficult these birds are to see in
their forest siirroundings, his experience being very similar to that of Bates with the
curl-crested toucan (P. beavJiarnasi) on the Amazon. Stolzmann saj^s that when
procuring a pair of the yellow-billed aracari (P. Jiavirostris), or jmrimaguas, he tired
in a high ti’ee at a bird, which uttered some piercing cries as it fell, and in a moment
he was surrounded by ten of the birds, keeping uj) a fearful din. On a second shot
being fired, they all disappeared. This circumstance proves, as he says, that although
only one individual can be seen, it does not follow that thei’e are no more in the
neighbourhood, as they are, in fact, always in little troops, according to the general
habit of toucans in Peru.

K. BUWDLER SHARPE.

LESSER SPOTTED WOODPECKER.

I X I) ]•: X.

Aard-Varks, 233.

A corny s, 146.

Aeonxornys, 156.
Acrobates, 260.
.■Epyprijmnus, 251.
Agiichi, 177.

Agutis, 175.

Ais, 205.

Alagdaga, 112.

Alactaga, 112.

decumana, 112.
indica, 112.
Amblothcriuni, 282.
Amphilestcs. 282.
Anomaluridee, 68.
Anomalurus, 69.
fulgcns, 69.
pusillns, 69.
Ant-Eaters, 209.

Banded, 274.

Great, 210.

Lesser, 213.

Spiny, 286.

Two- Toed, 214.
Antcchinomys, 273.

Apar, 223.

Aperea, 180.

Arctomys, 83.
aureus, 87.
bobac, 84.
caudaius, 84.
diehrous, 87.
flaviventcr, 88.
himalayanus, 84.
marmotta, 84.
viotiax, 88.
pruinosus, 88.
Argyrodelphis, 40.
Armadillos, 215.

Broad-Banded, 222.
Fairy, 217.

Fleecy, 220.

Giant, 222.

Haiiy, 220.

Feba, 224.

Pigmy, 220.
Si.\-Banded, 219.
Shaggy, 225.

Three- Banded, 223.
Weasel- Headed, 219.
Arnux’s Whale, 35.
Arvicola, 129.

A Ih crura, 169.
africana, 169
macrura, 169.

VOI.. III. — 37

VOL. III. IVIAIVIIVIALS.

Aulacodus, 161.

Bnlxna, 8.

australis, 12.
mysticetus, 9.

Balxnidse, 6.

Balsenoptera, 17.
borealis, 19.
edeni, 18.
musculus, 20.
rostrata, 18.
sibbaldi, 21.

Bandicoots, 265.

Bathyergus, 149.

Beavers, 95.

Bcrardius, 35.

Bettongia, 250.

Blacktish, 53.

Bobac, 84.

Bouto, 39.

Bradypodidse, 204.

Bradypus, 205.

Brush-Kangaroos. 241

Bungari, 247.

Cachalot, 24.

Capivara, 185.

Capromys, 159.

hrachyurus, 160.
ingrahami, 160.
pilorides, 159.
prehensilis, 159.

Carj)incho, 185.

Carterodon, 162.

Castor, 95.

canadensis, 96.
fiber, 96.

Casloridse, 95.

Cavia, 179.

bolivieiisis, 182.
cutleri, 180.
porcellus, 180.
rupeslris, 182.

Cavies, 179.

Gaviidse, 179.

Ceplialorhynehns, 49.

Cetacea, 1.

Cctotherium, 22.

Chsetomys, 167.

Chalicomys, 103.

Chinchilla, 169.

brevicaudata, 170.
lanigera, 169.

Chinchilias, 169.

Cliijimnnks, 76.

Chironectes, 281.

Chlamydophoms, 217.
retusus, 219.
truncatus, 217.

Chlamydothere, 226.

Chaeropus, 268.

Cholapus, 207.

didactyhis, 207.
hofi'manni, 207.

Coelogenys, 177.
paca, 177.
taczanou'skii, 177.

Cogia, 30.

Coypu, 158.

Cricctus, 123.

frumentarius, 124.
leucopus, 126.
palustris, 127.

Ctenodactylus, 155.

Ctenomys, 157.

Cuniculus, 136.

Cuscnses, 256.

Cururo, 158.

Cyclotwus, 214.

Cynomys, 81.

\ columbianus, 82.
liulovicianus, 81.
mexicanus, 82.

Dactylopsila, 260.
paljjalor, 260.
trivirgata, 260.

Dasjipodidse, 215.

Dasyprocta, 175.
aguti, 175.
cristala, 177.

Dasyproclidsc, 175.

Dasypus, 219.

minutus, 220.
sexcinctus, 219.
vellerosiis, 220.
villosus, 220.

Dasyures, 268.

Dasyuridae, 268.

Dasyurus, 271.

macidatus, 271.
viverrinns, 271.

Degu, 155.

Ddphinapterus, 43.

Delphinidx, 41.

Dclphinns, 58.

attenuaf.us, 60.
capensis, 59.
delphis, 58.
dussumicri, 59.

INDEX.

578

Driphinus — continued .
malayanus, 60.
roseiventris, 50.
Dcndrolagus, 247.-
dorianus, 247.
inustus, 247.
luniholtzi, 247.
ursinus, 247.
Didelphyidm, 277.
Didelphys, 278.

americana, 281.
lanigera, 280.
mar.'iupialis, 278.
murina, 281.
nudkaudata, 280.
opossum, 281.
philander, 280.
quica, 280.
sorex, 281.
unislrinla, 231.
Dinomys, 179.

Dipodidee, 109.
Dipodomys, 152.
Dlprolodon, 253.

T>ipus, 114.

Distoechurus, 262.
DolLchotis. 182.

Dolphins, 36, 48, 59.
Amazonian, 39, 62.
Bottle-Nosed, 60.
Brazilian, 62.
Cameiun, 63.

Cape, 59.

Cliinese, 63.
Common, 58.
Diissumier’s, 59.
Fresli- Water, 36.
Gangetic, 37.
Heaviside's, 49.

Ira wadi, 49.

Killei', 51.

La Plata, 40.

Long- Beaked, 62.
Malayan, 60.
Narwhal, 41.

Pale, 82.

Plumbeous, 62.

Red- ISel lied, 59.
Risso’s, 55
Rough-Toothed, 61.
Short-Beaked, .56.
Slender, 60.
Speckled, 61.

True, 68.

Tucuxi, 62.

Wliite Beaked, 57.
White-.8ided, 57.
Dorcopsis, 247.
laclmsa, 247.
muellcri, 247.
Dormice, 104.

African, 109.
Common, 105.
E.xtinct, 109.
Garden, 108.
Squirrel-Tailed. 107.
Tree, 108.

Vromicin, 261.

Duckbill, 284.

Echidna, 287.

Echidna.s, 286,

Echiuomys, 162.

Edentata, 202.

Eog-Laying Mammals, 283.
Ellohius, 139.

Erethizon, 163.

Eschrichtius, 13.
Eucholoiops, 209.

Ew.etns, 29.

Euchoretes, 113.

Eupetaurus, 89, 93.
Eutherians, 283.

Filer, 137.

Geomyidse, 150.

Geomys, 150.

Georychus, 149.

Gcrbillus, 119.
Globiocephalus, 53.
melas, 53.
scammoni, 54.
Glyptodontidse, 225.
Golunda, 146.

Gophers, 79.

Grampus, 51.

Grampus, 55.

Guinea-Pig, 180.

Gundi, 155.

Gyranobelideus, 261.

Ilahrocovia, 156.

Hamsters, 123.

IJapalotis, 147.

Haplodon, 94.
mayor, 94.
rufus, 94.
Haplodontidx, 94.

Hares, 192.

Heterocephalus, 149.
Heteromys, 153.

Hutias, 159.

Hydroclmrus, 185.
llydromys, 118.
Hyperondon, 30.
Hypoyeomys, 128.
Ilypsiprymnodon, 252.
Hystricidx, 162.

Hystrix, 166.

afrm-australis, 167.
bcngalensis, 167.
cristata, 166.

Icucura, 167.

Tchthyomys, 126.
Implacentals, 283.

Inia, 39.

Iniopsis, 41.

Jerboas, 109, 114.

Juin])ing Hare, 116.
Jumping Mice, 109, 110.

Kangaroos, 240.
Kangaroo-Rats, 152.
Killers, 51.

Koala. 263.

Layenorhynchus, 56.
acutus, 57.
albirostris, 57.
crvriycra, 57.

! Layidium, 170.

Layomyidx, 190.

Layomys, 190.
alpinus, 190.
ladaccnsis, 191.
roylei, 191.

Layorchestes, 246.

conspicillatus, 247.
hirsutus, 246.
leporoides, 246.

Layostomus, 171.

Layostrophus, 249.

Lemmings, 134.

Leporidx, 189, 192.

Lepus, 192.

myyptius, 197.
americaniis, 196.
brasiliensis, 193. 196,
campestris, 196.
capensis, 197.
crassicaudaius, 197.
cunicvlus, 197.
europxus, 193.
hispidus, 197.
hypsibivs, 197.
niyricollis, 196.
nitscheri, 197.
oiostolus, 197.
ruficaudatus, 196.
saxatilis, 197.
sylvaticus, 196.
tibetanus, 197.
timidus, 195.

Loncheres, 162.

Lophiomys, 128.

LysiiLrus, 222.

Mneropodid.x, 238.

Macropus, 240.

antilopinus, 241.
billardieri, 242.
hrachyuriis, 242.
brunii, 242.
yiyanteus, 241.
parry i, 242.
robust us, 241.
ruficollis, 241.
rufus, 241.
theditis, 242.
ualabutus, 241,

Manidx, 226.

Manis, 226.

aurita, 228.
yiyaidea, 230.
javanica, 228.
macrura, 229.
pentadactyla, 228.
temmincki, 230.
tricuspis, 229.

Mara, 182.

Marmots, 83.

]\Iarsn])ials, 235.

Mastacomys, 147.

Meyalonyx, 208.

Meyamys, 175.

Meyaptera, 14.

Meyatheriidx, 208.

Mesoplodon, 33.
bidens, 34.
layardi, 35.

Metatherians. 283.

Mice, 139.

INDEX.

579

Mice — coiUiii utd.

Bai'bary, 14t).

Field, 144.

(Irooved-Tootlied, 127.
Harvest, 144.

House, 143.

Jumping, 110.

.Malabar Si)iiiy, 119.
Pocket, 153.

Pouebed, 272.

Spiny, 119, 140.
White-Footed, 123, 120.
Mkrutus, 129
aijrestis, 131.
amphihius, 129.
arvalis, 131.
tjappcri, 133.
tjlareolus, 132.
nivalis, 133.
cecononius, 135.
riparius, 134.
roylei, 135.
rutilus, 133.

Mole-Rats, 147.

^fonodon, 41.

monuccros, 41.
Moiiotreines, 283.
jMulita, 224.
Multituberculata, 288.
Muridm, 117.

Mas, 139.

harharus, 140.
dcctiinanus, 1 40.
fuscipes, 140
niinutm, 144.
muscttlus, 143.
rattus, 142.
sy I vatic us, 144.
Muscardinus, 105.

Musk-Rat, 137.

-Mu.squash, 137.

Mylodoii, 209.

Myodes, 134.

Mynpotamus, 158.
Jfyoscalops, 149.

Myoxidse, 104.

Myoxus, 107.
dryas, 108.
ylis, 107.
nitela, 108.
pictus, 108.

Myrmccoh ius, 274.
Myrmeeophaga, 210.

Xannoseiurtis, 93.
minutus, 93.
whiteheadi, 94.

Narwhal, 41.

Xeobalsena, 12.

Xeotoma, 128.
cinerea, 128.
floridana, 128.

Xesocia, 140.

Xotoryctes, 276.

Nutria, 159.

Uctodon, 155.

Octodontidac, 155.

Odontocdi, 22.

Onvchogale, 245.
freiiatu, 240.
lunata, 240.

Otiyi'hogalc — continued.

unguifera, 240.
Opossums, 277.

Common, 278.

•Murine, 281.

Philander, 280.

Quica, 280.

Rat-Tailed, 280.
Shrew, 281.
Three-Striped, 281.
True, 278.

Virginian, 278.

Water, 281.

Urea, 51.

Orcclla, 49.

hrevirostris, 49.
Jluminalis, 49.
Ornithorhyuxhus, 284.
Orycleropodidee, 233.
Orycteropiis, 233.
mthiupius, 234.
afra, 234.

Pacas, 175, 177.
Palorclicsles, 253.

Pangolins, 226.

Chinese, 228.

Giant, 230.

Indian, 228.
Long-Tailed, 229.
Malayan, 228.
Short-Tailed, 230.
White- Bellied, 229.
Peba, 224.

Fectinator, 155.

Pedetes, 110.

Peludo, 220.

Peragale, 267.

Peranieles, 267.
gunni, 267.
ubesula, 267.
Peramelidw, 265.
Perognathus, 153.

, Peiauroides, 259.

Petaurus, 260.

australis, 200.

I sciureus, 260.

I Petrognle, 244.

brachyotis, 245.
i penicillata, 244.

xanthopus, 244.
Petromys, 158.

Pkalanger, 256.
maculatus, 250.
orientalis, 256.
ursinus, 256.
Phalangeridx, 252.
Phalangers, 252.

Archer’s, 259.
Common, 258.
Creseent-Toothed, 258.
Dormouse, 261.
Extinct Giant, 264.
Flying, 260.

I Great Flying, 259.

Herbert River, 259.

I Leadbeater’s, 261.

I Long-Snouted, 254.

I Pen-Tailed, 262.

I Rigiiiy Flying, 202.

I Ring-Tailed, 259.

1 Short-Eared, 258.

Phalangers — cuntiniifd.
Striped, 200.

True, 258.
I'liascvlarclus, 263.
PItascologale, 271.
Jiavipes, 272.
penicillata, 272.
Phascolomys, 264.
latifrons, 265.
milchclli, 265.
ursinus, 265.
I'Ulaeouiys, 120.
Phocoena, 45.

communis, 45.
jjhocceuoidcs, 48.
J'hyseter, 24.
Physeleridse, 23.
Physodontidac, 30.

Picas, 190.

Pichi, 220.

Piehiciago, 217.
Plagiodon, 161.
Platacanlhomys, 119.
Plotanista, 37.
Platanistidm, 30.
Plesiarctomys, 89.
Plcsispcrnwphilus, 89.
Polatouche, 92.
Pontistes, 40.

Porcupines, 102.
Al'riean, 167.
Bengal, 107.
Brazilian, 105.
Brush-Tailed, 109.
Canadian, 103.
Common, 167.
Giinther’s, 109.
Hairy-Nosed, 167.
Hodgson’s, 167.
Me.xican, 165.
Thin-Spined, 167.
Tree, 264.

True, 167.
Porpoises, 41, 45.
Potorous, 249.
gilberti, 250.
plalyops, 250.
tridachjlus, 249.
Pouched Mammals, 235.
Pouched Mole, 276.

Pi airie Marmots, 81.
Priodon, 222.
Procoptodon, 253.
Proechidna, 287.
Prototherians,, 283.
Pscudochirus, 259.
archeri, 259.
lierbertcnsis, 259.
peregrinus, 259.
Pseudoixa, 53.

Pteromys, 89, 92.
inornatus, 92.
magnijicus, 92.
oral, 92.

[Ktauristu, 92.
punctatus, 93.

Rabbit, 197.

Rat- Kangaroos, 249.
Rats, 139.

Australian, 118.
Bamboo, 148.

INDEX.

580

Rats — continued.
Baiidiuoot, 146.
Black, 14-2.

Brown, 140.
Brown-Footed, 146.
Bush. 146.

Cane, 161.

Crested, 128.
Fish-Eating, 127.
Florida, 128.

.lerboa, 147.
Kangaroo, 152.
Lichtenstein’s, 147.
i\IoIe, 147.
i\Iusk, 137.
Pnilip[iine, 120.
Pouched, 150.

Sand, 149.

Water, 129.

Wood, 128.
lihaehiaMectes, 13.
Ithithrodon, 127.
Rhithrodontomys, 127.
Rhithrosciurus, 70.
Rhizomys, 148.
badius, 148.
sumatrensis, 149.
Rodentia, 64.

Rorquals, 17.

Sareopldlus, 270.
Ratirodelphis, 40.
Scaldicettis, 29.

Sciuridse, 70.
Rciuropterus, 89.
Jimhriatus, 90.
gpadiceus, 92.
volans, 92.
volucella, 90.
Rciurus, 72.
bicolor, 75.
canieeps, 75.
caroliiieunis, 7 4.
hudsonianus, 64.
indicu.'i, 75.
palmarurn, 75.
pygerythrus, 75.
vulgaris, 72.
Sewellel's, 94.

Sqdineus, 139.

Sisel, 79.

Sloths, 204.

Sminthopsis, 273.
Sminthus, 117.
concolor, 117.
leathanii, 117.
subtiiis, 117.

Rotalia, 62.

brasiliensis, 62.
fluvial ilis, 62.
guianensis, 62.
pallida, 62.
sinensis, 62.
teuzsi, 63.
tucuxi, 62.
Spalacidm, 147.
Spalacopus, 158.

Spalax, 147.
Rpermophilus, 79.
citillus, 79.
eversmanni, 79.
empctra, 81.

Rphcnnophilus — eontiii ued .
grammuras, 80.
richardsoni, 81.
tridecernlineatus, 79.
Springhaas, 116.
Squalodontidfe, 63.
S<juirrels, 70.

Abyssinian, 71.
European, 72.

Extinct, 76.

Flying, 68, 89.
Golden-Backed, 75.
Grey, 74.

Groove-Toothed. 70.
Ground, 76.

Indian, 75.

Irawadi, 75.

Malayan, 75.

Xorth American, 74.
Oriental, 75.

Palm, 75.

Pigmy, 93.

Red, 74.

Spiny, 71.

True, 72.

Whitehead’s, 94.

Steno, 60.

frontatus, 61.
lentiginosus, 62.
plumhcus, 62.
Rtenodelphis, 40.

Sthenurus, 253.

Susliks, 79.

Susu, 37.

Synelheres, 164.

novm-hispania:, 165.
prehensilis, 165.

Taguan, 92.

Tammidua, 213.

Tamias, 77,

asiaticus, 77.
uiacrotus, 77.
striatus, 77.

Tarsipes, 254.

Tasmanian Devil, 270.
Tatusia, 224.
hybrida, 224.
novemcincta, 224.
pilosa, 225.

Thomomys, 150.

Thylacine, 269.

Thylaeinus, 269.

Thylacoleo, 264.

Tolypeutes, 223.

Tree- Kangaroos, 247.
Trichosurus, 258.
caninus, 258.
vulpecula, 258.

Trichys, 169.

Triconodon, 282.

'Tritylodon, 288.
Trogontheruim, 103.
Tucotuco, 159.

Tilt slops, 60.

Viscachas. 169, 171.

Voles, 129.

Arctic, 133.

Bank, 132.

Field, 131.

Meadow, 134.

I Voles — continued .

Mole-Like, 139.

' Ouetta, 139.

I Red-Backed, 133.

Root, 134.

Hoyle’s, 134.
Short-Tailed, 131.
Water, 129.

Wallabies, 240.

Agile, 242.

Aru Island, 242.
Banded, 249.
Bennett’s, 241.
Black-Tailed, 241.
Bridled, 246.
Crescent, 246.

Hare, 246.

Large, 241.
Xail-Tailed, 245.
Padamelon, 242.
Parry’s, 242.
Red-Necked, 241.
Rock, 244.
Rul'ous-Bellied, 242,
Short-Tailed, 242.
Small, 242.

Spur- 'Tailed, 245.
Whales, 1.

Arnux’s, 35.

Beaked, 33.
Blackfish, 53.
Bottlenose, 30.
Bowhead, 9.
Cachalot, 24.
Cuvier’s, 33.

Eden’s, 18.

Fin, 17.

Fossil, 12.
Greenland, 9.

Grey, 13.
Humpback, 14.
Killer, 51.

Lesser Sperm, 30.
Layard’s, 35.

Pigmy, 12.

Right, 8.

Roiquals, 17.
Rudolphi’s. 19.
Sibbald’s, 21.
Southern, 11.
Sowerby’s, 34.
Sperm, 23.
Sulphur-Bottom, 21
Toothed, 23.
Whalebone, 6.
White, 43.
Wombats, 264.
Woodchuck, 84.
Wood-Rats, 128.

Xeromys, 118.

Xerus, 71.

getulus, 72.
leucoumbrinus, 72.
■rutilus, 71.
setosus, 72.

Yapock, 281.

; Zapas, 110.

Zeuylodon, 64.

! Ziphius, 33.

I N D E X

Accciilur, 502.
Acrocephalus, 498.
Ageleeiis, 360.
Agropsar, 347.
Aleemon, 421.

Alaudn, 417.
Alaiididx, 417.
Amadina, 368.
Amblyornis, 343.
Ammo manes, 422.
Ampelidx, 464.
Ampelis, 465.
Andigena, 574.

Ant- Birds, 530.
Anthus, 432.

Argyra, 511.

Astrapia, 334.
Asyndesmus, 558.
AulcKOi'hamphus, 574.

Babblers, 511.

Scimitar, 512.

True, 511.

Tyi)ical, 512.
Banana-Qiiit, 374.
Barbatula, 572.

Barbets, 570.

Black-Collared, 571.
Brown, 572.
Crimson-Headed, 573.
Great, 572.

Pied, 571.

Red, 571.

Tinker, 572.
Tooth-Billed, 571.

Bell- Birds, 531.

Bienteveo, 528.

Birds of Paradise, 329.
Albertis, 332.

Gorget, 334.

King, 336.

Long-Tailed, 332.
Magnificent, 336.

Red, 335.

Scale-Breasted, 332.
Six-Plumed, 338.
Standard- Winged, 338.
Superb, 339.

Twelve- Wired, 330.
Typical, 334.

Wattled, 334.

Wilson’s, 336.
Bishop-Birds, 366.
Blackbirds, 474.

VOL. IM.-BIRDS.

Blackcap, 494.

Bluebirds, 478.
Blue-Throat, 485.
Bobolink, 357.
Bower-Birds, 340.
Gardener, 343.

Satin, 340.

Spotted, 340.
Brachygalba, 546.
Bradypterns, 501.
Brambling, 383.
Broadbills, 537.

Bucco, 548.

Bucconidse, 548.

Bulbuls, 513, 514.
Bullfinches, 399.

Buntings, 405.

American, 416.
Black-Headed, 410.
Cape, 416.

Cirl, 412.

Common, 409.
Crested, 416.

Lapland, 406.

Little, 409.

Meadow, 415.

Ortolan, 414.

Snow, 405.

Sparrow, 416.

Typical, 408.

Yellow, 412.
Yellow-Breasted, 411.
Biiphaga, 348.

Calandrella, 422.
Calcarius, 406.
CalorJiamphus, 572.
Calornis, 352.
Campophaga, 464.
Campophilus, 565.
Campothera, 557.
Campy lorhynchus, 511.
Canary, 396.

Capita, 570.

Cardinalis, 381.
Cardinals, 381.

Car duel is, 38.5.
Carpodacus, 397, 405.
Cassicus, 357.
Cassiques, 355, 357.
Cedar- Bird, 467.
Cephaloptenis, 530.
Certhia, 436.

Certhiidx, 436.

I Certkiula, 373
I Certhiparus, 455.
Chatfinches, 382.
Chasmorhynchus, 531.
Chats, 479.

Black, 481.

Desert, 479.
Isabelliiie, 479.
Russet, 479.

Stone, 482.

True, 479.
Chatterers, 530.
Chelidon, 524.
Chelidoptera, 548.
Chibia, 352.
Chlamydodera, 341.
Chloronerpes, .556.
Chloropsis, 513.
Cholorhca, 572.
Choughs, 325, 326.
Chough-Thrushes, 326.
Clirysomitris, 385.
Chrijsophlegma, 557.
Chrysoptilus, 557.
Cicinnurus, 336.
Cinclidm, 507.

Cinclus, 508.
Ciltoeinda, 490.
Coccothra ustes, 378.
Coccolhraustinx, 377.
Cock of the Rock, 535.
Ccerebidx, 373.

Colaptes, 553.
Conostoma, 456.
Copsychus, 489.

albospecularis, 489.
miridanensis, 489.
saularis, 489.
Corvidx, 306.

Cori'us, 309.

albicollis, 310.
capensis, 310.
corax, 309.
coiiiix, 311.
cor one, 311.
crassirostris, 309.
frugilegus, 311.
moneduta, 312.
scapulatus, 310.
Cotile, 524.

Colinga, 534.

Cotingids, 530.

^ Cow- Birds, 358.
Cratcropodidx, 511.

; Crateropus, 512.

INDEX

582

Creej)ei's, 43(5.

iS'ew Zealand, 455.
Tree, 436.

Wall, 437.
Crossbills, 402.

Crows, 306, 309.

Cari'ion, 311.
Clarke’s, 312.
Hooded, 311.

Piping, 323.

White- Bellied, 310.
Vyatiecula, 485.
Cyanoeitta, 320.
Cyanocorax, 321.
Cyanopica, 315.

Cyanops, 572.

Ikmlias, 485.

Deiidrmca, 506.
Dcndrocitta, 318.
Dcndrocoptes, 562.
Dendrocopus, 560.
Dcndropicus, 562.
Dhyal-Bird, 489.
Diamond- Bird, 449.
Dicaeidx, 446.

Dicmim, 446.

Dieriirus, 352.

Bilophus, 347.
Biiiemellia, 363.
Diphyllodes, 336.
magnijica, 336.
wilsoni, 336.
Dippers, 507.
Dolichonyx, 357.
Drepunornis, 332.
Drongos, 352.

Eiuberiza, 408.
aureola, 411.
eirlus, 412.
cUrincUa, 412.
horhclana, 414.
melanacephala, 410.
miliaris, 409.
pusilla, 409.
schaiiiiclns, 408.
Embei'izinae, 405.
Epimachus, 332.
Erythaeus, 485.
calliope, 487.
golzi, 488.
luscinia, 487.
philomela, 488.
rvlecula, 486.
suecicus, 485.
Erythrospiza, 389.
Eslrilda, 369.

Eulnbes, 351.
Ealabetidce., 349.
Eaidionia, 370.
Earylsenius, 538.
Eurylsemidse, 537.
Euspiza, 416.

Falcnnculus, 456.
Fieldfare, 474.

Finches, 377.

Citril, 387.

Desert, 388.

Laysan, 404.

Rose, 397.

Finch es — continued.
Scarlet, 404.

Serin, 394.

Siberian, 405.

Snow, 388.

True, 405.
j Firecre.st, 505.

I Flycatchers, 515.

I American, 527.

Fan tail, 519.
Paradise, 518.

Pied, 516.

^ Red- Breasted, 518.

1 Spotted, 515.

j True, 515.

j Tyrant, 527.

i White-Collared, 517.

Fork-Tails, 482.
Formicivora, 530.
Fringilla, 382.
coelebs, 382.
montifrinyillu, 382.
teydea, 382.
Fringillaria, 416.
FringiUidm, 377.
Fringillinse., 382.
Furnarius, 540.

Galbula, 546.

nidanogenia, 548.
rujicauda, 547.
viridis, 546.

Gale, vita, 420.

Ga.n’ulus, 319.
brandti, 319.
glandariim. 319.
kynicki, 319.
syriaciis, 319.
Gccinus, 555.

aicokcra. 555.
canus, 556.
occipitalis, 556.
sharpei, 556.
'caiUanti, 556.
viridis, 555.
Geocolaptes, 552.
Gerxygone, 491.

Clo'^sy Starlings, 349.
(loldcrests, 504.
Goldfinch, 385.

Crackles, 351.

Graculus, 325.

Graucalus, 464.
Greenfinches, 377.
Greenlets, 464.
Grosbeaks, 379, 397.
Pine, 400.

Rose- Breasted, 379.
Scarlet, 397.
Gymnorhina, 323, 464.
leuconota, 224.
organica, 324.
tibica, 324.

Hang-Nests, 355.
Hawfinches, 378.
Hedge-Sparrow, 503.
Hedymeles, 379.
Hemilophus, 565.
Hemipus, 464.
Uenicurus, 482.

Heteralocha, 327.
llirundinidse, 520,
llirundo, 521.

monteiri, 521.
rufula, 523.
rustica, 521.
senegalensis, 521.
smithi, 521.
Honey-Creepers, 373.
Honey-Eaters, 441.
Honey-Guides, 568.
Honey- Peckers, 446.
Huia-Bird, 327.
Ilyphantornis, 364.
capensis, 365.
galbula, 365.
larrata, 364.
Hypolais, 498.

Hypositta, 439.

Ictcridae, 355.

Icterus, 357.

Indicator, 569.
lyngid.ec, 567.
lyngipicus, 562.
lynx, 567.

eeqicatorialis, 567.
pectoralis, 567.
pxdcliricollis, 567.
torquilla, 568.

Jacamars, 546.

Black -Cheeked, 548.
Broad- Billed, 548.
Green, 546.

Red -Tailed, 547.
True, 546.
Jacamerops, 548.
.Jackdaw, 312.

Java Sparrow, 368.

Jays, 318.

King-Bird, 527.
King-Crow, 352.

Lannprocolius, 349.
Lamprotornis, 349.
Laniidse, 456.

Lanius, 457.

collaris, 460.
erythropterus, 463.
excubitor, 459.
minor, 459.
nubicus, 462.
pomeranus, 461.
Larks, 417.

Black, 425.

Bush, 422.

Calandra, 424.
Crested, 420.

Desert, 421.

Finch, 422.

Horned 426.

Shore, 427.
Short-Tailed, 422.
White-Winged, 425.
Wood, 419.
Lepocetes, 563.

Ligurinus, 377.

Linaria, 387.

Linnets, 387.

1 Liothrix, 514.

INDEX.

583

LocusteUa, 499.
fluviatilis, 500.
liisciiioides, 501.
nxvia, 499.
Lopliorkiiia, 339.

Loxia, 402.

cur I'i, rostra, 402.
himalayann, 401.
japoniea, 404.
luzouiania, 404.
Lullula, 419.
Lyre-Birds, 543.

Magpies, 314.

Azure- Winged, 315.
Blue, 316.

Tree, 318.
Malacoplila, 551.
Maiiakius, .534.

.Martiu.s, 524.

I’urple, 526.

Sand, 524.
Mf-galsema, 572.
Mclanobucco, 571.
Melanerpes, 558.
Melanocorypha, 424.
calandra, 424.
sibirica, 425.
yelloniensis, 425.
Meliphagidae, 441.
Melophus, 416.

Memira, 543.

Meuuridie, 543.

Merida, 474.
Micropternus, 563.
Mimidae, 510.

Mimus, 510.

Minivels, 463.

Mirafra, 422.

Miro, 488.

Mnioliltidie, 500.
•Mocking-Bird, 510.
Molothras, 358.
Munticola, 476.
Moulifringdla, 388.
Motacilla, 423.
alba, 428.
capensis, 432.
citreolu, 430.

Jlava, 430.
lugubris, 429.
mclanops, 430.
MotaciUidx, 428.

Mania, 368.

Mascicapa, 515.

atricapilla, 516.
collar is, 517.
griseola, 515.
pnrva, 518.
Mascicapidm, 515.

Mynas, 347.

Xectarinia, 444.
Xectariniidoe, 444.
Xesoctitcs, 565.
Niglitingale, 487.
Kacifraga, 312.
Nutcrackers, 312.
Nuthatclies, 438.

Orioles, 353.

Oriolidie, 353.

I Oriolus, 354.

I Orlhonyx, 438.

j Oslinops, 357.

Otocorys, 426.

Oven-Birds, 540.

0.\- Birds, 363.

O.x-Peckers, 347.

I’anurus, 454.

Paradigalla, 334.

Paradisea, 334.
a2)oda, 334.
minor, 335.
sanguinca, 335.

Paradiseidx, 329.

Paradoxornis, 456.

Pardalotus, 449.

Paridae, 449.

Parotia, 338.

Parson-Biid, 441.

Parus, 449.
ater, 450.
cser ulcus, 451.
cyanoeus, 451.
major, 449.
palustris, 451.

Passer, 392.

diffusus, 394.
domesticus, 392.
hispaniolensis. 393.
montanus, 393.

Passeres, 305.

Pastor, 346.

Percliing- Birds. 305.

Pericrotus, 463.

Perisoreus, 320.

Petronia, 390.

Pheasant-Tailed Warhler, 502.

Pliilxterus, 367.

Phonygama, 339.

Phylloscopus, 496.
collybita, 496.
sibilatrix, 496.
superciliosus, 496.

Phytotoma, 536.

Phytotnniidce, 536.

Pica, 314.

PicariiB, 546.

Picidee, 551.

Piculets, 565.

Green, 566.

Rufou-!, 567.

Picumnus, 565.

Picus, 565.

Piaicola, 400,

Pijjiiig-Crows, 323, 464.

Pipits, 432.

Pipra, 534.

manacus, 535.

Pitta, 538.

Pittida;, 538.

Plant-Cutters, 536.

Plectrophenax, 405.

Ploceidae, 362.

Ploceus, 364.

Podor.es. 326.

Pogonorhynchus. 571.

Pogonornis, 443.

Pratiiicola, 481, 488.

ProdoriscHS, 569.

Progne, 526.

Propyrrhula, 405,

Prosthemadera, 441.
Pleroglussus, 574.
Plilanorhynchidte, 340.
Ptiloiwrhynchus, 340.

I miorhis, 332.

Pull- Birds, 548.

Dyson’s, 548.

I Panama, 551.

' Swallow-Winged. 548.

Pycnonotidae, 513.

Pycnonotus, 514.
arsinde, 515.
capensis, 515.
j nigricans, 514.

I Pyranga, 371.

Pyromelana, 366.

Pyrrhosinza, 405.

Pyrrhula, 397.

j Quiscalus, 361.

' Ravens, 309.

Redbreast, 486.

Red Cardinals, 381.

Redpoll, 388.

Red-Slionldered Starling, 360.
Redstarts, 482.

Redwing, 475.

Regulus, 504.

calendula, 505.
cristatus, 504.
ignicapillns, 505.
Rhamphastus, 574, 576.
Rhipiidomis, 336.

Rhipidura, 519.
albicollis, 520..
albifrontata, 519.
motacilloides, 520.
Rice-Birds, 357, 368.

Ride- Bird, 332.

Ring-Ousel, 475.

Robin, 486.

Blue-Throated, 485.

New Zealand, 488.
Rock-Thrushes, 476.

Rook, 311.

African, 310.

Rubycrest, 505.

Ruby-Thioat, 487.

Rnpicola, 535.

Ruticilla, 482.

Salpornis, 437.

Sap-Suckers, 558.

Sa-da, 566, 567.

Saxicola, 479.
aenanthc, 479.
deserli, 479.
isabellina, 479.
leucura, 481.
melanoleuca, 479.

I rubetra, 481.

rubicola, 482.

Seleucides, 330.

Selcnidera, 574.

Semioptera, 338.

Seiin, 394.

Scrinus, 394.

Shanias, 490.

I Shrikes, 456.

1 Great Grey, 458.

I Hooded, 463.

5^4

INDEX

Shrikes — continwd.

Lesser Grey, 459.
Masked, 462.

Red- Backed, 460.
True, 457.

Woodchat. 461.
Shrike-Tits, 456.

Sialia, 478.

Siskins, 386.

Sitella, 439.

SMa, 439.

csesia, 439.
neumayeri, 440.
pygmsea, 440.

Sittidm, 438.

Sparrows, 392.

Cape, 394.

House, 392.

Rock, 390.

S[)anish, 393.

/Tree, 393.

Sphccothercs, 354.
Sphyrojncus, 558.
S[)iiie-Tails, 542.

Starlings, 343.

Black, 346.

Coniinon, 344.

Glossy, 349.

Pied, 347.

Red-Shouldered, 360.
Rose-Coloured, 346.
True, 344.

Wattled, 347.
Stejihanophorus, 372.
Stipiluriis, 502.

Stitch -Bird, 443.
Straight-Claws, 438.
Struthidea, 323, 464.
Sturnia, 347.

Sturnidse, 343.
Sturnopastor, 347
Sturnus, 344.

Sun- Birds, 444.

Sutliora, 456.

Swallows, 520.

Chimney, 521.
IMonteiio’s, 520.
Mosque, 521.
Red-Rumped, 523.
Sclater's, 521.
Wire-Tailed, 521.
Sylvia, 491.

atricapiJla, 494.
conspicillata, 493.
curruca, 492.
nisoria, 396.
orpJiea, 493.
riifa, 492.
salicaria, 494.
sarda, 493.
subalpina, 492.
undata, 496.
Sylviparus, 456.
Synallaxis, 542.

Tanagers, 369.

Crimson-Headed. 371.
Scarlet, 371.

V^iolet, 370.
White-Capped, 372.
Tnnagra, 371.

Tanagridse, 369.
Telespiza, 404.
Tephrodornis, 464.
Te.rpsiphone, 518.
Tetragonops, 570.

Textm', 363.
alector, 363.
leucocephala, 363.
niger, 363.

Thrushes, 468.

Laughing, 511.
Missel, 471.

Rock, 476.

Song, 473.

True, 468.
Tichodronm. 437.

Tits, 449.

Azure, 451.

Bearded, 454.

Blue, 451.

Coal, 450.

Crested, 451.

I Crow, 456.

j Great, 449.

Long-Tailed, 452.
Marsh, 451.

Shrike, 456.
Yellow-Browed, 456.
Toucans, 573.

I Aracari, 576.

Curl-Cre.sted, 576.
j Toco, 576.

i Trochalopterus, 511.

I Troupials, 360.

Turdidev, 468.

Tm'dus, 468.
iliacus, 57 o.
musicus, 473.
pilaris, 474.
viscivorus, 471.
Tyrannidx, 527.
j Tyrannus, 527.

I Umbrella-Bird, 530.

Urocissa, 316.
j Urogalba, 546.

* Urraca, 321.

j Verreauxia, 566.

I Vidua, 366.

I Vireonidx, 464.

Wagtails, 428.

Blue-Headed. 430.
Cape, 432.

Grey, 430.

Pied, 429.

White, 428.
Yellow-Headed, 430.
Warblers, 491.

Barred, 496.
Blue-Throated, 485.
Cettian, 501.
Hartford, 496.
Fantail, 502.

Garden, 494.
Grasshopper, 499.
Grey, 491.

Icterine, 498.
Orphean, 493.

Reed, 498.

W a rbl ers — conlin ved.
River, 500.

Sardinian, 493.

Savi's 501.

Sedge, 494.
Spectacled, 493.
Subalpine, 492.

True, 491.

Willow, 496.

Wood, 506.

Yellow- Browed, 496.
Waxwings, 464.

Bohemian, 465.
Japanese, 465.
Weaver- Birds, 362.
Masked, 364.

Sociable, 367.

True, 364.
White-Headed, 363.
Weaver-Finches, 368.

Blood, 369.

Wheatear, 479.

Whinchat, 481.
White-Eyes, 443.
Whitethroat, 492.
Whydah-Birds, 366.

I Wood- Hewers, 540.

I Woodpeckers, 551.

African Green, 556.
American Green, 556.
Black-Naped, 556.
Cardinal, 562.
Ciimson-Headed Bay,
Golden-Tailed, 557.
Golden-Winged, 554.
Great Black, 565.
Green, 555.
Grey-Headed, 556.
Grey Malayan, 565.
Ground, 552.
Ivory-Billed, 565.
Larger-Spotted, 561.
Les.ser Spotted, 561.
Le Yaillant’s, 556.
Lewis’s, 558.
IMiddle-Spotted, 563.
Pampas, 554.

Pied, 560.

Pigmy, 562.
Red-Headed, 558.
i Red-Winged, 553.
j Rufous, 563.

i Sharpe’s, 556.

Three-Toed, 562.
White-Backed, 562.
White-Fronted, 558.
Wood-Warblers, 506.

! Wrens, 508.

' Cactus, 510.

Northern, 510.
j Ti'ue, 509.

1 Warbling, 509.

I Willow, 496.

Wood, 496.
j Wryneck.s, 567.

I Xantholxma, 573.

I Xenojncus. 558.

Zonotrichia, 416.

■ Zosterops, 443.

563

J'HINTEO l;v MORKISO.V AND GIBIJ I.I.MITED, EDINBCKGH

k •

. ■

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