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VIPERINE   GROUP. 


233 


Africa  as  well  as  in  Europe.  It  is  noteworthy  that  in  the  borderland  of  the 
distributional  areas  of  the  two  forms,  such  as  Northern  Spain  and  Italy,  it  is 
difficult  to  say  to  which  of  the  two  any  specimen  may  belong. 

More  numerous  in  Scotland  than  the  ringed  snake,  but,  like  it,  unknown  in 
Ireland,  the  common  viper  generally  frequents  heaths,  dry  woods,  and  sandy  banks. 
Although  its  bite  produces  severe  effects,  it  is  seldom,  unless  the  sufferer  be  very 
young  or  in  ill-health,  that  death  ensues.  During  the  winter  months,  vipers 
generally  hibernate  in  small  parties  for  the  sake  of  mutual  warmth,  several  being 
often  found  twined  together  in  a  torpid  condition. 


LONG-NOSED,    OR  SAND-VIPER  (\  nat.  size). 

Long-Nosed  Another   well-known   poisonous   European   snake    is  the   long- 

Viper,  nosed,  or  sand- viper  (V.  ammodytes),  easily  recognised  by  the 
presence  of  a  soft  horny  appendage  at  the  end  of  the  nose,  covered  with  scales, 
and  not  unlike  a  conical  wart  in  appearance.  It  is  also  distinguished  from  the 
common  viper  by  the  absence  of  any  large  shield,  except  the  supraoculars,  on  the 
top  of  the  head ;  although  in  coloration  the  two  species  are  very  similar.  In  size 
it  is  the  largest  European  representative  of  the  group,  attaining  a  length  in  some 
rare  instances  of  just  over  a  yard.  The  sand- viper  ranges  from  Italy  to  Armenia. 
In  Carinthia  it  is  the  commonest  of  snakes,  while  in  the  Tyrol  it  is  local,  but 
abundant  in  the  south  of  Hungary  and  Dalmatia.  Mainly  nocturnal,  it  is  much 
more  commonly  found  in  hilly  than  in  level  districts,  ascending  in  the  mountains 


THE     ROYAL 


NATURAL     HISTORY 


RAT-SNAKE   AND     COBRAS. 


THE    ROYAL 
NATURAL    HISTORY 


EDITED     BY 


RICHARD    LYDEKKER,    B.A.,    F.R.S.,    ETC. 


WITH     PREFACE     BY 

P.     L.     SCLATER,     M.A.,     PH.D.,     F.R.S.,     ETC. 

SECRETARY  OF  THE  ZOOLOGICAL  SOCIETY  OF  LONDON 


ILLUSTRATED    WITH 

Seventy-two    Coloured   Plates   and  Sixteen   Hundred   Engravings 

BY 

W.  KUHXERT,  F.   SPECHT,  P.  J.   SMIT,  G.   M1JTZEL,  A.   T.   ELWES,  J.  WOLF, 
GAMBIER   BOLTON,  F.Z.S.:    AND  MANY  OTHERS 


VOL.    V. 


LONDON" 
FREDERICK     WARNE      &      CO. 

AND     NEW     YORK 

1896 

[All  Rights  Rt served} 


6 

'" 

* 


MORRISON    AND  GIBB.   PRINTERS     EDINBURGH 


CONTENTS 


REPTILES 


CHAPTER  I. — GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  CLASS  EEPTILIA. 

DIFFERENCES  BETWEEN  REPTILES  AND  OTHER  VERTEBRATES  —  Diversity  of  Form  and 
Structure — Skeleton— Teeth — Vertebrae — Classification  and  Distribution, 

CHAPTER  II.— CROCODILES,  DINOSAURS,  AND  FLYING  DRAGONS,— Orders  Crocodilia, 
Dinosauria,  and  Ornithosauria. 

Characteristics  of  Crocodiles — Their  Habits — Existing  Crocodiles  (Crocodilidce) — Caimans 
(Caiman) — Alligators  (Alligator} — Double-Tusked  Alligators  (Diplocynodon) — Stumpy 
Crocodile  (Osteolcemus) — True  Crocodiles  (Crocodilus) — Indian  Crocodile — Estuarine 
Crocodile  —  Nile  Crocodile  —  Siam  Crocodile  —  Sharp  -  Nosed  Crocodile  —  Orinoco 
Crocodile — Long-Nosed  Crocodile — Schlegel's  Garial  (Rhynchosuchus) — Garial  (Garialis) 
— Extinct  Garial — The  Earlier  Crocodiles — The  Extinct  Dinosaurs  (Dinosauria) — 
Flying  Dragons,  or  Pterodactyles  (Ornithosauria),  ..... 

CHAPTER  III. — TORTOISES,  TURTLES,  AND  PLESIOSAURS, — Orders  Chelonia 

and  Sauropterygia. 

Characteristics  of  Tortoises  and  Turtles  (Chelonia) — Their  Habits  and  Distribution — The 
Land-Tortoises  and  Terrapins  (Testudinidce) — Land-Tortoises  (Testudo) — Florida  Tor- 
toise— Brazilian  Tortoise — Burmese  Brown  Tortoise — Elegant  Tortoise — Giant  Tor- 
toises —  Aldabra  Tortoise  —  Mascarene  Tortoises — Galapagos  Tortoises  —  Grecian 
Tortoise— Other  Species— Angulated  Tortoise— Areolated  Tortoise  (Homopus)— Hinged 
Tortoises  (Cinixys) — Spider-Tortoise  (Pyxis) — Spinose  Land-Terrapin  (Geoemydd) — 
Chaibassa  Terrapin  (Nicoria)— Hinged  Terrapins  (Cydemys)— Box-Tortoises  (Cistudo) 
—Pond-Tortoises  (Emys)— Terrapins— Sculptured  Terrapin  (Clemmys)— Thick-Necked 
Terrapin  (Bellia)— Hamilton's  Terrapin  (Damonia)— Soft- Water  Terrapin  (Malaco- 
clemmys)  —Painted  Terrapin  (Chrysemys)—Eyed  and  Chinese  Terrapins  (Morenia) — 


10 


252335 


vi  CONTENTS 

Batagurs  (Cachuga,  etc.) — Big-Headed  Tortoise  (Platysternidce) — Mud-Terrapins  and 
their  Allies  (Cinosternidce  and  Dermatemydidce) — Maw's  Terrapin  (Dermatemys) — The 
Snappers  and  Alligator  -  Terrapins  (Chelydridce) — Alligator  -  Terrapin  (Chelydra) — 
Tcmminck's  Snapper  (Macrodemmys) — The  Turtles  (Chelonidce)—  Green  and  Hawks- 
bill  Turtles  (Chelo ne)— Loggerhead  Turtle  (Thalassochelys)— Habits  of  Turtles— Tor- 
toise-Shell—Extinct Turtles— Leathery  Turtles  (Dermochelyidce)—The  Side-Necked 
Tortoises  (Chelyidm  and  Pelomedusidce) — Matamata  Tortoise  (Chelys) — Snake-Necked 
Tortoises  (Hydromedusa) —  Australian  Long-Necked  Tortoises  (Chelodina) —  Other 
Genera — Greaved  Tortoises  (Podocnemis) — Allied  Genera — Fly  River  Turtle  (Caretto- 
chelyidce) — Australian  Horned  Tortoises  (Miolaniidce) — Extinct  European  Genera — 
Generalised  Chelonians  (Pleurosternum,  etc.)  —  The  Soft- Tortoises  (Trionychidce) — 
Typical  Genus  (Trionyx) — Granulated  Soft-Tortoises  (Emyda,  etc.) — Habits  of  the 
Group — The  Plesiosaurs,  or  Long-Necked  Marine  Lizards  (Order  Sauropterygia), 

CHAPTER  IV.— SCALED  REPTILES— LIZARDS  AND  CHAMELEONS,— Order  Squamata  ; 
Suborders,  Lacertilia  and  Ehiptoglossa. 

Characteristics  of  the  Order — Skull — Ribs  and  Vertebrae — Other  Characters — Special  Charac- 
ters of  Lizards  (Suborder  Lacertilia) — Numbers  and  Distribution — Habits — The  Geckos 
(Geckonidce)  —  Lobe-Footed  Gecko  (Ptyodactylus)  —  Turkish  Gecko  (Hemidactylus)  — 
Fringed  Gecko— Wall-Gecko— Habits  of  the  Group— Eyelid  Geckos— The  Scale-Footed 
Lizards  (Pygopodidce) — The  Agamoid  Lizards  (Agamidce) — Flying-Lizards  (Draco) — 
Oriental  Tree-Lizards  (Calotes) — Ceylon  Horned  Lizards  (Ceratophora) — Typical  Group 
(Agama) — Armed  Agama — Spinose  Agama — Rough-Tailed  Agama — Australian  Frilled 
Lizard  (Chlamydosaurus) —  Sail-Tailed  Lizard  (Lophurus) —  Thorny-Tailed  Lizards 
(Uromastix) — Habits— East  African  Thorny-Tailed  Lizards  (Aporoscelis)-  -Moloch  Lizard 
(Moloch) — The  Iguanoid  Lizards  (Iguanidce) — Anolis  Lizards  (Anolis) — Allied  Genera — 
Basilisks  (Basiliscus) — Ridge-Headed  Lizards  (Corythophanes) — Stilted  Lizards  (Uranis- 
codon) — The  Sea-Lizard  (Amblyrkynchus) — Galapagos  Land-Lizard  (Conolophus) — True 
Iguanas  (Iguana) — Ring- Tailed  Iguana  (Cyclura) — Extinct  Iguanas — Horned  Lizards 
(Phrynosoma) — The  Girdled  Lizards  (Zonuridce) — Girdle-Tailed  Lizard  (Zonurus) — The 
Snake-Like  Lizards  (Anguidce) — Scheltopusiks  (Ophisaurus) — Blind-Worm  (Anguis) — 
The  Poisonous  Lizards  (Helodermatidce) — The  Monitors  (Varanidce) — Their  Habits — 
The  Greaved  Lizards  (Teiidce) — The  Teju  (Tupinambis) — The  Ameivas  (Ameiva) — The 
Amphisb8enas(.4  mphisbcenidce) — Handed  Amphisbsena  (Chirotes) — Typical  Amphisbsenas 
(Amphisbcena) — The  True  Lizards  (Lacertidce) — Pearly  Lizard  (Lacertd) — Green  Lizard — 
Sand-Lizard — Viviparous  Lizard — Wall- Lizard — Keeled  Lizards  (Algiroides) — Fringe- 
Toed  Lizards  (Acanthodactylus)—The  Skink  Tribe  (Scincidce)— Stump-Tailed  Lizard 
(Trachysaurus)  —  Snake-Eyed  Lizards  (Ablepharus) — True  Skinks  (Scincus) — Bronze 
Lizards  (Chalcides) — Other  Families  (Anelytropidce  and  Dibamidce) — The  Chameleons 
(Suborder  Ehiptoglossa) — Their  Habits,  ....... 

CHAPTER  V. — SCALED  REPTILES, — continued.     THE  SXAKES — Suborder  Ophidia. 

Distinctive  Characters  and  Structure — Teeth — Harmless  and  Poisonous  Snakes — Distribution 
— Habits — The  Blind  Snakes  (Typhlopodidce  and  Glauconiidce) — The  Pythons  and  Boas 
(Boidce) — True  Pythons  (Python) — Their  Distribution  and  Habits — The  Various  Species  — 
Allied  Genera  (Loxocemus,  Nardoa,  etc.) — Tree-Boas  (Epicrates) — Dog-Headed  Tree- 
Boa  (Corallus) — Keeled  Tree-Boas  (Enygrus) — Anaconda  (Euneces) — True  Boas  (Boa) — 
Keel-Scaled  Boa  (Casarea)— Sand-Snakes  (Eryx)— Allied  Genera  (Lichanura,  etc.)— 
Extinct  Python-Like  Snakes  (Palceophis) — The  Cylinder-Snakes  (Ilysiidce) — Coral 
Cylinder-Snake  (Ili/sia)—  Red  Snake  (Cylindrophis)—T\ie  Shield-Tails  (Uropeltidce)— 
The  Colubrine  Snakes  (Colubridce)  —  Wart-Snakes  (A crochordus)  —  Water  -  Snakes 
(Tropidonotus)— Ringed  Snake— Tesselated  and  Viperine  Snakes— Oblique-Eyed  Snakes 
(Helicops)— Pigmy  Snakes  (Calamaria) — Sling-Snakes  (Coronella) — Fierce  Snakes 
(Zamenis) — Horseshoe  Snake— Rat-Snake — Running  Snakes  (Ptyas) — Climbing  Snakes 


CONTENTS  vii 

PAGE 

{Coluber) — Black- Marked  Snake — Wood-Snakes  (Herpetodryas)  —  Tree-Snakes  (Dend- 
rophis  and  Dendrelaphis) — Egg-Eating  Snake  (Dasypeltis) — Moon-Snakes  (Scytale) — Cat- 
Snake  (Tarbophis) — Nocturnal  Tree -Snakes  (Dipsas) — Back-Fanged  Tree -Snakes 
(Philodryas  and  Dryophis) —  Sharp -Nosed  Snakes  (Oxybelis) — Oriental  Fresh- Water 
Snakes  (Homalopsince) — Coral-Snake  (Elaps}  —  Kesplendent  Adders  (Callophis) — Long- 
Glanded  Snakes  (Adeniophis) — Craits  (Bunrjarus) — Cobras  (Naia)—  Their  Habits — 
Death  -  Adders  (Pseudechis) — Sea  -  Snakes  (Hydrophiince) — Broad-Tailed  Sea  -  Snakes 
(Platurus) — Parti-Coloured  Sea-Snake  (Hydrus) — Black- Banded  Sea-Snake  (Distira) — 
The  Vipers  (  Viperidce) — True  Vipers  (  Viperince) — Common  Viper  ( Vipera) — Southern 
Viper — Long-Nosed  Viper — Kussell's  Viper — Puff- Adder — Horned  Vipers  (Cerastes) — 
Desert  Saw- Vipers  (Echis) — Kattle-Snakes  (Crotalince) — Common  Rattle-Snake  (Cro- 
talus) — Diamond  Rattle-Snake — South  American  Rattle-Snakes — Habits  of  Rattle- 
Snakes  —  The  Bushmaster  (Lachesis) — Halys  Vipers  (Ancistrodon) — Himalayan  Halys 
Siberian  Halys — Copper-Head  Snake — Water- Viper — Typical  Pit- Vipers  (Trimere- 
saurus)  —  Jararaca  —  Extinct  Groups  of  Scaled  Reptiles  —  Long-Necked  Lizards 
(Dolichosauria) — Cretaceous  Sea-Serpents  (Pythonomorpha),  ,  .  .  .174 

CHAPTER  VI. — THE  REMAINING  GROUPS  OF  REPTILES, — Orders  Ichthyopterygia, 
Rhynchocephalia,  and  Anomodontia. 

The  Fish- Lizards  (Order  Ichthyopterygia) — The  Beaked  Lizards  (Order  Rhynchocephalia) — The 
Tuatera  (Sphenodon) — Allied  Extinct  Families  (Homceosauridce  and  Rhynchosauridce) — 
Oldest  Types  (Proterosaurus,  etc.) — The  Anomodonts,  or  Mammal- Like  Reptiles  (Order 
Anomodontia) — Dicynodonts  and  Theriodonts,  ......  250 


AMPHIBIANS 

CHAPTER  I.— GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OP  THE  CLASS  AMPHIBIA — FROGS  AND  TOADS 

—  Order  Ecaudata. 

DISTINCTION  BETWEEN  AMPHIBIANS  AND  REPTILES— Skin  of  Amphibians— Skeleton— Soft 
Parts — Development — Distribution — Habits — Characteristics  of  Frogs  and  Toads — The 
Typical  Frogs  (Ranidce) — Water-Frogs  (Rana) — European  Frogs — Bull-Frogs — Oxy- 
glossus  —  Flying  Frogs  (Rhacophorus)  —  Solid- Chested  Tree-Frogs  (Dendrobatidce) — 
The  Narrow-Mouthed  Frogs  (Engystomatidce) — Sharp-Nosed  Frog  (Ceratobatrachidce)— 
The  Southern  Frogs  (Leptodactylidce) — Horned  Frogs  (Ceratophrys) — Leaf -Frogs  (Hylodes) 
-Piping-Frogs  (Leptodactylus^—The  Toads  (Bufonida)— True  Toads  (Bufo)— Green 
Toad  —  Natterjack  Toad  —  Sharp-Nosed  Toad  (Rhinophrynus)  —  The  Overlapping- 
Chested  Tree-Frogs  (Hylidce) — Grasshopper-Frog  (Acris) — Typical  Tree-Frogs  (Hyla) 
—Their  Nesting  -  Habits  —  Pouched  Tree-Frogs  (Nototrema)  —  Pouched  Tree-Frogs 
(Pelobatidce)— Brown  Toad-Frog  (Pelobates)— Other  Genera  (Pelodytes,  etc.)— Allied 
Extinct  Frogs  (Palceobatrachidce) — The  Disc-Tongued  Frogs  (Discoglossidce) — Fire- 
Bellied  Frog  (Bombinator) — Midwife-Frogs  (Alytes) — Other  Families  (Amphignat hodon- 
tidce  and  Hemiphractid^—The,  Tongueless  Frogs  (Xenoyfididce  and  Pipidce)— Spur-Toed 
Frogs  (Xenop us)— Surinam  Water-Toad  (Pipa\  .  .  .  .  .  .257 

CHAPTER  II. — NEWTS,  SALAMANDERS,  AND  COZCILIANS, — Orders  Caudata  and  Apoda. 

Distinctive  Characters  of  the  Caudata— Their  Distribution  and  Habits— The  Salamander 
Tribe  (Salamandridce) — Typical  Salamanders  (Salamandra)  —  Alpine  Salamander — 
Spanish  Salamander  (Chioglossa)— Newts  (Molge)— Crested  Newt— Marbled  Newt- 
Alpine  Newt — Common  Newt — Webbed  Newt — Other  Species — Habits  of  Newts — 
Spectacled  Salamander  (Salamandrina) — Other  Genera  (Tylotriton  and  Pachytriton) — 
Axolotls  (Amblystoma) — Other  Genera — The  Fish-Like  Salamanders  (Amphiumidce)  — 
Giant  Salamander  (Megalobatrachus)  —  Hell-Bender  (Cryptobranchus') — Three-Toed 


viii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Salamander  (Amphiuma) — The  Gilled  Salamanders  (Proteidfc)—  Olm  (Proteus)  — 
Furrowed  Salamander  (Necturus) — Two-Legged  Salamanders  (Sirenidce) — The  Coecil- 
ians,  or  Worm-Like  Amphibians  (Order  Apoda), .  .  .  .  .  .  289 

CHAPTEE  III. — THE  PRIMEVAL  SALAMANDERS, — Order  Labyrinthodontia. 
Characters  and  Distribution  of  the  Group — The  Leading  Families  and  Genera,  .  ,       311 


FISHES 

CHAPTER  I. — GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  CLASS  PISCES. 

CLASSIFICATION — External  Skeleton — Internal  Skeleton — Teeth — Coloration — Soft   Parts — 

Reproduction — Tenacity  of  Life — Distribution,   ,  .  .  .  .  .314 

CHAPTER  II. — LUNG-FISHES  AND  CHIM^ROIDS, — Subclasses  Dipnoi  and  Holocephali. 

Existing  Lung-Fishes  (Lepidosirenidce) — Australian  Lung-Fish  (Ceratodus) — South  American 
Mud-Fish  (Lepidosiren) — African  Mud-Fish  (Protopterus) — Extinct  Lung-Fishes — Berry- 
Bone  Fishes  (Order  Arihrodira)— The  Chimaeroids  (Subclass  Holocephali},  .  .  325 

CHAPTER  III.— THE  BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS,— Subclass  Teleostomi. 

Classification — Fan-Finned  Group  (Order  Actinopterygii) — Spine-Finned  Fishes  (Suborder 
Acanthopterygii) — The  Perch  Tribe  (Percidce) — True  Perches  (Perca) — Pike- Perches 
(Lucioperca) — Danubian  Perches  (Aspro) — Ruffes  (Acerind) — Centrarchidce — Bass  and 
Sea- Perches  (Serranidce)-  South  American  Perch  and  Bass  (Perdchthys  and  Morone) — 
Sea-Perch  (Centropristes,  Serranus,  etc.) — Stone-Bass  (Polyprion) — Oriental  and  African 
Perches  (Lates  and  Psammoperca) — Scaly-Finned  Fishes  (Chcetodontidce) — Chcetodon — 
Chelmon — Heniochus — Holacanthus — Red  Mullets  (Mullidce) — Sea-Breams  (Sparidce) — 
Cantharus — Haplodactylus — Sargus — Gilt-Heads  (Chrysophrys)  —  Knife-Jawed  Fishes 
(Hoplognathidce) — Thick-Rayed  Fishes  (Girrhitidce)  —  Cirrhitichthys  —  Chilodactylus — 
Scorpsenoids  (Scorpcenidce) — Allied  Families — Berycoids,  or  Slime-Heads  (Berychidce) — 
Curtidce  and  Polynemidce  —  Scisenoids  (Scicenidce)  —  Drum  (Pogonias)  —  Umbrines 
(Umbrina) — Meagres  (Sciwna) — Sword -Fishes  (Xiphiidce) — Scabbard-Fishes  and  Hair- 
Tails  (TricTiiurid.ee) — Scabbard-Fish  (Lepidopus) — Hair-Tails  (Trichiurus) — Barracudas 
(Thyrsites) — Extinct  Forms — Surgeons  (Acronuridce) — Horse-Mackerels  (Carangidce) — 
Typical  Group  (Caranx) — Pilot-Fish  (Naucrates) — Sea-Bats  (Platax) — Dories  (Cyttidce) 
— Stromateids  and  Coryphsenas  (Stromateidce  and  Coryphcenidce)—Coryphcena— Sun-Fish 
(Lampris) — Nomeeids  (Nomceidce) — Mackerels  (Scomberidce)  —  Thunnies  (Thynnus) — 
Sucking-Fishes  (Echeneis) — Star-Gazers  and  Weavers  (Trachinidce) — Uranoscoptts — 
Trachinus — Tile-Fish  (Lopholatilus)  —  Other  Groups  —  Soft-Spines  and  Frog- Fishes 
(Malacanthidce  and  Batrachidce) — Batrachus — Angler-Fish  and  their  Allies  (Lopliiidce) 
— Anglers  (Lophius) — Tentacle-Fish  (Antennarius) — Bull-Heads  and  Gurnards  (Cot- 
tidce— Bull-Heads  (Coitus)— Gurnards  ( Trigla)— Beaked  Gurnards  (Peristethus)— Flying 
Gurnards  (Dactylopterus) — Dragon-Fishes  (Pegasus) — Lump-Suckers  (Cyclopteridce) — 
Gobies  and  Mud-Skippers  (Gobiidce) — Gobius — Periophthalmus — Band-Fishes  (Cepolidce) 
— Hairy-Backs  (Trichonotidai) — Chiridw — Blennies  (Blenniidce) — Viviparous  Blennies 
(Zoarces) — Wolf -Fishes  (Anarrhichas)  —  Oblique-Spined  Blenny  (Acanthodinidce) — 
Spiny  Eels  (Rhynchobdellidce) — Oil-Fish  (Comephorus) — Barracuda-Pikes  (Sphyrcenida) — 
Sand-Smelts  (Atherinidce) — Square-Tail  (Tetragonurus) — Grey  Mullets  (Mugilidce) — 
Gar-Pike  and  Flying-Fish  (Scombresocidce) — Gar- Pike  (Belone) — Flying-Fish  (Exoccetus) 
— Sticklebacks  (Gastrosteidce)  —  Flute-Mouths  (Aulostomatidce) — Trumpet-Fish  (Cen- 
triscidce) — Sucker-Fishes  (Gobioesocidce) — Serpent-Heads  (Ophiocephalidre) — Labyrinth- 
Gilled  Fishes  (Anabantidce  and  Lnciocephalidce) — Climbing- Perch  (Anabas) — Paradise- 
Fish  (Poly acanthus) — Gurami  (Osphromenus) — Fighting-Fish  (Betta) — Unicorn-Fish 


CONTENTS  ix 

PAGE. 

(Lophotidce)— Ribbon-Fish  (  Trachypteridce)— Thornbacks  (Notacanthidce)-Pomacentridce 

Wrasses   (Labridce) — True  Wrasses  (Labrus) — Parrot-Wrasses  (Scarus) — Viviparous 

Wrasses  (Diatrematidce) — Chromids  (Chromididce) — Tuft-Gilled  Fishes  (Suborder  Lopho- 
branchii) — Mailed  Tube- Mouths  (Solenostomatida) — Pipe-Fishes  and  Sea-Horses  (Syn- 
gnathidce)  —  Comb-Gilled  Group  (Suborder  Plectognathi)  —  File-Fishes  and  Coffer- 
Fishes  (Balistidce) — Globe-Fishes  and  Sun-Fishes  (Diodontidce) — Soft-Finned  Fishes 
(Suborder  Anacanthini) — Lycodidce — The  Cod  Tribe  (Gadidce) — True  Cod  (Gadus) — 
Haddock — Other  Species — Hakes  (Merluccius) — Burbot  (Lota) — Ling  and  Rockling 
(Molva) — Sand-Eels  and  their  Allies  (OpTiidiidce) —  Cave-Fish  (Lucifuga)  —  Snake- 
Fishes  (Ophidium) — Parasitic  Fish  (Fierasfer) — Sand-Eels  (Ammodytes) — Conyrodus — 
The  Long- Tails  (Macruridce) — Flat-Fishes  (Pleuronedidce) — Psettodes — Holibut  (Hippo- 
glossus) — Turbot,  etc.  (Rhombus) — Plaice  and  Flounder  (Pleuronectes) — Soles  (Solea) — 
Blind  Soles  (Soleotalpa)— The  Tube-Bladdered  Fishes  (Suborder  Physostomi)— Eel 
Tribe  (Murcenidce) — Mursenas  (Murcena) — True  Eels  (Anguilla) — Congers  (Conger) — 
Serpent-Eels  (Ophichthys) — Deep-Sea  Eels  (Synaphobranchus) — Single-Slit  Eels  (Sym- 
branchidce) — Electric  Eel  (Gymnotidce)  —  Cat-Fishes  (Siluridce)  —  Eel-Like  Cat-Fish 
(Glarias)— Wels  (Silurus)—  Yarrell's  Cat-Fish  (Sagarins)— Electric  Cat-Fishes  (Mala- 
pterurus) — Mailed  Cat-Fishes  (Gallichthys,  etc.) — Carp  Tribe  (Cyprinidce) — True  Carp 
(Cyprinus) — Crucian  and  Golden  Carp  (Carassius) — Barbels  (Barbus) — Gudgeon  (Gobio) 
— White-Fish  (Leuciscus) — Tench  (Tinea) — Beaked  Carp  (Chondrostoma) — Bitterling 
(Rhodeus) — Bream  (Abramis) — Rapfen  (A spins) — Bleak  (Alburnus) — Sichel  (Pelecus) 
Loaches  (Cobitis,  etc.) — African  Loaches  (Kneriidce) — Characinoid  Fishes  (Erythrinidce) 
Cyprinodonts  (Cyprinodontidm) — Double-Eyes  (Anableps) — Blind-Fish  (Amblyopsidce) 
Uinbres  (Umbridce) — Pike  (Esocidce) — African  Beaked-Fish  (Mormyridce) — Feather- 
Backs  (Notopteridce)  —  Southern  Pikelets  (Galaxiidce)  —  Arapaimas  (Osteoglossidce) — 
Arapaima  (Arapaima) — Barbelled  Arapaima  (Osteoglossum)— Small- Mouthed  Arapaima 
(Heterotis) — Moon-Eye  (Hyodontidce)  —  Chisel- Jaw  (Pantodontidce)  —  Beaked  Salmon 
(Gonorhynchidce) — The  Scopeloids  (Scopelidce) — Phosphorescent  Scopeloids  (Sternopty- 
chidce  and  Stomateidce) — Silvery  Light-Fish  (Photichthys) — Hedgehog-Mouths  (Echio- 
stoma) — The  Dorab  (Chirocentridce)  —  Long-Finned  Herring  (Bathythrissidce)  —  The 
Extinct  Saurodonts  (Enchodontidce,  Saurocephalidce,  etc.) — The  Herring  Tribe  (Clupeidoe) 
— Typical  Group  (Glupea) — Fresh- Water  Herrings  (Diplomystus) — Anchovies  (Enymulis) 
— Slops — Slender-Scales  (Leptolepis) — The  Smooth-Heads  (Alepocephalidce) — Southern 
Salmon  (Haplochitonidce)  —  Salmon  Tribe  (Salmonidce)  —  Typical  Group  (Salmo) — 
Salmon — Trout — Charr — Many-Rayed  Salmon  (Onchorhynchus) — Smelts  (Osmerus) — 
Coregonoids  (Coregonus) — Grayling  (Thymallus) — Percopsidce  —  Bony  Pike  and  its 
Kindred  (Suborder  sEtheospondyli)  —  Existing  Types  (Lepidosteidce)  —  Spear-Beaks 
(Aspidorhynchidce") — The  Bow-Fin  and  its  Allies  (Suborder  Protospondyli) — Existing 
Family  (Amiidce) — Extinct  Families  (Pachycormidce,  etc.) — The  Sturgeon  Tribe  (Sub- 
order Chondrostei) — Toothed  Sturgeons  (Polyodontidce) — Toothless  Sturgeons — (Acipen- 
seridce) — True  Sturgeons  (Acipenser) — Shovel-Beaked  Sturgeons  (Scaphirhynchus') — 
Allied  Extinct  Families  (Chondrosteidce,  etc.) — Fringe-Finned  Ganoids  (Order  Cros- 

)— Existing  Species  (Polypteridce) — Extinct  Families,    ....       333 


CHAPTER  IV.— SHARKS  AND  RAYS,— Subclass  Elasmobranchii. 

Distinctive  Features— The  Blue  Shark  and  its  Allies  (Carchariidce)— Typical  Genus  (Car- 
charias) — Tope  (Galeus) — Hammerheads  (Sphyrna) — Hounds  (Mustelus)  —  Porbeagle 
Group  (Lamnidce)  —Porbeagles  (Lamna) — Rondeleti's  Shark  (Carcharodon)— Fox- Shark 
(Alopecias) — Basking-Shark  (Cetorhinus) — Indo-Pacific  Basking-Shark  (Rhinodontidce) 
— Dog-Fishes  and  Their  Allies  (Scylliidce^—Tfue  Dog- Fishes  (Scyllium)—  Other 
Genera — Pavement-Toothed  Sharks  (Cestraciontidaz) — Comb-Toothed  Sharks  (Noti- 
danidce) — Typical  Genus  (Notidanus)  —  Frill-Gilled  Shark  (Chlamydoselache)  —  The 
Spiny  Dog-Fishes  and  their  Allies  (Spinacidce)— The  Extinct  Petalodonts  (Petalodon- 
tidw) — The  Angel-Fish  (Squatinidce) — The  Saw-Fishes  (Pristiophoridce  and  Pristidce) — 


x  CONTENTS 

Side-Gilled  Saw-Fishes  (Pristiophorus)  —  True  Saw-Fishes  (Prises)— Beaked  Rays 
(Rhinobatidce) — Typical  Genus  (Rhinobatis) — Bhynchobatis — The  True  Rays,  or  Skates 
(Raiidce)—  Electric  Rays  (Torpedinidce)— The  Eagle-Rays  (Myliobatidce)— Typical  Genus 
(Myliobatis) — Other  Genera  (Aetobatis,  etc.) — Sting-Rays  (Trygonidce) — Lobe-Finned 
Sharks  (Ichthyotomi)  —  Fold -Finned  Sharks  (Cladodontia)  —  Spine -Finned  Sharks 
(Acanthodii),  ......  . 

THE   LOWEST  VERTEBRATES  AND  THEIR 

ALLIES 

CHAPTER  I.— THE  LAMPREY  GROUP,— Class  Cyclostomatc,. 

•CHARACTERS  OP  CHORDATES  AND  NON-CHORDATES — Lampreys  and  Hag-Fishes  (Subclass 
Marsipobranchii) — True  Lampreys  (Petromyzum) — Southern  Lampreys  (Mordacia,  etc.) 
— Hag-Fishes  (Myxinidw) — Primeval  Lampreys  (Palceospondyhis), 

CHAPTER  II. — THE  ARMOURED  PRIMEVAL  VERTEBRATES, — Subclass  Ostracophori. 
Pteraspis — Cephalaspis — Pterichthys,          ........ 

CHAPTER  III. — THE  LANCELETS, — Subkingdom  Protochordata — Class  Leptocardii. 
•Common  Lancelets  (Branchiostoma),          .  .  .  .  .  .    • 

CHAPTER  IV.  —THE  SEA-SQUIRTS  OR  ASCIDIANS,— Class  Tunicata. 

Structure  of  Ascidians — Development — Typical  Ascidians — Non- Luminous  Pelagic  Ascidians 
— Tailed  Ascidians,  .  .  ...... 

CHAPTER  V. — WORM-LIKE  PROTOCHORDATES, — Class  Enteropneusta. 
Balanoglossus — Other  Forms — Ancestry  of  Chordates,     ...... 

INDEX 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


COLOURED    PLATES 

HAT-SNAKE  AND  COBRAS,  .....  .      Frontispiece 

SOFT  RIVER-TORTOISES,    ........  Facing  page  99 

THE  BLACK  IGUANA,        .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  „       128 

WATER-MONITORS  ROBBING  A  NEST,       ........       152 

WALL  LIZARDS,     ...  1  .....  ,,163 

CHAMELEONS,        .........  „       172 

GHIM^ERA,  .............        332 

GURNARDS,  ...........       383 

•GLOBE-FISH  AND  COFFER-FISH,  .  .  ...  .,       428 

FLAT-FISH,  ...........        441 

A  SALMON  LEAP,.  .  .......        496 

BLUE  SHARK,        ............       522 

PAGE    PLATES 

BLACK  CAIMANS  AT  HOME,          ........  Page      11 

GIANT  TORTOISES  OF  THE  GALAPAGOS  ISLANDS,           .            .            .            .  .  ,,54 

ROUGH-TAILED  AGAMA  BASKING,            .            .            .            .            .            .  „       105 

A  FAMILY  OF  VIPERS,      .            .            .            .            .            .            .             .  .  ,,231 

GROUP  OF  SCALY-FINNED  FISHES,          .....  .  „       342 

GIANT  AND  COMMON  STURGEONS,           .            .             .            .            .            .  .  ,,511 

ASCIDIANS,             ...                         .....  Facing     „       549 

TEXT    ENGRAVINGS 

REPTILES 


Mississippi  Alligator,  ...  1 

Skull  of  Crocodile,  ...  2 

Pelvis  of  Dinosaur,  ...  3 

Skeleton  of  Ichthyosaur,  ...  4 

Skeleton  of  Armoured  Dinosaur,  .  .  4 

Tooth  of  Plesiosaur,  ...  5 

Skull  of  Cyamodus,  ...  5 

Skull  of  Flying  Dragon,  ...  5 

Vertebra  of  Dinosaur,  ...  6 


Vertebra  of  Snake,  .  .  6 

Skeleton  of  Crocodile,  .  10 

Skull  of  Extinct  Crocodile,  .  .13 

Spectacled  Caiman,  .  .  .16 

Mississippi  Alligator,  .  .  .19 

Stumpy  Crocodile,  .  .  .21 

Estuarine  Crocodile,  .  .  .23 

Nile  Crocodile,        .  24 

Sharp-Nosed  Crocodile,  ...         26 


Vertebra  of  Fish-Lizard,    .  .  .61  Long-Nosed  Crocodile,        ...         28 


Xll 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Gangetic  Garial,      .             .             .  .30 

Restoration  of  the  Iguanodon,       .  .         33 

Vertebra  of  Dinosaur,         .            .  .34 

Tooth  of  Hoplosaur,            .             .  .34 

Tooth  of  Pelorosaur,            .  35 

Hind-Foot  of  Dinosaur,      .             .  .35 
Huckle-Bone  and  Tibia  of  Megalosaur,      .         36 

Skeleton  of  Claosaur,          .  36 

Tooth  of  Iguanodon,           .             .  .37 

Teeth  of  Trachodon,           .             .  .37 

Toe-Bone  of  Armoured  Dinosaur, .  .         37 

Skull  of  Horned  Dinosaur,            .  .         38 
Restored  Skeleton  of  Horned  Dinosaur,    .         39 

Skeleton  of  Pterodactyle,  .            .  .40 
Restoration  of  Long-Tailed  Pterodactyle, .         41 

Shells  of  Chaibassa  Terrapin,         .  .         42 

Skull  of  Gangetic  Soft-Tortoise,    .  .         43 

Skeleton  of  Tortoise,           .             .  .44 
Diagram  of  Plates  on  Shell  of  a  Tortoise, .         45 

Plastron  of  Chaibassa  Terrapin,     .  ,         47 

Skull  of  Tortoise,   .             .             .  .47 

Brazilian  Tortoise, .             .             .  .49 

Shell  of  Burmese  Brown  Tortoise,  .         51 

Elegant  Tortoise,    .            .             .  .52 

Elephant-Tortoise, .            .            .  .56 

Grecian  Tortoise,    .            .             .  .60 

Areolated  Tortoise,             .             .  .62 

Dentated  Hinged  Tortoise,             .  .         63 

Bell's  Hinged  Tortoise,       .             .  .64 

Chaibassa  Terrapin,            .             .  .66 

Carolina  Box-Tortoise,        .            .  .67 

European  Pond-Tortoise,   .             .  .69 

Sculptured  Terrapin,          .            .  .71 

Carapace  of  Hamilton's  Terrapin, .  .         72 

Painted  Terrapin,   .             .-            .  .73 

Carapace  of  Smith's  Batagur,         .  '  .         74 

Skull  of  Big-Headed  Tortoise,       .  .         75 

Big-Headed  Tortoise,          .            .  .76 

Pennsylvanian  Mud-Terrapin,       .  .         77 

Alligator- Terrapin,             .             .  .79 

Green  Turtle,          .             .             .  .82 

Hawksbill  Turtles  Swimming,       .  .         83 

Young  Loggerhead  Turtle,              .  .         84 

Leathery  Turtle,     .             .             .  .87 
Humerus  of  Extinct  Leathery  Turtle,       .         88 

Skull  and  Jaw  of  Greaved  Tortoise,  .         89 
Front  of   Plastron   of  Side- Necked  Tor- 
toise,   .....         89 

Carapace  of  Black  Sternothere,      .  .         90 

Matamata  Tortoise,              .             .    ,  .         91 

Snake- Necked  Tortoise,      .             .  .92 

American  Side- Necked  Tortoise,   .  .         93 

Giant  Amazonian  Tortoise,             .  .         94 

Skull  of  Horned  Tortoise, .  .97 


Carapace  of  Wide-Shielded  Wealden  Tor- 
toise,   .... 
Cantor's  Soft-Tortoise, 
Skeleton  of  Plesiosaur, 
Skull  of  Simosaur, 
Vertebra  of  a  Plesiosaurian, 
Skeleton  of  Lariosaur, 
Vertebra  of  a  Snake, 
Skeleton  of  Lizard, 
Lobe-Footed  Gecko, 
Turkish  Gecko,       . 
Fringed  Gecko,       . 
Wall-Geckos, 

Common  Scale-Footed  Lizard, 
Armed  Agama,       .... 
Sail- Tailed  Lizard, 
Arabian  Thorny-Tailed  Lizard,     . 
Moloch  Lizard,        . 
Red-Throated  Anolis, 
Helmeted  Basilisk, 

Stilted  Lizard,         .... 
Galapagos  Sea- Lizard, 
Galapagos  Land- Lizard, 
Ring- Tailed  Iguana, 

Horned  Lizard,       .... 
Cape  Girdle-Tailed  Lizard, 
Common  Scheltopusik, 
The  Blind- Worm,  . 
Arizona  Poisonous  Lizard, 
Cape  Monitor,         .... 
TheTeju,    .... 
Surinam  Ameiva,   .... 
Handed  Amphisbaena, 
Spotted  Amphisbsena, 
Green  Lizards,        .... 
Viviparous  Lizard, 
Algerian  Keeled  Lizards,  . 
Common  Fringe-Toed  Lizards, 
Stump- Tailed  Lizards, 
European  Snake- Eyed  Lizard, 
Common  Skink,      .... 
Three-Toed  Bronze  Lizard, 
Head  of  Snake,       .... 
Skeleton  of  Snake, 
Indian  Python  crushing  its  Prey, . 
African  Python  swallowing  a  Bird, 
Australian  Diamond-Snake, 
Streaked  Tree-Boa, 
Dog- Headed  Tree-Boa, 
The  Home  of  the  Anaconda, 
Common  Boa,          .... 
Egyptian  Sand-Snake, 
Coral  Cylinder-Snake, 
A  Shield-Tailed  Snake,      . 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Xlll 


Javan  Wart-Snake, 
Einged  Snake  seizing  its  Prey, 
Viperine  and  Tesselated  Snakes,    . 
Keel-Tailed  Snake, 
Javan  Pigmy  Snake, 
The  Dark  Green  Snake,     . 
Black-Marked  and  Horseshoe -Snakes, 
^Esculapian  Snake, 
Leopard-Snake, 
The  Four-Kayed  Snake,     . 
Sipo,  or  Brazilian  Wood-Snake,     . 
Crowned  Moon-Snake, 
Oat- Snake,  . 
Coral-Snake, 

Long-Glanded  Snake  and  Masked  Adder, 
Banded  Adder,  or  Eaj-Samp, 
Young  Giant  Cobra,  or  Hamadryad, 
Short   Death  -  Adder  and   Spine  -  Tailed 
Death- Adder,  .... 
Banded  Sea-Snake, 
Black-Banded  Sea-Snake,  . 
Long-Nosed,  or  Sand- Viper, . 


PAGE 

199 
201 
202 
203 
204 
206 
208 
210 
211 
212 
213 
215 
216 
219 
220 
221 
223 

225 
227 
228 
233 


Russell's  Viper, 

The  Puff- Adder,     .... 

Horned  Vipers  in  the  Sand, 

The  Eja,  or  Desert  Saw- Viper, 

Common  Rattle-Snake, 

Diamond  and  South  American  Rattle- 
Snakes,  .... 

The  Bushmaster,     .... 

Siberian  Halys  Viper, 

Copper-Head,  or  Moccasin -Snake, 

Climbing  Pit- Viper, 

Rat-Tailed  Pit- Viper, 

Skeleton  of  Fish  -  Lizard  containing 
Young, 

Paddle  of  Fish-Lizard, 

New  Zealand  Tuatera, 

Skull  of  Hyperodapedon,     . 

Pelvis  and  Shoulder-Girdle  of  an  Anomo- 
dont,  ..... 

Skull  of  Pavement-Toothed  Anomodont, . 

Skull  of  Wall-Toothed  Anomodont, 

Skull  and  Teeth  of  Galesaur, 


AMPHIBIANS 


PAGE 

Fire-Bellied  Frogs,  .  .  .257 

Bull-Frogs  Disporting,       .  .  .       259 

Skeleton  of  Salamander,    .  .  .       260 

Skeleton  of  Frog,    .  .  .  .261 

Development  of  the  Frog, .  .  .       262 

Moor-Frogs,  ....       264 

Agile  Frogs,  ....       267 

Javan  Flying  Frog,  .  .  .269 

Variable  Tree-Frogs,  .  .  .       270 

East  African  Short-Headed  Frogs,  .       272 

Solomon  Island  Sharp-Nosed  Frog,  .       274 

Argentine  Horned  Frogs,  or  Escuerzos,  .  275 
Mexican  Sharp-Nosed  Toad,  .  .  278 

Grasshopper-Frogs,  .  .  .       279 

European  Tree-Frogs,         .  .  .       281 

Male  Midwife  Frog,  with  Chains  of  Eggs,  285 
Smooth  Spur-Toed  Frog  and  its  Tadpole  287 
Female  Surinam  Water-Toad,  288 


Alpine  Newts, 

Spotted  Salamander, 

Alpine  Salamander, 

Male  and  Female  of  Marbled  Newt, 

Male  and  Female  of  Common  Newt, 

Spectacled  Salamander, 

Larval  Stage  of  Mexican  Axolotl, . 

Adult  of  Mexican  Axolotl, 

Giant  Salamander, 

Hell-Bender,  or  Mississippi  Salamander, 

Three- Toed,  or  Eel-Like  Salamander, 

The  Olm,    .... 

Siren  Salamander, . 

A  Worm- Like  Amphibian, 

Skeletons  of  Primeval  Salamanders, 

Skull  of  Mastodonsaur, 

Vertebrae  of  Primeval  Salamander 

Skull  of  Metoposaur, 


Flying  Fish, 

Skeleton  of  Perch, .... 

Skeleton  of  Extinct  Fringe-Pinned  Shark, 

Skeleton  of  Sturgeon, 

Skeleton  of  Fin  of  Fringe-Filmed  Shark, 

Skull  of  Australian  Lung-Fish,     . 

Palatal  Teeth  of  Extinct  Lung-Fish, 

Australian  Lung-Fish, 


FISHES 

PAGE 

314 
316 
317 
318 
319 
325 
326 
327 


South- American  Mud-Fish, 
African  Mud-Fish, 
Restoration  of  Berry-Bone  Fish,    . 
Pike-Perch  and  Common  Perch,    . 
Danubian  Perches  and  Ruffe, 
Common  Bass,  Sea-Perch,  and  Stone- 
Striped  Red  Mullet, 
Sargo  and  Gilt-Head, 


PAGE 

234 
235 
236 

237 
239 

241 
242 
244 

245 
246 

247 

251 
251 

253 
254 

255 
256 
256 
256 


PAGE 

289 
292 
293 
295 
297 
299 
300 
301 
303 
305 
306 
307 
309 
310 
311 
312 
312 
313 


PAGE 

328 
329 
331 
334 
337 
339 
345 
347 


XIV 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE     | 

Australian  Knife-Jawed  Fish,       .  .       348 

Spotted  Firm-Fin, ....       349 
Australian  Long-Fin,          .  .  .       350 

Bleeker's  Plesiops,  ....       352 
Schomburgk's  Many- Spine,  .  .       353 

Group  of  Spine-Finned  Fishes,      .  .       354 

New  Zealand  Trachichthys,  .  .       355 

Common  Meagre,  \  .  .  .357 

Spotted  Indian  Sword-Fish,  .  .       359 

Scabbard-Fish,        .  .  .  .361 

Common  Mackerel  and  Horse-Mackerel,  .       364 
Pilot-Fish,  .  .  .  .  .365 

Coryphsena,  ....       368 

New  Zealand  Gastrochisma  .  .370 

Sucking-Fishes,      ....       372 
Star- Gazer  and  Weaver,     .  .  .       374 

Tile-Fish,    .  .  .  .  .376 

Hoedt's  Soft-Spine,  .  .  :      377 

Barracuda  and  Angler-Fish,  .  .       379 

Common  Bull- Heads,         .  .  .381 

Sapphirine  Gurnards,         .  .  .       383 

Armed  Bull-Head,  .  .  .       384 

Beaked  Gurnard,    .  .  .  ,385 

Australian  Dragon-Fish,    .  .  .       386 

Lump-Sucker  and  Viviparous  Blenny,      .       387 
Fresh-Water  Goby,  .  .  .388 

Mud- Skippers  Disporting,  .  .       390 

New  Zealand  Thorny-Nose,  .  .       392 

Japanese  Chirus,     ....       393 
Oblique-Spined  Blenny,     .  .  .       395 

Indian  Spiny  Eel  and  Oil-Fish,     .  .       396 

Sand-Smelt  and  Square- Tail,         .  .       398 

Common  Grey  Mullet,        .  .  .       399 

Gar-Pike, 401 

Group  of  Sticklebacks,        .  .  ,       404 

Two-Spotted  Sucker-Fish, .  .  .407 

Striated  Serpent-Head,       .  .  .409 

Climbing- Perch  on  Land,  .  .  .410 

Paradise-Fish  and  Telescope-Fish,  .       412 

The  Gurami,  .  .  .  .413 

Pike-Head,  .  .  .414 

Unicorn-Fish,          ....       415 
Banks's  Ribbon-Fish,          .  .  .416 

Risso's  Thornback. .  .  .  .417 

Silver- Dotted  Pomacentrus,  .  .       418 

Striped  Wrasse,       .  420 

Silvery  Viviparous  Wrasse,  .  .421 

Tristram's  Chromid,  .  .  .422 

Blue-Finned  Tube-Mouth,  .  .       424 

Pipe-Fish  and  Sea-Horse,  .  .  .       425 

Fucus-Like  Sea- Horse,       .  .  .       426 

Eel-Like  Lycodes,  .  .  .  .431 

Haddock,  Whiting,  and  Cod,         .  .       432 

Burbot  and  Wels,  ....       436 


Parasitic  Fish  in  Pearl- Shell, 

Lesser  Sand -Eel,     .  ^    . 

Mediterranean  Mursena,     . 

Eels  in  the  Mud,     . 

Bengal  Short-Tailed  Eel,  . 

Electric  Eel,  .... 

Group  of  Carp,        .... 

Group  of  White-Fish, 

Tench,         ..... 

Bitterling,  Bleak,  and  Gudgeon,    . 

Group  of  Bream,     .... 

Sichel,  Rapfen,  and  Beaked  Carp, 

Group  of  Loaches,  .... 

Angola  Loach,         .... 

The  Piraya, 

Head  of  Cyprinodont,         .  ... 

Female  and  Male  Double-Eye, 

Kentucky  Blind- Fish, 

Common  Pike,         .... 

Beaked  Fish  and  Slender  Pikelet, 

Bornean  Feather-Back, 

Brazilian  Arapaima, 

Chisel-Jaw  and  Moon-Eye, 

Beaked  Salmon,      .... 

Phosphorescent  Sardine,     . 

Silvery  Light-Fish  and  Hedgehog-Mouth, 

The  Dorab,  .... 

Long- Finned  Herring, 

Skeleton  of  a  Saurodont,    . 

Shad,  Sprats,  and  Herring, 

Black  Smooth-Head, 

Zebra  Salmon, 

Salmon  and  Sea-Trout, 

May-Trout  and  Hucho, 

Grayling  and  Charr, 

Common  Smelt,      .... 

Maranes,      ..... 

Bony-Pike,.  . 

The  Bow-Fin, 

Skeleton  of  Extinct  Amioid, 

Jaw  of  Pycnodont, . 

Giant  Scale-Tooth,. 

Spoon-Beaked  Sturgeon,    . 

Sterlet,        ..... 

Extinct  Acipenseroid  Fish, 

The  Bichir, 

Skeleton  of  Hollow-Spined  Ganoid, 

Hammer- Headed  Shark,    . 

Spiny  Dog-Fish  and  Smooth-Hound, 

Indo-Pacific  Basking-Shark, 

Lesser  Spotted  Dog-Fish  and  its  Eggs, 

Port  Jackson  Shark, 

Lower  Jaw  of  Port  Jackson  Shark, 

Teeth  of  Comb-Toothed  Sharks,    . 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Frill-Gilled  Shark, 
Angel-Fish, 
Japanese  Saw-Fish, 
Halavi  Ray, 
Thornback  Skates, 


PAGE 

533 

536 
537 

539 

540 


PAGE 

Jaws  of  Thornback,  .  .  541 

Common  Skate  and  Marbled  Electric  Ray,  542 

Teeth  of  Lobe-Finned  Shark,         .  .  546 

Restoration  of  Fold- Finned  Shark,  .  547 

Restoration  of  Spine-Firmed  Shark,  .  547 


THE  LOWEST  VERTEBRATES  AND    THEIR  ALLIES 


PAGE 

Group  of  Lampreys,            .             .  .551 

Hag-Fish,    .             .             .             .  .553 

Skeleton  of  Primeval  Lamprey,     .  .       554 

Restoration  of  Pteraspis,     .             .  .       555 

Restoration  of  Cephalaspis,             .  .       556 

Restoration  of  Pterichthys, .            .  .       556 
Lancelet,     .....       558 

A  Leathery  Sea- Squirt  (Microcosmus),  .       561 

Section  of  Sea-Squirt,         .             .  .562 


PAGE 

A  Cartilaginous  Sea-Squirt  (Phallusia),  .  565' 

Pear-Shaped  Ascidian  (Hypobythius),  .  566 

A  Creeping  Ascidian  (Clavelina),  .  .  567 

An  Incrusting  Ascidian  (Botrylloides),  .  568 

A  Compound  Ascidian  (Amarucium),  .  568 

An  Individual  of  a  Chain-Salpa,  .  .  570' 

Botryllus,     .....  572 

Young  Balanoglossus,          .  .  .573 

A  Pyrosoma  Colony,            .             .  .  576' 


1 


r 


e  articular  cup 
sses  underlying 


ERRATA 


47.  Line  18  from  top,  after  "yet"  add  "except  in  the  leathery  turtle." 

77.  Line  4  from  top,  for  "  rib-process  "  read  "  rib-like  process." 

79.  Lines  2  and  3  from  top,  for  "  the  majority  of  the  vertebrae  of  the  tail 

behind  and  the  ball  in  front "  read  "  the  nuchal  bones  give  off  rib-like  pi 
the  marginals." 

169.  Line  6  from  bottom,  for  "  3£  "  read  "  8£." 

178.  Line  10  from  bottom,  for  "African"  read  "Oriental." 

180.  Lines  21  and  22  from  bottom,  transpose  "upper"  and  " lower.?' ^ 

186.  Line  12  from  bottom,  for  "New  Island"  read  "New  Ireland." 

245.  Line  7  from  top,  for  "  heavy  "  read  "  horny." 

266.  Line  4  from  top,  for  "Australia"  read  "Papua." 

273.  Line  12  from  bottom,  after  "and"  add  "almost." 

274.  Line  8  from  top,  for  "  vertical  "  read  "  horizontal." 

302.  Line  4  from  top,  for  "  Hypnobius  "  read  "  Hynobius  "  ;  line  22,  omit^ 
333.  In  table,  dekte  "  (6)  Suborder  ISOSPONDYLI— Leptolepis " ;  and 

"  eight "  read  "  seven." 
362,  397.  The  species  of  Thyrsites  and  Sphyrcena  are  both  termed  "  barracudas :> ;  the  latter  may  be 

distinguished  as  "  barracuda-pikes."     The  account  of  the  fishing  of  the  latter  refers  to  the 

former. 

527.  Line  29  from  top,  for  "  Iceland  "  read  "  Ireland." 

532.  Line  25  from  bottom,  instead  of  "  four  .  .  .  five  or  six  "  read  "  five  ...  six  or  seven." 
534.  Line  2  from  top,  for  "  developed  "  read  "  depressed." 


334,  line  7  from  top,  for 


THE  ROYAL  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


GAMB  I ER  :  BOLTON.  £'£& 


BJEPTILES. 


CHAPTEK   I. 
GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS, — Class  Reptilia. 

IN  ordinary  language  the  term  Reptile  is  applied  indifferently  to  such  creatures 
as  crocodiles,  tortoises,  lizards,  snakes,  frogs,  and  salamanders,  but  by  the 
naturalist  it  is  used  in  a  more  restricted  sense,  and  includes  only  the  first 
four  of  these,  together  with  a  host  of  extinct  types;  while  the  frogs  and 
salamanders,  with  certain  other  forms,  both  living  and  extinct,  on  account  of 
important  structural  differences,  constitute  a  class  by  themselves,'  known  as  the 
Amphibians,  and  bearing  the  same  rank  as  the  class  of  Reptiles.  To  an  ordinary 
observer  there  would  seem  but  little  in  common  between  a  scaled  lizard  or  snake, 
a  cuirassed  crocodile,  and  a  carapaced  tortoise,  on  the  one  hand,  and  a  feathered 
bird  on  the  other.  Nevertheless,  as  we  have  had  occasion  to  mention  at  the  close 
of  the  preceding  volume,  the  connection  between  Reptiles  and  Birds  is  exceedingly 
intimate, — so  close,  indeed,  that  Professor  Huxley  has  termed  the  latter  greatly 
VOL.  v. — i 


2<  ' 


REPTILES. 


modified  Keptiles.  At  the  present  day  the  two  groups  are,  indeed,  somewhat 
widely  sundered;  and  it  is  only  by  the  study  of  forms  long  since  extinct  that 
we  are  enabled  to  grasp  the  intimate  relationship  that  exists  between  them. 
That  Birds  are  the  descendants  of  Reptiles  may  accordingly  be  taken  for  granted, 
although  we  are  still  unacquainted  with  the  immediate  links  connecting  the  two 
classes.  In  another  direction  Reptiles  are,  however,  connected  through  other  extinct 
forms  with  the  Amphibians;  while  from  these  intermediate,  half  -  Reptile,  half- 
Amphibian  creatures,  it  is  probable,  as  elsewhere  mentioned,  that  Mammals  have 
originated.  As  we  shall  point  out  later  on,  Amphibians  are  also  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  class  of  Fishes,  and  we  thus  see  how  closely  allied  are  all  the 
classes  of  the  Vertebrates,  and  how  difficult  is  the  task  of  the  naturalist  to  dis- 
tinguish them  satisfactorily  one  from  another  when  the  whole  of  the  extinct  forms 
are  taken  into  consideration.  It  is,  indeed,  solely  from  the  still  imperfect  condition 
of  our  knowledge  of  the  past  that  we  are  enabled  to  formulate  any  definitions  at 

all,  for  had  we  the  whole  chain  of 
organised  nature  before  us,  it  will  be 
obvious  that  no  breaks  would  exist, 
but  that  every  group  would  pass  by 
imperceptible  degrees  into  the  earlier 
one  from  which  it  originated. 

Proceeding  to  the  consideration 
of  what  constitutes  a  Reptile,  as 
distinct  from  any  other  animal,  we 
may  first  point  out  some  of  the 
features  in  which  Reptiles  agree 
with  Birds,  and  thereby  differ  from 
Mammals.  In  the  first  place,  the 
skull  articulates  with  the  first  vertebra 
by  a  single  knob,  or  condyle  (V  of 
the  figure) ;  while  each  half  of  the 
lower  jaw  is  composed  of  several 
distinct  bones;  and  the  whole  lower 
jaw  articulates  with  the  skull  by  the 
intervention  of  a  separate  quadrate-bone.1  Then,  again,  both  agree  in  that  the 
appendages  developed  from  the  outer  layer  of  the  skin  never  take  the  form  of 
hairs,  while  the  young  are  not  nourished  by  means  of  milk  secreted  by  special 
glands  on  the  body  of  the  female  parent,  neither  are  gills  developed  at  any  period 
of  life,  throughout  which  respiration  is  effected  by  means  of  lungs.  A  further 
resemblance  is  shown  in  the  position  of  the  ankle-joint  between  the  upper  and  lower 
rows  of  small  bones  entering  into  the  composition  of  that  part  of  the  skeleton.  In 
producing  their  young  from  eggs  (sometimes  retained  within  the  body  of  the  parent 
until  hatched),  Reptiles  resemble  not  only  Birds,  but  likewise  the  lowest  Mammals ; 
with  which  they  also  agree  in  the  nature  of  the  investments  surrounding  the 
embryo.  As  regards  the  distinction  between  the  two  groups,  Reptiles  are  broadly 

1  In  the  figure  the  quadrate-bones  are  the  prominences  at  the  hinder  external  angles  on  either  side  of  the 
letter  N. 


LOWER  AND  UPPER  SURFACES  OF  THE   SKULL  OF 
A  CROCODILE. 

aperture  of  the  internal  or    posterior  nostrils  ;    0, 


GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS. 


U 


separated  from  Birds  by  the  absence  of  feathers;  the  appendages  of  the  outer 
layer  of  the  skin  being  in  the  form  either  of  overlapping  horny  scales,  or  of  large 
shields  uniting  by  their  opposed  edges.  Moreover,  all  •  known  Reptiles  differ  from 
Birds  in  having  more  than  three  digits  in  the  fore-limb;  while  in  no  cases  are 
the  collar-bones  fused  into  a  furcula,  as  they  are  in  all  flying  Birds.  A  further 
distinction  is  to  be  found  in  connection  with  the  circulatory  system,  the  blood  of 
all  existing  Reptiles  being  cold,  while  the  aorta,  or  great  propelling  blood-vessel  of 
the  heart  is  double,  and 
crosses  both  branches  (in- 
stead of  only  the  left  branch) 
of  the  windpipe.  It  will 
be  obvious,  however,  that 
these  two  last  characters 
cannot  be  verified  in  the 
case  of  extinct  Reptiles, 
among  which  it  is  quite 
probable  that  there  may 
have  been  some  in  which 
the  blood  was  warm.  A 
similar  remark  will  apply 
to  the  absence  among  living 
Reptiles  of  those  ramifica- 
tions of  the  bronchial  tubes 
throughout  the  body,  which 
form  such  a  characteristic 
feature  in  the  structure  of 
Birds.  As  additional  features 
in  the  skeleton,  it  may  be 
noticed  that  Reptiles  never 
have  the  terminal  faces  of 
the  vertebrae  saddle-shaped; 

while  in  those  forms  in  which  the  number  of  toes  in  the  hind-limb  is  reduced  to  three, 
the  metatarsal  bones  do  not  unite  to  form  a  cannon-bone  in  conjunction  with  the 
lower  row  of  bones  belonging  to  the  ankle-joint.  Then,  again,  with  the  exception 
of  one  remarkable  extinct  group,  Reptiles,  as  a  rule,  are  characterised  by  the  three 
bones  of  the  pelvis  remaining  distinct  from  one  another  through  life ;  whereas  in  all 
existing  birds  they  are  welded  together.  There  are  likewise  differences  in  regard 
^to  the  form  and  structure  of  the  breast-bone  and  sacrum,  into  the  consideration  of 
which  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  enter  in  this  work. 

Diversity  of  I*1  marked  contrast  to  the  uniformity  in  appearance  and  structure 

Form  and      characterising  Birds,  the  various  groups  of  Reptiles  differ  widely  from 

bructure.      Qne  ano^jiei>)  j^^  ag  regarc[s  external  form   and  internal  structure. 

Externally,  a  lizard,  a  snake,  and  a  tortoise  present  the  most  marked  differences  in 

general  appearance  among  living  members  of  the  order ;  while  among  extinct  types 

there  were  some  which  walked  on  their  hind-limbs  alone,  after  the  manner  of  Birds, 

and  others  having  their  fore-limbs  modified  into  wings  and  the  digits  connected 


THE  BONES  OF  THE  LEFT  SIDE   OF  THE  PELVIS   OF  AN  EXTINCT 
DINOSAURIAN  REPTILE  (-5^-  nat.  size). 

il,  ilium  ;  p,  pubis  ;  is,  ischium. — After  Marsh. 


4  REPTILES. 

by  a  leathery  membrane  like  that  of  bats.  In  a  typical  Reptile,  such  as  a  lizard 
or  crocodile,  both  pairs  of  limbs  are  well  developed,  and  of  approximately  equal 
length ;  but  in  the  snakes  all  external  traces  of  limbs  have  disappeared ;  while 
in  the  extinct  flying  dragons,  or  Pterodactyles,  the  fore-limbs  much  exceed  the 
hind  ones  in  size,  and  in  many  of  the  so-called  Dinosaurs,  which  are  likewise 
extinct,  the  excess  in  size  falls  to  the  share  of  the  hinder  pair  of  limbs.  In 
other  cases,  again,  the  limbs  may  be  modified  into  paddles,  adapted  for  progres- 


SKELETON  OF  FISH-LIZARD,    OR  ICHTHYOSAUR. 

sion  in  the  water,  as  in  the  existing  turtles,  and  the  extinct  fish -lizards  or 
Ichthyosaurs ;  the  body  in  the  latter  assuming  a  somewhat  fish-like  form.  In 
nearly  all  cases  Reptiles  have  long  and  well-developed  tails ;  although  in  some  of 

the  flying  dragons  these  be- 
come rudimentary. 

A  large  number  of  Rep- 
tiles are  characterised  by  the 
development  of  bony  plates 
within  the  deep  layer  of  the 
skin ;  such  plates,  which  are 
well  displayed  in  existing 
crocodiles,  being  overlain  by 
horny  shields,  and  thus 
corresponding  in  every  re- 
spect with  those  forming 
the  carapaces  of  the  arm- 
adilloes  among  Mammals. 


RESTORED  SKELETON   OF  ARMOURED  DINOSAUR  (about  ^  Hat.  size). 


sc,  shoulder-blade,  or  scapula;  co,  coracoid ;  h,  upper  arm-bone,  or  Among      Certain      extinct 

humerus  ;  r,  u,  bones  of  fore-arm,  or  radius  and  ulna  ;  c,  wrist  or  carpus  ;  Dinosaurs   these   bony  plates 
me,  metacarpus  ;  il,  haunch-bone,  or  ilium  ;  p,  pubis  ;  is,  ischiurn  ;  /,  .  ,         , 

thigh-bone,  or  femur  ;  ti,fi,  bones  of  lower  leg,  or  tibia  and  fibula ;  ta,  attain      a     development     Un- 

ankle,  or  tarsus ;  mt,  metatarsus.— After  Marsh.  paralleled      at      the      present 

day ;  and  in  some  they  are 

believed  to  have  occupied  the  extraordinary  position  shown  in  the  accompanying 
figure. 

Still  more  remarkable  differences  exist  with  regard  to  the  form  and  structure 
of  the  teeth;  which,  instead  of  being,  as  in  the  two  preceding  classes,  strictly 
confined  to  the  borders  of  the  jaws,  may  be  spread  over  the  entire  palate. 
In  spite,  however,  of  this  diversity  of  form,  the  teeth  of  Reptiles  differ  from  many 
of  those  of  the  majority  of  Mammals  in  that  they  are  never  implanted  in  the 


GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS. 


jaws  by  two  or  more  roots ;  while  in  no  cases  are  their  crowns  complicated  by  the 
presence  of  infoldings  of  enamel.  The  simplest  type  of  reptilian  tooth  is  in  the 
form  of  a  cone ;  such  conical  teeth  being  confined  to  the  margins  of  the  jaws, 
where,  as  among  crocodiles,  they  may  be  implanted  in  distinct  sockets,  or,  as  in 
the  extinct  fish -lizards, 
in  an  open  groove.  In 
other  cases,  as  among 
lizards,  teeth  of  the  same 
general  type  may  be 
united  by  a  bony  deposit 
either  to  the  summit  or 
to  one  side  of  the  margin 
of  the  jaw.  In  place 
of  the  one  regular  re- 
placement, characteris- 
ing the  anterior  teeth  of 
the  majority  of  Mam- 
mals, the  teeth  of  most 
Reptiles  are  replaced 
irregularly  and  continu- 
ously throughout  life ; 
the  successional  teeth 

growing  up  beneath  the  bases  of  those  in  use,  and  gradually  causing  an  absorp- 
tion of  their  roots.  When  teeth  are  distributed  over  the  whole  or  a  greater 
portion  of  the  palate,  they  generally  assume  a  more  or  less  flattened  and  bean- 
like  shape,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  pavement  in  the  mouth,  as  shown  in  the 
accompanying  figure  of  the  under  surface  of  the  skull  of  an  extinct  reptile. 


CONICAL  TOOTH  OF  AN 
EXTINCT  PLESIO- 
SAUEIAN  REPTILE. 


UNDER     SURFACE     OF      SKULL      OF     AN       EXTINCT 

REPTILE    (Cyamodus),  WITH   PAVEMENT  -  LIKE 

TEETH  ON  THE  PALATE. 


LEFT  SIDE   OF  THE   SKULL  OF  A  BEAKED  FLYING  DRAGON  (&  nat.  size). 

a,  vacuity  in  front  of  the  eye  ;  6,  socket  of  the  eye  ;  c,  occipital  spine  ;  d,  angle  of  lower  jaw  ;e,  extremity  of 
upper,  and  e',  of  lower  jaw  ;  q,  articulation  of  the  skull  proper  with  the  lower  jaw  ;  *,  point  whe 
of  the  lower  jaw  diverge. — After  Marsh. 

Between  conical  and  pavement  -  like  teeth  there  are  various  intermediate  grades, 
some  of   which  will  be  referred  to  in  the  sequel.      It  is,  however,  by  no  me; 
all  members  of  the  class  that  are  provided  with  teeth;  the  tortoises  and 
being  living  examples  of  the  total  loss  of  these  organs,  and  the  consequent  convei 


REPTILES. 


sion  of  the  jaws  into  horn-clad  beaks.  Certain  representatives  of  the  extinct 
flying  dragons  were  likewise  devoid  of  teeth;  and  as  in  these  forms  the  horn- 
covered  jaws  were  long  and  narrow,  the  resemblance  to  the  beak  of  a  bird  becomes 
most  marked. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  vertebrae  of  Reptiles  never  articulate  by 
means  of  those  saddle-shaped  surfaces  so  characteristic  of  Birds.  They  present, 
however,  great  diversity  of  structure  in  this  respect.  In  some  cases,  for  instance, 
as  in  the  fish-lizards,  the  bodies  or  central  portions  of  the  vertebrae  are  very  short 

from  front  to  back,  and  have  concave  surfaces 
both  in  front  and  behind  for  mutual  articula- 
tion. In  marked  contrast  to  this  type  is  the 


LEFT-SIDE  VIEW  OF  A  NECK  VERTEBRA 
OF  A  DINOSAUR. 

b,  anterior  ball. — After  Marsh. 


SIDE   AND   FRONT  VIEWS   OF  THE   BODY  OF  A  VERTEBRA 
OF  A  FISH-LIZARD. 


a,  b,  attachment  of  ribs. 


neck  vertebra  of  a  Dinosaur,  where  the  anterior  end  of  the  body  of  each  vertebra 
forms  a  convex  knob  (b),  received  into,  a  cup  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  vertebra 
in  advance.1  In  other  instances,  as  in  the  existing  crocodiles  and  lizards,  an 

arrangement  pre- 
cisely the  reverse 
of  the  last  is  pre- 
sent; that  is  to 
say,  the  ball  is  at 
the  hinder  end,  and 
the  cup  at  the  front 
of  the  body  of  the 
vertebra.  In  a 
few  lizards  and  in 
all  snakes  the  ver- 

FRONT   AND  BACK  VIEWS  OF  A  VERTEBRA  OF  A  SNAKE.  tebr83     are     further 

zi  indicates  the  additional  articular  process,  which  is  received  into  the  cavity  zil.  complicated  by  the 

development    of 

additional  articular  facets,  taking  the  form  of  wedge-like  projections  from  one 
vertebra,  which  are  received  into  cavern-like  excavations  in  the  adjacent  one. 

1  It  should  be  mentioned  that  in  this  figure  only  the  portion  of  which  b  is  the  extremity  corresponds  with  the 
whole  of  the  specimen  represented  in  the  other  figure  on  the  same  line. 


CLASSIFICATION.  7 

Omitting  mention  of  certain  features  connected  with  their  osteology,  it  may 
>e  observed  that  among  those  reptiles  with  four  or  five  toes  to  each  foot,  while  a 
'ew,  such  as  certain  tortoises,  have  the  same  number  of  joints  in  each  toe  as 
Mammals, — that  is  to  say,  two  in  the  first  toe,  and  three  in  each  of  the  others, — in 
;he  greater  majority  there  is  a  departure  from  this  simple  arrangement.  In  the 
izards,  for  instance,  the  number  of  joints  in  the  toes  (reckoning  from  the  first  to 
the  fifth  digit)  is  2,  3,  4,  5,  3  in  the  fore-limb,  and  2,  3,  4,  5,  4  in  the  hind-limb ; 
while  in  crocodiles,  where  there  are  but  four  toes  in  the  latter,  the  numbers  are 
respectively  2,  3,  4,  4,  3,  and  2,  3,  4,  4.  In  this  increasing  number  of  joints  in  the 
toes  from  the  first  to  the  fourth,  such  reptiles  approximate  to  birds. 

As  regards  their  soft  internal  parts,  Reptiles  are  characterised  by  the  low 
development  of  their  brains ;  which,  in  conjunction  with  their  cold  blood,  accounts 
for  the  generally  sluggish  movements  of  their  existing  representatives.  With  the 
exception  of  the  crocodiles,  Reptiles  differ  from  Birds  in  that  the  heart  has  only 
three,  in  place  of  four,  complete  chambers,  thus  causing  the  freshly  oxygenated 
blood  returning  from  the  lungs  to  be  mixed  with  the  effete  blood  which  has 
traversed  the  body.  Even  in  crocodiles,  where  the  heart  has  practically  four 
chambers,  the  fresh  and  effete  blood  is  partially  mingled,  owing  to  a  communica- 
tion between  the  vessels  just  outside  the  heart.  Like  Birds,  Reptiles  never  have  a 
midriff  completely  separating  the  cavity  of  the  chest  from  that  of  the  abdomen. 

Classification  Reptiles  having  come  into  existence  at  an  earlier  period  than 

and  Distribution. either  Mammals  or  Birds,  and  attaining  an  enormous  development 
during  epochs  when  both  those  groups  were  but  feebly  represented,  it  would  be 
only  natural  to  expect  that  they  should  have  suffered  to  a  much  greater  extent  by 
the  extinction  of  types  with  the  lapse  of  time.  As  a  matter  of  fact  this  is  found 
to  be  the  case ;  the  number  of  existing  orders  of  Reptiles  being  now  but  four  (of 
which  one  is  represented  by  only  one  or  two  species),  whereas,  if  we  include  the 
extinct  types,  at  least  nine  orders  may  be  recognised.  These  nine  orders,  of  which 
the  extinct  ones  are  indicated  by  asterisks  (*)  may  be  named  and  arranged  as 
follows,  viz. : — 

1..  CROCODILES — Crocodilia. 

*2.  DINOSAURS — Dinosauria. 

*3.  FLYING  DRAGONS — Ornithosauria. 
4.  TORTOISES  and  TURTLES— Chelonia. 

*5.  PLESIOSAURIANS — Plesiosauria. 
6.  LIZARDS  and  SNAKES — Squamata. 

*7.  FISH-LIZARDS — Ichthyosauria. 
8.  TUATERAS,  or  BEAKED-LIZARDS— Rhynchocephalia. 

*9.  MAMMAL-LIKE  REPTILES — Anomodontia. 

Of  these  groups,  by  far  the  most  numerously  represented  at  the  present  day 
is  the  one  containing  the  lizards  and  snakes,  all  of  which  are  highly  specialised 
forms,  occupying  a  position  in  the  class  analogous  to  that  held  by  the  perch 
birds  in  the  preceding  class;  the  majority  being  comparatively  small  or  medium- 
sized  forms.     Next  in  point  of  numbers  come  the  tortoises  and  turtles,  all  of  whic 
are  protected  by  the  presence  of  a  bony  carapace,  and  some  of  which  attain  very 


8  REPTILES. 

large  dimensions.  The  third  numerical  position  in  the  fauna  of  the  present  day 
is  held  by  the  crocodiles,  of  which  there  are  some  twenty-four  species,  all  of 
relatively  large  size,  and  all  more  or  less  aquatic  in  their  habits.  The  fourth 
existing  order  is  now  represented  only  by  the  lizard-like  New  Zealand  tuateras,  of 
which  there  is  probably  but  a  single  species ;  although  in  past  times  there  were 
a  host  of  allied  forms.  Of  the  five  extinct  orders  the  whole,  or  nearly  the  whole, 
of  their  representatives  ceased  to  exist  with  the  close  of  the  Secondary  period, 
that  is  to  say,  soon  after  the  deposition  of  the  chalk,  and  previous  to  that  of  the 
overlying  London  clay.  During  that  long  period,  or  "  world  of  reptiles,"  the  class 
attained  a  development  which  it  never  equalled  before  or  since.  The  Dinosaurs, 
which  were  by  far  the  largest  of  all  land  animals,  then  filled  the  place  now 
occupied  by  Mammals ;  the  flying  dragons  played  the  role  of  the  bats  and  birds  of 
the  present  day ;  while  the  marine  Plesiosaurs  and  fish-lizards  did  duty  for  whales 
and  porpoises.  Of  the  mammal-like  Reptiles,  it  will  suffice  to  speak  in  the  sequel. 
With  regard  to  the  past  distribution  of  the  four  existing  orders,  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  the  lizards  and  snakes,  with  the  exception  of  two  extinct  suborders, 
are  practically  unknown  before  the  commencement  of  the  Tertiary  period — that  is 
to  say,  until  after  the  deposition  of  the  Chalk ;  hence  they  may  be  regarded  as 
essentially  the  Reptiles  of  the  present  day,  when  they  attain  their  maximum 
development.  The  tortoises  and  turtles,  although  a  much  more  ancient  group, 
having  existed  throughout  the  Secondary  period,  are,  however,  still  at  or  about 
their  zenith.  The  case  is,  however,  very  different  with  the  ^crocodiles,  which  were 
represented  during  the  Secondary  period  by  a  host  of  forms  quite  unlike  those  of 
the  present  day,  and  probably  more  numerous  in  species  than  their  existing 
representatives.  Many  of  the  extinct  crocodiles  also  exceeded  any  of  the  living 
forms  in  point  of  size.  Still  more  markedly  is  this  diminution  noticeable  in  the 
case  of  the  tuateras,  in  which  a  solitary  survivor  represents  a  once  abundant 
group. 

Owing  to  the  exigencies  of  space,  our  remarks  on  the  present  distribution  of 
the  class  must  necessarily  be  brief.  In  the  first  place,  it  may  be  observed  that 
while  no  existing  Reptiles  are  denizens  of  the  air,  only  the  turtles  and  sea-snakes 
are  habitual  inhabitants  of  the  ocean.  Of  the  terrestrial  and  fresh- water  forms,  it 
has  been  found  that  the  distribution  does  not  coincide  very  closely  with  that  of 
Mammals  and  Birds,  so  that  the  zoological  regions  into  which  the  globe  has  been 
mapped  out  from  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  latter  scarcely  hold  good 
for  Reptiles.  This  discrepancy  may,  no  doubt,  be  partly  explained  by  the  very 
early  period  at  which  certain  groups  of  the  class,  such  as  crocodiles  and  tortoises, 
spread  themselves  over  the  surface  of  the  globe.  As  regards  the  dispersive  powers 
of  Reptiles  in  general,  these,  according  to  Dr.  Giinther,  are  but  limited.  All  these 
creatures,  he  writes,  "  are  much  specialised  in  their  mode  of  life  and  propagation, 
and  ill-adapted  to  accommodate  themselves  to  a  change  of  external  conditions. 
As  air-breathing,  cold-blooded  animals  they  are  unable  to  withstand  prolonged 
cold;  they  are  therefore  entirely  absent  in  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  zones;  and 
such  as  escape  the  effects  of  the  winter  months  in  temperate  zones  by  passing 
them  in  a  torpid  condition  in  well-sheltered  places  are  not  peculiarly 
organised  forms,  but  offshoots  from  those  inhabiting  warmer  climes.  The  tropical 


DISTRIBUTION.  9 

and  subtropical  zones  are  the  real  home  of  the  reptilian  type,  which  there  has 
reached  its  greatest  development  as  regards  size  and  variety  of  forms.  In  the 
north,  Chelonians  advance  only  to  50°  latitude  in  the  Western  and  to  56°  in  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere ;  lizards  to  about  56°  in  British  Columbia,  and  close  to  the 
Arctic  Circle  in  Europe ;  while  snakes  disappear  some  degrees  before  the  lizards. 
Also  in  the  south,  lizards  extend  into  higher  latitudes  than  snakes,  namely,  to  the 
Straits  of  Magellan,  whilst  the  latter  do  not  seem  to  have  advanced  beyond  40° 
south  latitude,  and  Chelonians  to  36°." 

Of  the  various  zoological  regions  into  which  the  globe  has  been  divided,  the 
Oriental  or  Indian  region,  according  to  the  same  observer,  is  characterised  by  the 
number  of  fresh- water  soft-tortoises  x  and  S-necked  tortoises,1  land-tortoises  being 
scarce.  Crocodiles,  inclusive  of  the  characteristic  long-necked  garials,  are  numerous, 
as  are  lizards  and  snakes — especially  pythons.  Africa  is  comparatively  poorly  off* 
for  Reptiles,  although  characterised  by  its  numerous  land-tortoises,  soft -tortoises, 
and  side-necked  tortoises ; 1  the  crocodiles  being  represented  only  by  members  of 
the  typical  genus ;  while  lizards  and  snakes  are  comparatively  numerous.  Among 
the  lizards,  monitors,  and  among  the  snakes,  pythons,  are  common  to  the  Oriental 
and  African  regions ;  while  half  of  the  exclusively  Old  World  group  of  chamaeleons 
are  African.  Madagascar  is  even  more  remarkable  for  the  number  of  its 
chameleons;  its  land  and  side-necked  tortoises  are  numerous,  although  soft- 
tortoises,  as  in  South  America,  are  absent ;  there  is  one  crocodile ;  and  among  the 
lizards  the  South  American  group  of  iguanas  is  abundant ;  while  the  snakes, 
among  which  none  is  poisonous,  are  also  of  a  South  American  type.  In  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  Euro- Asiatic  region  (exclusive  of  India,  etc.)  the  reptile  fauna 
is  mainly  a  mixture  of  Oriental  and  African  types,  although  there  are  some 
peculiar  forms.  The  only  non-American  alligator  inhabits  Central  China.  In 
the  Australian  or  tropical  Pacific  region,  exclusive  of  New  Zealand,  we  meet  with 
one  group  of  land-tortoises,  side-necked  tortoises,  and  a  crocodile ;  while  amongst 
the  lizards  there  are  skinks,  geckos,  monitors,  and  the  so-called  agamoids ;  the 
latter  occurring  in  all  the  regions  above  mentioned,  except  Madagascar.  Venomous 
snakes  here  outnumber  the  harmless  ones.  The  Tropical  and  South  American 
region  is  characterised  by  the  presence  of  land  and  side-necked  tortoises,  to  the 
exclusion  of  soft-tortoises.  Crocodiles  and  caimans  are  numerous  (the  latter  being 
characteristic) ;  while  of  the  abundant  lizards  the  majority  are  iguanas,  the  true 
lizards  (Lacertidce)  of  the  Old  World  being  replaced  by  the  teiias  (Teiidce): 
snakes  are  also  numerous,  among  them  being  rattle-snakes  and  boas.  In  the 
North  American  region  there  are  no  caimans,  their  place  being  taken  by  an 
alligator ;  while  fresh- water  S-necked  tortoises,  as  well  as  soft-tortoises,  replace  the 
side-necked  tortoises  of  the  southern  half  of  the  continent.  The  snapping  tortoises 
(Chelydridce)  are  also  mainly  characteristic  of  this  region,  although  one  genus 
ranges  as  far  south  as  Ecuador.  As  regards  its  lizards  and  snakes,  this  region 
presents  the  same  relation  to  the  preceding  as  is  held  by  Euro- Asia  to  the  Oriental 
and  African  regions.  Lastly,  New  Zealand  stands  apart  from  all  other  countries 
in  possessing  the  remarkable  tuatera,  in  addition  to  which  its  only  reptiles  are 
skinks  and  geckos. 

1  For  the  explanation  of  these  and  other  names,  the  reader  must  refer  to  later  chapters. 


CHAPTER   II. 

CROCODILES,  DINOSAUES,  and  FLYING  DRAGONS, — Orders  CROCODILIA, 
DINOSAURIA,  and  ORNITHOSAURIA. 

THE  living  crocodiles,  among  which  may  be  included  in  a  general  sense  not  only 
the  reptiles  to  which  that  name  more  properly  belongs,  but  likewise  those 
commonly  designated  alligators,  caimans,  and  garials,  are  the  only  existing 
representatives  of  three  orders,  which  comprise  among  their  members  not  only 
the  most  highly  organised  of  all  Reptiles,  and  those  which  approach  nearest  in 
their  organisation  to  Birds,  but  likewise  the  largest  of  all  terrestrial  Reptiles,  as, 
indeed,  of  any  land  animals.  Although  these  three  orders  possess  many  character- 
istics in  common,  it  will  be  more  convenient  to  describe  the  leading  features  of 
each  separately,  in  the  course  of  which  their  common  attributes  will  be  pointed  out. 


SKELETON  AND  ABDOMINAL  RIBS   OF  CROCODILE. 


Characteristics  Sluggish    in    disposition,    hideous    in    form,    and    huge   in   size, 

of  Crocodiles,  crocodiles  alone  among  existing  Reptiles  serve  in  some  measure  to 
recall  the  giant  Saurians  with  which  the  earth  was  peopled  during  earlier  periods 
of  its  existence.  In  addition  to  their  large  bodily  size,  crocodiles  are  characterised 
by  the  lizard-like  form  of  their  bodies,  which  are  supported  on  short  limbs,  and 
carried  close  to  the  ground.  The  long  and  powerful  tail  is  much  compressed  from 
side  to  side,  so  as  to  be  an  efficient  propeller  in  swimming ;  its  superficial  extent 
being  increased  by  a  vertical  longitudinal  crest  on  its  upper  surface,  this  crest 


.  : 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS.  13 

iing  formed  of  a  double  series  of  horny  lobes  in  the  basal  half  of  the  tail,  beyond 
which  it  is  single.  The  head  terminates  in  a  flattened  snout  of  variable  length, 
and  is  attached  to  the  body  by  a  short,  although  muscular  neck  ;  while  the  bulky 
body  is  much  depressed.  The  toes  are  more  or  less  webbed.  Externally,  the  back, 
tail,  and  under-parts  of  these  animals  are  protected  by  an  armour  of  quadrangular 
horny  shields  of  varying  size,  which  are  arranged  in  regular  longitudinal  and 
transverse  rows,  and  are  in  contact  with  one  another  by  their  edges.  In  the 
region  of  the  back,  and  sometimes  also  on  the  under  surface  of  the  body,  these 
horny  shie]ds  are  underlain  by  a  corresponding  series  of  pitted  bony  plates.  In 
the  region  of  the  neck,  among  existing  members  of  the  order,  these  bony  plates 
are  often  irregular  in  form,  and  vary  in  number,  but  on  the  back  they  are  always 
quadrangular  and  broader  than  long,  with  a  well-marked  longitudinal  ridge  down 
the  middle.  Such  plates  form  a  considerable  number  of  longitudinal  rows  ;  each 
plate  articulating  by  its  edges  with  those  on  either  side,  while  those  of  each 
transverse  row  overlap  those  immediately  behind  them.  When  a  bony  shield  is 
developed  on  the  under  surface  of  the  body,  the  number  of  longitudinal  rows  of 
plates  in  existing  forms  is  always  more  than  eight  ;  the  transverse  rows  of  plates 
overlapping  and  each  plate  being  composed  of  two  distinct  pieces  united  together 
by  suture.  The  limbs  are  provided  with  five  toes  in  front  and  four  behind  ;  the 
three  innermost  digits  in  each  foot  being  furnished  with  claws.  In  all  crocodiles, 
whether  living  or  extinct,  the  conical  teeth,  which  may  be  of  very  large  size,  are 
confined  to  the  margins  of  the  jaws,  where  they  are  implanted  in  distinct  sockets  ; 
while  those  in  use  are  continually  being  replaced  by  fresh  ones  growing  from 
beneath.  These  animals  are  further  characterised  by  their  nostrils  opening  at  the 
extremity  of  the  snout  —  which  may  be  either  short  or  long  —  and  by  their  ears  being 
covered  with  movable  lids. 

Such  are  some  of  the  leading  external  features  of  these  reptiles,  and  although 
they  would  suffice  to  distinguish  them  from  the  living  members  of  the  order, 
they  are  insufficient  to  determine  their  true  affinities.  Laying  stress  upon  the 
above-mentioned  characters  of  their  teeth,  the  naturalist  is  accordingly  compelled 
to  resort  to  the  skeleton  and  soft  internal  parts  for  more  distinctive  characters. 
In  the  skull  all  crocodiles  are  characterised  by  the  quadrate-bone  (of  which  the 
position  is  indicated  in  the  figure  on  p.  2)  being  firmly  united  with  the  adjoining 
bones  ;  while  a  further  distinctive  feature  is  to  be  found  in  the  presence  of  two 
bony  bars  on  the  sides  of 
the  skull  behind  the  socket 
for  the  eye,  the  uppermost 
of  these  arches  being  shown 
immediately  below  the 

P    ny~ 

ing  figure,  while  the  lower  0?  socket  for  the  eye  .  T>  temporai  pit  or  fossa. 

and  more  slender  one  forms 

the  backward  continuation  of  the  inferior  margin  of  the  eye-socket.     The  more 

anterior  ribs  (which,  as  in  other  Reptiles,  are  present  in  the  neck  as  well  as  in  the 

chest)  generally  articulate  with  the  backbone  by  means  of  two  distinct   heads; 

and,  while  collar-bones  are  wanting,  there  is  a  breast-bone  and  likewise  an  inter- 


SIDE  VIEW  OF  SKULL  OF  EXTINCT   CROCODILE 


i4  CROCODILES. 

clavicle ;  the  latter  being  the  median  bar  seen  in  the  lower  figure  of  the  illustration 
on  p.  10.  A  further  peculiarity  is  the  presence  of  seven  or  eight  pairs  of  abdominal 
ribs  in  the  wall  of  the  abdomen,  which  have  no  connection  with  the  proper  ribs, 
and  have  their  angle  of  union  directed  forwards.1  As  regards  the  soft  parts,  the 
heart  differs  from  that  of  all  other  living  Reptiles  in  having  four  complete  chambers, 
so  that  the  fresh  and  impure  blood  can  only  mingle  by  means  of  a  communication 
between  the  great  vessels  externally  to  the  heart ;  while  there  is  also  an  incomplete 
midriff  dividing  the  chest  from  the  abdomen. 

In  addition  to  the  preceding  characters,  which  are  common  to  all  members  of 
the  order,  there  are  certain  others  found  only  in  the  existing  forms  and  some 
of  their  nearest  extinct  allies.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  peculiarities 
is  the  extremely  backward  position  of  the  aperture  of  the  internal  nostrils,  which 
in  the  dried  skull,  as  shown  on  p.  2,  is  situated  close  up  to  the  occiput,  this  being 
due  to  the  development  of  special  plates  by  the  bones  of  the  palate,  which  grow 
beneath  the  nasal  passage,  so  as  to  form  a  floor  to  it,  and  thus  completely  cut  it 
off  from  the  cavity  of  the  mouth.  As  the  summit  of  the  windpipe  is  continued 
upwards  into  this  posterior  aperture  of  the  nostrils,  crocodiles  are  enabled  to 
breathe  while  their  mouths  are  wide  open  and  filled  with  water.  Another  dis- 
tinctive feature  of  the  group,  also  shown  in  the  figure  just  referred  to,  is  that  the 
socket  for  the  eye  communicates  freely  behind  with  the  lower  temporal  fossa. 
Then,  again,  all  existing  members  of  the  order  are  characterised  by  the  bodies  of 
the  vertebrae  having  the  ball  behind  and  the  cup  in  front ;  while  the  ribs  of  the 
chest  are  provided  with  hook-like  or  uncinate  processes  resembling  those  of  birds. 
In  the  region  of  the  neck  the  ribs  present  the  peculiarity  of  having  backwardly 
projecting  and  overlapping  processes,  which  effectually  prevent  these  animals  from 
turning  their  heads  to  one  side. 

Crocodiles  are  denizens  of  the  tropical  and  subtropical  regions  of 
the  globe,  and  are  found  in  such  latitudes  wherever  there  are  rivers 
or  fresh-water  lakes  of  sufficient  size  for  their  mode  of  life;  while  one  of  the 
Indian  species  habitually  resorts  to  the  sea-coast,  where  it  has  been  seen  floating  at 
a  considerable  distance  from  the  land.  All  of  them  are  excellent  swimmers,  and 
are  mainly  propelled  when  in  the  water  by  the  aid  of  their  powerful  tails ;  the 
limbs  being  chiefly  used  when  walking  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  or  on  the  shore. 
When  in  repose,  crocodiles  lie  like  logs  either  in  the  water  or  on  the  banks  of  the 
lakes  or  rivers  they  inhabit ;  but  when  in  pursuit  of  their  prey  in  the  water  they 
move  with  great  speed,  while  they  are  also  active  on  land.  The  young  are, 
however,  decidedly  nimbler  in  their  movements  than  are  the  adults.  Exclusively 
carnivorous  in  the  diet,  some  members  of  the  order  feed  solely  upon  fish ;  while 
others,  in  addition  to  fish,  prey  upon  the  flesh  of  all  animals  that  come  in  their 
way.  Adult  crocodiles,  writes  Dr.  Giinther,  "  attack  every  large  animal  which 
accidentally  approaches  them,  and  in  overpowering  it  the  whole  of  their  powerful 
organisation  is  called  into  requisition.  Seizing  the  victim  between  their  capacious 
jaws,  and  fastening  their  long,  pointed,  conical  teeth  into  its  flesh,  they  draw  it, 
in  one  moment,  by  their  weight  and  with  a  stroke  of  the  tail,  below  the  water  and 
drown  it.  Their  gullet  is,  however,  much  too  narrow  to  allow  of  the  passage  of 

1  These  abdominal  ribs,  connected  together  by  the  ligament,  are  shown  in  the  figure  above  referred  to. 


EXISTING   GROUP.  15 

the  entire  body  of  the  victim;  and  their  teeth  being  adapted  for  seizing  and 
holding  fast  only,  and  not  for  biting,  they  are  obliged  to  mangle  the  carcase, 
tearing  off  single  pieces  by  sudden  strong  jerks."  This  rending  process  is  mainly 
accomplished  by  lateral  movements  of  the  head  and  front  portion  of  the  body. 
Too  often,  human  beings,  who  incautiously  bathe  in  crocodile-haunted  waters,  fall 
victims  to  these  bloodthirsty  reptiles ;  while  there  are  instances  of  people  being 
seized  when  merely  stooping  down  to  dip  water  from  the  river's  marge.  When 
seized,  the  only  way  for  an  unarmed  man  to  escape  is,  it  is  said,  to  thrust  his 
fingers  into  the  creature's  eyes  and  endeavour  to  gouge  them  out.  To  a  consider- 
able extent  crocodiles  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  and  during  protracted  droughts 
many  of  them  at  least  are  accustomed  to  bury  themselves  in  the  mud,  where  they 
become  torpid. 

As  regards  their  reproduction,  crocodiles  lay  from  twenty  to  sixty  eggs,  of 
the  approximate  size  of  those  of  a  goose,  and  invested  with  a  hard,  white  shell. 
These  are  deposited  in  some  hollow  in  the  sand  of  the  bank,  where,  after  being 
covered  to  a  greater  or  less  depth,  they  are  left  to  hatch.  Whether  the  parent 
always  assists  in  the  incubation  does  not  appear  certain,  although  this  has  been 
proved  to  be  the  case  in  Madagascar  by  Dr.  Voeltzkow.  In  that  island  the  egg- 
laying  season  lasts  from  the  end  of  August  to  the  end  of  September ;  the  usual 
number  of  eggs  in  a  nest  varying  from  twenty  to  thirty.  The  nest  is  excavated 
to  a  depth  of  about  two  feet  in  the  dry  white  sand ;  its  lateral  walls  being  under- 
mined so  as  to  allow  the  eggs  to  roll  into  the  cavities  thus  formed  from  the 
slightly  elevated  centre.  Upon  the  summit  of  the  completed  nest,  which  is  not 
noticeable  externally,  the  parent  sleeps ;  and  when  the  young  crocodiles  are  ready 
for  hatching  they  utter  distinct  notes,  which  are  heard  by  the  mother  even 
through  a  layer  of  two  feet  of  sand.  Digging  down  to  the  eggs,  the  parent 
crocodile  lays  them  open  to  the  air,  upon  which  the  young  reptiles  make  their 
way  out  by  perforating  the  shell  at  one  extremity  by  the  aid  of  a  tooth  specially 
developed  for  this  purpose,  the  whole  process  occupying  as  much  as  a  couple  of 
hours.  When  hatched,  the  young  crocodiles  are  led  to  the  water  by  their  parent, 
whose  attention  they  attract  by  uttering  cries,  which  are,  however,  of  a  lower 
pitch  than  those  emitted  while  still  in  the  egg. 


EXISTING  CROCODILES. 
Family  CuocODILlD^J. 

The  whole  of  the  existing  members  of  the  order  are  included 
in  a  single  family,  which  may  be  subdivided  into  half  a  dozen  generic 
groups.  Of  these,  in  some  respects  the  most  specialised  are  the  caimans  and 
alligators,  which,  although  closely  allied,  are  now  generally  regarded  as  belonging 
to  distinct  genera.  Both  caimans  and  alligators  are  characterised  by  their  rela- 
tively short  and  broad  snouts,  in  which  the  edges  of  the  jaws  are  festooned,  and 
the  nasal  bones  extend  forwards  to  the  aperture  of  the  nostrils,1  while  the  two 

1  Tliis  is  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  2,  where  the  nasals  are  the  paired  bones  on  the  upper  aspect  of  the  skull,  of 
which  the  narrow  points  just  project  into  the  cavity  of  the  nostrils. 


i6 


CROCODILES. 


halves  of  the  lower  jaw  are  united  in  front  by  a  very  short  bony  union.  The 
stout  teeth  vary  considerably  in  size  in  different  parts  of  the  jaws ;  the  third  and 
ninth  in  the  upper  jaw,  the  fourth,  and  frequently  also  the  first  and  eleventh,  in 
the  lower,  being  generally  much  larger  than  the  others.  In  these  features  caimans 
and  alligators  resemble  many  of  the  true  crocodiles ;  from  which  they  are  distin- 
guished by  the  circumstance  that,  as  a  rule,  both  the  first  and  the  fourth  tooth  on 
each  side  of  the  lower  jaw  are  received  into  pits  in  the  upper  jaw,  so  as  to  be 
invisible  externally  when  the  mouth  is  closed ;  while  the  upper  teeth  bite  on  the 
outer  side  of  the  lower  ones.  Moreover,  the  number  of  teeth  varies  from  seventeen 


SPECTACLED  CAIMAN  (T\  nat.  size). 

to  twenty  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  from  seventeen  to  twenty-two  in 
the  lower  jaw.  Then,  again,  both  these  groups  are  characterised  by  the  very  small 
size  of  the  upper  temporal  fossae  on  the  top  of  the  skull,  or  those  marked  T  in  the 
figure  on  p.  13 ;  these  fossae  being  in  some  cases  completely  obliterated.  Caimans 
are  specially  distinguished  by  the  aperture  of  the  nostrils  not  being  divided  in  two 
by  the  nasal  bones,  by  the  presence  of  a  strongly  developed  bony  armour  on  the 
inferior  surface  of  the  body,  and  by  the  bony  plates  on  the  upper  surface  being 
articulated  together. 

Caimans,  or  jacares,  as  they  are  called  by  the  natives  of  Brazil,  are  restricted 
to  Central  and  South  America,  where  they  are  represented  by  five  species.  Of 
these,  the  largest,  and  at  the  same  time  the  best  known,  is  the  black  or  great 


CAIMANS.  17 

caiman  (Caiman  niger),  from  the  rivers  of  tropical  South  America  eastwards  of 
the  Andes,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  black  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  body, 
the  under-parts  being  yellow.  This  species,  which  generally  attains  a  length  of 
about  14  feet,  is  characterised  by  its  partially  bony  and  flat  upper  eyelid,  by  the 
presence  of  upper  temporal  fossse  in  the  skull,  by  the  number  of  teeth  in  each 
premaxillary  or  anterior  upper  jawbone  being  five,  and  the  number  of  lower  teeth 
being  seventeen  or  eighteen.  Nearly  allied,  although  of  much  smaller  size,  are 
the  broad-nosed  caiman  (C.  latirostris),  ranging  from  the  Amazon  to  the  Eio  de 
la  Plata,  and  the  spectacled  caiman  (6^.  sclerops),  from  Central  and  South  America ; 
both  of  which  have  the  upper  eyelid  rugose,  with  a  small  horn-like  projection, 
while  in  the  skull  the  socket  of  the  eye  does  not  extend  so  far  forwards.  Both  are 
uniformly  blackish  when  adult ;  but  in  the  former  the  skull  is  very  wide,  and  the 
number  of  lower  teeth  from  seventeen  to  eighteen,  while  in  the  latter  the  skull  is 
narrower,  and  the  lower  teeth  vary  from  eighteen  to  twenty.  The  two  remaining 
species  (C.  trigonatus  and  C.  palpebrosus)  are  still  smaller,  and  characterised  by 
the  colour  of  the  upper-parts  being  yellowish  brown,  spotted  and  barred  with 
black ;  while  the  upper  eyelid  is  completely  bony,  the  skull  has  no  upper  temporal 
fossa,  there  are  but  four  teeth  in  each  premaxillary  bone,  and  the  number  of  lower 
teeth  is  from  twenty  to  twenty -two  on  each  side. 

On  the  Amazon  and  Orinoco,  as  well  as  other  South  American  rivers,  caimans 
-are  to  be  met  with  in  myriads,  and  appear  to  be  very  similar  in  their  habits  to  the 
crocodiles  of  the  Old  World.  Writing  of  the  great  caiman — jacare-uassu  of  the 
natives — Bates  says  that  "  it  grows  to  a  length  of  eighteen  or  twenty  feet,  and 
attains  an  enormous  bulk.  Like  the  turtles,  the  alligator  [as  he  calls  it]  has  its 
annual  migrations,  for  it  retreats  to  the  interior  pools  and  flooded  forests  in  the 
dry  season.  During  the  months  of  high  water,  therefore,  scarcely  a  single  in- 
dividual is  to  be  seen  in  the  main  river.  In  the  middle  part  of  the  Lower  Amazon, 
about  Obydos  and  Villa  Nova,  where  many  of  the  lakes  with  their  channels  of 
communication  with  the  trunk  stream  dry  up  in  the  fine  months,  the  alligator 
buries  itself  in  the  mud  and  becomes  dormant,  sleeping  till  the  rainy  season  returns. 
On  the  Upper  Amazon,  where  the  dry  season  is  never  excessive,  it  has  not  this 
habit.  It  is  scarcely  exaggerating  to  say  that  the  waters  of  the  Solimoens  are  as 
well  stocked  with  large  alligators  as  a  ditch  in  England  is  in  summer  with  tadpoles." 
By  the  natives  of  these  regions  the  caiman  is  at  once  despised  and  feared ;  the 
same  traveller  relating  how  on  one  occasion  he  saw  a  party  boldly  enter  the  water 
and  pull  to  shore  one  of  these  large  reptiles  by  its  tail ;  while  at  another  time  two 
medium-sized  specimens  that  had  been  captured  in  a  net  were  coolly  returned  to 
the  water  hard  by  where  a  couple  of  children  were  playing.  Sometimes,  however, 
they  have  to  pay  dearly  for  such  temerity.  The  Indians  of  Guiana,  according  to 
Waterton,  capture  the  caiman  by  means  of  a  baited  hook  and  line,  the  former 
being  composed  of  several  pieces  of  wood,  which  become  fixed  in  the  creature's 
jaws.  Waterton's  account  of  his  ride  on  the  back  of  a  caiman  thus  caught  is 
probably  familiar  to  many  of  our  readers ;  and  we  have  read  of  a  similar  feat  being 
accomplished  elsewhere.  The  eggs  of  the  great  caiman,  which  are  about  the  size 
of  those  of  a  turkey,  are  said  to  be  not  unfrequently  deposited  in  a  heap  of  dry 
leaves,  and  are  much  sought  after  as  food  by  the  natives  of  Dutch  Guiana. 

VOL,  v. — 2- 


i8  CROCODILES. 

The  early  Spanish  settlers  of  South  America  on  meeting  with  a 
gigantic  lizard-like  reptile  naturally  applied  to  it  the  name  of  una 
lagarta,  which  is  the  Spanish  term  for  a  lizard ;  and  this  as  naturally  became  in 
course  of  time  corrupted  into  alligator.  It  would  appear,  indeed,  that  this  name 
was  first  given  to  the  caiman,  to  which  in  strict  propriety  it  should  therefore 
belong ;  but  now,  by  the  common  consent  of  naturalists,  it  is  taken  as  the  special 
designation  of  the  members  of  the  present  genus.  The  alligators,  as  thus  restricted, 
are  represented  by  one  species  from  North  America,  and  by  a  second  from  the 
Yang-tse-Kiang  in  China ;  while  there  is  also  a  third  and  imperfectly  known 
species,  of  which  the  habitat  is  as  yet  undetermined.  The  alligators  differ  from 
the  caimans  merely  by  the  forward  prolongation  of  the  nasal  bones  of  the  skull, 
so  as  to  divide  the  aperture  of  the  nostrils  into  two  equal  moieties,  by  the  want 
of  articulation  between  the  bony  plates  of  the  back,  and  the  absence  or  extreme 
thinness  of  those  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body.  Curiously  enough,  the  Chinese 
alligator  (Alligator  sinensis),  which  is  a  comparatively  small  species,  is  the  one 
coming  nearest  in  structure  to  the  caimans ;  this  approximation  being  shown  by 
the  great  development  of  bone  in  the  upper  eyelid,  and  the  presence  of  thin  bony 
plates  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body.  The  latter  are,  however,  placed  wide 
apart,  without  any  mutual  articulation  or  overlapping.  In  this  species  the  front 
toes  are  free,  the  number  of  plates  on  the  neck  is  usually  six,  although  these  may 
be  reduced  to  four,  while  generally  there  are  but  six  plates  in  the  widest  of  the 
transverse  rows  on  the  back.  The  number  of  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  is  seventeen 
or  eighteen,  against  eighteen  or  nineteen  in  the  lower.  In  colour  the  upper-parts 
are  greenish  black,  speckled  and  streaked  with  yellow ;  while  the  under-parts  are 
greyish.  In  the  much  larger  Mississippi  alligator  (A.  mississippiensis),  of  which 
the  dimensions  exceed  those  of  the  great  caiman,  the  front  toes  are  webbed,  there 
are  but  four  plates  on  the  neck,  and  there  are  always  eight  plates  in  the  widest 
of  the  transverse  rows  of  the  back.  There  are  nineteen  or  twenty  teeth  on  each 
side  of  both  jaws ;  and  in  the  adult  the  colour  is  dark  green  or  blackish  above, 
and  yellowish  below.  The  range  of  this  species  embraces  the  South-Eastern  United 
States,  from  the  Rio  Grande  to  North  Carolina.  The  third  species  (A.  helois)  is  a 
small  one,  distinguished  by  the  slight  compression  of  the  tail,  which  is  scarcely 
crested. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  Chinese  alligator  (which  was  first  made  known  to  science 
in  1879)  in  the  living  state  is  mainly  or  entirely  derived  from  specimens  exhibited 
in  the  menageries  of  Europe ;  while  the  accounts  of  the  mode  of  life  of  the  Missis- 
sippi species  are  by  no  means  so  full  as  is  desirable.  It  appears,  however,  that  the 
latter  spends  the  greater  part  of  its  time  in  the  water,  where  its  main  diet  is  formed 
by  fish,  although  it  will  seize  and  drag  such  sheep,  goats,  dogs,  deer,  or  horses,  that, 
while  drinking,  come  within  reach  of  its  terrible  jaws.  During  flood-time,  when 
many  of  the  lowlands  are  under  water,  the  alligators  leave  the  rivers  to  feed  on 
the  fish  which  abound  in  the  flooded  districts ;  returning  to  their  old  quarters  with 
the  subsidence  of  the  inundations.  To  such  flooded  lowlands,  writes  Audubon,  "  in 
the  early  part  of  the  autumn,  when  the  heat  of  a  southern  sun  has  evaporated 
much  of  the  water,  the  squatter,  the  hunter,  the  planter,  all  go  in  search  of  sport. 
The  lakes  then  are  about  two  feet  deep,  having  a  fine  sandy  bottom.  .  .  .  The  long, 


ALLIGATORS.  19 

narrow  Indian  canoe,  kept  to  hunt  these  lakes,  and  taken  into  them  during  the 
freshet,  is  soon  launched ;  and  the  party  seated  in  the  bottom  is  paddled,  or  poled, 
to  look  for  water-game.  Then,  on  a  sudden,  hundreds  of  alligators  are  seen 
dispersed  all  over  the  lake ;  their  head  and  all  the  upper  part  of  their  body  floating 
like  a  log,  and  in  many  instances  so  resembling  one,  that  it  requires  to  be  accus- 
tomed to  see  them  to  know  the  distinction.  Millions  of  the  large  wood-ibis  are 
seen  wading  through  the  water,  muddling  it  up,  and  striking  deadly  blows  with 


MISSISSIPPI  ALLIGATOR  (^5  nat.  size). 


their  bills  on  the  fish  therein.  ...  It  is  then  that  you  see  and  hear  the  alligator  at 
his  work  ;  each  lake  has  a  spot  deeper  than  the  rest,  rendered  so  by  these  animals 
who  work  at  it;  and  always  situated  at  the  lower  end  of  the  lake."  By  this 
means  a  supply  of  water  is  ensured  ;  and  in  these  so-called  alligators'  holes  the 
reptiles  may  be  seen  congregating  in  hundreds.  "  The  fish,  that  are  already  dying 
by  thousands  through  the  insufferable  heat  and  stench  of  the  water,  and  the 
wounds  of  the  different  winged  enemies  constantly  in  pursuit  of  them,  resort  to 
the  alligators'  hole  to  receive  refreshment,  with  a  hope  of  finding  security  also,  and 
follow  down  the  little  current  flowing  through  the  connecting  sluices  ;  but  no  !  for, 


20  CROCODILES. 

as  the  water  recedes  in  the  lake,  they  are  here  confined.  The  alligators  thrash 
them,  and  devour  them  whenever  they  feel  hungry,  while  the  ibis  destroys  all  that 
make  towards  the  shore.  By  looking  attentively  on  this  spot,  you  plainly  see  the 
tails  of  the  alligators  moving  to  and  fro,  splashing,  and  now  and  then,  when  missing 
a  fish,  throwing  it  up  in  the  air.  The  hunter  marks  one  of  the  eyes  of  the  largest 
alligators,  and  as  the  hair-trigger  is  touched  the  alligator  dies.  Should  the  ball 
strike  one  inch  astray  from  the  eye,  the  animal  flounces,  rolls  over  and  over, 
beating  furiously  about  him  with  his  tail,  frightening  all  his  companions,  who  sink 
immediately ;  whilst  the  fishes,  like  blades  of  burnished  metal,  leap  in  all  directions 
out  of  the  water,  so  terrified  are  they  at  this  uproar." 

During  the  pairing-season,  which  takes  place  in  the  spring,  the  males  resort 
to  the  land,  and  are  but  seldom  seen ;  while  soon  after  the  female  deposits  her 
hard  white  eggs,  which  are  said  at  times  to  be  upwards  of  one  hundred  in  number. 
The  nest  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid  is  generally  placed  among  bushes  or  reeds,  at 
a  distance  of  fifty  or  sixty  yards  from  the  water's  edge ;  the  eggs  themselves  being 
carefully  covered  with  leaves  and  other  vegetable  matter.  The  heat  engendered 
by  the  decomposition  of  the  latter,  aids  in  the  hatching  of  the  eggs ;  and  when  the 
young  appear,  they  are  conducted  to  the  water  by  the  mother,  who  has  all  the 
time  remained  on  guard  near  the  nest. 

Double-Tusked  In  the  middle  and  lower  Tertiary  deposits'  of  both  Europe  and 

Alligators,  the  United  States,  the  present  group  was  represented  by  certain 
extinct  alligators  (Diplocynodori)  characterised  by  the  presence  of  a  bony  armour 
on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body,  coupled  with  the  circumstance  that  the  fourth 
tooth  of  the  lower  jaw  was  generally  received  into  a  notch  in  the  side  of  the  skull, 
while  the  third  lower  tooth  was  as  much  enlarged  as  the  fourth.  Some  of  these 
double-tusked  alligators  had  short  snouts,  like  their  existing  allies;  but  in  one 
from  the  London  Clay  this  part  of  the  skull  was  much  produced,  as  in  many 
crocodiles. 

stumpy  A  small  and  short-nosed  crocodile  (Osteolcemus  tetraspis)  from 

Crocodile.  West  Africa,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sierra  Leone,  where  it  was 
discovered  by  Du  Chaillu,  presents  much  the  same  relationship  to  the  true 
crocodiles  as  is  held  by  the  alligators  to  the  caimans.  Thus,  while  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  teeth  is  similar  to  that  obtaining  in  the  true  crocodiles,  the  nasal 
bones  extend  forwards  to  divide  the  cavity  of  the  nostrils  into  two  halves. 
Moreover,  the  upper  eyelid  is  largely  bony,  while  there  are  detached  bony 
plates  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body,  as  well  as  on  the  throat.  The  shield  of 
the  neck  is  distinct  from  that  of  the  back,  and  is  composed  of  two  or  three  pairs 
of  plates,  of  which  the  anterior  ones  are  very  large;  while  that  of  the  back 
comprises  seventeen  transverse  rows  of  plates,  the  broadest  row  including  six  of 
such  plates.  The  ridges  on  the  plates  of  the  neck  are  strongly  marked,  but  they 
become  very  obscure  in  the  two  middle  rows  of  the  back.  The  fore-toes  have 
only  rudimentary  webs,  although  those  of  the  hind-limbs  are  webbed  for  about 
half  their  length.  With  the  exception  of  parts  of  the  head,  tail,  and  back,  which 
are  light  brown  with  black  markings,  the  coloration  of  the  adult  is  uniform  blackish 
brown.  Young  specimens  are,  however,  yellowish  brown,  spotted  with  black  above, 
and  with  bars  of  the  same  on  the  body  and  tail ;  while  the  lower  armour  is  black 


TRUE    CROCODILES. 


2T 


and  yellow.     Practically  nothing  is  known  as  to  the  habits  of  this  peculiar  species, 
which  are,  however,  probably  very  similar  to  those  of  its  allies. 

The  true  crocodiles  comprise  rather  less  than  a  dozen  species, 
ranging  over  Africa,  Southern  Asia,  Northern  Australia,  and  Tropical 
America.  Having  no  bony  armour  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body,  they  are 
distinguished  from  the  caimans  and  alligators  by  the  interlocking  of  the  upper 
and  lower  teeth,  and  by  the  fourth  lower  tooth  being  usually  received  into  a  notch 
on  the  side  of  the  upper  jaw,  so  as  to  be  partially  visible  when  the  mouth  is  closed, 
while  the  number  of  teeth  varies  from  seventeen  to  nineteen  on  each  side  of  the 


STUMPY  CROCODILE  (^  nat.  size). 

upper  jaw,  and  fifteen  in  the  lower.  From  the  stumpy  crocodile  they  are  distin- 
guished by  the  aperture  of  the  nostrils  in  the  skull  not  being  divided  by  the 
forward  prolongation  of  the  nasal  bones.  While  some  of  the  species  resemble  the 
alligators  in  their  broad  and  short  snouts,  others  have  elongated,  narrow  snouts, 
approaching  those  of  the  garials;  but  as  there  is  an  almost  complete  gradation 
from  the  one  type  to  the  other,  this  affords  no  ground  for  generic  distinction, 
so  that  the  most  that  can  be  done  is  to  arrange  them  in  groups. 

Commonly  known  to  the  natives  of  India  as  the  magar,  and 
misnamed  alligator  by  Anglo-Indians,  the  Indian  crocodile  (Crocodilus 
palustris}  is  the  best  known  representative  of  a  group  of  four  species  which, 
hi  their  broad  and  short  snouts,  make  the  nearest  approach  to  the  caimans  and 


Indian  Crocodile. 


22  CROCODILES. 

alligators.  In  all  these  the  length  of  the  snout  does  not  exceed  one  and  a  half 
times  its  basal  width ;  the  bony  union  between  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw 
does  not  extend  behind  the  level  of  the  fourth  or  fifth  tooth ;  while  on  the  palate 
the  line  of  union  between  the  anterior  and  main  jawbones  (premaxillse  and 
maxillae)  extends  nearly  straight  across  the  skull,  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  2. 
The  Indian  crocodile  has  no  bony  ridges  on  the  snout,  while  there  are  usually  four 
longitudinal  rows  of  bony  plates  on  the  back,  and  there  are  five  teeth  in  each 
anterior  upper  jawbone  or  premaxilla.  An  allied  species  (C.  robustus)  from  the 
interior  of  Madagascar,  differs  by  having  six  longitudinal  rows  of  plates  on  the 
back ;  while  the  Cuban  crocodile  (C.  rhombifer),  of  Central  America,  and  a  nearly 
related  species  (C.  moreleti),  from  Guatemala,  are  distinguished  by  having  a  more 
or  less  distinct  oblique  ridge  in  front  of  the  eye. 

The  habitat  of  the  Indian  crocodile  includes  India,  Ceylon,  Burma,  and  the 
Malay  Peninsula  and  Islands ;  its  most  westerly  range  being  Sind  and  Baluchistan. 
Inhabiting  rivers,  lakes,  and  marshes,  it  appears  to  be  an  exclusively  fresh-water 
species,  never  venturing  into  estuaries.  As  to  the  dimensions  attained  by  this 
species  there  is  some  uncertainty,  although  it  is  probable  that  at  the  present  day 
specimens  seldom  grow  to  the  size  that  was  reached  before  firearms  were  common. 
Nowadays  from  12  to  14  feet  appears  to  be  a  large  size  for  this  species,  but  a 
length  of  18  feet  has  been  recorded,  while  skulls  in  the  Calcutta  Museum  would 
seem  to  indicate  still  larger  individuals.  A  nearly  allied  extinct  species  has  left 
its  remains  in  the  Siwalik  Hills  of  Northern  India.  Swarming  in  most  of  the  rivers 
and  marshes  of  India,  except  where  the  current  is  too  swift,  the  Indian  crocodile 
is  stated  to  be  less  ferocious  than  the  species  next  mentioned,  generally  preying 
on  the  smaller  animals,  and  not  unfrequently  dragging  down  a  wounded  or  dead 
bird  before  the  eyes  of  the  gunner.  When  the  waters  they  frequent  become  dried 
up,  these  crocodiles  will  either  travel  across  country  by  night  to  another  lake  or 
river,  or  bury  themselves  in  the  mud. 

Estuarine  Resembling  its  compatriot  in  its  pale  olive  colour,  conspicuously 

Crocodile,  spotted  with  black,  the  estuarine  crocodile  (C.  porosus),  of  India  and 
other  regions,  may  be  at  once  distinguished  by  its  longer  and  more  slender  snout, 
as  well  as  by  the  presence  of  only  four  teeth  in  each  anterior  jawbone  or  pre- 
maxilla of  the  adult.  It  belongs,  indeed,  to  a  group  of  four  species,  differing  from 
the  preceding  assemblage  in  the  length  of  the  snout  varying  from  rather  more 
than  one  and  a  half  to  just  over  twice  its  basal  width ;  and  also  by  the  line  of 
union  between  the  anterior  and  main  jawbones  running  in  a  V  shape  up  the 
palate.  The  presence  of  a  largo  ridge  running  down  the  skull  in  front  of  the 
eye  serves  to  distinguish  this  species  not  only  from  all  the  other  members  of  the 
group,  but  likewise  from  the  Indian  crocodile.  The  present  species  generally,  if 
not  invariably,  inhabits  the  tidal  portions  of  rivers,  from  whence  it  descends  into 
the  sea,  where  it  has  been  observed  floating  at  considerable  distances  from  land. 
These  estuarine  and  partially  marine  habits  will  readily  account  for  the  wide 
geographical  distribution  of  this  crocodile,  which  ranges  from  India  to  Australia. 
Unknown  on  the  western  coast  of  India,  the  estuarine  crocodile  is  abundant  in  the 
lower  courses  of  the  rivers  of  Bengal  and  other  parts  of  the  eastern  side  of  India, 
as  well  as  in  Ceylon  and  Burma,  whence  it  extends  eastwards  to  Southern  China, 


TRUE   CROCODILES.  23 

Northern  Australia,  and  the  islands  of  the  Solomon  and  Fiji  groups.  In  point  of 
size  it  probably  surpasses  all  other  species,  one  specimen  being  recorded  which 
reached  the  enormous  length  of  33  feet 

In  correspondence  with  its  gigantic  size,  this  crocodile  appears  to  be  one  of  the 
most  formidable  members  of  its  kind,  being  exceedingly  prone  to  attack  human 
beings,  more  especially  in  the  breeding-season,  which  takes  place  during  June 
and  July,  when  it  is  stated  to  attack  such  small  boats  as  may  cross  its  haunts. 


ESTUARINE   CROCODILE  (^  nat. 


as 


Owing  to  its  depredations,  these  crocodiles  are  cordially  detested  as  well 
feared  by  the  natives  of  India,  and  at  Dacca,  on  the  north  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
crocodile-hunting  is  pursued  as  a  profession.  The  following  account  of  the  pursuit 
of  one  of  these  monsters  which  had  recently  carried  off  a  boy  is  abridged  from  a 
native  newspaper.  The  hunter,  having  been  summoned,  moored  his  canoe  hard  by 
the  place  where  the  tragedy  had  taken  place,  it  being  well  known  that  a  crocodile 
which  has  been  successful  in  securing  a  victim  will  generally  remain  for  some  days 
about  the  spot.  Soon  the  crocodile  was  descried  floating  on  the  water,  whereupon 
'the  hunter  and  assistant  hid  themselves  in  the  canoe,  while  the  son  of  the  former 
entered  the  water,  which  he  commenced  to  beat  with  his  hands.  Catching  sight 


CROCODILES. 


Nile  Crocodile. 


of  the  boy,  the  crocodile  prepared  to  dive  towards  him,  upon  which  the  boy  took 
refuge  in  the  canoe.  In  a  moment  or  so  the  reptile  rose  to  the  surface  at  the 
expected  spot,  where  he  was  saluted  with  a  couple  of  harpoons,  one  of  which 
secured  a  firm  hold.  After  a  long  chase,  in  which  a  number  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  village  took  part  in  boats,  a  second  harpoon  was  safely  planted  in  the  head 
of  the  monster,  who  was  finally  dragged  to  shore.  When  opened,  several  gold  and 
silver  ornaments — the  relics  of  earlier  victims — were  found  in  his  stomach.  In 
Ceylon,  according  to  Sir  J.  E.  Tennent,  crocodiles  are  frequently  captured  by  means 
of  a  hook  and  line,  which  are  laid  over-night  in  the  water,  and  made  fast,  in  the 
native  fashion,  by  a  bunch  of  fine  cords.  These  cords  becoming  fixed  between  the 
interstices  of  the  creature's  teeth,  are  safe  from  being  bitten  through ;  and  in  the 
morning  the  captive  is  dragged  'ashore  and  despatched.  It  may  be  added  that, 
when  thus  captured,  crocodiles  emit  a  disagreeable  musky  smell,  due  to  the  secretion 
of  a  pair  of  glands  in  the  lower  jaw. 

Formerly  inhabiting  the  Nile  from  its  mouth  to  its  source,  the 
Nile  crocodile  (C.  niloticus),  from  the  invasion  of  its  haunts  by  steam 
vessels  and  the  introduction  of  rifles,  has  now  well-nigh  disappeared  from  Egypt, 

even  as  far  back  as  the  year 
1870  being  but  rarely  seen 
below  Beni  Hassan,  and  not 
common  till  above  the  second 
cataract.  In  the  upper  reaches 
of  the  Nile  it  still  exists  in 
its  pristine  numbers,  whence 
its  range  extends  southwards 
to  the  Cape  and  northwards 
to  Senegal.  The  species  also 
occurs  in  Madagascar,  while  it 
likewise  still  lingers  in  Syria, 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Zerka,  or  Crocodile  River,  near 
Cgesarea.  Distinguished  from 
the  estuarine  crocodile  by  the 
NILE  CROCODILE.  absence  of  the  ridge  in  front 

of  each  eye,  this  species  differs 

from  the  other  two  members  of  the  same  group  by  the  want  of  any  ridge  on  the 
middle  of  the  snout  or  forehead,  so  that  its  whole  skull  is  comparatively  smooth. 
In  size  it  falls  but  little,  if  at  all  short  of  the  estuarine  crocodile ;  although  differing 
from  the  latter  by  the  uniformly  dark  olive  colour  of  the  adult. 

As  the  habits  of  this  crocodile  do  not  differ  in  any  important  respects  from 
those  of  the  other  members  of  the  genus,  they  do  not  require  any  detailed  notice, 
although  a  few  words  must  be  devoted  to  its  cult  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  among 
whom  it  was  known  by  the  name  of  champsa.  By  these  remarkable  people  the 
crocodile  was  regarded  as  the  symbol  of  sunrise — possibly,  it  has  been  suggested, 
on  account  of  the  brightness  of  its  eye,  or,  perhaps,  because  that  is  the  first  part  to 
appear  when  the  creature  emerges  from  the  water.  Among  the  places  where  the 


TRUE   CROCODILES. 


25 


crocodile  was  specially  reverenced  were  Thebes  and  the  shores  of  Lake  Moeris,  as 
well  as  Ombi,  near  Syene.  At  Thebes  a  crocodile  was  reared  from  youth  in  the 
temple,  where  it  was  fed  with  sacred  food,  adorned  with  rings  and  bangles,  and 
worshipped  with  divine  honours ;  while  after  death  its  mummified  body  was  care- 
fully preserved  in  the  catacombs,  where  hundreds  of  embalmed  crocodiles  are  still 
to  be  found.  Something  analogous  to  this  Egyptian  veneration  for  the  crocodile 
is  to  be  met  with  in  other  countries.  Leith-Adams  tells  us  that  the  Indian 
crocodile  is  reclaimed  by  certain  religious  sects  in  India,  being  rendered  so  tame 
that  it  will  leave  its  pond  to  feed  out  of  its  keeper's  hand ;  while  Mrs.  R.  B.  Lee 
relates  that  at  Dix  Cove,  on  the  north-western  coast  of  Africa,  a  pair  of  tame 
crocodiles  were  kept  in  a  pond  by  priests,  dressed  in  white  garments,  who  fed  their 
charges  with  snow-white  fowls. 

In  the  Upper  Nile  the  favourite  haunts  of  the  crocodiles  are  sandbanks, 
situated  in  parts  of  the  river  where  the  current  is  not  too  strong.  There  they 
may  be  seen  at  all  hours  of  the  day  sleeping  with  widely  opened  mouths,  in  and 
out  of  which  the  black-backed  plover  (as  mentioned  on  p.  475  of  the  preceding 
volume)  walks  with  the  utmost  unconcern.  According  to  Arab  accounts,  one  and 
the  same  crocodile  has  been  known  to  haunt  a  single  sandbank  throughout  the 
term  of  a  man's  life ;  thus  leading  to  the  conclusion  that  these  creatures  must  enjoy 
a  long  term  of  existence,  during  the  whole  of  which  they  continue,  like  other 
reptiles,  to  increase  in  size.  In  common  with  this  feature  of  uninterrupted  growth, 
all  crocodiles  are  also  distinguished  by  their  remarkable  tenacity  of  life ;  the  shots 
that  prove  instantaneously  fatal  being  those  that  take  effect  either  in  the  brain 
itself  or  in  the  spinal  cord  of  the  neck.  It  is  true  indeed,  that  a  shot  through  the 
shoulder  will  ultimately  cause  death ;  but  it  allows  time  for  the  animal  to  escape 
into  the  water,  where  its  body  immediately  sinks.  To  reach  the  brain,  the 
crocodile  should  be  struck  immediately  behind  the  aperture  of  the  ear.  Although 
it  is  commonly  supposed  that  the  bony  armour  of  these  reptiles  is  bullet-proof,  this 
is  quite  erroneous;  if  the  plates  are  struck  obliquely,  the  bullet  will,  however, 
frequently  ricochet. 

A  remarkable  instance  of  boldness  and  ferocity  displayed  by  a  crocodile  of 
'this  species  is  narrated  by  a  correspondent  of  the  Times  during  a  journey  to 
Mashonaland.  On  arriving  one  evening  at  the  banks  of  the  narrow  but  rocky 
Tokwi  River,  a  man  named  Williams  rode  in  with  the  intention  of  crossing. 
During  the  passage  his  horse  was  carried  by  the  stream  a  few  yards  below  the 
landing-place,  and  just  as  he  reached  the  opposite  bank  he  was  seized  by  the  leg 
by  a  crocodile,  which  dragged  him  from  his  horse  into  the  stream.  There  the 
reptile  let  go  its  hold,  upon  which  the  man  managed  to  crawl  on  to  a  small  island. 
Immediately  his  companion  rode  in  to  his  assistance,  upon  wrhich  another  very 
large  crocodile  mounted  up  between  him  and  his  horse's  neck,  and  then  slipped 
back,  making  a  dreadful  wound  on  his  side  and  in  the  horse's  neck  with  its  claws 
as  it  did  so.  The  river  seemed,  indeed,  to  be  absolutely  swarming  with  crocodiles ; 
and  it  was  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  the  unfortunate  man  Williams,  who 
ultimately  died  of  his  wounds,  was  brought  to  bank. 

The  Siamese  crocodile  (C.  siamensis\  inhabiting!;  Siam,  Cambodia, 
Siam  Crocodile.  \ 

and  Java,  may  be  distinguished  from  the  preceding  species  by  the 


26 


CROCODILES. 


presence  of  a  longitudinal  ridge  on  the  skull  between  the  eyes,  although  the  snout 

is  smooth.     It  agrees  with  the  latter  in  having  the  anterior  bony  plates  of  the  neck 

well  developed,  these  being  usually  absent  in  the  estuarine  crocodile. 

Sharp-Nosed  The   last   member  of   this   group   is   the  sharp-nosed  crocodile 

Crocodile.      ((7  americanus)  of  Central  America,  which  has  a  longer  and  sharper 

muzzle  than  any  of  the  preceding,  and  is  further  characterised  by  the  presence  of 


SHARP-NOSED   CROCODILE  (fa  nat.  size). 

a  distinct  median  ridge  running  down  the  snout.  There  are  usually  four  large 
bony  plates  on  the  neck,  forming  a  square,  with  a  smaller  pair  on  the  sides  of  the 
front  ones ;  while  the  plates  of  the  back  are  arranged  in  fifteen  or  sixteen  trans- 
verse rows,  and  in  either  four  or  six  longitudinal  bands.  In  the  fore-limb  the 
second  and  third  toes  are  but  slightly  webbed,  while  the  outer  toes  of  the  hind- 
foot  are  united  by  larger  webs.  In  coloration  the  adult  is  blackish  olive  above, 
and  yellowish  beneath;  while  the  young  are  pale  olive  with  black  spots.  In 
addition  to  being  widely  distributed  in  Central  America  and  the  adjacent  regions, 


TRUE   CROCODILES.  2; 

such  as  Ecuador,  Colombia,  Venezuela,  and  Florida,  this  crocodile  is  also  met  with  in 
the  West  Indian  Islands. 

Orinoco  Nearly  allied  to  the  last,  although  with  a  still  longer  and  more 

crocodile,  slender  snout,  is  the  Orinoco  crocodile  (C.  intermedius),  which  is 
referred  by  Mr.  Boulenger  to  a  third  group,  characterised  by  their  very  slender 
and  garial-like  snouts,  of  which  the  length  is  equal  to  at  least  twice  the  basal 
breadth;  and  also  by  the  bony  union  between  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw 
extending  as  far  back  as  the  sixth,  seventh,  or  eighth  tooth,  instead  of  stopping 
short  at  the  fifth.  In  this  particular  species  the  snout,  which  has  no  ridges,  varies 
in  length  from  twice  to  twice  and  a  half  the  width  at  the  base ;  while  the  six  bony 
plates  on  the  neck  are  widely  separated  from  those  of  the  back,  and  are  arranged 
in  a  square  of  four,  with  a  pair  on  the  sides.  The  colour  is  olive  above  and 
yellowish  beneath,  while  in  both  this  and  the  preceding  species  the  length  is  about 
13  feet.  The  Orinoco  crocodile  appears  to  be  confined  to  the  river  from  which  it 
takes  its  name  and  its  affluents.  The  best  accounts  of  the  Orinoco  and  sharp- 
nosed  crocodile  are  by  Humboldt,  who  states  that  these  reptiles  swarm  on  the 
Apure,  where  they  may  often  be  seen  in  parties  of  eight  or  ten  lying  on  the  open 
space  between  the  shore  of  the  river  and  the  forest.  At  the  time  of  his  journey 
the  river  was,  however,  still  low,  and  consequently  hundreds  of  crocodiles  were 
lying  concealed  beneath  the  mud  of  the  adjacent  lowlands.  In  the  stomach  of  one 
that  was  opened  were  found  a  half-digested  fish  and  a  granite  pebble ;  the  latter 
having  probably  been  swallowed  inadvertently  while  the  animal  was  groping  about 
in  the  mud  in  search  of  food.  In  spite  of  their  comparatively  slender  jaws,  these 
crocodiles  frequently  seize  the  natives  while  stooping  to  draw  water  from  the  river. 
A  large  portion  of  their  prey  is,  however,  afforded  by  the  defenceless  carpinchos, 
which  are  met  with  in  droves  of  from  fifty  to  sixty  head,  and  fall  victims  to  the 
jaguars  on  land  and  to  the  crocodiles  in  the  water.  In  their  young  state — when 
only  from  7  to  8  inches  in  length — the  crocodiles  themselves  are,  however,  devoured 
by  vultures,  who  seize  them  on  the  shore  or  in  the  shallow  water.  It  was  curious, 
observes  Humboldt,  to  see  the  address  with  which  the  little  reptiles  defended 
themselves  for  a  time  against  their  aggressors.  As  soon  as  they  perceived  the 
enemy,  they  raised  themselves  on  their  fore-paws,  bent  their  backs,  and  lifted  up 
their  heads,  opening  their  wide  jaws.  They  turned  continually,  though  slowly, 
towards  their  assailant  to  show  him  their  teeth,  which,  even  when  the  animal  had 
but  recently  issued  from  the  egg,  were  very  long  and  sharp.  Often,  while  the 
attention  of  one  of  the  young  crocodiles  was  wholly  engaged  by  one  of  the 
vultures,  another  seized  the  favourable  opportunity  for  an  unforeseen  attack, 
pouncing  on  the  unfortunate  reptile  by  the  neck  and  bearing  it  off  in  the  air.  The 
anecdote  told  by  Humboldt  of  a  native  of  Calabozo  being  awakened  in  the  middle 
of  the  night  by  one  of  these  crocodiles  suddenly  breaking  through  the  mud  of  the 
floor  of  his  hut,  beneath  which  it  had  retired  for  the  dry  season,  is  probably 
familiar  to  most  of  our  readers. 

Long-Nosed  Omitting  notice  of  the  small  Johnston's  crocodile  (C.  johnstoni), 

Crocodile.  of  North  Australia,  the  last  member  of  the  genus  is  the  curious  long- 
nosed  crocodile  (C.  cataphractus),  of  Wist  Africa,  which  forms  a  kind  of  connecting 
link  between  the  other  true  crocodiles  and  the  garials.  In  this  species  the  snout 


28 


CROCODILES. 


is  more  elongated  and  slender  than  in  any  of  its  congeners,  its  length  not  unfre- 
quently  exceeding  three  times  its  basal  width ;  the  bony  union  between  the  two 
branches  of  the  lower  jaw  being  likewise  of  unusual  length.  In  form  the  snout  is 
convex,  and  devoid  of  ridges ;  while  the  region  of  the  forehead  is  remarkable  for 
its  convexity.  The  great  peculiarity  about  the  species  is,  however,  to  be  found  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  bony  plates  on  the  neck,  which  form  two  longitudinal  rows, 
and  are  partially  if  not  completely  continuous  with  those  of  the  back ;  a  some- 
what similar  arrangement  existing  in  Johnston's  crocodile.  On  the  back  the 


LONG-NOSED  CROCODILE  (^  nat.  size). 


number  of  longitudinal  rows  of  shields  is  six  ;  and  the  lower  parts  of  the  legs,  as  in 
many  other  crocodiles,  are  furnished  with  a  jagged  horny  fringe.  In  colour  the 
head  is  olive  spotted  with  brown  ;  the  back  and  tail  have  a  brownish  yellow 
ground-colour,  with  large  black  spots,  while  the  yellowish  white  under-parts  are 
marked  with  smaller  white  spots.  In  length  this  species  reaches  some  18  feet. 

The  long-snouted  crocodile  is  found  in  the  rivers  and  marshes  of  West  Africa, 
from  Senegambia  to  the  Gabun,  and  also  occurs  farther  to  the  south  in  the  Congo  ; 
its  native  name  being  khinh.  Not  unfrequently  found  in  company  with  the  Nile 
crocodile,  it  inhabits  the  smaller  streams  and  still  waters  of  the  interior,  generally 


GARIALS.  29 

taking  up  its  position  in  a  deep  pool  protected  by  an  overhanging  bank  or  rock, 
and  thence  sallying  forth  on  its  prey,  which  consists  chiefly  of  fish,  frogs,  and 
aquatic  reptiles.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  bank,  where,  unlike  those  of  most  other 
members  of  the  family,  they  are  carefully  covered  with  leaves  and  herbage.  Shy 
and  timid  in  its  disposition,  this  crocodile  is  often  captured  by  the  natives  for  the 
sake  of  its  flesh ;  which,  like  that  of  many  of  its  allies  in  other  regions,  is  much 
esteemed  as  food.  While  very  abundant  in  the  fresh  waters  of  the  interior,  this 
species  likewise  haunts  the  salt-water  lagoons  of  the  Guinea  Coast;  and  in  the 
delta  of  the  Cameruns  may  be  observed  lying  on  the  sandbanks  bordering  the 
mangrove  swamps,  from  which,  on  the  approach  of  a  boat,  it  darts  into  the  water 
with  surprising  celerity.  There  it  often  pulls  down  herons  and  such  other  aquatic 
birds  as  may  be  standing  or  swimming  in  the  water,  sailing  up  to  them  with  the 
silence  of  a  large  fish,  to  which,  when  in  the  water,  it  presents  a  considerable 
resemblance.  As  in  the  estuarine  and  Nile  crocodiles,  in  the  adult  of  this  species 
the  second  tooth  in  the  fore  jawbone,  or  premaxilla,  disappears,  leaving  only  four 
in  place  of  the  normal  five  on  each  side. 

With  the  very  long  and  slender-snouted  crocodile  from  Borneo, 
Schlegel's  Garial. 

commonly  known  as  Schlegel's  garial  (Rhynchosuchus  schlegeli),  we 

come  to  the  first  of  two  genera,  each  represented  by  a  single  existing  Oriental 
species,  which  differ  very  remarkably  from  any  of  those  yet  noticed.  In  both 
these  forms  the  snout  is  long  arid  slender,  with  its  teeth-bearing  margins  nearly 
straight,  instead  of  being  thrown  into  more  or  less  well-marked  festoons;  while 
the  nasal  bones  never  extend  forwards  to  reach  the  aperture  of  the  nostrils,  from 
which  they  are  separated  by  a  considerable  interval.  Moreover,  the  bony  union 
between  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  is  of  great  length,  extending  at  least 
as  far  back  as  the  fifteenth  tooth;  and  including  a  bone  which  in  the  other 
crocodiles  remains  entirely  separate  from  the  symphysis.  In  neither  do  the 
teeth  attain  the  large  dimensions  characteristic  of  many  other  members  of  the 
family. 

Schlegel's  garial  has  the  shorter  snout  of  the  two,  its  length  not  exceeding 
three  and  a  half  times  its  basal  width ;  but  it  is  especially  distinguished  by  the 
circumstance  that  the  nasal  bones  extend  forwards  to  articulate  with  the  anterior 
jawbones,  or  premaxillse.  The  teeth  are  twenty  or  twenty-one  in  number  on  each 
side  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  eighteen  or  nineteen  in  the  lower ;  those  on  the  sides  of 
the  latter  being  received  in  pits  between  the  upper  ones,  and  the  first,  fourth,  and 
ninth  lower  teeth  being  enlarged.  The  bony  plates  on  the  neck  and  back  form  a 
continuous  shield  consisting  of  four  longitudinal,  and  twenty-two  transverse  rows ; 
and  while  the  fore-toes  are  webbed  at  the  base,  the  outer  ones  of  the  hind-feet  have 
larger  webs.  In  colour,  Schlegel's  garial  is  olive  above,  with  dark  spots  or  bars ; 
while  its  length  may  be  12  or  14  feet.  In  habits  this  species  is  probably  very 
similar  to  the  Indian  garial.  It  is  important  to  notice  that  several  fossil  repre- 
sentatives of  this  genus  occur  in  the  Tertiary  deposits  of  Europe,  while  it  is  not 
improbable  that  the  genus  is  also  represented  in  the  underlying  Cretaceous  rocks. 
All  this  is  exactly  in  harmony  with  what  we  should  naturally  have  expected  to  be 
the  case,  seeing  that  Schlegel's  garial,  like  the  true  garial,  is  evidently  a  very 
generalised  member  of  the  family. 


Garial. 


CROCODILES. 

Probably  owing  to  a  clerical  error  on  the  part  of  its  first  describer 
the  slender -snouted  crocodile  known  in  India  by  the  vernacular 
name  of  garial,  is  almost  always  spoken  of  in  Europe  as  the  gavial,  while  its  mis- 
spelt name  has  even  been  Latinised  into  Gavialis — an  error  which  some  writers 
persist  in  perpetuating.  The  garial  (Garialis  gangetica)  is  readily  distinguished 
at  a  glance  from  all  other  crocodiles  by  the  exceeding  length  and  slenderness  of 


GANGETIC  GAKIAL  (^  nat.  size). 


its  snout  ;  the  length  varying  from  more  than  five  times  the  basal  width  in  the 
young  to  rather  more  than  three  in  the  adult.  This  narrow  snout  gives  to  the 
reptile  a  decidedly  curious  appearance  ;  and  it  is  perhaps  noteworthy  that  both 
the  garial  and  the  gangetic  dolphin,  which  inhabit  the  same  rivers,  and  probably 
feed  on  the  same  kind  of  food,  have  similarly  elongated  beak-like  snouts,  armed 
with  very  similar  curved  and  slender  conical  teeth  ;  this  resemblance  being  doubt- 
less due  to  adaptation  to  a  similar  mode  of  life.  From  Schlegel's  garial,  the 
present  species  is  readily  distinguished  by  the  nasal  bones  being  very  short,  and 


GARIALS.  31 

consequently  separated  by  a  long  interval  from  the  anterior  jawbones,  or  pre- 
maxillse ;  while  the  teeth — twenty-seven  to  twenty-nine  on  each  side  of  the  upper, 
and  twenty-five  or  twenty-six  in  the  lower  jaw — are  all  of  nearly  uniform  size, 
and  those  of  the  lower  jaw  are  not  received  into  distinct  pits.  Moreover,  the  bony 
union  between  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  extends  backwards  to  the 
twenty-third  or  twenty-fourth  tooth,  whereas  in  the  Bornean  species  it  stops  short 
at  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth.  At  its  extremity  the  long  and  narrow  snout 
becomes  much  expanded ;  and  in  the  male  this  expanded  extremity  is  surmounted 
by  a  hollow  hump,  in  the  centre  of  which  are  placed  the  nostrils.  The  bony  plates 
of  the  neck  form  a  shield  continuous  with  that  of  the  back,  in  which  the  number 
of  longitudinal  rows  is  four,  while  there  are  twenty-one  or  twenty-two  transverse 
bands.  Externally  to  the  bony  shields  of  the  back  there  occurs  on  each  side  a  row 
of  soft  plates,  which  are  either  smooth,  or  but  slightly  keeled.  The  toes  are  well 
webbed ;  and  the  general  colour  of  the  adult  is  dark  olive  above ;  the  young  being 
pale  olive,  with  dark  brown  spots  or  bars. 

The  garial  has  a  somewhat  curious  geographical  distribution,  being  restricted 
to  the  Indus,  Ganges,  and  Bramaputra,  with  their  larger  affluents,  together  with 
the  Mahanadi  in  Orissa,  and  the  Koladyni  River  in  Arakan.  Together  with  certain 
tortoises  mentioned  later  on,  this  reptile  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  living 
animals,  its  fossil  remains  occurring  in  the  rocks  of  the  Siwalik  Hills  in  Northern 
India  in  association  with  those  of  mammals  belonging  to  extinct  species  and 
genera.  Attaining  a  length  of  fully  20  feet  at  the  present  day,  and  still  larger 
dimensions  during  the  Pliocene  period,  the  garial  subsists  solely  upon  fish,  for  the 
capture  of  which  its  elongated  narrow  jaws,  armed  with  numerous  long,  curved 
teeth,  are  admirably  adapted.  There  appears,  indeed,  to  be  no  well  authenticated 
instance  of  these  reptiles  having  attacked  human  beings  or  the  larger  mammals ; 
and  it  is  perhaps  owing  to  this  harmless  disposition  that  they  are  held  sacred  in 
many  parts  of  India  by  the  Hindus.  In  accordance  with  the  nature  of  its  prey, 
the  garial  seems  to  be  more  thoroughly  aquatic  in  its  habits  than  most  of  its  allies ; 
the  relatively  long  hind-limbs  and  the  fully- webbed  toes  being  features  specially 
suited  to  aid  in  swimming.  In  the  breeding-season  the  female  garial  lays  about 
forty  eggs  in  the  sand  of  the  river  bank,  these  being  deposited  in  two  layers,  and 
covered  to  a  considerable  depth  with  sand ;  the  two  layers  being  probably  laid  on 
different  days.  The  newly  hatched  young,  which,  from  the  great  proportionate 
length  of  their  snouts,  present  a  most  extraordinary  appearance,  are  very  active, 
and  of  a  greyish  brown  colour,  with  five  irregular  dark  oblique  bands  on  the  body, 
and  nine  on  the  tail. 

In  addition  to  those  of  the  existing  species,  the  Siwalik  Hills 
'  have  yielded  remains  of  several  extinct  garials,  some  of  which  attained 
gigantic  dimensions ;  while  other  species  belonging  to  the  living  genus  have  been 
obtained  from  the  middle  Tertiary  rocks  of  England.  Possibly,  also,  certain  fossil 
garials  from  the  Cretaceous  deposits  of  the  United  States  should  find  a  place  in  the 
same  generic  group.  Other  Cretaceous  species  are,  however,  remarkable  for  the 
presence  of  a  vacuity  in  the  skull  in  front  of  the  eye-socket,  in  consequence  of 
which  they  have  been  separated  as  a  distinct  genus,  under  the  name  of  Thoracosaurus. 
Mention  must  also  be  made  of  an  enormous  garial  from  the  Siwalik  Hills,  known 


32  CROCODILES. 

as  RkampJwsuchus,  which  attained  a  length  of  some  50  or  60  feet,  and  had  teeth  as 
large  as  those  of  the  biggest  crocodile ;  its  upper  teeth  biting  on  the  outer  side  of 
the  lower  ones,  instead  of  interlocking  with  them,  as  in  the  living  form. 

. 

THE  EARLIER  CROCODILES. 

As  already  mentioned,  all  the  existing  crocodiles,  together  with  the  species 
from  the  Tertiary  formations,  constitute  a  single  family,  characterised  by  the 
vertebrae  having  a  ball  in  front  and  a  cup  behind,  and  by  the  internal  nostrils 
being  situated  at  the  hinder  end  of  the  skull ;  as  well  as  by  the  bony  plates  of  the 
back  being  arranged  in  at  least  four  longitudinal  rows.  Although  a  few  species 
found  in  the  topmost  beds  of  the  underlying  Secondary  formations  approximate  in 
some  respects  to  the  foregoing,  the  majority  of  the  crocodiles  from  rocks  as  old  or 
older  than  the  Chalk  differ  very  considerably  from  the  existing  types.  In  the  first 
place,  the  bodies  of  their  vertebrae  articulate  with  one  another  by  slightly  hollowed 
surfaces  at  both  ends ;  while,  owing  to  the  want  of  union  between  the  hindmost 
bones  of  the  palate  beneath  the  nasal  passages,  the  internal  apertures  of  the  nostrils 
are  situated  nearly  in  the  middle  of  the  skull.  Then  again,  when  a  bony  armour 
is  present,  the  plates  on  the  back  are  arranged  in  only  two  longitudinal  rows ; 
while  those  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body  form  two  distinct  shields.  It  is 
remarkable  that  among  these  extinct  crocodiles  some  are  met  with  having  broad 
and  short  snouts  like  the  modern  alligators,  while  others  have  long  and  narrow 
snouts  like  the  garials.  In  the  Wealden  and  Purbeck  rocks,  underlying  the  Chalk, 
some  of  these  crocodiles,  such  as  the  short-snouted  Swanage  crocodile  (Goniopholis), 
resembled  living  types  in  having  the  socket  of  the  eye  communicating  freely  with 
the  lower  temporal  fossa,  although  they  were  distinguished  by  the  plates  of  the 
back  articulating  together  by  means  of  a  peg-and-socket  arrangement.  In  still 
older  formations,  such  as  the  Lower  Oolites  and  Lias,  there  were,  however,  many 
long-snouted  crocodiles,  such  as  the  steneosaurs  (Steneosaurus)  and  pelagosaurs 
(Pelagosaurus),  in  which  the  socket  of  the  eye  is  divided  from  the  lower  temporal 
fossa  by  a  bony  bar,  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  13.  Moreover,  in  these  forms  the 
upper  temporal  fossa  (T  in  the  figure  cited)  was  larger  than  the  socket  of  the  eye ; 
whereas  in  all  living  forms  the  former  is  much  the  smaller  of  the  two,  and  may  even 
be  obliterated.  Another  group  of  crocodiles, — the  metriorhynchs  (Metriorhynchus), 
— of  the  Oxford  and  Kimeridge  Clays,  were  remarkable  in  having  no  bony  armour 
at  all,  in  which  respect  they  were  more  specialised  than  any  of  their  living  cousins. 
In  general,  however,  the  earlier  extinct  crocodiles,  as  will  be  gathered  from  the 
foregoing  remarks,  were  decidedly  of  a  less  specialised  type  than  those  of  the 
present  day ;  and  as  a  gradual  transition  can  be  traced  in  these  respects  from  the 
oldest  to  the  most  recent,  the  group  affords  a  very  interesting  instance  of  progressive 
evolution.  In  the  very  oldest  of  the  secondary  rocks,  namely,  the  Trias,  there  occur, 
both  in  Europe  and  India,  certain  very  remarkable  long-snouted  reptiles,  known  as 
Parasuchians,  which  appear  in  some  respects  intermediate  between  crocodiles  and 
tuateras.  Thus,  while  they  resembled  the  former  in  the  nature  of  their  teeth,  bony 
armour,  ribs,  and  vertebrae,  they  approximated  to  the  latter  in  the  structure  of  the 
skull,  abdominal  ribs,  and  probably  of  the  collar-bones  and  interclavicle. 


DINOSAURS.  33 

THE  EXTINCT  DINOSAURS. 
Order  DINOSAURIA. 

Nearly  allied  to  crocodiles  are  those  remarkable  extinct  reptiles  from  the  rocks 
of  the  Secondary  period,  which  include  amongst  their  number  the  most  gigantic 
of  all  land  animals,  and  likewise  those  members  of  the  reptilian  class  which  make 
the  nearest  approximation  in  their  organisation  to  birds.  During  that  epoch  of  the 


RESTORATION   OF  THE  IGUANODON. 


earth's  history  in  which  the  Chalk  and  underlying  Oolitic  rocks  were  deposited, 
when  mammals  were  represented  by  a  few  small  forms  of  lowly  type,  these  strange 
reptiles  were  the  dominant  animals  on  land;  some  progressing  in  the  ordinary 
lizard-like  manner,  while  others  stalked  on  their  hind-limbs  like  birds.  To  give 
some  idea  of  the  enormous  dimensions  attained  by  some  of  these  creatures,  it  may 
be  mentioned  that  the  thigh-bone  of  one  species  measures  64  inches,  while  the  total 
VOL.  v.— 3 


34 


DINOSAURS. 


length  of  its  skeleton  is  estimated  to  have  been  between  60  and  80  feet.  On  the 
other  hand,  some  species  were  comparatively  small,  and  not  more  than  a  couple  of 
feet  in  length.  Although  the  whole  of  these  reptiles  are  markedly  distinct  from 
the  crocodiles,  yet  they  agree  with  them  in  the  general  characters  of  their 
skulls,  vertebrae,  and  ribs ;  but  they  differ  so  decidedly  from  one  another  that  it  is 
not  easy  to  give  a  definition  of  the  entire  order.  They  are,  indeed,  divided  into 
three  well-marked  groups,  with  so  many  differences  between  them  that  in  the 
opinion  of  many  they  are  entitled  to  rank  as  separate  orders ;  and  it  will,  accord- 
ingly, be  most  convenient  to  treat  these  three  groups  seriatim. 
Lizard-Footed  The  most  stupendous  members  of  the  order  are  included  in  a 

Group.  group  which  may  be  conveniently  designated  lizard-footed  dinosaurs, 
on  account  of  their  walking  in  the  ordinary  lizard-like  manner,  and  in  having  five 
toes  to  the  feet.  The  most  striking  peculiarity  of  this  group  is  to  be  found  in  the 


LEFT-SIDE  VIEW  OF  AN    IMPERFECT  VERTEBRA  OF  A 

LIZARD-FOOTED  DINOSAUR.     (From  the  Quart. 
Journ.  Geol.  Soc.,  1893.) 


INNER    AND    LATERAL    VIEWS    OF  A  TOOTH  OF 


A   HOPLOSAUR. 


circumstance  that  the  vertebrse  of  the  neck  and  back,  as  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing figure,  had  large  cavities  in  their  sides,  which  in  the  living  state  may  have 
been  filled  either  with  cartilage  or  with  air.  These  vertebrse  resembled  those  of 
existing  crocodiles,  as  described  on  p.  6,  in  having  a  ball  at  one  end  and  a  cup  at  the 
other ;  but  whereas  in  crocodiles  the  ball  is  at  the  hinder  end  of  the  body  and  the 
cup  in  front,  in  these  dinosaurs  precisely  the  reverse  of  this  arrangement  obtained. 
As  regards  their  dentition,  these  reptiles  had  their  teeth  implanted  in  distinct 
sockets,  like  crocodiles ;  but  the  teeth  themselves,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying 
figure,  were  of  a  peculiar  spatulate  shape,  with  the  outer  side  convex  and  the  inner 
concave.  Agreeing  in  the  general  structure  of  their  pelvis  with  crocodiles,  these 


CARNIVOROUS  GROUP. 


35 


INNER  AND   OUTER  VIEWS  OF  A  TOOTH  OF  A  PELOROSAUR. 

(From  the  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc.,  1893.) 


dinosaurs  were  distinguished  therefrom  by  the  circumstance  that  the  bone  known 
as  the  pubis  (p  in  the  figure  on  p.  3)  enters  into  the  composition  of  the  cavity 
for  the  reception  of  the  head  of  the  thigh-bone.  The  limb -bones  are  solid 
throughout.  From  the  nature  of 
their  teeth,  which  are  often  much 
worn  by  use,  it  may  be  inferred 
that  these  reptiles  were  vegetable 
feeders;  and  it  is  not  improbable 
that  they  frequented  the  margins 
of  lakes  and  rivers,  where  their 
inordinately  long  necks  would 
enable  them  to  browse  with  ease 
on  the  various  aquatic  plants. 
That  they  must  have  been  very 
sluggish  in  their  movements  and 
stupid  in  their  ideas  is  indicated 
by  the  wonderfully  small  propor- 
tionate size  of  their  brains.  These 
dinosaurs  were  common  both  in 

Europe  and  the  United  States,  the  larger  forms  having  been  described  under  the 
names  of  pelorosaurs  (Pelorosaurus),  atlantosaurs  (Atlantosaurus),  brontosaurs 
(Brontosaurus),  and  hoplosaurs  (Hoplosaurus) ;  among  which  the  atlantosaurs 
appear  to  have  been  the  most  gigantic.  They  also  occur  in  India,  Argentina, 
and  Madagascar. 

o 

Carnivorous  The  carnivorous  dinosaurs,  of  which  the 
Group.  megalosaur  (Megalosaurus)  is  the  best  known 
example,  differed  from  the  preceding  group  in  the  form  of 
their  teeth,  which  were  compressed  and  sickle-shaped,  with 
sharp  cutting,  and  frequently  serrated  edges.  Their  limb- 
bones  also  were  hollow ;  while  their  vertebrae  were  likewise 
hollow  internally,  but  had  no  lateral  cavities ;  and  the 
pelvis  (figured  on  p.  3),  although  of  the  same  general 
type  as  in  the  lizard-footed  group,  presented  important 
points  of  distinction.  In  place  of  the  short  feet  of  the 
last-named  group,  the  carnivorous  dinosaurs  had  elongated 
foot -bones,  terminating  in  sharp  claws;  the  number  of 
functional  toes  in  the  hind-foot  varying  from  four  to  three. 
That  they  habitually  walked  on  the  toes  of  their  hind- 
limbs,  and  not  (as  was  the  case  with  the  lizard-footed 
group)  on  the  whole  foot,  is  evident  from  the  structure  of 
this  part  of  the  skeleton,  and  from  the  circumstance  that 
the  fore-limbs  were  considerably  smaller  than  the  hinder 
pair,  it  may  be  inferred  that  progression  was  at  least 
frequently  accomplished  by  the  aid  of  the  latter  alone. 

JBONES    OF     THE     RIGHT     HIND-      m  -,  .  .  .  „    . ,        ,          ,   ,       ,  P    , ,  1   1       i. 

FOOT  OF  A  CARNIVOROUS    ™n6  cl°se  approximation  of  the  huckle-bone  or  the  ankle  to 
DINOSAUR.  the   lower   end   of    the   tibia   foreshadows   the    complete 


DINOSAURS, 


amalgamation  which  takes  place  between  those  bones  in  birds ;  while  in  one 
remarkable  American  form  the  metatarsal  bones  of  the  foot  were  reduced  to 
three  in  number,  and  had  nearly  the  same  relationship  to 
one  another  and  to  the  bones  of  the  ankle  as  obtains  in 
birds.  While  the  megalosaur  attained  a  height,  when  erect, 
of  some  15  feet,  the  little  Compsognathus,  of  the  lithographic 
limestones  of  Bavaria,  did  not  stand  more  than  2  feet ;  and 
there  were  other  equally  diminutive  forms,  both  in  England 
and  the  United  States,  in  which  the  whole  backbone  was  so 
permeated  by  air-cavities  as  to  be  little  more  than  a  mere 
shell  of  bone. 

The  Bird-Like  The    whole   of   the    dinosaurs    mentioned 

Group.        above  agree  with  one  another  in  possessing  a 
pelvis  approximating  to  the  crocodilian  type ;  that  is  to  say, 

the  pubis  or  anterior  lower  bone  of  this  part  of  the  skeleton  is  inclined  down- 
wards and  forwards,  and  thus  diverges  in  the  form  of  an  inverted  Ffrom  the 


THE  LEFT  HUCKLE-BONE  AND 
LOWER  END  OF  TIBIA 
OF  THE  MEGALOSAUR. — 

After  Gaudry. 


SKELETON   OF  THE  CLAOSAUR,    ONE   OF  THE   BIRD-LIKE   DINOSAURS  (^  nat.  size).— After  Marsh. 

backwardly  and  downwardly  directed  ischium,  or  posterior  lower  bone,  as  shown 
on  the  figure  on  p.  3.     On  the  other  hand,  in  the  bird-like  dinosaurs  the  main 


BIRD-LIKE   GROUP. 


37 


OUTER  AND   LATERAL  VIEWS   OF  A  TOOTH   OF 
THE   IGUANODON. 


bar  of  the  pubis  is  inclined  backwards,  parallel  to  the  ischium,  while  it  has 
a  secondary  plate  projecting  forwards.  In  this  parallelism  of  the  pubis  and 
ischium  these  dinosaurs  resemble  birds  (see  the  figure  in  Vol.  III.  p.  290),  and  birds 
alone ;  and  from  this  and  other  features  it  is  pretty  certain  that  the  latter  are 
derived  from  reptiles  more  or  less  closely  allied  to  this  or  the  preceding  group  of 
dinosaurs ;  the  resemblance  in  the  one  case  being  closest  in  the  structure  of  the 
pelvis,  and  in  the  other  of  the  hind-limb.  All  the  bird-like  dinosaurs  are  further 
characterised  by  the  presence  of  a  separate  chin-bone  (pd  in  the  figure  on  p.  3) 
at  the  extremity  of  the  lower  jaw ;  by  the 
absence  of  teeth  from  the  front  of  both 
jaws ;  by  the  teeth  themselves  approximat- 
ing more  or  less  closely  to  the  type  of  the 
one  here  represented,  and  by  being  fre- 
quently not  implanted  in  distinct  sockets ; 
and  likewise  by  the  vertebrae  being  com- 
pletely solid  .throughout.  The  typical 
representatives  of  this  group  are  the  well- 
known  iguanodons,  originally  described  on 
the  evidence  of  teeth,  from  the  Wealden 
rocks  of  England,  but  now  known  by 
entire  skeletons  from  the  corresponding 
deposits  of  Belgium,  which  are  exhibited  in 
the  museum  at  Brussels.  These  reptiles, 

which  were  represented  by  allied  forms  in  the  United  States,  habitually  walked 
on  their  three-toed  hind-limbs,  the  largest  individuals  attaining  a  length  of  some 
33  feet.  They  are  characterised  by  the  limb-bones  being  hollow,  by  the  length 
of  the  metatarsal  bones  of  the  foot,  by  the  first  digit  of  the  five-toed  fore-limb 
being  converted  into  a  large  conical  spine,  and  also  by  the  teeth  being  of  the  type 
of  the  one  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure.  Needless  to  say,  animals  with 

such  teeth  must  have  been  purely  vegetable 
feeders,  as  indeed  were  all  the  other  members 
of  this  group.  The  hind  -  feet  terminated  in 
rather  sharp  claws,  and  there  was  no  bony 
armour  on  the  body.  The  iguanodons  probably 
stalked  about  among  the  palm -forests  of  the 
Wealden  period,  on  the  leaves  and  fruit  of 
which  they  may  be  presumed  to  have  in  great 
part  subsisted.  In  these  reptiles  the  large 

flattened  and  serrated  teeth  were  arranged  in  each  jaw  in  a  single  row,  but  in  cer- 
tain smaller  forms  known  as  trachodons, 
which  occur  in  the  higher  Cretaceous 
rocks  of  both  Europe  and  North  America, 
there  were  several  rows  of  teeth  in  use 
at  the  same  time,  the  edges  of  these 
teeth  being  so  flattened  and  fitted  to- 

,1,1,  i     TI  TERMINAL  TOE-BONE   OF  AN  ARMOURED 

gether  that  a  pavement -like  structure  DINOSAUR.— After  Marsh. 


PAVEMENT-LIKE  TEETH  OF  THE  TRACHODON. — 

After  Marsh. 


DINOSAURS. 


resulted.  These  trachodons  were  all  much  inferior  in  size  to  the  gigantic 
iguanodons.  The  American  claosaur  (Claosaurus),  of  which  the  skeleton  is  figurec 
on  p.  36,  differs  from  the  iguanodons  in  having  the  fore-paw  of  normal  structure 
Nearly  allied  to  the  iguanodons  are  the  remarkable  armoured  and  horned  dinosaurs 
which  constitute  a  subgroup  characterised  by  their  solid  limb-bones,  the  presence 
of  some  kind  of  bony  armour,  the  short  foot -bones,  frequently  terminating  in 

hoof-like  toes,  and  th( 
habitually  quadrupeda 
gait.  Commencing  in 
the  British  Lias,  these 
extraordinary  reptiles 
continued  throughoui 
the  Secondary  period 
and  seem  to  have  at- 
tained their  maximum 
development  at  the  close 
of  the  Cretaceous  epoch 
in  the  United  States.  Of 
the  armoured  forms,  the 
huge  stegosaur  of  the 
English  Oxford,  and 
Kimeridge  Clays,  and 
the  corresponding  rocks 
of  the  United  States,  was 
characterised  by  the 
possession  of  large  quad- 
rangular bones,  which 
are  believed  to  have  been 
arranged  in  a  vertical 
position  down  the  middle 
of  the  back,  while  the  tail 
was  protected  by  some 
formidable  spines,  as 
shown  in  the  greatly 
reduced  restoration  of 
the  skeleton  given  on 
p.  4.  Still  more  strange 
were  the  somewhat  later 

horned  dinosaurs  (Ceratops,  etc.),  of  which  two  views  of  the  skull  and  a  more 
reduced  restoration  of  the  skeleton  are  here  given.  In  these  extraordinary 
creatures  the  hinder  part  of  the  head  was  provided  with  a  pair  of  bony  horn- 
like projections,  which  were  doubtless  ensheathed  during  life  with  hollow  horns, 
like  those  of  oxen;  and  there  was  also  a  single  horn  of  variable  size  on  the 
nose.  The  skull  was  further  remarkable  for  the  expansion  of  its  hinder  extremity 
into  a  fan-like  shield  overhanging  and  protecting  the  vertebrae  of  the  neck.  Some 
idea  of  the  huge  dimensions  attained  by  these  dinosaurs  will  be  conveyed  by  the 


UPPER  AND  SIDE  VIEWS  OF  THE   SKULL  OP  A  HORNED  DINOSAUR. 

a,  nostrils  ;  /,  brain  ;  h,  horn  ;  n,  nasal  bones  ;  p,  chin-bone  ;  r,  extremity 
of  upper  jaw. — After  Marsh. 


FLYING  DRAGONS.  39 

statement  that  an  immature  skull  of  one  of  the  species  measures  upwards  of  6  feet, 

while  fully  adult  ones  must  have  been  considerably  larger.     The  extraordinarily 

small  size  of   the  brain  of   these  creatures  is  indicated  in  the  lower  figure  of 

the  skull.     Externally  the  bodies  of  these  dinosaurs  were  protected  by  granules 

and   plates  of   bones,  which, 

like  those  of  crocodiles,  were 

probably  overlain  with  horny 

shields.      It   has   yet   to    be 

mentioned  that  in  the  horned 

dinosaurs,  as   shown   in   the 

figure    of   the    skeleton,   the 

posterior  bar  of  the  pubis  has 

disappeared,     and     only     the  EESTOEATION  OF  THE  SKELETON  OF  A  HORNED  DINOSAUR. 

front    branch    remains,    thus       pd,  chin-bone.     Other  letters  as  in  the  figure  on  p.  4.— After  Marsh. 

causing  the  whole   pelvis  to 

simulate  that  of  the  carnivorous  group,  to  which  it  has  no  real  resemblance. 

We  have  yet  to  learn  the  reason  why,  at  the  close  of  the  Secondary  period, 
these  mighty  dinosaurs,  together  with  the  flying  dragons  which  at  the  same  time 
tenanted  the  air,  and  the  fish-lizards  and  plesiosaurs  which  peopled  the  sea,  should, 
one  and  all,  disappear — and  that  apparently  suddenly — to  make  way  for  mammals 
and  birds,  which  henceforth  became  the  lords  of  creation. 


FLYING  DRAGONS,  OR  PTERODACTYLES. 
Order  ORNITHOSAURIA. 

At  the  present  day  bats  and  birds  are  the  only  Vertebrates  endued  with  the 
power  of  true  flight,  but  during  the  Secondary  period,  when  the  former  were 
unknown  and  the  latter  but  poorly  represented,  the  place  of  both  was  taken  by 
the  flying  dragons,  or,  as  they  are  called,  from  the  structure  of  their  wings, 
Pterodactyles.  While  agreeing  with  crocodiles  in  the  essential  structure  of  their 
skulls  and  in  their  two-headed  ribs,  these  curious  reptiles  have  the  other  portions 
of  their  skeleton,  more  or  less  specially  modified  for  the  purposes  of  flight.  In  the 
relatively  large  size  of  the  brain — which  is  doubtless  essential  for  a  flying  animal 
— and  general  bird-like  form  of  the  skull,  as  well  as  in  the  keeled  breast-bone  and 
general  form  of  the  collar-bones  (although  these  are  not  welded  together  into  a 
furcula),  the  pterodactyles  present  a  curious  similarity  to  birds.  Misled  by  these 
resemblances,  some  anatomists  have,  indeed,  been  induced  to  consider  that  the 
two  groups  are  nearly  related,  although  a  more  mistaken  notion  never  existed. 
Such  resemblances  as  do  exist  between  the  two  groups  are  due,  indeed,  to  that 
parallelism  in  development  to  which  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  call  atten- 
tion as  existing  between  totally  different  groups  of  animals  whose  mode  of  life 
is  similar. 

The  most  distinctive  feature  of  the  pterodactyles  is  to  be  found  in  the 
modifications  of  the  bones  of  the  fore-limbs  for  the  purpose  of  supporting  a  wing, 
which  took  the  form  of  a  membranous  expansion  of  skin  analogous  to  that  con- 


FLYING  DRAGONS. 


stituting  the  wings  of  bats.  This  wing  was  mainly  supported  by  the  great 
elongation  of  the  bones  of  the  fifth  digit  or  finger  of  the  fore-limb,  as  shown  in 
the  accompanying  figure  of  the  skeleton,  and  likewise  in  the  restored  representation 
of  one  of  these  reptiles.  The  membrane  thus  supported  seems  to  have  extended 
backwards  along  the  sides  of  the  body  to  include  the  upper  portions  of  the  legs, 
between  which  it  was  extended  to  embrace  the  base  of  the  tail  in  those  forms  in 

which  the  latter  appendage  was 
fully  developed.  Moreover,  in 
the  long -tailed  species,  the 
extremity  of  the  tail  itself  was 
provided  with  a  racket- shaped 
expansion  of  membrane,  which 
may  have  served  the  purpose  of 
a  rudder  in  flight.  If  it  be 
asked  how  the  presence  of  such 
membranes  is  known,  it  may  be 
answered  that  in  many  of  the 
specimens  of  these  reptiles  en- 
tombed in  the  fine-grained  litho- 
graphic limestones  of  Bavaria 
the  actual  impressions  of  these 
membranes  have  been  preserved. 
The  elongated  fifth  finger  of 
the  wing  had  no  claw  at  the 
extremity,  although  the  three 
middle  fingers  were  thus  pro- 
vided. With  regard  to  the  first 
finger,  or  the  one  corresponding 
to  the  human  thumb,  this  may 
have  been  represented  by  the 
small  splint  -  like  bone  seen 

The  creature  is  lying  on  its  back,  with  the  head  bent  to  the  left    depending"  from  the  wrist  in  the 

-I  1  •  .  JT1J»J_  _     1      •  1      -  .AT  1  _          1         1  _  __        -I* •*•  ^ 


SKELETON   OF  A  FTERODACTYLE. 


side 


le.     a  indicates  the  left  pubic  bone ;  the  haunch-bone,  or  ilium,     «  i        n     •,    ,  mi          ,  .     -, 

in*  shown  on  the  opposite  side.  figured    skeleton.       The    hind- 


being  sh( 


limbs  present  no  special  peculiar- 
ities, but,  as  most  of  the  bones  of  the  skeleton  were  hollow  and  permeated  by  air, 
like  those  of  birds,  we  may  infer  that  the  lungs  were  probably  also  constructed  after 
the  avian  fashion.  The  vertebrae  of  the  neck  resembled  those  of  living  crocodiles 
in  having  a  ball  at  the  hinder  end  of  the  body  and  a  cup  in  front.  In  general 
conformation  the  skull  was  remarkably  bird-like,  the  snout  being  produced  into  a 
beak,  which  in  some  cases  was  provided  with  teeth,  while  in  others,  as  shown 
in  the  figure  on  p.  5,  it  was  toothless,  and  probably  ensheathed  during  life  with 
horn.  Bird-like  features  are  likewise  shown  by  the  large  size  of  the  brain-case, 
of  which  the  component  bones  were  fused  together,  and  also  by  the  union  of  the 
extremities  of  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw. 

Pterodactyles  flourished  during  the  greater  part  of  the  Secondary  period,  dating 
from  the  epoch  of  the  Lias,  and  continuing  to  the  close  of  the  one  during  which  the 


FLYING  DRAGONS.  4x 

Chalk  was  deposited.  They  are  represented  by  several  well-marked  types,  which 
may  be  arranged  under  three  family  groups.  Of  these  the  most  specialised  forms 
are  the  toothless  pterodactyles,  or  pteranodonts,  from  the  Cretaceous  rocks  of  North 
America ;  some  of  these  toothless  members  of  the  order  far  exceeded  any  flying 
bird  in  point  of  size;  the  estimated  span  of  wing  in  the  largest  species  being 
upwards  of  five-and-twenty  feet.  This  group  may  be  distinguished  not  only  by  the 
total  absence  of  teeth,  but  likewise  by  the  great  backward  extension  of  the  hinder 
extremity  of  the  skull. 

In  the  typical  pterodactyles  (Pterodactylus,  etc.)  the  jaws  were  provided  with 


RESTORATION  OP  A  LONG-TAILED  PTERODACTYLE  (\  Iiat.  size). — After  Marsh. 

teeth, — which  may,  however,  have  been  very  small  in  size  and  few  in  number, — 
while  the  skull,  as  shown  in  the  figure  of  the  skeleton  on  p.  40,  was  not  produced 
backwardly,  and  the  tail  was  reduced  to  a  rudiment.  The  members  of  this  group, 
which  are  common  in  the  Oolitic  rocks  of  the  Continent,  vary  in  size  from  the 
dimensions  of  a  sparrow  to  those  of  an  eagle.  Lastly,  we  have  the  long -tailed 
pterodactyles  (Rhamphorhynchus,  etc.),  which  are  likewise  of  Oolitic  and  Liassic 
age,  and  are  at  once  distinguished,  as  shown  in  the  restoration,  from  the  members 
of  the  preceding  group  by  the  fully  developed  tail.  These  long-tailed  species  are 
evidently  the  most  generalised  members  of  the  order ;  and  in  the  retention  of  the 
tail  in  the  generalised  group,  and  its  loss  in  the  more  specialised  one,  the  reader 
will  not  fail  to  notice  an  exact  parallelism  between  ordinary  bats  and  the  more 
highly-developed  fruit-bats. 


CHAPTER   III. 


TORTOISES,  TURTLES,  AND  PLESIOSAURS, — 
Orders  CHELONIA  AND  SAUROPTERYGIA. 

AMONG  all  existing  reptiles  the  most  easily  defined  are  those  commonly  known 
tortoises  and  turtles,  and  technically  as  Chelonians,  since  the  presence  of  a  more  or 
less  fully  developed  bony  shell  investing  the  body,  and  containing  within  it  the 
upper  portions  of  the  limbs,  at  once  separates  them  from  all  other  members  of  the 
class.  Indeed,  so  utterly  strange  is  the  conformation  of  these  extraordinary 


UPPER  SHELL  OF  THE   CHAIBASSA   TERRAPIN,    AND  A  FOSSIL  SPECIMEN  OF  THE  SAME  IN  WHICH  THE   HORNY 

SHIELDS  ARE  WANTING. 

reptiles,  that  if  they  were  met  with  only  in  the  fossil  state  they  would  inevitably 
be  regarded  as  among  the  most  marvellous  of  all  creatures.  Here  however,  as 
elsewhere,  the  time-honoured  proverb  holds  good,  and  our  very  familiarity  from 
childhood  with  the  common  European  land  -  tortoise  undoubtedly  tends  to 
render  us  inappreciative  of  the  marvellous  bodily  conformation  of  this  group 
of  reptiles. 

Although  the  presence  of  a  bony  shell  is  of  itself  sufficient  to  distinguish  the 


GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS. 


43 


Ju 


group  from  other  living  reptiles,  it  is  necessary  to  add  somewhat  to  this  in  order 
to  give  a  comprehensive  definition.  As  regards  the  skull,  this  resembles  that  of 
the  crocodiles,  in  that  the  quadrate-bone,  with  which  the  lower  jaw  articulates,  is 
firmly  wedged  in  among  the  adjacent  bones,  to  which  its  relations  are,  however, 
somewhat  different.  Unlike  all  crocodiles  the  jaws  are,  however,  entirely  devoid 
of  teeth,  and  are  encased  with  horn,  so  as  to  form  a  cutting  beak,  which  is  invari- 
ably short.  A  further  peculiarity  in  the  skull  of  a  tortoise  is  to  be  found  in  the 
presence  of  a  greatly  developed  median  spine  (sup) 
projecting  backwards  from  the  hinder  region ;  exter- 
nally to  which  are  a  pair  of  shorter  processes.  In 
other  respects,  the  skull  is  extremely  variable,  the 
sockets  of  the  eyes  being  sometimes,  as  in  the  figure 
on  p.  47,  surrounded  by  bone,  while  in  other  cases 
they  are  open  behind.  Sometimes,  moreover,  the  bony 
roof  behind  the  eye-socket  in  the  figure  on  p.  47  may 
be  prolonged  backwards  so  as  to  cover  the  whole 
of  the  region  marked  par  in  the  annexed  figure. 
There  is  an  equal  amount  of  variation  in  regard 
to  the  position  of  the  nostrils,  which  sometimes  open 
on  the  palate  close  behind  the  beak,  while  they  may 
be  situated,  as  in  living  crocodiles,  close  to  the  hinder 
extremity  of  the  skull.  A  most  important  feature  in 
the  structure  of  these  animals  is  to  be  found  in  the 
circumstance  that  the  ribs  have  but  a  single  head 
apiece,  and  that  the  more  anterior  ones  articulate  at 

the  junction  between  two  of  the  vertebrae,  so  that  one  portion  of  the  head  is 
applied  to  one  vertebra  and  the  other  portion  to  the  adjacent  vertebra.  This 
forms  an  important  distinction  from  the  whole  of  the  orders  treated  in  the 
preceding  chapter,  in  all  of  which  the  anterior  ribs  are  provided  with  two  heads, 
both  of  which  articulate  to  the  sides  of  one  and  the  same  vertebra.  Passing  on  to 
the  consideration  of  the  bony  shell,  we  find  this  to  consist  of  an  upper  portion 
or  carapace,  shown  in  the  figure  at  the  commencement  of  the  chapter,  and  of  an 
inferior  portion,  covering  the  lower  aspect  of  the  body,  which  is  termed  the 
plastron.  When  this  shell  attains  its  fullest  development,  the  upper  and  lower 
moieties  are  completely  connected  together,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure 
of  the  skeleton  of  a  land -tortoise;  but  in  certain  groups  the  two  remain  more 
or  less  separate,  and  in  some  cases  the  lower  shell  is  but  very  slightly  developed. 
Moreover,  while  the  carapace  is  generally  immovably  welded  to  the  vertebrae  of 
the  back  and  the  ribs,  in  the  so-called  leathery  turtle  it  is  separate  from  both. 
In  its  fullest  -developed  form,  the  shell  consists  of  a  series  of  bones  articulating 
with  one  another  at  their  edges  by  finely  denticulated  sutures,  and  thus  forming 
a  continuous  whole,  capable  of  increasing  in  size  by  growth  at  the  edges  of  its 
component  elements.  In  the  carapace,  the  bones  forming  the  middle  of  the  back 
are  formed  by  expansions  growing  from  the  spines  of  the  vertebrae,  while  the  large 
lateral  plates  grow  upon  the  ribs,  from  which  they  are  inseparable.  Within  the 
cavity  thus  formed  are  placed  the  bones  of  the  shoulder  and  pelvis,  to  which  are 


UPPER  VIEW  OF  THE  SKULL   OF  THE 
SOFT-TORTOISE   OF  THE   GANGES. 


44  TORTOISES  AND    TURTLES, 

respectively  articulated  the  arm-bone  and  thigh-bone,  so  that,  as  shown  in  the 
figure  of  the  skeleton,  these  bones  actually  come  within  the  ribs,  instead  of  being- 
external  to  them,  as  in  all  other  living  animals.  At  the  fore  and  hinder  extrem- 
ities of  the  shell  are  left  large  apertures,  through  which  are  protruded  the  head 
and  neck,  the  fore  and  hind-limbs,  and  the  tail.  A  large  number  of  tortoises  are 

able  to  retract  both  the 
head,  limbs,  arid  tail 
within  the  margins  of 
the  shell,  the  apertures 
of  which  are  then  filled 
up  ;  such  portions  of  the 
head  and  limbs  as  are 
exposed  being  protected 
by  horny  shields. 

With  the  exception 
of  the  marine   leathery 

tUTtlCS     ailQ       the 


SKELETON  OP  TORTOISE  IN  LONGITUDINAL  SECTION. 

water    soft-tortoises,   in 

which  it  is  invested  merely  with  a  continuous  leathery  skin,  the  shell  of 
Chelonians  is  covered  with  a  number  of  horny  plates,  which,  in  the  adult  state  at 
least,  are  in  contact  with  one  another  by  their  edges.  As  these  horny  shields  are 
very  important  in  determining  the  different  species  of  tortoises,  it  is  essential  to  enter 
in  some  detail  into  their  mode  of  arrangement,  and  the  names  by  which  they  are 
known.  In  the  carapace  of  any  ordinary  tortoise,  such  as  the  one  represented  in 
the  left-hand  figure  at  the  head  of  the  chapter,  wre  shall  find  that  the  middle  line 
of  the  back,  exclusive  of  the  margins,  is  occupied  by  a  single  row  of  large  polygonal 
shields,  symmetrical  in  themselves;  these  shields,  which  are  marked  v  in  the 
accompanying  diagram,  being  known  as  the  vertebrals.  On  either  side  of  this 
median  series  is  another  row  of  shields  c,  which  are  not  symmetrical  in  themselves, 
and  are  termed  costals.  The  extreme  margins  of  the  carapace  are  formed  by  a 
large  series  of  much  smaller  shields,  of  which  the  anterior  unpaired  one  (nu)  is 
termed  the  nuchal,  and  the  posterior  (ca\  which  may  be  either  single  or  double, 
the  caudal.  Between  the  nuchal  and  the  caudal  are  a  series,  generally  eleven  in 
number  on  each  side,  designated  marginals  (m).  These  same  marginal  shields, 
being  angulated,  pass  over  the  edges  of  the  middle  portion  of  the  shell,  and  thus 
cover  the  sides  of  the  middle  of  the  plastron,  or  lower  shell,  as  shown  in  the  right- 
hand  figure  of  the  accompanying  diagram.  The  shields  of  the  plastron  proper  are 
generally  arranged  in  pairs,  which  may  be  termed,  commencing  anteriorly,  gulars 
(gu\  humerals  (hu),  pectorals  (pc),  abdominals  (ab),  femorals  (fe),  and  anals  (an). 
In  some  cases,  as  will  be  illustrated  in  the  sequel,  the  two  gulars  may,  however,  be 
separated  by  a  single  intergular',  while,  as  in  the  accompanying  diagram,  there  is 
frequently  an  inguinal  shield  immediately  in  advance  of  each  notch  for  the 
hind-limbs. 

This  disposes  of  the  external  horny  shields  ;  but  a  few  words  are  necessary 
with  regard  to  the  bony  elements  constituting  the  shell  of  a  tortoise.  On  stripping 
off  these  horny  shields  from  the  carapace  of  a  tortoise,  the  underlying  solid  shell, 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS. 


45 


as  shown  in  the  right-hand  figure  at  the  head  of  the  chapter,  will  be  seen  to  be 
marked  by  a  series  of  channels  corresponding  to  the  borders  of  these  same  shields. 
If  the  shell  be  not  that  of  a  very  aged  animal,  there  will  be  seen  in  addition  a 
number  of  finely  jagged  sutures,  marking  the  divisions  between  the  component 
bones ;  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  in  their  plan  of  arrangement,  although  not  in 
number,  size,  or  shape,  these  underlying  bones  correspond  very  closely  with  the 
ov7erlying  horny  shields.  Thus,  in  the  middle  line  of  the  carapace  we  have  a  series 
of  polygonal  plates,  symmetrical  in  themselves,  and  attached  to  the  summits  of  the 
vertebras,  which  are  known  as  neurals ;  these  being  clearly  indicated  in  the  figure 
referred  to.  In  front,  the  series  is  completed  by  a  large  nuchal  plate,  having  no 
connection  with  the  backbone,  while  behind  it  terminates  in  one  or  two  pygals, 


DIAGRAM  OF  THE   HORNY  PLATES  OX  A  SHELL  OF  A  FRESH- WATER   TORTOISE. — After  Giinther. 

which  are  likewise  perfectly  distinct  from  the  vertebrae  Externally  to  the  neurals 
are  placed  on  either  side  the  eight  costal  plates,  so  named  from  being  attached  to 
the  ribs ;  the  inner  halves  of  these  plates  being  alone  visible  in  the  shell  figured  at 
the  head  of  the  chapter,  which  belonged  to  a  rather  aged  animal.  Finally,  the 
edges  of  the  carapace  are  formed  by  the  marginal  plates,  which,  like  the  horny 
shields  similarly  named,  are  angulated,  and  form  the  lateral  borders  of  the  middle 
portion  of  the  plastron.  In  the  plastron  itself,  we  find  its  anterior  portion  formed 
by  a  pair  of  plates,  known  as  the  epiplastrals,  corresponding  to  the  collar-bones,  or 
clavicles,  of  other  Vertebrates ;  while  between  or  behind  these  is  a  single  unpaired 
entoplastral  element,  which  may  be  either  dagger-shaped  or  rhomboidal,  and  which 
represents  the  interclavicle  of  less  specially  modified  reptiles.  The  remainder  of 
the  plastron  is  formed  by  three  pairs  of  plates,  respectively  known  as  the  hyo,  hypo, 
and  xiphiplastrals,  of  which  the  latter  or  hindmost  are  generally  more  or  less 
deeply  notched  or  forked.  These  three  elements  appear  to  correspond  to  the  so- 
called  abdominal  ribs  of  crocodiles ;  and  it  will  thus  be  evident  that  Chelonians  have 


46  TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 

no  representative  of  the  breast-bone,  or  sternum,  which  is  so  commonly  present  in 
other  groups  of  Vertebrates. 

As  regards  their  limbs,  the  members  of  this  order  present  a  great  amount  of 
variation,  some  of  them,  like  the  land-tortoises,  having  the  feet  adapted  for  walking, 
while  in  the  turtles  the  entire  limbs  are  modified  into  paddles  for  swimming.  In 
some  cases,  each  of  the  five  toes  may  be  furnished  with  strong,  curved  claws,  but  in 
others,  like  the  soft-tortoises,  only  three  are  thus  armed.  As  a  general  rule,  the 
number  of  joints  in  the  toes  of  the  fore-limb,  counting  from  within  outwards,  is 
2,  3,  3,  3,  3,  while  in  the  hind-limb  they  are  more  generally  2,  3,  3,  3,  2,  although 
in  a  few  species  the  number  is  the  same  as  in  the  fore-limb.  In  both  limbs  the 
number  of  these  joints  may,  however,  be  reduced,  but,  except  among  the  soft- 
tortoises,  they  are  never  augmented.  Very  generally,  the  surfaces  of  the  limbs, 
especially  the  anterior  ones  of  the  front  pair,  are  protected  by  horny  plates  of 
variable  size,  which,  among  the  land-tortoises,  may  be  underlaid  by  nodules  of 
bone. 

In  habits  the  members  of  the  order  display  as  much  diversity  as  in  structure ; 
some  being  carnivorous  and  others  herbivorous,  while  some  are  marine,  others 
fresh- water,  and  others,  again,  more  or  less  exclusively  inhabitants  of  dry  land. 
All,  however,  are  fond  of  water,  and  even  the  most  strictly  terrestrial  species  can, 
we  believe,  swim.  With  the  exception  of  the  turtles,  the  eggs  are  hard-shelled ; 
and  these  are  in  all  cases  deposited  on  land,  the  turtles  resorting  to  the  shore  at 
certain  seasons  for  this  purpose.  As  regards  distribution,  tortoises  are  especially 
characteristic  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  globe,  only  two  species  inhabiting  Europe 
and  these  confined  to  the  more  southern  parts  of  the  Continent.  The  various 
groups  and  families  are,  however,  by  no  means  equally  distributed  over  the 
different  regions  of  the  globe.  The  side-necked  tortoises,  for  instance,  are  now 
exclusively  confined  to  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  and  in  Australia  are  the  only 
representatives  of  the  order;  whereas  the  S-necked  group  attains  its  greatest 
development  in  the  opposite  half  of  the  world,  although  represented  in  many 
countries  lying  to  the  south  of  the  Equator.  The  soft  river-tortoises,  again,  are 
confined  to  the  waters  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  North  America,  being  totally  unknown 
both  in  South  America  and  in  Australasia.  Giant  land-tortoises  within  comparatively 
recent  times  have  been  confined  to  what  are  known  as  oceanic  islands,  although 
they  formerly  occurred  on  most  of  the  large  continents ;  while  the  smaller  members 
of  the  same  genus  are  far  more  numerous  in  South  Africa  than  they  are  in  Asia. 
Geologically,  the  order  is  a  very  ancient  one,  being  represented  throughout  the 
whole  of  the  Secondary  period,  and  thus  commencing  at  a  date  when  true  crocodiles 
are  not  known  to  have  come  into  existence. 

According  to  our  own  views  of  their  mutual  relationships,  the  Chelonians  may 
be  divided  into  three  main  groups,  or  suborders,  which  may  be  severally  designated 
S-necked  tortoises  (including  the  turtles),  side-necked  tortoises,  and  soft-tortoises. 
Some  writers  would,  however,  remove  from  the  first  group  the  so-called  leathery 
turtle,  to  make  it  the  type  of  a  group  equal  in  value  to  the  w^hole  of  the  other 
three,  which  are  thus  collectively  brigaded  under  a  common  title.  Adopting  the 
former  arrangement,  we  commence  our  survey  of  the  various  members  of 
the  order  with 


LAND-  TOR  TOISES. 


47 


THE  LAND-TORTOISES  AND  TERRAPINS. 
Family  TESTUDINID^. 

The  land-tortoises,  together  with  the  greater  number  of  the  fresh -water 
tortoises,  or  terrapins,  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  as  well  as  their  southern 
allies,  collectively  constitute  one  of  several  families  belonging  to  the  first  great 
group  of  the  order.  From  the  circumstance  that  all  its 
members  are  so  constructed  as  to  be  able  to  withdraw 
their  heads  within  the  margins  of  the  shell  by  a  bending 
of  the  neck  in  an  S-like  manner  in  a  vertical  plane,  the 
group  may  be  conveniently  designated  S-necked  tortoises ; 
their  scientific  designation  being  Cryptodira.  Since,  how- 
ever, the  soft-tortoises  likewise  retract  their  heads  in  a 
similar  manner,  it  is  obvious  that  this  character  alone  will 
not  suffice  to  define  the  group,  and  it  must  accordingly  be 
supplemented  by  others.  Although  the  degree  of  ossifi- 
cation of  the  shell  is  very  variable  in  the  group,  the 
carapace  and  plastron  being  in  some  cases  welded  into  a 
complete  box,  and  in  other  instances  separate,  yet  there 
is  invariably  a  complete  series  of  marginal  bones,  con- 
nected with  the  ribs ;  the  presence  of  the  full  series  of 
marginals,  together  with  the  S-like  retraction  of  the  neck, 
being  sufficient  to  distinguish  the  group.  A  peculiarity 
in  which  the  members  of  the  group  differ  from  those  of 
the  next  one,  is  to  be  found  in  the  circumstance  that  the 
bones  of  the  pelvis  remain  throughout  life  unconnected 
with  the  plastron ;  while  in  the  greater  number  of  cases  THE  LEFT  HALF  OF  THE  PLAS- 

,1        -i     ,  ,  ,  . ,  •  /-.  •  TRON      OF      THE      CHAIBASSA 

the  latter,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure,  comprises         TERRAPIN. 

only  six  pairs  of  horny  shields,  their  being  no  intergular 

shield  between  the  first  pair,  or  gulars.     The  skull  is  characterised  by  the  tympanic 

ring  (t  in  the  accompanying  figure)  having  a  notch  in  its  hinder  border,  and  also 

by  the  condyle  on  its  quadrate  -  bone 
fitting  into  a  hollow  at  the  hinder  end 
of  the  lower  jaw.  This  S-necked  group 
includes  the  marine  turtles,  and  all  the 
tortoises  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere, 
with  the  exception  of  the  soft  river- 
tortoises,  and  thus  comprises  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  the  living  represent- 
atives of  the  entire  order.  Although  well 

A    LAND-TORTOISE,   WITH  in*        A  r»    •  in        XIA 

THE  LOWER  JAW  REMOVED.  represented  in  Africa  and  South  America, 

the  group  is  quite  unknown  in  Australia. 

The  land-tortoises  and  terrapins  of  the  family  Testudinidce  have  the  shell 
well  developed  and  of  a  more  or  less  ovoid  shape ;  the  plastron  being  connected 
with  the  carapace  either  by  a  straight  articulation  or  by  means  of  sutures,  while 


SIDE  VIEW    OF    THE    SKULL    OF 


48  TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 

it  never  has  an  intergular  shield  in  front.  The  limbs  are  adapted  more  or  less 
completely  for  walking,  and  are  never  modified  into  paddles ;  while  the  head  is 
capable  of  complete  retraction  within  the  margins  of  the  shell.  A  very  important 
structural  feature  in  the  shell  is  that  the  nuchal,  or  unpaired  median  bone  in  the 
front  of  the  carapace,  does  not  send  back  processes  underlying  the  marginal  bones 
of  the  same ;  while  in  the  tail  each  vertebra  has  a  cup  in  front  of  its  body  or 
lower  portion,  and  a  ball  behind.  None  of  the  members  of  the  family  are  marine 
but  while  some  are  inhabitants  of  the  land,  others  are  more  or  less  exclusively 
dwellers  in  fresh  water.  There  are,  moreover,  equally  important  differences  in 
regard  to  their  food,  all  the  land  forms  being  herbivorous,  while  of  those  frequent- 
ing the  water  some  subsist  on  vegetable,  and  others  on  animal  substances. 

By  far  the  most  numerously  represented  genus  of  the  whole 
family  is  the  one  including  the  true  or  land -tortoises,  of  which 
there  are  rather  more  than  forty  existing  species  (counting  a  few  that  have 
been  exterminated  within  the  historic  period).  These  tortoises,  of  which  a  few 
are  more  or  less  aquatic  in  their  habits,  have  the  upper  and  lower  portions  oi 
the  shell  completely  welded  together,  the  former  being  frequently  very  convex 
and  much  vaulted ;  while  the  top  of  the  head  is  covered  with  large  horny 
shields.  The  limbs,  which  are  entirely  adapted  for  walking,  are  of  a  club- 
like  form,  and  are  covered  with  large  horny  scales  or  tubercles;  their  toes 
being  unwebbed  and  furnished  with  strong,  claw-like  nails.  The  tail  is  always 
short,  its  proportionate  length  not  being  greater  in  the  young  than  in  the  adult. 
More  important  characters  are,  however,  furnished  by  the  bony  shell  and  skull,  to 
observe  the  former  of  which  it  is  of  course  necessary  that  the  horny  shields 
should  be  stripped  off.  In  a  shell  thus  treated  it  will  be  seen  that  the  unpaired 
median  neural  bones  of  the  carapace  are  relatively  short  and  wide,  and  so 
arranged  that  a  four-sided  one  is  interposed  between  two  that  are  octagonal, 
although  in  some  cases  they  are  mostly  hexagonal;  while  the  costal  or  lateral 
plates  are  alternately  narrow  above  and  broad  below.  Moreover,  the  line  dividing 
the  costal  horny  shields  from  the  marginals  usually  corresponds  with  the  suture 
between  the  corresponding  bones  of  the  carapace,  whereas  in  the  other  members 
of  the  family  one  is  above  the  other ;  while  a  further  peculiarity  of  most  species  of 
the  genus  is  that  there  is  but  a  single  caudal  horny  plate  at  the  hinder  end  of  the 
carapace.  In  the  skull  the  palate  is  provided  with  one  or  two  ridges  on  each  side  ; 
while  the  hinder  aperture  of  the  nostrils  is  situated  on  the  line  of  the  eyes.  It 
may  be  mentioned  here  that,  as  in  the  majority  of  the  representatives  of  the  order, 
the  form  of  the  shell  differs  considerably  in  the  two  sexes ;  the  male  having  the 
central  region  of  the  plastron  deeply  concave,  while  in  the  females  it  is  flat 
or  slightly  convex. 

True  tortoises  are  distributed  over  Southern  Europe  and  Asia,  the  whole  of 
Africa,  the  southern  portions  of  North  America,  and  South  America  (inclusive 
of  the  Galapagos  Islands).  They  are  strictly  herbivorous  in  their  diet ;  and  certain 
species,  now  confined  to  oceanic  islands,  attain  gigantic  dimensions,  and  are  by  far 
the  largest  representatives  of  the  family.  The  species  inhabiting  colder  regions 
hibernate  during  the  inclement  season  by  burrowing  in  the  ground,  whereas  those 
found  in  more  genial  climates  are  active  throughout  the  year.  All  the  species 


LAND-TORTOISES. 


49 


appear  to  be  diurnal  in  their  habits,  and  although  they  are  all  fond  of  water, 
the  common  European  species  always  withdraws  into  its  shell  at  the  slightest 
shower.  These  reptiles  will  live  to  an  enormous  age,  which,  in  some  instances  at 
least,  may  be  reckoned  by  centuries.  According  to  the  classification  adopted  by 
Mr.  Boulenger,  the  species  of  this  extensive  genus  may  be  arranged  under  seven 
groups,  of  which  we  proceed  to  notice  representative  species. 

The  land-tortoises  of  North   America  include  three  species,  of 
which  one  of  the  best  known  is  the  Florida  tortoise  (Testudo  poly- 
phemus),  inhabiting  the  South-Eastern  United  States.     All  these  species  may  be 


Florida  Tortoise. 


BRAZILIAN  TORTOISE   (£  nat.  size). 


easily  recognised  by  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  palate  of  the  skull  having  a 
median  longitudinal  ridge,  instead  of  the  deep  pit  characterising  all  other  members 
of  the  genus.  In  the  Florida  tortoise,  as  well  -as  in  the  allied  Agassiz's  tortoise 
(T.  agassizi),  the  length  of  the  shell  is  more  than  twice  its  height,  while  the  beak 
is  not  hooked,  and  the  fore-limb  is  broadest  at  its  extremity.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  Berlandier's  tortoise  (T.  berlandieri),  from  Mexico  and  Texas,  the  shell  is 
proportionately  shorter,  the  beak  is  hooked,  and  the  fore-limb  widest  at  the  elbow. 
These  species  are  all  of  small  size,  not  exceeding  10  inches  in  length. 

Brazilian  The  Brazilian  species  (T.  tabulata),  figured  above,  represents  a 

Tortoise.      grOup  by  itself,  of  which  the  distinctive  characters  are  as  follows. 

The  carapace  is  much  elongated  and  somewhat  depressed,  with  its  margins  not 

VOL.  V. — 4 


50  TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 


everted ;  its  general  colour  being  dark  brown  or  black,  with  a  yellowish  centre  to 
each  of  the  shields  on  the  back.  The  nuchal  shield  of  the  carapace  is  wanting ; 
while  in  the  plastron  the  gular  shields,  although  well  developed,  are  prolonged 
anteriorly  into  hem-like  processes.  The  head  and  limbs  are  marked  with  orange 
or  red  spots,  on  a  dark  ground.  This  handsome  tortoise,  which  attains  a  length 
of  nearly  22  inches,  is  an  inhabitant  of  tropical  South  America,  to  the  east  of  the 
Andes,  and  also  of  the  Windward  Islands,  ascending  to  an  elevation  of  about  two 
thousand  feet.  In  many  wooded  districts  it  appears  to  be  very  abundant,  feeding 
not  only  on  leaves  and  grasses,  but  likewise  on  the  fallen  fruit  which  is  to  be  met 
with  in  great  quantities.  In  the  hot  season  it  constructs  a  nest  of  dry  leaves, 
wherein  are  deposited  its  eggs,  which  may  be  a  dozen  or  two  in  number.  When 
first  hatched,  the  young  are  of  a  uniform  yellowish  brown  colour,  with  their  shells 
still  soft.  The  young,  and  to  a  less  degree  the  adults,  have,  according  to  the 
Prince  of  Wied,  numerous  enemies.  Against  the  puma  and  jaguar  the  stout  shell 
of  even  the  adult  seems  to  be  no  defence,  since,  according  to  native  reports,  those 
animals,  on  finding  one  of  these  tortoises,  will  set  it  up  on  end  and  scoop  out  the 
flesh  with  their  paws ;  while  from  the  occurrence  of  broken  shells  in  the  forest  it 
would  seem  that  in  some  cases  they  are  actually  able  to  tear  the  plastron  away 
from  the  carapace.  As  the  flesh  is  devoid  of  smell,  it  is  likewise  eagerly  sought 
after  by  both  Indians  and  Portuguese,  who  are  in  the  habit  of  keeping  these 
tortoises — known  in  Brazil  by  the  name  of  schabuti — in  stews,  where  they  are 
fattened  for  the  table.  They  are  also  allowed  to  run  about  the  houses,  where  they 
are  fed  chiefly  on  plantains. 

Burmese  The  four  species  belonging  to  the   third   group,  of  which  the 

Brown  Tortoise.  Burmese  brown  tortoise  (T.  emys)  is  an  example,  are  characterised  by 
the  presence  of  some  very  large  conical,  bony,  spur-like  tubercles  on  the  lower 
portion  of  the  hind-leg,  and  the  circumstance  that  the  length  of  the  union  in  the 
middle  line  of  the  anal  shields  of  the  plastron  is  considerably  less  than  that  of  the 
abdominal  shields ;  the  colour  of  the  carapace  in  the  adult  being  either  uniform 
brownish,  or  yellowish  brown  closely  spotted  with  black.  The  Burmese  brown 
tortoise,  which  attains  a  length  of  18  inches,  while  agreeing  with  the  species  above 
noticed  in  the  possession  of  a  nuchal  shield  on  the  front  of  the  carapace,  differs  in 
that  the  caudal  shield  at  the  hinder  extremity  of  the  same  is  divided,  as  in  the 
terrapins.  The  shell  of  this  species  is  much  depressed,  with  the  anterior  and 
posterior  borders  of  the  carapace  serrated ;  the  adult  being  dark  brown,  or  blackish 
in  colour,  while  in  the  young  the  carapace  is  yellowish  brown,  with  dark  brown 
markings.  In  addition  to  the  spur-like  tubercles  on  the  back  of  the  heel,  the 
whole  of  the  front  of  the  fore-limb  is  overlain  with  imbricating  bony  tubercles, 
arranged  in  four  or  five  longitudinal  rows,  and  there  are  some  conical  ones  on  the 
back  of  the  thigh,  as  well  as  others  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  hind-foot.  This 
species  is  an  inhabitant  of  Assam,  Burma,  Siam,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  Sumatra, 
where  it  frequents  moist  wooded  districts,  and  is  believed  to  be  largely  aquatic  in 
its  habits.  The  association  of  a  divided  caudal  shield,  with  habits  reputed  to 
resemble  those  of  the  terrapins,  is  somewhat  noteworthy. 

In  the  other  three  members  of  this  group  the  nuchal  shield  is  wanting,  and 
the  caudal  single.      Of   these,  the   Argentine   tortoise  (T.  argentina)  of   South 


LAND-TORTOISES.  5  L 

America,  and  the  spurred  tortoise  (T.  calcarata)  of  Africa,  are  characterised  by 
their  flattened  and  uniformly  brownish-coloured  carapaces.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  handsome  leopard-tortoise  (T.  pardalis)  of  Southern  Africa,  has  the  carapace 
highly  vaulted,  and  closely  spotted  with  black  upon  a  yellowish  brown  ground ; 
its  anterior  margin  being  very  deeply  notched. 


SIDE  VIEW  OF  SHELL  OP  BURMESE   BROWN  TORTOISE. 

(From  Giinther,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1882.) 


Ele  ant  Tortoise  grouP  comprises  about  ten  very  beautifully  coloured 

'small,  or  medium-sized,  tortoises,  the  great  majority  of  which  are 
confined  to  South  Africa,  although  the  species  here  figured  (T.  elegans)  is  an 
inhabitant  of  India  and  Ceylon.  All  these  species  are  easily  recognised  by  the 
carapace  being  extremely  convex,  and  either  black  in  colour,  with  yellow  lines 
radiating  from  the  centre  of  each  of  the  shields  of  the  back,  or  yellow,  or  brownish, 
marked  with  radiating  black  lines.  Frequently,  moreover,  the  shields  of  the  back 
are  swollen,  so  as  to  form  more  or  less  prominent  bosses.  The  Indian  species, 
together  with  an  allied  one  (T.  platynota),  from  Burma,  is  distinguished  from  all 
the  other  members  of  the  group  by  the  absence  of  the  nuchal  shield  at  the  front 
of  the  carapace.  Of  the  other  eight  species  no  less  than  seven  are  South  African, 
while  the  radiated  tortoise  (T.  radiata)  is  from  Madagascar;  one  of  the  best 
known  members  of  the  group  being  the  common  geometric  tortoise  (T.  geometrica) 
of  the  Cape,  which  attains  a  length  of  some  5J  inches.  In  the  eyed  tortoise 
(T.  oculifera)  the  pectoral  shields  of  the  plastron  may  not  meet  in  the  middle 
line,  as  is  the  case  in  some  individuals  of  the  Burmese  brown  tortoise.  While  the 
elegant  and  geometric  tortoise  have  the  carapace  black,  with  narrow  yellow  rays, 
in  the  eyed  tortoise  the  markings  take  the  form  of  brownish  yellow  and  dark 
brown  rays  of  nearly  equal  width. 

An  admirable  account  of  the  habits  of  the  elegant  tortoise  is  given  by  Capt 
T.  Hutton,  from  which  the  following  extracts  are  made.  These  tortoises  are  fairly 
common  in  dry,  hilly  districts,  where  -they  inhabit  the  high  grass-jungles  at  the 
foot  of  the  hills.  Nevertheless,  they  are  by  no  means  easy  to  find,  owing  to  their 
colour  and  appearance  harmonising  so  closely  with  the  rocky  ground,  and  from 
their  habit  of  remaining  in  concealment  beneath  shrubs  or  tufts  of  grass  during 
the  heat  of  the  day.  They  are  tracked  by  the  Bhils  of  Meywar  to  their  hiding- 


52  TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 

places  by  following  the  trail  of  their  footsteps  in  the  dry  sand ;  the  same  method 
being  employed  by  some  of  the  wild  tribes  of  South  Africa  in  the  case  of  the 
allied  species  inhabiting  that  continent.  In  the  rainy  season  the  elegant  tortoise 
is,  however,  extremely  active,  and  wanders  about  in  search  of  food  at  all  hours  of 
the  day.  At  the  approach  of  the  cold  weather  these  reptiles  select  a  sheltered 
spot,  where  they  conceal  themselves  by  thrusting  their  shells  into  thick  tufts  of 
bushes  or  shrubs,  in  order  to  be  better  protected  from  the  cold.  There  they 
remain  in  a  kind  of  lethargic,  although  not  truly  torpid,  state,  till  the  hot  season, 
when  they  issue  out  to  feed  only  after  sunset  and  in  the  early  morning. 
Specimens  kept  in  captivity  were  observed  to  be  very  fond  of  plunging  into  water 


ELEGANT  TORTOISE  (J  nat.  size). 


during  the  hot  season,  where  they  would  remain  for  half  an  hour  at  a  time. 
They  also  drank  large  quanties  of  water  at  this  period  of  the  year,  which  they 
took  by  thrusting  in  their  heads  and  swallowing  in  a  series  of  gulps.  About 
November  the  female  lays  her  eggs  in  a  shallow  pit  excavated  by  herself.  One  of 
the  aforesaid  captive  specimens  in  the  course  of  about  two  hours  "  succeeded  in 
making  a  hole  six  inches  in  depth  and  four  inches  in  diameter;  in  this  she 
immediately  deposited  her  eggs,  four  in  number,  filling  up  the  hole  again  with  the 
mud  she  had  previously  scraped  out,  and  then  treading  it  well  in,  and  stamping 
upon  it  with  her  hind-feet  alternately  until  it  was  filled  to  the  surface,  when  she 
bent  it  down  with  the  whole  weight  of  her  body,  raising  herself  behind  as  high  as 


GIANT    TORTOISES    OF    THE    GALAPAGOS    ISLANDS. 


LAND-TORTOISES.  55 

she  could  stretch  her  legs,  and  suddenly  withdrawing  them,  allowing  herself  to 
drop  heavily  on  the  earth,  by  which  means  it  was  speedily,  beaten  flat;  and  so 
smooth  and  natural  did  it  appear  that,  had  I  not  detected  her  in  the  performance 
of  .her  task,  I  should  certainly  never  have  noticed  the  spot  where  she  had 
deposited  her  eggs.  She  did  not  immediately  leave  the  place  after  finishing  her 
work,  but  remained  inactive,  as  if  recovering  from  her  fatigues."  In  disposition 
these  tortoises  are  decidedly  pugnacious,  this  being  especially  the  case  with  the 
males.  These  combats  seemed  to  be  chiefly  trials  of  strength,  "  one  male  confronting 
the  other,  with  the  hind  and  fore-legs  drawn  into  the  shell,  and  the  hind-feet 
planted  firmly  on  the  ground,  and  in  this  manner  striving  against  each  other  until 
one  or ,  both  became  fatigued.  This  was  done  chiefly  when  they  wanted  to  pass 
each  other  in  any  narrow  space ;  and  sometimes  if  the  one  could  succeed  in  placing 
his  shell  a  little  beneath  the  other,  he  tilted  him  over  on  his  back,  from  which  he 
had  great  difficulty  in  recovering  himself;  and  I  have  frequently  found  them 
sprawling  thus,  making  desperate  efforts  with  head  and  feet  to  throw  themselves 
back  to  their  natural  position,  which  they  were  unable  to  effect  unless  the  ground 
chanced  to  be  very  uneven,  so  as  to  assist  them." 

During  the  Pliocene,  or  later  division  of   the  Tertiary  period, 
Giant  Tortoises.     .         ,.     -,  &  ,  ,      ,    .  ±-j    v  '    At   •          x  VG    j  • 

gigantic  land-tortoises  were,  as  attested  by  their  petrified  remains, 

widely  distributed  over  the  continents  of  the  world ;  species  having  been  obtained 
from  India,  France,  and  North  and  South  America.  The  largest  of  these  was  the 
well-known  atlas  tortoise  (T.  atlas)  from  the  Siwalik  Hills  of  Northern  India,  in 
which  the  length  of  the  shell  was  about  6  feet ;  the  species  itself  being  apparently 
allied  to  the  existing  Burmese  brown  tortoise  already  referred  to.  Probably  more 
or  less  abundant  during  the  epoch  in  question,  with  the  advent  of  the  ensuing 
Pleistocene  epoch  giant  tortoises  seem  to  have  disappeared  entirely  from  the 
continental  areas,  to  survive  on  certain  oceanic  islands  where  they  were  free  from 
the  competition  of  large  animals  of  higher  organisation.  Some  of  these  insular 
species,  like  those  of  Madagascar  and  Malta,  did  not  apparently  survive  the 
Pleistocene  epoch ;  while  in  other  regions  they  flourished  and  multiplied  till  the 
fell  presence  of  man  led  to  their  partial  or  total  extermination.  At  the  present 
day  the  few  survivors  of  these  monstrous  reptiles  are  being  rapidly  reduced  in 
numbers,  and  unless  special  means  be  speedily  taken  for  their  preservation,  they 
will  ere  long  entirely  cease  to  exist.  During  the  historic  period  the  islands  where 
giant  tortoises  are  known  to  have  existed  constitute  three  distinct  groups.  Two 
of  these  are  situated  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  comprise  Aldabra,  to  the  north-west 
of  Madagascar,  and  the  Mascarene  Group — including  Reunion,  Mauritius,  and 
Rodriguez — lying  to  the  east  of  the  same ;  while  the  third  or  Galapagos  Group, 
taking  its  name  from  the  Spanish  word  for  tortoise,  is  situated  in  the  far  distant 
South  Pacific,  off  the  western  coast  of  South  America.  During  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries,  the  tortoises  are  stated  to  have  existed  in  enormous  numbers 
in  all  the  above-named  islands ;  but  as  they  afforded  a  most  valuable  supply  of 
food,  and  could  be  kept  alive  on  board  ship,  their  numbers  were  rapidly  reduced  in 
those  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  Aldabra  is  now  the  only  island  in  that  area  where 
they  still  exist  in  a  wild  state.  Many  of  these  tortoises  were,  however,  exported 
to  the  Seychelles,  and  it  is  believed,  as  we  shall  notice  below,  that  one  carried 


56  TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 

thence  to  the  Mauritius  is  the  only  living  example  of  the  species  that  formerly 
inhabited  Rodriguez.  Regarding  the  abundance  of  these  tortoises  in  the  latter 
island,  FranQois  Leguat,  writing  in  1691,  observes  that  "  there  are  such  plenty  of 
land-turtles  in  this  isle,  that  sometimes  you  see  a  three  thousand  of  them  in  a 
flock,  so  that  you  may  go  above  a  hundred  paces  on  their  backs."  In  Mauritius 
they  were  still  abundant  in  1740;  but  about  1761  they  were  probably  scarcer,  as 
thousands  were  then  imported  from  Rodriguez  as  food  for  the  patients  in  the 
hospitals  of  the  Mauritius.  The  continued  exportation, — some  ships  taking  as 
many  as  four  hundred  at  a  time, — coupled  with  the  destruction  of  their  eggs  and 
young,  finally  led  to  their  extermination  in  both  Mauritius  and  Rodriguez ;  this 
extirpation  having  probably  taken  place  early  in  the  present  century.  The 
Reunion  tortoise,  of  which  very  little  is  known,  seems  to  have  disappeared  at  a 
still  earlier  date ;  while  of  the  Galapagos  species,  we  shall  speak  later. 

The  total  number  of  species  of  giant  tortoises  known  to  have  existed  within 


ELEPHANT-TORTOISE. 


the  historic  period  is  about  fourteen ;  the  whole  of  which  are  characterised  by  their 
large  size,  their  long  necks,  and  the  uniformly  dark  brown  or  black  colour  of  their 
shells.  They  may  be  divided  into  four  groups,  according  to  their  geographical 
distribution,  each  characterised  by  certain  structural  peculiarities.  The  first  group 
comprises  the  four  Aldabra  tortoises,  characterised  by  the  presence  of  a  nuchal 
shield  on  the  front  of  the  carapace,  and  the  distinctness  of  the  gulars  on  the  front 
of  the  plastron.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  four  best  known  Mascarene  species, 
constituting  the  second  group,  the  nuchal  shield  is  wanting,  while  the  two  gulars 
have  coalesced  into  one ;  the  plastron  being  characterised  by  its  extreme  shortness. 
Lastly,  the  third,  or  Galapagos  group,  with  six  species,  presents  a  condition  inter- 
mediate between  that  existing  in  the  two  others,  the  nuchal  shield  of  the 
carapace  being  absent,  while  the  gulars  of  the  plastron  remain  double.  We 
proceed  to  notice  some  of  the  species  of  each  group. 

.  The  best  known  of  the  four  species  from  Aldabra  is  the  elephant- 

' tortoise  (T.  elephantina),  which  differs  from  the  other  three  in  having 


LAND-TORTOISES.  57 

the  horny  shields  of  the  carapace  concentrically  striated,  and  the  plastron  of  the 
adult  notched  behind.  One  of  the  species  (T.  gigantea)  with  smooth  shields  on  a 
truncated  plastron  is  peculiar  in  having  the  caudal  shield  divided,  as  in  the 
Burmese  brown  tortoise.  The  elephant-tortoise  appears  to  be  one  of  the  largest  of 
all  the  species,  attaining  a  length  of  about  4  feet.  At  the  present  day  it  is  very 
scarce  in  its  native  island,  where  the  few  survivors  receive  a  certain  amount  of 
protection  from  the  Government  of  Mauritius,  to  which  Aldabra  belongs.  There 
are,  however,  a  few  individuals  living  in  Mauritius  and  the  Seychelles. 

Mascarene  Of    the   Mascarene   species,   the   three   species   from   Mauritius 

Tortoises.  (J1.  indica,  trisserrata,  and  inepta),  all  of  which  are  extinct,  are 
characterised  by  the  thinness  of  their  carapace,  of  which  the  margins  are  thickened. 
The  Rodriguez  tortoise  (T.  vosmceri)  has  a  still  thinner  carapace,  which  in  the 
male  does  not  shelve  down  in  front  in  the  usual  manner.  Allusion  has  already 
been  made  to  the  numbers  in  which  these  tortoises  existed  in  Leguat's  time ;  but 
till  quite  recently  it  was  thought  that  the  species  was  totally  extinct.  It  appears, 
however,  that  in  the  Artillery  barracks  of  Port  Louis  in  the  Mauritius,  there  lives 
a  very  ancient  tortoise  which,  in  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Gunther,  is  probably  of  this 
species.  This  tortoise  is  one  of  two  which  were  imported  into  the  Mauritius  by 
the  navigator,  Captain  Marion  du  Fresne  from  the  Seychelles  in  1766 ;  one  of 
these  having  been  subsequently  presented  to  the  London  Zoological  Gardens  in 
1832  by  Sir  C.  Colville.  The  latter  weighed  289  Ibs.,  and  its  shell  measured  4  feet 
4 J  inches  in  length  along  the  curve,  and  4  feet  9  inches  in  width ;  while  in  the 
Port  Louis  specimen  the  circumference  of  the  shell  is  9  feet  3  inches,  and  its  height 
2J  feet.  Marion's  tortoise,  as  the  Port  Louis  example  is  called,  is  thus  definitely 
known  to  have  lived  for  a  hundred  and  twenty-seven  years,  and  as  it  was  doubtless 
of  large  size  when  brought  from  the  Seychelles,  and  since  all  these  tortoises  take 
an  immense  time  to  reach  large  dimensions,  it  is  highly  probable  that  it  is  an 
actual  survivor  from  the  enormous  herds  that  existed  in  Rodriguez  in  Leguat's 
time.  From  a  peculiarity  in  the  structure  of  the  hinder  vertebrae  of  the  neck,  it 
appears  that  the  tortoises  of  this  species  have  the  power  of  raising  their  necks  to  a 
nearly  vertical  position,  which  would  give  them  a  wide  range  of  vision.  This 
elevated  range  of  vision  would  accord  well  with  the  account  given  by  Leguat,  who 
writes  concerning  these  tortoises  as  follows.  "  There's  one  thing  very  odd  among 
them ;  they  always  place  sentinels  at  some  distance  from  their  troop,  at  the  four 
corners  of  the  camp,  to  which  the  sentinels  turn  their  backs,  and  look  with  the 
eyes,  as  if  they  were  on  the  watch." 

Galapagos  The  various  islands  of  the  Galapagos  Group,  such  as  Abingdon, 

Tortoises.  Albemarle,  Chatham,  Hood,  and  Charles,  are  the  respective  homes  of 
one  or  more  species  of  giant  tortoise.  Of  the  various  species  inhabiting  these 
islands,  the  blackish  tortoise  (T.  nigrita),  which  is  the  one  given  in  the  illustration 
on  p.  54,  agrees  with  two  others  (T.  nigra  and  T.  vicina)  in  having  the  horny 
shields  of  the  carapace  concentrically  striated  in  the  adult;  the  figured  species 
differing  from  T.  nigra  in  having  the  plastron  notched,  instead  of  truncate 
behind.  In  the  other  three  species  the  shields  on  the  back  are  smooth,  while 
the  plastron  always  has  its  hinder  end  truncated.  In  the  North  Albemarle 
tortoise  (T.  microphyes),  the  width  of  the  bridge  connecting  the  upper  and  lower 


58  TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 

shells  is  of  considerable  length,  and  the  shell  itself  stout.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
the  saddled  tortoise  (T.  ephippium)  and  the  Abingdon  tortoise  (T.  abingdoni)  the 
same  bridge  is  relatively  short,  and  the  shell  is  remarkable  for  its  thinness ;  the 
carapace  being  much  narrowed  anteriorly,  where  it  is  so  pinched  in  at  the  sides  as 
to  have  a  sharp  ridge  on  the  back.  In  the  former  of  these  two  species  the  shell 
still  retains  the  usual  bony  framework,  but  in  the  second  it  is  soft  and  leathery. 
Both  have  very  long  necks,  which  are  carried  nearly  vertically ;  and  in  the 
Abingdon  species  the  notches  in  the  front  end  of  the  shell  are  so  large  that  in  a 
front  view  the  animal  appears  merely  to  have  a  kind  of  mantle  thrown  over  the 
body.  It  is  hard  to  see  what  can  be  the  object  of  this  softening  and  atrophy  of 
the  shell ;  but  it  is  quite  clear  that  it  renders  the  animals  very  liable  to  injury,  and 
thus  probably  accounts  for  the  fact  that  none  of  them  have  been  brought  alive  to 
Europe.  The  carapace  .of  this  species  attains  a  length  of  38J  inches,  and  the 
weight  of  one  individual  was  just  over  200  Ibs. 

The  best  .account  of  the  habits  of  the  Galapagos  tortoises  is  one  given  by 
Darwin,  regarding  the  species  figured  in  our  engraving,  which  inhabits,  apparently, 
most  of  the  islands  of  the  group.  These  tortoises  frequent  in  preference  the  high 
damp  parts,  although  they  likewise  live  in  the  lower  and  arid  districts.  Very 
numerous  in  individuals,  some  grow  to  such  a  size  that  it  requires  six  or  eight  men 
to  lift  them,  while  they  will  yield  as  much  as  200  Ibs.  of  meat.  "  The  old  males  are 
the  largest,  the  females  rarely  growing  to  so  large  a  size ;  the  male  can  be  readily 
distinguished  from  the  female  by  the  greater  length  of  its  tail.  The  tortoises 
which  live  on  those  islands  where  there  is  no  water,  or  in  the  lower  and  arid  parts 
of  the  others,  feed  chiefly  on  the  succulent  cactus.  Those  which  frequent  the 
higher  and  damp  regions  eat  the  leaves  of  various  trees,  a  kind  of  berry,  which  is 
acid  and  austere,  and  likewise  a  pale  green  filamentous  lichen,  that  hangs  in  tresses 
from  the  boughs  of  the  trees.  The  tortoise  is  very  fond  of  water,  drinking  large 
quantities,  and  wallowing  in  the  mud.  The  larger  islands  alone  possess  springs, 
and  these  are  always  situated  towards  the  central  parts,  and  at  a  considerable 
height.  The  tortoises,  therefore,  which  frequent  the  lower  districts,  when  thirsty, 
are  obliged  to  travel  from  a  long  distance.  Hence,  broad  and  well-beaten  paths 
branch  off  in  every  direction  from  the  wells  down  to  the  sea-coast;  and  the 
Spaniards  by  following  them  up,  first  discovered  the  watering-places.  When  I 
landed  at  Chatham  Island,  I  could  not  imagine  what  animal  travelled  so  methodi- 
cally along  well-chosen  tracks.  Near  the  springs  it  was  a  curious  spectacle  to 
behold  many  of  these  huge  creatures,  one  set  eagerly  travelling  onwards  with 
outstretched  necks,  and  another  set  returning  after  having  drunk  their  fill. 
When  the  tortoise  arrives  at  the  spring,  quite  regardless  of  any  spectator,  he 
buries  his  head  in  the  water  above  his  eyes,  and  greedily  swallows  great  mouth- 
fuls,  at  the  rate  of  about  ten  in  a  minute.  The  inhabitants  say  that  each  animal 
stays  three  or  four  days  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  water,  and  then  returns  to 
the  lower  country ;  but  they  differed  respecting  the  frequency  of  these  visits." 
After  mentioning  that  some  tortoises  live  on  islands  where  the  only  water  they 
obtain  is  that  which  falls  as  rain,  and  also  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  Galapagos 
Islands,  when  overcome  with  thirst,  are  in  the  habit  of  killing  a  tortoise  and 
drinking  the  water  contained  in  its  interior,  the  writer  proceeds  as  follows : — "  The 


LAND-TORTOISES.  59 

tortoises,  when  purposely  moving  towards  any  point,  travel  by  night  and  day, 
and  arrive  at  their  journey's  end  much  sooner  than  would  be  expected.  The 
inhabitants,  from  observing  marked  individuals,  consider  that  they  travel  a 
distance  of  about  eight  miles  in  two  or  three  days.  One  large  tortoise,  which  I 
watched,  walked  at  the  rate  of  sixty  yards  in  ten  minutes,  that  is  three  hundred 
and  sixty  yards  in  the  hour,  or  four  miles  a  day, — allowing  a  little  time  for  it  to 
eat  on  the  road.  During  the  breeding-season,  when  the  male  and  female  are 
together,  the  male  utters  a  hoarse  roar  or  bellowing,  which,  it  is  said,  can  be  heard 
at  a  distance  of  more  than  a  hundred  yards.  The  female  never  uses  her  voice,  and 
the  male  only  at  these  times ;  so  that  when  the  people  hear  this  noise,  they  know 
that  the  two  are  together.  They  were  at  this  time  (October)  laying  their  eggs. 
The  female,  where  the  soil  is  sandy,  deposits  them  together,  and  covers  them  up 
with  sand ;  but  where  the  ground  is  rocky,  she  drops  them  indiscriminately  in  any 
hole ;  Mr.  Bynoe  found  seven  placed  in  a  fissure.  The  egg  is  white  and  spherical ; 
one  which  I  measured  was  7f  inches  in  circumference,  and  therefore  larger  than  a 
hen's  egg.  The  young  tortoises,  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched,  fall  a  prey  in  great 
numbers  to  the  carrion-feeding  buzzard  (Polyborus).  The  old  ones  seem  generally 
to  die  from  accidents,  as  from  falling  down  precipices ;  at  least,  several  of  the 
inhabitants  told  me  that  they  never  found  one  dead  without  some  evident  cause. 
The  inhabitants  believe  that  these  animals  are  absolutely  deaf ;  certainly  they  do 
not  hear  a  person  walking  close  behind  them.  I  was  always  amused  when  over- 
taking one  of  these  great  monsters,  as  it  was  quietly  pacing  along,  to  see  how 
suddenly,  the  instant  I  passed,  it  would  draw  in  its  head  and  legs,  and  uttering  a 
deep  hiss  fall  to  the  ground  with  a  heavy  sound,  as  if  struck  dead.  I  frequently 
got  on  their  backs,  and  then  giving  a  few  raps  on  the  hinder  part  of  their  shells, 
they  would  rise  and  walk  away ; — but  I  found  it  difficult  to  keep  my  balance." 

Like  their  Mascarene  allies,  the  Galapagos  tortoises  are  much  esteemed  as 
food;  and  in  order  to  see  whether  they  were  sufficiently  fat  to  be  killed,  the 
inhabitants  were  accustomed  to  make  a  slit  beneath  the  tail,  through  which  the 
interior  of  the  body  could  be  seen.  With  the  usual  hardihood  of  reptiles,  the 
rejected  individuals  appear  to  have  recovered  completely  from  this  severe 
operation.  From  several  of  the  islands  the  giant  tortoises  have  already  dis- 
appeared, and  it  is  much  to  be  feared  that  they  will  soon  cease  to  exist  throughout 
the  Galapagos  Group.  Dr.  G.  Baur,  who  visited  Albemarle  in  1891,  reports, 
however,  that  he  made  a  large  collection  of  these  reptiles,  one  specimen  weighing 
more  than  400  Ibs.,  and  its  carapace  measuring  4  feet  in  a  straight  line. 

The  familiar  Grecian  tortoise  (T.  grceca)  brings  us  to  the  sixth 

Grecian  Tortoise.        .  ...  ,  ^    .  rn?\*r     u  •         £ 

main  group  of  the  genus,  which  comprises  seven  Old  World  species  of 

small  or  medium  size,  characterised  by  the  carapace  being  brown  or  olive,  which 
may  be  either  uniform,  or  spotted  with  black,  or  black  and  yellow ;  by  the  gular 
shields  on  the  plastron  being  distinct ;  and  by  the  slight  prominence  and  shortness 
of  the  ridge  on  the  palate.  The  Grecian  tortoise  belongs  to  a  section  of  the  group 
in  which  the  anal  or  hindermost  shields  of  the  plastron  meet  in  the  middle  line  by 
a  suture  of  considerable  length ;  and  it  is  further  characterised  by  the  presence  of 
five  claws  on  the  fore-foot.  From  its  nearest  allies  it  may  be  distinguished  by  the 
fifth  vertebral  shield  of  the  carapace  being  much  broader  than  the  third;  the 


6o 


TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 


caudal  shield  being  usually  double,  and  there  being  no  large  tubercle  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  thigh.  The  shell  of  this  species  is  moderately  vaulted,  and  not  much 
expanded  behind,  while  its  margins  are  not  serrated.  The  nuchal  shield  is  very 
long  and  narrow;  in  the  male  the  divided  caudals  are  much  incurved;  and  the 
shields  of  the  back  show  a  strongly-marked  concentric  striation.  In  colour,  the 
shell  is  bright  yellow,  with  the  shields  of  the  carapace  spotted  and  bordered  with 
black,  and  a  broad  band  of  black  running  along  each  side  of  the  plastron.  The 
length  of  the  shell  is  about  5£  inches.  Mainly  a  South  European  species,  the 
Grecian  tortoise  inhabits  the  Balearic  Islands,  Corsica,  Sardinia,  Sicily,  Italy, 
Dalmatia,  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  and  the  Greek  Archipelago,  while  it  also  occurs  in 
Syria.  The  allied  but  larger  Algerian  tortoise  (T.  ibera),  in  which  the  shell  attains 
a  length  of  about  9  inches,  may  be  distinguished  by  the  fifth  vertebral  shield  being 
not  broader  than  the  third,  by  the  single  caudal  shield,  and  the  presence  of  a  large 

subconical  tubercle  on  the  inner 
surface  of  the  thigh.  In  colour, 
this  species  differs  from  the  last 
in  having  the  plastron  more  or- 
less  spotted  with  black,  while 
in  some  examples  the  carapace 
is  uniformly  brown.  Its  range 
includes  North- Western  Africa, 
Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Trans- 
caucasia, and  Persia.  A  third 
species  often  represented  among 
the  shiploads  of  these  reptiles 
imported  into  England,  is  the 
margined  tortoise  (T.  mar- 
ginata),  which  attains  a  length 
of  11  inches,  and  appears  to 
be  confined  to  Greece.  The 

absence  of  an  enlarged  tubercle  on  the  thigh  serves  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
preceding  species ;  from  which  it  also  differs  by  the  longer  and  more  depressed  shell, 
in  which  the  hinder  margin  is  much  expanded,  and  more  or  less  serrated.  Usually 
•the  carapace  of  the  adult  is  black  with  a  small  yellow  or  greenish  spot  on  each 
shield;  while  the  ground-colour  of  the  plastron  is  yellowish,  each  of  its  shields 
being  marked  by  a  black  patch,  which  generally  takes  a  triangular  form.  This 
species  appears  to  be  confined  to  Greece ;  but  in  Lower  Egypt  and  Syria  is  replaced 
by  the  smaller  Leith's  tortoise  (T.  leithi),  in  which  the  carapace  is  relatively  shorter 
and  more  deeply  notched  in  front,  while  the  form  and  arrangement  of  the  tubercles 
on  the  fore-limb  is  different. 

All  these  tortoises  appear  identical  in  their  habits,  frequenting  dry  and  sandy 
places,  and  being  extremely  fond  of  sunshine,  in  which  they  will  bask  by  the  hour 
together.  In  certain  parts  of  Greece  and  the  south  of  Italy,  the  Grecian  tortoise  is 
found  in  great  numbers ;  and  in  the  markets  of  Sicily  and  Italy  it  is  regularly 
exposed  for  sale  as  an  article  of  food.  At  the  approach  of  winter  it  buries  itself 
deep  in  the  earth,  where  it  remains  during  the  cold  months,  usually  reappearing  in 


GKECIAN  TORTOISE. 


LAND-TORTOISES.  61 

April,  but  in  Sicily  as  early  as  February.  Although  its  main  food  consists  of 
plants  and  fruits,  it  will  likewise  consume  such  snails,  worms,  and  insects  as  it 
may  meet  with  during  its  wanderings.  In  captivity,  where  they  have  been  known 
to  live  for  a  great  number  of  years,  these  tortoises  display  great  partiality  for 
milky  plants,  such  as  lettuce ;  and  they  are  always  fond  of  a  bath.  At  the 
approach  of  rain  they  always  hide  themselves,  but  in  fine  weather  remain  abroad 
throughout  the  day.  In  excavating  a  burrow  for  the  winter's  sleep,  the  earth  is 
dug  up  by  the  strong  fore-limbs,  and  thrown  out  from  the  hole  by  the  hinder  pair. 
The  pairing-season  commences  immediately  after  the  awakening  from  the  winter 
sleep ;  and  in  May  or  June  the  female  lays  from  eight  to  fifteen  hard-shelled  white 
eggs,  of  about  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut.  These  are  deposited  in  a  hole  in  the  earth 
in  some  sunny  spot,  and  after  being  carefully  covered  up,  are  left  to  hatch.  By 
September  the  young  tortoises  are  about  the  size  of  half  a  walnut-shell,  and 
present  an  exceedingly  comic  appearance. 

There  are  certain  other  species  belonging  to  the  same  group  as 
the  Grecian  tortoise,  which  demand  a  brief  notice.  Among  these  is 
the  handsome  elongated  tortoise  (T.  elongata),  from  Bengal,  Burma,  Cambodia,  and 
Cochin  China,  taking  its  name  from  the  great  length  of  the  depressed  shell  of  the 
males ;  the  females  being  much  smaller,  with  a  relatively  shorter  and  wider  shell. 
These  tortoises  differ  from  the  European  species  by  the  anal  shields  of  the  plastron 
having  a  very  short  line  of  union  in  the  middle,  even  if  they  meet  at  all.  The 
ground-colour  of  the  shell  is  greenish  yellow,  upon  which  is  an  irregular  black 
patch  in  each  shield,  which  may  occupy  nearly  the  whole  area  of  such  shields, 
leaving  merely  a  narrow  yellow  margin,  or  may  be  much  broken  up  and  indistinct. 
The  male  attains  a  length  of  between  10  and  11  inches.  Forsten's  tortoise  (T. 
forsteni'),  from  Celebes  and  Gilolo,  may  be  distinguished  by  the  want  of  a  nuchal 
shield  in  the  front  of  the  carapace.  Lastly,  we  have  Horsfield's  tortoise  (T. 
horsfieldi),  which,  while  allied  to  the  European  species,  differs  in  having  but  four 
claws  on  the  fore,  as  well  as  on  the  hind-feet.  This  tortoise  inhabits  the  deserts, 
oases,  and  even  mountains  of  Central  Asia,  where  it  ranges  from  the  Aralo-Caspian 
region  and  the  Kirghiz  Steppes  to  Afghanistan.  The  shell,  which  is  considerably 
depressed  and  not  much  longer  than  broad,  has  a  brown  or  olive  ground-colour 
above,  which  may  be  either  uniform  or  blotched  with  black ;  while  beneath,  it  has 
large  patches  of  black,  which  sometimes  almost  cover  the  whole  surface. 

Writing  of  the  elongated  tortoise,  Dr.  J.  Anderson  says  that  it  is  active  in  its 
habits,  and  that  the  male  is  very  confiding,  eating  readily  from  the  hand,  although 
the  female,  when  touched,  at  once  withdraws  within  the  shell.  Captive  specimens 
were  observed  to  be  very  restless  at  night ;  they  feed  freely  on  plantains,  but  a 
female  on  occasion  ate  some  dead  prawns  and  fish,  which  had  been  procured  to  feed 
some  soft-tortoises.  Horsfield's  tortoise,  although  equally  fond  of  immersing  its 
lower  shell  in  water,  is  said  to  be  more  brisk  in  hot  weather  than  are  the  European 
species ;  it  is  purely  diurnal  in  its  habits,  not  venturing  forth  till  after  sunrise,  and 
retiring  to  rest  before  sunset.  Its  food  in  the  wild  state  is  stated  to  be  entirely  of 
a  vegetable  nature ;  snails  and  worms  being  never  eaten. 

Anguiated  The  angulated  tortoise  (T.  angulata),  of  South  Africa,  together 

Tortoise.       with  an  allied  species  (T.  yniphora)  from  an  island  near  the  Comoros, 


62 


TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 


constitute  the  last  and  seventh  group  of  the  genus,  and  are  distinguished  from  all 
the  others  by  the  great  prolongation  of  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  plastron,  which 
is  covered  by  a  single  gular  shield  only.  The  former  attains  a  length  of  about  7J 
inches,  and  has  an  elongated  and  very  convex  carapace,  of  which  the  hinder  margin 
is  at  most  but  slightly  serrated.  In  colour,  the  shell  is  yellow  above,  each  shield 
being  bordered  with  black,  and  usually  ornamented  with  a  black  spot  in  the 
centre ;  while  the  plastron  is  black  in  the  middle,  or  has  some  large  black  blotches. 
Areoiated  Nearly  related  to  the  true  tortoises,  with  which  it  agrees  in  the 

Tortoise.  general  structure  of  its  shell,  the  areolated  tortoise  (Homopus  areo- 
latus),  of  South  Africa,  together  with  three  other  allied  species  from  the  same 
continent,  differs  by  the  absence  of  the  median  ridge  on  the  front  of  the  palate 
characterising  all  the  former,  and  is  on  this  account  referred  to  a  distinct  genus. 

If  the  horny  shields  be  stripped 
from  the  carapace,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  underlying  neural 
bones,  instead  of  being  alter- 
nately octagonal  and  quadran- 
gular, are  irregularly  hexagonal, 
with  the  shorter  of  the  two 
lateral  surfaces  placed  posteri- 
orly ;  since,  however,  the  same 
feature  occurs  in  some  of  the 
true  tortoises,  it  is  not  absolutely 
characteristic  of  the  genus.  The 
areolated  tortoise  is  a  small 
species,  with  a  shell  of  only  4 
inches  in  length.  It  is  char- 
acterised by  having  only  four 
claws  on  the  front  feet,  and  by 

its  depressed  carapace,  which  is  of  equal  width  throughout,  and  has  even  margins. 
On  the  back,  the  shields  are  more  or  less  inflated,  and  separated  from  one  another 
by  deep  channels ;  the  centre  of  each  shield  having  a  depressed  areola,  surrounded 
by  concentric  grooves.  In  colour,  the  carapace  is  olive,  with  a  reddish  brown 
centre  to  each  shield ;  while  the  plastron  is  brown  in  the  middle,  and  yellow  at 
the  edges.  A  second  species  (H.  femoralis)  differs  by  having  the  hinder  margin  of 
the  shell  serrated,  and  a  conical  tubercle  on  the  hinder  surface  of  the  thigh; 
while  in  a  third  (H.  signatus),  there  are  five  toes  on  each  fore-foot.  Lastly,  H. 
nogueyi  differs  from  all  the  others  in  its  vaulted  carapace,  which  is  gibbose  behind ; 
this  species  being  from  Senegal,  while  the  other  three  are  South  African.  In 
general  habits  it  is  probable  that  the  members  of  this  genus  closely  resemble  the 
true  tortoises. 

Three  remarkable  tortoises  inhabiting  tropical  Africa  constitute 
a  genus  distinguished  at  a  glance  from  the  other  members  of  this 
section  of  the  family  by  the  circumstance  that  the  hinder  portion  of  the  carapace 
is  articulated  to  the  anterior  moiety  by  a  ligamentous  hinge,  upon  which  it  is 
freely  movable,  so  that  when  the  animal  is  withdrawn  the  hinder  extremity  of 


AREOLATED   TORTOISE. 


Hinged  Tortoises. 


HINGED   TORTOISES.  63 

the  shell  can  be  completely  closed.  This  hinge  runs  between  the  fourth  and  fifth 
costal  bones  and  the  seventh  and  eighth  marginals  of  the  shell.  The  skull  agrees 
with  that  of  the  preceding  genus,  in  the  absence  of  a  median  ridge  on  the  front  of 
the  palate,  while  the  neural  bones  of  the  carapace  are  hexagonal  and  short-sided 
behind,  and  the  caudal  shield  is  undivided.  The  costal  bones  of  the  carapace 
differ,  however,  from  those  of  the  tortoises  described  above,  in  being  of  nearly 
equal  width  throughout,  instead  of  alternately  narrow  at  one  end  and  broad  at 
the  other.  Of  the  three  species  of  the  genus,  the  dentated  hinged  tortoise  (Cinixys 
erosa),  from  Guinea  and  the  Gabun,  is  characterised  by  the  front  and  hind  margins 


DENTATED  HINGED  TORTOISES        nat.  size. 


of  the  carapace  being  everted  and  strongly  dentated  ;  by  the  absence  of  a  nuchal 
shield,  the  projection  of  the  extremity  of  the  plastron  in  front  of  the  carapace,  and 
the  sloping  contour  of  the  hinder  extremity  of  the  latter.  The  length  of  the  shell 
is  9  inches  ;  its  general  colour  above  being  dark  brown,  with  lighter'  centres  to  the 
shields,  and  the  lower  sides  of  the  costal  shields  yellowish  ;  while  on  the  plastron 
the  shields  have  dark  brown  centres  and  yellowish  margins.  In  the  nearly  allied 
Home's  hinged  tortoise  (G.  homeana),  from  the  same  regions,  there  is  a  nuchal 
shield,  the  extremity  of  the  plastron  does  not  project  in  advance  of  carapace,  and 
the  hinder  extremity  of  the  latter  descends  vertically.  On  the  other  hand,  Bell's 
hinged  tortoise  (C.  belliana),  which  ranges  right  across  tropical  Africa,  the  margins 
of  the  carapace  are  neither  everted  nor  serrated  ;  a  nuchal  shield  being  present  on 
the  front  of  the  carapace.  In  length  the  latter  does  not  exceed  7J  inches. 


TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 


In  habits  the  hinged  tortoises  show  a  complete  transition  from  the  land 
tortoises  to  the  terrapins,  and  thus  fully  justifies  the  conclusion,  arrived  at  from 
structural  considerations,  that  both  groups  should  be  included  in  a  single  family. 
According  to  the  observations  of  Monteiro,  it  appears  that  Bell's  hinged  tortoise  is 
essentially  a  land  reptile,  inhabiting  regions  formed  of  gneiss  rocks  or  other  dry 
localities,  where  it  is  active  during  the  hot  rainy  season,  but  in  the  cooler  portion 
of  the  year,  from  May  to  October,  according  to  native  reports,  lies  deeply  buried  in 
the  earth.  Both  the  other  species,  on  the  contrary,  seem  to  be  mainly  aquatic  in 
their  habits ;  the  dentated  hinged  tortoise,  which  is  fairly  common  in  Guinea,  being 

stated  to  spend  a  large  portion 
of  its  time  in  the  water,  where 
one  specimen  remained  for  up- 
wards of  a  month.  According 
to  Falkenstein,  it  is  found  in 
rivers,  even  close  to  the  sea, 
from  whence  it  emerges  to  lay 
its  eggs  on  their  banks.  In 
spite  of  its  club -like  feet,  it 
dives  and  swims  with  facility; 
captive  examples  descending  to 
the  bottom  of  a  deep  vessel  in 
which  they  were  kept.  On 
land,  its  motions  are,  however, 
slow  and  deliberate  in  the 
extreme;  and  have  been  com- 
BELL'S  HINGED  TORTOISE.  pared  to  those  of  the  minute- 

hand  of  a  clock.      Its  food   is 

of  a  vegetable  nature ;  one  captive  specimen  displaying  great  partiality  for  cherries. 
By  the  inhabitants  of  Guinea  these  tortoises  are  eagerly  sought  after  as  food,  and 
are  thus  difficult  to  obtain  by  Europeans. 

The  last  member  of  this  section  of  the  family  is  the  spider- 
tortoise  (Pyxis  arachnoides)  of  Madagascar,  which  is  the  sole 
representative  of  a  genus  characterised  by  the  presence  of  a  transverse  hinge 
across  the  front  of  the  plastron,  by  which  means  the  anterior  lobe  of  the  latter  can 
be  bent  upwards  so  as  to  close  the  front  of  the  shell.  In  having  the  neural  bones 
of  the  carapace  alternately  octagonal  and  tetragonal,  this  species  approaches  the 
true  tortoises  nearer  than  do  the  hinged  tortoises.  In  length  the  shell  is  only  just 
over  4  inches ;  its  coloration  is  yellow,  with  radiating  black  bands  from  the  centres 
of  the  shields  of  the  back. 

The  whole  of  the  tortoises  hitherto  described  are  collectively 
characterised  by  the  absence  of  all  trace  of  webbing  in  the  toes,  by 
the  presence  of  not  more  than  two  joints,  or  phalanges  in  each  toe,  by  the  meta- 
carpal  bones  of  the  fore-foot  being  but  slightly,  if  at  all,  longer  than  wide,  and 
also  by  the  majority  of  the  bony  neural  plates  of  the  carapace  being  hexagonal, 
with  their  shorter  lateral  surfaces  posteriorly  placed,  or  alternately  octagonal  and 
tetragonal.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  remaining  members  of  the  family,  the 


Spider-Tortoise. 


Land-Terrapins. 


LAND-TERRAPINS.  65 

digits  are  usually  furnished  with  webs,  or  at  least  a  rudiment  thereof,  while  the 
middle  toe  of  each  foot  has  three  joints,  and  the  metacarpal  bones  are  elongated. 
We  have  first  to  deal  with  a  small  group,  mainly  confined  to  the  Oriental  region, 
which  both  in  structure  and  habits  tends  to  connect  this  section  of  the  family 
with  the  preceding  one.  These  forms,  as  shown  in  the  right-hand  figure  of  the 
illustration  on  p.  42,  agree  with  the  hinged  tortoises  in  that  most  of  the  hexa- 
gonal neural  plates  of  the  carapace  have  the  shorter  of  the  two  lateral  surfaces 
placed  posteriorly  and  the  longer  anteriorly.  Moreover,  if  the  horny  shields  from 
the  plastron  be  removed,  it  will  be  found  that  the  entoplastral,  or  median  unpaired 
bone  of  that  part  of  the  skeleton,  is  crossed  by  the  groove  marking  the  boundary 
between  the  humeral  and  pectoral  shields. 

spinose  Land-  The  spinose  land-terrapin  (Geoemyda  spinosa)  may  be  taken  as 

Terrapin.  a  well-known  example  of  the  first  genus,  characterised  by  the  absence 
of  a  hinge  in  the  plastron,  and  of  a  bony  temporal  arch  on  the  sides  of  the  skull. 
The  three  species  of  this  genus  are  large-sized  tortoises,  confined  to  Burma  and 
the  Malayan  region ;  the  spinose  land-terrapin  having  a  shell  of  8  inches  in  length, 
while  that  of  the  great  land-terrapin  (6r.  grandis),  from  Burma  and  Siam,  measures 
upwards  of  16  inches.  In  the  former  of  these  two  species  both  the  front  and 
hinder  margins  of  the  shell  are  deeply  serrated ;  whereas  in  the  latter,  as  well  as 
in  the  third  representative  of  the  genus,  only  the  hinder  border  is  thus  ornamented. 
The  colour  of  the  carapace  in  these  terrapins  is  brown  or  blackish,  frequently  with 
darker  markings.  Together  with  the  other  members  of  the  group,  they  differ  from 
the  majority  of  the  terrapins  in  having  the  head  covered  with  a  continuous  skin, 
instead  of  with  small  shields.  The  small  size  of  the  webs  of  these  terrapins 
indicates  that  in  habits  they  are  probably  in  part  aquatic  and  in  part  terrestrial. 
Chaibassa  The  Chaibassa  terrapin  (Nicoria  tricarinata)  figured  in  the 

Terrapin.  illustration  on  p.  66,  and  taking  its  name  from  a  district  in  Bengal, 
is  selected  to  represent  a  genus  common  to  the  Oriental  region  in  the  east,  and 
Central  and  South  America  in  the  west,  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by  the 
presence  of  a  bony  temporal  arch  to  the  skull.  Of  the  seven  species  of  this  genus, 
the  smallest  (here  figured)  has  a  shell  of  only  5  inches  in  length,  but  in  a  larger 
one  it  may  measure  as  much  as  16  inches.  While  in  the  figured  Chaibassa  terrapin 
both  fore  and  hinder  margins  of  the  shell,  as  shown  on  the  left-hand  figure  on 
p.  42,  are  entire,  in  other  species  either  one  or  both  of  these  may  be  deeply 
serrated.  The  Chaibassa  species,  which  ranges  from  Bengal  to  Assam,  has  the 
carapace  dark  brown  or  black  in  colour,  with  the  three  longitudinal  ridges  from 
which  it  takes  its  name  yellow;  the  plastron  being  uniformly  yellow,  and  the 
neck  and  limbs  blackish.  From  the  larger  three-keeled  terrapin  (N.  trijuga), 
of  India  and  Burma,  this  species  is  further  distinguished  by  its  more  convex  shell, 
which  descends  very  abruptly  behind,  as  w^ell  as  by  the  rudimentary  condition  of 
the  webs  between  the  toes ;  on  both  of  which  grounds  it  may  be  regarded  as  more 
exclusively  terrestrial  in  its  habits.  A  fossil  shell  of  the  Chaibassa  terrapin, 
represented  in  the  right  figure  on  p.  42,  has  been  obtained  from  the  Pliocene 
rocks  of  the  Siwalik  Hills  of  Northern  India,  thus  indicating  the  extreme 
antiquity  of  the  species.,  In  some  individuals  the  hinder  half  of  the  plastron 
is  connected  with  the  upper  shell  merely  by  ligament. 

VOL.  V. — 5 


66  TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 

Hinged  The  third  genus  of  this  group  (Cyclemys),  which  is  confined  to 

Terrapins.  India,  Malay  ana,  and  the  south  of  China,  is  represented  by  some 
half  a  dozen  species,  which,  while  agreeing  with  the  members  of  the  foregoing 
genus  in  the  presence  of  a  bony  temporal  arch  to  the  skull,  differ  by  having  a 
well-marked  transverse  ligamentous  hinge  across  the  middle  of  the  plastron, 
whereby  its  hinder  lobe  is  rendered  movable,  and  capable  of  more  or  less  com- 
pletely closing  the  posterior  aperture  of  the  shell.  None  of  the  species  have  a 
shell  of  more  than  8  inches  in  length.  The  genus  may  be  subdivided  into  two 
groups,  each  containing  three  species.  In  the  former,  as  represented  by  C.  dhor, 
of  Northern  India  and  the  Malayan  region,  the  plastron,  which  is  notched  behind, 
cannot  completely  close  the  shell;  while  the  hinder  margin  of  the  carapace  is 
serrated.  In  the  second  group,  on  the  other  hand,  of  which  the  Amboyna  hinged 
terrapin  (G.  amboinensis)  is  a  familiar  example,  the  plastron  is  capable  of 
completely  closing  the  hinder  aperture  of  the  shell,  while  the  posterior  margin 


CHAIBASSA   TERRAPIN   (§  nat.  size). 

of  the  carapace  is  not  serrated.  These  species  also  have  the  shell  keeled  on  the 
back  in  the  young  state.  In  the  Amboyna  species,  as  also  in  C.  flavomarginata, 
the  hinder  end  of  the  plastron  is  entire,  although  in  a  third  (C.  trifasciata)  it 
is  notched. 

Agreeing  with  the  hinged  terrapins  in  the  presence  of  a  trans- 
verse ligamentous  hinge  across  the  middle  of  the  plastron,  by  the  aid 
of  which  the  openings  of  the  shell  can  be  closed,  the  two  North  American  species 
of  box-tortoises,  together  with  all  the  remaining  members  of  the  family,  differ 
from  the  former  in  that  the  hexagonal  neural  bony  plates  of  the  carapace  have 
the  shorter  of  their  two  lateral  surfaces  placed  anteriorly,  instead  of  posteriorly, 
this  arrangement  being  shown  when  the  shell  is  stripped.  The  presence  of 
the  hinge  in  the  plastron  serves  to  distinguish  the  box-tortoises  from  all  the 
members  of  the  second  group,  with  the  exception  of  the  pond-tortoises,  while  from 
the  latter  they  are  separated  by  the  beak  being  hooked,  and  the  absence  of  a  bony 
temporal  arch  to  the  skull.  In  the  box-tortoises  the  head  is  covered  with  smooth 
skin  above,  the  toes  having  only  a  rudimental  web,  and  the  tail  is  short.  The 
Carolina  box-tortoise  (Cistudo  Carolina)  is  a  somewhat  variable  species  as  regards 
size,  the  length  of  the  shell  ranging  from  a  little  over  4  to  somewhat  more  than 
5  inches.  The  highly  convex  carapace  is  almost  hemispherical  in  shape,  and  is 


BOX-TORTOISES. 


67 


attached  to  the  plastron  solely  by  ligament,  so  that  the  whole  shell  can  be  com- 
pletely closed.  As  a  general  rule,  the  upper  shell  is  dark  brown  or  blackish,  with 
yellow  spots,  or  brownish  yellow,  with  dark  brown  spots  or  rays,  while  there 
may  be  an  interrupted  yellow  streak  down  the  middle  of  the  back.  The  plastron 
may  be  either  a  uniform  dark  brown  or  blackish,  or  may  have  irregular  yellowish 
blotches  on  a  ground  of  the  same,  while  in  some  instances  it  is  yellowish  with  dark 
blotches  of  variable  size.  The  range  of  this  species  embraces  the  Southern  and 
South-Eastern  United  States  and  Mexico.  In  the  ornate  box-tortoise,  from 
Nebraska  and  some  neighbouring  states,  the  shell  is  more  depressed,  and  the 


CAROLINA  BOX-TORTOISE  (|  nat.  size). 

plastron  and  carapace  are  connected  together  by  a  very  short  bony  bridge,  so  that 
the  shell  cannot  be  completely  closed.     The  toes,  moreover,  have  no  distinct  webs. 

The  vaulted  carapace  of  the  box-tortoises,  with  their  abruptly  descending 
hinder  profile,  together  with  the  rudimentary  condition  of  the  webs  of  the  toes,  at 
once  proclaim  the  terrestrial  habits  of  these  reptiles,  which  form,  indeed,  one  of 
the  connecting  links  between  the  true  tortoises  and  the  fresh-water  terrapins. 
Although  mainly,  if  not  entirely  carnivorous  (as  is  indicated  by  the  absence  of  a 
median  ridge  in  the  front  of  the  palate),  the  box-tortoises  appear  to  resemble  the 
true  tortoises  very  closely  in  their  general  mode  of  life.  According  to  some 
observers,  they  are  more  frequently  to  be  met  with  in  dry  and  even  hilly  districts, 
than  in  swamps.  They  are,  however,  partial  to  spots  where  colonies  of  night- 


68  TORTOISES  AND    TURTLES. 

herons  are  in  the  habit  of  nesting,  owing  to  the  quantity  of  insects,  snails,  worms, 
and  fragments  of  fish  to  be  met  with  in  such  localities ;  and  they  are  frequently 
found  in  woods  where  the  ground  is  either  moist  or  swampy.  At  times 
they  will,  however,  enter  the  water  of  their  own  free  will ;  and  they  have  been 
seen  half-buried  under  loose  earth  or  moss  in  search  of  worms  and  insects. 
Unlike  most  members  of  the  family,  the  box-tortoises  shun  the  light,  and  are  most 
active  during  the  evening  and  night,  shutting  themselves  closely  up  in  their  shells 
when  the  sun  is  shining  brightly.  The  closure  of  the  shell  is  also  effected  at  the 
approach  of  any  large  animal ;  and  when  thus  securely  boxed  up,  there  are  but 
few  creatures  these  tortoises  need  fear.  Like  most  other  terrestrial  tortoises,  the 
females  lay  their  eggs  in  holes  dug  in  the  ground  by  themselves ;  the  number  laid 
being  usually  only  five  or  six,  whether  the  parents  be  half -grown  or  adult.  Each 
individual  egg  is  carefully  covered  with  earth ;  the  time  taken  before  the  young 
are  hatched  being  said  to  vary  from  eighty -eight  to  a  hundred  days.  When  first 
hatched,  the  young  are  well  developed,  and  of  great  relative  size  and  strength ; 
although  their  shells  are  still  soft  and  cartilaginous,  and  the  remnant  of  the  yolk- 
sac  depends  from  the  plastron.  In  Pennsylvania  both  young  and  old  bury  them- 
selves deep  in  the  ground  about  the  middle  of  October,  where  they  remain  till  the 
latter  part  of  April ;  the  spot  selected  having  a  dry  soil,  and  being  protected  from 
the  cutting  blasts  of  the  north.  Many  individuals  which  have  not  buried 
themselves  sufficiently  deeply,  are,  however,  frozen  to  death  during  the  winter 
slumber.  On  account  of  the  strong  and  disagreeable  flavour  of  their  flesh, 
doubtless  engendered  by  the  nature  of  their  food,  the  box- tortoises  are  not  eaten. 

In   marked   contrast   to   the  vaulted  and  abruptly -descending 
Pond-Tortoises.  ,  ,  ,    ,    . 

carapace  of   the  box -tortoises,  is  the  depressed  and  shelving  shell 

of  the  pond-tortoises;  this  difference  indicating  a  distinction  in  the  habits  of 
the  two  genera.  Thus  whereas  the  box-tortoises  are,  as  we  have  seen,  mainly 
land  reptiles,  the  pond -tortoises  are  as  decidedly  aquatic  in  their  mode  of 
life.  In  addition  to  the  difference  in  the  form  of  the  shell,  the  members  of 
the  present  genus  are  readily  distinguished  from  those  of  the  last  by  the 
beak  not  being  hooked,  and  by  the  presence  of  a  bony  temporal  arch  in  the 
skull.  In  the  shell  the  carapace  is  united  to  the  plastron  solely  by  ligament, 
while  the  plastron  itself  is  more  or  less  distinctly  divided  by  a  ligamentous 
transverse  hinge,  upon  which  its  two  lobes  are  movable.  Agreeing  with  the 
box-tortoises  in  having  the  top  of  the  head  covered  with  undivided  skin,  the 
pond -tortoises  differ  by  having  the  toes  fully  webbed,  and  also  by  the  more 
elongated  tail,  which,  while  very  long  in  the  young,  is  of  moderate  length  in  the 
adult.  Although  the  genus  Emys  was  formerly  made  to  include  many  of  the 
fresh-water  terrapins,  it  is  now  restricted  to  the  European  pond-tortoise  (E.  orbi- 
cularis),  and  a  nearly  allied  North  American  species.  The  former,  which  is 
familiar  to  most  visitors  to  Southern  Europe,  is  characterised  by  the  short  oval 
form  of  its  carapace,  which  is  widest  posteriorly,  and  in  the  young  state  has  a 
more  or  less  distinct  median  keel.  In  colour,  the  upper  shell  of  the  adult  is  dark 
brown  or  black,  ornamented  with  a  variable  number  of  light,  usually  yellow,  dots 
or  radiating  streaks ;  the  plastron  being  either  yellow,  brown  and  yellow,  or 
almost  wholly  blackish  brown.  In  the  young,  however,  the  upper  shell  is  dark 


POND-TORTOISES. 


69 


brown,  and  the  lower  black  ;  all  the  shields  of  the  latter,  as  well  as  the  marginal 
ones  of  the  former,  having  a  large  yellow  spot.  The  skin  of  the  head,  neck,  body, 
and  limbs  is  marked  with  yellow  and  blackish,  in  varying  porportions ;  the  head 
of  the  male  having  brownish  dots  on  a  darker  ground,  while  in  the  female  the  dots 
are  yellow.  When  fully  grown,  the  shell  attains  a  length  of  7J  inches,  but  in 
most  of  the  specimens  imported  into  England  it  is  not  much  more  than  half  that 
size.  At  the  present  day  the  pond-tortoise  is  found,  in  suitable  localities,  in  South 
and  East  Central  Europe,  and  South-Western  Asia  as  far  as  Persia,  and  in  Algeria. 


i! 


EUROPEAN  POND-TORTOISE   (f  nat.  Size), 

During  the  Pleistocene  period,  when  the  climate  of  Northern  Europe  must  at  certain 
times  have  been  much  more  genial,  the  pond-tortoise  had  a  much  more  extensive 
distribution,  its  fossilised  remains  having  been  found  in  the  superficial  deposits  of 
Belgium,  Denmark,  Germany,  Lombardy,  Norfolk,  Sweden,  and  Switzerland.  The 
American  species,  which  inhabits  the  north-eastern  United  States  and  Canada, 
has  the  carapace  rather  more  elongate,  and  the  tail  shorter;  the  former  being 
black  with  pale  yellow  or  brownish  circular  spots,  and  the  plastron  yellow  with 
a  large  black  patch  on  each  shield. 

The  European  species  inhabits  both  stagnant  and  running  waters,  and  may  be 


7o  TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 

found  alike  in  slow  or  swift-flowing  streams,  or  in  open  lakes.  During  the  day- 
time it  leaves  the  water  to  bask  in  the  sun  on  sequestered  spots  of  the  banks, 
where  it  remains  without  moving  by  the  hour  together,  but  towards  sunset  it 
begins  to  move,  and  remains  active  throughout  the  night.  At  the  commencement 
of  winter  it  constructs  an  underground  chamber,  in  which  it  remains  buried  in 
slumber  till  spring,  usually  reappearing,  if  the  weather  be  favourable,  about  the 
middle  of  April ;  at  which  time  it  reveals  its  whereabouts  by  a  peculiar  whistling 
cry  characteristic  of  the  breeding-season.  An  excellent  swimmer  and  diver,  the 
pond-tortoise  disappears  beneath  the  water  at  the  slightest  sound ;  while  when  on 
land  its  motions  are  far  more  active  than  those  of  the  true  tortoises.  Agreeing 
with  other  carnivorous  terrapins  in  the  absence  of  a  median  ridge  on  the  fore-part 
of  the  palate,  this  tortoise  feeds  chiefly  upon  worms,  water-insects,  crustaceans, 
frogs,  newts,  tadpoles,  and  fish.  In  devouring  fish,  they  reject  the  air-bladder, 
which  floats  on  the  surface  of  the  water ;  and  from  the  number  of  such  floating 
air-bladders  some  idea  may  be  formed  as  to  whether  a  pond  is  numerously 
tenanted  by  these  tortoises.  In  captivity,  where  they  will  live  for  years,  pond- 
tortoises,  in  addition  to  their  natural  food,  will  readily  eat  raw  meat ;  and  in  this 
state  they  frequently  become  so  tame  as  to  take  food  from  the  hands  of  their 
masters.  The  eggs,  varying  from  nine  to  fifteen  in  number,  are  laid  at  night 
during  May  in  hollows  dug  by  the  female  in  dry  soil,  at  a  considerable  elevation 
above  the  bank,  where  they  are  carefully  covered  up  and  left  to  develop.  These 
tortoises  are  eaten  by  the  inhabitants  of  all  the  countries  in  which  they  occur. 

The  remaining  members  of  this  extensive  family,  which  may  be 
collectively  known  as  terrapins,  and  can  receive  but  brief  mention, 
have  the  plastron  without  any  transverse  hinge,  and  firmly  connected  by  bone  with 
the  carapace,  so  that  the  whole  shell  is  solid  and  immovable.  They  comprise  a  large 
number  of  species,  arranged  under  eleven  genera,  and  all  that  can  be  attempted  in  a 
work  of  the  present  nature  is  to  select  for  special  notice  one  or  more  species  of  such 
genera.  Although  many  of  these  terrapins  are  exceedingly  unlike  one  another  ex- 
ternally, yet  they  are  all  so  closely  connected  that  the  genera  can  only  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  characters  of  the  skull  and  the  bony  plates  of  the  shell,  so  that 
our  description  must  of  necessity  be  somewhat  technical. 

sculptured  The  sculptured  terrapin  (Clemmys  insculpta),  of  eastern  North 

Terrapin.  America,  is  selected  as  a  fairly  well-known  representative  of  a  genus 
of  eight  species.  This  genus,  it  must  be  premised,  forms  one  of  a  group  of  four 
agreeing  with  the  two  last  noticed  in  the  absence  of  a  longitudinal  ridge  on  the 
fore  part  of  the  palate,  and  in  the  carnivorous  habits  of  its  various  members. 
From  the  three  allied  genera,  Clemmys  may  be  distinguished  by  the  aperture  of  the 
inner  nostrils  in  the  skull  being  situated  between  the  eyes,  by  the  unpaired 
entoplastral  bone  of  the  lower  shell  being  traversed  by  the  groove  formed  by  the 
junction  between  the  humeral  and  pectoral  shields,  and  by  the  upper  part  of  the 
head  being  covered  with  a  continuous  smooth  skin.  The  figured  species  belongs  to 
a  group  of  five,  characterised  by  the  median  union  of  the  anal  or  hindmost  shields 
of  the  plastron  being  longer  than  that  between  the  femoral  shields ;  and  while  four 
species  of  this  group  are  confined  to  North  America,  Beale's  terrapin  (C.  bealei), 
inhabits  China,  thus  showing  a  distribution  analogous  to  that  of  the  alligators.  On 


TERRAPINS.  71 

the  other  hand,  the  Caspian  terrapin  (C.  caspica),  ranging  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to 
the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Spanish  terrapin  (C.  leprosa),  of  Spain  and  North- Western 
Africa,  and  the  Japanese  terrapin  (C.  japonica),  resemble  one  another  in  having  the 
median  union  of  the  anal  shields  shorter  than  that  of  the  f  emorals.  The  sculptured 
terrapin,  which  attains  a  length  of  about  7  inches,  is  specially  characterised  by  the 
toes  being  webbed  only  at  their  bases,  by  the  upper  jaw  having  a  notch  in  the 
middle,  on  the  sides  of  which  are  a  pair  of  tooth-like  projections,  and  by  the 
serration  of  the  hinder  border  of  the  carapace.  The  shell  is  much  depressed,  with 
a  raised  keel  down  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  the  shields  of  the  carapace  orna- 
mented with  the  radiating  and  concentric  striae  from  which  that  species  takes  its  name. 


SCULPTURED  TERRAPIN  (£  nat.  size). 

While  the  ground-colour  of  the  carapace  is  blackish,  the  radiating  lines  are  yellow  ; 
the  plastron  being  yellow,  with  a  large  black  blotch  on  each  of  its  shields.  The  soft 
parts  are  dark  brown  or  olive,  the  sides  of  the  head  being  speckled  with  red. 
The  figured  species  is  exceedingly  abundant  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  United 
States,  from  Maine  to  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey.  Frequenting  both  marshes 
and  rivers,  it  leaves  the  water  for  much  longer  periods  than  its  European  congeners, 
and  is  sometimes  found  for  months  at  a  time  in  perfectly  dry  places.  In  wandering 
from  one  stream  to  another,  it  makes  regular  tracks  through  the  woods,  and  is 
hence  frequently  termed  in  America  the  wood-terrapin.  In  its  feeding  and  general 
mode  of  life,  this  terrapin  presents  no  features  distinguishing  it  from  other 
carnivorous  kinds. 


TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 


Thick-Necked  Nearly   allied   to  the    preceding  is   the   thick -necked  terrapin 

Terrapin.  (Bellia  crassicollis),  from  Tenasserim,  Siam,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  arid 
Sumatra,  which,  with  a  second  species  from  Borneo,  constitutes  a  genus  dis- 
tinguished by  the  greater  development  of  the  bony  buttresses  connecting  the  upper 
with  the  lower  shell,  and  by  the  hinder  part  of  the  head  being  covered  with  small 
horny  shields.  The  feet  are  fully  webbed,  and  the  anterior  vertebral  shields  of  the 
carapace  are  more  or  less  distinctly  balloon-shaped.  The  typical  species  measures 
rather  more  than  6  J  inches  in  length ;  and  is  of  a  general  dark  brown  or  black 
colour,  usually  with  some  yellow  markings  on  the  plastron,  and  some  large  spots 
of  the  same  colour  on  the  head.  Several  representatives  of  this  genus  are  met 
with  in  a  fossil  state  in  the  Pliocene  deposits  of  North- Western  India. 

Hamilton's  The  handsomely  coloured  Hamilton's  terrapin  (Damonia  hamil- 

Terrapin.       toni),   from   India,   conspicuous   for   its   black   and    yellow,   highly 

vaulted,  and  three-keeled  carapace,  is  the  best  known  representative  of  a  third 

genus,  distinguished  from  the  foregoing  by  the 
hinder  aperture  of  the  nostrils  opening  behind 
the  line  of  the  eyes,  and  the  great  breadth  of 
the  palate.  Like  the  two  preceding  genera,  the 
entoplastral  bone  of  the  plastron  is  traversed  by 
the  groove  formed  by  the  union  between  the 
humeral  and  the  pectoral  shields  ;  and  the  hinder 
part  of  the  head  is  covered  with  small  shields. 
Hamilton's  terrapin  has  the  elevated  carapace 
marked  with  three  interrupted  longitudinal  keels, 
or  rows  of  nodose  prominences ;  the  colour  of  the 
shell  being  dark  brown  or  blackish,  upon  which 
are  spots  and  streaks  of  yellow,  and  the  soft  parts 
having  likewise  a  similar  coloration.  While  in 
young  individuals  the  hinder  border  of  the 
carapace  is  strongly  serrated,  in  the  adult  it 
becomes  nearly  smooth.  This  species  attains  a 
length  of  nearly  9  inches  at  the  present  day,  but 

fossil  examples  found  in  the  Pliocene  rocks  of  Northern  India  were  still  larger. 
These  fossil  specimens  lived  with  numbers  of  mammals  belonging  entirely  to 
extinct  species.  There  are  four  other  species  of  the  genus,  ranging  over  Malayana, 
Southern  China,  and  Japan. 

Sait-Water  The  last  representative  of  the  group  with  a  smooth  palate  and 

Terrapin.  carnivorous  habits  is  the  North  American  genus  Malacoclemmys, 
distinguished  from  the  last  by  the  head  being  covered  with  continuous  skin,  and 
by  the  groove  formed  on  the  plastron  by  the  junction  between  the  humeral  and 
pectoral  shields  being  situated  in  advance  of  the  entoplastral  bone.  WThile  two  of 
the  species  inhabit  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  the  salt-water  terrapin  (M. 
terrapin)  is  a  frequenter  of  the  salt-marshes  of  the  Atlantic  Coast.  The  latter 
has  an  oval  and  much  depressed  carapace,  which  attains  a  length  of  nearly  7 
inches,  and  is  characterised  by  the  great  width  of  the  first  and  second  vertebral 
shields:  its  general  colour  being  either  olive,  with  black  concentric  lines,  or 


UPPER  SURFACE  OF  CARAPACE  OF 
HAMILTON'S  TERRAPIN. 


TERRAPINS. 


73 


uniform   blackish.      The  plastron  is   yellowish   or   reddish,   with  variable  black 
markings. 

It  is  this  species  that  generally  forms  the  celebrated  New  York  dish  known  as 
terrapin;  but  it  would  seem  that  other  species  are  also  used,  as  the  following  account 
refers  to  terrapins  taken  high  up  the  rivers.  The  best  terrapins  go  by  the  name  of 
"diamond-backs,"  and  do  not  generally  exceed  some  7  inches  in  length,  although  they 
may  rarely  measure  as  much  as  10  inches,  but  all  terrapin  of  larger  dimensions 
belong  to  the  inferior  kinds,  ordinarily  designated  "  sliders."  According  to  Mr.  W. 
M.  Laffan,  "  terrapin  are  caught  all  the  way  from  Savannah  and  Charleston  to  the 
Patapsio  River  at  Baltimore,  but  the  genuine  diamond-back  belongs  only  to  the 
Upper  Chesapeake  and  its  tributaries.  The  majority  of  the  sliders  are  brought  to 
Baltimore  from  the  James  River.  The  terrapin-catchers  make  from  five  to  twenty 
dollars  per  week,  and  they  find  the  reptile,  or  '  bird/  as  the  bon  vivant  calls  it,  by 
probing  the  mud  in  the  shallows  with  sticks.  The  terrapin  is  dormant,  and  when 
found  is  easily  secured.  A  4-lb.  terrapin  taken  about  September  15th  will 
exist  prosperously  in  a  dark,  cool  place,  without  food  or  drink,  until  April  15th, 
and  (the  dealers  say)  will  gain  two  ounces  in  weight.  After  that  time  it  gets 
lively  and  active,  and  will  take  hold  of  a  finger  with  great  effusion  and  effective- 
ness. The  male  terrapin  is  known  as  a  '  bull/  and  the  female  as  a  '  cow.'  The 
latter  is  much  more  highly  prized,  and  generally  contains  about  thirty  eggs. 
No  dish  of  terrapin  is  thought  complete  without  being  garnished  with  these." 
Formerly  caught  in  shoals,  the  diamond-back  has  now  become  very  scarce,  and  is, 
indeed,  in  some  danger  of  extermination.  The  terrapin  furnished  in  hotels  is 
almost  invariably  "  sliders,"  diamond-backs  being  sold  to  private  houses  only. 

Painted  The  seven  remaining  genera  of  the  family  constitute  a  distinct 

Terrapin.  group,  distinguished  from  the  one  including  the  six  genera  just  men- 
tioned by  the  circumstance  that  the  broad  front  portion  of  the  palate  of  the  skull  is 
marked  by  one  or  two  longi- 
tudinal ridges,  and  likewise  by 
all  the  species  being  mainly  or 
exclusively  herbivorous  in  their 
diet.  Among  these,  the  large 
and  exclusively  American  genus 
Chrysemys,with  a  dozen  species, 
of  which  the  painted  terrapin 
(C.  picta)  is  one  of  the  best 
known,  belongs  to  a  subgroup 
of  three  genera,  characterised 
by  the  bony  buttresses  con- 
necting the  upper  with  the 
lower  shell  being  short  or  of 
moderate  size.  From  its  allies 

Chrysemys  is  distinguished  by  PAINTED  TBBRApnf. 

the   opening   of   the    posterior 

nostrils   being   situated   between   the   eyes,  and   by  the   entoplastral  bone  being 
situated  in  advance  of  the  groove  on  the  plastron  formed  by  the  junction  of  the 


74 


TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 


Batagurs. 


humeral  with  the  pectoral  shields.  The  painted  terrapin  of  Eastern  North  America, 
which  attains  a  length  of  6  inches,  and  has  a  much  depressed  shell,  takes  its  name 
from  its  brilliant  coloration.  Thus,  the  carapace  is  olive  or  blackish,  with  yellow 
lines  bordering  the  shields,  and  its  marginal  shields  reel,  with  black  concentric  or 
crescentic  markings  ;  while  the  plastron  is  yellow,  sometimes  with  small  streaks 
of  black  on  the  middle  line,  and  the  bridge  red,  with  black  markings.  The  soft 
parts  have  a  brown  or  blackish  ground-colour,  with  lighter  bands,  which  are  yellow 
on  the  head  and  red  elsewhere. 

Eyed  and  Chinese  The  eyed  terrapin  (Morenia  ocellata),  from  Burma,  together  with 
Terrapins.  an  allied  species  from  Bengal,  constitute  a  genus  distinguished  from 
the  preceding  by  the  aperture  of  the  posterior  nostrils  opening  behind  the  line  of 
the  eyes.  The  typical  species,  in  which  the  shell  measures  nearly  9  inches  in 
length,  takes  its  name  from  the  eye-like  black  spots  ringed  with  yellow  which 
adorn  each  shield  of  the  back  portion  of  the  carapace.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Chinese  terrapin  (Ocadia  sinensis),  which  is  the  sole  existing  representative  of  its 
genus,  differs  from  Chrysemys  in  having  the  entoplastron  intersected  by  the  groove 
formed  by  the  junction  between  the  pectoral  and  humeral  shields.  The  genus  is 
of  special  interest  as  being  represented  by  extinct  species  in  the  upper  Eocene 
strata  of  the  south  of  England  and  the  Continent. 

The  remaining  members  of  the  family,  which  are  arranged  under 
four  genera,  and  may  be  collectively  known  as  batagurs,  are  exclus- 
ively confined  to  India,  Burma,  and  the   Malayan  region.      They  comprise  the 

largest  fresh-water  representatives  of  the 
family,  and  are  readily  characterised  by 
the  great  development  of  the  vertical  bony 
buttresses  connecting  the  carapace  with 
the  plastron,  which  project  as  walls  within 
the  shell,  so  as  partially  to  divide  it  into 
compartments.  Of  the  four  genera, 
Cachuga,  which  is  represented  by  seven 
species  from  India  and  Burma,  is  readily 
recognised  by  the  great  elongation  of  the 
fourth  vertebral  horny  shield  of  the 
carapace,  which  extends  over  four  or  five 
of  the  underlying  neural  bones.  The 
smaller  members,  such  as  Smith's  batagur 
(G.  smithi),  and  the  black  -  and  -  yellow 
batagur  (C.  tectum),  of  the  Ganges  and 
Indus,  are  characterised  by  the  fourth 
vertebral  shield  terminating  in  front  in  a 
narrow  point.  Whereas  the  former  of 
these  has  a  depressed  and  feebly  keeled 

8hell>  the  latter>  especially  when  y°un&  has 

the  carapace  much  vaulted,  and  the  third 
vertebral  shield  produced  behind  into  a  conical  elevation  forming  the  highest  part 
of  the  shell.  The  name  of  black-and-yellow  batagur  is  derived  from  the  irregular 


UPPEB 


8MITH>S 


BIG-HEADED    TORTOISE. 


75 


black  patches  on  the  bright  yellow  plastron ;  the  carapace  being  brown.  I  have 
taken  specimens  of  this  pretty  little  batagur,  which  does  not  exceed  8  inches  in 
length  and  is  generally  much  smaller,  near  the  fort  at  Calcutta.  Like  the  under- 
mentioned dhongoka,  it  occurs  fossil  in  the  Pliocene  deposits  of  Northern 
India.  The  larger  species  of  the  genus,  such  as  the  Indian  dhongoka  (C.  dhongoka), 
which  grows  to  over  14  inches,  has  the  fourth  vertebral  shield  broad  in  front, 
instead  of  being  narrowed  to  a  point.  The  three  remaining  genera,  Callagur, 
Batagur,  and  Hardella,  differ  from  the  preceding  in  that  the  fourth  vertebral 
shield  of  the  carapace  is  not  longer  than  the  third ;  but  it  will  be  unnecessary  to 
point  out  the  features  by  which  they  are  severally  distinguished.  The  largest  of 
all  is  the  true  batagur  (Batagur  lasca),  in  which  the  carapace  measures  upwards 
of  20  inches  in  length. 

All  the  batagurs  are  exclusively  vegetable  feeders,  and  the  larger  species  are 
thoroughly  aquatic  in  their  habits,  spending  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  their 
time  in  the  water.  They  abound  in  the  larger  rivers  of  India  and  Burma,  where 
their  huge  shells  form  conspicuous  objects  as  they  rise  to  the  surface  to  breathe. 
Describing  the  habits  of  a  captive  specimen,  Dr.  John  Anderson  states  that  when 
it  rose  to  breathe  "  its  nostrils  were  simply  protruded  above  the  surface  of  the 
water,  and  retained  in  that  position  for  about  half  a  minute,  during  which  it  made 
a  long  expiration,  followed  by  a  deep  inspiration,  the  creature  then  slowly 
subsiding,  tail-backwards,  to  the  bottom.  The  animals,  unless  they  were  much 
irritated,  never  attempted  to  bite,  but,  when  so  treated,  they  sluggishly  seized  any 
object  put  in  their  way,  holding  it  between  their  jaws  with  considerable  tenacity, 
at  the  same  time  withdrawing  the  head  into  the  shell.  They  moved  about  on 
the  ground  with  considerable  agility,  supporting  their  heavy  bodies  erect  on  their 
legs,  like  a  land-tortoise."  Another  species  will  occasionally  snap,  when,  owing  to 
the  friction  of  its  serrated  jaws  against  each  other,  a  peculiar  kind  of  barking 
sound  is  produced.  Batagurs  are  eaten  in  Lower  Bengal  by  some  of  the  inferior 
castes  of  Hindus,  and  are  kept  for  this  purpose  in  tanks. 


THE  BIG-HEADED  TORTOISE. 
Family  PLATYSTERNID^. 


This  extraordinary  creature 
(Platy sternum  megacephalum),  which 
is  an  inhabitant  of  the  south  of  China, 
Siam,  and  Burma,  is  the  sole  repre- 
sentative, not  only  of  a  very  remark- 
able genus,  but  likewise  of  a  distinct 
family,  which  appears  to  be  to  a  great 
extent  intermediate  between  that  of 
the  tortoises  and  that  of  the  snappers. 
The  most  peculiar  feature  about  this 
tortoise  is  the  disproportionately 
large  size  of  its  head,  in  which  the 


SIDE   VIEW   OF  SKULL   OF   BIG-HEADED   TORTOISE. 

(From  Boulenger). 


76 


TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 


beak  is  much  hooked;  and  an  examination  of  the  skeleton  will  show  that  the 
temporal  fossae  of  the  skull  differ  from  those  of  all  the  members  of  the  preceding 
family  in  being  roofed  over  with  bone,  as  in  the  following  family  of  the  snappers. 
Moreover,  the  tail  resembles  that  of  the  latter  in  its  great  length,  and  also  in  the 
circumstance  that  the  articular  surfaces  of  most  of  its  vertebrae  have  the  cup 
behind  and  the  ball  in  front,  whereas  in  the  tortoise  family  just  the  reverse  of 
this  arrangement  occurs.  On  the  other  hand,  the  carapace  resembles  that  of  the 
latter,  and  differs  from  that  of  the  snappers  in  the  absence  of  a  rib-like  process 
from  its  posterior  angles  passing  backwards  beneath  the  marginal  bones.  The 


THE   BIG-HEADED   TORTOISE   (\  nat.  size). 

carapace  is  characterised  by  its  extreme  depression  and  oval  form ;  while  the 
plastron  is  of  moderate  size,  and  connected  with  the  carapace  solely  by  ligament, 
so  that  bony  buttresses  are  totally  lacking.  The  head  is  covered  with  a  continuous 
horny  shield,  and  the  hooked  jaws  are  of  great  power.  The  toes  are  of  moderate 
length,  and  but  slightly  webbed  ;  all,  save  the  fifth  in  the  hind-foot,  being  furnished 
with  claws.  The  long  and  cylindrical  tail  becomes  compressed  at  the  end,  and  is 
covered  with  rings  of  quadrangular  shields.  In  size  this  tortoise  is  small,  the 
length  of  the  carapace  being  only  about  6  inches,  and  that  of  the  tail  some  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  more.  In  the  adult  the  colour  is  olive-brown  above,  and 
yellowish  brown  beneath,  but  the  young  is  more  brilliantly  coloured.  Of  the  habits 
and  mode  of  life  of  this  tortoise,  nothing  appears  hitherto  to  have  been  ascertained. 


MUD-TERRAPINS. 


77 


THE  MUD-TERRAPINS  AND  THEIR  ALLIES. 
Families  ClNOSTERNID^  and 


The  mud-terrapins  (Cinosternum)  bring  us  to  the  first  of  two  nearly  related 
families  confined  to  the  New  World,  all  of  which  differ  from  those  previously 
noticed  by  the  circumstance  that  the  nuchal  bone  of  the  carapace  gives  off  from 
each  of  its  hinder  angles  a  long  rib-process  which  underlies  the  marginal  bones. 
From  the  second  family,  the  mud-terrapins,  of  which  there  are  eleven  species 
inhabiting  America  north  of  the  Equator,  are  broadly  distinguished  (as  indeed  they 


PENNSYLVANIAN  MUD-TEREAPIN  (J  nat.  size). 

are  from  all  other  members  of  the  order)  by  the  fact  that  there  are  but  eight  bones 
in  the  plastron,  owing  to  the  absence  of  the  unpaired  entoplastral  bone.  As 
regards  their  other  characters,  the  mud-tortoises  resemble  the  Testudinidce  in  the 
conformation  of  the  vertebrae  of  the  tail,  and  in  the  absence  of  a  roof  to  the  temporal 
fossa  of  the  skull,  as  well  as  in  the  extreme  shortness  of  the  tail.  The  carapace  is 
more  or  less  depressed,  and  is  articulated  by  a  bony  suture  with  the  plastron ;  the 
latter  having  the  gular  shields  fused  into  one,  or  wanting,  and  its  fore  and  hind- 
lobes  more  or  less  movable.  The  toes  are  fully  webbed,  and  with  the  exception  of 
the  fifth  in  the  hind-foot,  strongly  clawed.  The  best  known  representative  of  the 
genus  is  the  Pennsylvanian  mud-terrapin  (C.  pennsylvanicum),  which  attains  a 
length  of  about  4J  inches,  and  inhabits  eastern  North  America  from  New  York 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  colour,  the  shell  is  brown  or  brownish  above,  and  either 
yellow  or  brown  beneath,  the  lines  of  junction  between  all  the  shields  being  dark 


78  TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 

brown  or  blackish,  while  the  head  and  neck  are  brown  with  yellowish  spots. 
From  other  species  of  the  genus  it  is  distinguished  by  the  large  size  of  the  plastron, 
in  which  the  anterior  lobe  is  narrower  than  the  mouth  of  the  shell. 

In  general  habits  the  mud-terrapins  seem  to  be  very  similar  to  the  fresh- water 
members  of  the  tortoise  family,  although  they  prefer  swamps  and  marshes  to 
running  waters.  Carnivorous  in  their  diet,  they  subsist  chiefly  on  small  fishes, 
insects,  and  worms,  while  they  have  been  observed  to  capture  newts.  They  will 
readily  take  a  baited  hook,  and  when  thus  caught  sink  rapidly  and  heavily  to  the 
bottom,  thus  causing  the  angler  to  believe  that  he  has  hooked  a  weighty  fish.  At 
the  commencement  of  winter  they  bury  themselves  in  moss,  where  they  remain 
dormant  till  the  following  May.  An  extinct  genus  nearly  allied  to  the  mud- 
tortoises  occurs  in  the  Tertiary  rocks  of  Baden. 

Maw's  terrapin  (Dermatemys  mawi)  may  be  taken  as  a  good 
representative  of  the  second  family,  all  the  three  genera  of  which  are 
restricted  to  Central  America.  This  family  connects  the  preceding  one  with  the 
snappers,  agreeing  with  the  latter  in  the  presence  of  an  entoplastral  bone,  and  with 
the  former  in  the  characters  of  the  vertebrae  of  the  short  tail,  which  have  the  cup  in 
front,  and  the  absence  of  a  roof  to  the  temporal  fossa  of  the  skull.  Maw's  terrapin 
and  its  allies  further  agree  with  the  mud-terrapins  in  the  incompleteness  of  the 
series  of  neural  bones  of  the  carapace ;  the  hinder  ones  being  wanting,  and  thus 
allowing  the  costal  plates  to  meet  in  the  middle  line.  Externally,  the  members  of 
the  present  family  may  be  distinguished  from  the  Testudinidce  by  the  presence 
of  an  additional  series  of  infra-marginal  shields  between  the  marginals  and  those 
of  the  plastron — a  feature  which  they  possess  in  common  with  the  big-headed 
tortoise  and  the  snappers.  Maw's  terrapin,  which  attains  a  length  of  some 
15  inches,  and  is  the  sole  representative  of  its  genus,  has  the  plastron  large,  and 
connected  with  the  carapace  by  an  elongated  bridge ;  the  gular  shield  being  single, 
and  the  usual  five  other  pairs  of  shields  being  present  on  the  plastron.  Unlike 
most  other  tortoises,  there  are  twelve  pairs  of  marginal  shields,  in  place  of  the 
usual  eleven.  In  the  other  two  genera  of  the  family — Staurotypus  and  Claudius 
—the  plastron  is  reduced  to  a  cross-like  shape,  and  has  but  a  short  connection  with 
the  carapace ;  while  the  number  of  paired  shields  on  the  former  is  only  four  or 
or  three,  and  the  chin  is  provided  with  a  pair  of  wattle-like  appendages,  of  which 
there  is  no  trace  in  Maw's  terrapin.  While  in  the  two  species  of  Staurotypus  the 
plastron  is  connected  with  the  carapace  by  a  bony  bridge,  in  the  single  represen- 
tative of  Claudius  the  junction  is  entirely  ligamentous.  This  family  is  represented 
by  several  extinct  genera  in  the  Tertiary  and  Cretaceous  strata  of  North  America, 
one  of  which  (Baptemys)  had  the  full  series  of  neural  bones;  and  there  appear 
to  have  been  allied  forms  in  the  European  Tertiaries. 

THE  SNAPPERS  AND  ALLIGATOR-TERRAPINS. 
Family  CHELYDRID^l. 

Resembling  the  big-headed  tortoise  in  the  great  relative  size  of  their  hook- 
beaked  heads,  and  their  elongated  scaly  tails,  the  snappers  and  alligator-terrapins 


SNAPPERS. 


79 


of  North  and  Central  America  constitute  a  well-marked  family  by  themselves. 
In  the  first  place,  they  differ  from  the  species  named  in  that  the  majority  of  the 
vertebrae  of  the  tail  have  the  articular  cup  behind,  and  the  ball  in  front ;  while  the 
temporal  region  of  the  skull  is  but  partially  covered  with  a  bony  roof.  The 
American  forms  are  further  characterised  by  the  relatively  small  size  of  the 
carapace,  of  which  the  hinder  border  is  strongly  serrated ;  while  the  cruciform 
plastron  is  likewise  small,  and  but  loosely  articulated  with  the  upper  shell  by  a 
very  narrow  bridge.  Moreover,  both  the  upper  and  lower  shells  are  not  completely 
ossified  till  very  late  in  life,  vacuities  remaining  for  a  long  time  between 


ALLIGATOR-TERRAPIN  (T^  nat.  size). 


the  costal  and  marginal  bones  in  the  former,  and  in  the  middle  line  of  the 
latter.  Then,  again,  the  plastron  is  peculiar  in  that  the  abdominal  shields,  which 
are  separated  from  the  marginals  by  an  inframarginal  series,  do  not  meet  one 
another  in  the  middle  line,  although  they  may  be  connected  by  some  small, 
irregular,  unpaired,  additional  shields.  Further,  the  enormous  head  cannot  be 
completely  retracted  within  the  carapace,  of  which  the  anterior  margin  is  deeply 
excavated  in  order  to  afford  it  room  ;  and  the  chin  is  provided  with  one  or  more 
pairs  of  pendent  wattles.  With  the  exception  of  the  fifth  in  the  hind-limb,  the 
toes  are  furnished  with  claws  ;  and  the  long  tail  is  crested  above. 

Alligator-  The  alligator-terrapin,  or  snapping  turtle  (Chelydra  serpentina) 

Terrapin.       js  a  giant  among  river-tortoises,  and  takes  its  name  from  a  fancied 


8o  TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 

resemblance  to  an  alligator  surmounted  by  a  chelonian  shell.  It  is  one  of  two 
species  belonging  to  a  genus  characterised  by  the  eyes  being  directed  upwards  and 
outwards,  so  that  their  sockets  are  visible  in  a  top  view  of  the  skull :  by  the  tail 
being  furnished  with  large  horny  shields  on  its  lower  surface ;  as  well  as  by  the 
absence  of  the  supramarginal  shields  found  on  the  carapace  of  Temminck's 
snapper.  The  carapace,  which  may  attain  a  length  of  at  least  20  inches,  is 
characterised  by  its  rugose  surface,  bearing  three  well-marked  tuberculated  keels, 
which  tend  to  become  smoother  with  advancing  age ;  while  its  vertebral  shields 
are  remarkable  for  their  great  width.  The  snout  is  short  and  pointed,  with  a  very 
narrow  space  between  the  eyes ;  the  skin  is  warty,  and  on  the  chin  is  developed 
into  a  pair  of  wattles  or  barbels.  In  the  young  the  tail  is  as  long  or  even  longer 
than  the  shell,  becoming  relatively  shorter  in  the  adult ;  its  upper  surface  having  a 
crest  of  large  compressed  tubercles,  while  the  shields  on  the  lower  surface  have 
been  already  alluded  to.  As  in  the  other  members  of  the  family,  the  colour  is  a 
uniform  olive-brown.  The  alligator-terrapin  inhabits  the  rivers  of  North  America 
to  the  eastward  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  from  Canada  to  Mexico,  and  is  also  found 
in  Ecuador.  A  second  living  species  (C.  rossignonii),  distinguished,  among  other 
features,  by  the  presence  of  four  wattles  on  the  chin,  is  met  with  in  Guatemala 
and  Mexico.  Nearly  allied  to  this  is  a  third  and  extinct  species  (C.  murchi- 
soni),  from  the  Miocene  rocks  of  Baden ;  and  as  we  have  already  seen  that  the 
mud-terrapins,  and  probably  also  Maw's  terrapin,  were  represented  in  the  Tertiary 
strata  of  Europe,  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  may  have  been 
the  original  home  of  the  present  group  of  families. 

Temminck's  Attaining   considerably   larger   dimensions   than    the  alligator- 

Snapper,  terrapin,  Temminck's  snapper  (Macroclemmys  temmineki)  is  dis- 
tinguished as  a  genus  by  the  lateral  position  of  the  eyes,  the  sockets  of  which  are 
invisible  in  a  front  view  of  the  skull,  as  well  as  by  the  presence  of  three  or  four 
additional  or  supramarginal  shields  on  the  sides  of  the  carapace,  and  by  the  under 
surface  of  the  tail  being  covered  with  small  scales.  The  triangular  head  is  pro- 
portionately even  larger  than  in  the  alligator-terrapin,  and  the  carapace  has  three 
very  strongly  marked  longitudinal  ridges.  In  length,  the  shell  may  measure  at 
least  a  couple  of  feet,  the  tail  being  somewhat  shorter.  This  species  inhabits 
North  America  from  Western  Texas  to  Florida,  extending  northwards  to  Missouri. 
Since  the  alligator-terrapin  and  Temminck's  snapper  appear  to 
be  very  similar  in  their  mode  of  life,  their  habits  may  be  treated  of 
collectively.  Both  these  tortoises  frequent  alike  the  rivers  and  larger  swamps  of 
the  United  States,  occurring  in  certain  localities  in  enormous  numbers,  and  most 
commonly  in  waters  that  have  a  muddy  bottom,  not  even  disdaining  the  most 
malodorous  pools.  As  a  rule,  they  lie  in  deep  water,  near  the  middle  of  the  river 
or  swamp,  although  at  times  they  show  themselves  on  the  surface,  where,  with 
outstretched  neck,  they  will  float  with  the  current.  In  populated  districts  the 
least  sound  is,  however,  sufficient  to  send  them  at  once  to  the  bottom,  although  in 
more  remote  regions  they  are  less  shy.  At  times  they  may  be  observed  at 
considerable  distances  from  the  water,  probably  in  search  of  food  or  of  suitable 
spots  to  deposit  their  eggs.  Temminck's  snapper  well  deserves  its  name,  since, 
from  the  moment  of  its  escape  from  the  egg,  it  commences  to  snap  and  bite  at 


TURTLES.  8r 

everything  within  its  reach;  and  an  adult  has  been  known  to  make  a  clean 
perforation  with  its  powerful  beak  through  the  blade  of  an  oar  half  an  inch  in 
thickness.  When  one  of  these  tortoises  is  taken  into  a  boat,  Weinland  states  that 
it  will  rear  itself  up  on  its  hind-legs,  and  with  lightning-like  speed  throw  itself 
half  a  yard  forwards  to  bite  an  oar ;  and  they  have  been  known  to  inflict  terrible 
wounds  on  persons  who  have  incautiously  entered  waters  where  they  abound.  In 
the  water  the  movements  of  these  reptiles  are  more  rapid  than  those  of  most  of 
their  kin,  and  when  in  pursuit  of  prey  they  swim  with  surprising  spe^d.  Their 
food  consists  largely  of  fish,  frogs,  and  other  water-animals ;  while  they  will  also 
frequently  seize  and  drag  down  large  aquatic  birds,  more  especially  ducks  and 
geese.  Tame  specimens,  that  were  kept  in  a  pond  in  the  United  States,  proved 
terrible  foes  to  the  stock  of  fish  contained  in  the  same.  The  eggs,  which  vary 
from  twenty  to  thirty  in  number,  and  are  about  the  size  of  those  of  a  pigeon,  are 
deposited  on  the  ground  near  the  water,  and  are  carefully  covered  over  with  leaves. 
In  captivity  these  tortoises  thrive  well  in  Europe,  if  the  water  be  kept  at  a 
sufficiently  high  temperature ;  and  a  specimen  of  Temminck's  snapper,  which  has 
lived  for  more  than  thirteen  years  in  the  Brighton  Aquarium,  grew  to  a  length  of 
between  4  and  5  feet  from  beak  to  tail,  whereas,  on  its  arrival,  it  measured  less 
than  a  foot.  In  the  confined  limits  of  a  tank  the  movements  of  this  reptile  were 
deliberate  and  sluggish,  and  gave  no  idea  of  the  activity  characterising  the  wild 
state.  Although  the  flesh  of  the  adult  of  this  species  has  such  a  strong  musky 
flavour  as  to  be  uneatable,  that  of  the  young  is  stated  to  be  tender  and  palatable. 
The  eggs  are  also  sought  after  as  articles  of  food ;  and  when  two  or  three  females 
have  laid  together,  as  many  as  from  sixty  to  seventy  may  be  taken  from  a, 
single  nest. 

THE  TURTLES. 
Family  CHELONID^. 

The  families  mentioned  up  to  now  have  their  feet  more  or  less  fully 
adapted  for  walking  on  land,  and  the  majority  of  the  toes  furnished  with  well- 
developed  claws  or  nails ;  while  the  carapace  is  generally  of  a  somewhat  oval 
form.  The  true  turtles,  on  the  other  hand,  while  agreeing  with  the  foregoing  in 
having  their  shells  covered  with  horny  plates,  are ,  at  once  distinguished  by  the 
limbs  being  converted  into  flattened  paddles,  in  which,  at  the  most,  only  two  of  the 
toes  are  furnished  with  claws.  They  are  further  characterised  by  the  heart-like 
form  of  the  carapace,  within  which  the  head  can  be  only  partially  withdrawn; 
while  the  plastron  is  never  united  by  bone  to  the  carapace,  and  vacuities  remain 
in  the  latter  between  the  costal  and  marginal  bones  either  throughout  life,  or  for 
a  very  long  period.  The  skull  has  its  temporal  fossae  completely  roofed  over  by 
bone ;  and  the  vertebrae  of  the  very  short  tail  have  the  articular  cup  in  front  and 
the  ball  behind.  Entirely  marine  in  their  habits,  and  resorting  to  the  shore  only 
for  the  purpose  of  breeding,  turtles  differ  from  tortoises  and  terrapins  in  that  the 
shells  of  their  eggs  are  soft.  In  their  entire  conformation  they  are  admirably 
adapted  for  an  aquatic  life,  the  body  being  depressed  to  facilitate  rapid  progress 
through  the  water,  both  the  skull  and  shell  being  of  unusually  light  and  porous 

VOL.  v. — 6 


TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 


Green  Turtle. 


structure;  while  the  limbs  form  most  perfect  paddles,  capable  of  propelling  the 
animals  with  great  speed.  The  head  is  placed  upon  the  neck  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  allow  of  the  nostrils  being  readily  raised  above  the  surface  of  the  water  for  the 
purpose  of  breathing,  and  the  nostrils  themselves  can  be  hermetically  closed  by 
means  of  a  fleshy  valve.  The  three  best  known  species  of  turtles,  which  are 
assigned  to  two  genera,  are  inhabitants  of  all  tropical  and  subtropical  seas ;  one 
species — the  loggerhead — occurring  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  occasionally  wander- 
ing northwards. 

Widely  celebrated  as  being  the  source  of  the  far-famed  turtle- 
soup  of  civic  banquets,  the  green  turtle  (Chelone  mydas)  is  one  of  two 
species  belonging  to  a  genus  characterised  by  the  presence  of  four  pairs  of  costal 
shields  on  the  carapace,  and  by  the  persistence  of  the  vacuities  between  the  costal 

and  marginal  bones  of  the  latter 
throughout  life.  The  plastron 
is,  moreover,  distinguished  by 
the  presence  of  an  intergular 
shield  between  the  two  gulars; 
while,  as  in  the  second  genus, 
there  is  a  row  of  inframarginal 
shields  between  the  marginals 
and  the  proper  shields  of  the 
plastron.  The  skull  is  of  moder- 
ate size  in  comparison  to  the  shell, 
with  the  sockets  of  the  eyes 
placed  nearly  vertically,  and 
separated  by  a  broad  bar  of 
bone.  Such  are  the  characters 
common  to  the  two  species  of  the 
typical  genus  of  the  family. 
The  green  turtle  is  specially 
distinguished  by  its  short  beak, 
which  is  devoid  of  a  hook  at  the 
tip,  and  by  the  shields  of  the 
GREEN  TURTLE.  carapace  being  in  contact  by 

their  edges  all  through  life.     In 

the  young,  the  carapace  shows  a  faint  median  keel ;  while  its  hinder  margin  is  at 
most  but  feebly  serrated  at  all  ages.  Generally  there  is  but  a  single  claw  on  each 
paddle,  although,  in  some  instances,  young  specimens  also  have  a  claw  on  the 
second  digit.  In  colour,  the  shell  of  the  adult  is  olive  or  brown,  with  yellowish 
spots  or  marblings ;  while  in  the  young  it  is  uniform  dark  brown  or  olive  above, 
and  yellow  beneath,  the  limbs  being  bordered  with  yellow  on  the  upper  surface, 
and  inferiorly  yellow  with  a  brown  spot  near  the  extremity.  The  food  of  the 
species  consists  of  seaweeds,  especially  the  seawrack,  upon  which  the  turtles 
graze  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  rising  occasionally  to  the  surface  to  breathe. 

Generally  rejected  as  food,  the  hawksbill  turtle  (C.  imbricata) 
enjoys  thereby  no  respite  from  persecution,  since  it  is  eagerly  hunted 


Hawksbill  Turtle. 


TURTLES.  83 

for  the  beautifully  mottled  horny  shields  of  its  shell,  which  are  the  sole  source  of 
the  tortoise-shell  of  commerce.  In  its  young  state,  the  hawksbill  may  be  readily 
distinguished  from  the  preceding  species  by  the  circumstance  that  the  horny 
shields  on  the  back  of  the  three-ridged  shell  overlap  one  another  like  the  tiles  on  a 
roof.  With  advancing  age  the  shields  gradually,  however,  become  smooth,  and  in 
very  old  specimens  they  meet  at  their  edges,  as  in  other  members  of  the  order. 
At  all  ages  the  hinder  margin  of  the  carapace  is  more  or  less  strongly  serrated ; 
and  the  compressed  and  sharply  hooked  beak  will  always  serve  to  distinguish  at  a 
glance  a  hawksbill  from  a  green  turtle.  Moreover,  the  limbs  always  have  two 


HAWKSBILL  TURTLES  SWIMMING  (-^  Hat.  size). 


claws.  In  the  adult,  the  shields  of  the  carapace  are  beautifully  marbled  and 
mottled  with  yellow  and  dark  reddish  brown,  while  the  plastron  is  yellow,  and  the 
shields  on  the  head  and  paddles  are  brown  with  yellow  margins.  In  size  this 
species  is  somewhat  inferior  to  the  green  turtle,  the  carapace  attaining  a  length  of 
about  32  inches,  against  42  inches  in  the.  latter.  In  habits  the  hawksbill  differs 
markedly  from  the  green  turtle,  being  exclusively  carnivorous. 

Loggerhead  The  third,  and  probably  the   largest  species  of   turtle,  is  the 

Turtle.        loggerhead  (Thalassochelys  caretta),  easily  recognised  by  its  enormous 

head  and  the  presence  of  at  least  five  costal  shields  on  each  side  of  the  carapace, 

which  differs  from  that  of  the  two  preceding  species  by  becoming  completely 

ossified  in  the  adult  state.     The  beak  is  strongly  hooked  ;  and  while  in  the  young 


84 


TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 


Habits. 


there  are  usually  two  claws  to  each  paddle,  one  of  these  frequently  disappears  in 
the  adult.  In  colour,  the  adult  is  brown  above,  and  yellowish  beneath ;  but  the 
young  is  uniformly  dark  brown  or  blackish.  The  Mexican  loggerhead  (T.  kempi), 
from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  differs  in  having  a  median  ridge  on  the  bone  of  each  jaw, 
whereas  in  the  ordinary  species  such  ridges  are  confined  to  the  investing  horny 
sheath.  According  to  Mr.  Gosse,  loggerheads  feed  on  cuttles  and  other  molluscs, 
their  powerful  beaks  enabling  them  to  crush  strong  conch-shells  as  easily  as  a  man 
can  crack  a  nut. 

Apart  from  the  difference  in  their  food,  all  turtles  appear  to  be 
similar  in  their  general  mode  of  life,  never  leaving  the  sea  except  for 
the  purpose  of  laying  their  eggs,  and  then  shuffling  along  in  an  awkward,  ungainly 
manner.  During  the  laying  season  they  resort  to  low  sandy  coasts,  especially 
unfrequented  tropical  islands,  in  vast  numbers ;  and  if  once  turned  on  their  backs, 

while  on  shore,  are  unable  to 
right  themselves  again.  This 
habit  of  resorting  to  the  land 
to  lay  their  eggs  clearly  proves, 
it  may  be  observed,  the  descent 
of  turtles  from  fresh  -  water 
members  of  the  order.  Writing 
of  the  green  turtles  at  Aldabra, 
one  of  the  Seychelles  group  of 
islands,  Mr.  Spurs  remarks  that 
the  males  permanently  frequent 
the  bay  of  that  island,  the 
females  when  they  attain  full 
maturity  (twenty  or  twenty- 
five  years)  disappearing  alto- 
gether. When  the  latter  come 
to  the  shore  for  the  purpose  of 
laying,  their  shells  are  covered 

with  barnacles  of  two  or  three  weeks'  growth.  Commercially,  the  females  are 
more  valuable  than  the  males,  and,  as  they  are  more  easily  captured,  the  proportion 
found  on  the  island  is  one  female  to  every  ten  males,  although,  for  one  of  the 
latter,  about  ten  of  the  former  sex  are  hatched.  Turtles  generally  come  ashore 
on  fine  moonlight  nights,  displaying  great  caution  in  landing,  and  then  generally 
uttering  a  loud  hissing  noise  which  serves  to  disperse  many  of  their  enemies.  Once 
landed,  the  female  turtle,  writes  Audubon,  "  proceeds  to  form  a  hole  in  the  sand, 
which  she  effects  by  removing  it  from  under  her  body  with  her  hind-flippers, 
scooping  it  out  with  so  much  dexterity  that  the  sides  seldom,  if  ever,  fall  in.  The 
sand  is  raised  alternately  with  each  flipper,  as  with  a  large  ladle,  until  it  has 
accumulated  behind  her,  when,  supporting  herself  with  her  head  and  forepart  on 
the  ground  fronting  her  body,  she,  with  a  spring  from  each  flipper,  sends  the  sand 
around,  scattering  it  to  the  distance  of  several  feet.  In  this  manner  the  hole  is  dug 
to  the  depth  of  eighteen  inches,  or  sometimes  more  than  two  feet.  This  labour  I 
have  seen  performed  in  the  short  space  of  nine  minutes.  The  eggs  are  then 


YOUNG  LOGGERHEAD  TURTLE. 


TURTLES.  85 

dropped  one  by  one,  and  disposed  in  regular  layers,  to  the  number  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty,  or  sometimes  nearly  two  hundred.  The  whole  time  spent  in  this  part 
of  the  operation  may  be  about  twenty  minutes.  She  now  scrapes  the  loose  sand 
back  over  the  eggs,  and  so  levels  and  smooths  the  surface  that  few  persons  on  seeing 
the  spot  could  imagine  that  anything  had  been  done  to  it.  This  accomplished  to 
her  mind,  she  retreats  to  the  water  with  all  possible  despatch,  leaving  the  hatching 
of  the  eggs  to  the  heat  of  the  sand."  During  a  season  each  female  will  lay  three 
clutches  of  eggs,  at  intervals  of  from  a  fortnight  to  three  weeks,  usually  from  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  in  number.  No  sooner  are  the 
young  turtles  hatched,  than  hosts  fall  victims  to  land-crabs,  frigate-,  and  other  sea- 
birds,  while,  when  they  reach  the  sea,  they  are  attacked  by  swarms  of  predaceous 
fishes.  To  escape  the  latter,  the  young  reptiles  allow  themselves  to  be  carried  out 
by  currents  into  deep  water,  where  they  are  less  readily  seized.  During  the 
breeding-season  the  males  fight  desperately  with  one  another,  to  the  great  joy  of 
the  sharks,  by  whom  the  disabled  ones  are  seized. 

When  first  laid,  the  round  eggs  of  turtles  are  never  quite  full,  but  before 
hatching  become  fully  distended.  In  describing  the  breeding-habits  of  the  turtles 
kept  in  a  pond  near  the  dockyard  in  Ascension  Island,  Moseley  states  that  in  the 
breeding-season  the  females  dig  great  holes  as  large  as  themselves  in  a  bank  of 
sand,  in  which  to  deposit  their  eggs.  The  sand  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid  does  not 
feel  warm  to  the  hand,  but  during  the  daytime  is  rather  cool,  while  it  is  at  all 
times  moist.  Its  temperature  appears  to  undergo  no  material  variation,  owing 
to  the  depth  at  which  the  eggs  are  deposited ;  such  medium  amount  of  heat  being 
sufficient  for  the  hatching. 

Although  a  large  number  of  green  turtle  are  captured  by  being  turned  on 
their  backs  while  on  shore,  in  the  Seychelles  and  Bahamas  they  are  harpooned. 
In  Keeling  Island  the  method  of  capture  is  described  by  Darwin  as  follows : — 
"  The  water  is  so  clear  and  shallow  that,  although  at  first  a  turtle  dives  quickly 
out  of  sight,  yet,  in  a  canoe  or  boat  under  sail,  the  pursuers,  after  no  long  chase, 
come  up  to  it.  A  man,  standing  nearly  in  the  bows  at  this  moment,  dashes 
through  the  water  upon  the  turtle's  back,  then,  clinging  with  both  hands  to  the 
shell  of  the  neck,  he  is  carried  away,  till  the  animal  becomes  exhausted,  and  is 
secured."  In  China  and  Mozambique  turtles  are  captured  by  means  of  sucking- 
fishes,  which  are  taken  to  a  spot  where  the  reptiles  are  basking  upon  the  surface 
of  the  water.  Each  fish  has  a  ring  round  its  body  to  which  a  line  is  attached,  and 
as  soon  as  it  securely  fastens  itself  by  its  sucking-disc  to  the  back  of  a  turtle,  both 
captor  and  captured  are  drawn  ashore.  Although  those  of  the  loggerhead  have  a 
somewhat  musky  taste,  the  eggs  of  the  other  species  of  turtle  are  much  esteemed 
as  articles  of  food,  while  all  yield  a  valuable  oil. 

As  already  said,  tortoise-shell  is  a  product  of  the  hawksblll  turtle, 
and  it  is  too  often  taken  from  the  back  of  the  living  animal  by  the 
aid  of  heat,  after  which  painful  operation  the  unfortunate  turtle  is  returned  to  its 
native  element.  As  the  raw  tortoise-shell  is  very  unlike  the  finished  article,  with 
which  all  are  familiar,  Bell's  brief  account  of  the  process  of  manufacture  may  be 
quoted.  The  horny  shields,  as  removed  from  the  turtle,  being  highly  curved,  "  the 
uneven  curvature  is  first  of  all  to  be  removed,  and  the  plate  rendered  perfectly  flat. 


86  TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 

This  is  effected  by  immersing  it  in  hot  water,  and  then  allowing  it  to  cool  under 
heavy  pressure  between  smooth  blocks  of  wood,  or  metallic  plates.  The  surface  is 
then  rendered  smooth,  and  the  thickness  equal,  by  scraping  and  tiling  away  the 
rough  and  prominent  parts.  In  this  way  each  plate  receives  an  equal  and  smooth 
surface.  But  it  is  in  many  cases  desirable  to  employ  larger  pieces  than  can  be 
obtained  from  single  plates,  and  two  pieces  are  then  united  together  in  the 
following  manner.  The  edges  are  bevelled  off  to  the  space  of  two  or  three  lines, 
and  the  margins,  when  placed  together,  overlap  each  other  to  that  extent.  They 
are  then  pressed  together  by  a  metallic  press,  and  the  whole  is  submitted  to  the 
action  of  boiling  water;  and  by  this  means  the  two  pieces  are  so  admirably 
soldered  together  as  to  leave  no  indication  of  the  line  of  union.  By  the  application 
of  heat,  also,  the  tortoise-shell  may  be  made  to  receive  any  impression  by  being 
pressed  between  metallic  moulds."  Necklaces,  etc.,  are  made  by  pressing  the 
fragments  and  dust  in  moulds. 

Turtles,  more  or  less  closely  allied  to  the  existing  kinds,  abound 
Extinct  Turtles.  J 

in  marine  strata  of  the  Tertiary  and  Cretaceous  epochs,  some  belong- 
ing to  extinct  and  others  to  the  living  genera.  Among  the  latter,  the  gigantic 
Hoffmann's  turtle  (Chelone  hoffmanni),  from  the  chalk  of  Holland,  appears 
to  have  been  allied  to  the  hawksbill,  but  had  a  shell  of  some  5  feet  in  length. 
Extinct  loggerheads  occur  in  the  London  Clay;  and  an  allied  extinct  genus 
(Lytoloma),  common  to  the  same  formation  and  the  upper  Cretaceous  deposits,  was 
remarkable  for  the  great  length  of  the  bony  union  between  the  two  branches  of 
the  lower  jaw,  and  also  for  the  circumstance  that  the  aperture  of  the  internal 
nostrils  was  placed  right  at  the  hinder  extremity  of  the  palate,  as  in  crocodiles. 
In  strata  older  than  the  Chalk,  such  as  the  Purbeck  and  other  Oolitic  rocks,  we 
meet  with  turtles  having  heart-shaped  shells,  but  clawed  limbs,  and  a  vacuity  in 
the  centre  of  the  plastron,  these  forming  an  extinct  family  (Acichelyidce),  from 
which  the  modern  turtles  have  probably  originated. 

LEATHERY  TURTLES. 

Family  DERMOCHELYID^. 

The  remarkable  leathery  turtle,  or  luth  (Dermochelys  coriacea),  which  is  the 
solitary  survivor  of  a  series  of  extinct  forms,  is  one  of  those  animals  whose  serial 
position  is  a  matter  of  dispute  among  naturalists ;  some  of  whom  regard  it  as  so 
different  from  all  other  Chelonians,  that  it  ought  to  represent  a  suborder  by  itself, 
while  others  believe  it  to  be  merely  a  highly  specialised  form  allied  to  the  true 
turtles.  From  the  evidence  afforded  by  extinct  species,  the  latter  view,  to  our 
thinking,  appears  the  more  likely  to  be  the  true  one.  The  essential  peculiarity  of 
the  leathery  turtle  is  to  be  found  in  the  nature  of  its  carapace,  which  is  a  mosaic- 
like  structure  composed  of  a  number  of  irregular  discs  of  bone  closely  joined 
together,  and  entirely  free  from  the  backbone  and  ribs.  In  certain  extinct  forms 
the  carapace,  on  the  other  hand,  is  represented  merely  by  a  row  of  marginal  bones ; 
from  which  it  is  inferred  that  these  reptiles  have  been  derived  from  true  turtles  by 
a  gradual  disintegration  and  breaking  up  of  the  carapace.  In  the  living  genus  the 


TURTLES.  87 

carapace  is  completely  bony,  and  marked  by  seven  prominent  longitudinal  keels ; 
but  the  plastron  is  much  less  fully  ossified,  and  carries  five  similar  keels,  the 
unpaired  entoplastral  bone  being  wanting.  The  head,  which  is  covered  with  small 
shields,  is  remarkable  for  its  relatively  large  size  and  globose  form ;  the  beak 
having  two  triangular  cusps  situated  between  three  deep  notches.  The  jaws  differ 
from  those  of  the  true  turtles  in  being  sharp-edged  from  end  to  end,  without  any 
expanded  bony  palate ;  and  there  is  also  an  important  difference  in  the  structure 
of  the  skull  itself,  which  may,  however,  be  apparently  the  result  of  specialisation. 
As  in  the  true  turtles,  the  limbs  are  converted  into  flattened  paddles,  which  are, 


LEATHERY  TURTLE  (^  nat.  size) 


however,  completely  destitute  of  claws;  the  front  pair  being  much  elongated, 
narrow,  and  pointed,  while  the  hinder  ones  are  short  and  truncated.  The  humerus, 
or  bone  of  the  upper  arm,  has  the  same  general  form  as  in  the  true  turtles  ;  and  is 
thus  very  unlike  the  corresponding  bone  of  other  members  of  the  order.  The 
process  marked  h  in  the  figure  on  p.  88  is  more  developed  than  in  the  turtles  ; 
and  the  foramen  e  at  the  lower  end  is  unique  in  the  order.  Largest  of  living  turtles, 
the  leathery  turtle  exceeds  6  feet  in  length  ;  and  while  in  the  young  the  front 
flippers  are  equal  in  length  to  the  shell,  in  the  adult  they  become  shorter.  The 
general  colour  is  dark  brown,  which  may  be  either  uniform,  or  relieved  with 
yellow  spots;  the  longitudinal  tuberculated  keels  on  the  shell,  as  well  as  the 
margins  of  the  limbs,  being  invariably  yellow  in  the  young. 


38 


TORTOISES  AXD    TURTLES. 


This  turtle  is  generally  distributed  throughout  the  tropical  portions  of  the 
Atlantic,  Indian,  and  Pacific  Oceans,  from  whence  it  occasionally  wanders  to  the 
coasts  of  cooler  regions.  Yearly  becoming  scarcer,  it  is,  however,  one  of  those 
.species  which  stand  a  fair  chance  of  extermination  at  no  very  distant  date. 
Although  but  little  is  known  as  to  the  mode  of  life  of  this  turtle,  it  appears  that 
its  food  is  chiefly  of  an  animal  nature,  comprising  fish,  crustaceans,  and  molluscs. 
In  the  breeding-season  it  appears  in  numbers  on  the  Tortugas  Islands,  off  the  coast 

of  Florida,  and  sometimes  in  still  greater  abundance  on 
the  sandy  shores  of  Brazil.  Arriving  somewhat  later  than 
the  true  turtles,  it  deposits  its  eggs  in  a  similar  manner, 
laying  as  many  as  three  hundred  and  fifty,  in  two  batches  ; 
while  at  times,  when  three  or  more  females  have  a  nest  in 
common,  upwards  of  a  thousand  eggs  may  be  found  in 
a  single  spot.  When  hatched,  the  young  turtles  immedi- 
ately seek  the  water,  where,  however,  they  have  almost 
as  many  foes  as  on  land ;  so  that  it  is  probable  only  a 
very  small  percentage  arrive  at  maturity.  The  strength 
and  weight  of  a  full-grown  individual  are  very  great ;  one 
captured  some  years  ago,  on  the  coast  of  Tenasserim, 
requiring  the  combined  efforts  of  ten  or  twelve  men  to 
drag  it  on  to  the  beach.  The  flesh  has  an  unpleasant 
flavour,  and  is  not,  therefore,  generally  eaten. 

Gigantic  as   is    the    existing   leathery   turtle,  it   was 
FRONT  VIEW  OF  LEFT  HUMERus    considerably    exceeded    by    some    of    its    extinct    allies. 

OF  AX    EXTINCT     LEATHERY  r>  7  •        £  -IT  1 

TURTLE.  Among  these,  the  huge  Eosptmryis,  from  the  London  Clay, 

with  a  skull  of  nearly  a  foot  in  length,  apparently  had  a 

carapace  consisting  only  of  one  median  row  of  broad-keeled  bony  plates,  and  a 
border  of  marginal  bones ;  while  in  Psephopliomis,  from  the  higher  Eocene  and 
Miocene  strata  of  the  Continent,  both  upper  and  lower  shells  were  formed  of 
mosaic-like  bones,  which,  it  is  thought,  were  overlain  by  horny  shields.  In  the 
earlier  I'rotoxlrya  and  Protosplitiryis,  from  the  Cretaceous  rocks  of  North  America 
and  Europe,  the  upper  shell  appears  to  have  been  represented  merely  by  a  row  of 
marginal  bones,  while  the  lower  one  was  very  stoutly  ossified;  some  of  these  early 
forms  probably  attained  a  length  of  from  10  to  12  feet. 


THE  SIDE-NECKED  TORTOISES. 
Families   ('JIELYID^E  and  PELOMEDUSIDsE. 

In  place  of  withdrawing  the  head  into  the  shell  by  means  of  an  S-like 
flexure  of  the  neck  in  a  vertical  plane,  as  in  all  the  groups  hitherto  described, 
the  remainder  of  the  living  tortoises  with  complete  shells  bend  the,  neck  side- 
ways in  a  horizontal  plane  (as  shown  in  the  illustration  on  p.  1)2),  and  thus 
bring  the  head  within  the,  margins  of  the  shell.  Accordingly,  the  group  is 
collectively  spoken  of  as  the  side-necked  tortoises,  or  Pleurodira.  This  character 
is  alone  amply  sufficient  to  separate  the  group  from  the  foregoing  assemblage 


SIDE-NECKED   TORTOISES. 


89 


of  S-necked  or  Cryptodiran  tortoises,  but  since  there  are  also  certain  features 
by  which  the  skulls  and  shells  of  the  two  groups  can  be  identified,  it  is  im- 
portant that  these  should  be  noticed.  As  regards  the  skull,  this  is  distinguished 
in  the  first  place  by  the  tympanic  ring  surrounding  the  aperture  of  the  ear  being 
complete,  as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  the  accompanying  figure  with  the  one  on 
p.  47,  and  also  by  the  circumstance  that  the  lower  jaw  articulates  by  means  of  a 


LOWER  AND   SIDE  VIEWS   OF  SKULL  AND   UPPER  AND  LOWER  ASPECTS   OF  LOWER  JAW  OF 

GREAVED  TORTOISE.     (From  Gray,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1870., 

knob-like  condyle  with  a  corresponding  cavity  in  the  quadrate-bone,  whereas  in  the 
preceding  group  the  positions  of  the  condyle  and  cup  are  reversed.  The  shell, 
which  is  always  fully  developed  and  forms  a  solid  box,  presents  the  peculiarity  that 
both  the  carapace  and  the  hinder 
part  of  the  plastron  are  immovably 
welded  to  the  bones  of  the  pelvis; 
its  upper  and  lower  moieties  thus 
having  a  bond  of  union  which  is 
totally  lacking  among  the  S-necked 
tortoises.  Further,  the  vertebrae  of 
the  neck  are  furnished  with  pro- 
jecting lateral  or  transverse  pro- 
cesses, which  are  absent  from  the 
latter  group. 

In  addition  to  these  absolutely 
characteristic  features,  there  are  cer- 
tain other  points  connected  with  the  anatomy  of  the  side-necked  tortoises  which 
demand  a   brief   notice.      With  the  exception  of  one  species,  which  lacks  horny 


FRONT    PORTION    OF    THE    PLASTRON    OF    A    SIDE-NECKED 
TORTOISE,   WITH  THE   HORNY   SHIELDS  REMOVED. 

The  thick  lines  indicate  the  boundaries  of  the  shields. 


9o 


TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 


shields  on  the  shell,  the  whole  of  these  tortoises  are  characterised  by  the  presence  of 

an  intergular  (i.gu)  shield  between  the  two  gulars  (gu)  on  the  front  of  the  plastron ; 

such  intergular   shield   being,  as  we   have  seen,  but  very  rarely  present   in   the 

S-necked  group.     Very  generally  among  the  present  assemblage  one  or  more  of  the 

pairs  of  costal  bones  of  the  carapace  may  meet  in  the  middle  line,  owing  to  the 

absence  of  some  of  the  median  unpaired  series  of 

bones;    in   certain   cases   the  whole  of  the  costals 

thus    meeting,    owing   to   the    absence   of   all    the 

neural   bones.      Whereas,    in    one    family    of    the 

group  the   plastron  contains  the  same  nine   bones 

as  in  the  side -necked  tortoises,  in  a  second  family 

there   are    eleven  bony  elements   in    this   part    of 

the  shell,  owing  to  the  presence  of  an   additional 

(mesoplastral)  pair   between  the  normal  hyo-  and 

hypo-plastral  bones. 

The  side-necked  tortoises,  of  which  the  great 
majority  may  be  included  in  the  two  families  men- 
tioned above,  are  all  of  fresh-water  habits,  and  at 
the  present  day  are  exclusively  restricted  to  the 
Southern  Hemisphere,  while  they  are  the  only 
members  of  the  order  found  in  Australia  and  New 
Guinea.  During  the  earlier  portion  of  the  Tertiary 
period  they  extended,  however,  into  the  Northern 
Hemisphere,  and  in  the  preceding  Secondary  period 
were  abundantly  represented  in  Europe.  These 
facts  show  that  the  group  is  a  very  ancient  one ; 
and  by  the  presence  of  the  additional  mesoplastral 
elements  in  the  lower  half  of  the  shell  of  some 

of  its  representatives  it  is  allied  to  a  third  and  totally  extinct  group,  which  dis- 
appeared before  the  close  of  the  Secondary  period. 

Matamata  The  extraordinary  reptile  depicted  in  the  accompanying  illustra- 

Tortoise.  tion,  and  known  as  the  matamata  (Chelys  fimbriata),  is  the  typical 
representative  of  the  first  of  the  existing  families  of  the  group — Chelyidce.  The 
various  genera  included  therein  are  collectively  characterised  by  having  the  normal 
nine  bones  in  the  plastron,  by  the  neck  being  incapable  of  complete  retraction 
within  the  margins  of  the  shell,  and  the  absence  of  a  bony  temporal  arch  to  the 
skull.  Eight  genera  are  included  in  the  family,  the  range  of  which  is  restricted  to 
South  America,  Australia,  and  New  Guinea. 

The  matamata,  which  is  an  American  species  inhabiting  Guiana  and  Northern 
Brazil,  and  is  the  sole  representative  of  its  genus,  is  easily  recognised  by  its  broad 
and  elongated  neck,  of  which  the  sides  are  fringed  with  peculiar  fimbriated  pro- 
jections, and  the  depressed  and  triangular  head  terminating  in  a  proboscis-like 
nose,  and  furnished  with  very  small  eyes.  Not  less  characteristic  is  the  equally 
depressed  and  much  corrugated  shell,  in  which  the  carapace  bears  three  longitudinal 
ridges,  subdivided  into  nodose  protuberances  by  cross-valleys ;  the  horny  shields  of 
the  same  being  extremely  rugose,  and  marked  with  deep  radiating  striae.  The 


EIGHT  HALF   OF  THE    CARAPACE    OF    THE 


BLACK      STERNOTHERE,      WITH 
HORNY  SHIELDS  REMOVED. 


THE 


SIDE-NECKED.   TORTOISES.  91 

vertebral  shields  are  broader  than  long,  and  the  hinder  marginals  are  more  or  less 
strongly  serrated,  while  there  is  a  distinct  nuchal  shield  on  the  front  edge  of  the 
carapace.  On  the  removal  of  the  horny  shields  from  the  carapace,  it  is  seen  that 
only  the  last  pair  of  costal  bones  meet  in  the  middle  line,  owing  to  the  presence  of 
but  seven  neural  bones.  The  plastron  is  narrow  and  deeply  notched  behind,  the  tail 
is  very  short,  and  the  toes  are  fully  webbed.  In  addition  to  the  rows  of  fimbriated 
appendages  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  there  is  a  similar  outgrowth  of  skin  on  the 
chin  and  larger  pair  of  appendages  above  the  ears.  In  colour  the  adult  is  uniform 
brown,  but  the  young  are  prettily  marked  with  bands  of  brown  and  yellow  on  the 


MATAMATA  TORTOISE  (\  nat.  size). 

chin  and  neck,  while  the  shell  is  ornamented  with  black  and  yellow  spots.     The 
species  is  of  comparatively  large  size,  the  shell  attaining  a  length  of  15  inches. 

Unfortunately,  but  little  is  known  as  to  the  mode  of  life  of  this  strange  tortoise. 
When  in  its  native  element,  the  warty  appendages  on  the  neck  float  in  the  water 
like  some  vegetable  growth,  while  the  rugged  and  bossed  shell  strongly  resembles 
a  stone;  and  it  is  thus  probable  that  the  whole  appearance  of  the  creature  is 
advantageous  either  in  deluding  its  enemies  or  in  attracting  to  it  the  animals  on 
which  it  feeds — the  latter  being  the  more  likely  hypothesis.  Although  it  appears 
that  the  matamata  will  occasionally  eat  vegetable  substances,  its  chief  food  consists 
of  fish,  frogs,  and  tadpoles,  some  of  which  may  probably  be  attracted  within  reach 


92 


TORTOISES  AND    TURTLES. 


by  mistaking  the  appendages  on  the  neck  for  plants  or  animals  on  which  they  feed. 
The  matamata  is,  however,  stated  to  capture  some  of  its  prey  by  swimming  swiftly 
among  water-plants,  diving  immediately  that  a  fish  or  frog  is  seized  in  its  beak. 
In  captivity  this  tortoise  is  sluggish,  frequently  dying  after  a  few  weeks  through 
refusal  to  feed. 

Snake-Necked  The  snake-necked  tortoises,  of  which  there  are  two  South  American 

Tortoises,      species  (Hydromedusa  maximiliani  and  tectifera),  agree  with  the 

matamata  in  their  long  necks  and  weak  jaws,  but  differ  in  their  smooth  shell,  the 

absence  of  a  proboscis  to  the  nose,  and  the  presence  of  only  four  claws  on  each 


SNAKE-NECKED  TORTOISE  (J  nat.  size). 

foot — the  matamata  having  five  claws  on  the  fore-feet  and  four  on  the  hinder  pair. 
The  flattened  shell  in  the  young  state  has  an  interrupted  median  ridge,  and  presents 
the  unique  peculiarity  that  the  broad  nuchal  shield  of  the  carapace  is  placed  behind 
the  first  pair  of  marginals  (which  consequently  meet  in  the  middle  line),  and  thus 
simulates  a  sixth  vertebral  shield.  The  figured  species  (H.  tectifera),  which  ranges 
from  Southern  Brazil  to  Buenos  Aires,  has  a  shell  measuring  about  8  inches  in 
length,  and  its  feet  largely  webbed.  In  colour,  the  carapace  is  dark  brown  and  the 
plastron  yellowish,  with  brown  spots  in  the  young ;  the  head  and  neck  being  olive, 
with  a  curved  white  streak  on  each  side  of  the  throat,  and  a  broader  white  band, 
edged  with  black,  running  along  the  sides  of  head  and  neck. 


SIDE-NECKED   TORTOISES. 


93 


Nocturnal  and  carnivorous  in  their  habits,  the  snake-necked  tortoises  appear 
to  agree  in  their  general  mode  of  life  with  the  majority  of  fresh- water  species. 
During  the  daytime  they  are  generally  to  be  found  lying  asleep  on  some  dry  spot 
near  the  water,  with  the  neck  bent  on  one  side,  and  the  head,  like  the  limbs  and 
tail,  retracted  within  the  margins  of  the  carapace.  When  disturbed,  the  head  and 
neck  are,  however,  shot  out  with  marvellous  rapidity,  reminding  the  observer  of  the 
sudden  dart  of  a  snake. 

Australian  Long-  In  Australia  and  New  Guinea  the  place  of  the  preceding  group 
Necked  Tortoises.  is  taken  by  another  genus  of  long-necked  tortoises,  technically  known 
as  Chelodina,  the  members  of  which  may  be  recognised  by  the  presence  of  a 
normally  placed  nuchal  shield 
on  the  carapace,  coupled  with 
the  circumstance  that  the  inter- 
gular  shield  of  the  plastron, 
instead  of  being  placed  between 
the  gulars,  as  in  the  figure  on 
p.  89,  is  situated  behind  the 
latter,  which  consequently  meet 
in  the  middle  line.  The  ver- 
tebral horny  shields  are  longer 
than  broad,  and  the  whole  of 
the  shields  remarkable  for  their 
extreme  thinness.  On  remov- 
ing the  latter  from  the  carapace, 
it  will  be  found  that,  owing  to 
the  absence  of  neural  bones 
all  the  pairs  of  costal  bones 
meet  in  the  middle  line, — a  peculiarity  shared  with  one  American,  and  two  other 
Australian  genera  of  the  family.  There  are  four  species  of  these  long-necked 
tortoises,  three  of  which  are  found  in  Australia,  while  the  fourth  is  Papuan. 

In   addition   to   the   foregoing,   there    are    four    other    genera 

belonging  to  the  family  under  consideration,  collectively  distinguished 
by  their  shorter  necks,  the  length  of  which  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  back.  Of 
these  the  American  Rhinemys,  Hydraspis,  and  Platemys  are  characterised  by  the 
narrow  anterior  extremity  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  by  the  first  vertebral  shield  of 
the  carapace  being  wider  than  either  of  the  others.  The  second  of  these  genera,  of 
which  a  member  is  represented  in  the  accompanying  figure,  is  by  far  the  most 
numerous  in  species;  and  is  noteworthy  on  account  of  being  represented  by  a 
fossil  species  in  the  Eocene  deposits  of  India.  The  third  genus  differs  from  the 
other  two  in  the  absence  of  neural  bones  to  the  carapace.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
two  Australian  genera — Emydura  and  Elseya, — both  of  which  present  the  feature 
last  mentioned,  are  distinguished  by  the  broad  anterior  extremity  of  the  lower 
jaw,  and  by  the  first  vertebral  shield  of  the  carapace  not  exceeding  the  others 
in  size. 

The   tortoises   which    may   be    conveniently    designated    by   a 

translation  of  their  scientific  title  (Podocnemis) — so  named  on  account 


AN  AMERICAN  SIDE-NECKED  TORTOISE  (HydrCtSpis). 


Other  Genera. 


Greaved 
Tortoises. 


94 


TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 


of  the  presence  of  a  pair  of  large  shields  on  the  outer  side  of  the  hind-foot  of  the 
typical  species — bring  us  to  the  second  family  of  the  group  under  consideration. 
This  family  (Pelomedusidce),  which  contains  three  genera,  and  is  now  confined  to 
Africa,  Madagascar,  and  South  America,  is  broadly  distinguished  from  the  last  by 
having  eleven  elements  in  the  plastron,  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  pair  of  meso- 
plastral  bones ;  while  the  neck  is  completely  retractile  within  the  margins  of  the 
shell.  The  skull  differs  from  that  of  the  preceding  family  in  having  a  bony 
temporal  arch,  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  89 ;  while  it  lacks  the  distinct  nasal 
bones  generally  found  in  the  former. 

The  largest  and  best  known  representative  of  the  whole  family  is  the  giant 
Amazonian  tortoise  (Podocnemis  expansa),  which  considerably  exceeds  in  size  all 


GIANT  AMAZONIAN  TORTOISE  (£  liat.  size). 

other  members  of  the  entire  group,  having  a  shell  which  may  measure  as  much  as 
30  inches  in  length.  It  belongs  to  a  genus  including  seven  existing  species,  of 
which  six  are  South  American,  while  the  seventh  is  an  inhabitant  of  Madagascar. 
This  extremely  anomalous  distribution  is  to  some  extent  explained  by  the 
occurrence  of  a  fossil  representative  of  the  genus  in  the  Eocene  strata  of  India, 
which  probably  indicates  that  these  tortoises  were  at  one  time  widely  spread.  As 
a  genus,  these  tortoises  are  characterised  by  the  skull  having  a  roof  over  its 
temporal  region,  coupled  with  the  presence  of  five  claws  on  the  fore-feet,  and  four 
on  the  hinder  pair,  and  likewise  by  the  circumstance  that  the  mesoplastral  bones 
are  small  and  confined  to  the  edges  of  the  plastron,  so  that  they  are  widely 


SIDE-NECKED   TORTOISES.  95 

separated  from  one  another  in  the  middle  line.  The  toes  are  broadly  webbed,  and 
the  tail  is  remarkable  for  its  extreme  shortness. 

The  figured  species,  which  inhabits  tropical  South  America  to  the  eastwards 
of  the  Andes,  and  is  extremely  abundant  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Amazonian 
system,  has  the  shell  expanded  posteriorly,  and  much  depressed  in  the  adult, 
although  at  an  earlier  stage  it  has  a  roof -like  form.  The  chin  is  furnished  with 
two  small  wart-like  appendages ;  and  the  hind-foot  characterised  by  the  presence 
of  two  very  large  shields  on  its  outer  side.  In  colour,  the  upper  shell  is  brown  or 
olive,  with  darker  markings,  while  the  plastron  is  yellowish,  spotted  with  brown ; 
the  young  being  olive  above  and  yellow  beneath,  with  some  yellow  spots  on  the 
head.  All  the  other  members  of  the  genus  are  of  greatly  inferior  dimensions ;  a 
second  Amazonian  species  (P.  sextuberculata),  having  a  shell  of  scarcely  more  than 
a  foot  in  length,  and  being  distinguished  from  its  larger  relative  by  the  presence 
of  only  a  single  wattle  on  the  chin. 

The  best  account  of  the  habits  of  these  tortoises  is  the  one  given  by  Humboldt, 
who  speaks  of  the  large  species  by  its  native  name  of  arran.  On  the  Orinoco, 
according  to  this  account,  the  period  of  egg-laying  coincides  with  that  of  the 
lowest  level  of  the  waters  of  the  river,  or  from  the  end  of  January  till  the  latter 
part  of  March.  During  January  the  tortoises  collect  in  troops,  which  soon  leave 
the  water  to  bask  on  the  warm  banks  of  sand  exposed  by  the  lowering  of  the 
river.  Throughout  February  they  may  be  found  on  such  banks  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  day ;  but  early  in  March  the  several  troops  collect  in  larger  bodies,  and 
then  make  their  way  to  the  comparatively  few  islands  where  the  eggs  are 
habitually  deposited.  At  this  time,  shortly  before  the  egg-laying  commences, 
thousands  of  the  tortoises  may  be  seen  arranged  in  long  strings  around  the  shores 
of  the  islands  in  question,  stretching  out  their  necks,  and  holding  their  necks 
above  water,  in  order  to  see  whether  there  is  anything  to  prevent  their  landing  in 
safety.  As  the  creatures  are  exceedingly  timid,  and  especially  averse  to  the 
presence  of  human  beings  or  boats,  the  Indians,  to  whom  the  harvest  of  tortoise- 
eggs  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  take  every  precaution  to  prevent  them  being 
disturbed,  posting  sentinels  at  intervals  along  the  banks,  and  warning  all  passing 
boats  to  keep  in  the  middle  of  the  river..  When  the  tortoises  have  landed,  the 
laying  of  the  eggs  takes  place  at  night,  and  begins  soon  after  sunset ;  the  females 
digging  holes  of  some  three  feet  in  diameter  and  two  feet  in  depth,  by  the  aid  of 
their  powerful  hind-limbs.  So  great  is  the  contention  for  space,  that  one  tortoise 
will  frequently  make  use  of  a  pit  dug  by  a  neighbour,  and  in  which  one  set  of  eggs 
has  already  been  deposited,  although  not  yet  covered  over  with  sand;  two  layers 
of  eggs  thus  occupying  one  area.  The  crowding  and  jostling  of  the  reptiles 
necessarily  leads  to  an  immense  number  of  eggs  being  broken,  which  is  estimated 
at  a  fifth  of  the  whole;  the  contents  of  the  fractured  shells  in  many  places 
cementing  the  loose  sand  into  a  coherent  mass.  The  number  of  tortoises  on  the 
shore  during  the  night  being  so  large,  many  of  them  are  unable  to  complete  the 
work  of  egg-laying  before  dawn;  and  these  belated  individuals  become  quite 
insensible  to  danger,  continuing  there  even  in  the  presence  of  the  Indians,  who 
repair  to  the  spot  at  an  early  hour. 

The  great  assemblage  of  these  Chelonians  takes  place  on  one  particular  island 


96  TO  It  TOSSES  AXD    TURTLES. 

in  the  Orinoco,  hence  known  as  the  Boca  de  la  Tortuga  :  and  according-  to  native 
accounts,  no  other  spot  is  to  be  met  with  on  the  river  from  its  mouth  to  its 
junction  with  the  Apure.  where  eggs  can  be  found  in  abundance.  On  the  island 
in  question,  the  number  of  eggs  deposited  is  enormous;  a  large  stretch  of  smooth 
sandy  beach  being  underlain  \vith  an  almost  continuous  layer.  To  determine  the 
position  and  extent  of  the  deposit,  a  long  pole  is  thrust  down  at  intervals  into  the 
sand:  the  sudden  want  of  resistance  to  its  descent  proclaiming  when  the  loose 
layer  containing  the  eggs  has  been  reached.  According  to  measurements  taken  by 
Humboldt.  the  stratum  extended  to  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  from 
the  water,  and  averaged  three  feet  in  depth.  The  whole  is  regularly  parcelled  out 
among  the  Indians,  who  proceed  to  work  the  layer  with  the  regularity  of  miners. 
The  earth  having  been  removed,  the  eggs  are  carried  in  small  baskets  to  the 
neighbouring  encampment,  where  they  are  thrown  into  long  wooden  troughs  of 
water.  Here  they  are  broken  and  stirred  up  with  shovels,  and  the  mass  then  left 
in  the  sun  till  all  the  oily  matter  has  collected  at  the  surface,  whence  it  is 
continually  ladled  off,  and  taken  oft*  to  be  boiled  over  a  quick  fire.  The  result  of 
this  process  is  a  limpid,  inodorous,  and  scarcely  yellow  substance,  known  as  "turtle- 
butter,"  which  can  be  used  for  much  the  same  purposes  as  olive-oil.  In  spite  of 
the  enormous  quantity  of  eggs  thus  taken,  numbers  are  hatched,  and  Humboldt 
saw  the  whole  bank  of  the  Orinoco  swarming  with  small  tortoises  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  that  escaped  only  with  difficulty  from  the  pursuit  of  the  Indian  children. 
All  these  tortoises  are  vegetable  feeders  ;  and  the  females  greatly  exceed  the  males  in 
si/e.  On  the  upper  Amazon  the  large  species,  according  to  Bates,  is  captured  either 
bv  means  of  nets  or  by  shooting  with  arrows.  On  such  occasions,  after  the  net  is 

i  «/  O 

set  in  a  semicircular  form  at  one  extremity  of  a  pool,  the  rest  of  the  party  spread 
themselves  around  the  swamp  at  the  opposite  end,  and  begin  to  beat  with  poles  in 
order  to  drive  the  tortoises  towards  the  middle.  This  process  on  the  occasion 
referred  to  "  was  continued  for  an  hour  or  more,  the  beaters  gradually  drawing 
nearer  to  each  other,  and  driving  the  hosts  of  animals  before  them:  the  number  of 
little  snouts  constantly  popping  above  the  surface  of  the  water  showing  that  all 
was  i-'oin"-  on  well.  When  they  neared  the  net,  the  men  moved  more  quickly, 

O  ?">  */  ^ 

shouting  and  beating  with  great  vigour.  The  ends  of  the  net  were  then  seized  by 
several  stron"1  hands  and  drao'fed  suddenly  forwards,  bringing  them  at  the  same 

O  <~5^*)  \J  O         O 

time  together,  so  as  to  enclose  all  the  booty  in  a  circle.  Every  man  now  leapt  into 
the  enclosure,  the  boats  were  brought  up,  and  the  turtles  easily  captured  by  the 
hand  and  tossed  into  them."  Altogether,  about  eighty  individuals  were  captured 
in  the  course  of  twenty  minutes  or  so.  In  shooting  tortoises,  the  arrow  employed 
has  a  strong  lancet-shaped  steel  point,  fitted  to  a  peg  which  enters  the  tip  of  the 
shaft.  To  the  latter  the  peg  is  secured  by  a  hank  of  twine  some  thirty  or  forty 
yards  in  length,  and  neatly  wound  round  the  body  of  the  arrow.  When  a  tortoise 
is  struck,  the,  peg  drops  out  from  the  shaft,  and  is  carried  down  by  the  diving 
animal,  leaving  the,  latter  floating  on  the  surface.  Thereupon  the  sportsman 
paddles  up  to  the  arrow,  and  proceeds  to  "play"  his  victim  until  it  can  be  drawn 
near  to  the  Mil-face,  when  it  is  struck  with  a.  second  arrow,  after  which,  by  the  aid 
of  the  two  cords,  it  can  be  safely  drawn  ashore.  In  many  villages  on  the  Amazon 
every  house  has  a  pond,  in  which  a  number  of  these  tortoises  are  kept  for  food. 


SIDE-NECKED   TORTOISES.  97 

The  other  two  genera  of  the  family — Pelomedusa  and  Sterno- 
therus — differ  from  the  first  by  the  absence  of  a  bony  roof  to  the 
temporal  region  of  the  skull,  and  likewise  by  the  presence  of  five  claws  in  both  the 
front  and  hind-feet.  Whereas,  however,  the  former  has  the  mesoplastral  elements 
of  the  plastron  small  and  similar  to  those  of  the  greaved  tortoises,  in  the  latter 
they  are  as  well  developed  as  the  other  elements  of  the  plastron,  meeting  in  the 
middle  line.  Pelomedusa  is  represented  by  a  single  species  common  to  Africa 
and  Madagascar,  but  of  the  six  species  of  Sternotherus,  five  are  exclusively  African, 
while  the  sixth  inhabits  both  Eastern  Africa  and  Madagascar.  The  right  half 
of  the  upper  shell  of  one  of  the  species  is  represented  on  p.  90. 

A  remarkable  Chelonian  (Carettochelys  insculpta)  from  the  Fly 

Fly  River  Turtle._.          XT  .  x        „  '  / 

River,  New  Guinea,  differs  from  all  other  members  of  the  group,  in 

the  absence  of  horny  shields  on  the  shell  and  the  conversion  of  the  limbs  into 
paddles,  each  of  which  carries  but  two  claws.  The  neck  is  not  retractile.  In  the 
carapace  there  are  six  very  small  neural  bones,  which  are  not  in  contact  with  one 
another,  thus  allowing  each  pair  of  costals  to  meet  in  the  middle  line ;  and  the 
plastron  has  only  the  usual  nine  bones.  A  wavy  sculpture  ornaments  the  whole  of 
the  external  surface  of  the  shell,  which  attains  a  length  of  about  18  inches.  The 
head  is  large,  and  the  tail  relatively  short.  The  species,  which  represents  a 
separate  family  (Carettochdyidce),  is  still  very  imperfectly  known;  and  it  has 
been  suggested  that  it  does  not  belong  to  this  group  at  all.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  a  chelonian  (Hemichelys),  from  the  Eocene  rocks  of  India,  indicates  a  second 
member  of  the  same  family,  as  its  shell  was  similarly  devoid  of  horny  shields. 

Australian  Probably  the  most  aberrant  members  of  the  whole  order  were 

Horned  Tortoises,  certain  gigantic  tortoises  (Miolania)  from  the  superficial  deposits  of 

Ix^p.  Australia,   characterised    by   the    presence    of 

y^JIBlffgBlilj^.  several  pairs  of  horn-like  protuberances  on  the 

^— *g^illsS  fl^i^^p    skull,  and  also  by  the  investment  of  the  tail  in 

a  loony  sheath,  recalling  that  of  the  armadillos. 
Unfortunately,  the  shell  of  these  strange  reptiles 
is  known  only  by  fragments;  but,  from  the 
conformation  of  the  bones  of  the  feet,  we  are 

FRONT  VIEW  OF  SKULL  OF  HORNED  TORTOISE.  j     •     i          i   -i 

enabled  to  say  that  they  were  terrestrial,  while 

the  structure  of  the  palate  indicates  that  they  were  herbivorous.     They  clearly 
constitute  a  fourth  family  (Miolaniidce)  of  side-necked  tortoises. 
Extinct  European         The  Secondary  rocks  of  Europe  contain  the  remains  of  a  number 

Genera.  of  extinct  tortoises  which  may  be  referred  to  a  fifth  family  (Plesio- 
chelyidce)  of  the  group.  While  agreeing  with  the  existing  Chelyidce  in  having  but 
nine  bones  in  the  plastron,  these  extinct  forms  differ  by  the  much  greater  thickness 
of  their  shells,  and  also  by  the  circumstance  that  only  one  of  the  lower  bones  of 
the  pelvis  is  welded  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  plastron,  whereas  in  the  existing 
families  both  are  thus  united.  Abundant  in  both  the  Oolitic  and  Wealden  rocks, 
the  majority  of  these  tortoises  are  referred  to  the  genus  Plesiochelys,  although 
some,  as  the  one  of  which  the  carapace  is  represented  in  the  figure  on  the  next  page, 
are  separated  as  Hyloechelys,  being  distinguished  by  the  enormous  width  of  the 
vertebral  shields,  in  which  the  breadth  may  be  three  times  the  length.  Nothing 

VOL.  v. — 7 


TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 


approaching  this  conformation  is  to  be  met  with  among  living  representatives  of 
the  order. 

Generalised  Certain    extinct    tortoises,    such    as   Pleurosternum   from   the 

Cheionians.     Purbeck  Oolite  of  Swanage,  and  Baena  of  the  Eocene  rocks  of  the 

United  States,  indicate  the  existence  of  an  extremely  generalised  group  of  the 

order    Amphichelydia,   presenting    many   characters    common    to    the    existing 

S-necked  and  Side  -  necked 
groups,  and  which  may  have 
been  the  ancestral  stock  of 
both  the  latter.  All  have 
eleven  bones  in  the  plastron, 
owing  to  the  presence  of 
mesoplastrals,  and  an  inter- 
gular  shield,  but  the  pelvis 
may  or  may  not  be  connected 
with  the  plastron.  In  the 
first  of  the  genera  named, 
the  mesoplastral  bones  extend 
right  across  the  shell  to  meet 
in  the  middle  line,  and  one 
of  the  bones  of  the  pelvis 
articulates  to  a  smooth  oval 
facet  on  the  plastron.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  the  second 
genus,  the  mesoplastral  bones 
are  incomplete,  as  in  the 
existing  greaved  tortoises, 
and  there  is  no  union  between  the  pelvis  and  the  plastron.  Since  it  is  probable 
that  the  plastron  of  the  Cheionians  has  originated  from  a  system  of  abdominal 
ribs  similar  to  those  of  the  tuateras  (Chapter  VI.),  it  is  interesting  to  notice  that 
these  generalised  tortoises  had  a  larger  number  of  plastral  elements  than  are  to 
be  found  in  the  majority  of  the  existing  representatives  of  the  order. 


IMPERFECT  CARAPACE   OF  WIDE-SHIELDED  WEALDEN  TORTOISE. 


THE  SOFT-TORTOISES. 
Family  TRIONYCHIDJE. 


The  last  group  of  the  order  comprises  the  soft  river-tortoises,  now  confined  to 
the  warmer  regions  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  North  America,  but  which,  during  the 
middle  portion  of  the  Tertiary  period,  appear  to  have  been  extremely  abundant  in 
the  rivers  of  England  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  The  whole  of  these  tortoises  are 
included  in  a  single  family  which  forms  a  group  of  equivalent  value  to  the  S-necked 
and  Side-necked  sections ;  and  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  while  in  the 
greater  part  of  their  organisation  they  approximate  to  the  former  group,  in  certain 
features  connected  with  the  skull  they  come  nearer  to  the  latter.  The  most 
striking  peculiarity  of  the  soft-tortoises  is  to  be  found  in  the  nature  of  their  shells, 


SOFT     RIVER    TORTOISES 


SOFT-  TORTOISES.  99 

which  are  covered  with  a  raised  sculpture  of  variable  form,  and  are  quite  devoid  of 
horny  shields.  The  lower  shell,  or  plastron,  is  always  very  imperfectly  ossified, 
and  completely  separate  from  the  carapace ;  while  the  carapace  never  has  a  complete 
series  of  marginal  bones,  and  passes  at  its  borders  into  a  soft  expansion  of  skin, 
from  which  the  name  of  the  group  is  derived.  If  marginal  bones  occur  at  all, 
they  are  confined  to  the  hinder  border  of  the  shell,  and  are  unconnected  with  the 
ribs ;  having,  in  fact,  nothing  in  common  with  the  bones  so  named  in  other  tortoises, 
and  being  doubtless  of  independent  origin.  In  being  unconnected  with  the  plastron, 
the  pelvis  resembles  that  of  the  S-necked  group,  and  the  head  is  retracted  by  a 
similar  S-like  flexure  of  the  nebk  in  a  vertical  plane.  In  regard  to  the  mode  of 
articulation  of  the  lower  jaw  with  the  skull,  and  likewise  in  the  presence  of  a 
notch  in  the  hinder  border  of  its  tympanic  ring,  the  soft-tortoises  again  resemble 
the  group  last  mentioned;  although  in  the  general  form  of  the  skull  and  the 
conformation  of  the  palate  they  come  nearer  to  the  Side-necked  group.  A  distinc- 
tive peculiarity  of  the  skeleton  is  to  be  found  in  the  presence  of  at  least  four  joints 
in  the  fourth  toe  of  each  foot.  Externally,  the  soft-tortoises  are  characterised  by 
their  long  necks,  which,  together  with  the  head,  can  be  completely  withdrawn  into 
the  shell,  and  also  by  the  proboscis-like  snout,  and  the  thick  fleshy  lips  concealing 
the  jaws.  The  ear  is  completely  concealed;  and  each  foot,  as  indicated  by  the 
scientific  name  of  the  group,  has  but  three  claws,  which  are  borne  by  the  three 
inner  toes.  As  a  rule,  the  colour  of  the  skin  is  greenish  olive,  with  yellow  or 
orange  spots,  passing  into  streaks  on  the  under  surface  of  the  head ;  while  some 
species  have  a  few  much  larger  eye-like  spots  on  the  back  of  the  shell. 

Although  the  whole  of  the  soft-tortoises  are  included  in  a  single 
Typical  Genus. 

family,  they  are  arranged  in  six  distinct  genera,  three  of  which  are 

nearly  allied  to  one  another,  as  are  likewise  the  remaining  three  among  themselves. 
The  first  and  largest  genus,  Trionyx,  contains  fifteen  living  species,  with  a  distribu- 
tion coextensive  with  that  of  the  family.  These  are  characterised  by  the  absence 
of  a  fold  of  skin  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  under  shell,  beneath  which  the  leg  may 
be  concealed,  by  the  sculpture  on  the  shell  being  generally  in  the  form  of  wavy 
raised  lines,  and  by  the  hyo-  and  hypoplastral  bones  of  the  lower  shell  remaining 
distinct  from  one  another.  In  the  skull,  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  89,  the 
sockets  of  the  eyes  are  placed  relatively  far  back,  and  widely  separated  from  the 
aperture  of  the  nose.  Among  the  better-known  species  we  may  mention  the 
Oangetic  soft-tortoise  (T.  gangeticus),  now  confined  to  the  river  system  from  which 
it  takes  its  name,  but  formerly  found,  as  shown  by  fossil  specimens,  in  the 
Narbada;  the  length  of  the  shell  and  fleshy  disc  reaching  as  much  as  2  feet. 
Like  all  the  Old  World  representatives  of  the  genus,  this  species  has  eight  pairs  of 
costal  bones  in  the  carapace;  while  it  belongs  to  a  subgroup  characterised  by 
having  two  neural  bones  between  the  first  pair  of  costals,  and  by  the  absence  of  a 
pronounced  ridge  in  the  middle  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  extremity  of  the  lower 
jaw.  The  soft-tortoise  of  the  Nile  (T.  triunguis),  ranging  over  Africa  and  Syria, 
and  attaining  still  larger  dimensions,  belongs  to  a  second  subgroup,  distinguished 
by  having  only  a  single  neural  bone  between  the  first  costals ;  while  Phayre's  soft- 
tortoise  (T.  phayrei),  of  Burma,  may  be  taken  to  represent  a  third  section  differing 
from  the  last  by  the  presence  of  a  median  ridge  in  the  front  of  the  lower  jaw.  On 


100 


TORTOISES  AND   TURTLES. 


the  other  hand,  all  the  American  soft-tortoises,  of  which  T.  ferox  is  a  well-known 
example,  differ  by  having  only  seven  pairs  of  costal  bones.  Numerous  representa- 
tives of  the  genus  occur  in  the  Miocene  and  Eocene  strata  of  Europe,  as  well  as 
in  the  Tertiary  rocks  of  India  and  the  United  States.  Two  other  members  of 

the  first  subfamily,  confined  to  Asia, 
represent  as  many  genera.  Of  these 
Cantor's  soft-tortoise  (Pelochelys  can- 
tori),  from  India,  Burma,  and  Malay  ana, 
has  the  sockets  of  the  eyes  placed 
more  anteriorly  than  in  the  type  genus. 
This  forward  position  of  the  eye-sockets 
is  still  more  marked  in  the  much  elon- 
gated skull  of  the  great  Indian  chitra 
(Chitra  indica),  where  they  are  placed 
close  up  to  the  nose. 
Granulated  Soft-  The  three  remaining 
Tortoises.  genera  of  the  family  are 
characterised  by  the  sculpture  of  the 
shell  generally  taking  the  form  of  small 
pustules,  and  thus  resembling  shagreen ; 
while  the  hyo-  and  hypoplastral  bones 
of  the  lower  shell  are  united ;  and  there 
is  a  flap  of  skin  on  each  side  of  the  under 
surface,  beneath  which  the  hind-limbs 
can  be  concealed.  All  the  forms  are 
confined  to  the  Old  World ;  and  while 

one  of  the  three  genera  is  Indian,  the  other  two  are  African.  The  Indian  genus 
Emyda  is  readily  characterised  by  the  presence  of  a  complete  series  of  neural 
bones  in  the  carapace,  coupled  with  a  semicircle  of  marginal  bones  at  its  hinder 
extremity.  In  neither  of  the  three  living  species  does  the  length  of  the  shell  and 
its  soft  disc  exceed  10  inches,  but  much  larger  fossil  forms  are  found  in  the 
Pliocene  rocks  of  India.  Both  the  African  genera  lack  marginal  bones,  but  whereas 
in  one  (Cydoderma)  there  is  a  full  series  of  neural  bones  to  the  carapace,  in 
the  other  (Cyclanorbis)  these  form  an  incomplete  and  interrupted  series. 

All  the  soft-tortoises  are  thoroughly  aquatic,  most  of  them  but 
rarely  leaving  the  water  except  for  the  purpose  of  laying  their  eggs, 
and  in  consequence  of  these  habits  very  little  is  known  as  to  their  mode  of  life. 
Although  confined  as  a  rule  to  rivers,  a  few  of  the  species  frequent  estuaries,  and 
Cantor's  soft-tortoise  has  been  found  some  distance  out  at  sea.  Occasionally, 
again,  specimens  of  the  Indian  granulated  soft-tortoises  have  been  met  with 
wandering  on  land  far  from  the  neighbourhood  of  water.  Fiercer  and  more 
spiteful  than  any  other  members  of  the  Chelonian  order,  these  tortoises,  owing  to 
a  peculiarity  in  the  structure  and  mode  of  articulation  of  some  of  the  vertebras  of 
the  neck,  have  the  power  of  darting  out  the  head  with  inconceivable  rapidity, 
the  great  Indian  chitra  being  facile  princeps  in  this  respect.  Owing  to  this  habit 
the  larger  species  are  dangerous  creatures  to  approach  incautiously,  as  their  bite 


CANTOR'S  SOFT-TORTOISE. 


Habits. 


PLESIOSA  URS.  i  oY 

is  very  severe ;  and  the  natives  are  not  unfrequently  bitten  by  them  in  India  and 
Burma  whilst  bathing.  All  the  members  of  the  typical  genus,  together  with 
Cantor's  soft-tortoise  and  the  chitra,  are  known  to  be  carnivorous,  and  it  is 
commonly  believed  that  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  other  members  of  the  group. 
According,  however,  to  Dr.  J.  Anderson,  this  is  incorrect  with  regard  to  the 
granulated  soft-tortoises  of  India,  which  he  expressly  states  to  be  exclusively 
vegetable  and  grain-feeders.  The  larger  species  probably  feed  both  on  fish  and 
other  aquatic  animals,  and  on  the  flesh  of  such  carcases  as  may  be  floating  in  the 
rivers  they  inhabit.  In  correlation  with  their  asserted  herbivorous  habits, 
the  small  granulated  species  do  not  snap  and  bite  after  the  manner  of  their 
larger  cousins.  On  shore,  according  to  the  observer  last  mentioned,  when  left  to 
themselves,  these  species  will  slowly  and  cautiously  extend  their  necks,  and  when 
approached,  instead  of  attempting  to  escape,  withdraw  rapidly  into  their  shells, 
of  which  the  upper  and  lower  anterior  margins  then  meet.  It  is  stated  that  all 
the  species  are  chiefly  nocturnal,  remaining  during  the  daytime  partially  or 
completely  buried  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  and  not  beginning 
to  swim  till  sundown.  Such  species  as  inhabit  marshes  or  swamps,  liable  to 
be  dried  up  during  the  hot  season,  bury  themselves  in  the  mud,  at  no  great 
depth  below  the  surface,  during  the  period  of  drought.  As  these  tortoises 
are  known  to  remain  frequently  for  a  period  of  from  two  to  ten  hours,  and 
occasionally  as  much  as  fifteen  hours,  beneath  the  water,  without  coming  to 
the  surface  to  breathe,  it  is  obvious  that  they  must  have  some  special  means  of 
oxygenating  their  blood.  It  is  probable,  indeed,  that  certain  filamentous 
appendages  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  throat  found  in  these  tortoises 
subserve  the  office  of  gills,  and  thus  enable  the  blood  to  be  renovated  by  means 
of  the  atmospheric  air  dissolved  in  the  water  they  inhabit.  With  regard  to 
their  breeding-habits,  it  appears  that  the  females  of  the  granular  shelled  species 
scrape  a  shallow  hole  in  the  mud,  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid  and  then  carefully 
covered  up,  the  eggs  themselves  being  round,  and  about  an  inch  in  diameter. 


THE  PLESIOSAURS  OR  LONG-NECKED  MARINE  LIZARDS. 
Order  SAUROPTERYGIA. 


Strikingly  different  in  appearance  as  are  the  skeletons  of  the  members  of  the 
two  groups,  it  appears  that,  on  the  whole,  the  nearest  allies  of  the  tortoises  and 
turtles  are  those  extinct  reptiles  known  as  plesiosaurs,  or  long-necked  marine 
lizards,  whose  range  in  time  embraced  the  whole  of  the  great  Secondary  period, 
during  which  were  deposited  the  vast  series  of  strata  extending  from  the  Chalk 
downwards  through  the  Oolites  to  the  Lias  and  Trias.  These  reptiles  agree  with 
the  tortoises  in  that  all  or  nearly  all  of  the  ribs  of  the  back  are  articulated  to  the 
vertebrae  by  single  heads,  and  in  the  absence  of  hook-like  (uncinate)  processes  to 
the  ribs,  as  well  as  in  the  want  of  a  breast-bone  or  sternum.  In  the  skull  the 
quadrate-bone  is  immovably  fixed,  and  the  palate  more  or  less  completely  closed. 
Both  groups  have  the  lower  bones  of  the  pelvis  expanded  into  large  flat  plates, 
and  there  is  also  a  similarity  in  the  structure  of  the  bones  of  the  limbs. 

Whereas,  however,  the  tortoises  have  the  upper  surface  of  the  body  covered 


102 


PLESIOSAURS. 


with  a  shell,  and  the  lower  aspect  of  the  same  protected  by  a  plastron,  the 
plesiosaurs  were  entirely  naked,  the  plastron  being  represented  by  a  numerous 
series  of  abdominal  ribs,  each  composed  of  three  pieces,  forming  a  forwardly- 
directed  angle.  The  skull  differs  from  that  of  the  crocodiles  in  having  but  one 
(lower)  temporal  arch  :  and  the  jaws  are  furnished  with  a  number  of  pointed  and 
grooved  teeth,  implanted  in  distinct  sockets;  one  of  such  teeth  being  figured 
on  p.  5.  The  neck  was  generally  much  elongated,  and  its  vertebrae  differ  from 
those  of  crocodiles  in  that  their  ribs  which  may  have  either  single  or  double 


IIESTORED  SKELETON  OF  A  PLESIOSAUR  (greatly  reduced). 

heads,  are  articulated  only  to  the  body  of  each  vertebra  (as  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying figure);  those  of  crocodiles  always  having  two  heads,  of  which  the 
lower  is  artiQiilated  to  the  body,  and  the  upper  to  the  arch  of  the  vertebra. 
Throughout  the  backbone  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  have  either  nearly  flat  or 
slightly  cupped  articular  surfaces ;  and  in  the  region  of  the  back  each  pair  of  ribs 
is  articulated  to  a  process  arising  from  the  arch  of  each  vertebra,  instead  of 
from  a  facet  placed  at  the  junction  of  two  vertebras,  as  in  the  tortoises.  Although 
there  are  other  interesting  features  in  these  reptiles,  those  mentioned  distinguish 

them  from  crocodiles  and  dinosaurs  on 
the  one  hand,  and  tortoises  and  turtles 
on  the  other. 

With  regard  to  the  various  groups 
into  which  the  order  is  divided,  it  may 
be  mentioned  that  in  the  typical  forms, 
constituting  the  family  Plcxiosaur'idit', 
the  limbs,  as  shown  in  the  ligure  on  p.  J02, 
are  converted  into  flattened  paddles,  with 
a  shortening  of  the  bones  of  the  upper 
segments,  and  an  increase  in  the  number 

^> 

of  bones  corresponding  with  those  of  the 
toes  of  ordinary  reptiles.  In  the  true 
plesiosaurs  (PlefsioBauruti)  of  the  Lias,  the 

ribs  of  the  neck  were  articulated  to  the  vertebras  by  two  heads:  whereas  in  the 
Liter  cirnoliosaurs  (CirnMfjMWW'tM)  of  the  Oolites  and  Chalk,  such  ribs,  as  shown  in 
the  figure  of  a  neck-vertebra,  were  single-headed.  Some  of  these  creatures  were 
of  huge  size,  attaining  a  length  of  between  30  and  40  feet;  certain  of  the  species 


lostrils  :  r/,\  cvc-soc'kH 
( j  nut.  size).-    l-'i 


PLESIOSAURS. 


103 


from  the  Cretaceous  strata  having  a  neck  much  exceeding  the  body  and  tail  in 
length,  and  containing  as  many  as  forty  vertebrse.  Marine  and  carnivorous  in 
their  habits,  these  formidable  creatures  probably  lurked  in  shoal-water,  from 
whence  they  darted  their  long  necks  to  seize  passing  fishes  in  their  jaws. 
In  the  groups  mentioned  the  head  was  comparatively  small,  but  in  the  huge 
pliosaurs  (Pliosaurus)  of  the  upper  Oolitic  strata  the  skull  was  of  enormous 
size,  attaining  in  some  instances  a  length  of  6  feet,  and  the  neck  proportionately 
short  and  thick.  Their 
teeth  had  more  or  less 
triangular  crowns,  and 
in  some  cases,  inclusive 
of  the  root,  measured 
quite  a  foot  in  length. 
As  is  the  case 
with  all  the  higher 
aquatic  Vertebrates, 
there  is  evidence  to 
show  that  the  plesio- 
saurs  were  originally 
derived  from  land 
animals ;  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the 
group  found  in  the 
earlier  (Triassic) 
Secondary  rocks  hav- 
ing limbs  departing 
much  less  widely  from  pr.Z}  and^.z,  anterior  and  posterior  articular  surfaces  of  the  arch  ;  co,  rib. 

the     ordinary     type, 

and  bearing  claws  at  the  extremities  of  their  digits.  In  the  small  lariosaur,  which 
measured  about  a  yard  in  length,  the  limbs  appear  to  have  been  somewhat 
intermediate  in  structure  between  the  clawless  paddles  of  the  true  plesiosaurs 
and  those  of  more  ordinary  reptiles;  and  the  creatures  were  probably  amphibious 
in  their  habits,  spending  part  of  their  time  on  land,  and  part  in  the  water.  In  the 
allied  nothosaurs  and  simosaurs  the  limbs  were  better  adapted  for  walking,  from 
which  we  may  infer  that  their  owners  were  still  more  terrestrial  in  their  habits. 


FRONT  AND   SIDE-VIEWS  OF  A  NECK-VERTEBEA   OF  A  PLESIOSAURIAN. 


UPPER  ASPECT  OF  THE   SKELETON   OF   THE  LARIOSAUR,    A  SMALL  PLESIOSAURIAN. 


CHAPTER     IV. 


SCALED  EEPTILES — LIZARDS  AND  CHAMELEONS, — Order  SQUAMATA  ; 
Suborders  LACERTILIA  AND  EHIPTOGLOSSA. 

ALTHOUGH  in  popular  language  the  term  lizard  is  applied  to  any  four-legged  reptile, 
exclusive  of  turtles  and  crocodiles,  in  scientific  usage  it  is  more  convenient  to  restrict 
it  to  those  members  of  the  great  group  of  scaled  reptiles  which  do  not  come  under 
the  designation  of  either  chamseleons  or  serpents,  whether  they  are  provided  with 
legs,  or  whether  they  lack  those  useful  appendages.  Formerly,  indeed,  lizards  and 
chamseleons  were  regarded  as  constituting  an  order  by  themselves  quite  apart  from 
serpents,  but  the  two  groups  are  now  known  to  be  so  intimately  connected  as  to 
render  any  such  division  inadmissible ;  and  they  are  accordingly  here  placed  in  a 
single  order,  known  as  scaled  reptiles,  or,  technically,  Squamata.  Structurally,  this 
ordinal  group  differs  very  widely  indeed  from  any  of  those  hitherto  treated,  and  as 
it  is  essential  to  gain  a  correct  idea  of  such  structural  differences,  they  may  first  be 
taken  into  consideration. 

Taking  their  name  from  the  coat  of  overlapping  horny  scales 

with   which   they   are    generally   invested,   the   scaled   reptiles   are 

primarily  distinguished  from  all  the  foregoing  groups  by  the  circumstance  that  the 

quadrate-bone  is  more  or  less  movably  articulated  to  the  skull,  and  has  its  lower 

end  projecting  freely  therefrom,  instead  of  being  immov- 
ably wedged  in  among  the  other  bones.  To  this  primary 
point  of  distinction  it  may  be  added  that  the  lower 
temporal  arch  of  the  skull  is  wanting,  so  that  there  is 
no  bony  bar  connecting  the  lower  end  of  the  quadrate- 
bone  with  the  upper  jaw,  as  there  is  in  the  crocodiles ; 
the  absence  of  this  bar  being  well  shown  in  the  figure  of 
a  lizard's  skeleton.  Then,  again,  the  palate,  instead  of 
being  more  or  less  completely  roofed  over  by  bone,  is 
largely  open,  its  bones  taking  the  form  of  long  bars. 
In  some  lizards,  as  in  the  one  of  which  the  skeleton 
is  figured,  the  upper  surface  of  the  skull  is  covered 
by  bone,  so  that  the  temporal  fossae  are  roofed 
over. 

Ribs  and  Another  important  feature  of  the  order  is  to  be  found  in  the 

Vertebrae.      circumstance  that  the  ribs  in  the  region  of  the  back  are  single-headed, 

and  are  articulated  to  the  backbone  by  means  of  a  facet  (d)  situated  on  the  body 

of  each  vertebra.     This  feature  at  once  distinguishes  the  order  from  the  crocodiles 

and  dinosaurs,  in  which  the  ribs  are  two-headed,  and  in  the  back  articulate  to  a 


LEFT  SIDE   OF  THE  VERTEBRA    OF 
A  SNAKE. 


ROUGH-TAILED    AGAMA    BASKING. 


LIZARDS.  I07 

long  process  arising  from  the  arches  of  the  vertebrae ;  from  the  tortoises,  where  the 
single-headed  ribs  articulate  at  the  junction  between  the  bodies  of  two  vertebrae ; 
and  from  the  plesiosaurs,  in  which  the  single-headed  ribs  of  the  back  are  articulated 
to  processes  or  facets  on  the  arches  of  the  vertebrae.  In  most  of  the  members  of 
the  order  the  body  of  each  vertebra  has  a  cup  in  front  and  a  ball  behind,  by  which 
it  articulates  with  the  adjacent  segments  of  the  column — an  arrangement  paralleled 
among  modern  crocodiles.  In  some  lizards,  and  in  all  snakes,  the  vertebrae,  as 
shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  6,  have  additional  surfaces  on  their  arches  for  mutual 
articulation,  thus  communicating  additional  flexibility,  and  at  the  same  time  strength 
to  the  backbone. 

Another  important  feature  in  which  the  order  differs  from  all 
Otlier  Cliaracters. 

the  preceding  ones,  is  the  absence  of  any  system  of  true  abdominal 

ribs,  or  of  their  equivalent,  a  plastron,  on  the  inferior  surface  of  the  body.  As 
regards  the  teeth,  these  differ  from  those  of  the  orders  hitherto  considered  in  that, 
instead  of  being  implanted  in  separate  sockets,  they  are  firmly  soldered  to  the  bones 
of  the  jaw.  In  some  cases  they  are  attached  to  the  very  summit  of  the  jawbones,  when 
the  dentition  is  said  to  be  acrodont ;  while  in  others  they  are  affixed  to  one  of  the 
side- walls  of  the  free  edges  of  the  jaws,  the  term  pleurodont  being  then  employed. 
Another  divergence  from  both  crocodiles  and  tortoises  is  to  be  found  in  the  vent 
opening  by  a  transverse  aperture,  whereas  in  the  former  group  it  is  longitudinal, 
and  in  the  latter  either  circular  or  longitudinal.  Finally,  in  those  forms  in  which 
the  bones  of  the  chest  attain  their  fullest  development,  there  is  a  breast-bone  or 
sternum,  a  pair  of  collar-bones  or  clavicles,  and  a  median  T-shaped  interclavicle. 

Special  The  above  being  the  leading  characters  of  the  entire  order  of 

Characters  of  scaled  reptiles,  it  remains  to  consider  how  the  lizards  (Lacertilia)  are 
Lizards.  ^.Q  ^e  distinguished  from  the  other  two  suborders  into  which  the 
existing  members  of  the  assemblage  are  divided.  Externally,  by  far  the  greater 
number  of  lizards  are  four-limbed  reptiles  of  a  crocodile-like  appearance,  with  the 
head,  neck,  body,  and  tail  well  distinguished  from  one  another,  and  if  we  had  these 
alone  to  deal  with,  there  would  be  no  sort  of  difficulty  in  distinguishing  between  a 
lizard  and  a  snake.  The  matter  is,  however,  somewhat  complicated  by  the  circum- 
stance that  certain  lizards,  like  the  familiar  slow- worm,  lose  all  external  traces  of 
limbs,  and  assume  an  elongated  snake-like  form,  with  the  head  passing  imperceptibly 
into  the  body  without  the  intervention  of  a  distinct  neck,  and  without  any  external 
indication  of  where  the  body  ends  and  the  tail  commences.  Externally,  such  snake- 
like  lizards  are  very  difficult  to  distinguish  from  snakes,  but  on  opening  the  mouths 
of  the  former  it  will  be  found  that  the  tongue  cannot  be  withdrawn  into  a  sheath 
at  its  base,  as  is  always  the  case  with  the  latter.  Further  help  in  discriminating 
between  the  two  is  afforded  by  the  circumstances  that  whereas  snakes  have  neither 
eyelids  nor  external  ear-openings,  both  these  are  usually,  although  not  invariably, 
present  in  the  limbless  lizards.  As  additional  distinctive  features  of  the  present 
group,  by  means  of  which  they  can  be  distinguished  both  from  snakes  on  the  one 
hand  and  from  chamaeleons  on  the  other,  the  following  points  may  be  noticed.  In 
all  lizards  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  are  united  at  the  chin  by  means  of  a 
bony  suture ;  while  in  all  the  species  furnished  with  limbs  collar-bones  are  present ; 
and  when  the  limbs  are  absent,  some  traces  of  the  bones  forming  what  is  known 


io8  LIZARDS. 

as  the  shoulder-girdle  persist.  In  form  the  tongue  is  flattened,  and,  as  already 
said,  cannot  be  withdrawn  into  a  basal  sheath,  although  such  a  sheath  may  be 
present.  In  most  of  the  members  of  the  suborder  the  upper  surface  of  the  body  is 
clothed  with  the  overlapping  scales  characteristic  of  the  order,  in  general,  these 
scales  being  in  some  cases  underlain  by  bony  plates ;  but  in  most  geckos  the  upper 
scales  are  granular,  although  sometimes  juxtaposed. 

Numbers  and  Numerically,  lizards  are  by  far  the  most  abundant  of  all  reptiles 

Distribution.  a^  the  present  day,  the  total  number  of  species  not  falling  far,  if  at 
all,  short  of  one  thousand  seven  hundred,  which  are  arranged  under  twenty  distinct 
families.  In  this  abundance  at  the  present  day,  coupled  with  the  specialised 
features  of  the  greater  part  of  their  organisation,  lizards  may  be  regarded 
as  occupying  a  very  similar  position  in  the  reptilian  class  to  that  held  by  the 
perching  birds  in  the  preceding  class.  With  the  exception  of  the  polar  and  sub- 
polar zones,  lizards  are  distributed  over  the  whole  globe,  ranging  in  some  districts 
from  the  level  of  the  sea  to  the  limits  of  eternal  snow,  and  found  alike  in  fruitful 


SKELETON  OF  LIZARD. 


and  barren  districts,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water,  and  in  the  most  arid  deserts. 
Whereas,  however,  in  the  colder  regions  they  are  poor  in  species  and  small  in  size, 
it  is  in  the  tropics  and  subtropical  regions  that  they  attain  their  maximum 
development,  as  regards  numbers,  bodily  size,  richness  of  coloration,  and  peculiarity 
of  form. 

As  regards  their  distribution  over  the  surface  of  the  globe,  lizards  present  a 
most  remarkable  difference  from  what  obtains  among  Amphibians  (frogs,  newts, 
etc.),  and,  to  a  less  degree,  among  tortoises.  For  instance,  whereas  Amphibians, 
and  to  some  extent  tortoises,  have  their  distributional  areas  denned  equatorially, 
such  lines  of  division,  in  the  case  of  the  present  group,  must  be  drawn  meridionally. 
Thus,  in  the  case  of  Amphibians,  one  great  distributional  province  includes  Europe, 
Asia,  and  North  America,  and  the  second  embraces  the  regions  lying  south  of  the 
Equator ;  whereas  in  the  case  of  lizards  one  area  marked  by  peculiar  forms  will 
include  the  Old  World  and  Australia,  and  the  other  will  comprise  the  whole  of 
America.  As  has  already  been  noticed,  the  distribution  of  tortoises  approximates 
to  the  former  type,  all  the  side-necked  group  being  confined  to  the  Southern 
Hemisphere.  Again,  we  find  that  whereas  Tropical  Africa  is  closely  related  to 


HABITS.  I09 

Tropical  India  as  regards  its  Amphibians,  while  Australia  and  Africa  are  near 
akin  to  South  America  in  regard  to  their  tortoises,  in  respect  of  lizards  there  is  no 
close  connection  between  India  and  Africa,  but  an  intimate  relationship  exists 
between  India  and  Australia,  where  members  of  the  same  genera  occur ;  while  the 
Australian  lizards  are  totally  unlike  their  South  American  cousins.  As  might  have 
been  expected  from  their  great  numerical  preponderance  at  the  present  day,  lizards 
appear  to  be  a  comparatively  modern  group,  their  remains  being  rare  in  the  lower 
Tertiary  deposits,  while  in  the  Secondary  period  they  are  only  known  by  a  few 
species  from  the  rocks  of  the  Cretaceous  epoch.  That  the  group  has  originated 
from  the  tuateras,  which  were  so  abundant  in  the  earlier  strata  of  the  Secondary 
period,  may  be  regarded  as  most  probable. 

Turning  to  their  mode  of  life,  we  find  that  while  a  few  members 
of  the  order  resemble  crocodiles,  in  spending  the  greater  portion  of 
their  time  in  water,  visiting  the  land  only  for  the  purposes  of  feeding,  sleeping, 
or  basking  in  the  sun,  by  far  the  great  majority  of  lizards  are  essentially  land- 
animals,  avoiding  even  damp  situations.  Although  some  inhabit  trees,  the  greater 
number  dwell  either  on  the  ground  or  among  the  clefts  of  rocks ;  the  conformation 
of  the  body  generally  giving  some  indication  of  this  diversity  of  habitat.  Among 
the  land  forms,  for  instance,  those  with  depressed  bodies  are  generally  to  be  found 
in  open  sandy  deserts,  where  they  seek  shelter  either  beneath  stones  or  in  holes ; 
whereas  such  as  have  the  body  compressed  are  more  usually  dwellers  among 
bushes  or  in  trees.  Those,  again,  in  which  the  body  is  more  or  less  cylindrical,  are 
in  the  habit  of  secreting  themselves  in  the  clefts  of  rocks  or  the  chinks  of  tree- 
stems;  while  the  snake-like  kinds  live  on  the  ground,  and  those  with  a  more 
worm-like  form  beneath  its  surface.  The  movements  of  the  greater  number  of 
species — whether  they  live  on  the  ground,  among  rocks,  on  trees,  or  on  cliffs  or 
walls — are  agile  in  the  extreme;  and  while  the  majority  run  with  their  bodies 
close  to  the  ground,  many  habitually  raise  themselves  up  at  times  by  resting  on 
their  hind-legs  and  tails,  and  are  able  to  spring,  either  on  the  ground  or  from 
branch  to  branch,  to  a  considerable  distance  after  their  prey.  Of  the  arboreal 
species,  some  make  use  of  their  tails  to  aid  in  maintaining  their  hold,  while  others, 
together  with  cliff-  and  wall-hunting  species,  like  the  geckos,  are  enabled  to  run 
along  the  under  sides  of  boughs,  or  to  ascend  vertical  surfaces  by  the  aid  of  their 
expanded  and  disc-like  feet.  The  peculiar  flying  lizard  is  enabled  to  take  long, 
flying  leaps,  supported  by  a  parachute-like  membrane  borne  by  the  expanded  ribs ; 
while  all  the  limbless  species  move  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  snakes,  although 
making  less  use  of  the  extremities  of  the  ribs.  The  few  aquatic  forms  swim  and 
dive  without  the  aid  of  webbed  feet ;  but  many  other  kinds  swim  well  if 
thrown  into  water. 

In  many  cases  elegant  and  graceful  in  form,  although  at  others  rendered  more 
curious  than  beautiful  by  the  presence  of  spines  or  warts,  lizards  are  pleasing 
rather  than  repulsive  animals ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  American  heloderms, 
none  are  poisonous,  although  some  will  bite  sharply.  Few  lizards  possess  a  distinct 
voice,  the  majority  merely  uttering  a  low  hiss ;  some,  however,  especially  among 
those  whose  habits  are  nocturnal — emit  a  clear,  sharp  cry,  which  has  been  likened 
both  to  the  scream  of  a  frog,  and  to  the  chirp  of  a  cricket.  Of  their  senses,  the 


no  LIZARDS. 

most  acute  is  doubtless  that  of  sight,  next  to  which  probably  comes  hearing.  In 
regard  to  diet,  a  few  lizards  are  strictly  herbivorous,  but  the  great  majority  are 
more  or  less  completely  carnivorous ;  the  larger  kinds  feeding  on  small  mammals, 
birds  and  their  eggs,  other  reptiles,  and,  more  rarely,  frogs  and  fish,  as  well  as 
many  descriptions  of  invertebrates.  The  smaller  members  of  the  order,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  restricted  mainly  or  entirely  to  an  invertebrate  diet,  the  great 
portion  of  which  consists  of  insects,  worms,  and  land-molluscs.  Nearly  all  drink 
by  rapidly  protruding  and  withdrawing  the  tongue;  dew  affording  sufficient 
moisture  to  those  living  on  rock  or  in  trees,  while  some  kinds  can  exist  for  long 
periods,  or  even  entirely  without  drinking.  The  species  inhabiting  the  warmer 
regions,  save  those  which  are  arboreal  or  aquatic  in  their  habits,  pass  the  hottest 
and  driest  season  of  the  year  in  a  state  of  torpor ;  while  those  in  colder  regions 
regularly  hibernate,  such  hibernation,  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  species  inhabiting 
the  continent  of  Europe,  lasting  for  a  period  of  from  six  to  eight  months.  As 
regards  their  breeding-habits,  the  majority  of  lizards  lay  eggs,  which  may  vary 
from  two  to  thirty  in  number,  and  have  generally  a  soft  and  leathery  covering, 
although  sometimes  furnished  with  a  hard  calcareous  shell. 

One  peculiarity  characterising  the  members  of  the  order  cannot  be  passed 
over  before  concluding  these  introductory  remarks.  This  is  the  facility  with 
which  they  are  enabled  to  reproduce  lost  parts,  and  more  especially  the  tail.  As 
is  well  known,  in  many  lizards,  when  handled,  the  tail  breaks  off  without  any 
rough  usage,  and  in  all  or  nearly  all  it  will  readily  come  in  two  if  pulled  when  the 
creature  is  seeking  to  escape,  this  susceptibility  to  automatic  fracture  being  due  to 
a  cartilaginous  band  across  the  middle  of  each  vertebra  of  the  tail  in  the  case  of 
the  common  lizard  of  England.  Such  missing  portion  of  the  tail  is  speedily 
reproduced,  it  may  be  double;  and  whereas  among  the  members  of  the  typical 
family  of  the  order,  the  scaling  of  the  reproduced  portion  is  like  the  original,  in 
certain  other  forms  this  is  by  no  means  always  the  case.  The  remarkable  circum- 
stance about  the  matter  is  that  when  the  pattern  of  the  scaling  of  such  a  new  tail 
differs  from  the  original,  it  always  reverts  to  that  characterising  a  less  specialised 
and  probably  ancestral  group.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  mention  that  in  such 
an  extensive  assemblage  as  the  present,  only  a  comparatively  small  percentage  of 
.species,  or  even  genera,  can  be  mentioned,  and  these  but  briefly. 


THE  GECKOS. 
Family  GECKONID^. 

Few  creatures  have  given  rise  to  a  greater  amount  of  fable  and  legend  than 
the  large  group  of  lizards  commonly  known  as  geckos ;  such  legends  being  probably 
due  to  the  nocturnal  and  domestic  habits  of  these  creatures,  coupled  with  the  sharp 
chirping  cry  from  which  they  derive  their  name,  and  their  curiously  expanded 
disc-like  toes.  Absolutely  innocuous,  they  have  been  credited  from  the  earliest 
times  with  ejecting  venom  from  their  toes,  and  of  poisoning  whatever  they  crawled 
over ;  while  the  teeth  of  one  species  have  been  asserted  to  be  capable  of  leaving 
their  impression  on  steel.  Indeed,  so  intense  is  the  dread  inspired  by  these  little 


GECKOS. 


in 


creatures,  that  in  Egypt  the  lobe-footed,  or  fan-footed  species  is  commonly  termed 
abou-burs,  or  father  of  leprosy. 

Geckos,  of  which  there  are  some  two  hundred  and  eighty  species,  distributed 
over  all  the  warmer  parts  of  the  globe,  although  more  numerous  in  the  Indian  and 
Australian  regions  than  elsewhere,  are  for  the  most  part  small  arid  plumply-built 
nocturnal  lizards,  characterised  by  their  depressed  form  and  dust-like  coloration. 
The  rather  long  and  more  or  less  flattened  head  is  broad  and  triangular  in  shape ; 
the  large  eyes  are  characterised  by  the  absence  of  movable  lids,  and  by  the  pupil 
being,  except  in  a  few  diurnal  forms,  vertical ;  while  the  aperture  of  the  ears  is 
likewise  in  the  form  of  an  upright  slit.  Externally,  the  head  is  covered  with  minute 
granules,  or  small  scales,  and  the  body  is  devoid  of  a  bony  armour,  and  in  most 
cases  covered  above  with  granules,  and  beneath  with  small  overlapping  scales.  If 
we  add  to  the  above  features  that  the  tongue  is  either  smooth  or  covered  with 
villous  papillae,  and  is  short  or 
moderate  in  length,  and  not 
sheathed  at  the  base,  and  that 
the  bodies  of  the  vertebras  articu- 
late together  by  means  of  cup- 
shaped  surfaces  at  both  their 
extremities,  we  shall  have  said 
sufficient  to  distinguish  the 
geckos  from  all  other  members 
of  the  suborder.  As  regards 
their  other  external  characters, 
the  neck  is  very  short  and  thick, 
the  body,  although  rounded, 
markedly  depressed,  and  the 
tail,  which  is  generally  remark- 
ably brittle,  usually  thick  and 
of  moderate  length,  with  its 
basal  portion  either  cylindrical 

or  laterally  compressed,  although  it  may  be  leaf -like,  or  even  rudimental.  In  some 
cases  the  tail  is  known  to  be  prehensile,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  is 
frequently  endowed  with  this  power.  The  limbs  are  generally  remarkable  for 
their  shortness,  and  are  always  provided  with  five  toes  each,  the  tips  or  sides  of 
which  may  be  more  or  less  dilated.  In  those  species  inhabiting  desert  regions,  the 
toes  are  of  normal  form,  being  often  nearly  cylindrical,  and  keeled  on  their  lower 
surfaces ;  but  in  the  great  majority  of  the  members  of  the  family,  they  are  expanded 
either  throughout  their  length  or  partially  into  adhesive  discs,  of  which  the  under 
surface  is  formed  by  a  series  of  movable  symmetrical  plates  of  variable  form,  by 
the  aid  of  which  the  creatures  are  enabled  to  ascend  walls  and  run  across  the 
ceilings  of  rooms.  In  some  cases  the  claws  are  retractile,  either  within  the  plates 
of  the  discs,  or  into  sheaths ;  while  in  other,  instances  the  toes  may  be  united  by 
webs,  which  are  not,  however,  for  the  purpose  of  swimming,  all  the  geckos  being 
land-lizards.  The  numerous  teeth  are  small,  and  attached  to  one  side  of  the 
summit  of  the  jaw  (pleurodont). 


LOBE-FOOTED  GECKO. 


112 


LIZARDS. 


Lobe-Footed  The   geckos  being  so  numerous  in  species,  which  are  arranged 

Gecko.  under  no  less  than  forty-nine  genera,  it  is  of  course  impossible  in  a 
work  like  the  present  to  do  more  than  notice  a  few  of  the  better  known  or  inort 
striking.  Among  these,  one  of  the  most  familiar  is  the  little  lobe-  or  faii-footec 
gecko  (Ptyodadylv.s  lobatus),  of  Northern  Africa,  Arabia,  and  Syria.  This  is  one 
of  two  species  belonging  to  a  genus  characterised  by  the  toes  (as  shown  in  the 


TURKISH   GECKO  (lUlt.  Size). 

figure  on  p.  Ill),  being  dilated  at  their  summits,  where  they  are  furnished  inferiorly 
with  two  diverging  series  of  plates:  the  digits  being  furnished  with  claws  capable 
of  retraction  within  notches  in  the  front  of  the  disc.  The  upper  surface  is  covered 
with  granules,  among  which  are  some  small  keeled  tubercles;  the  colour  being 
o-revish  or  yellowish  brown  above,  witli  darker  and  liirht  spots,  and  below  uniform 

c5         */  t/  t""}  1 

white.     The  length  is  a  little  over  5  inches. 

Equally  well  known  is  the  Turkish  irecko  (  Hemidactylus    inr- 
Turkish  Gecko.      .  ,.,.,.,. 

cicus),  represented    in    the   figure  above,  which   is   likewise   a  small 


GECKOS.  113 

species,  inhabiting  the  countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  Seas, 
and  also  found  in  Sind.  It  belongs  to  a  group  of  genera  with  dilated  toes  and 
compressed  claws,  and  is  specially  characterised  by  the  extremities  of  the  toes 
being  free,  the  plates  on  the  under  surface  of  the  discs  arranged  in  double  rows, 
and  the  presence  of  some  large  shields  on  the  under  surface  of  the  tail.  Measuring 
not  more  than  4  inches  in  length,  this  species  may  be  distinguished  from  the  other 


FRINGED  GECKO  (nat.  size). 

European  geckos  by  the  body  being  covered  with  from  fourteen  to  sixteen 
longitudinal  rows  of  warts,  of  which  some  are  white  and  the  others  blackish,  and  like- 
wise by  the  hue  of  the  upper-parts  being  greyish  brown  spotted  with  flesh-colour. 
It  is,  however,  said  to  be  able  to  change  its  colour  according  to  circumstances,  being 
of  a  shining  milky  white  at  night,  and  dark-coloured  during  the  daytime.  The 
genus  to  which  it  belongs  comprises  over  thirty  species,  ranging  over  Southern 
Europe  and  Asia,  Africa,  Tropical  America,  and  Oceania. 

VOL.  V. — 8 


ii4  LIZARDS. 

A  larger  and  more  remarkable  species  is  the  one  represented  in 
the  illustration  on  p.  113  (Ptychozoum  homalocephalum),  which 
is  the  sole  member  of  a  genus  characterised  by  the  presence  of  an  expansion  of 
skin  along  the  sides  of  the  body,  continued  as  lobes  on  the  tail,  as  well  as  by  the 
toes  being  completely  webbed,  and  the  inner  one  devoid  of  a  claw.  Attaining  a 
length  of  nearly  8  inches,  this  species  has  a  distinctly  ringed  tail ;  its  colour  above 
being  greyish  or  reddish  brown,  marked  with  undulating  dark  brown  transverse 
bands,  and  a  dark  streak  extending  from  the  eye  to  the  first  of  the  bands  on 
the  back.  This  gecko  is  an  inhabitant  of  Java,  Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  the  Malay 
Peninsula. 

The  last  member  of  the  family  we  shall  specially  notice  is  the 
wall-gecko  (Tarentola  mauritanica),  which  is  the  Mediterranean 
representative  of  a  small  genus  ranging  from  the  countries  bordering  the  Mediter- 
ranean to  West  Africa,  and  including  one  West  Indian  species.  The  genus  is 
readily  recognised  by  all  the  toes  being  dilated,  and  only  the  third  and  fourth 
furnished  with  claws.  This  species  varies  from  rather  less  than  5  to  somewhat 
more  than  6  inches  in  length,  of  which  one-half  is  formed  by  the  tail.  The  sides 
of  the  neck  and  body,  as  well  as  the  upper  surface  of  the  limbs,  are  ornamented 
with  conical  tubercles ;  the  back  carries  seven  or  nine  longitudinal  rows  of  larger 
and  strongly-keeled  tubercles ;  and  on  the  anterior  half  of  the  tail  the  ornamenta- 
tion takes  the  form  of  knobs  with  backwardly  directed  spines.  The  general  colour 
of  the  upper-parts  is  greyish  brown,  with  more  or  less  distinct  lighter  and  darker 
marblings,  while  a  well-marked  dark  streak  passes  on  each  side  of  the  head  through 
the  eye. 

With  the  exception  of  a  certain  number  of  species,  the  geckos,  as 
already  said,  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits ;  and  many  are  remarkable 
for  uttering  shrill  cries,  probably  produced  by  striking  the  tongue  against  the 
palate,  which  in  some  cases  are  compared  to  the  syllables  yecko,  ehecko,  or  told,  and 
in  others  to  the  monosyllable  tok.  A  South  African  sand -gecko  is  at  times  stated 
to  occur  in  such  numbers,  and  to  produce  such  a  din  by  its  cry,  as  to  render  a 
sojourn  in  the  neighbourhood  well-nigh  insupportable.  As  regards  their  habitat, 
geckos  are  very  variable,  some  frequenting  arid  deserts,  where  they,  in  some 
instances,  burrow  in  the  sand ;  others  frequent  wooded  regions,  living  either  among 
low  bushes  or  on  trees,  and  concealing  themselves  during  the  day  beneath  stones 
or  the  bark  of  the  stems;  others  again  are  found  among  rocks;  while  a  third 
group  has  elected  to  live  among  human  dwellings,  where  some  of  its  members  have 
become  as  fearless  and  confiding  as  domesticated  animals.  Of  the  arboreal  species, 
the  frilled  gecko  is  peculiar  in  having  a  parachute-like  expansion  of  skin,  which 
is  used  after  the  manner  of  that  of  the  flying  squirrels  in  aiding  its  owner  to  take 
long  leaps  from  bough  to  bough.  When  at  rest,  the  parachute  is  kept  close  to  the 
sides  of  the  body  by  the  aid  of  its  intrinsic  muscles ;  and  it  is  stated  that  this 
species,  like  several  others,  has  the  power  of  changing  its  colour  according  to  the 
hue  of  the  object  in  which  it  is  resting.  The  species  frequenting  houses  may  be 
divided  into  those  which  resort  to  the  interior,  and  those  which  are  content  with 
the  outside.  Of  the  latter,  Sir  J.  E.  Tennent  writes  that  in  Ceylon,  "  as  soon  as 
evening  arrives,  geckos  are  to  be  seen  in  every  house  in  keen  and  crafty  pursuit  of 


GECKOS.  115 

their  prey ;  emerging  from  the  chinks  and  recesses  where  they  conceal  themselves 
during  the  day,  to  search  for  insects  that  then  retire  to  settle  for  the  night.  In  a 
boudoir,  where  the  ladies  of  my  family  spent  their  evenings,  one  of  these  familiar 
and  amusing  little  creatures  had  its  hiding-place  behind  a  gilt  picture-frame. 
Punctually  as  the  candles  were  lighted,  it  made  its  appearance  on  the  wall  to  be 
feel  with  its  accustomed  crumbs ;  and,  if  neglected,  it  reiterated  its  sharp  quick  call 


WALL-GECKOS  (nat.  size). 

of  chic,  chic,  chit,  till  attended  to.  It  was  of  a  delicate  grey  colour,  tinged  with 
pink ;  and  having  by  accident  fallen  on  a  work-table,  it  fled,  leaving  part  of  its 
tail  behind  it,  which,  however,  it  reproduced  within  less  than  a  month.  ...  In  an 
officer's  quarters,  in  the  fort  at  Colombo,  a  gecko  had  been  taught  to  come  daily  to 
the  dinner-table,  and  always  made  its  appearance  along  with  the  dessert.  The 
family  were  absent  for  some  months,  during  which  the  house  underwent  extensive 
repairs,  the  roof  having  been  raised,  the  walls  stuccoed,  and  the  ceilings  whitened. 
It  was  naturally  surmised  that  so  long  a  suspension  of  its  accustomed  habits  would 


n6  LIZARDS. 

have  led  to  the  disappearance  of  the  little  lizard;  but  on  the  return  of  its  old 
friends,  it  made  its  entrance  as  usual  at  their  first  dinner,  the  instant  the  cloth  was 
removed."  Another  Indian  observer,  Colonel  Tytler,  writing  of  these  house-geckos 
states  that  although  several  species  "may  inhabit  the  same  locality,  yet,  as  a 
general  rule,  they  keep  separate  and  aloof  from  each  other;  for  instance,  in  a 
house  the  dark  cellars  may  be  the  resort  of  one  species,  the  roof  of  another,  and 
the  crevices  in  the  walls  may  be  exclusively  occupied  by  a  third  species.  However, 
at  night  they  issue  forth  in  quest  of  insects,  and  may  be  found  mixed  up  together 
in  the  same  spot ;  but  on  the  slightest  disturbance,  or  when  they  have  done  feeding, 
they  return  hurriedly  to  their  particular  hiding-places."  So  far  as  is  known,  all 
the  members  of  the  family  agree  with  the  house-geckos  in  being  insectivorous. 
With  the  exception  of  two  peculiar  New  Zealand  species  producing  living  young, 
all  the  geckos  appear  to  lay  eggs,  which  are  enclosed  in  a  round  and  hard  shell, 
and  are  generally  two  in  number. 

A  few  peculiar  geckos,  assigned  to  three  genera,  and  of  which 
Hardwicke's  gecko  (Eublepharis  hardwickei)  is  one  of  the  best  known 
examples,  differ  from  the  true  geckos  in  being  furnished  with  movable  eyelids,  and 
also  in  that  their  vertebrae  are  articulated  together  by  means  of  cup-and-ball  joints. 
Consequently,  those  eyelid  geckos,  as  they  may  be  termed,  form  a  distinct  family — 
Eublepharidce. 

THE  SCALE-FOOTED  LIZARDS. 
Family  PYGOPODID^. 

To  the  ordinary  observer  it  might  well  appear  that  the  whole  of  the  snake-like 
lizards,  or  those  in  which  the  body  has  become  cylindrical  and  much  elongated, 
and  the  limbs  either  rudimentary  or  wanting,  would  pertain  to  a  single  family. 
Such,  however,  is  not  the  view  of  modern  zoologists,  who  regard  many  of  these 
abberrant  members  of  the  suborder  as  having  been  independently  derived  from 
several  groups  of  fully  limbed  forms,  and  thus  having  but  little  relationship  among 
themselves.  Of  these  snake-like  groups,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  is  that  of  the 
scale-footed  lizards  of  Australia  and  New  Guinea,  which  form  a  family  comprising 
six  genera,  all  characterised  by  the  retention  of  more  or  less  well-marked  rudiments 
of  the  hind-limbs,  although  the  front  pair  have  quite  disappeared  externally. 
According  to  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Boulenger,  the  scale-foots  come  nearest  to  the 
geckos,  with  which  they  agree  in  the  essential  characters  of  their  skull,  as  they  do 
in  the  nature  of  their  tongue,  the  want  of  movable  eyelids,  and  the  vertical  pupil 
of  the  eye ;  although  the  latter  character,  as  being  variable  in  the  geckos,  cannot 
be  regarded  as  of  much  importance.  Apart  from  their  external  form,  they  differ 
from  the  geckos  and  thereby  resemble  the  members  of  the  next  family  in  that  the 
inner  extremities  of  the  collar-bones  are  not  expanded  into  a  loop-shaped  form, 
while  they  are  peculiar  in  that  the  number  of  bones  entering  into  the  composition 
of  each  half  of  the  lower  jaw  is  reduced  from  six  to  four.  The  small  and  numerous 
teeth  are  closely  set,  and  have  generally  long,  cylindrical  shafts,  and  blunted 
summits ;  although  in  the  genus  Lialis  they  are  sharply  pointed,  swollen  at  the 
base,  and  backwardly  curved,  thus  resembling  those  of  the  monitors.  The  hinder 


AGAMOID   GROUP. 


117 


limbs  are  represented  externally  by  a  scaly  flap,  which  is  most  developed  in  the 
genus  to  which  the  figured  example  belongs;  the  component  bones  may  be  felt 
more  or  less  distinctly,  and  the  skeleton  of  the  common  species  shows  five  toe-bones. 
The  common  scale-foot  (Pygopus  lepidopus),  which  attains  a  length  of  about 
20  inches,  and  has  a  tail  twice  as  long  as  the  head  and  body,  is  the  typical  repre- 
sentative of  the  few  members  of  this  family.  The  head  is  long,  pointed  at  the 
snout,  and  scarcely  separated  from  the  body,  being  covered  above  with  large 
symmetrical  shields,  and  on  the  sides  with  small  scales.  The  ear  has  an  oblique 
oval  aperture,  and  the  rudimental  immovable  eyelids  are  circular  and  covered  with 
minute  scales.  The  cylindrical  body  is  slender  and  of  nearly  equal  thickness 
throughout,  the  scales  on  its  upper  surface,  as  in  that  of  the  long  tail,  being  keeled. 


\ 


COMMON  SCALE-FOOTED  LIZARD  (§  nat.  size). 

Larger  in  males  than  in  females,  the  limbs  have  rounded  extremities,  and  are 
enveloped  in  overlapping  scales.  In  general  colour,  this  lizard  is  coppery  grey 
above,  sometimes  marked  with  three  or  five  longitudinal  rows  of  blackish  dots  or 
elongate  spots;  the  under-parts  being  marbled  grey,  with  the  exception  of  the. 
throat,  which  is  white.  Found  both  in  Australia  and  Tasmania,  and  by  no  means 
uncommon  in  the  warmer  northern  parts  of  Victoria,  this  lizard,  like  its  kin,  is 
stated  to  have  habits  very  similar  to  those  of  the  blind- worm,  although  accurate 
observations  on  its  mode  of  life  are  wanting. 


THE  AGAMOID  LIZARDS. 
Family  AGAMID^. 

The  southern  and  eastern  portions  of  the  Old  World  are  the  home  of  a  very 
extensive  family  of   lizards,   comprising   thirty   genera   and   over   two   hundred 


uS  LIZARDS. 

.species,  which  may  be  conveniently  termed  agamoids,  from  the  name  of  the  typical 
genus.  Agreeing  with  tlie  preceding  families  in  the  characters  of  the  tongue,  and 
in  the  absence  of  bony  plates  beneath  the  scales,  the  agamoids  resemble  the  scale- 
foots  in  the  characters  of  their  collar-bones ;  but  are  distinguished  from  all  their 
allies  in  having  teeth  of  the  acrodont  type,  that  is  to  say,  situated  on  the  very 
summit  of  the  edges  of  the  jaws.  While  the  head  is  covered  with  small  scales, 
the  small  eyes  have  circular  pupils,  and  well-developed  movable  eyelids;  and  the 
scales  on  the  back  are  of  the  normal  overlapping  type.  The  thick  tongue  is  either 
completely  attached  or  only  slightly  free  in  front,  and.  at  most,  has  but  a  very 

i*  i/  o  v  «/ 

shallow  notch  in  its  tip.  The  teeth  may  be  generally  divided  into  three  series, 
comparable  as  regards  position  with  the  incisors,  tusks,  and  molars  of  mammals ; 
the  latter  being  more  or  less  compressed,  and  frequently  furnished  with  three  cusps, 
while  the  tusks,  which  may  be  one  or  two  in  number  on  each  side,  are  of  relatively 
large  size  in  most  cases,  although  occasionally  absent.  The  fore-limbs  are  always 
well  developed,  and,  except  in  one  genus,  live-toed.  The  absence  of  large 
.symmetrical  horny  shields,  both  on  the  head  and  under-parts,  is  a  noteworthy 
character  of  these  lizards,  many  of  which  develop,  either  in  the  males  or  in  both 
sexes,  ornamental  appendages,  such  as  crests  or  pouches.  As  a  rule,  the  tail  is 
long  and  not  brittle,  but  in  only  one  genus  is  it  prehensile,  although  in  another  it 
can  be  curled  up  at  the  extremity.  The  shape  of  the  body  is  very  variable  in  the 
different  genera,  the  terrestrial  forms  being  generally  depressed,  while  those  that 
are  arboreal  in  their  habits  are  compressed.  Although  the  majority  of  the  species 
are  insectivorous,  some  subsist  on  leaves  and  fruits,  while  others  prefer  a  mixed 
diet;  but  neither  the  nature  of  their  habitat  nor  their  food  serve  to  classify  the 
agamoids,  many  of  the  genera  of  which  are  very  difficult  to  distinguish.  The 
majority  of  the  species  appear  to  lay  eggs,  only  the  members  of  a  single  genus 
being  reported  to  give  birth  to  living  young.  As  regards  distribution,  agamoids 
are  found  from  the  south  of  Europe  to  the  Cape,  and  eastwards  as  far  as  China, 
the  Malayan  Islands,  Australia,  and  Oceania,  but  are  unknown  in  New  Zealand  and 
Madagascar.  Both  as  regards  genera  arid  species,  their  headquarters  is,  however, 
the  Oriental  region  :  Africa  possessing  only  three  genera,  of  which  one  is  confined 
to  the  northern  part  of  the  continent,  while  but  four  species  enter  South-Eastern 
Europe. 

Commonly  known  as  flying  dragons,  the  members  of  the  first 
genus  of  the  family  are  elegant  and  harmless  little  creatures  to 
whom  such  a  title  seems  inappropriate,  and  we  therefore  prefer  to  substitute  the 
name  of  flying  lizards — more  especially  as  we  have  applied  the  former  appellation 
to  the  extinct  pterodactyles.  These  flying  lizards,  which  are  represented  by 
twenty-one  species,  ranging  over  the  greater  part  of  the  Oriental  region,  are  at 
once  distinguished  from  all  their  kindred  by  the  depressed  body  being  provided 
with  a  large  wing -like-  membranous  expansion,  supported  by  the  elongated 
extremities  of  the  six  or  seven  hinder  ribs,  and  capable  of  being  folded  up  like 
a  fan.  The  throat  is  furnished  with  a  large  membranous  expansion,  on  the  sides 
of  which  are  «i  smaller  pair:  and  the  tail  is  long  and  whip  -  like.  The  best 
known  of  the  species  is  the  Malay  flying  lizard  (l)ntco  rul<uiK),  which  is  a  rather 
common  form,  and  belongs  to  a  group  characterised  by  the  nostrils  being  lateral 


AGAMOID   GROUP.  119 

and  directed  outwards ;  this  particular  species  being  distinguished  by  the  absence 
of  a  spine  above  the  eye,  by  the  aperture  of  the  ear  being  smaller  than  the  eye, 
and  by  the  inferior  surface  of  the  parachute  being  ornamented  with  black  spots. 
In  addition  to  the  appendages  on  the  throat,  the  males  have  a  small  crest  on  the 
nape  of  the  neck ;  while  in  both  sexes  the  back  is  covered  with  irregular,  large- 
•  keeled  scales,  and  its  sides  have  a  series  of  still  larger  scales,  which  are  also  keeled. 
In  length  it  measures  a  little  over  8  inches.  As  regards  coloration,  the  upper- 
parts  are  of  a  brilliant  but  variable  metallic  hue,  ornamented  with  small  dark 
spots  and  wavy  cross  bands ;  between  the  eyes  is  a  black  spot,  and  a  similar 
one  occurs  on  the  nape;  the  parachute  is  orange,  with  marblings  or  irregular 
crossbands  of  black ;  and  the  throat  is  mottled  with  black,  its  appendage  being 
orange  in  the  male  and  bluish  in  the  female.  This  lizard  inhabits  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  Sumatra,  Java,  and  Borneo ;  and  in  the  living  state  is  described  as  being 
so  superlatively  beautiful  as  to  baffle  description. 

Essentially  arboreal  in  their  habits,  the  flying  lizards  generally  frequent  the 
crowns  of  trees,  and  as  they  are  comparatively  scarce,  and  seldom  descend  to 
the  ground,  they  are  but  rarely  seen.  Describing  the  habits  of  the  Malayan  species, 
Cantor  says  that  "  as  the  lizard  lies  in  shade  along  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  its  colours 
at  a  distance  appear  like  a  mixture  of  brown  and  grey,  and  render  it  scarcely 
distinguishable  from  the  bark.  There  it  remains  with  no  signs  of  life,  except  the 
restless  eyes,  watching  passing  insects,  which,  suddenly  expanding  its  wings,  it 
seizes  with  a  sometimes  considerable,  unerring  leap.  The  lizard  itself  appears  to 
possess  no  power  of  changing  its  colours."  When  excited,  the  appendages  on  the 
throat  are  expanded  or  erected ;  and  the  ordinary  movements  of  the  creature  take 
the  form  of  a  series  of  leaps.  After  commenting  on  the  fact  that  both  flying 
lizards  and  flying  lemurs  inhabit  the  same  countries,  and  have  very  similar  modes 
of  life,  Moseley  states  that,  when  springing  from  branch  to  branch  and  from  tree 
to  tree,  the  former  pass  so  rapidly  through  the  air  that  the  expansion  of  the 
parachute  almost  escapes  notice.  Some  examples  kept  on  board  ship  were  in 
the  habit  of  flying  from  one  leg  of  a  table  to  another.  The  females  appear  to 
lay  three  or  four  oval  whitish  eggs. 

Oriental  Among  a  number  of  genera,  characterised  by  their  more  or  less 

Tree-Lizards,  compressed  bodies  and  generally  arboreal  habits,  the  numerous  tree- 
lizards  constituting  the  genus  Calotes  may  be  selected  for  brief  mention.  These 
beautiful  lizards  belong  to  a  group  distinguished  from  many  of  their  allies  by  the 
aperture  of  the  ear  being  open,  while  they  are  especially  characterised  by  the 
absence  of  any  distinct  fold  of  skin  across  the  throat,  by  the  equality  in  size  of 
the  large  keeled  scales  on  the  back,  and  the  presence  of  a  large  crest  on  the  back 
and  neck ;  the  tail  being  very  long  and  whip-like.  One  of  the  best  known  species 
is  the  variable  lizard  (C.  versicolor),  ranging  from  Baluchistan,  India,  and  Ceylon 
to  the  south  of  China,  an  exceedingly  handsome  lizard  of  some  16  inches  in  length, 
with  a  very  large  crest,  but  so  variable  in  colour,  when  alive,  as  almost  to  defy 
description.  It  is  one  of  the  commonest  of  the  eastern  Asiatic  lizards,  and  derives 
its  name  from  its  power  of  changing  colour,  which  is  especially  marked  when  it 
is  sitting  basking  in  the  sun ;  the  head  and  neck  being  often  yellow,  flecked  with 
red,  the  body  red,  and  the  limbs  and  tail  black.  When  irritated,  or  feeding  rapidly, 


120  LIZARDS. 

an  allied  species  (C.  ophiomachus),  from  India  and  Ceylon,  turns  brilliant  red  ovei 
the  head  and  neck,  the  body  at  the  same  time  becoming  pale  yellow ;  hence  il 
is  popularly  known  as  the  "  blood-sucker." 

Ceylon  Homed  Three   remarkable   lizards  from  Ceylon,  constituting  the  genus 

Lizards.  Ceratophora,  and  belonging  to  a  group  in  which  the  aperture  of  the 
ear  is  concealed,  derive  their  name  from  carrying  a  more  or  less  elongated  horn- 
like process  on  the  nose,  at  least  in  the  male  sex ;  the  neck  and  back  being  devoid 
of  a  crest.  One  of  the  species,  which  attains  a  length  of  about  10  inches,  has  a 
horn  measuring  half  an  inch.  These  lizards  appear  to  be  very  rare,  one  of  th€ 
species  being  confined  to  mountain  districts. 

For  want  of  a  distinct  English  title,  we  are  compelled  to  designate 

the  members  of  the  genus  Agama  collectively  by  anglicising  theii 
scientific  name.  Distinguished  from  all  the  previously  noticed  forms  and  their 
allies,  with  the  exception  of  the  flying  lizards,  by  their  more  or  less  depressed 
bodies,  agamas  are  especially  characterised  by  the  exposed  aperture  of  the  ear,  and 
the  presence  of  large  callous  scales  in  front  of  the  vent  in  the  males.  The  crest 
on  the  back  is,  at  most,  but  small,  and  may  be  wanting ;  while  each  side  of  the 
throat  has  a  pit,  and  there  is  likewise  a  transverse  fold  across  this  part.  A  sac- 
like  appendage  may  or  may  not  occur  beneath  the  throat,  and  the  moderately 
long  tail  may  be  either  cylindrical  or  slightly  compressed.  Less  important 
characters  are  to  be  found  in  the  form  of  the  head,  which  is  short  and  triangular, 
very  broad  behind,  and  rounded  at  the  muzzle,  as  well  as  in  the  relative  length 
and  slenderness  of  the  limbs.  The  head  is  covered  above  with  small,  smooth  scales  : 
those  on  the  back  are  overlapping  and  keeled ;  while  on  the  tail  the  scales  may  be 
either  simply  overlapping  or  arranged  in  whorls. 

The  distribution  of  the  genus  is  somewhat  peculiar,  impinging  on  South-Eastern 
Europe,  and  embracing  the  greater  part  of  South-Eastern  Asia,  as  well  as  the  whole 
of  Africa,  but  excluding  India  proper,  together  with  Cey]on  and  Burma,  although 
including  the  Punjab,  Sind,  and  the  Himalaya.  As  indicated  by  their  depressed 
bodies,  agamas  are  mainly  ground-lizards,  generally  .frequenting  barren  localities 
or  rocks,  although  a  few  species  resort  to  shrubs.  The  circular  pupil  of  their  eyes 
is  equally  indicative  of  diurnal  habits ;  and  a  large  number  of  species  are  fond  of 
basking  on  rocks  in  the  full  glare  of  the  sun.  In  such  situations,  as  in  the  valleys 
around  Kashmir,  they  may  be  seen  in  numbers  on  almost  every  roadside  mass  of 
rock,  where  their  extreme  agility  renders  them  very  difficult  to  capture ;  the  best 
method,  according  to  the  writer's  experience,  when  specimens  are  required  for 
preservation,  being  to  strike  with  the  lash  of  a  hunting-whip,  whereby  they  are 
instantaneously  stunned  or  killed.  As  regards  food,  all  appear  to  be  insectivorous. 
From  among  rather  more  than  forty  representatives  of  the  genus, 

three  are  selected  for  especial  notice.  The  first  of  these  is  the  armed 
agama  (A.  armata)  of  South  Africa,  which  is  represented  in  the  figure  opposite, 
and  attains  a  total  length  of  some  20  inches,  of  which  rather  more  than  6  are 
occupied  by  the  tail.  Belonging  to  the  second  great  group  of  the  genus,  or  that  in 
which  the  occipital  or  hindmost  median  scale  on  the  top  of  the  head  is  enlarged, 
this  species  is  characterised  by  the  spinose  scales  on  the  back  being  of  unequal  size, 
by  the  aperture  of  the  ear  being  larger  than  the  eye,  by  the  fifth  toe  being  as  long 


AGAMOID   GROUP. 


121 


as  the  first,  and  the  third  slightly  longer  than  the  fourth,  as  well  as  by  the  scales 
on  the  abdomen  being  keeled.  Both  sexes  have  a  low  crest  on  the  nape  of  the  neck, 
whereby  the  species  is  distinguished  from  most  of  its  South  African  congeners ; 
while  the  males  have  two  rows  of  twelve  thickened  horny  scales  in  front  of  the 
vent.  Although  variable,  this  handsome  lizard  is  strikingly  coloured.  Generally 
the  upper-parts  are  olive-brown,  with  the  enlarged  scales  lighter ;  and  there  is  a 
double  series  of  darker  blotches  along  the  back ;  the  under  surface  being  lighter, 


Spinose  Agama. 


ARMED  AGAMA  (f  nat.  size). 

and  the  throat  marked  with  dark  longitudinal  streaks.  Known  to  the  natives  of 
Mozambique  by  the  name  of  toque,  this  species  appears  to  feed  chiefly  on  beetles, 
grasshoppers,  and  ants. 

Very  different  in  general  appearance  to  the  last  species  is  the 
spinose  agama  (A.  colonorum)  of  West  Africa,  which  is  a  rather 
large  form,  and  said  to  be  the  most  common  reptile  met  with  on  the  Gold 
Coast.  It  differs  from  the  preceding  species  by  the  shields  on  the  back 
being  of  uniform  size  and  furnished  with  spines,  as  well  as  in  the  absence  of  a 
crest.  The  body  is  not  much  depressed,  and  the  sides  of  the  head  near  the  ear,  as 
well  as  of  the  neck,  are  ornamented  with  radiating  groups  of  short  spines,  which 
are  at  least  equal  to  two-thirds  the  diameter  of  the  ear-opening.  From  an  allied 
species  (A.  rueppelli)  it  may  be  distinguished  by  the  scales  on  the  back  being  very 
numerous,  and  considerably  larger  than  those  on  the  tail ;  the  latter  being  strongly 
keeled  and  arranged  in  fairly  distinct  rings.  Attaining  a  length  of  rather  more 


122  LIZARDS. 

than  13  inches,  this  species  is  noticeable  for  its  brilliant  coloration  in  the  living 
state,  although  the  hues  rapidly  fade  away  after  death.  When  alive,  the  head  is 
flame-red,  the  throat  spotted  with  yellow,  and  the  body  and  limbs  a  deep  steel-blue, 
while  along  the  middle  of  the  back  there  is  generally  a  whitish  line.  The  lower 
surface  of  the  basal  half  of  the  tail  is  yellowish,  the  corresponding  upper  portion 
steely  blue,  as  is  the  tip,  while  the  remainder  is  red.  Very  old  specimens  have, 
however,  both  surfaces  of  the  base  of  the  tail  blue,  the  remainder  of  the  upper 
surface,  except  a  small  blue  tip,  being  red.  Females  are  at  all  ages,  much  more 
soberly  coloured.  In  some  spots  these  agamas  are  found  in  swarms,  being  very 
fond  of  climbing  up  the  mud-walls  and  mat-roofs  of  the  native  huts,  at  times 
basking  motionless  in  the  sun,  and  at  others  running  rapidly  about  in  search  of 
insects.  When  approached  by  a  human  being,  they  raise  and  depress  their  heads 
in  a  series  of  nods,  which  increase  in  rapidity  as  the  intruder  draws  near,  till, 
finally,  the  creatures  lose  courage,  and  disappear,  with  the  speed  of  lightning, 
into  some  crack  or  cranny.  So  brilliant  do  these  gorgeously-coloured  lizards 
appear,  when  basking  in  the  midday  rays  of  an  African  sun,  that  the  observer  is 
fain  to  believe  he  is  gazing  on  some  splendid  insect  rather  than  a  reptile. 

Rough-Tailed  Belonging  to  a  group  of  the  genus  distinguished  from  the  one 

Agama.  containing  the  species  described  above  by  the  absence  of  enlargement 
of  the  occipital  scale  of  the  head,  the  rough-tailed  agama  (A.  stellio),  depicted  in  the 
illustration  on  p.  105,  is  interesting  as  being  one  of  the  two  members  of  the  genus 
whose  range  extends  into  South -Eastern  Europe.  Whereas,  however,  the  other 
members  of  the  group  have  the  tail  more  or  less  ringed,  the  rough-tailed  agama, 
together  with  the  second  European  species  (A.  caucasica)  and  a  third  (A.  microlepis), 
are  peculiar  in  that  the  tail  is  divided  into  distinct  segments,  each  composed  of  a  pair 
of  rings  of  scales.  Growing  to  nearly  a  foot  in  length,  the  species  under  con- 
sideration is  distinguished  by  its  stout  body  and  the  moderate  degree  of  depression 
of  the  head ;  the  cheeks  of  the  male  being  somewhat  swollen.  The  colour  of  the 
upper-parts  is  olive,  spotted  with  black,  and  generally  with  a  series  of  large  yellow 
or  olive  spots  down  the  middle  of  the  back ;  the  throat  of  the  male  having  fine 
bluish  grey  net-like  markings.  Occurring  in  Europe,  in  Turkey,  and  certain 
islands  of  the  jiEgean  Sea,  the  rough-tailed  lizard  is  distributed  over  the  whole 
of  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Northern  Arabia,  and  Egypt,  being  much  more  common  in 
the  latter  regions  than  it  is  in  Europe.  To  the  Arabs  it  is  known  by  the  name 
of  kardun-,  and  it  is  commonly  tamed  and  kept  in  captivity  by  the  itinerant 
snake-charmers  of  Egypt.  As  shy  and  agile  in  its  movements  as  its  congeners, 
it  feeds  largely  on  flies  and  butterflies,  which  are  captured  with  remarkable  address 
and  agility. 

Before  taking  leave  of  this  extensive  genus,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  there  is 
a  third  group,  agreeing  with  the  last  in  the  small  size  of  the  occipital  scale  of  the 
head,  but  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  rings  on  the  tail ;  the  agile  agama  (A. 
agilis)  of  Persia  being  a  well-known  example.  The  genus  Phrynocephalus  of 
South-Eastern  Europe  and  Central  Asia  comprises  rather  more  than  a  dozen  lizards 
nearly  allied  to  Agama,  but  easily  distinguished  by  the  concealed  aperture  of  the  ear. 
Australian  Although  the  swollen  callous  scales  in  front  of  the  vent  in  the 

Frilled  Lizard.  males  of  the  agamas  have  some  resemblance  to  them,  the  whole  of 


AGAMOID   GROUP.  123 

the  preceding  members  of  the  family  are  characterised  by  the  absence  of  true 
pores  on  this  part  of  the  body  or  on  the  thighs.  In  a  second  group  such  pores 
are,  however,  present  in  both,  or  in  one  or  other  of  these  situations ;  and  we  select 
as  our  first  example  thereof  the  remarkable  frilled  lizard  (Chlamydosaurus  kingi) 
of  Australia — the  solitary  representative  of  its  genus.  This  extraordinary-looking 
creature,  which  attains  a  length  of  nearly  32  inches,  about  11  of  which  are  taken 
up  by  the  tail,  is  at  once  recognised  by  the  curious  frill-like  membranous  expansion 
surrounding  the  throat  and  extending  upwards  to  the  sides  of  the  nape.  The  frill, 
which  is  much  more  developed  in  the  adult  than  in  the  young,  has  a  serrated 
margin,  and  is  covered  with  scales  of  larger  size  than  those  on  the  back ;  it 
irresistibly  reminds  one  of  the  frills  with  which  our  ancestors  were  wont  to  adorn 
their  throats,  and  communicates  an  altogether  strange  appearance  to  its  owner. 
In  form,  the  body  of  this  lizard  is  slightly  compressed,  and  although  the  scales  of 
the  back  are  strongly  keeled  there  is  no  distinct  crest  in  this  region.  The  aperture 
of  the  ear  is  exposed,  and  the  tail  is  either  round  or  slightly  compressed,  the  latter 
condition  occurring  in  the  adult  male.  The  general  colour  of  the  upper-parts  is 
pale  brown,  which  may  be  either  uniform  or  mottled  with  dark  brown,  or  blackish 
mingled  with  yellow. 

The  frilled  lizard  is  an  inhabitant  of  Queensland  and  Northern  and  North- 
Western  Australia,  as  well  as  some  of  the  islands  of  Torres  Straits ;  its  fossil  remains 
occurring  in  the  superficial  deposits  of  the  first-named  district.  Recent  observa- 
tions show  that  it  inhabits  sandy  districts,  where  it  walks,  with  a  swinging  gait,  on 
its  hind-legs,  after  the  manner  of  the  extinct  iguanodon.  When  frightened,  it  sits 
down  on  its  hind-quarters,  raises  its  fore-quarters  and  head  as  high  as  possible, 
strikes  its  body  with  its  tail,  and  shows  its  teeth  at  the  intruder.  Although  the 
creature  is  perfectly  harmless,  this  attitude  has  been  known  to  frighten  people  who 
have  seen  it  for  the  first  time ;  and  it  probably  has  the  same  effect  on  other  enemies. 
The  frill  which,  when  fully  extended,  forms  a  shield  concealing  the  body,  limbs, 
and  tail,  is  moved  by  certain  special  muscles,  and  is  supported  by  rods  of  cartilage. 
sail-Tailed  Nearly  allied  to  the  preceding  is  the  sail-tailed  lizard  (Lophurus 

Lizard.  amboinensis),  which  is  likewise  the  sole  member  of  its  genus,  and 
takes  its  name  from  the  presence  of  a  tall  sail-like  crest  on  the  upper  surface  of 
the  tail  of  the  adult,  which  is  supported  by  a  great  lengthening  of  the  spines  of 
the  vertebras  of  that  region.  The  body  is  markedly  compressed,  the  back  has  a  low 
crest,  and  the  throat  has  both  longitudinal  puckerings  and  a  transverse  fold  in  the 
skin,  while  the  aperture  of  the  ear  is  exposed.  In  form,  the  head  is  short  and 
thick,  the  compressed  tail  is  long  and  powerful,  and  the  legs  and  feet  are  also 
strong,  the  toes  of  the  latter  being  covered  inferiorly  with  small  granular  scales, 
and  at  the  sides,  especially  externally,  with  a  fringe  of  large  united  scales,  which 
is  one  of  the  distinctive  features  of  the  genus.  The  covering  of  the  upper-parts 
is  in  the  form  of  small  quadrangular  scales,  which  are  keeled  on  the  head  and 
back.  The  dentition  comprises  six  small  conical  teeth  in  the  front  of  the  jaws, 
four  long  tusks,  and  thirteen  cheek-teeth.  On  the  thighs  there  is  a  row  of  pores. 
Attaining  a  length  of  over  a  yard,  the  sail-tailed  lizard  is  of  a  general  olive-brown 
colour,  becoming  greenish  on  the  head  and  neck,  and  spotted  and  marbled  with 
black ;  while  an  oblique  fold  in  the  skin  on  the  front  of  the  shoulder  is  deep  black. 


124 


LIZARDS. 


Originally  brought  to  Europe  from  Amboyna,  this  curious  lizard  is  an 
inhabitant  of  the  Philippines,  Java,  Celebes,  and  the  Moluccas ;  it  is  arboreal  in  its 
habits,  and  is  generally  found  in  wood  or  scrub  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water. 
Its  food  consists  of  seeds,  leaves,  flowers,  and  berries,  as  well  as  worms,  myriapods, 
and  other  creatures  found  in  damp  situations.  If  frightened,  this  lizard  immedi- 
ately dives  into  the  water,  and  endeavours  to  conceal  itself  among  the  stones  at 


£" 


SAIL-TAILED  LIZARD  (1  Hat.  size). 

the  bottom,  where,  however,  it  may  be  readily  captured  with  a  net,  or  even  with 

the  hand,  as  it  makes  not  the  slightest  attempt  at  defence.     Its  eggs  are  laid  in  the 

sand  of  the  river-banks.     By  the  natives  the  creature  is  hunted  for  the  sake  of  its 

flesh,  which  is  white  and  well-flavoured,  and  consequently  much  appreciated. 

Thorny-Tailed  Quite  a  different  type  of  tail  to  that  of  the  last  is  presented  by 

Lizards.       ^e  thorny-tailed  lizards,  of  which  there  are  seven  species,  inhabiting 

arid  tracts  in  Northern  Africa  and  South- Western  Asia.     From  the  whole  of  the 

foregoing  members  of  the  present  family,  these  lizards  are  sharply  distinguished 


AGAMOID   GROUP. 


I25 


by  the  circumstance  that  the  front  teeth,  instead  of  being  small  and  conical,  are 
large,  and  in  the  adult  united  together  into  one  or  two  broad  cutting -teeth, 
separated  from  those  of  the  cheek-series  by  a  gap ;  while  externally  they  are  easily 
recognised  by  their  short  tails  covered  with  well-defined  rings  of  spiny  scales.  The 
head  is  remarkably  short  and  rounded ;  the  body,  as  in  most  terrestrial  members 


ARABIAN   THORNY-TAILED  LIZARD  (\  nat.  size). 

of  the  family,  is  much  depressed ;  and  there  is  no  crest  along  the  back.  There  are 
no  folds  or  pouches  on  the  neck,  but  pores  are  present  both  in  front  of  the  vent 
and  on  the  thighs,  and  the  aperture  of  the  ear  is  exposed.  The  Arabian  thorny- 
tail,  or  dabb,  as  it  is  termed  by  the  Arabs  ( Uromastix  spinipes),  is  one  of  the 
best  known  members  of  the  genus,  and  inhabits  Egypt,  Crete,  and  Arabia.  It 
belongs  to  a  group  characterised  by  the  rings  of  spiny  scales  on  the  upper  surface 
of  the  tail  being  in  juxtaposition;  while,  in  common  with  two  other  species,  it 


126  LIZARDS. 

is  specially  distinguished  by  the  circumstance  that  two  or  more  transverse  rows, 
of  scales  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  tail  correspond  with  one  on  its  upper  aspect. 
The  Arabian  species,  which  attains  a  length  of  about  18  inches,  differs  from  its. 
two  nearest  allies  in  the  minute  size  of  the  scales  covering  the  body,  coupled  with 
the  presence  of  a  few  scattered  somewhat  larger  tubercular  scales  on  the  flanks. 
Its  colour  is  either  sandy  grey,  or  greenish  above,  which  may  be  either  uniform  or 
clouded  with  brown.  The  ornate  thorny-tail  (U.  ornatus),  of  Egypt  and  Syria,, 
differs  from  the  other  three  members  of  the  first  group  in  that  the  scales  of  the  tail 
form  complete  rings,  those  on  the  lower  surface  being  as  long  as  those  on  the  upper. 
With  the  exception  of  one  species  (U.  microlepis)  inhabiting  Persia,  the 
members  of  the  first  group  are  confined  to  Africa,  Arabia,  and  Syria,  whereas 
the  three  representatives  of  the  second  group  are  exclusively  Asiatic,  one  (U. 
loricatus)  being  from  Persia,  the  second  (U.  asmussi)  common  to  Persia  and 
Baluchistan,  while  the  third  (U.  hardwickei)  is  an  inhabitant  of  Baluchistan 
and  Northern  India.  In  the  whole  of  these  three  Asiatic  species  the  rings 
of  spiny  scales  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail  are  separated  from  one 
another  by  rows  of  smaller  smooth  scales.  In  the  Indian  thorny  -  tail  the 
spines  on  the  tail  are  small,  with  the  lateral  ones  the  largest ;  there  are  no 
enlarged  tubercular  scales  on  the  back;  and  the  front  surface  of  the  thigh 
is  marked  by  a  large  black  spot.  In  size  this  species  is  much  inferior  to  its 
Arabian  congener,  not  exceeding  some  11  inches  in  length.  Its  colour  is  either 
uniform  sandy  above,  or  the  same  spotted  or  mottled  with  a  darker,  and  whitish 
beneath,  with  the  aforesaid  dark  mark  on  the  thigh. 

Conforming  in  their  sombre  coloration  to  the  desert  regions  they 
frequent,  the  thorny-tailed  lizards  are  entirely  vegetable-feeders,  and 
live  in  burrows,  resembling  those  of  the  smaller  foxes,  which  are  excavated  by 
themselves.  These  burrows,  which  may  be  as  much  as  4  feet  in  length,  sometimes, 
turn  almost  at  right  angles  to  their  original  course,  at  a  depth  of  a  foot  or  so  from 
the  surface.  Generally  living  solitary  or  in  pairs,  these  lizards  are  met  with 
abundantly  in  parts  of  Eastern  Persia  and  the  Punjab,  and  when  approached  at 
once  make  for  their  holes.  If  they  succeed  in  getting  their  fore-limbs  within 
the  aperture  of  their  burrows,  it  is  impossible  to  pull  them  out,  for,  as  the 
writer  knows  by  experience,  they  will  rather  suffer  their  tails  to  be  pulled  from 
their  bodies  than  let  go  their  hold.  They  are  generally  somewhat  heavy  and 
deliberate  in  the  movements,  turning  their  heads  from  side  to  side  while  walking, 
but  are  capable  of  running  with  tolerable  speed.  In  the  cold  season,  at  any  rate, 
they  never  leave  their  burrows  till  the  sun  is  well  up ;  and  while  in  Persia  and 
India  they  are  commonly  found  on  half-desert  gravelly  plains  scattered  over  with 
low  bush,  the  Arabian  species  is  often  met  with  in  the  clefts  of  rocks,  whence  it 
issues  forth  to  bask  on  the  smooth  slabs  or  boulders.  According  to  Brehm,  as 
many  as  a  dozen  of  these  lizards  may  occasionally  be  seen  on  a  single  slab  of  rock. 
All  the  species  appear  to  be  timid  and  gentle  in  their  disposition,  rarely,  if  everr 
attempting  to  bite  when  captured.  Their  food  comprises  leaves  and  flowers,  dried 
fruits,  and  the  seeds  of  grass,  as  well  as  grass  itself;  but  although  in  the  wild  state 
they  seem  never  to  touch  animal  food,  in  captivity  the  Indian  species  will  greedily 
devour  meal-worms.  According  to  Arab  reports,  the  dabb  never  by  any  chance 


AGAMOID   GROUP.  127 

drinks,  even  when  water  is  at  hand,  and  this  statement  has  been  confirmed  by 
modern  observers.  By  the  Arabs  these  lizards  are  frequently  tamed  and  kept  in 
captivity;  and  their  flesh,  which  resembles  that  of  young  chicken,  is  much 
relished  by  them  as  an  article  of  food.  Nothing  appears  to  be  known  as  to  their 
breeding-habits.  All  the  species  thrive  well  in  captivity  in  Europe.  It  is  not 
improbable',  according  to  Canon  Tristram,  that  the  reptile  mentioned  in  Leviticus 
under  the  name  of  tortoise,  is  really  the  dabb. 

East  African  Two  nearly  allied  lizards  from  East  Africa — namely,  Aporoscelis 

Thorny-Tailed  princeps  from  Zanzibar  and  Somaliland,  and  A.  batilliferus  from 
Lizards.  Somaliland, — while  resembling  the  members  of  the  preceding  genus 
in  general  external  characters,  differ  in  the  absence  of  true  pores  either  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  body  or  on  the  thighs,  and  are  consequently  referred  to  a  distinct 
genus.  Both  appear  to  be  rare,  and  are  of  comparatively  small  size,  the  first- 
named  measuring  only  about  7J  inches  in  length. 

Even  more  strange  and  uncouth  in  appearance  than  the  frilled 
Moloch  Lizard.  .  '  .  rf 

lizard,  is  another  Australian  species  commonly  known  as  the  moloch 

(Moloch  horridus),  but  termed  by  the  settlers  the  spiny  lizard  or  thorny  devil. 
This,  the  last  remaining  representative  of  the  agamoids,  differs  from  all  the  other 
members  of  the  family  in  being  covered  with  large  conical  spines,  and  in  the  con- 
formation 6f  its  mouth  and  teeth.  In  all  the  forms  described  above  the  mouth  is 
large  and  the  teeth  of  both  jaws  are  erect,  but  in  the  moloch  the  mouth  is  very  small, 
and  the  cheek-teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  are  placed  horizontally,  with  their  summits 
directed  inwardly.  About  8  inches  in  total  length,  this  extraordinary  lizard  has  a 
small  head,  with  an  extremely  short  snout,  on  the  summit  of  which  are  pierced  the 
nostrils ;  it  has  a  much  depressed  body,  a  short  and  rounded  tail,  and  thick,  powerful 
limbs  armed  with  strong  claws.  On  each  side  of  the  head  immediately  above  the 
small  eye  is  a  large  horn  curving  outwards  and  backwards,  while  there  is  a  smaller 
conical  spine  above  the  nostril,  a  second  behind  the  horn  over  the  eye,  a  third  and 
larger  one  in  front  of  each  ear,  as  well  as  one  on  each  side  of  the  occiput.  Between 
these  spines  the  upper  surface  of  the  head  is  protected  by  small  granular  tubercles ; 
while  among  the  spines  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  body,  limbs,  arid  tail,  are 
similar  granules  intermingled  with  polygonal  scales  of  which  the  edges  are  in 
apposition.  On  the  back  the  spines  form  ten  or  more  longitudinal  series,  of  which 
the  outermost  are  the  largest.  The  lower  surface  of  the  body  has  a  covering  of 
rough,  and  slightly  overlapping  scales,  among  which  are  numerous  rounded  and 
keeled  tubercles.  In  general  colour  the  creature  is  yellowish,  ornamented  with 
symmetrical  chestnut  or  reddish  brown  markings  defined  by  darker  borders. 

Inhabiting  Southern  and  Western  Australia,  and  being  not  uncommon  in 
several  localities  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Port  Augusta,  the  moloch  is  found  only 
in  districts  where  the  soil  is  dry  and  sandy.  Occasionally  two  or  three  may  be 
observed  basking  in  company  on  the  top  of  a  sandhill ;  and  it  is  the  frequent 
habit  of  this  lizard  to  bury  itself  in  the  sand  to  a  small  depth  below  the 
surface.  Its  small  eye  and  general  manner  indicate  pretty  clearly  that  the  moloch 
is  diurnal  in  its  habits,  although  it  may  possibly  occasionally  move  about  during 
the  night.  Although  generally  very  slow  in  its  movements,  it  has  been  known, 
when  disturbed,  to  make  for  a  neighbouring  hole  with  considerable  speed.  In 


128 


LIZARDS. 


repose  it  generallv  rests  with  the  head  so  raised  as  to  be  on  the  level  of  the  back. 
Its  chief  food  appears  to  be  ants,  although  vegetable  substances  are  sometimes 
eaten.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs  in  the  sand.  To  a  certain  degree  the  moloch 
is  endued  with  the  power  of  changing  its  colour  to  harmonise  with  its  surround- 
ings, such  changes  taking  place  very  gradually,  although  not  unfrequently.  The 
most  general  change  is  to  a  uniform  sandy  slate,  or  russet  colour,  when  the 
ornamental  markings  almost  completely  disappear.  In  spite  of  its  ferocious  and 
somewhat  forbidding  appearance,  the  moloch  is  a  perfectly  harmless  creature,  its 


MOLOCH  LIZARD  (uat.  size). 

formidable-looking  armour  bein«;  never  used  for  attack.     In  captivity  it  is  dull 

O  r"»  1  *,' 

and  sluggish,  undergoing  fasts  of  a  month's  duration  without  any  apparent  incon- 
venience. 

THE  IGUANOID  LIZARDS. 
Kami ly  Io  UANIDJE. 

The  extensive  family  of  lizards,  of  which  the  well-known  iguanas  of  South 
America  arid  the  West  Indies  are  the  typical  representatives,  may  be  regarded  as 
occupying  the  same  position  in  America  as  is  filled  by  the  agamoids  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  Old  World.  Whereas,  however,  the  agamoids  are  exclusively  denizens 
of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  the  iguauoid  lizards  are  not  absolutely  confined  to  the 


THE    BLACK    IGUANA 


IGUANOID   GROUP.  129 

western  half  of  the  globe,  two  genera  occurring  in  Madagascar,  and  a  third  in 
the  Fiji  and  Friendly  Islands.  Although,  with  these  exceptions,  the  family  is 
unknown  in  the  Old  World,  the  same  perverseness  which  causes  Anglo-Indians  to 
speak  of  the  Oriental  crocodiles  as  alligators,  leads  to  the  monitors  of  the  Old 
World  being  commonly  termed  iguanas,  although  few  lizards  are  more  unlike 
than  the  members  of  these  two  groups,  both  as  regards  external  and  internal 
characters.  In  their  general  structural  features  the  iguanoids  come  very  close  to  the 
agamoids.  Thus  in  both  groups  the  head  is  covered  with  numerous  small  shields  ; 
while  the  back  is  clothed  with  scales  of  different  kinds,  which  are  often  arranged 
in  oblique  rows.  Similarly,  the  eyes  have  round  pupils  and  are  furnished  with 
well-developed  lids,  and  the  dram  of  the  ear  is  frequently  exposed.  Both  groups, 
again,  have  two  pairs  of  limbs,  which  may  be  relatively  longer  or  shorter  in  the 
different  genera,  but  are  each  provided  with  five  toes.  The  length  of  the  tail  is 
subject  to  a  large  amount  of  variation,  although  it  generally  exceeds  that  of  the 
head  and  body.  Moreover,  the  two  families  resemble  one  another  in  the  form  and 
structure  of  the  tongue,  which  is  thick,  short,  scarcely  notched,  and  generally  fixed 
to  the  floor  of  the  mouth  throughout  its  length.  When,  however,  we  come  to 
contrast  the  teeth  of  iguanoids  with  those  of  agamoids,  we  find  a  striking  difference 
which  at  once  serves  to  draw  a  sharp  line  of  distinction  between  the  two  families. 
As  we  have  already  seen,  in  the  latter  group  the  teeth  are  attached  to  the  very 
summits  of  the  bones  of  the  jaws  (acrodont),  and  are  commonly  differentiated  into 
front  teeth,  tusks,  and  cheek-teeth.  In  the  iguanoids,  on  the  other  hand,  the  tall 
and  cylindrical  teeth  are  attached  by  their  sides  to  the  outer  wall  of  the  jaws  in 
the  so-called  pleurodont  manner ;  the  whole  series  being  generally  more  or  less 
uniform  in  character,  and  without  any  large  projecting  tusks.  In  the  typical 
iguanas  the  teeth  have  somewhat  diamond-shaped  compressed  crowns  with  serrated 
edges ;  and  it  was  from  a  superficial  resemblance  to  this  type  of  tooth  that  the 
teeth  of  the  great  dinosaurian  reptile  from  the  English  Wealden  received  the  name 
of  Iguanodon.  A  few  genera,  again,  have  the  teeth  divided  into  three  lobes,  thus 
resembling  a  fleur-de-lis.  Many  species  of  the  family  are  further  characterised  by 
having  teeth  on  the  pterygoid  bones  of  the  palate,  while  a  single  genus  is  one  of 
the  few  lizards  in  which  there  are  teeth  on  the  palatine  bones. 

The  iguanoids,  which  comprise  about  three  hundred  species,  arranged  in  fifty 
genera,  may  be  regarded  as  especially  characteristic  of  South  and  Central  America, 
although  they  extend  into  the  warmer  parts  of  the  northern  half  of  that  continent, 
ranging  in  the  west  as  far  as  British  Columbia,  and  in  the  east  to  Arkansas 
and  the  Southern  United  States,  while  they  are  also  represented  in  many  of  the 
American  islands.  Their  occurrence  in  Madagascar  (where,  as  in  America, 
agamoids  are  wanting)  has  been  already  mentioned,  and  it  is  probable  that  this 
remarkable  instance  of  discontinuous  distribution  may  be  explained  by  the 
occurrence  of  fossil  remains  of  species  of  the  family  in  the  upper  Eocene  rocks 
of  France,  where  agamoids  seem  likewise  to  have  been  wanting. 

Very  variable  in  external  appearance,  iguanoids  present  equal  diversity  in 
their  modes  of  life,  and  it  is  not  a  little  curious  that,  with  the  exception  of  the 
flying  lizard,  almost  every  group  of  the  agamoids  finds  a  parallel,  both  as  regards 
structure  and  habits,  in  the  present  family ;  the  two  families  being  thus  repre- 

VOL.  v. — 9 


1 3o 


LIZARDS. 


sentative  groups.  There  are,  however,  certain  iguanoicls,  such  as  the  anolis 
lizards  and  the  sea-lizards  which  have  no  representatives  in  the  preceding  family. 
The  majority  of  the  iguanoids  feed  on  insects,  although  some,  like  the  true 
iguanas  and  the  sea-lizards,  subsist  on  a  vegetable  diet,  while  one  genus  is  stated 
to  be  omnivorous.  Only  two  genera  are  known  to  produce  living  young. 

In  the  forests,  groves,  and  gardens  of  all  the  warmer  regions  of 
America  live  a  number  of  beautiful  lizards  commonly  known  by  the 
name  of  anolis,  which  is  applied  in  the  Antilles  to  some  members  of  the  group. 
The  distinctive  features  of  these  lizards  are  the  pyramidal  form  of  the  head,  the 
moderately  long  neck,  the  presence  of  a  broad  and  generally  brilliantly-coloured 
appendage  on  the  throat  of  the  males,  the  slender  body,  which  may  be  either  com- 


Anolis  Lizards. 


RED-THROATED   ANOLIS  (nat.  size). 

pressed,  cylindrical,  or  slightly  depressed,  the  relatively  long  hind-limbs,  the  large 
feet,  in  which  the  toes  are  of  very  unequal  length,  and  their  middle  joints  expanded, 
with  smooth  transverse  plates  on  the  under  surface,  and  the  long,  curved,  and  sharp 
claws,  which  are  raised  above  the  level  of  the  expanded  joints.  The  tail  is  long  and 
hard,  although  not  prehensile ;  the  covering  of  very  minute  scales  on  the  back  and 
tail  is  not  unfrequently  elevated  to  form  a  crest ;  the  cheek-teeth  are  characterised 
by  their  distinctly  tricuspid  crowns ;  and  teeth  are  generally  present  on  the  pterygoid 
bones  of  the  palate.  Lastly,  these  lizards  possess  the  power  of  changing  their 
colour  to  even  a  greater  extent  than  is  the  case  with  the  chamseleons.  From 
among  more  than  one  hundred  species  belonging  to  the  genus  we  select  for 
illustration  the  red- throated  anolis  (Anolis  carolinensis),  which  inhabits  the 
South- Eastern  United  States  and  Cuba,  and  presents  the  following  distinctive 
features.  The  head,  which  is  long,  triangular,  and  depressed,  is  nearly  smooth  in 


IGUANOID   GROUP.  13 T 

the  young,  but  in  the  adult  has  well-marked  frontal  ridges,  and  some  large  rough 
shields  on  the  crown ;  and  the  appendage  on  the  throat  of  the  males  is  relatively 
small.  The  body  is  not  compressed,  flat  beneath,  and  not  keeled  above ;  the  scales 
on  its  upper  and  lower  surfaces  being  keeled  and  approaching  an  hexagonal 
form,  with  their  edges  either  in  apposition  or  slightly  overlapping.  The  tail  is 
cylindrical  and  tapering,  with  some  slightly  enlarged  scales  on  its  upper  surface, 
and  nearly  equal  to  twice  the  length  of  the  head  and  body.  In  the  living  animal 
the  colour  of  the  upper  surface  is  brilliant  metallic  green,  and  that  of  the  under- 
parts  silvery  white ;  the  appendage  on  the  throat  of  the  males,  which  is  covered 
with  white  scales,  is  red ;  there  is  a  large  blue  eye-like  spot  above  the  axil  of  the 
fore-limb ;  and  the  region  of  the  tail  is  ornamented  with  black  markings.  In 
some  specimens  the  green  colour  passes  more  or  less  distinctly  into  brownish  or 
brown ;  and,  when  excited,  the  creature  is  able  to  change  its  general  hue  from 
greenish  grey,  through  dark  grey  and  brown  of  all  shades,  to  the  ordinary  metallic 
green.  In  length  this  lizard  varies  from  5  J  to  nearly  9  inches,  according  to  sex ; 
fully  two-thirds  of  these  dimensions  being  taken  up  by  the  tail. 

In  Louisiana,  Carolina,  and  Cuba,  the  red-throated  anolis  is  one  of  the' most 
common  of  lizards,  and  may  be  noticed  in  all  suitable  spots,  such  as  woods  and 
garden-hedges,  as  well  as  the  exteriors,  and  sometimes  also  the  interiors  of 
dwelling-houses.  Like  their  congeners,  they  are,  however,  to  be  met  with  most 
abundantly  in  the  deep  woods,  and  then  so  closely  do  they  assimilate  to  their 
surroundings  that  their  presence,  when  at  rest  on  a  bough,  is  generally  only 
revealed  by  their  brilliant  eyes.  In  houses,  these  lizards  exhibit  but  little  fear  of 
man,  running  about  with  the  greatest  unconcern  in  search  of  flies  and  other 
insects ;  and  as,  in  addition  to  gnats,  flies,  butterflies,  beetles,  and  spiders,  they  kill 
and  eat  wasps,  scorpions,  and  other  noxious  creatures,  their  visits  are  encouraged. 
In  motion  throughout  the  day,  they  display  extreme  activity  and  speed,  both  when 
hunting  among  the  foliage  of  trees  or  on  the  ground,  pouncing  upon  their  insect- 
prey  like  a  cat  upon  a  mouse.  In  the  spring,  during  the  breeding-season,  the 
males  display  great  jealousy  of  one  another,  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  when  two 
meet,  a  combat  is  certain  to  ensue,  and  is  often  continued  till  one  of  the  combatants 
has  lost  its  tail,  which  appears  to  be  taken  as  an  immediate  sign  of  defeat.  During 
these  battles  the  appendage  on  the  throat  is  inflated,  and  the  changes  of  colour 
are  more  rapid  than  at  any  other  time.  With  the  advent  of  summer,  these  mutual 
animosities  are,  however,  forgotten,  and  these  lizards  dwell  together  in  perfect 
amity,  sometimes  collecting  in  large  companies.  The  females  of  some  of  the  species 
are  stated  to  dig  a  hole  for  the  reception  of  their  few  white  eggs  with  their  fore- 
paws,  at  the  foot  of  a  tree  or  in  some  moist  spot  near  a  wall,  afterwards  carefully 
covering  them  with  soil  to  protect  them  from  the  sun's  rays.  The  figured  kind  is, 
however,  said  to  be  very  careless  in  regard  to  the  place  where  its  eggs  are 
deposited ;  these  being  found  either  on  bare  sand  or  rocks,  or  even  in  rooms.  The 
red-throated  anolis,  like  most  of  its  kindred,  can  be  readily  tamed,  and  makes  a 
most  charming  pet,  which  can  be  without  much  difficulty  transported  to  Europe. 
Writing  of  a  pair  which  were  at  one  time  in  his  possession,  Bell  says  that  "  I  was 
in  the  habit  of  feeding  them  with  flies  and  other  insects,  and  having  one  day 
placed  in  the  cage  with  them  a  very  large  garden-spider,  one  of  the  lizards  darted 


132  LIZARDS. 

at  it,  but  seized  it  only  by  the  leg.  The  spider  instantly  ran  round  and  round  the 
creature's  mouth,  weaving  a  very  thick  web  round  both  jaws,  and  then  gave  it  a 
very  severe  bite  in  the  lip,  just  as  this  species  of  spider  usually  does  with  any 
large  insect  it  has  taken.  The  lizard  was  greatly  distressed,  and  I  removed  the 
spider  and  rubbed  off  the  web,  the  confinement  of  which  appeared  to  give  it  great 
annoyance ;  but  in  a  few  days  it  died,  though  previously  in  as  perfect  health  as  its 
companion.  The  lizard  was  evidently  unused  to  the  wiles  of  the  British  spider." 

The  crested  anolis  (A.  cuvieri),  belonging  to  a  small  group,  with  compressed 
and  crested  bodies  and  tails,  is  remarkable  for  the  great  extent  to  which  the  pouch 
on  the  throat  can  be  inflated, — probably  for  the  purpose  of  terrifying  foes. 

Two   lizards,  respectively  from   Jamaica   and   Colombia,   differ 
Allied  Genera.  •          •   ,  ,.      .       ,        .  ,  ,    ., 

trom  all  the  species  or  true  anolis  in  having   prehensile   tails,  in 

consequence  of  which  they  are  referred  to  a  distinct  genus — Xiphocercus.  In  a 
third  genus,  Chamcelolis,  the  cheek-teeth  have  smooth  and  nearly  spherical  crowns. 
The  strange  form  of  the  members  of  the  present  genus  of 
iguaiioids  probably  suggested  to  the  earlier  naturalists  the  imposition 
of  the  name  basilisk, — a  term  which,  as  all  our  readers  are  doubtless  aware, 
originally  denoted  a  fabulous  snake-like  reptile  before  whose  deadly  glance  every 
living  being  save  the  cock  perished.  Be  this  as  it  •  may,  the  reptiles  now  known 
as  basilisks  are  large,  although  perfectly  harmless  members  of  the  present  family, 
belonging  to  a  group  distinguished  from  the  preceding  one  by  the  absence  of 
dilatation  of  the  toes,  and  the  more  or  less  marked  backward  prolongation  of  the 
hinder  portion  of  the  head.  In  the  presence  of  a  large  crest  on  the  upper  surface 
of  the  tail,  the  basilisks  recall  the  sail-tailed  lizards  in  the  agamoid  group,  of 
which,  indeed,  they  may  be  regarded  as  the  representatives  in  the  present  family. 
As  a  genus,  they  are  characterised  by  the  head  in  the  adult  males  being  produced 
backwards  into  a  large  cartilaginous  lobe ;  by  the  compressed  form  of  the  body 
and  tail,  which  are  covered  with  small  overlapping  scales ;  and  by  the  presence  of 
a  crest  on  the  back  and  tail  in  the  males,  such  crests  being  always  supported  on 
the  back  by  the  prolonged  spines  of  the  vertebrae,  and  frequently  also  in  the  tail. 
Although  there  is  a  transverse  fold  on  the  throat,  the  pouch  characterising  the 
anolis  lizards  is  wanting.  The  long  limbs  are  covered  with  keeled  scales ;  and  the 
outer  sides  of  the  hind-toes  have  a  much  developed  lobe  of  skin.  The  cheek-teeth 
have  three-cusped  crowns ;  and  teeth  are  borne  on  the  pterygoid  bones.  Internally, 
the  basilisks  form  an  exception  to  the  members  of  this  and  the  two  preceding 
families  in  that  the  inner  extremities  of  the  collar-bones  have  a  loop-like  expan- 
sion, as  in  the  geckos ;  while  they  differ  from  the  anolis  lizards  in  the  absence 
of  the  false  abdominal  ribs  so  frequently  present  in  this  and  the  preceding  families. 
The  basilisks  are  represented  by  four  species  from  Tropical  America,  among 
which  the  figured  helmeted  basilisk  (Basiliscus  americanus)  is  the  one  most 
commonly  known.  It  is  the  largest  representative  of  the  genus,  attaining  a  length 
of  about  31  inches,  of  which  nearly  three-quarters  is  taken  up  by  the  tail ;  and  is 
one  of  two  species  characterised  by  the  great  height  of  the  crest  of  the  tail  in 
the  males,  which  is  supported  by  prolongations  of  the  spines  of  the  vertebrae. 
Inhabiting  Panama  and  Costa  Rica,  it  is  specially  characterised  by  the  undivided 
head-crest  of  the  males ;  while  the  scales  on  the  under  surface  of  the  body  are 


IGUANOID    GROUP. 


133 


smooth.  The  natural  colour  of  the  creature  is  probably  green,  although  specimens 
preserved  in  spirit  are  olive-brown  above,  and  dirty  white  beneath.  The  back  is 
marked  with  more  or  less  distinct  blackish  transverse  bands,  while  a  lightish 
streak  runs  from  the  temple  to  the  neck,  and  a  more  defined  one  from  the  region  of 
the  eye  to  the  fore-limb.  The  banded  basilisk  (B.  vittatus),  ranging  from  Mexico 
and  Ecuador,  represents  a  second  group  of  the  genus,  in  which  the  tail-crest  of  the 


HELMETED  BASILISK  (£  liat.  size). 


males  is  low,  and  not  supported  by  bony  rays.  In  this  species  the  scales  of  the 
under  surface  of  the  body  are  keeled,  whereas  in  the  allied  B.  galeatus  they  are 
smooth.  In  general  appearance  all  the  basilisks  suggest  the  idea  of  lizards  upon 
whose  backs  has  been  grafted  a  fish's  fin.  As  regards  their  habits,  all  the  members 
of  the  genus  spend  their  time  either  on  trees,  or  bushes,  often  basking  in  the  sun  on 
fallen  stems,  and  seldom,  if  ever,  venturing  far  from  the  neighbourhood  of  water. 
Most  numerous  in  the  vicinity  of  rivers,  basilisks  are,  indeed,  so  common  in 
Guatemala,  that  the  collector  has  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  as  many  specimens  as 


134  LIZARDS. 

he  may  desire,  although  the  rapidity  of  their  movements  is  so  great  that  some 
practice  is  required  to  effect  their  capture.  Their  food  is  entirely  of  a  vegetable 
nature ;  and  to  gather  this  the  basilisks  are  astir  with  the  first  rays  of  dawn, 
while  during  the  heat  of  the  day  they  prefer  to  rest  among  the  most  leafy  boughs. 
At  the  slightest  sound,  they  raise  the  head,  innate  the  throat,  and  elevate  the 
crest ;  and  as  soon  as  the  bright,  yellow-irised  eye  detects  the  presence  of  a  foe, 
the  basilisks  throw  themselves  instantaneously  into  the  water  above  which  they 
are  usually  reposing.  In  swimming,  the  head  and  neck  are  raised,  the  fore-limbs 
serve  the  part  of  propellers,  while  the  crested  tail  acts  as  a  rudder ;  hence  the 
common  name  of  "  ferrymen  "  is  applied  to  these  lizards.  At  the  end  of  April  or 
beginning  of  May  the  female  lays  from  twelve  to  eighteen  eggs  in  some  cranny  at 
the  foot  of  a  tree,  where  they  are  left  for  the  sun  to  hatch. 

Ridge-Headed  Nearly  allied  to  the  basilisks  are  the  three  species  of  ridge-headed 

Lizards.  lizards  (Corythophanes)  of  Central  America,  characterised  by  the  head 
being  prolonged  backwards  into  a  bony,  helmet-like  projection,  while  the  tail  is 
devoid  of  a  crest,  although  the  neck  and  back  are  provided  with  a  low  appendage 
of  this  nature.  On  the  throat  there  is  both  a  pouch  and  a  transverse  fold.  The 
most  interesting  of  the  three  species  is  the  one  named  C.  hernandezi,  in  which  the 
head  is  crowned  with  a  helmet-like  prolongation  so  like  that  of  the  chameleon  that 
the  creature  is  commonly  spoken  of  under  that  name  by  the  Mexicans.  Like  the 
anolis  lizards,  these  reptiles  are  in  the  constant  habit  of  changing  their  somewhat 
sombre  colours ;  and  it  has  been  observed  in  a  captive  specimen  that  whereas  the 
patch  on  the  pouch  was  white  during  the  day,  at  night  it  assumed,  like  the  other 
light  parts  of  the  body,  a  blackish  hue. 

While  agreeing  with  the  basilisks  in  having  the  plates  on  the 
under  surface  of  the  toes  distinctly  keeled,  there  are  a  number  of 
genera  in  the  family  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  any  backward  prolongation 
of  the  crown  of  the  head.  Among  these  we  select  for  mention  the  stilted  lizards, 
specially  characterised  by  the  large  size  of  the  occipital  shield  of  the  head,  the 
presence  of  a  vacuity  in  the  breast-bone,  the  small  or  moderate-sized  scales  of  the 
tail,  the  long  and  highly  curved  toes,  and  the  presence  of  tusk-like  teeth  in 
the  jaws.  There  are  but  two  representatives  of  the  genus,  both  of  which  have 
a  wide  distribution  in  South  America.  The  figured  species  (  Uraniscodon  umbra), 
which  attains  a  length  of  about  a  foot,  two-thirds  of  which  are  occupied  by  the 
long  and  cylindrical  tail,  has  a  short  and  frog-like  head,  raised  into  curved  ridges 
over  the  eyes,  with  the  muzzle  very  blunt,  and  the  lower  jaw  longer  than  the 
upper.  The  skin  of  the  neck  is  curiously  puckered  inferiorly,  the  folds  forming 
a  pair  of  pouches  on  the  sides,  although  there  is  no  pouch  on  the  throat.  In 
form,  the  body  is  at  most  but  slightly  compressed,  with  a  low  and  slightly  serrated 
crest  running  from  the  nape  down  to  the  back;  and  the  uniform  scales  of  the 
back  are  small  and  overlapping,  and  those  on  the  top  of  the  head  enlarged.  The 
long  and  bent  toes  are  markedly  compressed,  and  are  furnished  with  short  but 
strong  claws.  In  coloration  this  species  is  one  of  the  handsomest  of  its  tribe.  The. 
general  ground-colour  of  the  upper-parts  is  reddish  or  purplish  brown,  ornamented 
with  more  or  less  distinctly  defined  blackish  transverse  bars ;  a  broad  black  band 
traverses  the  fold  in  front  of  the  shoulder,  and  may  extend  across  the  nape ;  while 


IGUANOID   GROUP.  135 

frequently  in  front  of  this  band  there  is  a  large  yellowish  orange  spot  on  each  side 
of  the  neck.  Below,  the  colour  is  brownish  or  yellowish,  which  may  be  either 
uniform  or  clouded  with  brown  markings.  An  inhabitant  of  the  great  primeval 
forests  of  South  America,  the  stilted  lizard  has  the  power  of  changing  colour, 
and  is  consequently  often  designated  a  chamseleon.  It  generally  associates  in 
pairs,  dwelling  among  trees,  and  its  food  appears  to  be  entirely  of  a  vegetable 
nature.  When  disturbed,  it  rushes  suddenly  up  a  high  branch,  where  it  stands 
with  outstretched  head  and  neck  and  widely  open  eyes,  gazing  steadily  at  the 
intruder.  Should  it  be  unable  to  escape  otherwise,  the  creature  raises  its  neck  still 
higher,  inflates  the  neck-pouches,  and,  with  a  sharp  cry,  springs  boldly  into  the  air. 
There  are  a  very  large  number  of  genera,  agreeing  with  those  hitherto  noticed 


The  Sea-Lizard. 


STILTED  LIZARD  (nat.  size). 

in  the  absence  of  pores  on  the  thighs,  which  the  limits  of  our  space  prevent  us  from 
even  mentioning.  We  accordingly  pass  on  to  the  consideration  of  certain  repre- 
sentatives of  the  second  great  group  of  the  family,  in  which  such  pores  are  present. 
Both  as  regards  their  fauna  and  flora,  the  Galapagos  Islands 
stand  altogether  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  the  greater  number 
of  their  animals  and  plants  being  absolutely  peculiar, — it  may  be  specifically,  or  it 
may  be  generically, — while  herbivorous  reptiles  take  the  place  occupied  on  the 
continents  of  the  world  by  vegetable-eating  mammals.  In  no  case,  however,  is 
this  faunistic  peculiarity  more  marked  than  in  the  occurrence  in  such  a  limited 
area  of  two  distinct  genera  of  the  present  family,  each  represented  by  a  single 
species.  Remarkable  alike  for  special  features  connected  with  their  dentition,  as 
well  as  for  their  large  bodily  size,  these  two  lizards  differ  widely  from  the  rest 
of  the  family.  Whereas,  however,  the  one  is  a  land  animal,  the  other  is  unique 


J36  LIZARDS. 

il 

among   the   entire    suborder   to   which   it   belongs   in   being   a   marine   creature, 
subsisting  on  seaweeds. 

Agreeing  with  the  great  majority  of  that  section  of  the  family  characterised 
by  the  presence  of  pores  on  the  thighs  in  the  fourth  hind- toe  being  longer  than  the 
third,  the  sea-lizard,  together  with  the  terrestrial  species  inhabiting  the  same  islands, 
differs  from  all  the  rest  in  that  the  front  teeth  resemble  those  of  the  cheek-series  in 
having  three-cusped  crowns,  so  that  the  entire  set  of  teeth  is  uniform  in  character. 
From  its  terrestrial  ally,  the  sea-lizard  (Amblyrhynchus  cristatus)  is  distinguished 
by  its  much  compressed  and  crested  tail,  as  well  as  by  the  presence  of  an  incipient 


GALAPAGOS   SEA-LIZARD   (£  nat.  size). 


web  between  the  toes.  This  lizard  is  the  largest  member  of  the  family,  and  attains 
a  total  length  of  some  53  inches.  It  is  characterised  by  the  compressed  form  of  the 
body  and  tail,  and  the  extremely  short  and  truncated  head.  A  well-marked  crest 
runs  from  the  nape  of  the  neck  to  the  tip  of  the  tail,  and  the  whole  build  of  the 
animal  is  stout  and  "  chubby."  The  throat  is  devoid  of  a  pouch,  although  it  has 
a  well-marked  transverse  fold,  and  the  toes  are  laterally  compressed.  In  the  small 
and  convex  head  the  nostrils  are  situated  near  the  end  of  the  muzzle,  the  eye  and 
aperture  of  the  ear  are  alil^e  small,  and  the  upper  surface  is  surmounted  by  a 
number  of  conical  spine-like  shields  of  relatively  large  size.  The  investing  scales 
of  the  body  are  small,  and  although  keeled  on  the  back,  are  smooth  below.  In  the 
stoutly-made  limbs  the  toes  are  rather  short,  the  third  one  in  the  hind-foot  being 


I  GUANO  ID   GROUP.  137 

strongly  serrated  on  its  inner  border  of  its  basal  joint.  The  compressed  and  crested 
tail  is  about  equal  to  one  and  a  half  times  the  length  of  the  head  and  body,  and  is 
covered  with  equal-sized  keeled  scales.  In  colour  this  lizard  is  black  or  blackish 
brown  above,  with  the  abdomen  and  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  thighs  not  unf requently 
of  a  dirty  white.  In  the  young  state,  however,  the  upper-parts  are  brown  with 
paler  spots,  and  more  or  less  distinctly  marked  dark  crossbars  on  the  back.  In 
weight,  full-grown  examples  reach  as  much  as  20  Ibs. 

The  sea-lizard  is  extremely  common  on  the  rocky  coasts  of  the  various  islands 
of  the  Galapagos  Group,  but  is  seldom  found  more  than  some  ten  yards  from  the 
shore.  Of  its  habits  Darwin  writes  that  "  this  lizard  swims  with  perfect  ease  and 
quickness  by  a  serpentine  movement  of  its  body  and  flattened  tail — the  legs  being 
motionless  and  closely  collapsed  on  its  sides.  A  seaman  on  board  sank  one,  with  a 
heavy  weight  attached  to  it,  thinking  thus  to  kill  it  directly ;  but  when,  an  hour 
afterwards,  he  drew  up  the  line,  it  was  quite  active.  Their  limbs  and  strong  claws 
are  admirably  adapted  for  crawling  over  the  rugged  and  fissured  masses  of  lava, 
which  everywhere  form  the  coast.  In  such  situations,  a  group  of  six  or  seven  of 
these  hideous  reptiles  may  oftentimes  be  seen  on  the  black  rocks,  a  few  feet  above 
the  surf,  basking  in  the  sun  with  outstretched  legs."  After  mentioning  that  the 
stomachs  of  several  examples  that  were  examined  contained  finely  minced  seaweed, 
and  also  observing  that  the  droves  seen  swimming  out  to  sea  were  doubtless  in 
search  of  food  of  this  nature,  the  same  author  proceeds  to  state  that,  when  frightened, 
these  lizards  absolutely  refuse  to  enter  the  water.  "  Hence,"  he  continues,  "  it  is 
easy  to  drive  these  lizards  down  to  any  little  point  overhanging  the  sea,  where  they 
will  sooner  allow  a  person  to  catch  hold  of  their  tails  than  enter  the  water.  They 
do  not  seem  to  have  any  notion  of  biting,  but  when  much  frightened  they  squirt  a 
drop  of  fluid  from  each  nostril.  I  threw  one  several  times  as  far  as  I  could  into  a 
deep  pool  left  by  the  retiring  tide,  but  it  invariably  returned  in  a  direct  line  to  the 
spot  where  I  stood.  It  swam  near  the  bottom,  with  a  very  graceful  and  rapid 
movement,  and  occasionally  aided  itself  over  the  uneven  ground  with  its  feet.  As 
soon  as  it  arrived  near  the  edge,  but  still  being  under  wrater,  it  tried  to  conceal 
itself  in  the  tufts  of  seaweed,  or  it  entered  some  crevice.  As  soon  as  it  thought  the 
danger  was  past,  it  crawled  out  on  the  dry  rocks,  and  shuffled  away  as  quickly  as 
it  could.  I  several  times  caught  the  same  lizard  by  driving  it  down  to  a  point,  and, 
though  possessed  of  such  perfect  powers  of  diving  and  swimming,  nothing  would 
induce  it  to  enter  the  water ;  and  as  often  as  I  threw  it  in,  it  returned  in  the  manner- 
above  described.  Perhaps  this  singular  piece  of  apparent  stupidity  may  be  accounted 
for  by  the  circumstance  that  this  reptile  has  no  enemy  whatever  on  shore,  whereas 
at  sea  it  must  often  fall  a  prey  to  the  numerous  sharks."  Later  observers  have 
borne  testimony  to  the  extraordinary  numbers  in  which  the  sea-lizards  are  to  be 
met  with  in  the  Galapagos,  and  likewise  as  to  their  food  consisting  mainly  of  broad- 
leaved  sea-leaves. 

Galapagos  Although  originally  included  in  the  same  genus  as  its  aquatic 

Land-Lizards.   COusin,  there  seems  no  doubt  that  the  land-lizard  of  the  Galapagos 

(Conolophus  swbcristatus)  is  entitled  to  stand  as  the  representative  of  a  distincb 

generic  group ;  the  nearly  cylindrical  tail  and  perfectly  free  toes  being  distinctive 

characters  which  cannot  well  be  overlooked.     Not  reaching  within  some  11  inches 


138 


LIZARDS. 


of  the  dimensions  attained  by  the  last,  this  lizard  is  likewise  a  stoutly  -  built 
creature,  with  the  rather  small  head  slightly  longer  than  broad,  the  body  some- 
what depressed,  a  slight  spiny  crest  on  the  nape,  continued  as  a  low  ridge 
on  the  back,  and  the  scales  of  the  latter  small  and  keeled,  while  the  slightly 
larger  ones  on  the  lower  surface  are  smooth.  Although  devoid  of  a  pouch, 
and  with  but  a  very  slight  transverse  fold,  the  throat-  is  strongly  plicate 
longitudinally,  and  is  covered  with  minute  granules.  The  stout  limbs  terminate  in 
very  short  toes,  of  which  the  third  in  the  hind-foot  is  serrated  on  the  inner  margin 


GALAPAGOS  LAND-LIZARD  (i  nat.  size). 

of  its  basal  joint.  On  the  thigh  the  pores  are  arranged  in  a  long  series,  and  vary 
from  seventeen  to  twenty-one  in  number.  In  length  the  tail  scarcely  exceeds  the 
head  and  body,  while  in  form  it  is  slightly  compressed,  having  a  low  ridge 
superiorly,  and  being  covered  with  small  keeled  scales  of  uniform  size.  In  general 
colour  the  creature  is  dark  brown,  with  the  head  and  under-parts  lighter. 

These  lizards  are  confined  to  the  central  islands  of  the  Galapagos  Group,  such 
as  Albemarle  and  James  Islands,  where  they  are  found  in  great  numbers  in  the 
low  barren  districts  near  the  coasts,  although  also  met  with  in  the  elevated  damp 
regions  of  the  interior.  On  Jaines  Island  Darwin  found  them  so  numerous,  that 
it  was  difficult  to  obtain  a  spot  free  from  their  burrows  on  which  to  pitch  a  tent. 
Attaining  a  weight  of  from  10  to  15  Ibs.  these  lizards  are  lazy  and  sluggish 
in  their  movements,  crawling  slowly  along  with  their  bellies  and  tails  dragging  on 


IGUANOID   GROUP.  i39 

the  ground,  and  often  stopping  for  a  minute  or  two  to  doze  with  closed  eyes,  and 
the  hind-limbs  stretched  out  on  the  arid  soil.  According  to  Darwin's  account, 
"  they  inhabit  burrows,  which  they  sometimes  make  between  fragments  of  lava, 
but  more  generally  on  level  patches  of  the  soft  sandstone-like  tufa.  The  holes  do 
not  appear  to  be  very  deep,  and  they  enter  the  ground  at  a  small  angle ;  so  that 
when  walking  over  these  lizard- warrens,  the  soil  is  constantly  giving  way,  much 
to  the  annoyance  of  the  tired  walker.  This  animal,  when  making  its  burrow, 
works  alternately  the  opposite  sides  of  its  body.  One  front-leg  for  a  short  time 
scratches  up  the  soil,  and  throws  it  towards  the  hind-foot,  which  is  well  placed  so 
as  to  heave  it  beyond  the  mouth  of  the  hole.  That  side  of  the  body  being  tired, 
the  other  takes  up  the  task,  and  so  on  alternately  ....  They  feed  by  day,  and 
do  not  wander  far  from  their  burrows ;  if  frightened,  they  rush  to  them  with  a 
most  awkward  gait.  Except  when  running  downhill,  they  cannot  move  very 
fast,  apparently  from  the  lateral  position  of  their  legs.  They  are  not  at  all 
timorous;  when  attentively  watching  anyone,  they  curl  their  tails,  and,  raising 
themselves  on  their  front-legs,  nod  their  heads  vertically,  with  a  quick  movement, 
and  try  to  look  very  fierce ;  but  in  reality  they  are  not  so  at  all ;  if  one  just  stamps 
on  the  ground,  down  go  their  tails,  and  off  they  shuffle  as  quickly  as  they  can." 
If  worried  with  a  stick,  these  lizards  will  bite  it  severely ;  and  when  two  are  held 
together  on  the  ground,  they  will  fight  and  bite  till  blood  flows.  "  The  individuals, 
and  they  are  the  greater  number,  which  inhabit  the  lower  country,  can  scarcely 
taste  a  drop  of  water  throughout  the  year;  but  they  consume  much  of  the 
succulent  cactus,  the  branches  of  which  are  occasionally  broken  off  by  the  wind. 
I  several  times  threw  a  piece  to  two  or  three  of  them  when  together ;  and  it  was 
amusing  enough  to  see  them  trying  to  seize  and  carry  it  away  in  their  mouths, 
like  so  many  hungry  dogs  with  a  bone."  They  also  eat  the  leaves  of  several  trees, 
more  especially  of  an  acacia,  to  obtain  which  they  ascend  the  low  stunted  trees,  on 
the  boughs  of  which  they  may  often  be  observed  quietly  feeding.  The  females  lay 
large  eggs  of  an  elongated  form  in  their  burrows ;  both  these  and  the  flesh  of  the 
lizards  themselves  being  eaten  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Galapagos. 

The  true  iguanas,  of  which  there  are  two  closely-allied  species 
from  Tropical  America  and  the  West  Indies,  differ  from  the  two  pre- 
ceding genera  in  that  the  edges  of  the  crowns  of  the  cheek-teeth  are  serrated,  while 
the  front  teeth  are  simply  conical.  The  distinctive  features  of  the  iguanas  are  to  be 
found  in  the  long  and  much  compressed  body,  the  large  four-sided  head,  covered  above 
with  enlarged  scales,  the  short  neck,  powerful  limbs,  long-toed  feet,  and  the  much 
elongated  tail,  upon  which  the  scales  are  uniform  and  keeled.  The  throat  is 
furnished  with  a  large  non- dilatable  appendage,  in  front  of  which  is  a  crest  of  large 
compressed  scales ;  and  a  continuous  crest  of  long  spines  runs  from  the  nape  along 
the  back,  and  is  continued  as  a  ridge  on  the  tail.  The  scales  on  the  back  are  small, 
equal,  and  keeled;  the  neck  has  some  scattered  large  conical  or  bluntly -keeled 
tubercles,  and  there  are  also  some  large  tubercular  scales  on  the  sides  of  the  throat, 
more  especially  one  below  the  aperture  of  the  ear ;  while  on  the  under-parts  the 
scales  are  either  smooth  or  slightly  keeled.  The  pores  on  the  thighs  are  numerous, 
and,  in  addition  to  those  in  the  margins  of  the  jaws,  there  are  teeth  on  the  pterygoid 
bones  of  the  palate.  The  common  iguana  (Iguana  tuberculata)  attains  a  length 


1 40  LIZARDS. 

of  as  much  as  a  yard  and  a  half,  two-thirds  of  which  are  occupied  by  the  tail.  The 
general  colour  is  green  or  greenish,  becoming  lighter  on  the  under-parts :  but  the 
upper  surface  may  be  either  uniform,  or  variegated  with  darker  brownish  bands, 
the  flanks  usually  having  light-edged  vertical  dark  bars,  while  the  tail  has  more 
or  less  distinct  dark  rings.  There  is  frequently  a  whitish  band  in  front  of  the 
arm,  and  some  of  the  large  tubercular  scales  on  the  sides  of  the  throat  and  neck 
are  often  light-coloured. 

Both  species  of  iguanas,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties,  are  essentially 
arboreal  lizards,  generally  frequenting  those  regions  of  the  forests  where  the  trees 
overhang  the  water.  Here  they  move  with  great  agility,  climbing  or  springing 
from  bough  to  bough,  while  the  harmony  of  their  coloration  to  their  surroundings 
renders  them  well-nigh  invisible.  Towards  evening  they  not  unfrequently  descend 
to  the  ground  to  feed;  but,  when  frightened,  immediately  rush  to  the  topmost 
boughs  of  the  trees,  or  plunge  headlong  into  deep  water.  In  the  latter  element 
they  are,  indeed,  perfectly  at  home,  and  swim  strongly  and  swiftly,  with  their  limbs 
closely  applied  to  their  bodies,  and  impelled  by  their  powerful  tails.  They  are 
likewise  expert  divers,  frequently  remaining  for  a  considerable  time  below  the 
surface;  their  activity  in  the  water  being  such  that  they  are  able  to  avoid  all 
enemies  save  crocodiles  and  caimans.  Their  chief  food  consists  of  leaves,  flowers 
and  berries,  although  they  will  also  eat  insects;  the  numbers  of  small  worms 
sometimes  found  in  their  stomachs  having  probably  been  swallowed  accidentally. 
Generally  seeking  to  escape  at  once  from  human  beings,  iguanas  when  unable  to 
flee  show  fight,  erecting  their  heads  and  assuming  a  fierce  aspect,  while  at  close 
quarters  they  bite  savagely  and  administer  severe  blows  with  their  powerful  tails. 
The  female  deposits  from  eight  to  seventeen  eggs  in  a  hole  dug  in  sandy  soil,  but 
as  several  individuals  will  not  unfrequently  lay  together,  as  many  as  ten  dozen 
eggs  may  be  found  in  a  single  nest.  In  spite  of  their  somewhat  repulsive  appear- 
ance, iguanas  are  hunted  for  the  sake  of  their  flesh,  which  is  white  in  colour  and 
delicate  in  flavour,  and  is  said  to  resemble  the  breast  of  a  chicken.  The  eggs  also, 
which  consist  almost  entirely  of  yolk,  are  highly  esteemed  as  articles  of  diet. 
Iguanas  are  generally  captured  by  means  of  nooses,  which  are  thrown  over  their 
heads  as  they  repose  on  the  branches.  The  much  smaller  horned  iguana  (Meto- 
poceros  cornutus),  of  San  Domingo,  constitutes  a  separate  genus,  distinguished  by 
the  presence  of  an  inflatable  pouch  on  the  throat. 

Ring-Tailed  The  West-Indian  ring-tailed  iguana  (Cyclura  carinata)  is  selected 

iguana.  ^o  represent  a  group  of  genera  distinguished  from  the  foregoing  by 
the  crowns  of  the  cheek-teeth  being  three-cusped  or  simply  conical.  While  four 
of  these  genera — among  which  is  the  Fijian  iguana  (Brachylophus  fasciatus) — 
are  characterised  by  the  shortness  of  the  row  of  pores  on  the  thigh,  the  present 
species  is  one  of  those  in  which  they  form  a  long  series ;  and  it  is  further  char- 
acterised by  the  presence  of  a  serrated  crest  down  the  back  and  tail,  and  also 
of  a  pouch  and  slight  transverse  fold  on  the  throat.  The  head  is  large,  swollen 
below  the  ears,  and  furnished  with  enlarged  scales  on  the  snout ;  while  the  body 
and  tail  are  compressed,  the  body  being  covered  with  small  scales.  The  species 
derives  its  name  from  the  rings  of  keeled  scales  which  form  regular  segments  on 
the  sides  of  the  tail ;  each  segment  being  composed  of  from  three  to  five  series  of 


IGUANOID   GROUP. 


141 


small  scales,  and  a  single  series  of  larger  and  somewhat  spinous  ones.  The  toes 
are  compressed,  and  covered  below  with  keeled  plates.  In  total  length  this  iguana 
reaches  about  48  inches ;  and  its  general  colour  is  green  or  dark  olive,  speckled 
with  darker  and  lighter,  and  frequently  marked  with  blackish  transverse  bands. 
The  ring- tailed  iguana  is  a  somewhat  local  species,  occurring  most  abundantly  in 
Jamaica,  on  the  limestone  mountains  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kingston  Harbour 
and  Goat  Island,  but  also  met  with  on  the  low  grounds  lying  between  the  coast 
ranges  and  the  higher  mountains  of  the  interior,  where  hollow  trees  occur.  Shy 
and  retiring  in  their  habits,  the  creatures  live  in  pairs,  and  display  no  great  partiality 


i  i 


RING-TAILED   IGUANA  (\  nat.  size). 

for  water,  although,  on  occasion,  they  can  swim  as  well  as  the  true  iguanas.  They 
feed  mainly  or  entirely  on  grass,  and  when  disturbed  in  grazing,  these  reptiles 
rush  back  to  the  trees  with  extraordinary  speed,  sometimes  taking  great  leaps  liko 
a  frog,  although  their  movements  are  generally  deliberate  and  slow.  If  unable  to 
escape,  they  show  fight  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  true  iguanas.  The  breeding- 
habits  of  this  species  do  not  appear  to  be  known,  although  the  females  of  the  allied 
black  iguana  (Ctenosaura  acanthura)  of  California  are  in  the  habit  of  laying  in 
company,  like  the  true  iguanas.  The  ring-tailed  iguana  exhales  a  peculiarly  dis- 
agreeable smell,  which  is  stated  to  be  so  objectionable  as  to  cause  even  the  ants  to 
forsake  a  room  into  which  one  of  these  creatures  is  brought.  For  this  reason  its 
flesh  is  uneatable,  although  that  of  the  black  iguana  is  highly  esteemed. 


142 


Extinct  Iguanas.  . 


LIZARDS. 

We  have  not  hitherto  mentioned  that  the  vertebra}  of  the 
iguanoid  lizards  dili'er  from  those  of  the  agamoids  and  most  other 
members  of  the  suborder  in  being  furnished  with  additional  articular  facets  like 
those  of  snakes.  Vertebra*  of  this  peculiar  type  occur  in  the  upper  Eocene  rocks 
of  England  and  the  Continent,  and  have  been  provisionally  assigned  to  the  typical 
genus  LjiKina,  although  it  is  more  likely  that  they  indicate  an  extinct  genus. 
Somewhat  similar  vertebra}  from  the  corresponding  strata  of  the  United  States 
have  been  described  under  the  name  of  lyuanauus. 

The  last  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  peculiar  members  of  the 
present  family  are  the  horned  lizards  of  North  America  and  Mexico, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  representatives  of  the  moloch  lizard  among  the 
a<'-amoids.  From  their  short,  rounded  heads,  abbreviated  bodies,  and  shortened 


Horned  Lizards. 


HORNED   LIZAKD   (f  nat.  size). 

tails,  coupled  with  a  general  batrachian  appearance,  these  lizards  are  commonly 
termed  toads  in  America,  the  popular  name  of  the  figured  species  (Pl/njnosoma 
cornutwni)  being  the  California!!  toad.  Strange,  not  to  say  ugly,  in  appearance, 
these  lizards  arc  at  once  distinguished  from  all  their  allies  by  the  presence  of 
several  bony  spines  projecting  from  the  back  of  the  shortened  head,  and  of  tubercles 
or  spines  scattered  amoii"-  the  ordinary  scales  of  the  body.  In  form,  the  body  is 

O  <^  \)  «/ 

broad  and  depressed,  without  any  crest  down  the  back;  and  the  tail  is  very 
thick  at  the  base,  and  never  longer  than  the  body.  The  limbs  are  rather  long, 
with  pores  on  the  thighs,  and  keeled  plates  on  the  lower  surfaces  of  the  toes. 
From  most  other  members  of  the  family  these  lizards  are  further  distinguished 
by  the  absence,  of  teeth  on  the  palate.  Of  the  twelve  species  of  the  genus  the 
best  known  i:;  the  common  horned  toad,  herewith  figured,  which  has  the  tail  longer 
than  the  head,  distinct  spines  on  the  back,  and  the  drum  of  the  ear  naked.  Its 
general  appearance  is  even  more  than  superficially  toad-like,  the  head  being  as 


GIRDLED  LIZARDS.  143 

broad  as  long,  and  the  body  remarkable  for  its  extreme  plumpness.  Measuring  a 
little  over  5  inches  in  length,  this  species  is  rather  handsomely  coloured.  Above, 
the  ground-colour  is  greyish  or  brownish,  with  a  more  or  less  well-marked  light 
stripe  down  the  back,  and  dark  brown  spots  at  the  bases  of  the  larger  spines ; 
while  there  are  likewise  markings  of  the  same  colour  on  the  nape  and  head. 
Beneath,  the  hue  is  yellowish,  with  or  without  a  few  small  brown  spots.  In  two 
species  of  the  genus  (e.g.  P.  taurus)  the  tail  does  not  exceed  the  head  in  length. 
The  common  species  is  found  locally  in  sandy  districts  both  on  the  plains  and 
mountains,  and  is  in  some  places  abundant,  although  from  its  coloration  frequently 
escaping  notice.  In  spite  of  its  somewhat  formidable  appearance,  it  is  a  harmless 
creature,  not  attempting  to  bite  even  when  captured.  Lacking  the  protrusive 
tongue  of  the  chamseleon,  and  being  debarred  by  its  clumsy  form  from  running 
fast,  the  horned  lizard  is  unable  to  capture  the  swifter  insects,  and  consequently 
preys  upon  sand-haunting  beetles,  whose  speed  is  inferior  to  its  own ;  such  prey 
being  generally  captured  in  the  evening,  and  the  creature  lying  passive  on  the 
sand  during  the  day.  Some  species  of  horned  lizards  are  remarkable  as  being 
the  only  members  of  the  family,  save  one  other  genus,  which  produce  living 
young;  the  number  of  young  being  in  some  instances  as  many  as  twenty -four. 
Always  small  feeders,  these  lizards  are  capable  of  undergoing  long  fasts  with 
impunity ;  and  as  they  are  habituated  to  a  dry  atmosphere,  and  probably  never 
drink,  they  may  be  sent  packed  in  wadding  long  distances  by  post. 

The  most  remarkable  peculiarity  connected  with  these  lizards  is  their  habit  of 
ejecting  jets  of  blood  from  the  eyes,  apparently  as  a  means  of  defence.  The 
following  letter  from  Mr.  V.  Bailey,  written  from  California,  in  1891,  describes  the 
phenomenon  as  first  observed  by  him  :  "  I  caught  a  horned  toad  to-day  that  very 
much  surprised  Dr.  Fisher  and  myself  by  squirting  blood  from  its  eyes.  It  was 
on  smooth  ground,  and  not  in  brush  or  weeds.  I  caught  it  with  my  hand,  and 
just  got  my  fingers  on  its  tail  as  it  ran.  On  taking  it  in  my  hand,  a  little  jet  of 
blood  spurted  from  one  eye,  a  distance  of  fifteen  inches,  and  spattered  on  my 
shoulder.  Turning  it  over  to  examine  the  eye,  another  stream  spurted  from  the 
other  eye.  This  he  did  four  or  five  times  from  both  eyes,  until  my  hands,  clothes, 
and  gun  were  sprinkled  over  with  fine  drops  of  bright  red  blood.  I  put  it  in  a 
bag,  and  carried  it  to  camp,  where,  about  four  hours  later,  I  showed  it  to  Dr. 
Fisher,  when  it  spurted  three  more  streams  from  its  eyes."  The  phenomenon  has 
been  subsequently  observed  in  other  specimens. 


THE  GIRDLED  LIZARDS. 
Family 


Omitting  mention  of  a  family  represented  only  by  one  genus  (Xenosaurus)  and 
one  species  from  Mexico,  the  next  group  for  consideration  is  that  of  the  girdled 
lizards,  from  Tropical  and  South  Africa,  and  Madagascar,  of  which  there  are  four 
genera.  These  lizards,  which  may  be  either  snake-like  in  form,  or  provided  with 
four  fully-developed  limbs,  differ  from  all  those  hitherto  described,  with  the 
exception  of  certain  geckos,  in  having  the  temporal  fossae  of  the  skull  roofed  over 


144 


LIZARDS. 


with  bone  :  while  they  are  further  characterised  by  a  fold  covered  with  small 
scales  running  along  the  sides  of  the  body  and  marking  off  the  upper  from  the 
mider-parts.  The  tongue  is  simple,  with  its  anterior  moiety  not  extensile,  and  its 
tip  either  rounded,  or  but  slightly  notched:  while  there  are  well-developed  eyelids, 
and  the  drum  of  the  ear  is  exposed.  The  back  is  either  clothed  with  large  shield- 
like,  and  mostly  keeled  scales,  arranged  in  well-marked  transverse  zones,  or,  more 
rarely,  with  granules  :  the  head  having  large,  regular  shields.  As  regards  their 
teeth,  these  lizards  conform  to  the  pleurodont  type,  each  tooth  having  its  base 
widely  open.  Resembling  in  many  respects  the  Iguanoids,  from  which  they  are 
distinguished  by  the  ossifications  in  the  skull,  these  lizards  also  approach  the 
members  of  the  next  family,  from  which  they  differ  by  their  simple  tongues,  the 


—X 


CAI'K    CIRDLK-TAII.KD    LI/Alil)    (imt.   si/c.) 

hollow  bases  of  the  teeth,  and  the  structure  of  the  bony  plates  underlying  the 
scales,  when  such  are  present.  In  the  South  African  snake-like  genus  (Cliama3- 
Hti.n/rtt),  the  fore-limbs  arc  wanting,  and  tin;  hind-pair  rudimental,  while  the  tail  is 
of  extraordinary  length.  All  the  members  of  the  family  appear  to  be  carnivorous. 
Girdle-Tailed  \\  <'  take  as  our  special  example  of  this  small  family  one  of  the 

Lizard.  members  of  the  South  African  girdle-tailed  lizards  (Zoiiariix},  a 
genus  represented  bv  seven  species.  These  lizards  differ  from  the  other  three 
genera  in  Laving  tLe  scales  of  tLe  back  underlain  by  bony  plates  of  simple 
structure :  and,  resembling  in  appearance  tlie  rough-tailed  lizard  among  tLe 
agamoids,  tliey  Lave  a  flattened  triangular  Lead,  and  a  tail  of  moderate 
length.  On  the  upper  surface;  the  neck  and  back  are  covered  with  largo  quad- 
rangular shield-like  scales,  while  beneath  tLere  are  largo  Hat  shields:  the  limbs 
bearing  keeled  overlapping  shields,  and  the  tail  being  protected  with  whorls  of 


SNAKE-LIKE  LIZARDS.  145 

spinous  scales.  The  teeth  are  small,  and  the  rounded  tongue  is  scarcely  notched. 
The  figured  species  (Z.  cordylus),  which  attains  a  length  of  rather  less  than  8 
inches,  generally  has  the  back  and  tail  of  a  dirty  orange  colour;  the  head  and 
feet  of  a  lighter  yellow,  and  the  under-parts  white ;  although  there  are  consider- 
able variations  from  this  normal  coloration.  All  the  members  of  the  genus  inhabit 
rocky  districts,  and  prefer  those  where  there  are  ledges,  upon  which  they  run  in 
search  of  food  or  warmth.  They  are  excellent  climbers,  and  far  from  easy  to  catch, 
often  leaving  their  tails  with  their  would-be  captors. 

THE  SNAKE-LIKE  LIZARDS. 
Family  ANGUID^J. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  preceding  family  is  a  small  group  of  lizards  of  variable 
bodily  form,  typified  by  the  common  English  blind- worm.  Rigid  in  their  bodies, 
and  having  large  symmetrical  bony  shields  on  the  top  of  their  heads,  these  lizards 
resemble  the  girdle-lizards  in  the  presence  of  bony  plates  beneath  the  overlapping 
scales,  and  also  in  that  the  temporal  fossae  of  the  skull  are  roofed  over  with  bone. 
They  differ,  however,  in  that  the  bony  plates  beneath  the  scales  are  permeated  by  a 
series  of  radiating  or  irregularly  arranged  canals ;  and  also  in  the  conformation  of 
the  tongue.  The  latter  is  composed  of  two  distinct  portions,  namely,  a  thick  basal 
half,  covered  with  villose  papillae,  and  a  smaller  thin  terminal  moiety  coated  with 
scale-like  papillae,  which  is  extensile,  and  capable  of  partial  withdrawal  into  a  sheath 
formed  by  a  transverse  fold  at  the  front  of  the  basal  half.  As  regards  their  denti- 
tion, some  forms  have  tubercular  or  conical  teeth  attached  to  the  sides  of  the  walls 
of  the  jaws  in  the  typical  pleurodont  manner;  but  in  the  blind- worms  the  teeth  are 
long,  curved,  loosely  attached  fangs,  very  like  those  of  serpents.  Instead  of  hollow- 
ing out  the  bases  of  the  old  teeth,  as  in  the  preceding  family,  the  new  ones  grow 
up  beneath  them ;  and  there  may  or  may  not  be  teeth  on  the  bones  of  the  palate. 
Some  of  the  members  of  the  family  agree  with  the  preceding  in  having  a  longi- 
tudinal fold  along  the  sides  of  the  body,  while  in  others  it  is  absent ;  and  there  is 
a  similar  variation  in  external  form,  some  genera  having  fully  developed  five-toed 
limbs,  while  in  others  all  external  traces  of  these  appendages  have  disappeared.  In 
regard  to  the  covering  of  the  head,  it  should  specially  be  noticed  that  there  is  a 
large  occipital  shield  at  its  hinder  extremity.  All  the  species  differ  from  the 
majority  of  lizards  in  changing  their  skin  in  a  single  piece,  like  most  snakes. 
With  the  exception  of  some  species  of  the  American  genus  Gerrhonotus,  which 
ascend  low  bushes,  all  these  lizards  live  on  the  ground ;  and  the  whole  of  them  are 
carnivorous,  the  larger  species  preying  on  reptiles  and  other  vertebrates,  and  the 
smaller  kinds  on  insects,  spiders,  slugs,  and  worms.  While  the  blind- worms  produce 
living  young,  the  others  lay  eggs.  Containing  seven  genera  and  some  forty-five 
species,  this  family  is  most  numerously  represented  in  Central  America  and  the 
West  Indies,  a  few  species  occurring  in  North  and  South  America,  two  in  Europe, 
and  one  in  the  Himalaya  and  Burma ;  all  the  forms  with  functional  limbs  being 
American.  From  limitations  of  space,  our  notice  of  the  family  will  be  confined  to 
two  of  the  snake-like  genera. 

VOL.  v. — 10 


146 


LIZARDS. 


Scheitopusiks. 


The  typical  representative  of  this  genus  of  snake-like  lizards 
saurus  apus)  was  nrst  discovered  by  Pallas  in  the  wooded 
valleys  of  the  steppes  bordering  the  Volga,  where  it  is  known,  in  common  with 
true  snakes,  by  the  name  of  scheltopusik,  a  term  which  may  be  conveniently 
applied  to  all  the  members.  The  species  was  subsequently  discovered  in  other 
parts  of  Russia,  as  well  as  in  Hungary,  Istria,  Dalmatia,  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Syria, 
Persia,  Transcaucasia,  Transylvania,  and  Turkestan,  while  it  is  replaced  in  Morocco 
by  a  more  brilliantly  coloured  variety.  Four  other  species  are  also  known,  which 
extend  the  range  of  the  genus  to  North-Eastern  India,  Burma,  and  North  America. 
Agreeing  with  the  American  four-limbed  genus  Gerrhonotus  in  the  presence  of  a 
fold  along  the  sides  of  the  body,  and  the  more  or  less  conical  teeth,  the  scheltopusiks 
are  distinguished  by  their  moderately  elongated  snake-like  form,  and  the  absence 
of  functional  limbs  ;  the  European  species  alone  having  the  hinder-pair  represented 

by  minute  rudiments  on  the 
sides  of  the  vent.  These  crea- 
tures are  covered  with  squared 
^  scales,  arranged  in  straight 
longitudinal  and  transverse 
series;  and  they  are  furnished 
with  teeth  on  the  pterygoids, 
and  in  certain  cases  on  some 
of  the  other  bones  of  the  palate. 
The  European  species,  which,  in 
addition  to  rudiments  of  hind- 
limbs,  is  distinguished  by  an 
aperture  to  the  ear,  attains  a 
length  of  rather  more  than  a 
yard,  of  which  about  two-thirds 
are  occupied  by  the  tail.  The 
arrangement  of  the  shields  on 
the  head  is  very  much  the  same  as  in  the  blind-  worm  ;  and  the  general  colour  is 
brown,  becoming  lighter  on  the  lower  surface.  The  young  are,  however,  olive- 
grey,  with  wavy  dark  brown  crossbands  on  the  back,  and  bars  on  the  sides  of  the 
head.  Dwelling  among  the  dense  underwood  of  thickly  -  wooded  valleys,  the 
scheltopusik  harmonises  so  closely  in  colour  with  its  surroundings,  that  it  can 
only  with  difficulty  be  detected,  as  it  glides  away  among  the  dead  leaves  and 
sticks  at  the  approach  of  a  footstep.  Although  as  free  from  venom  as  ordinary 
lizards,  it  is  frequently  mistaken  for  a  snake,  and  then  meets  the  fate  which  so 
often,  under  similar  circumstances,  befalls  the  blind-  worm.  Preying  largely  upon 
mice  'and  voles,  and  not  even  hesitating  to  attack  and  kill  the  deadly  viper,  the 
scheltopusik  is,  however,  a  fierce  and  active  creature,  gliding  swiftly  and  suddenly 
upon  its  victims  among  the  moss  and  leaves  of  the  woods.  It  also  subsists  largely 
upon  snails  ;  and  is  further  reported  to  eat  the  eggs  and  young  of  birds.  Its  eggs 
are  laid  under  thick  bushes  and  leaves.  The  scheltopusik  is  believed  to  be  t 
long-lived  animal,  the  natives  of  the  countries  it  inhabits  stating  that  its  full 
period  of  existence  is  from  forty  to  sixty  years.  Fossil  scheltopusiks  occur  in 


XT* 


COMMON   SCHELTOPUSIK. 


SNAKE-LIKE  LIZARDS. 


147 


Blind-Worm. 


the   Miocene  deposits  of  Germany,  some  of  which   belong   to   an   extinct   genus 
(Propseudop  us). 

The  want  of  a  lateral  fold  along  the  body  distinguishes  the 
blind-worm,  or  slow-worm  (Anguis  fragilis),  in  common  with  the 
remaining  members  of  the  family,  from  the  scheltopusiks ;  the  blind- worm  being 
further  distinguished  from  the  other  genera  devoid  of  this  fold  by  the  absence  of 
all  external  trace  of  limbs,  and  the  fang-like  form  of  its  cheek-teeth.  The 
appearance  of  the  blind- worm,  which,  by  the  way,  is  the  sole  representative  of  its 
genus,  is  so  well  known  as  not  to  call  for  much  description.  It  may  be  observed, 
however,  that  the  scales  are  rounded  in  form,  and  arranged  on  the  back  in  a 
quincuncial  pattern,  while  on  the  sides  they  are  disposed  in  transverse  rows ;  the 


THE  BLIND- WORM  (§  nat.  size). 

ears  are  usually  covered  with  integument ;  and  the  palate  is  toothless.  Attaining 
a  length  of  from  10  to  12,  or  even  14,  inches,  of  which  at  least  half  is  occupied 
by  the  tail,  the  blind- worm  is  of  almost  equal  thickness  throughout,  although 
tapering  slightly  at  the  tail.  The  head  is  short  and  small;  the  eyes,  although 
minute,  are  bright  and  piercing ;  and  the  tongue  is  but  slightly  notched.  In 
the  immature  state  the  upper-parts  are  silvery,  with  a  dark  line  down  the  middle 
of  the  back,  while  the  sides  and  under-parts  are  blackish.  The  markings,  however, 
often  disappear  in  the  adult,  or  may  be  replaced  by  dark  dots,  the  upper  surface 
becoming  at  the  same  time  brown  or  bronzy.  The  range  of  the  species  includes 
Europe,  Western  Asia,  and  Algeria. 

Gentle  and  inoffensive  in  its.  habits,  and  rarely  attempting  to  bite  even  when 
rudely  handled,  the  blind-worm  is  commonly  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  noxious 
of  reptiles.  When  captured,  it  usually  contracts  its  muscles  so  forcibly  as  to 


148  LIZARDS. 

become  perfectly  rigid,  in  which  state  it  easily  breaks  if  bent  or  struck,  thus  giving 
origin  to  its  Latin  name.  Generally  frequenting  woods,  heaths,  and  commons,  the 
blind-worm  is  one  of  the  hardiest  of  British  reptiles,  making  its  appearance  in  the 
spring  at  an  earlier  date  than  any  other  kind.  According  to  Bell,  "  it  retires  in 
the  autumn  under  masses  of  decayed  wood  or  leaves,  or  into  soft,  dry  soil,  where  it 
is  covered  with  heath  or  brushwood,  and  penetrates  to  a  considerable  depth  in  such 
situations  by  means  of  its  smooth,  rounded  muzzle  and  polished  body."  It  feeds 
chiefly  upon  slugs,  supplemented  by  various  insects  and  worms.  In  June  or  July 
the  female  produces  from  seven  to  twelve  or  thirteen  living  young,  which  are 
active  almost  immediately  after  birth,  and  soon  learn  to  feed  by  themselves.  Like 
other  viviparous  reptiles,  the  female  is  much  given  to  basking  in  the  sun  during 
the  period  of  pregnancy,  in  order  that  its  heat  may  aid  in  developing  the  eggs 
contained  in  her  body. 

THE  POISONOUS  LIZARDS. 
Family  HELODERMATID^E. 

Two  conspicuously  coloured  lizards,  ranging  from  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec 
in  Central  America  as  far  north  as  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  stand  alone  in  the  sub- 
order in  being  poisonous,  their  bite,  in  certain  cases  at  least,  being  sufficiently  severe 
to  produce  very  serious  symptoms  even  on  human  beings,  while  smaller  animals 
are  soon  killed  thereby.  These  two  species  are  the  Mexican  poisonous  Kzard 
(Heloderma  liorridum)  of  Western  Mexico,  and  the  Arizona  poisonous  lizard  (H. 
suspectum)  from  New  Mexico  and  Arizona ;  the  former  being  known  in  its  native 
country  by  the  name  of  silatica.  Nearly  allied  to  the  blind  -  worm,  which  they 
resemble  in  the  general  structure  of  their  tongue  and  teeth,  although  distinguished 
by  certain  peculiarities  in  the  conformation  of  the  skull,  and  by  the  upper  surface 
being  covered  with  small  granular  tubercles,  externally  they  are  characterised  by 
the  depressed  head,  the  plump,  rounded  body,  the  tolerably  long  cylindrical  tail, 
the  rather  short  limbs,  in  which  the  third  and  fourth  toes  are  longer  than  the 
others,  the  exposed  drum  of  the  ear,  and  the  transverse  arrangement  of  the  rows 
of  tubercles  on  the  upper  surface.  The  curved  and  fang-like  teeth  are  but  loosely 
attached  to  the  jaws,  and  have  grooves  in  front  and  behind  for  the  transmission 
of  the  poison ;  while  there  are  also  teeth  on  the  palate.  Beneath,  the  body  and  tail 
are  covered  with  squared  scales.  In  length,  the  figured  species  measures  rather 
less  than  20  inches,  while  the  other  is  somewhat  larger.  The  former  has  a  yellowish 
or  orange  ground-colour,  marked  with  a  dark  network  on  the  head  and  body,  and 
with  blackish  rings  on  the  tail.  Among  the  reddish  sand,  intermixed  with  dark 
pebbles,  in  which  these  lizards  delight  to  nestle,  this  coloration,  coupled  with  the 
granular  nature  of  the  skin,  appears  to  be  protective. 

Inhabiting  dry  regions  from  the  western  side  of  the  Cordillera  to  the  Pacific, 
and  apparently  never  entering  water,  the  poisonous  lizards  are  nocturnal  in  their 
habits,  lying  during  the  day  hidden  among  the  vegetation  in  a  listless  state,  and 
issuing  forth  at  evening.  Their  movements  are  at  all  times  deliberate ;  and  as  j 
these  lizards  are  most  commonly  met  with  in  the  wet  season,  being  but  seldom 
seen  during  the  dry  months  from  November  to  June,  it  is  probable  that  they  are 


MONITORS. 


149 


torpid  during  part  of  the  latter  period.  Their  food  comprises  insects,  worms, 
myriapods,  and  small  frogs,  as  well  as  the  eggs  of  iguanas.  Regarding  the  effects 
of  their  bite,  Sir  J.  Fayrer  writes  that  he  once  saw  two  guinea-pigs  bitten  by 
one  of  these  lizards.  "  The  bites  were  viciously  inflicted,  and  the  lizard  did  not 
really  relinquish  its  hold.  Blood  was  drawn,  the  teeth  being  deeply  inserted. 
Both  guinea-pigs  were  affected;  the  bitten  limb  was  dragged,  and  appeared 
partially  paralysed.  There  were  twitchings  of  the  body  generally ;  but  these  may 
not  have  been  due  to  the  poison,  but  to  agitation  and  fear."  Both  the  unfortunate 
rodents  died  in  the  course  of  the  day.  Another  of  these  lizards  once  bit  its 


ARIZONA  POISONOUS  LIZARD  (\  nat.  size). 


owner,  who  was  incautiously  handling  it,  with  very  severe  effects,  which  did  not, 
however,  prove  fatal.  The  poison  is  secreted  in  special  glands  situated  near  the 
roots  of  the  teeth. 

THE  MONITORS. 
Family  VARANIDJE. 

No  better  instance  of  the  essential  difference  in  the  distribution  of  lizards  as 
compared  with  tortoises  is  afforded  than  by  those  lizards  commonly  known  as 
monitors.  The  tortoises  of  Australia,  as  we  have  already  seen,  belong  to  a  different 
suborder  from  those  of  India,  while  there  are  no  genera  common  to  Australia  and 
Africa.  The  monitors,  all  of  which  are  included  in  the  single  genus  Varanus,  are, 


150  LIZARDS. 

however,  common  to  the  three  countries  named,  while  one  species  actually  ranges 
from  India  to  Australia.  That  this  widespread  generic  distribution  is  not  a  feature 
of  the  present  epoch  is  proved  by  the  occurrence  of  fossil  monitors  in  both  the  two 
latter  countries;  whereas  we  have  no  evidence  that  they  possessed  genera  of  tortoises 
in  common.  Before  proceeding  further,  it  is  well  to  mention  that  the  Egyptian 
representative  of  the  group  is  known  to  the  natives  by  the  name  of  ouaran,  which 
appears  to  be  the  Arabic  term  for  lizards  in  general.  Transliterated  as  waran,  this 
word  has  been  confused  with  the  German  warnen,  to  warn,  whence  these  reptiles 
have  been  termed  wam-eidechsen,  or  warning  lizards;  this,  again,  having  been 
translated  into  monitors — a  name  which,  however  erroneous  in  origin,  is  too  well 
established  to  be  superseded. 

The  monitors  are  distinguished  from  all  the  lizards  hitherto  described  by  the 
long  and  deeply-forked  tongue,  which  is  capable  of  being  protruded  far  in  front  of 
the  lips,  and  is  furnished  at  the  base  with  a  sheath,  into  which  it  can  be  withdrawn, 
as  in  snakes.  Including  the  largest  members  of  the  suborder,  monitors  are  further 
characterised  by  the  long  body,  the  broad,  uncrested  back,  the  well-developed,  five- 
toed  limbs,  and  the  long  tail,  which  is  very  frequently  markedly  compressed.  The 
head  is  covered  with  small  polygonal  scales ;  the  eyelids  are  well  developed ;  the 
opening  of  the  ear  is  distinct ;  and  the  head  is  covered  with  small  scales.  In  the 
skull  we  may  notice  alike  the  absence  of  a  bony  roof  over  the  temporal  fossae,  and 
of  teeth  on  the  palate ;  while  it  is  further  remarkable  for  the  union  of  the  two 
nasal  bones  into  a  single  ossification.  The  teeth  are  large  and  pointed,  with  ex- 
panded bases  fixed  to  the  sides  of  the  jaws.  On  the  back  the  scales  are  rounded 
and  bordered  by  rings  of  minute  granules,  so  that  they  do  not  overlap ;  while  in 
the  under  surface  we  find  the  squared  scales  arranged  in  cross  rows.  Pores  are 
absent  both  on  the  under  surface  of  the  thigh  and  in  front  of  the  vent.  A  peculiarity 
of  the  group  is  the  presence  of  an  imperfect  midriff,  found  elsewhere  among  reptiles 
alone  in  the  crocodiles.  Monitors  inhabit  Africa,  Southern  Asia,  Oceania,  Papua, 
and  Australia,  and  are  represented  by  nearly  thirty  living  species,  the  largest  of 
which  attains  a  length  a  little  short  of  7  feet.  A  fossil  species  from  Northern  India 
was,  however,  probably  12  feet  long,  while  one  from  Australia  could  not  have  fallen 
much,  if  at  all,  short  of  30  feet.  The  group  is  an  isolated  one,  without  near  relation- 
ship to  any  other  family. 

The  genus  may  be  divided  into  four  distinct  sections,  the  first  of  which  is 
represented  solely  by  the  desert-monitor  (F  griseus)  of  North- Western  Africa  and 
South- Western  Asia,  extending  from  Arabia  and  the  Caspian  to  North- Western 
India.  This  species  differs  from  all  the  rest  in  that  the  nostrils  are  in  the  form  of 
oblique  slits,  while  the  tail,  except  sometimes  near  its  tip,  is  cylindrical.  Attaining 
a  length  of  4  feet  2  inches,  and  inhabiting  the  deserts  of  North- Western  India,  and 
thence  westwards  through  Southern  Asia  to  the  Caspian  and  North  Africa,  it  takes 
its  name  from  its  greyish  yellow  colour,  which  may  be  relieved  by  brown  crossbars 
on  the  back  and  tail,  and  streaks  of  the  same  hue  along  the  sides  of  the  neck ;  the 
young  always  having  yellow  spots  and  dark  bars.  In  accordance  with  its  sombre 
coloration,  this  species  is  an  inhabitant  of  sandy  deserts.  A  far  handsomer  lizard 
than  the  last  is  the  Cape  monitor  (  F.  albigularis)  of  Southern  and  South-Eastern 
Africa,  where  it  is  commonly  known  to  the  Boers  as  the  "  adder."  It  is  the  first 


MONITORS.  151 

representative  of  the  second  group  of  the  genus,  in  which,  while  the  nostrils  are  in 
the  form  of  oblique  slits,  the  tail  is  compressed  and  keeled.  Belonging  to  a  sub- 
group characterised  by  the  smooth  scales  of  the  abdomen,  it  is  further  distinguished 
by  the  absence  of  large  (supraocular)  scales  above  the  eyes,  by  the  nostril  being 
three  times  as  far  from  the  snout  as  from  the  eye,  and  by  the  small  size  of  the 
scales.  It  is  slightly  inferior  in  size  to  the  last,  and  has  the  upper-parts  greyish 
brown,  banded  and  spotted  with  yellow,  and  the  under-parts  yellowish.  It 


CAPE  MONITOR  (£  nat.  size). 

generally  frequents  cliffs,  or  low  rocky  hills,  in  the  interstices  of  which  it  delights 
to  hide,  coming  out  to  bask  on  the  flat  surfaces.  Gray's  monitor  (F.  grayi)  is  an 
example  of  a  second  subgroup  in  which  the  abdominal  scales  are  keeled.  In  the 
third  great  group,  of  which  we  take  as  our  first  example  the  water-monitor  (F 
salvator),  represented  in  the  coloured  Plate,  round  or  oval  nostrils  are  accompanied 
by  a  compressed  tail.  In  the  species  in  question  there  is  a  series  of  transversely 
elongated  scales  above  the  eyes,  the  oval  nostril  is  situated  as  far  from  the  eye  as 
from  the  tip  of  the  snout,  there  are  more  than  eighty  transverse  rows  of  scales  be- 


1 52  LIZARDS. 

tween  the  fold  on  the  throat  and  the  groin,  and  the  scales  on  the  nape  are  not 
larger  than  those  of  the  back.  This  fine  species,  which  ranges  from  India  through 
the  Malayan  region  and  China  to  Australia,  attains  a  length  of  nearly  7  feet,  and 
is  the  largest  of  the  genus.  In  colour  it  is  dark  brown  or  blackish  above,  with 
yellow  rings ;  the  snout  being  generally  lighter,  with  transverse  black  bars,  and  a 
dark  band,  bordered  by  a  yellow  one,  running  backwards  from  the  eye ;  the  under 
surface  being  uniformly  yellow.  The  water-monitor  frequents  marshy  localities, 
being  often  found  on  trees  overhanging  rivers,  and  taking  readily  to  the  water, 
either  fresh  or  salt.  The  last  species  that  we  notice  is  the  well-known  Nile 
monitor  (  V.  niloticus),  whose  range  extends  all  over  Africa  except  a  portion  of  the 
north-western  regions.  Belonging  to  the  same  great  group  as  the  last,  it  represents 
a  second  subgroup  distinguished  by  the  equality  in  the  size  of  the  scales  above 
the  eyes :  while  it  is  distinguished  from  its  allies  by  the  nostril  being  rather  nearer 
the  tip  of  the  eye  than  the  snout.  In  size  it  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  desert 
monitor.  The  colour  of  the  adult  is  brownish  or  greenish  grey,  with  darker 
reticulate  markings,  and  more  or  less  distinct  yellowish  eye-like  spots  on  the  back 
and  limbs;  while  beneath  it  is  yellowish,  crossed  by  some  dark  bands.  This 
species  is  likewise  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water,  generally  building  itself 
a  nest  among  the  bushes  on  the  banks,  especially  of  those  streams  that  dry  up  in 
the  hot  season.  The  Papuan  monitor  (  V.  prasinus)  of  New  Guinea  and  the  islands 
of  Torres  Straits,  may  be  cited  as  an  example  of  the  fourth  group  of  the  genus, 
in  which,  while  the  nostrils  are  round,  the  tail  is  nearly  or  quite  cylindrical. 

As  will  be  gathered  from  the  foregoing,  the  monitors  present 
considerable  diversity  of  habitat,  although  the  majority  prefer 
the  neighbourhood  of  water.  The  Papuan  species  is,  however,  believed  to  be 
arboreal.  All  are  carnivorous  in  their  diet,  feeding  on  frogs,  snakes,  the  smaller 
mammals  and  birds,  as  well  as  the  eggs  of  both  birds  and  reptiles,  especially 
crocodiles.  Their  movements  are  extremely  rapid,  both  on  land  and  in  water; 
and  many  a  sportsman  in  his  first  day's  snipe-shooting  in  the  rice-fields  around 
Calcutta  has  been  startled  by  the  sudden  rush  of  the  common  Indian  species 
( V.  bengalensis)  as  it  darts  among  the  herbage  close  to  his  feet.  Those  species  in 
which  the  tail  is  the  most  compressed  are  the  best  swimmers;  this  appendage 
serving  as  a  powerful  propeller  in  the  water,  and  being  also  used  as  a  weapon  of 
offence  on  land.  In  order  to  enable  them  to  remain  under  water  for  some  time,  the 
nostrils  are  expanded  into  large  cavities  within  the  snout ;  and  when  the  apertures 
are  closed  these  pouches  serve  as  reservoirs  of  air.  Writing  of  the  great  water- 
monitor,  Cantor  says  that  it  is  "  very  numerous  in  hilly  and  marshy  localities  of 
the  Malayan  Peninsula.  It  is  commonly  during  the  day  observed  in  the  branches 
of  trees  overhanging  rivers,  preying  upon  birds  and  their  eggs  and  smaller  lizards, 
and  when  disturbed  it  throws  itself  from  a  considerable  height  into  the  water.  It 
will  courageously  defend  itself  with  teeth  and  claws  and  by  strokes  of  the  tail. 
The  lowest  castes  of  Hindus  capture  these  lizards  commonly  by  digging  them  out 
of  their  burrows  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  for  the  sake  of  their  flesh."  Professor  V. 
Ball  gives  the  following  account  of  a  meeting  with  a  lizard  of  the  same  species  in 
the  Nicobars : — "  As  I  did  not  care  to  shoot  him,  though  I  wanted  to  capture  him,  I 
threw  stones  at  him,  whereupon  he  hissed  and  lashed  his  tail  in  a  manner  that 


GREAVED  LIZARDS. 


'53 


might  prove  alarming  to  anyone  not  knowing  the  harmless  nature  of  the  beast.  As 
I  was  pressing  him  into  a  corner,  he  made  a  rush  into  the  waves,  but  returned, 
apparently  not  liking  the  surf.  Just  as  I  thought  he  could  not  escape,  he  made  a 
sudden  dart  into  the  water,  dived  through  the  surf,  and  disappeared." 

From  observations  made  on  specimens  in  captivity,  it  appears  that  these 
lizards  eat  eggs  by  taking  them  in  their  mouths,  raising  their  heads,  and  then 
breaking  the  shells,  so  that  the  contents  are  allowed  to  run  down  their  throats. 
Although  but  little  is  ascertained  regarding  their  breeding-habits,  monitors  are 
known  to  lay  white,  soft-shelled  eggs,  which  are  deposited  sometimes  in  the  nests 
of  white  ants.  As  many  as  twenty-four  eggs,  of  a  couple  of  inches  in  length,  have 
been  taken  from  the  body  of  a  single  female.  By  the  Burmese  these  eggs  are 
much  relished  as  articles  of  food,  and  command  a  higher  price  in  the  market 
than  hens'  eggs. 

THE  GREAVED  LIZARDS. 
Family  TEIID^E. 

In  America  the  place  of  the  true  lizards  of  the  Old  World  is  taken  by  a  nearly 
allied  group  which  may  be  termed  the  greaved  lizards,  some  of  which  rival  the 
smaller  monitors  in  size.  In  common  with  the  remaining  members  of  the 
suborder,  these  lizards  are  distinguished  from  all  the  foregoing  by  their  tongues, 
which  are  slit  at  the  tip  and  frequently  shaped  like  an  arrow-head,  being  either 
covered  with  overlapping  scale-like  papillae,  or  marked  by  oblique  folds.  In  all, 
the  head  is  covered  with  large  symmetrical  shields,  very  different  from  the  small 
scales  of  the  monitors.  They  further  differ  by  the  collar-bones  being  dilated,  and 
often  loop-shaped  at  their  inner  extremities. 

The  greaved  lizards  are  specially  characterised  by  the  absence  of  a  bony  roof 
to  the  temporal  fossae  of  the  skull,  and  by  the  shields  of  the  head  being  completely 
free  from  the  underlying  bones ;  while  there  are  no  bony  plates  on  the  body.  On 
the  body  and  tail  the  scales  are  arranged  in  transverse  rows.  The  teeth,  although 
very  variable,  differ  from  those  of  the  true  lizards  of  the  Old  World  in  not  being 
hollow  at  the  base ;  the  replacing  teeth  being  developed  in  small  sockets  at  the 
roots  of  those  in  use.  In  some  cases  these  teeth,  which  may  be  either  pointed  or 
of  a  flattened  crushing  type,  are  placed  near  the  summits  of  the  jaws,  and  in  others 
somewhat  on  the  side,  so  that  the  dentition  is  intermediate  between  the  typical 
acrodont  and  pleurodont  modifications ;  the  front  teeth  are  always  conical.  On 
the  palate  teeth  are  but  seldom  present,  and,  if  developed,  are  small.  The  long 
tongue,  which  is  frequently  retractile  within  a  sheath,  is  generally  covered  with 
overlapping  scales ;  the  drum  of  the  ear  is  exposed ;  and  the  eyes  are  generally 
furnished  with  lids.  The  majority  of  the  forms  resemble  the  true  lizards  in 
general  appearance,  although  in  some  the  number  of  toes  is  reduced  to  four.  In 
others,  however,  the  limbs  take  the  form  of  mere  stumps,  while  the  hind  pair  may 
be  wanting,  in  which  case  there  is  a  near  approach  to  the  amphisbsenas. 

The  greaved  lizards  comprise  over  a  hundred  species,  arranged  in  thirty-five 
genera,  which  are  distributed  over  the  warmer  parts  of  America,  although  most 
numerous  in  the  equatorial  regions.  Various  in  their  habitat,  some  frequent  dry, 


'54 


LIZARDS. 


sandy  plains,  others  dwell  among  the  herbage  of  meadows,  while  others  prefer 
woods,  and  a  few  are  partially  or  wholly  subterranean ;  these  latter  either  taking 
possession  of  some  empty  hole,  or  digging  one  for  themselves.  In  their  general 
mode  of  life  they  resemble  the  monitors  and  true  lizards,  although  some  are  more 
like  the  amphisbsenas.  They  are  generally  swift  and  active  in  their  movements ; 
and  the  larger  kinds  are  thoroughly  carnivorous,  subsisting  not  only  on  insects, 


THE  TEJU  (^  nat  size). 

worms,  slugs,  and  snails,  but  likewise  hunting  such  of  the  smaller  vertebrates  as 
they  are  able  to  overcome.  Most  species  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  hollow  stems,  or 
among  the  roots  of  trees.  A  few  of  the  larger  species  are  hunted  for  the  sake  of 
their  flesh,  which  is  stated  to  be  tender  and  well-flavoured. 

One  of  the  largest  and  best  known  representatives  of  the  family 

is    the    lizard    variously   termed    the    teju,    teguexin,    or    jacuaru 

(Tupinambis  teguexin),  which  ranges  over  a  large  portion  of  South  America  and 

the  West  Indies,  and  belongs  to  a  genus  comprising  three  species.     These  lizards 


GREAVED  LIZARDS.  155 

may  be  recognised  by  the  tail  being  round  at  the  root  and  slightly  compressed 
near  the  middle,  the  double  fold  of  skin  on  the  neck,  the  uniform  scales  of  the 
back,  the  rather  small  squared  shields  of  the  under  surface  of  the  body,  which  are 
arranged  in  more  than  twenty  rows,  the  want  of  teeth  on  the  palate,  the  com- 
pressed tricuspid  cheek-teeth  of  the  young,  and  the  long  tongue,  which  is  of  nearly 
equal  width  throughout,  and  sheathed  at  the  base.  In  old  individuals  the  crowns 
of  the  cheek-teeth  become  obtuse.  The  teju,  which  attains  a  length  of  about  a 
yard,  is  a  bulky  and  strikingly  coloured  lizard.  Above,  the  ground-colour  is  olive, 
upon  which  are  markings  and  bands  of  black,  and  more  or  less  distinct  rows  of 


SURINAM  AMEIVA  (|  nat.  size). 

lighter  spots ;  while  the  under  surface  is  yellowish,  with  interrupted  black  bars ; 
the  lines  of  division  between  the  shields  of  the  head  being  black. 

Ranging  from  Guiana  to  Uruguay,  the  teju  is  said  by  Bates  to  be  very 
common  in  the  forests  of  the  Amazon,  where  it  may  be  observed  in  numbers 
during  the  midday  stillness  scampering,  apparently  in  sport,  over  the  dead 
leaves ;  while  in  other  districts  it  haunts  sugar-plantations.  Although  frequently 
found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water,  it  apparently  never  enters  it;  and 
generally  dwells  in  wide-mouthed  holes  situated  beneath  the  roots  of  trees.  Shy 
and  retiring  to  a  degree  in  inhabited  districts,  when  driven  into  a  corner  it  shows 
fight,  hissing  at  and  striking  with  its  muscular  tail  the  dogs  employed  in  its 
pursuit.  When  sitting,  the  head  is  generally  raised,  while  the  forked  tongue  is 
in  constant  motion.  Its  diet  comprises  such  living  creatures  as  it  can  capture, 


156  LIZARDS. 

together  with  eggs.  The  female  lays  from  fifty  to  sixty  hard-shelled  eggs  about 
the  size  of  those  of  a  pigeon,  generally  placed  in  the  hillocks  of  white  ants. 

The  dracsena  (Draccena  gwianensis),  of  the  Guianas  and  Amazonia,  is  a 
somewhat  smaller  lizard,  distinguished  by  its  compressed  and  doubly-keeled  tail, 
the  intermixture  of  keeled  tubercles  among  the  scales  of  the  back,  and  the 
extremely  broad  crowns  of  the  cheek-teeth. 

Our  second  figured  representative  of  the  family  is  the  Surinam 
The  Ameivas.  .  .  „ 

ameiva   (Ameiva  swrinamenaw),  belonging   to   a   genus   or   nearly 

twenty  species  distributed  over  Central  and  South  America,  where  they  take  the 
place  occupied  by  the  true  lizards  in  the  Old  World.  They  are  distinguished  by 
their  round,  keelless  tails,  the  presence  of  less  than  twenty  rows  of  large  smooth 
scales  on  the  under  surface  of  the  body,  and  the  compressed  two-  or  three-cusped 
cheek-teeth.  The  tongue  can  be  withdrawn  into  a  sheath.  The  figured  species, 
which  is  found  over  South  America  as  far  as  Nicaragua,  attains  a  length  of  from 
15  to  20  inches,  and  is  very  variable  in  coloration.  The  young  are  olive-brown, 
with  darker  markings  or  white  dots,  and  a  black,  white-edged  band  running  along 
the  side  of  the  body  and  extending  on  to  the  tail ;  these  bands  generally  disappear- 
ing with  age,  although  sometimes  retained  in  the  females.  In  the  adult  the  upper 
surface  is  usually  greenish,  with  some  black  and  a  few  white  spots ;  while  the 
under-parts  are  greenish  white,  spotted  with  black  on  the  sides.  Ameivas  are 
generally  found  in  dry  districts — more  especially  near  the  coasts,  and  in  their 
general  habits  are  not  very  different  from  the  teju,  usually  living  in  holes,  among 
old  wood,  or  the  herbage  of  gardens. 


THE  AMPHISB^ENAS. 
Family  AMPHISB^NID^K 

Among  the  most  remarkable  of  all  lizards  are  those  whose  typical  repre- 
sentatives have  the  power  of  moving  equally  well  either  backwards  or  forwards, 
from  whence  they  derive  the  name  by  which  the  group  is  now  commonly 
designated.  Very  nearly  related  to  the  preceding  family,  through  those  members 
of  the  latter  with  aborted  limbs,  the  amphisbsenas  are  distinguished  by  the  simple 
and  degraded  characters  of  the  skull,  in  which  all  the  arches  have  been  lost, 
and  the  two  premaxillary  bones  are  fused  into  one.  All  are  adapted  to  a  purely 
subterranean  existence,  and  have  long,  worm-like  bodies,  devoid,  except  in  one 
species,  of  any  external  trace  of  limbs ;  while  even  the  bones  of  the  shoulder  and 
pelvis  are  more  or  less  rudimental.  The  eyes  are  concealed  beneath  the  skin ;  the 
mouth  is  small,  and  frequently  inferior  in  position;  and  the  ear  is  completely 
wanting.  Although  the  head  is  covered  with  large  symmetrical  shields,  the  skin 
of  the  body  is  divided  into  squared  segments  forming  regular  rings,  like  those  of 
worms;  from  which  character  the  group  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  ringed 
lizards.  In  all  the  tail  is  short.  The  large  teeth  are  few  in  number,  and  fixed 
either  to  the  inner  or  upper  edges  of  the  jaws. 

The  amphisbsenas,  which  are  arranged  in  eleven  genera,  including  between 
sixty  and  seventy  species,  are  most  numerously  represented  in  America  south  of 


AMPHISB&NAS.  157 

the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  although  also  occurring  in  the  West  Indies,  while  Africa 
possesses  over  twenty  species,  and  four  are  found  in  the  Mediterranean  area.  Of 
their  habits,  Mr.  Boulenger  observes  that  all  the  members  of  this  family  are 
burro wers,  and  may  live  in  ants'  nests.  They  bore  narrow  galleries  in  the  earth, 
in  which  they  are  able  to  progress  backwards  as  well  as  forwards.  On  the  ground 
they  progress  in  a  straight  line  by  slight  vertical  undulations,  not  by  lateral 
movements,  as  in  other  limbless  reptiles ;  and  the  tail  of  many  species  appears  to 
be  more  or  less  prehensile.  The  food  of  these  lizards  consists  of  small  insects  and 
worms.  As  regards  their  breeding-habits,  it  is  only  known  that  one  species  lays 
eggs,  which  are  deposited  in  ants'  nests.  The  marked  resemblance  of  these  lizards 
to  earth-worms  is  a  most  curious  instance  of  the  similarity  produced  in  the  external 


HANDED  AMPHISB^NA  (nat.  size). 

form  of  different  groups  of  animals  by  adaptation  to  similar  modes  of  life ;  the 
remarkable  feature  in  this  case  being  the  occurrence  of  this  resemblance  in 
creatures  so  widely  sundered  from  one  another,  as  are  worms  and  amphisbsenas. 
Fossil  members  of  the  family  have  been  discovered  in  the  Tertiary  rocks  of  North 
America. 

Handed  The  one  member  of  the  family  which  exhibits  evidence  of  its 

AmpMsbsena.  relationship  to  less  specialised  lizards  in  the  retention  of  rudimentary 
fore -limbs  is  the  handed  amphisbsena  (Chirotes  caniculatus),  of  Mexico  and 
California ;  this  being  one  of  the  two  species  found  on  the  continent  of  America  to 
the  north  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer.  This  creature,  which  attains  a  length  of  about 
7  inches,  and  is  of  a  brownish  flesh-colour,  is  distinguished  by  the  presence  of 
a  pair  of  small  depressed  fore-limbs,  placed  close  to  the  head,  to  which  they  are 
about  equal  in  length ;  each  of  these  being  provided  with  four  well-developed  and 
clawed  toes,  of  which  the  outermost  is  the  shortest. 


'58 


LIZARDS. 


Typical  The  typical  members  of  the  family  constitute  a  genus  (Ampltis- 

Amphisbsenas.  ba'na)  common  to  Tropical  America  and  Africa,  and  represented  by 
nearly  thirty  species.  Belonging,  like  the  last  genus,  to  the  group  in  which  the 
teeth  are  attached  to  the  inner  edges  of  the  jaws,  these  limbless  amphisbenas  are 
specially  characterised  by  the  anterior  body-rings  not  being  enlarged,  by  the 
laterally  placed  nostrils  being  pierced  in  a  special  nasal  shield,  by  the  rounded  or 
slightly  compressed  snout,  the  obtuse,  cylindrical  tail,  and  the  presence  of  pores  in 
front  of  the  vent.  The  figured  species  (A.  fidiyinosa)  is  a  well-known  kind  from 
Tropical  America  and  the  West  Indies,  deriving  its  name  from  its  pied  skin,  and 
attaining  a  length  of  about  18  inches.  Writing  of  the  habits  of  a  member  of  the 
genus.  Bates  observes  that  their  "  peculiar  form,  added  to  their  habit  of  wriggling 
backwards  as  well  as  forwards,  has  given  rise  to  the  fable  that  they  have  two 
heads,  one  at  each  extremity.  They  are  extremely  sluggish  in  their  motions,  and 
live  habitually  in  the  subterranean  chambers  of  the  sattba  ant ;  only  coming  out 


SPOTTED    AMPHISB.EXA  (-?-  liat.  Size). 

of  their  abodes  occasionally  in  the  night-time.  The  natives  call  the  amphisbsena 
the  riifi.i  dd.H  ftauhfiN,  or  mother  of  the  saiibas,  and  believe  it  to  be  poisonous, 
although  it  is  perfectly  harmless.  It  is  one  of  the  many  curious  animals  which 
have  become  the  subject  of  mythical  stories  with  the  natives.  They  say  the  ants 
treat  it  with  great  affection,  and  that  if  the  snake  be  taken  away  from  a  nest  the 
saiibas  will  forsake  the  spot.  I  once  took  one  quite  whole  out  of  the  body  of  a 
young  jararaca  [a  poisonous  snake],  whose  body  was  so  distended  with  its  contents 
that  the  skin  was  stretched  out  to  a  film  over  the  contained  amphisbaena.  I  was, 
unfortunately,  not  able  to  ascertain  the  exact  relation  which  subsists  between 
these  curious  reptiles  and  the  saiiba  ants.  I  believe,  however,  that  they  feed  upon, 
the  saiibas.  for  I  once  found  the  remains  of  ants  in  the  stomach  of  one  of  them." 


TUT:  TRUE  LIZARDS. 
Family  L Ad l-:i;T II >.!<:. 

The  true  lizards,  constituting  tin;  typical  representatives  of  the  suborder,  form 
large   familv.  with  seventeen  genera,  distributed  over  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa 


TRUE  LIZARDS. 


'59 


(exclusive  of  Madagascar),  but  most  abundant  in  Africa,  and  comparatively  rare  in 
the  Oriental  countries.  Taking  the  place  in  the  Old  World  occupied  in  the  New 
by  the  greaved  lizards,  these  reptiles  are  readily  distinguished  from  the  latter  by 
the  temporal  fossa  of  the  skull  being  roofed  over  with  bone  (as  shown  in  the  figure 
of  the  skeleton  on  p.  108),  and  likewise  by  the  shields  of  the  head  being  firmly 
attached  to  the  underlying  bones,  as  well  as  by  the  union  of  the  two  premaxillary 
bones,  the  latter  feature  being  common  to  this  family  and  the  amphisbsenas.  All 
of  them  have  well-developed  limbs,  each  furnished  with  five  toes,  the  body  plump, 
and  separated  by  a  well-marked  neck  from  the  head,  the  tail  long  and  brittle,  the 
drum  of  the  ear  exposed,  and  the  eyelids  distinct  and  generally  freely  mobile.  The 
skin  contains  no  bony  plates ;  the  scales  of  the  back  are  either  overlapping  or  in 
apposition ;  while  those  of  the  under  surface  are  generally  larger,  and  arranged  in 
longitudinal  and  transverse  rows.  The  teeth  are  always  attached  to  the  sides  of 
the  edges  of  the  jaws  (pleurodont),  and  differ  from  those  of  the  grooved  lizards  in 
their  hollow  bases ;  those  of  the  cheek-series  having  two-  or  three-cusped  crowns. 
The  flat  and  scaled  tongue  is  of  considerable  length,  and  cleft  both  in  front  and 
behind,  so  as  to  assume  the  form  of  an  arrow-head.  As  a  rule,  pores  are  present 
on  the  hinder  surface  of  the  thigh. 

Out  of  about  one  hundred  species  of  true  lizards,  two  are  found  in  the  British 
Islands,  where,  with  the  exception  of  the  blind- worm,  they  are  the  only  represent- 
atives of  the  suborder ;  but  many  others  inhabit  Southern  Europe.  Lizards  of 
this  family  are  veritably  creatures  of  the  sun,  delighting  to  bask  in  its  rays  on 
some  warm  sandy  bank,  wall,  or  rock,  and  retiring  to  their  holes  and  crannies  in 
cloudy  or  rainy  weather.  The  more  powerful  and  bright  is  the  sun,  the  more 
active,  indeed,  do  these  reptiles  become,  since  most  of  them  are  dull  and  listless  in 
the  mornings  and  evenings,  and  only  wake  to  full  activity  in  the  midday  glare. 
Over  the  greater  part  of  Europe  they  begin  to  spend  a  large  portion  of  their  time 
in  their  holes,  and  with  the  commencement  of  October  retire  for  their  winter  sleep, 
from  which  they  do  not  awake  till  spring  is  well  advanced.  Comparatively  rare 
in  Northern  Europe,  in  the  south  of  the  continent  lizards  are  common  enough  to 
form  an  attractive  feature  in  the  landscape,  their  burnished  metallic  green  and 
bronzy  scales  flashing  in  the  sunlight  on  every  wall,  and  in  every  road  and  path. 
The  darting  movements  of  these  pretty  reptiles,  as  they  are  in  pursuit  of  the  flies 
and  other  small  insects  which  constitute  their  chief  prey,  are  familiar  to  all. 
While  the  majority  lay  eggs,  the  viviparous  lizard  produces  living  young. 

The  pearly  lizard  (Lacerta  ocellata)  of  Southern  Europe,  which 
is  also  represented  by  a  variety  in  Algeria,  may  be  taken  as  our  first 
example  of  the  typical  genus  Lacerta,  of  which  there  are  over  twenty  species, 
inhabiting  Europe,  North  and  West  Asia,  Africa  north  of  the  Sahara,  and  the 
Atlantic  islands.  The  members  of  this  group,  which  may  be  collectively  designated 
collared  lizards,  are  distinguished  by  the  following  features.  The  body  is  cylindrical 
or  slightly  depressed ;  the  head  pyramidal,  with  upright  sides ;  the  neck  not  very 
well  defined  ;  and  the  tail  cylindrical,  tapering,  and  long.  The  throat  is  furnished 
with  a  well-marked  collar  of  enlarged  scales ;  the  scales  on  the  back  are  smaller 
than  those  on  the  tail,  and  are  at  most  but  slightly  overlapping ;  while  the  shields 
of  the  under  surface  are  squared,  and  slightly  overlapping.  The  rounded  or  com- 


160  LIZARDS, 

pressed  toes  have  either  smooth,  tuberculated,  or  indistinctly  keeled  pads  011  the  lower 
surface,  while  the  thighs  have  pores.  In  common  with  several  other  genera,  the 
nostrils  are  placed  close  to  the  so-called  labial  scales,  from  which  they  are  separated 
at  most  by  a  narrow  rim;  and  if  there  be  a  transparent  disc  in  the  lower -eyelid, 
it  is  smaller  than  the  eye.  Among  the  most  beautifully  coloured  members  of 
the  suborder  the  pearly  lizard,  which  attains  a  length  of  from  16  to  23  inches, 
claims  a  foremost  place.  Belonging  to  a  large  group  of  the  genus,  in  which  the 
edge  of  the  throat-collar  is  strongly  serrated,  this  species  agrees  with  certain  other 
members  of  the  genus  in  its  smooth  tail,  and  in  the  scales  on  the  sides  of  the  body 
not  being  smaller  than  those  on  the  back.  As  special  characters  of  the  species,  it 
may  be  noted  that  the  scales  are  smaller  than  in  the  allied  forms ;  and  that  there 
are  not  less  than  seventy  scales  round  the  middle  of  the  body,  eight  or  ten  of  which 
belong  to  the  under  surface.  The  head  is  very  large  in  the  male,  and  characterised 
by  the  great  width  of  its  hindmost,  or  occipital,  median  shield.  In  colour,  the 
upper-parts  are  either  green,  with  black  dots  or  network,  or  blackish  olive  with 
yellowish  netting ;  the  sides  are  marked  with  a  row  of  about  a  dozen  eye-like  blue 
spots;  while  the  under  surface  is  uniform  greenish  yellow.  The  olive-coloured 
young  are,  however,  dotted  all  over  with  white,  or  pearly-blue,  black-edged  spots. 

Common  in  Spain,  and  also  occurring  in  the  south  of  France  and  North- 
Western  Italy,  or  wherever  the  olive-tree  grows,  the  pearly  lizard  is  generally  to 
be  met  with  in  the  neighbourhood  of  hollow  trees,  frequently  ascending  some 
distance  up  their  trunks,  or  even  climbing  among  the  branches.  The  males  are 
somewhat  quarrelsome,  and  the  females  lay  from  six  to  ten  eggs,  generally 
deposited  in  a  hollow  olive-tree. 

Another  well  -  known  European  species  is  the  green  lizard 
(L.  viridis),  attaining  a  length  of  about  12  inches  in  Germany,  but 
in  the  more  southern  portions  of  its  habitat  measuring  as  much  as  17  inches ; 
fully  two-thirds  of  this  length  being  occupied  by  the  long  tail.  Having  not  more 
than  sixty-six  scales  round  the  middle  of  the  body,  this  lizard  is  distinguished  by 
the  general  presence  of  two  small  superimposed  scales  behind  each  nostril,  the 
small  size  and  triangular  form  of  the  occipital  shield,  and  the  arrangement  of  the 
abdominal  scales  in  six  longitudinal  rows ;  the  collar  being  serrated.  Usually  the 
nostrils  are  in  contact  with  the  front  or  rostral  shield  of  the  head ;  and  in  the 
female  and  young  the  foot  is  longer  than  the  head.  As  regards  colour,  the  males, 
which  may  be  distinguished  from  the  females  by  the  larger  and  higher  head,  the 
thickened  root  of  the  tail,  stouter  hind-limbs,  and  generally  superior  size,  are  some 
shade  of  green-olive,  passing  below  into  yellow.  Black  dots,  passing  into  large 
spots,  generally  adorn  the  upper  surface,  whereas  the  under-parts,  save  for  a  blue 
patch  on  the  chin  and  throat,  are  uniform.  The  females,  in  which  the  blue  on  the 
throat  is  less  constantly  present,  have  a  more  brownish  tinge,  with  the  sides 
ornamented  with  black-bordered  yellowish  spots.  The  young  are  generally  leather- 
brown  in  colour,  with  one  or  two  yellow  side-stripes.  Both  sexes  vary,  however, 
considerably  according  to  age ;  and  southern  specimens  are  more  brilliantly  coloured 
than  those  from  the  north. 

The  green  lizard  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  countries  lying  to  the  east  and  north 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  thence  extending  eastwards  to  Persia.  Very  common  in 


TRUE  LIZARDS. 


161 


Portugal  and  Spain,  where  it  is  represented  by  a  variety,  it  extends  in  France  as 
far  north  as  Paris,  but  it  is  unknown  in  Sardinia.  In  place  of  resorting,  like  the 
pearly  lizard,  to  trees,  this  species  is  usually  found  on  the  ground,  more  especially 
in  districts  where  the  subsoil  is  rocky,  ranging  from  the  sea-level  to  a  height  of 
some  three  thousand  feet,  and  being  equally  at  home  on  the  plains  or  among  the 
mountains,  in  stony  or  sandy  districts,  on  bare  rocks,  or  among  thick  bush.  As 
rapid  as  lightning  in  its  movements,  it  feeds  chiefly  upon  large  insects  and  their 
larvae,  together  with  slugs  and  worms ;  living  in  grassy  districts  almost  entirely  upon 
grasshoppers,  and  at  times  attacking  smaller  species  of  its  own  tribe.  In  Switzer- 
land and  Germany  the  female  usually  deposits  her  eight  to  eleven  white  eggs 


Sand-Lizard. 


GREEN  LIZARDS  (§  liat.  size). 

during  June,  these  being  hatched  in  the  course  of  a  month  or  so;  and  it  is 
generally  during  the  breeding-season  that  the  blue  on  the  throat  is  assumed  by 
this  sex. 

The  third  European  representative  of  the  genus  is  the  much 
smaller  sand-,  or  hedge-lizard  (L.  agilis),  which  is  a  more  northern 
form,  ranging  into  the  British  Islands  and  Scandinavia.  Usually  not  more  than 
8  inches  in  length,  although  occasionally  measuring  nearly  10,  this  lizard  may  be 
recognised  by  its  short,  thick,  and  blunt-snouted  head,  and  by  the  tail  being 
considerably  less  than  twice  the  length  of  the  head  and  body.  Never  having  more 
than  fifty-eight  scales  round  the  middle  of  the  body,  it  is  further  distinguished  by 
the  rostral  shield  of  the  head  being  separated  by  a  small  interval  from  the  nostrils, 
VOL.  v. — ii 


162  LIZARDS. 

by  the  trapezoidal  shape  of  the  small  occipital  shield,  by  the  absence  of  the  row  of 
small  granules  which  occur  between  the  shields  of  the  eyelids  (supraoculars)  and 
eyebrows  (supraciliaries)  in  the  green  and  wall-lizards,  and  by  the  foot  being  not 
longer  than  the  head.  Although  there  is  great  variation  in  this  respect,  the 
general  colour  of  the  male  is  greenish,  and  that  of  the  female  grey  or  brown ;  the 
crown  of  the  head,  a  streak  down  the  back,  and  the  tail  being  mostly  brown,  while 
the  chin  and  under-parts  are  greenish  or  yellowish.  Tto  streak  down  the  back, 
and  in  the  females  also  the  sides,  are  marked  by  rows  of  white  spots,  which  are 
sometimes  large  and  eye-like ;  and  the  under  surface  is  marked  with  black.  Some 
individuals,  especially  males,  closely  approach  the  green  lizard  in  coloration. 

The  range  of  the  sand-lizard  embraces  North,  Central,  and  Eastern  Europe, 
and  extends  eastwards  to  Western  Siberia  and  Asiatic  Russia.  In  England  it  is 
generally  found  on  sandy  heaths,  where  it  may  often  be  seen  running  across  the 
open  paths  with  a  speed  less  rapid  than  that  of  the  more  common  viviparous 
species.  It  is  more  timid  and  less  easily  tamed  than  the  green  lizard,  generally 
pining  and  refusing  to  feed  in  captivity.  According  to  Bell,  the  female  lays  her 
eggs,  to  the  number  of  twelve  or  fourteen,  in  hollows  in  the  sand,  which  she 
excavates  for  the  purpose,  and  having  covered  them  carefully  with  sand,  she 
leaves  them  to  be  hatched  by  the  solar  heat. 

Viviparous.  A   still  smaller,  and   at  the  same  time  a  more   slightly  built 

Lizard.  species  is  the  common  English  viviparous  lizard  (L.  vivipara),  which 
varies  in  length  from  6  to  just  over  7  inches  in  length.  It  has  larger  scales  than 
the  last,  which  are  not  more  than  forty-five  round  the  middle  of  the  body,  and  the 
foot  generally  exceeds  the  head  in  length ;  granules  being  absent  above  the  eyes. 
The  absence  of  teeth  on  the  palate  is  another  feature  in  which  this  species  differs 
from  the  sand-lizard.  The  colour  of  the  adult  is  brown,  yellowish,  or  reddish, 
ornamented  with  small  dark  and  light  spots,  and  often  with  a  dark  streak  down 
the  back,  and  another,  edged  with  yellowish,  on  each  side.  In  the  male,  the  under 
surface  is  orange  or  vermilion,  spotted  with  black ;  and  in  the  female,  pale  orange 
or  yellow,  sparsely  spotted  with  black,  or  uniform.  The  young  are  nearly  black, 
and  this  hue  occasionally  persists.  Unknown  to  the  south  of  the  Alps,  the 
viviparous,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  mountain-lizard,  is  spread  over  the  greater 
part  of  North  and  Central  Europe,  and  the  whole  of  Northern  Asia,  as  far  as 
Amurland,  ranging  in  the  Alps  to  a  height  of  nearly  ten  thousand  feet.  At  this 
elevation  it  is,  however,  dormant  for  fully  three-quarters  of  the  year,  being  active 
for  only  two  or  three  months.  In  Britain  it  extends  to  Scotland,  and  is  one  of 
the  few  reptiles  found  in  Ireland.  Generally  similar  in  its  habits  to  its  allies,  it 
is  more  fond  of  water,  and  is  a  good  swimmer,  usually  frequenting  heaths  and 
banks.  "  Its  movements,"  writes  Bell,  "  are  beautifully  graceful  as  well  as  rapid ; 
it  comes  out  of  its  hiding-place  during  the  warm  parts  of  the  day  from  the  early 
spring  till  autumn  has  far  advanced,  basking  in  the  sun,  and  turning  its  head 
with  a  sudden  motion,  if  an  insect  comes  within  its  view,  and,  darting  like 
lightning  upon  its  prey,  it  seizes  it  with  its  little  sharp  teeth,  and  speedily 
swallows  it.''  Unlike  its  kin,  this  species  produces  living  young,  varying  from 
three  to  six  in  number,  which  are  active  as  soon  as  born,  and  remain  in  the 
company  of  their  parent  for  some  time. 


WALL-LIZARDS 


TRUE  LIZARDS. 


163 


Wall-Lizard. 


The  last  representative  of  the  typical  genus  that  we  shall  notice 
is  the  beautiful  wall-lizard  (L.  muralis),  of  which  a  group  is  depicted 
in  our  coloured  Plate.  This  southern  species,  which  inhabits  the  countries 
bordering  both  sides  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  extends  eastwards  into  Persia, 
belongs  to  a  group  in  which  the  edge  of  the  collar  on  the  neck  is  even  or  but 
slightly  serrated,  and  the  scales  of  the  back  are  granular.  Attaining  in  Germany 
a  length  of  from  7  to  7J  inches,  but  reaching  from  8  to  9J  inches  in  Italy,  this 
species  has  a  series  of  granules  between  the  shields  above  the  eyes,  while  the  scales 
of  the  abdomen  are  arranged  in  six  (rarely  eight)  rows,  and  those  on  the  upper 
surface  of  the  leg  are  larger  than  those  on  the  back;  and  there  is  but  a  single 


VIVIPAROUS  LIZARD  (uat.  size.) 

(postnasal)  scale  behind  each  nostril.  In  colour  the  wall-lizard  presents  such  an 
astonishing  variation,  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  give  any  general  description. 
In  German  examples  the  ground-colour  of  the  back  is,  however,  often  brown  or 
grey,  with  bronze-green  reflections  in  sunlight,  upon  which  are  blackish  streaks, 
marblings,  and  spots ;  while  the  flanks  have  a  row  of  blue  spots ;  and  the  under- 
parts  vary  from  milk-white  to  copper-red,  frequently  variegated  by  spots  or 
marblings.  In  Southern  Europe  these  lizards  may  be  seen  basking  on  almost  every 
wall,  old  building,  or  face  of  rock,  where  they  delight  all  beholders  with  their 
activity  and  tameness.  "  Scarcely  two,"  writes  Leith- Adams,  "  are  marked  alike ; 
the  brightness  and  variety  of  their  hues  are  most  beautiful  and  attractive,  and,  like 
the  chamaeleon,  they  change  colour  with  the  coruscations  of  sunshine,  but,  of 


164 


LIZARDS. 


course,  not  to  the  same  extent.  During  an  excursion  to  the  islet  of  Filfla,  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Malta,  in  the  month  of  June,  I  was  surprised  to  find  that  all  the 
lizards  on  the  rock  were  of  a  beautiful  bronze-black,  and  so  much  tamer  than  their 
agile  brethren  on  the  mainland.  Many  individuals  were  so  tame  that  they 
scrambled  about  our  feet,  and  fed  on  the  refuse  of  our  luncheon."  Whereas  in  the 
Southern  Tyrol  these  lizards  remain  active  till  December,  and  reappear  by  the 


ALGERIAN  KEELED  LIZARDS  (f  liat.  size). 

middle  of  February,  in  Germany  their  winter  sleep  is  considerably  longer.  Like 
its  congeners,  this  species  has  an  exceedingly  brittle  tail;  and  it  was  observed 
some  years  that  on  a  certain  road  in  Madeira  all  the  lizards  belonging  to  a  nearly 
allied  species  (L.  dugesi)  were  without  tails.  The  circumstance  was  explained 
by  the  spot  being  the  favourite  resort  of  the  midshipmen  landing  from  the  ships 
visiting  the  island,  who  amused  themselves  by  knocking  off  the  lizards'  tails. 

The    members   of    the   genus   Lacerta,   as   we   have   seen,   are 
'  characterised  by  the  presence  of  a  well-marked  collar  on  the  neck,  by 


TRUE  LIZARDS. 


165 


the  scales  of  the  back  being  smaller  than  those  on  the  tail,  and  by  the  toes  being 
without  fringes  on  their  sides,  or  keels  on  their  soles.  An  allied  genus — Algiroides 
— represented  by  three  species  from  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  Greece, 
Sardinia,  and  Corsica, — differs  by  the  strongly  overlapping  scales  of  the  back  being 
nearly  as  large  as  those  of  the  tail.  On  the  other  hand,  four  species  inhabiting 
South- Western  Europe  and  the  opposite  coast  of  Africa  constitute  a  third  genus — 
Psammodromus — in  which  the  collar  is  indistinct  or  wanting,  the  toes  are  not 
fringed,  though  generally  more  or  less  distinctly  keeled  inferiorly,  while  the  over- 
lapping scales  of  the  back  bear  strong  keels.  Among  these  the  Spanish  keeled 
lizard,  or  sand-runner  (P.  hispanicus),  retains  a  trace  of  a  collar  and  has  strongly 
keeled  soles;  whereas  in  the  Algerian  keeled  lizard  (P.  algirus)  the  collar  is 


COMMON  FRINGE-TOED  LIZARDS  (nat.  Size). 

wanting,  and  the  soles  are  at  most  but  feebly  keeled.  The  figured  species,  which 
inhabits  not  only  North- Western  Africa,  but  likewise  Portugal,  Spain,  and  the 
south  of  France,  reaches  nearly  10J  inches  in  length,  and  has  a  tail  almost  twice  as 
long  as  the  head  and  body.  It  is  specially  distinguished  by  the  scales  of  the 
abdomen  being  of  nearly  equal  width  and  arranged  in  six  rows,  as  well  as  by  the 
presence  of  from  thirty  to  thirty-six  scales  round  the  middle  of  the  body.  In 
colour,  this  lizard  is  bronzy-green  above,  with  one  or  two  golden,  dark-edged 
streaks  along  the  side ;  the  male  being  ornamented  with  a  pale  blue  eye-like 
spot  above  the  shoulder,  sometimes  followed  by  one  or  two  behind,  while  the 
under-parts  are  whitish.  Abundant  in  Algeria  and  the  neighbourhood  of  Mont- 
pellier  this  lizard  is  found  in  the  former  region  both  in  hedges  and  on  limestone 
rocks,  whereas  in  France  it  frequents  hedges  alone.  Preferring  dry,  open,  and 


1 66  LIZARDS. 

warm  districts,  and  thriving  well  in  captivity,  it  presents  nothing  specially  note- 
worthy as  regards  its  habits. 

Fringe-Toed  The  fringe-toed  lizards  (Acanthodactylus),  of  which  there  are 

Lizaids.  ^en  species  ranging  from  Southern  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  Northern 
Africa  through  South- Western  Asia  to  the  Punjab,  differ  from  the  preceding  group 
by  the  toes  being  both  fringed  on  the  sides  and  keeled  below ;  a  more  or  less 
distinct  collar  occurring  on  the  throat.  On  the  head,  the  occipital  shield  is 
wanting,  and  the  nostrils  are  pierced  between  two  nasal  and  one  labial  shields. 
Pores  are  present  on  the  thigh,  and  the  tail  is  nearly  cylindrical.  The  common 
fringe-toed  lizard  (A.  vidgaris)  is  a  species  of  from  4J  to  4|  inches  in  length, 
agreeing  with  most  of  its  kindred  in  having  the  hinder  scales  of  the  back  but  little 
enlarged,  and  specially  characterised  by  the  strong  keeling  of  the  scales  on  the 
upper  surface  of  the  tail,  and  the  slight  pectination  of  the  toes.  It  is  represented 
by  two  varieties,  one  occurring  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  rarely  in  the  south  of 
France,  characterised  by  the  smooth  or  slightly  keeled  scales  of  the  back,  and  an 
African  form  in  which  these  scales  are  very  strongly  keeled,  and  the  coloration  is 
brighter.  The  colour  of  the  adult  is  greyish  or  brownish,  with  faint  longitudinal 
series  of  light  and  dark  spots  and  lines,  and  sometimes  eye-like  blue  spots  on  the 
flanks ;  the  young  being  longitudinally  streaked  with  black  and  white,  and  having 
white  spots  on  the  limbs.  All  these  lizards  inhabit  dry  sandy  districts,  and  are 
remarkably  shy  in  their  habits,  seldom  venturing  forth  from  their  retreats  except 
when  the  sun  is  shining  brightly. 


THE  SKINK  TRIBE. 
Family  SCINCID^. 

The  preceding  family  is  connected  with  the  one  we  have  now  to  consider  by  a 
small  group  of  five  African  genera  constituting  the  family  Gerrhosauridce,  which, 
while  resembling  the  true  lizards  in  having  but  a  single  premaxillary  bone  and 
the  presence  of  pores  on  the  thigh,  agree  with  the  skinks  in  possessing  bony  plates 
of  peculiar  structure  beneath  the  scales.  The  skink  tribe,  taking  their  title  from 
the  lizard  commonly  known  by  that  name,  are  a  very  numerous  family,  comprising 
upwards  of  twenty -five  genera  and  nearly  four  hundred  species,  and  presenting 
great  variety  of  bodily  form,  some  kinds  being  four-limbed,  while  others  are  more 
or  less  completely  snake-like.  Agreeing  with  the  true  lizards  in  the  characters  of 
the  tongue  and  teeth,  as  well  as  in  the  roofing-over  of  the  temporal  fossae  by  bone, 
the  skinks  differ  in  having  two  distinct  premaxillary  bones  in  the  skull,  in  the 
presence  of  bony  plates  traversed  by  symmetrical  tubules  beneath  the  scales,  and 
in  the  invariable  absence  of  the  pores  which  are  generally  present  in  the  thighs  of 
the  Lacertidce.  The  limbs,  when  present,  are  relatively  short,  and  in  some  cases 
are  reduced  to  two,  and  in  others  absent ;  the  number  of  toes  is  very  variable, 
even  among  the  members  of  a  single  genus ;  the  short  and  scaly  tongue  is  free, 
and  but  slightly  notched  in  front ;  and  the  drum  of  the  ear  is  generally  covered 
with  scales.  The  eyes  have  round  pupils,  and  well-developed  and  generally  mobile 
lids,  the  lower  one  of  which  has  a  large  transparent  window.  The  teeth,  which 


SKINK  TRIBE. 


167 


are  attached  to  the  sides  of  the  jaws,  may  have  either  conical,  bicuspid,  or  broad 
and  spheroidal  crowns  (Tiliqua).  The  head  is  covered  by  large  symmetrical 
shields,  among  which  an  unpaired  occipital  is  generally  wanting;  and  the  over- 
lapping scales  of  the  body  are  generally  subhexagonal  in  form  and  arranged  in 
a  quincuncial  manner.  Worldwide  in  distribution,  the  skink  tribe  are  most 
numerously  represented  in  Australia,  Oceania,  the  Oriental  region,  and  Africa, 
while  very  few  occur  in  South  America,  and  there  are  not  many  in  North  America 
and  Europe.  Although  their  habits  are  not  fully  known,  it  appears  that,  with  the 
exception  of  two  genera,  they  bring  forth  living  young,  varying  from  two  to  ten 
in  number.  The  majority  are  terrestrial,  a  few  only  being  able  to  climb,  while 
none  are  aquatic.  They  sedulously  avoid  the  neighbourhood  of  water,  frequenting 


STUMP-TAILED  LIZARDS  (^  nat  size). 


dry  situations,  and  more  especially  those  where  the  soil  is  sandy  with  an  admixture 
of  pebbles  or  fragments  of  rock.  Moreover,  they  generally  possess  the  faculty  — 
rare  among  lizards  —  of  burrowing  in  the  ground  with  the  dexterity,  if  not  with 
the  power,  of  moles.  From  this  habit  the  group  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the 
burrowing  lizards;  and  it  may  be  remarked  that  their  spindle-shaped  bodies, 
covered  with  highly  polished  scales,  their  short  legs,  and  frequently  abbreviated 
tail,  as  well  as  the  transparent  window  in  the  lower  eyelid,  are  all  features  specially 
adapted  for  such  a  mode  of  life.  From  among  the  numerous  genera,  the  limits  of 
our  space  render  it  necessary  to  confine  our  remarks  to  four,  which  are  selected  as 
examples  of  very  divergent  types. 

stump-Tailed  Described  as  far  back  as  the  year  1699,  the  stump-tailed  lizard 

(Trachysaurus  rugosus),  of  Australia,  is  the  sole  representative  of 


Lizard. 


i68 


LIZARDS. 


one  of  the  most  remarkable  genera  in  the  entire  suborder.  With  a  short, 
pyramidal  depressed  head  of  great  width,  a  short  but  distinct  neck,  a  long,  thick, 
and  flattened  body,  and  a  very  wide  and  stumpy  tail,  the  creature  is  clothed  with 
an  armour  of  rough,  thick,  brown  scales,  which  give  it  very  much  the  appearance 
of  a  living  pine-cone.  On  the  lower  surface,  the  scales  are  smooth  and  much 
smaller.  The  small  and  stout  limbs  are  widely  separated,  and  terminate  in  five 
short  toes,  each  provided  with  strong  curved  claws.  In  length  this  strange  reptile 
measures  about  14  inches,  and  its  colour  above  is  brown  with  spots  or  irregular 
bands  of  yellow,  while  beneath  it  is  yellowish,  with  brown  spots,  marblings,  or 
longitudinal  and  transverse  streaks.  The  cheek-teeth  have  subconical  crowns. 
Beyond  the  fact  that  it  is  a  burrower,  scarcely  anything  appears  to  be  known  of 
the  habits  of  the  stump-tailed  lizard  in  a  wild  state,  although  many  .observations 
have  been  made  on  captive  specimens.  In  the  latter  state  it  is  slow  and  lethargic 


EUROPEAN  SNAKE-EYED  LIZARD  (nat.  size). 

in  its  movements,  creeping  about  with  the  abdomen  pressed  to  the  ground.  Its 
chief  food  consists  of  worms  and  insects,  although  fruit  and  vegetables  are 
occasionally  eaten;  and  that  it  can  endure  long  fasts  is  proved  by  an  example 
which  only  ate  two  or  three  flies  during  the  voyage  from  Australia. 

Snake-Eyed  Very  different  in  appearance  to  the  last  is  the  lizard  (Ablepharus 

Lizards.  pannonicus)  represented  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  which 
belongs  to  a  genus  containing  a  number  of  small  species  distributed  over  Australia, 
South- Western  Asia,  South-Eastern  Europe,  and  Tropical  and  South  America,  one 
of  which  (A.  boutoni)  ranges  irregularly  over  the  hotter  parts  of  both  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Hemispheres.  These  lizards  differ  from  all  their  kin  in  having  no 
movable  eyelids,  their  place  being  taken  by  a  transparent  disc  of  skin  stretched 
over  the  eye  after  the  manner  of  snakes.  In  this  genus  the  ear  may  be  either 
open  or  concealed  by  scales ;  and  while  some  of  the  species  have  well-developed 
limbs,  in  others  they  are  more  or  less  aborted,  the  number  of  toes  being  also 
highly  variable.  The  figured  species,  which  ranges  in  Europe  from  Hungary  to 


SKINK  TRIBE. 


169 


Greece,  and  is  also  spread  over  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Northern  Arabia,  measures 
only  4  inches  in  length,  of  which  fully  half  is  occupied  by  the  tail.  Its  general 
colour  above  is  bronzy  olive,  becoming  darker  on  the  sides,  and  with  a  blackish 
light-edged  streak  passing  through  the  eye  along  each  side  of  the  body ;  while  the 
under-parts  are  greenish.  The  European  species  is  found  alike  on  slopes  covered 
with  short  grass  or  in  sandy  spots,  and  does  not  appear  to  be  a  burrower.  Feeding 
on  small  insects  and  worms,  it  does  not  generally  venture  forth  from  its  lurking- 
places  till  four  or  five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  retires  before  night.  In 
common  with  the  other  members  of  its  genus,  it  differs  from  the  majority  of  its 
family  in  laying  eggs. 

While   both   the   genera   above-mentioned   belong    to    a   group 
characterised  by  the  palatine  bones  meeting  in  the  middle  of  the 
palate,  the  true  skinks  indicate  a  second  and  smaller  group  in  which  those  bones 


True  Skinks. 


COMMON  SKINK  (§-  nat.  size). 

are  separated  from  one  another.  Skinks  are  neatly  made,  somewhat  short-tailed 
lizards,  with  short  limbs  provided  with  five  toes  serrated  on  their  sides.  The 
tail  is  conical,  the  head  and  snout  wedge-shaped,  the  ear  more  or  less  concealed, 
while  the  nostrils  are  pierced  between  an  upper  and  a  lower  nasal  shield.  Of 
the  nine  species  of  the  genus,  which  range  from  North  Africa  through  Arabia 
and  Persia  to  Sind,  the  most  familiar  is  the  common  skink  (Scincus  officinalis), 
of  the  Sahara  and  Red  Sea  littoral.  This  species,  which  attains  a  length  of 
3J  inches,  has  smooth,  shining,  rounded  scales  of  great  breadth,  and  is  of  a 
yellowish  or  brownish  colour  above,  with  each  scale  marked  by  small  brown 
and  whitish  spots  and  streaks,  and  the  sides  of  the  body  often  ornamented 
with  dark  transverse  bands ;v  the  under-parts  being  uniformly  whitish.  Not 
uncommon  in  Egypt,  and  abundant  in  the  Algerian  and  Tunisian  Sahara,  the 
common  skink  derives  its  specific  name  from  having  been  extensively  employed 


170 


LIZARDS. 


in  medicine  as  an  infallible  remedy  for  almost  every  disease  under  the  sun  ;  its 
reputation  as  a  healing  agent  still  surviving  among  the  Arabs,  by  whom  the  flesh 
of  the  creature  is  used  both  as  a  drug  and  as  an  article  of  food.  The  exclusive 
haunts  of  the  skink  are  sandy  districts,  where  it  generally  moves  in  a  slow  and 
deliberate  manner,  and  when  frightened  buries  itself  in  the  soil  instead  of 
attempting  to  seek  safety  in  flight.  Indeed,  the  celerity  with  which  the  reptile 
sinks  into  the  sand  is  described  as  being  little  short  of  marvellous,  suggesting  the 
idea  of  its  escaping  into  some  hole  already  existing  rather  than  of  excavating  a 
fresh  burrow  for  itself,  such  a  burrow  not  unfrequently  extending  to  the  depth  of 
several  feet.  During  the  daytime  the  skink,  if  quietly  approached,  may  be 
observed  quietly  reposing  in  the  sun  by  the  side  of  one  of  the  small  hillocks  or 
ridges  raised  in  the  sand  at  the  base  of  trees  by  the  wind ;  and  from  such  a  state 
of  idleness  it  is  only  roused  by  the  approach  of  a  beetle  or  a  fly,  upon  which  it 
darts  with  unerring  aim.  In  spite  of  its  strong  teetli  or  claws,  when  captured,  the 
skink  never  makes  any  attempts  to  defend  itself,  beyond  struggling  vigorously. 
Of  its  breeding-habits,  little  or  nothing  definite  appears  to  be  known.  According 
to  Canon  Tristram,  the  flesh  of  a  few  well-broiled  skinks  forms  a  dish  not  to  be 
despised  even  by  a  European  palate. 

Under    the    title    of    CJialkis,  the   ancient  Greeks   designated   a 

'  remarkable  snake-like  lizard  inhabiting  Italy,  Sardinia,  and  Sicily, 

as  well   as  Algeria  and   Tunis,  which  was  known   to   the  Romans  bv  the  name 

O  c 

of  Scps-.  the  latter  being  in  allusion  to  the  poisonous  properties  with  which 
this  perfectly  harmless  reptile  was  supposed  to  be  endowed.  The  "seps" 
(C/ialcidcs  tridactylus)  is  the  typical  representative  of  a  genus  of  some  twelve 
species  belonging  to  the  present  family,  which  exhibit  a  most  interesting  example 
of  the  gradual  degradation  of  limbs,  some  species  having  five  toes  to  each  foot, 
while  in  others,  as  the  figured  example,  the  number  of  digits  is  reduced  to  three ; 
and  in  one  kind  the  limbs  are  represented  merely  by  undivided  rudiments. 
The  bronze  lizards,  as  the  members  of  the  genus  may  be  collectively  termed, 
belon^  to  an  assemblage  of  irenera  differing  from  all  those  already  noticed  in 

<""">  ^  O  O  t/ 

that  the  nostrils  are  pierced  either  in  or  close  to  the  terminal  rostral  shield  of 
the  skull,  instead  of  being  more  or  less  widely  separated  therefrom.  In  the  case  of 
the  present  genus  the  nostrils  are  situated  in  notches  cut  in  the  hinder  border  of 
the  shield  in  question;  while  the  body  is  greatly  elongated,  and  the  limbs  are 
either  short  or  rudiniciital.  The  figured  kind  is  one  of  two  species  with  three- 
toed  limbs,  and  attains  a  length  of  1'H  inches,  of  which  about  half  is  occupied  by 
the  tail.  In  colour  it  is  olive  or  bronzy  above,  and  may  be  either  uniform,  or 
marked  with  an  even  number  of  darker  and  lighter  longitudinal  streaks.  In  the 
.south  of  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  it  is  replaced  by  the  smaller  striped  bronze 
lizard  (C.  luifufii..*),  in  which  tin;  body  is  marked  with  nine  or  eleven  longitudinal 
stripes.  The  range  of  the  whole  genus  embraces  Southern  Europe,  Northern.  Africa, 
and  South- Western  Asia,  from  Syria  and  Arabia  to  Sind. 

The  three-toed  bron/e  lizard  much  resembles  the  blind-worm  in  general 
appearance  and  habits,  frequenting  damp  places,  where  abundance  of  its  favourite 
worms,  snails,  slugs,  insects,  and  spiders  are  to  be  met  with.  Here  it  moves  with  a 
wriggling  serpentine  motion  similar  to  that  of  the  blind-worm,  which  it  likewise 


CHAMELEONS. 


171 


resembles  in  producing  living  young  and  in  retiring  into  a  burrow  for  its  winter 
sleep.  When  not  feeding,  the  creature,  like  most  of  its  kind,  delights  to  bask  on 
sandy  spots  in  the  full  glare  of  the  sun.  The  "  seps  "  was  believed  to  inflict  death 
on  cattle  by  biting  them  during  the  night,  its  bite  filling  their  veins  with  corrup- 
tion ;  and  in  consequence  of  this  belief  the  unfortunate  creature  is  still  persecuted 
with  the  same  hatred  as  is  the  blind-worm  in  some  parts  of  England. 


Other  Families. 


THREE-TOED   BRONZE  LIZARD  (liat.  size). 

The  two  remaining  families  (Anelytropidce  and  Dibamidce)  are 
represented  by  worm-like  burrowing  lizards  allied  to  the  skinks  (of 
which  they  may  be  regarded  as  degraded  types),  but  with  no  bony  plates  beneath 
the  scales,  no  external  ear-openings,  and  eyes  concealed  beneath  the  skin.  The 
former  family  is  represented  by  three  genera,  of  which  two  are  African,  and  the 
third  is  from  Mexico ;  while  of  the  latter  there  is  but  a  single  genus,  with  one 
species  from  Papua,  the  Moluccas  and  Celebes,  and  a  second  from  the  Nicobars. 


THE  CHAMELEONS. 
SUBORDER    Rhiptoglossa. 

With  the  skinks  and  their  allies  we  took  leave  of  the  last  of  the  reptiles  which, 
in  the  zoological  sense,  are  included  under  the  title  of  lizards,  and  we  now  come 
to  the  second  subordinal  group,  represented  by  those  strange  creatures  known 
as  chamaeleons.  From  the  lizards  proper  these  reptiles  are  at  once  distinguished 
by  their  worm-like  extensile  tongues,  which  are  club-shaped  and  viscous  at  the 
extremity,  and  are  capable  of  being  protruded  with  the  rapidity  of  lightning  to  a 
distance  of  from  four  to  six  inches  in  front  of  the  mouth.  Hence  the  name  of 
worm-tongued  lizards  has  been  suggested  for  the  group.  Internally,  the  chamaeleons 
differ  from  all  lizards  provided  with  well-developed  limbs  in  having  no  collar-bones 


172  CHAMELEONS. 

(clavicles);  while  there  are  likewise  certain  distinctive  features  in  connection  with 
the  skull,  into  the  consideration  of  which  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  enter  in  this 
work.  Another  important  feature  by  which  these  reptiles  differ  from  lizards  is 
the  structure  of  the  feet,  in  which  the  toes  are  divided  into  two  opposing  branches, 
thus  forming  grasping  organs  of  great  power.  In  the  fore-foot  the  inner  branch 
of  the  foot  includes  three,  and  the  outer  two  toes,  in  the  hind-foot  precisely  the 
reverse  arrangement  obtains;  and  from  this  peculiar  hand -like  structure  of  the 
foot, — which,  by  the  way,  recalls  the  feet  of  the  parrots  and  many  Picarian  birds, 
— the  chameleons  have  'been  spoken  of  as  four-handed  lizards.  Yet  another 
peculiarity  in  the  structure  of  these  reptiles  is  presented  by  the  eye,  which  is  in 
the  form  of  a  very  large  and  prominent  globe  covered  by  a  thick  granular  lid,  in 
the  centre  of  which  is  a  minute  perforation  for  the  pupil.  The  deliberate  way  in 
which  a  chameleon  rolls  round  one  of  these  extraordinary  eyes  until  it  has  focused 
it  on  the  fly  about  to  be  caught  by  the  tongue  is  familiar  to  most  of  our  readers. 

The  foregoing  are  the  essential  features  by  which  the  chameleons  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  lizards  proper ;  those  remaining  for  mention  not  being  such  as 
would  be  regarded  by  zoologists  as  of  subordinal  importance.  Among  these  may  be 
noticed  the  triangular  helmet-like  form  generally  assumed  by  the  hinder  part  of 
the  head,  which  often  has  three  longitudinal  ridges,  connected  together  posteriorly 
by  a  cross-ridge,  all  of  which  are  ornamented  with  tubercles.  The  teeth,  which  are 
small,  triangular,  and  compressed,  are  placed  on  the  summits  of  the  jaws  in  the 
acrodont  fashion,  none  being  present  on  the  palate.  The  body  is  much  compressed, 
and  the  neck  short ;  the  slender  limbs  are  so  much  elongated  as  to  raise  the  body 
high  above  the  ground  in  a  manner  different  from  ordinary  lizards ;  the  tail  is 
long  and  prehensile,  thus  acting  as  a  fifth  hand ;  and  in  place  of  scales,  the  head 
and  body  are  covered  with  tubercles  or  shagreen-like  granules.  The  larger  species 
attain  a  length  of  some  15  inches;  but  the  dwarf  chameleon  of  Madagascar 
(Brookesia  nanus)  is  less  than  2J  inches  in  length. 

The  chameleons  include  close  on  fifty  species,  all  of  which  are  comprised  in 
the  single  family  Chamceleontidce,  and  by  far  the  greater  majority  in  the  typical 
genus  Chamcdeon.  Indeed,  of  the  two  aberrant  genera,  Brookesia  is  represented 
by  three  species  from  Madagascar,  while  Rhampholeon  comprises  two  tropical 
African  kinds.  The  true  home  of  the  group  is  Africa  and  Madagascar,  together 
with  the  neighbouring  islands,  each  of  these  areas  comprising  nearly  half  of  the 
known  species.  The  common  chamseleon  (G.  vulgaris)  is,  however,  found  on  the 
African  and  Asiatic  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  entering  Europe  in  Andalusia ; 
while  a  second  species  inhabits  the  Isle  of  Socotra,  a  third  Southern  Arabia,  and  a 
fourth  India  and  Ceylon. 

Evidently  extremely  specialised  creatures,  chameleons  stand 
altogether  apart  from  the  lizards,  not  only  as  regards  their  anatomical 
structure,  but  likewise  in  their  power  of  moving  one  eye  independently  of  the  other, 
in  the  enormous  extensibility  and  protrusive  power  of  their  tongues,  and  in  their 
slow  and  deliberate  movements.  According,  however,  to  those  who  have  had  the 
opportunity  of  observing  them  in  their  native  haunts,  chameleons  do  not  move 
quite  so  slowly  as  in  confinement,  where  they  take  half  a  minute  in  determining 
which  limb  to  move,  or  on  which  bough  to  replace  it.  Passing  the  whole  of  their 


CHAM/ELEONS. 


CHAMELEONS. 


173 


lives  in  trees,  like  most  of  their  Malagasy  compatriots,  the  lemurs,  chamseleons  are 
chiefly  found  only  in  regions  where  foliage  is  abundant,  and  where  the  fall  of  rain 
or  dew  is  sufficient  to  supply  them  with  the  amount  of  moisture  they  need.  Conse- 
quently, they  are  most  numerously  represented  in  coast  districts  and  islands.  A 
few,  however,  frequent  such  parts  of  desert  regions  as  come  under  the  influence  of 
the  sea  moisture,  and  support  a  more  or  less  scanty  vegetation.  Needless  to  say, 
all  the  species  live  on  insects,  and  more  especially  flies  of  various  kinds,  which  are 
caught  by  the  viscid  secretion  of  the  tip  of  the  protrusile  tongue. 

Being  utterly  defenceless  creatures,  and  having  a  large  number  of  enemies, 
chamseleons  depend  entirely  upon  their  resemblance  to  their  environment  for 
protection ;  and  for  this  end  they  have  the  power  of  changing  colour,  although  not, 
apparently,  to  such  an  extent  as  is  the  case  with  some  lizards  of  the  genus  Calotes. 
At  night  they  appear  generally  to  be  of  a  whitish  yellow  hue,  but  with  the  first 
dawn  of  day  assume  the  dark  green  colour  characteristic  of  most  of  the  species, 
which  exactly  assimilates  to  the  surrounding  leaves,  and  continues  to  grow  brighter 
and  brighter  with  advancing  day.  When  resting  on  a  bough,  or  when  captured 
in  the  hand,  the  colour  changes,  however,  to  brown ;  this  change  in  the  latter  case 
taking  place  with  exceeding  rapidity,  and  the  skin  sometimes  becoming  nearly 
black,  with  the  disappearance  of  all  the  bright  marking.  This  change,  according 
to  Miss  C.  C.  Hopley,  is  due  to  anger ;  the  creature  at  the  same  time  emitting  a 
sound  something  between  a  hiss  and  the  chirp  or  squeak  of  a  very  young  bird,  and 
trying  to  bite  its  captor.  "  Meanwhile,  it  is  all  impatience  to  ascend,  no  matter 
where,  so  that  it  climbs  upwards.  Up,  up,  always  up ;  it  may  be  your  dress,  or 
whatever  is  near.  It  seems  to  think  it  can  be  safe  only  at  the  top  of  something. 
And  yet  they  are  not  found  invariably  on  the  upper  branches  of  their  bush,  though 
generally  rather  high.  Released  from  the  hand,  its  anger  soon  subsides,  so  does 
the  dark  hue,  and  the  creature  assumes  the  tint  of  the  surface  on  which  it  is  placed, 
greyish,  reddish,  darker  or  lighter,  green  or  yellow,  as  may  be."  Several  individuals 
are  not  unfrequently  met  with  on  the  same  bush,  where  they  cling  tightly  to  the 
stems  among  the  crowded  leaves,  being  alike  difficult  to  detect  and  to  detach,  and 
always  exhibiting  their  displeasure  at  being  disturbed  by  the  aforesaid  hissing 
sound.  Absolutely  still  they  remain,  continues  the  writer  just  quoted,  hour  after 
hour,  the  only  evidence  of  life  about  them  being  that  revolving  little  globe  of  an 
eye,  with  its  pupil  turning  as  an  axis,  now  up,  now  down,  forwards  or  backwards, 
while  its  owner  clings  motionless  as  death.  In  repose,  the  long  tongue  is  folded 
up  within  the  dilatable  skin  of  the  chin,  where  it  has  a  special  sheath  for  its 
reception ;  but  it  can  be  darted  out  with  such  speed  as  to  take  a  fly  at  a  distance 
of  fully  six  inches.  Although  the  majority  of  the  species  lay  eggs,  the  pigmy 
chamseleon  (C.  pumilus)  of  the  Cape,  together  with  five  nearly  allied  African 
species,  produce  living  young,  which  may  be  as  many  as  eleven  in  number.  In 
confinement  chamseleons  quickly  become  tame,  and,  if  allowed  to  rest  in  peace,  after 
a  few  days  cease  to  bite  and  hiss  when  handled,  and  soon  venture  to  take  a  fly 
from  their  owner's  hand. 


CHAPTEE   V. 

SCALED  KEPTILES, — Order  SQUAMATA — continued ;  THE  SNAKES, — 

Suborder  OPHIDIA. 

Distinctive  ORIGINALLY  regarded  as  representing  a  distinct  ordinal  group  of 
Characters  and  the  Reptilian  class,  the  snakes  are  now  generally  considered  to  form 
structure.  merely  a  suborder  of  the  great  assemblage  of  reptiles  which  includes 
both  lizards  and  chamseleons ;  and  from  their  close  structural  resemblance  to  the 
limbless  lizards  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  more  modern  view  is  the  true  one. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  draw  a  satisfactory  distinction  be- 
tween lizards  and  snakes ;  and  such  characters  as  naturalists  rely  on  for  their 
differentiation  are  mainly  such  as  are  due  to  adaptation  to  the  special  needs  of  the 
latter  group.  Agreeing  with  lizards  in  their  external  covering  of  scales,  snakes  are 
characterised  by  their  exceedingly  elongated  and  slender  bodily  conformation ;  the 
head,  which  is  generally  more  or  less  flattened,  being  often  not  defined  from  the 
body  by  a  distinctly  marked  neck,  while  external  limbs  are  wanting,  and  the  body 
passes  posteriorly  by  imperceptible  degrees  into  the  tail.  Occasionally,  however, 
external  vestiges  of  the  hind-limbs  may  persist,  in  the  form  of  a  pair  of  small  spur- 
like  processes  near  the  vent ;  and  internally  there  may  be  traces  not  only  of  the 
pelvis,  but  likewise  of-  the  thigh-bone,  or  femur.  None  of  these  characters  will, 
however,  serve  to  distinguish  snakes  from  the  limbless  lizards ;  and  it  is  there- 
fore necessary  to  point  out  how  the  two  groups  may  be  separated.  The  most 
characteristic  peculiarity  of  snakes,  as  distinct  from  lizards,  is  the  absence  of  a 
solid  union  between  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  are  connected 
at  the  chin  merely  by  an  elastic  ligament;  this  arrangement  permitting  of  the 
separation  of  the  two  halves  of  the  jaw,  and  thus  allowing  the  mouth  to  be  dilated 
so  as  to  be  capable  of  swallowing  prey  of  much  larger  dimensions  than  the  normal 
width  of  its  aperture.  In  addition  to  this  arrangement,  in  the  majority  of  snakes  the 
bones  of  the  upper  jaw  and  palate  are  likewise  movable,  thus  further  increasing 
the  capacity  of  the  gape.  From  the  great  majority  of  lizards  snakes  are,  of  course, 
widely  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  functional  limbs  ;  while  from  the  compara- 
tively few  limbless  representatives  of  the  same  suborder,  they  differ  in  having 
the  tongue  completely  retractile  within  a  basal  sheath,  as  well  as  by  the  presence 
of  additional  articulations  to  the  vertebrae,  which  are  described  below.  Moreover, 
none  of  the  limbless  lizards  have  the  large  shields  on  the  inferior  surface  charac- 
terising the  majority  of  snakes,  while  most  of  them  possess  eyelids  and  an 
external  aperture  to  the  ear. 

No  snake  has  movable  eyelids ;  that  portion  of  the  skin  representing  the  lids 
extending  as  a  convex  transparent  disc  across  the  eye,  and  covering  it  as  a  watch- 


DISTINCTIVE   CHARACTERS. 


175 


glass  covers  the  face  of  a  watch.  When  a  snake  changes  its  skin,  which  it  does 
several  times  during  the  year,  the  discs  over  the  eyes  peel  off  with  the  rest,  and 
appear  as  lenses  in  the  dry  slough.  Equally  characteristic  is  the  absence  of  any 
external  aperture  of  the  ear ;  a  peculiarity  which  has  given  rise  to  the  scriptural 
expression  of  the  deaf  adder  stopping  its  ears.  Resembling  that  of  lizards  in  its 
flattened  form,  the  tongue  of  snakes  is  narrow  and  smooth,  and  terminates  in  a 
fork  formed  by  two  long  thread-like  points,  while  at  its  base  it  is  inserted  into  a 
sheath  from  which  it  can  be  protruded  at  will.  The  head,  although  not  very  large, 
is  generally  wider  than  the  body,  from  which,  as  already  said,  it  is  but  seldom 
separated  by  a  recognisable  neck,  and  is  usually  oval  or  triangular  in  shape,  with 
a  more  or  less  well-marked  depression.  Near  the  sides  of  its  extremity,  and  some- 
times at  the  very  tip,  are  situated  the  nostrils ;  while  posteriorly  the  gape  in  some 
cases  extends  almost  to  the  back  of  the  head.  Superiorly,  as  well  as  on  its  under- 
surface,  the  head  is  generally  covered  with  a  number  of  large  symmetrical  shields, 


INFERIOR,   LATERAL,    AND   SUPERIOR  VIEWS   OF  THE   HEAD   OF  A  SNAKE. 

r,  rostral  shield  ;  ff,  anterior  and  posterior  frontal  do. ;  vs  interparietal  do. :  s,  supraocular  do. ;  o,  parietal  do. ; 
nn*,  nasal  do.;  I,  loreal  do.;  a,  preocular  do.;  p,  postocular  do.;  uu,  tipper  labial  do.;  tt\  temporal  do.;  m,  mental 
do.;  **,  lower  labial  do  ;  cc.  chin-shields. — After  Giinther. 

having  their  edges  in  apposition,  and  varying  in  relative  size  in  the  different 
groups.  Although  the  blind  snakes  have  a  uniform  cuirass  of  polished  scales  all 
round  the  body,  while  some  of  the  sea-snakes  also  have  the  scales  of  the  under- 
parts  similar  to  those  of  the  back,  in  the  great  majority  of  the  order  the  under 
surface  of  the  body  is  protected  by  large  transverse  shields,  extending  completely 
across  it  from  side  to  side.  These  broad  shields  often  extend  as  far  backwards  as 
the  termination  of  the  body  proper ;  while  at  the  commencement  of  the  tail,  and 
thence  backwards  to  the  extremity,  they  are  replaced  by  a  double  row.  These 
large  inferior  shields  take  an  important  part  in  the  progression  of  snakes  on  land, 
and  hence  we  see  why  they  are  wanting  in  the  marine  forms. 

In  all  snakes  the  number  of  joints  in  the  backbone  is  very  large ;  and  each 
of  these,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  near  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  is  provided 
with  a  pair  of  rather  long,  slender,  and  curved  ribs,  the  extremities  of  which 
correspond  to  the  large  inferior  shields  of  the  body  in  the  species  where  these 
are  present.  Superiorly  the  ribs,  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  104,  articulate  by  a 


176  SNAKES. 

single  head  with  a  facet  on  the  side  of  each  vertebra,  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
lizards.  Only  certain  groups  of  lizards  have  the  vertebrae  with  the  additional 
articular  facets  on  the  front  and  back  surfaces  known  as  zygantra  and  zygo- 
sphenes,  but  in  snakes  (as  shown  in  the  figure  below)  these  are  invariably 
present ;  and  it  is  owing  to  this  complicated  system  of  articulation  that  a  snake 
is  able  to  make  the  wonderful  foldings  and  contortions  characteristic  of  its  kind 
without  fear  of  dislocating  its  spine.  It  may  be  added  that  no  snake  has  any 
trace  of  a  breast-bone,  nor  any  vestige  of  a  pectoral  arch,  there  being  no  rudiments 
of  either  blade-bone,  coracoid,  or  collar-bone.  When  progressing  on  a  firm  surface, 
an  ordinary  snake,  in  common  with  the  limbless  lizards,  walks  entirely  by  the  aid 
of  its  ribs,  which  are  but  very  loosely  articulated  to  the  vertebrae,  and  thus  readily 
admit  of  a  large  amount  of  motion.  In  describing  their  mode  of  progression,  Dr. 
Giinther  remarks  that  "  although  the  motions  of  snakes  are  in  general  very  quick, 
'and  may  be  adapted  to  every  variation  of  ground  over  which  they  move,  yet  all 


SKELETON  OF  SNAKE. 


the  varieties  of  their  locomotion  are  founded  on  the  following  simple  process. 
When  a  part  of  their  body  has  found  some  projection  of  the  ground  which  affords 
it  a  point  of  support,  the  ribs,  alternately  of  one  and  the  other  side,  are  drawn 
more  closely  together,  thereby  producing  alternate  bends  of  the  body  on  the 
corresponding  side.  The  hinder  portion  of  the  body  being  drawn  after,  some  part 
of  it  finds  another  support  on  the  rough  ground  or  a  projection,  and  the  anterior 
bends  being  stretched  in  a  straight  line  the  front  part  of  the  body  is  propelled  in 
consequence.  During  this  peculiar  kind  of  locomotion,  the  numerous  broad  shields 
of  the  belly  are  of  great  advantage,  as,  by  means  of  the  free  edges  of  those  shields, 
they  are  enabled  to  catch  the  smallest  projections  on  the  ground,  which  may  be 
used  as  points  of  support.  Snakes  are  not  able  to  move  over  a  perfectly  smooth 
surface."  It  may  be  added  that  a  snake  is  only  able  to  move  by  lateral  undulations 
of  its  body  in  a  horizontal  plane ;  and  that  the  pictures  often  seen  in  which  these 
reptiles  are  depicted  as  advancing  with  the  folds  of  the  body  placed  in  a  vertical 
plane  are  altogether  erroneous.  In  conformity  with  their  elongated  bodies,  the 


GENERAL   CHARACTERS.  177 

internal  organs  of  snakes  are  long  and  narrow ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that,  as  a 
rule,  only  one  of  the  lungs  is  developed. 

Resembling;   the   other   members   of   the   order  to  which   they 
Teeth.  * 

belong  in  that  their  teeth  are  never  implanted  in  distinct  sockets  or 

grooves,  snakes  exhibit  some  considerable  degree  of  variation  with  regard  to  the 
number  and  structure  of  their  teeth.  In  the  ordinary  harmless  forms  there  are 
generally  two  rows  of  short,  slender,  and  sharply-pointed  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw, 
the  innermost  of  which  are  attached  to  the  bones  of  the  palate,  while  the  lower 
jaw  carries  only  a  single  row  of  such  weapons.  One  or  two  of  the  outer  row  of 
upper  teeth,  either  at  the  front  or  back  of  the  series,  may,  however,  be  enlarged 
beyond  the  rest,  and  grooved  or  tubular ;  and  it  is  probable  that  all  snakes  with 
such  a  dental  armature  are  more  or  less  venomous.  Some  most  deadly  poisonous 
serpents  have,  on  the  other  hand,  a  type  of  dentition  of  their  own ;  and  there  is 
no  doubt  that  all  snakes  with  teeth  of  this  nature  are  extremely  venomous.  In 
such  snakes  the  forepart  of  the  very  short  maxillary  bone  of  each  side  of  the 
upper  jaw  is  armed  with  an  elongated  tubular  tooth,  which  ordinarily  lies  nearly 
flat  on  the  surface  of  the  palate,  but  can  be  erected,  by  a  peculiar  mechanism  of 
the  bones,  when  the  jaws  are  opened.  Although  in  this  group  the  poison-fangs 
are  always  tubular,  in  some  of  the  other  venomous  serpents  they  are  merely  grooved 
for  the  conveyance  of  the  venom  from  the  secreting  gland ;  but  there  is  a  transition 
between  the  two  types,  as  the  closed  tube  is  formed  merely  by  the  edges  of  the  groove 
being  elevated  until  they  unite  in  the  middle  line.  In  poisonous  snakes,  on  each 
side  of  the  upper  jaw,  below  and  behind  the  eye,  is  situated  the  poison -gland — 
merely  an  ultra-development  of  an  ordinary  salivary  gland ;  these  glands  in  some 
cases  being  so  developed  as  to  extend  far  back  along  the  sides  of  the  body.  The 
gland  is  overlain  by  a  layer  of  muscles,  for  the  purpose  of  forcing  the  secretion 
into  the  tooth  (the  base  of  which  is  always  open)  when  required;  this  action 
always  taking  place  when  the  snake  opens  its  mouth  to  bite.  The  poison  then 
flows  along  the  channel  or  tube  of  the  tooth,  and  is  discharged  at  its  extremity  into 
the  wound.  Considerable  force  is  used  in  the  emission  of  the  poison,  as,  when  a 
snake  is  irritated,  the  fluid  may  be  seen  to  spirt  for  some  distance  from  its  point  of 
discharge.  In  some  of  the  less  specialised  poisonous  snakes,  the  venom-tooth, 
which  has  an  open  channel,  is  not  greatly  longer  than  the  others,  and  is  placed 
nearty  vertically  when  the  mouth  is  closed.  Although  the  poison-teeth  are 
commonly  regarded  as  purely  defensive  weapons,  their  chief  use  is  for  the  de- 
struction of  the  prey  of  their  owners,  which  is  always  killed  before  being  swallowed. 
The  venom-tooth  of  the  more  specialised  poisonous  snakes  is  exceedingly  likely  to 
be  broken  off  during  use ;  but  to  take  its  place  there  are  always  several  others 
lying  on  the  gum  behind  it  in  different  stages  of  development. 

Harmless  and  Poi-         Before  the  doctrine  of  parallelism  in  development  received  from 

sonous  Snakes,  naturalists  the  attention  it  undoubtedly  merits,  snakes  were  generally 

divided  into  harmless  and  poisonous  groups ;  but  since  we  have   become  better 

acquainted  with  that  important  factor  in  evolution,  it  has  been  recognised  that 

such  a  distinction  is  a  purely  artificial  one,  and  has  nothing  to  do  with  real  affinity. 

Certain  groups  of  snakes,  such  as  the  members  of  the  viper  family,  may,  however, 

be  wholly  poisonous ;   while  in  other  groups,  such  as  the  typical  snakes,  some 

VOL.  v. — 12 


i78  & 

species  may  be  venomous  and  others  innocuous.  Many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  draw  up  a  list  of  characters  by  means  of  which  the  harmless  members  of  the 
suborder  can  be  distinguished  at  a  glance  from  those  which  are  hurtful.  On  this 
point  Mr.  Boulenger  writes  "  that  there  is  no  sure  method  of  distinguishing  the 
two  kinds  of  external  characters ;  except,  of  course,  by  a  knowledge  of  the  various 
forms.  And  even  then,  a  cursory  examination  is  not  always  sufficient,  since  there 
is,  in  some  cases,  a  striking  resemblance  between  snakes  of  totally  different  affinities, 
by  which  even  specialists  may  at  first  be  deceived.  In  short,  nothing  but  an 
examination  of  the  dentition  can  afford  positive  information  as  to  the  poisonous 
or  non-poisonous  nature  of  an  unknown  snake." 

Geologically  speaking;,  snakes  are  a  comparatively  modern  PTOUD, 
Distribution. 

being  scarcely  known  below  the  lowest  portion  of  the  Eocene  division 

of  the  Tertiary  period,  although  one  or  two  forms  have  been  described  from  the 
underlying  Cretaceous  rocks,  and  one  has  recently  been  recorded  from  the  Gault  of 
Portugal — a  formation  underlying  the  Chalk.  It  is  noteworthy  that  one  of  the 
Xorth  American  lower  Eocene  snakes  has  the  additional  articular  facets  of  the 
vertebra  but  very  imperfectly  developed ;  and  there  can  be  little  or  no  doubt  but 
that  the  whole  group  is  an  offshoot  from  the  lizards.  From  the  commencement  of 
the  Tertiary  period,  the  group  seems  to  have  gone  on  steadily  increasing  in 
numbers:  and  it  is  now  represented  by  some  fifteen  hundred  species,  ranging  all 
over  the  world  except  New  Zealand.  Snakes  are,  however,  much  more  abundant 
in  the  moist  tropical  regions  of  the  globe  than  in  colder  regions,  and  it  is  there  only 
that  they  attain  their  maximum  development  in  point  of  size.  India  and  the 
Malayan  countries,  where  there  are  representatives  of  the  whole  of  the  nine  families 
into  which  the  suborder  is  divided,  are  the  home  of  a  greater  number  of  both 
genera  and  species  of  snakes  than  any  other  part  of  the  world,  Tree-snakes  are 
very  common  in  this  region ;  while  the  gigantic  pythons  are  shared  by  it  in 
common  with  Africa.  The  proportion  of  poisonous  to  innocuous  species  is  likewise 
very  high  in  the  Oriental  region,  and  has  been  estimated  at  about  one  in  ten. 
Africa  lias  scarcely  half  the  number  of  snakes  found  in  the  Oriental  region ;  and 
it  is  noteworthy  that  the  forms  inhabiting  Madagascar  have  but  little  in  common 
with  those  of  the  mainland ;  the  so-called  lycodonts,  which  are  so  common  in 
Africa,  being  unknown  in  Madagascar,  while  some  of  the  forms  from  that  island 
are  closely  allied  to  South  American  types.  Whereas  pit-vipers  are  absent,  an 
especial  feature  of  Africa  is  the  number  of  typical  vipers  which  inhabit  that 
country:  and  Australia,  which  differs  so  remarkably  from  India  in  its  tortoises, 
possesses  snakes  (and  likewise  lizards)  closely  allied  to  African  forms.  Next 
to  the  Oriental  region,  tropical  America  is  richest  in  ophidians,  although 
the  number  of  generic  types  is  not  so  great.  The  proportion  of  poisonous  species 
is,  however,  high,  and  lias  been  estimated  at  as  much  as  one  in  eight.  In  Southern 
Argentina  and  Patagonia  snakes  become  scarce.  Unlike  its  chelonians,  the  snakes 
of  North  America  present  a  resemblance  to  those  of  Central  America.  Indeed, 
a  feature  of  the  whole  of  America  is  the  absence;  of  typical  vipers,  and  the 
abundance  oi'  pit-vipers,  although  several  genera  of  the  latter  are  common  to  Asia. 
Europe  and  Northern  Asia  are  comparatively  poor  in  snakes,  but  (next  to  Africa) 
are  characterised  by  the  number  of  typical  vipers  and  colubrine  water-snakes. 


HABITS. 


179 


Although  a  few  members  of  the  suborder  subsist  on  eggs,  snakes 
Habits.  ,.    .  .       ,         ,  .  ,  P&  ' 

as  a  rule  capture  and  devour  living  animals,  which  are  in  all  cases 

swallowed  whole,  as  these  reptiles  have  no  apparatus  for  rending  or  masticating 
their  food.  And  it  is  in  order  that  they  may  be  able  to  swallow  larger  animals 
than  would  otherwise  be  possible,  that  they  have  the  power  of  dilating  their  jaws 
in  the  manner  already  indicated.  Not  only  can  the  jaws  be  thus  enlarged,  but  the 
throat  and  stomach  are  capable  of  dilatation,  owing  to  the  circumstance  that 
the  lower  ends  of  the  ribs,  from  the  absence  of  a  breast-bone,  are  quite  free ;  and 
in  swallowing,  a  snake  seems  gradually  to  draw  itself  over  the  object  to  be  devoured. 
The  majority  of  snakes  devour  their  prey  alive,  and  a  frog  may  be  seen  struggling 
in  the  stomach  of  a  common  English  water-snake  long  after  it  has  been  swallowed. 
Other  snakes,  however,  kill  their  prey  either  by  striking  it  with  their  poison-teeth, 
after  the  manner  of  the  vipers,  or  by  encircling  and  smothering  it  in  the  folds  of  the 
body,  like  the  boas.  Although  the  process  of  digestion  is  very  rapid,  snakes  feed 
but  seldom ;  and  it  has  been  asserted  that  two  or  three  frogs  are  sufficient  to  supply 
the  needs  of  the  English  water-snake  for  a  whole  year.  All  snakes  drink  much, 
water  being  absolutely  essential  to  their  existence. 

As  might  have  been  expected  from  their  numbers,  snakes  exhibit  great 
diversity  in  their  modes  of  life ;  and  while  those  of  the  tropical  regions  remain 
active  throughout  the  year  (unless  they  lie  by  during  periods  of  drought)  the 
species  inhabiting  colder  regions  hibernate  during  the  winter.  The  most  remark- 
able diversity  from  the  ordinary  mode  of  ophidian  life  is  displayed  by  the  blind- 
snakes,  which  lead  a  completely  subterranean  existence,  very  seldom  making  their 
appearance  above  the  surface.  The  great  majority  of  serpents  are  terrestrial  in 
their  habits,  seldom  entering  the  water  or  climbing  trees;  and  these  ground- 
snakes,  as  they  may  be  called,  are  characterised  by  their  cylindrical  form  and  the 
width  of  the  shields  on  the  inferior  surface  of  the  body.  Tree-snakes,  on 
the  other  hand,  which  are  mostly  remarkable  for  their  brilliant  coloration,  lead 
an  almost  completely  arboreal  life.  Frequently  they  have  the  body  very  slender, 
or  the  shields  on  its  under  surface  may  be  keeled  in  order  to  afford  a  firmer  hold 
in  climbing ;  while  in  other  instances  the  tail  is  prehensile.  It  is  among  this 
group  that  the  egg-eating  species  are  found.  Then,  again,  we  have  freshwater- 
snakes,  which  swim  and  dive  with  facility  in  the  waters  of  rivers  and  lakes,  where 
they  spend  a  large  portion  of  their  time,  feeding  on  such  aquatic  creatures  as  they 
can  capture  therein.  As  a  rule,  these  snakes  are  distinguished  by  having  the 
nostrils  placed  at  the  top  of  the  muzzle,  and  likewise  by  the  tapering  form  of  the 
tail.  Lastly  we  have  the  sea-snakes,  which,  while  having  the  nostrils  situated  as 
in  the  last  group,  are  distinguished  by  the  lateral  compression  of  their  tails.  In 
all  cases  extremely  poisonous,  these  snakes  are  almost  entirely  pelagic  in  their 
mode  of  life,  and  seldom  approach  the  land,  although  in  one  genus  the  shields 
on  the  under  surface  of  the  body  are  sufficiently  developed  to  admit  of  terrestrial 
progression. 

By  far  the  greater  majority  of  the  members  of  the  suborder  lay  eggs,  of  an 
oblong  form  and  enclosed  in  soft  leathery  shells,  which  are  hatched  by  the  natural 
heat  of  the  places  where  they  are  deposited.  The  pythons,  however,  incubate 
their  eggs,  and  at  such  periods  develop  a  temperature  a  few  degrees  above  that 


i8o  SNAKES. 

of  the  surrounding  air.    On  the  other  hand,  both  in  the  freshwater-  and  sea-snakes 
the  eggs  are  retained  within  the  body  of  the  mother  until  they  are  hatched. 

THE  BLIND-SNAKES. 
Families  TYPHLOPIDJE  and 


The  blind  -snakes,  which  are  now  arranged  under  two  families,  are  small, 
worm-like  creatures,  with  cylindrical  bodies  and  short  heads  and  tails,  entirely 
adapted  for  a  subterranean  burrowing  life.  Lacking  the  large  inferior  transverse 
shields,  characterising  ordinary  snakes,  the  blind-snakes  have  the  body  and  tail 
covered  on  all  sides  with  round  overlapping  scales  of  equal  size  on  both  the  upper 
and  lower  surfaces  ;  while  there  are  large  shields  on  the  forepart  of  the  head,  one 
of  which  on  each  side  covers  the  rudimentary  eye.  The  cleft  of  the  mouth,  which 
is  very  small,  is  placed  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  head,  and  the  jaws  admit  of 
scarcely  any  dilatation.  An  important  point  of  difference  from  all  the  other 
members  of  the  suborder  is  that  teeth  are  absent  in  either  the  upper  or  lower  jaws, 
while  in  all  cases  larger  or  smaller  vestiges  of  the  pelvis  remain.  The  most 
important  distinction  is,  however,  to  be  found  in  the  palate  of  the  dried  skull, 
which  differs  from  that  of  all  other  snakes  in  lacking  the  so-called  transverse  or 
transpalatine  bone,  which  connects  the  pterygoid  or  hindmost  bone  of  the  palate 
with  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  jawbone  or  maxilla.  In  the  first,  or  typical 
family  of  the  blind-  snakes,  the  upper  jaw,  which  is  but  loosely  .  attached  to  the 
rest  of  the  skull,  is  furnished  with  teeth,  while  the  lower  jaw  is  toothless; 
the  pelvis  being  represented  merely  by  a  single  bone  on  each  side.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  second  family  (Glauconiidce)  while  the  lower  jaw  is  devoid  of  teeth, 
there  are  a  few  teeth  in  the  upper  one,  the  pelvis  being  represented  by  a  pair  of 
bones  on  each  side,  of  which  the  two  anterior  ones  meet  in  the  middle  line.  As 
regards  their  origin,  it  seems  probable  that  the  blind-snakes  have  little  or  no  near 
relationship  with  the  other  members  of  the  suborder  to  which  they  belong. 

The  typical  blind-snakes,  or  those  belonging  to  the  first  of  the  two  families, 
are  inhabitants  of  all  the  warmer  regions  of  the  globe,  and  are  represented  by 
nearly  a  hundred  species  arranged  under  three  genera.  By  far  the  greater  number 
of  these  species  belong  to  the  genus  Typhlops,  which  has  a  distribution  coextensive 
with  that  of  the  family  ;  the  other  two  genera,  namely,  Helminthophis  with  five 
species,  and  Typlilopliis  with  one,  being  confined  to  Central  and  South  America. 
The  second  family  contains  only  the  single  genus,  Glauconia,  of  which  there  are 
nearly  thirty  species,  found  in  America,  Africa,  and  South-  Western  Asia.  Very  little 
has  been  recorded  in  regard  to  the  habits  of  these  curious  snakes,  although  it  is 
ascertained  that  they  lay  eggs,  which  are  few  in  number,  large  in  size,  and  elongate 
in  form.  Although  they  generally  remain  in  their  subterranean  burrows,  in 
showery  weather  these  snakes  not  unfrequently  come  to  the  surface  for  a  short 
time.  The  remains  taken  from  their  stomachs  show  that  they  feed  largely  upon 
millipedes  and  ants,  and  they  probably  also  consume  the  larvae  of  many  insects. 
Captive  specimens  have  been  observed  to  drink  freely.  The  European  blind-snake 
(Typhlops  vermicularis)  is  an  inhabitant  of  Greece  and  several  of  the  adjacent 
islands,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Arabia  Petrsea,  and  the  Caucasus  as  far  as  Transcaspia. 


PYTHONS  AND  BOAS. 


181 


THE  PYTHONS  AND  BOAS. 
Family  BoiD^. 

Including  the  largest  of  living  snakes,  this  family  is  now  regarded  as  being 
the  most  generalised  of  the  entire  suborder  (exclusive  of  the  blind  -  snakes),  all 
the  others  presenting  such  characters  as  would  admit  of  their  having  taken 
origin  from  ancestral  types  belonging  to  the  one  under  consideration.  In 
common  with  the  remaining  families,  the  boas  and  pythons  differ  essentially 


INDIAN  PYTHON  CRUSHING  ITS  PREY  (TV  nat.  size). 

from  the  blind-snakes  in  that  both  jaws  are  fully  toothed,  and  likewise  in  the 
presence  of  a  transverse  bone  to  the  palate.  The  characters  specially  dis- 
tinguishing the  present  from  the  other  families  of  the  suborder  are,  un- 
fortunately, largely  derived  from  the  structure  of  the  skull,  and  therefore 
require  some  degree  of  anatomical  knowledge  for  their  proper  appreciation,  while 
they  cannot  be  described  without  the  use  of  a  considerable  number  of  technical 
terms.  It  may  be  mentioned,  however,  that  the  lower  jaw  has  on  the  inner  sido 
of  each  branch  a  thin  bone  known  as  the  coronoid;  while  on  the  top  of  the  skull 
the  prefrontal  bones,  which  lie  on  the  outer  side  of  the  forepart  of  the  f rontals,. 
articulate  with  the  nasal  bones,  or  those  roofing  the  front  of  the  cavity  of  the  nose. 
In  the  hinder  part  of  each  side  of  the  skull  lies  a  large  bone,  termed  the  supra- 


1 82  & 

temporal,  from  which  is  suspended  the  quadrate-bone  for  the  articulation  of  the 
lower  jaw:  while  a  further  important  characteristic  is  to  be  found  in  the  presence 
of  vestiges  of  the  pelvis  and  hind-limbs,  the  latter  usually  taking  the  form  of  a 
claw-like  spur  situated  on  either  side  of  the  vent.  The  family,  which  contains 
a  verv  large  number  of  genera  and  species,  has  an  extensive  geographical  dis- 
tribution, being  represented  in  South-Eastern  Europe,  Central  and  Southern  Asia, 
Africa,  Australia,  the  West  Indies,  Western  North  America,  and  Central  and  South 
America  :  it  is  thus  essentially  characteristic  of  the  warmer  regions  of  the  globe. 
Pythons  belonging  to  extinct  genera  lived  on  the  Continent  and  in  England 
during  the  earlier  part  of  the  Tertiary  period. 

The  large  snakes  to  which  the  term  python  properly  belongs  are 
the  typical  representatives  of  the  first  of  the  two  subfamilies  into 
which  the  Boi<l<v  are  divided;  the  essential  feature  of  this  subfamily  (Pythonince) 
being  the  presence  on  the  upper  aspect  of  the  skull  of  a  supraorbital  bone  lying  on 
each  side  of  the  frontal  bones,  and  forming  the  upper  border  of  the  socket  of  the 
eye.  Agreeing  with  three  other  less  important  genera  in  the  presence  of  teeth  in 
the  premaxilhe  or  anterior  upper  jawbones,  and  also  in  generally  having  two  rows 
of  shields  on  the  under  surface  of  the  tail,  the  pythons  are  specially  characterised  by 
the  distinctly  prehensile  tail,  and  likewise  by  the  presence  of  deep  pits  in  the  rostral 
and  anterior  upper  labial  shields  of  the  head.  As  minor  characteristics,  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  the  teeth,  none  of  which  are  grooved,  gradually  decrease  in  size 
from  the  front  to  the  back  of  the  jaws;  while  the  eye  is  of  moderate  size,  with  a 
vertical  pupil.  The  head  is  distinct  from  the  neck,  and  has  the  extremity  of  the 
snout  covered  with  large  shields,  while  its  hinder  portion  may  be  overlain  either 
with  symmetrical  shields,  or  with  small  scales ;  and  each  nostril  is  placed  in  a 
half-divided  nasal  shield,  separated  from  its  fellow  on  the  opposite  side  by  a  pair 
of  internasal  shields.  The  body  in  these  snakes  is  more  or  less  compressed,  while 
the  scales  on  the  upper  surface  and  sides  are  small  and  smooth ;  and  the  prehensile 
tail  is  of  moderate  length,  or  short,  with  the  whole  or  greater  part  of  the  inferior 
shields  arranged  in  two  rows. 

Distribution  and  Pythons,   or,   as  they  are   frequently   termed,   rock-snakes,  are 

Habits.  represented  by  nine  species,  and  range  over  tropical  and  South 
Africa,  South-Eastern  Asia,  and  Australasia.  With  the  exception  of  the  American 
anaconda,  some  of  the  pythons  are  the  largest  of  all  snakes,  and  although  there 
has  been,  much  exaggeration  in  this  respect,  it  is  now  ascertained  that  the 
Indian  python  (Python  moluriw),  represented  in  the  figure  on  p.  181,  occasionally 
attains  a  length  of  30  feet,  while  the  West  African  python  (P.  srbrv)  is  stated  to 
reach  23  feet.  It  is,  however,  but  seldom  that  pythons  of  more  than  from  15  to  20 
feet  in  length  are  met  with,  and  these  are  sufficiently  formidable  creatures,  since 
they  have  a  circumference  as  large,  as  a  man's  thigh,  and  easily  kill  such  animals 
as  small  deer,  full-grown  sheep,  and  dogs  of  considerable  size;.  They  are,  however, 
unable,  according  to  Dr.  Giinther,  to  devour  animals  of  larger  dimensions  than  a 
half-'Town  sheep.  A  python  destroys  its  victim  in  much  the  same  manner  as  do 

<T>  L  %/  t/ 

many  of  the  smaller  snakes,  gradually  smothering  it  by  throwing  over  it  coil  after 
coil  of  its  body.  In  swallowing,  writes  Dr.  Giinther,  pythons  "always  commence 
with  the  head  [as  shown  in  the  figure  of  the  African  species],  and  as  they  live 


PYTHONS  AND  BOAS.  183 

entirely  on  mammals  and  birds,  the  hairs  and  feathers  offer  a  considerable  impedi- 
ment to  the  passage  down  the  throat.  The  process  of  deglutition  is,  therefore,  slow, 
but  it  would  be  much  slower  except  for  the  great  quantity  of  saliva  discharged 
over  the  body  of  the  victim.  During  the  time  of  digestion,  especially  when  the 
prey  has  been  a  somewhat  large  animal,  the  snake  becomes  very  lazy ;  it  moves 
itself  slowly  when  disturbed,  or  defends  itself  with  little  vigour  when  attacked. 


AFRICAN  PYTHON   SWALLOWING  A  BIRD  (|  nat.  size). 

At  any  other  time  the  rock-snakes  will  fiercely  defend  themselves  when  they 
perceive  that  no  retreat  is  left  to  them.  Although  individuals  kept  in  captivity 
become  tamer,  the  apparent  tameness  of  specimens  brought  to  Europe  is  much 
more  a  state  of  torpidity  caused  by  the  climate  than  an  actual  alteration  of  their 
naturally  fierce  temper."  In  their  general  habits  snakes  of  this  genus  are 
nocturnal,  and  they  generally  live  on  or  among  trees  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
water,  frequently  swimming  in  the  water.  The  reticulated  python  (P.  reticulatus) 
of  Burma  and  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  which  attains  a  length  of  some  16  feet, 


1 84  SNAKES. 

not  unfrequently  takes  up  its  abode  in  buildings,  whence  it  issues  forth  at  night 
to  capture  such  prey  as  it  can  find. 

It  had  long  been  reported  by  travellers  in  India  that  pythons  incubated  their 
eggs,  and  although  such  reports  were  received  with  incredulity,  their  truth  was 
established  in  1841,  when  an  African  python  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  Paris,  laid 
fifteen  eggs  on  the  6th  of  May,  which  she  subsequently  proceeded  to  incubate. 
When  first  laid,  the  eggs,  which  were  completely  separate,  were  soft,  oval,  and 
ashy  grey,  but  they  soon  assumed  a  rounder  form,  and  a  clear  white  tint,  at  the 
same  time  hardening.  The  parent  collected  them  into  a  cone-shaped  pile,  around 
which  she  rolled  herself  in  such  a  manner  as  to  conceal  the  whole  number,  with 
her  head  forming  the  summit  of  the  cone.  For  upwards  of  six-and-fifty  days  this 
position  was  maintained  without  movement,  except  when  persons  attempted  to 
touch  the  eggs.  On  July  the  2nd,  the  shell  of  one  of  the  eggs  split,  revealing  a 
fully-formed  python  within ;  and  on  the  next  day  the  little  creature  came  forth  into 
the  world.  During  the  four  succeeding  days,  eight  more  snakes  made  their  appear- 
ance, but  the  rest  of  the  eggs  were  spoilt*  In  from  ten  days  to  a  fortnight  the 
young  pythons  changed  their  skins,  after  which  they  caught  and  devoured  some 
live  sparrows,  seizing  and  smothering  them  in  the  manner  in  which  full-grown 
individuals  destroy  prey  of  larger  size. 

species  of  According  to  Mr.  Boulenger,  the  number  of  species  of  python  is 

Python.  nine,  which  may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  according  as  to  whether 
the  number  of  pairs  of  shields  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  tail  exceeds  or  falls  short 
of  fifty.  The  former  group  may  be  further  subdivided  into  two  sections,  according 
as  to  whether  the  number  of  scales  in  a  row  round  the  thickest  part  of  the  body 
varies  from  thirty-nine  to  sixty,  or  from  sixty-one  to  ninety-three.  The  first 
representative  of  the  former  of  these  subgroups  is  the  Australian  diamond-snake 
(P.  spilotis),  represented  in  the  illustration  on  p.  185,  which  is  characterised  by  the 
crown  of  the  head  being  covered  with  scales  or  small  irregular  shields,  and  the 
presence  of  pits  on  two  or  three  of  the  upper  labial  shields  of  the  snout.  This 
snake,  which  was  formerly  referred  to  a  genus  apart  (Morelia),  is  an  inhabitant  of 
New  Guinea  and  Australia,  and  is  of  comparatively  small  size,  attaining  a  total 
length  of  only  about  6J  feet ;  its  coloration  being  extremely  variable.  The  variety 
in  which  the  skin  is  most  spotted  was  long  regarded  as  a  distinct  species,  under 
the  name  of  the  carpet-snake.  The  other  two  members  of  this  group  are  the 
amethystine  python  (P.  amethystinus)  and  the  Timor  python  (P.  timorensis),  both 
distinguished  by  the  presence  of  large  symmetrical  shields  on  the  crown  of  the 
head,  and  by  four  upper  labial  shields  being  pitted.  The  former,  which  grows  to 
a  length  of  about  11  feet,  ranges  from  the  Moluccas  and  Timor  to  New  Guinea, 
New  Ireland,  New  Britain,  and  the  North  of  Queensland;  while  the  latter  is 
restricted  to  the  islands  of  Timor  and  Flores.  The  second  subgroup,  or  the  one 
with  from  sixty-one  to  ninety-three  scales  round  the  body,  includes  three  species, 
of  which  the  Malayan  reticulated  python  (P.  reticulatus)  has  from  sixty-nine  to 
seventy-nine  scales  in  a  row,  and  four  upper  labials  with  pits.  This  species,  which 
ranges  from  Burma  and  the  Nicobar  Islands  to  the  Malayan  region  and  Siam,  is 
one  of  the  largest  of  the  genus,  occasionally  reaching  upwards  of  30  feet  in  length. 
In  colour,  it  is  light  yellowish  or  brown  above,  ornamented  with  large  circular 


PYTHONS  AND  BOAS. 


185 


rhomboidal,  or  X-shaped  dark  markings ;  while  the  head  has  a  median  black  line, 
and  the  under-parts  are  yellowish,  with  small  brown  spots  on  the  sides.  It  is, 
however,  subject  to  considerable  variation,  a  specimen  from  Siam  in  the  London 
Zoological  Gardens  showing  bright  yellow  lines  on  the  sides.  Young  specimens 
show  three  longitudinal  rows  of  light  spots  with  black  edges  along  the  back, 
Somewhat  smaller  is  the  African  python  (P.  seboe),  of  tropical  and  South  Africa, 
which  attains  a  length  of  about  23  feet,  and  has  from  eighty-one  to  ninety-three 
scales  in  a  row  on  the  thickest  part  of  the  body,  and  only  two  of  the  labial  shields 


AUSTRALIAN  DIAMOND-SNAKE  (|  nat.  size). 

pitted.  This  species  occurs  typically  in  West  Africa,  from  which  region  came  the 
specimen  represented  in  the  illustration  on  p.  183  in  the  act  of  swallowing  a  bird ; 
and  it  was  long  considered  that  the  South  African  python  or  Natal  rock-snake  was 
a  distinct  species.  Its  colour  is  pale  brown  above,  with  dark  brown,  black-edged, 
and  more  or  less  wavy  crossbars,  usually  connected  by  an  interrupted  or  continuous 
dark  stripe  running  along  each  side  of  the  back ;  while  the  sides  are  marked  with 
large  black  spots  and  small  dots.  On  the  top  of  the  head  is  a  large  triangular  dark 
brown  blotch,  which  is  bordered  on  each  side  by  a  light  stripe  commencing  above  the 
nostril  at  the  end  of  the  muzzle,  and  passing  above  the  eye ;  and  there  is  a  dark 
stripe  on  each  side  of  the  head,  and  a  somewhat  triangular  blotch  beneath  each  eye. 


1 86  SNAKES. 

The  upper  surface  of  the  tail  has  a  longitudinal  light  stripe  bordered  on  each  side 
by  a  dark  one ;  and  the  under-parts  are  spotted  and  dotted  with  dark  brown.  In 
India,  Ceylon,  the  south  of  China,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  Java,  the  last-named 
species  is  replaced  by  the  Indian  python  (P.  molurus),  represented  in  the  illustra- 
tion on  p.  181,  in  the  act  of  strangling  a  chevrotain.  While  agreeing  with  the  last 
in  having  only  two  of  the  labial  shields  pitted,  it  differs  in  having  from  sixty-one 
to  seventy-five  scales  in  a  row,  and  likewise  in  that  the  rostral  shield  is  broader 
than  long,  instead  of  with  these  two  diameters  equal.  In  colour,  this  python  is 
greyish-brown  or  yellowish  above,  with  a  series  of  large  elongated  squared  reddish 
brown  black-edged  spots  down  the  middle  of  the  back,  flanked  by  a  series  of 
smaller  ones.  The  head  and  nape  of  the  neck  have  a  spear-shaped  brown  mark  ; 
and  a  brown  band  runs  on  each  side  of  the  head  through  the  eye,  while  there  is  a 
vertical  one  of  this  colour  beneath  the  latter.  The  under-parts  are  yellowish,  with 
the  sides  spotted  with  brown,  Known  in  India  by  the  name  of  adjiga,  this  python 
ranges  through  Peninsular  India,  Rajputana,  and  Bengal,  to  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya, 
and  is  not  uncommon ;  but  in  Ceylon,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  Java,  it  is  rare. 
It  does  not  commonly  exceed  about  12  feet  in  length. 

The  three  remaining  species  of  the  genus  form  the  second  main  group,  in 
which  there  are  less  than  fifty  pairs  of  shields  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  tail ;  the 
number  of  shields  in  a  row  at  the  thickest  part  of  the  body  varying  from  fifty- 
three  to  sixty-three,  and  neither  of  the  species  being  of  very  large  size.  The 
best  known  of  the  three  is  the  royal  python  (P.  regius),  of  Senegambia  and  Sierra 
Leone,  which  is  generally  represented  in  the  collection  of  the  London  Zoological 
Gardens;  the  other  two  being  the  rare  Anchieta's  python  (P.  anchietce),  of 
Benguela,  and  the  Sumatran  python  (P.  curtus). 

The  subfamily  of  the  Pythonince  is  represented  by  six  other 
genera,  which  demand  merely  a  brief  reference ;  the  first  three  of 
these  agreeing  with  the  typical  genus  in  the  presence  of  teeth  in  the  premaxillary 
bones,  while  in  the  remainder  that  portion  of  the  upper  jaw  is  toothless.  From  the 
pythons  the  first  three  genera  may  be  distinguished  by  the  tail  being  but  very 
slightly,  if  at  all  prehensile,  and  by  the  rostral  shield  of  the  head  being  either 
devoid  of  pits,  or  with  only  very  shallow  ones.  The  first  genus  (Loxocemus),  as 
represented  by  a  single  comparatively  small  Mexican  species  (L.  bicolor),  has 
no  pits  in  the  labial  shields,  no  loreal  shield,  and  the  nostril  situated  in  a  single 
nasal  shield.  Nardoa  boa,  of  New  Island,  alone  represents  the  second  genus,  and 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  pits  in  the  lower  labial  shields,  and  by  the 
laterally  placed  nostril  being  situated  between  two  nasal  shields.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  third  genus,  Liasis,  is  represented  by  several  species  ranging  from  Flores 
and  Timor  to  Papua  and  the  north  of  Australia,  and  may  be  distinguished  from 
the  second  by  the  nostril  being  placed  more  superiorly  in  a  half-divided  nasal 
shield.  Finally,  three  genera  in  which  the  anterior  jawbones,  or  premaxillse,  are 
toothless  are  Chondropython,  with  one  Papuan  species ;  Aspidites,  represented  by 
two  species  from  the  north  of  Australia;  and  Calabaria,  with  a  single  West 
African  representative.  The  interest  attaching  to  these  snakes  is  the  connection 
which  they  form  between  the  pythons  and  the  boas.  Thus  while  the  two  first 
differ  from  the  typical  pythons  and  resemble  the  boas  in  the  presence  of  teeth  on 


PYTHONS  AND  BOAS. 


187 


Tree-Boas. 


the  palate,  the  second  and  third  likewise  agree  with  the  latter  in  having  the 
shields  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  tail  mostly  or  entirely  single ;  the  tail  itself 
being  but  slightly,  if  at  all  prehensile. 

The  tree-boas  of  tropical  America  may  be  taken  as  examples  of 
the  second  subfamily  (Boince)  of  the  assemblage  of  snakes  under 
consideration.  The  members  of  this  subfamily  can  be  distinguished  from  the 
preceding  group  solely  by  the  absence  of  a  supraorbital  bone  on  the  upper  surface 
of  the  skull  above  the  socket  of  each  eye.  They  further  differ  from  all  the 
pythons,  with  the  exception  of  two  of  the  three  genera  last  mentioned,  in  having 


STREAKED  TREE-BOA     i  nat. 


teeth  on  the  palate  ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  whole  three  of  the  connecting 
genera,  in  the  absence  of  teeth  in  the  anterior  upper  jawbones,  or  premaxillse. 
Moreover,  the  boas  and  their  allies  further  differ  from  the  typical  pythons  in 
having  the  shields  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  tail  for  the  most  part  single, 
thereby  agreeing  with  the  genera  Aspidites  and  Calabaria]  and  thus  showing 
that  the  small  group  to  which  the  two  latter  belong  forms  such  a  close  connection 
between  the  pythons  and  boas  as  to  preclude  their  reference  to  separate  families. 

In  common  with  the  majority  of  the  thirteen  genera,  into  which  the 
subfamily  is  divided,  the  tree-boas  are  characterised  by  having  the  head  distinctly 
denned  from  the  neck,  and  the  tail  more  or  less  prehensile.  They  are  specially 
distinguished  by  the  anterior  teeth  being  much  larger  than  the  hinder  ones  ;  by 


i88 


SNAKES, 


the  smooth  scales  of  the  body ;  by  the  presence  of  shields  on  the  head :  and  by  the 
labial  shields  being  either  devoid  of  pits  or  with  only  shallow  ones.  In  form 
the  body  is  more  or  less  compressed,  and  the  tail  either  moderate  or  long ;  while 
the  eye  is  of  medium  size  with  a  vertical  pupil ;  and  the  shields  on  the  head  may 
be  either  small  and  irregular,  or  large  and  symmetrical. 

These  snakes  are  represented  by  nine  species,  the  largest  of  which  is  the  pale- 


nat.  size). 


headed  tree-boa  (Epicrates  angulifer)  of  Cuba,  attaining  a  length  of  about  7  feet  ; 
another  well-known  species  being  the  streaked  tree-boa  (E.  striatus),  from  San 
Domingo  and  the  Bahamas.  The  thick-necked  tree-boa  (E.  cenchris),  must, 
however,  be  mentioned,  its  habitat  ranging  from  Costa  Rica  to  the  northern 
districts  of  Peru  and  Brazil.  The  figured  species,  which  attains  a  length  of  about 
5  feet,  is  either  pale  brown  above  with  dark  olive-brown  spots  separated  by- 
narrow  intervals  from  one  another,  or  brown  with  wavy  or  zigzag  yellowish 
crossbands,  not  unfrequently  margined  with  blackish  brown.  Each  side  of  the 


PYTHONS  AND  BOAS.  189 

head  usually  has  a  more  or  less  distinct  streak  behind  the  eye  ;  while  the  under- 
parts  are  pale  olive  or  yellowish,  more  or  less  spotted  with  brown  or  black. 

Dog-Headed  Closely  allied  to  the  last,  the  five  species  of  the  genus  Corallus 

Tree-Boa.  are  distinguished  by  having  deep  pits  in  the  labial  shields  of  both 
the  upper  and  lower  lips.  The  body  is  compressed,  with  small  smooth  scales,  and 
the  prehensile  tail  is  either  short  or  more  or  less  elongated.  This  genus  has  a 
somewhat  remarkable  distribution,  four  of  its  representatives  being  inhabitants 
of  tropical  America,  while  the  fifth  (C.  madagascariensis).  which  is  distinguished 
from  the  rest  by  the  shortness  of  its  tail,  is  restricted  to  Madagascar.  The 
dog-headed  tree-boa  (C.  caninus)  is  a  native  of  the  Guianas  and  Brazil,  and 
usually  attains  a  length  of  some  5  feet,  although  it  may  be  considerably  larger. 
It  belongs  to  a  group  of  two  American  species  distinguished  from  the  other  kinds 
inhabiting  the  same  countries  by  the  relatively  shorter  tail,  which  has  only  from 
sixty-four  to  eighty -two  shields  on  its  inferior  surface;  whereas  in  the  true 
tree-boa  (C.  hortulanus),  and  another  species,  there  are  at  least  a  hundred  of 
these  shields.  The  species  here  figured  is  specially  characterised  by  having  the 
scales  arranged  in  sixty-one  or  seventy-one  rows,  and  by  the  number  of  shields  on 
the  under  surface  of  the  body  ranging  from  one  hundred  and  eighty-eight  to  two 
hundred  and  nineteen,  while  those  on  the  tail  vary  from  sixty-four  to  seventy-nine. 
In  colour  this  snake  is  decidedly  handsome,  the  upper-parts  of  the  adult  being 
bright  green,  ornamented  with  irregular  spots  and  crossbars  of  white,  and  the 
under-parts  bright  yellow.  In  the  young  the  ground-colour  is  yellowish,  and  the 
white  markings  are  edged  with  dark  green  or  purplish  black.  Most  abundant 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Amazons,  this  species  becomes  more  rare  in  Guiana, 
while  southwards  it  likewise  diminishes  in  numbers  in  lower  Brazil.  Feeding 
principally  upon  birds,  the  dog-headed  boa  is  an  excellent  swimmer,  and  has  been 
observed  both  in  the  Bio  Negro  and  in  the  salt-water  of  the  beautiful  harbour 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Although  it  frequently  visits  the  huts  of  the  Brazilian  negroes 
in  search  of  prey,  it  does  not  appear  that  this  snake  ever  voluntarily  attacks 
human  beings.  If,  however,  it  is  driven  to  bay  and  unable  to  escape,  it  is  capable 
of  inflicting  very  severe  bites  with  its  long  front  teeth,  such  wounds  being 
difficult  to  heal. 

Keeled  A  third  genus  of  tree-boas  (Enygrus)  is  distinguished  from  both 

Tree-Boas,  the  preceding  by  the  scales  having  distinct  keels  ;  the  labial  shields 
of  the  head  being  devoid  of  pits,  and  the  tail  short  and  prehensile,  with  a  single 
row  of  shields  on  its  inferior  surface.  This  genus  is  represented  by  four  species 
inhabiting  the  Moluccas,  the  Papuan  region,  and  Polynesia. 

This  gigantic  snake  is  the  sole  member  of  a  group  of  several 
genera,  distinguished  from  the  tree-boas  by  the  teeth  gradually 
decreasing  in  size  from  the  front  to  the  back  of  the  jaws  without  any  marked 
enlargement  of  those  in  the  fore-part.  Merely  mentioning  the  allied  tropical 
American  genera,  Trachyboa,  Ungalia,  suadUngaliophis,  the  first  and  last  of  which 
are  each  represented  only  by  a  single  species,  we  may  observe  that  the  anaconda 
is  specially  distinguished  as  a  genus  by  the  large  size  of  the  rostral  shield  of 
the  head,  behind  which  one  pair  of  the  nasals  come  in  contact  with  one  another 
in  the  middle  line,  and  by  the  very  small  size  of  the  smooth  scales  of  the  body. 


190 


SNAKES. 


The  head  is  markedly  distinct  from  the  neck ;  the  nostrils  are  directed  upwards 
and  placed  between  three  pairs  of  nasal  shields,  of  which  the  hindmost  are  those 
which  meet  in  the  middle  line;  the  small  eye  has  the  pupil  vertical;  the  body 


THE   HOME   OF  THE   ANACONDA. 


is  cylindrical ;  and  the  tail  is  short  and  slightly  prehensile,  with  a  single  row  of 
shields  interiorly.  In  colour  the  anaconda  is  greyish  brown  or  olive  above,  with 
either  one  or  two  series  of  large  blackish  transverse  spots,  and  a  single  or  double 


PYTHONS  AND  BOAS.  191 

row  of  lateral  eye-like  spots  having  whitish  centres  and  blackish  rims.  The 
upper  part  of  the  head  is  dark,  and  divided  by  a  black  streak  terminating  in  a 
point  on  the  muzzle,  from  the  lighter  cheeks ;  while  another  oblique  black  streak 
runs  on  each  side  behind  the  eye ;  the  under-parts  being  whitish  with  blackish  spots. 
The  anaconda  (Euneces  murinus)  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Guianas,  Brazil,  and 
North-Eastern  Peru,  and  is  essentially  an  inhabitant  of  tropical  forest  regions.  That 
it  is  the  largest  of  all  living  snakes  there  can  be  little  doubt,  but  the  precise  limits 
of  size  to  which  it  may  occasionally  attain  cannot  be  ascertained.  A  stuffed 
example  in  the  British  Museum  has  a  total  length  of  29  feet,  and  the  species  is 
commonly  stated  to  reach  33  feet,  while,  if  native  reports  are  to  be  trusted, 
individuals  of  much  larger  size  are  occasionally  met  with.  Although  naturalists 
are  generally  indisposed  to  credit  the  existence  of  monsters  of  40  feet,  or  even 
more,  we  confess  that  personally  we  are  unable  to  share  their  incredulity,  as  it  is 
very  improbable  that  the  largest  specimens  have  come  under  European  observation. 
From  all  accounts,  it  appears  that  the  anaconda  generally  spends  more  of  its  time 
in  the  water  than  on  land,  frequently  floating  down  rivers  with  the  current, 
and  at  other  times  lurking  in  quiet  pools  with  only  its  head  raised  above  the 
surface  of  the  water.  In  such  situations,  or  resting  on  rocks,  stranded  tree  trunks, 
or  sandbanks,  it  lies  in  wait  for  its  prey.  It,  however,  frequently  leaves  the 
water  to  pass  a  longer  or  shorter  period  on  shore,  when  it  may  be  found  either 
in  trees,  among  rocks,  or  even  on  hot  sand ;  and  it  appears  that  when  in  a  tree 
this  snake  will  often  dart  down  its  head  from  a  considerable  height  to  seize  a 
passing  peccary  or  other  animal.  Bates  tells  us  that  the  anaconda  will  occasionally 
seize  human  beings,  and  this  statement  is  fully  confirmed  by  other  observers.  In 
Brazil,  where  water  is  abundant  throughout  the  year,  this  snake  is  active  at  all 
seasons,  although  it  is  stated  to  display  the  most  activity  during  the  hot  months 
of  December,  January,  and  February.  In  other  districts,  however,  according  to 
Humboldt,  during  the  dry  season,  it  is  in  the  habit  of  burying  itself  deep  in  the  mud 
of  the  dried-up  rivers,  where  it  is  sometimes  disinterred  by  the  natives  in  a  torpid 
condition.  Very  little  is  known  with  regard  to  the  breeding-habits  of  the  anaconda. 
Since,  however,  females  have  several  times  been  killed,  containing  eggs  with  embryos 
far  advanced  inside  them,  it  would  seem  that  the  young  are  born  alive.  When  they 
first  make  their  appearance  in  the  world,  the  young  are  reported  to  take  to  the 
water,  although  they  soon  leave  it  to  pass  a  large  portion  of  their  time  in  trees. 

Long  supposed  to  be  exclusively  a  tropical  and  South  American 
group,  the  true  boas  are  common  to  the  hotter  regions  of  America 
and  Madagascar.  From  the  anaconda,  the  boas  may  be  distinguished  by  the 
whole  of  the  nasal  shields  being  separated  in  the  middle  line  by  small  scales.  The 
body  may  be  either  cylindrical  or  slightly  compressed ;  and  the  short  and  more  or 
less  prehensile  tail  may  have  either  the  whole  or  a  portion  of  the  shields  on  its 
lower  surface  arranged  in  a  single  series.  In  America  the  genus  is  represented 
by  five  species,  two  of  which  range  as  far  south  as  the  inland  districts  of  upper 
Argentina.  All  species  are  characterised  by  having  the  loreal  region  of  the  head 
covered  either  with  a  single  small  shield  or  with  small  scales,  and  by  the  number  of 
rows  of  shields  on  the  under  surface  of  the  tail  ranging  from  forty-five  to  sixty-nine. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  the  Malagasy  boas  (Boa  madagascariensis  and  dumerili) 


1 92  SNAKES. 

there  are  several  shields  on  the  same  region  of  the  head,  while  the  number  of  rows 
of  shields  beneath  the  tail  is  only  from  twenty  to  forty-one.  The  best  known  re- 
presentative of  the  genus  is  the  common  boa,  or  boa-constrictor  (B.  constrictor), 
which  ranges  in  South  America  from  Venezuela  to  upper  Argentina.  At  times 
reaching  as  much  as  12  feet  in  length,  it  has  the  muzzle  slightly  prominent  in  the 
adult,  although  obliquely  truncated  in  the  immature  state.  In  general  colour  it  is 
pale  brown  on  the  upper-parts,  with  from  fifteen  to  twenty  dark  brown  crossbars, 
which  expand  inferiorly,  sometimes  to  such  an  extent  as  to  become  connected  on 


COMMON  BOA  (£  nat.  size). 

the  sides  of  the  body,  and  thus  to  surround  oval  or  elliptical  spots  of  the  light  ground- 
colour ;  the  expanded  portion  of  each  bar  having  a  light  longitudinal  line.  On  the 
sides  are  a  series  of  large  light-centred  dark  brown  spots,  most  of  which  alternate 
with  the  crossbars ;  and  on  the  tail  all  the  markings  become  relatively  larger,  of  a 
brick-red  colour,  margined  with  black,  and  separated  by  yellowish  intervals.  From 
the  muzzle  to  the  nape  runs  a  dark  brown  median  streak,  widening  posteriorly,  where 
it  may  be  looped ;  another  bar  of  the  same  colour  passes  on  each  side  of  the  head 
through  the  eye,  while  there  is  a  third  below  the  latter,  and  the  lips  are  marked 
by  such  bars ;  the  rostral  shield  of  the  snout  being  also  ornamented  with  a  crescentic 
blackish  mark.  The  under-parts  are  yellowish,  with  spots  and  dots,  or  merely  dots, 
of  black.  The  whole  tone  of  coloration  is  dull,  sombre,  and  adapted  to  harmonise 
with  the  shades  of  brown,  black,  and  yellow  on  the  bark  of  tropical  forest  trees. 


SAND-SNAKES,  193 

Could  we  but  see  the  boa  during  the  night  in  the  depths  of  its  native  forests 
— at  which  time  alone  it  is  thoroughly  active — we  should  doubtless  obtain  a  very 
different  idea  of  the  creature  than  that  which  we  gather  from  the  inspection  in  the 
daytime  of  the  lethargic  specimens  in  menageries.  Lying  coiled  on  the  branch  of 
some  large  tree,  with  its  head  projecting  ready  to  be  darted  on  its  prey  with  the 
rapidity  of  lightning,  the  boa  is  generally  unobserved  by  the  passing  traveller 
unless  it  happens  to  make  a  dart  at  an  unfortunate  dog  belonging  to  his  party. 
Feeding  generally  on  such  mammals  as  agutis,  pacas,  rats,  and  mice,  which  are 
destroyed  in  the  manner  from  whence  is  derived  its  trivial  name,  the  boa,  wThen  it 
attains  unusually  large  dimensions,  is  also  capable  of  killing  deer  and  large  dogs ; 
while  it  is  always  ready  for  such  birds  as  it  can  capture,  and  does  not  disdain, 
when  in  captivity,  a  meal  of  eggs.  The  stories  of  its  killing  adult  human  beings 
and  horses  are,  however,  mere  fabrications.  Nothing  is  known  of  the  breeding- 
habits  of  this  snake  and  its  kindred  in  a  wild  state ;  but  from  observations  made 
on  specimens  in  captivity,  it  appears  that  the  eggs  are  generally  hatched  within 
the  body  of  the  parent,  although  one  instance  is  on  record  where  young  and  eggs 
were  produced  simultaneously.  To  European  palates,  snakes  would  probably  be 
highly  unacceptable  as  food,  however  temptingly  they  might  be  dressed ;  but  in 
Eastern  South  America,  the  flesh  of  the  boa  is  regarded  as  a  most  dainty  dish, 
while  its  fat  is  reputed  to  be  highly  efficacious  in  the  healing  of  various  diseases. 
The  skin  is  used  to  ornament  saddles  and  bridles,  and  for  other  decorative  purposes. 
None  of  the  other  members  of  the  genus  attain  dimensions  equal  to  those  of  the 
common  boa,  the  Malagasy  species  being  the  smallest  of  all. 

Keel-Scaled  The  last  representative  of  the  section  of  the  subfamily  in  which 

Boa-  the  head  is  well  denned  from  the  neck,  and  the  tail  more  or  less 
prehensile,  is  the  keel-scaled  boa  (Casarea  dussumieri),  of  Round  Island,  near 
Mauritius,  distinguished  as  a  genus  by  the  keeling  of  the  scales,  and  the  long  tail ; 
its  other  general  characters  being  similar  to  those  of  the  true  boas,  except  that  the 
nasal  shields  of  the  head  are  separated  by  a  pair  of  internasals.  This  snake,  which 
attains  a  length  of  about  4  feet,  and  has  a  prominent  and  obliquely  truncated 
muzzle,  is  either  uniform  pale  brown  above,  or  brown  with  two  dark  stripes  and  a 
lateral  series  of  small  spots  down  the  body,  a  dark  streak  on  each  side  of  the  head 
through  the  eye,  and  the  under-parts  either  plain  yellow  or  yellow  spotted  with 
black,  the  under  side  of  the  tail  always  having  such  spots. 

Sand-Snakes  ^e  snakes  of  this  genus,  together  with  those  of  three  allied 

genera,  which  are  the  remaining  members  of  the  family,  may  be 
distinguished  at  a  glance  from  the  boas  and  their  allies  by  the  gradual  passage  of 
the  .head  into  the  body  without  any  constriction  at  the  neck;  while  they  are 
further  characterised  by  the  tail  being,  at  most,  only  slightly  prehensile.  From 
their  allies,  the  sand-snakes  are  distinguished  by  the  small  scales  being  either 
smooth  or  singly  keeled,  and  by  the  head  being  covered  with  small  shields,  of 
which  the  rostral  is  enlarged.  The  eye  is  small,  and  sometimes  minute,  with  a 
vertical  pupil;  while  the  body  is  cylindrical;  and  the  very  short  tail,  which  is 
frequently  without  any  power  of  prehension,  has  a  single  row  of  shields  on  its 
lower  surface.  These  snakes  are  represented  by  seven  species,  with  a  geographical 
distribution  including  Northern  and  Eastern  Africa,  and  Southern  and  Central 
VOL.  v. — 13 


194 


SNAKES. 


Asia,  as  well  as  a  part  of  the  extreme  south-west  of  Europe.  The  best  known 
species  is  the  Egyptian  sand-snake  (Eryx  jaculus),  which  has  a  length  of  about 
2  feet,  and  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  Greece,  South- Western  and 
Central  Asia,  and  the  north  of  Africa.  In  colour  it  is  very  variable,  the  upper- 
parts  being  in  some  examples  pale  greyish,  reddish,  or  yellowish  brown,  ornamented 
either  with  dark  brown  or  blackish  transverse  blotches  or  alternating  spots,  while 
in  other  cases  the  general  colour  is  brown  with  pale  spots.  A  dark  streak  runs 
from  each  eye  to  the  angle  of  the  mouth;  the  under-parts  are  either  uniform 
white,  or  white  with  blackish  dots;  and  there  is  a  more  or  less  distinct  dark 


EGYPTIAN  SAND-SNAKE  (J  Hat.  size). 

streak  along  each  side  of  the  tail.  This  species  is  exceeded  in  size  by  the  Indian 
sand-snake  (E.  johni),  which  attains  a  length  of  over  a  yard,  and  inhabits  the 
plains  of  North- Western,  Central,  and  Southern  India.  This  snake  is  generally 
banded,  but  the  young  may  be  of  a  uniform  pale  coral-red  colour.  Although 
resembling  the  boas  in  being  nocturnal,  these  snakes  are  quite  different  in  their 
mode  of  life,  inhabiting  open  sandy  plains,  and  feeding  on  small  mammals,  lizards, 
and  worms.  In  search  of  their  prey  they  frequently  enter  holes  and  crevices 
among  rocks,  and  they  will  also  burrow  in  the  sand.  They  are  perfectly  harmless, 
and  generally  make  no  attempt  to  bite;  but  they  are  somewhat  unsatisfactory 
creatures  in  captivity,  owing  to  their  habit  of  lying  concealed  among  the  gravel 


C  YLINDER-SNAKES.  1 95 

of  their  cage.  The  Indian  species  is  frequently  carried  about  by  snake-charmers, 
who  are  in  the  habit  of  mutilating  the  short  tail  so  as  to  make  it  look  like  a 
head ;  whence  arises  the  legend  of  two-headed  snakes.  A  second  Indian  species 
(E.  conicus)  was  formerly  referred  to  a  separate  genus  (Crongylophis),  on  account 
of  having  a  series  of  keeled  scales  between  the  eyes. 

Of  the  remaining  members  of  the  family,  Lichanura,  with  one 
Californian  species,  differs  from  the  sand-snakes  by  the  smaller  size 
of  the  rostral  shield,  which  is  longer  than  wide ;  while  Charina,  which  is  likewise 
Californian,  has  the  head  covered  with  large  shields.  On  the  other  hand,  Bolieria, 
as  represented  by  a  single  species  from  Round  Island,  near  Mauritius,  differs  from 
all  the  other  members  of  the  group  in  having  three  or  four  keels  on  the  scales,  the 
muzzle  being  covered  with  large  shields. 

Extinct  Python-  In  this  place  may  be  noticed  certain  gigantic  snakes  from  the 
like  Snakes,  lower  and  middle  Eocene  rocks  of  Europe,  described  under  the  name 
of  Palceophis,  and  represented  by  closely  allied,  if  not  generically  identical  forms 
in  the  corresponding  strata  of  North  America.  Equal  in  size  to  those  of  the  largest 
pythons,  the  vertebrae  differ  from  the  latter  (shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  18)  by  the 
much  greater  height  of  the  upper  or  neural  spine,  which  has  not  the  backwardly- 
directed  process  at  its  summit  characterising  the  pythons.  From  the  shape  of 
these  vertebrae,  it  is  pretty  certain  that  these  snakes  had  compressed  bodies  like 
the  modern  sea-snakes,  while  from  the  nature  of  the  deposits  in  which  their  remains 
occur,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  they  were  marine  in  their  habits.  Whether 
they  were  really  allied  to  the  pythons  and  boas  may  be  doubtful,  but  in  any  case 
it  is  probable  that  they  indicate  a  separate  family. 


THE  CYLINDER-SNAKES. 
Family  ILYSIIDJE. 

Agreeing  with  the  pythons  and  boas  in  the  retention  of  vestiges  of  the  hind- 
limbs,  the  small  group  of  cylinder-snakes  appears  to  form  a  connecting  link 
between  the  two  former  and  the  under-mentioned  family  of  shield-tailed  snakes ; 
their  essential  point  of  distinction  from  the  preceding  being  that  the  supra- 
temporal  bone  of  the  skull  is  of  small  size,  and  included  in  the  walls  of  the  brain- 
case,  instead  of  standing  out  as  a  support  for  the  quadrate-bone,  which  is  much 
shorter  than  in  the  boas  and  pythons.  Teeth  are  present  on  the  palate  as  well  as 
in  the  jaws;  and  the  vestiges  of  the  hind-limb  usually  take  the  form  of  a  spur  on 
each  side  of  the  vent.  In  general  appearance,  and  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
scaling,  these  snakes  approximate  to  the  boas;  while  as  regards  the  structure  of  the 
skull  they  are  intermediate  between  them  and  the  next  family.  The  distribution 
of  the  group  is  remarkable,  being  restricted  to  Ceylon  and  South-Eastern  Asia  in 
the  Eastern,  and  to  Tropical  America  in  the  Western  Hemisphere.  Three  genera, 
of  which  two  have  one  species,  while  the  third  has  three,  represent  the  family. 
Coral  Cylinder-  The  single  representative  of  the  typical  genus  of  the  family  is 

Snake.        ^he  beautiful  coral   cylinder-snake  (Ilysia   scytale),  inhabiting   the 
Guianas  and  Upper  Amazonia,  and  attaining  a  length  of  something  over  2J  feet. 


196 


SNAKES. 


The  distinctive  features  of  the  genus  are  the  presence  of  two  teeth  in  the  anterior 
upper  jawbones,  or  premaxillse,  and  the  eye  being  situated  in  the  middle  of  an 
ocular  shield.  The  colour  is  a  splendid  coral-red,  ornamented  with  black  rings,  or 
incomplete  ring-like  black  bands.  From  the  little  that  is  known  concerning  its 
habits,  it  appears  that  this  snake  is  sluggish  in  its  movements,  and  never  wanders 
far  from  its  retreat,  which  is  situated  under  the  roots  of  a  tree  or  in  a  hole  or  cleft 
in  the  ground.  It  feeds  on  insects  and  blind-snakes,  and  produces  living  young. 

The  true  cylinder-snakes,  as  typically  represented  by  the  red 
snake  (Cylindrophis  rufus),  differ  from  the  preceding  by  the  absence 
of  teeth  in  the  anterior  upper  jawbones,  and  likewise  by  the  eye  not  being 
included  in  any  of  the  head-shields.  This  genus  has  three  representatives,  and  is 
distributed  over  Ceylon  and  South-Eastern  Asia  to  the  eastwards  of  the  Bay  of 


Red  Snake. 


CORAL  CYLINDER- SNAKE  (^  nat.  size). 


Bengal;  the  common  red  snake  ranging  from  Burma  and  Cochin-China  to  the 
Malayan  region.  This  snake,  which  attains  a  length  of  about  2 J  feet,  is  either  brown 
or  black  above,  with  or  without  light  alternating  crossbars  ;  the  under-parts  being 
either  white  with  black  transverse  bars  or  spots,  or  black  with  white  bands ;  while 
the  under  surface  of  the  tail  is  of  a  brilliant  vermilion  hue.  All  the  snakes  of 
this  genus  are  burrowing  reptiles,  seldom  showing  themselves  above  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  and  feeding  on  insects,  worms,  and  the  smaller  mammals.  In  common 
with  their  allies,  they  have  the  body  covered  with  polished,  rounded  scales,  which 
(in  conformity  with  their  burrowing  habits)  are  scarcely  larger  on  the  upper 
than  on  the  lower  aspect,  although  becoming  wider  on  the  inferior  surface  of 
the  tail. 

The  third  genus  of  the  group  (Anomalochilus),  represented  by  a  single  species 
from  Sumatra,  differs  from  the  preceding  in  the  absence  of  a  groove  on  the  chin. 


SHIELD-TAILS. 


197 


THE  SHIELD-TAILS. 
Family  UROPELTID^}. 

The  snakes  of  this  family,  while  agreeing  with  the  boas  and  pythons  in  the 
structure  of  the  lower  jaw,  are  sharply  distinguished  by  the  loss  of  all  traces  of  the 
limbs,  and  likewise  by  the  complete  disappearance  of  the  supratemporal  bone  in 
the  skull.  By  Mr.  Boulenger  they  are  regarded  as  directly  descended  from  the 
preceding  family  of  the  suborder.  The  skull  is  remarkable  for  the  firm  union  of 
its  constituent  bones ;  and  although  both  jaws  are  toothed,  the  teeth  are  small  and 
feeble,  and  very  rarely  present  on  the  palate.  Externally  these  snakes  are  charac- 
terised by  their  cylindrical  bodies ;  short,  narrow  heads,  which  pass  imperceptibly 
into  the  neck;  and  by  the 
extremely  short,  truncated,  or 
slightly  tapering  tail,  which 
generally  ends  in  a  rough, 
naked  disc,  although  in  one 
genus  it  is  covered  with  keeled 
scales.  On  the  body  the  scales 
are  small  and  polished,  those 
on  the  lower  surface  being 
always  somewhat  larger  than 
those  above;  the  eye  is  minute, 
and  the  cleft  of  the  mouth 
comparatively  small,  and  in- 
capable of  much  dilatation. 

These  snakes  are  repre- 
sented by  upwards  of  seven 
genera,  some  of  which  com- 
prise a  large  number  of  species, 

and  are  restricted  to  Ceylon  and  the  mountains  of  Peninsular  India.  They  are 
purely  burrowing  creatures,  generally  living  in  soft  earth,  at  a  depth  of  several 
feet,  and  consequently  but  seldom  seen  unless  specially  searched  for.  They  are 
frequently  dug  up  in  the  cultivation  of  tea  and  coffee  plantations,  and  may  be 
found  beneath  logs  and  stones.  On  the  mountains  these  earth -snakes,  as  they 
are  frequently  called,  may  be  met  with  in  the  open  grass-lands ;  and  during  the 
rainy  season  they  not  unfrequently  leave  their  burrows  to  travel  some  distance 
on  the  surface.  Of  relatively  small  size,  many  of  them  are  beautifully  coloured 
with  red  and  j^ellow,  while  those  that  are  black  display  an  iridescence  like  that 
of  some  of  the  smooth -scaled  skinks  among  the  lizards.  The  food  of  these  reptiles 
appears  to  consist  solely  of  earth-worms ;  and  the  eggs  are  hatched  before  quitting 
the  body  of  the  parent.  There  is  a  legend  current  among  the  natives  of  India  to 
the  effect  that  every  time  a  cobra  bites  it  loses  a  joint  of  its  tail,  and  eventually 
acquires  a  head  like  that  of  a  toad :  and  Sir  J.  E.  Tennent  was  of  opinion  that 
this  fable  was  based  on  the  shield-tailed  snakes,  in  which  the  jaws  have  lost  the 
great  power  of  dilatation  so  characteristic  of  serpents  in  general. 


A   SHIELD-TAILED  SNAKE. 


198  SNAKES. 

THE  COLUBRINE  SNAKES. 
Family  COLUBRID^. 

The  skulls  of  the  remaining  snakes  are  markedly  distinguished  from  those 
of  the  foregoing  by  the  total  absence  in  the  lower  jaw  of  the  bone  known  as  the 
coronoid ;  while  in  all  cases  a  supratemporal  is  present  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
skull.  The  present  family,  which  includes  by  far  the  great  majority  of  the  species 
of  the  suborder,  and  comprises  both  harmless  and  noxious  kinds,  is  specially 
distinguished  from  those  to  be  mentioned  later  on  by  the  circumstance  that  in 
the  skull  the  upper  jawbone,  or  maxilla,  is  fixed  in  a  horizontal  position,  and 
also  that  the  pterygoids  reach  either  to  the  quadrate-bone  or  the  lower  jaw. 

Before  coming  to  the  Colubrine  family  it  should,  however,  be  mentioned 
that  there  is  one  remarkable  snake  (Xenopeltis  unicolor),  from  South-Eastern 
Asia,  retaining  in  the  structure  of  its  skull  traces  of  affinities  with  the  boas  and 
pythons.  This  affinity  is  displayed  by  the  fact  that  the  prefrontal  bone,  which 
lies  immediately  behind  the  nasal  aperture  of  each  side,  is  of  large  size,  and 
extends  forwards  and  inwards  to  articulate  with  the  nasal  bone  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  boas.  Accordingly,  this  snake  is  regarded  as  the  representative  of 
a  distinct  family  (Xenopeltidce),  which  is  considered  to  have  originated  from  the 
Boidce  quite  independently  of  the  Colubrines. 

From  Xenopeltis  the  Colubrines  are  distinguished  by  the  small  size  of  the 
prefrontal  bone  of  each  side,  which  articulates  merely  to  the  outer  front  angle  of 
the  frontal  bone  without  any  contact  with  the  nasal  bone.  In  such  a  large  group 
it  is  highly  important  to  have  some  means  of  division  into  subgroups  of  higher 
value  than  genera ;  and,  according  to  the  modern  classification,  three  such  serial 
divisions  may  be  indicated  by  the  characters  of  the  teeth.  The  first  and  most 
primitive  of  these  series,  which  may  be  termed  the  solid-toothed  colubrines 
(Aglypha),  is  characterised  by  the  whole  of  the  teeth  being  solid,  without  any 
trace  of  grooves,  all  its  representatives  being  harmless,  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
second  series  or  hind-fanged  colubrines  (Opisthoglypha),  one  or  more  of  the  hinder 
teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  are  grooved ;  while  in  the  third  series  or  front-fanged 
colubrines  (Proteroglypha)  the  front  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  are  grooved  or  tubular. 
Of  the  last  series  the  whole  of  the  members  are  poisonous,  while  many  of  those 
of  the  second  are  noxious  in  a  minor  degree,  All  these  three  sections  contain 
species  adapted  to  particular  modes  of  life,  so  that  we  may  have  two  or  three 
snakes  which,  while  externally  very  similar,  are  only  distantly  allied  to  one  another. 
The  Javan  wart-snake  (Acrochordus  javanicus)  may  be  taken 
as  a  well-known  representative  of  the  first,  or  acrochordine  subfamily 
of  the  solid-toothed  colubrines,  which  includes  only  five  genera,  distributed  over 
South-Eastern  Asia  and  Central  America.  Unfortunately,  the  characters  distin- 
guishing this  subfamily  from  the  next  are  connected  with  the  bones  of  the  skull, 
and  cannot  therefore  be  verified  without  dissection,  but  in  the  study  of  snakes, 
according  to  the  modern  system,  the  student  must  accustom  himself  to  such 
difficulties.  The  essential  feature  of  the  skull  in  the  present  group  is  the  pro- 
duction of  the  postfrontal  bone  above  the  cavity  of  the  eye ;  while,  as  a  secondary 


COLUBRINE   G£OUP. 


199 


feature,  the  scales  of  the  body  overlap  one  another  but  very  slightly,  if  at  all. 
The  Javan  wart-snake,  which  is  the  sole  representative  of  the  genus,  is  characterised 
by  the  absence  of  lower  shields,  by  the  head  being  covered  with  uniform  granules, 
and  by  the  very  slight  compression  of  the  body.  The  head  is  rather  short  and 
broad,  with  the  muzzle  wider  than  long,  and  the  small  eyes  directed  forwards; 
while  the  nostrils  are  placed  close  together  on  the  tip  of  the  muzzle.  The  nearly 
cylindrical  tail  is  short  and  prehensile.  The  colour  is  brown  above  and  yellowish 
on  the  sides ;  the  young  having  large  irregular  dark  brown  spots,  which  coalesce 
into  bands  on  the  back,  and  gradually  tend  to  disappear  in  the  adult.  In  size 
this  snake  may  measure  upwards  of  8  feet.  It  is  distributed  over  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  Java,  and  New  Guinea;  and,  although  it  has  been  stated  to  be 
terrestrial,  modern  observations  indicate  that  it  is  essentially  aquatic,  seldom 


JAVAN  WART-SXAKE  (J  nat.  size). 

even  leaving  the  water,  and  feeding  upon  fish  and  frogs.  A  female  in  the 
possession  of  Cantor  gave  birth  to  twenty-seven  young  ones  in  less  than  half 
an  hour,  which  were  active  and  bit  fiercely  as  soon  as  they  came  into  the  world. 

An  allied  genus,  represented  by  a  single  species  (Chersydrus  granulatus), 
ranging  from  Southern  India  to  New  Guinea,  differs  by  the  marked  compression 
of  the  body  and  tail,  and  thus  closely  resembles  the  sea-snakes  of  the  front-fanged 
series  of  the  family,  and  likewise  resembles  them  in  habits,  frequenting  the 
mouths  of  rivers  and  the  coast  from  Southern  India  to  New  Guinea,  and  being 
often  found  far  out  at  sea.  It  produces  living  young,  and  subsists  on  fish.  A 
third  Oriental  genus,  likewise  known  merely  by  one  species  (Xenodermus 
javanicus),  has  large  shields  on  the  under  surface.  In  the  other  two  genera — 
Stoliczkaia  from  India,  and  Nothopsis  from  Central  America — not  only  are  there 
lower  shields,  but  the  granules  on  the  head  are  replaced  by  large  shields. 


200  SNAKES. 

The  lanre  PTOUP  of  water-snakes  bring  us  to   the  second  and 

Water  Snakes 

by  far  the  largest  subfamily  of  the  solid-toothed  colubrines,  which 
is  known  as  the  Colubrince,  and  is  distinguished  from  the  preceding  group  by  the 
supratemporal  bone  not  being  produced  over  the  region  above  the  socket  of  the 
eye ;  while  the  scales  are  usually  overlapping,  and  teeth  are  present  throughout 
the  entire  length  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaws.  The  water-snakes  belong  to  a 
large  assemblage  of  genera  of  the  subfamily  characterised  by  the  circumstance 
that  in  the  skeleton  of  the  backbone  inferior  projections  or  spines  are  present 
throughout  its  length,  the  vertebrae  in  the  hinder  region  of  the  body  having 
these  spines  represented  by  a  more  or  less  well-developed  crest  or  tubercle. 
From  their  allies,  the  water-snakes  are  distinguished  by  having  the  hinder  upper 
teeth  larger  than  those  in  front,  the  equality  in  the  size  of  the  lower  teeth,  the 
rather  large  size  of  the  eye,  in  which  the  pupil  is  round,  the  presence  of  a  pair 
of  internasal  shields  between  the  nostrils,  the  regular  longitudinal  series  formed 
by  the  scales  throughout  the  body,  and  by  the  teeth  in  each  hinder  upper  jaw- 
bone varying  in  number  from  eighteen  to  forty,  and  forming  a  continuous  series. 

Represented  by  over  forty  species,  the  water-snakes  have  an  almost  cosmo- 
politan distribution,  although  they  are  unknown  in  South  America,  while  in 
Africa  south  of  the  Sahara  they  are  less  abundant  than  in  other  regions,  and  in 
Australia  they  occur  only  in  the  northern  districts.  Dr.  Glinther  writes  that  the 
typical  water-snakes  "are  easily  recognised  by  their  stoutish  cylindrical  body, 
keeled  scales,  flat  head  covered  with  regular  shields,  wide  cleft  of  the  mouth,  and 
numerous  teeth,  the  strongest  of  which  are  at  the  hinder  end  of  the  maxillary 
bone.  They  frequent  the  neighbourhood  of  fresh  water,  and  feed  on  aquatic 
animals — frogs,  toads,  and  fishes.  They  do  not  overpower  or  kill  their  prey  by 
throwing  a  coil  of  the  body  round  it,  but,  having  seized  it,  they  at  once  commence 
to  swallow  it.  They^are  excellent  swimmers,  but  more  frequently  live  near  water 
than  in  it,  in  agreement  with  which  habit,  the  position  of  their  nostrils  is  not  on 
the  upper  surface  of  the  head,  as  in  the  true  freshwater  snakes,  but  on  the  side." 

The  best  known  and  at  the  same  time  the  typical  representative 

of  the  group  is  the  common  ringed  snake  (Tropidonotus  natrix), 
inhabiting  Europe,  Algeria,  and  West  and  Central  Asia,  and  attaining  a  maximum 
length  of  6  \  feet.  Belonging  to  a  group  of  the  genus  in  which  the  number  of 
teeth  in  the  hinder  upper  jawbone  does  not  exceed  thirty,  this  snake  has  a  single 
anterior  temporal  shield  on  the  head,  usually  seven  upper  labial  shields,  of  which 
the  third  and  fourth  enter  the  aperture  of  the  eye,  and  from  one  hundred  and  fifty- 
seven  to  one  hundred  and  ninety  shields  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body.  The 
eye  is  of  moderate  size,  and  most  of  the  scales  are  strongly  keeled.  The  colour 
is  usually  grey,  olive,  or  brown  above,  with  spots  or  narrow  transverse  bands ;  the 
labial  shields  being  white  or  yellowish,  with  their  dividing  lines  black;  while 
the  under-parts  are  mottled  black-and-white  or  grey.  There  are,  however,  several 
variations  as  regards  the  coloration  of  the  neck.  In  the  ordinary  variety,  fo*r 
instance,  there  is  a  white,  yellow,  or  orange  collar,  usually  divided  in  the  middle, 
behind  which  is  a  broad  black  collar ;  the  latter  being  sometimes  alone  present. 
In  another  variety,  mostly  from  the  south  of  Europe,  the  collar  is  altogether 
wanting,  or  reduced  to  a  small  black  patch  on  each  side  of  the  nape ;  while  in  the 


COLU BRINE    GROUP. 


201 


south-eastern  race  the  collar,  although  well  marked,  is  divided  in  the  middle,  and 
there  is  a  yellowish  streak  along  each  side  of  the  back. 

In  England  the  ringed  snake  is  one  of  the  most  common  reptiles,  inhabiting 
woods,  heaths,  and  hedges,  especially  where  water  is  abundant.  Although  its  chief 
food  consists  of  frogs,  it  also  preys  upon  voles,  mice,  young  birds,  and  fish,  and  is 
stated  occasionally  to  consume  eggs.  When  a  frog  is  pursued  by  one  of  these 
snakes,  it  seems  paralysed  with  fear,  and,  instead  of  making  any  effort  to  escape, 
sits  still  and  gives  vent  to  a  shrill  cry  never  heard  at  any  other  time.  Generally 
the  frog  is  seized  by  the  hind-leg,  and  gradually  swallowed  by  the  snake  without 
its  position  being  changed.  On  this  point  Bell  observes  that  "  when  a  frog  is  in 
the  progress  of  being  swallowed  in  this  manner,  as  soon  as  the  snake's  jaws  have 
reached  the  body,  the  other  hind-leg  becomes  turned  forwards,  and  as  the  body 


RINGED   SNAKE  SEIZING  ITS  PEEY   (I  nat.  size). 

gradually  disappears,  the  three  legs  and  head  are  seen  standing  forwards  out  of 
the  snake's  mouth  in  a  very  singular  manner.  Should  the  snake,  however,  have 
taken  the  frog  by  the  middle  of  the  body,  it  invariably  turns  it  by  several 
movements  of  the  jaws,  until  the  head  is  directed  towards  the  throat  of  the  snake, 
and  it  is  then  swallowed  head-foremost."  As  a  rule,  the  frog  remains  alive  during 
the  swallowing  process,  and  it  may  sometimes  be  heard  to  croak  when  buried  in 
the  stomach  of  its  captor,  while  instances  are  on  record  where  a  frog  has  returned 
after  being  thus  entombed.  When  swimming,  the  ringed  snake  carries  its  head 
and  neck  raised  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  skin,  as  in  the  case  of  other 
serpents,  is  shed  several  times  during  the  year,  and  is  drawn  off  turned  inside  out, 
so  that  the  lenses  covering  the  eye  appear  concave  instead  of  convex.  Previous 
to  changing  its  coat,  the  reptile  becomes  almost  if  not  completely  blind,  and 
evidently  ill  at  ease,  and  the  change  is  accomplished  by  the  old  skin  bursting  at 


202 


the  neck,  and  being-  pulled  off  by  the  owner  wriggling  its  body  between  brushwood 
or  dense  herbage.  Some  sixteen  to  twenty  eggs  are  annually  deposited  by  the 
female  of  the  ringed  snake,  these  being  attached  together  by  a  viscid  substance. 
Although  they  are  somet lines  hatched  solely  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  at  other  times 
tin1  process  of  development  is  hastened  by  their  being  placed  in  a  heap  of  decaying 
vegetable  matter  or  manure.  When  the  cold  of  autumn  makes  itself  felt,  this 
species  retires  for  the  winter,  passing  its  time  in  a  state  of  torpor  ensconced  in 
some  hole  in  a  hedge-bank,  under  the  roots  of  trees,  or  some  such  place,  where  it 


YIPEUIXE    AND    TESSELATEU    SNAKES    (:-  ll.lt.   size). 


remains  till  awakened  by  the  returning  warmth  of  spring.  Xot  unfrequently 
si -vend  snakes  occupy  the  same  hole  for  the  winter,  and  occasionally  a  considerable 
number  have  been,  found  coiled  up  together  in  a  mass. 

Tesseiated  and  ""''ho   preceding   species,  as  already  said,  belongs   to   the   typical 

Viperine  Snakes.  soction  of  the  genus,  in  which  the  teeth  of  the  hinder  upper  jawbone 
do  not  exceed  thirty  in  number,  and  are  gradually  enlarged  towards  tin;  hinder 
end  of  the  series,  while  the  eyes  and  nostrils  are  lateral,  and  the  internasal  shields 
broadly  truncated  in  front.  As  examples  of  the  second  section,  in  which,  while  the 
number  and  characters  of  the  teeth  are  similar,  the  small  eyes  and  nostrils  are 
directed  upwards  and  outwards,  and  the  internasal  shields  usually  much  narrowed 


COLUBRINE   GROUP. 


203 


in  front,  we  select  the  tesselated  snake  (T.  tesselatus)  and  the  nearly  allied  viperine 
snake  (T.  viperinus),  both  of  which  are  found  in  Europe,  the  former  being  a  more 
southerly  type  than  the  latter,  and  extending  eastwards  into  South- Western  and 
Central  Asia.  The  tesselated  snake,  which  never  grows  quite  so  large  as  the 
common  ringed  species,  is  olive  or  olive-grey  above,  and  may  be  either  uniformly 
coloured,  or  marked  with  dark  spots,  usually  arranged  quincuncially,  on  the  back. 
The  nape  of  the  neck  is  ornamented  with  a  dark  chevron ;  the  upper  labial  shields 
are  yellowish,  with  dark  lines  of  division  between  them ;  and  the  under-parts  are 
either  yellow  or  red  mottled  and  marbled  with  black,  or  almost  wholly  black. 
The  viperine  snake  is  rather  smaller,  having  the  upper  surface  grey,  brown,  or 
reddish,  with  a  zigzag  black  band  down  the  back,  and  a  row  of  yellow-centred 


/\ 


KEEL-TAILED   SNAKE  (J  nat.  size). 

black  spots  down  each  side.  There  is  a  more  or  less  distinctly  marked  oblique 
dark  band  on  each  side  of  the  top  of  the  head,  and  another  on  the  nape  of  the  neck ; 
while  the  labials  and  under-parts  are  coloured  like  those  of  the  tesselated  snake. 
The  general  habits  of  both  these  species  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  ringed 
snake ;  but  in  spring  they  are  more  generally  found  concealed  in  pairs  beneath 
stones,  and  only  take  to  the  water  in  the  summer.  As  other  well-known  North 
American  representatives  of  the  genus,  we  may  refer  to  the  garter-snake  (T. 
ordinatus)  and  moccasin-snake  (T.  fasciatus) ;  the  former  belonging  to  the  first, 
and  the  latter  to  the  second  section.  As  an  example  of  the  third  section,  in  which 
the  last  two  or  third  upper  teeth  are  suddenly  enlarged,  the  Indian  long-banded 
snake  may  be  mentioned. 

Oblique-Eyed  Among  the  genera  belonging  to  this  section  the  only  other  that 

Snake.        our   space   admits   of   even   mentioning   is   the  one  containing   the 


204 


SNAKES. 


numerous  species  of  oblique-eyed  snakes.  Generally  having  a  smaller  eye  than  the 
water-snakes,  the  members  of  this  genus  are  distinguished  by  having  only  a  single 
inter-nasal  shield ;  the  nostril  being  placed  in  a  half -divided  nasal  shield,  while  the 
teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  are  of  nearly  equal  size,  and  the  scales  lack  the  pits 
characterising  those  of  an  allied  genus.  There  are  from  eighteen  to  twenty-five 
teeth  in  the  hinder  upper  jawbone;  the  head  is,  at  most,  but  slightly  distinct  from 
the  neck;  the  body  is  cylindrical;  and  the  tail,  which  has  two  rows  of  shields 
beneath,  is  of  moderate  length,  the  scales  being  usually  striated  and  keeled.  The 
o-enus  is  represented  by  eleven  species,  some  of  which  are  found  in  the  New  World, 
while  others  inhabit  South-Eastern  Asia,  and  others  Tropical  Africa. 

The  keel-tailed  snake  (Helicops  carinicauda),  inhabits  Brazil.     It  attains  a 


JAVAN  PIGMY  SNAKE  (nat.  size). 

length  of  between  3  and  4  feet ;  and  is  characterised  by  having  the  scales  on  the 
back  of  the  head  smooth,  and  those  on  the  body  keeled  and  arranged  in  nineteen 
rows,  the  frontal  shields  being  nearly  or  quite  as  long  as  the  parietals,  while  there 
are  from  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  to  one  hundred  and  fifty-five  shields  on  the 
lower  surface  of  the  body.  The  general  colour  is  dark  olive-brown  above,  with  four 
more  or  less  distinctly  defined  blackish  stripes,  and  a  yellow  stripe  along  the  two 
lower  rows  of  scales ;  on  the  under-parts  the  ground-colour  is  yellow  or  red,  with 
black  spots  or  stripes  on  the  body,  and  a  black  stripe  on  the  tail.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  this  species  is  one  of  the  commonest  of  snakes ;  and 
while  its  general  habits  appear  to  be  very  similar  to  those  of  the  water-snakes, 
like  all  the  other  members  of  its  genus,  it  produces  living  young. 

The  snakes  we  have  now  to  consider,  while  still  belonging  to  the 
Pigmy  Snakes.  typical  subf amiiy  of  the  solid-toothed  series,  differ  from  the  foregoing 


COLUBRINE    GROUP.  205 

in  that  inferior  spines  are  developed  only  in  the  vertebrae  of  the  anterior  half  of 
the  backbone,  and  are  further  characterised  by  the  nasal  bones  being  fully  as  large 
as  the  prefrontals.  The  preceding  group  are  more  or  less  aquatic  in  their  habits, 
but  those  of  the  present  assemblage  are  terrestrial  or  arboreal.  The  pigmy  snakes 
have  the  hinder  borders  of  the  shields  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body  entire* 
the  front  lower  teeth  larger  than  the  hinder  ones,  the  eyes  relatively  small,  and 
no  internasal  or  temporal  shields  on  the  head.  The  head  is  not  distinct  from  the 
neck,  each  nostril  is  pierced  in  a  very  small  nasal  shield,  the  body  is  cylindrical 
with  the  smooth  scales  arranged  in  thirteen  rows,  and  there  are  two  rows  of  shields 
on  the  lower  aspect  of  the  tail. 

'  These  snakes  are  represented  by  some  thirty  species,  their  headquarters  being 
the  islands  of  Java,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo.  The  figured  species  (Calamaria  linncei) 
is  from  Java.  They  are  all  of  small  size,  frequently  not  exceeding  a  foot  in  length  : 
and  they  are  in  the  habit  of  hiding  themselves  among  stones,  beneath  fallen  tree- 
trunks,  or  in  grass.  Their  small  dimensions,  together  with  the  relatively  narrow 
cleft  of  the  mouth,  and  a  want  of  dilatibility  in  the  throat  and  body,  indicate  that  they 
do  not  prey  upon  other  reptiles.  Gentle  and  harmless  themselves,  these  snakes  are 
often  attacked  and  killed  by  craits  and  other  venomous  members  of  their  own  tribe. 
On  account  of  the  well-known  European  smooth  snake  (Coronella 

Sling-Snakes. 

Icevis)  being  included  among  them,  we  mention  as  a  second  genus  of 
this  group  the  sling-snakes,  of  w^hich  there  are  about  twenty  known  species  ranging 
over  Europe,  Western  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  while  one  (C.  brachyura)  occurs  in 
India.  They  belong  to  a  group  of  genera  in  which  the  whole  of  the  lower  teeth  are 
nearly  equal  in  length ;  while  they  are  specially  distinguished  by  the  presence  of 
from  twelve  to  twenty  teeth  in  the  hinder  upper  jawbone,  which  increase  in  size 
towards  the  back  of  the  series.  The  head  is  short,  and  scarcely  distinct  from  the 
neck ;  the  eye  being  rather  small,  with  a  round  pupil,  and  the  head-shields  normal. 
The  body  is  cylindrical,  and  covered  with  smooth  scales  arranged  in  from  fifteen 
to  twenty-five  rows,  and  furnished  with  pits  at  their  tips ;  the  tail  is  of  moderate 
length ;  and  whereas  the  shields  on  the  inferior  aspect  of  the  body  are  rounded, 
those  beneath  the  tail  are  arranged  in  a  double  series. 

The  smooth  snake,  which  attains  a  length  of  about  25  inches,  is  very  variable 
in  coloration,  but  the  ground-colour  of  the  upper-parts  is  generally  brown.  The 
most  distinctive  features  are  a  large  dark  spot  on  the  neck,  often  extending  into 
a  stripe,  and  two  rows  of  dark  brown  spots  arranged  in  pairs,  and  running  down 
the  body ;  there  is  also  a  dark  stripe  passing  through  the  eye  and  the  side  of  the 
neck,  while  the  under-parts  are  either  steely  blue,  or  reddish  yellow  and  white,  in 
some  cases  spotted  with  black.  This  snake  is  found  over  the  greater  part  of 
Europe,  and  is  occasionally  met  with  in  some  of  the  southern  counties  of  England. 
Although  now  and  then  found  in  damp  or  swampy  localities,  it  frequents  dry  stony 
places  where  there  is  plenty  of  sunshine,  resorting  sometimes  to  old  stone  bridges 
and  heaps  of  building  material.  Like  its  congeners,  this  snake  is  chiefly  terrestrial 
in  its  habits ;  in  disposition  it  is  fierce,  and  its  prey  consists  of  other  snakes  and 
lizards.  In  the  end  of  August  or  beginning  of  September  the  smooth-snake  lays 
from  three  to  thirteen  eggs,  which  are  so  far  developed  that  the  included  young 
almost  immediately  break  the  shells  and  escape. 


206 


SNAKES. 


Fierce  Snakes. 


Nearly  allied  to  the  preceding  are  the  ophidians  which  (from 
their  German  name  zornschlangeri)  we  may  term  fierce  snakes ;  these 
demanding  special  notice  on  account  of  their  having  several  representatives  in 
Southern  Europe.  From  the  preceding  genus  they  may  be  distinguished  by  the 
more  slender  form  of  the  body,  and  the  presence  on  the  head  of  one  or  more  sub- 
oculars  below  the  preocular  shield ;  while  the  arrangement  of  the  longitudinal  rows 
of  scales  in  odd  numbers  differentiates  them  from  an  allied  genus.  The  number  of 
teeth  in  the  hinder  upper  jawbone  varies  from  twelve  to  twenty:  the  head  is  long 
and  distinct  from  the  neck,  with  the  eye  of  moderate  size  or  large,  and  its  pupil 


THE  DARK  GREEN  SNAKE  (J  Hat.  size). 

round.  The  body  is  elongated  and  cylindrical,  with  the  smooth  or  slightly  keelec 
and  pitted  scales  arranged  in  from  fifteen  to  thirty-one  rows.  On  the  lower  surface 
of  the  body  the  shields  are  rounded,  or  obtusely  keeled  on  the  sides ;  and  the  long 
tail  has  two  inferior  rows  of  shields.  The  fierce  snakes  are  represented  by  some 
twenty  species,  ranging  over  Europe,  Asia,  and  Northern  Africa ;  several  of  them 
occurring  on  the  Continent,  although  none  are  met  with  in  the  British  Islands. 
Their  headquarters  may  be  considered  to  be  the  countries  surrounding  the  Mediter- 
ranean basin.  Deriving  their  name  from  the  fierce  and  bold  demeanour  of  the 
majority  of  their  representatives,  these  snakes  are  terrestrial  or  partially  arboreal 
in  their  habits,  and  feed  chiefly  on  small  mammals  and  birds.  Of  the  European 
forms,  a  well-known  example  is  the  dark  green  snake  (Zamenis  gemonensis), 


COLUBRINE   GROUP.  207 

inhabiting  Hungary  and  the  Mediterranean  countries,  and  extending  as  far  north 
as  the  south  of  Switzerland ;  while  in  the  east  it  is  represented  by  a  variety  known 
as  the  Balkan  snake,  which  attains  a  larger  size  than  the  typical  form.  These 
snakes  are  distinguished  from  their  allies  by  the  regular  arrangement  of  the  shields 
on  the  head,  and  the  presence  of  two  preorbital  shields,  of  which  the  lower  is  small 
and  placed  in  the  line  of  the  labials ;  and  they  are  further  characterised  by  the 
relative  shortness  of  the  tail,  which  scarcely  reaches  a  fourth  of  the  total  length. 
The  smooth  scales  are  arranged  in  from  seventeen  to  nineteen  rows.  The  ordinary 
form  may  attain  a  length  of  about  4  feet,  but  is  generally  smaller.  In  ground- 
colour the  head  and  nape  are  greyish  yellow,  the  back  and  tail  greenish,  and  the 
under-parts  yellow,  upon  them  being  black  markings,  which,  while  irregular  above, 
form  regular  oblique  bars  inferiorly,  and  in  the  hinder  part  of  the  body  are 
arranged  in  longitudinal  stripes  which  continue  to  the  end  of  the  tail.  In  some 
specimens,  however,  the  ground-colour  of  the  upper-parts  is  a  beautiful  yellowish 
green,  while  on  the  lower  surface  it  is  canary-yellow ;  in  a  third  variety  the  whole 
upper  surface  is  uniform  olive -brown,  and  in  some  cases  it  is  completely  black,  the 
under  surface  of  the  body  being  grey,  with  a  steely  blue  lustre  on  the  sides  and  the 
whole  of  the  under-parts.  This  snake  is  very  abundant  in  Italy,  and  may  be  met 
with  in  most  gardens  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Rome.  Its  habits  vary  to  a  certain 
extent  according  to  locality;  and  while  in  the  Russian  steppes  it  frequents  the 
hottest  and  driest  spots,  in  Dalmatia  and  the  Tyrol  it  is  found  in  sunny,  although 
by  no  means  dry  situations,  either  in  woods  or  among  old  buildings. 

The  other  European  species  is  the  horseshoe  snake  (Z.  hippo- 
'crepis),  common  both  to  Southern  Europe  and  Northern  Africa,  and 
represented  in  the  lower  figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  208.  From  its  allies  it 
is  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a  series  of  small  suborbital  shields  beneath 
the  eye,  which  completely  separate  it  from  the  upper  labials,  by  the  divided 
anal  shields,  the  presence  of  from  twenty-five  to  twenty-nine  longitudinal  rows  of 
scales  on  the  body,  and  likewise  by  the  constancy  of  the  coloration.  Measuring 
nearly  6  feet  in  length,  this  handsome  snake  has  the  ground-colour  of  the  upper- 
parts  varying  from  greenish  or  greyish  yellow  through  orange  to  reddish  brown. 
As  a  rule,  the  head  is  marked  by  a  dark  oblique  band  between  the  eyes,  behind 
which  is  a  second  band,  convex  in  front,  and  reaching-  to  the  neck,  and  a  third 
marked  with  light  spots,  so  that  a  horseshoe  pattern  is  formed  between  the  spots 
and  bands.  On  the  back  runs  a  row  of  yellow-edged  dark  oval  patches,  which 
tend  to  unite  towards  the  hinder  extremity ;  and  on  each  side  of  this  are  a  series 
of  smaller  spots,  beneath  which,  again,  are  more  upright  dark  marks,  extending 
downwards  to  the  lower  surface.  As  the  upper  dark  patches  are  very  large,  the 
ground-colour  is  generally  reduced  to  a  series  of  rings,  forming  a  very  regular  and 
pretty  pattern.  The  under-parts  are  yellow  or  orange-red,  spotted  with  black. 

Here  also  must  be  mentioned  the  Indian  rat-snake  (Z.  mucosus\ 
now  included  in  this  genus,  although  formerly  referred  to  the  next. 
It  is  a  large  species,  attaining  a  length  of  6  feet  or  more.  In  colour  it  is  brown 
above,  frequently  with  more  or  less  distinctly  defined  black  crossbands  on  the 
hinder-part  of  the  body  and  tail ;  the  under  surface  being  yellowish,  often  with 
black  edges  to  the  shields  of  the  hinder-part  of  the  body  and  tail.  The  range  of 


208 


SNAKES. 


this  well-known  species  extends  from  India  to  Java.  Common  everywhere  in 
India,  and  feeding  on  mammals,  birds,  and  frogs,  the  rat-snake  derives  its  name 
from  its  habit  of  entering  houses  in  search  of  rats  and  mice.  Like  its  allies,  it  is 
fierce  and  always  ready  to  bite ;  and  old  specimens  brought  to  Europe  never  become 
tame.  When  irritated,  it  utters  a  peculiar  sound,  which  has  been  compared  to  that 
produced  by  gently  striking  a  tuning-fork.  A  smaller  allied  Indian  species  (Z. 
corrus)  differs  by  having  the  scales  arranged  in  fifteen,  instead  of  seventeen  rows. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  preceding  are  the  American  running  snakes, 
of  which  the  pantherine  snake  (Ptyas  pantherinus)  is  a  familiar 
and  handsome  example.      From  the  last  genus  the  running  snakes  are  chiefly 


Running  Snakes. 


BLACK-MARKED  AND  HORSESHOE   SNAKES  (J  nat.  size). 

distinguished  by  their  teeth  and  the  larger  size  of  the  eyes.  They  are  all  large 
and  powerful  reptiles,  with  cylindrical  body,  clearly  defined  head,  large  eyes, 
regularly  tapering  tail,  which  is  at  least  equal  to  a  fourth  of  the  total  length,  the 
scales  smooth  and  arranged  in  from  fifteen  to  seventeen  rows,  normally-arranged 
head-shields,  unkeeled  inferior  shields,  and  about  twenty-one  equal-sized  teeth  in 
the  hinder  upper  jawbone.  The  pantherine  snake,  which  is  an  inhabitant  of  the 
hottest  regions  of  the  Guianas  and  Eastern  Brazil,  and  is  especially  common  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  is  characterised  by  having  fifteen  rows  of  scales 
on  the  body,  the  lack  of  the  small  lower  preorbital  shield,  and  its  general  form  and 
coloration ;  its  length  being  as  much  as  7  feet.  The  ground-colour  is  yellowish 
grey  on  the  upper-parts ;  on  the  front  of  the  head  are  three  dark  crossbars,  while 
two  broad  longitudinal  stripes  run  along  the  hinder  part  of  the  head  and  neck ; 


COLUBRINE    GROUP.  209 

the  ornamentation  of  the  back  takes  the  form  of  a  row  of  large  greyish  brown 
black-edged  spots,  which  are  lozenge-shaped  on  the  neck,  but  further  back  become 
irregular,  and  confluent  with  two  lateral  rows  of  spots.  The  yellowish  white 
shields  of  the  edges  of  the  jaws  have  black  lines  of  division,  and  behind  each  eye 
a  blackish  brown  streak  runs  to  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  This  snake  frequents 
swampy  situations  well  covered  with  trees  and  bushes,  and  is  remarkably  swift 
and  active  in  its  movements.  In  its  general  habits  it  appears  to  resemble  the 
ringed  snake,  feeding  almost  entirely  on  frogs  and  fish. 

The  typical  representatives  of  the  family  are  the  climbing  snakes, 
Climbing  Snakes.    .,.,,,  .,.,.,          n  6 

01  which  there  are  a  large  number  or  species,  distributed  over  the 

great  part  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  and  Tropical  America.  Agreeing  with  the 
preceding  genus  in  having  the  teeth  in  the  hinder  upper  jawbone  of  nearly  equal 
size,  the  climbing  snakes  have  from  twelve  to  twenty-two  of  these  teeth,  the 
teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  being  likewise  subequal;  and  they  are  further  specially 
distinguished  by  having  the  scales  of  the  body  arranged  in  from  fifteen  to  thirty- 
five  longitudinal  rows,  and  furnished  with  pits  at  their  extremities,  those  in  the 
middle  line  of  the  back  not  being  larger  than  the  others.  The  long  head  is  well 
defined  from  the  neck,  with  a  moderate-sized  eye,  of  which  the  pupil  is  circular, 
and  the  shields  normally  arranged ;  the  elongated  body  is  slightly  compressed,  with 
its  scales  either  smooth  or  keeled ;  and  whereas  the  shields  on  the  lower  surface  of  the 
body  usually  have  a  more  or  less  well-marked  keel  on  the  side,  those  of  the  tail 
are  arranged  in  a  double  row.  All  these  snakes  are  fierce  in  their  disposition,  and 
while  all  can  climb  well,  some  are  almost  entirely  arboreal ;  others  again,  frequent 
the  neighbourhood  of  water,  and  are  good  swimmers.  The  food  of  all  consists  of 
small  mammals  and  birds.  Formerly  the  chain-snake  (Coronella  getula),  of  the 
United  States,  common  in  the  neighbourhood  of  New  York,  and  attaining  a  length 
of  about  5  feet,  was  included  in  this  genus,  but  is  now  referred  to  Coronella.  The 
dark  ground-colour,  which  varies  in  tint  from  reddish  brown  to  blackish  brown  and 
even  black,  shows  on  the  upper  surface  a  number  of  yellow  crossbands,  which  on 
the  lower  part  of  the  sides  unite  with  similar  longitudinal  stripes,  and  thus  form  a 
regular  light-coloured  chain  extending  to  the  very  tip  of  the  tail.  The  shields  on 
the  top  of  the  head  are  deep  chocolate-brown,  with  a  few  yellow  spots ;  the  labial 
shields  are  dusky  or  yellowish  white,  bordered  with  blackish  brown,  and  the  under- 
parts  dirty  yellowish  white  marbled  with  brown. 

Among  the  European  representatives  of  the  genus,  the  yellow,  or  ^Esculapian 
snake  (Coluber  longissimus}  is  recognised  by  the  small  head,  imperfectly  distinguished 
from  the  neck,  and  rounded  at  the  muzzle,  as  well  as  by  the  stout  body,  rounded  tail, 
and  the  nature  of  the  scaling.  On  the  head  there  is  no  small  preorbital  shield,  and 
of  the  eight  upper  labials  the  fourth  and  fifth  enter  the  circle  of  the  eye ;  the  body 
has  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-three  rows  of  smooth  scales,  and  the  anal  shield  is 
divided.  Generally,  the  upper  surface  is  brownish  yellow,  with  a  tinge  of  grey, 
and  the  lower  aspect  whitish,  the  hinder-part  of  the  head  having  a  yellow  spot ; 
while  the  back  and  sides  are  marked  with  small  whitish  dots,  which  in  some  places 
are  very  distinctly  defined,  and  assume  the  form  of  the  letter  X.  There  is,  however, 
great  individual  variation  in  colour,  and  a  dark  and  a  light  variety  may  be 
recognised.  In  the  south  of  Europe,  where  it  attains  a  length  of  about  4  feet, 

VOL.  v. — 14 


210 


SNAKES. 


this  snake  prefers  rocky,  or  at  least  stony  districts  abundantly  covered  with 
bushes;  but  in  Schlangenbad,  the  only  German  locality  where  it  is  found  in 
any  numbers,  old  walls  are  its  favourite  resorts.  As  it  feeds  chiefly  on  voles 
and  mice,  it  is  a  decided  benefactor  to  the  agriculturist  and  gardener.  It  also 
consumes,  however,  a  certain  number  of  lizards,  as  well  as  such  birds  as  it  can 
contrive  to  capture,  and  occasionally  plunders  a  nest  and  sucks  the  eggs.  It  is 


^ESCULAPIAN  SNAKE  (^  nat.  size.) 

very  fond  of  climbing  bushes,  and  low  boughs  or  stumps  of  trees,  as  represented 
in  our  illustration ;  and  in  thick  forests  will  go  from  bough  to  bough,  and  then 
from  tree  to  tree  without  descending  to  the  ground.  Indeed,  it  is  such  an  adept  in 
climbing,  that  it  frequently  captures  swift-running  lizards  on  the  stems  of  trees. 

Another  South  European  species  is  the  four-lined,  or  leopard-snake  (0.  leopar- 
dinus).  Remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its  coloration,  which,  however,  is  subject  to 
great  individual  variation,  this  snake  attains  a  length  of  about  a  yard,  and  differs 
from  all  its  congeners  in  the  absence  of  a  lower  preocular  shield  on  the  head,  and  the 


COLUBRINE   GROUP. 


211 


presence  of  eight  upper  labial  shields,  of  which  the  fourth  and  fifth  enter  the  circle 
of  the  eye.  There  are  from  twenty-five  to  twenty-seven  longitudinal  rows  of 
scales  in  the  thickest  part  of  the  body,  and  the  anal  shield  is  divided.  Of  the 
numerous  variations,  there  are  two  which  are  most  constant,  the  first  being  the 
typical  but  rare  four-lined  race.  In  this  form  the  ground-colour  is  brownish  grey, 
upon  which  are  usually  four  black  longitudinal  stripes,  here  and  there  interrupted ; 
although  these  are  sometimes  replaced  by  two  dark  or  blood-red  lines.  On  the 
sides  are  small  blackish  spots ;  the  under  surface  of  the  head  and  forepart  of  the 
body  is  either  yellowish  white  or  bright  yellow,  but  each  under-shield  is  marked 
with  four  or  five  irregular  blackish  spots,  which  become  so  large  posteriorly  that 
the  whole  surface  appears  steel-blue,  the  yellow  only  showing  on  the  edges  of  the 
shields.  In  the  second  variety,  or  leopard- snake,  the  ground-colour  is  mahogany- 


LEOPARD-SNAKE. 


red,  mottled  on  the  upper  surface  with  blood-red  black-edged  spots,  which  may 
either  be  arranged  in  two  rows,  or  coalesce  into  transverse  bands ;  while  on  each 
side  there  is  a  row  of  smaller,  blackish,  crescentic  spots  alternating  with  those  of 
the  back.  The  range  of  this  species  is  bounded  to  the  west  by  the  mountains  of 
Southern  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  to  the  east  by  Asia ;  both  varieties  occurring  to- 
gether in  most  districts  between  these  limits,  although  in  Greece  and  Dalmatia  only 
the  leopard-snake  is  known. 

Among  the  largest  of  European  ophidians  is  the  four-rayed  snake  (C.  quatuor- 
radiatus),  which  attains  a  length  of  between  6  and  7  feet,  and  is  of  an  olive-brown 
or  flesh-coloured  hue  above,  often  marked  with  a  pair  of  longitudinal  blackish 
brown  stripes,  a  black  line  running  from  the  eye  to  the  mouth,  and  the  under- 
parts  being  straw-yellow.  There  are,  however,  many  variations  from  this  typical 
coloration ;  some  specimens  being  entirely  black,  while  the  young  generally  have 
black  crossbands  on  the  head,  three  rows  of  large  brown  spots  on  the  back,  the 


212 


SNAKES. 


sides  likewise  spotted,  and  the  under-parts  with  a  blackish  steel-grey  tinge.  The 
distinctive  specific  characters  are  the  presence  of  a  small  preorbital  shield  on  the 
head ;  the  arrangement  of  the  scales  of  the  middle  of  the  body  in  from  twenty -three 
to  twenty-five  longitudinal  rows — these  scales  being  smooth  in  the  young  but 
strongly  keeled  in  the  adult — and  the  divided  anal  shield.  The  distributional  area  of 
this  snake  includes  the  whole  of  Southern  and  South-Eastern  Europe,  from  Lower 
Italy  and  Dalmatia  to  Turkey,  as  well  as  Greece  and  the  adjacent  islands,  and  extends 
to  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor ;  but  there  is  some  doubt  whether  the  species  occurs 
in  the  Caucasian  region.  All  observers  are  in  accord  that  the  four-rayed  snake 


FOUR-KATED  SNAKE  (£  nat.  size). 

is  not  only  harmless  but  useful,  since  it  destroys  rats,  mice,  voles,  and  smaller 
snakes.     It  also  preys  upon  moles,  lizards,  and  small  birds. 

Black-Marked  Another  European  species  of  the  family  is  the  black-marked 

snake.  snake  (Coluber  scalaris),  which  belongs  to  a  separate  group  charac- 
terised by  the  following  features.  The  rostral  shield  of  the  head  is  of  a  large  size, 
convex,  and  pointed  in  front,  while  it  extends  backwards  between  the  pref rental 
shields,  where  it  terminates  in  a  point.  The  tail  is  relatively  shorter  than  in  the 
typical  group.  The  black-marked  snake,  formerly  separated  as  Rhinechis, 
and  represented  in  the  upper  figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  208  has  the 
cylindrical  body  relatively  thick,  the  tail  short  and  blunted,  and  the  flattened  head 
broad  behind  and  sharp  in  front.  The  body-scales,  which  are  arranged  in  from 
twenty-five  to  twenty-nine  rows,  are  long,  four-sided,  and  smooth ;  the  shields  on 
the  under  surface  of  the  body  are  bent  at  the  edges;  while  those  beneath  the  tail  form 
a  double  series.  As  regards  colour,  there  is  much  variation;  the  ground-colour 
varying  from  bright  grey  or  greenish  grey,  through  reddish  or  yellowish  brown,  to 
olive  or  reddish  yellow ;  while  the  markings  of  the  head  often  take  the  form  of  a 


COLUBRINE   GROUP. 


213 


perpendicular  black  streak  through  the  eye,  and  another  from  the  eye  to  the  mouth ; 
the  neck  having  a  dark  crossband,  and  a  row  of  similar  spots  running  down  the 
back,  beneath  which  are  another  series  of  smaller  ones,  followed  inferiorly  by  a 
third  and  fourth  row.  With  age  these  spots  tend  gradually  to  disappear,  till  finally 
there  remain  only  two  dark  brown  or  blackish  rows  running  from  the  neck  to  the 
tip  of  the  tail.  In  length  this  snake  measures  rather  more  than  4  feet.  Every- 
where rare,  the  black -marked  snake  seems  to  be  confined  to  Spain  and  the  opposite 
parts  of  Africa.  While  resembling  the  climbing  snakes  in  the  general  nature  of 
its  food,  it  also  preys  upon  grasshoppers  ;  and  it  will  follow  voles  and  mice  into 
their  burrows.  A  good  climber,  it  is  stated  to  be  more  rapid  in  its  movements 
than  any  other  of  the  European  snakes  ;  and  its  keenness  of  vision  is  remarkable. 


SIPO,    OR  BRAZILIAN  WOOD-SNAKE  (\  nat.  size). 

Wood  Snakes  Whereas  the  preceding  members  of  the  family  only  climb  trees  in 

search  of  food  the  American  wood-snakes  are  purely  arboreal  forms, 
especially  adapted  by  their  coloration  to  such  a  mode  of  life.  Although  they 
resemble  the  climbing  snakes  in  possessing  equal-sized  solid  teeth,  they  differ  in  the 
larger  eye,  which  may  be  of  very  great  size,  their  distinctly  compressed  and  more 
slender  body,  and  the  small  number  of  its  longitudinal  rows  of  scales,  which  does 
not  exceed  from  ten  to  twelve.  The  five  known  species  are  inhabitants  of  the  West 
Indies  and  the  forest  districts  of  Central  and  South  America,  all  being  characterised 
by  their  more  or  less  uniform  olive-green  coloration.  In  the  forests  of  Brazil,  the 
Guianas  and  Venezuela,  as  well  as  in  the  Lesser  Antilles,  lives  the  sipo,  or  Brazilian 


214  SNAKES. 

wood-snake  (Herpetodryas  carinatus),  which  we  select  as  a  well-known  example  of 
the  genus.  Frequently  attaining  a  length  of  about  7  feet,  and  remarkably  beautiful 
in  coloration,  this  snake  generally  has  the  upper-parts  of  a  bright  verditer  or  olive- 
green,  shot  with  a  tinge  of  brown  on  the  back,  while  the  under-parts  are  greenish 
or  bright  yellow ;  the  greenish  hue  prevailing  in  the  middle  of  the  body,  and  the 
yellow  elsewhere.  Throughout  there  is  a  shimmering  play  of  colours  of  all  shades 
of  green  passing  into  metallic  brown;  while  the  middle  line  of  the  back  has  a 
brighter  longitudinal  streak,  frequently  bordered  on  each  side  by  a  darker  band, 
In  the  West  Indies  this  species  undergoes  a  remarkable  change  of  hue,  becoming 
blackish  brown  or  black  above,  with  the  under-parts  steel-grey  ;  the  upper  lip  and 
edges  of  the  jaws  alone  preserving  the  original  yellowish  green.  The  scales  are 
arranged  in  twelve  rows,  and  are  mostly  smooth,  although  the  two  middle  rows  on 
the  back  are  keeled ;  the  eye  being  of  very  large  size.  Next  to  the  coral-snake, 
the  sipo  is  the  most  abundant  of  Brazilian  ophidians,  and  may  be  met  with  both 
on  sandy  jungle-clad  ground  close  to  the  shore  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Cape  Frio, 
where  specimens  of  upwards  of  10  feet  in  length  have  been  observed.  In  addition 
to  sandy  localities  it  also  frequents  swampy  spots  near  the  sea.  In  its  movements 
it  is  so  rapid  that,  when  startled,  it  seems  to  disappear  like  a  flash  of  lightning. 
It  feeds  largely  upon  frogs,  as  well  as  upon  lizards  and  young  birds,  and  lays 
only  five  eggs,  which  are  remarkable  for  their  cylindrical  and  slender  form. 

In  the  Old  World  and  Australia  the  wood-snakes  are  replaced  by 
the  solid-toothed  tree-snakes,  forming  the  genera  Dendrophis  and 
Dendrelaphis ;  both  of  which  are  distinguished  from  all  the  preceding  types  by 
having  the  hinder  border  of  each  of  the  shields  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body 
with  a  notch  on  each  side,  corresponding  to  a  suture-like  lateral  keel ;  the  scales  of 
the  body  being  arranged  in  from  thirteen  to  fifteen  rows.  While  in  the  first-named 
of  the  two  genera  all  the  teeth  in  the  hinder  upper  jawbone  are  approximately 
equal  in  length,  and  the  row  of  scales  in  the  middle  line  of  the  back  larger  than  the 
others,  in  the  second  genus  the  foremost  teeth  in  the  hinder  upper  jawbone  are 
enlarged,  but  the  middle  row  of  scales  on  the  back  are  similar  to  the  rest.  All 
these  snakes  have  large  eyes,  and  elongated  and  often  compressed  bodies,  and 
their  general  coloration  is  some  shade  of  green  or  olive,  often  with  a  bronzy  tinge ; 
their  habits  being  mostly  arboreal  Of  Dendrophis  nine  species  are  known, 
ranging  from  India  to  Australia ;  while  Dendrelaphis  is  represented  by  five  species 
ranging  from  India  and  the  Malayan  region  to  the  Philippines. 

Egg-Eating  The  last  representative  of  the  solid-toothed  series  of  the  Colubrines 

Snake.  that  we  have  space  to  mention  is  the  curious  little  egg-eating  snake 
(Dasypeltis  scabra),  of  South  Africa,  which  represents  a  subfamily  (Dasypeltince) 
by  itself.  The  essential  character  of  the  subfamily  is  the  rudimental  condition  of 
the  dentition,  the  front  of  both  the  lower  jaw  and  upper  jaws  being  devoid  of  teeth. 
To  compensate  for  this  lack  of  ordinary  teeth,  the  egg-eating  snake  is,  however, 
provided  with  a  series  of  about  thirty  of  what  may  be  termed  throat-teeth  ;  these 
being  the  lower  spines  of  the  vertebrae,  which  project  into  the  oesophagus,  and  are 
tipped  with  enamel.  The  scales  are  strongly  keeled.  This  little  snake  is  about  a 
couple  of  feet  in  length,  and  has  a  body  not  much  thicker  than  a  man's  finger. 
Although  it  lives  in  trees,  and  feeds  on  the  eggs  of  small  birds,  it  will  when  pressed 


COLU BRINE   GROUP. 


2I5 


by  hunger  descend  to  the  ground  and  rob  hens'  nests.  That  such  a  tiny  creature 
should  be  able  to  swallow  a  hen's  egg  seems  incredible,  but  nevertheless  a  specimen 
has  been  taken  with  the  egg  actually  within  its  jaws,  and  the  whole  head  so 
swollen  as  to  render  the  mouth  incapable  of  being  closed;  while  an  example 
in  the  London  Zoological  Gardens  swallowed  pigeons'  eggs  without  any  apparent 
difficulty.  When  swallowed,  the  egg  is  split  longitudinally  by  the  row  of  teeth  in 
the  throat,  and  the  whole  of  the  contents  secured.  After  being  thus  broken,  the 
two  halves  of  the  shell,  generally  fitted  into  one  another,  are  rejected. 

The  pale  snakes,  or,  as  they  are  called  in  Brazil,  the  moon-snakes, 
may  be  taken  as  our  first  representatives  of  the  second  of  the  three 
great  parallel  series  into  which  the  Colubrine  family  is  divided.  This  back-fanged 
series,  or  Opisthoglossa,  is  characterised  by  having  one  or  more  pairs  of  the  hinder 


\; 


Moon-Snakes. 


CROWNED  MOON-SNAKE  (§  nat.  size). 

upper  teeth  longitudinally  grooved,  and  thus  capable  of  acting  as  poison-fangs. 
Many  of  these  snakes  are  indeed  extremely  venomous,  their  bite  being  capable  of 
producing  death  in  a  few  minutes.  They  are  divided  into  two  subfamilies,  of  which 
the  first,  or  Dipsadince,  are  characterised  by  the  lateral  position  of  the  nostrils ; 
and  they  are  either  terrestrial  or  arboreal  in  their  habits,  while  their  distribution 
is  world- wide. 

Belonging  to  the  first  of  the  two  subfamilies,  the  moon-snakes  are  characterised 
by  the  slender  and  somewhat  compressed  form  of  the  body ;  the  flattened  head, 
which  is  but  imperfectly  differentiated  from  the  neck,  is  broad  behind  and  narrow 
in  front,  although  somewhat  pointed  at  the  muzzle;  while  the  upper  jaw  projects 
considerably  over  the  lower.  The  scales,  moreover,  are  smooth;  both  the  anal 
shield,  and  the  shields  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  tail  are  single ;  and  the  eye, 
as  in  most  of  the  other  members  of  the  subfamily,  has  the  pupil  vertical.  The 


2l6 


SNAKES. 


few  representatives  of  the  moon-snakes  are  confined  to  South  America;  the 
species  here  figured  (Scytole  coronatum)  being  an  inhabitant  of  the  eastern  side 
of  that  continent.  In  size  this  snake  is  comparatively  small,  measuring  only 
about  2  feet  in  length ;  its  distinctive  characteristic  being  that  on  the  hinder 
portion  of  the  body,  or  anterior  part  of  the  tail,  the  middle  row  of  scales  are  not 
greatly  enlarged.  In  young  individuals  the  ground-colour  is  red,  with  a  dark 
brown  circular  spot  on  the  back  of  the  head,  another  on  the  crown,  and  a  ring  on 
the  neck,  behind  which  are  smaller  spots  of  the  same  colour.  With  age  the  colour 
darkens,  and  the  markings  disappear,  till  in  the  adult  the  upper  surface  is  black, 
and  the  lower  side  white.  Very  common  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bahia,  this 
snake,  like  the  other  members  of  the  subfamily,  is  almost  exclusively  nocturnal ; 
and  its  food  consists  solely  of  lizards.  Although  their  fangs  are  large,  it  appears 
that  these  reptiles  never  attack  human  beings. 


CAT-SNAKE  (|  nat.  size). 


As  one  of  the  few  European  representatives  of  the  group  under 
consideration,  reference  may  be  made  to  the  so-called  cat-snake 
(Tarbophis  vivax),  which  is  the  sole  member  of  its  genus.  It  is  characterised  by 
its  spindle-shaped  body,  the  clear  distinction  between  the  flattened  head  and  the 
neck,  the  relatively  short  tail,  and  the  small  size  of  the  eyes.  In  place  of  a  lower 
preocular  shield,  the  elongated  loreal  extends  backwards  to  the  eye,  so  as  to  come 
in  contact  with  the  upper  preocular  ;  this  arrangement  being  unknown  in  any  other 
European  snake.  In  the  lower  jaw  the  front  teeth  are  much  longer  and  more  bent 
than  those  which  follow  ;  while  the  fangs  in  the  hinder  part  of  the  upper  jaw  are 
also  elongated  and  much  curved.  Sometimes  reaching  a  little  over  a  yard  in  length 
this  snake  is  of  a  dirty  brownish  yellow  or  grey  ground-colour,  with  small  black 


COLUBRINE   GROUP.  217 

dots  and  a  chestnut-brown  spot  on  the  shields  of  the  head,  while  the  neck  has  a  large 
blackish  or  reddish  brown  patch,  and  rows  of  smaller  spots  of  the  same  colour 
ornament  the  back.  There  is  also  a  dark  band  from  the  eye  to  the  corner  of  the 
mouth ;  each  side  of  the  body  has  a  row  of  small  spots ;  and  the  under-parts  are 
whitish  with  a  brown  marbling.  The  cat-snake  ranges  from  the  shores  of  the 
Adriatic  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  and  Africa  as  far  south 
as  45°  N.  It  inhabits  rocky  and  sunny  spots,  and  feeds  mainly  if  not  exclusively 
on  lizards.  Although  slower  than  the  water-snakes,  its  movements  are  more  rapid 
than  those  of  the  vipers.  The  virulence  of  its  poison  is  shown  by  the  circumstance 
that  a  lizard  bitten  by  one  of  these  snakes  died  in  a  minute  and  a  half. 
Nocturnal  Tree-  The  tropical  regions  of  the  Old  World  are  the  home  of  the  typical 

Snakes.  genus  (Dipsas)  of  the  subfamily,  which  is  characterised  by  the 
long  and  compressed  body  and  tail,  the  sharp  distinction  of  the  head  from  the  neck, 
the  moderate  or  large  size  of  the  eye,  with  its  vertical  pupil,  and  the  normal 
arrangement  of  the  shields  on  the  head,  in  which  the  hinder  nasal  is  more  or  less 
markedly  hollowed.  The  number  of  teeth  in  the  hinder  upper  jawbone  varies  from 
ten  to  twelve,  the  two  or  three  hinder  pair  being  elongated  and  grooved ;  while  in 
the  lower  jaw  the  front  teeth  are  the  largest.  The  scales  on  the  body  are  arranged 
in  from  seventeen  to  twenty-seven  longitudinal  rows,  those  of  the  middle  row  of 
the  back  being  larger  than  the  rest ;  and  the  medium-sized  or  long  tail  has  its  inferior 
shields  in  two  rows.  These  snakes  are  represented  by  about  twenty  species, 
inhabiting  Southern  Asia,  New  Guinea,  Northern  Asia,  and  Africa.  The  majority 
are  inhabitants  of  forests  or  scrub-jungle,  and  are  almost  entirely  arboreal ;  but  a 
few  are  terrestrial,  and  frequent  open  country»  Many  of  these  snakes  attain  a 
length  of  6  or  7  feet,  and  their  prevalent  ground-colours  are  brown  and  black. 
The  Indian  forms  at  least  are  purely  nocturnal,  and  their  food  consists  of  mammals, 
birds,  and,  more  rarely,  lizards,  and  occasionally  birds'  eggs.  It  is  noteworthy  that 
some  species  prey  entirely  on  mammals,  while  others  confine  their  attention  to 
birds.  Eight  species  of  the  genus  are  recorded  from  India,  Ceylon,  and  Burma ; 
while  a  well-known  Malayan  form  is  the  ularburong  (Dipsas  dendrophila). 
Back-Fanged  These  snakes  are  represented  by  two  important  genera,  of  which 

Tree-Snakes.  Philodryas  is  mainly  characteristic  of  the  tropical  parts  of  America, 
although  it  also  occurs  in  the  West  Indies  and  Madagascar ;  while  the  whip-snakes 
(Dryophis)  are  confined  to  India  and  the  Malay  countries.  In  the  American  genus 
the  hinder  fangs  are  not  very  large,  being  not  double  the  height  of  the  solid  teeth 
in  front  of  them.  The  body  and  tail  are  elongated  and  more  or  less  compressed, 
the  eyes  large,  and  the  smooth  or  keeled  scales  arranged  in  from  seventeen  to 
twenty-one  rows ;  while  the  prevailing  colour  is  green.  The  genus  is  represented 
by  some  fifteen  species,  among  which  the  green  snake  (P.  viridissimus)  is  a  well- 
known  form.  This  species  attains  a  length  of  nearly  three  feet,  and  has  upwards 
of  two  hundred  shields  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body. 

In  the  Indian  whip-snakes  the  teeth  in  the  posterior  upper  jawbone  vary  in 
number  from  twelve  to  fifteen,  one  or  two  near  the  middle  being  much  enlarged 
and  fang-like.  After  these  comes  an  interval  devoid  of  teeth,  and  at  the  hinder- 
end  of  the  jaw  the  two  last  teeth  are  grooved.  In  the  lower  jaw  the  third  or 
fourth  tooth  is  enlarged  and  fang-like ;  those  in  the  hinder-part  of  the  series  being 


218  SNAKES. 

small  and  uniform.  The  head  is  long,  and  markedly  distinct  from  the  neck ;  and  the 
eye  rather  small,  with  a  horizontal  pupil.  The  scales  investing  the  elongated  and 
compressed  body  are  smooth  and  without  pits,  and  arranged  in  fifteen  oblique  rows, 
those  down  the  middle  of  the  back  being  slightly  enlarged.  The  shields  on  the 
under  surface  of  the  body  are  rounded,  and  those  beneath  the  tail  form  two 
rows.  Deriving  their  name  of  whip-snakes  from  the  extreme  elongation  and 
slenderness  of  the  body  and  tail  these  serpents  move  awkwardly  enough  on  a  flat 
surface,  although  when  coiling  and  climbing  among  the  branches  of  trees  their  rapid 
movements  are  graceful  in  the  extreme.  While  retaining  their  hold  by  means  of  a 
few  coils  of  the  tail  thrown  round  a  branch,  the  length  of  their  body  enables  them 
with  ease  to  reach  another  at  a  considerable  distance,  or  to  dart  forth  their  head  in 
order  to  seize  any  hapless  bird  or  lizard  that  may  be  within  striking  distance. 
Sharp-Nosed  Nearly  allied  to  the  preceding  are  the  sharp -nosed  snakes 

Snakes.  (Oxybelis),  of  which  seven  species  inhabit  Central  and  South  America, 
while  the  eighth  is  found  in  Central  and  Western  Africa.  These  have  small 
heads,  with  the  snout  narrow  and  elongated,  and  the  rostral  shield  projecting 
considerably  beyond  the  lower  jaw.  The  neck  is  thin  and  slender,  the  body 
greatly  elongated  and  laterally  compressed,  and  the  long  and  thin  tail  tapering  to 
a  fine  point.  The  upper  jaw  carries  seventeen  solid  teeth  of  nearly  equal  size,  and 
four  large  fangs.  In  appearance  and  habits  these  snakes  closely  resemble  the 
whip-snakes. 

Oriental  Fresh-  Brief  reference  must  be  made  here  to  a  group  of  nine  genera  of 

water  Snakes,  aquatic  snakes  from  India,  Burma,  China,  New  Guinea,  North  Australia, 
and  the  adjacent  countries,  which  constitute  a  second  subfamily  (Homalopsince)  in 
the  hind-fanged  series.  From  the  preceding  subfamily  they  may  be  readily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  position  of  the  nostrils  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  muzzle ;  while 
they  are  further  differentiated  by  their  thoroughly  aquatic  habits.  It  will  be 
unnecessary  to  particularise  the  various  genera ;  but  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the 
typical  genus,  Homalopsis,  belongs  to  a  group  in  which  the  two  nasal  shields  of  the 
head  are  in  contact ;  and  that  in  a  second  group,  as  represented  by  Cantoria,  they 
are  separated  by  an  internasal  shield.  Most  of  these  snakes  are  of  small  size,  few  of 
them  exceeding  a  yard  in  length,  while  many  are  considerably  smaller.  Although 
mainly  fresh- water  snakes,  seldom  coming  to  shore,  a  few  members  of  the  group 
enter  the  sea.  Many  of  them  are  furnished  with  prehensile  tails,  by  means  of 
which  they  attach  themselves  to  convenient  objects;  and  the  majority  feed 
exclusively  on  fish,  though  a  few  prefer  crustaceans.  Their  young  are  produced 
alive  in  the  water. 

The  beautiful  but  venomous  coral-snake  (Elaps  corallinus)  is  the 
best  known  representative  of  a  genus  which  brings  us  to  the  third 
and  last  series  of  the  great  family  under  consideration.  All  the  members  of  this 
front-fanged  series  (Proteroglypha)  are  characterised  by  having  the  front  teeth  of 
the  hinder  upper  jawbone,  or  maxilla,  grooved,  and  the  posterior  ones  simple  and 
solid.  These  snakes  are  all  poisonous ;  and  they  are  divided  into  two  subfamilies, 
according  to  their  habits  and  the  conformation  of  the  tail.  In  the  first,  or  Elapine 
subfamily  (Elapince)  the  tail  is  cylindrical;  the  snakes  themselves  being  either 
terrestrial  or  arboreal  in  their  mode  of  life.  These  Elapine  snakes  are  distributed 


COLUBRINE   GROUP. 


219 


in  larger  or  smaller  numbers  over  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  and  are  especially 
abundant  in  Australia,  where  they  form  by  far  the  greater  moiety  of  the  ophidian 
fauna,  All  of  them — doubtless  on  account  of  the  immunity  from  attack  conferred 
by  their  poisonous  character — are  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  their  coloration. 

The  coral-snake  and  its  allies  constitute  a  genus  well  represented  in  the 
warmer  regions  of  America,  but  also  occurring  sparingly  in  South  Africa.  They 
are  small,  although  rather  long  and  plump  serpents,  with  the  body  cylindrical,  the 
head  flattened  and  scarcely  differentiated  from  the  neck,  and  the  tail  short.  The 
small  eye  has  a  circular  pupil,  the  mouth  is  narrow,  and  the  jaws  admit  of  but 
slight  dilatation.  Superiorly,  the  body  is  clothed  with  equal-sized,  smooth  scales, 
arranged  in  fifteen  rows ;  while  inf eriorly  the  body-shields  are  rounded,  the  anal 


CORAL-SNAKE  (§  nat.  size). 

one  being  undivided,  and  the  shields  beneath  the  tail  arranged  in  a  double  series. 
Behind  the  fangs,  the  teeth  are  all  small.  One  of  the  handsomest  members  of  a 
beautiful  group  is  the  coral -snake,  which  inhabits  a  large  part  of  South  America, 
and  also  occurs  in  the  West  Indies.  Attaining  a  length  of  from  2  feet  to  2J  feet, 
this  snake  has  its  ground-colour  a  brilliant  cinnabar-red,  with  a  special  lustre  on 
the  under-parts.  On  the  body  this  red  colour  is  divided  into  sections  of  equal 
length  by  broad  black  rings,  bordered  by  more  or  less  distinct  greenish  white 
margins ;  all  the  red  and  greenish  portions  showing  black  spots  on  the  tips  of  the 
scales.  The  front  of  the  head,  as  far  back  as  the  hinder  end  of  the  frontal  shields, 
is  bluish  black;  at  the  back  of  the  parietal  shields  there  commences  a  greenish 
white  crossband,  running  behind  the  eye,  and  occupying  the  whole  of  the  lower 
jaw;  and  after  this  comes  a  black  neck-ring,  followed  by  one  of  the  red  spaces  of 
the  body.  As  a  rule,  instead  of  being  red,  the  tail  has  alternations  of  black  and 
whitish  rings,  with  its  tip  whitish.  The  coral-snake  is  generally  met  with  in 


220 


SNAKES. 


forests,  the  neighbourhood  of  human  dwellings  it  strictly  avoids.  Somewhat  slow 
in  its  movements,  it  is  unable  to  climb  trees ;  and  its  food  consists  of  other  snakes, 
lizards,  insects,  and  centipedes. 

Resplendent  In  Asia  the  place  of  the  coral-snake  and  its  allies  is  taken  by  a 

Adders.  group  of  nearly  allied  species  which  may  be  collectively  termed 
resplendent  adders.  From  the  last  genus  these  are  distinguished  by  the  presence 
of  a  distinct  groove  along  the  wThole  of  the  front  surface  of  the  upper  fangs,  and 
also  by  the  scales  being  arranged  in  thirteen  rows.  None  of  the  teeth  behind  the 
fangs  are  solid,  and  the  shields  on  the  head  (among  which  the  loreal  is  wanting) 
are  of  large  size.  A  further  difference  from  the  American  genus  is  to  be  found  in 
the  presence  of  postfrontal  bones  in  the  skull.  These  adders,  which  are  mostly 


LONG-GLANDED   SNAKE  AND  MASKED  ADDER  (J  Hat.  size). 


less  than  3  feet  in  length,  are  represented  by  seven  species,  spread  over  the  Oriental 
region,  Southern  China,  and  Japan.  The  masked  adder  (Callophis  macdellandi), 
which  attains  a  length  of  26  inches,  and  ranges  from  Nipal  to  the  south  of  China, 
is  generally  reddish  brown  above,  with  regular  black,  light-edged  transverse  rings 
placed  at  equal  distances  from  one  another  ;  the  under-parts  being  yellowish  with 
black  crossbands  or  squarish  spots.  The  resplendent  adders  resemble  the  coral- 
snake  in  the  slowness  of  their  movements,  and  their  inability  to  ascend  trees  ;  their 
favourite  resorts  being  hilly  districts.  They  closely  resemble  the  harmless  snakes 
of  the  genus  Calamaria,  upon  the  different  species  of  which  they  chiefly  feed. 
Long-Gianded  Closely  allied  to  the  preceding  are  two  snakes  from.  Burma  and 

Snakes.  ^he  Malayan  region  which  merely  differ  in  that  the  poison-glands, 
instead  of  being  confined  to  the  back  part  of  the  head,  extend  along  each  side  of 
the  body  for  about  a  third  of  its  total  length,  gradually  thickening  till  they  end  in 
front  of  the  heart  in  club-shaped  expansions.  The  heart  being  thrown  further 


COLUBRINE   GROUP. 


221 


Iback  in  the  body  than  ordinary,  these  snakes  may  be  recognised  externally  by  the 
thickening  of  that  region.  The  figured  species  (Adeniophis  intestinalis)  is  an 
extremely  elongated  and  slender  snake,  inhabiting  Burma  and  the  Malayan  Islands, 
and  attaining  a  length  of  2  feet.  It  is  generally  brown  above  with  a  yellowish 
black-edged  line  running  down  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  a  nearly  similar  one  on 
each  side  of  the  body ;  the  under-parts  being  banded  with  yellow  and  black. 

Although  the  native  name  crait  applies  properly  only  to  a  single 
member  (Bungarus  cceruleus)  of  this  genus,  it  may  be  conveniently 
extended  to  include  the  whole  of  the  eight  species,  which  range  from  India  to  the 
south  of  China,  five  occurring  in  India  and  Ceylon.  Closely  connected  with  the 


Craits. 


BANDED  ADDER,  OR  RAJ-SAMP  (£  nat.  Size). 


resplendent  snakes  by  the  genus  Hemibungarus,  in  which  a  solid  tooth  is  present 
behind  the  fangs,  the  craits  have  from  one  to  three  small  solid  teeth  behind  these ; 
and  the  smooth  scales  are  arranged  in  thirteen  or  fifteen  rows,  with  the  middle  row 
of  the  back  larger  than  the  others.  The  head  resembles  that  of  the  last  genus  in 
being  imperfectly  distinguished  from  the  neck,  as  well  as  in  the  size  and  number  of 
its  shields ;  while  the  small  eye  has  a  similar  round  pupil.  The  tail  is  of  moderate 
length,  or  short,  with  the  shields  on  its  lower  surface  arranged  in  either  a  double 
or  single  series.  The  banded  adder  (B.  fasciatus)  belongs  to  a  group  in  which 
the  shields  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body  are  very  large,  and  broader  than  long ; 
those  of  the  tail  being  arranged  in  a  single  series.  The  species  is  distinguished 
by  the  presence  of  a  distinct  ridge  along  the  back,  by  the  obtuse  extremity  of 
the  tail,  and  by  the  front  temporal  shield  of  the  head  being  scarcely  longer  than 


222  SNAKES. 

deep ;  these  three  features  distinguish  it  from  the  blue  adder  or  crait  (B.  cceruleus) 
and  the  nearly  allied  Ceylon  crait  (B.  ceylonicus).  The  banded  adder,  or  raj -samp 
(king-snake),  ranges  from  Bengal  to  Java,  and  commonly  measures  about  4  feet 
in  length,  although  it  grows  to  6  feet.  In  colour  it  is  bright  yellow,  with 
black  rings  equal  to  or  exceeding  in  length  the  light  interspaces ;  while  on  the  head 
a  black  band  commences  between  the  eyes  and  widens  towards  the  nape  of  the 
neck ;  the  tip  of  the  muzzle  being  brown.  The  crait  is  of  a  dark,  almost  steel-blue 
black,  or  chocolate-brown,  colour,  with  narrow  white  crossbars,  streaks,  or  rings  of 
white ;  the  under  surface  being  of  a  dark  livid  hue,  or  whitish  or  yellowish.  It 
inhabits  the  whole  of  India,  but  is  not  so  large  as  the  raj -samp,  which  is  probably 
as  poisonous,  though  it  does  not  come  much  into  contact  with  human  beings,  and 
is,  therefore,  a  less  terrible  destroyer  of  life.  The  crait  frequently  insinuates  itself 
into  houses,  where  it  conceals  itself  in  bathrooms,  verandahs,  cupboards,  or  between 
the  bars  of  shutters;  while  an  instance  is  on  record  where  one  was  discovered 
coiled  up  beneath  the  pillow  of  a  palki  in  which  a  lady  had  made  a  night's  journey. 
Next  to  the  cobra,  the  crait  is  credited  with  killing  more  human  beings  in  India 
than  any  other  snake. 

The  name  "  cobra  de  capello,"  or  hooded  snake,  was  applied  by 
the  Portuguese  in  Ceylon  to  the  common  Indian  representative  of  a, 
genus  of  deadly  serpents  distinguished  from  the  craits  by  their  power  of  inflating 
the  neck,  and  likewise  by  the  scales  in  the  middle  of  the  back  not  being  larger 
than  the  rest.  By  Europeans  these  snakes  are  now  generally  known  by  the  name 
of  cobras.  Agreeing  with  the  craits  in  having  the  fangs  furnished  with  a  complete 
groove  on  the  front  surface,  and  likewise  by  the  presence  of  from  one  to  three 
solid  teeth  behind  them,  the  cobras  have  the  head  distinct  from  the  neck,  and 
covered  with  large  shields,  among  which  the  loreal  is  wanting ;  the  eye  being  rather 
small,  with  a  round  pupil.  The  body  is  cylindrical,  with  the  smooth  scales  disposed 
in  fifteen  or  more  oblique  rows;  while  the  tail  is  of  moderate  length,  with  its 
inferior  shields  in  either  a  single  or  a  double  series.  The  dilatation  of  the  neck, 
which  always  takes  place  when  they  are  excited  and  about  to  strike,  at  once  serves 
to  distinguish  the  cobras  from  all  other  snakes.  Cobras  are  confined  to  Africa  and 
Southern  Asia,  and  are  represented  by  six  or  seven  species,  two  of  which  are  found 
in  India  and  a  third  in  Java  and  Borneo,  the  others  being  African.  Of  the  Indian 
forms,  by  far  the  most  abundant  is  the  common  or  true  cobra  (Naia  tripudians), 
which  is  known  to  the  natives  of  India  as  the  kala  nag  or  kala  samp  (black  snake). 
Distinguished  by  having  no  large  shields  on  the  head  behind  the  parietals,  and  by 
the  whole  of  the  shields  on  the  under  surface  of  the  tail  being  arranged  in  a  double 
series,  this  snake  is  a  very  variable  species  as  regards  coloration,  some  examples 
having  a  dark  spectacle-like  mark  on  the  back  of  the  hood,  while  others  have  only 
a  single  eye-like  spot,  and  others,  again,  have  no  mark  at  all  in  this  region.  In 
regard  to  coloration,  Mr.  Boulenger  remarks  that  the  hue  of  the  upper-parts  may 
be  greyish  brown  or  black,  with  or  without  a  spectacle — or  loop-shaped  black 
light-edged  marking  on  the  neck — or  with  light  spots  or  crossbands  on  the  body ;. 
while  beneath  it  varies  from  whitish,  through  brownish,  to  blackish,  sometimes 
with  black  crossbars  on  the  fore-part  of  the  body.  Occasionally  attaining  a  length 
of  a  few  inches  over  6  feet,  while  an  instance  is  on  record  where  a  specimen 


COLUBRINE   GROUP. 


223 


measured  upwards  of  7  feet  3  inches,  this  cobra  is  distributed  over  the  whole  of 
India  and  Ceylon,  ranging  westwards  through  Afghanistan  to  the  Caspian,  and  to 
the  east  to  the  Malayan  region,  and  the  south  of  China.  The  other  Indian  species, 
or  giant  cobra  (N.  bungarus),  is  a  larger  snake,  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a 
pair  of  large  shields  on  the  head  behind  the  parietals,  while  the  shields  beneath  the 
tail  usually  form  only  a  single  series.  When  adult,  its  colour  is  yellowish  or  brown, 


YOUNG  GIANT  COBRA  OR   HAMADRYAD  (f  nat.  size). 

with  more  or  less  distinctly  marked  dark  crossbands ;  but  young  specimens  are 
usually  black,  with  yellow  rings  on  the  body  and  bars  on  the  head,  and  in  some 
instances  there  are  light  spots  on  the  upper  surface,  and  the  inferior  shields  are 
whitish  with  black  margins.  In  size,  the  giant  cobra  is  known  to  measure  as  much 
as  13  feet,  and  probably  grows  larger.  Fiercer  than  the  common  species,  this 
cobra  is  fortunately  far  less  abundant ;  its  range  extending  from  India  through 
Burma  and  Siam  to  the  Malayan  region  and  the  Philippines.  Another  species  is 
the  asp  or  Egyptian  cobra  (N.  haie),  which  is  widely  spread  over  Africa,  and 


224  SNAKES. 

presents  great  variations  in  colour.  Somewhat  exceeding  in  size  the  true  cobra, 
the  asp  is  distinguished  by  the  sixth  upper  labial  shield  of  the  head  much 
exceeding  the  others  in  length,  and  uniting  with  the  temporal,  so  as  to  form  a  large 
plate,  which  anteriorly  comes  in  contact  with  the  postocular  shield.  In  most 
Egyptian  examples  the  colour  of  the  upper-parts  is  uniformly  straw-yellow,  while 
the  under-parts  are  light  yellow ;  but  there  may  be  dark  crossbands  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  region  of  the  neck,  which  sometimes  unite  into  a  patch.  The  straw- 
colour  may,  however,  shade  into  blackish  brown  and  occasionally  the  hues  may  be 
brighter. 

Our  account  of  the  habits  of  these  snakes  will  be  mainly  confined 

Habits 

to  the  common  Indian  species,  and  since  these  have  been  specially 
studied  by  Sir  J.  Fayrer  we  shall  paraphrase  or  quote  from  his  writings.  Although 
frequently  seen  in  motion  during  the  day,  cobras  are  most  active  during  the  night ; 
and  they  feed  chiefly  on  small  mammals,  birds'  eggs,  frogs,  fish,  and  even  insects. 
The  giant  cobra  subsists,  however,  almost  entirely  on  other  snakes ;  and  the  other 
species  will  occasionally  rob  liens'  nests,  swallowing  the  eggs  whole.  In  captivity, 
cobras  will  live  weeks  and  even  months  without  tasting  food  of  any  kind  or 
touching  water.  Although  essentially  terrestrial,  they  will  readily  enter  water,  in 
which  they  swim  well ;  while  they  occasionally  climb  trees  in  search  of  food,  and 
are  often  found,  more  especially  during  the  rainy  season,  in  old  buildings  and  walls, 
or  in  wood-stacks  and  heaps  of  rubbish.  It  is  when  collected  in  such  situations 
that  they  are  most  commonly  trodden  upon  by  the  natives — and  more  frequently 
at  night  than  at  other  times — with  the  well-known  fatal  results.  These  snakes 
lay  from  eighteen  to  twenty-five  oval  eggs  about  the  size  of  those  of  a  pigeon. 
Ascending  to  a  height  of  some  eight  thousand  feet  in  the  Himalaya,  the  common 
cobra  "  is  equally  dreaded  and  fatal  wherever  met  with ;  fortunately  it  is  not 
naturally  aggressive,  unless  provoked,  at  which  times  its  aspect  is  most  alarming. 
Raising  the  anterior  third  or  more  of  its  body,  and  expanding  its  hood,  with  a  loud 
hissing,  it  draws  back  its  head  prepared  to  strike,  and,  when  it  does  so,  darts  its 
head  forwards,  and  either  scratches,  or  seizes  and  imbeds  its  fangs  in  the  object  of 
attack.  If  the  grasp  be  complete  and  the  fangs  imbedded  in  the  flesh,  dangerous 
and  often  fatal  effects  result ;  but  if  the  fangs  only  inflict  a  scratch,  or  if  the  snake 
be  weak  or  exhausted,  the  same  great  danger  is  not  incurred.  If  the  poison  enter 
a  large  vein  and  be  quickly  carried  into  the  circulation,  death  is  very  rapid ;  men 
having  been  known  to  perish  from  cobra-bite  within  half  an  hour.  The  largest 
and  strongest  as  well  as  the  smallest  and  weakest  creatures  succumb ;  but,  fortun- 
ately, all  who  are  bitten  do  not  die.  In  the  first  place,  some  human  beings,  as  well 
as  lower  animals,  have  greater  tolerance  than  others  of  this  or  of  other  poisons — a 
result,  doubtless,  of  idiosyncrasy  or  varying  degrees  of  nervous  energy  which 
enables  one  to  resist  that  to  which  another  would  yield ;  or  a  wound  may  have 
been  inflicted  and  yet  but  little  of  the  poison  inoculated ;  or,  in  the  third  place,  the 
snake  may  be  weak  or  sickly,  or  it  may  have  been  exhausted  by  recent  biting,  and 
thus  have  become  temporarily  deprived  of  the  power  of  inflicting  a  deadly  wound. 
But  when  a  cobra  in  the  full  possession  of  its  powers  bites,  and  injects  the  poison 
into  man  or  beast,  it  is  almost  surely  fatal,  and  all  the  remedies  vaunted  as  infallible 
antidotes  are  futile." 


COLUBRINE   GROUP. 


22$ 


Death-Adders. 


Among  the  deadliest  of  Australian  snakes  is  the  purplish 
dder  (Pseudechis  porphyriaca),  alone  representing  a  genus 
characterised  by  the  great  elongation  and  slenderriess  of  the  cylindrical  body,  the 
sharply  pointed  tail,  the  small  head,  imperfectly  differentiated  from  the  neck  and 
clothed  with  large  shields,  the  smooth  scales,  arranged  in  from  seventeen  to  twenty- 
three  rows,  the  divided  anal  shield,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  shields  on  the 


SHORT  DEATH-ADDER,    AND   SPINE-TAILED  DEATH-ADDER  (J  nat.  size). 

under  surface  of  the  tail  at  first  in  a  single,  and  posteriorly  in  a  double  series. 
Behind  the  fangs  are  one  or  two  solid  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw;  the  pupil  of  the  eye 
is  round ;  and  the  neck  cannot  be  dilated.  This  snake,  which  grows  to  a  length  of 
about  seven  feet,  is  very  variable  in  coloration.  Generally,  however,  the  colour  of 
the  back  varies  from  a  shining  purplish  black  to  dark  olive-brown,  the  under- 
parts  being  red,  and  the  sides  carmine ;  but  the  latter  colours  not  occupying  the 
centres  of  the  scales,  which  are  black,  as  are  the  hinder  borders  of  the  shields  of 
the  under  surface.  Generally  known  to  the  settlers  by  the  name  of  the  black 

VOL.  V.  — 15 


226  SNAKES. 

snake,  this  reptile  is  dreaded  alike  by  natives  and  Europeans,  although,  fortunately, 
it  nearly  always  endeavours  to  escape  when  discovered.  The  short  death-adder 
(Hoplicephalus  curtus),  represented  in  the  upper  figure  of  the  illustration 
on  p.  225,  is  selected  as  a  well-known  example  of  a  second  Australian  genus, 
which  includes  a  large  number  of  species.  Closely  resembling  the  harmless  snakes 
in  general  appearance,  these  death-adders  are  distinguished  from  the  other  members 
of  this  group  by  the  presence  in  the  upper  jaw  of  a  row  of  small,  curved,  solid 
teeth  behind  the  fangs.  The  head  is  unsymmetrically  four-sided,  flattened,  and 
rounded  at  the  muzzle,  the  body  massive,  and  the  tail  either  moderate  or  short. 
The  smooth  and  equal-sized  scales  are  arranged  in  from  fifteen  to  twenty-one  rows, 
those  on  the  middle  of  the  back  not  being  larger  than  the  rest ;  and  there  is  but 
a  single  row  of  shields  on  the  under  surface  of  the  tail.  All  these  species  are 
peculiar  in  the  group  for  producing  living  young,  The  figured  species,  which 
varies  from  3  to  4  feet  in  length,  has  a  short  tail,  and  nineteen  rows  of  scales. 
Although  very  variable  as  regards  coloration,  the  head  is  generally  uniform  black, 
the  body  olive-colour,  with  broad  brown  or  black  crossbands,  the  hinder-part  of 
the  body  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail  uniformly  blackish,  and  the  whole 
of  the  under-parts  light  yellow.  Some  specimens  have,  however,  no  dark  bands 
on  the  back.  The  spine-tailed  death-adder  (Acanthopis  antarcticus),  depicted  in 
the  lower  figure  of  the  illustration,  represents  a  genus  easily  recognised  by  the 
horny  appendage  with  which  the  tail  terminates;  the  middle  row  of  scales  in 
the  fore-part  of  the  body  being  more  or  less  distinctly  keeled.  In  addition  to 
Australia  and  New  Guinea,  this  snake  also  inhabits  the  Eastern  Moluccas,  as  well 
as  Ceram  and  Amboyna.  It  feeds  chiefly  upon  frogs  and  young  birds  and  is 
regarded  by  Europeans  as  most  deadly,  although  the  natives  believe  that  no  one 
ever  dies  from  a  death-adder's  bite. 

The  sea-snakes  are  now  considered  to  represent  merely  a  sub- 
Sea- Snakes. 

family  (Hydrophiince}  of  the  front-fanged  Colubrines.      From  the 

preceding  subfamily  they  are  distinguished,  not  only  by  their  marine  habits, 
but  likewise  by  their  strongly  compressed  and  oar-shaped  tails,  in  the  skeleton  of 
which  both  the  superior  and  inferior  spines  of  the  vertebrae  are  very  strongly 
developed.  With  the  exception  of  the  broad-tailed  sea-snakes,  which  form  a  kind 
of  transition  between  the  present  and  preceding  subfamilies,  these  snakes  never 
leave  the  water;  and  the  inferior  surface  of  the  body  and  tail  is  either  covered 
with  scales  similar  to  those  on  the  upper-parts,  or,  if  shields  are  present,  they  are 
of  small  size.  All  are  very  poisonous,  and  produce  living  young.  Their  head- 
quarters are  the  coasts  of  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  tropical  districts  of  the 
Western  Pacific,  their  range  extending  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  New  Guinea 
and  Northern  Australia.  The  parti-coloured  sea-snake  has,  however,  a  more 
extensive  distribution,  ranging  from  the  western  coast  of  Africa  to  the  western 
shores  of  Tropical  America,  and  extending  as  far  north  as  Japan  and  Mantchuria, 
and  as  far  south  as  New  Zealand.  All  of  them  have  relatively  small  heads,  jaws, 
and  fangs ;  and  while  in  some  cases  the  body  is  short  and  thick,  in  others  it  is  very 
thick  only  in  the  region  of  the  tail,  and  elsewhere  disproportionately  elongated 
and  attenuated.  Always  varied,  the  coloration  is  often  brilliant  and  beautiful; 
and  the  oar-like  form  of  the  tail  and  hinder-part  of  the  body  is  obviously  an 


SEA-SNAKES. 


227, 


adaptation  to  an  aquatic  life.  Living  in  the  sea,  or  in  tidal  waters,  their  move- 
ments in  the  clear  blue  water  are  agile  and  elegant;  but  when  thrown  ashore, 
as  frequently  happens,  the  majority  are  helpless.  Their  food  consists  of  fish  and 
such  other  creatures  as  they  can  capture  in  the  sea.  In  parts  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
sea-snakes  are  sometimes  seen  congregating  in  large  shoals.  The  group  is  divided 
into  nine  genera,  no  less  than  six  of  which  are  represented  in  Indian  waters. 

Broad-Tailed  The  broad-tailed  sea-snakes,  of   which  there  are  three  species. 

Sea-Snakes,  constituting  the  genus  Platurus,  in  general  appearance  closely 
resemble  some  of  the  craits,  especially  as  regards  the  shape  of  the  skull  and  the 
scaling  of  the  head  and  body,  but  are  distinguished  by  the  compression  and  depth 


BANDED   SEA-SNAKE  (£  nat.  size). 


of  the  tail.  In  the  upper  jaw,  which  is  very  short,  there  is  in  the  maxilla  of  each 
side  a  pair  of  large  grooved  fangs,  followed  by  a  single  very  small  solid  tooth. 
The  arrangement  of  the  shields  of  the  head  is  normal,  each  nostril  being  pierced  in 
a  laterally-placed  nasal  ;  the  scales  on  the  body  are  smooth  and  overlapping,  and 
the  inferior  surface  is  covered  with  large  shields.  Of  the  three  species,  the  banded 
sea-snake  (P.  laticaudatus)  is  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  a  keel  on  the  lower 
surface  of  the  hinder-part  of  the  body,  and  also  of  an  unpaired  shield  on  the 
muzzle  ;  the  scales  being  arranged  in  nineteen  rows.  In  colour,  it  is  olive  above 
and  yellowish  beneath,  with  black  rings  fully  equal  in  width  to  the  light  inter- 
spaces. Attaining  a  length  of  a  little  over  a  yard,  this  species  ranges  from  the 
Bay  of  Bengal  and  the  China  Sea  to  Polynesia.  An  allied  but  larger  species 


228 


SNAKES. 


(P.  colubrinus),  with  the  same  distribution,  is  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  an 
unpaired  shield  on  the  head,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  scales  in  from  twenty-one 
to  twenty-five  rows ;  while  the  third  species  (P.  schistorhynchus),  from  the  China 
Sea  and  Western  Pacific,  differs  in  having  a  keel  along  the  hinder  half  of  the 
lower  surface  of  the  body.  That  the  broad-tailed  sea-snakes  are  the  direct 
descendants  of  terrestrial  forms  allied  to  the  craits,  is  proved  by  their  retention  of 
large  inferior  shields,  and  by  their  habits.  Xot  only  are  these  snakes  frequently 
found  at  some  distance  from  water,  but  in  Sumatra  a  specimen  was  captured 
nearly  a  day's  march  inland. 

Parti-Coloured  In  common  with  all  the  other  members  of  the  subfamily,  the 

Sea-Snake,     parti-coloured  sea-snake  (Hydrus  platyurus)  has  the  nostrils  placed 

on  the  upper  surface  of  the  muzzle ;  and  the  under  surface  of  the  body  and  tail 


BLACK-BANDED   SEA-SNAKE  (f  nat.  size). 

in  this  species  are  scaled  like  the  rest,  although  in  some  of  the  genera  traces  of 
enlarged  shields  still  persist.  In  the  skull,  the  maxilla  is  considerably  longer  than 
the  transverse  bone,  and  carries  a  pair  of  short  fangs,  followed,  after  an  interval, 
by  seven  or  eight  solid  teeth ;  the  muzzle  is  elongated ;  the  head-shields  are  large, 
the  nasals  being  in  contact  with  one  another;  and  the  scales  on  the  relatively 
short  body  hexagonal  in  form  and  with  their  edges  in  apposition.  This  snake 
attains  a  length  of  a  yard;  and  in  colour  is  either  yellowish  with  symmetrical 
black  transverse  bands  or  spots,  or  uniformly  black  above,  and  yellow,  with  or 
without  black  spots  below ;  the  yellow  tail  being  ornamented  with  either  black 
spots  or  bars.  It  is  the  sole  representative  of  its  genus,  and  has  a  wider  dis- 
tribution than  any  other  member  of  the  group,  ranging  over  the  whole  of  the 
Indian  Ocean  and  the  tropical  and  subtropical  portions  of  the  Pacific.  The 
tpyical  sea-snakes,  forming  the  large  genus  Hydrophis,  differ  in  having  from  seven 


VIPERINE   GROUP.  229 

to  eighteen  solid  teeth  in  the  maxilla,  by  the  longer  body,  on  the  anterior  part  of 
which  the  scales  are  imbricating,  and  by  the  presence  of  more  or  less  distinct  small 
shields  on  the  lower  surface. 

Black-Banded  The  black-banded  sea-snake  (Distira  cyanocincta)  may  be  taken 

sea-Snake.  as  an  example  of  another  large  genus  differing  from  the  preceding  in 
that  the  fangs  are  followed  in  the  maxilla  by  from  four  to  ten  solid  teeth  with 
their  front  surface  grooved.  In  these  snakes  the  body  is  more  or  less  elongated, 
and  generally  has  the  scales  on  its  front  portion  slightly  overlapping,  while  the 
under  surface  carries  small  shields.  The  figured  species,  which  grows  to  a  length 
of  6  feet,  is  of  a  greenish  olive  above,  with  black  transverse  bars  or  rings,  which 
are  sometimes  connected  by  a  longitudinal  stripe  on  the  under  surface.  This 
snake  ranges  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  Japan,  and  is 
one  of  the  most  abundant  in  the  Indian  seas. 

There  are  several  points  in  which  the  sea-snakes  differ  from  their  land  cousins 
as  regards  habits,  in  addition  to  those  already  noticed.  In  the  first  place,  the  skin 
is  changed  piecemeal,  instead  of  entire ;  the  casting  taking  place  at  very  frequent 
intervals.  Moreover,  the  tongue  is  very  short,  and  only  the  extreme  tips  of  its 
two  extremities  are  exserted  through  small  notches  on  either  side  of  the  rostral 
shield  of  the  head,  which  is  prolonged  downwards  so  as  to  close  the  mouth. 
When,  however,  these  snakes  are  cast  ashore  and  almost  blinded  by  the  unaccus- 
tomed light,  the  tongue  is  used  in  the  ordinary  manner  as  a  feeler. 

THE  VIPERS. 
Family  VlPERID^. 

Omitting  mention  of  the  small  and  unimportant  family  of  harmless  snakes 
known  as  blunt-heads  (Amblycephalidce),  represented  by  two  Oriental  and  two 
tropical  American  genera,  we  pass  to  the  viper  family,  which  includes  the 
whole  of  the  remaining  members  of  the  suborder.  The  distinction  between  a 
colubrine  and  viperine  snake  is  that  in  the  latter  the  maxillae  or  hinder  upper  jaw- 
bones are  capable  of  being  erected  in  a  vertical  plane  at  right  angles  to  the 
transverse  bones,  while  in  form  they  are  short  and  thick,  and  they  always  carry 
a  single  pair  of  large  tubular  fangs.  All  vipers  are  poisonous,  and,  so  far  as 
known,  produce  living  young;  while  they  are  more  or  less  nocturnal  and  terrestrial 
in  their  habits,  although  a  few  ascend  trees.  The  thick  body,  the  flat  and  often 
triangular  head,  the  short  and  stumpy  tail,  the  reduction  of  the  maxillary  teeth  to 
a  single  pair  of  fangs,  and  the  vertical  pupil  of  the  eye,  are  all  features  dis- 
tinguishing vipers  as  a  whole  from  the  poisonous  colubrines;  but,  as  already 
mentioned,  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  examine  the  structure  of  the  skull  itself 
before  any  particular  snake  can  be  assigned  to  its  proper  serial  position.  That 
the  vipers  form  a  highly  specialised  group  is  self-evident;  and  Mr.  Boulenger 
believes  them  to  be  descended  from  the  hind-fanged  colubrines.  The  family  is 
divided  into  two  groups,  namely,  the  typical  vipers  of  the  Old  World,  which 
attain  their  maximum  development  in  Africa,  and  the  American  and  Asiatic 
pit- vipers. 


2  30  SNAKES. 

Our  first  representatives  of  the  Old  World  vipers  (Viperince) 
are  the  true  vipers,  which  form  a  genus  with  some  twenty  species, 
ranging  over  Africa  (exclusive  of  Madagascar),  Europe,  and  a  large  portion  of  Asia, 
one  of  them  reaching  India.  In  common  with  the  other  members  of  the  subfamily, 
they  have  no  pit  in  the  loreal  shield  of  the  head ;  while  they  are  specially  dis- 
tinguished by  the  upper  surface  of  the  head  being  covered  either  with  scales  or 
small  shields,  and  by  the  keeled  scales  of  the  body  running  in  straight  longitudinal 
rows,  which  vary  in  number  from  twenty-one  to  thirty-eight ;  and  likewise  by  the 
double  row  of  shields  beneath  the  tail. 

The  common  viper  (Vipera  verus),  which  is  happily  the  only 
°  British  poisonous  snake,  is  one  of  the  smallest  representatives  of  the 
genus,  and  is  distinguished  by  the  mixture  of  scales  and  shields  on  the  head  (three 
of  the  latter  being  larger  than  the  rest),  and  the  general  presence  of  only  a  single 
row  of  scales  between  the  eye  and  the  upper  labial  shields  beneath.  In  colour  and 
markings  the  common  viper  is  extremely  variable ;  but  as  a  rule  a  dark  zigzag 
stripe  runs  down  the  whole  length  of  the  middle  of  the  back.  With  regard  to 
coloration,  in  some  specimens  the  ground-colour  is  nearly  olive,  in  others  a  deep 
rich  brown,  and  in  others  a  dirty  brownish  yellow;  while  a  mark  between  the 
eyes,  a  spot  on  each  side  of  the  hinder  part  of  the  head,  the  above-mentioned  zigzag 
line  formed  of  confluent  quadrangular  spots  on  the  back,  and  a  row  of  small 
irregular  triangular  spots  on  each  side  of  the  body,  are  of  a  darker  hue  than  the 
ground-colour,  and  are  frequently  nearly  black.  In  some  examples  the  under- 
parts  are  lead-colour,  with  lighter  or  darker  spots,  while  in  others  they  are  almost 
wholly  black.  Bell  records  a  specimen  in  which  the  ground-colour  was  nearly 
white  and  the  markings  black ;  and  in  one  variety  the  ground-colour  is  brick-red, 
with  ferruginous  markings ;  while  in  a  second  the  under-parts  acquire  a  more  or 
less  marked  blue  tinge ;  and  in  a  third  the  whole  skin,  with  the  exception  of  that 
beneath  the  jaw  and  throat  is  black,  the  usual  markings  being  visible  in  certain 
lights.  The  average  length  of  the  common  viper  is  about  10  inches.  Its  geo- 
graphical distribution  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  European  snake,  extending 
from  Portugal  eastwards  to  the  Island  of  Saghalien,  while  northwards  it  reaches 
to  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  southwards  to  Central  Spain. 

In   South- Western   Europe   the   common   viper   is   replaced  or 
Southern  Viper.  . 

accompanied   by   a   closely-allied   form   which    may   be    called   the 

southern  viper  (F.  aspis),  regarded  by  some  writers  as  a  distinct  species,  and  by 
others  as  a  mere  variety.  As  it  was  doubtless  to  this  snake  that  the  Latin  term 
Vivipara  was  applied,  German  writers  restrict  the  name  viper  to  the  southern 
form,  and  use  the  term  Kreuzotter  for  the  common  viper.  In  the  latter 
the  front  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  head  is  covered  with  three  distinct  small 
shields,  but  in  the  southern  form  it  is  clothed  only  with  smooth  or  slightly  ridged 
scales,  among  which  seldom  more  than  a  single  polygonal  roundish  one  can  be 
regarded  as  representing  a  frontal  shield ;  moreover,  instead  of  the  single  row  of 
small  scales  generally  separating  the  eye  of  the  common  viper  from  the  upper 
labial  shields,  the  southern  form  always  has  two  such  rows.  There  is  likewise  a 
difference  in  the  shape  of  the  muzzle  in  the  two  forms.  The  southern  viper  may 
be  considered  characteristic  of  the  Mediterranean  countries,  occurring  in  North 


A   FAMILY    OF    VIPERS. 


VIPERINE   GROUP. 


233 


Africa  as  well  as  in  Europe.  It  is  noteworthy  that  in  the  borderland  of  the 
distributional  areas  of  the  two  forms,  such  as  Northern  Spain  and  Italy,  it  is 
difficult  to  say  to  which  of  the  two  any  specimen  may  belong. 

More  numerous  in  Scotland  than  the  ringed  snake,  but,  like  it,  unknown  in 
Ireland,  the  common  viper  generally  frequents  heaths,  dry  woods,  and  sandy  banks. 
Although  its  bite  produces  severe  effects,  it  is  seldom,  unless  the  sufferer  be  very 
young  or  in  ill-health,  that  death  ensues.  During  the  winter  months,  vipers 
generally  hibernate  in  small  parties  for  the  sake  of  mutual  warmth,  several  being 
often  found  twined  together  in  a  torpid  condition. 


LONG-NOSED,    OR   SAND- VIPER  (\  Hat.  size). 

Long-Nosed  Another   well-known   poisonous   European   snake    is  the   long- 

Viper,  nosed,  or  sand-viper  (F.  ammocbytes),  easily  recognised  by  the 
presence  of  a  soft  horny  appendage  at  the  end  of  the  nose,  covered  with  scales, 
and  not  unlike  a  conical  wart  in  appearance.  It  is  also  distinguished  from  the 
common  viper  by  the  absence  of  any  large  shield,  except  the  supraoculars,  on  the 
top  of  the  head ;  although  in  coloration  the  two  species  are  very  similar.  In  size 
it  is  the  largest  European  representative  of  the  group,  attaining  a  length  in  some 
rare  instances  of  just  over  a  yard.  The  sand- viper  ranges  from  Italy  to  Armenia. 
In  Carinthia  it  is  the  commonest  of  snakes,  while  in  the  Tyrol  it  is  local,  but 
abundant  in  the  south  of  Hungary  and  Dalmatia.  Mainly  nocturnal,  it  is  much 
more  commonly  found  in  hilly  than  in  level  districts,  ascending  in  the  mountains 


234 


SNAKES. 


Russell's  Viper. 


to  a  height  of  between  three  thousand  and  four  thousand  feet.  Except  during 
the  pairing-season,  when  it  is  found  in  couples,  it  is  a  solitary  creature,  subsisting 
on  other  snakes,  mice,  voles,  birds,  and  lizards. 

As  being  one  of  the  deadliest  of  Indian  snakes,  we  may  take 
as  our  next  example  of  the  genus  the  beautiful  Russell's  viper 
(  V.  russelli),  of  India,  Ceylon,  Burma,  and  Siam.  From  the  other  viper  inhabiting 
Kashmir,  this  species  may  be  distinguished  by  having  the  rostral  shield  of  the 
head  as  long  as  broad,  and  the  scales  on  the  body  arranged  in  from  twenty-seven 
to  thirty-one  rows.  Sometimes  known  as  the  chain-viper,  this  snake  attains  a 


RUSSELL'S  VIPER  (£  nat.  size). 

length  of  4  feet.  Its  ground-colour  is  pale  brown,  with  three  longitudinal  series 
of  black  light-edged  rings,  sometimes  replaced  by  faint  dark  spots;  the  lower- 
parts  being  yellowish  white,  either  with  or  without  small  crescentic  black  spots. 
In  young  specimens,  as  shown  in  our  illustration,  the  black  rings  on  the  upper- 
parts  surround  dark  reddish  brown  spots,  which  in  the  middle  series  are  in  contact 
with  one  another.  Sir  J.  Fayrer  regards  this  snake  as  being,  next  to  the  cobra, 
the  most  dangerous  in  India,  stating  that  fowls  bitten  by  it  sometimes  expire 
in  less  than  a  minute.  "It  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  is  sluggish,  and  does  not 
readily  strike  unless  irritated,  when  it  bites  with  great  fury ;  it  hisses  fiercely  and 
strikes  with  vigour.  Its  long  movable  fangs  are  very  prominent  objects,  and  with 
them  it  is  capable  of  inflicting  deep  as  well  as  poisoned  wounds.  When  disturbed, 


VIPERINE   GROUP. 


235 


its  loud  hissing  is  calculated  to  warn  those  who  approach  it,  and  it  does  not 
appear  to  cause  many  human  deaths,  although  it  may  be  that  its  misdeeds  are 
sometimes  ascribed  to  the  cobra.  This  viper  is  said  to  frequently  kill  cattle  while 
grazing,  by  biting  them  about  the  nose  or  mouth.  In  proof  of  its  sluggish  nature, 
there  is  a  well-authenticated  tale  of  a  young  person  having  picked  one  up,  and, 
mistaking  it  for  an  innocent  snake,  carried  it  home ;  its  true  character  being  only 
discovered  when  it  bit  a  dog." 

In  Africa  the  place  of  Russell's  viper  is  taken  by  the  dreaded 
puff-adder  ( V.  arietans),  which  occasionally  attains  a  length  of  6  feet. 
It  is  the  only  member  of  the  genus  in  which  the  unusually  small  nostrils  open 


Puff-Adder. 


THE  PUFF-ADDER  (±  nat.  size). 


upwards  near  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle;  and  it  is  further  distinguished  by 
having  a  supranasal  shield,  covered,  like  the  region  of  the  brow,  with  upright 
horny  scales  or  spines.  In  appearance  most  hideous  and  repulsive,  this  snake  has 
the  large  and  flattened  head  triangular  in  shape,  very  broad  and  blunt  at  the 
muzzle,  and  sharply  defined  from  the  body,  the  latter  being  thick  and  almost 
triangular  in  section.  Both  head  and  body  are  covered  with  keeled  overlapping 
scales,  differing  from  one  another  only  in  size,  and  arranged  on  the  body  in  from 
thirty-one  to  thirty-three  longitudinal  rows,  and  forming  three  or  four  series 
between  the  eyes  and  the  upper  labials.  The  coloration  and  marking  vary  to  a 
certain  extent  individually  ;  but  there  is  a  great  change  in  the  brightness  of  the 
tints  immediately  after  the  changing  of  the  skin.  The  puff-adder  is  spread  over 


236 


SNAKES. 


nearly  the  whole  of  Africa,  and  is  everywhere  dreaded  from  its  deadly  nature. 
Inhabiting  dry  and  sandy  places,  it  derives  its  name  from  its  habit,  when  angry  or 
alarmed,  of  drawing  in  a  full  breath  and  causing  the  body  to  swell  visibly,  Then 
the  air  is  allowed  to  escape  gradually,  producing  as  it  does  so  a  prolonged  sighing 
or  blowing  sound  which  continues  till  the  lungs  are  emptied,  this  process  being 
repeated  so  long  as  the  provocation  lasts.  Usually  this  reptile  lies  half -hidden  in 
the  sand,  with  its  head  fully  exposed,  and  when  approached  merely  rises  without 
attempting  to  escape,  and  so  virulent  is  its  bite  that  even  horses  have  been  known 
to  die  within  a  few  hours  after  being  struck.  The  poison  is  used  by  the  bushmen 
for  their  arrows,  to  the  tips  of  which  it  is  made  to  adhere  by  being  mingled  with 
the  viscid  juice  of  the  amaryllis. 


Horned  Vipers. 


HORNED  VIPERS  IN  THE   SAND   (|  nat.  SUe). 

Next  to  the  southern  viper,  or  asp,  no  serpent  was  more  feared 
by  the  ancients  than  the  Egyptian  cerastes,  or  horned  viper  (Cerastes 
<cornutus).  As  a  genus,  the  two  species  are  characterised  by  the  small  crescentic 
nostrils  situated  on  the  sides  of  the  muzzle,  the  presence  in  the  male,  and  some- 
times in  the  female,  of  a  pair  of  scale-covered,  horn-like  processes  above  the  eyes, 
the  arrangement  of  the  scales  of  the  body  in  oblique  rows,  and  the  short  keels  on 
the  scales,  which  stop  short  of  their  tips.  The  common  horned  viper  may  be 
immediately  recognised  as  an  inhabitant  of  desert  places  from  the  general  sombre 
-and  mottled  tone  of  its  coloration,  which  is  so  admirably  adapted  to  such  surround- 
ings. Usually  attaining  a  length  of  about  2  feet,  it  is  of  a  light  brownish  ground- 


VIPERINE   GROUP. 


237 


colour,  more  or  less  tinged  with  yellow,  upon  which  are  six  longitudinal  rows 
of  circular  or  quadrangular  dark  markings,  increasing  in  size  from  the  middle 
of  the  back  towards  the  sides.  Beneath  the  eyes  runs  a  dark  brown  band,  while 
the  middle  of  the  head  is  marked  by  a  light  brownish  yellow  streak,  dividing 
posteriorly,  and  uniting  on  the  sides  of  the  neck  with  another  stripe  coming  from 
the  chin.  The  scales  surrounding  the  mouth  are  a  bright  sandy  yellow,  the 
shields  on  the  under  surface  being  also  either  bright  yellow  or  whitish.  The 
scales  of  the  body  are  arranged  in  from  twenty-nine  to  thirty-three  rows  ;  the  anal 
shield  is  single,  while  the  shields  beneath  the  tail  form  a  double  series.  The  range 
of  this  snake  includes  Northern  Africa,  East  of  Morocco,  as  well  as  Kordofan  and 
Arabia ;  the  second  species  being  likewise  North  African.  Canon  Tristram  writes 
that  the  usual  habit  of  the  horned  viper  is  "  to  coil  itself  on  the  sand,  where  it 
basks  in  the  impress  of  a  camel's  footmark,  and  thence  suddenly  to  dart  out  on 


THE   EJA,    OB  DESERT  SAW-VIPER  (f  nat.  size). 

any  passing  animal.  So  great  is  the  terror  which  its  sight  inspires  in  horses, 
that  I  have  known  mine,  when  I  was  riding  in  the  Sahara,  suddenly  start  and  rear, 
trembling  and  perspiring  in  every  limb,  and  no  persuasion  would  induce  him  to 
proceed.  I  was  quite  unable  to  account  for  his  terror,  until  I  noticed  a  cerastes 
coiled  up  in  a  depression  two  or  three  paces  in  front,  with  its  basilisk  eyes  steadily 
fixed  on  us,  and  no  doubt  preparing  for  a  spring  as  the  horse  passed."  According 
to  Bruce,  this  snake,  when  about  to  attack,  moves  rapidly  forward  with  a 
sideways  motion,  unlike  that  of  any  other  serpent.  Attacking  when  quite 
unprovoked,  the  horned  viper  is  more  dreaded  than  any  other  North  African 
snake,  men  frequently  dying  from  its  bite  within  half  an  hour.  Its  food  consists 
of  desert-haunting  rodents,  together  with  lizards,  and  perhaps  birds. 

Desert  Saw-  While  agreeing  with  the  horned  vipers  in  having  thje  lateral 

Vipers.        body-scales  arranged  in  oblique  rows,  the  present  genus  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  its  two  species  having  but  a  single  series  of  shields  beneath  the  tail, 


238  SNAKES. 

as  well  as  by  the  absence  of  horns.  The  upper  surface  of  the  head  is  covered  with 
scales,  and  the  keeled  scales  of  the  body  form  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  rows. 
The  common  desert  saw-viper,  or,  as  it  is  called  in  Egypt,  eja  (Ecliis  carinata), 
attains  a  length  of  about  2  feet ;  and  has  the  keels  on  the  lateral  scales  of  the  body 
strongly  serrated.  In  colour  it  varies  from  pale  buff  to  greyish,  reddish,  or  pale 
brown  on  the  upper-parts,  with  three  series  of  whitish  spots  edged  with  dark 
brown,  in  addition  to  which  there  may  be  a  dark  brown  zigzag  band  along  each 
side,  while  the  head  is  ornamented  with  a  cross  or  arrowhead  mark;  and  the 
under-parts  are  whitish,  either  with  or  without  brown  dots.  This  species  inhabits 
the  desert  regions  of  Northern  Africa,  South-Western  Asia,  and  India,  being 
replaced  in  Arabia  and  Palestine  by  E.  colorata. 

The  most  remarkable  peculiarity  of  this  viper  (which,  however,  it  may  possess 
in  common  with  the  horned  vipers,  since  the  scales  of  the  latter  have  a  similar 
structure)  is  its  power  of  making  a  curious,  prolonged,  almost  hissing  sound, 
produced  by  rubbing  the  folds  of  the  sides  of  the  body  one  against  another,  when 
the  serrated  lateral  scales  grate  together.  That  this  is  the  true  cause  of  the 
sound  may  be  proved  by  twisting  the  body  of  a  dead  specimen,  and  thus  causing 
friction  between  the  scales.  Sir  J.  Fayrer  writes  that  this  species  is  a  very  fierce 
and  vicious  viper ;  it  throws  itself  into  an  attitude  of  defence  and  offence,  coiled 
up  like  a  spring,  rustling  its  carinated  scales  as  it  moves  one  fold  of  the  body 
against  another.  It  is  aggressive,  and  does  not  wait  to  be  attacked  before  darting 
its  head  and  body  at  its  enemy,  the  mouth  wide  open,  and  the  long  fangs 
vibrating,  thus  presenting  a  most  menacing  appearance.  It  is  very  poisonous, 
and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  destroys  many  human  lives,  as  men  are 
much  more  exposed  to  contact  with  this  species  than  with  Russell's  viper. 

The  dreaded  rattle-snakes  of  the  New  World  are  our  first  repre- 
sentatives of  the  subfamily  of  pit-vipers  (Crotalince),  which,  are 
common  to  Asia  and  America,  and  are  characterised  by  the  presence  between 
the  nostril  and  the  eye  of  a  deep  pit  in  each  loreal  shield,  the  physiological 
significance  of  which  is  still  unknown.  All  have  triangular  broad  heads,  and 
short  thick  bodies.  The  Asiatic  representatives  of  the  group  are  less  deadly 
serpents  than  their  American  relatives ;  while  the  only  vestige  of  the  rattle  of 
the  latter  to  be  found  in  the  former  is  a  small  horny  spine  at  the  end  of  the  tail 
of  one  species.  Many  of  the  Indian  species  are  arboreal  in  their  habits ;  their 
coloration  assimilating  to  that  of  the  foliage  and  boughs  among  which  they 
dwell.  As  regards  their  geographical  distribution,  pit-vipers  present  a  curious 
similarity  to  bears  and  deer ;  and  since  they  are  most  abundant  in  the  Oriental 
region,  and  also  more  numerous  in  North  than  in  South  America,  Mr.  Wallace  is 
of  opinion  that  the  group  originated  in  the  Indo-Chinese  countries,  and  thence 
spread  north-eastwards  to  North  America,  and  so  onward  to  the  southern  half  of 
the  New  World,  which  area,  having  been  the  last  to  receive  the  group,  has  not 
had  time,  in  spite  of  its  extreme  fitness  for  reptilian  life,  to  allow  it  to  attain  its 
full  development. 

The  rattle-snakes  are  sufficiently  distinguished  from  their  allies  by  the 
jointed  horny  appendage  at  the  end  of  the  tail  from  which  they  derive  their  name. 
In  the  young  rattle-snake  the  tail  terminates  in  a  somewhat  nail-like  "  button," 


VIPERINE   GROUP, 


239 


which  in  a  perfect  rattle  remains  at  the  tip,  the  various  rings,  which  may  reach  to 
twenty  or  more  in  number,  being  gradually  interpolated  between  this  and  the 
scaly  portion  of  the  tail.  More  or  less  symmetrical  in  form,  the  rattle  is  composed 
of  hollow,  horny  rings,  somewhat  like  quill  in  substance,  which  are  interlocked 
with  one  another,  and  are  yet  so  elastic  as  to  allow  of  a  considerable  amount  of 
motion  between  them.  The  various  rings  do  not  appear  to  be  formed  with  any 
regularity,  sometimes  several  being  added  in  a  single  year,  while  at  other  seasons 
but  one  is  developed ;  neither  does  there  seem  to  be  any  relation  between  the 
growth  of  the  rattle  and  the  changing  of  the  skin.  That  very  large  rattles  must, 
however,  belong  to  old  snakes,  is  obvious  ;  and  that  this  is  really  the  case  is  shown 
by  the  circumstance  that  at  the  present  day  rattles  with  twenty  rings  are  very 


COMMON  RATTLE-SNAKE   (£  nat.  size). 

seldom  met  with,  since  with  the  advance  of  cultivation  it  is  only  rarely  that  these 
noxious  reptiles  are  suffered  to  attain  their  full  age.  The  body  is  thick,  and, 
for  poisonous  snakes,  somewhat  long;  and  the  poison-glands  attain  very  large 
dimensions. 

Common  Since   the  rattle-snakes  are   extremely  variable   in    coloration, 

Rattle-Snake,  reliance  has  to  a  great  extent  to  be  placed  on  the  arrangement  of  the 
shields  covering  the  fore-part  of  the  head  in  the  discrimination  of  the  species.  In 
the  common  rattle-snake  (Crotalus  durissus)  of  North  America,  the  distinctive 
character  is  the  presence  of  only  two  pairs  of  large  shields  between  the  large 
supraocular  and  rostral  shields ;  these  paired  shields  being  separated  by  a  series 
of  small  ones  in  the  middle  line.  Of  these  shields,  behind  the  large  triangular 
rostral  comes  the  four-sided  anterior  pair,  representing  the  anterior  frontals,  wrhile 
to  each  of  the  latter  further  back  joins  a  larger  oval  shield  which  must  be  regarded 


24o  SNAKES. 

as  a  lateral  remnant  of  the  hinder  frontal.  The  space  between  the  two  last-named 
shields  is  occupied  by  a  series  of  small  shields,  of  which  the  front  ones  are  the 
largest;  and  between  the  supraocular  shields  commence  the  long  keeled  scales 
covering  the  body,  where  they  are  arranged  in  from  twenty -five  to  twenty-seven 
longitudinal  rows.  The  ground-colour  of  the  upper  surface  is  a  dull  greyish  brown, 
upon  which  are  two  rows  of  large,  irregular  spots,  which  may  unite  into  zigzag 
crossbands,  and  are  gradually  lost  on  the  dark  tail ;  the  under-parts  being  yellowish 
white,  marked  with  small  black  dots.  Generally  about  4J  feet  in  length,  this 
species  may  grow  to  6  feet. 

Diamond  In  the  Southern  United  States  the  commonest  member  of  the 

Battle-snake,  genus  is  the  diamond  rattle-snake  (C.  adamanteus),  represented  in 
the  upper  figure  of  the  accompanying  illustration,  which  is  not  only  the  most 
beautiful,  but  likewise  the  largest  species,  adult  females  (wThich  in  this  group  are 
always  larger  than  the  males),  not  unfrequently  measuring  6  feet  in  length. 
From  the  common  rattle-snake  it  may  be  distinguished  by  the  large  and  narrow 
head,  on  which  the  shields  are  but  slightly  developed,  the  presence  of  three  pairs  of 
shields  between  the  rostral  and  supraocular  on  the  top  of  the  muzzle,  by  the  scales 
of  the  body  being  always  arranged  in  twenty-seven  rows,  and  also  by  the  coloration. 
The  small  rostral  shield  is  markedly  triangular,  the  slightly  developed  frontal  has 
a  roundish  pentagonal  form,  and  the  great  supraocular  shield  a  distinctly  over- 
hanging edge.  After  shedding,  the  new  skin  is  of  a  beautiful  greenish,  or 
occasionally  golden-brown,  ground-colour;  upon  this  is  a  triple  lozenge-shaped 
chain-pattern  on  each  side  of  the  back,  the  golden  yellow  lines  of  which  stand  out 
in  marked  contrast  to  the  dark  diamonds  of  the  ground-colour.  A  blackish  brown 
band  runs  from  the  muzzle  through  each  eye  to  the  corner  of  the  mouth ;  and  the 
top  of  the  head  is  either  uniformly  coloured,  or  ornamented  with  irregular  markings. 
South  American  Of  the  six  species  of  the  genus,  four  are  confined  to  North 

Rattle-Snakes.  America,  and  only  one  is  found  to  the  southward  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama.  The  latter  species  (C.  horridus),  which  is  represented  in  the  lower  figure 
of  our  illustration,  approaches  the  common  species  as  regards  the  arrangement  of 
the  shields  on  the  head,  while  in  coloration  it  is  like  the  diamond  rattle-snake. 
From  the  former  it  may  be  distinguished  by  the  circumstance  that  the  two  pairs  of 
shields  between  the  rostral  and  the  supraocular  have  no  small  shields  between 
them,  so  that  they  come  in  contact  with  one  another  in  the  middle  line  ;  while  from 
the  latter  the  larger  size  of  the  lozenges  on  the  body,  and  the  presence  in  each  of 
a  light-coloured  centre  will  serve  as  a  sufficient  distinction,  in  addition  to  the 
different  arrangement  of  the  head-shields. 

In  noticing  the  habits  of  these  snakes  our  remarks  will  chiefly 
relate  to  the  North  American  species.  As  we  have  already  said, 
rattle-snakes  chiefly  frequent  dry  and  sandy  localities,  more  especially  when  they 
are  covered  with  bushes ;  but  we  have  to  add  that  in  North  America  they  fre- 
quently take  up  their  abode  in  the  burrows  of  the  prairie-marmot.  Formerly  it 
was  thought  that  the  snakes  and  marmots  lived  together  in  harmony,  but  it  is  now 
ascertained  that  the  former  prey  on  the  young  of  the  latter.  The  general  food  of 
rattle-snakes  consists  of  small  mammals,  birds,  lizards,  and  frogs,  the  latter  being 
especial  favourites ;  but  mammals  as  large  as  a  mink  have  occasionally  been  taken 


VIPERINE   GROUP. 


241 


from  them.  The  most  extraordinary  peculiarity  connected  with  the  common 
species  is  its  habit  in  the  colder  regions  of  North  America  of  collecting  in  enormous 
numbers  for  the  winter  sleep.  In  some  districts  the  snakes  used  to  assemble  in 
hundreds,  or  even  thousands,  from  all  sides  to  sleep  in  the  ancestral  den,  some  of 
them,  it  is  said,  travelling  distances  of  twenty  or  even  thirty  miles.  Huddled 
together  in  masses  for  the  sake  of  warmth,  the  serpents  passed  the  winter  in  a 
state  of  more  or  less  complete  torpor,  until  the  returning  warmth  of  spring  once 
more  started  them  to  spread  over  the  country  When  rattle-snakes  were  abundant, 
annual  or  biennial  hunts  used  to  take  place  at  these  dens;  the  fat  of  the 
slaughtered  reptiles  being  used  as  a  valuable  supply  of  oil.  Catlin  tells  us  how, 


DIAMOND  AND   SOUTH  AMERICAN   RATTLE-SNAKES  (^  nat.  Size). 

when  a  boy.  he  once  assisted  at  one  of  these  hunts  at  a  place  known  as  Rattle- 
snake Den,  whence  the  snakes  used  to  come  forth  on  to  a  certain  ledge  of  rock  in 
swarms.  At  one  time,  he  says,  there  was  a  knot  of  them  "  like  a  huge  mat  wound 
and  twisted  and  interlocked  together,  with  all  their  heads  like  scores  of  hydras 
standing  up  from  the  mass,"  into  which  he  fired  with  a  shot-gun.  Between  five  hundred 
and  six  hundred  were  killed  with  clubs  and  other  weapons,  but  hundreds  more  escaped 
to  the  den.  Fortunately  one  large  one  was  taken  alive,  and  was  made  the  means  of 
destroying  the  rest,  a  powder-horn  with  a  slow  fuse  being  applied  to  its  tail,  and 
the  reptile  allowed  to  crawl  back  to  the  cave,  where  a  loud  explosion  soon  told  the 
tale  of  the  destruction  that  had  taken  place. 

The  most  interesting  point  in  connection  with  rattle-snakes  is  the  use  to  which 
the  appendage  from  which  they  derive  their  name  is  put, — for  use  it  must  surely 

VOL.  v. — 1 6 


242  SNAKES. 

have.  The  old  view  was  that  it  was  intended  to  warn  creatures  preyed  on  by 
these  reptiles  of  the  approach  of  their  enemy ;  but,  in  regard  to  this  supposition, 
Darwin  well  observes  that  "  I  would  almost  as  soon  believe  that  the  cat  curls  the 
end  of  its  tail  when  preparing  to  spring  in  order  to  warn  the  doomed  mouse.  It 
is  a  much  more  probable  view  that  the  rattle-snake  uses  its  rattle,  the  cobra 
expands  its  frill,  and  the  puff-adder  swells  while  hissing  so  loudly  and  harshly,  in 
order  to  alarm  the  many  birds  and  beasts  which  are  known  to  attack  even  the  most 
venomous  species.  Snakes  act  on  the  same  principle  which  makes  a  hen  ruffle  her 
feathers  and  expand  her  wings  when  a  dog  approaches  her  chickens."  In  this 
passage  the  writer  commits  himself  to  the  view  that  the  rattle  is  an  instrument  of 
intimidation.  It  may,  however,  be  observed  that  the  sound  would  be  quite  as 


THE  BUSHMASTER  (£  nat.  size). 

likely  to  attract  enemies  as  to  repel  them.  Moreover,  it  is  now  a  well -ascertained 
fact  that  rattle-snakes  do  not  possess  the  power  of  hissing ;  and  as  that  faculty 
seems  more  closely  connected  with  fear  than  with  any  other  emotion,  it  would  be 
quite  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  rattle  stands  in  place  of  the  hiss.  Another 
feature  in  the  controversy  is  the  circumstance  that  the  sound  of  the  rattle  of  one 
snake  causes  all  its  kindred  within  hearing  to  sound  their  own ;  and  the  organ 
therefore  probably  serves  as  a  means  of  communication.  What  is  known  as 
the  "  dinner-bell "  theory,  that  is,  that  a  rattle-snake  attracts  insects  like  grass- 
hoppers and  cicadas  within  striking  distance  by  the  resemblance  of  the  sound 
of  its  rattle  to  their  own  stridulating  utterances,  has  been  pretty  clearly 
disproved ;  while  if  it  required  a  further  quietus,  the  circumstance  that  these 
reptiles  do  not  appear  to  prey  habitually  upon  insects  would  be  sufficient.  On 


VIPERINE   GROUP.  243 

the  whole,  while  admitting  that  fear  has  probably  some  share  in  the  matter,  it 
seems  better  to  suspend  our  judgment  before  definitely  committing  ourselves  to 
any  one  particular  view.  That  rattle-snakes  are  some  of  the  most  deadly  of  all 
venomous  serpents  may  be  freely  admitted ;  and  it  seems  that  we  must  almost 
concede  that  they  possess  the  mysterious  power  of  "  fascinating "  their  victims 
before  striking.  Moreover,  the  assertions  as  to  the  power  possessed  by  vipers  of 
swallowing  their  young  are  equally  numerous  and  well-authenticated  in  the  case  of 
the  serpents  under  consideration. 

The  formidable  South  American  snake  (Lachesis  muta}  known 
'  to  the  Dutch  settlers  of  Guiana  as  the  bushm aster,  but  by  the 
Brazilians  termed  the  surukuku,  differs  from  the  rattle-snakes  by  the  presence 
of  a  distinct  keel-like  ridge  down  the  back,  and,  in  place  of  a  rattle,  having  the 
under  surface  of  the  tip  of  the  tail  covered  with  from  ten  to  twelve  transverse 
rows  of  small,  spiny,  sharp  scales,  while  the  extremity  terminates  in  a  spine. 
This  snake  attains  a  length  of  from  9  to  12  feet,  and  has  the  ground-colour  of  the 
upper-parts  reddish  yellow,  upon  which  is  a  longitudinal  row  of  large  blackish 
brown  lozenges,  each  having  two  light  spots  on  either  side  of  the  middle  line ;  while 
the  under-parts  are  yellowish  white,  with  a  porcellarious  glaze.  The  large  size  and 
enormous  poison-fangs  of  the  bushmaster  render  it  one  of  .the  most  formidable 
of  the  pit- vipers ;  its  bite  being  apparently  fatal  to  human  beings  in  a  few  hours. 
Fortunately  it  is  far  from  common,  and  inhabits  only  the  secluded  portions  of  the 
primeval  forest,  where  it  lies  coiled  up  on  the  ground.  Unlike  most  snakes,  when 
disturbed  it  makes  no  attempt  to  flee,  but  strikes  with  the  rapidity  of  lightning  at 
the  disturber  of  its  slumbers. 

These  snakes  have  the  upper  surface  of  most,  or  all,  of  the  front 
Halys  Vipers. 

of  the  head  covered  with  large  shields ;    the  body  is  rather  long 

and  clothed  with  from  seventeen  to  twenty-seven  rows  of  keeled  scales;  and 
the  very  short  tail  has  its  lower  shields  arranged  in  either  a  double  or  single  series, 
some  species  having  a  small  spine  at  the  extremity,  which  is  regarded  as  a 
rudimentary  rattle.  The  genus  is  common  to  Asia  and  North  and  Central 
America ;  some  half-score  of  species  being  known,  two  of  which  are  found  in  India. 
One  species  ranges  as  far  east  as  the  Urals,  where  it  just  enters  the  confines  of 
Europe.  In  habits  they  are  all  terrestrial. 

Himalayan  Of  the  Indian  species,  in  both  of  which  at  least  the  majority  of 

Halys.  the  shields  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  tail  are  arranged  in  two  rows, 
the  Himalayan  halys  (Ancistrodon  himalayanus)  is  distinguished  by  having  two 
pairs  of  large  shields  on  the  muzzle,  the  extremity  of  which  is  but  little  turned 
upwards.  In  colour  it  is  brown,  with  black  spots  or  transverse  bands,  while  some- 
times a  light  festooned  stripe  runs  down  the  back ;  from  the  eye  to  the  angle  of 
the  mouth  runs  a  black  streak  edged  with  white ;  and  the  under-parts  are  either 
dark  brown,  or  Variegated  with  black  and  white.  This  snake,  which  grows  to 
nearly  a  yard  in  length,  is  abundant  in  the  North- Western  Himalaya,  at  elevations 
of  between  five  thousand  and  eight  thousand  feet,  although  it  sometimes  ascends 
considerably  higher.  The  carawila  (A.  hypnale),  of  Ceylon  and  Western  India,  is 
a  much  smaller  species,  not  exceeding  20  inches  in  length,  and  characterised  by  the 
extremity  of  the  upturned  muzzle  being  covered  with  small  scales. 


244 


SNAKES. 


Siberian  Halys. 


Somewhat  superior  in  size  to  the  common  viper,  this  species  (A. 
halys)  may  be  recognised  by  the  small  portion  of  the  head  that  is 
covered  with  shields,  and  also  in  that  each  shield,  or  pair  of  shields,  overlaps  with 
its  hinder  edge  the  shield  immediately  behind  it,  thus  producing  a  more  or  less 
marked  imbrication  of  the  whole  of  the  head-shields.  Another  characteristic  is  to  be 
found  in  the  small  size  of  the  anterior  frontal  shields,  which  together  have  a  crescentic 
shape  and  a  somewhat  saddle-shaped  upper  surface.  The  head  is  very  distinctly 
defined  from  the  compressed  neck,  the  body  being  rather  long,  of  a  rounded  trian- 
gular form  in  the  middle,  and  covered  with  twenty-three  rows  of  triangular  scales ; 
the  very  short  tail,  which  is  much  thinner  than  the  hinder-part  of  the  body,  is 
conical,  and  armed  at  the  extremity  with  a  forked  horny  appendage.  The  ground- 


SIBERIAN  HALYS   VIPER  (|  nat.  size). 

colour  of  the  middle  of  the  back  is  a  dark  brownish  yellow  grey,  while  that  of  the 
under-parts  is  a  yellowish  white,  with  more  or  less  well-defined  black  spots  on  the 
hinder  shields.  The  yellow  ground  of  the  labial  shields  of  the  head  has  chestnut- 
brown  markings;  and  the  crown  of  the  head  bears  a  large  quadrangular  blotch, 
forming  an  interrupted  transverse  band  on  the  frontal  shields,  and  a  temporal  band 
running  from  the  hinder  border  of  the  eye  to  the  angle  of  the  mouth  and  the  side 
of  the  neck.  Somewhat  similar  markings  ornament  the  back,  and  are  more  or  less 
clearly  margined  with  yellow.  Along  the  whole  length  of  the  back  and  the  ridge 
of  the  tail  are  a  number  of  yellowish  or  yellowish  white  black-edged  irregular 
blotches  or  crossbands ;  and  on  the  sides  are  two  rows  of  blackish  brown  spots 
with  white  edges,  which  frequently  run  one  into  another,  the  first  dark  spot  on 
the  neck  differing  from  the  rest  by  its  horse-shoe  form.  The  distributional  area  of 
this  snake  extends  eastwards  from  the  Volga  to  the  YeneseL  In  Europe  the  halys. 


VIPERINE   GROUP. 


245 


viper  inhabits  the  steppes  between  the  Volga  and  the  Urals ;  but  its  true  home 
is  Central  Asia. 

Copper-Head  In  North  America,  one  of   the  best  known   and  most  widely 

Snake.  distributed  members  of  the  genus  is  the  copper-head,  or  moccasin- 
snake  (A.  contortrix),  which  seldom  much  exceeds  a  yard  in  length.  The  body  is 
strong  and  thick,  the  short  tail  provided  with  one  row  of  shields  inferiorly  and 
with  a  heavy  appendage  at  the  end,  while  the  elongated  triangular  head  is  markedly 
distinct  from  the  neck,  with  the  pits  on  the  snout  rather  shallow,  and  the  gape  of 
the  mouth  very  wide,  and  there  are  no  small  smooth  shields  behind  the  large 
parietals.  A  beautiful  coppery  brown,  becoming  lighter  on  the  sides,  forms  the 


COPPER-HEAD,    OE  MOCCASIN-SNAKE  (f  nat.  size). 

ground-colour  of  the  upper-parts ;  upon  which  some  sixteen  reddish  brown  dark- 
edged  bands,  becoming  wider  on  the  flanks,  have  given  rise  to  the  name  of 
moccasin-snake.  On  the  under-parts  the  shields  are  copper-red,  marked  on  the 
sides  with  large  polygonal  or  rounded  alternating  dusky  spots.  The  head  ^is 
generally  lighter  coloured  than  the  body,  and  marked  by  a  broad  stripe  running 
from  the  snout  along  the  side  to  the  angle  of  the  mouth.  The  distribution  of  the 
copper-head  extends  from  the  45th  parallel  of  north  latitude  to  the  extreme 
south  of  the  Eastern  United  States.  Its  favourite  haunts  are  damp  situations, 
more  especially  shady  meadows  covered  with  tall  grass ;  and  its  food  consists  of 
mice,  birds,  and  probably  frogs.  From  its  abundance  and  comparatively  rapid 
movements,  as  well  as  from  its  lacking  the  warning  sound  of  the  rattle,  the  copper- 
head is  even  more  dreaded  than  the  rattle-snake. 


246 


SNAKES. 


Water-Viper. 


Another  well-known  North  American  representative  of  the  genus 
that  must  come  in  for  a  brief  share  of  attention  is  the  water- viper  (A. 
piscivorus),  which  inhabits  marshes,  rivers,  and  lakes,  and  attains  a  length  of 
nearly  five  feet.  From  the  preceding  species  it  may  be  distinguished  by  the 
presence  of  two  small  smooth  supplemental  shields  behind  the  parietals,  and  of 
numerous  small  scales  between  the  hinder  frontal  and  temporal  shields.  The  colour 
is  very  variable ;  but  in  the  majority  of  specimens,  on  a  shining  greenish  grey 
ground,  there  are  a  larger  or  smaller  number  of  dark  bands  somewhat  similar  to 
those  of  the  copper-head.  Always  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water,  this 
snake  extends  southwards  from  North  Carolina  over  the  whole  of  North.  America 


CLIMBING  PIT- VIPER  (|  nat.  size). 

and  westwards  as  far  as  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Feeding  chiefly  upon  fish  and 
frogs,  it  will  also  devour  all  animals  that  may  happen  to  fall  into  the  water  and 
are  not  too  large  for  its  maw ;  while  in  the  rice-fields  it  is  the  dread  of  the  negroes. 
Not  only  is  the  water- viper  feared  by  man,  but  it  is  shunned  by  all  animals 
dwelling  in  or  near  water. 

Typical  Pit-  Under  this  title  may  be  included  the  members  of  the  largest  genus 

Vipers.  of  the  subfamily,  which  is  likewise  common  to  Tropical  America  and 
Asia,  and  is  the  last  group  of  snakes  that  we  have  space  to  mention.  These  pit- 
vipers  are  long-bodied  snakes,  characterised  by  the  whole  of  the  upper  surface  of 
the  triangular  head  being  covered  with  scales  instead  of  shields ;  the  tail,  which  is 
frequently  prehensile,  ending  in  a  sharp  point,  and  having  either  one  or  two  rows 


PIT- VIPERS. 


247 


of  shields  on  its  lower  surface.  In  all  the  Asiatic  species  there  are  two  rows  of 
these  subcaudal  shields,  and  it  is  only  in  a  few  of  the  New  World  forms  that  they 
are  reduced  to  a  single  series.  The  number  of  longitudinal  rows  of  scales  on  the 
body  is  very  variable  in  the  different  species,  ranging  from  as  few  as  thirteen  to  as 
many  as  thirty-one.  In  Asia  these  snakes  range  from  India  to  the  South  of  China 
and  the  Liu-Kiu  Islands;  and  while  some  species  are  terrestrial  and  normally 
coloured,  others  are  arboreal,  and  in  the  greenish  tints  assimilate  to  the  colour  of 
their  surroundings.  The  climbing  tree- viper  (Trimeresurus  gramineus)  belongs 
to  a  group  of  four  allied  Indian  and  Burmese  species,  characterised  by  their 


KAT-TAILED   PIT- VIPER  (£  nat  size). 

prehensile  tails  and  the  arrangement  of  the  scales  on  the  body  in  from  thirteen 
to  twenty -three  rows ;  the  figured  species  usually  having  twenty-one  rows  of  scales, 
while  there  are  from  seven  to  thirteen  scales  in  a  transverse  series  on  the  head 
between  the  supraoculars;  the  temporal  scales  are  smooth,  and  the  shields  on  the  lower 
surface  of  the  tail  vary  in  number  from  fifty-three  to  seventy-five.  Attaining  a 
length  of  2J  feet,  this  snake  usually  has  the  upper-parts  bright  green,  although  in 
some  specimens  they  may  be  yellowish,  greyish,  or  purplish  brown,  while  they  may 
or  may  not  be  marked  with  black,  brown,  or  reddish  spots.  Generally  there  is  a 
light-coloured  or  reddish  streak  along  the  outer  row  of  scales,  and  the  end  of  the 
tail  is  frequently  red  or  yellow ;  the  under-parts  being  green,  yellow,  or  whitish. 
Ranging  from  Bengal  to  the  Malayan  region,  this  species  is  thoroughly  arboreal  in 


248  SNAKES. 

its  habits.  Stoliczka  states  that  he  found  these  snakes  very  common  about  the 
limestone-hills  near  Moulmein,  where  they  are  exactly  of  the  same  green  colour  as 
the  foliage  amongst  which  they  hide  themselves.  He  saw  small  specimens  very 
often  on  low  umbelliferous  plants  growing  about  a  couple  of  feet  high.  One  of  the 
snakes  had  its  tail  wound  below  round  the  stem  of  the  flower  on  the  top  of  which 
it  was  basking.  All  were  very  sluggish,  and  did  not  make  the  slightest  attempt  to 
escape  when  approached,  and  even  allowed  themselves  to  be  removed  from  the  top 
of  the  plant.  Neither  did  they  offer  to  bite,  unless  when  pressed  to  the  ground 
with  a  stick ;  but  when  thoroughly  aroused,  they  turned  round  and  bit  furiously. 
The  rat-tailed  pit-viper,  or  fer-de-lance  (T,  lanceolatus)  is  one  of  several  American 
species  with  nonprehensile  pointed  tails,  whose  habits  are  terrestrial.  Reaching  a 
length  of  nearly  7  feet,  with  a  body  as  thick  as  a  man's  arm,  this  snake  is  very 
variable  in  coloration,  the  ground-colour  of  the  upper-parts  being  generally  a 
reddish  yellow-brown.  The  distinctive  markings  take  the  form  of  a  black  stripe, 
which  is  but  seldom  absent,  running  from  the  eye  to  the  neck,  and  of  two  rows  of 
irregular  dark  crossbands  on  the  body.  In  some  specimens  the  sides  of  the  body 
are,  however,  of  a  bright  red.  The  form  and  arrangement  of  the  scales  on  the 
head,  the  presence  of  seven  upper  labial  shields,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  body 
scales  in  not  more  than  twenty-nine  rows,  together  with  the  uniformly  coloured 
under  surface  of  the  body,  serve  to  distinguish  the  species  from  its  congeners. 
This  snake  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Antilles  and  Central  America.  During  the 
daytime  it  lies  curled  up  in  repose  within  the  middle  of  the  coils  of  the  body, 
ready  to  dart  out  with  the  rapidity  of  lightning  on  the  approach  of  an  enemy. 

The  mainland  of  South  America  is  the  home  of  two  closely  allied 
terrestrial  representatives  of  the  genus,  respectively  known  as  the 
jararaca  (T.  jararaca)  and  the  labaria  (T.  atrox),  which  are  exceedingly  difficult  to 
distinguish  from  one  another.  The  former,  which  ranges  from  Amazonia  south- 
wards to  San  Paulo  and  westwards  to  Ecuador  and  Peru,  has  eight  or  nine  upper 
labial  shields  on  the  snout,  and  from  twenty-five  to  twenty-seven  rows  of  scales 
on  the  body ;  the  general  colour  of  the  upper-parts  being  grey  or  greyish  brown, 
with  small  dark  brown  crossbands,  bordered  by  darker  edges ;  while  the  under- 
parts  are  grey,  with  two  or  four  irregular  longitudinal  rows  of  whitish  or  yellowish 
spots.  The  labaria  differs  in  having  only  seven  upper  labials,  as  well  as  in  certain 
details  of  coloration,  the  back  showing  dark  lozenges  alternating  with  X -shaped 
markings,  while  the  under-parts  are  darker,  with  sometimes  two  rows  of  white 
spots,  and  from  the  eye  to  the  corner  of  the  mouth  runs  a  broader  dark  brown 
stripe.  Inhabiting  Eastern  Brazil,  this  species  extends  as  far  north  as  Guiana, 
while  its  southward  range  is  less  than  that  of  the  jararaca. 

Writing  of  the  latter,  Bates  states  that  in  Brazil  it  is  far  more  dreaded  than 
the  jaguar  or  the  alligator.  "  The  individual  seen  by  Lino  lay  coiled  up  at  the 
foot  of  a  tree,  and  was  scarcely  distinguishable,  on  account  of  the  colours  of  its 
body  being  assimilated  to  those  of  the  fallen  leaves.  Its  hideous,  flat,  triangular 
head,  connected  with  the  body  by  a  thin  neck,  was  reared  and  turned  towards  us ; 
Frazao  killed  it  with  a  charge  of  shot,  shattering  it  completely,  and  destroying  its 
value  as  a  specimen.  In  conversing  on  the  subject  of  jararaca  as  we  walked 
onwards,  every  one  of  the  party  was  ready  to  swear  that  this  snake  attacks  man 


EXTINC2"  SCALED  REPTILES.  249 

without  provocation,  leaping  towards  him  from  a  considerable  distance  when  he 
approaches.  I  met,  in  the  course  of  my  daily  rambles  through  the  woods,  many 
jararacas,  and  once  or  twice  very  narrowly  escaped  treading  on  them,  but  never 
saw  them  attempt  to  spring.  On  some  subjects  the  testimony  of  the  natives  of  a 
wild  country  is  utterly  worthless.  The  bite  of  the  jararacas  is  generally  fatal." 

EXTINCT  GKOUPS  OF  SCALED  REPTILES. 

A  brief  reference  may  be  made  to  two  groups  of  extinct  reptiles  from  the 
rocks  of  the  Secondary  epoch,  which  must  be  included  in  the  order  Squamata. 

Long-Necked    The  first  of  these  groups  is  represented  by  a  small  snake-lizard,  from 

Lizards.       ^he  English  Chalk,  described  under  the  name  of  Dolichosaurus,  and 

forming  a  suborder  (Dolichosauria)  by  itself.     Whereas  ordinary  lizards  have  not 

more  than  nine  vertebrae  in  the  neck,  this  strange  reptile  has  upwards  of  from 

fifteen  to  seventeen,  while  its  hind-limbs  are  characterised  by  having  the  whole  of 

the  five  metatarsal   bones  of   the   foot  well   developed,  arid   its  whole   structure 

reveals  a  very  generalised  type  of  organisation.      The  vertebrae  have  additional 

articulations  like  those  of  snakes.      It  is  probable  that  these  reptiles  form  the 

ancestral  group  from  which  the  other  suborders  of  scaled  reptiles  have  originated. 

Cretaceous  A  still  more  remarkable  group  of  the  order  is  formed  by  certain 

Sea-Serpents,  carnivorous  marine  reptiles  from  the  Cretaceous  rocks,  many  of  which 
attained  gigantic  dimensions,  and  may  not  inappropriately  be  designated  extinct 
sea-serpents.  Commonly  known  as  Mosasauroids,  on  account  of  the  first  described 
genus  (Mosasaurus),  having  been  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Meuse,  they  form  a 
suborder  technically  known  as  the  Pythonomorpha.  They  all  had  a  much  elon- 
gated body,  and  a  skull  approximating  in  structure  to  that  of  the  monitors  among 
existing  lizards,  the  nasal  and  premaxillary  bones  being  welded  together,  and  the 
quadrate  very  loosely  attached  to  the  skull.  Teeth  were  present  on  some  of  the 
bones  of  the  palate,  as  well  as  on  the  margin  of  the  jaws ;  those  of  the  latter  series 
being  large,  sharply  pointed,  and  attached  by  expanded  bases.  The  bones  of  the 
shoulder-girdle  and  pelvis  were  more  or  less  imperfectly  developed ;  and  the  limbs 
were  modified  into  paddles  or  flippers,  with  the  toes  enclosed  in  a  common  skin, 
and  devoid  of  claws.  There  were  either  nine  or  ten  vertebras  in  the  neck ;  and 
whereas,  in  some  cases,  the  vertebrae  resembled  those  of  snakes,  in  other  instances 
they  lacked  the  additional  articulations  distinguishing  the  latter.  It  will  be  un- 
necessary to  particularise  the  various  genera  of  these  reptiles,  but  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  while  some  of  the  better-known  forms  have  been  described  as 
Mosasaurus,  others  have  received  the  names  of  Liodon  and  Clidastes.  They  appear 
to  have  inhabited  the  Cretaceous  seas  of  all  parts  of  the  world,  having  been 
obtained  from  regions  as  far  apart  as  England,  New  Zealand,  and  Argentina ;  and 
while  some  attained  a  length  of  between  25  and  30  feet,  others  were  not  more 
than  8  or  10.  Then,  again,  while  in  some  cases  the  jaws  were  armed  with  power- 
ful teeth  to  their  extremities,  other  forms  had  a  long,  toothless  beak. 


CHAPTEE    VI. 

THE  EEMAINING  GROUPS  OF  EEPTILES, — Orders  ICHTHYOPTERYGIA, 
EHYNCHOCEPHALIA,  AND  ANOMODONTIA. 

OF  the  three  orders  remaining  for  consideration,  two  are  completely  extinct,  and 
not  known  from  deposits  of  later  date  than  those  of  the  Secondary  period,  while 
the  third  is  represented  at  the  present  day  only  by  a  single  species  from  New 
Zealand,  although  in  former  geological  epochs  it  appears  to  have  been  abundant. 
The  first  of  the  three  for  consideration  is  the  group  of 

FISH-LIZARDS, — Order  ICHTHYOPTERYGIA. 

More  or  less  familiar  to  all  from  the  beautifully  preserved  skeletons  obtained 
from  the  Lias  of  England  and  the  Continent,  specimens  of  which  are  exhibited  in 
almost  every  museum,  the  Fish-lizards,  or  Ichthyosaurs,  were  large  marine  reptiles, 
with  the  naked  body  thick  and  whale-like,  the  neck  extremely  short,  and  the  limbs 
modified  into  paddles  differing  from  those  of  all  other  members  of  the  class  in  the 
structure  of  their  skeleton.  The  skull  is  produced  into  a  long  snout,  generally 
furnished  with  a  full  series  of  sharp  teeth,  and  mainly  formed  in  the  upper  jaw  by  the 
premaxillary,  or  front  jawbones ;  and  the  nostrils  are  consequently  placed  close  to 
the  eyes,  the  latter,  like  those  of  birds,  being  provided  with  a  ring  of  movable  plates. 
Superiorly,  the  skull  has  a  hole  or  foramen,  in  the  parietal  bones  ;  while  posteriorly 
the  upper  and  lower  arches  are  connected  behind  the  socket  of  the  eye  by  a  bone 
known  as  the  supratemporal,  so  that  this  portion  of  the  skull  is  completely  roofed 
over,  as  we  shall  see  to  be  the  case  in  the  Labyrinthodont  Amphibians.  Then, 
again,  the  quadrate-bone,  with  which  the  lower  jaw  articulates,  is  firmly  united  to 
the  adjacent  elements  of  the  skull ;  while  in  the  general  relations  of  this  bone 
and  the  bones  of  the  palate  there  is  a  marked  agreement  with  the  beaked  reptiles. 
The  teeth  are  confined  to  the  edges  of  the  jaws,  where  they  are  implanted  in 
distinct  sockets;  and  generally  have  conical  and  fluted  crowns,  although  more 
rarely  they  are  compressed  and  smooth,  with  sharp  cutting  edges  at  the  front  and 
back.  The  back-bone  presents  a  nearly  similar  structure,  the  vertebrae,  as  shown 
in  the  figure  on  p.  6,  being  short  discs,  which  may  be  either  deeply  cupped  or 
nearly  flat  at  the  two  ends.  In  the  body  and  neck  these  vertebrae  carry  a  pair  of 
tubercles  on  each  side  for  the  articulation  of  the  forked  ends  of  the  ribs ;  but  in 
the  tail  there  is  but  one  such  tubercle,  the  ribs  being  single-headed.  Moreover,  the 
vertebras  are  further  remarkable  for  the  absence  of  any  body  union  between  the 
body  or  centrum  (the  part  represented  in  the  figure),  and  the  arch  enclosing  the 
spinal  marrow,  so  that  these  two  portions  are  always  found  detached.  The  bones 


FISH-LIZARDS. 


251 


of  the  shoulder-girdle  much  resemble  those  of  lizards,  the  collar-bones  being  well- 
developed,  and  the  T-shaped  interclavicle  resting  on  the  lower  surface  of  these  and 
the  metacoracoids.  The  limbs  are  quite  unlike  those  of  any  other  reptiles,  the 
upper  bone  (humerus  in  the  fore -limb)  being  very  short  and  thick,  while  below 
this  the  whole  of  the  bones,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure,  were  polygonal, 
and  so  articulated  with  one  another  that  the  skeleton  of  the  paddles  assumed  a 


SKELETON  OP  FISH-LIZARD,    SHOWING  YOUNG  ONE  WITHIN  THE   CAVITY  OF  THE   RIBS  (^  nat.  size). 

(From  Gaudry.) 


kind  of  pavement-like  or  mosaic  structure.  In  most  kinds  the  front  paddles  were 
much  larger  than  the  hinder-pair ;  and  whereas,  in  some  cases,  two  longitudinal 
series  of  bones  originate  from  the  bone  marked  i  in  the  accompanying  figure,  thus 

producing  a  very  broad  type  of  paddle, 
in  other  forms  (as  shown  in  the  skeleton 
in  the  figure  above),  only  a  single  series 
articulated  with  that  bone,  and  the  whole 
paddle  was  consequently  much  narrower. 
Specimens  like  the  one  figured  here  show 
that  while  the  soft  parts  of  the  paddle 
extended  but  a  short  distance  in  advance 
of  the  front  edge  of  the  bones,  on  the 
hinder -side  they  terminated  in  a  wide 
fringe,  thus  forming  a  structure  admir- 
ably adapted  for  swimming.  Other 
examples  indicate  that  the  back  of  these 
reptiles  was  furnished  with  an  upright 
triangular  fin  somewhat  like  that  of  a 
porpoise,  behind  which  were  a  number 
of  small  finlets,  while  the  extremity  of 
the  tail  was  expanded  into  a  horizontal 
fin,  comparable  to  the  flukes  of  a  whale. 
Many  of  these  reptiles  attained  a  length 
of  from  30  to  40  feet ;  and  they  flourished  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Secondary 
period,  that  is  to  say,  from  the  epoch  of  the  Trias,  or  Ked  Sandstone,  to  that  of  the 


PART   OF  THE  FORE -PADDLE  OF  A  FISH-LIZARD. 

hu,  bone  of  upper  arm ;  r.u,  bones  of  fore-arm ;  the 
other  letters  indicate  the  bones  of  the  wrist,  below 
which  are  the  bones  of  the  fingers. 


25  2  BEAKED  LIZARDS. 

Chalk,  most  or  all  of  the  forms  from  the  first-named  deposits  being  of  a  more 
generalised  type  than  those  of  later  date. 

In  external  appearance  the  fish -lizards  must  have  presented  a  marked 
resemblance  to  whales,  the  place  of  which  they  seem  to  have  filled  in  the  old  seas. 
Like  these  animals,  they  were  obliged  to  come  periodically  to  the  surface  of  the 
water  for  the  purpose  of  breathing ;  and  they  were  likewise  carnivorous,  as  is 
attested  not  only  by  the  conformation  of  their  teeth,  but  likewise  by  the  petrified 
remains  of  their  prey.  Occasionally  specimens  are  met  with,  in  which  entire 
skeletons  of  one  or  more  young  individuals  of  the  same  species  are  preserved  within 
.the  cavity  of  the  ribs,  thus  proving  that  in  these  reptiles  the  eggs  were  hatched 
within  the  body  of  the  females,  and  the  offspring  produced  in  a  living  condition. 


THE  BEAKED  LIZARDS. 
Order  RHYNCHOCEPHALIA. 

The  tuatera,  which  seems  to  be  confined  to  the  small  islands  off  the  north-east 
of  New  Zealand,  is  not  only  the  most  remarkable  of  all  existing  reptiles  to  which 
the  term  lizard  can  be  applied,  but  is  the  sole  living  representative  of  a  distinct 
family,  as  well  as  of  an  entire  order ;  and  the  difference  between  it  and  an  ordinary 
lizard  immeasurably  exceeds  that  by  which  the  latter  is  separated  from  a  serpent. 
As  an  order,  the  beaked  reptiles  may  be  provisionally  characterised  as  follows. 
Externally  most  of  these  reptiles  appear  to  have  been  more  or  less  lizard-like ; 
and,  as  in  their  living  representative,  the  body  was  probably  covered  above  with 
small  granular  scales  intermingled  with  tubercles.  The  skull  differs  essentially 
from  that  of  lizards  in  having  the  quadrate-bone  immovably  fixed  by  the  upper 
end  to  the  adjacent  bones ;  and  likewise  by  having  both  an  upper  and  a  lower 
temporal  arch.  The  hind  portion  of  the  palate  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
pterygoid  bones,  which,  generally  at  least,  extend  forwards  to  meet  the  vomers, 
and  thus  divide  the  palatines ;  while  the  anterior  upper  jawbones,  or  pre- 
maxillse,  remain  separate  from  each  other.  The  teeth  are  not  implanted  in 
distinct  sockets,  and  are  usually  welded  to  the  summits  of  the  jaws.  In  the  trunk 
the  ribs  articulate  to  the  vertebrae  by  single  heads,  and  may  have  hook-like 
processes  similar  to  those  of  birds;  while  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body 
so-called  abdominal  ribs  are  always  developed,  forming  a  shield  composed  of  a 
number  of  segments,  and  comparable  to  the  plastron  of  the  tortoises.  The 
vertebras  may  be  either  hollowed  at  both  articular  ends,  or  the  hinder  surface 
may  be  cupped  and  the  front  one  ball-like.  That  the  beaked  reptiles  form  a  very 
primitive  group  is  clear,  not  only  from  their  structure,  but  from  their  antiquity ; 
representatives  of  the  order  occurring  in  the  Permian  strata,  immediately  over- 
lying the  Carboniferous  or  coal-bearing  rocks.  While  some  of  these  early  forms 
appear  to  connect  the  order  very  closely  with  the  Sauropterygians,  others  indicate 
an  equally  close  relationship  with  the  under-mentioned  Anomodonts. 

The   single   existing   representative   of    the   order   (Sphenodon 

punctatus)  forms  a  family  (Sphenodontidce)  by  itself,  and  likewise 

is  the  representative  of  a  distinct  suborder  (Rhynchocephalia  Vera),  characterised 


TUATERA. 


253 


by  each  segment  of  the  shield  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body  being  formed  of 
only  three  elements,  of  which  the  middle  one  is  chevron-shaped,  and  likewise  by 
the  fifth  metatarsal  bone  of  the  hind-foot  being  reduced  in  length  and  thickened 
in  the  same  manner  as  in  lizards.  The  group  is  further  characterised  by  the 
double  nostrils,  the  union  of  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  by  cartilage,  and 
the  deeply  hollowed  articular  surfaces  of  the  vertebrae.  From  its  extinct  allies  the 
family  is  distinguished  by  having  a  perforation  on  each  side  of  the  lower 
extremity  of  the  humerus,  or  upper  bone  of  the  fore-limb ;  by  the  presence  of 
hook-like  processes  to  the  ribs,  as  well  as  of  so-called  intercentra,  or  additional 
segments  between  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae;  and  likewise  by  the  beak -like 
premaxillary  bones  carrying  a  pair  of  somewhat  chisel-like  teeth,  and  the  presence 


NEW  ZEALAND  TUATERA  (J  liat.  size). 

of  only  a  single  row  of  teeth  on  the  palate,  which  are  separated  by  a  groove  from 
the  row  affixed  to  the  edge  of  the  upper  jaw.  Into  this  groove  is  received  the 
teeth  and  upper  edge  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  in  very  old  individuals  becomes  as 
hard  and  polished  as  the  teeth  themselves ;  the  latter  being  more  or  less  completely 
worn  away  in  extreme  old  age.  On  the  upper  surface  of  the  skull  is  a  large 
vacuity,  or  foramen,  in  the  parietal  bones.  In  external  appearance  the  tuatera  is 
lizard-like,  the  body  being  slightly  and  the  long  tail  strongly  compressed ;  while 
the  limbs  carry  five  toes,  all  furnished  with  claws,  and  connected  at  their  bases  by 
webs.  There  is  no  external  opening  to  the  ear,  and  the  large  eye  has  the  pupil 
vertical.  On  the  upper-parts  the  creature  is  clothed  with  small  granular  scales, 
intermixed  with  tubercles ;  and  a  crest  of  spine-like  scales  runs  from  the  hinder- 
part  of  the  head  down  the  middle  of  the  back,  continued  in  a  smaller  degree  of 


254 


BEAKED   LIZARDS. 


Allied  Families. 


development  down  the  tail  :  while  inferiorly  there  are  large  squarish  scales  arranged 
in  transverse  rows.  Attaining  a  length  of  about  '20  inches,  the  tuatera  is  olive  or 
blackish  in  ground-colour,  upon  which  are  small  yellowish  dots,  while  the  lobes  of 
the  crest  on  the  neck  and  back  are  likewise  of  the  latter  colour.  The  perforation 
in  the  parietal  bones  of  the  skull  just  referred  to  covers  a  rudimentary  eye,  which 
although  now  fuiictionless  was  probably  a  working  organ  in  the  ancestors  of 
the  A'ertebrates.  In  the  young  tuatera  this  pineal  eye  can  be  seen  through  the 
translucent  skin,  but  in  the  adult  this  skin  becomes  opaque. 

In  the  Jurassic  rocks  of  Europe  there  occur  remains  of  reptiles 
allied  to  the  tuatera,  but  constituting  a  distinct  family  (Homososaiir- 

idcv)  typically  represented  by  the  genus 
Homaiosaunis.  These  have  no  tusk-like 
teeth  in  the  front  of  the  jaws,  and  the  lower 
end  of  the  humerus  has  a  perforation  only 
on  its  inner  side,  and  there  are  110  inter- 
centra  between  the  vertebra3  of  the  back, 
and  110  hook-like  processes  to  the  ribs.  A 
third  family  (Rhynchosauridce)  is  typified 
by  the  genus  Rhynchosaurus,  from  the  Trias 
or  Xew  Red  Sandstone  of  England,  and  is 
characterised  by  the  beak  being  toothless 
and  probably  sheathed  in  horn  ;  the  palate 
having  two  or  more  longitudinal  rows  of 

o  o 

teeth  separated  by  a  groove.  From  the 
preceding  families  these  reptiles  differ  by 
having  only  a  single  aperture  to  the  nostrils, 
and  by  the  bony  union  of  the  two  branches 
of  the  lower  jaw  ;  while  the  articular 
surfaces  of  the  vertebra)  are  nearly  flat. 
Moreover,  there  is  no  vacuity  in  the  middle 
Qf  t]1(J  top  Qf  t]ie  ^UH  Jn  t]ie  typical  geilUS 
The  upper  figure  shows  the  superior  aspect;  the  there  is  a  single  row  of  teeth  on  the  inner 

lower  one  on  tlie  left  the  palate,  and  the  right  lower       .  -,          (.       ,  ,  , 

one  the  under  surface  of  the  front  of  the  lower  jaw.       S1(1°   ot    the    groove    Oil    the    palate,   but    111 

Hyperodapedon,  there  were  numerous  rows, 

as  is  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  extremity  of  the  beak  in  each  jaw  formed 
two  curved  tusk-like  processes,  which  diverged  in  the  lower  one. 

The  Permian  rocks  of  Europe  yield  remains  of  genera,  such  as 
e/'OHaunm  and  Palcuohatteria,  differing  markedly  from  the  fore- 
going, and  constituting  a  second  suborder  (Proterosauria),  characterised  by  the 
complex  nature  of  the  bones  forming  the  shield  on  the  lower  suri'ace  of  the  body, 
by  the  fifth  metatarsal  bone  of  the  hind-foot  being  of  an  ordinary  type,  and  like- 
wise by  the  lower  bones  of  the  pelvis  being  expanded  into  large  flattened  plates, 
instead  of  comparatively  narrow.  The  last  feature  allies  the  group  to  the  earlier 
Sauropterygians.  In  the  genus  first  named  the  vertebra)  of  the  neck  have  cup- 
shaped  articular  surfaces  behind  and  balls  in  front,  and  there  are  no  intercentra 
between  the  vertebraj  of  the  back,  but  in  the  other  the  articular  surfaces  of  the 


SKULL  OF  THK  IIyperodapedon  (I  nat.  size). 


Oldest  Types. 


ANOMODONTS. 


255 


vertebrae  are  slightly  cupped  at  each  end  throughout  the  series,  and  intercentra 
are  present. 

THE  ANOMODONTS,  OR  MAMMAL-LIKE  REPTILES. 
Order  ANOMODONTIA. 

The  last  order  of  Reptiles,  which  is  entirely  extinct  and  confined  to  the 
Triassic  and  Permian  epochs,  is  of  especial  interest  to  the  evolutionist  as  being 
nearly  allied  to  the  ancestral  stock  from  which  Mammals  have  originated,  and  also 
equally  closely  related  to  certain  extinct  Amphibians  noticed  in  the  sequel,  which 
were  themselves  evidently  not  far  removed  from  the  type  whence  sprang  both 
Reptiles  and  Mammals.  It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  these  Anomodonts 
show  the  nearest  relationship  to  the  Egg-laying  Mammals,  and  until  we  know  the 
true  affinity  of 
the  latter  to  the 
other  members 
of  the  same  class, 
it  is  of  course 
impossible  to  at- 
tempt to  define 
the  genealogy 
more  exactly. 
The  Anomodonts 
are  the  only 
reptiles  which 
agree  with  the 

Egg-  laying 
Mammals       in 

having  three  dis-  ^^^IpP^      B 

tinct     bones    on      THE  EIGHT  SIDE  OF  THE  PELVIS  (A)  AND  SHOULDER-GIRDLE  (B)  OP  AN  ANOMODONT. 
each  side  of  the       H,  haunch-bone,  or  ilium  ;   is,  ischium ;   pb,  pubis ;  of,  foramen  between  ischium  and 
true    shoulder-    pubis  '  sc'  blade'lDone»  or  scapula  ;  p. cor,  coracoid  ;  cor,  metacoracoid  ;  glt  cavity  for  head 
of  upper  arm-bone,  or  humerus. 

girdle  ;    that  •  is 

to  say,  a  blade-bone,  or  scapula,  above,  and  a  coracoid  and  metacoracoid  below. 
Then  the  pelvis  is  very  mammal-like,  not  only  in  that  its  three  elements  are 
united,  but  likewise  in  the  small  size  of  the  vacuity,  or  foramen  (of)  between 
the  pubis  and  ischium.  It  will  also  be  seen  from  the  two  figures  here  given  how 
close  is  the  resemblance  between  the  pelvis  and  shoulder-girdle  of  these  reptiles, 
each  having  one  bone  above  and  two  below.  Even  still  more  marked  is  the 
similarity  between  the  upper  arm-bone  or  humerus  of  the  Anomodonts  and  that 
of  the  Egg-laying  Mammals ;  each  having  a  perforation  on  the  inner  border  of 
the  lower  end,  whereas  in  those  existing  reptiles  which  possess  such  a  perfora- 
tion (with  the  exception  of  the  tuatera,  where  there  is  one  on  each  side),  it  is 
situated  on  the  outer  border.  As  a  rule,  the  Anomodonts  further  resemble 
Mammals  in  the  absence  of  abdominal  ribs ;  and  there  are  important  similarities 
in  the  structure  of  the  skull. 


ANOMODONTS. 


Anomodonts  are  met  with  in  the  Triassic  rocks,  and  are  represented  by  at 
least  four  well-marked  subordinal  types.     In  the  first  group,  known  as  Mammal  - 


SKULL  AND  TEETH  OF  GALESAUR 


UPPER  SURFACE  OF  THE  SKULL  OF  A  PAVEMENT- 
TOOTHED  ANOMODONT  (J  nat.  size). 


toothed  (Theriodont)  Reptiles,  the  teeth, 
as  exemplified  in  the  figure  of  the  skull 
of  the  African  galesaur,  are  differentiated 
into  incisors,  tusks,  and  cheek-teeth ;  the 
latter  frequently  having  three  cusps 
ranged  in  a  longitudinal  series.  Whether, 
however,  this  marked  mammalian  type 
of  dentition  is  indicative  of  genetic  affinity 
with  Mammals,  may  be  open  to  doubt,  as  it  is  quite  as  likely  to  be  due  to  parallelism 
in  development.  Another  modification  is  presented  by  the  Dicynodonts  of  England, 
Africa,  and  India,  in  which  the  jaws  formed  a  horny  beak,  either  destitute  of 
teeth,  as  in  the  tortoises,  or  provided  with  a  huge  pair  of  tusks  in  the  upper 

jaw;  some  of  these  reptiles  being  of 
gigantic  size.  A  third  group,  known  as 
Pavement-toothed,  or  Placodont  Reptiles, 
which  should  probably  be  included  in  the 
order,  are  characterised  by  the  presence 
of  broad,  flattened  teeth  on  the  palate  and 
jaws,  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  5 ;  the 
skull  being  very  short  and  more  or  less 
triangular,  with  the  double  nostrils  situated 
near  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle,  some 
distance  in  advance  of  the  sockets  of  the 
eyes,  which  occupy  a  nearly  central  posi- 
tion. In  all  these  forms,  the  skull  has 
large  temporal  fossae  in  the  hinder  part  of 
the  upper  surface ;  but  in  the  Wall-toothed  or  Pariasaurian  Anomodonts,  as  shown 
in  the  cut,  the  hinder  part  of  the  skull  was  roofed  over  by  bone,  in  the  manner 
characterising  the  Labyrinthodont  Amphibians,  to  which  these  reptiles  were  allied ; 
a  peculiar  sculpturing  of  the  surface  of  the  skull  being  another  point  of  resem- 
blance. In  the  species,  of  which  the  skull  is  figured,  a  number  of  spines  surmounted 
the  head ;  but  these  were  wanting  in  the  African  pariasaur,  which  was  a  gigantic 
creature,  with  a  somewhat  frog-like  head,  an  apology  for  a  tail,  and  powerful 
short  limbs,  in  which  the  toes  were  armed  with  long  claws. 


UPPER  SURFACE  OF  THE  SKULL  OF  A  WALL-TOOTHED 

ANOMODONT  (\  nat.  size). 


FIRE-BELLIED  FROGS  (nat.  size). 


AMPHIBIANS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS, — Class   Amphibia. 
FROGS  AND  TOADS, — Order  ECAUDATA. 

IN  popular  estimation  frogs  and  toads,  together  with  their  near  relatives  the  newts 
and  salamanders,  are  regarded  as  Reptiles,  but  they  are  really  very  different,  and 
constitute  a  class  by  themselves,  being  in  many  respects  intermediate  between 
Reptiles  and  Fishes.  From  the  mode  of  life  of  its  members  the  very  appropriate 
name  of  Amphibians  has  been  proposed  for  the  class,  and  is  the  one  which  should 
be  adopted,  although  the  term  Batrachians,  w^hich  more  properly  applies  to  frogs 
and  toads  alone,  is  not  unfrequently  used  in  the  same  sense.  Agreeing  with  the 
higher  Vertebrates  in  the  structure  of  their  limbs,  which  are  divided  into  the  same 
number  of  segments  as  in  Mammals  and  Reptiles,  and  supported  by  corresponding 
bones,  existing  Amphibians  are  distinguished  from  Reptiles  by  the  absence  of  any 
ossification  in  the  basioccipital  region  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  hinder-part  of 
the  skull,  in  consequence  of  which  the  latter  is  articulated  to  the  first  vertebra  by 
means  of  two  condyles  formed  exclusively  by  the  exoccipital  bones.  A  further 
important  point  of  distinction  is  afforded  by  the  absence  in  the  embryo  of  those 
membranous  structures  known  as  the  amnion  and  allantois.  Moreover,  the  great 
majority  of  Amphibians  pass  through  a  metamorphosis,  or  rather  a  series  of 
VOL.  v. — 17 


258  AMPHIBIANS. 

metamorphoses,  commencing  their  existence  immediately  after  leaving  the  egg  in 
a  larval  condition,  during  which  they  breathe  the  air  contained  in  water  by  means 
of  gills,  while  in  the  adult  state  they  breathe  atmospheric  air  by  means  of  lungs. 
Varying  much  in  external  form,  these  animals  nearly  always  have  the  body 
covered  with  a  soft  naked  skin ;  but  in  a  few  instances  among  existing  forms  scales 
are  embedded  in  the  skin,  and  most  of  the  extinct  forms  had  a  well-developed 
armour  of  scales  and  bony  scutes.  In  some  forms  a  longitudinal  fin  is  developed 
down  the  middle  of  the  back  and  tail,  but  this  is  always  soft,  and  lacks  the  support- 
ing spinous  bones  characterising  that  appendage  in  fishes.  In  passing  through  a 
metamorphosis.  Amphibians  are  more  like  the  inferior  groups  of  animals  than  the 
higher  Vertebrates ;  and  while  in  the  earlier  stages  of  their  existence,  during  which 
they  breathe  by  gills,  they  may  be  regarded  as  very  closely  allied  to  Fishes,  in  the 
adult  state  they  come  much  nearer  to  Reptiles.  The  extinct  Labyrinthodonts, 
which  are  themselves  not  very  widely  removed  from  fishes,  and  have  the  basi- 
occipital  bone  ossified,  serve  to  connect  other  members  of  the  class  with  the 
Anomodont  and  Beaked  Reptiles.  And  it  may  be  mentioned  here  that  while  in 
Mammals  the  skull  has  continued  to  be  supported  by  the  two  condyles  of  the 
Amphibians,  in  the  Reptiles  the  basioccipital  bone  has  developed  an  intermediate 
condyle  filling  up  the  gap  between  the  two  exoccipital  condyles,  and  thus  forms 
a  single  tripartite  condyle  like  that  of  the  tortoises.  Frequently,  as  in  the 
crocodiles,  the  lateral  elements  have  tended  more  or  less  completely  to  disappear, 
thus  leaving  a  condyle  formed  almost  entirely  by  the  basioccipital. 

As  already  said,  the  skin  of  most  existing  Amphibians  is  soft  and 
naked ;  it  is  invested  with  a  colourless  epidermis,  which  is  periodically 
shed  entire,  while  the  deeper  layer  is  often  coloured  with  blotches  or  streaks  of 
yellow,  red,  brown,  or  black.  Other  colours,  however,  such  as  green  and  blue,  are 
produced  by  pigment-cells,  which  generally  make  their  appearance  under  special 
conditions  of  warmth  and  moisture.  As  a  rule,  the  colour  of  Amphibians  varies  to 
a  great  extent  with  the  nature  of  their  surroundings,  as  is  well  exemplified  in  the 
case  of  the  frog,  which  changes  its  hue  according  to  the  nature  of  its  habitat ;  while 
the  tree-frogs  harmonise  with  the  foliage  among  which  they  dwell.  It  is,  however, 
very  remarkable  that  in  Costa  Rica  a  certain  toad  simulates  to  an  extraordinary 
degree  the  coloration  of  the  snakes — both  poisonous  and  harmless — of  the  same 
country ;  while  in  North  Sumatra  Amphibians  of  various  groups  are  spotted  with 
carmine-red.  In  all  Amphibians  the  skin  is  furnished  with  glands  secreting  a 
more  or  less  milk-like  fluid ;  these  glands  being  generally  distributed  all  over 
the  body,  although  sometimes  they  are  confined  to  the  sides  of  the  neck  behind  the 
eyes.  In  many  toads  and  land-salamanders  some  of  the  larger  glands  appear  as 
prominent  warts,  pierced  with  large  pores.  The  viscid,  milky  fluid  secreted  by 
these  glands  is  exuded  during  excitement,  and  is  endued  with  more  or  less 
poisonous  properties,  being  intended  to  serve  as  a  means  of  defence.  Although 
some  degree  of  irritation  of  the  skin  may  be  produced  by  handling  some  of 
the  species  in  which  these  poisonous  properties  are  most  developed,  the  stories 
of  toads  or  salamanders  spitting  venom  are,  it  is  almost  needless  to  observe, 
pure  fabrications.  When  introduced  into  the  circulation,  batrachian  venom  acts, 
however,  as  a  powerful  poison,  influencing  the  heart  and  central  nervous  system ; 


GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 


259 


and  the  secretion  of  a  South  American  species  is  employed  by  the  Indians  to  poison 
spears  and  arrows  used  in  killing  monkeys. 


BULL-FROGS  DISPORTING. 


In  the  economy  of  Amphibians  the  naked  skin  and  its  glands  play  a  most 
important  part,    since   none  of   them    drink,  in   the   proper  sense    of   the  word, 


2  6o  AMPHIBIANS. 

but  imbibe  moisture  through  the  pores  of  their  integument.  Moisture  is,  indeed, 
essential  to  their  existence,  and  if  they  be  confined  in  a  dry  atmosphere  they 
soon  perish.  It  is  true  that  frogs  may  be  seen  basking  in  the  sun's  rays,  and 
apparently  enjoying  the  warmth  as  much  as  lizards,  but  they  only  do  this  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  water,  to  which  they  retire  when  necessary.  Such  members  of 
the  class  as  inhabit  dry  localities,  are  mostly  nocturnal,  avoiding  sunshine,  and 
wandering  abroad  when  they  can  obtain  moisture  from  dew, 

The  skeleton  of  the  Amphibians  presents  many  peculiarities,  and 
in  some  forms  has  numerous  fish-like  characters.  For  instance,  in 
certain  of  the  forms  with  permanent  gills  the  vertebrae  are  scarcely  distinguishable 
from  those  of  fishes ;  whereas  in  the  true  newts  they  have  a  rounded  knob  at  the 
front  of  the  body  and  a  cup  at  the  hinder  extremity,  and  are  closely  articulated 
with  one  another.  In  the  long-tailed  groups  the  number  of  vertebrae  is  consider- 
able ;  but  in  the  frogs  and  toads  those  of  the  back  are  reduced  to  seven  or  eight, 


SKELETON  OF  SALAMANDER. 


the  hinder-end  of  the  backbone  terminating  in  a  long  style,  extending  between  the 
greatly  produced  extremities  of  the  haunch-bones,  or  ilia,  which  articulate  with  the 
lateral  processes  uf  the  sacral  vertebrse.  The  transverse  processes  of  all  the 
vertebras  are  well-developed,  and  in  some  cases  very  long ;  and  they  take  the  place 
of  ribs,  which,  at  the  most,  are  represented  by  some  small  rudiments.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  absence  of  ribs,  Amphibians  are  unable  to  breathe  in  the  ordinary 
way  by  alternate  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  cavity  of  the  chest;  and 
they,  so  to  speak,  swallow  air,  taking  in  a  large  gulp,  and  then  closing  the 
mouth.  In  addition  to  the  peculiarities  connected  with  its  condyles  and  the 
basioccipital  region,  the  skull  is  distinguished  by  its  flattened,  broad,  and  more  or 
less  semicircular  form ;  the  sockets  for  the  eyes  being  generally  large  and  ill-defined. 
In  front  of  the  condyles  the  under  surface  of  the  middle  of  the  skull  is  overlain  by 
a  large  parasphenoid  bone,  which  is  frequently  dagger-shaped;  this  bone  being 
generally  but  slightly,  if  at  all,  developed  in  the  higher  Vertebrates,  although  very 
large  in  Fishes.  The  lower  jaw,  which  articulates  with  the  skull  by  the  interven- 
tion of  a  quadrate-bone,  is  composed  of  at  least  two  pieces  on  each  side,  and  may 


SKELETON. 


261 


SKELETON   OP  FROG. 


contain  more  elements.  The  palatines  and  vomer,  and  more  rarely  the  parasphenoid, 
may  be  armed  with  teeth,  like  the  upper  jaw ;  but  in  the  frogs  and  toads  the  lower 
jaw  is  very  generally  toothless.  In  all  cases  the  teeth  are  'small,  simple,  and  pointed  ; 
being  adapted  for  holding,  and  not  for  masticating.  The  shoulder-girdle,  which  is 
largely  cartilaginous,  is  placed 
very  close  to  the  head,  and  com- 
prises the  usual  elements.  Each 
scapula,  or  shoulder-blade,  has  an 
upper  cartilaginous  portion,  ex- 
tending inwards  nearly  to  the 
middle  line  of  the  back  ;  while  in 
the  frogs  each  metacoracoid  has 
an  inward  cartilaginous  expan- 
sion, which  may  either  meet  or 
overlap  its  fellow,  and  is  of  much 
importance  in  classification.  In 
advance  of  the  metacoracoid s  is 
another  pair  of  transverse  bars 
commonly  known  as  the  precora- 
coids ;  while  in  front  of  these  is  a 

single  median  rod  termed  the  omosternum ;  the  proper  sternum,  or  breast-bone, 
occupying  a  similar  position  behind  the  metacoracoids.  In  the  fore-limb  the  radius 
and  ulna  may  be  united,  and  the  wrist  cartilaginous ;  the  number  of  toes  among 
living  forms  never  exceeding  four,  and  being  sometimes  reduced  to  .three.  More 
variation  exists  in  the  hind-foot,  the  number  of  toes  in  the  long-tailed  forms 
ranging  from  two  to  four,  whereas  in  the  frogs  and  toads  it  is  always  five.  Only 
in  a  few  frogs  and  newts  are  the  toes  furnished  with  claw-like  nails;  in  the 
greater  number  of  forms  these  being  naked,  although  often  connected  by  webs,  and 
sometimes  carrying  adhesive  discs  on  the  lower  surface. 

In  all  Amphibians  the  brain  is  of  a  very  low  type,  its  component 

portions  lying  in  a  line  one  behind  the  other,  without  overlapping. 
All  possess  the  three  chief  organs  of  sense,  although  in  some  instances  the  eyes 
may  be  very  minute  and  covered  with  an  opaque  skin.  In  frogs  and  toads  the 
eye  is  large  and  very  highly  developed ;  generally  possessing  two  lids,  of  which  the 
lower  one  is  larger  and  thinner  than  the  upper,  and  more  or  less  transparent. 
Greater  variation  exists  in  the  structure  of  the  ear,  which  is  simplest  in  the 
tailed  forms.  The  nose  opens  externally  in  a  pair  of  nostrils  situated  near  the 
muzzle,  and  by  another  pair  of  apertures  into  the  mouth ;  the  latter  character 
distinguishing  Amphibians  from  the  majority  of  Fishes.  The  tongue,  which  acts 
only  in  the  very  slightest  degree  as  an  organ  of  taste,  and  is  wanting  in  one  group 
of  frogs,  is  generally  well-developed  and  thick,  filling  the  whole  space  between  the 
jaws,  and  being  capable  of  a  large  amount  of  motion ;  it  differs  essentially  from 
that  of  the  higher  Vertebrates  in  that  it  is  affixed  to  the  inner  side  of  the  front  of 
the  lower  jaw,  with  its  tip  pointing  down  the  throat. 

All    Amphibians   lay  eggs,  which    are   generally  although    not 

invariably   deposited    in    fresh   water,    and    fertilised    as    they   are 


Soft  Parts. 


Development. 


262 


AMPHIBIANS. 


extruded  from  the  female.  As  a  rule,  these  eggs,  which  much  resemble  those  of 
fish,  are  small,  very  numerous,  and  connected  together  by  mucilage,  forming  either 
a  string  or  a  jelly-like  mass  in  which  the  dark  yolks  are  very  conspicuous.  Some 
of  the  tree-frogs,  however,  lay  large  eggs,  within  which  the  larvae  undergo  the 
whole  of  such  transformation  as  takes  place;  and  in  one  genus,  instead  of  the 
usual  gills,  a  temporary  breathing-organ  is  developed  on  the  tail.  A  land-frog  in 
the  Solomon  Islands  also  lays  large  eggs,  like  small  marbles,  which  are  deposited 
in  the  crevices  of  rocks,  and  from  which  emerge  fully-developed  frogs.  The  eggs, 
with  certain  exceptions,  are  deposited  in  water,  where  they  are  hatched  by 
the  heat  of  the  sun;  and  it  appears  that  the  dark  colour  of  the  yolk  is  for 
the  purpose  of  absorbing  as  much  solar  heat  as  possible.  Such  eggs  as  are 
laid  during  the  late  spring  and  summer  are  less  darkly  coloured,  and  have 
thinner  coats,  than  those  deposited  in  the  early  part  of  the  spring ;  and  while  the 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   FROG. 


1,  Eggs  when  first  laid  ;  2,  Eggs  at  a  later  stage  ;  3,  Egg  containing  embryo  ;  4,  Newly-hatched  larvae  ; 
5,  6,  Larvae  with  external  gills  ;  7-12,  Later  stages  in  the  development  of  larvae. 

former  are  placed  on  the  ground  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  the  latter  float  on  the 
surface;  the  reason  of  this  difference  being  that  in  the  early  part  of  the  year 
the  lower  strata  of  water  are  too  cold  to  admit  of  the  development  of  the  ova. 
In  ordinary  cases,  w^hen  the  larva  has  reached  a  certain  stage,  it  bursts  the 
investing  membranes  of  the  egg,  and  comes  into  the  world  adapted  for  an 
aquatic  life,  and  always  possessing  a  long  compressed  tail  composed  of  zigzag- 
shaped  masses  of  muscles,  similar  to  those  of  fishes.  The  first  process  is  the 
sprouting  forth  of  branching  external  gills  from  the  sides  of  the  neck,  which  in 
the  larvae  of  the  frogs  and  toads  are  subsequently  replaced  by  internal  gills,  but  in 
the  long-tailed  forms  persist'  for  a  longer  period.  After  the  disappearance  of  the 
external  gills,  the  water  is  expelled  from  the  gill-chamber  by  one  or  two  tubes, 
generally  discharging  by  a  single  orifice,  which  may  be  situated  either  on  the 
lower  surface  of  the  body,  or  on  the  left  side.  As  soon  as  the  external  gills  have 
made  their  appearance,  development  is  concentrated  on  .the  tail  and  the  absorption 


DISTRIBUTION.  263 

of  the  remainder  of  the  yolk.  The  vertical  fin-like  expansions  of  the  tail  rapidly 
increase,  and  the  body  becomes  relatively  smaller  and  more  slender;  while  the 
limbs  begin  to  make  their  appearance  as  buds,  although  the  date  of  development 
of  the  front  and  hind-pair  varies  in  different  groups.  In  the  newts,  the  front 
pair  of  limbs  are  the  first  to  appear,  in  the  frogs  the  reverse  is  the  case.  In 
the  latter  the  hind-limbs  appear  some  considerable  time  before  the  front  pair, 
the  fish-like  tail  persisting  till  the  sprouting  of  these,  when  the  change  from 
a  herbivorous  fish-like  animal  to  one  carnivorous  and  reptiliform  begins.  The 
jaws  are  at  first  invested  with  horny  teeth,  and  subsequently  with  horny 
sheaths,  which  eventually  disappear ;  while  the  tail  gradually  diminishes  in  size, 
and  finally  is  lost.  It  may  be  observed  that  no  vertebrae  are  developed  in  the 
frog's  tail ;  and  that  the  long  spine  in  which  the  backbone  of  the  adult  terminates 
is  an  outgrowth  from  the  hindmost  vertebra.  Not  less  remarkable  is  the 
shortening  of  the  intestinal  canal,  as  the  creature  changes  its  herbivorous  for 
carnivorous  habits.  To  trace  in  detail  the  development  of  the  soft  parts  would 
greatly  exceed  our  limits  of  space.  We  may  mention,  however,  that  in  one  group 
of  Tailed  Amphibians  the  external  gills  of  some  individuals  may  be  retained 
permanently,  while  in  others  of  the  same  species  they  are  cast  at  an  early  period. 
Then,  again,  the  number  of  these  gills  is  by  no  means  constant,  for  in  the  Cingalese 
csecilian  and  the  salamander  there  are  three  pairs  of  these  organs,  in  the  tadpoles 
of  some  frogs  there  are  two,  asnd  in  others,  as  well  as  in  one  genus  of  csecilians, 
there  are  only  a  single  pair. 

Geologically  the  Amphibians  are  a  very  ancient  group,  their 
oldest  representatives  occurring  in  the  Carboniferous  and  Permian 
rocks  of  Europe  and  North  America.  All  these  ancient  representatives  of  the 
class  belong,  however,  to  the  group  of  Labyrinthodonts,  which  survived  till  the 
period  of  the  Trias,  and  are  structurally  very  different  from  the  modern  forms, 
approximating  in  certain  respects  to  fishes.  Indeed,  since  no  Amphibians  have 
hitherto  been  discovered  between  the  Trias  and  the  Wealden,  or  lower  Cretaceous, 
rocks  of  Belgium,  we  are  quite  unable  to  assert  that  the  modern  representatives  of 
the  class  are  the  direct  descendants  of  the  Labyrinthodonts.  Commencing  in  the 
Belgian  Wealden,  the  newts  and  salamanders  occur  throughout  the  greater  part  of 
the  Tertiary  rocks;  but  the  frogs  and  toads  are  first  known  in  North  America 
from  Eocene  beds,  while  in  Europe  they  are  not  met  with  before  the  Oligocene. 

At  the  present  time  Amphibians  are  distributed  over  all  parts  of  the  world 
except  the  polar  regions;  although  they  are  more  dependent  upon  the  presence 
of  water  and  warmth  than  any  of  the  preceding  classes  of  Vertebrates.  They  are, 
accordingly,  most  abundant  in  the  tropical  and  subtropical  regions ;  and  as  none 
of  them  are  marine  in  their  habits,  even  a  narrow  arm  of  the  sea  is  generally 
sufficient  to  limit  their  habitat.  When  they  occur  on  islands,  it  is  probable  either 
that  their  eggs  have  been  carried  by  birds,  or  that  there  has  been  a  comparatively 
recent  separation  from  the  mainland.  In  absolutely  desert  districts  Amphibians 
are  unknown;  while  in  countries  where  there  is  a  long  dry  season,  followed 
by  a  period  of  rains,  they  are  in  the  habit  of  becoming  torpid  during  the 
former ;  the  length  of  the  sleep  in  one  Javan  species  being  upwards  of  five  months. 
In  cold  climates  all  the  members  of  the  class  become  torpid  during  the  winter. 


264 


AMPHIBIANS, 


As  regards  their  general  distribution,  Amphibians  closely  resemble  fresh-water 
fish,  and  differ  widely  from  lizards.  Indeed,  from  an  Amphibian  point  of  view, 
the  globe  may  be  divided  into  two  great  regions,  namely,  a  northern  one 
characterised  by  the  abundance  of  newts  and  salamanders,  and  the  absence  of 
caecilians ;  and  a  southern  one  distinguished  by  the  want  of  the  former  and  the 
presence  of  the  latter_group. 

In  their  mode  of  life,  it  is  probable  that  very  few  Amphibians 
are  diurnal ;  most  of  the  terrestrial  forms  making  their  appearance 
abroad  with  the  first  shades  of  evening,  and  retiring  to  their  hiding-places  at 
dawn.  In  wet  or  cloudy  weather  frogs  and  toads — especially  in  South  America — 
frequently  appear  in  great  numbers  during  the  day ;  and  both  these  groups  are 


Habits. 


MOOR-FROGS  (uat.  size). 

in  the  habit  of  making  night  hideous  with  their  croakinga  Although  in  all  cases 
the  adults  are  carnivorous,  the  larvae  subsist  more  or  less  exclusively  on  vegetable 
substances;  some  confining  themselves  to  that  kind  of  diet,  while  others  also 
consume  animalcules  and  other  minute  creatures,  v/- 

Characteristics  of  The  frogs  and  toads  are  distinguished  from  their  allies  by  the 
Frogs  and  Toads,  presence  of  four  limbs  and  the  absence  of  a  tail  in  the  adult  state ; 
the  latter  feature  giving  origin  to  the  name  Ecaudata,  by  which  the  order  to 
which  they  belong  is  scientifically  designated.  They  all  have  short  and  frequently 
thick  bodies,  in  which  the  backbone  comprises,  at  most,  only  eight  vertebrae  in 
advance  of  the  sacrum ;  those  behind  the  latter  being  fused  into  a  long  rod-like 
bone,  as  shown  in  the  figure  of  the  skeleton  on  p.  261.  In  the  fore-limb,  as  shown 
in  the  same  figure,  the  bones  of  the  fore-arm  (radius  and  ulna)  are  completely  fused 
together ;  and  the  same  is  the  case  with  regard  to  the  tibia  and  fibula  in  the  hind- 


TYPICAL  FROGS.  265 

leg.  Moreover,  the  hind-limb  obtains  a  kind  of  additional  segment,  owing  to  the 
elongation  of  the  calcaneum  and  astragalus  in  the  ankle-joint,  which  form  a  pair 
of  long  bones  lying  parallel  to  one  another.  As  a  rule,  frogs  and  toads  undergo  a 
lengthened  larval  period ;  the  "  tadpoles,"  as  showrn  in  the  figure  on  p.  262,  having 
a  globular  head  and  body,  a  fish-like  tail,  external  or  internal  gills,  and  no  limbs  in 
the  first  stages  of  their  existence.  The  hind-limbs  are  the  first  to  appear,  and 
after  the  front  pair  are  developed  the  tail  is  gradually  absorbed,  upon  which  the 
young  for  the  first  time  leave  the  water.  Eepresented  by  about  a  thousand  species, 
frogs  and  toads  have  a  worldwide  distribution,  although  more  abundant  in  tropical 
and  subtropical  than  in  temperate  regions,  and  being  especially  numerous  in  India 
and  South  America;  and  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  some  of  the  largest 
forms  are  inhabitants  of  islands.  From  the  nocturnal  habits  of  the  adults  it  is 
frequently  difficult  to  find  out  whether  in  any  locality  these  reptiles  are  abundant 
or  the  reverse  ;  but  in  the  spring  this  may  generally  be  ascertained  by  observing 
the  tadpoles  in  the  rivers  and  points,  since  all  of  these  show  specific  differences,  to 
the  full  as  well  marked  as  those  in  the  adult. 


THE  TYPICAL  FKOGS. 
Family  RANID^E. 

The  typical  frogs,  together  with  four  other  families,  constitute  a  suborder 
(Firmisternia),  characterised  by  the  presence  of  a  tongue,  and  by  the  firm  union 
of  the  two  metacoracoid  bones  of  the  chest  by  means  of  a  single  cartilage  uniting 
their  free  edges.  From  the  other  members  of  the  group,  the  typical  frogs  are 
distinguished  as  a  family  by  the  presence  of  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  by  the 
transverse  processes  of  the  sacral  vertebra  being  either  cylindrical,  or  but  very 
slightly  dilated  at  their  extremities.  These  characters  are  sufficient  to  distinguish 
the  typical  frogs  from  the  other  families  of  the  suborder ;  but  it  may  he  added  that 
the  vertebrae  are  cupped  in  front  and  hollowed  behind ;  while  there  are  no  ribs ; 
and  the  terminal  style  of  the  backbone  is  articulated  to  the  sacrum  by  two 
condyles.  The  terminal  joints  of  the  toes  may  be  either  simple  or  pointed, 
T-shaped,  Y-shaped,  or  even  claw-like  ;  the  species  in  which  these  joints  are  thus 
expanded  having  the  soft  parts  similarly  expanded  and  flattened.  For  a  long  time 
it  was  considered  that  the  shape  of  the  tips  of  the  toes  was  connected  with  the 
mode  of  life  of  their  owners ;  and  although  this  is  so  to  a  great  extent,  it  is  now 
ascertained  that  several  of  the  species  in  which  the  toes  are  somewhat  expanded 
are  as  aquatic  as  those  in  which  they  are  pointed,  and  species  presenting  both 
modifications  are  included  within  one  and  the  same  genus.  The  typical  frogs  are 
divided  into  twenty  genera,  only  two  of  which  are  noticed  in  this  work. 

Under  the  general  title  of  water-frogs  may  be  conveniently 
included  all  the  members  (some  hundred  and  forty  in  number),  of  the 
genus  Rana,  to  which  belongs  the  common  English  frog.  The  distinctive  characters 
of  these  frogs  are  to  be  found  in  the  horizontal  pupil  of  the  eye ;  the  more  or 
less  deeply  notched  and  free  tongue ;  the  presence  of  teeth  on  the  vomerine  bones 
of  the  palate ;  the  absence  of  webs  in  the  toes  of  the  fore-feet,  and  their  presence 


266  FROGS  AND    TOADS. 

in  those  of  the  hind-limb ;  and  the  separation  of  the  outer  metatarsal  bones  of  the 
hind-foot  by  a  web,  the  extremities  of  the  fingers  being  simple  or  expanded. 

With  the  exception  of  the  southern  part  of  South  America  (where  the  whole 
family  is  unrepresented),  Australia,  and  New  Zealand,  these  frogs  have  a  worldwide 
distribution.  Although  the  greater  majority  of  the  species  are  probably  aquatic 
during  the  breeding-season,  at  other  times  great  diversity  of  habit  is  displayed  by 
the  different  representatives  of  the  genus,  some  being  aquatic,  others  terrestrial, 
and  others,  again,  burrowing,  or  even  more  or  less  arboreal.  The  existence  of 
burrowing  habits  is  indicated  by  the  great  development  of  a  tubercle  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  metatarsus,  which  in  one  Indian  species  (Rana  breviceps)  has  a  sharp 
edge,  and  is  used  in  a  shovel-like  manner  to  excavate  the  burrow.  Such  burrow- 
ing species  are  further  characterised  by  the  shortness  of  the  hind-limbs,  and  thus 
assume  a  more  or  less  toad-like  appearance.  Large  discs  at  the  ends  of  the  toes 
usually,  on  the  other  hand,  are  indicative  of  arboreal  habits  ;  although,  as  already 
said,  smaller  discs  are  met  with  in  certain  purely  aquatic  species.  \*J 

Selecting  some  of  the  European  representatives  of  the  genus  for 
'  special  mention,  we  may  first  notice  the  edible  frog  (R.  esculenta), 
characterised  by  the  pointed  tips  of  the  toes,  the  smooth  under  surface  of  the  body, 
the  presence  of  a  broad  glandular  fold  along  the  sides,  and  the  marbling  of  the 
thighs.  Exceedingly  variable  in  coloration,  this  frog  generally  has  the  upper-parts 
olive  or  bronzy  brown,  more  or  less  spotted  or  marbled  with  dark  brown  or  black ; 
there  are  generally  three  light  stripes  along  the  back,  while  the  sides  of  the  head 
and  ground-colour  of  the  flanks  are  sometimes  green ;  the  marbling  on  the  thighs 
occupying  their  hinder  surfaces,  and  being  black  in  colour.  The  males  are  specially 
characterised  by  the  presence  of  a  globular  sac,  connected  with  the  production  of 
the  croaking,  on  each  side  of  the  head,  opening  by  a  slit  behind  the  angle  of  the 
mouth.  Inhabiting  Europe,  Asia  as  far  west  as  Japan,  and  North- Western  Africa, 
the  edible  frog  is  common  in  England,  the  dark  race  occurring  in  the  fens  of 
Cambridgeshire,  and  the  green  variety  in  Norfolk.  The  use  of  the  flesh  as  food 
probably  led  to  the  introduction  of  this  species  into  Cambridgeshire  by  the  monks ; 
while  the  Norfolk  colony  was  imported  between  1837  and  1842.  From  this  species 
the  common  English  frog  (R.  temporia)  is  readily  distinguished  by  the  incomplete 
webbing  of  the  hind-feet,  and  the  presence  of  a  dark  temporal  spot  extending  from 
the  eye  to  the  shoulder,  as  well  as  by  the  absence  of  external  vocal  sacs  in  the 
males.  Moreover,  if  the  skulls  of  these  two  species  be  compared,  it  will  be  found 
that  while  in  the  edible  frog  the  teeth  on  the  vomers  do  not  extend  behind  the 
line  of  the  apertures  of  the  posterior  nostrils,  they  do  so  to  a  small  extent  in  the 
present  species.  In  colour  the  upper-parts  of  the  common  frog  are  greyish  or 
yellowish  brown,  more  or  less  spotted  with  dark  brown  or  black ;  the  temporal 
spot  being  always  dark,  and  a  light  line  running  from  below  the  eye  to  its 
extremity ;  while  the  sides  of  the  body  are  profusely  spotted,  the  limbs  trans- 
versely barred,  and  a  larger  or  smaller  number  of  spots  are  present  on  the  under- 
parts.  This  species  is  spread  over  Europe  and  Northern  and  Temperate  Asia. 
Closely  allied  is  the  moor-frog  (R.  arvalis),  of  Eastern  Europe  and  Western 
Asia,  represented  in  the  illustration  on  p.  264,  which  may  be  distinguished  by  the 
•tubercle  on  the  inner  metatarsal  being  compressed  instead  of  blunt,  and  by  the 


TYPICAL  FROGS. 


267 


pointed,  in  place  of  obtuse,  muzzle.  The  coloration  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
common  species,  but  there  is  sometimes  (as  in  the  right-hand  figure  of  the  illustra- 
tion), a  light  stripe  bordered  by  two  black  ones  down  the  middle  of  the  back,  while 
the  under-parts  are  uniform.  A  third  European  species  is  the  agile  frog  (R.  agilis), 
which  belongs  to  a  group  distinguished  by  the  greater  length  of  the  hind- 
limbs  ;  the  whole  form  being  slender,  and  the  muzzle  pointed.  Its  general  colour  is 
greyish  brown,  with  dark  spots ;  the  temporal  spot  being  dark  and  distinct,  with  a 
light  line  running  from  its  extremity  to  the  snout,  while  the  hind-limbs  are 
regularly  barred,  and  the  under-parts  unspotted.  Two  other  European  species,  the 


AGILE  FROGS  (nat.  size). 

one  (R.  iberica)  from  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  the  other  (R.  latastei)  from  the 
neighbourhood  of  Milan,  differ  by  the  spotted  lower  surface  of  the  body.  Even  the 
tadpoles  of  the  whole  of  these  more  or  less  nearly  allied  species  present  differences 
by  which  they  can  be  distinguished  from  one  another. 

The  common  frog,  whose  habits  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  allied  members 
of  the  genus,  is  found  in  most  parts  of  Europe,  where  there  is  a  sufficiency  of 
moisture  and  shelter  for  its  existence  ;  the  presence  of  water  being  essential  during 
the  breeding-season.  All  are  probably  familiar  with  the  manner  in  which  a  frog 
swallows  air ;  but  it  is  perhaps  less  generally  known  that  if  the  mouth  of  one  of 
these  creatures  be  kept  forcibly  open,  death  must  inevitably  ensue,  owing  to  the 
impossibility  of  breathing  while  in  this  state.  The  croaking  of  the  frog  is 
principally  uttered  during  the  breeding-season ;  and  when  large  numbers  of  these 


268  FJtOGS  AND    TOADS. 

Amphibians  are  collected  in  a  pond  together,  the  volume  of  sound  produced  is  con- 
siderable, and  can  be  heard  from  long  distances,  although  it  is  nothing  compared  to 
that  of  the  bull-frog  and  many  tropical  species.  Frogs  subsist  entirely  on  slugs, 
snails,  insects,  etc.,  swallowing  large  beetles  whole,  and  devouring  several  at  a  meal. 
The  frog  captures  its  prey  by  suddenly  throwing  forwards  the  tip  of  its  tongue, 
which  is  invested  with  a  viscid  secretion,  upon  the  insect  or  slug,  and  then  as 
quickly  withdrawing  it  to  its  normal  inverted  position.  So  rapid  is  the  whole 
movement,  that  it  requires  a  sharp  eye  to  detect  it ;  the  insect  seeming  to  disappear 
as  if  by  magic.  "  Frogs  retire,"  writes  Bell,  "  on  the  approach  of  winter  to  their 
hibernating  retreats,  where  they  pass  the  dreary  season  in  a  state  of  absolute 
torpidity.  This  is  generally  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  where  they 
are  not  only  preserved,  though  at  low  degree,  but  also  secured  from  external 
injury.  Here  they  congregate  in  multitudes,  embracing  each  other  so  closely  as  to 
appear  almost  as  one  continuous  mass.  On  the  return  of  spring  they  separate  from 
each  other,  emerge  from  their  places  of  retirement,  and  recommence  their  active 
life  by  exercising  the  important  function  of  reproducing  their  species."  During 
the  breeding-season  a  warty  protuberance  is  developed  on  the  thumb  of  the  male 
to  assist  in  holding  the  female ;  and  in  some  foreign  species  the  whole  fore-arm 
becomes  enlarged  at  this  time.  The  spawn  is  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the 
water,  but  soon  rises  to  the  surface  in  the  well-known  glairy  masses ;  and  in  due 
season  the  tadpoles  make  their  appearance.  During  the  tadpole  stage  frogs  are 
devoured  in  large  numbers  by  newts  and  the  smaller  fishes ;  while  in  the  adult 
condition  numbers  fall  a  prey  to  the  weasel  and  pole-cat,  the  heron  and  other 
wading  birds  and  the  common  snake,  whose  food  is  almost  entirely  composed  of 
them.  Although  the  common  frog  is  to  a  large  extent  aquatic,  it  is  much  less  so 
than  the  edible  species,  which  inhabits  indiscriminately  running  or  still  waters,  the 
borders  of  rivers,  rivulets,  or  streams,  lakes  or  ponds,  salt  or  fresh  marshes,  or  even 
ditches  and  pools  of  water.  Owing  to  the  presence  of  the  external  sacs,  the  croak- 
ing of  the  male  is  louder  than  in  the  common  frog.  Both  species,  like  all  the  more 
typical  representatives  of  the  genus,  progress  on  land  by  means  of  leaps ;  while  in 
water  they  swim  with  the  hind-limbs  alone. 

Compared  to  the  bull-frog  (R.  catesbyana),  of  Eastern  North 
America,  represented  in  the  figure  on  p.  259,  the  European  frogs  are 
mere  dwarfs ;  but  the  largest  species  of  all  is  Guppy's  frog  (R.  guppyi),  from 
the  Solomon  Islands,  in  which  the  length  of  the  head  and  body  is  upwards  of  9 
inches.  The  bull-frog  is  one  of  those  species  in  which  the  tips  of  the  toes  are 
pointed,  and  it  is  especially  characterised  by  the  web  extending  to  the  tip  of  the 
fourth  toe  of  the  hind-foot,  the  large  size  of  the  aperture  of  the  ear,  and  the 
relative  length  of  the  hind-leg ;  the  two  latter  characters  distinguishing  it  from 
Montezuma's  frog  (R.  montezumce),  of  Mexico.  The  body  has  no  lateral  glandular 
fold ;  and  the  vocal  sacs  of  the  males  are  internal.  In  colour  the  bull-frog  is  brown 
or  olive  above,  with  darker  marblings  ;  the  under-parts  being  either  uniformly 
coloured,  or  marbled  with  brown.  In  length  it  measures  from  7  to  7J  inches, 
exclusive  of  the  legs.  More  abundant  in  the  southern  than  in  the  northern 
portion  of  its  habitat,  the  bull-frog  is  generally  met  with  in  rivers  and  streams 
well  shaded  with  trees  or  bushes,  where  it  may  be  seen  in  numbers  basking  in 


TYPICAL  FROGS. 


269 


the  midday  sun.  Its  croaking  is  said  to  be  louder  than  that  of  any  other  species, 
and  can  be  heard  for  a  distance  of  several  miles.  In  the  Southern  States  of 
America,  although  most  intense  during  the  spring  and  summer,  the  croaking 
is  continued  throughout  the  year ;  but  in  the  north  it  is  confined  to  the  spring 
and  summer,  being  especially  loud  during  the  breeding-season.  It  is  a  remarkable 
fact  that  in  Canada,  at  least,  the  bull-frog  passes  its  first  winter  in  the  larval 
condition,  and  takes  two  years  to  attain  its  full  growth. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  the  small  Indian  frogs  forming  the 
genus  Oxyglossus  differ  from  the  members  of  the  preceding  genus  by 
the  absence  of  any  notch  in  the  tongue,  and  the  want  of  vomerine  teeth.  They 
are  specially  interesting  on  account  of  being  represented  by  fossil  species  in  the 


Oxyglossus. 


JAVAN  FLYING  FKOG  (§  liat.  size) 


Flying  Frogs. 


Eocene  rocks  of  Bombay.     Fossil  frogs  belonging  to  the  typical  genus  Rana  occur 
in  the  lower  Miocene  rocks  of  Europe. 

"  One  of  the  most  curious  and  interesting  reptiles  which  I  met 
with  in  Borneo,"  writes  Mr.  Wallace,  "  was  a  large  tree-frog,  which 
was  brought  me  by  one  of  the  Chinese  workmen.  He  assured  me  that  he  had  seen 
it  come  down,  in  a  slanting  direction,  from  a  high  tree,  as  if  it  flew.  On  examin- 
ing it,  I  found  the  toes  very  long,  and  fully  webbed  to  their  very  extremity,  so 
that  when  expanded  they  offered  a  surface  much  larger  than  that  of  the  body. 
The  fore-legs  were  also  bordered  by  a  membrane,  ,and  the  body  was  capable  of  con- 
siderable inflation.  The  back  and  limbs  were  of  a  very  deep  shining  green  colour, 
the  under  surface  and  inner  toes  yellow,  while  the  webs  were  black,  rayed  with 
yellow.  The  body  was  about  4  inches  long,  while  the  webs  of  each  hind-foot,  wThen 
fully  expanded,  covered  a  surface  of  4  square  inches,  and  the  webs  of  all  the  feet 
together  about  12  square  inches.  As  the  extremities  of  the  toes  have  dilated  discs 


270 


PROGS  AND   TOADS. 


for  adhesion,  showing  the  creature  to  be  a  tree-frog,  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  that 
this  immense  membrane  of  the  toes  can  be  for  the  purpose  of  swimming  only,  and 
the  account  of  the  Chinaman,  that  it  flew  down  from  the  tree,  becomes  more 
credible."  The  species  referred  to  is  the  Bornean  flying  frog  (Rhacophorus 
pardalis),  a  member  of  a  large  genus,  of  which  another  representative  (R.  rein- 
wardti),  is  shown  in  the  illustration  on  p.  269.  Of  the  forty-two  species  of 
the  genus,  thirty  occur  in  South  and  East  Asia,  and  the  remaining  twelve  in 
Madagascar.  While  allied  in  most  respects  to  the  water-frogs,  they  all  differ  by  the 

presence  of  a  small  ad- 
ditional bone  between 
the  terminal  and  penul- 
timate joints  of  the  toes, 
and  likewise  by  the 
penultimate  joints  being 
distinctly  marked  exter- 
nally as  a  kind  of  ridge ; 
while  they  are  further 
mostly  characterised  by 
the  webbing  of  the  toes 
of  the  fore-feet,  although 
the  degree  to  which  this 
is  carried  is  variable. 
The  tips  of  the  toes  are 
always  expanded  into 
round  discs,  and  very 
generally  their  terminal 
joints  are  forked.  The 
males  are  provided  with 
one  or  two  internal  vocal 
sacs.  In  habits  these 
frogs  are  strictly 
arboreal ;  their  bright 
green  coloration  har- 
monising with  the 
leaves  among  which 
they  dwell.  The  larvae  are  remarkable  for  the  possession  of  an  adhesive  disc 
behind  the  mouth  on  the  under  surface ;  while  the  muzzle  is  prolonged  into  a 
proboscis,  and  the  single  breathing-pore  is  situated  on  the  right  side  of  the  body, 
nearer  to  the  tail  than  to  the  muzzle.  Writing  of  the  habits  of  one  of  the 
Cingalese  members  of  the  genus  (formerly  separated  as  Polypedates),  in  which 
the  front  toes  are  only  half- webbed,  Emerson  Tennent  observes  that  it  "  possesses 
in  a  high  degree,  the  faculty  of  changing  its  hues ;  one  as  green  as  a  leaf  to-day 
will  be  found  grey  and  spotted  like  the  back  to-morrow.  One  of  these  beautiful 
little  creatures,  which  had  seated  itself  on  the  gilt  pillar  of  a  lamp  on  my  dinner- 
table,  became  in  a  few  minutes  scarcely  distinguishable  in  colour  from  the  ormolu 
ornament  to  which  it  clung." 

O 


VARIABLE   TREE-FROGS  (nat.  size). 


SOLID-CHESTED   TREE-FROGS,  271 

THE  SOLID-CHESTED  TREE-FROGS. 
Family  DENDEOBATID^E 

As  we  have  already  seen  to  be  the  case  with  the  snakes,  two  totally  distinct 
families  of  frogs  have  taken  to  an  arboreal  life,  and  have  thus  become  so  like  one 
another  that  we  have  to  depend  on  anatomical  differences  for  their  distinction. 
In  the  present  family,  while  the  structure  of  the  bones  of  the  chest  is  of  the  same 
solid  structure  as  obtains  in  the  typical  frogs,  and  the  extremities  of  the  transverse 
processes  of  the  sacral  vertebra  are  not  expanded,  an  important  difference  presents 
itself  in  the  absence  of  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  and  on  the  palate.  The  toes  of  both 
feet  are  quite  free  from  webs,  and  have  their  tips  expanded  into  rounded  discs. 
These  frogs  are  represented  by  two  genera,  one  of  which  (Mantetta)  is  confined  to 
Madagascar,  and  is  distinguished  by  the  tip  of  the  tongue  being  notched ;  while  in 
Dendrobates  of  Tropical  America  the  tongue  is  entire.  The  American  genus  is 
represented  by  seven  species,  among  which  the  variable  tree-frog  (Dendrobates 
tinctorius)  is  selected  for  illustration.  This  pretty  little  frog,  which  measures 
barely  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  is  widely  distributed  in  Tropical  America,  and 
is  remarkable  for  its  variability  in  colour ;  some  examples  being  uniformly  black, 
others  grey  above  and  black  on  the  sides  and  beneath,  arid  others  grey  with  large 
black  blotches.  This,  however,  is  by  no  means  the  limit  of  variation,  since  some 
examples  are  black  above,  with  two  or  three  longitudinal  white  or  pink  stripes,  the 
under-parts  being  grey  with  black  spots ;  while  in  other  cases,  the  ground-colour  is 
black,  with  white  spots  and  streaks  above,  and  spots  or  marblings  of  the  same 
beneath.  From  the  small  size  of  the  discs  on  its  feet,  which  do  not  admit  of  its 
clinging  to  upright  stems,  this  frog  seems  to  be  less  arboreal  than  some  of  its 
allies;  and  it  is  generally  found  among  fallen  leaves  on  the  ground  in  forests. 
Like  its  kindred,  it  displays  remarkable  care  and  attention  to  its  young.  The 
secretion  from  its  skin  is  employed  by  the  Indians  as  an  arrow-poison. 

THE  NARROW-MOUTHED  FROGS. 
Family  ENGYSTOMATID^E. 

An  important  family  of  the  suborder  is  that  of  the  narrow-mouthed  frogs, 
represented  by  more  than  a  score  of  genera,  distributed  over  Africa,  Madagascar, 
India  and  the  adjacent  countries,  Southern  China,  Papua,  and  America.  While 
agreeing  with  the  members  of  the  preceding  family  in  the  absence  of  teeth  in  the 
upper  jaw,  these  frogs  are  distinguished  by  the  broad  expansion  of  the  extremities 
of  the  transverse  processes  of  the  sacral  vertebra.  The  vertebrae  are  similar  in 
conformation  to  those  of  the  typical  frogs,  and  there  is  the  same  absence  of  ribs. 
There  is,  however,  considerable  variation  in  regard  to  the  bones  of  the  chest, 
several  of  the  genera  lacking  the  transverse  bars  commonly  known  as  precoracoids ; 
and  the  terminal  joints  of  the  toes  may  be  either  simple  or  T-shaped.  Although 
there  are  no  arboreal  forms,  the  family  comprises  terrestrial,  aquatic,  and  burrowing 
representatives ;  the  last  having  either  the  front  or  hind-limbs  specially  strength- 


272 


FltOGS  AND   TOADS. 


ened  and  furnished  with  horny  sheaths.  In  some  of  the  genera,  and  especially  the 
one  of  which  a  representative  is  here  figured,  the  mouth  is  extremely  narrow ; 
and  although  it  is  convenient  to  take  this  character  as  the  basis  of  the  name  of  the 
family,  it  must  not  be  considered  that  it  is  applicable  to  all  its  members.  These 
narrow-mouthed  forms  feed  exclusively  or  mainly  on  ants  and  termites,  and  thus 
exhibit  a  modification  of  structure  approximating  to  that  characteristic  of  ant- 
eating  mammals.  More  than  half  the  members  of  the  family  are  nocturnal,  and 
may  be  recognised  by  the  vertical  pupil  of  the  eye. 

Short-Headed  The  exceeding  plumpness  of  the  body  serves  not  only  to  dis- 

Frogs.         tinguish  the  short-headed  frogs  (Breviceps)  from  all  their  allies,  but 

also  makes  them  some  of  the  most  peculiar  of  their  class.     Indeed,  when  the  body 


EAST  AFRICAN  SHORT-HEADED   FROGS  (nat.  size). 

is  puffed  out  to  its  fullest  extent,  they  more  resemble  indiarubber  balls  than  frogs. 
The  genus  belongs  to  a  group  in  which  the  so-called  precoracoid  bones  are  present 
and  the  metacoracoids  much  dilated ;  and  they  are  specially  distinguished  by  the 
horizontal  portion  of  the  pupil  and  the  absence  of  teeth  on  the  palate.  Three 
species  are  known,  all  of  which  are  African,  the  one  here  figured  (B.  mossambicus) 
inhabiting  the  eastern  districts.  Generally  having  a  perfectly  smooth  skin,  this 
frog  is  of  a  brown  or  blackish  hue  on  the  upper-parts,  with  a  dark  oblique  streak 
below  the  eye.  The  narrow  mouth  and  long  tongue  of  this  curious  frog  indicate 
that  its  food  consists  of  white  ants. 

.  ,  A  frog  (Rhinoderma  darwini)  belonging  to  the  present  family, 

and  inhabiting  Chili,  alone  represents  a  genus  remarkable  for  the 


NARROW-MOUTHED   GROUP.  273 

throat-sac  of  the  males  being  enlarged  and  modified  so  as  to  form  an  extensive 
chamber  on  the  under  surface  of  the  body  in  which  the  eggs  and  tadpoles  undergo 
their  development.  This  chamber  is  entered  by  two  apertures  situated  on  the 
floor  of  the  mouth  on  each  side  of  the  tongue ;  and  when  the  eggs,  generally  from 
eleven  to  fifteen  in  number,  are  laid  by  the  female,  they  are  taken  and  swallowed 
by  her  consort,  who  passes  them  into  his  pouch.  When  the  tadpoles  are  sufficiently 
developed,  they  enter  the  world  by  escaping  through  the  parental  mouth.  It 
appears  that  at  no  stage  of  their  existence  do  the  tadpoles  possess  external  gills. 


THE  SHARP-NOSED  FROG. 
Family  CERATOBATRACHID^. 

Omitting  detailed  mention  of  the  small  and  unimportant  family  of  the 
Discophidce,  characterised  by  the  presence  of  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  the 
expansion  of  the  extremities  of  the  transverse  processes  of  the  sacral  vertebra,  our 
last  representative  of  the  first  suborder  is  the  sharp-nosed  frog  (Ceratobatrachus 
guentheri),  of  the  Solomon  Islands,  which  constitutes  a  family  by  itself.  The 
essential  characteristics  of  the  family  are  the  presence  of  teeth  in  both  the  upper 
and  lower  jaws  (a  feature  found  elsewhere  only  in  two  families  of  the  next 
suborder),  coupled  with  the  absence  of  expansion  of  the  extremities  of  the  sacral 
vertebrae.  This  frog  has  a  very  large  triangular  head,  ornamented  with  prominent 
ridges,  and  terminating  in  front  in  a  pointed  flap  of  skin ;  similar  flaps  occupying 
the  eyelids,  and  the  mouth  having  an  enormous  capacity.  In  the  eye  the  pupil  is 
horizontal ;  and  teeth  are  present  on  the  vomers.  The  hind-limbs  are  rather  short ; 
and  all  the  toes  have  simple  terminations,  and  are  devoid  of  webs.  In  colour  this 
curious  frog  is  very  variable.  Although  very  little  is  known  as  to  its  habits,  it 
appears  to  be  abundant  in  the  Solomon  Islands ;  and  it  is  remarkable  for  laying 
very  large  eggs,  from  which  the  young  emerge  nearly  fully-developed. 

THE  SOUTHERN  FROGS. 
Family  LEPTODACTYLID^E. 

In  the  greater  part  of  South  America  and  the  whole  of  Australia  the  typical 
frogs  are  replaced  by  a  family  which,  for  want  of  a  better  name,  we  may  call  the 
southern  frogs.  These,  together  with  seven  other  families,  differ  essentially  from 
the  forms  hitherto  considered,  in  regard  to  the  conformation  of  the  bones  of  the 
chest,  and  thus  collectively  constitute  a  second  suborder,  known  as  the  Arcifera. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  in  the  preceding  suborder  the  two  metacoracoid  bones 
are  connected  together  by  a  single  cartilage  joining  their  free  edges  ;  in  the  present 
group  each  metacoracoid  terminates  in  a  large  cartilage,  in  such  a  manner  that  one 
cartilage  overlaps  its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side.  The  southern  frogs  resemble  the 
typical  frogs  in  having  the  upper  jaw  alone  toothed,  and  in  the  transverse  processes 
of  the  sacral  vertebra  being  cylindrical  or  but  slightly  expanded,  while  they  also 
agree  in  the  characters  of  the  vertebrse  and  the  absence  of  ribs.  It  is  thus  evident 

VOL.  v. — 1 8 


274 


FROGS  AND   TOADS. 


that  the  two  groups  form  parallel  or  representative  series ;  but  it  must  always  be 
remembered  that  it  is  only  an  assumption  that  the  conformation  of  the  bones  of  the 
chest  is  the  character  of  primary  import ;  and  that  it  is  quite  possible  that  there 
may  have  been  parallelism  in  this  case  also,  in  which  event  the  present  family 
would  have  to  be  placed  next  the  true  frogs.  The  present  family  is  confined  to  the 
countries  mentioned  above,  and  is  represented  by  twenty-five  genera  and  some  one 
hundred  and  eighty  species.  While  most  of  the  American  forms  have  the  pupil  of 
the  eye  vertical,  this  condition  occurs  but  rarely  in  those  from  Australia. 


Horned  Frogs. 


SOLOMON   ISLAND   SHARP-NOSED   FROG  (nat.  size). 

Among  the  best  known  representatives  of  the  family  are  the 
horned  frogs,  or  horned  toads  (Ceratophrys),  remarkable  alike  for 
their  large  size  and  brilliant  coloration,  as  well  as  for  the  enormous  dimensions  of 
their  mouths  and  their  fierce  and  carnivorous  habits.  Represented  by  about  half 
a  score  of  species  from  Tropical  and  South  America,  they  belong  to  a  group  charac- 
terised by  the  more  or  less  marked  union  of  the  outer  metatarsals,  the  absence  of  a 
bony  style  to  the  breast-bone,  and  the  webbing  of  the  hind-toes ;  while,  as  a  genus, 
they  are  distinguished  by  the  horizontal  position  of  the  pupil  and  the  notching  of 
the  tongue.  The  webbing  of  the  toes  varies  in  extent  in  the  different  species,  but 


SOUTHERN  FROGS. 


275 


there  is  never  any  expansion  of  these  extremities.  The  outer  metatarsals  are 
completely  united,  and  the  skull  is  remarkable  for  the  extent  to  which  ossifica- 
tion is  carried  out.  In  some  species,  such  as  the  Brazilian  horned  frog  (C.  boiei), 
the  upper  eyelid  is  produced  into  a  horn-like  appendage ;  but  in  others,  like  the 
Argentine  horned  frog  (C.  ornata),  this  is  little  developed  and  scarcely  noticeable. 

The  largest  representative  of  the  genus  is  the  above-mentioned  Brazilian 
horned  frog,  which  attains  as  much  as  8  inches  in  length,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
handsomely  ornamented  of  the  genus.  The  smaller  Argentine  species  represented 
in  our  illustration  differs  from  it  by  the  upper  eyelid  being  only  slightly 
pointed  and  triangular,  as  well  as  by  the  presence  of  a  bony  shield  on  the  back. 
The  skin  is  covered  with  tubercles  above  and  granules  below ;  the  general  colour  of 


AEGENTINE  HORNED  FROGS,    OR   ESCUERZOS  (nat.  size). 

the  upper-parts  being  yellowish  or  greenish,  with  large  olive  spots  surrounded  by 
light-coloured  or  golden  margins,  while  there  are  sometimes  wine-red  lines  between 
the  spots.  These  frogs,  or  escuerzos,  as  they  are  locally  called,  are  abundant  in 
many  parts  of  Argentina,  and  in  damp  weather  may  be  met  with  crawling  about 
among  the  grass  in  numbers,  after  the  manner  of  toads.  They  are  exceedingly  bold 
and  ferocious,  flying  fiercely  at  anyone  who  attacks  them,  and  maintaining  their 
hold  with  the  tenacity  of  a  bull-dog,  at  the  same  time  uttering  a  kind  of  barking 
cry.  On  other  occasions  they  give  vent  to  a  peculiarly  deep  bell-like  note.  When 
in  repose,  escuerzos  are  in  the  habit  of  burying  themselves  in  the  soil  with  only  the 
top  of  the  back  exposed,  in  which  state  they  are  almost  invisible.  In  this  position 
they  lie  in  wait  for  their  prey,  which  includes  other  frogs,  birds,  and  small  mammals  : 
and  at  times  they  capture  and  attempt  to  swallow  objects  too  large  for  their  capacity. 


276  FROGS  AND   TOADS. 

Another  American  genus,  containing  a  very  large  number  of 
species,  is  that  of  the  leaf-frogs  (Hylodes),  which  deserves  mention 
on  account  of  the  peculiar  reproduction  of  one  of  its  representatives,  the  so-called 
Antillian  frog  (H.  martinicensis).  These  frogs  differ  from  the  group  to  which  the 
last  genus  belongs  by  the  absence  of  a  bony  style  to  the  breast-bone,  and  the 
un webbed  hind- toes ;  while  they  are  further  characterised  by  the  expansion  of  the 
tips  of  the  toes  into  smooth  discs,  the  horizontal  pupil  of  the  eye,  and  the  presence 
of  teeth  on  the  vomer.  The  Antillian  frog,  or,  as  it  is  locally  termed,  coqui,  is  an 
inhabitant  of  several  of  the  West  Indian  Islands,  and  may  be  recognised  by  its 
warty  under  surface ;  the  general  colour  of  the  upper-parts  being  grey  or  brownish, 
with  indistinct  darker  marking  on  the  head  and  back,  and  crossbars  on  the  hind- 
legs  ;  while  there  is  a  large  dark  mark  on  the  temporal  region,  and  another  near 
the  muzzle.  The  remarkable  fact  connected  with  the  reproduction  of  this  species 
is  that  such  transformations  as  are  undergone  by  the  larvae  take  place  within  the 
large  eggs ;  the  creatures  emerging  from  which  undergo  no  further  alteration,  with 
the  exception  of  the  absorption  of  the  remnant  of  the  tail.  In  this  respect  the 
coqui  resembles  the  sharp-nosed  frog  of  the  Solomon  Islands. 

As  the  typical  representatives  of  the  family,  brief  mention  must 
be  made  of  the  piping  frogs  (Leptodactylus)  of  Central  and  South 
America,  which  differ  from  the  preceding  genera  in  having  a  dagger-like  bony 
style  to  the  breast-bone ;  and  having  the  pupil  of  the  eye  horizontal,  and  the  teeth 
on  the  vomers  placed  behind  the  apertures  of  the  inner  nostrils.  Externally,  these 
frogs  closely  resemble  the  ordinary  European  water-frogs,  with  the  exception  that 
the  hind-toes  are  not  webbed.  In  the  males  the  humerus  is  expanded  into  a  large 
flange-like  plate ;  and  in  the  breeding-season  the  whole  fore-limb  is  much  swollen 
for  the  purpose  of  firmly  holding  the  female.  These  frogs  derive  their  names 
from  their  loud  pipe-like  croaking,  which  varies  in  tone  and  intensity  according 
to  the  species.  Some  are  noteworthy  from  their  habit  of  digging  a  hole  in  the 
ground  near  water,  and  lining  it  with  a  layer  of  scum,  upon  which  the  eggs  are 
deposited,  and  left  to  hatch.  The  nests  seem,  however,  always  to  be  so  placed 
that  at  a  certain  season  they  will  be  flooded  by  the  rise  of  the  neighbouring  water. 
When  first  hatched,  the  tadpole  is  not  unlike  that  of  the  frog,  although  with  a 
relatively  smaller  tail ;  and  when  the  nest  becomes  flooded  the  mode  of  life  of  its 
occupants  is  similar  to  that  of  the  ordinary  frog-larvae. 


THE  TOADS. 
Family  BUFONID^!. 

Passing  over  the  unimportant  family  of  the  Dendrophryniscidce,  including 
only  two  small  South  American  genera,  our  next  representatives  of  the 
suborder  are  the  true  toads,  which  constitute  a  family  distinguished  by.  the 
absence  of  teeth  in  both  jaws,  and  the  expansion  of  the  extremities  of  the 
transverse  processes  of  the  sacral  vertebra.  The  vertebrae  resemble  those  of 
the  typical  frogs,  and  there  is  the  same  absence  of  ribs  as  in  the  latter.  The 
terminal  joints  of  the  toes  are  either  blunt,  or  T-shaped ;  and  in  only  two  out  of 


TOADS.  277 

the  eight  genera  is  the  pupil  of  the  eye  vertical.  Two  of  the  genera  approximate 
in  character  to  the  preceding  family.  The  toads  have  an  almost  cosmopolitan 
distribution,  and  while  the  more  typical  forms  are  characterised  by  their  terrestrial 
habits,  rough  skin,  and  creeping  gait,  so  unlike  that  of  the  frogs,  others  are  burrow- 
ing, and  others,  again  (Nectes),  thoroughly  aquatic.  Moreover,  the  disc-footed  toads 
(Nectophryne)  of  Western  Africa  and  the  Oriental  region,  in  which  the  toes  terminate 
in  disc-like  pads,  appear  to  be  arboreal ;  while  the  one  Mexican  representative  of 
another  genus  (Rhinophrynus)  is  distinguished  by  its  ant-eating  habits. 

The  common  toad  (Bufo  vulgaris)  is  the  typical  representative 
of  a  large  genus,  with  some  eighty-five  species,  ranging  over  the 
whole  world,  with  the  exception  of  Madagascar,  Australia,  New  Guinea,  and  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific.  As  a  genus,  the  true  toads  are  distinguished  by  the  entire 
tongue,  the  horizontal  pupil  of  the  eye,  the  freedom  of  the  toes  of  the  fore-foot,  and 
the  partial  webbing  of  those  of  the  hind-limbs,  as  well  as  by  the  breast-bone  being 
either  cartilaginous  or  with  only  a  partially  ossified  style.  The  degree  of  webbing 
of  the  hind-toes  varies ;  and  while  the  tips  of  the  toes  are  generally  simple,  they 
are  sometimes  expanded  into  small  discs.  The  head  may  or  may  not  have  bony 
ridges.  The  common  toad  belongs  to  a  group  characterised  by  the  absence  of  these 
ridges,  and  by  the  hind-toes  being  at  least  half- webbed ;  while  it  is  specially  distin- 
guished by  the  absence  of  a  fold  on  the  ankle,  and  by  the  tubercles  beneath  the 
joints  of  the  hind-toes  being  mostly  double.  On  the  upper-parts  are  more  or  less 
prominent  warts,  which,  although  frequently  spiny,  are  not  distinctly  porous ;  and 
the  glands  behind  the  eyes  are  remarkably  prominent,  and  of  an  elongated  elliptical 
form.  In  colour,  the  upper-parts  are  brownish,  with  darker  spots  or  marblings ; 
while  the  lower  surface  is  whitish,  more  or  less  thickly  spotted  with  biack.  A  black 
line  runs  on  the  outer  side  of  the  gland  behind  the  eye ;  this  line,  in  specimens  from 
China  and  Japan,  extending  along  the  upper  side  of  the  flanks.  The  distributional 
area  of  the  species  includes  Europe,  Asia  (exclusive  of  India  and  adjacent  regions), 
and  North- Western  Africa.  Few  animals  have  suffered  more  from  popular  supersti- 
tion than  the  common  toad,  which,  although  practically  harmless,  has  been  almost 
universally  shunned  and  detested.  It  is,  however,  true  that  the  secretion  from  its 
skin  is  acrid  and  irritating,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  foaming  lips  of  clogs  which 
attempt  to  meddle  with  these  amphibians.  Sluggish  and  terrestrial  in  its  habits, 
the  toad  needs  not  the  long  and  fully-webbed  hind-limbs  of  its  active  cousin,  the 
frog ;  its  usual  pace  being  a  kind  of  crawl,  although,  when  disturbed,  it  can  execute 
an  imperfect  leap.  When  alarmed,  or  threatened  with  danger,  a  toad  immediately 
stops  and  puffs  out  its  body  to  its  utmost  capacity,  at  the  same  time  causing  the 
acrid  secretion  to  exude  from  the  pores  of  its  skin,  and  likewise  discharging  a  pure 
limpid  fluid  from  a  special  reservoir.  Of  its  general  habits,  Bell  writes  that  the  toad 
"  becomes  torpid  during  the  winter,  and  chooses  for  its  retreat  some  retired  and 
sheltered  hole,  a  hollow  tree,  or  a  space  amongst  large  stones,  or  some  such  place, 
and  there  remains  until  the  return  of  spring  calls  it  again  into  a  state  of  life  and 
activity.  Its  food  consists  of  insects  and  worms  of  almost  every  kind.  It  refuses 
food  which  is  not  living,  and,  indeed,  will  only  take  it  at  the  moment  when  it  is  in 
motion.  When  about  to  feed,  the  toad  remains  motionless,  with  its  eyes  turned 
directly  upon  the  object,  and  the  head  a  little  inclined  towards  it,  and  in  this  attitude 


278 


FROGS  AND   TOADS. 


it  remains  until  the  insect  moves ;  when,  by  a  stroke  like  lightning,  the  tongue  is 
thrown  forward  upon  the  victim,  which  is  instantly  drawn  into  the  mouth.  .  . 
When  the  prey  is  taken,  it  is  slightly  pressed  by  the  margins  of  the  jaws;  but  as 
this  seldom  kills  it,  unless  it  be  a  soft  tender  larva,  it  is  generally  swallowed  alive. 
Toads  will  also  take  earth-worms  of  considerable  size ;  and  it  is  a  curious  sight  to 
watch  the  manner  in  which  the  powerful  and  writhing  worm  is  secured.  If  the 
toad  happen  to  take  it  by  the  middle,  the  extremities  of  the  worm  are  twined  with 
great  force  and  activity  around  the  muzzle  of  its  captor  in  every  direction,  in  its 
attempts  to  escape ;  but  the  toad  pushes  one  portion  after  another  into  its  mouth, 
by  means  of  the  fore-feet,  until  it  all  disappears,  when  it  is  swallowed  whole." 
The  eggs  of  the  toad  differ  from  those  of  the  frog  in  that,  instead  of  forming  an 
irregular  mass  with  their  enclosing  jelly,  they  are  arranged  in  a  regular,  double, 
and  alternating  series  in  the  form  of  a  string,  which  may  be  a  yard  or  more  in 
length.  These  strings  are  generally  deposited  in  the  water  about  a  fortnight  later 
than  the  spawn  of  the  frog ;  and  it  is  not  till  autumn  that  the  young  toads  corn- 


Green  Toad. 


MEXICAN  SHARP-NOSED  TOAD   (nat.  Size). 

\ 

plete   their  metamorphosis,  and  forsake  the  w^ater.     From  that  of  the  frog,  the 
tadpole  of  the  toad  is  distinguished  by  its  smaller  size  and  blacker  colour. 

The  green  toad  (Bufo  viridis)  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Northern 
Africa,  is  a  far  handsomer  species,  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a 
fold  on  the  ankle,  and  likewise  by  the  simple  structure  of  the  tubercles  on  the  lower 
surface  of  the  toes  of  the  hind-foot.  There  is  likewise  a  vocal  sac  beneath  the  throat 
of  the  male,  which  is  wanting  in  the  common  toad.  The  upper-parts  carry  a  number 
of  irregular,  flattened,  and  porous  warts ;  and  the  glands  behind  the  eyes,  although 
sometimes  enormously  developed,  are  generally  of  moderate  size  and  more  or  less 
kidney-shaped.  The  colour  is  olive  or  greenish  above,  generally  spotted  or 
marbled  with  a  darker  shade,  although  occasionally  nearly  uniform;  while  the 
under-parts  are  either  uniformly  whitish,  or  whitish  with  dark  spots. 

Natterjack  A    third    European    species,    which,   unlike    the    last,  is  locally 

Toad.         represented    in    England,    is    the     natterjack    toad    (B.    calamita), 

easily  recognised  by  the  yellow  or  whitish  line  running  down  the  middle  of  the 

back.     From  both  the  preceding  it  is  distinguished  by  the  much  smaller  extent  of 


TREE-FROGS. 


279 


the  webbing  of  the  hind-toes  ;  while  there  is  a  fold  on  the  ankle,  and  the  tubercles 
on  the  joints  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  hind-toes  are  to  a  large  extent  double. 
The  hind-limb  is  unusually  short  ;  the  flattened  warts  on  the  back  are  distinctly 
porous;  the  glands  behind  the  eyes  are  small,  depressed,  and  either  oval  or 
triangular;  and  there  is  an  additional  gland  on  the  leg.  The  general  colour  of 
the  upper-parts  is  light  olive,  with  darker  marblings  or  spots,  the  above-mentioned 
light  line  being  generally  present;  while  the  light  under-parts  are  more  or  less 
spotted  with  black.  In  its  movements  the  natterjack  is  less  sluggish  than  the 
common  toad,  its  pace  being  often  quickened  to  a  kind  of  run,  during  which  the 
body  is  raised  considerably  above  the  ground.  It  is  likewise  less  intolerant  of 
drought,  being  frequently  found  in  hot,  sunny  situations,  and  only  resorting  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  water  during  the  breeding-season. 

Sharp-Nosed  The  Mexican  sharp-nosed  toad  (Rhinophrynus  dorsalis),  already 

Toad.  referred  to  as  subsisting  on  white  ants,  is  the  only  other  member  of 
the  family  that  we  have  space  to  mention,  and  is  generically  distinguished  by  the 
long  and  narrow  tongue  being  free  in  front,  by  the  vertical  pupil  of  the  eye,  and  by 
the  rudimentary  breast-bone.  The  front-toes  are  free,  and  those  of  the  hind-limb 
webbed,  with  simple  tips  ;  while  the  general  form  of  the  body  is  extremely  stout  ; 
the  head  small,  with  a  long,  truncated  muzzle  and  narrow  mouth  ;  the  eyes  being 
small,  and  the  limbs  remarkably  short.  In  colour  this  toad  is  olive-brown  or 
bluish  grey  above,  frequently  with  yellowish  spots  on  the  flanks  and  middle  of 
the  back,  those  on  the  back  sometimes  uniting  to  form  a  line. 

THE  OVEELAPPING-CHESTED  TKEE-FROGS. 
Family  HYLID^E. 

The  numerous,  mostly  arboreal,  frogs  thus  designated  form  a  family  compris- 
ing some  ten  genera,  very  abundant  in  Australia  and  America,  and  more  sparingly 
represented  in  Europe,  Asia  north  of  the  Himalaya  (one  species  ranging  into  North- 
Eastern  India  and  Burma),  and 
Northern  Africa.  While  resem- 
bling the  toads  in  the  expansion 
of  the  processes  of  the  sacral 
vertebra,  they  differ  by  the  pre- 
sence of  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw, 
and  they  are  peculiar  in  the  claw- 
like  form  of  the  terminal  joints 
of  the  toes.  The  vertebrae  are 
cupped  in  front,  and  spherical 
behind,  and  there  are  no  ribs. 
Grasshopper-  The  grass- 


hopper-  frog  (Acris 
gryllus)oi  North  America  is  the 
sole  representative  of  a  genus 
characterised  by  the  horizontal 
pupil  of  the  eye,  the  webbing  of 


GRASSHOPPER-FROGS  '(nat.  size). 


28o  FROGS  AND    TOADS. 

the  hind-toes,  of  which  the  tips  are  but  little  expanded,  and  the  slight  expansion 
of  the  processes  of  the  sacral  vertebra.  In  form  this  little  frog  is  slender,  with  a 
narrow  head  and  rather  sharp  muzzle ;  while  the  skin  of  the  upper-parts  is  either 
smooth  or  slightly  tuberculated,  and  that  of  the  under-parts  granulated.  The 
mottled  and  striped  coloration  is  very  variable,  the  ground-tint  ranging  from 
reddish  brown  to  green ;  but  there  is  generally  a  large,  triangular,  dark  brown 
spot  between  the  eyes,  and  sometimes  a  light  stripe  down  the  back.  Locally  very 
abundant  in  Eastern  and  Central  North  America,  the  grasshopper-frog  derives  its 
name  from  its  piercing,  strident  cry,  which  resembles  the  noise  of  its  insect  name- 
sake. It  frequents  stagnant  waters,  and  is  fond  of  resting  on  the  leaves  of 
aquatic  plants.  Unlike  most  of  its  allies,  it  lurks  among  plants,  and  seldom,  if 
ever,  ascends  bushes  or  trees. 

Typical  Tree-  Closely  allied  to  the  last  are  the  numerous  species  of  typical 

Frogs.  tree-frogs  (Hyla),  which  are  by  far  the  most  beautiful  representatives 
of  the  entire  order,  and  are  best  known  by  the  common  European  species.  In  this 
genus  the  pupil  of  the  eye  is  horizontal,  the  toes  of  both  limbs  dilated  into  discs, 
and  those  of  the  hind-foot  more  or  less  extensively  webbed,  the  tongue  either 
adherent  or  more  or  less  free  behind,  and  the  expansion  of  the  transverse  pro- 
cesses of  the  sacral  vertebra  more  or  less  strongly  marked.  As  in  the  last  genus, 
there  are  teeth  on  the  vomers.  [Represented  by  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
species,  this  genus  has  a  distribution  coextensive  with  that  of  the  family ;  the  sole 
Indian  member  of  the  latter  being  included.  The  under  surface  of  their  bodies  is 
very  different  to  that  of  the  terrestrial  species ;  for  the  skin,  instead  of  being 
smooth,  is  covered  with  granular  glands,  pierced  by  numerous  pores,  through 
which  the  dew  or  rain,  spread  on  the  surface  of  the  leaves,  is  rapidly  absorbed 
into  the  system,  and  reserved  to  supply  the  moisture  necessary  for  cutaneous 
respiration.  Except  during  the  breeding-season,  when  the  greater  number  of  them 
seek  the  water,  or  when  they  retire  before  the  cold  of  winter  or  drought  of  summer 
under  mud,  beneath  stones,  the  bark  of  trees,  or  in  other  safe  spots,  these  frogs  spend 
their  lives  among  the  leaves  of  trees,  where  they  find  alike  their  dwelling-places 
and  their  hunting-grounds.  As  in  the  case  of  the  flying  frogs,  their  colour  har- 
monises exactly  with  their  natural  surroundings,  and  changes  even  more  rapidly 
than  that  of  the  chamseleons.  So  exactly  indeed  do  they  resemble  the  foliage 
among  wrhich  they  hide,  that  it  is  often  difficult  to  tell  frogs  from  leaves ;  and  it 
has  been  noticed  that  where  there  is  the  greatest  variety  and  brilliancy  of  colour 
among  the  forest  trees,  the  tree-frogs  attain  their  most  brilliant  and  varied  tints. 

The  European  tree-frog  (H.  arborea),  which  is  one  of  three  species  inhabiting 
the  Old  World  proper,  has  a  wide  geographical  distribution,  inhabiting  the  greater 
part  of  Europe,  Asia  north  of  the  Himalaya  as  far  east  as  Japan,  and  North  Africa. 
With  the  exception  of  the  higher  mountain  ranges  and  the  extreme  north,  as  well 
as  Norway  and  Britain,  it  is  spread  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  although  varying 
locally  to  a  considerable  degree  in  coloration  and  habits.  The  males  are  furnished 
with  a  large  external  vocal  sac  on  the  throat,  and  the  skin  is  smooth  above  and 
granulated  beneath.  The  general  coloration  may  be  described  as  greenish  above, 
and  uniform  whitish  beneath,  but  there  are  many  variations  in  regard  to  the 
markings  on  the  upper-parts ;  the  typical  form  having  a  greyish  or  black  light- 


TREE-FROGS. 


281 


Nesting-Habits. 


edged  streak  extending  from  the  nostril  through  the  eye  and  ear  along  each  side 
of  the  body,  and  sending  a  branch  upwards  and  forwards  on  the  loin,  while  a 
whitish  line  descends  from  the  upper  lip  to  the  shoulder,  and  then  runs  upwards  to 
the  eye,  thus  enclosing  an  elongated  green  area.  In  habits  this  frog  is  most  active ; 
and  while  in  swimming  it  is  nearly  equal  to  the  common  frog,  in  leaping  it  is  its 
superior,  in  addition  to  which  it  is  a  most  expert  climber.  When  croaking,  the 
sac  on  the  throat  of  the  males  becomes  so  inflated  as  to  make  this  appendage 
nearly  as  large  as  the  body.  Like  toads,  tree-frogs  do  not  appear  to  touch  the 
insects  on  which  they  prey  until  these  begin  to  move.  Flies,  spiders,  beetles, 
butterflies,  and  smooth  caterpillars  appear  to  form  their  favourite  food ;  although 
they  have  been  known  to  attack  and  kill  humble-bees.  The  European  species  is 
of  very  small  size,  but  some  of  the  American  and  Australian  species  attain  compara- 
tively large  dimensions,  one  of  the  largest  members  of  the  genus  being  H.  faber, 
of  Brazil,  which  measures  as  much  as  3J  inches  in  length. 

An  interesting  account  of  the  breeding-habits  of  the  frog  last 
mentioned,  which  in  Brazil  is  known  as  the  ferreiro,  or  smith,  is  given 
by  Dr.  Goeldi,  whose 
observations  were  made 
in  the  Organ  Mountains, 
adjoining  the  bay  of  Rio 
de  Janeiro.  This  frog 
makes  regular  pools  of  a 
circular  form  in  the 
shallow  borders  of  ponds 
and  swamps,  such  pools 
being  surrounded  by 
a  narrow  mud- wall.  In 
1894  one  pond  contained 
nine  of  these  pools,  which 
serve  as  nests  for  the 
tadpoles.  "  On  the  night 
of  the  18th  of  February," 
writes  the  describer, 
"between  nine  and  eleven 
o'clock,  we  approached 
the  pond,  occupied,  as  we  could  hear  from  a  distance,  by  at  least  a  dozen  of  the 
large  tree-frogs.  The  moon  was  shining  brightly,  and  much  favoured  our 
undertaking,  but  even  under  these  circumstances  we  had  to  accustom  our  sight 
to  discern  the  details  in  the  marginal  vegetation,  and  the  portion  somewhat 
hidden  in  the  shadow.  By  and  by  we  discovered  the  ferreiros,  some  at  work, 
others  drumming  together  on  the  walls  of  some  pool,  or  in  the  middle  of  the 
pond,  sitting  upon  some  floating  object,  such  as  water-plants.  The  vocalists,  of 
which  we  could  distinguish  the  moderately  inflated  gular  sacs,  were  all  males." 
After  stating  that  he  was  posted  on  a  side  of  the  pond  where  five  nests  were 
already  situated,  Dr.  Goeldi  observes  that  he  and  his  companion  were  fortunate 
•enough  to  see  the  rising  of  a  new  nest.  In  a  certain  spot  he  writes  that  "we 


EUROPEAN  TREE-FROGS  (tiat,  size). 


282  FROGS  AND   TOADS. 

first  saw  some  slight  movement  in  the  water,  produced  by  something  stirring 
below  the  surface.  We  then  soon  saw  a  mass  of  mud  rising  to  the  surface,  carried 
by  a  tree-frog,  of  which  no  more  than  the  two  hands  emerged.  Diving  again,  after 
a  moment's  time,  the  frog  brought  up  a  second  mass  of  mud,  near  the  first.  This 
was  repeated  many  times,  the  result  being  the  gradual  erection  of  a  circular  wall. 
From  time  to  time  the  head  and  front  part  of  the  body  of  the  builder  appeared 
suddenly  with  a  load  of  mud  at  some  point ;  but  what  astonished  us  in  the  highest 
degree  was  the  manner  in  which  the  frog  used  its  hands  for  smoothing  the  mud- 
wall,  as  would  a  mason  with  his  trowel.  And  by  examining  the  hands  of  this, 
hyla,  it  will  readily  be  understood  how  they  are  most  serviceable  trowels,  their 
terminal  joints  bearing  large  expansions.  This  careful  process  of  smoothing  could 
be  better  observed  as  the  wall  gradually  heightened,  until  it  reached  about  four 
inches,  when  the  frog  was  compelled  to  come  out  of  the  water.  The  parapet  of 
the  wall  receives  the  most  careful  smoothening,  the  outside  being  neglected,  and 
the  levelling  of  the  bottom  attained  by  the  action  of  the  lower  surface  of  the 
creature's  body,  aided  by  the  hands.  The  aspect  of  the  pool  may  be  compared  to- 
the  crater  of  a  volcano,  or  a  vessel  of  a  foot  in  diameter  filled  with  water.  Although 
the  female  undertakes  the  entire  task  of  building,  she  is  incommoded  the  whole 
time  by  the  male  sitting  on  her  back.  Should  he  be  frightened  from  his  post,  he 
will  soon  emerge  from  the  water  at  a  distance  of  a  few  feet,  when,  if  signs  of 
danger  be  wanting,  he  will  climb  the  walls  of  the  nest  and  regain  his  original  seat." 

Another  Brazilian  tree-frog  of  the  same  genus  (H.  goeldii)  breeds  in  the 
water  contained  in  the  central  cup  of  certain  trees  belonging  to  the  Bromeliacece. 
Dr.  Goeldi  states  that  the  first  specimen  found  was  a  female,  carrying  on  her 
back  a  large  globular  mass  of  whitish  eggs.  When  put  in  a  vivarium,  "for  a 
few  days  the  egg-mass  remained  attached  to  the  mother's  back.  But  suddenly 
it  fell  away,  and  simultaneously  I  saw  in  the  glass  some  small,  nearly  black 
coloured  frogs,  all  provided  with  the  anterior  and  posterior  legs,  together  with 
a  larval  tail  of  medium  or  rather  snmll  size." 

Yet  another  tree-frog  from  Brazil  (H.  nebulosa)  has  acquired  the  remarkable 
habit  of  depositing  its  eggs  in  the  sheaths  of  old  and  decaying  leaves  of  bananas. 
The  writer  from  whom  we  have  been  quoting  states  that  this  frog  "  glues  its  lumps 
of  eggs  on  the  edges  and  on  the  inside  of  banana  leaves,  where,  even  during  the 
hot  hours  of  the  day,  sufficient  coolness  and  moisture  are  preserved.  These  lumps 
are  enclosed  in  a  frothy,  whitish  substance,  comparable  to  the  scum  formed  by 
certain  Cicadidce.  Sometimes  the  tailed  larves  are  seen  struggling  in  this  frothy 
mass.  If  put  into  fresh  water,  all  will  die  in  a  few  hours." 
Pouched  Tree-  On  account  of  the  peculiarity  of  their  reproduction,  mention 

Frogs.  must  be  macie  Of  the  curious  pouched  tree-frogs  (Nototrema),  dis- 
tinguished from  the  typical  genus  by  the  presence  of  a  backwardly-opening  pouch 
at  the  hinder-end  of  the  back  in  the  females.  These  frogs  are  represented  by  some 
half-dozen  species,  mainly  confined  to  Central  and  Western  Tropical  America, 
although  one  of  their  number  is  found  on  the  eastern  side  of  that  continent  at- 
Pernambuco.  The  pouch  of  the  female  is  extended  beneath  the  skin  of  the  back 
and  sides  to  form  a  very  large  chamber,  in  which  the  eggs  and  tadpoles  undergo 
the  whole  of  their  transformations.  The  eggs,  generally  fifteen  or  sixteen  in 


TOAD-FROGS.  283 

number,  appear  to  be  placed  in  the  pouch  by  the  male,  who  employs  his  hind-feet 
for  the  purpose ;  and  they  are  remarkable  for  the  large  relative  size  of  the  yolk. 
The  tadpoles,  when  first  hatched,  are  peculiar  in  having  a  bell-shaped  structure  for 
the  protection  of  their  two  pairs  of  external  gills. 


THE  TOAD-FROGS. 
Family  PELOBATIDJE. 

The  fifth  family  of  the  order  belonging  to  the  section  with  overlapping 
cartilages  to  the  metacoracoids  comprises  eight  genera,  which  may  be  collectively 
termed  toad-frogs,  since  they  come  neither  under  the  designation  of  toads  or  frogs. 
Agreeing  with  the  tree-frogs  in  the  presence  of  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  they  may 
be  distinguished  by  the  much  greater  expansion  of  the  processes  of  the  sacral 
vertebra,  ribs  being  absent,  and  the  terminal  joints  of  the  toes  simple.  In  all 
the  forms  the  pupil  of  the  eye  is  vertical ;  and  whereas  the  majority  of  the  genera 
agree  with  the  preceding  groups  in  having  the  articular  cup  at  the  front  and  the 
ball  behind,  in  a  few  this  arrangement  is  reversed.  The  family  is  distributed 
over  Europe,  the  Oriental  region,  North  America,  and  New  Guinea ;  the  various 
genera  having  a  more  or  less  restricted  geographical  range. 

Brown  The  brown  toad-frog  (Pelobates  fuscus)  is  the  typical  representa- 

Toad-Frog.  ^ive  of  a  genus  containing  two  European  species,  neither  of  which  are 
found  in  Britain.  They  are  characterised  by  the  rod  at  the  end  of  the  backbone 
being  welded  to  the  sacral  vertebra,  and  by  the  extensive  webbing  of  the  hind-toes  ; 
the  presence  of  a  bony  style  to  the  breast-bone,  coupled  with  the  want  of  an 
externally  visible  ear-membrane,  serving  to  distinguish  them  from  an  allied  North 
American  genus  (Scaphiopus).  The  brown  toad-frog  is  a  rather  large  species, 
usually  measuring  from  2J  to  3  inches  in  length,  and  having  a  smooth  brown  skin, 
marbled  on  'the  upper-parts  with  darker  markings ;  a  spur  which  is  present  on  the 
metatarsus  being  yellowish  brown.  The  males  have  no  vocal  sac,  but  are  furnished 
with  a  large  elliptical  gland  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  fore-limb.  This  species 
is  decidedly  local,  and  in  some  districts  is  replaced  by  the  allied  P.  caltripes,  easily 
distinguished  by  the  black  spur  on  the  metatarsus.  Spending  only  a  few  days 
during  the  breeding-season  in  the  water,  it  is  essentially  a  land  animal,  generally 
frequenting  spots  with  a  sandy  soil.  Here,  with  the  aid  of  its  metatarsal  spur, 
it  rapidly  excavates  hollows  in  the  ground,  throwing  out  the  earth  backwards, 
and  soon  partially  concealing  itself.  An  aperture  is,  however,  always  left  to  the 
excavation,  and  should  the  rays  of  the  morning  sun  reach  its  occupant,  the  burrow 
is  quickly  deepened.  In  its  movements  the  toad-frog  is  more  active  than  the 
toads,  approaching  in  this  respect  the  frogs,  as  it  takes  considerable  leaps,  swims 
strongly,  and  burrows  with  rapidity.  The  breeding-season  takes  place  in  April, 
during  which  time  the  males  utter  a  loud  croaking,  accompanied  in  a  lower  tone 
by  the  females.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  strings  of  about  a  couple  of  feet  in  length ; 
and  are  taken  from  time  to  time  by  the  male  and  carefully  deposited  round 
reeds,  grass,  or  other  plants  growing  near  the  edge  of  the  water.  In  from  five  to 
six  days  the  small  black  tadpoles  are  hatched  out;  and  in  the  course  of  four 


284  FROGS  AND   TOADS. 

months  these  have  completed  their  development  and  leave  the  water.  When  an 
adult  toad-frog  is  suddenly  seized  or  pinched,  it  utters  a  cry  like  the  mewing  of  a 
kitten,  at  the  same  time  emitting  a  pungent  vapour  with  a  strong  odour  of  garlic, 
both  these  being  apparently  intended  as  a  means  of  defence. 

Of  the  remaining  genera,  Pelodytes,  as  represented  by  the 
punctured  toad  -  frog  (P.  punctatus)  of  Western  Europe,  and  the 
Papuan  Batrachopsis,  differ  from  the  preceding  in  that  the  sacral  vertebra 
has  two  condyles  for  articulation  with  the  rod  forming  the  termination  of  the  back- 
bone, the  hind-toes  being  slightly  webbed.  In  the  Oriental  genus  Leptobrachium, 
there  is  but  a  single  condyle  for  the  articulation  of  the  rod-like  bone. 

Allied  In  the  Miocene  rocks  of  Europe  there  occur  remains  of  numerous 

Extinct  Frogs,  frogs  which  are  assigned  to  an  extinct  genus,  Palceobatrachus,  regarded 
as  representing  a  family  (Palceobatrachidce)  connecting  the  present  one  with  the 
under-mentioned  Xenopodidce.  In  these  extinct  forms  the  upper  jaw  is  toothed, 
the  transverse  processes  of  the  sacral  vertebra  have  expanded  extremities ;  the 
sacral  vertebra  articulates  with  the  terminal  rod  of  the  backbone  by  means  of  two 
condyles ;  the  vertebrae  have  their  articular  cup  in  front ;  and  there  are  no  ribs. 


THE  Disc-ToNGUED  FROGS. 
Family  DlSCOGLOSSlD^l. 

The  disc-tongued  frogs,  as  the  members  of  this  group  may  be  called,  form  a 
small  family  represented  by  four  genera  and  seven  species,  inhabiting  the  northern 
half  of  the  Old  World  and  New  Zealand.  As  a  family,  these  frogs  are  characterised 
by  the  presence  of  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  the  expansion  of  the  processes  of  the 
sacral  vertebra,  the  presence  of  short  rudimentary  ribs,  and  the  circumstance  that 
in  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  the  articular  cup  is  placed  at  the  hinder-end,  and  the 
ball  in  front.  In  both  the  latter  respects  these  frogs  resemble  the  salamanders  and 
newts,  and  they  may  accordingly  be  regarded  as  some  of  the  least  specialised  repre- 
sentatives of  the  order.  Their  remains  occur  abundantly  in  the  middle  Tertiary 
rocks  of  Europe.  The  family  derives  its  name  from  the  disc-like  form  of  the 
tongue,  which  may  be  either  free  or  adherent.  From  all  the  forms  hitherto  described, 
the  tadpoles,  after  shedding  the  external  gills,  differ  in  having  the  breathing-pore 
situated  in  the  middle  of  the  under  surface  of  the  body,  instead  of  on  the  left  side. 
Fire-Bellied  From  the  painted  frog  (Discoglossus  pictus)  of  Southern  Europe 

Fr°£-  and  North- Western  Africa,  which  alone  represents  the  typical  genus 
of  the  family,  the  fire -bellied  frog  (Bombinator  igneus),  represented  in  the 
figure  on  p.  257,  is  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  an  external  tympanic  mem- 
brane to  the  -ear ;  while  it  is  further  characterised  by  the  adherent  tongue,  the 
triangular  form  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye,  and  the  great  expansion  of  the  extremities 
of  the  transverse  processes  of  the  sacral  vertebra.  This  frog,  which  inhabits 
Europe  and  Asia,  although  unknown  in  the  British  Islands,  has  the  skin  very  warty 
on  the  upper-parts,  while  beneath  it  is  nearly  smooth.  In  colour  it  is  olive  above, 
with  or  without  black  marblings ;  while  beneath  it  is  orange  or  yellow,  marbled 
with  black.  The  males  are  devoid  of  a  vocal  sac,  but  during  the  breeding-season 


DISC-TONGUED  FROGS. 


285 


Midwife-Frogs. 


they  develop  black  rugosities  on  the  inner  side  of  the  fore-arm,  as  well  as  on  the 
inner  tubercle  of  the  metacarpus,  and  on  the  two  innermost  front-toes.  There  are 
two  varieties  of  this  frog  (reckoned  by  some  as  distinct  species),  of  which  the  one 
with  orange-coloured  under-parts  is  (to  be  found  in  streams  or  marshes  in  the 
lowlands,  while  the  yellow-bellied  form  lives  at  considerable  elevations  in  the 
mountains.  They  are  essentially  aquatic  frogs,  only  leaving  the  water  for  a  short 
time  in  the  spring,  when  they  may  be  seen  hopping  on  the  land  on  their  long 
hind-legs.  In  the  water  they  generally  take  up  their  position  at  some  distance 
from  the  bank,  sitting  with  their  heads  slightly  raised  above  the  surface,  and  dis- 
appearing with  lightning-like  speed  at  the  slightest  noise,  to  seek  safety  in  the 
mud  at  the  bottom.  The  tadpoles  grow  to  an  unusually  large  size,  and  are 
especially  characterised  by  the  great  development  of  the  tail-fin. 

The  third  European  representative  of  the  family  is  the  so-called 
midwife-frog  (Alytes  obstetricans),  of  which  the  typical  form  inhabits 
France,  Switzerland,  Belgium,  and  Western  Germany,  while  a  variety  occurs  in 
Spain  and  Portugal ; 
Spain  being  also  the 
home  of  the  second 
member  of  the  genus  (A. 
cisternasii).  From  the 
fire-bellied  frog  these  two 
species  are  distinguished 
by  the  distinct  external 
tympanic  membrane  to 
the  ear,  the  elliptical  and 
vertical  pupil  of  the  eye, 
and  the  moderate  ex- 
pansion of  the  transverse 
processes  of  the  sacral 
vertebra.  The  common 
species  has  the  skin  of 
the  upper  -  parts  warty, 
while  that  of  the  under 
surface  is  granular;  the 

glands  near  the  head  are  small  or  indistinct,  but  there  are  large  ones  on  the  limbs ; 
and  the  males  have  no  vocal  sac.  The  colour  of  the  upper-parts  is  olive-grey,  with 
darker  dots  and  irregular  spots.  Essentially  an  aquatic  species,  this  frog  derives 
its  name  from  the  circumstance  that  the  male  takes  charge  of  the  eggs  during 
their  development.  The  breeding-season  lasts  for  upwards  of  six  months,  namely, 
from  March  to  August,  although  the  eggs  are  laid  only  from  March  till  June. 
These  are  deposited  by  the  female  in  the  form  of  long  chains,  which  may  be 
upwards  of  a  yard  and  a  half  in  length.  These  chains  are  taken  by  the  male,  and 
wound  round  his  legs  and  thighs ;  and  when  thus  loaded  he  retires  to  some  burrow 
or  convenient  hollow  near  the  bank,  where,  at  least  during  the  daytime,  he  remains 
in  concealment  until  the  tadpoles  are  ready  for  hatching.  He  then  enters  the 
water,  and  the  tadpoles  soon  come  forth,  and  swim  away  to  take  care  of  them- 


MALE  OF  MIDWIFE-FROG   WITH   CHAINS   OF   EGGS  (nat.  size). 


286  FROGS  AND   TOADS. 

selves;  the  hatching  of  the  tadpoles  taking  place  from  June  till  September. 
After  the  cares  of  the  nursing  period  are  over,  the  male  loses  his  voice,  which  is 
not  resumed  till  the  following  February,  when  it  is  continued  till  August.  The 
males  are  more  numerous  than  the  females,  and  during  the  breeding-season  their 
loud  croaking  is  almost  continuous.  From  September  till  the  beginning  of  March 
the  habits  of  this  sex  are  similar  to  those  of  other  frogs.  The  lower  Miocene 
strata  of  the  Continent  have  yielded  remains  of  an  extinct  frog  belonging  to 
the  same  genus ;  while  in  the  rocks  of  the  upper  part  of  the  same  division  of  the 
Tertiary  period  there  occurs  a  gigantic  frog  belonging  to  the  same  family,  which 
has  been  referred  to  an  extinct  genus,  under  the  name  of  Latonia. 

The  other  two  families — Amphignathodontidce  and  Hemiphrac- 
Otfcer  Families.     .  .  ,  "T     *  . 

tidce — belonging  to  the  present  suborder  are  not  of  much  importance, 

and  are  represented  only  by  a  small  number  of  genera  and  species  from  Central 
and  South  America.  They  are,  however,  of  some  interest,  from  the  circumstance 
that  both  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  are  furnished  with  teeth,  in  which  respect  they 
agree  with  the  sharp-nosed  frog  among  the  members  of  the  first  suborder. 


THE  TONGUELESS  FROGS. 
Families  XENOPODID^  and  PlPID^J. 

The  members  of  the  order  hitherto  considered  are  furnished  with  a  well- 
developed  tongue,  but  in  the  order  Aglossa,  this  organ  is  totally  wanting. 
The  vertebrae  resemble  those  of  the  disc-tongued  frogs  in  having  their  articular 
cups  at  the  hinder-ends,  but  ribs  are  wanting.  The  metacoracoids  correspond  in 
structure  to  those  of  the  suborder  Arcifera,  although  the  cartilages  at  their  edges 
do  not  overlap.  The  tadpoles  of  these  remarkable  frogs  exhibit  the  peculiarity  of 
having  a  pair  of  breathing-pores,  after  the  loss  of  the  external  gills,  situated 
symmetrically  on  each  side  of  the  body.  Each  family  is  represented  by  a  single 
genus,  respectively  confined  to  Tropical  Africa  and  Tropical  South  America. 

The  spur-toed  frogs  (Xenopus),  of  which  there  are  three  species 
Spur-Toed  Frog.  ml-    •     i    A  JL_ •  i_        ^      •     j  £-1.1. 

from  Tropical  Africa,  are  characterised  as  a  family  by  the  presence 

of  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw ;  while  they  are  further  distinguished  by  the  circular 
pupil  of  the  eye,  the  absence  of  an  external  tympanic  membrane  to  the  ear,  the 
free  front-toes,  and  the  webbed  hind-foot,  in  which  each  of  the  three  inner-toes  is 
furnished  with  a  sharp,  spur-like  nail.  The  smooth  spur-toed  frog  (X.  Icevis), 
which  is  the  species  here  represented,  has  a  wide  geographical  distribution,  ranging 
from  Abyssinia  to  the  Cape ;  and  is  characterised  by  its  smooth  skin,  marked 
round  the  body  with  more  or  less  distinctly  defined  tube-like  lines.  In  colour  it  is 
dark  brown  above,  and  whitish  beneath ;  some  individuals  being  uniform,  while 
others  are  spotted  with  brown  on  the  under  surface.  The  spur-toed  frogs  are 
exclusively  aquatic,  pursuing  even  their  prey  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water, 
and  capturing  it  with  their  fore-feet.  The  pairing-season  takes  place  in  August, 
and  the  large  eggs  are  laid  singly.  The  tadpoles,  which  at  birth  have  already  lost 
their  external  gills,  on  the  third  day  after  leaving  the  eggs  develop  a  pair  of 
barbels  hanging  down  from  the  corners  of  the  mouth. 


TONGUELESS  GROUP. 


287 


Surinam  Water-  The  second  family,  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  teeth  in  both 
Toad.  jaws,  is  represented  solely  by  the  Surinam  water  -  toad  (Pipa 
americana),  which  has  long  enjoyed  a  worldwide  reputation,  on  account  of  the 
very  singular  manner  in  which  the  eggs  are  lodged  during  the  period  of  their 
development.  Agreeing  with  the  spur- toed  frogs  in  its  circular  pupil,  smooth 
palate,  and  absence  of  a  tympanic  membrane  to  the  ear,  the  Surinam  toad  has  the 
extremities  of  the  free  front -toes  dilated  into  radiating  appendages,  while  the 


SMOOTH  SPUR-TOED   FROG  AND  ITS  TADPOLE  (liat.  size). 

fully-webbed  hind-toes  are  devoid  of  nails.  In  form  the  head  is  triangular  and 
much  depressed,  with  the  eye  minute,  one  or  two  short  tentacles  on  the  lip  in  front 
of  the  eye,  a  large  flap  at  each  corner  of  the  mouth,  and  sometimes  a  third  at  the 
tip  of  the  muzzle.  The  skin,  which  is  covered  with  small  tubercles,  is  olive-brown 
or  blackish  on  the  upper-parts,  while  beneath  it  is  lighter,  being  sometimes  orna- 
mented with  white  spots,  and  at  others  with  a  black  stripe  down  the  middle  line. 

The  Surinam  toad  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  damp  forests  of  the  Guianas  and 
Brazil,  and  the  females  deposit  their  eggs  after  the  usual  manner  in  the  water.  At 
this  period  the  skin  of  the  back  of  the  female  becomes  extremely  soft  and  much 


288 


JWOGS  AXD    TOADS. 


thickened  and  the  eggs,  as  soon  as  laid,  arc  taken  by  the  males  and  embedded  one 
by  one  in  this  softened  skin,  which  soon  eloses  over,  so  as  to  enclose  each  in  a 
separate  cell.  In  these  cells  the  eggs  undergo  the  full  course  of  development,  the 
juvenile  toads  issuing  forth  from  their  confinement  in  a  perfect  condition,  although 
their  dimensions  are.  of  course,  small,  and  no  gills  being  developed  at  any  stage. 
Although  there  may  be  as  many  as  one  hundred  and  twenty  cells  in  the  back  of  a 


FKMALi:    SURINAM    WATKR-TOAD,    SHOWING    YOUNG    IN    T1IKIK    CELLS    (i  IKlt.   SlZeJ. 


•single  individual,  the  more  usual  number  is  from  sixty  to  seventy.  The  period 
from  tlit;  deposition  of  the  eggs  to  the  appearance  of  the  young  toads  is  eighty-two 
days,  and  the  young,  when  iirst  bursting  through  the  covering  of  their  cells, 
generally  protrude  the  head  or  one  limb.  Soon  after  the  birth  of  her  offspring  the 
female  changes  the  superficial  layer  of  her  skin  by  rubbing  it  off  against  stones  or 
plants:  the  place  occupied  by  each  cell  being  then  indicated  by  a  small  pit. 
Except  during  the  breeding-season,  the  pipa  appears  to  be  completely  aquatic. 


CHAPTEE   II. 

NEWTS,    SALAMANDERS,  AND   CCECILIANS, — 
Orders  CAUDATA  AND  APODA. 


ALPINE  NEWTS. 


THE  newts  and  salamanders  are  readily  distinguished  from  the  frogs  and  toads  by 
the  retention  of  the  tail  throughout  life.  Hence  they  are  collectively  designated 
the  Tailed  Amphibians.  Although  they  have  generally  two  pairs  of  limbs,  in  a  few 
instances  the  hind  pair  is  wanting ;  and  in  all  cases  the  bones  of  the  limbs  are  of  a 
normal  type,  the  radius  and  ulna  in  the  front  pair,  and  the  tibia  and  fibula  in  the 
hind  ones  remaining  distinct  from  one  another.  In  the  skull  the  frontal  bones  are 
not  united  with  the  parietals,  and  the  palatine  bones  are  distinct  from  the  jaw- 
bones or  maxillae.  Generally  more  or  less  lizard-like  in  form,  the  Tailed  Amphibians 
undergo  a  less  marked  metamorphosis  than  the  tailless  group,  some  even  retaining 
gills  throughout  life.  As  regards  their  geographical  distribution,  the  salamanders 
and  newts,  of  which  there  are  rather  more  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  existing 
species,  are  mainly  characteristic  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  being  represented 
only  by  a  few  scattered  forms  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  and  quite  unknown  in 
Africa  south  of  the  Sahara  and  in  Australasia.  The  northern  part  of  the  Old  World 
is  the  home  of  the  true  newts,  of  which  four  species  extend  into  Northern  Africa ; 
and  it  likewise  contains  one  of  the  fish-like  salamanders  and  the  olm.  True 
VOL.  v. — 19 


2QO 


NEWTS  AND  SALAMANDERS. 


newts  are  very  abundant  in  the  western  portion  of  this  region,  but  as  we 
proceed  eastwards  they  become  less  numerous,  and  we  notice  an  approximation  to 
American  types  of  the  order,  although  only  two  genera  are  common  to  the  Old  and 
New  Worlds.  North  America  is  especially  rich  in  Tailed  Batrachians,  containing 
more  than  half  the  representatives  of  the  entire  suborder,  and  having  the  two- 
legged  salamanders  (Sirenidce)  peculiar  to  it.  Axolotls  are  here  especially  abundant, 
and  there  are  also  peculiar  genera  belonging  to  the  families  of  the  fish-like  and 
gilled  salamanders.  The  Oriental  region  possesses  only  two  species,  namely,  a 
peculiar  genus  (Tylotriton)  of  newts  in  Yunan  and  the  Eastern  Himalaya,  and 
an  axolotl  in  Siam.  Tropical  America,  on  the  other  hand,  has  ten  species; 
among  which  may  be  specially  noticed  the  newts  of  the  genus  Spelerpes, 
which  are  also  represented  by  one  species  from  Central  America  and  the  West 
Indies,  and  two  others  from  the  mountains  of  Colombia,  Ecuador,  and  Northern 
Peru.  Geologically,  the  group  is  by  no  means  an  old  one,  its  earliest  known 
representative  (Hylceobatrachus)  occurring  in  the  Wealden  strata  of  Belgium ;  and 
these  animals  do  not  appear  to  have  become  abundant  until  the  Tertiary  epoch. 

Nearly  all  newts  and  salamanders  appear  to  be  inhabitants  of  water  during  at 
least  some  period  of  their  existence ;  some  frequenting  muddy  swamps,  and  others 
deep  lakes  or  subterranean  waters,  while  a  few  are  found  in  mountain-tarns  at 
elevations  of  several  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  Without  exception  nocturnal  in 
their  habits,  spending  the  day  in  slumber  either  concealed  in  hiding-places  on  land, 
or  at  the  bottom  of  the  water  in  their  aquatic  haunts,  and  venturing  abroad  only 
at  evening  or  after  heavy  rain,  they  are  all  difficult  of  observation,  and  consequently 
much  still  remains  to  be  learnt  with  regard  to  their  mode  of  life.  The  terrestrial 
species  generally  frequent  soft,  shady,  damp  spots,  but  occasionally  narrow  valleys 
or  forests  where  they  conceal  themselves  under  stones  or  fallen  trunks  of  trees,  or 
in  holes  in  the  earth.  During  their  permanent  or  temporary  sojourn  in  the  water, 
the  adults  of  those  species  unprovided  with  external  gills  are  obliged  to  come 
periodically  to  the  surface  in  order  to  breathe ;  and  while  in  that  element  all  are 
less  completely  nocturnal  than  when  on  land.  Such  species  as  are  inhabitants  of 
cold  regions  undergo  a  period  of  torpidity  during  the  winter  months;  while  in 
tropical  regions  others  become  quiescent  when  their  haunts  are  dried  up.  They 
exhibit  a  wonderful  tenacity  of  life ;  and  when  dried  up  in  mud,  or  frozen  in  ice, 
will  awaken  at  the  first  shower  of  rain,  or  when  their  icy  bonds  are  dissolved  by 
the  sun's  rays.  They  have  also  the  capacity  of  reproducing  lost  limbs,  apparently 
any  number  of  times.  Although  on  land  the  majority  of  species  are  slow  and 
sluggish  in  their  movements,  some  salamanders  from  the  south  and  west  of  Europe, 
belonging  to  the  genera  Salamandrina  and  Chioglossa,  run  with  the  celerity  of 
lizards;  while  others,  again,  climb  sloping  or  perpendicular  faces  of  rock,  like 
geckos.  In  the  water  all  swim  quickly,  mainly  by  means  of  serpentine  movements 
of  the  tail ;  although  the  water-newts  are  perhaps  the  most  expert  swimmers.  All 
are  carnivorous  in  their  diet,  feeding  chiefly  upon  molluscs,  worms,  spiders,  and 
insects.  Their  breeding-habits  are  peculiar  in  that  there  is  usually  no  union 
between  the  two  sexes ;  the  females  seizing  the  packets  of  spermatozoa  deposited 
by  the  males,  and  conveying  them  to  their  own  reproductive  chambers.  While 
some  species  lay  eggs,  in  other  cases  the  eggs  are  hatched  within  the  bodies  of  the 


SALAMANDERS.  291 

female  parent,  and  the  tadpoles  born  alive,  sometimes  in  a  highly  advanced  stage 
of  development.  In  the  case  of  the  common  salamander,  during  the  breeding-season 
the  male  enters  the  water  first,  and  is  followed  shortly  afterwards  by  the  female, 
who  gives  birth  to  her  tadpoles ;  but  in  the  Alpine  salamander,  the  young  are 
born  on  land.  The  water-newts,  on  the  other  hand,  lay  eggs  which  are  attached 
to  the  stems  and  leaves  of  aquatic  plants.  The  majority  of  the  terrestrial 
forms  pass  the  earlier  stages  of  their  existence  in  the  water,  not  leaving  this 
element  till  their  lungs  have  become  fully  developed.  In  the  tadpole-stage  all 
the  members  of  the  order  are  remarkably  alike ;  and  this  resemblance  forbids  any 
wide  separation  of  species  like  the  olm,  in  which  the  external  gills  are  retained, 
from  the  true  newts  and  salamanders,  in  which  these  appendages  are  lost  at  an 
early  period. 

Although  some  of  the  larger  kinds  prey  upon  small  fish,  none  of  the  newts 
and  salamanders  can  be  said  to  be  harmful  to  man ;  while  the  terrestrial  forms  are 
defended  against  all  foes,  except  fish,  frogs,  and  snakes,  by  the  poisonous  secretion 
exuded  by  the  glands  of  their  skins;  water-newts  are,  however,  devoured  by 
aquatic  birds  and  mammals.  The  reputed  noxious  characters  of  the  common 
salamander,  and  its  alleged  immunity  to  the  effects  of  fire,  are,  of  course,  purely 
fabulous.  The  existing  members  of  the  order  are  divided  into  four  families. 


THE  SALAMANDER  TRIBE. 

Family  SALAMANDRID^E. 

Comprising  the  typical  members  of  the  order,  this  family  is  specially  char- 
acterised by  the  absence  of  gills  in  the  adult  condition,  the  presence  of  upper 
jawbones  or  maxillae,  as  well  as  of  teeth  in  both  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  and 
likewise  by  the  development  of  distinct  eyelids.  The  family,  which  includes  by 
far  the  great  majority  of  the  order,  is  divided  into  four  subfamilies ;  the  first  of 
which  is  characterised  by  having  the  teeth  on  the  palate  of  the  skull  arranged  in 
two  longitudinal  series,  diverging  posteriorly,  and  inserted  on  the  inner  margin 
of  two  backwardly-prolonged  processes  of  the  palatine  bones.  The  median 
parasphenoid  bone  on  the  base  of  the  skull  is  devoid  of  teeth,  and  the  bodies  of 
the  vertebrae  are  convex  in  front  and  concave  behind. 

Typical  The  typical  genus  of  the  first  subfamily  (Salamandrince)   is 

Salamanders,  represented  by  three  species,  ranging  from  Central  and  Southern 
Europe  to  the  Caucasus,  Syria,  and  Algeria,  of  which  the  best  known  is  the  common 
spotted  salamander  (Salamandra  maculosa).  As  a  genus,  these  salamanders  are 
characterised  by  the  large  and  suboval  tongue  being  free  on  the  sides,  and  to  a 
small  degree  also  behind ;  by  the  palatine  teeth  forming  two  curved  series  ;  by  the 
presence  of  four  front  and  five  hind-toes ;  and  likewise  by  the  nearly  cylindrical 
section  of  the  tail.  The  spotted  species,  which  varies  in  length  from  7  to  9  inches, 
may  be  recognised  by  the  length  of  the  tail  being  slightly  less  than  that  of  the  head 
and  body,  and  still  more  readily  by  its  brilliant  black  and  yellow  coloration.  The 
head  is  depressed  and  nearly  as  broad  as  long ;  while  the  stout  body  is  likewise 
somewhat  depressed,  without  any  crest  along  the  middle  of  the  back  ;  and  the  short 


292 


NEWTS  AND  SALAMANDERS. 


toes  are  devoid  of  any  connecting  webs.  The  smooth  and  shining  skin  is  covered 
on  the  upper-parts  with  pores,  from  which  exudes  a  viscid  and  acrid  secretion, 
having  decidedly  poisonous  properties.  The  yellow  markings  on  the  head,  back, 
and  tail  are  arranged  in  two  longitudinal  series,  broken  up  into  more  or  less 
irregularly-shaped  patches.  The  species  is  an  inhabitant  of  Central  and  Southern 
Europe,  Algeria,  and  Syria ;  and  is  the  one  which  from  time  immemorial  has  been 
dreaded,  not  only  on  account  of  its  undoubtedly  poisonous  properties,  but  likewise 
owing  to  the  extraordinary  superstition  that  if  thrown  on  a  fire  it  would  not  be 
consumed.  Frequenting  moist  and  shady  spots,  either  in  the  mountains  among 
rocks,  or  in  valleys  and  forests,  the  salamander  passes  the  daytime  in  a  kind  of 
torpid  condition,  only  issuing  forth  from  its  hiding-places  among  stones  or  roots  of 
trees  either  during  rainy  weather  or  after  nightfall ;  its  skin  being  quickly  dried 
up  if  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  Its  movements  on  land  are  slow  and 
sluggish,  its  gait  being  a  crawl  with  a  marked  lateral  movement ;  but  in  water 


SPOTTED   SALAMANDER  (nat.  size). 


the  creature  swims  strongly,  mainly  by  the  aid  of  its  tail.  Although  frequently 
found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  its  fellows,  this  salamander  can  scarcely  be  termed 
a  sociable  creature ;  and  it  is  only  during  the  breeding-season  that  the  two  sexes 
live  in  company.  From  the  slowness  of  its  own  movements,  it  is  only  slow- 
moving  creatures  such  as  snails,  worms,  and  beetles  that  the  salamander  can 
capture  for  its  food ;  although  it  is  stated  to  occasionally  kill  small  vertebrates. 
Generally  a  large  quantity  of  food  is  consumed,  after  which  there  is  a  long  fast, 
sometimes  lasting  for  as  much  as  a  month.  During  the  pairing-season,  which  is 
in  April  or  May,  both  sexes  betake  themselves  to  the  water,  wrhen  the  females 
collect  the  spawn  deposited  by  the  males.  Although  the  young  are  usually  born 
alive,  it  occasionally  happens  that  eggs  are  laid  by  the  female,  from  which  the 
young  almost  immediately  make  their  escape.  The  number  of  tadpoles  produced 
at  a  birth  is  very  large,  as  many  as  fifty  eggs  being  frequently  found  within  the 
body  of  the  female ;  while  an  instance  is  on  record  where  upwards  of  forty-eight 
young  were  born  within  four-and-twenty  hours.  More  generally,  however,  from 


SALAMANDERS. 


293 


eight  to  sixteen,  and  less  commonly  from  twenty-four  to  thirty  tadpoles  make 
their  appearance  into  the  world  during  a  period  of  from  two  to  five  days. 
Generally  all  these  are  in  an  equally  advanced  state  of  development ;  but  sometimes 
in  captivity  both  eggs  and  tadpoles  are  produced  simultaneously,  the  former  being 
translucent  and  showing  the  young  tadpoles  curled  up  within  them.  The  tadpoles, 
which  are  generally  produced  in  clear,  running  water,  are  blackish  grey  in  colour, 
with  a  more  or  less  well-marked  greenish  tinge ;  but  there  are  small  golden  spots 
on  the  back,  which  gradually  increase  in  size  with  advancing  age.  The  skin 
also  gradually  becomes  less  shining  and  smooth,  while  at  the  same  time  the  gills 
.shrink,  till  about  August  or  September  the  young  salamanders  quit  the  water 
for  a  terrestrial  life.  A  few  may,  however,  remain  till  as  late  as  October.  It  is 
remarkable  that  the  young  salamander  is  rather  inferior  in  size  to  the  tadpole  in 


ALPINE   SALAMANDER   (nat.  size). 

the  latest  stage  of  development ;  and  it  is  not  yet  known  for  how  long  a  period 
it  continues  to  grow  after  leaving  the  water.  In  aquaria  salamanders  develop 
more  quickly,  and  have  been  known  to  leave  the  water  within  three  weeks. 
The  winter  sleep  generally  takes  place  in  moss-lined  crannies,  well  protected  from 
the  frost,  and  may  endure  till  the  commencement  of  April. 

Alpine  The  Alpine,  or  black  salamander  ($.  atra),  inhabiting  the  Alps 

salamander.  a^  elevations  of  from  three  to  ten  thousand  feet,  is  a  smaller  animal 
than  the  last,  from  which  it  may  be  at  once  distinguished  by  its  inferior  dimen- 
sions. Ranging  from  the  Alps  into  Styria,  Carinthia,  and  some  of  the  mountains 
of  Wiirtemberg  and  Bavaria,  this  species  inhabits  moist  woods  or  the  banks  of 
mountain-streams,  where  it  is  generally  found  in  small  family-parties,  which 
conceal  themselves  after  the  manner  of  their  kind  beneath  stones  and  moss,  or  at 
the  roots  of  the  Alpine  rose.  Although  resembling  the  spotted  salamander  in 


294  NEWTS  AND  SALAMANDERS. 

producing  living  young,  this  species  differs  in  that  never  more  than  two  are 
born  at  a  time.  The  most  remarkable  circumstance  connected  with  the  repro- 
duction of  the  species  is,  however,  that  from  thirty  to  forty  eggs  are  found  in  the 
oviducts  of  the  females,  out  of  which  only  one  develops  in  each  oviduct,  at 
the  cost  of  the  remainder,  which  form  a  glutinous  mass  surrounding  the  develop- 
ing egg,  and  in  which  the  liberated  tadpole  can  afterwards  freely  move.  There 
are  also  some  fifteen  unimpregnated  eggs  in  each  oviduct,  which  serve  as  the  food 
of  the  newly-hatched  tadpole.  The  tadpole,  which  does  not  attain  its  full  size  till 
after  birth,  lies  in  the  oviduct  of  the  female  with  its  tail  curled,  but  is  capable  of 
moving  and  even  turning  round.  Its  gills  are  of  unusual  length,  being  nearly 
half  as  long  as  the  whole  body ;  but  before  birth  these  shrivel  up  and  are  repre- 
sented by  mere  knobs,  so  that  the  whole  of  the  tadpole  stage  is  passed  through 
within  the  maternal  body.  Tadpoles  that  have  been  taken  from  the  oviduct 
before  completing  their  development  will,  however,  live  in  water  like  those  of  the 
other  species ;  thus  proving  that  the  species  originally  went  through  a  temporary 
aquatic  existence.  Although  the  two  young  salamanders  are  generally  born  at 
the  same  time,  occasionally  one  develops  more  rapidly  than  the  other,  so  that 
there  may  be  an  interval  of  several  days  between  the  births  of  the  two.  At  the 
pairing-seasons  these  salamanders  enter  the  water  for  a  few  hours,  but  are  other- 
wise purely  terrestrial  The  third  representative  of  the  genus  is  the  Caucasian 
salamander  (S.  caucasica),  distinguished  from  both  the  others  by  the  tail  being 
longer  than  the  head  and  body.  In  colour  this  species  is  black,  with  irregular 
rows  of  round  yellow  spots  down  the  back. 

Spanish  This  species  (Chioglossa  lusitanica)  is  the  sole  representative 

salamander.  of  a  genus  distinguished  from  the  last  by  the  tongue  being  supported 
on  a  median  protrusile  pedicle,  and  consequently  free  everywhere  except  on  the 
front  half  of  the  median  line.  Considerably  smaller  than  the  spotted  salamander, 
this  species  is  dark  brown  in  colour,  rather  lighter  above  than  below,  with  two 
broad  reddish  golden  bands  along  the  body,  separated  from  one  another  by  a  dark 
line  along  the  middle  of  the  back.  It  inhabits  the  north-western  districts  of  Spain 
and  the  whole  of  Portugal. 

The  newts  (genus  Molge)  form  an  extensive  group,  of  aquatic 
habits,  spread  over  Europe,  Northern  Asia,  and  North  America,  and 
are  the  only  members  of  the  order  found  within  the  limits  of  the  British  Islands. 
Having  the  same  number  of  toes  as  the  salamanders,  they  are  distinguished  by 
the  highly  compressed  and  rudder-like  tail,  as  well  as  by  the  frequent  presence 
of  a  fin-like  crest  down  the  middle  of  the  back,  which  often  attains  a  special 
development  in  the  males  during  the  breeding-season.  With  the  exception  of  the 
crested  newt,  the  skull  differs  from  that  of  the  salamanders  by  the  presence  of  a 
ligamentous  or  bony  arch  connecting  the  frontal  with  the  squamosal  bone ;  and 
the  palatine  teeth  form  two  nearly  straight  or  slightly  curved  series.  The  tongue 
is  free  along  the  sides,  but  may  be  either  attached  or  more  or  less  free  behind. 
The  genus  may  be  divided  into  two  main  groups,  according  to  the  presence  or 
absence  of  a  crest  down  the  middle  of  the  back  of  the  males ;  and  each  of 
these  may  be  further  subdivided  according  to  the  characters  of  the  so-called 
fronto-squamosal  arch. 


NE  WTS. 


295 


Crested  Newt. 


Belonging  to  the  group  in  which  the  males  are  provided  with 
a  dorsal  crest,  this  species  (M.  cristata)  differs  from  all  the  others  in 
the  absence  of  a  f  ronto-squamosal  arch  to  the  skull ;  while  it  is  further  character- 
ised by  the  serration  of  the  crest,  and  the  orange  and  black-spotted  coloration  of 
the  under-parts.  The  total  length  varies  from  5  to  5|  inches,  and  the  toes  of  both 
limbs  are  free.  The  colour  of  the  upper-parts  is  brown,  blackish,  or  olive,  with 
more  or  less  distinct  black  spots ;  the  sides  are  white-spotted ;  and  the  under-parts 


MALE  AND   FEMALE   OF  MARBLED  NEWT   (nat.  size). 

orange,  with  black  spots  or  marblings.  During  the  breeding-season  the  head  of 
the  male  is  marbled  with  black  and  white,  and  there  is  a  silvery  band  along  the 
sides  of  the  tail ;  while  in  the  female  the  under  surface  of  the  tail  is  uniformly 
orange.  The  toes  are  yellow  with  black  rings.  An  inhabitant  of  Britain,  this 
species  is  spread  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  extending  as  far  north  as 
Sweden,  but  unknown  in  Italy,  and  ranging  eastwards  to  Greece,  Turkey,  and 
Russia.  Not  improbably  Blasius's  newt  (M.  blasii),  from  North-Western  France, 
is  a  hybrid  between  the  present  and  the  next  species,  having  the  form  and 
coloration  of  the  former,  but  the  fronto-squamosal  arch  of  the  latter. 


296  NEWTS  AND  SALAMANDERS. 

Of  the  other   European  species,  one  of  the  handsomest  is  the 

marbled  newt  (M.  marmorata),  from  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  of 
which  a  male  and  female  are  represented  in  the  illustration  on  p.  295,  Having 
a  ligamentous  fronto-squamosal  arch  to  the  skull,  this  species  is  specially  dis- 
tinguished by  the  smooth  dorsal  crest  of  the  male,  and  by  the  under-parts  being 
generally  dark  with  white  dots.  The  total  length  is  about  live  and  a  quarter  inches. 
In  general  colour  the  upper-parts  are  green  with  black  marblings ;  the  crest  of  the 
male  being  ornamented  with  black  and  white  vertical  bars,  while  in  the  female  an 
orange  streak  runs  down  the  middle  of  the  back.  The  sides  of  the  tail  have  a 
silvery  white  band,  most  distinctly  marked  in  the  male  during  the  breeding-season ; 
the  under-parts  are  brown  or  greyish,  with  more  or  less  distinct  darker  spots,  and 
dotted  with  white ;  and  the  green  toes  are  marked  with  black  rings.  Rare  in 
France,  this  species  is  common  in  Spain  and  Portugal;  and  it  lives  in  ponds 
and  streams  only  in  the  early  spring,  spending  the  remainder  of  the  year  on 
dry  land. 

The  next  species  for  notice  is  the  Alpine  newt  (M.  atyestris), 

represented  in  the  illustration  on  p.  289,  which  differs  from  the  last  by 
the  much  lower  dorsal  crest  of  the  males,  and  likewise  by  the  uniformly  orange 
colour  of  the  under-parts.  In  size  it  is  a  comparatively  small  species,  varying  from 
three  and  a  quarter  to  four  inches  in  length.  In  colour  the  upper-parts,  which  may 
be  either  uniform  or  with  darker  marblings,  vary  from  brown,  greyish,  to  purplish ; 
the  sides  have  a  series  of  small  black  spots  on  a  whitish  ground,  beneath  which,  in 
the  male  during  the  breeding-season  runs  a  sky-blue  band ;  the  crest  on  the  back 
and  tail  is  white  with  round  black  spots ;  the  throat  is  frequently  dotted  with 
black ;  the  under-parts  are  uniform  orange  or  reel ;  and  the  lower  edge  of  the  tail 
of  the  female  is  orange  spotted  with  black.  The  Alpine  newt  inhabits  France, 
Belgium,  Holland,  Germany,  Switzerland,  Austria,  and  the  north  of  Italy. 

A  fourth  European  representative  of  the  genus  is  the  small  common 

newt  (M.  vulgaris),  which  belongs  to  the  same  group  as  the  preceding, 
and  is  distinguished  by  the  festooning  of  the  dorsal  crest,  the  lobate  hind-toes  of 
the  male,  and  the  black-spotted  under-parts.  Abundant  in  almost  every  English 
pond  and  ditch,  where  the  water  is  sufficiently  clear,  this  species  ranges  all  over 
Europe,  writh  the  exception  of  the  south  of  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  and  is 
likewise  widely  distributed  in  temperate  Asia.  It  measures  about  three  and  a 
quarter  inches  in  length,  and  has  a  nearly  smooth  skin.  The  upper-parts  are  brown 
or  olive  in  colour,  with  darker  spots,  larger  and  more  rounded  in  the  male  than  in 
the  female ;  the  head  is  marked  with  five  longitudinal  dark  streaks ;  the  under- 
parts  are  yellowish,  with  a  median  orange  or  reddish  zone,  and  marked  with  black 
spots  in  the  male,  and  dots  of  the  same  in  the  female.  In  the  latter  the  lower  edge 
of  the  tail  is  uniformly  orange,  whereas  in  the  male  it  is  red,  bordered  with  blue 
and  interrupted  by  vertical  black  bars. 

The  last  of  the  European  species  we  can  notice  at  length  is  the 

webbed  newt  (M.  palmata),  distinguished  from  all  the  preceding  by 
the  bony  fronto-squamosal  arch  to  the  skull,  and  likewise  by  the  webbed  hind-toes 
of  the  male.  This  is  the  smallest  species  yet  noticed,  its  length  not  exceeding  three 
inches.  The  colour  of  the  upper-parts  is  brown  or  olive,  with  small  dark  spots  on 


NEWTS. 


297 


the  body  and  longitudinal  streaks  on  the  head.  In  the  male  there  are  also  minute 
brown  speckles  on  the  head ;  and  the  dorsal,  as  well  as  the  upper  part  of  the  caudal 
crest,  together  with  the  hind-feet,  are  blackish.  Except  for  a  median  orange  zone, 
the  under  surface  is  uncoloured,  although  there  may  be  a  few  small  blackish  dots ; 
there  are  a  series  of  spots  along  the  upper  and  lower  borders  of  the  tail,  and  the 
crest  on  its  lower  surface  is  orange  in  the  female  and  bluish  grey  in  the  male, 
The  webbed  newt  has  been  recorded  from  Britain,  France,  Belgium,  Holland, 
Switzerland,  Western  Germany,  and  the  north  of  Spain. 

With  the  exception  of  the  banded  newt  (M.  vittata)  of  Asia 
Minor  and  Syria,  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a  black  band  along 
each  side  of  the  body,  all  the  other  members  of  the  genus  are  devoid  of  a  crest 
along  the  back  in  the  male.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  is  Waltli's  newt 


Other  Species. 


Habits. 


MALE  AND   FEMALE   OF  COMMON  NEWT  (nat.  size). 

(M.  waltlii),  from  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Tangiers,  distinguished  by  the  elongation 
of  the  ribs,  which  in  some  instances  actually  perforate  the  skin,  so  as  to  form  a 
row  of  sharp  points  on  each  side  of  the  body.  In  a  fossil  state  the  genus  has  been 
recorded  from  the  lower  Miocene  paper-coal  deposits  near  Bonn. 

Since  the  general  habits  of  all  newts  are  very  similar,  one  account 
will  serve  for  the  entire  group;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
whereas  the  whole  of  them  are  aquatic  during  the  breeding-season,  at  the  close  of 
that  period  some  species  leave  the  water  and  live  for  the  rest  of  the  summer  on 
land ;  while  nearly  all  seem  to  pass  some  portion  of  the  year  out  of  the  water. 
Newts  generally  prefer  clear  and  running  water,  with  plenty  of  aquatic  plants  on 
which  to  deposit  their  eggs.  On  land  they  are  somewhat  awkward  and  slow,  but 
in  water  they  swim  with  great  rapidity  by  the  aid  of  thoir  oar-like  tails,  their 
hind-legs  being  pressed  close  to  the  sides  of  the  body;  their  mode  of  progression 


298  NEWTS  AND  SALAMANDERS. 

being  thus  exactly  the  opposite  to  that  of  a  frog.  They  often  stand  upright  in  the 
water  when  coming  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  after  which  they  will  sink  to  the 
bottom  with  a  snake-like  movement  in  search  of  prey.  When  on  land,  they  seek 
shelter  beneath  stones  and  roots,  or  in  holes  in  the  ground,  and  in  such  situations 
often  undergo  their  winter  sleep,  although  such  as  live  in  deep  water  pass  the  cold 
season  of  the  year  in  a  kind  of  torpor  at  the  bottom.  All  newts  are  carnivorous  or 
insectivorous,  and  the  crested  newt  feeds  largely  on  the  tadpoles  of  the  common 
frog,  while  the  larger  species  will  prey  on  the  smaller  members  of  their  own  genus. 
Although  there  is  considerable  difference  in  the  spawning-time  of  the  various  species, 
the  eggs  are  generally  deposited  during  May  or  June,  the  female  laying  each  egg 
singly  on  the  edge  of  the  leaf  of  some  water-plant,  which  is  folded  together  by  her 
hind-feet,  and  thus  held  by  the  viscosity  of  the  egg.  In  the  course  of  a  few  days 
after  its  deposition,  the  white  embryo  assumes  an  elongated  form  within  the  egg ; 
'and  soon  it  is  seen  to  be  folded  upon  itself,  with  the  gills  well  developed,  and  in 
advance  of  them  a  pair  of  lobes  by  which  the  liberated  tadpole  affixes  itself  to 
aquatic  plants.  When  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  while  the  gills  are 
still  simple,  the  tadpole  bursts  its  envelope;  the  front-limbs  being  represented 
merely  by  a  pair  of  small  knobs  behind  the  gills.  When  hatched,  it  swims  about 
in  an  aimless  kind  of  way  till  it  strikes  against  some  object  to  which  it  can  easily 
attach  itself,  and  after  a  short  time  starts  on  another  voyage.  Development  now 
proceeds  apace,  and  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  weeks  the  tadpole  will  have 
attained  a  length  of  about  half  an  inch,  while  the  gills  will  have  become  elegantly 
branched,  and  the  fore-limbs  well  developed.  At  this  period  the  eyes  assume  their 
permanent  character,  and  the  mouth  has  become  terminal,  while  the  lobes  for 
attachment  to  plants  are  well-nigh  absorbed.  Still  later  the  front  feet,  which  had 
previously  been  only  digitated,  acquire  four  distinct  toes,  and  the  hind-limbs  make 
their  appearance  and  gradually  assume  their  full  proportions ;  but  the  gills  have 
become  still  more  complex.  From  this  date  the  latter  appendages  gradually 
diminish  in  size,  and  shrivel,  while  the  lungs  are  at  the  same  time  developed,  until 
finally,  about  the  latter  part  of  the  autumn,  the  creature  has  completed  its  meta- 
morphosis, and  -passed  from  the  condition  of  a  fish  to  that  of  a  reptile.  Although 
in  most  cases  newts  shed  their  skin  piecemeal,  in  the  crested  newt  it  has  been 
observed  to  be  cast  entire. 

spectacled  The  presence  of  only  four  toes  to  each  foot,  and  of  a  bony  f ronto- 

Saiamander.  squamosal  arch  to  the  skull,  are  the  most  distinctive  features  of  the 
little  spectacled  salamander  (Salamandrina  perspicillata)  of  Italy,  the  sole  repre- 
sentative of  the  genus  to  which  it  belongs.  It  is,  however,  further  distinguished 
by  its  slender  form,  and  also  by  its  somewhat  compressed  and  rapidly  tapering  tail, 
furnished  both  above  and  below  with  a  longitudinal  keel,  as  well  as  by  the  palatine 
teeth  being  arranged  in  two  parallel  series  diverging  posteriorly.  The  tongue  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  the  genus  Chioglossa.  Reaching  from  rather  more  than  3 
to  nearly  4  inches  in  length,  this  pretty  little  salamander  has  a  warty  skin,  and  is 
generally  black  on  the  upper-parts,  although  there  is  a  triangular  or  chevron- 
shaped  yellow  mark  on  the  top  of  the  head.  Beneath,  the  chin  is  white,  the  throat 
black,  and  the  rest  of  the  under-parts  white,  usually  marked  with  black  spots ;  the 
lower  surface  of  the  tail  and  adjacent  part  of  the  body  is,  however,  bright  carmine. 


AXOLOTLS. 


299 


The  tarantolina,  as  this  salamander  is  termed  in  Italy  and  Sardinia,  inhabits  cool, 
shady  spots  on  the  flanks  of  the  mountains,  where  it  feeds  chiefly  upon  ants  and 
spiders,  and  is  active  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  having  been  seen  abroad  even  in 
January.  Although  it  appears  that  the  pairing  takes  place  on  land,  the  females 
resort  to  the  water  in  March  to  deposit  their  eggs,  those  that  are  the  first  to  arrive 
taking  the  best  places,  such  as  sheltered  corners  of  rock,  where  the  spawn  will  be 
less  likely  to  be  washed  away  by  floods.  The  young  are  hatched  in  about  three 
weeks,  and  generally  leave  the  water  in  June.  In  its  movements  on  land  this 
salamander  is  as  active  as  a  lizard. 

There  are  two  other  existing  genera  of  the  subfamily  under 
consideration,  both  differing  from  the  preceding  forms  in  that  the 
maxilla  or  upper  jawbone  is  more  or  less  fully  in  contact  with  the  pterygoid  bone. 
Both  have  a  fronto-squamosal  arch,  but  whereas  in  Tylotriton  this  is  bony 
throughout,  it  is  ligamentous  posteriorly  in  Pachytriton,  which  has  also  the  tail 


Other  Genera. 


Axolotls. 


SPECTACLED  SALAMANDER  (nat.  size). 

cylindrical  at  the  base,  instead  of  compressed  throughout.  The  former  genus,  in 
which  the  skin  is  extremely  warty,  is  represented  by  one  species  from  Siam  and 
the  Eastern  Himalaya,  and  a  second  from  the  Liu  Kiu  Islands,  while  the  latter  is 
known  only  by  a  single  Chinese  form. 

Although  properly  speaking  the  term  axolotl  applies  only  to  the 
permanent  larval  form  of  the  Mexican  representative  of  the  genus 
Amblystoma,  it  will  be  found  convenient  in  practice  to  make  it  include  all  the 
members  of  that  group,  whether  mature  or  immature.  Together  with  certain 
other  genera,  Amblystoma  constitutes  a  second  subfamily  (Amblystomatince) 
distinguished  from  the  Salamandrince  by  the  teeth  on  the  palate  forming  a 
transverse  or  posteriorly  converging  series,  and  being  inserted  on  the  hinder 
portion  of  those  bones  known  as  the  vomers;  as  well  as  by  the  bodies  of  the 
vertebrae  being  cupped  at  each  end.  The  type  genus  is  specially  characterised  by 
the  palatal  teeth  forming  a  nearly  straight  or  angulated  series,  not  separated  by  a 
space  in  the  middle  line ;  and  likewise  by  the  radiating  folds  of  skin  on  the  tongue, 
which  are  oval  or  nearly  circular  in  form,  with  the  sides  completely  and  the  front 


300 


NEWTS  AND   SALAMANDERS. 


partially  free.  There  are  five  hind-toes,  and  the  tail  is  more  or  less  compressed. 
Represented  by  a  number  of  North  American  species,  one  of  which  ranges  as  far 
south  as  Mexico,  the  genus  has  also  one  Asiatic  member,  inhabiting  the  mountains 
of  Siam,  probably  at  a  great  elevation. 

The  majority  of  axolotls  pass  from  the  tadpole  to  the  salamander  stage  in 
the  ordinary  way,  but  this  is  not  the  case  with  the  Mexican  race  of  the  Mexican 
axolotl  (A.  tigrinum),  which  likewise  extends  over  a  large  area  in  the  United 
States.  The  adult  form  is  shown  in  our  second  illustration ;  and  in  this  condition 
the  head  is  large  and  depressed,  and  has  a  broad  and  blunt  muzzle,  the  limbs 
being  stout,  with  short  toes,  and  the  rather  long  tail  distinctly  compressed,  and 


1 


LARVAL  STAGE   OF  MEXICAN  AXOLOTL  (•§  nat.  size). 

keeled  above  and  below  near  the  extremity.  The  shining  skin  is  finely  granulated, 
and  the  general  colour  brown  or  blackish,  with  more  or  less  numerous  yellow 
spots,  which  may  be  arranged  in  transverse  bands.  In  the  United  States,  we 
believe,  the  transformation  from  the  larva  to  the  adult  goes  on  in  the  ordinary 
manner ;  but  the  case  is  very  different  in  Mexico.  The  city  bearing  that  name 
is,  as  our  readers  are  doubtless  aware,  surrounded  by  an  extensive  lake ;  while 
the  country  itself  is  characterised  by  its  extreme  dry  ness.  In  this  lake  dwell  the 
creatures  represented  in  our  first  illustration,  which  are  known  to  the  natives 
by  the  name  of  axolotl.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  figure  that  they  resemble 
the  tadpole  stage  of  ordinary  salamanders  and  newts  in  having  large  branching 
gills,  and  a  deep  rudder-like  tail ;  and  the  natural  conclusion  would  be  that 


AXOLOTLS. 


301 


they  are  larval  forms.  However,  in  the  Mexican  lakes,  the  axolotls  remain 
permanently  in  the  water,  retaining  their  gills  throughout  life,  and  laying  eggs, 
as  if  they  were  adult ;  and  it  was  consequently  long  considered  that  they  belonged 
to  a  type  with  persistent  gills.  It  was  not  indeed,  until  the  year  1865,  that  light 
was  thrown  on  the  history  of  these  remarkable  creatures  by  six  examples  which 
had  been  living  for  more  than  a  year  at  Paris.  These  comprised  five  males  and 
one  female,  and  in  the  middle  of  February  the  latter  began  to  lay  eggs,  which  in 
the  course  of  a  month  hatched  into  tadpoles  like  their  parents.  In  the  following 
September  the  gills  and  crest  of  the  tail  of  one  of  these  began  to  shrivel,  while  the 
head  increased  in  size,  and  yellow  spots  made  their  appearance  upon  the  dark  skin0 
Towards  the  end  of  the  same  month,  and  in  the  early  part  of  October,  similar 
changes  took  place  in  the  others,  and  soon  afterwards  the  whole  four  assumed  the 


ADULT  OF  MEXICAN  AXOLOTL  (§  nat.  size). 

appearance  of  the  salamander,  which  had  been  previously  described  as  Amblystoma 
tigrinum.  Subsequently  experiments  were  made  with  other  young  axolotls  by 
placing  them  in  a  glass  vessel  filled  with  water,  but  with  rocks  at  one  end,  so  that 
the  creatures  could  creep  out  and  expose  themselves  to  the  air  as  much  as  they 
pleased.  After  a  day's  interval  the  amount  of  water  in  the  vessel  was  diminished ; 
and  almost  immediately  the  gills  of  the  axolotls  began  to  shrink,  and  in  the  course 
of  time,  during  which  they  dwelt  chiefly  in  damp  moss,  the  creatures  gradually 
developed  into  air-breathing  salamanders.  It  has  been  inferred  from  these 
remarkable  experiments  that  the  Mexican  axolotl,  like  the  other  members  of  the 
genus  to  which  it  belongs,  originally  went  through  the  normal  series  of  trans- 
formations ;  but  that,  owing  to  the  dry  nature  of  the  country  it  inhabits,  it  has 
acquired  the  habit  of  retaining  the  larval  condition  permanently.  From  its  being 
able  to  breed  in  this  state,  it  may  further  be  inferred  that  the  tadpole  stage  was 


302  NEWTS  AND  SALAMANDERS. 

originally  the  permanent  condition  of  all  members  of  the  order,  and  that  the 
salamander  stage  is  a  later  development. 

There  are  six  other  genera,  belonging  to  the  subfamily  Ambly- 
Other  Genera.  .  .         TT      '    7  .       .  J  y 

stomat^nce,  or  which  Hypnooius  is  represented  by  several  Japanese 

species.  Salawwndrella,  distinguished  by  having  only  four  hind  -  toes,  is  a 
Siberian  type,  with  two  species ;  Onychodactylus,  which  may  be  recognised  by  its 
black  claws,  is  known  by  one  species  from  Japan ;  while  Ranidens,  from  Eastern 
Siberia  and  North- Eastern  China,  Batrachyperus  from  Moupin  in  Tibet,  and  the 
Californian  Dicamptodon,  all  of  which  have  the  palatal  teeth  arranged  in  two 
arches,  with  their  convexity  forwards,  and  separated  by  a  wide  space  in  the 
middle,  are  likewise  respectively  represented  by  a  single  species.  The  two 
remaining  subfamilies,  which  are  exclusively  American,  can  receive  only  very  brief 
notice.  In  the  first  of  these  (Plethodontince)  the  series  of  palatal  teeth  is  trans- 
verse and  situated  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  vomers ;  while  there  are  also  teeth  on 
the  parasphenoid  bone ;  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrse  being  cupped  at  both  ends.  Of 
the  five  genera,  Plethodon,  with  the  tongue  attached  along  the  middle  line  to  the 
anterior  margin,  and  five  hind-toes,  is  North  American,  where  it  is  represented  by 
several  species.  On  the  other  hand,  the  large  genus  Spelerpes,  which  has  the 
tongue  attached  only  by  a  central  pedicle,  and  all  its  edges  free,  ranges  into 
Central  America  and  the  West  Indies.  The  fourth  subfamily,  Desmognathince, 
differing  from  the  last  by  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  being  cupped  behind  and 
convex  in  front,  is  represented  only  by  Desmognathus  from  North  America 
generally,  and  Thorius  with  one  Mexican  species. 


THE  FISH-LIKE  SALAMANDERS. 
Family  AMPHIUMID^. 

The  members  of  this  family,  which,  for  want  of  a  better  name,  may  be 
collectively  designated  by  a  translation  of  their  German  title,  fischmolche,  differ 
from  the  Salamandridce  in  the  absence  of  eyelids.  The  bodies  of  their  vertebra 
are  always  cupped  at  both  ends.  They  are  all  characterised  by  the  weakness 
of  the  limbs  in  comparison  to  the  body,  and  the  wide  separation  of  the  front  from 
the  hinder  pair.  They  live  chiefly  or  entirely  in  the  water,  and  breathe  by  means 
both  of  lungs  and  internal  gills  in  the  adult  state.  Only  three  genera  are  known, 
the  first  two  of  which  are  so  closely  allied  that  it  is  question  whether  they  are 
really  entitled  to  rank  as  distinct. 

Giant  The  earliest  record  that  we  have  of  this  family  is  a  skeleton 

Salamander,  f  rom  the  upper  Miocene  of  Oeningen  in  Basle,  described  by  Scheuchzer 
in  the  year  1726,  under  the  name  of  homo  diluvii  testis;  the  learned  doctor 
believing  that  he  had  to  do  with  a  human  skeleton,  which,  like  all  fossils  at  that 
time,  was  considered  to  have  been  buried  by  the  Noachian  deluge.  This  fossil 
species,  which  was  fully  as  large  as  the  existing  giant  salamander,  together  with  a 
smaller  extinct  species  from  lower  Miocene  strata  near  Bonn,  probably  belong  to 
the  same  genus.  The  giant  salamander  (Megalobatrachus  maximus)  was  first  dis- 
covered in  1820  by  Siebold  in  the  rivers  of  Japan,  but  has  been  subsequently 


FISH-LIKE  SALAMANDERS. 


303 


obtained  from  China.     As  a  genus,  it  is  characterised  by  having  four  front  and  five 
hind-toes,  the  absence  of  a  gill-opening,  and  the  presence  of  two  internal  gill-arches. 


GIANT  SALAMANDER  (^  nat.  size. 


The  tongue  covers  the  whole  of  the  floor  of  the  mouth,  to  which  it  is  completely 
adherent ;  while  the  palate  has  a  curved  series  of  teeth  on  the  vomers,  parallel  to 


3o4  NEWTS,  AND  SALAMANDERS. 

those  on  the  margin  of  the  upper  jaw.  In  form  the  giant  salamander  is  very 
stoutly  built ;  the  head  being  very  large,  wide,  and  flattened,  with  the  muzzle 
regularly  rounded,  the  small  nostrils  situated  near  the  extremity,  and  the  eyes 
very  minute.  The  body  is  likewise  broad  and  depressed ;  the  legs  and  toes  are 
short,  the  outer  ones,  as  well  as  the  outer  side  of  the  hind-leg,  having  a  mem- 
branous fringe ;  and  the  short  tail  is  strongly  compressed,  with  a  fin  above  and 
below,  and  its  tip  rounded.  The  skin,  which  forms  a  thick  fold  along  each  side  of 
the  body,  is  very  warty,  especially  on  the  head ;  and  the  general  colour  is  brown 
with  black  spots,  becoming  lighter  on  the  upper-parts.  Although  the  ordinary 
length  of  this  salamander  is  about  35  inches,  it  is  stated  at  times  to  grow  to  as 
much  as  44  inches. 

Originally  purchased  by  Siebold  in  the  market  of  Nippon,  the  giant  salamander 
is  now  ascertained  to  inhabit  not  only  the  mountain  streams  of  that  island,  but 
likewise  those  of  several  parts  of  the  Japanese  mainland,  as  well  as  of  Western 
Central  China.  Nowhere  very  abundant,  the  creature  generally  frequents  the 
upper  courses  of  small  mountain-streams  at  elevations  of  from  seven  hundred  to 
five  thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level ;  some  of  these  streams  being  not  more  than 
a  foot  in  width,  and  completely  covered  over  with  grasses  and  other  herbage. 
The  water  is  clear;  and  usually  while  the  full-grown  salamanders  curl  them- 
selves round  masses  of  rock  in  the  bed  of  the  stream,  the  younger  ones  live  in 
holes.  Except  in  search  of  food,  which  consists  of  worms,  crustaceans,  fish,  and 
frogs,  the  animals  do  not  leave  their  hiding-places,  and  then  only  at  night,  while 
they  never  venture  on  land.  In  confinement  they  are  extremely  slow  and  sluggish 
in  their  movements,  only  exhibiting  any  marked  activity  when  they  rise  to  snap 
at  a  worm  or  other  tempting  morsel.  In  spite  of  its  large  size,  the  female  lays 
very  minute  eggs,  which  are  generally  deposited  in  August  and  September.  The 
smallest  young  yet  observed  had  a  length  of  about  6  inches,  and  in  every  respect 
resembled  the  adult.  Probably  however,  at  an  earlier  stage  of  development, 
external  gills  were  present ;  and  indeed,  in  an  illustrated  Japanese  book,  the  young 
of  the  giant  salamander  is  represented  with  these  appendages.  Further  evidence 
of  this  is  afforded  by  the  circumstance  that  young  specimens  have  been  taken  in 
which  the  gill-openings  were  retained.  The  first  two  living  examples  were  brought 
to  Europe  in  1829  by  Siebold,  and  were  fed  on  fresh-water  fish  brought  from 
Japan,  but  when  these  began  to  fail,  the  male  devoured  his  unfortunate  partner. 
When  suitable  food  was  procured,  the  male,  however,  flourished  and  increased 
rapidly  in  size,  surviving  till  the  year  1881,  when  it  died  in  Amsterdam. 

Under  this  euphonious  name  is  designated  in  its  native  country 
the  Mississippi  salamander  (Cryptobranchus  lateralis),  which  differs 
from  its  Asiatic  cousin  by  the  presence  of  a  gill-opening,  at  least  on  the  left  side  of 
the  neck,  and  likewise  by  the  presence  of  four  pairs  of  gill-arches,  and  by  the 
anterior  border  of  the  tongue  being  free.  In  general  form  this  salamander  closely 
resembles  its  larger  relative ;  the  skin  being  porous  and  rather  smooth,  and  the 
head  covered  with  scattered  wart-like  tubercles.  The  colour  is  brown  or  greyish, 
with  darker  blotches ;  but  the  tips  of  the  toes  are  yellowish.  In  length  this 
species,  which  is  the  sole  representative  of  its  genus,  reaches  about  16  or  17  inches; 
and  it  inhabits  all  the  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi,  and  ranges  into  North  Carolina. 


FISH-LIKE  SALAMANDERS. 


;3<>5 


In  these  streams  it  crawls  or  swims  in  a  sluggish  manner,  seldom  leaving  the  water, 
although  it  can  exist  on  land  for  twenty- four  hours  or  so  at  a  stretch,  feeding 
on  crustaceans,  worms,  and  fish,  and  being  not  unfrequently  taken  on  the  angler's 
hook.  From  the  circumstance  that  the  tadpoles  have  never  been;  observed,  it 
would  seem  that  the  larval  stage  must  be  of  very  short  duration ;  and  the  only 
thing  known  about  the  development  of  the  species  is  that  the  eggs  are  of  relatively 
large  size.  Although  perfectly  innocuous,  the  hell-bender  is  regarded  by  American 
fishermen  as  a  most  noxious  and  poisonous  reptile.  It  was  first  brought  alive  to 
Europe  in  1869,  since  which  date  it  has  been  frequently  exhibited;  and  if  fed  on 
meat  or  the  heads  of  fish  will  rapidly  increase  in  size,  although  it  appears 
to  voluntarily  undergo  long  fasts.  While  in  the  water  it  has  been  observed  to 


HELL-BENDER,    OR  MISSISSIPPI   SALAMANDER  (1  nat.  size). 

make  the  air  from  its  lungs  pass  over  the  gills,  with  the  apparent  object  of  more 
fully  oxygenating  the  blood  in  the  latter. 

Three-Toed  The    eel -like   or   three -toed    salamander   (Amphiuma   means) 

Salamander,  represents  another  North  American  genus,  ranging  from  the  Mississippi 
to  South  Carolina,  and  distinguished  by  its  extremely  elongated  and  eel-like  form, 
and  the  small  size  of  the  limbs,  each  of  which  terminates  in  three  or  two  minute 
toes.  The  tongue  is  indistinctly  defined,  covering  the  whole  of  the  floor  of  the  mouth, 
to  which  it  is  everywhere  adherent ;  there  is  a  gill-aperture  on  each  side  of  the  neck, 
and  four  internal  gill-arches  are  present.  The  head  is  relatively  small,  with  a  rather 
long  and  narrowing  muzzle,  at  the  extremity  of  which  are  the  small  and  widely- 
separated  nostrils ;  the  eyes  are  likewise  minute ;  the  lips  are  unusually  thick  and 
fleshy ;  and  the  short  compressed  tail  is  keeled  superiorly.  The  smooth  and  slimy 

VOL.  V. — 20 


306 


NEWTS  AND  SALAMANDERS. 


skin  is  of  a  uniform  blackish  brown  colour,  although  rather  lighter  below  than 
above.  In  total  length,  full-grown  examples  measure  about  31  inches.  From  the 
difference  in  the  number  of  the  toes  it  has  been  thought  that  there  are  two  species ; 
but  since  the  two-toed  and  three- toed  forms  are  in  other  respects  similar,  it  seems 
preferable  to  regard  them  as  varieties  or  local  races  of  a  single  species.  These 
salamanders  are  inhabitants  of  muddy  waters,  frequently  burying  themselves  in 
the  mud  at  the  bottom,  in  one  instance  to  the  depth  of  a  yard  or  more,  in  thick 
clayey  mud  of  the  consistence  of  putty,  in  which  they  burrowed  like  worms.  They 
also  frequent  the  irrigation  channels  in  rice-fields,  while  they  occasionally  venture 


THKEE-TOED  OB  EEL-LIKE   SALAMANDER  (£  liat.  size). 

on  land.  Their  food  comprises  fresh- water  mussels,  fish,  beetles,  other  insects,  and 
crustaceans.  Beyond  the  fact  that  the  female  lays  eggs,  in  which  the  tadpole  lies 
coiled  up  until  it  attains  several  times  the  length  of  its  chamber,  little  is  known  as 
to  the  breeding-habits  of  this  species. 

THE  GILLED  SALAMANDERS. 
Family  PROTEID^!. 

Represented  only  by  the  curious  olm  of  the  subterranean  waters  of  Carniola 
and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  by  an  allied  genus  in  North  America,  the  gilled 
salamanders  take  their  title  from  the  permanent  retention  of  external  gills,  on 
which  account  they  may  be  regarded  as  some  of  the  lowest  representatives  of  the 


GILLED  SALAMANDERS. 


3°7 


order.  In  addition  to  this  primary  feature,  they  are  characterised  by  the  absence 
of  the  upper  jawbone  or  maxilla,  although  the  premaxilla  is  present,  and,  like  the 
lower  jaw,  furnished  with  teeth.  There  are  no  eyelids,  and  the  bodies  of  the 
vertebrse  are  cupped  at  both  extremities.  There  are  differences  in  the  external 
form  of  the  two  representatives ;  the  olm  being  a  long,  snake-like  creature  with 
small  limbs,  whereas  the  American  species  resembles  a  salamander. 

Known  for  more  than  a  couple  of  centuries,  the  remarkable 
creature  to  which  Oken  gave  the  name  of  olm  is  the  sole  representa- 
tive of  its  genus,  and  is  technically  known  as  Proteus  anguineus.  From  its  American 
ally  it  is  distinguished  by  its  elongated  snake-like  body  and  small  and  widely 


oim. 


THE  OLM  (g  nat.  size). 

separated  limbs,  of  which  the  front  pair  are  provided  with  three,  and  the  hinder 
with  only  two  toes.  The  eyes  are  concealed  beneath  the  skin,  the  small  tongue  is 
free  in  front,  and  the  palatal  teeth  are  small  and  arranged  in  a  double  series.  In 
the  typical  form  from  Carniola  the  head  is  elongate,  with  a  long  and  narrow 
muzzle,  truncated  at  the  tip ;  the  mouth  being  small,  with  large  lips.  The  short 
and  much  compressed  tail  is  provided  with  a  fin,  and  rounded  or  bluntly  pointed 
at  the  tip.  The  smooth  skin  is  marked  by  twenty-six  or  twenty-seven  grooves, 
corresponding  to  the  ribs,  and  is  uniformly  flesh-coloured,  with  coral-red  gills.  In 
a  variety  from  Dalmatia  the  snout  is  longer  and  narrower,  and  the  number  of 
costal  grooves  only  twenty-four ;  while  in  a  second  variety,  inhabiting  Carinthia, 
the  whole  form  is  stouter,  the  head  shorter,  with  a  rounded  muzzle,  and  the 
number  of  costal  grooves  twenty-five.  There  is  also  a  certain  variation  as  regards 
colour,  apparently  largely  depending  upon  the  amount  of  light  to  which  the 
creatures  have  been  exposed;  some  examples  being  reddish  brown,  and  others 
darker  with  bluish  black  spots.  The  usual  length  is  about  10  inches. 


3o8  NEWTS  AND  SALAMANDERS. 

Totally  blind,  the  olm  is  found  solely  in  the  subterranean  waters  of  the 
caverns  of  the  Alps  of  Carniola,  Dalmatia,  and  Carinthia ;  and  has  long  been  an 
object  of  the  greatest  interest  to  naturalists.  It  has  been  thought  that  the  waters 
in  which  the  olm  lives  were  all  connected  together  underground,  and  that  the 
creatures  only  came  up  during  flood-time ;  but  the  great  distance  from  one  another 
of  the  various  localities  where  they  are  found  is  somewhat  against  this  view. 
It  is,  however,  only  when  the  subterranean  waters  are  at  their  greatest  height  that 
the  olms  are  captured  by  the  peasants,  by  whom  they  are  placed  in  glass  jars,  half 
filled  with  water  and  sold  to  tourists.  In  confinement,  where  they  have  been 
known  to  survive  from  six  to  eight  years,  they  lie  sluggishly  all  day  at  the  bottom 
of  their  tank,  only  moving  if  a  ray  of  light  impels  them  to  seek  a  darker  corner. 
When  in  small  vessels,  where  the  water  is  not  often  renewed,  they  will  frequently 
come  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  opening  their  mouths,  and  letting  air  pass  through 
their  gill-openings;  but  in  deeper,  or  frequently  changed  water,  they  breathe 
entirely  by  means  of  their  gills.  Many  experiments  have  been  made,  with  the 
view  of  ascertaining  whether  the  olm  will,  under  any  circumstances,  lose  its  gills, 
but  hitherto  without  result.  In  captivity  the  food  of  these  amphibians  consists  of 
molluscs,  worms,  and  the  minute  creatures  to  be  found  among  the  leaves  of  water- 
plants.  In  spite  of  having  been  kept  for  many  years  in  captivity,  it  was  not 
ascertained  till  1875  that  the  olm  lays  eggs ;  and  it  was  thirteen  years  later  before 
any  tadpoles  were  hatched  in  captivity.  In  April  1888,  upwards  of  seventy-six 
eggs  were  laid  by  a  single  female ;  and  after  a  period  of  three  months  developed 
into  tadpoles.  These  were  very  similar  to  the  adult,  but  the  tail-fin  extended 
three-quarters  down  the  back  ;  the  eye  was  larger,  and  apparently  more  susceptible 
to  light ;  and  the  hind-limbs  were  in  the  form  of  small  knobs. 

Furrowed  A  very  different   looking  animal  is  the  furrowed   salamander 

salamander,  (Necturus  maculatus),  of  Eastern  North  America  and  Canada, 
which  takes  its  name  from  the  strongly  -  marked  fold  of  skin  on  the  throat. 
In  addition  to  its  shorter  and  more  lizard-like  form,  and  relatively  longer  limbs,  it 
differs  from  the  olm  by  having  well-developed  eyes,  and  four  toes  to  each  foot. 
The  tongue  is  large,  with  the  front  border  free ;  and  the  palatal  teeth  are  large 
and  form  a  single  series.  In  colour  the  smooth  skin  is  brown,  with  more  or  less 
well-defined  circular  blackish  spots,  and  lighter  on  the  under-parts  than  on  the  back. 
The  total  length  is  about  a  foot.  An  allied  species  (N.  punctatus)  inhabits  the  rice- 
fields  of  the  Southern  States.  The  food  is  similar  to  that  of  the  allied  forms,  and 
in  winter  these  salamanders  seek  protection  from  frost  by  burrowing  deep  in  the 
mud.  They  come  at  times  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  and  will  even  venture  on  land ; 
but  they  chiefly  respire  by  means  of  their  gills,  and  if  the  latter  become  entangled, 
they  are  carefully  rearranged  by  means  of  the  fore-foot. 

TWO-LEGGED  SALAMANDERS. 
Family  SiRENiD^:. 

The  sole  representatives  of  this,  the  last,  family  of  the  Tailed  Amphibians  are 
the  two-legged  salamanders  of  North  America,  of  which  there  are  two  species, 
arranged  under  as  many  genera  (Siren  and  Pseudobranchus).  While  agreeing 


TWO-LEGGED  SALAMANDERS, 


309 


with  the  preceding  family  in  the  permanent  retention  of  external  gills,  they  are 

distinguished  by  the  total  loss  of  the  hind-lirnbs,  and  likewise  by  the  absence  of 

teeth  in  the  margins  of  the  jaws.     The  siren  salamander  (Siren  lacertina),  which 

inhabits  the  South-Eastern  United  States,  may  be  compared  to  a  snake  furnished 

with  a  pair  of  short  fore-legs  and  external  gills ;  and  is  especially  distinguished  by 

the  presence  of  three  pairs  of 

gill-openings  on   the  sides  of 

the  neck  and  the  four-toed  feet. 

The    smooth    skin    is     either 

uniformly  blackish,  or  marked 

with  small  white  dots,  and  the 

total  length  reaches  to  as  much 

as  28  inches.      The  Georgian 

two-legged  salamander  (Pseu- 

dobranchus  striatus),  on    the 

other  hand,  has  only  a  single 

pair  of  gill  -  openings  on   the 

neck,  and   but   three   toes   to 

the  feet.     These   salamanders 

are  stated  to  frequent  swampy 

localities,  especially    pools    of 

water  beneath  the  roots  of  old 


SIREN   SALAMANDER. 


trees,  up  the  stems   of  which 

they  will  sometimes  climb.  A  living  example  was  received  in  England  in  1825, 
where  it  lived  till  1831.  This  specimen  was  fond  of  coming  out  of  the  water  to 
rest  on  sand  or  among  moss;  and  in  summer  ate  worms,  tadpoles,  and  various 
other  small  creatures,  but  became  torpid  from  the  middle  of  October  till  the  end 
of  April.  That  these  salamanders  can  breathe  entirely  by  means  of  their  lungs, 
is  proved  by  a  specimen  in  an  aquarium  whose  gills  had  been  eaten  off  by  a  fish. 


THE  CCECILIANS  OR  WORM-LIKE  AMPHIBIANS. 
Order  APODA. 

The  remarkable  worm-like  and  blind  amphibians  forming  this  group  are 
generally  regarded  as  the  representatives  of  a  distinct  order ;  although  they  are 
considered  by  Professor  Cope  to  be  merely  a  degraded  branch  of  the  Tailed 
Amphibians,  to  which  they  are  allied  through  the  fish-like  salamanders.  Be  this 
as  it  may,  the  group  is  readily  distinguished  by  the  total  absence  of  limbs,  and  the 
general  worm-like  appearance  of  the  head  and  body ;  the  tail  being  either 
rudimental  or  wanting.  In  the  skull  the  frontal  bones  are  distinct  from  the 
parietals,  but  the  palatines  are  fused  with  the  maxillae.  As  regards  their 
reproduction,  these  amphibians  differ  from  the  newts  and  salamanders  in  that  the 
two  sexes  come  together  in  the  ordinary  manner.  Some  of  them  are  peculiar  in 
having  overlapping  scales  embedded  in  the  skin,  like  fishes ;  and  in  all  the  eyes 
are  either  wanting,  or  are  so  deeply  buried  beneath  the  skin  as  to  be  entirely 


3io 


NEWTS  AND  SALAMANDERS. 


useless.  The  whole  of  the  members  of  the  group  are  burrowing  in  their  habits ; 
and  in  the  adult  state  are  completely  terrestrial,  laying  eggs  from  which  are 
developed  gilled  tadpoles  that  do  not  take  to  the  water  till  some  time  after  birth. 
The  fourteen  genera  into  which  the  group  has  been  divided  may  all  be  included  in 
the  single  family  Cceciliidce.  Geographically,  these  amphibians  are  spread  over 
the  Indian  region,  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara,  and  Central  and  South  America ; 
but  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  they  are  quite  unknown  in  Madagascar, 
although  two  species  occur  in  the  Seychelles. 

They  may  be  divided  into  two  main  groups,  from  the  presence  or  absence  of 
scales  in  the  skin ;  two  of  the  best  known  representatives  of  the  group  in  which 
scales  are  developed,  at  least  in  some  portion  of  the  body,  being  the  Oriental 
Ichthyophis  and  the  South  American  Ccecilia,',  one  of  the  species  of  the  latter 
genus  being  represented  in  our  illustration.  The  common  Cingalese  species 
(Ichthyophis  glutinosus),  which  ranges  from  Ceylon  and  the  Eastern  Himalaya  to 


A-  WORM-LIKE  AMPHIBIAN,  Cwcilia  (uat.  size). 

Sumatra  and  Java,  inhabits  damp  situations,  and  usually  burrows  in  soft  mud. 
In  some  hollow  near  the  water,  the  female  (which  measures  about  15  inches  in 
length),  lays  a  cluster  of  very  large  eggs,  round  which  she  coils  her  body,  and 
proceeds  to  brood  them  after  the  manner  of  a  python.  After  the  young  are 
hatched  out  they  remain  in  the  egg-moss  until  they  have  lost  their  external  gills, 
after  which  they  take  to  the  water,  to  lead  for  a  time  an  aquatic  life.  During  this 
stage  of  their  existence  the  head  is  fish-like,  with  large  lips,  and  the  eyes  better 
developed  than  in  the  adult;  and  they  have  a  gill-opening  on  each  side  of  the 
neck,  and  the  tail  is  distinctly  defined,  much  compressed,  and  furnished  both  above 
and  below  with  fin.  Of  the  group  without  scales,  the  genus  Gegenophis  is  from 
Southern  India,  Siphonops  from  Tropical  America,  and  Typhlonectes  and  Chthoner- 
petum  from  South  America. 


SKELETONS  OF  PRIMEVAL  SALAMANDERS. 

Protriton,  A,  and  Pelosaurus,  B.     (From  Credner ;  much  enlarged.) 


CHAPTEE    III. 
THE  PRIMEVAL  SALAMANDERS, — Order  LABYRINTHODONTIA. 

THE  remaining  amphibians  are  extinct,  and  form  an  order  mainly  characteristic 
of  the  upper  Palaeozoic  and  Triassic  periods,  but  also  lingering  on  into  the 
Jurassic.  They  derive  their  name  of  Labyrinthodonts  from  the  complex  structure 
of  the  teeth  of  the  higher  forms ;  these  displaying  a  peculiar  pattern,  caused  by 
infoldings  of  the  outer  layer,  which  penetrate  nearly  to  the  centre  of  the  crown 
in  festooned  lines.  Most  of  these  creatures  have  the  general  form  of  a  salamander, 
with  the  front-limbs  shorter  than  the  hinder-pair ;  the  latter  having  always  five 
toes,  although  in  the  former  the  number  may  be  reduced  to  two.  Their  most 
characteristic  feature  is,  however,  to  be  found  in  the  structure  of  the  skull,  in 
which  the  bones  are  generally  covered  with  a  pitted  or  radiated  sculpture, 
somewhat  similar  to  that  of  crocodiles.  From  the  accompanying  figure  of  the 
skull  of  the  mastodonsaur,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  whole  of  the  upper  surface 
behind  the  sockets  of  the  eyes  is  covered  by  a  complete  bony  roof,  extending 
continuously  from  the  bone  marked  P,  which  immediately  covers  the  brain-cavity 
to  the  sides  of  the  hinder-part  of  the  jaws  (QJ),  whereas  in  all  the  modern 
salamanders  this  region  is  more  or  less  open.  This  roofed  skull  of  the 
primeval  salamanders  presents  an  approximation  to  the  earlier  fishes;  and  a 
resemblance  to  that  group  is  also  shown  by  the  paired  supraoccipital  bones  (So), 


PRIMEVAL  SALAMANDERS. 


which  in  all  the  higher  Vertebrates  are  fused  together.  Nearly  all  these 
salamanders  are  further  distinguished  by  having  the  chest  protected  by  three 

sculptured  bony  plates,  one  of  which  is  central 
while  the  other  two  are  lateral ;  the  position  of 
these  plates  being  shown  in  our  figure  of  the 
skeleton,  where  they  are  seen  on  the  lower  surface 
of  the  body,  immediately  behind  the  head,  under- 
lying the  backbone  and  ribs.  Besides  this  armour, 
some  species  had  the  whole  of  the  under  surface 
of  the  body  protected  by  a  series  of  bony  scales, 
arranged  in  a  chevron  pattern;  while  in  a  few 
instances  similar  scales  also  invested  the  upper 
surface  of  the  body.  The  majority  of  the  members 
of  the  order  had  the  vertebrae  of  the  backbone  in 
the  form  of  simple  doubly-cupped  discs,  similar  to 
those  of  fishes ;  but  in  some  of  the  most  primitive 
types  each  vertebra  consists  of  four  distinct  pieces, 
namely,  a  single  basal  piece  (i),  a  pair  of  lateral 
pieces  (pi),  and  a  single  arch  and  spine  (s).  Among 
some  reptiles  the  basal  piece  remains  between 
two  adjacent  vertebrae  as  the  intercentrum ;  but 
in  the  higher  forms  the  other  elements  coalesce. 
Since  a  similar  type  of  vertebra  occurs  in  certain 
extinct  fishes,  we  have  in  this  structure  another 
bond  between  the  latter  and  the  primeval  sala- 
manders. Brief  reference  must  also  be  made  to  the  small  aperture  in  the  roof 
of  the  skull  of  the  primeval  salamanders  in  the  bone  marked  P,  since  this  corre- 
sponds to  one  in  the  skull  of  the  tuatera  lizard  of  New  Zealand.  In  that  animal 
the  aperture  overlies  the  rudiment  of  an 
eye  sunk  deep  down  in  the  brain  and  now 
totally  useless,  but  probably  functional  in 
the  tuatera's  ancestors.  The  large  size  of 
the  aperture  in  the  primeval  salamanders 
suggests  that  the  central  eye  may  still  have 
been  capable  of  receiving  impressions  of 
light,  although  we  may  have  to  go  back  to 
earlier  forms  before  it  was  of  any  functional 
importance  as  an  organ  of  vision.  As  in 
many  existing  amphibians,  teeth  frequently 
occur  on  the  bones  of  the  palate  as  well  as 
in  the  margins  of  the  jaws.  Another  feature 
of  the  skulls  of  many  members  of  the  order 
is  the  presence  of  what  are  called  mucous 

canals  in  the  bones  of  the  upper  surface,  as  shown  both  in  the  accompanying  figure 
and  in  the  one  on  p.  313 ;  these  canals  also  occurring  in  certain  fishes.  So  far  as 
can  be  ascertained,  both  external  and  internal  gills  generally  disappeared  in 


SKULL   OP   THE    MASTODONSAUR,    WITH    THE 
SCULPTURE   OMITTED. 

SO,  supraoccipital ;  Ep,  epiotic ;  P, 
parietal ;  Sq,  squamosal ;  ST,  supratem- 
poral ;  QJ,  quadratojugal;  Ju,  jugal ;  Pt, 
postfrontal;  PtO,  postorbital;  Fr,  frontal; 
PrF,  prefrontal ;  L,  lachrymal ;  Na,  nasal ; 
MX,  maxilla.  The  premaxilla  has  no  letter. 
(About  |  nat.  size.) 


TWO  VERTEBRA  OP  A  PRIMEVAL  SALAMANDER. 

prz  is  the  anterior  and  ptz  the  posterior  end. 


PRIMEVAL   SALAMANDERS. 


313 


the  adult.  Varying  from  the  size  of  a  small  newt  to  that  of  a  crocodile,  the 
primeval  salamanders  are  of  especial  interest  to  the  evolutionist,  as  it  is  pretty 
certain  that  not  only  are  they  the  descendants  of  primeval  fishes,  but  that 
they  are  the  ancestors  both  of  the  modern  Amphibians  and  the  extinct  Anomodont 
Reptiles.  And  it  is  probable  that  Mammals  have  originated,  either  directly  from 
them  or  from  a  lost  group  intermediate  between  them  and  the  Anomodont 
Reptiles.  They  appear  to  have  been  spread  over  the  whole  globe,  and  they  have 
been  divided  into  several  subordinal  groups.  Among 
these  the  highest  are  the  true  Labyrinthodonts, 
typically  represented  by  the  gigantic  Mastodonsaurus 
and  the  somewhat  smaller  Metoposaurus  of  the  Trias. 
These  were  crocodile -like  animals,  generally  with 
disc-like  vertebrae  in  the  adult,  the  teeth  more  or 
less  plicated,  and  the  surface  of  the  skull  marked 
with  sculpture  and  mucous  canals.  In  the  Permian 
Archegosaurus,  the  vertebrae  were,  however,  of  the 
complex  primitive  type.  The  Gilled  Labyrinthodonts, 
as  represented  by  Protriton  and  Pelosaurus,  are  a 
group  of  much  smaller  forms,  characterised  by  their 
barrel-shaped  vertebrae,  pierced  by  a  remnant  of  the 
canal  of  the  primitive  notochord ;  short  and  straight 
ribs,  articulating  by  a  single  head ;  simple  teeth,  and 
the  absence  of  ossification  in  the  occipital  region  of 
the  skull,  as  well  as  in  the  wrist  and  ankle-joints ;  a 

further  point  of  distinction  being  the  development  of  internal  gills  in  the  young. 
The  Permian  and  Carboniferous  Snake-like  Labyrinthodonts  are  characterised  by 
the  snake-like  form  of  the  body,  and  the  apparent  absence  of  limbs.  The  vertebrae 
were  elongated  and  without  spines,  while  the  ribs  were  slender  and  barbed  like 
those  of  fishes,  and  'the  teeth  smooth  and  simple.  Probably  the  external  gills 
persisted  throughout  life.  In  Britain  the  group  is  represented  by  the  small 
Dolichosoma ;  but  Palceosiren  of  Bohemia  is  estimated  to  have  been  over  40  feet 
long.  If  these  creatures  prove  to  be  the  ancestors  of  the  Worm-like  Amphibians, 
it  would  show  that  the  latter  are  distinct  from  the  newts  and  salamanders.  The 
Microsauria,  include  small  lizard-like  forms,  such  as  Ceratoerpetum  and  Hylonomus 
from  the  Carboniferous  of  Europe  and  Nova  Scotia,  which  appear  more  highly 
organised  than  the  preceding,  and  thus  connect  the  Amphibians  with  the  Beaked 
Reptiles.  Their  vertebrae  are  long  and  constricted,  with  traces  of  the  notochord ; 
the  ribs  are  generally  long,  curved,  and  two-headed ;  the  teeth  have  large  central 
pulp-cavities,  but  no  plications ;  the  occiput  is  ossified ;  but  the  wrist  and  ankle  are 
either  ossified  or  cartilaginous ;  and  in  some  cases  the  back  is  covered  with  bony 
scales.  In  several  forms  the  bony  scales  on  the  under  surface  are  so  slender  as  to 
assume  the  appearance  of  abdominal  ribs  like  those  of  the  Beaked  Reptiles. 


SKULL  OF  THE   METOPOSAUR 

( J  nat.  size). 


FISHES. 


CHAPTER   I. 
GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS, — Class  Pisces. 

ALTHOUGH  in  popular  language  lampreys  are  included  among  fishes,  while  until 
quite  recently  the  lancelet  was  very  generally  placed  by  zoologists  in  the  same 
class,  it  now  seems  preferable  to  make  each  of  these  the  representative  of  a  distinct 
class,  and  the  true  fishes  can  consequently  be  defined  with  greater  precision.  In 
this  somewhat  restricted  sense  fishes  may  be  described  as  cold-blooded  vertebrate 
animals,  adapted  for  a  purely  aquatic  life,  and  breathing  almost  invariably  by 
means  of  gills  alone.  They  have  a  heart  consisting  generally  of  only  two  chambers 
(three  in  the  lung-fishes) ;  the  limbs,  if  present,  are  modified  into  fins ;  there  are 
unpaired  median  fins,  supported  by  fin-rays ;  and,  as  in  all  the  higher  classes,  the 
mouth  is  furnished  with  distinct  jaws.  The  skin  may  be  either  naked,  or  covered 
with  scales  or  bony  plates.  As  a  rule,  fishes  lay  eggs;  and  the  young  do  not 
undergo  a  distinct  metamorphosis. 

With  the  Tailed  Amphibians  the  class  is  very  closely  connected  by  means  of 
the  lung-fishes,  which  are  furnished  not  only  with  internal  gills,  but  likewise  with 
functional  lungs,  and  during  the  early  part  of  their  existence  with  external  gills ; 
while  these  fishes  also  differ  from  the  other  members  of  the  class  in  that  the  nostrils 
communicate  posteriorly  with  the  cavity  of  the  mouth,  as  in  the  higher  Vertebrates. 


GENERAL   CHARACTERS.  315 

Although  the  bony  fishes  of  the  present  day  form  a  specialised  side-branch,  which 
has  lost  many  of  the  characters  common  to  the  two  classes,  it  will  be  evident  that 
Fishes  and  Amphibians  are  very  closely  allied  groups ;  the  latter  of  which  has  been 
directly  derived  from  the  former.  Geologically,  fishes  are  older  than  any  of  the 
classes  hitherto  described,  their  fossil  remains  occurring  in  strata  belonging  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  Silurian  division  of  the  Palaeozoic  epoch. 

The  form  of  a  typical  fish  is  so  well  known  that  it  will  be  quite  unnecessary 
to  describe  it ;  and  it  may  be  mentioned  that  this  typical  form,  which  is  the  one 
best  adapted  for  progress  through  water,  is  very  general  amongst  fresh- water  fishes, 
although  the  eels  constitute  an  exception  in  this  respect.  Much  greater  diversity 
exists,  however,  among  the  marine  representatives  of  the  class ;  and  we  may  cite 
as  extreme  types  a  shark,  a  flat-fish,  a  ribbon-fish,  and  a  globe-fish. 
„,  .  The  structure  of  the  skeleton,  both  external  and  internal,  being 

OUUWlflOAuOXL 

of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  classification  of  fishes,  it  is  essential 
that  the  attention  of  the  reader  should  be  more  fully  directed  to  this  point  than 
has  been  done  in  the  case  of  the  higher  Vertebrates.  It  should  first  be  mentioned 
that  fishes  are  divided  into  four  subclasses,  namely,  the  Lung-Fishes  or  Dipnoi ;  the 
Chimseroids,  or  Holocephali ;  the  Bony  Fishes  and  Ganoids,  or  Teleostomi ;  and  the 
Sharks  and  Rays,  or  Elasmobranchii.  These  may  be  further  subdivided  into  orders 
as  follows  :— 

1.  Lung-Fishes — Subclass  DIPNOI. 

(1)  True  Lung-Fishes — Order  SIRENOIDEI. 

(2)  Berry-Boned  Fishes — Order  ARTHRODIRA  (extinct). 

2.  Chimseroids — Subclass  HOLOCEPHALI. 

3.  Bony-Fishes  and  Ganoids — Subclass  TELEOSTOMI. 

(1)  Fan- Finned  Fishes — Order  ACTINOPTERYGII. 

(2)  Fringe-Finned  Ganoids — Order  CROSSOPTERYGII. 

4.  Sharks  and  Rays — Subclass  ELASMOBRANCHII. 

(1)  Acanthodians — Order  ACANTHODII  (extinct). 

(2)  Fringe-Finned  Sharks — Order  ICHTHYOTOMI  (extinct). 

(3)  True  Sharks  and  Rays — Order  SELACHOIDEI. 

External  In  regard  to  the  external  skeleton,  the  most  characteristic  type 

Skeleton.  takes  the  form  of  scales.  When  these  overlap  and  their  posterior 
border  is  entire,  such  scales  are  termed  cycloid,  but  when  serrated,  ctenoid.  The 
external  skeleton  may.  however,  take  the  form  of  plates  or  granules,  which  in  the 
chimaeroids  and  sharks  and  rays  are  generally  isolated,  and  have  a  structure 
precisely  similar  to  that  of  teeth,  consisting  of  a  base  of  ivory  or  dentine  capped 
with  enamel.  The  so-called  ganoid  scales,  like  those  of  the  bony-pike,  are,  on  the 
other  hand,  quadrangular,  and  often  connected  by  a  peg-and-socket  arrangement ; 
they  are  formed  of  true  bone  capped  with  an  enamel-like  substance  termed  ganoin, 
and  true  bone  likewise  occurs  in  the  plates  of  the  sturgeons.  A  series  of  specially 
modified  scales,  running  along  the  sides  of  many  fishes,  constitute  the  so-called 
lateral  line,  which  is  partly  connected  with  the  supply  of  mucus ;  and  certain  large 
V-shaped  scales  on  the  borders  of  the  fins  of  many  extinct  bony  fishes  are  known 
as  fulcra.  The  fin-rays,  which  also  come  under  the  designation  of  dermal  structures, 


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GENERAL    CHARACTERS.  317 

are  shown  in  the  skeleton  represented  on  p.  316,  and  occur  in  both  the  median  and 

paired  fins,  of  which  the  names  are  also  given  in  the  same  illustration.     In  the 

median  fins  the  bases  of  these  rays  articulate  with  the  interspinal  bones,  or,  in 

clasmobranchs,  with  the  radial  cartilages.     The  first 

rays  of  the  pectoral  and  dorsal  fins  may  be  developed 

into  long  spines,  having  the  same  structure  as  teeth, 
internal  In  the  internal  skeleton  the  back- 

Skeleton,       bone  is  divisible  only  into  a  trunk  and 

caudal   moiety.      In  the   fringe -finned   ganoid   fishes 

the  primitive  notochord  persists,  although  it  may  be 

partly  surrounded  by  rudimental  arches;  while  in  the       P 

sharks  and  higher  bony  fishes  the  column  is  divided       I 

into  segments,  forming  vertebrae  with  doubly-cupped 

bodies.     In  sharks  and  rays  the  arches  and  bodies  of      ^ 

the  vertebrae  remain  separate,  but  in  the  other  groups       \ 

they  are  fused  together ;  in  the  tail,  as  shown  in  our      j 

figure  of  the  skeleton  of  the  perch,  there  is  also  an      \ 

inferior  arch  and  spine  to  each  vertebra.     In  the  more       \ 

primitive    fishes   the   notochord   is   continued   to   the       \ 

hinder  extremity  of  the  body,  where  it  is  surrounded       | 

symmetrically  by  the  rays  of  the  caudal  fin;  this  type,       [ 

which  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure  of  the       j 

skeleton   of    an    extinct    fringe  -  finned    shark,   being       ; 

termed  the  fringe-tailed,  or  diphycercal.     Whereas  in      • 

some  fishes  with  this  type  of  tail  the  fringes  on  the       \ 

upper  and  lower   portions  of   the   caudal  fin  are  of      ! 

nearly  equal  depth,  in  others  the  lower  fringe  of  rays 

becomes    somewhat    deeper   than   the   others,   and   a 

further  development  of  this  inequality  results  in  the 

partially  forked  or  heterocercal   tail   of   the   modern       j 

sharks  and  sturgeons,  where  the  end  of  the  backbone 

is  bent  upwards  into  the  longer  superior  lobe  of  the 

tail,  the  lower  lobe   of  which  is  formed   exclusively 

of   rays.      The    lung -fishes   and    sharks   have   never 

advanced   beyond   one  or  other  of  these   types ;   but      - 

the  bony  fishes  and  ganoids,  which  started  with  the 

primitive  fringed  lobate  type,  by  a  gradual  shortening 

of  the  central  part  of  the  tail-fin,  accompanied  by  an 

increasing  development  of  the  rays  on  its  lower  side, 

have  evolved  the  completely  forked  or  homocercal  tail 

of  the  perch,  in  which,  as   shown  in  the   figure,  the 

backbone  stops  short  of  the  fin-rays,  and  ends  in  an 

expanded,  unsymmetrical   extremity,  from   which  these  rays  are  given  off  in   a 

fan-like  manner,  so  as  to  produce  an  appearance  of  perfect  symmetry  in  the  whole 

structure. 

Turning   to   the   limbs,  or   paired   fins,  we  find   that  while  in  the   existing 


FISHES. 


elasmobranchs  there  are  no  membrane-bones  (as  the  elements  of  the  skeleton  not 
formed  from  primitive  cartilage  are  termed),  in  the  higher  bony  fishes  the  pectoral 
girdle,  as  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  316,  comprises  a  scapula  and  a  coracoid, 
flanked  by  a  series  of  membrane-bones,  known  as  the  post-temporal,  supra- 
clavicular,  clavicular,  and  postclavicular.  The  pelvis 
is  generally  absent,  and  is  never  highly  developed.  In 
all  cases  the  basal  and  radial  bones  of  the  pectoral  fins 
articulate  directly  with  the  pectoral  girdle,  so  that  there 
are  no  segments  corresponding  to  the  arm  and  fore-arm 
of  the  higher  Vertebrates.  In  the  paired  fins  the  struc- 
ture  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  tail;  and  a  similar 
transition  from  a  fringed  to  a  fan -like  type  may  be 
traced  as  we  pass  from  the  primitive  to  the  specialised 
forms.  For  instance,  in  the  figure  of  the  perch's 
skeleton  on  p.  316,  we  may  notice  that  the  paired  fins 
are  formed  of  a  number  of  hard  rays  spreading  out  in 
a  fan-like  manner  from  a  single  point  of  origin ;  and 
the  same  general  type  obtains  in  the  existing  sharks  and 
rays.  In  certain  extinct  sharks,  like  the  one  of  which 
the  skeleton  is  shown  on  p.  317,  as  well  as  in  the  lung- 
fishes  and  the  fringe -finned  ganoids,  the  pectoral  fins 
have  a  long  central  lobe  running  for  some  distance  up 
the  middle,  and  completely  covered  with  scales  (where 
these  are  developed),  while  the  rays  of  these  fins  form 
a  kind  of  fringe  radiating  on  all  sides  from  the  central 
lobe.  The  skeleton  of  such  a  fin,  which  is  known  as 
an  archipterygium,  consists  of  a  long  cartilaginous  axis, 
composed  of  a  number  of  joints,  gradually  decreasing  in 
size  from  the  base  to  the  extremity,  as  shown  in  the 
figure  on  p.  319.  From  one  or  both  sides  of  such 
joints  there  are  given  off  a  number  of  oblique  smaller 
jointed  rods,  terminating  in  the  fine  rays  forming  the  free 
edges  of  the  fins.  How  different  is  the  structure  of  this 
fin  from  that  of  the  higher  bony  fishes  will  be  apparent 
by  comparing  the  accompanying  figure  with  that  of  the 
skeleton  of  the  perch  on  p.  316.  In  the  lung-fishes  this 
primitive  type  of  fin  has  persisted  to  the  present  day ;  in 
the  sharks  it  has  now  totally  disappeared ;  while  among 
the  bony  fishes  and  ganoids,  in  the  latter  of  which  it  was 
the  universal  type  at  the  period  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone, 
it  now  only  remains  in  a  modified  form  in  the  bichir  of 
the  Nile,  having  been  developed  in  the  modern  bony  fishes  into  the  fan-type.  It 
may  be  mentioned  that  the  latter  modification  of  fin  is  obviously  the  one  best 
adapted  for  quick-swimming  fishes,  the  fringe-finned  type  partaking  more  of  the 
nature  of  clumsy  paddles,  and  being  adapted  for  slowly-moving  forms  like  the 
lung-fishes,  which  pass  most  of  their  time  among  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  rivers. 


GENERAL  STRUCTURE. 


It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  even  the  fringed  type  is  the  most 
primitive  form  of  fin  known,  since  in  an  extinct  armoured  shark  (Cladoselache) 
from  the  Carboniferous  formation,  we  meet  with  what  may  be  called  the  fold-type 
of  paired  fins.  In  these  fishes  (one  of  which  is  figured  in  the  sequel)  the  pectoral 
and  pelvic  fins  are  placed  far  apart,  but  in  the  same  longitudinal  line,  and  are 
formed  of  a  series  of  parallel  cartilaginous  rods  arising  from  an  extended  base, 
and  projecting  at  right  angles  to  the  body ;  the  pectoral  pair  being  considerably 
the  larger.  Assuming  that  fishes  originally  possessed  on  each  side  of  the  body  a 
continuous  fold  of  skin,  strengthened  by  parallel  cartilaginous  rods  projecting  at 
right  angles,  this  fold-type  is  exactly  what  we  should  expect  to  find  in  the 
evolution  of  pectoral  and  pelvic  fins,  by  the  disappear- 
ance of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  original  fold,  and 
the  development  and  basal  contraction  of  the  remaining 
moieties. 

Although  the  structure  of  the  skull  is  of  the 
highest  importance  in  the  classification  of  fishes,  our 
remarks  on  this  subject  must  be  very  brief.  In  the 
skulls  of  the  higher  bony  fishes  the  original  cartilaginous 
.  cranium,  which  persists  in  the  sharks,  is  overlain  by  a 
number  of  membrane-bones,  the  names  and  position  of 
which  are  indicated  in  the  figure  of  the  perch's  skeleton 
on  p.  316.  Among  these  the  pterotic  and  sphenotic  are 
peculiar  to  the  class,  and  there  is  always  a  large  para- 
sphenoid  underlying  the  base  of  the  skull.  The  inter- 
vention of  the  elements  known  as  the  hyomandibular 
and  symplectic  between  the  squamosal  and  the  quadrate  is 
unknown  elsewhere,  although  it  is  by  no  means  universal 

among  fishes.  Among  other  bones  may  be  mentioned  the  infraorbital  ring 
beneath  the  eye ;  as  well  as  the  preopercular,  subopercular,  inter  opercular,  and 
opercular,  collectively  constituting  the  gill-cover  or  operculum  of  the  bony  fishes. 
In  the  gill  (or  branchiostegal)  membrane,  which  joins  with  the  gill-cover  in  closing 
in  the  gill-chamber,  there  may  be  developed  a  number  of  gill  (or  branchiostegal) 
rays  ;  but  these  may  be  partially  or  entirely  replaced  by  jugular  plates,  occupying 
the  space  between  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw.  It  will  be  unnecessary  to 
mention  by  name  the  various  bones  constituting  the  hyoid  arch,  which  is  attached 
to  the  inner  side  of  the  hyomandibular  by  the  stylohyal,  and  extends  forwards  to 
support  the  tongue;  and  it  will  suffice  to  state  that  behind  this  arch  are 
situated  the  branchial  or  gill-arches,  to  the  inner  margins  of  which  are  attached 
the  spine-like  gill-rakers.  In  the  lower  jaw,  or  mandible,  there  is  usually  both  a 
dentary  and  an  articular  piece ;  but  an  angular,  and  more  rarely  a  splenial  or 
coronoid  element  may  likewise  be  developed. 

The  teeth  of  fishes  present  a  greater  degree  of  variation  than 

is  found  among  any  other   class  of   Vertebrates.      While    in  some 

cases  they  may  be  totally  wanting,  in  others  they  may  be  developed  on  all  the 

bones  of  the  mouth,  and  even  on  the  hyoid  bones  and  gill-arches ;  and  they  may 

be  attached  only  to  the  membrane  lining  the  cavity  of  the  mouth.     Frequently 


SKELETON    OF   PECTORAL   FIN    OF 
AN  EXTINCT    FRINGE-FINNED 

SHARK.     (From  Fritsch.) 


320  FISHES. 

they  are  welded  to  the  underlying  bone  or  cartilage  by  a  broad  basis ;  but,  as  in 
the  saw-fishes,  they  may  be  emplanted  in  distinct  sockets.  Usually  the  coating  of 
enamel  is  very  thin ;  and  the  ivory,  or  dentine,  is  more  vascular  than  in  the  other 
classes.  In  rare  instances  the  ivory  may  be  penetrated  by  branching  prolongations 
from  the  central  pulp-cavity,  as  well  as  by  similar  infoldings  from  the  exterior, 
thus  producing  a  structure  similar  to  that  obtaining  in  those  of  the  primeval 
salamanders.  As  a  general  rule  the  teeth  are  being  constantly  renewed  through- 
out life,  but  in  a  few  instances  a  single  set  persists. 

In   beauty,   variety,   and   changeability,   the   colours    of    fishes 

cannot  be  exceeded  by  those  of  any  of  the  other  vertebrate  classes ; 
metallic  tints  and  almost  all  the  colours  of  the  rainbow  being  very  commonly 
displayed;  while  the  beauty  of  the  coloration  is  often  enhanced  by  the  rapid 
changes  it  undergoes.  In  many  cases  the  coloration  is  of  a  protective  nature. 
An  example  of  this  is  afforded  by  the  colouring  of  the  upper  surface  of  many 
flat-fishes,  such  as  flounders,  which  exactly  harmonises  with  the  tints  of  the  sea- 
bottom  on  which  they  dwell;  while  another  equally  marked  instance  presents 
itself  in  the  case  of  so-called  pelagic  fishes,  like  the  mackerels  and  flying-fish, 
which  live  near  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  have  the  under-parts  silvery  white,  and 
the  back  mottled  with  dark  green  and  black.  When  viewed  from  below  against 
the  light  sky  such  a  fish  is  practically  invisible,  while  it  is  equally  inconspicuous 
when  seen  from  above  among  the  dark  waters. 

The  body  of  fishes  is  made  up  of  a  great  lateral  muscle  on  each  side, 

divided  into  a  number  of  segments  corresponding  with  the  vertebrae, 
and  also  separated  into  a  dorsal  and  ventral  moiety  by  a  median  longitudinal 
groove.  On  its  surface  the  lateral  muscle  is  marked  by  a  number  of  white  zigzag 
stripes,  generally  forming  three  angles,  of  which  the  middle  one  is  directed 
forwards;  these  stripes  being  formed  by  the  edges  of  the  tendinous  divisions 
between  the  segments.  Generally  the  muscles  are  glistening  white  in  colour; 
but  in  some  instances  they  are  "  salmon-coloured,"  this  tint  being  due  to  the 
colouring  matter  of  the  crustaceans  on  which  such  fish  subsist,  which  is  turned 
red  by  the  action  of  the  digestive  fluids  in  the  same  manner  as  by  boiling.  The 
electric  organs  possessed  by  certain  fishes  are  considered  to  be  probably  formed 
from  specially  developed  muscles.  With  regard  to  the  brain,  it  will  suffice  to  say 
that  it  is  of  an  exceedingly  low  type ;  and  that  the  ear  lacks  the  tympanum  and 
tympanic  cavity  of  the  higher  classes.  In  the  bony  fishes  there  occurs  at  the 
base  of  the  brain-cavity  a  sac,  often  divided  into  two  unequal-sized  chambers,  and 
each  of  which  contains  an  ear  bone,  or  otolith,  of  very  dense  structure.  These 
otoliths,  which  are  very  constant  in  form  in  the  different  groups,  frequently  have 
scalloped  margins  and  groove-like  markings,  formed  by  the  ramifications  of  the 
auditory  nerve.  The  tongue  is  frequently  absent,  and  if  present  is  of  very  simple 
structure  and  incapable  of  protrusion ;  and  since  fishes  generally  bolt  their  food 
without  mastication,  it  is  probable  that  they  have  little,  if  any,  sense  of  taste. 
With  regard  to  the  digestive  organs,  it  will  suffice  to  mention  that  in  the  sharks, 
rays,  and  chimaaroids  the  intestine  for  a  large  portion  of  its  length  is  provided 
with  a  spiral  valve,  a  similar  structure  occurring  in  the  ichthyosaurian  reptiles. 

The  gills  of  sharks,  rays,  and  chimasroids  are  contained  in  pouches,  usually 


GENERAL   CHARACTERS.  321 

five  in  number  on  each  side ;  each  pouch  opening  externally  by  a  slit,  and  also 
communicating  by  a  separate  aperture  with  the  pharynx.  In  the  embryos 
filamentous  gills  protrude  externally  from  the  slits.  The  spiracles  found  on  the 
top  of  the  head  in  the  groups  mentioned  are  the  external  openings  of  a  canal 
leading  on  each  side  into  the  pharynx,  and  represent  what  is  known  as  the  first 
visceral  cleft  in  the  embryo.  In  the  bony  fishes  the  gills,  which  are  generally 
four  in  number,  lie  in  one  undivided  cavity  on  each  side  of  the  head,  supported 
by  their  gill-arches,  and  covered  over  by  the  gill-cover,  which  is  open  behind. 
In  ordinary  respiration  the  water  is  taken  in  by  the  mouth,  and  by  a  kind  of 
swallowing  action  driven  over  the  gills,  after  which  it  is  expelled  by  the  gill- 
opening.  Allusion  must  be  made  in  this  place  to  certain  organs  known  as 
false  gills,  or  pseudobranchice.  These  are  remains  of  a  gill  situated  in  front  of 
the  persistent  ones,  which  was  functional  during  embryonic  life,  but  in  the  adult 
appears  merely  as  a  plexus  of  blood-vessels.  Although  the  majority  of  fishes 
breathe  in  the  manner  indicated  above,  in  many  forms  this  is  by  no  means  the 
sole  method  of  respiration.  On  this  subject  Day  observes  that  respiration  in 
fishes  is  carried  out  normally,  either  by  their  using  the  air  which  is  held  in  water 
to  oxygenate  the  blood  at  the  gills,  or  "  by  taking  in  atmospheric  air  direct,  which 
is  employed  at  a  special  organ,  where  it  oxygenates  the  blood,  which  can  be 
returned  for  use  into  the  general  circulation  without  going  through  the  gills. 
The  true  amphibious  fishes  respire  by  the  latter  method.  No  doubt  we  observe  that 
fishes  which  normally  oxygenate  their  blood  solely  at  their  gills  do  rise  to  the  surface 
in  very  hot  weather,  when  the  water  is  foul  or  insufficiently  charged  with  air,  and 
take  in  air  by  the  mouth ;  likewise  we  find  that  those  which  mainly  take  in 
atmospheric  air  direct  by  the  mouth  may,  to  a  certain  extent,  be  able  to  use  their 
gills.  If  fishes  having  these  two  different  modes  of  respiration  are  placed  in  a 
globe  of  water,  across  which  a  diaphragm  of  net  is  inserted  below  the  surface,  so 
as  to  prevent  their  obtaining  access  to  the  atmosphere,  those  of  the  class  which 
oxygenate  their  blood  at  the  gills  are  unaffected,  whereas  those  which  have  accessory 
breathing-organs  and  take  in  air  direct  die  from  blood-poisoning." 

One  of  the  most  characteristic  organs  of  fishes  is  the  air-bladder,  which  is  a 
long  sac  filled  with  gas  lying  in  the  abdominal  cavity,  which  may  be  either  com- 
pletely closed,  or  may  communicate  with  the  alimentary  tract  by  means  of  a  duct. 
As  it  is  susceptible  of  compression,  its  usual  function  appears  to  be  to  regulate  the 
specific  gravity,  or  to  change  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  fish ;  but  in  the  lung- 
fishes  it  assumes  the  characters  and  functions  of  the  lungs  of  the  higher  Verte- 
brates, to  which,  indeed,  it  corresponds. 

Although  in  the  few  fishes  which  produce  living  young,  as  well 
as  in  the  sharks  and  rays,  an  actual  connection  takes  place  between 
the  two  sexes,  in  the  great  majority  of  the  class  the  ova  are  deposited  by  the 
female,  after  which  they  are  fertilised  by  the  male.  The  bony  fishes  lay  numerous 
eggs  which  are  of  relatively  small  size  and  may  be  extremely  minute,  those  of  the 
eel  being  almost  microscopic;  but  there  is  a  considerable  degree  of  variation  in 
this  respect.  In  the  herring  the  number  of  eggs  in  the  "roe"  has  been  estimated 
at  twenty-five  thousand,  and  in  the  cod  at  over  nine  millions.  Only  in  a  cat-fish 
(Aspredo),  where  they  are  pressed  into  the  skin  of  the  under  surface  of  the  body, 

VOL.  v. — 21 


322  FISHES. 

and  a  pipe-fish  (Solenostoma),  where  they  are  carried  in  a  pouch  formed  by  the 
coalescence  of  the  broad  pelvic  fins  with  the  skin  of  the  body,  is  the  female  known 
to  take  any  care  of  her  eggs  after  spawning.  Among  the  bony  fishes  there  are, 
however,  several  instances  where  the  young  are  more  or  less  carefully  tended  by 
the  male  parent;  some,  like  the  sticklebacks,  building  a  nest,  while  others,  like 
certain  pipe-fishes,  have  an  abdominal  pouch  in  which  the  eggs  are  hatched. 
The  eggs  of  sharks,  rays,  and  chimseroids  differ  remarkably  from  those  of  bony 
fishes,  being  large  in  size,  few  in  number,  and  laid  singly  instead  of  in  masses. 
They  are  invested  in  a  hard  horny  envelope,  which  is  generally  oblong  in  form, 
with  the  four  corners  produced,  and  frequently  elongated  into  tendrils  by  means  of 
which  the  egg  is  moored  to  some  foreign  substance.  The  males  of  these  fishes  are 
armed  with  organs  known  as  claspers,  which  are  partially  ossified  processes  arising 
from  the  pubis,  and  are  evidently  connected  with  the  function  of  reproduction. 
The  young  of  many  fishes  differ  markedly  from  the  adult ;  and  certain  peculiar 
creatures  with  long  ribbon -like  bodies  and  small  heads,  for  which  the  name  of 
Leptocephali  has  been  proposed,  are  believed  to  be  the  young  of  littoral  fishes  which 
have  been  carried  out  to  sea,  where  they  have  undergone  an  altogether  abnormal 
development.  The  changes  which  take  place  in  the  flat-fishes  during  development 
may  be  more  conveniently  noticed  under  the  heading  of  that  group.  Although 
male  and  female  rays  differ  remarkably  from  one  another  in  the  structure  of  their 
teeth,  while  both  in  this  group  and  in  the  sharks  and  chimaeroids  the  males  are 
distinguished  by  the  possession  of  the  aforesaid  claspers,  there  is  generally  but 
little  sexual  difference  among  fishes.  In  the  bony  fishes,  however,  the  females  are 
larger  than  the  males ;  among  the  cyprinodonts  the  difference  between  the  two 
being  occasionally  as  much  as  six  times. 

Fishes  exhibit  a  remarkable  degree  of  difference  in  regard  to 
Tenacity  of  Life. ,.     .  ..  .          °    . 

their  power  or  bearing  changes  irom  their  normal  environment.     On 

this  subject  Dr.  Giinther  writes  that,  "some  will  bear  suspension  of  respiration — 
caused  by  removal  from  water,  or  by  exposure  to  cold  or  heat — for  a  long  time, 
whilst  others  succumb  at  once.  Nearly  all  marine  fishes  are  very  sensitive  to 
changes  in  the  temperature  of  the  water,  and  will  not  bear  transportation  from  one 
climate  to  another.  This  seems  to  be  much  less  the  case  with  some  fresh- water 
fishes  of  the  temperate  zone ;  since  *carp  may  survive  after  being  frozen  in  a  solid 
block  of  ice,  and  will  thrive  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  temperate  zone.  On  the 
other  hand,  some  fresh- water  fishes  are  so  sensitive  to  a  change  in  the  water  that 
they  perish  when  transferred  from  their  native  river  into  another  apparently 
offering  the  same  physical  conditions.  Some  marine  fishes  may  be  abruptly  trans- 
ferred from  salt  into  fresh-water,  like  sticklebacks;  others  survive  the  change 
when  gradually  effected,  as  many  migratory  fishes ;  whilst  others,  again,  cannot 
bear  the  least  alteration  in  the  composition  of  the  salt-water  (all  pelagic  fishes). 
On  the  whole,  instances  of  marine  fishes  voluntarily  entering  brackish  or  fresh- 
water are  very  numerous,  whilst  fresh-water  fishes  proper  but  rarely  descend  into 
salt  water." 

The  foregoing  remarks  lead  naturally  to  the  subject  of  the  dis- 
tribution of  fishes ;  a  subject  which  the  limits  of  space  compel  us  to 
dismiss  with  a  few  sentences.     In  the  first  place,  we  find  that  many  marine  fishes 


DISTRIBUTION,  323 

have  a  much  less  wide  geographical  distribution  than  might  at  first  sight  be 
expected ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  we  find  families  and  genera,  and  even  species, 
of  fresh- water  fishes  inhabiting  widely  separated  areas  of  the  earth's  surface.  The 
primary  division  into  fresh-water  and  marine  fishes  does  not  form  such  a  sharply 
defined  boundary  as  is  commonly  supposed;  the  transition  being  formed  by  the 
brackish- water  types,  species  or  even  individuals  of  which  can  accustom  themselves 
to  live  in  either  salt-  or  fresh-water.  Then,  again,  we  have  certain  essentially 
fresh- water  fishes,  like  the  salmon  and  some  kinds  of  cat-fish,  which  pass  a  certain 
period  of  their  existence  in  the  ocean ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  some  marine 
forms,  such  as  sturgeons,  periodically  ascend  rivers  for  the  purpose  of  spawning. 
To  a  certain  extent  such  habits  will  help  to  explain  the  occurrence  of  peculiar 
families  of  fresh-water  fishes  (such  as  the  chromids  of  Africa,  South  America,  and 
India)  in  widely  separated  areas,  although  this  must  probably  be  supplemented  by 
dispersal  from  a  common  northern  centre. 

After  the  separation  of  the  fresh- water  and  brackish-water  types,  the  marine 
fishes  are  divided  by  Dr.  Giinther  into  a  littoral,  a  pelagic,  and  a  deep-sea  group, 
although  here,  again,  no  hard-and-fast  lines  can  be  drawn.  The  littoral  or  shore- 
fishes  are  those  found  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  land  or  sunken  shoals ; 
the  majority  living  close  to  the  surface,  and  very  few  descending  as  deep  as  three 
hundred  fathoms.  Their  distribution  is  determined  not  only  by  the  temperature  of 
the  surface-water,  but  likewise  by  the  nature  of  the  neighbouring  land,  and  its 
animal  and  vegetable  products ;  some  of  these  fishes  being  suited  to  inhabit  flat 
coasts  with  muddy  or  sandy  bottoms,  while  others  frequent  rock-bound  shores 
where  the  water  is  deep,  and  others,  again,  congregate  round  coral-reefs.  Cod, 
rays,  and  flat-fish  are  well-known  examples  of  this  group.  Pelagic  fishes,  such  as 
tunnies,  flying-fish,  sword-fishes,  and  sun-fishes,  inhabit  the  superficial  layers  of  the 
open  ocean,  approaching  the  shores  only  by  accident,  or  in  some  cases  in  search  of 
food,  or  for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  Dr.  Giinther  writes  that,  "  with  regard  to 
their  distribution,  they  are  still  subject  to  the  influences  of  light  and  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  surface-water ;  but  they  are  independent  of  the  variable  local  conditions 
which  tie  the  shore-fish  to  its  original  home,  and  therefore  roam  freely  over  a  space 
which  would  take  a  fresh- water  or  shore-fish  thousands  of  years  to  cover  in  its 
gradual  dispersal.  Such  as  are  devoid  of  rapidity  of  motion  are  dispersed  over 
similarly  large  areas  by  the  oceanic  currents,  more  slowly  than,  but  as  surely  as,  the 
strong  swimmers." 

In  marked  contrast  to  the  last  are  the  deep-sea  fishes,  inhabiting  the  abyssal 
depths  of  the  ocean,  where  they  are  undisturbed  by  tides  or  currents,  and  live  for 
the  most  part  in  total  darkness ;  their  organisation,  in  consequence  of  the  great 
pressure  of  the  medium  in  which  they  live,  preventing  them  from  coming  to  the 
surface  in  a  healthy  condition.  From  the  similarity  in  the  physical  conditions  of 
the  ocean-depths  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  there  seems  no  reason  why  a  single 
species  of  deep-sea  fish  should  not  range  from  the  Equator  to  the  Poles ;  and  the 
abyssal  fauna  is  probably  more  or  less  nearly  the  same  throughout  the  globe. 
These  fishes  belong  for  the  most  part  to  pelagic  families,  and  especially  to  such 
types  as  are  of  nocturnal  habits ;  and  are  characterised  by  their  generally  black  or 
silvery  colour,  although  in  a  few  instances  the  fin-rays  and  certain  filaments  are 


324  FISHES. 

scarlet.  Writing  of  those  fishes,  Dr.  Glinther  observes  that,  "  the  organ  of  sight  is 
the  first  to  be  affected  by  a  sojourn  in  deep  water.  Even  in  fishes  which  habitually 
live  at  a  depth  of  only  eighty  fathoms,  we  find  the  eye  of  a  proportionately  larger 
size  than  in  their  representatives  at  the  surface.  In  such  fishes  the  eyes  increase 
in  size  with  the  depth  inhabited  by  them,  down  to  the  depth  of  two  hundred 
fathoms ;  the  large  eyes  being  necessary  to  collect  as  many  rays  of  light  as  possible. 
Beyond  that  depth,  small-eyed  as  well  as  large-eyed  fishes  occur;  the  former 
having  their  want  of  vision  compensated  by  tentacular  organs  of  touch,  while  the 
latter  have  no  such  accessory  organs,  and  evidently  only  see  by  the  aid  of  phos- 
phorescence. In  the  greatest  depths  occur  blind  fishes,  with  rudimentary  eyes,  and 
without  special  organs  of  touch.  Many  fishes  of  the  deep  sea  are  provided  with 
more  or  less  numerous,  round,  shining,  mother-of-pearl-coloured  bodies,  embedded 
in  the  skin.  These  so-called  phosphorescent  or  luminous  organs  are  either  bodies  of 
an  oval  or  irregularly  elliptical  shape  placed  in  the  vicinity  of  the  eyes,  or  smaller 
globular  bodies  arranged  symmetrically  in  series  along  the  sides  of  the  body  and 
tail."  That  the  function  of  these  bodies  is  to  produce  phosphorescent  light  may  be 
considered  certain ;  and  it  is  probable  that  both  the  tentacles  and  the  whole  surface 
of  the  bodies  of  these  extraordinary  fish  are  also  phosphorescent.  Not  the  least 
remarkable  feature  about  the  carnivorous  deep-sea  fishes  is  the  enormous  size  of 
their  stomachs,  which  enable  them  to  swallow  creatures  nearly  as  large  as  them- 
selves ;  drawing  themselves  over  their  prey  almost  after  the  manner  of  a  sea- 
anemone.  Although  when  brought  to  the  surface  deep-sea  fishes  are  soft,  flabby 
creatures,  with  their  scales  standing  out  at  right  angles,  and  their  eyes  starting 
from  their  sockets,  at  their  own  proper  level,  under  an  enormous  pressure,  their 
bodies  are  doubtless  as  firm  and  compact  as  those  of  ordinary  fish.  Deep-sea  fish 
certainly  live  at  a  depth  of  two  thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty  fathoms. 

In  regard  to  geological  distribution,  it  has  already  been  mentioned  that  the 
oldest  true  fishes  occur  in  strata  of  upper  Silurian  age ;  such  early  fishes  being 
sharks.  In  the  succeeding  Devonian  and  Carboniferous  periods,  the  class  was 
abundantly  represented,  but  only  by  sharks,  fringe-finned  ganoids,  and  lung-fishes. 
In  the  Permian,  Triassic,  and  Jurassic  periods  chimseroids,  as  well  as  the 
chondrosteous  Teleostomi  made  their  appearance;  but  it  was  not  till  the 
Cretaceous  epoch  that  the  higher  bony  fishes,  which  are  the  predominant  forms  in 
the  Tertiary  period  and  at  the  present  day,  were  developed.  There  are  fully  nine 
thousand  known  species  of  living  fishes,  while  considerably  more  than  one  thousand 
fossil  forms  have  been  already  described. 


CHAPTEE    II. 


THE  LUNG-FISHES  AND  CHIM^ROIDS, — Subclasses 

DlPNOI   AND    HOLOCEPHALI. 

THE  two  first  subclasses  of  fishes  agree  with  one  another,  and  thereby  differ  from 
the  remaining  two,  in  the  structure  of  the  skull,  in  which  the  hyomandibular  bone 
is  welded  with  what  is  known  as  the  palatopterygoid  bar  (that  is  to  say,  the  bones 
corresponding  with  the  palatines  and  pterygoids  of  the  higher  Vertebrates),  which 
is  itself  firmly  united  to 
the  cranium  proper,  so 
that  there  is  no  separate 
structure  for  the  suspen- 
sion of  the  lower  jaw. 
To  this  type  the  name  of 
solid-skulled  (technically, 
autostylic)  fishes  may  be 
applied;  and  it  may  be 
noted  that  this  type  of 
structure  is  essentially  the 
same  as  that  on  which  the 
skulls  of  the  Amphibians 
are  formed.  In  the  lung- 
fishes  the  skeleton  is  par- 
tially ossified,  with  well- 
developed  membrane- 
bones;  the  gill-clefts  are 
but  slightly  separated,  and 
open  into  a  single  cavity 
protected  by  an  external 
cover;  and  the  external 
skeleton  consists  of  true 
bony  tissue.  In  the 
existing  members  of  the 


orb. 


ROOF  OF  THE  SKULL  OF  THE   AUSTRALIAN  LUNG-FISH. 

A}  anterior,  and  B,  posterior  median  plate  ;  C,  inner,  and  Z>,  outer  lateral 
plate  ;  na,  nostrils  ;  orb,  socket  of  the  eyes.     (From  Teller. ) 


group  the  optic  nerves  (or 

/hose  proceeding  from  the 

Drain  to  the  eyes)  simply 
cross  one  another,  without  any  interlacing  of  the  constituent  fibres ;  the  intestine 

las  a  spiral  valve ;  the  air-bladder  is  elongated,  and  performs  the  functions  of  a 

ung ;  and  the  nostrils  open  posteriorly  by  two  apertures  into  the  cavity  of  the 


326  LUNG-FISHES. 

mouth,  after  the  manner  of  the  higher  Vertebrates.  The  membrane-bones  covering 
the  roof  of  the  skull,  which  are  very  few  in  number,  cannot  be  correlated  with 
those  of  the  bony  fishes ;  their  mode  of  arrangement  being  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying figure.  The  lung-fishes  are  at  the  present  day  represented  only  by  three 
genera,  with  but  very  few  species,  but  they  were  formerly  a  very  numerous  group, 
which  appears  to  have  been  on  the  wane  since  a  very  early  epoch. 

THE  EXISTING  LUNG-FISHES. — Family  LEPIDOSIRENID^. 

The  three  existing  genera  of  lung-fishes  may  be  taken  as  the  typical  repre- 
sentatives of  an  order  including  several  extinct  families,  and  known  as  the 
Sirenoidea.  Its  essential  characters  are  that  the  head  is  covered  with  membrane- 
bones  ;  that  the  main  dentition  takes  the  form  of  large  grinding  plates,  situated  on 


UPPER  PALATAL  TEETH  OF  AN  EXTINCT  LUNG-FISH  (Ceratodus).     (From  Teller.) 

the  pterygoid  bones  in  the  upper,  and  on  the  splenials  in  the  lower  jaw ;  that  the 
body  is  covered  externally  with  overlapping  scales ;  that  the  notochord  persists 
throughout  life ;  that  the  paired  fins  are  of  the  fringed  type ;  and  that  none  of  the 
fins  are  armed  with  spines.  The  existing  forms  have  but  few  membrane-bones  to 
the  skull;  no  premaxillse,  maxillae,  marginal  teeth,  or  jugular  plates;  a  fringed 
tail,  furnished  with  a  continuous  vertical  fin ;  and  cycloid  scales. 

Australian  For  a  great  number  of  years  there  were  known  from  the  Triassic 

Lung-Fish,  strata  of  various  parts  of,  Europe  fish-teeth  of  the  remarkable  type 
of  the  specimen  represented  in  the  accompanying  figure  ;  and  from  the  fancied 
resemblance  to  a  deer's  antler,  presented  by  these  teeth,  the  name  of  Ceratodus  was 
suggested  for  the  otherwise  unknown  fishes  to  which  they  pertained.  Similar 
teeth  were  subsequently  obtained  from  Secondary  rocks  in  India  and  also  in  South 
Africa,  but  it  was  not  until  the  year  1870  that  a  fish  was  discovered  in  Queensland 
having  teeth  of  a  similar  type.  Known  to  the  natives,  in  common  with  other  large 
fresh-water  species,  by  the  name  of  barramundi,  the  Australian  lung-fish  (C.forsteri) 
agrees  so  closely  with  the  extinct  forms  that  it  is  usually  regarded  as  generically 
identical.  Its  mouth  is  furnished  in  front  with  a  pair  of  chisel-like  teeth  situated 
on  the  vomers,  behind  which  come  a  pair  of  palatal  teeth  of  the  type  of  the  one 
shown  in  the  figure,  but  carrying  six  complete  ridges,  and  an  incomplete  seventh ; 


EXISTING   GROUP. 


327 


while  there  are  a  pair  of  similar  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw,  carrying  only  six  ridges 
each.  In  the  living  species  the  teeth  of  opposite  sides  are  separated  by  an  interval ; 
but  in  the  fossil  forms  they  were  in  contact,  and  had  fewer  ridges.  The  existing 
Australian  lung -fishes,  of  which  two  species  have  been  described,  are  said  to 
attain  a  weight  of  20  Ibs.,  and  a  length  of  upwards  of  6  feet.  The  body  is 
elongated  and  much  compressed,  with  very  large  scales ;  the  paddle-shaped  limbs 
have  very  broad  fringes ;  and  the  flesh  is  salmon-coloured.  From  the  occurrence 
of  masses  of  leaves  in  its  stomach  it  is  evident  that  the  Australian  lung-fish  crops 
the  vegetation  with  its  great  teeth ;  but  it  is  believed  that  the  most  important  part 
of  its  food  consists  of  the  small  creatures  living  on  and  between  the  leaves  of  the 


AUSTRALIAN  LUNG-FISH  (}  nat.  size). 


various  water-plants.  The  stories  of  the  fish  coming  out  of  the  water  to  the  land 
seem  quite  unfounded,  as  are  those  that  it  lies  dormant  during  part  of  the  year  in 
cocoons.  The  female  lays  her  rather  large  eggs  loosely  and  singly  among  the 
vegetation,  and  in  the  embryo  the  fore-limbs  make  their  appearance  in  about  a 
fortnight,  but  the  hinder-pair  not  before  two  and  a  half  months.  In  the  course  of 
its  development  this  fish  presents  marked  resemblances  to  the  Amphibians,  and  also 
to  the  lampreys  ;  but  it  is  noteworthy  that  there  is  no  trace  of  a  sucking  mouth, 
or  of  external  gills.  As  might  have  been  inferred  from  the  study  of  allied  extinct 
forms,  the  large  palatal  teeth  are  formed  by  the  fusion  of  a  number  of  separate 
small  teeth.  According  to  Dr.  Semon,  the  Australian  lung-fish  is  confined  to  the 
middle  portion  of  the  Burnett  and  Mary  Rivers  of  Queensland.  Living  among  the 


32S 


LL\VG-FISJIES. 


mud  and  leaves  at  the  bottom,  it  rises  at  intervals  to  the  surface  to  obtain  more 
complete  oxygenation  of  its  blood  by  the  inhalation  of  atmospheric  air  into  its 
lungs,  although  its  general  breathing  is  carried  on  by  the  gills.  A  grunting  noise 
sometimes  uttered  by  this  tish  is  probably  produced  by  the  expulsion  of  the  air 
from  the  lungs  when  it  rises  to  the  surface.  Although  frequently  termed  the 
barramundi — a  title  apparently  properly  belonging  to  a  totally  different  iish 
(Osteoc/lossum) — it  appears  that  the  proper  native  name  of  the  Australian  lung-fish 
is  djelleh.  The  breeding-season  is  at  its  height  in  September  and  October,  but 
lasts  from  April  till  the  beginning  of  November  ;  and  the  eggs,  which  are  enveloped 
in  a  gelatinous  coat,  and  are  heavier  than  water,  take  some  ten  days  to  hatch, 
south  American.  The  mud-fish  of  the  Amazons  (Le-pidos  iren  paradoxa)  is  the  sole 
Mud-Fish.  representative  of  a  genus  distinguished  from  the  last  by  the  eel-like 
form  of  the  body,  on  which  the  continuous  vertical  fin  extends  nearly  to  the  neck, 
and  by  the  reduction  of  the  limbs  to  mere  tapering  filaments,  owing  to  the  dis- 


SOUTH   AMERICAN    MUD-FISH  (3-  nat.  size). 

appearance  of  the  marginal  fringe.  The  vomerine  teeth  are.  conical  and  pointed, 
and  the  palatal  teeth  have  strongly  marked  cusps  supported  by  vertical  ridges. 
There  are  iive  gill-arches,  with  four  intervening  clefts,  but  there  arc  no  external 
appendages  above  the  gin-opening.  In  adult  males  the  upper  surface  of  the  hind- 
limb  is  beset  with  tufts  of  tentacle-like  papilla).  This  mud-fish  grows  to  a  length 
of  about  4  feet,  and  occurs  not  only  in  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries,  but  likewise 
in  the  s\vamps  of  the  Chako  country  forming  the  tributaries  of  the  upper  Paraguay 
Kiver.  The  southern  form  has  been  regarded  as  a  distinct  species,  although  the 
differences  are  so  slight  as  scarce! v  to  merit  such  a  distinction.  These  fish  feed 

<"">  c 

chiefly  on  the  large  molluscs  known  as  ampullarise,  which  are  found  collected  in 


EXISTING   GROUP. 


329 


African  Mud-Fish. 


great  masses  in  the  Chako  swamps  ;  their  shells  being  easily  crushed  by  the  power- 
ful teeth  of  their  devourers. 

The  African  mud-fish  (Protopterus  annectans),  widely  spread 
"over  the  tropical  regions  of  the  continent  from  which  it  takes  its 
name,  differs  from  the  last  in  that  the  filamentous  fins  retain  a  small  fringe 
containing  rays ;  as  well  as  in  having  six  gill-arches,  with  five  intervening  clefts, 
while  there  are  three  small  tentacle-like  appendages  above  the  small  gill-opening 
on  each  side.  In  the  Gambia  River,  where  they  are  very  abundant,  these  fishes 
'are  in  the  habit  of  burying  themselves  during  the  dry  season,  making  a  kind  of 


AFRICAN  MUD-FISH  (£  nat.  size). 

nest,  in  which  they  pass  a  period  of  torpidity.  Here  they  may  remain  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  year,  only  resuming  their  normal  aquatic  life  with  the  return 
of  the  wet  seasons.  Professor  W.  N.  Parker,  who  received  some  specimens  in  the 
torpid  condition,  writes  that  about  a  hundred  individuals  wrere  dug  out  and  packed 
up  in  crates  still  enclosed  in  the  clods  of  mud.  On  arrival  in  Europe  the  clods 
were  opened,  and  the  fishes  placed  in  a  tank  in  a  hothouse.  The  statement  of  the 
natives  that  the  species  grows  to  the  almost  incredible  length  of  6  feet  suggests 
that  it  must  be  a  very  long-lived  creature.  From  the  above-mentioned  specimens 
it  was  found  that  these  mud-fishes  grow  very  rapidly,  have  great  vitality,  and,, 
although  able  to  sustain  fasts,  are  exceedingly  voracious,  devouring  all  the  snails,. 


330  LUNG-FISHES. 

earth-worms,  and  small  fish  given  them,  and  then  killing  and  eating  each  other, 
making  it  difficult  in  the  extreme  to  preserve  the  specimens.  They  are  most 
active  at  night,  and  appear  to  keep  mostly  to  the  shallow  water,  where  they  move 
deliberately  about  on  the  bottom,  alternately  using  the  peculiar  limbs  of  either 
side,  though  their  movements  clo  not  seem  to  be  guided  by  any  strict  regularity. 
Gray  has  compared  these  movements  to  those  of  a  newt,  and  several  other 
observers  have  noticed  them.  The  powerful  tail  forms  a  most  efficient  organ  for 
swimming  rapidly  through  the  water.  It  is  well  known  that  this  fish  comes  to 
the  surface  to  breathe  at  short  intervals,  and  thus  it  is  evident  that  the  lungs 
perform  an  important,  if  not  the  chief,  part  in  respiration  during  the  active  life  of 
the  animal.  The  air  passes  out  again  through  the  opercular  aperture,  and  the 
movements  of  the  operculum  itself  indicate  the  fact  that  bronchial  as  well  as 
pulmonary  respiration  takes  place.  Externally,  the  sexes  present  110  characters 
whatever  distinguishing  them  apart.  As  in  the  American  species,  external  gills 
are  developed  in  the  young.  As  regards  the  breeding-habits  of  these  fishes  nothing 
very  definite  is  known.  It  is  stated,  however,  that  the  numerous  eggs  and  embryos 
are  carried  about  in  an  elongated  gelatinous  pouch  attached  to  the  sides  of  the 
back  of  one  of  the  parents,  although  the  sex  in  which  these  receptacles  are  developed 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  ascertained.  In  conclusion,  it  may  be  observed  that 
Professor  Parker  is  of  opinion  that  although  the  lung-fishes  present  certain 
resemblances  on  the  one  hand  to  some  of  the  sharks  and  ganoids,  and  on  the  other 
to  the  lower  Amphibians,  yet  they  appear  so  distinct  from  both  that  he  thinks 
they  ought  to  be  removed  from  the  fishes  to  form  a  class  by  themselves. 

Extinct  In  the  Palaeozoic  epoch  lung-fishes  formed  an  abundant  group, 

Lung-Fishes.  which  may  be  divided  into  three  families.  Of  these  the  Carboniferous 
and  Permian  Ctenodontidce,  as  represented  by  Ctenodus  and  Sagenodus,  resemble 
the  existing  forms  in  the  absence  of  marginal  teeth  to  the  jaw  and  of  jugular 
plates  on  the  throat,  but  differ  by  the  numerous  membrane-bones  of  the  skull ;  the 
caudal  fin  being  of  the  fringed  type,  and  the  scales  cycloidal.  The  type  genus, 
which  includes  species  of  5  feet  in  length,  takes  its  name  from  the  comb-like 
structure  of  the  ridged  palatal  teeth.  The  second  family,  Phaneropleuridce,  differs 
from  the  last  in  the  presence  of  both  marginal  teeth  and  jugular  plates ;  the 
typical  genus  Phaneropleurum,  including  small  species  from  the  Devonian.  In 
the  Dipteridce,  as  represented  by  the  Devonian  Dipterus  and  Pcdcedaphus,  jugular 
plates  are  present,  but  there  are  no  marginal  teeth,  and  the  tail  is  of  the  hetero- 
cercal  type;  the  skull  having  numerous  membrane-bones.  The  teeth  are  very 
similar  to  those  of  the  Australian  lung-fish,  but  may  be  ornamented  with  small 
ridges  and  pustules. 

THE  BERRY-BONE  FISHES. — Order  ARTHRODIRA. 

The  extraordinary  Palaeozoic  group  typically  represented  by  the  berry-bone 
fish  (Coccosteus)  of  the  Scottish  Devonian  differs  from  the  true  lung-fishes  in  that 
in  place  of  scales  the  fore-part  of  the  body  is  protected  by  large  bony  plates,  of 
which  one  pair  is  articulated  by  a  hinge  to  the  hinder-part  of  the  skull,  which  is 
likewise  invested  with  bones  bearing  a  similar  pustular,  or  berry-like  sculpture. 


CHIM^EROWS.  331 

The  fore-limbs  were  either  rudimental  or  wanting ;  but  a  pair  of  pelvic  fins  were 
developed.  Most  or  all  of  the  forms  may  be  included  in  the  single  family 
Goccosteidce-,  and 
among  these  the 
typical  genus  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the 
absence  of  any 
pectoral  fin,  while  in 

the     allied     Brachy-  PARTIAL  RESTORATION  OF  THE  BERRY-BONE  FISH. 

dims  this  appendage  (From  A>  s>  Woodward)  Cat.  Foss.  FisheSj  BriL  Mus.} 

is   represented   by   a 

hollow  spine.  In  both  these  the  sockets  of  the  eyes  form  notches  on  the  sides 
of  the  skull ;  and  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  gigantic  Dinicktkys  of  the  North 
American  Devonian.  In  another  group,  however,  as  represented  by  Homosteus,  the 
eye-sockets  were  completely  enclosed  in  the  membrane-bones  with  which  the  head 
is  covered. 

THE  CHIJYLEROIDS, — Subclass  Holocephali. 

Represented  by  three  existing  marine  genera,  of  which  one  has  three,  the  second 
one,  and  the  third  two  species,  and  a  number  of  extinct  types,  the  chimseroids  form 
a  second  subclass,  agreeing  with  the  lung-fishes  in  their  solid  (autostylic)  skulls, 
but  differing  by  the  total  absence  of  membrane-bones,  and  their  superficial  external 
resemblance  to  sharks.  The  skeleton  is  cartilaginous,  with  the  notochord  either 
persistent,  or  constricted  and  surrounded  by  cartilaginous  rings,  which  are  some- 
times partly  calcified  ;  and  in  the  adult  the  skin  is  frequently  quite  naked,  although 
in  the  young  it  may  bear  on  the  back  a  series  of  structures  similar  in  composition 
to  teeth,  some  extinct  forms  having  plates  of  the  same  nature.  In  the  existing 
members  of  the  group  the  optic  nerves  simply  cross  one  another,  and  the  intestine 
has  a  spiral  valve ;  while  further  resemblances  to  the  sharks  are  shown  by  the 
presence  of  claspers  in  the  males,  and  also  by  the  large  size  and  small  number  of 
the  single  eggs.  The  four  gill-clefts  open  externally  by  a  single  aperture  on  each 
side,  protected  by  a  fold  of  skin  containing  a  cartilaginous  operculum.  The  mouth 
is  situated  at  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle,  and  the  teeth  on  the  palate  and  lower 
jaw  are  molar-like,  while  there  is  also  a  small  pair  of  cutting  vomerine  teeth  in  the 
front  of  the  upper  jaw;  the  whole  dentition  thus  closely  corresponding  to  that  of 
the  lung-fishes,  although  there  are  two  pairs  of  upper  palatal  teeth,  which  present 
certain  hardened  areas  known  as  tritors.  The  pectoral  fins  are  shortened,  without 
the  segmented  axis  of  the  lung-fishes ;  and  the  first  dorsal  fin  may  have  a  movable 
spine  articulated  to  the  spinous  processes  of  the  vertebrse.  The  sides  of  the  body 
show  a  lateral  line ;  but  there  is  no  air-bladder,  and  the  nostrils  do  not  open 
behind  into  the  cavity  of  the  mouth.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  chimaeroids 
indicate  a  degenerate  group  nearly  allied  to  the  lung-fishes,  which  have  lost  the 
membrane-bones  of  the  latter,  and  acquired  a  superficial  resemblance  to  sharks. 

The  ugly  fish,  to  which  the  name  chimsera  has  been  applied  (Ckimcera 
monstrosa),  together  with  two  other  existing  species,  typically  represents  the 
family  Chimceridce,  wThich  alone  has  survived  to  the  present  day.  The  family  is 


332  CHIM^EROIDS. 

characterised  by  the  presence  of  a  spine  to  the  first  dorsal  fin,  and  also  of  a 
prehensile  spine-like  structure  on  the  heads  of  the  males ;  there  are  no  superficial 
plates  on  the  skull,  and  only  a  single  pair  of  lower  teeth.  The  family,  which 
contains  a  number  of  extinct  genera,  mainly  distinguished  from  one  another  by 
the  characters  of  the  triturating  areas  on  the  teeth,  dates  from  the  Lias ;  the 
typical  genus  being,  however,  unknown  before  the  latter  part  of  the  Tertiary 
period.  The  living  chimseras  do  not  probably  exceed  5  feet  in  length,  and  have 
the  soft  muzzle  devoid  of  an  appendage.  The  dorsal  fins  occupy  the  greater  part 
of  the  back ;  and  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  long  filamentous  tail  is  nearly 
continuous  with  that  of  the  back,  its  extremity  being  provided  above  and  below 
with  a  long,  low  fin  of  the  diphycercal  type.  The  common  species  represented 
in  the  annexed  coloured  Plate  ranges  from  Europe  and  Japan  to  South  Africa; 
while  a  second  occurs  on  the  Pacific  Coast  of  North  America,  and  a  third  off 
Portugal.  The  southern  chimsera  (Callorhynchus  antarcticus),  from  the  southern 
temperate  seas,  differs  from  the  preceding  genus  by  the  presence  of  a  cartilaginous 
prominence,  ending  in  a  flap  of  skin,  on  the  muzzle,  and  likewise  by  the  upward 
direction  of  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  which  has  no  fin  on  its  upper  surface.  A 
fossil  representative  of  this  genus  occurs  in  the  Cretaceous  rocks  of  New 
Zealand.  The  third  genus,  Harottia,  distinguished  by  the  extreme  elongation  of 
the  snout,  is  represented  by  one  species  from  the  Atlantic,  and  a  second  from 
the  Pacific.  As  well-known  extinct  types  of  the  family  we  may  refer  to  the 
Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  genera  Edaphodon  and  Elasmodus ;  the  former  including 
fishes  of  gigantic  dimensions.  The  members  of  the  extinct  family  Myria- 
canthidce,  of  the  Jurassic  rocks,  differ  by  having  a  few  bony  plates  on  the  head, 
and  three  lower  teeth ;  while  the  Squaloraiidce,  as  represented  by  Squaloraia  of 
the  Lias,  were  somewhat  ray-like  forms,  with  a  depressed  trunk  and  elongated 
muzzle,  and  no  spines  to  the  dorsal  fins.  The  subclass  appears  also  to  be  repre- 
sented in  Palasozoic  times,  the  Devonian  Ptyctodus  indicating  a  family  which 
cannot  at  present  be  fully  defined. 


CHAPTER    III. 
THE  BONY  FISHES  AND  GANOIDS, — Subclass  TELEOSTOMI. 

FORMERLY  the  typical  bony  fishes  of  the  present  day  were  regarded  as  indicating  a 
primary  group  (Teleostei)  of  equal  rank  with  a  second  one  known  as  the  Ganoidei ; 
the  latter  containing  the  American  bony  pike,  and  the  African  bichir,  together 
with  a  host  of  extinct  genera  possessing  a  similar  armour  of  hard  ganoid  scales. 
A  fuller  study  of  these  and  other  allied  fossil  forms  has,  however,  shown  the 
existence  of  such  a  complete  transition  from  these  so-called  ganoids  to  the  typical 
bony  tishes  that  it  has  become  necessary  to  include  the  whole  of  them  in  a  single 
subclass,  under  the  title  heading  this  chapter.  Although  there  is  still  some  degree 
of  uncertainty  as  to  the  best  mode  of  arranging  certain  groups  of  the  bony  fishes, 
the  following  scheme  may  be  temporarily  adopted : — 

1.  Order  ACTINOPTERYGII — Fan-Finned  Group. 

(1)  Suborder^  f  ACANTHOPTERYGII — Spine-Finned  Fishes, 

(2)  „  IJLOPHOBRANCHII— Tuft-Gilled  Fishes. 

(3)  „  i  j  PLECTOGNATHI — Comb-Gilled  Fishes. 

(4)  .,  S  [ANACANTHINI — Soft-Finned  Fishes. 

(5)  „  PHYSOSTOMI — Tube-Bladdered  Fishes. 

(6)  „  ISOSPONDYLI — Leptolepis. 

(7)  „  ^ETHEOSPONDYLI — Bony  Pike. 

(8)  „  PROTOSPONDYLI — Amioids. 

(9)  „  CHONDROSTEI — Sturgeons. 

2.  Order  CROSSOPTERYGII — Fringe-Finned  Group. 

In  this  wide  sense  the  subclass  differs  broadly  from  the  two  preceding  ones  in 
the  structure  of  the  skull,  which  is  formed  on  what  may  be  termed  the  hinged  type 
(hyostylic) ;  that  is  to  say,  the  palato-pterygoid  bar  remains  separated  from  the 
cranium  proper,  to  the  hinder-part  of  which  it  is  movably  articulated  by  the 
intervention  of  the  hyomandibular.  The  internal  skeleton  is  more  or  less  ossified, 
with  the  development  of  membrane-bones  on  the  jaws ;  the  gill-clefts  are  but 
slightly  separated  from  one  another,  and  are  fully  protected  by  an  operculum ;  the 
membrane-bones  of  the  pectoral  girdle  (that  is  to  say,  the  scapula,  claviculars,  etc.) 
are  connected  with  the  hinder-part  of  the  skull ;  and  the  external  skeleton  takes 
the  form  either  of  plates  of  bone  or  of  calcified  overlapping  scales.  In  existing 
forms  the  eggs  are  small,  numerous,  and  generally  massed  together;  the  two  optic 
nerves  may  either  simply  cross  one  another,  or  may  give  off  mutually  interlacing 
fibres ;  an  air-bladder — with  or  without  a  duct — is  very  generally  present ;  and  the 
intestine  may  sometimes  be  furnished  with  a  spiral  valve. 


334 


SPINE-PINNED   GROUP. 


Fan-Finned  This  group — Actinopterygii — includes  all  the  bony  fishes  of  the 

Group.  present  day,  as  well  as  the  sturgeons,  and  is  characterised  by  the 
fan-like  structure  of  the  paired  fins,  in  which  the  proper  internal  skeleton  is 
abbreviated  to  make  way  for  the  greatly  developed  dermal  fin-rays ;  the  caudal 
fin  being  of  very  variable  structure.  In  the  branchiostegal  membrane,  occupying 
the  space  between  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw,  there  is  always  a  paired 
series  of  transversely  elongated  rays.  The  first  eight  suborders  of  this  order,  given 
in  the  table  on  p.  333,  form  one  great  division  characterised  by  the  number  of 
dermal  rays  in  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  being  equal  to  that  of  the  supporting 


PIKE-PERCH  AND  COMMON  PERCH  (J  nat.  size). 

bony  elements,  and  by  the  tail  being  never  heterocercal,1  but  usually  either  of  the 

abbreviate-heterocercal  or  homocercal  type,  although  occasionally  diphycercal. 

Spine-Finned  In  the  classification  proposed  by  Professor  Cope  the  first  four 

Fishes.        suborders  of  the  fan-finned  group  given  in  the  foregoing  table  are 

regarded  as  a  single  group,  under  the  title  of  Physoclysti,  and,  in  common  with 

the  tube-bladdered  fishes,  have  the  fibres  of  the  optic  nerves  interlacing,  the  intestine 

without  a  spiral  valve,  and  the  skeleton  fully  ossified.     From  the  Physostomi,  the 

1  In  the  heterocercal  type  the  upper  lobe  of  the  tail  is  the  longer,  and  the  vertebral  column  is  continued  up 
into  it ;  in  the  abbreviate-heterocercal  the  tail  is  symmetrical,  and  the  vertebral  column  complete  but  bent  up 
into  its  upper  half;  in  the  homocercal  type  the  tail  is  also  symmetrical,  but  the  vertebrae  stop  short  at  its  base, 
•where  the  latter  ones  are  aborted  into  a  mass  ;  in  the  diphycercal  form  the  vertebrae  are  continued  without  abortion 
along  the  middle  line  of  the  symmetrical  tail-fin. 


PERCH  TRIBE.  335 

Physoclystous  group  are  distinguished  by  the  general  absence  of  a  duct  to  the 
air-bladder  (when  present),  by  the  parietal  bones  of  the  roof  of  the  skull  being 
always  separated  from  one  another  by  the  intervention  of  the  supraoccipital,  and 
by  the  pelvic  fins  being  in  most  cases  either  thoracic  or  jugular1  in  position. 
Regarding,  however,,  the  spine-finned  fishes  as  constituting  a  separate  suborder, 
they  are  distinguished,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing  characters,  by  some  of  the 
anterior  rays  of  the  dorsal,  anal,  and  pelvic  fins  usually  taking  the  form  of  strong, 
unjointed,  bony  spines.  It  must,  however,  be  acknowledged  that  this  character  is 
one  of  but  little  importance ;  some  of  the  hair-tails  (Trichiuridce)  scarcely  possess- 
ing what  can  be  denominated  true  spines,  while  these  are  also  wanting  in  the 
family  (Scortibresocidce)  to  which  the  fiying-fishes  belong.  In  all  cases  the  gills 
are  comb-like,  the  pectoral  arch  is  suspended  from  the  skull,  and  interclavicles 
are  wanting. 

THE  PERCH  TRIBE, — Family  PERCID^J. 

The  first  representatives  of  the  spine-finned  fishes  are  the  perches,  which,  with 
several  allied  families,  belong  to  a  sectional  group  (Perciformes)  of  the  suborder, 
characterised  by  the  lower  pharyngeal  bones  being  generally  separate,  and  the 
scales  usually  of  the  ctenoid  type.  The  preopercular  bone  of  the  gill-cover  has  no 
bony  stay  connecting  it  with  the  eye ;  the  spinous  portion  of  the  dorsal  fin  is  well 
developed ;  none  of  the  additional  rib-like  bones  known  as  epipleura  are  attached 
to  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrse ;  the  pelvic  fins  are  thoracic  in  position,  and  have 
usually  five  (rarely  four)  branched  rays ;  and  the  supporting  bones  (pterygials)  of 
the  pectoral  fins  are  longer  than  broad,  and  of  a  more  or  less  distinctly  hour-glass 
form.  The  perch  family,  as  restricted  by  Mr.  Boulenger,  is  distinguished  by  the 
following  characters.  In  the  skeleton  the  anterior  vertebrae  have  no  transverse 
processes,  but  in  the  dorsal  part  of  the  series  all  or  most  of  the  ribs  are  attached 
to  such  processes.  There  are  two  nostrils  on  each  side ;  the  gill-membranes  are  free 
from  the  isthmus,  or  space  between  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  and  gill- 
opanings ;  there  are  four  pairs  of  gills,  writh  a  slit  behind  the  fourth ;  the  gill-rays, 
or  branchiostegals,  vary  from  six  to  eight  on  each  side ;  more  or  less  fully- 
developed  false  gills  are  generally  present ;  the  soft  portion  of  the  dorsal  fin  is  not 
very  much  more  developed  than  the  anal ;  and  the  latter  has  either  one  or  two 
spines.  In  common  with  the  two  following  families,  the  perches  are  further 
characterised  by  the  general  presence  of  a  lateral  line,  continuous  from  the  head  to 
the  tail,  the  usual  absence  of  scales  from  the  median  fins,  the  simple  conical  teeth, 
and  the  absence  of  barbels  round  the  mouth.  In  form  the  body  is  more  or  less 
elongate,  compressed,  and  cylindrical,  although  rarely  it  may  be  slightly  compressed. 
As  now  restricted,  the  family  includes  a  dozen  genera  inhabiting  the  fresh  waters 
of  North  America,  Europe,  and  Western  Asia ;  but  the  members  of  the  genera 
Lucioperca  and  Percarina  enter  salt  water.  All  are  carnivorous. 

The  common  perch  (Perca  fluviatilis),  which  is  a  fish  of  wide 

distribution,  and  one  too  familiar  to  require  detailed  description,  is 

the  type  of  a  small  genus,  agreeing  with  eight  others  in  the  following  characteristics. 

1  They  are  said  to  be  thoracic  when  in  the  same  vertical  line  as  the  pectoral  fins,  and  jugular  when  in  advance 
of  them. 


336  SPINE-FINNED   GROUP. 

In  the  head  the  mucus  or  slime-canals,  are  but  moderately  or  slightly  developed  on 
the  top  and  at  the  sides ;  and  the  spinous  and  soft  portions  of  the  dorsal  fin  are 
separate.  In  common  with  six  other  genera,  the  body  is  more  or  less  compressed ; 
the  perches  and  pike-perches  being  specially  distinguished  by  having  usually  seven 
(rarely  eight)  gill-rays;  by  the  premaxillse,  or  anterior  upper  jawbones,  being 
capable  of  protrusion ;  and  by  the  serration  of  the  preopercular  bone  of  the  gill- 
cover.  As  a  genus,  the  true  perches  are  distinguished  from  the  pike-perches  by 
the  small  and  uniform  size  of  the  marginal  teeth,  and  the  close  approximation  of 
the  pelvic  fins.  There  are  teeth  on  the  palatine  and  vomerine  bones,  but  none  on 
the  tongue,  and  there  are  thirteen  or  fourteen  spines  in  the  first  dorsal  fin,  and  two 
in  the  anal.  The  scales  are  small,  the  upper  surface  of  the  head  is  naked,  the 
preorbital  as  well  as  the  preopercular  bone  is  serrated,  and  there  are  seven  branchio- 
stegal  rays,  and  more  than  twenty-four  vertebrae.  As  in  most  of  the  members  of 
the  family,  the  mouth  is  capable  of  a  certain  degree  of  protrusion.  The  common 
perch,  which  seldom  exceeds  5  Ibs.  in  weight,  is  distributed  over  the  rivers  of 
Europe  (except  Spain)  and  Northern  Asia  as  far  east  as  Lake  Baikal ;  two  others 
being  known,  namely,  P.  flavescens  from  the  Eastern  United  States  and  P.  schrenki 
from  Turkestan.  Generally  preferring  still  waters,  and  occasionally  descending 
into  estuaries,  the  perch  is  one  of  the  most  voracious  of  fishes,  feeding  indiscrimin- 
ately upon  worms,  insects,  and  small  fishes.  The  spawning-season  in  England  is 
at  the  end  of  April  or  May,  when  the  female  deposits  her  eggs  in  net-shaped  or 
elongated  bands  on  the  leaves  of  aquatic  plants.  The  eggs  are  very  numerous, 
upwards  of  two  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  having  been  taken  from  a  fish  of 
J  Ib.  in  weight.  Fossil  remains  of  the  genus  occur  in  the  Miocene  rocks  of  (Eningen, 
in  Baden,  and  those  of  the  extinct  Paraperca  in  the  upper  Eocene  of  Provence. 

The  pike-perches,  of  which  the  common  European  representative 
(Lucioperca  sandra)  is  shown  in  the  upper  figure  of  the  illustration 
on  p.  334,  are  inhabitants  of  many  of  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  Europe,  Western 
Asia,  and  Eastern  North  America,  and  take  their  name  from  their  somewhat 
elongated  and  pike-like  form.  From  the  true  perches  they  differ  by  the  presence 
of  more  or  less  enlarged  tusks  in  the  marginal  series  of  teeth,  and  by  the  wider 
interval  between  the  pelvic  fins.  The  two  dorsal  fins  are  rather  low,  the  first 
having  from  twelve  to  fourteen  spines ;  and  the  scales  are  small.  The  common 
species,  which  is  confined  to  Eastern  Europe,  where  it  is  much  esteemed  as  a  food- 
fish,  grows  to  a  length  of  3  or  4  feet,  and  attains  a  weight  of  from  25  to  30  Ibs. 
Its  extreme  voracity  and  destructiveness  to  other  fish  render  it  an  undesirable 
inhabitant  of  preserved  waters. 

Danubian  The  two  small  and  rather  elongated  perches  represented  in  the 

Perches.  upper  part  of  the  illustration  on  p.  337,  the  larger  of  which  is 
known  as  Aspro  zingel  and  the  smaller  as  A.  vulgaris,  may  be  taken  as  repre- 
sentatives of  a  subgroup  distinguished  from  the  foregoing  forms  and  their  allies 
by  the  body  being  cylindrical  or  somewhat  depressed;  while  from  two  allied 
genera  they  are  distinguished  by  the  maxilla  or  main  upper  jawbone,  being  covered 
by  the  preorbital  bone,  and  by  the  premaxilla  being  free  only  at  the  side.  The 
body  is  elongate  and  nearly  cylindrical  in  form ;  and  the  mouth  situated  on  the 
lower  surface  of  the  thick  and  somewhat  projecting  muzzle.  All  the  teeth  of  the 


PERCH  TRIBE. 


337 


jaws  are  of  small  and  uniform  size;  and  teeth  are  present  on  the  vomer  and 
palatine  bones.  The  anal  fin  has  but  a  single  spine ;  although  the  margin  of  the 
propercular  bone  is  serrated,  that  of  the  preorbital  is  smooth ;  and  the  scales  are 
small.  These  fishes  inhabit  the  Danube  and  certain  other  European  rivers. 

Under  this  name,  which  belongs  properly  only  to  the  British 
form,  may  be   included  a  few  small  perches,  of  which  the  typical 
representative  (Acerina  cernua)  is  shown  in  the  lower  figure  of  the  annexed  illus- 


Ruffes. 


LARGER  AND   SMALLER  DANUBIAN  PERCHES,    AND   RUFFE  (J  liat.  size). 

tration.  From  the  other  members  of  the  family  this  and  the  allied  genus  Percarina 
differ  by  the  large  size  of  the  slime  cavities  on  the  sides  and  top  of  the  head ;  the 
ruffes  being  specially  distinguished  by  the  dorsal  fin  being  undivided,  and  also  by 
the  maxilla  being  covered  by  the  preorbital  bone.  The  fishes  of  this  genus  have  the 
body  somewhat  low,  and  the  scales  somewhat  small ;  the  continuous  single  dorsal 
fin  carrying  from  thirteen  to  twenty -nine  spines ;  and  there  being  two  spines  in 
the  anal  fin.  There  are  no  tusks  among  the  small  teeth  of  the  jaws,  and  the 
tongue  and  palatine  bones  are  devoid  of  teeth,  although  these  are  present  on  the 
vomer.  The  genus  is  confined  to  the  cooler  portions  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere, 
VOL.  v. — 22 


338  SPINE-PINNED   GROUP. 

the  common  species  ranging  from  Britain  through  Central  Europe  to  Siberia. 
The  "  pope,"  as  the  ruffe  is  frequently  called  in  England,  is  common  in  most  of  the 
rivers  and  canals  of  that  country,  generally  preferring  slow,  shaded  streams,  with 
a  gravelly  bottom,  and  closely  resembling  the  perch  in  its  mode  of  life. 

Family  Here  may  be  mentioned  a  small   family,  with  ten  genera  of 

Centrarchidae.  perch-like  fishes,  distinguished  from  the  Percidce  and  the  following 
family  by  the  mode  of  attachment  of  the  ribs,  which,  with  the  exception  of  the 
last,  or  last  two  or  four,  are  inserted  on  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  behind  the 
transverse  process,  instead  of  the  process  itself  ;  all  the  vertebrae  in  front  of  the 
tail,  save  the  first  two  or  three,  having  such  processes.  Externally  these  fishes 
differ  from  the  perches  in  the  presence  of  at  least  three  spines  in  the  anal  fin. 
The  family  is  typified  by  the  North  American  genus  Centrachus,  of  which  there 
is  but  a  single  species.  All  are  carnivorous  fresh-  water  fishes,  sometimes  entering 
estuaries,  and  many  are  in  the  habit  of  building  nests  for  the  protection  of  their 
young. 

BASS  AND  SEA-PERCHES,  —  Family 


Although  usually  included  in  the  Percidce,  with  which  they  agree  in  the 
structure  and  relations  of  the  vertebras  and  ribs,  the  sea-perches  and  their  allies 
are  regarded  by  Mr.  Boulenger  as  representing  a  family  by  themselves,  on  account 
of  the  circumstance  that  the  second  suborbital  bone  develops  an  internal  plate  for 
the  support  of  the  eye.  The  number  of  spines  in  the  anal  fin  is  variable  ;  and  in 
one  genus  (Centrogenys)  the  lower  pharyngeal  bones  are  united.  The  family  is 
a  very  extensive  one,  and  may  be  divided  into  several  subfamily  groups. 
South  American  Together  with  the  sea-perches,  the  bass  represent  a  subfamily 
Perch  and  Bass.  (Serranince)  presenting  the  following  characteristics.  The  upper 
jawbone,  or  maxilla,  is  exposed,  its  upper  border  not  being  entirely  concealed  by 
the  overlapping  preorbital  ;  the  scales  are  not  shed  ;  there  is  no  scaly  process  at 
the  bases  of  the  pelvic  fins  ;  the  anal  fin  has  three  spines  ;  the  gill-membrane  is 
free  behind  ;  and  the  false  gills  are  well  developed.  In  distribution  the  subfamily 
is  cosmopolitan,  and  while  most  of  the  forms  are  marine,  a  few  inhabit  fresh 
water.  Among  the  latter  may  be  mentioned  the  South  American  perch 
(Percichthys),  of  Chili,  Western  Argentina,  and  Patagonia,  which,  in  common  with 
five  other  genera,  has  a  divided  dorsal  fin.  From  an  ordinary  perch  these  fish 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  scaly  upper  surface  of  the  head,  and  the  presence 
of  nine  or  ten  spines  in  the  first  dorsal,  and  three  in  the  anal  fin.  To  this  section 
of  the  subfamily  also  belong  the  bass  (Morone),  which  are  partly  marine  and  partly 
fresh-  water  fishes,  easily  distinguished  from  the  true  perch  by  having  only  nine 
spines  in  the  dorsal  fin,  while  there  are  usually  three  in  the  anal.  There  are  also 
teeth  on  the  tongue  ;  and  while  the  preopercular  bone  is  serrated,  with  denticula- 
tions  on  its  lower  border,  the  front  border  of  the  preorbital  bone  is  entire. 
The  scales  are  rather  small,  and  extend  all  over  the  head.  Of  the  three  European 
and  Atlantic  species,  which  are  almost  entirely  marine,  the  best  known  is  the 
common  bass  (M.  labrax),  represented  in  the  upper  figure  of  the  illustration 
on  p.  339,  and  characterised  by  its  extreme  voracity  and  fierceness.  Elsewhere, 
the  genus  is  represented  by  fresh-water  species  from  the  rivers  of  the  United 


J3ASS  AND  SEA-PERCHES. 


339 


States  and  Canada.  Fossil' species  occur  in  the  middle  Eocene  of  Italy.  Generally 
not  exceeding  a  foot  or  18  inches  in  length,  the  common  species  may  grow  to 
3  feet;  but  its  flesh  is  then  much  less  delicate  than  that  of  ordinary  specimens. 
Bass  frequent  the  coast  in  shoals,  spawning  in  summer  generally  near  the  mouths 
of  rivers,  up  which  they  not  unfrequently  ascend  for  considerable  distances. 


COMMON   BASS,    SEA-PERCH,    AND   STONE-BASS  (\  liat.  size). 

Sea  Perch  *n  ^e  otner  genera  °f  the  subfamily  the  dorsal  fin  is  undivided, 

although  it  may  be  deeply  notched ;  the  number  of  its  spines  being 
generally  nine  or  eleven,  although  there  may  be  either  eight,  ten,  or  twelve. 
Under  the  common  title  of  sea-perches  may  be  included  the  members  of  several 
allied  genera,  such  as  Centropristes  and  Anthias,  although  the  name  is  often 
restricted  to  those  of  the  typical  genus  Serranus,  one  of  which  (S.  scriba)  is 
represented  in  the  middle  figure  of  the  above  illustration.  In  the  sea-perches  the 
body  is  oblong  or  qom  pressed,  and,  covered  with  £inall  ctenoid  or  cycloid  scales ; 
there  are  large  tusks  among  the  villiform  teeth  of  the  jaws;  and  teeth  are  also 


340  SPINE-FINNED   GROUP. 

present  on  the  palatines  and  vomers,  although  absent  from  the  tongue.  The 
preopercular  bone  is  serrated  behind  and  at  the  angle,  but  not  inferiorly;  and 
the  tail-tin  may  be  either  rounded,  squared,  or  emarginate.  The  sea-perches  of 
the  genus  Serranus,  of  which  there  are  an  enormous  number  of  species,  range 
through  the  seas  of  all  the  tropical  and  temperate  regions,  occasionally  ascending 
tidal  rivers  for  short  distances  in  pursuit  of  prey,  but  being  otherwise  strictly 
marine.  Many  of  the  species  vary  considerably,  both  in  colour  and  in  the  form 
of  their  tins,  with  age,  so  that  specific  distinctions  are  difficult  to  establish. 
Extinct  species  of  this  genus,  as  well  as  others  belonging  to  Lates,  occur  in 
the  middle  Eocene  deposits  of  Italy. 

The  fish  represented  in  the  lower  figure  of  the  illustration  on 
Stone-Bass. 

p.  339,  and  commonly  known  as  the  stone-bass  (Polyprion  cernuum), 

is  one  of  two  species  constituting  a  genus  distinguished  from  the  last  by  the 
absence  of  large  tusks  in  the  jaws,  and  the  presence  of  teeth  on  the  tongue ; 
the  single  dorsal  fin  having  eleven  or  twelve  spines,  and  the  anal  three.  The 
preopercular  bone  is  denticulated,  and  there  is  a  strongly  marked  rough  longi- 
tudinal ridge  on  the  opercular.  The  common  species  is  abundant  on  the 
European  coasts,  while  the  second  is  from  the  seas  of  Juan  Fernandez.  Both 
attain  a  very  large  size,  ranging  in  weight  to  80  Ibs.  or  more,  their  flesh  being 
of  excellent  quality.  The  European  stone -bass  frequents  the  neighbourhood  of 
floating  wood,  probably  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  on  the  creatures  to  be  met  with 
around  such  objects. 

oriental  and  The  two  species  of  the  genus  Lates,  one  of  which  (L.  niloticus) 

African  Perches,  inhabits  the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  while  the  second  (L.  calcarifer) 
ranges  from  the  shores  of  Baluchistan  through  the  Indo-Malayan  seas  to  China 
and  Australia,  may  be  taken  as  representatives  of  another  subfamily  (Centro- 
pomince),  with  three  genera;  this  subfamily  differing  from  the  last  by  the 
extension  of  the  lateral  line  on  to  the  tail-fin,  the  presence  of  a  scaly  process  at 
the  bases  of  the  pelvic  fins,  and  the  small  size  or  absence  of  the  false  gills. 
Having  no  teeth  on  the  tongue,  and  a  divided  dorsal  fin,  these  fish  may  be 
distinguished  externally  from  the  true  perches  by  the  presence  of  seven  or  eight 
dorsal,  and  three  anal  spines.  Both  the  preopercular  and  preorbital  bones  are 
serrated,  and  the  latter  denticulated  at  the  angle ;  the  finely  pectinated  scales 
being  of  moderate  size.  The  Indian  perch,  which  may  grow  to  a  length  of  5  feet, 
is  the  only  Oriental  member  of  the  family  which  commonly  ascends  rivers  to  any 
distance.  When  taken  in  the  larger  rivers  its  flesh  is  excellent  for  the  table, 
great  quantities  being  sold  in  the  Calcutta  market,  where  it  is  commonly  known 
by  the  name  of  cock-up.  The  allied  genus  Psammoperca  is  represented  by  two 
species,  one  ranging  from  Australia  to  China,  while  the  other  is  exclusively 
Australian.  There  are  many  other  generic  representatives  of  this  extensive 
family,  which  are  far  too  numerous  to  mention,  no  less  than  twenty-seven 
occurring  within  the  limits  of  British  India.  Among  these  the  Indian  genus 
Pristipoma,  which  is  referred  by  some  writers  to  a  separate  family,  is  represented 
by  extinct  species  in  the  middle  Eocene  of  Italy ;  and  it  may  be  mentioned  here 
that  the  earliest  known  forms  of  the  family  are  the  extinct  genera  Podocys  and 
Acanus  from  the  lower  Eocene  of  Switzerland. 


SCALY-FINNED   TRIBE.  343 

THE  SCALY-FINNED  FISHES, — Family  CHJETODONTIDJE. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  perches,  the  beautiful  tropical  fishes,  designated  scaly- 
finned  fishes,  are  so  named  on  account  of  the  characteristic  feature  of  the  median  fins 
being  more  or  less  thickly  covered  with  small  scales.  In  addition  to  this  distinctive 
feature,  these  fishes  are  characterised  by  the  deep  and  compressed  form  of  the  body, 
on  which  the  scales  are  either  ctenoid  or  entire,  and  the  continuous  lateral  line, 
which  stops  short  of  the  tail-fin.  The  mouth,  which  is  generally  small,  is  placed 
at  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle,  and  has  a  distinct  lateral  cleft,  and  the  eyes  are  on 
the  sides  of  the  head.  The  small  teeth  are  arranged  in  bands,  and  there  are  neither 
tusks  nor  incisors.  The  soft  portion  of  the  single  dorsal  fin  is  rather  longer  than 
the  spinous;  the  anal  has  three  or  four  spines;  the  lower  rays  of  the  pectorals 
are  branched;  the  pelvic  pair  are  thoracic  in  position,  with  one  spine  and  five 
soft  rays ;  and  the  scaling  of  the  median  fins  causes  them  to  pass  imperceptibly 
into  the  body.  The  great  majority  of  these  curious  and  beautiful  fishes  are 
inhabitants  of  tropical  seas,  and  are  very  generally  found  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  coral-reefs;  but  some  ascend  estuaries  and  tidal  rivers,  although  but  a 
comparatively  short  distance.  All  are  carnivorous,  and  of  relatively  small  size, 
while  they  are  but  seldom  used  for  food.  The  three  genera  of  which  examples  are 
represented  in  our  illustration  are  those  in  which  the  zebra-like  coloration  attains 
its  most  marked  and  striking  development ;  and  for  the  beauty  and  singularity 
of  their  adornment  these  fishes  are  almost  unequalled.  Out  of  a  large  number  of 
existing  genera  it  is  to  these  that  our  attention  will  be  chiefly  directed ;  and  it 
may  be  remarked  that  the  whole  of  them  are  met  with  in  the  Indian  seas. 
Extinct  species  of  zebra -fish  belonging  to  existing  genera  are  found  in  the 
middle  Eocene  of  Italy,  among  these  being  the  Indian  and  Australian  genus 
Toxotes.  An  extinct  genus  has  been  recorded  from  the  Cretaceous  of  Westphalia. 

The  typical  genus  Chcetodon  belongs  to  a  group  of  genera  in 
which  there  are  no  teeth  on  the  vomers  or  palatine  bone,  while  the 
spines  of  the  dorsal  fin  are  not  separated  from  the  soft  rays  by  a  hollow  or  notch, 
and  there  is  no  spine  to  the  preopercular  bone ;  the  genus  in  question  being 
particularly  distinguished  by  the  short  or  moderately  long  muzzle,  and  the 
approximately  uniform  length  of  the  spines  of  the  dorsal  fin.  These  fishes  are 
common  in  the  tropical  regions  of  the  Atlantic  and  Irido- Pacific  oceans,  where  they 
are  represented  by  some  seventy  species.  Nearly  all  are  ornamented  with  bands 
or  spots ;  a  dark,  or  two-coloured  band,  passing  through  the  eye  and  then  inclining 
backwards,  being  very  characteristic.  Of  the  species  represented,  C.  setifer, 
ranging  from  the  Bed  Sea  to  Polynesia,  is  readily  recognised  by  the  elongation  of 
the  fifth  ray  of  the  dorsal  fin,  behind  the  base  of  which  is  a  large  dark  spot 
with  a  light  rim ;  C.  trifasciatus,  which  also  has  a  similar  range,  but  reaches  the 
coasts  of  India,  is  marked  by  numerous  fine  longitudinal  stripes  on  the  body,  and 
several  dark  bands  across  the  head.  On  the  other  hand,  in  C.  fasciatus,  of  the 
Indian  and  Malayan  seas,  the  body-stripes  are  oblique,  and  there  is  a  single  dark 
band  across  the  head. 

Cheimo  Especial  interest  attaches  to  this  genus,  which  contains  but  few 

species,  and  differs  from  the  last  by  the  elongation  of  the  muzzle  into 


344  SPINE-FINNED   GROUP. 

a  tube-like  form,  on  account  of  the  habits  of  one  of  its  two  Indian  species  (Chelmon 
rostratus).  Of  this  fish,  which  has  four  dark  bands  on  the  head  and  body,  and 
an  eye-spot  on  the  soft  dorsal  fin,  J.  A.  Schlosser  wrote  many  years  ago  that  it 
frequented  the  shores  and  sides  of  the  sea  and  rivers  in  search  of  food,  and  that 
when  it  detected  an  insect  perched  on  a  plant  it  swam  to  within  a  distance  of  from 
four  to  six  feet,  and  then  with  surprising  dexterity  ejected  out  of  its  tubular  mouth 
a  single  drop  of  water,  which  never  failed  to  strike  the  object  aimed  at  into  the 
water,  where  it  was  immediately  seized  by  the  fish.  Some  of  these  fish  kept  in 
tubs  of  water  were  seen  to  exercise  their  shooting  powers  even  under  these  some- 
what unfavourable  circumstances.  SomewThat  later  a  Mr.  Mitchell  observed  the 
same  action  in  some  of  these  fish  kept  in  a  pond  near  Batavia  about  the  year  1828. 
Curiously  enough,  in  spite  of  these  circumstantial  statements,  this  capacity  for 
ejecting  water  was  transferred  to  a  short-snouted  member  of  the  present  family, 
which  received  its  name  of  Toxotes  from  this  presumed  power.  Bleeker  states, 
however,  that  when  in  Batavia  he  never  witnessed  this  act,  which  is  one  the 
mouths  of  these  fishes  would  appear  quite  incapable  of  performing. 

The  fish  (Heniochus  macrolepidotus)  numbered  4  in  the  illus- 
tration on  p.  342,  is  a  common  Indo- Pacific  member  of  a  genus 
differing  from  Chcetodon  by  the  more  or  less  marked  elongation  of  the  fourth  spine 
of  the  dorsal  fin,  which  in  the  figured  species  assumes  the  form  of  a  whip-lash. 
Broad  dark  bands  across  the  body  are  very  characteristic  of  the  genus;  and  in 
the  young  the  head  is  armed  with  numerous  horn  -  like  processes,  which  are 
permanently  retained  in  a  species  named  H.  varius. 

H  i     nth  ^^e  ^W°  lar£e  fisnes  shown  in  the  illustration,  swimming  towards 

the  left,  belong  to  a  genus  distinguished  from  all  the  foregoing  by  the 
presence  of  a  large  spine  on  the  hinder-edge  of  the  preopercular  bone ;  the  dorsal 
fin  having  from  twelve  to  fifteen  spines.  The  genus  includes  some  forty  species, 
with  the  same  range  as  the  typical  representative  of  the  family.  The  splendidly- 
coloured  emperor-fish  (H.  imperator),  shown  on  the  right  side  of  the  illustration, 
ranges  from  the  east  coast  of  Africa  to  the  Indian  and  Malayan  seas,  and  has  the 
ground-colour  of  the  body  a  deep  blue,  upon  which  are  some  thirty  longitudinal 
golden-yellow  stripes.  The  eye-stripe  and  a  patch  above  the  pectoral  fin  are  black 
edged  with  yellow ;  and  the  tail-fin  is  uniformly  yellow.  This  species,  which 
attains  a  length  of  15  inches,  is  extensively  used  in  India  for  food.  Beautiful  as  it 
is,  it  is  exceeded  by  the  Indo-Malayan  zebra-fish  (H.  diacanthus).  In  this  species 
the  general  colour  is  yellowish,  with  from  eight  to  twelve  vertical  brown-edged 
blue  bands;  the  caudal  fin  is  yellow,  and  the  anal  marked  with  bluish  lines  running 
parallel  to  its  margin.  The  genus  Scatophagus  may  be  given  as  an  example  of  a 
group  in  which  the  spinous  portion  of  the  dorsal  fin  is  devoid  of  scales  and  separ- 
ated by  a  deep  notch  from  the  soft  part,  eo  that  there  are  practically  two  dorsals. 
The  above-mentioned  Toxotes,  on  the  other  hand,  constitutes  a  group  by  itself, 
in  which  there  are  teeth  on  the  palatines  and  vomers,  and  the  body  is  oblong 
and  much  less  deep  than  in  the  typical  forms,  with  the  undivided  and  five- 
spined  dorsal  fin  situated  in  its  hinder-half.  It  is  represented  by  three  species, 
ranging  from  the  Red  Sea  to  the  seas  and  estuaries  of  India,  Malayana,  and 
Polynesia. 


RED  MULLETS. 


THE  RED  MULLETS, — Family 


345 


Two  long  erectile  barbels  dependent  from  the  lower  jaw  serve  at  once  to 
distinguish  the  red  mullets  from  all  the  preceding  families,  with  which  they' 
agree  in  the  characters  already  mentioned.  In  these  well-known  fishes  the  body 
is  rather  low  and  somewhat  compressed,  with  large  thin  scales,  of  which  the  edges 
may  be  very  finely  serrated.  The  lateral  line  is  continuous,  and  the  moderate- 
sized  eyes  are  situated  on  the  sides  of  the  head.  The  terminal  mouth  has  a 
rather  short  lateral  cleft,  and  the  teeth  are  very  feeble.  There  are  two  short 
dorsal  fins,  placed  at  a  considerable  distance  from  one  another ;  the  spines  of  the 
first  being  weak,  and  the  second  being  placed  above  the  anal,  which  it  resembles  in 
form.  The  ventrals  have  one  spine  and  five  rays,  and  the  pectorals  are  short.  In 
place  of  the  seven  branchiostegal  rays  of  the  perches,  the  red  mullets  have  but  four. 
Represented  by  something  like  forty  species,  the  red  mullets,  which  range  over  the 


STRIPED   RED   MULLET  (J  nat.  Size). 

seas  of  Europe  and  the  tropics,  are  typically  represented  by  the  genus  Mullus,  of 
which  there  appears  to  be  but  a  single  European  species  (Mullus  barbatus).  The 
tropical  forms  have,  however,  been  split  up  into  several  genera,  such  as  Mulloides, 
and  Upeneus,  mainly  distinguished  from  one  another  by  the  characters  of  their 
teeth.  Although  these  mullets  are  essentially  marine,  young  individuals,  and  more 
rarely  adults,  are  not  unfrequently  taken  in  rivers.  They  are  all  highly  esteemed 
for  the  table,  and  it  is  but  seldom  that  they  attain  a  weight  of  even  2  or  3  Ibs. 
The  ordinary  European  red  mullet,  which  does  not  usually  exceed  6  inches  in 
length,  is  coloured  carmine-red  on  the  upper-parts,  the  under-parts  being  silvery 
white.  On  the  other  hand,  the  striped  mullet,  which,  although  designated  a 
distinct  species  under  the  name  of  M.  surmuletus,  is  regarded  by  Dr.  Giinther 
as  probably  the  female  of  the  former,  has  three  or  four  yellow  longitudinal  stripes 
on  the  sides ;  and  is  also  stated  to  differ  slightly  in  the  number  of  the  fin-rays. 
This  kind  is  common  on  the  Cornish  coast,  whereas  the  plain-coloured  form  is  but 


346  SPINY-PINNED   GROUP. 

seldom  met  with  in  the  British  seas,  although  abundant  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Mullets  live  chiefly  on  small  crustaceans,  frequenting  coasts  where  the  bottom  is 
more  or  less  muddy.  Occasionally  they  visit  the  British  coasts  in  vast  shoals, 
'upwards  of  five  thousand  having  been  taken  during  a  single  night,  in  August 
1819,  in  Weymouth  Bay;  while  in  May  1851  no  less  than  ten  thousand  were 
captured  at  Yarmouth  in  the  course  of  a  week.  Whereas  by  the  ancient  Romans 
these  fish  were  known  by  the  name  of  mullus,  the  Greeks  termed  them  trigle.  "  A 
singular  circumstance,"  writes  Badham,  "  about  this  latter  synonym  is,  that  it  not 
only  obtains  in  modern  Greece  (where  indeed,  if  anywhere,  we  might  expect  to 
find  it),  but  has  also  entirely  supplanted  the  old  Latin  word  in  Italy ;  so  that  no 
one  now  ever  hears  Mugli !  mugli  I  hawked  about  the  streets  of  Rome  or  Naples ; 
but  the  constant  cry  is  '  Trigle  vive  !  trigle  ! '  The  inordinate  love  for  these  same 
trigle,  in  the  city  and  times  of  the  Csesars,  would  surpass  belief ;  not  only  cash,  but 
time  too,  was  profusely  lavished  upon  this  one  object;  quite  betimes,  and  long 
before  office-hours,  the  mullet-millionaire  was  at  the  pond  ere  the  stars  were 
extinguished,  feeding  or  caressing  his  fish.  It  took  time,  skill,  and  patience  to 
teach  creatures  so  obtuse  to  heed  the  voice  that  called,  or  the  hand  that  fondled 
and  fed  them ;  but  to  warm  such  cold-blooded  animals  as  these  into  a  reciprocity 
of  regard,  was  a  work  of  yet  greater  difficulty."  After  much  trouble  and  pains,  the 
inhabitants  of  the  pond  would,  however,  at  length  learn  to  know  and  acknowledge 
their  master;  at  his  whistle  flock  emulously  together,  at  his  sight  leap  joyously 
into  the  air ;  and  as  he  plunged  his  arm  into  the  agitated  basin,  each  individual  of 
the  serried  shoal  strove  who  should  first  present  fins,  and  rub  scales  against  the 
well-known  fingers ! " 

THE  SEA-BREAMS, — Family  SPARID^:. 

The  sixth  family  of  the  present  section  is  especially  characterised  by  the 
peculiarity  of  the  dentition,  the  palate  being  generally  devoid  of  teeth,  while  either 
cutting  or  conical  incisor-like  teeth  are  developed  in  the  front  of  the  jaws,  or 
crushing  molars  on  their  sides ;  in  some  cases  both  these  types  being  coexistent. 
In  the  sea-breams,  as  these  fish  £re  commonly  called,  the  oblong  body  is  markedly 
compressed;  and  the  investing  scales  are  either  but  very  slightly  serrated,  or 
smooth.  The  terminal  mouth  has  a  distinct  lateral  cleft ;  and  the  eyes,  which  are 
of  medium  size,  are  likewise  lateral.  The  single  dorsal  fin  is  composed  in  about 
equal  moieties  of  a  spinous  and  a  soft  portion ;  the  anal  is  three-spined ;  as  a  rule 
the  lower  rays  of  the  pectorals  are  branched ;  and  the  pel  vies,  which  are  ventral  in 
position,  are  furnished  with  one  spine  and  five  rays.  The  number  of  branchio- 
stegal  rays  varies  from  five  to  seven.  Sea-breams  are  coast-fishes,  distributed  over 
all  temperate  and  tropical  seas,  and  sometimes  entering  brackish,  and  even  fresh 
waters ;  they  include  a  large  number  of  genera,  and  are  of  sombre  coloration  and 
medium  size ;  the  flesh  of  the  majority  being  used  for  food.  In  a  fossil  state  the 
family  is  first  known  by  the  extinct  Pagellus  from  the  Chalk  of  the  Lebanon ; 
while  they  are  numerous  in  Tertiary  formations,  where  both  the  living  and  extinct 
genera  are  met  with,  the  existing  Sargus  dating  from  the  Miocene  of  the 
•Continent. 


SEA-BREAMS. 


347 


Cantharus. 


The  black  sea-bream  (Cantharus  lineatus),  of  the  British  seas, 
may  be  cited  as  a  well-known  example  of  the  typical  genus  of  the 
-first  subfamily,  in  which  the  extremities  of  the  jaws  are  furnished  with  broad,  cutting, 
.and  occasionally  lobate  incisor-like  teeth ;  while  there  are  no  vomerine  or  mplariform 
teeth,  and  the  lower  rays  of  the  pectoral  fins  are  branched.  Other  well-known 
genera  are  Box  and  Scatharus  from  the  Mediterranean  and  Eastern  Atlantic,  and 
Crenidens  from  the  Indian  seas.  The  black  sea-bream,  which  not  unfrequently 


SARGO  AND  GILT-HEAD  (J  nat.  size). 

grows  to  a  length  of  15  inches,  is  common  on  the  British  coasts,  where  it  will  take 
both  vegetable  and  animal  baits. 

The  second  group  is  represented  by  Haplodactylus,  from  the 
temperate  South  Pacific,  in  which  both  jaws  are  furnished  with  flat 
and  generally  tricuspid  teeth ;  vomerine  teeth  being  present,  but  molars  wanting ; 
while  the  lower  pectoral  rays  are  simple.  These  fish  are  vegetable-feeders. 

Better  known  than  the  last  is  the  third  group,  containing  only 
the  single  genus  Sargus,  with  some  twenty  species  from  the  Mediter- 


Haplodactylus. 


Sargus. 


348 


SPINY-PINNED   GROUP. 


ranean,  Atlantic,  and  Indian  seas,  among  which  the  common  sargo  (8.  annularis), 
represented  in  the  upper  figures  of  our  illustration  on  p.  347,  is  a  familiar  fish  on 
the  Continent.  The  essential  features  of  the  group  are  the  single  series  of  cutting- 
teeth  in  the  front  of  the  jaws,  the  presence  of  several  rows  of  molars  on  the  sides 
of  the  same,  the  toothless  palate,  and  the  simple  lower  pectoral  rays.  The  figured 
species  is  a  uniformly  coloured  fish ;  but  in  the  larger  "  sheep's-head "  (S.  ovis), 
from  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  the  United  States,  which  attains  a  weight  of  15  Ibs. 
and  is  highly  esteemed  for  the  table,  the  body  and  tail  are  marked  by  a  number 
of  broad  vertical  bands.  The  strong  molars  of  these  fish  indicate  that  their  food 
consists  of  hard-shelled  molluscs,  crustaceans,  or  sea-urchins.  Known  there  as  dentice, 
these  fishes  form  part  of  the  bill  of  fare  on  the  tables  of  hotels  in  Southern  Italy. 

As  our  example  of  the  fourth  subfamily,  which  contains  several 
genera,  among  which  Pagrus  is  the  typical  one,  we  select  the  gilt- 


Gilt-Heads. 


AUSTRALIAN   KNIFE-JAWED   FISH  (^  ttat.  size). 

•  '    .  ' 

heads  (Chrysophrys),  so-called  on  account  of  the  golden  spots  between  the  eyes  oi 
the  Mediterranean  C.  aurata,  a  species  which  occasionally  wanders  to  th( 
British  coasts,  and  is  shown  in  the  lower  figure  of  our  illustration.  The  group 
characterised  by  the  presence  of  conical  teeth  in  the  front  of  the  jaws,  and  of  molars 
on  their  sides,  the  palate  being  toothless ;  while  the  genus  under  consideration  is 
distinguished  by  having  scales  on  the  cheeks,  and  at  least  three  rows  of  upper 
molars.  The  Mediterranean  gilt-head,  which  ranges  southward  as  far  as  the  Cape, 
is  a  handsome  fish,  with  a  short  and  elevated  head,  the  body  deepest  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  dorsal  fin,  the  iris  yellow,  a  semilunar  golden  spot  between  the 
eyes,  and  a  violet  patch  on  the  gill-cover.  The  back  is  silvery  grey  with  a  tinge 
of  blue,  and  the  under  surface  steely,  with  longitudinal  golden  bands  on  the  sides. 
In  length  it  seldom  exceeds  a  foot.  Fully  adult  examples  show  a  perfect  pavement 
of  teeth  on  the  jaws ;  and  with  these  the  fish  crunches  up  mussels  and  other  shell- 
fish with  such  vigour  that  the  noise  thus  made  sometimes  reveals  its  presence  to 
fishermen.  In  order  to  obtain  food,  it  is  stated  to  stir  up  the  sand  of  the  sea-] 
bottom  with  its  tail.  The  gilt-eye  was  one  of  the  fishes  kept  and  fattened  by  the 


THICK-RAYED    GROUP. 


349 


Komans  in  their  vivaria,  where  it  is  said  to  have  become  extremely  flat.  Several 
species  of  the  genus  inhabit  the  seas  and  estuaries  of  India,  one  of  which  (C.  berda) 
occasionally  grows  to  30  inches  in  length,  and  is  much  esteemed  as  food  in  Madras, 
where  it  is  known  as  black-rock  cod.  Fossil  teeth  of  a  gilt-head  occur  in  the  Red 
Crag  of  Suffolk,  and  the  Miocene  strata  of  Malta  and  the  Canaries. 

THE  KNIFE- JAWED  FISHES,— Family  HOPLOGNATHID^. 

A  single  small  genus  of  fishes  (Hoplognathus),  from  the  coasts  of  Australia, 
Japan,  and  Peru,  constitutes  a  separate  family  of  the  present  section,  characterised 
by  the  jawbones  having  a  sharp  cutting-edge ;  such  teeth  as  are  present  being 
confined  to  this  region,  where  they  are  confluent  with  the  bone,  to  form  a  more  or 
less  indistinct  serration.  The  compressed  and  deep  body  is  covered  with  very  small 


SPOTTED  FIRM-FIN  (£  nat.  size). 


ctenoid  scales  ;  while  the  sides  have  a  continuous  lateral  line.  The  dorsal  fin  has 
its  spinous  portion  rather  longer  than  the  soft,  with  the  spines  very  strong  ;  the 
anal,  which  has  three  spines,  is  similar  to  the  soft  dorsal  ;  and  the  thoracic  pelvics 
are  furnished  with  a  single  spine  and  five  rays.  The  species  figured  on  the 
opposite  page  is  the  Australian  one  (H.  conwayi).  Nothing  seems  to  have  been 
ascertained  with  regard  to  the  life-history  of  any  member  of  the  family. 


THE  THICK-RAYED  FISHES,— Family 

This  small  family,  which,  for  want  of  a  better  English  name,  we  designate  as 
above,  comprises  several  genera  from  the  Indo-Pacific  and  Australasian  seas,  some 
members  of  which  are  of  the  first  importance  as  food-fishes  in  the  British  colonies. 
Closely  allied  to  the  next  family,  they  differ  therefrom  (and  thereby  resemble  the 
preceding  groups)  in  the  absence  of  a  bony  connection  between  the  preopercular 
bone  and  the  infraorbital  ring  of  the  skull ;  while  they  are  specially  distinguished 


35° 


SPINY-FINNED   GROUP, 


by  the  thickened  and  undivided  lower  rays  of  the  pectoral  fin,  which  in  some  cases. 
are  elongated  so  as  to  aid  in  the  movements,  while  in  others  they  may  perhaps, 
serve  as  additional  organs  of  touch.  In  form,  the  body  is  oblong  and  compressed,, 
with  its  investing  scales  of  the  cycloidal  type;  the  mouth  is  terminal,  with  a 
lateral  cleft ;  and  the  eyes  are  situated  on  the  sides  of  the  head.  As  a  rule,  the 
branchiostegal  rays  are  six  in  number,  although  they  may  be  reduced  to  five  or 
three.  The  teeth  are  villiform  or  pointed,  and  in  some  cases  there  are  tusks- 
among  the  smaller  ones.  In  the  single  dorsal  fin  the  spinous  and  soft  portions  are 
of  nearly  equal  extent ;  the  anal  fin,  which  is  generally  smaller  than  the  soft  dorsal,, 
carries  three  spines;  and  the  pelvics,  which,  although  thoracic  in  position,  are 
situated  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  root  of  the  pectorals,  have  one  spine 
and  five  rays.  These  fishes  are  inhabitants  of  all  tropical  seas  and  the  temperate- 
zone  of  the  South  Pacific.  They  may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  according  to  the 


AUSTRALIAN  LONG-FIN  (\  nat.  size). 

presence  or  absence  of  teeth  on  the  vomers ;  the  first  group  including  the  small 
prettily  coloured  fishes  known  as  Cirrhites,  Chorinemus,  etc.,  of  which  the  former 
are  characteristic  of  the  Indian  and  Pacific  oceans,  while  the  latter  is  confined  to- 
the  Australasian  seas. 

CirrMtichtiiys  ^  ^e  group  with  teeth  on  the  vomers,  we  illustrate  on  p.  349' 

a  species  (Cirrhitichthys  marmoratus)  of  a  genus  differing  from  the 
typical  one  by  the  presence  of  teeth  on  the  palatine  bones,  and  by  the  spiny 
opercular  bone;  the  preopercular  being  serrated  in  both.  These  fish  have  six 
branchiostegal  rays,  tusks  in  the  jaws,  and  ten  spines  in  the  dorsal  fin.  Five  to- 
seven  of  the  lower  pectoral  rays  are  unbranched,  the  scales  are  of  moderate  size, 
and  there  is  no -air-bladder.  The  spotted  firm-fin,  which  ranges  from  the  Red  Sea,, 
through  the  Indian  and  Malayan  seas  to  the  Sandwich  Islands,  is  one  of  those  in 
which  there  is  no  elongation  of  a  ray  of  the  pectoral  fins ;  while  it  is  specially 
characterised  by  the  spotted  coloration,  the  body  and  median  fins  showing  brown, 
spots,  and  a  row  of  darker  spots  occupying  the  base  of  the  dorsal. 


SCORP^NOIDS.  35i 

In  the  group  with  toothless  vomers,  one  of  the  most  notable 
genera  is  that  of  the  long-fins  (Chilodactylus),  so  named  on  account 
of  the  elongation  of  one  of  the  rays  of  the  pectoral  fins,  which  projects  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree  beyond  the  rest.  A  considerable  number  of  species  have  been 
described,  most  of  which  are  inhabitants  of  the  temperate  region  of  the  South 
Pacific,  although  some  are  found  round  the  coasts  of  Japan  and  China.  The 
species  here  figured  (C.  macropterus)  is  an  Australian  one ;  and  both  in  Australia 
and  at  the  Cape  these  fishes  form  a  valuable  food-supply,  since  they  attain  a  weight 
of  from  5  to  25  Ibs.,  and  are  easily  captured.  An  allied  genus  (Latris),  dis- 
tinguished by  the  absence  of  any  elongation  of  the  pectoral  rays  and  the  deeply 
notched  dorsal,  is  well  known  in  Tasmania  and  New  Zealand  in  the  person  of  the 
trumpeter-fish  (L.  necatia),  which  claims  the  first  place  among  the  fish-products 
of  those  colonies,  ranging  in  weight  from  30  to  60  Ibs.,  and  being  at  the  same  time 
most  excellently  flavoured. 

THE  SCORP^NOIDS, — Family  SCORP^ENID^. 

With  this  family  we  come  to  a  group  easily  distinguished  from  all  the 
preceding  representatives  of  this  section  by  the  articulation  of  the  preopercular 
bone  with  the  orbit  by  means  of  a  projecting  process  from  the  infraorbital 
ring.  Some  of  the  other  bones  of  the  head  are  also  armed,  and  the  dentition 
is  but  feebly  developed.  These  fishes,  which  are  represented  by  a  large  number 
of  genera,  are  found  in  most  seas,  and  are  all  carnivorous  in  their  habits.  Dr. 
Giinther  writes  that  "  some  resemble  the  sea-perches  in  their  form  and  habits,  as 
Sebastes,  Scorpcena,  etc.,  whilst  others  live  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  possess 
in  various  degrees  of  development  those  skinny  appendages  resembling  the  fronds 
of  sea-weeds,  by  which  they  either  attract  other  fishes,  or  by  which  they  are 
enabled  more  effectually  to  hide  themselves.  Species  provided  with  these 
appendages  have  generally  a  coloration  resembling  that  of  their  surroundings,  and 
varying  with  the  change  of  locality.  Some  of  the  genera  live  at  a  considerable 
depth,  but  apparently  not  beyond  three  hundred  fathoms.  Nearly  all  are 
distinguished  by  a  powerful  armature,  either  of  the  head,  or  fin-spines,  or  both ; 
and  in  some  the  spines  have  been  developed  into  poison-organs."  The  group  is 
scarcely  known  in  a  fossil  state,  although  remains  of  a  species  of  the  typical  genus 
occur  -in  the  Eocene  of  Algeria. 

The  family  is  divided  into  two  sections,  according  as  to  whether  there  are 
distinct  scales  on  the  body,  or  whether  these  are  rudimentary  or  wanting.  In  the 
former  are  included  Sebastes  and  the  typical  Scorpcena.  Most  curious  of  all  are 
the  members  of  the  Tropical  Indo-Pacific  genus  Pterois,  in  which  the  spines  of  the 
dorsal  and  the  rays  of  the  pectoral  fins  are  more  or  less  produced,— so  much  so, 
indeed,  that  in  the  case  of  one  species,  at  least,  P.  volitans,  it  was  formerly  thought 
that  they  indicated  the  possession  of  flying  powers  in  their  owner.  The  fins  and 
body  of  this  extraordinary-looking  fish  are  most  beautifully  marked  with  alter- 
nating light  and  dark  transverse  bands.  Among  the  genera  with  small  or 
rudimental  scales  we  have  only  space  to  mention  the  Oriental  Pelor  and  Chori- 
dactylus,  each  represented  only  by  a  single  species  of  4  or  5  inches  in  length ;  and 


352  SPINY-FINNED   GROUP. 

both  of  which  are  remarkable  for  the  extraordinary  development  of  the  appendages 
mentioned  above,  some  of  these  occurring  on  the  fins,  and  others  on  the  head  and  lower 
lip.  The  representative  of  the  second  genus  is  very  common  at  Madras.  It  may  be 
added  that  this  family  includes  the  smallest  members  of  the  suborder,  which  belong  to 
the  genus  Micropus — a  name  probably  belonging  to  the  swifts.  These  fish  scarcely 
exceed  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  and  frequent  the  coral-reefs  of  the  Pacific. 

Of  the  three  remaining  and  comparatively  unimportant  families, 
included  in  the  perch-like  section  of  the  spiny-finned  fishes,  it  is 
only  possible  to  make  very  brief  mention.  The  first  of  these,  the  Nandidce, 
differs  from  all  the  foregoing  by  the  incompleteness  or  absence  of  the  lateral 
line;  the  dentition,  although  feebly  developed,  being  more  or  less  complete,  and 
the  preopercular  bone  having  no  connection  with  the  orbit.  The  oblong  and  oval 
body  is  scaled ;  the  number  of  spines  in  the  dorsal  fin  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of 


Allied  Families. 


BLEEKER'S  PLESIOPS  (£  nat,  size). 


the  rays  ;  the  three-spined  anal  has  its  soft  portion  similar  to  the  soft  dorsal  ;  and 
the  thoracic  pelvic  fins  have  one  spine  and  four  or  five  rays.  The  small  Oriental 
fresh-  water  fishes  known  as  Nandus,  Badis,  etc.,  constitute  a  group  of  the  family 
characterised  by  the  presence  of  five  rays  in  the  pelvic  fins,  and  the  absence  of 
false  gills.  They  are  common  in  all  parts  of  India,  some  preferring  ditches  and 
inundated  rice-fields,  while  others  frequent  clear  streams.  All  are  carnivorous,  and 
the  largest  does  not  exceed  7  inches  in  length.  The  second  group,  as  represented 
by  Plesiops  from  the  Indo-Pacific  coral-reefs,  and  Trachinops  from  the  Australian 
seas,  although  also  including  only  small  forms,  are,  on  the  other  hand,  marine  ;  and 
are  characterised  by  having  only  four  rays  to  the  pelvic  fins,  and  by  the  presence 
of  false  gills.  In  Plesiops  the  lower  rays  of  the  pelvic  fins  are  elongated  and  split 
at  the  ends;  the  soft  dorsal  and  anal  fins  being  likewise  of  considerable  length. 
The  figured  species  (P.  bleekeri),  which  attains  a  length  of  10  inches,  is  from  the 
coral-islands  of  the  South-West  Pacific  ;  it  has  the  lateral  line  broken. 
Pol  centrus  ^e  seconc^  family  (Polycentridce)  is  represented  only  by  the 

genera  Poly  centrus  and  Monocirrhus,  from  the  rivers  on  the  Atlantic 


SLIME-HEA&S. 


353 


SCHOMBURGK'S  MANY-SPINE  (|  nat.  size), 


side  of  Tropical  America;  our  illustration  showing  a  member  of  the  former  genus 
(P.  schomburgki).  These  fishes  are  characterised  by  the  absence  of  a  lateral  line, 
and  the  great  number  of 
spines  in  both  the  dorsal 
and  anal  fins.  The  thoracic 
pelvic  fins  have  one  spine 
and  five  rays,  and  the  teeth 
are  feeble.  These  fishes  are 
all  of  very  small  size,  and 
are  stated  to  feed  ex- 
clusively upon  insects. 

m  The  single 

Teuthis. 

generic  repre- 
sentative of  the  Teuthididce, 
of  which  a  species  (Teuthis 

striolata)  is  shown  in  the  illustration  on  p.  354,  is  characterised  by  the  tooth- 
less palate,  and  the  presence  of  a  series  of  narrow  serrated  incisor  teeth  in  the 
front  of  each  jaw.  The  scales  on  the  oblong  and  compressed  body  are  very 
small,  and  there  is  a  continuous  lateral  line.  In  the  single  dorsal  fin  the  spinous 
considerably  exceeds  the  soft  portion  in  length ;  the  anal  has  seven  spines ;  and 
the  thoracically-placed  pelvic  fins  have  an  outer  and  inner  spine,  between  which 
are  three  rays.  These  fishes  have  a  large  air-bladder,  forked  at  both  extremities  ; 
and  they  also  display  several  peculiarities  in  the  structure  of  the  skeleton ;  the 
abdomen  being  surrounded  by  a  complete  ring  of  bones,  owing  to  the  backward 
prolongation  of  certain  elements  of  the  pectoral  arch,  and  the  unusual  develop- 
ment of  the  pelvis.  A  considerable  number  of  species  have  been  described  from 
the  Indo-Pacific,  where  their  eastward  range  stops  about  the  longitude  of  the 
Sandwich  Islands.  The  largest  of  them  is  not  more  than  15  inches  in  length,  and 
all  are  vegetable-feeders.  In  the  figured  species,  which  is  from  the  New  Hebrides, 
the  general  colour  is  brownish  red,  marked  with  narrow  vermiculated  blue  lines ; 
the  spines  of  the  fins  also  bearing  white  spots. 


THE  BERYCOIDS  OR  SLIME-HEADS, — Family  BERYCHID^E. 

With  the  slime-heads  we  come  to  a  family  distinguished  from  the  whole  of 
the  preceding,  and  forming  a  group  by  itself  characterised  by  the  presence  on 
the  head  of  large  mucous-bearing  cavities,  covered  with  a  thin  skin,  and  by  the 
thoracically-situated  pelvic  fins  having  one  spine  and  five  rays  (save  in  Monocentris, 
where  the  latter  are  reduced  to  two).  The  compressed  body  may  be  either  oblong 
or  deep  in  form,  but  is  always  short ;  and  the  scales,  which  are  rarely  wanting, 
are  of  the  ctenoid  type.  Lateral  in  position,  the  eyes  are  almost  always  large  in 
size;  the  lateral  cleft  of  the  mouth  slopes  obliquely  upwards;  the  teeth  in  the 
jaws  are  villiform ;  teeth  are  in  most  cases  developed  on  the  palatines ;  the  bones 
of  the  gill-cover  are  more  or  less  fully  armed ;  and  there  are  nearly  always  eight 
branchiostegal  rays,  although  these  are  sometimes  reduced  to  four.  There  are  no 
scales  on  the  head,  and  false  gills  are  present.  The  slime-heads,  which  comprise 

VOL.  v. — 23 


354 


SPINY-FINNED    GROUP, 


a  considerable  number  of  both  living  and  extinct  genera,  are  all  marine  fishes, 
with  a  practically  cosmopolitan  distribution ;  many  of  them  living  at  great  depths, 
and  coming  under  the  denomination  of  deep-sea  fishes.  They  are  also  a  geologically 
ancient  group,  represented  by  a  large  number  of  generic  types,  both  existing  and 
extinct  in  the  Chalk  and  other  Cretaceous  deposits.  The  only  existing  forms  that 
frequent  the  higher  strata  of  the  ocean  belong  to  the  genera  Holocentrumi  and 
Myripristia  \  but  even  some  species  of  the  latter  may  descend  as  deep  as  one 
hundred  and  fifty  fathoms.  The  typical  genus  Beryx  has  been  taken  from  between 
three  and  four  hundred  fathoms ;  and  from  the  small  size  of  the  eye  the  forms 


GROUP  OF  SPINE-FINNED  FISHES. 

Teuthis  (upper  figure) ;  Pempheris  (on  the  right) ;  and  Polynemus  (on  the  left). 


nat.  size.) 


known  as  Melamphcees  must,  in  Dr.  Gtinther's  opinion,  inhabit  still  lower  levels. 
Another  sign  of  their  deep-water  habits  is  afforded  by  the  high  development  of  the 
slime-secreting  apparatus  of  these  fishes. 

Of  the  genera  that  space  permits  of  our  noticing,  the  most  peculiar  is 
Monocentris,  represented  by  a  single  small  and  rare  species  from  the  seas  of  Japan 
and  Mauritius,  and  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  armatures  on  the  gill-cover,  the 
large  size  of  the  scales,  which  are  articulated  together  so  as  to  form  a  solid 
armour,  and  the  reduction  of  the  ventral  fins  to  a  single  long  spine,  and  a  few 
rudimental  rays.  The  fish  figured  in  our  illustration  (Trachichthys  trailli) 
represents  a  genus,  with  a  few  species  from  New  Zealand  and  Madeira,  characterised 
by  the  short  and  blunt  muzzle,  the  prominent  chin,  the  strong  spine  at  the  angle 


CURTID& 


355 


of  the  preopercular,  the  rather  small  scales,  and  the  serration  of  the  lower  border 
of  the  body,  The  palatines  and  vomers  carry  villiform  teeth ;  the  single  dorsal  fin 
has  from  three  to  six  spines,  the  anal  six  rays,  and  the  tail  is  strongly  forked. 
The  allied  Anoplogaster,  of  the  Tropical  Atlantic,  is  devoid  of  scales.  In  both 
genera  the  eye  is  very  large.  The  typical  genus  Beryx,  which  has  likewise  but 
a  single  dorsal,  may  be  distinguished  by  the  smooth  abdomen,  and  the  lack  of  a 
spine  on  the  preopercular.  At  the  present  day  this  genus  is  known  from  the 
Tropical  Atlantic,  Madeira,  and  the  seas  of  Australia  and  Japan ;  while  in  a  fossil 
state  it  is  abundant  in  the  Chalk.  Two  barbels  at  the  throat  serve  to  distinguish 


NEW  ZEALAND  TRACHICHTHYS  (f  nat.  size). 

Polymixia ;  while  in  several  of  the  other  genera,  such  as  Holocentrum,  the  dorsal 
fin  is  double.  Spread  over  all  tropical  seas,  the  latter  genus  is  likewise  one  of 
those  dating  from  the  Cretaceous  epoch. 


Families  CURTID^  and 

Each  of  these  two  unimportant  families  represents  a  group  of  equal  rank 
with  the  perch-like  division  of  the  suborder;  the  first  being  characterised  by 
having  the  single  dorsal  fin  much  shorter  than  the  long  and  many-rayed  anal.  The 
compressed  body  (as  shown  in  the  figure  of  Pempheris  mangula,  on  the  right  side 
of  the  illustration  on  p.  354)  is  oblong  in  form,  deep  in  front,  and  sharply  narrow- 
ing towards  the  tail  If  developed  at  all,  the  spines  of  the  short  dorsal  are  few  in 
number;  the  scales  are  small  or  medium  in  size;  and  both  the  jaws,  palatines,  and 
vomers  bear  villiform  teeth.  While  the  typical  genus  Curtus  is  confined  to  the 
Indian  seas,  Pempheris  ranges  over  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  Malayan  seas,  and  the 
tropical  parts  of  the  Pacific.  The  presence  of  a  number  of  filaments,  which  may 
attain  an  enormous  length,  is  the  most  distinctive  feature  of  the  second  family, 


356  SPINY-PINNED   GROUP. 

as  shown  in  the  example  of  the  type  genus  (Polynemus  plebejus),  represented  on  the 
left  side  of  the  illustration  last  referred  to ;  while  a  second  characteristic  is  to  be 
found  in  the  two  rather  short  dorsal  fins,  situated  at  a  considerable  distance  from  one 
another ;  and  a  third  in  the  well-marked  mucous-bearing  canals  on  the  head.  The 
body  is  oblong  and  somewhat  compressed,  with  smooth  or  slightly  ciliated  scales, 
and  a  continuous  lateral  line.  The  muzzle  projects  somewhat  beyond  the  mouth, 
which  is  inferior  in  position,  with  a  lateral  cleft ;  and  the  large  eyes  are  lateral. 
There  are  villiform  teeth  in  the  jaws  and  on  the  palate ;  and  the  pelvic  fins  are 
thoracic  in  position,  with  one  spine  and  five  rays.  These  fishes,  which  form  three 
genera,  include  a  number  of  species  haunting  the  shores  of  tropical  seas,  and  some- 
times entering  brackish  or  fresh  water.  Their  filaments,  which  sometimes  exceed 
twice  the  entire  length  of  the  head  and  body  and  can  be  moved  independently  of 
the  pectoral  fins,  serve  as  feelers ;  and  as  these  fish  live  in  muddy  water,  and 
generally  have  their  large  eyes  obscured  by  a  film,  the  use  of  such  accessory  organs 
of  touch  is  easily  understood. 

THE  SOLENOIDS, — Family  SGI^ENID^E. 

Of  more  general  interest  than  the  last  is  the  family  of  Sciaenoids,  among  which 
the  umbrine  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  widely  distributed  meagre  are  well  known 
examples.  In  this  group  the  spinous  dorsal  is  abbreviated  at  the  expense  of  the 
more  or  less  elongated  soft  dorsal,  which  also  exceeds  the  anal  fin  in  length ;  and, 
although  mucous  canals  are  well  developed  on  the  head,  there  are  no  filaments 
near  the  pectoral  fin.  The  somewhat  elongated  and  compressed  body  is  coated 
with  ctenoid  scales,  and  the  uninterrupted  lateral  line  sometimes  continued  on 
to  the  tail-fin.  The  long  mouth  is  at  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle;  the  eye  is 
medium  and  lateral ;  and  in  addition  to  bands  of  villiform  teeth,  the  jaws  may 
carry  tusks,  although  they  are  never  provided  with  incisors  or  molars,  and  the 
palate  is  devoid  of  teeth.  The  preopercular  bone  is  smooth,  and  without  any  bony 
connection  with  the  orbit ;  and  the  thoracic  pelvic  fins  carry  one  spine  and  five 
rays.  Frequently  the  air-bladder  is  provided  with  a  number  of  appendages. 
These  fishes  have  a  rather  curious  geographical  distribution,  being  unknown  in  the 
Pacific  and  the  Red  Sea,  but  widely  spread  in  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  Oceans,  and 
especially  common  round  the  shores  of  India,  where  many  species  enter  estuaries 
and  rivers.  Some  species  have,  indeed,  taken  completely  to  fresh  water,  and  never 
by  any  chance  descend  to  the  sea.  Nearly  all  are  eaten  as  food,  and  the  air- 
bladders  of  many  of  the  Indian  forms  are  extensively  used  as  a  source  of  isinglass. 
The  North  American  fish,  rejoicing  in  the  name  of  "drum" 
(Pogonias  chromis),  represents  a  genus  characterised  by  the  upper 
jaw  of  the  convex  muzzle  overhanging  the  lower,  the  presence  of  numerous  small 
barbels  on  the  chin,  and  the  absence  of  tusks.  Ten  stout  spines  form  the  first 
dorsal  fin,  and  there  are  two  spines  in  the  anal,  the  hindmost  of  which  is  very 
strong.  The  scales  are  of  moderate  size ;  and  there  are  a  number  of  large  flattened 
molar-like  teeth  on  the  pharyngeal  bones.  In  length  the  drum  often  exceeds  4  feet ; 
while  it  may  scale  upwards  of  1  cwt.  In  what  manner  the  extraordinary  drumming 
sounds  uttered  by  this  fish,  in  common  with  other  members  of  the  family,  are 


SCIJENOIDS. 


357 


Umbrines. 


produced,  does  not  appear  to  be  ascertained,  although  it  has  been  suggested  that 
they  may  be  due  to  the  clapping  together  of  the  upper  and  lower  pharyngeal  teeth. 
The  umbrine  of  the  Mediterranean  (Umbrina,  cirrhosa),  whose 

range  extends  southwards  to  the  Cape,  was  a  fish  well  known  to  the 
ancients,  and  is  a  member  of  a  genus  containing  about  a  score  of  species  distributed 
through  the  Mediterranean,  Atlantic,  and  Indian  Oceans.  Having  an  overlapping 
upper  jaw,  it  differs  from  the  last  genus  in  the  presence  of  but  a  single  short 
barbel  on  the  chin ;  while  the  first  dorsal  fin  has  ten  flexible  spines,  and  the  anal 
either  one  or  two.  In  size  the  typical  species  reaches  about  3  feet. 

The  third  genus  that  we  notice  (Scicena)  differs  from  both  the 

preceding  in  the  absence  of  any  barbels ;  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  being 
oblique  and  deep,  and  the  eyes  situated  rather  wide  apart.  The  genus  includes  a 
very  large  number  of  species,  with  a  geographical  range  equal  to  that  of  the  family ; 


Meagres. 


COMMON  MEAGRE  (^  nat.  size). 

one  of  the  best  known  being  the  typical  meagre  (S.  aquila),  ranging  from  the 
British  coasts  to  those  of  the  Cape  and  Australia.  Although  most  of  the  species 
are  smaller,  this  fish  may  attain  a  length  of  upwards  of  6  feet.  Yarrell  states  that 
the  flesh  of  the  meagre  "  appears  always  to  have  been  in  great  request  with 
epicures ;  and,  as  on  account  of  its  large  size  it  was  always  sold  in  pieces,  the 
fishermen  of  Rome  were  in  the  habit  of  presenting  the  head,  which  was  considered 
the  finest  part,  as  a  sort  of  tribute  to  the  three  local  magistrates  who  acted  for  the 
time  as  the  conservators  of  the  city."  It  is  certain  members  of  this  genus  that  have 
taken  to  a  fresh-water  existence. 


THE  SWORD-FISHES—  Family 

With  this  small  and  well-defined  family,  all  the  members  of  which  attain  very 
large  dimensions,  we  come  to  our  first  representatives  of  purely  pelagic  fishes. 
Sufficiently  distinguished  from  all  their  allies  by  the  production  of  the  upper  jaw 
into  the  long,  wedge-shaped,  sword-like  weapon  from  which  they  take  their  name, 


35S  SriXY-lVXXED    GROUP. 

the  sword-fishes  are  further  characterised  by  tlie  elongate  and  compressed  body, 
the  laterally-placed  eyes,  and  tin-  deep  cleft  of  the  mouth.  Teeth  are  either  absent 
or  rudimentary  :  and  scales  are  likewise  wanting,  or  represented  merely  by  small 
rudinieiital  structures.  The  dorsal  fin  is  either  single  or  divided,  but  has  110 
distinct  spinous  portion:  and  the  pelvis,  if  present  at  all,  takes  the  form  of  long, 
roil-like,  thoracically-situated  appendages.  There  are  seven  braiichiostegal  rays, 
and  an  air-bladder  is  present.  In  the  adult  the  sword  is  formed  by  the  coalescence 
of  the  premaxilLe,  vomer,  and  ethmoid,  and  is  rough  on  the  under  surface  from 
tlie  presence  of  rudimental  teeth.  The  sword-fishes  are  divided  into  the  genera 
A' //>/>/''*  and  HistioplLorus,  according  to  the  absence  or  presence  of  pelvic  fins; 
these  appendages  in  the  latter  being  in  the  form  of  from  one  to  three  rays.  There 
is  considerable  variation  in  the  height  of  the  dorsal  fin,  which  is  frequently  so 
lofty  as  to  project  some  distance  above  the  water  when  the  fish  is  swimming  near 
the  surface,  and  even,  it  is  said,  to  answer  the  purpose  of  a  sail.  In  the  young, 
this  tin  is  much  higher  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  body  than  it  is  in 
tin.1  adult.  In  very  young  examples  of  the  typical  genus  the  beak  is  comparatively 
long,  there  are  conical  prominences  on  the  edge  of  the  supraorbital,  the  occiput 
is  devoid  of  a  spine,  and  there  are  two  short,  tooth-like  processes  at  the  angle  of 
tlie  preopercular.  In  Hlstioplionis,  on  the  other  hand,  the  beak  at  a  corresponding 
age  is  much  shorter ;  the  supraorbital  edge  is  finely  denticulated,  or  smooth ;  and 
there  is  a  bony  spine  on  each  side  of  the  occiput,  and  at  the  angle  of  the  preopercular. 
Although  they  are  frequently  not  more  than  4  to  G  feet  in  length,  sword-fishes 
may  measure  as  much  as  from  12  to  15  feet,  and  the  sword  itself  may  exceed  a 
yard  in  length.  The  common  European  sword-fish  (Xipliias  yladius),  which  is 
occasionally  taken  on  the  British  coasts,  ranges  from  the  European  seas  to  the 
opposite  side  of  the  Atlantic ;  while  to  the  southward  it  occurs  oft"  the  northern 
and  western  coasts  of  Africa.  Histiopl LOTUS,  on  the  other  hand,  seems  to  be 
confined  to  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans,  ranging  eastwards  to  Japan.  Of  the 
three  Indian  species,  the  spotted  Indian  sword-fish  (It,  gladius)  is  distinguished 
by  the  dorsal  fin  being  much  higher  than  the  body,  and  marked  with  dark  blue 
spots  on  a  lighter  ground  of  the  same  colour;  the  body  being  bluish  grey  above, 
and  lighter  beneath.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  black-fimied  sword-fish  (H, 
iimnaculfdu-K)  the  general  colour  of  the  body  is  dull  grey,  and  the  dorsal  and 
anal  fins  are  blackish.  The  third  species  (H,  brevirostris)  has  the  dorsal  fin  lower 
than  the  depth  of  the  body;  the  general  colour  being  grey,  but  the  dorsal  and 
pectoral  fins  tipped  with  black. 

Plainly  pelagic  in  their  habits,  sword-fishes  are  among  the  most  predaceous 
and  savage  of  the  monsters  of  the  deep,  transfixing  their  ordinary  prey,  which 
includes  cod  and  tunny,  with  their  formidable  sword,  and  likewise  attacking 
whales  with  the  same  weapon.  In  such  conflicts,  the  sword-fish,  after  making 
repeated  stabs,  generally  comes  out  victorious,  and  tlie  whale  succumbs  to  his 
comparatively  diminutive  antagonist.  Occasionally,  however,  one  of  these  fishes 
appears  to  mistake  a  ship's  bottom  for  a  whale,  and  thereupon  promptly  charges 
it.  sending  the  sword  crashing  through  several  inches  of  solid  timber.  In  such 
cases  it  may  happen  that  the  sword-fish  cannot  withdraw  its  weapon,  which  is 
then  broken  off  short  in  the  struggles  of  its  owner  to  escape.  One  thing  we 


SWORD-FISHES. 


359 


should  like  to  see  cleared  up  by  actual  observation,  and  that  is,  in  what  manner 
a  sword-fish  manages  to  remove  from  his  weapon  a  cod,  or  other  fish,  which  it 
has  spitted.  Instances  are  on  record  of  these  fish  attacking  and  transfixing 
bathers ;  one  such  having  occurred  in  the  estuary  of  the  Severn  about  the  year  1830. 
Writing  of  one  of  the  Pacific  species,  Colonel  Pike  observes  that  "  this  fish  is  a 
beautiful  sight  in  the  water.  It  has  a  habit  of  lying  sunning  itself  on  the  surface 
when  undisturbed,  its  dorsal  fin  is  fully  expanded  and  acting  as  a  sail  (and  when 
needed  it  can  propel  itself  at  great  speed) ;  but  it  is  only  in  the  calmest  weather  it 
can  be  thus  seen.  It  is  frequently  caught  in  deep  water  with  hook  and  line,  and 
when  near  the  surface  it  is  speared."  When  it  feels  the  hook,  or  spear,  a  sword- 
fish  takes  tremendous  leaps  in  the  air,  and  if  care  be  not  exercised,  will  jump  into 


SPOTTED  INDIAN  SWORD-FISH  (^  nat.  size). 

the  boat  of  the  fishermen.  In  the  South  Sea  Islands  young  sword-fish  are  caught 
in  strong  nets,  although  no  net  will  hold  a  fish  of  6  feet  in  length.  One  of  the 
most  recent  instances  of  a  sword-fish  attacking  a  ship  occurred  in  the  year  1874, 
on  the  voyage  between  Bombay  and  Calcutta.  On  this  subject  Frank  Buckland 
writes  that  there  is  in  the  Museum  of  the  College  of  Surgeons  a  section  of  the 
bow  of  a  South-Sea  whaler,  in  which  "  is  seen  the  end  of  the  sword  of  a  sword- 
fish,  measuring  1  foot  in  length  and  5  inches  in  circumference.  At  one  single 
blow  the  fish  had  lunged  his  sword  through,  and  completely  transfixed  thirteen 
and  a  half  inches  of  solid  timber.  The  sword  had,  of  course,  broken  off  in  the 
hole,  and  thus  prevented  a  dangerous  leak  in  the  ship.  In  the  British  Museum  is 
a  second  specimen  of  a  ship's  side  with  the  sword  of  a  sword-fish  fixed  in  it,  and 
which  has  penetrated  no  less  than  twenty-two  inches  into  the  timber.  When  His 
Majesty's  ship  Leopard  was  repairing,  in  1795,  after  her  return  from  the  coast  of 


360  SPINY-FINNED   GROUP. 

Guinea,  a  sword  of  one  of  these  fishes  was  found  to  have  gone  through  the 
sheathing  one  inch,  next  through  a  three-inch  plank,  and  beyond  that  four  and  a 
half  inches  into  the  firm  timber ;  and  it  was  the  opinion  of  the  mechanics  that  it 
would  require  nine  strokes  of  a  twenty -five-pound  hammer  to  drive  a  bolt  of 
similar  size  and  form  to  the  same  depth  into  the  same  hull ;  yet  this  was  accom- 
plished by  a  single  thrust  of  the  fish."  In  the  Mediterranean  countries,  where 
these  fishes  are  commonly  taken  in  tunny-nets,  their  flesh  is  exposed  for  sale  in 
the  markets.  Geologically,  the  sword-fishes  appear  to  be  a  comparatively  modern 
group,  the  earliest  known  representatives,  which  have  been  assigned  to  the  existing 
genus  Histiophorus,  occurring  in  the  London  Clay. 

THE   SCABBARD-FlSHES  AND   HAIR-TAILS, — Family  TmCHIURID^. 

Another  group  of  equal  rank  with  the  perch-like  section  is  formed  by  a 
family  of  fishes,  characterised  by  the  elongate  and  compressed  or  even  band-like 
form  of  the  body ;  the  mouth  having  a  wide  cleft,  and  several  large  conical  teeth 
either  in  the  jaws  or  on  the  palate.  The  dorsal  and  anal  rays  are  long  and  many- 
rayed,  with  the  spinous  nearly  equal  in  length  to  the  soft  portion,  finlets  some- 
times occurring  behind  the  latter ;  the  pelvic  fins,  if  present,  are  thoracic  in  position ; 
and  the  caudal  is  sometimes  wanting,  but,  when  developed,  forked.  In  all  cases 
the  scales  are  either  rudimental  or  wanting,  but  the  air-bladder  is  constant.  These 
fishes  are  distributed  over  all  tropical  and  subtropical  seas ;  but  while  some  are 
surface-forms,  never  found  at  any  great  distance  from  the  coasts,  others  descend 
to  considerable  depths  in  the  open  sea;  all  are  carnivorous,  and  many  very 
powerful.  In  India,  writes  Day,  "  these  fishes  are  held  in  various  estimation  in 
different  places.  In  Baluchistan,  and  where  salt  is  cheap,  no  one  will  touch  them ; 
but  along  the  coasts  of  India  they  are  more  esteemed,  mostly  because  being  thin 
or  ribbon-shaped  they  can  be  dried  without  salting.  In  a  fossil  state  these  fishes 
date  from  the  lower  Eocene  of  Switzerland  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  where  they 
are  represented  by  extinct  genera ;  species  of  scabbard-fish  occur  in  the  Sicilian 
Miocene,  which  has  also  yielded  forms  allied  to  the  hair-tails  (Trichiurichthys), 
but  with  the  body  scaled. 

Among  the  better-known  forms,  the  scabbard-fish  (Lepidopus 
Scabbard-Fish.  .  r 

caudatus)  represents  a  genus  characterised  by  the  absence  or  rudi- 
mentary condition  of  the  pelvic  fins,  the  long  single  dorsal,  and  the  distinct 
but  small  tail-fin.  Although  it  may  attain  a  length  of  5  or  6  feet,  the  attenuation 
of  the  body  is  so  great  that  the  whole  weight  does  not  exceed  as  many 
pounds.  The  fish  has  a  very  wide  geographical  distribution,  ranging  from  the 
Mediterranean  and  warmer  regions  of  the  Atlantic  to  the  Cape,  and  thence  to 
New  Zealand  and  Tasmania,  while  it  occasionally  wanders  to  the  British  coasts. 
This  wide  range  may  probably  be  taken  as  an  indication  that  the  scabbard-fish 
is  a  comparatively  deep-sea  form.  In  New  Zealand,  where  it  is  known  as  the 
frost-fish,  the  scabbard-fish  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  flesh,  which  is  white,  rich, 
firm,  and  tender,  with  an  excellent  flavour.  On  this  account,  says  an  anonymous 
writer,  "the  fish  is  eagerly  sought  after,  and  commands  a  high  price,  as  the  supply 
is  irregular,  and  not  equal  to  the  demand.  Not  much  is  yet  known  of  the  manners 


SCABBARD  FISHES  AND  HAIR-TAILS, 


361 


and  customs  of  the  frost-fish,  but  the  little  that  has  been  made  manifest  is  decidedly 
peculiar.  It  is  a  deep-water  fish,  and  yet,  strange  to  say,  has  never  yet  been 
taken  by  the  net,  the  rod,  or  the  line.  Even  the  all-gathering  trawl  has  hitherto 
failed  to  bring  it  to  the  surface  of  the  deep.  How  then  is  its  capture  effected  ? 
To  all  appearance  the  frost-fish  is  captured  by  the  fishermen  only  when  it  commits 
suicide  and  immolates  itself  on  the  sandy  beaches  of  the  Pacific.  The  facts  are, 
that  on  calm  and  frosty  nights,  during  the  autumn  and  winter  months,  numbers 
of  frost-fish  come  ashore  alive  through  the  surf  on  the  beaches  before  referred  to, 
and  there  wriggle  on  to  the  firmer  sands  above,  to  be  devoured  by  the  watchful 
sea-birds,  or  picked  up  by  the  fortunate  fisherman.  No  satisfactory  reason  has 
as  yet  been  assigned  for  this  rash  act,  although  numerous  theories  have  been 


SCABBARD-PISH 


nat.  size). 


propounded  to  account  for  it.  One  is  that  the  hapless  fish  is  pursued  by  a  shark 
or  other  enemy,  and  prefers  uncertain  life  on  land  to  certain  death  at  sea. 
Another  and  a  more  plausible  theory  is  that  the  fish  distends  its  air-bladder  to 
enable  it  to  reach  the  surface  for  air  or  food,  and  that  the  keen  frosty  air  there 
prevents  it  from  compressing  the  bladder,  and  thus  returning  to  its  habitat  under 
the  waves.  In  this  way  the  luckless  fish  gradually  drifts  into  shallow  water,  and 
is  dashed  ashore  by  the  surf,  only  to  struggle  on  to  dry  land  to  meet  its  fate. 
As  may  be  imagined,  the  capture  of  the  frost-fish  has  nothing  specially  sportsman- 
like about  it.  The  long  sandy  beaches  some  twelve  miles  from  Dunedin  are  the 
favourite  resort  of  the  frost-fisher.  The  usual  plan  is  to  form  a  party  of  two  or 
more,  and  camp  out  overnight  at  the  foot  of  the  clifis  which  overhang  the  beach. 
Here  a  huge  fire  is  lighted,  and  a  tent  pitched  close  at  hand.  The  night,  of  course, 
must  be  clear  and  calm,  as  well  as  frosty,  otherwise  the  long  Pacific  rollers  make 
the  surf  too  high  for  the  successful  capture  of  the  game.  The  fishing  itself  is 
rather  slow  wrork.  It  consists  merely  in  walking  from  end  to  end  of  the  beach 


362  SPINY-FINNED   GROUP. 

shortly  before  dawn  (the  untimely  hour  chosen  by  the  fish  for  self-destruction), 
and  keeping  a  sharp  look-out  in  the  surf  for  the  silver  streak  which  betokens  the 
advent  of  the  frost-fish.  When  a  fish  is  seen  struggling  in  the  waves  or  on 
the  sand,  all  that  remains  to  be  done  is  to  catch  hold  of  it,  and  drag  it  up  out  of 
reach  of  the  backwash  (if  it  does  not  wriggle  up  by  its  own  motion),  and  there 
despatch  it  with  a  stick  or  knife." 

These    scaleless   fish   (Trichiurus)   take   their   name   from   the 

absence  of  a  caudal  fin,  the  body  tapering  posteriorly  into  a  fine 
point.  The  single  dorsal  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  ribbon-like  body; 
the  pelvic  fins  are  represented  merely  by  a  pair  of  scales,  or  are  completely 
wanting;  and  the  anal  is  rudimental,  its  spinous  portion  being  reduced  to  a 
number  of  very  small  spines  scarcely  projecting  above  the  skin.  The  jaws  are 
provided  with  long  tusks,  and  there  are  teeth  on  the  palatine  bones,  although 
none  on  the  vomer.  Essentially  tropical  fishes,  generally  found  in  the  vicinity 
of  land,  they  appear  to  be  sometimes  carried  by  currents  out  to  sea,  which  will 
probably  account  for  the  occasional  appearance  of  the  West  Indian  T.  lepturus  on 
the  British  coasts.  These  fishes  attain  a  length  of  from  3  to  4  feet ;  and  one  of 
the  Indian  species  is  described  as  extremely  voracious,  preying  on  crustaceans  and 
various  fishes,  among  which  members  of  its  own  kind  are  included. 

The  local  name  for  a  New  Zealand   representative  (Thyrsites 

atun)  of  another  genus  may  be  taken  as  the  popular  title  of  all  its 
members.  These  fishes,  in  which  the  rather  elongate  body  is  covered  with  minute 
scales,  are  characterised  by  having  from  two  to  six  finlets  behind  the  dorsal  and 
anal,  and  the  presence  of  teeth  on  the  palatines.  Barracudas,  which  grow  to  as 
much  as  5  feet,  form  important  food  supplies  in  the  Cape,  South  Australia,  New 
Zealand,  and  Chili ;  when  the  flesh  has  been  dried  or  otherwise  preserved,  it  is 
exported  from  New  Zealand  in  quantities  to  Mauritius  and  Batavia.  The  genus 
is  unknown  in  the  Indian  seas,  where  the  family  is  represented  by  the  hair- tails. 
Allied  Extinct  Two  extinct  genera,  namely,  Palceorhynchus  from  the  Eocene  of 

Forms.  Switzerland,  and  Hemirhynchus  from  the  Oligocene  of  France,  re- 
present a  separate  family  (Palceorhynchidce),  distinguished  from  the  last  by  the 
production  of  the  muzzle  into  a  long  beak,  which  may  be  either  provided  with 
small  teeth,  or  toothless.  The  dorsal  fin  occupies  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the 
compressed  body;  and  the  anal  fin  is  also  elongated,  and  extends  nearly  to 
the  forked  caudal. 

THE  SURGEONS, — Family  ACRONURID^:. 

With  this  family  we  come  to  a  group  of  spiny-finned  fishes,  including  some 
thirteen  others,  which  present  the  following  characteristics  in  common.  The  dorsal 
fins  are  either  placed  together  or  contimious,  the  spinous  portion  being,  when  fully 
developed,  shorter  than  the  soft  part,  while  it  may  be  modified  into  tentacles, 
detached  spines,  or  an  adhesive  disc  ;  and  the  anal  is  similar  in  characters  to  the 
soft  dorsal,  and  in  some  instances  both  these  fins  are  modified  posteriorly  into 
finlets.  The  pelvic  fins,  if  developed,  are  always  thoracic  or  jugular  in  position, 
and  are  never  modified  into  a  sucker ;  and  there  are  no  papillae  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  vent.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  members  of  the  group  are  marine. 


HORSE-MACKERELS.  363 

The  first  family  is  typified  by  a  genus  (Acronurus)  the  representatives 
of  which  are  popularly  known  by  the  name  of  "  surgeons,"  owing  to  the  presence 
of  a  sharp  lancet-like  spine  on  each  side  of  the  tail  in  the  adult.  In  addition 
to  the  presence  of  one  or  more  such  spines  or  bony  plates,  the  family  is  further 
characterised  by  a  single  dorsal  fin,  with  a  very  small  number  of  spines.  The 
body  is  compressed,  and  oblong  or  deep  in  form,  with  a  covering  of  minute 
scales;  the  moderate-sized  eyes  are  lateral  in  position;  the  small  mouth  is 
furnished  in  front  with  a  single  series  of  more  or  less  compressed  upper  and 
lower  incisors,  which  may  be  either  pointed  or  serrated ;  but  the  palate  is  toothless. 
The  pelvic  fins  are  thoracic  in  position,  and  the  hinder  extremity  of  the  air-bladder 
is  forked.  These  fishes  are  inhabitants  of  all  the  tropical  seas,  and  are  most 
common  in  the  neighbourhood  of  coral-reefs  and  islands,  where  some  feed  on  the 
soft  polyps  of  the  coral,  but  others  on  various  vegetable  substances.  In  the  true 
surgeons  (Acronurus)  there  is  an  erectile  spine  situated  in  a  groove  on  each  side 
of  the  tail ;  and  the  pelvic  fins  are  generally  furnished  with  a  single  spine  and 
five  rays.  In  the  young  the  body  is  scaleless,  and  the  tail-spines  either  very  small 
or  wanting.  These  fishes  are  represented  by  a  large  number  of  species,  the  largest 
of  which  does  not  exceed  18  inches  in  length,  and  they  are  distributed  over  all 
tropical  seas  with  the  exception  of  the  Eastern  Pacific.  In  a  fossil  state  the  genus, 
like  the  next,  occurs  in  the  middle  Eocene  beds  of  Monte  Bolca,  in  Italy.  From 
the  true  surgeons  the  members  of  the  genus  Naseus,  which  range  over  the  Tropical 
Pacific  and  the  Indian  Ocean,  are  distinguished  by  having  from  one  to  three  non- 
erectile  spines  on  each  side  of  the  tail,  and  the  presence  of  only  three  rays  in  the 
ventral  fins;  while  in  some  forms  the  head  is  armed  with  a  forwardly-directed 
bony  horn  or  crest-like  prominence.  The  minute  and  rough  scales  make  the  skin 
like  fine  shagreen.  A  third  genus  (Prionurus)  differs  in  having  a  series  of  keeled 
bony  plates  instead  of  spines  on  the  sides  of  the  tail.  All  the  species  of  Naseus 
are  said  to  be  purely  herbivorous.  The  true  surgeons  use  their  spines  as  formid- 
able weapons  of  attack  by  erecting  them  and  striking  sideways  with  their  tails. 

THE  HORSE-MACKERELS, — Family  CAEANGID^. 

Although  the  name  horse-mackerel  properly  applies  only  to  a  single  British 
fish  (Caranx  trachurus),  otherwise  known  as  the  scad,  it  may  conveniently  be 
made  to  do  duty  for  the  whole  of  the  members  of  the  family  to  which  that  species 
pertains.  Having  the  body  more  or  less  compressed,  these  fishes  are  specially 
distinguished  by  the  teeth,  when  present,  being  villiform  or  conical.  The  spinous 
portion  of  the  dorsal  fin  is  sometimes  rudimental ;  the  hinder  rays  of  both  the 
dorsal  and  anal  may  be  broken  up  into  separate  finlets ;  and,  when  present,  the 
pelvic  fins  are  thoracic  in  position.  In  the  skeleton  there  are  ten  trunk, 
and  fourteen  tail  vertebrae;  although  in  one  genus  the  number  of  the  latter  is 
increased  to  sixteen.  The  gill-openings  are  wide,  the  eyes  lateral,  and  there  is  no 
bony  stay  connecting  the  preopercular  with  the  infraorbital  ring.  The  scales, 
which  are  usually  small,  may  be  altogether  wanting ;  and  in  many  cases  the  lateral 
line  is  wholly  or  partially  armed  with  shield-like  overlapping  plates.  There  is 
always  an  air-bladder.  In  the  young  of  some  forms  there  is  an  armature  of  the 


364 


SPINY-FINNED    GROUP. 


head,  which  disappears  in  the  adult.  Carnivorous  in  their  diet,  the  horse-mackerels 
are  distributed  at  the  present  day  over  all  temperate  and  tropical  seas ;  and  were 
also  abundant  during  the  Tertiary  period,  and  likewise  represented  by  extinct 
genera  in  the  antecedent  Cretaceous  epoch.  Remains  of  these  fishes  are  found  in 
extraordinary  profusion  in  the  middle  Eocene  strata  of  Monte  Bolca,  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  types  from  that  formation  being  the  extinct  Semiophorus,  in 
which  the  dorsal  fin  is  so  elevated  as  to  exceed  the  total  length  of  the  head  and 
body,  while  the  pectorals  formed  a  pair  of  back wardly- directed  tapering  spines. 
True  Horse-  In  the  typical  genus  Caranx  the  body  is  generally  more  or  less 

Mackerels,      compressed,  although  sometimes  almost  cylindrical ;  the  hard  dorsal 


COMMON  MACKEREL  AND   HORSE-MACKEREL  (J  nat.  size). 

fin,  which  may  be  rudimentary,  is  continuous,  with  about  eight  weak  spines ;  while 
in  a  few  species  the  soft  portion  of  both  this  and  the  anal  is  broken  up  into  finlets. 
The  scales  are  very  small ;  and  while  in  the  British  horse-mackerel  (C.  trachurus), 
represented  in  the  lower  figure  of  our  illustration,  the  lateral  line  is  protected  by 
bony  plates  throughout  its  entire  extent,  in  many  other  species  these  plates  are 
restricted  to  its  hinder  moiety.  Several  of  these  plates  may  be  traversed  by  a  keel 
terminating  in  a  spine.  The  genus  is  represented  by  nearly  a  hundred  species, 
some  of  which  have  teeth  on  the  palate,  while  in  others  these  are  wanting.  Rang- 
ing over  almost  all  temperate  and  tropical  seas,  many  of  them  swim  out  to 
considerable  distances  from  the  shore,  and  thus  acquire  a  very  large  distributional 
area.  The  larger  forms  may  measure  fully  a  yard  in  length ;  and  the  flesh  of  all 


PILOT-FISH. 


365 


s  edible.     The  genus  is  represented  in  the  Monte  Bolca  Eocene.     Horse-mackerel 
ometimes  make  their  appearance  in  enormous  shoals  on  the  British  coasts ;  and  it 
s  stated  that  on  one  occasion  upwards  of  ten  thousand  were  taken  in  Cornwall. 
A.  correspondent  of  Yarrell  wrote,  that  in  the  summer  of  1834  vast  shoals  of  these 
fish  were  seen  on  the  Glamorganshire  coast.     "  They  were  first  observed  in  the 
vening,  and  the  whole  sea,  as  far  as  we  could  command  it  with  the  eye,  seemed  in 
state  of  fermentation  with  their  numbers.     Those  who  stood  on  some  projecting 
ock  had  only  to  dip  their  hands  into  the  water,  and  with  a  sudden  jerk  they 
might  throw  up  three  or  four.     The  bathers  felt  them  come  against  their  bodies, 
nd  the  sea,  looked  on  from  above,  appeared  one  dark  mass  of  fish.     Every  net  was 
mmediately  put  in  requisition  ;  and  those  which  did  not  give  way  from  the  weight, 
were  drawn  on  shore  laden  with  spoil.     One  of  the  party  who  had  a  herring-seine 
vith  a  two-inch  mesh  was  the  most  successful ;  every  mesh  held  its  fish,  and 
'ormed  a  wall  that  swept  on  the  beach  all  before  it.     The  quantity  is  very  iriade- 


PILOT-FISH. 


Pilot-FisH. 


uately  expressed  by  numbers,  they  were  caught  by  cart-loads.  As  these  shoals 
vere  passing  us  for  a  week,  with  their  heads  directed  up  channel,  we  had  the 
pportunity  of  noticing  that  the  feeding-time  was  morning  and  evening.  They  were 
mrsuing  the  fry  of  the  herring,  and  I  found  their  stomachs  constantly  full  of  them." 
Another  genus  is  represented  by  the  pelagic  pilot-fish  (Naucrates 
ductor),  which  takes  its  name  from  a  supposed  habit  of  guiding  and 
>ro  tec  ting  the  sharks  and  ships  which  it  accompanies.  Having  no  plates  on  the 
ateral  line,  this  fish  is  further  characterised  by  the  rounded  under  surface  of  the 
)ody,  by  the  first  dorsal  fin  being  composed  in  the  adult  of  detached  spines,  by  the 
bsence  of  finlets,  and  the  presence  of  a  keel  on  each  side  of  the  tail.  When  adult, 
be  pilot-fish  measures  about  a  foot  in  length.  In  colour  it  is  bluish,  with  five  or  six 
ark  vertical  bands ;  the  tail-fin  sometimes  having  the  ends  of  its  two  lobes  dark, 
s  also  a  band  across  the  middle  third.  Ranging  over  all  temperate  and  tropical 
eas,  pilot-fish  were  regarded  as  sacred  by  the  ancients,  by  whom  they  were  known 
s  pompili ;  the  common  belief  being  that  when  the  ship  neared  land,  the  fish 
uddenly  disappeared,  and  thus  gave  warning  to  the  sailors  of  impending  danger. 
Many  legends  have  grown  in  later  times  as  to  how  pilot-fish  will  prevent  sharks 


366  SPINY-FINNED    GROUP. 

from  taking  a  bait  by  swimming  round  them  and  enticing  them  away;  but  all j 
these  appear  to  be  pure  fictions,  and  perhaps  the  best  account  of  the  real  habits  of  j 
the  fish  is  one  by  Dr.  Meyen,  from  which  the  following  summary  is  taken.  It 
appears  that  the  pilot-fish  constantly  swims  in  front  of  the  shark,  sometimes! 
coming  close  to  its  muzzle  or  front  fins  as  it  approaches  a  ship,  and  sometimes  | 
darting  sideways  or  forwards  for  a  short  distance,  and  then  returning  to  the  side 
of  the  larger  ship.  In  one  instance,  where  a  baited  hook  was  thrown  over  the 
ship's  side,  the  pilot-fish  rushed  up,  and  after  swimming  close  to  the  bait,  returned 
to  the  shark,  and  by  swimming  and  splashing  round  it  appeared  to  be  attracting 
its  attention.  Soon  after  the  shark  began  to  move,  with  the  pilot-fish  in  front,  and 
was  almost  immediately  hooked.  Instead  of  the  pilot-fish  taking  care  of  the  shark 
it  would  rather  seem  to  frequent  the  company  of  the  latter  for  the  sake  of  the 
fragments  of  food  and  other  substances  to  be  found  in  its  neighbourhood ;  and  it  is 
doubtless  for  the  same  reason  that  these  fishes  follow  ships.  In  summer,  pilot-fish- 
will  not  unfrequently  accompany  vessels  into  the  southern  British  harbours;  but] 
their  purely  pelagic  habits  are  indicated  by  the  circumstance  that  their  spawn! 
and  fry  are  found  far  out  in  the  open  sea.  The  young  both  of  this  fish  and  of 
some  of  the  allied  forms  are  so  different  in  appearance  from  their  parents  that  I 
they  have  been  described  under  distinct  generic  names. 

Both  the  preceding  genera  belong  to  a  group  of  the  family  in 
which  the  spines  of  the  anal  fin  are  detached  from  its  soft  portion. ; 
As  an  example  of  a  second  group  in  which  these  two  portions  are  connected  by 
membrane,  we  may  notice  the  so-called  sea-bats  (Platax),  remarkable  for  the  great 
lieight  and  compression  of  the  rhomboidal  body,  and  the  strong  development  of  the 
dorsal  and  anal  fins,  which  are  often  nearly  similar  in  form  and  size.      Indeed, 
except  that  they  are  symmetrical  and  have  an  eye  on  each  side  of  the  head,  the  j 
sea-bats  look  almost  like  flat-fishes.     They  have  the  spinous  portion  of  the  single 
dorsal  fin  almost  concealed,  and  with  from  three  to  seven  spines;  the  anal  has 
three  spines ;  and  the  pelvic  fins,  which  are  sometimes  greatly  elongated,  have  a 
single  spine  and  five  rays.     The  scales  are  rather  smaller  or  medium ;  the  palate  is 
toothless ;  and  the  jaws  have  a  series  of  outer  teeth  somewhat  larger  than  the 
small  ones  of  the  inner  rows.    These  fish,  of  which  there  are  but  few  species,  appear 
to  be  confined  to  the  Red  Sea,  Indian  Ocean,  and  the  Western  Pacific,  where  they 
are  abundant.    Some  of  them  attain  a  length  of  about  20  inches,  and  the  body  may  ; 
be  marked  by  a  few  broad  vertical  dark  bands,  the  long  lobes  of  the  fins  being  black. 
In  young  specimens  the  rays  of  the  median  fins  are  proportionately  much  longer  j 
than  in  adults,  thus  giving  the  whole  fish  somewhat  the  appearance  of  a  cheese- 
cutter.    Sea-bats  are  found  in  a  fossil  state  not  only  in  the  middle  Eocene  of  Monte 
Bolca,  but  likewise  in  the  Cretaceous  rocks  of  England  and  the  Lebanon,  so  that  the  \ 
genus  is  an  old  one.     In  the  allied  genus  Psettus,  from  the  coasts  of  Western  Africa 
and  the  Indo-Pacific  Ocean,  the  pectoral  fins  are  rudimental. 

THE  DORIES, — Family  CYTTID^S. 

The  deep  form  of  the  compressed  body,  the  division  of  the  dorsal  fin  into  two  I 
distinct  moieties,  and  the  circumstance  that  the  number  of  trunk- vertebrae  exceeds 


STROMATEIDS  AND    CORYPHALNAS.  367 

ten,  and  that  of  the  tail  fourteen,  form  the  leading  features  by  which  the  small 
family  of  the  dories  are  distinguished  from  the  other  members  of  the  group  under 
consideration.  The  body  may  be  invested  either  with  small  scales  or  bony  plates, 
or  may  be  devoid  of  both.  The  eyes  are  lateral,  and  the  teeth  conical  and  small. 
There  is  no  connection  between  the  preopercular  and  the  orbit ;  the  gill-opening  is 
wide,  and  the  pectoral  fins  are  thoracic  in  position.  The  John  Dory  (Zeus  faber), 
which  gives  the  name  to  the  family,  and  is  said  to  derive  its  own  title  from  a 
corruption  of  a  foreign  equivalent  of  "  gilded  cock,"  represents  a  genus  with  few 
species,  characterised  by  a  series  of  bony  plates  at  the  base  of  the  dorsal  and  anal 
fins,  and  another  on  the  under  surface ;  the  anal  having  four  spines.  The  eight  or 
nine  spines  of  the  first  dorsal  fin,  which  is  not  much  shorter  than  the  second,  are 
produced  into  long  slender  filaments ;  and  there  are  but  few  or  no  scales.  The 
genus  ranges  over  the  Mediterranean,  the  eastern  coasts  of  the  temperate  zones  of 
the  Atlantic,  and  the  Australian  and  Japanese  seas ;  while  in  a  fossil  state  it  occurs 
in  the  Miocene  deposits  of  Sicily.  An  exceedingly  ugly  and  ill-favoured  creature, 
with  a  huge  protruding  mouth,  the  common  dory  is  olive-brown  tinged  with  yellow 
in  colour,  showing  blue  and  metallic  reflections  in  certain  lights.  The  sides  bear  a 
large  black  spot,  surrounded  by  a  white  ring ;  a  similar  mark  occurring  in  some  of 
the  other  species.  A  somewhat  migratory  fish  on  the  British  coasts,  the  dory  has 
been  long  esteemed  by  epicures,  and  it  is  stated  that  its  flesh  is  better  on  the  second 
than  on  the  first  day.  Couch  writes  that  "  when  the  pilchards  approach  the  shore, 
the  dory  is  often  taken  in  considerable  numbers.  In  the  autumn  of  1829  more 
than  sixty  were  hauled  on  shore  at  once  in  a  net,  some  of  them  of  large  size,  and 
yet  the  whole  of  them  were  sold  for  nine  shillings.  It  continues  common  until  the 
end  of  winter,  after  which  it  is  more  rare  but  never  scarce.  The  form  of  the  dory 
would  seem  to  render  it  incapable  of  much  activity  ;  and  it  is  sometimes  seen  floating 
along  with  the  current  rather  than  swimming ;  yet  some  circumstances  favour  the 
idea  that  it  is  able  to  make  its  way  with  considerable  activity.  It  keeps  pace  with 
shoals  of  pilchards,  so  that  some  are  usually  enclosed  in  the  seine  with  them ;  it 
also  devours  the  common  cuttle,  a  creature  of  vigilance  and  celerity ;  and  I  have 
seen  a  cuttle  of  a  few  inches  long  taken  from  the  stomach  of  a  dory  that  measured 
only  4  inches."  In  the  allied  genus  Cyttus,  represented  by  three  species,  from 
Madeira,  South  Australia,  and  New  Zealand,  the  body  is  covered  with  minute  scales, 
there  are  no  bony  plates,  the  number  of  spines  in  the  anal  fin  is  two,  and  the  pelvic 
fins  comprise  one  spine  and  six  or  eight  rays. 

STROMATEIDS  AND  CORYPILENAS, — Families  STROMATEIDS  and  CORYPH^NIDS. 

These  two  families  are  collectively  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by  the 
absence  of  any  distinct  spinous  portion  to  the  dorsal  fin;  the  compressed  body 
being  either  oblong,  or  very  deep ;  and  there  being  more  than  ten  vertebrse  in  the 
trunk,  and  more  than  fourteen  in  the  tail.  In  the  first  of  the  two  the  dentition 
is  feeble,  the  palate  being  devoid  of  teeth ;  but  there  are  horny  barbed  processes 
projecting  into  the  oesophagus  which  take  the  place  of  oral  teeth.  The  scales  are 
very  small,  the  eyes  lateral,  and  the  dorsal  fin  long.  The  typical  genus  Stromateus, 
which  includes  about  half  a  score  species  from  most  tropical  and  temperate  seas,  is 


368  SPINY-PINNED   GROUP. 

characterised  by  the  absence  of  pelvic  fins  in  the  adult  ;  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins 
being  long,  with  their  points  curving  backwards  in  several  of  the  species,  and 
the  caudal  deeply  forked.  In  habits  these  fishes  are  partly  pelagic. 

The  second  of  the  two  families  is  represented  typically  by  the 
well-known  pelagic  corypha3nas  (Coryphcena),  popularly  miscalled 
dolphins.  As  a  family,  the  Coryphcenidce  are  readily  distinguished  from  the 
Stro-mateidce  by  the  absence  of  tooth-like  processes  in  the  resophagus.  In  the 
typical  genus  the  body  is  somewhat  elongated  and  compressed,  the  adults  having 
an  elevated  crest  on  the  top  of  the  head;  and  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  is  wide. 
The  single  dorsal  fin  extends  in  a  nearly  straight  line  from  the  back  of  the  head 
almost  to  the  deeply-forked  caudal  ;  the  anal  resembles  the  dorsal  in  having  no 
distinct  spinous  portion  ;  and  the  well-developed  pelvic  fins  are  thoracic  in  position, 
and  can  be  received  in  a  groove  in  the  abdomen.  Teeth  are  present  in  the  jaws, 

as  well  as  on  the 
vomer,  palatines,  and 
tongue  ;  the  cycloid 
scales  are  small;  and 
there  is  no  air- 
bladder.  The  cory- 
phsenas,  of  which 


CORYPILENA. 

dozen      species,      are 

purely  pelagic  fishes,  ranging  over  all  temperate  and  tropical  seas,  and  remarkable 
for  the  beauty  of  their  fleeting  colours.  Dr.  Giinther  observes  that  so  "  far  as  the 
colours  are  capable  of  description,  those  of  the  common  species  (C.  hippurus),  which 
is  often  seen  in  the  Mediterranean,  are  silvery  blue  above,  with  markings  of  a 
deeper  azure,  and  reflections  of  pure  gold,  the  lower  -parts  being  lemon  -yellow, 
marked  with  pale  blue.  The  pectoral  fins  are  partly  lead  colour,  partly  yellow; 
the  anal  is  yellow,  the  iris  of  the  eye  golden.  These  iridescent  colours  change 
rapidly  whilst  the  fish  is  dying,  as  in  the  mackerel.  The  form  of  the  body,  and 
especially  of  the  head,  changes  considerably  with  age.  Very  young  specimens, 
from  1  to  6  inches  in  length,  are  abundant  in  the  open  sea,  and  frequently 
obtained  in  the  tow-net.  Their  body  is  cylindrical,  their  head  as  broad  as  high, 
and  the  eye  relatively  very  large,  much  longer  than  the  snout.  As  the  fish  grows 
the  body  is  more  compressed,  and  finally  a  high  crest  is  developed  on  the  head, 
and  the  anterior  part  of  the  dorsal  fin  attains  a  height  equal  to  that  of  the  body." 
This  species  ranges  over  all  tropical  seas,  and  attains  a  length  of  from  5  to  6  feet  ; 
although  its  flesh  is  unpalatable  to  Europeans,  it  is  eaten  by  the  natives  of 
Madras.  Powerful  swimmers,  and  associating  in  large  shoals,  coryphsenas  are 
determined  enemies  to  flying-fish,  pursuing  them  as  they  skim  from  wave  to  wave, 
and  capturing  them  as  they  again  fall  into  the  water. 

Sun  Fish  ^S  an  example  °^  genera  in  which  the  body  is  much  compressed, 

short,  and  deep,  we  may  select  the  sun-fish  (Lampris  luna),  of  the 

North  Atlantic  and   Mediterranean,  the  sole   representative   of   its   genus.     The 

body  is  covered  with  very  small  deciduous  scales,  the  mouth  has  a  narrow  cleft, 

and  is  devoid  of  teeth,  the  dorsal  has  its  anterior  portion  elevated  into  a  narrow 


NOMALIDS  AND  MACKERELS  369 

point,  and  the  pelvic  fins  are  composed  of  numerous  rays.  This  fish,  which  attains 
to  the  length  of  4  feet,  is  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its  coloration,  the  body 
being  bluish,  with  round  silvery  spots,  and  the  fins  brilliant  scarlet.  Its  flesh  is 
reported  to  be  of  good  flavour.  In  the  allied  Mene,  also  represented  by  a  single 
species  (M.  maculata),  inhabiting  the  Indian  and  Malayan  seas,  and  attaining  a 
length  of  8  or  9  inches,  the  jaws  are  toothed,  the  mouth  is  very  protractile,  and 
the  first  rays  of  the  pelvic  fins  are  greatly  elongated.  This  genus  is  found  in  a 
fossil  state  in  the  middle  Eocene  of  Monte  Bolca ;  while  in  the  London  Clay  we 
have  the  extinct  Goniognathus. 

NOM^IDS  AND  MACKERELS, — Families  NOM^ID^E  and  SCOMBERID^:. 

Both  these  families  agree  in  having  two  dorsal  fins,  and  in  the  number  of 
trunk-vertebrae  exceeding  ten,  and  the  caudal  fourteen.  In  the  first  small  and 
comparatively  unimportant  group  there  may  be  finlets  behind  the  dorsal  and  anal 
fins ;  the  dorsal  has  a  distinct  spinous  portion,  the  caudal  is  forked,  and  the  body 
covered  with  cycloid  scales  of  moderate  size.  All  these  fishes  are  marine,  and,  in 
the  young  state  at  least,  pelagic.  Of  the  better-known  genera,  Gastrochisma,  with 
a  broad  cleft  to  the  mouth,  finlets  on  the  back  and  abdomen,  and  enormous  pelvic 
fins,  capable  of  being  folded  into  a  cleft  in  the  body,  and  of  which  the  position  is 
thoracic,  is  known  by  a  single  New  Zealand  species  (G.  melampus).  On  the  other 
hand,  Nomce-us,  with  two  species  from  the  Tropical  Atlantic  and  Indian  Ocean, 
lacks  finlets,  and  has  a  narrow  mouth-cleft. 

The  second  of  the  two  families  is  typically  represented  by  the 
true  mackerels  (Scomber),  and  is  characterised  by  the  oblong  or 
slightly  elongated  form  of  the  body — which  is  but  very  slightly  compressed,  and 
covered  either  with  very  minute  scales,  or  naked — and  the  structure  of  the  dorsal 
fins.  The  first  of  these  may  be  either  modified  into  free  spines,  or  an  adhesive  disc, 
or  the  posterior  dorsal,  together  with  the  anal,  is  split  up  into  finlets.  There  may  or 
may  not  be  an  air-bladder.  Characterised  by  their  beautiful  protective  coloration, 
which  is  some  shade  of  bluish  green,  mottled  or  barred  with  black  above,  and 
iridescent  silver  beneath,  the  members  of  this  family  are  all  pelagic  and 
carnivorous  fish,  associating  in  shoals,  which  may  be  of  immense  size,  and 
frequenting  all  tropical  and  temperate  seas.  To  enable  them  to  keep  up  their 
constant  rapid  movements,  their  muscles,  which  are  consequently  red  in  colour, 
receive  a  much  more  abundant  supply  of  blood  than  is  the  case  with  other 
members  of  the  class,  and  their  temperature  is  thereby  raised  several  degrees 
higher.  Although  spawning  in  the  open  sea,  at  certain  times  of  the  year  they  make 
periodical  migrations  towards  the  shore  in  pursuit  of  the  shoals  of  herrings  and 
their  fry  on  which  they  so  largely  subsist.  In  time,  the  family  dates  from  the 
lower  Eocene  deposits  of  Switzerland,  where  it  is  represented  by  several  extinct 
genera,  and  likewise  by  a  species  of  sucking-fish ;  while  many  of  the  other  existing 
genera  occur  in  the  latter  deposits. 

The  true  mackerels  are  characterised  by  the  first  dorsal  fin  being  continuous, 
with  feeble  spines ;  the  presence  of  five  or  six  finlets  behind  the  dorsal  and  anal ; 
the  very  small  scales,  which  are  evenly  distributed  over  the  body ;  the  small  size  of 

VOL.  V. 24 


37° 


SPINY-FINNED    GROUP. 


the  teeth;  and  the  two  short  ridges  on  each  side  of  the  caudal  fin.  Although 
there  are  but  very  few  species  of  mackerel,  these  have  a  very  wide  range ;  and  the 
genus  is  represented  throughout  the  temperate  and  tropical  seas,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Atlantic  seaboard  of  Temperate  South  America.  The  general  coloration 
and  form  of  mackerels  are  too  well  known  to  call  for  description,  and  it  will 
suffice  to  mention  that  of  the  three  European  forms  the  common  mackerel 
(8.  vernalis)1  has  no  air-bladder,  while  the  southern  mackerel  (8.  pneumatophorus) 
takes  its  name  from  the  presence  of  that  organ,  which  likewise  exists  in  the 
Spanish  mackerel  (8.  collets).  In  a  fossil  condition  this  genus  occurs  in  the 
European  Eocene  and  Miocene  deposits.  Of  the  common  mackerel,  which  is 
represented  in  the  upper  figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  364,  Yarrell  writes  that 


NEW   ZEALAND   GASTROCHISMA. 


"the  ordinary  length  varies  from  14  to  16  inches,  and  their  weight  is  about  2  Ibs. 
each ;  but  they  are  said  to  attain  the  length  of  20  inches,  with  a  proportionate 
increase  in  weight.  The  largest  fish  are  not,  however,  considered  the  best  for 
table.  As  an  article  of  food,  they  are  in  great  request ;  and  those  taken  in  the 
months  of  May  and  June  are  generally  considered  to  be  superior  in  flavour  to 
those  taken  either  earlier  in  the  spring  or  in  autumn.  To  be  eaten  in  perfection, 
this  fish  should  be  very  fresh."  The  enormous  takes  of  mackerel  which  occasionally 
reward  the  labours  of  British  fishermen  are  too  well  known  to  need  mention. 

Under  this  general  title  may  be  included  not  only  the  fish  to 
which  the  name  tunny  (Thynnus  mediterraneus)  properly  pertains, 
but  likewise  those  commonly  designated  bonitos  and  albicores.  The  genus,  which 
comprises  some  of  the  largest  of  all  pelagic  fishes,  differs  from  the  true  mackerels 
by  the  greater  number  (six  to  nine)  of  finlets,  by  the  scales  forming  a  kind  of 

1  The  author  can  neither  admit  the  combination  Scomber  scomber  as  the  title  of  this  fish,  nor  that  of  Thynnus 
thynnus  for  the  tunny. 


Tunnies. 


SUCKING-FISHES.  371 

corselet  on  the  anterior  part  of  the  body  only,  and  the  presence  of  only  a  single 
longitudinal  ridge  on  each  side  of  the  tail.  The  tunnies  have  a  geographical 
distribution  coextensive  with  that  of  the  family ;  and  in  a  fossil  state  are  found 
in  the  Eocene  and  Miocene  deposits  of  the  Continent.  The  common  species,  which 
attains  a  length  of  over  10  feet,  and  a  weight  of  half  a  ton,  is  an  occasional  visitor 
to  the  British  coasts,  and  is  abundant  in  the  Mediterranean,  where  it  has  been 
regularly  fished  for  since  very  early  times.  At  the  present  day  specimens  of  a 
hundredweight  each  may  often  be  seen  in  the  Lisbon  market ;  their  flesh,  which 
is  as  red  as  beef,  being  cut  up  and  sold  by  weight.  The  bonito  (T.  pelamys)  is  a 
smaller  and  more  slender  fish,  rarely  exceeding  a  yard  in  length,  and  frequenting 
all  temperate  and  tropical  seas ;  while  the  name  of  albicore  is  applied  to  species 
like  T.  albicora  of  the  Atlantic,  characterised  by  the  great  length  of  their  pectoral 
fins,  some  of  these  fish  attaining  a  length  of  6  feet.  Albicore  and  bonito  will 
follow  in  the  wake  of  sailing-ships  for  weeks  together.  They  prey  largely  on 
flying-fish;  and  Bennett  writes  of  one  species  that  it  was  interesting  "to  mark 
the  precision  with  which  it  swam  beneath  the  aeronaut,  keeping  him  steadily  in 
view,  and  preparing  to  seize  him  at  the  moment  of  his  descent.  But  this  the  flying- 
fish  would  often  elude  by  instantaneously  renewing  his  leap,  and  not  unfrequently 
escape  by  extreme  agility."  Moseley  writes  that,  when  at  St.  Vincent,  he  saw  a 
tunny  of  some  25  Ibs.  in  weight  attracted  by  baits  thrown  into  the  water  by  some 
negroes,  who  kept  on  casting  in  fresh  ones  for  some  time,  in  order  to  give  their 
victim  confidence.  "  A  very  strong  piece  of  cord,  with  a  hook  like  a  salmon-gaff 
made  fast  to  it,  was  then  baited  with  a  small  fish,  just  enough  to  cover  the  point 
of  the  hook,  and  a  stout  bamboo  used  as  a  rod.  The  cord  was  hitched  tight  round 
one  end  of  it,  with  about  a  foot  of  it  left  dangling  with  the  hook.  One  negro  held 
the  rod,  and  another  the  cord,  the  bait  being  held  just  touching  the  surface  of  the 
water.  The  fish  swam  up  directly,  and  took  it;  the  negro  holding  the  bamboo 
struck  sharply,  and  drove  the  big  hook  right  through  the  fish's  upper  jaw,  and 
both  men  caught  hold  of  the  line  and  pulled  the  fish  straight  out  on  to  the  rock." 
This  instance  indicates  the  remarkable  boldness  and  voracity  of  the  tunnies,  the 
fish  in  question  not  being  six  feet  distant  from  the  negro  holding  the  pole  when 
it  took  the  bait.  Passing  over  several  allied  genera,  such  as  Pelamys  and  Cybium, 
we  proceed  to  a  more  interesting  group  of  the  family. 

The  remarkable  adhesive  disc  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  head 
Sucking-Fishes. 

at  once  serves  to  distinguish  the  sucking-fishes,  not  only  from  their 

immediate  relatives,  but  likewise  from  all  other  members  of  the  class ;  and  it  may 
be  mentioned  that  the  development  of  this  disc  by  means  of  what  is  called  natural 
selection  presents  one  of  the  strongest ,  objections  to  the  acceptance  of  that 
doctrine,  since  in  its  incipient  stages  such  a  structure  would  be  utterly  useless. 
The  genus  Echeneis,  to  which  all  the  half-score  species  of  sucking-fish  pertain, 
differs  from  all  those  noticed  above  in  the  absence  of  finlets ;  the  sucking-disc 
being  formed  by  a  modification  of  the  spines  of  the  dorsal,  and  being  composed 
of  a  number  of  transverse  plates,  varying  from  twelve  to  twenty-seven,  according 
to  the  species.  It  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  there  exists  in  the  Indian  Seas, 
as  also  in  the  Tropical  Atlantic,  a  fish  (Elacate  nigra)  closely  allied  to  the  sucking- 
fishes,  but  with  the  disc  represented  by  a  few  short  and  separated  spines ;  and  it 


372 


SPINY-FINNED   GROUP. 


may  be  considered  certain  that  this  fish  is  the  survivor  of  the  ancestral  type  from 
which  its  more  specialised  relatives  have  been  evolved.  The  body  of  the  sucking- 
fishes  is  elongate  and  pyriform ;  the  eyes  are  lateral,  or  directed  downwards  and 
outwards ;  and  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  is  deep.  Villiform  teeth  are  present,  not 
only  in  the  jaws  and  on  the  bones  of  the  palate,  but  generally  also  on  the  tongue ; 
the  scales  are  minute ;  and  there  is  no  air-bladder.  The  second  dorsal  and  anal 
fins  are  elongated,  and  the  pelvics  thoracic  in  position.  Both  in  this  genus  and 
Elacate  the  shape  of  the  caudal  fin  is  subject  to  considerable  change  with  age ;  the 
middle  portion  in  the  young  being  produced  into  a  long  filament,  which  gradually 
shortens  until  a  rounded  margin  is  produced.  At  the  time  of  the  full  development 
of  the  fish  the  corners  of  the  tail  have,  however,  grown  out,  so  as  to  convert  the 


SUCKING-FISHES  (§  nat.  size). 

rounded  fin  into  an  emarginate  or  forked  one.  Of  the  two  most  common  members 
of  the  genus,  Echeneis  remora,  which  is  the  one  represented  in  our  illustration,  is 
comparatively  small,  growing  only  to  a  length  of  about  8  inches  ;  whereas  E. 
naucrates,  characterised  by  the  slenderness  of  its  form,  may  reach  a  yard  in  length. 
Sucking-fishes  are  inhabitants  of  nearly  all  seas,  and  in  a  fossil  state  are  found  in 
the  lower  Eocene  deposits  of  Switzerland. 

Sucking-fishes  are  commonly  found  attached  to  the  bodies  of  sharks,  although 
they  may  affix  themselves  either  to  turtles  or  ships ;  and  as  they  are  carried  by 
their  involuntary  hosts  through  a  much  greater  extent  of  water  than  their  limited 
powers  of  swimming  would  admit  of  their  traversing  by  themselves,  they  naturally 
obtain  a  much  greater  supply  of  food  than  would  otherwise  be  possible.  The 
erection  of  the  plates  constituting  the  sucker  produces  a  series  of  vacua,  by  means 


STAR-GAZERS  AND    WEAVERS.  373 

of  which  the  adherence  is  effected ;  and  so  strong  is  the  adhesion  that  it  is  very 
difficult  to  remove  one  of  these  fishes  except  by  sliding  it  along  the  surface  to 
which  it  is  attached.  Moseley  remarks  that  in  shark-fishing  the  suckers  some- 
times drop  off  as  the  shark  is  hauled  on  board,  and  sometimes  remain  attached ; 
and  that  when  a  shark  is  hooked  and  struggling  in  the  water,  they  may  often  be 
seen  to  shift  their  position.  He  adds  that  as  it  is  the  back  of  the  sucking-fish 
that  is  applied  to  the  body  by  which  it  is  transported,  this  "being  always  less 
exposed  to  light  is  light-coloured,  whereas  the  belly,  which  is  constantly  outer- 
most and  exposed,  is  of  a  dark  chocolate  colour.  The  familiar  distribution  of 
colour  existing  in  most  other  fish  is  thus  reversed.  No  doubt  the  object  of  this 
arrangement  is  to  render  the  fish  less  conspicuous  on  the  brown  back  of  the  shark. 
Were  its  belly  light-coloured,  as  usual,  the  adherent  fish  would  be  visible  for  a 
great  distance  against  the  dark  background.  The  result  is  that  when  the  fish  is 
seen  alive,  it  is  difficult  to  persuade  oneself  at  first  that  the  sucker  is  not  on  the 
animal's  belly,  and  that  the  dark  exposed  surface  is  not  its  back.  The  form  of 
the  fish,  which  has  the  back  flattened  and  the  belly  raised  and  rounded,  strengthens 
the  illusion.  When  the  fish  is  preserved  in  spirits,  the  colour  becomes  of  a  uniform 
chocolate,  and  this  curious  effect  is  lost.  When  one  of  these  fish,  a  foot  in  length, 
has  its  wet  sucker  applied  to  a  table,  and  is  allowed  time  to  lay  hold,  it  adheres 
so  tightly  that  it  is  impossible  to  pull  it  off  by  a  fair  vertical  strain."  WThen  they 
have  lost  their  shark  these  fish  often  attach  themselves  to  a  ship,  which  they 
probably  mistake  for  a  large  individual  of  that  race.  It  has  been  stated  that 
certain  races  are  in  the  habit  of  employing  sucking-fishes  for  the  capture  of 
turtles.  This  curious  mode  of  fishing  is  practised  by  the  natives  of  Zanzibar, 
Cuba,  and  Torres  Straits. 

STAR-GAZERS  AND  WEAVERS, — Family  TRACHINIDJE. 

According  to  the  arrangement  adopted  by  Dr.  Glinther,  the  eighth  family  of 
the  group  under  consideration  is  taken  to  include  not  only  the  typical  weavers, 
but  likewise  the  star-gazers  and  several  other  more  or  less  nearly  allied  types, 
these  being  split  up  into  five  subfamilies.  On  the  other  hand,  Day  prefers  to 
regard  some  if  not  all  of  these  subfamilies  as  the  representatives  of  distinct 
families ;  but  in  a  work  of  the  present  nature  it  will  be  more  convenient  to  treat 
the  whole  of  them  together.  In  this  wider  sense  the  family  is  characterised  by 
the  more  or  less  elongated  and  narrow  form  of  the  body,  which  may  be  either 
naked,  or  have  scales.  A  spinous  dorsal,  or  a  spinous  portion  of  the  dorsal,  is 
generally  distinct,  in  which  the  spines  are  connected  by  membrane ;  there  are  no 
finlets  ;  the  caudal  (except  in  the  tile-fish)  is  not  forked ;  the  pelvic  fins  include  a 
single  spine  and  five  rays;  and  the  gill-openings  are  more  or  less  wide.  The 
number  of  vertebrae  in  the  trunk  is  generally  ten  or  more,  and  there  are  always 
more  than  fourteen  in  the  tail.  As  a  rule,  the  members  of  this  family  agree  with 
those  of  the  preceding  families  of  the  group  in  the  absence  of  a  bony  stay  connect- 
ing the  preopercular  bone  with  the  orbit,  but  in  the  genus  Pseudochromis  and  its 
allies  such  a  connection  exists.  Carnivorous  in  their  habits,  the  majority  of  these 
fishes  are  of  small  size,  with  but  feeble  swimming  powers,  and  living  on  the 


374 


SPINY-PINNED  FISHES. 


bottom  of  shallow  seas.     The  tile-fish  and  its  allies  are,  however,  large  deep-water 

forms;   and  the  genus  Bathy 'draco  has  been  taken  from  depths    of    over    1200 

fathoms.     They  inhabit  all  seas  except  the  Arctic,  where  they  are  almost  unknown. 

The  star-gazers,  as  typically  represented  by  the  genus  Urano- 

star-Gazers.    gcc^7M^  of  wnicn  one  species  (U.  scaber)  is  shown  in  the  upper  figure 

of  the  accompanying  illustration,  form  the  first  subfamily,  and  take  their  name 

from  the  upward  direction  of  their  small  eyes,  which  are  situated  on  the  upper 

surface  of  the  head.     They  are  further  characterised  by  the  continuous  lateral 

line,  and  by  the  spinous  portion  of  the  single  or  double  dorsal  fin  being  less 


STAR-GAZER  AND   WEAVER   (J  nat.  Size). 

developed  than  the  soft  part,  which  is  similar  to  the  anal.  The  members  of  the 
typical  genus  are  distinguished  by  the  large,  broad,  and  massive  head  being  partly 
covered  with  bony  plates ;  the  vertical  cleft  of  the  mouth ;  and  the  minute  size  of 
the  scales.  The  first  of  the  two  dorsal  fins  has  from  three  to  five  spines,  and  the 
rays  of  the  pectorals  are  branched.  Villiform  teeth  are  present  in  the  jaws  and 
on  the  bones  of  the  palate,  but  there  are  no  tusks.  The  gill-cover  is  armed; 
and  there  is  generally  a  long  filament  below  or  in  front  of  the  tongue,  but  there 
is  no  air-bladder.  While  the  figured  species  is  from  the  Mediterranean,  the  others 
range  from  the  Indo-Pacific  to  the  Atlantic.  Rarely  measuring  a  foot  in  length, 
these  exceedingly  unprepossessing  fish  can  raise  or  depress  their  small  eyes  at  will, 
and  are  generally  found  lying  sluggishly  on  the  sea-bottom  in  wait  for  their  prey, 
frequently  concealed  among  stones.  The  filament  in  front  of  the  mouth,  which 


STAR-GAZERS  AND    WEAVERS.  375 

is  moved  by  the  stream  of  water  continually  passing  through  the  latter,  doubtless 
acts  as  a  lure  to  entice  the  small  creatures  on  which  these  fishes  feed.  In  the 
allied  Leptoscopus  of  New  Zealand,  and  Iddhyoscopus,  ranging  from  India  to 
Japan,  there  is  but  a  single  dorsal  fin ;  the  latter  genus  agreeing  with  the  true 
star-gazers  in  having  bony  plates  on  the  head,  whereas  in  the  former  the  whole 
head  is  invested  in  a  smooth  skin.  The  Indian  I.  inermis  attains  a  length  of 
2  feet,  and  is  stated  to  live  in  the  mud. 

The  common  English  weaver,  or  sting-bull  (Trachinus  draco), 

shown  in  the  lower  figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  374,  is  the  best 
known  representative  of  the  typical  genus  of  the  second  subfamily,  in  which  the 
eyes  are  more  or  less  lateral  in  position,  the  lateral  line  continuous,  and  the  hinder- 
part  of  the  premaxillary  bones  devoid  of  an  enlarged  tooth ;  the  dorsal  fins  being 
one  or  two  in  number.  In  this  particular  genus  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  is  very 
oblique ;  the  eyes  have  an  upward  inclination ;  the  cycloid  scales  are  very  small ; 
and  there  are  villiform  teeth  both  in  the  jaws  and  on  the  bones  of  the  palate. 
Of  the  two  dorsal  fins,  the  first  is  very  short  and  furnished  with  six  or  seven 
spines;  and  the  lower  rays  of  the  pectorals  are  simple.  In  the  head  both  the 
preorbital  and  preopercular  bones  are  armed.  The  weavers  have  a  somewhat 
peculiar  geographical  distribution,  being  found  in  the  European  seas,  but  unknown 
on  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  America,  although  reappearing  in  Chilian  waters.  In 
the  British  seas  they  are  represented  by  the  greater  weaver  (T.  draco),  frequently 
measuring  about  a  foot  in  length,  and  the  lesser  weaver  (T.  vipera),  which  seldom 
exceeds  6  inches.  Yarrell  writes  that  "the  great  weaver  generally  measures 
about  12  inches  in  length,  but  has  been  known  to  attain  17  inches;  its  food 
is  the  fry  of  other  fishes,  and  its  flesh  is  excellent.  It  swims  very  near  the 
bottom,  is  sometimes  taken  in  deep  water  by  the  trawl-net,  and  occasionally  with 
a  baited  hook  attached  to  deep-sea  lines.  When  caught  it  should  be  handled 
with  great  caution.  I  have  known,  says  Mr.  Couch,  three  men  wounded  success- 
ively in  the  hand  by  the  same  fish,  and  the  consequences  have  been  in  a  few 
minutes  felt  as  high  as  the  shoulder.  Smart  friction  with  oil  soon  restores  the 
part  to  health,  but  such  is  the  degree  of  danger,  or  apprehension  of  it  rather, 
arising  from  wounds  inflicted  by  the  spines  of  the  weavers,  that  our  own  fishermen 
almost  invariably  cut  oft'  the  first  dorsal  fin  and  both  opercular  spines  before  they 
bring  them  on  shore."  The  poisonous  secretion,  which  is  a  modification  of  the 
ordinary  mucus,  is  lodged  in  a  deep  double  groove  in  the  spines  of  the  dorsal  fin 
and  gill-cover.  There  are  numerous  other  genera  of  the  subfamily,  among  which 
the  above-mentioned  Bathydraco  is  noteworthy  as  being  a  deep-sea  fish. 

The  third  subfamily — regarded  by  many  writers  as  a  distinct 

family  under  the  name  of  Latilidce — has  been  long  known  by  the 
genera  Latilus  and  Pinguipes  from  various  tropical  and  subtropical  seas,  and  is 
characterised  by  the  body  being  covered  with  small  scales,  the  lateral  position  of 
the  eyes,  the  continuous  lateral  line,  and  the  presence  of  a  large  tooth  on  the 
hinder  part  of  the  premaxillary  bones.  Especial  interest  attaches  to  the  group, 
on  account  of  the  discovery  of  a  new  member  oft*  Nomans  Land,  Massachusetts, 
in  1879,  which  received  the  name  of  tile-fish  (Lopholatilus  ckamceleonticeps). 
An  interesting  account  of  this  fish  is  given  by  Mr.  B.  Phillips,  who,  after  mention- 


376 


SPINY-FINNED   GROUP. 


ing  that  the  first  example  was  taken  by  the  captain  of  a  fishing-smack  when 
working  cod-lines  in  deep  water,  goes  on  to  observe  that  the  tile-fish  was  one  of 
the  most  brilliantly-coloured  fishes  out  of  the  tropics,  and  remarkable  for  the 
presence  of  a  soft  dorsal  fin,  resembling  that  of  the  salmon,  which  is  placed  on 
the  neck  in  advance  of  the  regular  dorsal  fin  instead  of  behind  it,  as  in  the  salmon 
family.  In  the  U.S.  Fishing  Keport  of  1881,  it  is  stated  that  "there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  the  tile-fish  will  rank  among  the  most  important  food-fishes 
of  the  United  States."  The  fish  would  weigh  from  10  Ibs.  to  40  Ibs.,  and  its 
abundance  was  remarkable.  It  took  the  hook  readily,  and  in  an  hour  or  two 
a  catch  of  250  Ibs.  of  tile-fish  was  not  uncommon.  As  the  lines  used  were  the 
same  as  for  cod-fishing,  no  change  of  apparatus  was  necessary.  It  was  then 
believed  that  this  new  fish  would  singularly  increase  the  food-supply  of  the  North 


TILE-FISH. 


Other  Groups. 


Atlantic  Coast ;  but  just  when  American  fishermen  were  beginning  to  apply  their 
skill  to  the  catching  of  tile-fish  off  the  New  England  coast,  the  Lopholatilus 
disappeared. 

Two  other  subfamilies,  distinguished  by  the  lateral  line  being 
interrupted  or  stopping  short  of  the  caudal  fin,  are  severally  typified 
by  the  genera  Pseudochromis  and  Notothenia ;  the  former  subfamily  having  the 
dorsal  fin  continuous,  while  in  the  latter  it  is  divided.  Pseudochromis  and  certain 
other  genera  include  tropical  fish  frequenting  coral-reefs  or  coral-coasts,  and 
taking  their  name  from  their  superficial  resemblance  to  the  members  of  a  very 
different  family — the  Chromididce.  They  differ  from  all  the  allied  forms  in  having 
a  bony  stay  connecting  the  preopercular  bone  with  the  infraorbital  ring. 

SOFT-SPINES  AND  FROG-FISHES, — Families  MALACANTHID&  and  BATRACHID^E. 

Of  these  two  unimportant  families,  the  first  is  represented  solely  by  the  soft- 
spines  (Malacanthus),  and  differs  from  the  preceding  family  by  having  only  ten 


SOFT-SPINES  AND  FROG-FISHES.  377 

trunk  and  fourteen  tail -vertebrae.  The  body  is  elongated,  and  covered  with  very 
small  scales ;  the  mouth  has  very  thick  lips ;  and  the  premaxillse  have  a  large 
tooth  behind.  The  dorsal  fin  is  single,  and,  like  the  anal,  greatly  elongated; 
its  anterior  portion  having  a  few  simple  rays.  There  is  one  spine  to  the  five- 
rayed  pelvic  fins  ;  and  the  gill-membranes  are  united  beneath  the  throat,  the  gill- 
cover  being  armed  with  a  spine.  Of  the  three  tropical  species  constituting  this 
genus,  the  one  here  figured  (M.  hcedti)  is  distributed  through  the  Indian  and 
Pacific  Oceans,  from  Mauritius  to  the  Sandwich  Islands ;  the  second  has  a  nearly 
similar  range ;  but  the  third  is  found  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Tropical  America. 

Frog-fishes  (Batrachus)  may  be  taken  as  our  representatives  of 

the  second  of  the  two  families  under  consideration.     The  family  to 

which  they  belong  is  characterised  by  the  distinct  spinous  portion  of  the  dorsal 

fin,  which  includes  a  few  pungent  spines ;  while  the  pelvic  fins  have  one  spine 

and   only   two   soft   rays.     The   head  is   broad,  thick,  and  frog-like :   the  body 


HCEDT'S  SOFT-SPINE  (§  nat.  size). 

elongate,  and  compressed  behind ;  and  the  skin  either  completely  naked,  or 
covered  with  small  scales ;  the  conical  teeth  being  of  small  or  medium  size.  The 
soft  dorsal  and  anal  fins  are  elongated,  and  the  pectorals  simple ;  the  rather 
narrow  gill-opening  forming  a  more  or  less  nearly  vertical  slit  in  advance  of  the 
latter,  and  the  opercular  bones  being  armed.  An  air-bladder  is  invariably  present. 
All  the  members  of  the  family  are  of  small  size  and  carnivorous  habits,  living  on 
the  sea-bottom  and  often  ascending  tidal  rivers ;  but,  while  the  majority  are 
confined  to  the  tropics,  a  few  range  into  the  warmer  parts  of  the  temperate  zones. 
As  a  genus,  the  true  frog-fishes  are  characterised  by  the  spinous  portion  of  the 
dorsal  fin  having  three  strong  spines,  and  the  presence  of  several  spines  on 
the  gill-cover ;  while  in  many  species  the  margins  of  the  mouth,  as  well  as  other 
parts  of  the  head,  are  provided  with  shining  tentacles.  Out  of  about  a  dozen 
species,  one  (B.  didactylus)  occurs  in  the  Mediterranean.  Some  of  the  species 
have  a  poison-gland  under  each  pectoral  fin  ;  and  at  Penang  all  the  tribe  are 
regarded  as  highly  poisonous,  although  in  Bombay  their  flesh  is  eaten  by  the 
poorer  classes  of  natives.  The  poison -gland  attains  its  highest  development 


378  SPINY-FIJVNED   GROUP. 

in  a  species  from  the  Pacific  coast  of  Panama,  described  under  the  name  of 
Tkalassophryne,  in  which  it  is  stated  to  be  as  perfect  as  in  the  venomous  snakes. 
In  this  fish  each  opercular  bone  terminates  in  a  long  spine  similar  to  those  of  the 
dorsal  fin ;  these  spines  being  perforated  by  a  canal  having  an  aperture  at  their 
base  and  summit.  This  canal  communicates  with  a  sac  containing  the  poisonous 
secretion,  which  can  be  made  to  flow  out  through  the  spine  by  pressure. 

ANGLER-FISH  AND  THEIR  ALLIES, — Family  LOPHIIDJE. 

Passing  over  one  very  unimportant  family,  our  next  representatives  of  the 
group  under  consideration  are  the  angler-fish  and  their  allies ;  a  family  remarkable 
for  their  extreme  ugliness  and  strange  forms.  Possessing  the  group-characters 
alread}^  noticed,  they  are  specially  distinguished  by  having  the  spinous  dorsal  fin 
placed  far  forwards  on  the  head,  and  generally  modified  more  or  less  completely 
into  tentacles,  although  it  may  be  represented  by  isolated  spines.  The  head  and 
fore-part  of  the  body  are  of  enormous  relative  size,  and  the  teeth  in  the  capacious 
mouth  are  either  villiform  or  rasp-like.  When  present,  the  pelvic  fins  consist  of 
four  or  five  soft  rays ;  and  the  pectorals  are  supported  by  a  prolongation  of  some 
of  the  superior  bones.  The  gill-opening  is  reduced  to  a  small  aperture  situated 
near  the  pectoral  fin ;  and  the  gills  themselves  are  either  two  and  a  half  or  three 
and  a  half  in  number,  false  gills  being  generally  absent.  These  fish  are  distributed 
over  all  seas.  Dr.  Gtinther  writes  that  "  the  habits  of  all  are  equally  sluggish  and 
inactive;  they  are  very  bad  swimmers;  those  found  near  the  coasts  lie  on  the 
bottom  of  the  sea,  holding  on  with  their  arm-like  pectoral  fins  to  seaweeds  or 
stones,  between  which  they  are  hidden ;  those  of  pelagic  habits  attach  themselves 
to  floating  seaweed  or  other  objects,  and  are  at  the  mercy  of  wind  and  current." 
A  large  proportion  of  the  genera  have,  therefore,  found  their  way  to  the  greatest 
depths  of  the  ocean,  retaining  all  the  characteristics  of  their  surface-ancestors, 
but  assuming  the  modifications  by  which  they  live  in  abysmal  depths. 

The  small  number  of  species  constituting  the  typical  genus 
(Lophius)  of  the  family  include  its  ugliest  representatives,  among 
these  being  the  British  angler-fish  (L.  piscatorius),  which  also  rejoices  in  the  titles 
of  fishing-frog,  frog-fish,  or  sea-devil.  Its  leading  characters  are  to  be  found  in 
the  enormous  size  of  the  broad,  depressed,  and  rounded  head,  near  the  middle  of 
the  upper  surface  of  which  are  situated  the  small  eyes ;  and  the  great  width  of  the 
cleft  of  the  mouth,  which  looks  like  a  yawning  chasm.  Both  the  jaws  and  palate 
are  armed  with  rasp-like  teeth  of  unequal  size,  capable  of  being  raised  and 
depressed  at  the  will  of  their  owner.  The  body  is  naked ;  the  first  three  spines 
of  the  dorsal  fin  form  long  tentacles  on  the  head,  and  the  next  three  are  con- 
nected ;  the  soft  dorsal  and  anal  fins  being  of  small  length.  Young  specimens  are 
exceedingly  unlike  their  parents,  having  the  head  smaller,  the  tentacles  branched, 
and  most  of  the  rays  of  the  fins  produced  into  long  filaments.  The  whole  of  the 
few  known  forms  are  coast-haunting  fishes,  the  common  species  ranging  from 
the  European  and  South  African  seas  to  those  of  the  western  side  of  North 
America ;  while  a  second  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  a  third  in  Chinese  and 
Japanese  waters,  and  a  fourth  in  those  of  the  Admiralty  Islands.  In  the  British 


ANGLER-FISH. 


379 


species  the  general  colour  of  the  upper  surface  is  uniform  brown,  becoming  darker 
on  the  fin-membranes ;  while  the  under-parts,  as  well  as  the  pectoral  and  pelvic 
fins,  are  white;  the  tail  being  dark  blackish  brown.  The  colour  is,  however, 
subject  to  a  certain  amount  of  modification,  according  to  the  tint  of  the  inanimate 
surroundings  of  the  individual.  Although  commonly  not  more  than  a  yard  in 
length,  specimens  of  this  ugly  monster  have  been  known  to  measure  more  than 


BARRACUDA  AND  ANGLER-FISH  (^  liat.  size). 


5  feet.  In  all  respects  the  angler  affords  us  an  example  of  a  creature  most 
admirably  modified  and  adapted  for  the  exigencies  of  its  particular  mode  of  life. 
Living  on  the  mud  or  sand  of  a  shallow  sea-bottom,  the  angler  is  protected  not 
only  by  its  power  of  adapting  its  own  coloration  to  that  of  its  environment,  but 
likewise  by  the  fringed  appendages  surrounding  the  head  presenting  the  appear- 
ance of  a  mass  of  seaweed.  The  structure  of  the  paired  fins  renders  the  fish  able 
to  walk  on  the  sea-bottom  ;  and  with  these  limbs  it  also  stirs  up  at  times  the  sand 
and  mud  to  attract  its  prey,  and  at  the  same  time  to  aid  in  concealing  its  own 


38o  SPINY-FINNED    GROUP. 


ugly  person.  Fish  and  other  prey  are  also  attracted  by  the  constant  movement  of 
the  first  tentacle  on  the  head,  the  summit  of  which  terminates  in  an  expanded 
lappet;  and  no  sooner  is  the  unfortunate  victim  well  within  reach,  than  it  is 
engulfed  with  one  snap  of  the  capacious  mouth ;  the  erectile  and  backwardly- 
clirected  teeth  preventing  any  chance  of  escape  from  this  avernus, 

As  an  example  of  a  pelagic  genus  of  the  family  we  select  the 
tentacle-fish  (Antennarias),  so  remarkable  for  their  nest-building 
habits.  In  these  fishes  the  large  head  is  elevated  and  compressed;  the  cleft  of 
the  mouth  being  quite  or  nearly  vertical,  and  of  only  moderate  width.  There  are 
rasp-like  teeth  on  the  palate  and  jaws ;  the  eyes  are  small  and  lateral ;  the  body 
may  be  either  naked,  or  covered  with  granules  or  spines,  which  may  be  modified 
into  tentacles  ;  and  the  head  is  furnished  with  three  tentacles  very  similar  to  those 
of  the  true  anglers.  The  soft  dorsal  is  of  moderate  length,  and  the  anal  short ; 
pelvic  fins  being  present.  Although  chiefly  tropical,  these  fishes  are  often  carried 
far  into  the  temperate  seas ;  and  many  of  them  have  a  most  extensive  range,  being 
found  alike  in  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  Oceans.  Feeble  swimmers,  these  fishes  are 
not  unf requently  to  be  found  near  the  coast,  where  they  conceal  themselves  beneath 
corals,  stones,  or  seaweed,  to  w^hich  they  hold  fast  by  their  arm-like  pectoral  fins. 
They  have  also  been  observed  to  hop  over  moist  ground  or  slimy  seaweed,  and 
at  times  conceal  themselves  in  the  mud,  after  the  manner  of  the  true  anglers, 
attracting  their  prey  by  the  movements  of  the  first  tentacle  on  the  head,  the 
extremity  of  which,  when  in  motion,  much  resembles  a  worm.  When  at  sea,  they 
have  the  power  of  inflating  their  bodies  in  the  same  way  as  the  globe-fishes.  It 
has  been  observed  that  one  of  these  fishes  placed  in  a  basin  containing  a  small 
quantity  of  water  produced  so  strong  a  current  by  the  passage  of  water  through 
its  jaws,  and  its  subsequent  expulsion  through  the  gill -orifice,  that  a  rapid  rotatory 
motion  resulted.  "'The  gulf -weed,'  writes  Day,  "assists  the  migration  of  these 
fishes;  during  the  winter  months  the  prevailing  winds  bring  to  the  islands  of  the 
Bermudas  large  fields  as  well  as  isolated  patches  of  weed,  on  which  many  fishes 
find  a  home,  and  among  them  Antennarias,  Here  it  makes  its  wonderful  nest, 
suspended  by  means  of  silk-like  fibres,  which  prove  strong  enough  to  support  the 
huge  bunches  of  eggs  that  hang  like  grape-clusters  within  its  orbicular  case ; 
and  M.  Vaillant  has  shown  that  each  nest  is  made  of  one  seaweed,  the  different 
twigs  being  brought  together  and  made  fast  to  each  other  by  the  fish  by  means 
of  a  pasty  sort  of  substance  provided  by  the  animal  itself/' 

THE  BULL-HEADS  AND  GURNARDS, — Family  COTTIDJZ. 

The  thirteenth  family  of  the  present  section  differs  from  all  the  foregoing, 
with  the  exception  of  the  genus  Pseudochromis  and  its  allies,  in  the  presence  of 
a  bony  process  arising  from  the  infraorbital  ring  of  the  skull  to  connect  it  with 
the  spine  at  the  angle  of  the  preopercular  bone.  In  shape  the  body  is  more  or 
less  elongate  and  subcylindrical ;  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  is  transverse,  and  the 
weak  teeth  are  generally  arranged  in  villiform  bands.  As  a  rule,  there  are  two 
dorsal  fins,  of  which  the  spinous  is  less  developed  than  the  soft ;  both  the  latter 
and  the  anal  being  elongated  ;  the  pectorals  may  be  provided  with  filamentous 


BULL-HEADS  AND    GURNARDS. 


appendages,  and  the  pelvic  pair  have  not  more  than  five  rays.  The  body  may  be 
either  naked,  scaled,  or  protected  by  a  single  row  of  plate-like  scales.  The 
members  of  this  family,  which  are  arranged  under  a  good  many  generic  heads, 
are  distributed  over  almost  all  seas,  while  a  few  inhabit  fresh  waters.  Of  com- 
paratively small  or  medium  size,  these  fishes  have  but  poorly  developed  swimming 
powers,  and  spend  their  time  swimming  or  crawling  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  in 
shallow  water  at  no  great  distance  from  the  coast.  A  Japanese  bull-head  is  stated, 
however,  to  have  been  dredged  in  five  hundred  fathoms  of  water.  In  a  fossil  state 
gurnards  referable  to  the  existing  genus  occur  in  many  of  the  European  Tertiary 
rocks ;  while  remains  of  bull-heads  are  met  with  in  the  upper  Miocene  of  Basle, 


COMMON   BULL-HEADS   (ll'dt.  size.) 


Bull-Heads. 


and  those  of  the  allied  extinct  genus  (Lepidocottus},  distinguished  by  its  ctenoid 
scales,  in  the  upper  Eocene  of  Switzerland. 

The  familiar  bull-head  or  miller's  thumb  (Coitus  gobio),  of  the 
streams  of  Britain  and  many  other  parts  of  Europe,  belongs  to  a 
genus  containing  some  forty  species,  mostly  distributed  over  the  fresh  waters  and 
coasts  of  the  temperate  zone  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  All  are  of  small  size, 
and  characterised  by  the  broad,  depressed,  and  rounded  head ;  the  subcylindrical 
body,  somewhat  compressed  posteriorly ;  the  absence  of  scales ;  the  distinct  lateral 
line  ;  and  the  rounded  pectoral  fins,  in  which  some  or  all  of  the  rays  are  simple. 
Villiform  teeth  are  present  on  the  jaws  and  vomer,  although  there  are  none  on 
the  palatine  bones.  In  the  majority  of  the  fresh-water  species  the  spine  on  the 


382  SPINY-FINNED   GROUP. 

preopercular  bone  is  simple,  but  becomes  branched  in  many  of  the  marine  forms. 
The  common  fresh-water  species,  which  ranges  over  Central  and  Northern  Europe 
to  Northern  Asia,  seldom  exceeds  4  or  5  inches  in  length,  and  is  more  generally 
found  in  small  streams  than  in  large  rivers.  It  has  a  well-known  habit  of  con- 
cealing its  broad  and  flat  head  beneath  loose  stones  on  the  river-bottom,  and  in 
this  position  will  lie  motionless  for  hours,  but  when  disturbed  swims  swiftly  away. 
Its  food  consists  of  the  larvae  of  water-insects  and  crustaceans,  as  well  as  the  eggs 
and  fry  of  other  small  fish.  The  other  British  representatives  of  the  genus  are 
all  marine,  and  include  the  sea-scorpion  (C.  scorpius)  and  father-lasher  (C.  bubalis), 
both  of  which  are  also  found  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Atlantic,  as  well  as  two 
other  less  common  species.  The  males  of  the  common  marine  species  are  stated 
to  build  a  nest  of  stones  and  seaweed  for  the  reception  of  the  spawn ;  and  to  guard 
and  defend  the  young  fry  when  hatched. 

On  the  Indian  and  Australian  coasts  the  bull-heads  are  represented  by  the 
so-called  flat-heads,  or  crocodile-fishes  (Platycephalus),  in  which  the  much 
depressed  head  is  more  or  less  fully  armed  with  spines,  and  the  body  covered 
with  ctenoid  scales ;  the  anterior  spine  of  the  first  dorsal  fin  being  isolated  from 
the  rest,  and  teeth  present  on  both  the  vomer  and  palatine  bones.  Day  writes  of 
these  fishes  that  "  the  wounds  from  their  spines  are  dreaded  because  of  the  violent 
irritation  they  occasion.  Their  eyes  are  peculiar;  the  iris  possesses  two  semi- 
circular flaps,  one  above,  the  other  below,  the  upper  being  usually  the  larger ; 
these  flaps  can  be  brought  close  together,  probably  under  the  stimulus  of  light." 

Of  a  decidedly  ugly  appearance,  the  gurnards  (Trigla)  are  easily 
recognised  by  their  enormous,  square,  and  elevated  heads,  in  which 
the  upper  surface  and  sides  are  entirely  bony,  and  likewise  by  the  finger-like 
first  three  rays  of  the  pectoral  fins,  which  serve  not  only  for  walking  on  the 
sea-bottom  but  likewise  as  organs  of  touch.  There  are  two  dorsal  fins,  of  which  the 
spinous  is  tall,  and  the  soft  one  long,  low,  and  similar  to  the  anal ;  the  tail-fin 
being  slightly  rounded.  The  teeth  are  villiform ;  and  the  air-bladder,  which  is 
generally  furnished  with  lateral  muscles,  may  be  divided  into  two  longitudinal 
halves.  They  have  been  divided  into  three  subgenera,  of  which  the  typical  one 
is  characterised  by  the  absence  of  teeth  on  the  palatines,  and  the  small  size  of  the 
scales,  with  the  exception  of  the  highly  modified  ones  forming  the  lateral  line, 
which  are  large,  triangular,  and  spiny.  The  second  group  is  distinguished  by  the 
medium  size  of  the  scales;  while  in  the  third  teeth  are  present  on  the  palatine 
bones.  Their  colours  are  frequently  brilliant,  and  the  fins  highly  decorated. 
The  genus  is  represented  by  some  forty  species,  distributed  over  all  temperate  and 
tropical  seas,  out  of  which  no  less  than  seven  are  found  in  British  waters.  Their 
flesh,  which  is  firm  and  flaky,  and  of  a  pale  orange-pink  tinge,  is  extensively  used 
as  food.  One  of  the  best  known  of  the  British  species  is  the  red  gurnard  (T.  pini), 
which  seldom  exceeds  12  or  14  inches  in  length,  and,  when  freshly  caught,  is  of 
a  bright  red  colour,  with  the  sides  and  under-parts  silvery  white,  and  the  fins 
reddish  white.  Its  food  consists  of  crustaceans,  which  give  the  pinkish  tinge  to 
its  flesh,  and  the  spawning-season  is  May  or  June.  The  sapphirine  gurnard 
(T.  hirundo),  which  is  the  one  represented  in  the  woodcut,  is  another  British 
.species,  taking  its  Latin  name  from  the  length  of  the  pectoral  fins,  and  its  English 


BULL-HEADS  AND    GURNARDS. 


383. 


title  from  the  beautiful  azure  tint  of  their  inner  surfaces.  More  abundant  than 
the  other  species,  this  gurnard  may  reach  a  couple  of  feet  in  length,  its  general 
colour  being  brownish  red.  A  third  British  form  is  commonly  known  as  the  piper 
(T.  lyra),  and  may  be  recognised  by  the  unusually  large  size  of  the  head,  the  more 
projecting  muzzle,  and  the  greater  length  of  the  spines  of  the  gill-cover.  The 


SAPPHIRINE  GURNARDS  (  j  nat.  size). 


general  colour  is  brilliant  red,  with  the  under-parts  white.  It  attains  a  length  of 
a  couple  of  feet,  and  is  supposed  to  take  its  name  from  the  grunting  sound  which, 
in  common  with  other  species,  it  emits  when  first  handled,  owing  to  the  escape 
of  air  through  the  mouth.  The  European  forms  are  rarely  found  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Atlantic,  where  their  place  is  taken  by  representatives  of  the  third  subgenus. 
Two  British  species  are  figured  in  the  coloured  Plate,  namely,  the  grey  gurnard 
(T.  gurnardus)  above,  and  the  streaked  gurnard  (T.  lineata)  below. 


384  SPINY-PINNED   GROUP. 

THE  FLYING  GURNARDS  AND  THEIR  ALLIES, — Family  DACTYLOPTERID^. 

Another  family  of  the  present  section  is  typified  by  the  so-called  flying 
gurnards,  and  is  easily  recognised  by  the  investiture  of  the  body  in  an  armour  of 
bony  keeled  plates  or  scales.  In  form  the  body  is  elongate  and  subcyclindrical ; 
the  teeth  are  weak  ;  and  there  is  a  bony  stay  connecting  the  preopercular  with 
the  infraorbital  ring.  These  fishes  are  all  marine,  some  being  pelagic,  and  they 
are  found  in  all  seas,  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Equator,  as  well  as  in  the 
Southern  Hemisphere.  They  are  represented  by  an  extinct  genus  (Petalapteryx) 
in  the  Italian  middle  Eocene 

The  curious-looking  fish  (Agonus  cataphractus),  figured  in  the 

accompanying  illustration,  is  the  British  representative  of  a  genus 

of  small-sized  fishes  inhabiting  the  northern  temperate  seas  and  extending  into 


ARMED  BULL-HEAD  (§  nat.  size), 

the  Arctic  Ocean.  They  are  characterised  by  the  angulation  of  the  head  and  body, 
which  are  invested  in  bony  plates ;  the  small  size  of  the  teeth  in  the  jaws ;  the 
two  dorsal  fins ;  and  the  absence  of  appendages  to  the  pectorals.  Of  the  armed 
bull-head,  as  the  British  species  is  popularly  termed,  Yarrell  writes  that  it  is  not 
"  uncommon  along  the  line  of  our  southern  coast,  where  it  is  well  known ;  and  the 
young  of  small  size  are  frequently  taken  by  the  shrimpers  in  most  of  the  sandy 
bays  at  the  mouth  of  the  Thames  and  of  other  rivers ;  on  the  eastern  coast  it  is 
very  plentiful  It  seldom  exceeds  6  inches  in  length ;  its  food  is  aquatic  insects 
and  crustaceans  ;  it  spawns  in  May,  depositing  the  ova  among  stones,  and  its  flesh 
is  said  to  be  firm  and  good."  Somewhat  curiously,  an  outlying  representative  of 
the  genus  occurs  on  the  Chilian  coast. 


BULL-HEADS  AND   GURNARDS. 


335 


Beaked 
Gurnards. 


As  a  genus  remarkable  for  the  singularity  of  their  form,  we  may 
briefly  notice  the  beaked  gurnards,  of  which  the  European  representa- 
tive (Peristethus  cataphractum)  is  shown  in  our  illustration.  These  rather  small 
fishes  are  specially  characterised  by  the  preorbital  bone  being  prolonged  into  a 
flattened  process  projecting  on  each  side  beyond  the  muzzle  ;  the  whole  of  the 
squared  head  being  invested  in  a  solid  bony  case.  Large  plates  of  bone  form  the 
body-armour ;  the  dorsal  fin  may  be  either  continuous  or  divided  into  two  moieties, 
of  which  the  second  is  the  longer ;  there  are  two  free  appendages  in  advance  of 
each  pectoral  fin;  teeth  are  wanting;  and  the  lower  jaw  is  provided  with  barbels. 
These  fishes,  of  which  there  are  some  ten  representatives,  range  from  the  southern 
shores  of  Britain,  through  the  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic,  and  likewise  from  the 


BEAKED   GURNARD   (£  nat.  size). 


Indian  Ocean  to  China  and  the  Sandwich  Islands.  Nowhere  abundant,  they  are 
believed  to  inhabit  deeper  water  than  the  gurnards,  which  they  resemble  in  their 
general  mode  of  life. 

Flying  Of  more  interest  than  either  of  the  preceding  are  the  so-called 

Gurnards.  flying  gurnards  (Da.ctylopterus)  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  Tropical 
Atlantic,  and  Indo-Pacific  Oceans,  since  they  alone  share  with  the  true  flying- 
fish  the  power  of  taking  long  flying  leaps  along  the  surface  of  the  sea.  In  order 
to  do  this,  their  pectoral  fins  are  greatly  developed,  assuming  a  wing-like  form, 
with  the  anterior  portion  shorter  and  separated  from  the  remainder.  The  upper 
surface  and  sides  of  the  squared,  gurnard-like  head  are  bony  ;  long  spines  are  present 
on  the  scapular  and  preopercular  ;  the  body  is  covered  with  medium  -sized  keeled 
scales,  among  which  there  is  no  lateral  line  ;  and  the  second  dorsal  fin  but  slightly 
exceeds  the  first  in  length.  Although  granular  teeth  are  present  on  the  jaw,  the 
palate  is  toothless.  The  air-bladder  is  divided  into  longitudinal  halves,  and 
furnished  with  a  muscle.  It  is  only  in  the  adult  that  the  pectoral  fins  are  suffi- 
ciently developed  to  enable  these  fishes  to  "  fly."  Of  the  three  species,  the  best 
VOL.  v.  —  25 


386 


SPINY-PINNED   GROUP. 


Dragon-Fishes. 


known  is  D.  volitans,  which  may  be  commonly  met  with  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Very  similar  in  their  habits  to  the  true  flying-fish,  the  flying  gurnards  are  more 

heavily  built,  and  measure  as  much  as  18  inches  in  length. 

In  this  place  may  be  noticed  the  curious  little   dragon-fishes 
(Pegasus),  from   the  Indian,   Chinese,   and   Australian   seas,   which 

although  referred  by  Dr.  Giinther  to  a  distinct  family  are  included  by  Day  in 

the  present  one.     In  these  strange  little  fishes  the  broad  and  depressed  body  is 

covered  with  bony 
plates,  which  are 
movable,  although 
those  investing  the 
tail  are  firmly 
welded  together. 
The  narrow  gill- 
opening  is  situated 
in  front  of  the 
pectoral  fin ;  the 
gill-cover  is  formed 
of  a  single  plate, 
and  the  gills  them- 
selves are  four  in 
number.  The  single 
short  dorsal  fin  is 
placed  opposite  an 
anal  of  similar 


AUSTRALIAN  DRAGON-FISH  (nat.  size). 


size ;  the  pectorals  are  long,  horizontal,  and  composed  of  simple  rays,  some  of  which 
may  be  spinous ;  and  the  pelvis  comprises  one  or  two  rays,  the  outer  one  being 
elongated.  Both  teeth  and  an  air-bladder  are  wanting.  The  figured  species 
(P.  natans)  is  an  Australian  one,  and  is  less  well  known  than  the  Indian  P.  draco 
and  the  Chinese  P.  volens\  dried  specimens  of  the  latter  being  familiar  objects 
on  Chinese  insect-boxes.  Nothing  seems  to  have  been  ascertained  as  to  the  habits 
of  these  fish,  although  it  has  been  suggested  that  they  probably  frequent  sandy 
shores.  With  this  family  we  take  leave  of  the  great  Cotta-Scornbriform  section, 
as  it  is  called,  and  pass  on  to  another  containing  only  two  or  three  families. 


THE  LUMP-SUCKERS, — Family  CYCLOPTERID^:. 

With  the  luinp-suckers  we  come  to  a  small  section  characterised  by  the 
spinous  dorsal  fin  being  short,  and  either  composed  of  flexible  spines,  or  much 
less  developed  than  the  soft  dorsal,  or  soft  portion  of  the  same  ;  the  soft  dorsal 
being  equal  in  extent  to  the  anal  If  present,  the  pelvic  fins  are  either  thoracic 
or  jugular  in  position,  with  one  spine,  and  generally  five  (rarely  four)  soft  rays. 
There  is  a  prominent  papilla  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  vent.  In  no  case  is 
there  a  bony  stay  to  the  preopercular  from  the  infraorbital  ring.  As  a  family, 
the  lump-suckers  are  characterised  by  the  thick  or  oblong  body,  which  may  be 
either  naked  or  tuberculated ;  the  small  teeth ;  and  the  presence  of  a  circular 


LUMP-SUCKERS. 


387 


adhesive  disc  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  chest,  surrounded  by  a  fringe  of  skin, 
and  supported  by  the  rudiniental  pelvic  fins,  the  gill-opening  being  narrow.  All 
the  members  of  the  family,  which  are  arranged  under  two  genera,  are  carnivorous 
and  coast-dwelling  fishes,  restricted  to  the  colder  seas  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere, 
and  ranging  into  the  Arctic  Ocean.  They  derive  their  name  from  their  habit  of 
attaching  themselves  to  rocks  by  means  of  the  adhesive  disc. 

The  members  of  the  typical  genus  Cyclopterus  are  ugly  "  lumpy  "  fishes,  with 
the  thick,  short  body  covered  with  a  viscous  tuberculated  skin;  the  large  head 


LUMP-SUCKER  AND  VIVIPAROUS  BLENNY  (^  nat.  size). 

has  a  very  short,  blunted  muzzle ;  and  there  are  rows  of  villiform  teeth  in  the 
jaws,  but  none  on  the  palate.  The  skeleton  is  remarkable  for  its  softness,  owing 
to  the  small  amount  of  mineral  matter  entering  into  the  composition  of  the  bones. 
In  the  British  species  (C.  lumpus\  represented  in  the  upper  figure  of  the  accom- 
panying illustration,  the  skin  is  so  thick  as  to  almost  conceal  the  first  dorsal  fin  ; 
and  in  the  adult  the  large  rough  tubercles  are  arranged  in  four  longitudinal  series 
on  each  side  of  the  body.  In  the  young,  however,  these  tubercles  are  not  developed. 
Although  these  fishes  may  reach  a  length  of  a  couple  of  feet,  they  do  not  usually 
measure  more  than  12  or  14  inches.  Yarrell  writes  that  "in  the  month  of  March 
the  colours  of  the  lump-fish  are  in  the  highest  perfection,  combining  various 


388 


SPINY-FINNED   GROUP. 


shades  of  blue,  purple,  and  rich  orange."  These  voracious  fishes  feed  chiefly  on 
the  fry  of  other  species.  In  the  Arctic  lump-sucker  (C.  spinosus)  there  are  large, 
conical  bony  plates,  surmounted  with  a  spine,  on  the  head  and  body  of  the  adult. 
In  the  allied  Liparis  the  skin  is  naked,  and  more  or  less  loose. 

THE  GOBIES  AND  MUD-SKIPPERS, — Family  GOBIID^E. 

The  gobies  and  their  allies  differ  from  the  preceding  family  in  that  there  are 
always  distinct  rays  to  the  pelvic  fins ;  although  in  some  cases  the  two  fins  may 
be  joined  in  the  middle  line.  Elongated  in  form,  the  body  may  be  either  scaled 
or  naked ;  and  the  teeth  are  generally  small,  but  may  have  enlarged  tusks  among 


FRESH -WATER  GOBY  (nat.  size). 

them.     The  spinous  portion  of  the  dorsal  (whether  separate  or  continuous  with  ' 
the  soft  dorsal)  is  always  composed  of  flexible  spines,  and  shorter  than  the  soft ! 
dorsal.     The  gill-opening  is  more  or  less  narrowed,  and  there  is  usually  no  air- 
bladder.     This  very  extensive  family  comprises  littoral  fishes  of  small  size  and 
carnivorous  habits,  a  few  of  which  have  accustomed  themselves  to  a  fresh-water 
life.     It  contains  a  large  number  of  genera,  some  of  which  are  extremely  numerous 
in  species,  as  are  the  latter  in  individuals ;  and  their  range  includes  the  coast- 
regions  of  all  the  temperate  and  tropical  seas.     Geologically,  the  group  is  com-] 
paratively  ancient,  true  gobies  dating  from  the   middle  Eocene  of  Monte  Bolca, 
while  the  extinct  genus  Ckirothrix  occurs  in  the  Chalk  of  the  Lebanon. 

Familiar  to  all   in  the  person  of  the  common   British  species! 


Gobies. 


Gobius    niger,    the     gobies    form    a    very    large     genus,    with 


GOBIES  AND  MUD-SKIPPERS.  389 

geographical  distribution  as  extensive  as  that  of  the  family,  but  especially  well 
represented  in  tropical  and  subtropical  seas,  no  less  than  forty  different  kinds 
being  recorded  from  those  of  India  alone.  These  fishes  have  the  body  generally 
scaled;  two  dorsal  fins,  of  which  the  first  is  usually  furnished  with  six  flexible 
spines;  the  pelvic  fins  united  to  form  a  disc,  which,  however,  is  at  most  only 
partially  adherent  to  the  abdomen ;  the  teeth  in  more  than  a  single  row :  and 
the  vertical  gill-opening  of  moderate  width.  The  form  of  the  body  is  subject  to 
considerable  specific  variation ;  and  in  some  forms  the  head,  and  in  others  a  part 
or  even  the  whole  of  the  body  is  devoid  of  scales.  In  some  cases  there  may  be 
barbels  or  warts  on  the  head,  and  in  others  a  crest  on  the  occiput.  There  are 
likewise  considerable  differences  in  the  dentition,  some  species  having  large  tusks 
among  the  ordinary  teeth.  The  gobies,  of  which  there  are  several  British  marine 
species,  are  especially  partial  to  rocky  coasts,  where  they  protect  themselves 
against  waves  and  storms  by  adhering  to  rocks  by  means  of  the  sucker  formed 
by  their  modified  pelvic  fins  ;  many  of  them  being  often  found  in  the  swirl  of  the 
retreating  waves.  Some,  however,  prefer  brackish  estuaries  or  lagoons,  while 
others  again,  like  the  Russian  species  (6r.  fluviatilis)  represented  in  our  illustration, 
are  exclusively  fresh-water.  In  many  of  them  the  male  constructs  a  nest  in  which 
the  spawn  is  hatched.  In  the  case  of  the  spotted  goby,  or  pole  wig  (G.  minutus) 
— a  species  found  for  some  distance  up  the  Thames — the  male,  when  in  tidal 
pools,  generally  chooses  one  of  the  shells  of  a  cockle  or  some  other  bivalve  for  its 
nest;  the  shell  being  placed  on  the  sand  with  its  concave  surface  downwards, 
beneath  which  the  sand  is  hollowed  out  and  cemented  by  a  special  mucilaginous 
secretion  from  the  skin  of  the  fish ;  a  cylindrical  tunnel  giving  access  to  the  nest, 
and  the  whole  structure  being  covered  over  with  loose  sand.  The  female  having 
deposited  her  eggs,  which  are  fixed  to  the  shell,  in  this  nest,  the  male  mounts 
guard  over  them,  maintaining  his  watch'  during  the  whole  period  of  incubation, 
which  lasts  from  six  to  nine  days.  A  European  goby  (Latrunculus  pellucidus), 
belonging  to  a  distinct  genus,  and  characterised  by  its  translucent  body,  is 
almost  peculiar  among  vertebrates  in  that  its  span  of  life  is  of  only  a  year's 
duration.  In  June  and  July  the  spawn  is  deposited,  the  eggs  are  hatched  in 
August,  while  in  the  late  autumn  or  winter  the  fishes  become  fully  mature ;  these, 
however,  die  off  in  the  following  July  or  August,  so  that  in  September  only  the 
fry  are  to  be  met  with. 

Mud  Ski      r  Omitting  all  mention  of  a  number  of  more  or  less  nearly  allied 

genera,  our  next  representatives  of  the  family  are  the  mud -skippers 
(Periophthalmus),  remarkable  not  only  for  the  peculiar  physiognomy  given  them 
by  their  conspicuous  eyes,  but  likewise  on  account  of  their  strange  habits.  These 
fishes,  which  frequent  the  coasts  and  estuaries  bordering  the  Indo-Pacific  Ocean, 
and  likewise  reappear  on  the  shores  of  West  Africa,  take  their  name  from  their 
prominent  eyes,  which  are  set  close  together  somewhat  below  the  line  of  the 
profile,  and  are  not  only  capable  of  protrusion  and  retraction  but  are  furnished 
with  a  well-developed  outer  eyelid.  The  elongate  body  is  covered  with  cycloid 
or  slightly  pectinated  scales,  extending  on  to  the  bases  of  the  pectoral  fins ;  the 
cleft  of  the  mouth  is  nearly  horizontal,  with  the  upper  jaw  projecting  somewhat 
beyond  the  lower,  and  the  conical  teeth  are  vertical.  The  first  dorsal  fin  includes 


39° 


SPINY-FINNED   GROUP. 


a  variable  number  of  flexible  spines;  t-he  base  of  the  pectorals  are  muscular; 
the  pelvic  fins  are  united  for  a  portion  of  their  length ;  and  the  caudal  fin  has 
its  lower  border  obliquely  truncated.  The  species  here  figured  (P.  koelre'iiteri) 
has  a  wide  range,  being  found  in  the  Red  Sea,  the  seas  and  on  the  coasts  of  India, 
where  it  ascends  tidal  rivers  and  estuaries,  as  well  as  in  the  Andamans,  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  Concerning  their  habits,  Day  writes 
that  "these  fishes,  from  the  muscular  development  at  the  base  of  the  pectoral 
fins,  are  able  to  use  them  for  progression  on  mud  or  for  climbing.  It  is  a  most 
curious  sight  to  see  P.  schlosseri  along  the  side  of  the  Burmese  rivers ;  at  a 
distance  the  fishes  appear  like  large  tadpoles,  stationary,  contemplating  all  passing 
objects,  or  else  snapping  at  flies  or  other  insects ;  suddenly,  startled  by  something, 


MUD-SKIPPERS  DISPORTING  (f  nat.  size).—  After  Hilgendorf. 


away  they  go  with  a  hop,  skip,  and  a  jump,  either  inland  among  the  trees  or  on 
to  the  water  like  a  flat  stone  or  a  piece  of  slate  sent  skimming  by  a  schoolboy. 
They  climb  on  to  trees  and  large  pieces  of  grass,  leaves,  and  sticks,  holding  on  by 
their  pectoral  fins  exactly  as  if  these  wrere  arms.  Now  and  then  they  plant  these 
firmly  as  organs  of  support,  the  same  as  one  places  one's  elbows  on  a  table,  then 
they  raise  their  heads  and  take  a  deliberate  survey  of  surrounding  objects."  Of 
certain  allied  species,  which  he  places  in  a  genus  apart,  the  same  writer  remarks 
that  they  are  essentially  mud-dwelling  fish,  and  that  if  placed  in  a  vessel  of  deep 
water  they  appear  to  be  rapidly  drowned.  In  all,  the  remarkable  prominence  of  the 
eyes  is  more  or  less  completely  lost  after  death.  On  the  slimy  banks  of  the  small 
affluents  of  tlie  Hughli  near  Calcutta,  where  the  writer  has  often  watched  their 
strange  habits,  these  fishes  may  be  seen  in  hundreds. 


BLENNIES  AND   THEIR  ALLIES  391 

Concerning  the  precise  systematic  position  of  the  beautifully 
coloured  fishes  commonly  known  as  clragonets  (Callionymus),  there  is 
some  difference  of  opinion;  Dr.  Giinther  placing  them  with  the  gobies,  whereas 
Day,  on  account  of  the  wide  separation  of  the  pelvic  fins  (which  in  the  latter  and 
their  near  allies  either  form  a  disc  or  are  very  close  together),  refers  them  to  a 
separate  family.  Be  this  as  it  may,  these  fishes,  in  addition  to  the  feature  already 
mentioned,  are  characterised  by  the  head  and  anterior  portion  of  the  naked  body 
being  depressed,  while  the  remainder  is  cylindrical.  The  pointed  mouth  has  a 
narrow  horizontal  cleft,  and  a  very  protractile  upper  jaw ;  the  large  eyes  have  a 
more  or  less  upward  direction ;  small  teeth  are  present  on  the  jaws,  but  none  on  the 
palate ;  and  there  is  a  strong  spine  at  the  angle  of  the  preopercular.  Of  the  two 
dorsal  fins,  the  foremost  has  from  three  to  four  flexible  spines ;  the  pelvics  are  five- 
rayed  ;  and  the  gill-opening  is  very  narrow,  and  generally  reduced  to  a  perforation 
on  the  upper  border  of  the  gill-cover.  There  is  a  large  amount  of  sexual  difference 
among  the  dragonets,  the  adult  males  having  the  fin-rays  produced  into  filaments 
and  the  intervening  membranes  brightly  coloured,  whereas  the  females  wear  a 
much  more  sombre  livery;  and  it  is  due  to  this  variation  that  there  were  long 
supposed  to  be  two  British  representatives  of  the  genus,  namely,  the  gemmeous, 
and  the  sordid  dragonet ;  the  former  being  the  male  and  the  latter  the  female.  In 
the  adult  male  of  the  common  dragonet  (C.  lyra)  the  first  dorsal  spine  is  greatly 
elongated;  the  general  colour  of  the  smooth  skin  being  yellowish,  beautifully 
banded  and  spotted  with  lilac ;  the  first  dorsal  fin  bearing  several  lilac  spots,  and 
the  second  having  lilac  bands.  In  length,  the  male  measures  about  10  inches.  The 
yellow  scalpin,  as  the  male  is  called  in  some  parts  of  Britain,  is  generally  found 
in  comparatively  deep  water,  whereas  the  female  often  approaches  the  margin  of 
the  tide.  Both  sexes  feed  on  molluscs  and  other  hard-shelled  creatures,  as  well  as 
on  worms.  Out  of  some  thirty  representatives,  the  majority  are  inhabitants  of  the 
coast-regions  of  the  temperate  zone  of  the  Old  World,  although  a  few  are  found  in 
the  Tropical  Pacific. 

THE  BLENNIES  AND  THEIR  ALLIES, — Families  CEPOLID^J,  BLENNIID^:,  etc. 

The  well-known  blennies,  together  with  five  less  important  families,  constitute 
a  sectional  group  of  spine-finned  fishes,  all  of  which  may  be  treated  under  one 
heading.  As  a  group,  these  fishes  are  characterised  by  the  body  being  in  general 
more  or  less  nearly  cylindrical  in  form ;  the  dorsal  fin  is  elongated,  and  its  spinous 
portion,  if  distinct,  is  also  long,  being  equal  to  or  even  exceeding  the  soft  part  in 
length,  while  occasionally  the  whole  fin  may  be  spiny ;  the  anal  is  also  more  or  less 
elongate ;  the  pelvics,  when  present,  are  thoracic  or  jugular  in  position ;  and  the 
caudal  fin,  which  may  be  absent,  is  rounded  or  somewhat  truncated. 

The  first  family  of  the  group  (Cepolidce)  is  represented  by  the 
small  marine  band-fishes,  of  which  one  species  (Cepola  rubescens)  is  a 
casual  visitor  to  the  British  coasts.  The  essential  characters  of  these  fishes  are  to 
be  found  in  the  elongate  and  band-like  form  of  the  body  ;  the  presence  of  one  spine 
and  five  soft  rays  in  the  thoracically-placed  pelvic  fins ;  and  the  absence  of  spines 
in  the  single  dorsal  and  anal  fins.  The  eyes  are  rather  large  and  lateral,  the  teeth 


392 


SPINY-PINNED   GROUP. 


Hairy-Backs. 


of  moderate  size,  and  the  caudal  vertebrae  unusually  numerous.  While  the 
majority  of  these  fishes  are  confined  to  the  northern  temperate  seas,  a  few  extend 
into  the  Indian  Ocean  and  as  far  south  as  Penang. 

The  remarkable  fishes  known  as  hairy-backs  constitute  another 
small  family  (Trichonotidce)  distinguished  from  the  last  by  the 
jugular  position  of  the  pelvic  fins,  which  are  in  front  of  the  pectorals ;  there  being 
one  or  two  spineless  dorsal  fins,  an  elongate  anal  fin,  which  is  also  spineless,  and 
no  papillae  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  vent.  The  typical  genus  is  represented  by 
a  single  species  (Trichonotus  setiger)  from  the  Oriental  seas,  characterised  by  the 
first  few  rays  of  the  single  dorsal  fin  being  isolated  and  more  or  less  elongate,  and 
likewise  by  the  lower  jaw  exceeding  the  upper  in  length.  The  New  Zealand 
thorny-nose  (Hemerocoetes  acanthorhynckus)  represents  a  second  genus,  differing 


NEW  ZEALAND  THORNY-NOSE. 


Chirus. 


from  the  last  by  all  the  rays  of  the  long  dorsal  being  in  juxtaposition,  by  the  upper 
jaw  being  longer  than  the  lower,  and  the  presence  of  horny  processes  on  the 
muzzle.  These  fishes  are  not  unfrequently  found  floating  on  the  surface  of  the 
ocean  at  a  considerable  distance  from  land. 

The  most  remarkable  representatives  of  a  third  small  family 
(Chiridce)  of  this  group  constitute  the  genus  CJtirus,  which  is  peculiar 
in  having  several  lateral  lines,  the  number  of  these  varying  in  the  different  species. 
The  family  differs  from  the  two  preceding  ones  in  that  there  is  a  bony  stay  con- 
necting the  preopercular  with  the  infraorbital  ring ;  while  it  is  further  distinguished 
by  the  single  dorsal  having  its  spinous  and  soft  portions  of  nearly  equal  length ; 
the  anal  being  nearly  equal  in  length  to  the  soft  dorsal,  and  the  pel  vies  thoracic  in 
position,  with  one  spine  and  five  rays.  The  compressed  and  oblong  body  is  scaled, 
the  cleft  of  the  mouth  lateral,  and  the  teeth  are  weak.  All  the  members  of  the 
family  are  small  littoral  fishes,  inhabiting  both  sides  of  the  Northern  Pacific ;  the 


BLENNIES. 


393 


figured  species  (Chirus  hexagrammus)  being  from  Japanese  waters.     In  the  other 
genera  the  lateral  line  is  single. 

The  fourth  family  of  the  group  (Blenniidce)  is  much  more 
extensive  than  either  of  the  others,  comprising  a  considerable 
number  of  genera,  some  of  which  are  rich  in  species.  The  family  agrees  with  the 
hairy-backs  in  the  jugular  position  of  the  pelvic  fins,  which,  when  present  at  all, 
are  composed  of  a  very  few  soft  rays.  In  the  anal  fin,  the  spines  are  few  or 
wanting,  and  there  is  very  generally  a  papilla  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  vent. 
The  low  and  elongate  body  is  more  or  less  cylindrical  in  form,  and  either  naked  or 
covered  with  scales,  which  are  generally  of  small  size.  The  dorsal  fin,  which  may 
be  either  single,  double,  or  triple,  occupies  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  back ; 
and  when  it  has  a  distinct  spinous  portion,  this  is  at  least 'as  much  developed  as  the 
soft  part,  while  in  some  instances  the  whole  fin  may  be  spiny;  the  anal  being 


JAPANESE   CHIRUS. 


elongate.  In  most  cases  false  gills  are  present.  All  the  marine  members  of  the 
family  are  littoral  forms,  and  the  majority  are  of  small  size,  while  some  are  among 
the  smallest  of  all  fishes.  They  are  abundant  throughout  all  tropical  and  temperate 
seas ;  and  whereas  some  forms  inhabit  brackish  water,  others  are  exclusively  fresh- 
water. Dr.  Glinther  writes  that  "one  of  the  principal  characteristics  of  the 
blennies  is  the  ventral  [pelvic]  fin,  which  is  formed  by  less  than  five  rays,  and  has 
a  jugular  position.  The  blennies  have  this  in  common  with  many  gadoids  [cod 
tribe],  and  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  decide  to  which  of  these  two  families  a  fish 
should  be  referred.  In  such  doubtful  cases  the  presence  of  the  pseudobranchia3 
(which  are  absent  in  gadoids)  may  be  of  assistance.  In  many  blennies  the  ventral 
fins  have  ceased  to  have  any  function,  and  become  rudimentary,  or  even  entirely 
absent.  In  others,  the  ventral  fins,  although  reduced  to  cylindrical  stylets,  possess 
a  distinct  function,  and  are  used  as  organs  of  locomotion,  by  the  aid  of  which  the 
fish  moves  over  the  bottom."  The  family  is  not  definitely  known  in  a  fossil  state, 
although  it  may  be  represented  by  an  extinct  genus  in  the  Monte  Bolca  Eocene. 


394  SPINY-FINNED   GROUP. 

The  blennies  of  the  typical  genus  Blennius,  of  which  there  are  some  forty 
species,  are  found  in  the  northern  seas,  the  Tropical  Atlantic,  the  coasts  of  Tasmania, 
and  the  Red  Sea.  They  are  characterised  by  the  moderate  elongation  of  the  naked 
body,  the  short  snout,  the  single  continuous  dorsal  fin,  and  the  presence  of  one 
spine  and  two  rays  in  the  pel  vies.  The  cleft  of  the  mouth  is  narrow,  the  jaws 
contain  a  single  series  of  fixed  teeth,  behind  which  there  is  generally  one  larger 
curved  tooth,  at  least  in  the  lower  jaw.  Above  each  eye  is  the  longer  or  shorter 
tentacle,  and  the  gill-opening  is  relatively  wide.  Among  British  species  we  have 
the  eyed  blenny  (B.  ocellatus),  distinguished  by  the  dark  spot  on  the  elevated 
spinous  portion  of  the  dorsal,  the  smooth  blenny  or  shanny  B.  pholis,  and  the  large 
B.  gattorugine,  which  may  grow  to  a  foot  in  length;  while  as  an  example  of 
.a  species  living  in  inland  lakes  we  may  cite  the  fresh-water  blenny  (B.  vulgaris)  of 
Southern  Europe.  Most  can  be  readily  accustomed  to  a  fresh- water  life,  and  many 
of  the  marine  species  attach  themselves  to  floating  objects,  while  some  are  found 
far  out  at  sea  among  the  patches  of  drifted  seaweed.  In  the  Indian  seas  the 
blennies  are  represented  by  seven  more  or  less  closely  allied  genera,  in  one  of  which 
{Xiphasia)  the  body  is  band-like,  and  the  caudal  fin  continuous  with  the  dorsal 
and  anal. 

viviparous  The  fish  (Zoarces  viviparus)  of  which  two  examples  are  repre- 

Biennies.  sented  in  the  lower  part  of  the  illustration  on  p.  387,  is  one  of  two 
species  of  a  genus  remarkable  for  producing  living  young.  With  an  elongate  body, 
rudimental  scales,  and  conical  teeth  in  the  jaws,  these  fish  have  an  extremely 
elongated  dorsal  fin,  separated  from  the  caudal  merely  by  a  depression  formed  by 
a  series  of  spines  much  shorter  than  the  rays ;  these  spines  being  the  only  ones 
throughout  the  fins.  The  pelvic  fins  are  composed  of  three  or  four  rays ;  and  the 
long  anal  fin  is  continuous  posteriorly  with  the  caudal.  The  gill-openings  are  wide. 
While  the  figured  European  species,  which  is  not  uncommon  on  the  British  coasts, 
does  not  exceed  a  foot  in  length,  its  Transatlantic  cousin  (Z.  anguillaris)  may 
measure  two  or  three  times  as  much.  The  fry,  which  at  birth  are  perfectly 
transparent,  and  form  beautiful  objects  for  the  microscope,  are  so  fully  developed 
as  to  be  able  at  once  to  swim  freely  on  leaving  the  body  of  the  female  parent. 
Before  their  birth  the  female  becomes  so  distended,  that  at  the  slightest  pressure 
the  young  are  extruded;  these  frequently  being  from  two  to  three  hundred  in 
number,  and  always  making  their  appearance  in  the  world  head  first.  The  general 
colour  of  the  adult  fish  is  pale  browTn,  with  the  dorsal  fin  and  upper-parts  mottled 
and  barred  with  darker  brown. 

Easily  recognised  by  the  powerful  tuberculated  and  molar-like 
teeth  with  which  their  mouths  are  armed,  the  wolf -fishes  (Anarrhi- 
chas)  may  be  regarded  merely  as  gigantic  and  somewhat  specialised  blennies.  In 
this  genus,  which  is  represented  by  a  small  number  of  species  from  the  northern 
seas  of  both  the  Eastern  arid  Western  Hemispheres,  the  elongate  body  is  covered 
with  rudimental  scales ;  the  muzzle  is  rather  short  and  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  wide ; 
and  the  jaws  are  armed  with  strong  conical  teeth,  those  of  the  lateral  series  carry- 
ing several  pointed  cusps,  while  a  double  row  of  large  molar-like  teeth  runs  down 
the  middle  of  the  palate.  The  long  dorsal  fin  has  flexible  spines,  and  there  is  a 
distinct  caudal,  but  the  pelvic  pair  are  quite  wanting.  The  gill-opening  is  wide. 


•SPINY  EELS. 


395 


The  common  wolf-fish  (A.  lupus),  often  known  as  the  sea-wolf  or  sea-cat,  like  two 
allied  species,  ranges  as  far  north  as  Norway  and  Greenland;  in  both  of  which 
countries  its  flesh  forms  a  staple  article  of  food. 

Obiique-Spined  The  fifth  family  (Acanthoclinidce)  of   the   section   under  con- 

Eienny.  sideration  is  represented  only  by  the  New  Zealand  oblique-spined 
blenny  (Acanthoclinus  littoreus),  shown  in  the  annexed  illustration,  and  is  charac- 
terised by  the  elongate,  low,  compressed,  and  scaly  body,  the  single  dorsal  fin — 
chiefly  composed  of  spines — occupying  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  back,  arid 
the  comparatively  long  and  many-spined  anal ;  the  pelvic  fins  being  jugular 
in  position,  and  consisting  solely  of  a  few  soft  rays.  On  the  coasts  of  New 
Zealand  this  blenny  is  stated  to  be  a  very  common  fish ;  its  habits  being  probably 
similar  to  those  of  its  European  cousins. 


Spiny  Eels. 


OBLIQUE-SPINED  BLENNY   (nat.  size), 

The  so-called  spiny  eels  of  the  Oriental  region  and  West  Africa 
form  a  family  (Rhynchobdellidce)  affording  an  interesting  example 
of  parallelism  in  development,  since  these  spiny-finned  eels  are  an  exact  analogue 
of  the  true  soft-finned  eels.  They  are  characterised  by  the  elongate  eel-like 
form  of  the  body ;  the  long  dorsal  fin,  of  which  the  anterior  portion  consists  of 
short  isolated  spines ;  and  the  absence  both  of  pelvic  fins  and  of  a  papilla  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  vent.  The  gill-opening  forms  a  slit  on  the  side  of  the  head  ; 
four  gills  are  contained  in  the  gill-chamber,  and  there  are  no  false  gills.  An 
elongated  movable  appendage  forms  the  termination  of  the  muzzle,  and  although 
the  lower  jaw  is  long,  it  has  but  little  power  of  motion.  As  an  especial  peculiarity 
of  these  fishes,  we  may  notice  that  in  the  skeleton  there  is  no  connection  between 
the  pectoral  girdle  and  the  skull.  The  air-bladder  is  present.  The  species 
(Mastacembelus  armatus\  shown  in  the  upper  figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  396, 
is  one  of  the  Indian  representatives  of  a  genus  characterised  by  the  smooth 
under  surface  of  the  appendage  of  the  snout,  and  the  presence  of  a  preorbital 
spine.  The  members  of  this  genus  have  a  geographical  distribution,  coextensive 
with  that  of  the  family,  being  found  in  the  brackish  and  fresh  waters  of  West 
Africa,  India,  Ceylon,  Burma,  and  the  Malayan  region.  On  the  other  hand, 


396 


SPINY-FINNED   GROUP. 


the  genus  Rhynchobdella,  characterised  by  the  striation  of  the  lower  surface  of  the 
nasal  appendage,  and  the  lack  of  a  spine  in  front  of  the  eye,  is  confined  to  India 
and  Burma,  where  it  is  represented  by  R.  aculeata,  which  grows  to  a  length  of 
about  15  inches,  and  is  found  in  the  deltas  of  all  the  larger  rivers,  generally 
preferring  muddy  pools.  The  figured  species  is,  however,  of  larger  size,  reaching 
a  couple  of  feet  in  length.  The  flesh  of  all  the  spiny  eels  is  stated  to  be  of 
excellent  quality  for  the  table. 

The  fish  represented  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  annexed  illus- 
tration, known  as  the  Baikal  oil-fish  (Comephorus  baikalensis),  is 
the  only  representative  of  a  genus  in  regard  to  the  systematic  position  of 
which  there  is  considerable  doubt ;  Dr.  Glinther  regarding  it  as  indicating  a 
distinct  family  which  he  at  one  time  placed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  oblique- 


Oil-Fish. 


INDIAN  SPINY  EEL  (J  nat.  size). 

spined  blenny,  and  afterwards  near  the  flying  gurnards.  In  this  fish  the  body 
is  elongate  and  naked,  the  head  large  with  a  produced  muzzle,  medium-sized 
lateral  eyes,  and  small  teeth.  There  are  two  dorsal  fins,  of  which  the  first  is 
much  shorter  than  the  second,  which  is  similar  to  the  anal ;  the  pelvic  fins  are 
wanting,  and  there  is  no  papilla  near  the  vent.  The  gill-opening  is  wide  ;  there 
are  four  gills,  and  no  air-bladder.  The  skeleton  is  very  soft ;  and  the  elements 
of  the  gill-cover  are  not  distinctly  differentiated.  In  colour  this  strange  fish  is 
uniformly  greenish,  and  its  pectoral  fins  are  remarkable  for  their  large  size. 
While  the  oil-fish  presents  some  resemblance  to  the  dragonets,  it  differs  by  the 
compressed  body,  the  large,  broad-snouted  head,  the  elongation  of  many  of 
the  rays  of  the  second  dorsal  fin,  the  large  pectorals,  the  absence  of  pelvic  fins, 
and  the  forked  tail.  So  far  as  present  information  goes,  the  oil-fish  is  confined 
to  Lake  Baikal,  where  in  winter  it  retires  to  the  greatest  depths,  but  approaches 


BARRACUDAS  AND  SAND-SMELTS.  397 

the  shore  in  the  warmer  months.  Swimming  with  remarkable  speed,  it  is  enabled 
by  the  length  of  its  pectorals  to  take  considerable  leaps  above  the  surface  of  the 
water,  and  thus  approaches  the  flying-fish.  During  stormy  weather  great  numbers 
of  these  fishes  are  frequently  stranded,  when  they  are  collected  by  the  natives  for 
the  purpose  of  extracting  the  oil  from  them. 

BARRACUDAS,  ATHERINES,  AND  GREY  MULLETS, — Families  SPHYR^NID^:, 
ATHERINID^E,  and  MUGILID^K, 

Following  Dr.  Giinther's  classification,  these  three  families  form  a  sectional 
group  differing  from  those  we  have  been  considering  by  the  position  of  the  pelvic 
fins,  which  are  abdominal,  and  have  one  spine  and  five  soft  rays.  The  two  dorsal 
fins  are  situated  more  or  less  remote  from  one  another,  the  first  being  either  short, 
like  the  second,  or  composed  of  weak  spines. 

The  larp;e  and  ferocious  fishes  commonly  known  as  barracudas 
Barracudas. 

(Sphyrcena),  of  which  a  species  (S.  vulgaris)  is  shown  in  the  upper 

figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  379,  are  the  sole  existing  representatives  of  the 
first  family,  which  is  distinguished  by  the  elongated  and  subcylindrical  form 
of  the  body,  the  large  cutting-teeth,  the  continuous  lateral  line,  and  the  presence 
of  only  twenty-four  vertebrae  in  the  backbone.  The  scales  are  small  and  cycloidal ; 
the  cleft  of  the  mouth  is  wide ;  and  the  medium-sized  eyes  have  a  lateral  position. 
Represented  by  something  less  than  a  score  of  species,  barracudas  are  distributed 
over  all  temperate  and  tropical  seas,  but  generally  prefer  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  coast  to  the  open  ocean.  They  are  all  carnivorous  and  fierce  in  their  dis- 
position, and  since  they  frequently  grow  to  6  or  8  feet  in  length,  they  are  as 
much  or  even  more  dreaded  by  bathers  in  seas  where  they  are  common  than 
sharks.  They  are  extensively  caught  for  food,  but  in  some  instances,  from  their 
having  fed  on  poisonous  kinds  of  fish,  their  own  flesh  becomes  impregnated  with 
the  venom.  Moseley  writes  that  "  there  is  a  great  fishery  at  the  Cape,  of  a  fish 
called  snook,  a  kind  of  barracuda,  which  is  salted  and  dried,  and  sent  mainly  to 
Mauritius  for  sale.  The  snook -boats  were  always  to  be  seen  about  in  the  bay. 
The  fish  are  caught  with  a  hook  and  line  whilst  the  boat  is  in  motion.  The 
fishermen  are  especially  careful  not  to  get  bitten  by  the  fish  as  they  haul  them  in, 
wounds  caused  by  their  bite  being  said  to  fester  in  a  violent  manner,  as  if 
inflamed."  Fossil  barracudas  occur  in  the  middle  Eocene  of  Monte  Bolca ;  while 
in  the  Cretaceous  rocks  of  the  Lebanon  and  Brazil  the  family  is  represented  by 
the  extinct  genus  Cladocyclus. 

The  second  family  of  the  group  under  consideration  is  typically 
represented  by  the  so-called  sand-smelts;  one  of  the  two  British 
species  (Atherina  hepsetus)  being  shown  in  the  left  figure  of  our  illustration. 
As  a  family,  the  Atherinidce  are  distinguished  from  the  barracudas  by  the 
indistinct  lateral  line ;  the  feeble  or  moderately  developed  dentition ;  and  by 
the  number  of  vertebrae  being  usually  in  excess  of  twenty-four.  The  body  is 
more  or  less  elongate,  with  but  slight  compression.  In  the  sand-smelts  the  scales 
are  smooth  and  cycloid,  and  the  teeth  minute ;  the  first  dorsal  fin  is  short  and 
completely  separate  from  the  second ;  and  the  muzzle  is  blunt,  with  the  cleft 


398  SPINY-FINNED   GROUP. 

of  the  mouth  straight,  oblique,  and  extending  at  least  as  far  back  as  the  line  of 
the  border  of  the  eye.  These  fish  derive  their  popular  title  from  their  resemblance 
to  the  true  smelts,  from  which  they  may  be  distinguished  at  a  glance  by  the 
small  spinous  first  dorsal  fin.  While  the  majority  are  coast  fishes,  associating  in 
large  shoals,  others  are  fresh-water,  although  these  also  retain  the  same  habit. 
The  genus  has  a  wide  distribution  in  temperate  and  tropical  seas,  some  of  the 
species  ranging  from  Eastern  Africa  to  India.  Atherines  are  very  abundant  in 
the  Mediterranean,  where  the  fry  cling  together  for  some  time  after  hatching 
in  enormous  masses.  Montagu  writes  that  these  fish  are  caught  in  great 
abundance  on  the  south  coast  of  Devonshire  "in  the  creeks  and  estuaries,  but 


SAND-SMELT  AND  CUVIER's  SQUARE-TAIL  (J  nat.  size). 

never  in  rivers  above  the  flow  of  the  tide ;  and  they  appear  to  continue  near 
shore  through  the  months  from  autumn  to  spring,  being  caught  for  the  table 
more  or  less  during  the  whole  of  that  time,  but  are  greatly  superior  in  spring, 
when  the  males  are  full  of  milt  as  the  females  are  of  roe/'  The  British  species 
seldom  exceed  6  inches  in  length,  and,  like  the  other  members  of  the  genus,  are 
marked  by  a  broad  silvery  stripe  along  each  side  of  the  body.  On  the  coasts  and 
in  the  fresh  waters  of  Australia,  the  sand-smelts  are  represented  by  Atherin- 
ichthys,  in  which  the  muzzle  is  longer,  and  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  usually  shorter. 
The  curious  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic  fish  known  as  Cuvier's 
square-tail  (Tetragonurus  cuvieri),  shown  on  the  right  side  of  our 
illustration,  is  the  sole  member  of  a  genus  characterised  by  the  somewhat  elongate 


Square-Tail 


GREY  MULLETS. 


399 


body  being  covered  with  strongly  keeled  and  striated  scales;  and  by  the  first 
dorsal  fin  being  composed  of  a  number  of  short  spines,  and  continuing  to  the 
second.  The  elevated  lower  jaw  has  a  convex  upper  border,  bearing  a  single 
series  of  rather  small  compressed  and  triangular  teeth.  Of  the  habits  of  this 
scarce  fish  nothing  definite  seems  to  be  known ;  although  in  the  young  state  it 
is  found  in  company  with  floating  jelly-fish.  At  a  later  period  of  its  existence 
it  probably  descends  to  a  considerable  depth  during  the  day,  and  comes  to  the 
surface  only  at  night.  It  grows  to  a  foot  and  a  half  in  length. 

From  the  two  preceding  families  the  grey  mullets,  which  con- 
stitute the  third  family  of  the  group  under  consideration,  may  be 
distinguished  by  the  total  absence  of  a  lateral  line,  the  presence  of  only  four  stiff 
spines  in  the  first  dorsal  fin,  and  the  limitation  of  the  number  of  vertebrae  in  the 
skeleton  to  twenty-four.  The  more  or  less  elongate  and  somewhat  compressed 
body  is  covered  with  cycloid  or  slightly  ctenoid  scales  of  moderate  size ;  the  cleft 


Grey  Mullets. 


COMMON  GREY  MULLET  (\  nat.  size). 

of  the  mouth  is  small  or  medium ;  the  teeth  are  feeble  or  wanting ;  the  lateral  eye 
is  of  moderate  size ;  and  the  gill-opening  wide.  In  some  species  there  may  be 
a  fatty  lid  to  the  eye.  The  grey  mullets  (Mugil),  of  which  there  is  a  very  large 
number  of  species,  are  distributed  over  all  temperate  and  tropical  coast-regions, 
frequenting  brackish-water  estuaries,  and  in  some  cases  ascending  rivers  for 
considerable  distances.  Feeding  chiefly  upon,  the  animals  and  organic  matter 
found  in  sand  and  mud,  these  fishes  have  a  special  straining  apparatus  in  the 
pharynx  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  objects  of  too  large  size  from  entering 
the  stomach,  or  foreign  substances  getting  into  the  gill-chamber.  It  will  be 
unnecessary  to  describe  the  structure  of  this  apparatus  here ;  but  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  after  triturating  a  mouthful  of  sand  or  mud  between  the 
pharyngeal  bones,  in  order  to  extract  such  nutriment  as  it  may  contain,  the  grey 
mullets  reject  the  mineral  part  of  it.  Another  peculiarity  is  to  be  found  in  the 
structure  of  the  oesophagus  and  stomach,  the  former  being  lined  with  long  thread- 
like papillae,  while  the  latter  has  its  second  portion  furnished  with  muscular  walls 
like  the  gizzard  of  a  bird,  although  it  is  not  divided  into  two  lateral  halves. 


400  SPINY-FINNED   GROUP. 

A  fossil  species  of  grey  mullet  has  been  described  from  the  upper  Eocene  of 
Provence,  and  an  extinct  genus  from  the  Cretaceous.  Our  figure  represents  the 
common  grey  mullet  (M.  capita),  one  of  several  species  frequenting  the  British 
coasts.  Although  this  mullet  only  grows  to  a  weight  of  about  4  Ibs.,  some  of 
the  foreign  species  may  scale  three  times  as  much.  This  mullet  has  been 
kept  in  a  fresh- water  pond,  where  it  seemed  to  thrive  better  than  in  the  sea 
The  flesh  of  all  the  grey  mullets  is  of  good  quality,  but  bears  no  comparison 
to  that  of  their  red  namesakes. 

GAR-PIKE  AND  FLYING-FISH,— Family  SCOMBRESOCID^;. 

In  this  place  may  be  noticed  a  family  in  regard  to  the  serial  position  of  which 
there  is  some  difference  of  opinion,  Dr.  Gtinther  placing  it  among  the  tube-bladderec 
fishes,  while  Professor  Cope  considers  that  its  true  position  is  here.  The  inclusion 
of  the  group  among  the  tube-bladdered  fishes  utterly  spoils  the  definition  of  that 
suborder,  since  in  those  members  of  the  present  family  provided  with  an  air- 
bladder  that  organ  lacks  a  duct.  It  is  true  that  the  fins  of  the  flying-fishes  and  their 
allies  are  less  spiny  than  those  of  the  more  typical  representatives  of  the  suborder 
under  consideration,  but,  as  we  have  seen,  this  character  is  one  of  but  slight 
morphological  value.  Agreeing  with  the  preceding  section  in  the  abdominal 
position  of  the  pelvic  fins,  these  fishes  differ  from  those  yet  described,  with  the 
exception  of  certain  perches,  in  the  union  of  the  lower  pharyngeal  bones ;  while 
they  are  further  characterised  by  the  absence  of  a  spinal  dorsal  fin,  and  the 
deeply  forked  caudal.  The  single  dorsal  is  situated  opposite  to  the  anal  fin  in  the 
caudal  region,  the  air-bladder  is  generally  present,  the  false  gills  are  hidden  and 
glandular,  and  the  simple  stomach  merely  forms  a  dilatation  of  the  intestinal  tract. 
Although  the  majority  of  the  members  of  this  family  are  marine,  some  being 
pelagic,  a  few  have  taken  to  a  fresh- water  existence ;  and  while  many  of  the  latter 
are  viviparous,  the  whole  of  the  others  deposit  eggs  in  the  usual  manner.  Dis- 
tributed over  all  the  temperate  and  tropical  seas,  these  fish  are  strictly  carnivorous 
in  their  habits.  Geologically,  the  family  is  a  comparatively  ancient  one,  the  gar- 
pike  being  represented  by  an  extinct  species  in  the  Sicilian  Miocene,  and  by  an 
allied  extinct  genus  in  the  Eocene  of  Monte  Bolca,  while  a  fish  nearly  allied  to  the 
living  flying-fishes  occurs  in  the  Cretaceous  rocks  of  the  Lebanon. 

In  North  America  it  appears  that  the  name  "  gar-pike  "  is  applied 
indifferently  to  a  member  of  the  present  family,  and  to  the  very 
distinct  fish  also  known  as  the  bony  pike ;  but  in  scientific  nomenclature  it  will  be 
better  to  confine  the  term  to  the  members  of  the  present  genus.  Gar-pike  are 
represented  by  nearly  fifty  species  from  temperate  and  tropical  seas,  among  which 
the  figured  one  (Belone  vulgaris)  is  common  on  the  British  coasts,  likewise  ranging 
over  the  whole  of  the  seas  of  Northern  Europe,  As  a  genus,  these  fishes  are 
easily  recognised  by  the  production  of  the  jaws  into  a  long  slender  beak,  formed  in 
the  upper  one  exclusively  by  the  premaxillary  bones ;  while  they  are  furthei 
characterised  by  the  whole  of  the  rays  of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  being  connecte( 
by  membrane.  The  beak  is,  however,  only  developed  in  the  adult,  very  young 
specimens  having  the  jaws  of  normal  form ;  and  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that 


GAR-PIKE  AND  FLYING-FISH. 


401 


during  their  development  the  lower  jaw  becomes  for  a  time  much  longer  than  the 
upper  one.  Both  jaws  are  beset  with  a  number  of  rugosities,  and  likewise  with  a 
series  of  long,  conical  teeth  placed  at  considerable  intervals.  A  peculiarity  of 
these  fish  is  to  be  found  in  the  green  colour  of  their  bones.  Whereas  the  British 
species  does  not  exceed  a  couple  of  feet  in  length,  some  of  the  foreign  repre- 
sentatives of  the  genus  may  grow  to  as  much  as  5  feet.  Dr.  Gunther  writes  that, 
skimming  along  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  gar-pike  seize  with  their  "  long  jaws 
small  fish,  as  a  bird  would  seize  them  with  its  beak ;  but  their  gullet  is  narrow,  so 
that  they  can  swallow  small  fish  only.  They  swim  with  an  undulating  motion  of 
the  body ;  but  although  they  are  in  constant  activity,  their  progress  through  the 
water  is  much  slower  than  that  of  the  mackerels,  the  shoals  of  which  sometimes 
appear  simultaneously  with  them  on  our  coasts."  Frequently  they  may  be  seen 
leaping  out  of  the  water  over  small  floating  objects  in  sportive  play,  and  when 


struck  by  the  hook  throw  themselves  above  the  surface  in  violent  contortions. 
The  saury,  or  skipper  (Scombresox  saurus),  is  the  British  representative  of  a  much 
smaller  genus,  differing  from  the  gar-pikes  by  the  minute  size  of  the  teeth,  and 
likewise  by  the  presence  of  a  number  of  small  finlets  behind  the  dorsal  and  anal 
fins.  On  the  other  hand,  the  half-beaks  (Hemirhamphus),  some  of  which  inhabit 
fresh  water,  have  the  lower  jaw  larger  than  the  upper  throughout  life. 

.  Perhaps  few  sights  are  more  pleasing  during  a  long  sea-voyage 

in  an  ocean  steamer  than  to  stand  in  the  bows  and  to  watch  the 
flying-fish  rising — sometimes  singly,  but  more  frequently  in  larger  or  smaller 
shoals — from  beneath  the  vessel  to  take  their  beautiful  flight  over  the  crest  of  the 
waves,  till  they  once  more  disappear  from  view  beneath  the  deep  blue  waters. 
Represented  by  more  than  forty  species  from  tropical  and  subtropical  seas,  the  flying- 
fishes,  of  which  the  common  species  (Exocoetus  evolans)  is  shown  in  the  illustration 
on  p.  314,  form  a  genus  which  may  be  at  once  recognised  by  the  great  length  of 

VOL.  v. — 26 


402  SPINY-FINNED    GPOUP. 

the  pectoral  fins.  They  are  further  characterised  by  the  blunt  and  short-jawed 
head,  and  the  moderately  long  oblong  body  invested  in  a  coat  of  rather  large-sized 
scales ;  the  teeth,  when  present  at  all,  being  minute  or  rudimental.  The  ordinary 
length  of  a  flying-fish  is  from  10  inches  to  a  foot,  although  specimens  are 
occasionally  met  with  half  as  long  again ;  and  whereas  the  common  form  ranges 
round  the  world,  the  distribution  of  some  other  species  is  extremely  restricted,  one 
being  recorded  only  from  the  seas  on  the  Pacific  side  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
The  species  differ  considerably  in  the  length  of  the  pectoral  fins ;  those  in  which 
they  reach  to  the  tail-fin  being  capable  of  taking  the  longest  flights,  whereas  in 
some  others  they  do  not  extend  beyond  the  anal.  Associating  in  shoals,  wThich  are 
sometimes  of  immense  size,  all  these  fish  are  pelagic  in  their  habits,  and  all  are 
capable  of  taking  the  skimming  flight  from  which  they  derive  their  name.  That 
these  fish  take  their  flights  primarily  to  escape  from  their  enemies  may  be  regarded 
as  certain ;  and  it  is  equally  well  ascertained  that  the  continuance  of  the  flight  is 
due  to  the  original  impetus  of  the  leap  from  the  water,  and  is  not  prolonged  by 
any  flapping  of  the  fins.  From  my  own  observations  I  am,  however,  of  opinion 
that  the  pectoral  fins  are  vibrated  rapidly  on  first  leaving  the  water  for  a  few 
seconds,  doubtless  from  a  continuation  of  the  swimming  motion  while  in  the 
water,  after  which  they  become  entirely  motionless.  During  flight,  the  colour  of 
these  fins  may  appear  either  white  or  brown,  when  seen  from  above,  according  to 
the  incidence  of  the  light.  So  far  as  I  have  seen,  flying-fish  are  unable  to  change 
the  direction  of  their  course  to  any  marked  extent ;  but  on  this  point,  as  will  be 
seen  from  the  two  following  accounts,  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  among 
observers.  The  first  of  these  two  accounts  is  abridged  by  Dr.  Gitnther  from  one 
published  by  Dr.  Mb'bias,  and  runs  as  follows :  "  Flying-fish  are  more  frequently 
observed  in  rough  weather  and  in  a  disturbed  sea  than  during  calms ;  they  dart 
out  of  the  water  when  pursued  by  their  enemies,  or  frightened  by  an  approaching 
vessel,  but  frequently  also  without  any  apparent  cause,  as  is  also  observed  in  many 
other  fishes;  and  they  rise  without  any  regard  to  the  direction  of  the  wind  or 
waves.  The  fins  are  kept  quietly  distended,  without  any  motion,  except  an 
occasional  vibration  caused  by  the  air  whenever  the  surface  of  the  wing  is  parallel 
with  the  course  of  the  wind.  Their  flight  is  rapid,  but  gradually  decreasing  in 
velocity,  greatly  exceeding  that  of  a  ship  going  ten  miles  an  hour,  and  extending 
to  a  distance  of  five  hundred  feet.  Generally,  it  is  longer  when  the  fish  fly  against 
than  with,  or  at  angle  to  the  wind.  Any  vertical  or  horizontal  deviation  from  a 
straight  line  is  not  caused  at  the  will  of  the  fish,  but  by  currents  of  the  air ;  the 
fish  retaining  a  horizontally  straight  course  when  flying  with  or  against  the  wind, 
but  being  carried  to  one  side  whenever  the  direction  of  the  latter  is  at  an  angle  to 
that  of  their  flight.  It  may,  however,  happen  that  in  the  course  of  its  flight  a  fish 
may  dip  its  tail  in  the  crest  of  a  wave,  thus  changing  its  direction  to  the  left  or 
right.  In  calm  weather  the  line  of  flight  is  always  also  vertically  straight,  or 
rather  parabolic,  like  the  course  of  a  projectile,  but  in  a  rough  sea,  when  the  fish 
are  flying  against  the  course  of  the  waves,  it  may  become  undulating.  In  such 
instances  the  flying-fish  frequently  overtop  each  wave,  being  carried  over  by  the 
pressure  of  fhe  disturbed  air.  Flying-fish  often  fall  on  board  vessels,  but  this 
never  happens  during  a  calm,  or  from  the  lee-side,  always  taking  place  in  a  breeze 


STICKLEBACKS.  403 

and  from  the  weather-side.  In  the  daytime  they  avoid  a  ship,  flying  away  from 
it ;  but,  during  the  night,  when  they  are  unable  to  see,  they  frequently  fly  against 
the  weather-board,  where  they  are  caught  by  the  current  of  air,  and  may  be  thus 
carried  to  a  height  of  some  twenty  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  water."  In  the 
second  account,  which  was  published  many  years  ago  in  Land  and  Water,  the 
author  writes  that  in  calm  weather  flying-fish  "  are  capable  of  clearing  three 
hundred  yards.  Their  flight  is  frequently  extended  to  double  the  distance  by 
simply  skimming  the  surface,  as  a  swallow  does  a  pool,  and  without  disappearing. 
I  have  observed  that  they  never  touch  the  surface  more  than  twice  consecutively, 
though  they  may  resume  their  flight  after  a  period  of  complete  immersion ;  while 
still  in  the  air,  they  readily  change  their  course  to  right  angles  with  their  first 
line  of  flight,  or  even  completely  reverse  it  towards  the  point  from  which  they 
originally  started.  I  have  watched  them  for  hours  through  a  powerful  double 
glass,  as  they  rose  from  either  side  of  the  bows  of  the  ship,  and  noticed  that  the 
pectoral  fins  are  moved  with  a  slight  but  very  rapid  quivering  motion,  which,  I 
have  no  doubt,  assists  to  sustain  them  in  the  air.  In  rough  weather  the  flight  of 
the  flying-fish  is  more  rapid,  much  higher,  and  of  shorter  duration  than  when  light 
winds  prevail."  This  account  confirms  my  own  observations  as  to  there  being  a 
vibratory  motion  of  the  pectoral  fins  when  first  leaving  the  water,  although  the 
writer  is  probably  incorrect  in  his  supposition  that  this  assists  the  flight. 

STICKLEBACKS,  FLUTE-MOUTHS,  AND  TRUMPET-FISH, — Families  GASTROSTEIDJE, 
AULOSTOMATID^:,  and  CENTRISCID^. 

Although  the  third  of  the  above-named  families  is  regarded  by  Dr.  Giinther 
as  forming  a  group  apart,  we  may  follow  Day  in  placing  the  whole  three  in  a 
single  section,  characterised  by  the  spinous  dorsal  fin,  when  present,  being  either 
short  or  formed  of  isolated  spines,  and  by  the  generally  abdominal  position  of  the 
pelvic  fins,  which  in  some  instances  are  imperfectly  developed. 

Familiar  to  every  home-born  Englishman  as  the  fish  upon  which, 
in  common  with  minnows,  he  made  his  first  experiment  in  angling 
with  the  aid  of  a  bit  of  twine,  a  bent  pin,  and  a  worm,  the  sticklebacks  have  the 
honour  not  only  of  representing  a  genus  (Gastrosteus),  but  likewise  a  family  by 
themselves.  Taking  their  name  from  the  presence  of  a  variable  number  of  isolated 
spines  in  advance  of  the  soft  dorsal  fin,  sticklebacks  have  the  body  more  or  less 
elongate  and  compressed,  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  oblique,  and  the  teeth  villiform. 
The  gill-cover  is  unarmed,  and  the  cheek  covered  by  the  infraorbital  bone ;  and 
in  place  of  scales  there  are  generally  large  plates  along  the  sides  of  the  body.  The 
pelvic  fins,  although  abdominal  in  position,  are  connected  with  the  pectoral  girdle 
by  means  of  the  pelvic  bones,  and  consist  of  but  one  spine  and  a  single  ray ;  and 
there  are  but  three  branchiostegal  rays.  Confined  to  the  Temperate  and  Arctic 
zones  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  where  they  are  represented  by  some  half-score 
species  of  small  bodily  size,  sticklebacks  are  mainly  fresh- water  fishes,  although  the 
sea-stickleback  (Gr.  spinachia)  is  a  marine  or  brackish- water  form,  and  all  the 
rest  can  live  as  well  in  salt  as  in  fresh- water.  The  British  fresh- water  repre- 
sentatives of  the  genus  are  distinguished  by  the  number  of  the  dorsal  spines,  and 


404 


SPINY-FINNED   GROUP. 


are  known  as  the  three-spined  (G.  aculeatus),  four-spined  (G.  spinulosus),  and  nine- 
fipined  sticklebacks  (G.  pungitius) ;  while  in  the  United  States  G.  novceboracensis 
is  the  most  familiar  kind.  The  three-spined  stickleback  is.  a  singularly  variable 
species,  the  plates  which  are  present  on  the  sides  of  the  body  in  some  specimens, 
being  wanting  in  others;  the  unprotected  condition  being  especially  common  in 
the  race  from  Central  Europe.  Very  different  in  appearance  from  the  others  is 
the  fifteen-spined,  or  sea  stickleback,  in  which  the  body  is  very  long  and  thin ; 
this  species  ranging  as  far  north  as  Norway  and  the  Baltic.  It  has  recently  been 
ascertained  that  all  the  individuals  of  this  stickleback  die  within  a  year  of  their 


GROUP  OF  STICKLEBACKS. 


Sea-stickleback  (upper  figure) ;  Nine-spined  stickleback  (middle  figure) ;  and  Three-spined  stickleback 

(lower  figure),  (nat.  size). 

birth ;  so  that  we  have  here  a  second  example  of  an  annual  vertebrate,  the  first 
being  the  one  mentioned  on  p.  389. 

Sticklebacks  are  extremely  pugnacious,  and  at  the  same  time  highly  voracious 
fishes,  the  males  engaging  in  fierce  conflicts  with  one  another;  while  both  sexes 
consume  a  vast  quantity  of  the  fry  of  other  fish,  and  are,  therefore,  most  objec- 
tionable denizens  of  preserved  waters.  It  is  not,  indeed,  that  a  single  stickleback 
can  do  a  very  great  deal  of  harm,  but  the  mischief  results  from  the  enormous 
numbers  of  these  little  marauders.  As  an  instance  of  this,  we  may  once  more 
quote  the  well-known  statement  of  Pennant,  that  a  man  employed  by  a  Lincoln- 
shire farmer  to  rid  a  stream  of  sticklebacks,  for  a  considerable  time  made  four 
shillings  a  day  by  selling  his  catch  at  the  rate  of  a  halfpenny  per  bushel.  In 


STICKLEBACKS  AND  FLUTE- MOUTHS.  405 

fighting,  the  males  make  full  use  of  the  formidable  spines  on  the  back,  with  which 
they  have  been  seen  to  rip  open  the  body  of  an  antagonist.  The  most  interesting 
trait  in  the  economy  of  sticklebacks  is,  however,  undoubtedly  the  nest-building 
habit  of  many  of  the  species.  In  the  sea-stickleback  the  nest  is  composed  of  a 
mass  of  pendent  seaweeds,  bound  together  by  a  silk-like  thread  into  a  pear-shaped 
form,  in  the  centre  of  which  are  deposited  the  eggs.  Such  a  nest  has  been  known 
to  be  guarded  for  a  period  of  upwards  of  three  weeks  by  the  male  parent  fish ;  and 
when  it  sustained  any  damage,  by  which  the  eggs  were  exposed  to  view,  the 
watchful  guardian  set  about  repairing  the  mischief  with  the  greatest  despatch  and 
energy,  thrusting  its  nose  deep  into  the  structure,  and  pushing  and  pulling  the 
materials  till  all  was  once  more  sound.  The  following  account  of  the  nesting  of 
the  three-spined  stickleback  in  an  aquarium  was  forwarded  by  a  correspondent  to 
Frank  Buckland.  On  this  occasion  the  male  "  selected  a  spot  nearly  in  the  centre 
of  the  trough,  and  busily  set  to  work  to  make  a  collection  of  delicate  fibrous 
materials,  placed  on  the  ground,  and  matted  into  an  irregularly  circular  mass, 
somewhat  depressed,  and  upwards  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  the  top  being  covered 
with  similar  materials,  and  having  in  the  centre  a  rather  large  hole.  His  work 
was  commenced  at  noonday,  and  was  completed,  and  the  eggs  deposited  by  half- 
past  six  in  the  afternoon.  Nothing  could  exceed  the  attention  from  this  time 
evinced  by  the  male  fish.  He  kept  constant  watch  over  the  nest,  every  now  and 
then  shaking  up  the  materials  and  dragging  out  the  eggs,  and  then  pushing  them 
into  their  receptacle  again,  and  tucking  them  up  with  his  snout,  arranging  the 
whole  to  his  mind,  and  again  and  again  adjusting  it  till  he  was  satisfied ;  after 
which  he  hung  or  hovered  over  the  surface  of  the  nest,  his  head  close  to  the 
orifice,  the  body  inclined  upwards  at  an  angle  of  about  45°,  fanning  it  with  the 
pectoral  fins,  aided  by  a  side-motion  of  the  tail.  This  curious  manoeuvre  was 
apparently  for  the  purpose  of  ventilating  the  spawn;  at  least  by  this  means  a 
current  of  water  was  made  to  set  in  towards  the  nest,  as  was  evident  by  the 
agitation  of  particles  of  matter  attached  to  it.  This  fanning  or  ventilation  was 
frequently  repeated  every  day  till  the  young  were  hatched;  and  sometimes  the 
fish  would  dive  head  foremost  into  his  nursery  and  bring  out  a  mouthful  of  sand, 
which  he  would  carry  for  some  distance  and  discharge  with  a  puff!  At  the  end 
of  a  month  the  young  ones  were  first  perceived.  The  nest  was  built  on  the  23rd 
of  April,  the  young  appeared  first  on  May  21.  Unremitting  as  had  been  the 
attention  of  this  exemplary  parent  up  to  the  time  of  the  hatching  of  the  eggs,  he 
now  redoubled  his  assiduity.  He  never  left  the  spot  either  by  day  or  night ;  and 
during  the  daytime  he  guarded  it  most  pertinaciously,  allowing  nothing  to 
approach.  .  .  .  The  fry  were  at  first  so  minute  and  transparent  that  they  were 
scarcely  perceptible,  and  it  was  only  by  a  slight  fluttering  motion  their  position 
could  be  occasionally  discovered ;  otherwise  it  was  impossible  to  detect  them." 

Although  the  name  of  pipe-fishes  is  frequently  applied  to  the 
members  of  the  second  family  of  the  group  under  consideration,  it 
is  better  to  restrict  that  term  to  the  Syngnathidce  (described  in  the  sequel),  and 
take  that  of  flute-mouths  for  those  to  be  now  noticed.  As  a  family,  the  flute- 
mouths  are  readily  distinguished  from  the  sticklebacks  by  the  production  of  the 
bones  of  the  muzzle  into  a  long  tube,  terminated  by  a  small  mouth ;  and  likewise 


4o6  SPINY-FINNED    GROUP. 

by  the  pelvic  fins  consisting  of  six  soft  rays.  The  greatly  elongated  body  is  either 
covered  with  very  small  scales,  or  naked ;  the  teeth  are  small ;  the  first  dorsal,  if 
present,  is  formed  of  small  isolated  spines ;  the  soft  dorsal  and  anal  are  of  moderate 
length;  the  pelvic  fins  consist  of  six  rays,  without  any  spine,  and  are  separated 
from  the  pubic  bones,  which  remain  attached  to  the  pectoral  arch ;  and  there  are 
five  branchiostegal  rays.  The  air-bladder  is  large,  and  the  vertebrae  are  very 
numerous,  those  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  column  being  fused  into  a  continuous 
tube,  as  in  the  flying  gurnards.  These  fishes,  which  may  be  regarded  as  gigantic 
and  highly  specialised  marine  sticklebacks,  frequent  the  coasts  of  the  tropical  and 
subtropical  portions  of  the  Atlantic,  Indian,  and  Pacific  Oceans,  some  of  them 
growing  to  from  4  to  6  feet  in  length.  In  the  genus  Fistularia,  the  body  is 
naked,  the  forked  caudal  fin  has  one  or  tw^o  of  its  middle  rays  produced  into  a 
long,  whip-like  filament,  and  there  are  no  isolated  spines  to  the  dorsal  fin.  The 
species  are  confined  to  the  Tropical  Atlantic  and  Indian  Oceans.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  typical  genus  Aulostoma  the  body  is  covered  with  small  scales,  the 
caudal  fin  squared,  and  without  filaments,  while  the  back  carries  a  series  of  small 
isolated  spines,  and  the  teeth  are  rudimentary.  In  this  genus  the  species  inhabit 
the  Atlantic ;  but  the  third  genus  (Auliscops)  is  represented  by  a  single  form  from 
the  North  American  Pacific  coast,  distinguished  by  the  naked  body,  the  thoracic 
position  of  the  pelvic  fins,  and  the  presence  of  numerous  spines  in  front  of  the 
dorsal  fin.  Day  states  that  he  found  the  Indian  species  of  Fistularia,  which  is 
common  at  Madras,  frequenting  the  most  muddy  localities. 

Trumpet-Fishes,  While  agreeing  with  the  flute-mouths  in  the  production  of  the 
etc-  muzzle  into  a  tubular  beak,  the  two  genera  of  fishes  constituting  the 
family  Centriscidce  differ  by  the  imperfect  development  of  the  pelvic  fins,  which 
are  truly  abdominal  in  position.  They  have  two  dorsal  fins,  of  which  the  spinous 
one  is  short,  while  the  soft  one  is  similar  to  the  anal.  Teeth  are  wanting.  The 
family  is  distributed  over  the  Atlantic,  Mediterranean,  and  Indo- Pacific,  the 
common  trumpet  or  bellows  fish  (Centriscus  scolopax)  occasionally  making  its 
appearance  on  the  south  coast  of  England,  while  it  is  also  known  from  such  a 
distant  region  as  Tasmania.  It  belongs  to  a  genus  characterised  by  the  oblong  or 
elevated  and  compressed  body  being  covered  by  small  rough  scales,  with  some 
bony  strips  on  the  back  and  under  surface,  the  absence  of  a  lateral  line,  and  the 
length  of  the  spines  of  the 'first  dorsal  fin.  The  second  genus,  Ampliisile,  differs  by 
the  elongate  form  of  the  compressed  body,  which  is  covered  on  the  back  with  a 
cuirass  of  bony  plates,  behind  which  are  the  two  dorsal  fins.  This  genus  is 
confined  to  the  Indo-Pacific;  and  in  the  Indian  A.  scutatct  the  dorsal  armour 
terminates  behind  in  a  long  spine,  close  beneath  which  are  the  three  spines  of  the 
first  dorsal  fin,  followed  by  the  second  dorsal,  the  caudal  appearing  on  the  lower 
surface  of  the  body  just  behind  the  anal.  Dr.  Gtinther  writes  that  in  these 
tortoise-fishes,  as  they  may  be  called,  the  "  body  is  so  thin  that  it  has  the  appear- 
ance of  being  artificially  compressed  between  two  sheets  of  paper;  it  is  semi- 
transparent,  especially  in  the  region  of  the  air-bladder.  The  structure  of  the 
vertebral  column  is  extremely  singular,  and  unique  among  Acanthopterygians. 
The  trunk  portion  is  more  than  four  times  as  long  as  the  caudal,  nevertheless  it 
is  composed  of  only  six  vertebrae,  whilst  the  latter  consists  of  fourteen."  The 


SUCKER-FISHES. 


407 


trunk  vertebrae  are  extremely  slender,  the  third  alone  being  nearly  as  long  as  the 
whole  caudal  portion ;  while  in  the  latter  all  the  vertebrae  are  very  short.  In  a 
fossil  state  the  tortoise-fishes  are  represented  in  the  middle  Eocene  of  Monte  Bolca ; 
and  it  may  be  mentioned  here  that  in  the  preceding  family  the  genera  Fistularia 
and  Aulostoma  occur  not  only  in  those  deposits,  but  likewise  in  the  lower  Eocene 
of  Switzerland ;  and  Auliscops  has  been  recorded  from  the  Eocene  of  Sumatra, 
and  two  extinct  generic  types  have  been  described  from  the  Monte  Bolca  beds. 


THE  SUCKER-FISHES, — Family  GOBIOESOCID^E. 

The  small  fish  (Lepadogaster  bimaculatus),  of  which  three  examples  are 
shown  in  the  annexed  illustration,  is  one  of  three  British  representatives  of  a  genus 
belonging  to  a  small  family  which  constitutes  a  sectional  group  by  itself.  Long 


TWO-SPOTTED  SUCKER-FISH  (nat.  size). 

confounded  with  the  lump-suckers,  which  they  resemble  in  having  an  adhesive 
disc  on  the  under  surface  of  the  body,  the  sucker-fish  differ  from  that  group,  not 
only  in  the  structure  of  that  disc,  but  likewise  in  several  other  respects.  They  have 
no  spinous  dorsal  fin ;  the  soft  dorsal  and  anal  are  short  or  of  medium  length,  and 
situated  far  back,  at  the  root  of  the  tail ;  the  pelvic  fins  are  almost  jugal  in 
position,  and  have  the  adhesive  disc  placed  between  them ;  while  the  body  is 
covered  with  a  naked  skin.  Whereas  in  the  lump-suckers  the  pelvic  fins  are  close 
together,  and  actually  form  the  base  of  the  sucking  disc,  in  the  present  family 
they  are  widely  separated  from  each  other,  and  only  enter  into  the  composition 
of  a  portion  of  the  margin  of  the  adhesive  apparatus,  which  is  completed  by  a 
cartilaginous  expansion  of  the  bones  of  the  pectoral  girdle.  In  size  the  ovoid  disc 
is  relatively  large,  its  length  being  sometimes  as  much  as  one-third  that  of  the 
whole  fish,  and  it  is  divided  into  an  anterior  and  a  posterior  moiety,  of  which  the 
second  may  or  may  not  have  a  free  front  margin.  All  these  fishes  are  littoral 
forms  of  small  size,  ranging  over  both  temperate  zones,  where  they  are  more 


408  SPINY-FINNED   GROUP. 

numerous  than  in  the  tropics.  Among  the  numerous  genera  we  can  only  mention 
the  typical  Gobioesox,  from  the  West  Indies  and  Pacific  coast  of  South  America, 
distinguished  by  the  absence  of  a  front  free  margin  to  the  posterior  division  of 
the  sucker,  and  the  presence  of  incisor-like  teeth  at  least  in  the  lower  jaw;  and 
the  European  Lepadogaster,  in  which  the  hinder-half  of  the  sucker  has  an  anterior 
free  margin,  and  the  teeth  are  small  and  fine.  The  British  species,  although 
variable  in  this  respect,  are  very  prettily  coloured ;  the  figured  one  being  generally 
carmine-red  above,  and  pale  flesh-colour  below,  with  a  light  patch  between  the 
eyes,  and  two  more  or  less  distinct  spots  on  the  sides.  It  has  been  obtained 
adhering  to  stones  and  shells  in  deep  water  off  Torquay.  Montagu  writes  that 
when  placed  in  a  vessel  of  sea- water  these  little  fish  "  always  adhered  to  the  sides  of 
the  glass  by  the  apparatus  termed  the  sucker,  and  frequently  remain  fixed  till  they 
died ;  and  even  after  death  the  power  of  adhesion  continues.  The  wet  finger  being 
applied  to  the  part,  the  fish  becomes  suspended ;  when  alive,  they  instantly  attach 
themselves  to  the  hand  if  taken  out  of  the  water." 


THE  SERPENT-HEADS, — Family  OPHIOCEPHALID^?. 

Mainly  characteristic  of  the  Oriental  region,  although  also  represented  in 
Africa,  the  fresh- water  fishes  known  as  serpent-heads  are  interesting  not  only 
on  account  of  their  structure,  but  likewise  from  their  peculiar  habits.  They  form 
a  single  family,  constituting  a  sectional  group  by  itself,  and  represented  by  two 
genera,  in  one  of  which  (Ophiocephalus)  pelvic  fins  are  present,  while  in  the 
second  (Channa)  they  are  wanting.  As  a  family,  the  serpent-heads  are  character- 
ised as  follows.  The  body  is  elongate  and  covered  with  medium-sized  scales;  all 
the  fins  are  devoid  of  spines,  the  anal  and  single  dorsal  being  long  and  low ;  and 
there  is  an  additional  cavity  above  the  proper  gill-chamber,  although  this  is  not 
furnished  with  supplemental  gills.  The  depressed  head  is  covered  with  somewhat 
plate-like  scales,  and  has  the  eyes  lateral  and  the  gill-openings  wide ;  each  gill- 
chamber  containing  four  gills,  while  teeth  are  present  on  the  jaws,  palatines,  and 
vomer.  If  present,  the  pelvic  fins  are  thoracic  in  position,  and  composed  of  six 
rays.  The  lateral  line  is  sharply  curved  or  almost  interrupted,  and  an  air-bladder 
is  present.  Of  the  typical  genus  there  are  some  thirty  existing  species,  having 
a  distribution  coextensive  with  that  of  the  family,  and  in  Asia  ranging  over 
Baluchistan,  Afghanistan,  India,  Ceylon,  Burma,  China,  Siam,  and  the  Malay 
Archipelago;  the  figured  species  (0.  striatus)  being  common  to  such  distant 
localities  as  India  and  the  Philippines,  and  at  times  reaching  as  much  as  a  yard 
in  length.  The  second  genus,  Channa,  is  represented  only  by  a  single  species  from 
Ceylon  and  China.  In  a  fossil  state  these  fishes  have  been  identified  from  the 
Pliocene  rocks  of  the  Siwalik  Hills  in  North-Eastern  India. 

In  India  the  serpent-heads  are  found  both  in  rivers,  ponds,  tanks,  and  swamps, 
many  of  them  seeming  to  prefer  stagnant  to  running  waters.  Day  writes  that 
these  fishes  "  having  hollow  cavities  in  their  heads,  and  an  amphibious  mode  of 
respiration,  are  able  to  exist  for  lengthened  periods  out  of  their  native  element, 
and  can  travel  some  distance  over  the  ground,  especially  when  it  is  moist.  They 
are  able  to  progress  in  a  serpentine  manner,  chiefly  by  means  of  their  pectoral 


SERPENT-HEADS. 


409 


and  caudal  fins,  first  one  of  the  former  being  advanced  and  then  the  other.  These 
fishes  appear  to  be  monogamous,  some  breeding  in  grassy  swamps  or  the  edges  of 
tanks,  some  in  wells  or  stone-margined  receptacles  for  water,  and  others  again  in 
holes  in  river-banks.  The  varieties  which  live  in  tanks  and  swamps  keep  much 
to  the  shallow  and  grassy  edges.  Amongst  the  fish  which  I  myself  saw  exhumed 
from  the  mud  of  a  dried-up  tank  were  some  Ophiocephali ;  they  are  also  recorded 
by  the  natives  of  India  as  descending  with  downpours  of  rain."  When  living  in 
muddy  water  they  rise  to  the  surface  from  time  to  time  to  take  in  atmospheric 
air,  and  captive  examples  prevented  from  doing  this  have  been  known  to  die. 


STRIATED   SERPENT-HEAD  (£  nat.  size). 

During  the  time  they  are  buried  in  hard  mud  it  must  be  assumed  that  these  fish 
become  completely  torpid  and  stop  the  respiratory  function. 


THE  LABYKINTH-GILLED  FISHES, — Families  ANABANTID^  and  LUCIOCEPITALID^. 

In  the  members  of  these  two  families  of  estuarine  and  fresh- water  fishes, 
which  constitute  a  sectional  group  by  themselves,  the  apparatus  for  enabling 
them  to  exist  for  a  considerable  time  out  of  the  water  is  carried  to  a  greater 
degree  of  complexity  than  in  the  last,  and  takes  the  form  of  a  laminated  accessory 
gill-like  organ,  situated  in  a  chamber  on  each  side  of  the  head  above  the  one 
containing  the  true  gills.  In  these  fishes  the  body  is  compressed,  oblong,  and 
elevated,  with  medium-sized  ctenoid  scales.  The  eyes  are  lateral,  the  gills  four 
in  number,  the  gill-opening  rather  narrow ;  and  false  gills  either  rudimentary  or 
wanting.  The  single  dorsal  fin,  as  well  as  the  anal,  has  a  variable  number  of 
spines ;  and  the  pelvic  fins  are  thoracic  in  position.  While  in  some  cases  the 
lateral  line  is  interrupted,  in  others  it  is  altogether  wanting ;  and  the  air-bladder 
may  be  either  present  or  absent,  but  when  developed  it  is  generally  very  large, 
sometimes  even  extending  into  the  tail.  These  fishes,  which  are  of  comparatively 
small  size,  are  confined  to  Southern  Asia  and  South  Africa,  and  are  all  capable  of 
existing  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period  out  of  their  native  element,  when  they 
oxygenate  their  blood  directly  from  atmospheric  air  by  means  of  the  accessory 


410 


SPINY-FINNED   GROUP. 


gill-like  organ.  Whereas  some  are  carnivorous,  others  are  vegetable -feeders ;  but 
all  are  capable  of  domestication,  in  which  state  they  are  subject  to  considerable 
variation,  and  several  have  been  acclimatised  in  countries  other  than  their  own. 
The  flesh  of  all  of  them  is  said  to  be  eatable,  and  that  of  some  is  of  excellent 
quality.  On  account  of  their  brilliant  coloration,  and  the  curious  habits  of  some 
of  them,  these  fish  have  always  attracted  more  than  ordinary  interest. 

The  fish  to  which  the  somewhat  inappropriate  name  of  climbing:- 
Climbing-Percn.  .  -  ,  j       *  ^/\-ui  r,  TII-T. 

perch  (Anabas  scandens)  has  long  been  applied  by  Europeans  in 


CLIMBING-PERCH  ON  LAND  (J  nat.  size). 

India  is  the  sole  representative  of  a  genus  characterised  by  the  presence  of  teeth 
on  the  palate,  and  the  serration  of  the  free  margins  of  the  opercular  and  preorbital 
bones.  In  form  the  body  is  compressed  and  oblong ;  the  lateral  line  is  interrupted ; 
the  single  dorsal  fin  has  its  spinous  portion  much  longer  than  the  soft  part ;  while 
in  the  anal  fin  the  spines  are  less  numerous  than  those  on  the  back.  The  caudal 
fin  is  rounded,  and  the  scales  are  rather  large.  In  length  the  climbing-perch  may 
reach  at  least  8£  inches,  and  in  the  adult  state  its  general  colour  is  dark  green, 
usually  marked  with  dusky  bands,  which  disappear  soon  after  death.  It  frequents- 


PARADISE-FISH.  4 1 1 

both  estuaries,  rivers,  and  tanks,  and  is  distributed  over  India,  Ceylon,  Burma, 
the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  the  Philippine  Islands.  That  this  fish  can  travel 
long  distances  on  land,  where  it  drags  itself  along  by  hitching  its  pectoral  fins 
round  the  stems  of  grass  and  other  herbage,  in  the  manner  indicated  in  our 
illustration,  is  perfectly  well  ascertained.  With  regard  to  its  climbing  powers 
some  amount  of  incredulity  has  been  expressed,  but  it  is  very  noteworthy  that 
its  Malayan  name  (undi-colli)  signifies  tree-climber,  while  nearly  a  thousand  years 
ago  certain  Arab  travellers  were  informed  of  the  existence  in  India  of  a  fish  that 
was  in  the  habit  of  ascending  cocoa-nut  palms  to  drink  their  milk.  Apparently 
the  only  definite  record  that  we  have  of  a  European  having  witnessed  such 
scansorial  feats  is  from  the  pen  of  one  Daldorf,  who  wrote  that  in  the  year  1791 
he  had  taken  one  of  these  fishes  from  a  moist  cavity  in  the  stem  of  a  palmyra- 
palm  growing  near  a  lake.  He  first  observed  it  when  already  five  feet  from  the 
ground,  struggling  to  ascend  higher,  and  suspending  itself  by  its  gill-covers ;  and 
bending  its  tail  to  the  left,  it  fixed  its  anal  fin  in  the  cavities  of  the  bark,  and  sought 
by  expanding  its  body  to  urge  its  way  upwards,  and  its  march  was  only  arrested 
by  the  hand  with  which  he  seized  it.  Although  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  this 
very  detailed  narrative,  the  circumstance  that  later  observers  in  India  have 
never  seen  the  feat  repeated  would  seem  to  indicate  that  it  is  but  seldom  the  fish 
takes  to  actual  climbing.  Regarding  the  habit  of  this  fish,  in  common  with  the 
serpent-heads,  of  burying  itself  in  the  mud  of  tanks,  Sir  J.  E.  Tennent  writes  that 
"in  those  portions  of  Ceylon  where  the  country  is  flat,  and  small  tanks  are 
extremely  numerous,  the  natives  are  accustomed,  in  the  hot  season,  to  dig  in  the 
mud  for  fish.  Mr.  Whiting  informs  me  that,  on  two  occasions,  he  was  present 
accidentally  when  the  villagers  were  so  engaged,  once  at  the  tank  of  Malliativoe, 
within  a  few  miles  of  Kottiar,  near  Trincomali,  and  again  at  a  tank  on  the  Vergel 
River.  The  clay  was  firm  but  moist,  and  as  the  men  flung  out  lumps  of  it  with  a 
spade,  it  fell  to  pieces,  disclosing  fish  from  9  to  12  inches  long,  which  were  full- 
grown  and  healthy,  and  jumped  on  the  bank  when  exposed  to  the  sunlight." 

The  Oriental  region  is  the  home  of  another  allied  genus  of  fishes 
(Poly acanthus),  represented  by  several  species,  and  differing  from 
the  climbing  perch  by  the  absence  of  teeth  on  the  palate,  and  the  smooth  margins 
of  the  preorbital  and  opercular  bones;  the  mouth  being  small  and  slightly  pro- 
tractile. The  spinous  part  of  the  single  dorsal  fin  is  much  longer  than  the  soft 
portion,  the  anal  being  similar ;  the  pelvic  fins  have  one  spine  and  five  soft  rays, 
some  of  which  are  usually  elongated ;  and  the  caudal  is  rounded  or  pointed.  The 
lateral  line,  which  is  never  complete,  may  be  wanting.  These  fishes  inhabit  fresh 
waters  and  estuaries  along  the  coast  of  South- Eastern  Asia,  but  are  seldom  found 
any  great  distance  inland.  The  pretty  and  brightly  coloured  paradise-fish  is  an 
inhabitant  of  China  and  Cochin- China,  and  was  long  regarded  as  the  representative 
of  a  distinct  genus.  It  is,  however,  now  known  to  be  merely  a  domesticated 
variety  of  a  species  of  Polyacanthus,  although  we  are  not  aware  that  the 
normal  form  has  hitherto  been  discovered.  From  our  figure  it  will  be  seen  that 
it  differs  from  the  ordinary  members  of  the  genus  in  the  large  and  forked  tail,  and 
likewise  in  the  great  development  of  the  soft  rays  of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins. 
Throughout  China  this  fish  is  kept  in  confinement;  and  is  even  more  suited  to 


4I2 


SPINY-FINNED    GROUP. 


captivity  than  the  gold-fish,  as  it  will  breed  in  vessels  of  very  small  capacity, 
It  is  even  stated  to  live  in  water  strongly  impregnated  with  acid,  and  its  tenacity 
of  life  is  very  great.  When  kept  in  dark  or  muddy  waters  the  colour  is  generally 
a  dull  uniform  brown;  and  it  is  only  when  living  in  clear  water,  exposed  to 
the  sunlight,  that  the  golden  hue  and  red  transverse  bands  make  their  appearance, 
these  showing  at  an  earlier  period  in  the  males  than  in  the  females. 

On  account  of  the  excellent  quality  and  taste  of  its  flesh,  mention 
must  be  made  here  of  the  gurami  (Osphromenus  olfax),  as  a  well- 
known  representative  of  a  third  genus  belonging  to  this  family.     Agreeing  with 
the  members  of  the  preceding  genus  in  the  absence  of  teeth  on  the  palate,  the 
smooth  border  to  the  preorbital  and  opercular,  and  the  structure  of  the  pelvic  fins, 


PARADISE-FISH  AND   TELESCOPE-FISH. 


these  fishes  differ  by  the  smaller  number  of  spines  in  the  dorsal  or  anal  fins,  which 
are  either  fewer  than  the  soft  rays,  or  but  very  slightly  exceed  them.  The  body 
is  moderately  elevated  and  compressed ;  the  small  and  oblique  mouth  is  capable  of 
a  considerable  degree  of  protrusion ;  and  the  first  ray  of  the  pelvic  fins  is  elongated 
into  a  slender  filament,  the  remainder  being  generally  rudimentary.  When  present, 
the  lateral  line  is  continuous;  and  there  is  always  an  air-bladder.  Distributed 
over  the  rivers  of  South-Eastern  Asia,  these  fishes  are  represented  in  India  only 
by  a  small  species  (0.  nobilis),  of  some  4  inches  in  length,  inhabiting  North- 
Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam.  The  gurarni,  which  is  a  native  of  the  rivers  of  China 
and  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  has,  however,  been  introduced  into  several  parts  of 
India  and  has  also  been  naturalised  in  the  Mauritius,  Cayenne,  and  Australia,  It 
is  easily  recognised  by  its  large  size,  great  convexity  of  the  profile  of  the  under 
surface,  and  greenish  brown  colour,  marked  in  the  immature  condition  by  four  or 


FIGHTING-FISH  4!3 

five  dark  vertical  bands.  It  attains  a  weight  of  fully  20  Ibs.,  and,  when  kept 
in  clean  water,  is  stated  to  be  the  best  flavoured  fresh- water  fish  in  South-Eastern 
Asia,  As  it  is  extremely  tenacious  of  life,  and  likewise  almost  omnivorous  in  its 
diet,  it  is  in  every  way  admirably  adapted  for  transportation  and  acclimatisation. 


Fighting-Fish. 


THE  GURAMI  (^  nat.  size). 


A  fourth  genus  (Betta),  distinguished  by  the  short  dorsal  fin 
occupying  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  without  any  pungent  spine, 
the  long  anal,  and  the  production  of  the  outer  ray  of  the  five-rayed  pelvic  fins, 
must  also  be  mentioned  on  account  of  its  containing  the  so-called  fighting-fish 
(B.  pugnax),  which  is  bred  by  the  Siamese  for  the  sake  of  the  sport  afforded  by 
its  pugnacious  propensities.  Cantor  writes  that,  "  when  the  fish  is  in  a  state  of 
quiet,  its  dull  colours  present  nothing  remarkable  ;  but  if  two  be  brought  together,, 
or  if  one  sees  its  own  image  in  a  looking-glass,  the  little  creature  becomes  suddenly 
excited,  the  raised  fin  and  the  whole  body  shine  with  metallic  colours  of  dazzling 
beauty,  while  the  projected  gill-membrane,  waving  like  a  black  frill  round  the 
throat,  adds  something  of  grotesqueness  to  the  general  appearance.  In  this  state 
it  makes  repeated  darts  at  its  real  or  reflected  antagonist.  But  both,  when  taken 
out  of  each  other's  sight,  become  instantly  quiet.  This  description  was  drawn  up 
in  1840  at  Singapore,  by  a  gentleman  who  had  been  presented  with  several  by  the 
King  of  Siam.  They  were  kept  in  glasses  of  water,  fed  with  larvae  of  mosquitoes, 
and  had  thus  lived  for  many  months.  The  Siamese  are  as  infatuated  with  the 
combats  of  these  fish  as  the  Malays  are  with  their  cock-fights,  staking  on  the  issue 
considerable  sums,  and  sometimes  their  own  persons  and  families.  The  licence  to 
exhibit  fish-fights  is  farmed,  and  brings  a  considerable  annual  revenue  to  the  King 
of  Siam.  The  species  abounds  in  the  rivulets  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  of  Penang." 


4i4  SPINY-PINNED   GROUP. 

The  small  fish  (Luciocephalus  pulcher),  from  the  fresh  waters  of 
Pike-Head.  __  •      ji  •         -n  i- 

the  Malay  Archipelago,  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  is 

the  sole  representative  of  the  second  family  of  the  labyrinth-gillecl  group,  which 
differs  from  the  first  in  the  absence  of  spines  from  both  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins. 
The  species  derives  its  name  from  the  produced  muzzle  and  general  pike-like  form 
of  the  head;  and  has  its  elongate  body  covered  with  moderate-sized  scales,  and 
traversed  by  a  continuous  lateral  line.  The  teeth  are  small,  and  the  gill-openings 
wide.  The  single  spineless  dorsal  fin  is  very  short  and  placed  far  back  on  the 
body;  the  pelvics  consist  of  one  spine  and  five  rays,  one  of  the  latter  being 


PIKE-HEAD  (nat,  size). 

elongated ;  and  the  tail-fin  is  rounded.    There  is  no  air-bladder.    Nothing  is  known 
with  regard  to  the  life-history  of  this  prettily  marked  fish. 

UNICORN  AND  RIBBON-FISH, — Families  LOPHOTID^J  and  TRACHYPTERID^. 

Agreeing  in  their  ribbon-shaped  bodies,  and  also  in  the  extension  of  the  dorsal 
fin  from  the  head  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  the  unicorn  and  ribbon-fishes  are  thereby 
easily  distinguished  from  all  the  preceding  forms,  although  they  differ  so  much 
from  one  another  as  to  be  entitled  to  form  distinct  families,  each  of  which  is 
regarded  by  Dr.  Giinther  as  representing  a  sectional  group. 

The  single  representative  of  the  first  family  (Lopliotes  cepedianus) 
differs  from  the  whole  of  the  members  of  the  subclass  hitherto  described, 
in  that  the  vent  is  situated  at  the  hinder  extremity  of  the  body,  close  to  the  tail, 
with  a  small  anal  fin  immediately  behind  it.  The  pelvic  fins  are  very  minute,  and 
thoracic  in  position ;  the  caudal  is  also  small  and  rounded ;  the  mouth  is  incapable 
of  protrusion ;  teeth  are  present  on  the  jaws,  palatines,  and  vomers ;  and  there  is 
an  air-bladder.  The  most  striking  peculiarity  about  this  strange  fish  is  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  crown  of  the  head  into  a  high  crest,  surmounted  by  an  exceedingly  long 
and  recurved  spine  forming  the  commencement  of  the  dorsal  fin.  The  bones  and 
flesh  are  firm,  the  general  colour  is  silvery,  with  lighter  spots,  but  the  fins  are  rosy ; 
and  the  total  length  is  at  least  5  feet.  This  fish,  which  has  been  taken  in  the 
Atlantic  off  Madeira,  and  also  in  the  Sea  of  Japan,  probably  dwells  at  a  consider- 
able depth,  although  not  so  far  down  as  the  ribbon-fishes.  Its  habits  are  unknown. 


Ribbon-Fishes. 


RIBBON-FISH.  4I- 

From  the  unicorn-fish  the  members  of  this  family  may  be 
distinguished  by  the  absence  of  an  anal  fin,  and  by  the  caudal 
(which,  as  in  our  figure,  is  rarely  preserved  in  the  adult  state)  being  either 
rudimental,  or  small  and  bent  up  above  the  axis  of  the  body  in  a  fan-like  manner. 
The  band-like  body,  which  may  measure  as  much  as  15  or  20  feet  in  length,  with 
a  depth  of  a  foot  and  a  breadth  of  not  more  than  an  inch,  terminates  in  a  short 
and  deep  head,  furnished  with  large  lateral  eyes,  and  a  small  mouth ;  the  teeth 
being  feebly  developed.  The  high  dorsal  fin  is  composed  of  a  very  numerous 
series  of  rays,  which  are  neither  articulated  nor  branched,  and  has  a  detached 


UNICORN-FISH  (^  uat.  size). 


portion  on  the  crown  of  the  head  elevated  into  tall  filaments,1  and  the  thoracically- 
placed  pelvic  fins  may  consist  either  of  several  rays,  or  be  reduced  to  a  single  long 
filament.  Scales  are  wanting;  and  the  numerous  vertebras  as  well  as  the  other 
bones,  are  remarkable  for  their  softness  and  loose  structure  ;  the  flesh  being  like- 
wise of  a  flabby  consistence.  The  young,  which  are  not  unfrequently  found  at 
the  surface  of  the  ocean,  are  very  unlike  the  adults,  having  the  body  more  like 
that  of  an  ordinary  fish,  but  remarkable  for  the  enormous  development  of  the 
rays  of  the  front  part  of  the  dorsal  and  pelvic  fins,  and  in  a  minor  degree  those  of 
the  caudal  likewise.  The  dorsal  rays  are,  indeed,  several  times  the  length  of  the 
whole  fish,  and  are  furnished  at  intervals  with  barb-like  dilatations.  Most  ribbon- 
fish  are  silvery  in  colour,  with  rosy  fins.  They  are  divided  into  three  genera,  of 

1  In  our  figure  this  part  is  represented  as  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  fin. 


416 


SPINY-FINNED   GROUP. 


which  Trachypterua  has  well-developed  pectoral  fins,  while  Stylophorus  has  the 
tail  produced  into  an  exceedingly  long  filament ;  Regalecus  being  distinguished  by 
the  reduction  of  the  pelvic  fins  to  a  pair  of  long  filaments  with  dilated  extremities, 
and  the  small  size  or  rudimentary  condition  of  the  caudal.  Our  figured  example 
(R.  banksi)  belongs  to  the  third  genus,  and  has  the  body  of  considerable  relative 
depth,  but  in  a  much  smaller  Indian  form  (R.  russelli)  the  body  is  so  slender  as 
to  have  a  rod-like  appearance.  Banks's  ribbon-fish  appears  to  be  only  known  from 
specimens  cast  ashore  on  the  British  coast ;  the  first  of  these  having  been  stranded 
at  Whitby  in  January  1759,  since  which  date  only  fifteen  other  examples  were 


BANKS'S  RIBBON-FISH  (rV  nat.  size). 

recorded  up  to  1878.  All  these  fishes  are,  indeed,  known  almost  entirely  from 
examples  found  in  a  dead  or  dying  condition  on  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  or  cast 
ashore  by  the  waves.  In  this  state  the  whole  of  their  tissues  are  so  disintegrated 
and  broken  that  the  body  can  scarcely  be  lifted  whole  from  the  water,  and  it  is 
thus  evident  that  ribbon-fishes  are  inhabitants  of  the  lower  strata  of  the  ocean, 
although  at  what  precise  level  they  live  has  not  yet  been  ascertained.  They  are 
found  in  all  seas,  but  are  mostly  of  very  rare  occurrence  on  the  surface,  the  single 
representative  of  the  genus  Stylophorus  being  only  known  by  one  example 
captured  in  the  early  part  of  this  century  near  Cuba ;  while  the  same  is  the  case 
with  regard  to  Russell's  ribbon-fish  from  Madras.  That  the  young  are  also  deep- 


THORNBACKS.  4iy 

sea  fishes  is,  as  Dr.  Giinther  remarks,  perfectly  evident  from  their  filamentous  fins, 
which  would  be  irretrievably  damaged  if  their  owners  did  not  live  at  depths 
where  the  water  is  perfectly  undisturbed.  From  the  expansion  of  the  extremities 
of  the  pelvic  fins,  Banks's  ribbon-fish  has  been  named  the  oar-fish ;  while  from  a 
supposed  idea  that  it  accompanied  the  shoals  of  those  fish,  it  has  likewise  been 
designated  the  king  of  the  herrings.  It  has  been  suggested  that  large  ribbon-fish 
floating  on  the  surface  have  given  rise  to  many  of  the  reports  regarding  the  sea- 
serpent  ;  but,  as  Dr.  Gtinther  pertinently  points  out,  such  dead  or  dying  creatures 
do  not  by  any  means  accord  with  the  active  movements  generally  attributed  to 
that  mythical  monster.  Still,  however,  we  believe  that  a  stranded  ribbon-fish  has 
been  mistaken  for  a  dead  sea-serpent. 

THE  THORNBACKS, — Family  NOTACANTHID^;. 

The  last  family  of  the  great  division  of  spiny-finned  fishes  we  have  been 
considering^  in    the   foregoing    paragraphs    includes    only   the    deep  -  sea   fishes 


msso's  THORNBACK  (^  nat.  size). 


known  as  thornbacks,  all  of  which  are  referred  to  the  single  genus  Notacanthus. 
These  fishes  are  very  abnormal  forms,  agreeing  only  with  the  more  typical 
members  of  the  suborder  to  which  they  are  referred  in  the  presence  of  spines  in 
the  median  fins.  Possessing  an  elongate  and  somewhat  compressed  body,  covered 
with  minute  scales,  they  are  specially  characterised  by  having  the  dorsal  fin 
composed  of  a  series  of  low  isolated  spines,  without  any  soft  portion  ;  while  the 
anal  is  elongated,  with  a  great  number  of  spines  ;  the  pelvic  fins  being  abdominal 
in  position,  and  comprising  more  than  five  soft  rays,  in  addition  to  several  un- 
articulated  ones.  In  the  head  the  muzzle  is  prolonged  in  advance  of  the  mouth  ; 
the  moderate-sized  eyes  are  lateral  in  position  ;  and  the  teeth  are  small  and  weak. 
The  six  known  species  range  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Mediterranean,  Atlantic, 
and  South  Pacific.  All  are  deep-sea  fishes,  probably  dwelling  at  depths  of  from 
a  hundred  to  five  hundred  fathoms  ;  although  one  specimen  taken  to  the  south  of 
Yokohama  during  the  voyage  of  the  Challenger  is  stated  to  have  come  from  a 
depth  of  nearly  nineteen  hundred  fathoms. 
VOL.  v.  —  27 


4i8 


SPINY-PINNED    GROUP. 

THE  WRASSE-LIKE  FISHES,— Families  POMACENTRID^ 

CHROMIDID^E,  etc. 


In  almost  all  the  families  of  spiny-finned  fishes  hitherto  described  the  lower 
pharyngeal  bones  are  completely  separated  from  one  another,  whereas  in  the 
four  families  remaining  for  consideration  these  are  united  with  one  another.  It 
has  been  considered  that  this  difference  was  of  sufficient  importance  to  justify 
the  reference  of  the  families  with  united  pharyngeals  to  a  subordinal  group  of 
equal  rank  with  one  containing  those  in  which  these  bones  remain  distinct ;  but  we 
prefer  to  follow  Day  in  regarding  the  group  now  to  be  considered  merely  as  a  section 
of  the  suborder  which  includes  all  the  other  spiny-finned  fishes.  That  this  is  the 
correct  view  is  proved  by  the  circumstance  that  in  one  aberrant  genus  of  perches 


SILVER-DOTTED   POMACENTRUS  (|  liat.  size). 

(Gerres)  some  of  the  species  have  the  lower  pharyngeal  bones  separate,  while  in 
others  they  are  united.  In  the  three  families  constituting  the  present  group 
there  is  a  single  dorsal  fin,  in  which  the  number  of  spines  and  soft  rays  is 
nearly  equal ;  while  the  anal  is  usually  similar  in  character  to  the  soft  dorsal ; 
and  the  pelvic  fins  are  thoracic  in  position,  and  include  one  spine  and  five 
soft  rays. 

The  first  of  the  families  of  the  present  sectional  group  takes  its 
name  from  the  genus  Pomacentrus,  which,  together  with  the  allied 
genera,  includes  tropical  fishes  mainly  frequenting  the  neighbourhood  of  coral- 
reefs  and  islands,  and  thus  closely  resembling  the  scaly-finned  fishes  (p.  343) 
in  their  mode  of  life ;  a  few  species  of  the  family  range,  however,  into  the  seas 
of  the  temperate  zones.  As  an  example  of  the  typical  genus,  we  figure  P.  scolopsis, 
from  the  Malayan  seas  and  Polynesia.  As  a  family,  these  fishes  are  specially 
characterised  by  the  presence  of  false  gills  and  ctenoid  scales.  In  form,  the  body 


Pomacentrus. 


WRASSES.  4I9 

is  more  or  less  short  and  compressed ;  there  are  weak  teeth  in  the  jaws  but  none 
on  the  palate,  and  there  is  an  air-bladder.  The  family  is  represented  by  eight 
genera  and  considerably  over  a  hundred  species ;  and  the  genera  may  be  divided 
into  groups,  according  as  to  whether  all  or  some  of  the  opercular  bones  are  serrated 
at  the  edges  or  are  all  simple  ;  Pomacentrus  belonging  to  the  intermediate  group, 
in  which  the  preopercular  is  serrated,  while  the  edges  of  the  other  bones  of  the 
gill-cover  are  entire.  In  a  fossil  state  the  family  is  represented  by  an  extinct 
genus  from  the  middle  Eocene  deposits  of  Monte  Bolca.  Pomacentrus  is  the 
largest  genus  of  the  family,  its  representatives  ranging  over  the  tropical  seas 
of  both  hemispheres.  Curiously  enough,  not  only  do  these  fishes  resemble  the 
scaly-finned  fishes  in  their  mode  of  life,  but  they  are  very  similarly  coloured, 
so  much  so,  indeed,  that  in  some  instances  actually  the  same  pattern  of  coloration 
is  common  to  members  of  the  two  families.  This,  as  remarked  by  Dr.  Glinther, 
is  one  of  many  instances  showing  that  the  coloration  of  animals  depends  to  a 
great  extent  on  their  mode  of  life  and  natural  surroundings.  All  these  fishes 
are  carnivorous,  subsisting  on  various  small  marine  animals;  those  furnished 
with  compressed  teeth  probably  browsing  on  the  coral-polyps. 

Distinguished  from  the  preceding  family  by  their  cycloid  scales, 
the  wrasses  form  an  extensive  group  (Labridce),  many  of  the  members 
of  which  may  be  easily  recognised  by  their  greatly  thickened  lips,  sometimes 
provided  with  an  internal  fold ;  and  from  this  character  they  derive  their  German 
title  of  lip-fishes.  False  gills  are  present,  and  the  true  gills,  three  and  a  half  in 
number  on  each  side.  The  body  is  oblong  or  elongate,  and  while  teeth  are  present 
in  the  jaws  they  are  absent  on  the  palate.  In  the  single  dorsal  fin  the  number 
of  spines  is  usually  equal  to  that  of  the  rays ;  the  anal  is  similar  to  the  soft  dorsal, 
and  an  air-bladder  is  present.  Littoral  in  their  habits,  the  great  majority  of  the 
wrasses  are  found  in  tropical  and  temperate  seas,  none  occurring  within  the  limits 
of  the  polar  seas.  Rocks  and  coral-reefs  are  their  favourite  haunts,  most  of  them 
feeding  chiefly  on  molluscs  and  crustaceans,  for  crushing  the  shells  of  which  their 
teeth  are  specially  adapted.  In  many  kinds  there  is  an  additional  pointed  curved 
tooth  at  each  angle  of  the  upper  jaw,  used  for  holding  a  shell  against  the  front 
and  side  teeth,  by  which  it  is  crushed.  The  majority  of  the  wrasses  are  beautifully 
•coloured  fishes,  decorated  not  only  with  transient  iridescent  hues  on  the  scales, 
but  likewise  with  permanent  colours  formed  by  the  deposition  of  pigment  in  the 
tissues.  Some  of  the  species  grow  to  a  large  size,  specimens  weighing  upwards 
of  50  Ibs. ;  and  it  is  these  larger  species  which  are  most  esteemed  as  food-fishes, 
the  flesh  of  the  smaller  kinds  being  of  inferior  quality.  In  a  fossil  state  wrasses 
date  from  the  middle  Eocene  of  Monte  Bolca,  where  remains  referable  to  the 
existing  genus  Labrus  occur ;  while  an  extinct  Eocene  genus  from  North  America 
appears  to  be  the  ancestral  form  of  the  existing  black  fish  (Tautoga).  An  allied 
extinct  family  is  represented  by  Phyllodus,  from  the  Cretaceous  and  lower  Eocene 
of  Europe — distinguished  by  the  flattened  leaf-like  pharyngeal  teeth — as  well  as 
by  several  other  more  or  less  nearly  related  Tertiary  types. 

As  it  would  be  quite  impossible  in  our  limited  space  to  describe 
True  Wrasses.  ., 

even  a  lew  or  the  numerous  genera  ot  wrasses,  we  must  content 

ourselves  with  saying  that  these  are  arranged  in  groups  according  to  the  structure 


420 


SPINY-FINNED  GROUP. 


of  the  anterior  teeth,  and  devote  our  remaining  observations  mainly  to  the  typical 
wrasses  constituting  the  genus  Labrus.  In  this  genus,  of  which  the  figured  striped 
or  red  wrasse  (L.  mixtus)  may  be  taken  as  a  well-known  British  example,  the 
body  is  compressed  and  oblong  in  form,  with  the  moderate-sized  scales  arranged  in 
more  than  forty  transverse  rows ;  the  muzzle  is  more  or  less  sharply  pointed ;  the- 
cheeks  and  opercular  bones  are  covered  with  imbricating  scales,  which  are,  however, 
wanting  or  but  few  in  number  on  the  interopercular ;  and  the  conical  teeth  are 
arranged  in  a  single  row  in  the  jaws.  The  spines  of  the  dorsal  fin  are  numerous, 
varying  from  thirteen  to  twenty-one,  and  are  all  of  approximately  equal  height ; 
there  are  three  spines  in  the  anal  fin ;  and  the  lateral  line  is  continuous.  In  the 
young,  the  edge  of  the  preopercular  bone  is  serrated.  These  wrasses  are  chieiiy 


STRIPED  WRASSE  (£  uat.  size). 

characteristic  of  the  Mediterranean  area,  gradually  diminishing  in  the  more 
northern  seas  of  Europe,  and  being  quite  unknown  in  those  of  India.  The  striped 
wrasse  exhibits  a  remarkable  sexual  variation  of  colour ;  the  males  usually  having 
the  body  marked  with  blue  streaks  or  a  blackish  band,  while  in  the  females  the 
back  of  the  tail  shows  two  or  three  blackish  blotches.  The  other  British  species 
is  the  Ballan  wrasse  (L.  maculatus),  in  which  the  general  colour  is  bluish  green, 
the  scales  being  margined  with  reddish  orange,  and  the  fin-rays  also  of  the  latter 
tint.  Couch  writes  that  the  Ballan  wrasse  "  frequents  deep  gullies  among  rocks; 
where  it  shelters  itself  among  the  larger  kinds  of  seaweeds,  and  feeds  on  erabs  and 
other  crustaceous  animals.  It  takes  a  bait  freely,  and  fishermen  remark  that  when 
they  first  fish  in  the  place  they  take  but  few,  and  those  of  large  size;  but  on 
trying  the  same  spot  a  few  days  after,  they  catch  a  great  number,  and  those 


WRASSES. 


421 


smaller,  from  which  they  conclude  that  the  large  fish  assume  the  dominion  of  a 
district,  and  keep  the  younger  at  a  distance."  The  gold  sinny  (Crenilabrus 
melops)  is  a  British  example  of  a  second  genus,  distinguished  by  the  serrated  edge 
of  the  preopercular.  Another  well-known  member  of  the  family  is  the  black-fish 
(Tautoga  onitis),  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America,  so  named  on  account  of 
its  blackish  brown  colour,  and  the  sole  representative  of  a  genus  characterised  by 
the  naked  opercular,  the  rudimental  scales  on  the  cheek,  and  the  double  row  of 
teeth  in  the  jaws. 

Parrot-Wrasses.  SinCe  their  Mediterranean  representative  (Scarus  cretensis)  was 

'  a  fish  held  in  high  estimation  among  the  ancients,  brief  mention  must 

be  made  of  the  parrot- wrasses,  of  which  the  other  species  are  inhabitants  of  the 

tropical  parts  of  the  Atlantic.     These  fishes  are  easily  recognised  by  their  sharp 


SILVERY  VIVIPAROUS  WRASSE  (f  nat.  size). 

beak,  caused  by  the  coalescence  of  the  teeth;  and  also  by  the  lower  jaw  projecting 
in  front  of  the  upper.  Of  the  splendidly  coloured  Mediterranean  species  Dr. 
Oiinther  writes  that  "it  was  most  plentiful  and  of  the  best  quality  in  the 
Carpathian  Sea,  between  Crete  and  Asia  Minor,  but  was  not  unknown,  even  in 
•early  times,  on  the  Italian  coasts,  though  Columella  says  it  seldom  passed  beyond 
Sicily  in  his  day.  But  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  according  to  Pliny,  Optalus 
Elipentius  brought  it  from  the  Troad,  and  introduced  it  into  the  sea  between 
Ostium  and  Campania.  For  five  years  all  that  were  caught  in  the  nets  were 
thrown  into  the  sea  again,  and  from  that  time  it  was  an  abundant  fish  in  that 
locality,  In  the  time  of  Pliny  it  was  considered  to  be  the  first  of  fishes ;  and  the 
•expense  incurred  by  Elipentius  was  justified,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Roman 
gourmands,  by  the  extreme  delicacy  of  the  flesh."  This  fish  feeds  011  seaweed; 
and  the  mastication  required  to  reduce  this  to  a  pulp  probably  gave  rise  to  the  old 
idea  that  it  was  a  ruminant. 

viviparous  For  the  want  of  a  better  one,  the  members  of  the  small  family 

Wrasses.       Ditrematidce  may  be  termed,  on  acccount  of  their  peculiar  repro- 


422 


SPINY-PINNED   GROUP. 


ductive  arrangements,  viviparous  wrasses.  Agreeing  with  the  wrasses  in  the 
presence  of  false  gills  and  the  cycloid  scales,  they  differ  in  having  four  gills,  and 
the  anal  fin  furnished  with  three  spines  and  numerous  soft  rays.  In  form,  the 
compressed  body  is  either  elevated  or  oblong,  and  the  lateral  line  continuous.  The 
single  dorsal  fin  has  a  spinous  portion  in  front,  and  a  scaly  sheath  along  the  base, 
separated  by  a  groove  from  the  body-scales.  Small  teeth  are  present  in  the  jaws, 
but  the  palate  is  toothless.  Generally  not  exceeding  a  pound  in  weight,  these 
fishes  are  confined  to  the  temperate  region  of  the  North  Pacific,  where  they  are 
much  more  numerous  on  the  American  than  on  the  Asiatic  side.  While  the 
majority  belong  to  the  genus  Ditrema,  of  which  an  example  (D.  argenteum)  from 
San  Francisco  is  represented  in  the  illustration,  one  species  constitutes  the  genus 
Heterocarpus,  distinguished  by  the  number  of  dorsal  spines  being  from  sixteen  to 
eighteen,  instead  of  only  from  seven  to  eleven.  All  these  fish  produce  living 
young,  which  are  contained  in  the  sheath  of  the  ovaries,  instead  of  in  the  oviduct. 


Chromids. 


TRISTRAM'S  CHHOMID. 

Although  some  members  of  the  preceding  family  may  occasionally 
enter  rivers,  the  chromids,  family  Chromididce,  differ  from  all  the  other 
fish  with  united  lower  pharyngeals  in  being  exclusively  fresh- water  forms.  Their 
distribution  is  somewhat  peculiar,  and  very  similar  to  that  of  the  lung-fishes 
(exclusive  of  the  Australian  form).  Thus  they  are  found  in  the  rivers  of  Tropical 
America  and  Africa,  together  with  Madagascar,  Syria,  and  Palestine,  one  outlying 
genus  occurring  in  India ;  and  it  may  be  remarked  that  all  the  genera  from  the 
New  World  are  distinct  from  those  of  the  Old  World.  Mostly  of  comparatively 
small  size,  although  one  species  of  the  type  genus  from  the  Nile  grows  to  a  length 
of  about  twenty  inches,  the  chromids  may  be  distinguished  from  all  the  other  three 
families  of  the  present  group  by  the  absence  of  false  gills.  The  body,  which  is 
somewhat  variable  in  form,  is  generally  covered  with  ctenoid  scales,  although  in 
some  cases  these  may  be  cycloid :  and  the  lateral  line  is  more  or  less  interrupted. 


MAILED   TUBE-MOUTHS.  423 

In  the  single  dorsal  fin  the  spinous  portion  usually  exceeds  the  soft  in  extent ;  the 
anal  fin  having  three  or  more  spines,  and  its  rayed  portion  being  similar  to  the 
soft  dorsal.  The  jaws  are  provided  with  small  teeth,  but  the  palate  is  smooth; 
and  the  number  of  gills  is  four,  In  some  species  the  teeth  are  lobate  and  the 
intestines  complicated  by  many  foldings;  these  types  being  vegetable -feeders 
while  all  the  remainder  are  carnivorous.  Among  the  best  known  representatives 
of  the  typical  genus  Chromis  is  the  so-called  butti  of  the  Nile  (C.  niloticus),  which 
is  one  of  the  largest  members  of  the  family ;  while  Tristram's  chromid  (C.  tristrami) 
here  figured  is  from  salt  and  other  lakes  in  the  Sahara  and  Ashanti.  As  a  genus, 
Chromis  is  distinguished  by  its  lobate  teeth,  the  presence  of  only  three  spines  in 
the  anal  fin,  and  the  scaly  gill-cover ;  and  it  therefore  belongs  to  the  vegetable- 
feeding  group.  Nineteen  existing  genera  have  been  described;  and  the  family 
appears  to  be  represented  by  one,  or  perhaps  two  extinct  generic  types  from  the 
middle  Eocene  of  Monte  Bolca,  in  Italy, 

THE  TUFT-GILLED  AND  CoMB-GiLLED  FISHES, — Suborders 

LOPHOBRANCHII   AND   PLECTOGNATHI. 

The  two  small  subordinal  groups  of  fan-finned  fishes  now  to  be  noticed 
have  been  generally  placed  after  the  soft -finned  fishes,  but  from  recent 
investigations  into  their  anatomy  it  appears  more  probable  that  they  are  highly 
specialised  types  related  to  the  spiny -finned  group. 

THE  MAILED  TUBE-MOUTHS, — Family  SOLENOSTOMATID^, 

A  few  small  fishes  from  the  Indian  Ocean  constituting  the  genus  Solenostoma 
are  the  sole  representatives  of  the  first  family  of  the  suborder  Lophobranchii ;  the 
distinctive  features  of  that  subordinal  group  being  as  follows.  The  body  is 
invested  in  a  segmented  bony  dermal  skeleton,  and  the  bones  of  the  gill-cover  are 
reduced  to  a  single  plate.  The  gill-openings  are  small,  and  the  gills  themselves 
consist  of  small,  rounded  tufts  springing  from  the  gill -arches;  while  the 
muscular  system  is  characterised  by  its  very  slight  development.  The  simple  air- 
bladder,  when  present,  resembles  that  of  the  spiny-finned  group  in  being  unpro- 
vided with  a  duct  communicating  with  the  pharynx ;  and  the  prolonged  muzzle 
terminates  in  a  small  toothless  mouth,  in  which  the  bones  are  arranged  as  in  the 
group  last  named.  In  the  family  under  consideration  the  gill-openings  are  wide ; 
the  rays  of  the  first  of  the  two  dorsal  fins  are  not  articulated ;  and  the  whole  of  the 
other  fins  are  well  developed.  The  mailed  tube-mouths  take  their  title  from  the  great 
elongation  of  the  tube-like  muzzle ;  the  compressed  body  having  a  very  short  tail, 
and,  like  the  head,  being  covered  with  a  thin  skin,  beneath  which  are  the  large 
bony  plates,  marked  with  a  radiate  pattern.  The  soft  dorsal  and  anal  fins  arise 
from  boss-like  elevations  of  the  hinder  part  of  the  body ;  the  pelvic  fins,  which  are 
placed  close  together  in  the  same  vertical  line  as  the  tall  first  dorsal,  and  have  seven 
rays,  are  separate  from  one  another  in  the  males,  but  in  the  opposite  sex  have  their 
inner  edges  joined  to  the  skin  of  the  chest  so  as  to  form  a  pouch  for  the  reception 
of  the  eggs.  The  air-bladder  is  wanting.  A  female  of  the  blue-finned  species  (8. 


424 


TUFT-GILLED    GROUP. 


cyanopterum)  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration ;  the  range  of  this  form 
extending  from  the  coast  of  Zanzibar  to  China  and  Ceram.  The  female  takes  the 
whole  charge,  not  only  of  the  exceedingly  minute  eggs,  but  likewise  of  the  newly- 
hatched  fry.  Like  the  members  of  the  next  family  these  fishes  generally  swim  in 
a  more  or  less  nearly  vertical  position,  the  dorsal  fin  exerting  the  chief  propelling 
power.  The  family  is  represented  by  an  extinct  genus  from  the  Italian  Eocene. 


BLUE-FINNED  TUBE-MOUTH  (nat.  size). 

THE  PIPE-FISHES  AND  SEA-HORSES, — Family  SYNGNATHID^J. 

From  the  members  of  the  preceding  family  the  pipe-fishes  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  reduction  of  the  gill-opening  to  a  very  small  opening  at  the 
superior  hinder  angle  of  the  gill-cover,  as  well  as  by  the  single  soft  dorsal  fin,  and 
the  absence  of  the  pelvic  fins ;  some  of  the  other  fins  being  likewise  wanting  in 
certain  genera.  Mainly  marine,  although  frequently  entering  brackish,  and  more 
rarely  fresh  waters,  these  strange  fishes  are  to  be  found  on  the  coasts  of  tropical 
and  temperate  seas  in  such  situations  as,  from  the  abundance  of  seaweed,  offer 
them  sufficient  shelter.  They  are  naturally  poor  swimmers,  and  if  carried  away 
from  protective  covert  may  be  borne  helplessly  out  to  the  open  ocean  by  the  action 
of  currents.  Unlike  the  tube-mouths,  the  males  take  charge  of  the  eggs  and 
young,  being  often  provided  with  a  pouch  formed  by  a  fold  of  skin  arising  from 
each  side  of  the  body  and  tail,  and  joined  together  in  the  middle  line ;  in  the  sea- 
horses this  pouch  being  completely  closed,  save  for  a  small  aperture  in  front. 
In  this  receptacle  the  eggs  are  deposited,  and  remain  there  till  hatched.  The 
typical  genus,  as  well  as  Siphonostoma,  is  represented  in  a  fossil  state  in  the 
middle  Eocene  of  Monte  Bolca,  where  there  likewise  occurs  an  extinct  genus 
of  sea-horses.  Including  several  genera,  the  pipe-fishes  are  characterised  by 
the  absence  of  prehensile  power  in  the  tail,  which  generally  terminates  in 
a  fin.  In  the  typical  genus  Syngnathus,  as  represented  by  the  great  pipe-fish 
(S.  acus),  shown  in  our  illustration,  the  body  is  marked  with  more  or  less  distinct 
longitudinal  ridges,  among  which  the  one  down  the  back  is  not  continuous  with 
that  on  the  tail.  The  pectorals  are  well  developed,  the  caudal  present,  and  the 
dorsal  fin  placed  nearly  or  exactly  above  the  vent.  In  the  males  the  pouch  is 
fully  developed,  and  of  the  type  described  above.  The  great  pipe-fish  is  a 
common  species  in  European  seas,  extending  westwards  across  the  Atlantic  and 


PIPE-FISHES  AND  SEA-HORSES. 


425 


an 


southwards  to  the  Cape,  and  grows  to  a  length  of  a  foot  and  a  half.  As  an 
example  of  a  second  genus,  we  may  mention  the  deep-nosed  pipe-fish  (£  typhle) 
of  the  British  seas,  distinguished  by  the  upper  ridge  on  the  tail  being  continuous 
:with  the  lateral  line,  but  not  with  the  dorsal  ridge.  In  the  tropical  genus 
J)oryichthys,  as  in  some  others,  we  find  that  the  eggs  are  only  glued  to  the  skin 
of  a  broad  groove  on  the  under  surface  of  the  males,  instead  of  being  protected  by 
-a  closed  pouch.  The  slender  straight-nosed  pipe-fish  (Nerophis  ophidium),  which 
may  not  unfrequently  be  seen  served  up  among  a  dish  of  whitebait,  is  a  British 
example  of  a  fourth  genus,  in  which  not  only  is  there  no  pouch  on  the  under 


GREAT  PIPE-FISH   AND  SHOET-SNOUTED   SEA-HORSE   (J  nat.  size). 

surface  of  the  males,  but  the  body  is  rounded  and  nearly  smooth,  and  the  caudal 
fin  either  rudimentary  or  wanting.  All  the  pipe-fishes  are  carnivorous  in  their 
diet;  and  it  is  stated  that  in  those  species  provided  with  a  pouch,  the  fry  will 
return  to  this  for  shelter  till  a  considerable  time  after  birth.  The  pipe-fishes 
swim  about  slowly  in  a  very  peculiar  manner,  more  generally  vertically  or  in  an 
inclined  position  than  horizontally,  contorting  their  bodies  into  every  conceivable 
kind  of  posture,  and  poking  their  long  snouts  inquisitively  into  bunches  of  sea- 
weed in  their  search  for  food. 

The  prehensile  structure  of  the  tail  is  the  chief  difference  between  sea- 
horses and  pipe-fish,  although  in  all  the  existing  representatives  of  the  former 
group  there  is  no  caudal  fin.  The  sea-horses  are  divided  into  several  genera,  of 


426 


TUFT-GILLED   GROUP. 


which  the  typical  one  is  best  known  by  the  short-snouted  sea-horse  (Hippocampus 
antiquorum),  ranging  from  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean  to  Australia,  and  occa- 
sionally found  in  the  British  seas.  In  this  genus  the  body  is  more  or  less  com- 
pressed and  deep,  with  its  investing  bony  shields  raised  into  tubercles  or  spines 
of  variable  length ;  while  the  back  of  the  head  is  compressed  into  a  crest,  terminat- 
ing in  a  well-marked  knob.  Small  pectoral  fins  are  present,  and  the  males  have 
a  pouch  beneath  the  tail,  with  its  aperture  near  the  vent,  in  which  to  carry  the 
eggs.  The  curious  resemblance  presented  by  the  heads  of  these  fishes  to  that  of 
a  horse  has  obviously  given  rise  to  their  popular  name.  They  are  represented 


FUCUS-LIKE  SEA-HORSE   (§  nat.  Size). 

by  about  a  score  of  species.  A  remarkable  instance  of  resemblance  to  their  natural 
surroundings  is  afforded  by  the  three  representatives  of  an  Australian  genus  of 
sea-horses,  one  of  which  (Pliyllopteryx  eques)  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
illustration.  In  these  fishes  the  body  may  be  either  compressed  or  as  broad  as  deep ; 
some  or  all  of  its  smooth  bony  plates  being  furnished  with  long  spine-like  processes 
projecting  from  its  edges,  and  many  of  these  terminating  in  irregular  leaf -like 
appendages.  There  are  a  pair  of  spines  on  the  muzzle,  and  others  above  the  eye ; 
pectoral  fins  are  present ;  and  the  tail  is  about  equal  in  length  to  the  body.  In 
the  absence  of  a  pouch,  the  eggs  are  embedded  in  soft  membranous  skin  on  the 
under  surface  of  the  tail.  These  sea-horses  closely  resemble  the  colour  of  the  sea- 
weeds to  which  they  attach  themselves,  while  the  filamentous  appendages  of  their 


FILE-FISHES  AND    COFFER-FISHES.  427 

spines  appear  as  if  they  were  actually  a  part  of  the  vegetable  growth.     These 
species  are  of  relatively  large  size,  attaining  a  length  of  as  much  as  a  foot. 

FILE-FISHES  AND  COFFER-FISHES, — Family  BALISTID^. 

With  the  file-fishes  and  their  allies  we  come  to  the  first  of  the  two  families 
constituting  the  suborder  Plectognathi,  of  which  the  following  arc  the  distinctive 
characters.  In  the  head  the  bones  are  completely  ossified,  while  in  the  rest  of  the 
skeleton  they  are  incompletely  hardened ;  the  number  of  vertebrae  being  few. 
The  small  gill-openings  are  situated  in  front  of  the  pectoral  fins,  and  the  gills 
themselves  are  pectinate ;  the  mouth  being  narrow,  with  some  of  the  bones  of  the 
upper  jaw  united,  and  in  certain  cases  both  jaws  prolonged  to  form  a  beak.  There 
is  generally  a  single  soft-rayed  dorsal  fin,  placed  far  back  on  the  body,  and  situated 
immediately  above  the  anal ;  and  there  may  be  remnants  of  a  spinous  dorsal ; 
while  the  pelvic  fins,  when  retained  at  all,  take  the  form  of  simple  spines.  The 
skin  may  be  either  entirely  naked,  covered  with  rough  scales,  invested  in  a 
complete  cuirass  of  plates  composed  of  true  bone,  or  dotted  over  with  bony  spines. 
There  is  no  duct  connecting  the  air-bladder  with  the  pharynx.  As  a  family,  the 
file-fishes  and  their  allies  are  specially  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a  small 
number  of  distinct  teeth  in  the  jaws.  Their  bodies  are  either  compressed  or 
angulated,  with  a  somewhat  produced  muzzle ;  more  or  less  distinct  vestiges  of  a 
spinous  dorsal  arid  pelvic  fins  generally  occur ;  and  the  skin  may  be  either  rough 
or  spiny,  or  the  whole  body  invested  in  a  bony  cuirass.  These  fishes,  which  are 
of  medium  size,  range  over  all  tropical  and  temperate  seas,  although  more  numerous 
in  the  former  than  in  the  latter,  and  may  be  divided  into  three  subfamilies,  in  each 
of  which  we  notice  an  example.  Extinct  generic  types  date  from  the  period  of 
the  lower  Eocene,  while  the  file-fishes  themselves  are  recorded  from  the  middle 
Eocene  of  Monte  Bolca. 

The  first  subfamily  is  typically  represented  by  Triacanthus  brevirostris,  from 
the  Indian  Ocean,  the  other  genera  being  from  the  Australian  seas.  The  special 
characters  of  the  group  are  to  be  found  in  the  compressed  form  of  the  body,  and 
its  covering  of  rough,  scale-like  plates,  as  well  as  in  the  presence  of  a  pair  of  strong 
spines  representing  the  pelvic  fins ;  the  type  genus  being  distinguished  by  having 
from  four  to  six  spines  in  the  spinous  dorsal  fin.  The  typical  file-fishes  (Batistes} 
belong  to  a  group  of  three  genera  in  which  the  body  is  compressed,  and  covered 
either  with  a  rough  skin  or  movable  scale-like  plates ;  and  the  pelvic  fins  are  either 
wanting  or  represented  merely  by  a  single  median  swelling  on  the  abdomen.  These 
fishes  are  distributed  over  all  tropical  and  subtropical  seas ;  the  first  two  genera 
including  a  very  large  number  of  species.  Whereas  in  the  typical  genus  there  are 
three  spines  to  the  dorsal  fin,  and  the  chin  is  devoid  of  a  barbel,  Monacanthus 
differs  in  the  reduction  of  the  dorsal  spines  to  two  or  one,  and  Anacanthus,  which 
has  a  single  dorsal  spine,  is  distinguished  from  both  the  others  by  the  barbel  on  the 
chin.  In  many  districts  the  flesh  of  these  fishes,  if  eaten,  gives  rise  to  symptoms, 
of  most  acute  poisoning.  Many  of  the  species  are  beautifully  ornamented  with  sym- 
metrical markings ;  and  while  the  majority  are  of  small  size,  some  attain  as  much  as 
a  couple  of  feet  in  length.  Of  the  members  of  the  typical  genus  Dr.  Glinther  writes- 


428  COMB-GILLED   GROUP. 

that,  "both  jaws  are  armed  with  eight  strong  incisor-like  and  obliquely  truncated 
teeth,  by  means  of  which  these  fishes  are  enabled  to  break  off  pieces  of  the  corals 
on  which  they  feed,  or  to  chisel  a  hole  into  the  hard  shells  of  molluscs,  in  order 
to  extract  the  soft  parts.  They  destroy  an  immense  number  of  molluscs,  thus 
becoming  most  injurious  to  the  pearl-fisheries.  The  first  of  their  three  dorsal 
spines  is  very  strong,  roughened  in  front  like  a  file,  and  hollowed  out  behind  to 
receive  the  second  much  smaller  spine,  which,  besides,  has  a  projection  in  front  at 
its  base,  fitting  into  a  notch  of  the  first.  Thus  these  two  spines  can  only  be  raised 
or  depressed  simultaneously,  and  the  first  cannot  be  forced  down  unless  the  second 
has  been  previously  depressed.  The  latter  has  been  compared  to  a  trigger,  hence  a 
second  name — trigger-fish — has  been  given  to  these  fishes."  Two  Atlantic  species 
of  the  genus  are  now  and  then  met  with  on  the  British  coasts. 

The  box-like  coffer-fishes  (Ostracion),  of  which  there  are  rather  more  than 
a  score  of  species  from  the  tropical  and  subtropical  seas,  alone  represent  the 
third  and  last  subfamily,  and  are  easily  recognised  by  the  enclosure  of  the 
angulated  body  in  a  complete  cuirass  formed  of  six-sided  bony  plates  with  their 
edges  in  juxtaposition,  thus  forming  a  mosaic-like  pattern.  Both  the  spinous 
dorsal  and  the  pelvic  fins  are  wanting,  although  their  position  may  be  indicated 
by  prominences.  In  the  whole  backbone  there  are  but  fourteen  vertebrae,  of 
which  the  last  five  are  very  short,  while  those  in  the  front  of  the  series  are 
much  elongated ;  and  the  ribs  are  entirely  wanting.  In  some  of  the  species  the 
cuirass  is  marked  by  three,  and  in  others  by  four  or  even  five  ridges ;  but  in  other 
cases  it  is  armed  with  long  spines,  which  vary  in  length  according  to  the  age  of 
their  owner.  A  species  (0.  quadricornis)  is  figured  in  the  coloured  Plate. 

THE  GLOBE-FISHES  AND  SUN-FISHES,— Family  DIODONTID^E. 

Unlike  as  they  are  in  external  appearance,  the  spine-clad  globe-fishes  and 
the  huge  flattened  sun -fishes  are  referred  to  a  single  family,  distinguished 
from  the  last  by  the  bones  of  the  jaws  being  confluent  and  modified  into  a 
cutting  beak,  which  may  or  may  not  have  a  median  suture,  the  dentition  taking 
the  form  of  dental  plates  composed  of  thin  parallel  layers.  The  body  is  more  or  less 
shortened ;  a  spinous  dorsal,  anal,  caudal,  and  pectoral  fins  are  developed,  but  the 
pelvics  are  wanting.  The  external  covering  may  take  the  form  either  of  a  number 
of  small  or  large  spines,  or  of  plates ;  and  the  air-bladder  may  be  either  present  or 
absent.  Inhabitants  of  tropical  and  subtropical  seas,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
found  in  the  fresh  waters  of  the  same  regions,  the  members  of  this  family  are 
mostly  small  or  medium-sized  forms,  although  this  is  by  no  means  the  case  with 
the  sun-fishes.  In  many  of  them  the  flesh  is  of  a  highly  poisonous  nature,  at  least 
during  certain  seasons  of  the  year.  Like  the  preceding,  the  present  family  may 
be  divided  into  three  groups  or  subfamilies,  the  first  of  which  is  represented  only 
by  the  sac-fish  (Triodon  bursarius)  of  the  Indian  seas,  which  takes  its  name  from 
the  sac  formed  by  the  dilatable  skin  of  the  abdomen ;  this  sac  being  supported  by 
the  pelvic  bone,  and  filled  with  air  at  the  will  of  the  fish,  although  its  lower  portion 
consists  merely  of  a  flap  of  skin  into  which  no  air  can  enter.  The  dental  plate 
of  the  upper  jaw  is  divided  by  a  median  suture,  while  that  of  the  lower  jaw  is 


GLOBE    FISH    AND    COFFER    FISH. 


GLOBE-FISHES.  429 

continuous.  The  elongate  tail  terminates  in  a  forked  fin ;  and  the  body  is  invested 
with  spiny  bony  plates,  which  do  not  overlap  one  another.  The  single  species,  which 
may  attain  a  length  of  20  inches,  ranges  over  the  Indian  and  Malayan  seas,  and  is  of 
a  general  brown  colour,  with  a  spot  of  variable  colour  on  the  sac,  and  the  fins  yellow. 
The  essential  characteristics  of  the  globe-fishes,  which  form  the 
second  subfamily,  are  that  the  tail  and  its  fin  are  distinct  and  well 
developed,  and  that  a  portion  of  the  oesophagus  is  highly  distensible  and  capable  of 
being  inflated  with  air.  All  the  globe-fishes,  or,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  sea- 
hedgehogs,  are  easily  recognised  by  the  short  and  cylindrical  or  rounded  form  of 
the  body ;  which  is  generally  covered  with  a  scaleless  skin  bearing  a  number  of 
spines  of  variable  size.  When  these  spines  are  of  large  size,  they  are  spread  uniformly 
over  the  whole  body,  but  when  small  they  are  partial  in  their  distribution.  These 
fishes  are  divided  into  two  groups,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  dental  plates.  In 
the  first,  or  small-spined  group,  as  typified  by  the  genus  Tetrodon, — of  which  a 
species  is  represented  in  the  lower  figure  of  the  coloured  Plate, — the  dental  plate  of 
each  jaw  is  divided  by  a  median  suture,  and  the  spines  are  frequently  very  small, 
and  may  be  even  altogether  absent;  many  of  the  species  being  very  brilliantly 
coloured.  One  member  of  the  genus  inhabits  the  rivers  of  Brazil,  and  a  second 
those  of  West  Africa  and  the  Nile,  while  a  small  form  is  found  in  the  brackish- 
water  estuaries  of  India.  According  to  Day,  the  flesh  of  some  of  the  species  is- 
poisonous,  while  that  of  other  kinds  is  eaten  by  the  Andamanese  and  Burmese. 
In  the  second  group,  of  which  the  porcupine  globe-fish  (Diodon  hystrix)  is  shown 
in  the  lower  figure  of  the  coloured  illustration,  the  dental  plates  in  the  jaws  are 
undivided,  and  the  spines  are  large  and  frequently  erectile.  In  addition  to  the 
undivided  dental  plates  on  the  edge  of  the  jaws,  in  the  members  of  this  group 
there  is  another  crushing  plate  in  the  middle  of  the  palate,  opposed  by  a  similar 
one  in  a  corresponding  position  in  the  lower  jaw ;  these  plates  being  divided  by  a 
median  suture,  and  from  their  laminated  structure  forming  most  admirable 
triturating  instruments.  The  porcupine  globe-fish,  which  may  measure  fully  a 
couple  of  feet  in  length,  is  distributed  over  both  the  Atlantic  and  Indo-Pacific 
Oceans,  where  it  is  accompanied  by  the  smaller  spotted  globe-fish  (D.  maculatus). 
Fossil  diodons  have  been  discovered  in  the  Miocene  strata  of  Malta  and  Sicily^  as. 
well  as  in  the  middle  Eocene  of  Monte  Bolca,  and  in  other  Eocene  beds  on  the 
coasts  of  Algeria  and  Arakan ;  while  an  extinct  genus  has  also  been  recorded  from 
the  Italian  Eocene.  In  their  normal  state  the  globe-fishes  have  rather  elongated 
cylindrical  bodies,  but  they  are  able  to  assume  a  globular  form  by  swallowing  air, 
which  passes  into  the  oesophagus  and  blows  out  the  whole  animal  like  a  balloon, 
with  the  spines  standing  out  at  right  angles  from  the  tense  skin.  In  this  condition 
the  fish  naturally  floats  back-downwards,  and  it  is  then  driven  to  and  fro  on  the 
ocean-surface  by  waves  and  currents  in  a  perfectly  helpless  condition ;  although 
the  bristling  spines  render  it  perfectly  safe  from  all  attack.  The  distention  is, 
therefore,  evidently  for  the  purpose  of  defence ;  and  it  has  been  suggested  that 
when  swimming  below  the  surface  these  fishes  may  inflate  themselves  in  a  similar 
manner  by  swallowing  water  instead  of  air.  When  desirous  of  returning  to  its 
normal  condition,  the  fish  expels  the  air  from  the  oesophagus  through  the  mouth, 
and  gill -openings ;  a  loud,  hissing  noise;  being  produced  by  the  expulsion. 


430  SOFT-FINNED   GROUP. 

The  gigantic  sun-fishes  (Orthagoriscus),  which  are  pelagic  forms 
Sun-Fisties 

distributed  throughout  the  whole  of  the  temperate  and  tropical  seas, 

alone  represent  the  third  subfamily,  and  are  distinguished  by  the  extremely  short 
and  truncated  tail,  the  confluence  of  all  the  median  fins,  and  the  short  and  highly 
compressed  body,  the  dental  plates  of  the  jaws  being  undivided.  The  skin  is 
either  rough  or  smoothly  tesselated,  and  incapable  of  distention  with  air;  there 
are  no  pelvic  fins ;  the  air-bladder  is  wanting ;  and  there  is  an  accessory  opercular 
gill.  As  in  the  globe-fishes,  there  are  no  pelvic  bones  in  the  skeleton,  and  the 
vertebral  column  is  remarkable  for  its  extreme  shortness,  there  being  only 
seventeen  segments  in  the  whole  series,  of  which  seven  belong  to  the  tail.  In  all 
the  members  of  the  suborder  the  spinal  cord  is  noticeable  for  its  shortness  ;  but  in 
the  sun-fishes  this  abbreviation  has  been  carried  to  such  an  extent  that  the  whole 
cord  is  little  more  than  a  conical  backward  appendage  of  the  brain.  The  creatures 
considered  to  be  very  young  sun-fish  are  utterly  unlike  the  adult  form,  having 
an  enormous  eye,  and  the  head  and  body  armed  with  a  number  of  large  spine-like 
projections.  The  caudal  fin  is  not  developed  till  much  later  than  the  dorsal  and 
anal,  which  in  the  adult  are  very  short,  of  great  height,  and  placed  opposite  to  one 
another  at  the  hinder  end  of  the  body,  The  common  sun-fish  (0.  mola),  which 
has  a  rough,  finely  granulated  skin,  attains  very  large  dimensions,  an  example 
caught  off  the  coast  of  Dorsetshire  in  1846  measuring  7J  feet  in  length. 

Far  rarer  is  the  oblong  sun-fish  (0.  truncatus),  which  is,  indeed,  one  of  the 
scarcest  objects  in  museums.  It  is  readily  distinguished  by  its  smooth,  tesselated 
skin,  and  the  more  elongated  form  of  the  body ;  the  entire  length  being  nearly 
three  times  the  breadth.  An  example  of  this  fish,  weighing  500  Ibs.,  was  taken  in 
Plymouth  Sound  in  the  year  1734.  Both  species  appear  to  feed  on  small  pelagic 
crustaceans.  In  a  fossil  state  sun-fishes  have  been  recorded  from  strata  of  lower 
Miocene  or  upper  Eocene  age  in  Belgium. 

THE  SOFT-FINNED  FISHES, — Suborder  Anacanthini. 

This  suborder,  which  includes  the  important  families  of  the  flat-fish  and  cods, 
is  characterised  by  the  median  and  pelvic  fins  being  entirely  composed  of  soft 
jointed  rays ;  the  pelvic  fins,  if  present,  being  either  jugular  or  thoracic  in  position  ; 
and  the  air-bladder,  when  developed,  having  no  duct  communicating  with  the 
oesophagus.  It  should,  however,  be  mentioned,  that  a  fresh-water  Australian  fish 
(Gadopsis)  forms  an  exception  as  regards  the  structure  of  its  fins,  having  spines 
in  the  anterior  portion  of  both  the  anal  and  dorsal.  The  suborder  is  divided  into 
two  sections,  according  to  whether  the  head  and  body  are  symmetrical  or  distorted, 
the  first  representatives  of  the  former  section  being 

Family  L  YCODID^. 

This  unimportant  family,  for  which  there  is  no  proper  English  name, 
includes  small  littoral  fishes  much  resembling  blennies  in  general  appearance,  and 
mostly  characteristic  of  high  latitudes,  although  a  few  occur  within  the  Tropics. 
As  a  family  they  are  characterised  by  the  confluence  of  the  median  fins ;  by  the 


COD    TRIBE. 


43  J 


pelvic  fins,  if  present  at  all,  being  of  small  size,  jugular  in  position,  and  attached 
to  the  pectoral  arch;  while  the  gill-opening  is  narrow,  and  the  gill-membrane 
attached  to  what  is  known  as  the  isthmus,  that  is  to  say,  the  space  on  the  chest 
intervening  between  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  and  the  gill-openings.  In 
the  typical  genus,  of  which  a  species  (Lycodes  murcena)  is  represented  in  our 
illustration,  the  elongated  body  is  either  naked  or  covered  with  minute  scales 
embedded  in  the  skin ;  the  lateral  line  is  more  or  less  indistinct ;  the  eyes  are  of 
medium  size ;  and  the  lower  jaw  is  overlapped  by  the  upper.  The  small  and 
rudimentary  pelvic  fins  are  formed  of  a  few  rays ;  conical  teeth  are  present  not 
only  in  the  jaws,  but  likewise  on  the  palatines  and  vomer;  the  gill-opening  is 
narrow;  and  there  is  neither  a  barbel  nor  an  air-bladder.  While  the  majority 
of  the  species  (among  which  is  our  figured  example)  are  from  the  Arctic  seas  a  few 
are  found  in  the  seas  surrounding  the  Antarctic  extremity  of  South  America.  In 
Spitzbergen  and  off  Behring  Island  the  eel-like  lycodes  is  taken  at  depths  of  from 


EEL-LIKE  LYCODES  (§  nat.  size). 

350  to  500  fathoms.  In  the  allied  genus  Gymnelis,  which  is  of  especial  interest 
from  a  geographical  point  of  view  on  account  of  one  species  inhabiting  the  seas 
around  Greenland,  while  the  second  comes  from  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  there 
are  no  pelvic  fins,  and  the  two  jaws  are  of  equal  length.  A  third  genus,  Uronectes, 
from  Baffin  Bay,  agrees  with  the  last  in  the  absence  of  pelvic  fins,  but  differs  in 
that  the  lower  jaw  is  the  longer.  Three  other  genera  are  respectively  represented 
by  species  from  Panama,  Australia,  and  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 


THE  COD  TRIBE. — Family 

Equalled  only  in  this  respect  by  the  mackerels,  flat-fish,  salmon,  and  herrings, 
the  cod  tribe  form  a  family  of  the  utmost  importance  from  a  commercial  point  of 
view,  and  therefore  demand  a  somewhat  detailed  notice.  They  are  specially 
characterised  by  the  pelvic  fins  being  generally  composed  of  several  rays :  and 
by  the  caudal  being  either  free,  or,  if  united  with  the  median  fins,  by  the  first 


432 


SOFT-PINNED   GROUP. 


dorsal  being  divided  into  two  moieties.  More  or  less  elongate  and  subcyclindrica 
in  form,  the  body  is  covered  with  small  cycloid  scales ;  there  are  either  one,  two 
or  three  dorsal  fins,  occupying  nearly  the  entire  length  of  the  back,  the  rays  o: 
the  hindmost  being  well  developed ;  the  anal  is  either  single  or  divided ;  and  the 
jugular  pelvic  fins  are  usually  formed  of  several  rays,  but  if  reduced  to  filaments 
there  is  always  a  double  dorsal.  The  gill-opening  is  wide,  and  the  gill-membrane  in 


HADDOCK,    WHITING,    AND  YOUNG  AND  ADULT  COD   (J  nat.  size). 

most  instances  not  attached  to  the  isthmus ;  while  if  false  gills  are  present  at  all 
they  are  either  glandular  or  rudimental.  As  a  rule,  there  is  an  air-bladder. 
Mostly  marine,  the  members  of  the  cod  family  are  mainly  characteristic  of  the 
Arctic  and  Temperate  seas,  where  they  are  comparatively  shallow- water  fishes. 
There  are,  however,  a  certain  number  of  deep-water  types  among  the  family,  and 
these  have  a  much  more  extensive  distribution,  some  of  them  occurring  in  the 
tropical  Indian  seas.  The  fresh-water  forms  are  limited  to  two  or  three.  Although 
the  flesh  of  the  cod  tribe  is  by  no  means  remarkable  for  its  delicacy  or  flavour, 


COD    TRIBE.  433 

it  affords  a  most  wholesome  and  substantial  food,  and  as  it  possesses  the  property 
of  taking  salt  readily,  it  is  more  valuable  as  a  food-supply  than  would  otherwise 
be  the  case.  Moreover,  the  liver  of  the  cod  is  of  especial  value  as  the  source  of  a 
highly  strengthening  medicinal  oil,  greatly  increasing  the  value  of  the  fishery 
of  this  species,  which  affords  employment  to  a  host  of  men  on  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic.  The  family  is  divided  into  more  than  twenty  distinct  genera,  but  in 
this  work  our  attention  will  be  chiefly  concentrated  on  those  containing  species  of 
commercial  importance.  Geologically  the  group  is  not  a  very  ancient  one,  the 
oldest  known  forms,  all  of  which  are  referred  to  extinct  genera,  occurring  in 
the  London  Clay  and  other  deposits  of  lower  Eocene  age. 

The  common  cod  (Gadus  morrhua),  of  which  a  half -grown  and 

an  adult  example  are  shown  in  the  two  lowrer  figures  of  our  illustra- 
tion, is  the  typical  representative  of  a  genus  primarily  characterised  by  the 
presence  of  three  dorsal  and  two  anal  fins,  and  of  teeth  on  the  vomer,  the  palatine 
bones  being  toothless.  The  degree  of  elongation  of  the  body  is  moderate,  and  the 
narrow  pelvic  fins  include  six  or  more  rays.  In  the  majority  of  the  eighteen  species 
recognised  by  naturalists  there  is  a  single  barbel  dependent  from  the  chin,  but  in 
some  forms  this  is  absent.  The  species  are  distributed  over  the  Arctic  and  Tem- 
perate regions  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  The  common  cod  belongs  to  a  group  of 
several  species  characterised  by  the  upper  jaw  being  the  longer,  and  the  outer  series 
of  upper  teeth  stouter  than  the  inner  ones ;  its  barbel  is  relatively  long.  Cod 
from  the  British  seas  and  German  Ocean  are  usually  greenish  or  brownish  olive  in 
colour,  with  a  number  of  yellowish  or  brown  spots ;  but  more  to  the  north  darker, 
and  often  uniformly  coloured  specimens  are  more  common,  while  in  the  race  from 
Greenland,  Scandinavia,  and  Northern  Norway  there  is  frequently  a  large,  irregular 
black  patch  on  each  side  of  the  body.  As  a  rule,  cod  vary  in  length  from  2  to  4 
feet,  and  may  weigh  as  much  as  100  Ibs.  ;  but  a  specimen  out  of  condition,  caught 
near  Wick  in  the  year  1872,  measured  upwards  of  4J  feet.  The  range  of  the  cod 
includes  the  coasts  of  Northern  Europe,  Iceland,  and  Greenland,  whence  it  descends 
on  the  American  coast  as  far  as  the  latitude  of  New  York ;  the  depth  at  which  the 
fish  is  found  extending  as  low  as  one  hundred  and  twenty  fathoms.  In  Britain 
the  spawning-time  is  in  January,  at  which  season  these  fish  resort  to  the  shores  in 
great  numbers,  although  at  other  times  of  the  year  they  are  only  found  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  land  singly.  In  America  cod  do  not  deposit  their  spawn  till  May. 
The  great  fisheries  are  those  of  the  Dogger  Bank  in  the  North  Sea,  Iceland,  and 
the  banks  of  Newfoundland  ;  the  product  of  the  latter  area  having  been  formerly 
the  greatest  of  all,  its  average  value  some  twenty  years  ago  being  estimated  at 
upwards  of  £700,000,  of  which  £400,000  was  accounted  for  by  the  dried  fish  alone, 
the  remainder  being  made  up  by  the  oil,  skins,  etc.  The  cod  is  an  exceeding  pro- 
ductive fish,  Buckland  stating  that  the  number  of  eggs  in  a  roe  weighing  7|  Ibs. 
was  close  on  seven  millions.  Cod  feed  on  various  crustaceans,  worms,  molluscs, 
and  small  fish ;  and  since  they  alwrays  frequent  comparatively  deep  water,  they 
are  caught  by  means  of  lines. 

Belonging  to  the  same  group  of  the  genus  as  the  common  cod, 

the  haddock  (G.  ceglefinus),  which  is  shown  in  the  left  upper  figure 
of  the  illustration  on  p.  432,  may  be  always  recognised  by  the  blackish  patch  on 
VOL.  v. — 28 


434  SOFT-FINNED   GROUP. 

each  side  of  the  body  above  the  pectoral  fin,  and  the  black  lateral  line.  Generally  j 
haddock  vary  in  weight  from  \  to  4  Ibs.,  but  in  northern  seas  they  attain  a 
larger  size  than  further  south,  and  measure  as  much  as  a  yard  in  length.  In 
England  the  largest  haddock  are  taken  in  winter,  when  they  resort  to  the  coast 
for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  They  generally  associate  in  large  shoals;  and  in 
stormy  weather  seek  shelter  in  deep  water  among  seaweeds,  when  it  is  useless  to 
attempt  fishing  for  them.  In  addition  to  crustaceans  and  other  invertebrates,  their 
food  comprises  small  fishes  of  various  kinds.  Haddock  are  largely  consumed 
when  split,  dried,  and  smoked.  They  range  across  the  Atlantic. 

By  far  the  most  delicately  flavoured  British  representatives  of 
Other  Species.     ,  .     ,1          i  ...        //>  /  •     f,         •   r, 

the  genus  is  the  whiting  (G.  merlangus),  shown  in  the  right  upper 

corner  of  the  illustration  on  p.  432,  which  differs  from  all  the  preceding  species  in 
the  absence  of  a  barbel  on  the  chin,  and  is  specially  distinguished  by  a  black  spot 
near  the  root  of  each  pectoral  fin.  The  usual  weight  is  about  lijr  Ibs. ;  4  Ibs. 
being  nearly  the  maximum  attained.  The  distributional  area  of  the  whiting  is 
restricted  to  the  seas  of  Northern  Europe,  where  it  is  found  in  vast  shoals  ;« 
Plymouth  being  one  of  the  British  localities  where  these  fish  occur  in  great 
abundance.  Very  shy  in  its  habits,  the  whiting  is  a  voracious  fish,  Yarrell  stating 
that  several  sprats  have  been  taken  from  the  stomach  of  one,  while  in  another  of 
4  Ibs.  weight  were  found  four  full-grown  pilchards.  The  same  writer  states  that 
it  appears  to  prefer  sandy  banks,  but  frequently  shifts  its  ground  in  pursuit  of 
the  fry  of  various  other  fishes  on  which  it  chiefly  feeds.  Next  to  the  mackerel, 
the  whiting  suffers  more  by  transport  than  any  British  sea-fish,  and  should  be 
eaten  as  soon  as  possible  after  capture.  Another  species  with  a  black  spot  near 
the  pectoral  fin  is  the  pout,  or  whiting-pout  (G.  Inscus),  which  may  be  at  once 
distinguished  from  the  whiting  by  the  barbel  on  the  chin,  and  the  greater  depth 
of  the  body,  which  during  life  is  marked  with  dark  crossbands.  Seldom  exceed- 
ing 5  Ibs.  in  weight,  this  fish  ranges  from  Scandinavia  to  the  Mediterranean,  but 
does  not  cross  the  Atlantic.  The  name  of  pout  is  derived  from  the  power 
possessed  by  this  fish  of  inflating  the  membranes  covering  the  eyes  and  adjacent 
regions  into  a  bladder-like  form.  Nearly  allied  is  the  much  smaller  power-cod 
(G.  minutus),  which  seldom  exceeds  half  a  dozen  inches  in  length,  and  may  be 
further  distinguished  by  the  smaller  proportionate  depth  of  the  body.  Found  in 
vast  shoals  in  the  Baltic,  the  power-cod,  although  of  little  or  no  value,  is  always 
welcomed  as  the  harbinger  of  the  advent  of  its  larger  cousins.  The  pollack,  or 
whiting-pollack  (G.  pollachius),  is  a  British  representative  of  the  group  in  which 
the  lower  jaw  is  the  longer,  and  all  the  upper  teeth  are  of  equal  size ;  it  has  a  dark 
spot  near  the  pectoral  fin,  but  no  barbel.  This  fish  is  an  inhabitant  of  European 
seas  as  far  as  the  western  portions  of  the  Mediterranean.  Haunting  rocky 
ground,  pollack  are  famous  for  their  power  of  withstanding  strong  tides  and 
currents ;  they  are  very  common  in  many  parts  of  the  south  coast  of  England, 
as  Devonshire,  but  become  scarcer  to  the  north.  Being  free  biters,  they  afford 
good  sport  with  the  line.  The  coal-fish  (G.  virens)  is  a  closely  allied  but  some- 
what larger  form,  more  northern  in  its  distribution,  and  taking  its  name  from  the 
black  colour  it  frequently  assumes.  This  fish  is  very  common  in  the  Baltic  and 
other  northern  seas,  numbers  being  captured  in  the  Orkneys.  The  largest 


COD-TRIBE.  435 

specimen  on  record  appears  to  be  one  mentioned  by  Buckland,  which  measured 
just  over  3J  feet  in  length,  and  scaled  25  Ibs. 

Before  referring  to  this  species  it  may  be  mentioned  that  a  deep- 
sea  cod  (Halargyreus),  which  has  been  taken  off  Madeira  and  New 
Zealand,  belongs  to  a  small  group  characterised  by  having  two  dorsal  and  two  anal 
tins.  On  the  other  hand,  the  hake  (Merluccius  vulgaris)  is  the  British  representa- 
tive of  a  genus  belonging  to  a  much  larger  group,  characterised  by  having  two 
dorsals,  a  single  anal,  and  a  separate  caudal  fin.  As  a  genus,  the  hakes  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  strong  development  of  the  pelvic  fins,  which  are  broad  at  the 
base,  as  well  as  by  the  presence  of  strong  teeth  on  the  jaws  and  vorner,  and  the 
absence  of  a  barbel.  The  common  hake  is  found  on  both  sides  of  the  North 
Atlantic  and  other  European  seas ;  and  is  represented  in  the  colder  seas  of  South 
America,  as  well  as  in  those  of  New  Zealand,  by  the  allied  M.  gayi.  The  hakes  are 
peculiar  in  having  the  transverse  processes  of  some  of  the  trunk-vertebrse  ex- 
panded and  inflated,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  roof  over  the  air-bladder.  In  size  the 
common  hake  is  a  rather  large  fish,  reaching  2  or  even  3  feet  in  length.  On  the 
Cornish  coasts,  which  they  frequent  in  numbers  in  pursuit  of  the  shoals  of 
pilchards,  hake  have  been  taken  in  vast  quantities,  upwards  of  forty  thousand 
having  once  been  landed  in  a  day  at  Mount's  Bay,  while  on  another  occasion  eleven 
hundred  were  taken  in  two  nights  by  a  single  boat.  When  captured  in  the 
pilchard-nets,  these  fish  generally  gorge  themselves  to  such  an  extent  on  their 
fellow-captives  as  to  become  completely  helpless.  Although  the  flesh  is  coarse  and 
of  inferior  flavour,  large  numbers  of  hake  are  dried  and  salted. 

As  an  example  of  a  fresh-water  representative  of  the  cod  family, 
we  may  refer  to  the  well-known  burbot  or  eel-pout  (Lota  vulgaris), 
which  is  the  sole  member  of  its  genus,  and  is  common  in  the  rivers  of  Central  and 
Northern  Europe  and  North  America.  Belonging  to  the  group  with  two  dorsals, 
one  anal,  and  a  distinct  caudal,  the  genus  Lota  has  the  first  dorsal  fin  well 
developed,  with  from  ten  to  thirteen  rays,  the  pelvics  with  several  rays,  the  head 
flattened,  the  body  much  elongated,  and  villiform  teeth  in  the  jaws  and  on  the 
vomer.  The  chin  is  furnished  with  a  barbel.  In  length  the  burbot  exceeds  a  yard, 
and  its  flesh  ranks  high  among  fresh- water  fish.  Its  form  is  shown  in  the  upper- 
most figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  436.  In  Britain  found  only  in  the  east 
of  England,  where  it  is  not  uncommon  in  the  Cain  and  the  Ouse,  the  burbot  is. 
widely  distributed  on  the  Continent,  frequenting  alike  large  rivers,  small  streams, 
lakes,  and  pools.  It  prefers,  however,  deep  to  shallow  water,  being  found  in  large 
lakes  at  a  depth  of  from  thirty  to  forty  fathoms ;  its  colour  being  then  paler  than  is 
the  case  with  specimens  from  shallower  water.  From  its  habit  of  lying  concealed 
beneath  stones  or  in  holes  on  the  river  bank,  the  burbot  in  some  parts  of  England 
is  known  as  the  coney -fish.  Its  food  consists  of  the  fry  of  other  fishes,  or  the 
adults  of  the  smaller  kinds ;  and  it  is  stated  to  be  particularly  destructive  to  the 
perch.  In  the  spawning-season,  which  varies  considerably  according  to  localities, 
burbot  are  in  the  .habit  of  congregating  in  large  numbers;  and  in  some  of  the 
German  rivers  masses  of  these  fishes,  including  as  many  as  a  hundred  individuals, 
may  be  found  knotted  together  after  the  fashion  of  eels.  While  some  burbot 
spawn  in  November  and  December,  in  others  the  function  is  delayed  till  March ; 


436 


SOFT-FINNED    GROUP. 


and  it  is  during  the  spawning-season  that  the  fish  is  in  the  best  condition  for  the 
table.  The  burbot  is  a  fish  of  slow  growth,  not  attaining  full  maturity  till  it  is 
upwards  of  four  years  old. 

Ling  and  Rock-          Distinguished  from  the  burbot  by  the  presence  of  several  enlarged 

iings-         teeth  in  the  lower  jaw  and  on  the  voiner,  the  ling  (Molva  vulgaris) 

may  be  regarded  merely  as  a  marine  representative  of  that  genus.     The  common 


BURBOT  AND  WELS,  immature  (£  nat.  size). 

ling,  which  generally  measures  from  2  to  3  feet  in  length,  is  a  northern  form, 
ranging  from  the  coasts  of  Greenland  and  Iceland  to  those  of  Britain  and  other 
parts  of  Northern  Europe.  In  this  fish  the  upper  jaw  is  the  longer,  but  the 
reverse  condition  obtajns  in  a  second  Scandinavian  species,  and  also  in  a  third  from 
the  Mediterranean,  which  are  the  only  other  representatives  of  the  genus.  The 
ling-fishery  is  an  important  industry,  large  quantities  of  these  fish  being  cured 
and  dried.  Belonging  to  the  same  group  of  the  family  as  the  ling,  the  rocklings 
(Motella)  are  readily  distinguished  by  the  reduction  of  the  first  of  the  two  dorsal 


CAVE-FISH.  437 

fins  to  a  narrow-rayed  fringe,  with  the  first  ray  elongated,  more  or  less  completely 
received  in  a  longitudinal  groove.  There  is  a  band  of  teeth  in  the  jaws,  and  another 
on  the  vorner,  and  all  the  species  have  barbels,  not  only  on  the  chin,  but  likewise 
on  the  muzzle,  the  number  of  these  appendages  affording  the  readiest  means  of 
specific  discrimination.  They  are  all  of  small  size,  and  while  ranging  over  the 
same  seas  as  the  ling,  likewise  extend  to  those  of  Japan,  the  Cape,  and  New 
Zealand.  The  British  representatives  of  the  genus  include  the  five -bearded 
rockling  (M.  mustela),  with  four  upper  barbels,  the  four-bearded  rockling  (M. 
cimbria),  and  the  common  three-bearded  rockling  (M.  tricirrhata) ;  the  little  fish 
commonly  known  as  the  mackerel-midge,  and  formerly  regarded  as  the  representa- 
tive of  a  distinct  genus  being  only  the  young  of  the  rocklings. 

Brief  mention  may  be  made  here  of  a  fish  from  the  Northern,  Temperate,  and 
Arctic  seas,  known  as  the  torsk  (Brosmius  brosme),  on  account  of  its  forming  the 
sole  representative  of  a  group  characterised  by  having  only  a  single  long  dorsal 
and  a  shorter  single  anal  fin,  the  caudal  being  distinct,  the  narrow  pectorals  formed 
of  five  rays,  teeth  present  on  the  vomer  and  palatines,  as  well  as  in  the  jaws,  and 
the  chin  furnished  with  a  barbel.  Attaining  a  length  of  a  little  over  20  inches 
the  torsk  is  occasionally  taken  in  the  Firth  of  Forth,  and  is  abundant  round  the 
Shetlands  and  Orkneys. 

SAND-EELS  AND  THEIR  ALLIES, — Family  OPHIDIID^. 

In  this  rather  small  family,  almost  all  the  members  of  which  are  marine,  the 
pelvic  fins,  if  developed  at  all,  are  rudimentary ;  there  is  no  separate  anterior  dorsal 
or  anterior  anal,  and  the  caudal  is  generally  confluent  with  the  median  fins.  In 
form  the  body  is  more  or  less  elongate,  but  it  may  be  either  naked  or  scaled. 
The  dorsal  fin  occupies  the  greater  portion  of  the  back ;  the  rudimentary  pelvics 
are  jugular  in  position ;  the  gill-openings  are  wide ;  and  the  gill-membranes  are  not 
attached  to  the  isthmus.  While  some  of  these  fishes  are  deep-sea  forms,  others  are 
littoral.  The  family  may  be  divided  into  five  subfamily  groups. 

The  most  remarkable  representatives  of  the  first  subfamily  (in 
which  pelvic  fins,  attached  to  the  pectoral  girdle,  are  always  present) 
are  two  small  fishes  from  the  subterranean  fresh  waters  of  certain  caves  in  Cuba, 
constituting  the  genus  Lucifuga.  They  are  totally  blind,  with  the  eyes  rudi- 
mental  and  covered  with  skin,  or  wanting,  and  always  live  in  perpetual  darkness. 
The  cave-fish  are  closely  allied  to  certain  small  fishes  from  the  Tropical  Atlantic 
and  Indian  Oceans  forming  the  genus  Brotula,  and  characterised  by  the  elongate 
body  being  covered  with  minute  scales,  the  moderate-sized  eyes,  the  reduction  of 
each  pelvic  fin  to  a  single  filament,  of  which  the  extremity  may  be  split,  the 
villiforrn  teeth,  and  the  presence  of  barbels  on  the  muzzle ;  these  barbels  being 
reduced  in  the  cave-fish  to  small  tubercles.  With  the  exception  of  these  cave- 
fish,  all  the  members  of  this  family  are  marine  forms ;  and  it  is  very  curious  that 
among  the  latter  there  are  two  very  rare  species,  respectively  constituting  the 
genera  Typhlonus  and  Aphyonus,  found  at  great  depths  in  the  southern  oceans, 
which  are  also  completely  blind,  and  apparently  unprovided  with  any  phosphorescent 
organs. 


438 


SOFT-FINNED    GROUP. 


Snake-Fishes. 


Parasitic  Fish. 


The  typical  genus  Ophidium,  constituting,  with  an  allied  form, 
the  second  subfamily,  has  the  pelvic  tins  replaced  by  a  pair  of  barbel- 
like  filaments;  the  elongated  and  compressed  body  being  covered  with  very 
minute  scales,  while  the  eyes  are  medium,  and  the  teeth  small.  The  few  species  of 
this  genus  range  over  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific.  In  the  South  American,  South 
African,  and  Australasian  seas  there  occur  three  much  larger  but  nearly  allied  fishes, 
which  have  been  referred  to  a  second  genus  (Genypterus),  on  account  of  the  outer 
row  of  teeth  in  the  jaws,  as  well  as  those  of  the  single  palatine  series,  containing 
some  enlarged  tusks.  These  fish  are  of  considerable  commercial  importance,  and  are 
known  at  the  Cape  as  klipvisch,  and  in  New  Zealand  as  Cloudy  Bay  cod,  or  ling. 

Some  half-score  species  of  very  small  eel-like  fishes,  scientifically 
known  as  Fierasfer  and  Encheliophis,  and  inhabiting  the  Mediter- 
ranean, Atlantic,  and  Indo-Pacific,  have  an  especial  interest  on  account  of  their 

curious  mode  of  life.  They 
constitute  a  subfamily,  readily 
characterised  by  the  total 
absence  of  pelvic  fins  and  by 
the  vent  being  situated  at  the 
throat;  and  are  parasitic  in 
other  marine  animals,  fre- 
quenting the  hollows  in  the 
bodies  of  jelly  -  fish,  the 
breathing-chambers  of  star- 
fishes and  sea-cucumbers,  and 
sometimes  insinuating  them- 
selves between  the  layers  of 
the  mantle  of  pearl-mussels 
or  other  bivalve  molluscs. 
Occasionally  they  may  become 
•embedded  in  the  substance  of  the  shell  of  the  pearl-mussel  by  the  deposition  of 
pearly  matter  over  their  bodies ;  an  instance  of  this  peculiar  mode  of  preservation 
being  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration. 

The  third  subfamily  is  represented  by  the  well-known  sand-eels  or 
launces — of  which  a  British  species  (Ammodytes  tobianus)  is  figured 
in  the  illustration — so  abundant  on  sandy  shores  in  Europe  and  North  America, 
as  well  as  by  an  allied  genus  from  Madras.  While  agreeing  with  the  preceding 
group  in  the  want  of  pelvic  fins,  they  differ  in  having  the  vent  situated  far  back 
in  the  body ;  and  are  further  characterised  by  the  great  width  of  the  gill-openings, 
the  gill-membranes  of  opposite  sides  not  being  united.  The  lower  jaw  exceeds  the 
upper  in  length,  the  dorsal  fin  occupies  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  back,  and 
the  anal  is  likewise  elongated.  The  figured  species,  which  is  by  far  the  commoner 
•on  the  British  coasts,  generally  measures  from  5  to  7  inches  in  length,  whereas  the 
.greater  sand-eel  (A.  lanceolatus}  may  grow  to  a  foot  and  a  half.  Sand-eels  feed 
on  marine  worms  and  very  small  fish ;  and  when  buried  in  the  sand  are  captured 
in  some  parts  of  England  by  raking  the  sand  with  a  long-pronged  rake ;  their 
•chief  use  being  for  bait.  They  are,  however,  by  no  means  restricted  to  this  kind 


PARASITIC   FISH   EMBEDDED   IN   A   PEARL- MUSSEL. 

(From  Giinther,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1886.) 


Sand-Sels. 


LONG-TAILS  AND  FLAT-FISHES. 


439 


of  life,  frequently  swimming  near  the  surface  in  large  shoals,  when  they  will  at 
times  suddenly  descend  to  the  bottom,  where  they  bury  themselves  with  surpris- 
ing rapidity  by  the  aid  of  the  elongated  horn-like  extremity  of  the  elongated  lower 
ijaw.     During  ebb-tide,  numbers  remain  buried  at  the  depth  of  five  or  six  inches  in 


LESSER  SAND-EEL  (f  nat.  size). 

the  sand  till  the  next  flood ;  and  it  is  then  that  they  are  dug  out  with  rakes  or 
other  implements.  When  swimming,  they  are  followed  by  shoals  of  mackerel 
and  porpoises. 

The  last  group  of  the  family  is  represented  by  Conyrodus  of  the 
Australian  coasts,  and  Haliophis  from  the  Red  Sea,  both  of  which 
differ  from  the  sand-eels  by  the  narrower  gill-openings,  and  the  union  of  the  two 
gill-membranes  beneath  the  throat. 


Conyrodus. 


THE  LONG-TAILS, — Family  MACRUEID^E. 

The  fourth  family  of  the  symmetrically  formed  soft-finned  fishes  is  typically 
represented  by  the  genus  Macrurus,  as  well  as  by  several  allied  forms.  These  fish 
are  characterised  by  the  body  ending  in  a  long,  compressed,  and  tapering  tail,  covered 
with  spiny,  keeled,  or  striated  scales,  and  unprovided  with  an  expanded  fin.  There 
is  a  separate  short  first  dorsal  fin,  followed,  after  a  short  interval,  by  a  very  long 
and  low  second  dorsal,  which  is  composed  of  very  weak  rays,  and  is  continued  to 
the  end  of  the  tail ;  the  anal  occupying  a  precisely  similar  position  on  the  under 
surface,  and  the  thoracic  or  jugular  pelvic  fins  consisting  of  several  rays.  Dr. 
Giinther  writes  that  "  this  family,  known  a  few  years  ago  from  a  limited  number 
of  examples,  representing  a  few  species  only,  proves  to  be  one  which  is  distributed 
over  all  oceans,  occurring  in  considerable  variety  and  great  abundance  at  depths  of 
from  one  hundred  and  twenty  to  two  thousand  six  hundred  fathoms.  They  are,  in 
fact,  deep-sea  gadoids,  much  resembling  each  other  in  the  general  shape  of  the  body, 
but  differing  in  the  form  of  the  snout,  and  in  the  structure  of  their  scales.  About 
forty  species  are  known,  many  of  which  attain  a  length  of  3  feet." 


THE  FLAT-FISHES, — Family  PLEURONECTID^. 

Distinguished  by  the  unsymmetrical  conformation  of  the  head  and  anterior 
region  of  the  body  in  the  adult,  in  consequence  of  which  both  eyes  are  brought  on 


440  SOFT-PINNED    GROUP. 

to  one  side  of  the  body  (in  some  cases  the  right,  and  in  others  the  left),  the  flat- 
fishes differ  not  only  from  all  other  members  of  their  class,  but  likewise  from  all 
other  vertebrates.  The  body  is  strongly  compressed  and  flattened,  with  the  side 
which  is  turned  upwards,  and  on  which  are  situated  the  eyes,  coloured  dark,  while 
the  opposite,  or  eyeless  side  is,  as  a  rule,  colourless.  The  bones  of  the  head  are 
unequally  developed  and  unsymmetrical ;  and  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  are  of  great 
length,  and  undivided,  the  former  often  extending  forwards  so  as  to  separate  the 
blind  from  the  eyed  side  of  the  head.  In  the  most  specialised  forms  the  teeth  and 
jaws  are  more  developed  on  the  lower  or  blind  side  than  on  the  other,  and  there  is 
no  air-bladder.  Dr.  Cunningham,  who  has  paid  special  attention  to  the  structure 
of  these  fishes,  writes  that  "  mere  dissection  of  adult  specimens  shows  that  the 
anomalous  position  of  the  eyes  is  due  to  a  distortion  of  the  facial  region  of  the 
skull.  The  cranial  region  of  the  skull  is  but  slightly  altered,  but  the  interorbital 
parts  of  the  two  frontal  bones  are  bent  away  from  their  original  position  in  the 
dorsal  median  line  down  to  the  side  of  the  head,  and  they  are  also  compressed  into 
a  thin  plate.  But  the  eyes  have  pretty  nearly  the  same  relations  to  the  inter- 
orbital  septum  as  in  an  ordinary  fish.  There  is  one  eye  on  each  side  of  the  septum 
as  usual.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  curious  condition  of  the  dorsal  fin  in  the  flat-fish,  even 
more  than  the  mere  distortion  of  the  eyes,  which  makes  it  so  different  from  the 
ordinary  fish.  If  the  fin  terminated  some  distance  behind  the  eyes,  or  if  it  was 
prolonged  in  the  direction  it  ought  to  follow,  that  is  along  the  line  which  divides 
the  two  frontal  bones  from  one  another,  it  would  be  plain  at  a  glance  which  was 
the  left  side  of  the  head  and  which  the  right.  It  would  then  be  obvious  that  the 
left  eye  was  still  on  the  left  side  of  the  head,  and  the  right  eye  on  the  right.  But 
the  dorsal  fin  does  neither  of  these  things.  The  external  ethmoid  bone  belonging 
to  the  blind  side  is  much  enlarged,  and  sends  back  a  process  outside  the  eye 
belonging  to  that  side  to  meet  another  process  from  the  cranial  region  of  the  skull. 
Thus  the  eye  which  has  migrated — the  upper  eye  when  the  fish  is  held  in  a  vertical 
plane — is  enclosed  in  a  complete  bony  orbit,  while  the  lower  eye  is  merely  bounded 
on  its  outer  side  by  the  jaw  muscles.  It  is  on  this  bony  bridge,  entirely  foreign 
to  the  anatomy  of  an  ordinary  fish,  that  the  dorsal  fin  supports  itself  in  its 
advance  towards  the  snout.  Properly  speaking,  the  left  side  of  the  face  in  a 
plaice,  for  instance,  extends  from  the  ventral  edge,  or  chin,  to  the  line  between 
the  eyes,  but  the  dorsal  fin  in  its  anterior  extension  divides  this  side  of  the  face 
into  two  parts." 

The  pigment-bearing  elements  in  the  coloration  of  the  dark  side  of  flat-fish 
are  known  as  chromatophores ;  and  while  these  are  absent  from  the  light  side,  the 
so-called  silvery  layer  is  present  on  both.  Young  flat-fish,  which  are  generally 
met  with  in  the  open  sea,  are  transparent  and  perfectly  symmetrical,  with  one  eye 
on  each  side  of  the  head,  and  swim  in  the  vertical  plane  like  ordinary  fishes. 
That  flat-fishes  have  originated  from  symmetrical  ancestors  is  quite  evident,  their 
individual  metamorphosis  indicating  the  manner  in  which  the  evolution  took 
place.  As  to  the  inducing  causes  of  this  evolution  and  metamorphosis,  there  is  still 
some  difference  of  opinion ;  and  as  it  is  a  subject  which  does  not  come  within  the 
province  of  this  work,  it  need  not  be  further  alluded  to.  There  are,  however,  certain 
experiments  with  regard  to  the  normal  absence  of  coloration  on  the  under  surface 


FLA 


SH 


FLAT-FISH.  441 

of  these  fish  which  are  of  sufficient  interest  to  merit  a  brief  notice.  Knowing,  as 
we  do,  that  among  plants  absence  of  light  leads  to  the  deprivation  of  colour,  it  was 
thought  highly  probable  that  the  same  might  be  the  case  with  regard  to  flat-fish, 
more  especially  since  the  absence  of  coloration  in  the  olm  among  the  Amphibians 
is  clearly  due  to  the  same  cause.  To  test  this,  flounders  were  kept  in  a  tank,  in 
which,  by  the  help  of  a  mirror,  light  was  so  introduced  as  to  give  to  the  fishes  the 
unwonted  experience  of  illumination  ascending  from  below  instead  of  coming 
down  from  above.  The  experiment  was  conducted  for  several  months;  some  of 
the  flounders  died,  in  others  no  great  effect  was  produced,  but  in  some  cases  the 
white  surface  became  marked  over  with  pigment.  This  experiment  demonstrates 
that  the  capacity  for  colorisation  existed  in  the  skin,  but  that  light  was  wanted 
to  call  it  into  action;  and  it  may  also  be  inferred  that  the  incidence  of  light  must 
in  general  be  the  reason  why  the  upper  surfaces  of  animals  are  more  strongly 
pigmented  than  the  lower.  Occasionally  what  are  known  as  'double  flat-fish' 
are  met  with,  that  is  specimens  in  which  both  sides  are  coloured,  and  one  eye 
situated  on  the  edge  of  the  head ;  such  monstrosities  having  been  observed  in  the 
turbot,  flounder,  plaice,  sole,  etc.  In  one  turbot  the  right  eye  was  on  the  edge  of 
the  head,  so  that  the  dorsal  fin,  instead  of  extending,  as  usual,  to  the  front  of  the 
head,  was  separated  therefrom  by  a  concavity,  the  right  side  being  coloured  like 
the  left,  although  somewhat  less  strongly.  It  has  been  thought  that  these  '  double- 
fish  '  swam  about  in  a  vertical  position,  M.  Giard  stating  that  he  has  actually  seen 
a  turbot  so  doing.  But  Dr.  Cunningham  writes  that  there  is  "no  satisfactory 
evidence  at  present  that  the  monstrous  specimens,  whose  metamorphosis  is  per- 
manently arrested,  swim  about,  in  whatever  positiori,  any  more  frequently,  or  rest 
on  the  ground  less  constantly  than  their  normal  brethren.  I  have  under  observa- 
tion a  living  double  specimen  of  the  plaice ;  its  eye  is  on  the  edge  of  the  head,  the 
dorsal  fin  terminates  behind  the  eye,  and  the  posterior  three-fourths  of  the  lower 
side  are  coloured  like  the  upper,  the  anterior  fourth  being  white.  This  specimen, 
instead  of  showing  a  tendency  to  continue  swimming  in  the  water,  cannot  even  be 
induced  to  leave  the  bottom  long  enough  to  enable  me  to  see  whether  it  holds 
itself  perfectly  horizontal  or  not.  I  have  never  seen  it  leave  the  bottom  of  its 
own  accord ;  it  lies  always  buried  in  the  sand  up  to  its  eyes,  and,  when  disturbed, 
makes  violent  struggles  to  bury  itself  again." 

When  lying  on  the  sandy  bottom  of  the  sea — and  they  prefer  sandy  to  muddy 
situations^flat-fish  are  almost  indistinguishable  from  their  inanimate  surroundings, 
the  spots  with  which  the  bodies  of  many  of  them  are  marked  harmonising  exactly 
with  the  bright-coloured  pebbles  strewing  the  sand.  This  resemblance  is,  perhaps, 
carried  to  the  fullest  extent  in  the  flounder,  as  anyone  who  visits  a  large  aquarium 
may  ascertain  for  himself.  Occasionally  rising  to  the  surface,  they  swim  with  an 
undulating  lateral  movement  of  the  body,  which  is  decidedly  graceful ;  and  they 
are  found  in  shallow  water,  or  at  moderate  depths.  They  are  inhabitants  of  all 
seas,  except  those  of  the  polar  regions,  and  where  the  coast  is  precipitous  and 
rocky;  and  although  more  numerous  in  the  tropics,  they  attain  their  greatest 
development  in  point  of  size  in  the  temperate  regions.  Many  species,  such  as 
flounders,  ascend  rivers  to  a  considerable  distance ;  and  a  few  have  become 
accustomed  to  a  fresh-water  existence.  As  regards  food,  the  whole  of  the  species 


442  SOFT-FINNED   GROUP. 

are  exclusively  carnivorous.  In  a  fossil  state  the  flat-fish  are  but  poorly  repre- 
sented, and  it  is  probable  that  they  were  not  evolved  till  the  commencement  of 
the  Tertiary  period;  the  earliest  known  form  being  a  turbot  from  the  middle 
Eocene  of  Monte  Bolca,  while  a  fossil  sole  has  been  described  from  the  Miocene  of 
Wurtemberg.  As  a  food-supply  the  flat-fish  are  of  especial  value,  not  only  on 
account  of  the  large  size,  and  abundance  of  their  numerous  representatives,  but 
likewise  from  the  excellent  quality  and  flavour  of  the  flesh  of  the  majority  of 
these.  It  is  on  the  coasts  of  the  temperate  regions  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere 
that  the  pursuit  of  these  fish  is  carried  out  with  the  greatest  energy  and  success. 

The  least  specialised  member  of  the  family  (Psettodes  erumei), 

which  ranges  from  the  Red  Sea  through  the  Indian  Ocean  to  China, 
and  also  occurs  on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa,  belongs  to  a  group  in  which  the  teeth 
and  jaws  are  nearly  equally  developed  on  both  sides,  and  is  specially  distinguished 
by  the  dorsal  fin  commencing  on  the  nape  of  the  neck,  whereas  in  all  the  other  forms 
it  starts  from  above  or  in  front  of  the  eyes.  In  the  Indian  fish,  which  attains  a 
length  of  about  16  inches,  the  eyes  are  as  frequently  on  the  right  as  on  the  left 
side,  and  the  transposed  one  is  situated  nearly  in  the  line  of  the  dorsal  fin.  This 
species  is  a  connecting  link  between  the  other  members  of  the  family  and  ordinary 
fishes,  and  is  reported  to  swim  at  times  in  a  vertical  position. 

Having  the  jaws  nearly  equally  developed  on  both  sides,  and  the 

dorsal  fin  commencing  above  the  eyes,  the  holibut  (Hippoglossus 
vulgaris)  is  one  of  two  species  forming  a  genus  characterised  by  the  eyes  being  on 
the  right  side,  and  the  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  arranged  in  a  double  series,  those  in 
the  front  of  the  upper  and  on  the  sides  of  the  lower  jaw  being  enlarged.  The 
mouth  is  relatively  wide.  In  colour  the  holibut  is  dusky  brown,  frequently 
inclining  to  olive,  on  the  dark  side;  the  opposite  side  being  white  and  smooth.  It 
is  the  largest  member  of  the  family,  ranging  usually  from  3  to  6  feet  in  length ; 
one  specimen  with  the  latter  length  having  a  breadth  of  30  inches,  and  a  weight  of 
161  Ibs.  It  is  stated,  however,  that  an  example  taken  in  the  early  part  of  this 
century  off  the  Isle  of  Man  was  nearly  double  that  weight.  Holibut  are  found 
near  all  the  northern  coasts  of  Europe,  as  well  as  those  of  Kamschatka  and  Cali- 
fornia, generally  frequenting  banks  at  some  distance  from  the  shore,  in  water  of 
from  fifty  to  one  hundred  fathoms  in  depth,  where  they  often  associate  in  consider- 
able numbers.  The  flesh  is  coarse,  and  of  inferior  flavour.  This  fish  is  shown  in 
the  upper  figure  of  the  coloured  Plate. 

In  the  genus   typically  represented   by  the   turbot   (Rhombus 

maximus)  the  dorsal  fin  commences  on  the  muzzle  in  advance  of  the 
eyes ;  the  eyes  are  on  the  left  side ;  the  mouth  is  wide ;  and  the  jaws  are  furnished 
with  a  single  series  of  equal-sized  villiform  teeth,  while  there  are  also  teeth  on  the 
vomer.  Scales  are  either  very  small  or  wanting.  The  genus  includes  seven  species, 
ranging  over  the  North  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean,  but  those  on  the  two  sides  of 
the  Atlantic  are  different.  The  turbot,  which  attains  a  yard  in  length,  and  is  by 
far  the  best  food-fish  of  its  tribe,  is  exclusively  European,  and  has  the  pelvic  fins 
distinct  from  the  anal,  and  no  scales  ;  the  general  colour  being  greyish  or  brownish, 
sometimes  spotted  with  a  darker  tint.  On  the  other  hand  the  brill  (Rh.  Icevis), 
which  is  likewise  European,  is  a  smaller  fish,  of  more  oval  shape,  with  the  body 


FLAT-FISH.  443 

and  all  the  head,  except  the  muzzle,  covered  with  minute  scales ;  its  colour  being 
greyish  brown,  with  reddish  brown  spots.  Turbot  commonly  weigh  from  5  to 
10  Ibs.,  and  occasionally  reach  20  or  even  30,  while  considerably  greater  weights 
have  been  recorded.  Another  British  representative  of  the  genus  is  the  Mary-sole 
(Rh.  aquosus),  which  may  be  distinguished  by  its  ciliated  scales :  while  a  fourth, 
known  as  Block's  top-knot  (Rh.  punctatus),  differs  from  all  the  foregoing  by  having 
the  pelvic  fins  confluent  with  the  anal.  The  true  top-knot  (Phr.y  no-rhombus 
unimaculatus),  which  is  a  small  form  not  uncommon  on  the  southern  coasts  of 
England,  and  abundant  in  the  Mediterranean,  is  referred  to  a  distinct  genus  on 
account  of  the  absence  of  vomerine  teeth.  A  turbot  is  shown  in  the  central  figure 
of  the  coloured  Plate. 

Plaice  and  The  plaice  (Pleuronectes  platessa)  and  flounder  (PL  flesus),  of 

Flounder.  which  examples  are  shown  in  the  right  lower  corner  of  the  coloured 
Plate,  are  examples  of  a  genus  pertaining  to  a  group  characterised  by  the  narrow- 
ness of  the  cleft  of  the  mouth,  and  by  the  jaws  and  teeth  being  much  more  developed 
on  the  light  than  on  the  dark  side.  Unlike  the  turbot  and  its  allies,  where  the 
upper  is  somewhat  behind  the  lower,  the  two  eyes  are  in  the  same  transverse  line, 
and  generally  situated  on  the  right  side.  The  dorsal  fin  commences  above  the 
eyes ;  the  scales  are  minute  or  wanting ;  and  there  are  no  teeth  on  the  palate, 
while  those  in  the  jaws  are  of  medium  size,  and  may  be  arranged  in  either  a  double 
or  a  single  row.  The  genus,  which  is  common  to  the  Northern,  Temperate,  and 
Arctic  seas  of  both  hemispheres,  contains  over  a  score  of  species,  which  may  be 
divided  into  groups  according  to  the  form  of  the  teeth,  the  number  of  rays  in  the 
dorsal  fin,  and  the  conformation  of  the  lateral  line.  The  plaice,  which  ranges  from 
the  French  coasts  to  Iceland,  and  is  represented  by  an  allied  form  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  Atlantic,  belongs  to  a  group  with  compressed,  lanceolate,  or  truncate 
teeth,  and  no  fewer  than  ninety  dorsal  rays ;  it  has  the  brownish  upper  surface 
marked  with  bright  yellow  spots.  This  species  is  exclusively  marine,  but  the 
flounder  is  almost  as  much  a  fresh-water  as  a  sea  fish,  ascending  rivers  to  a  con- 
siderable distance.  Distinguished  from  the  plaice  by  the  dark  mottlings  on  the 
brownish  or  brownish  yellow  skin  of  the  upper  surface,  it  belongs  to  a  group  in 
which  the  teeth  are  conical ;  the  lateral  line  being  very  slightly  curved  in  front, 
and  the  scales  minute.  Its  distribution  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  the 
plaice,  and  it  is  represented  by  an  allied  species  in  the  Mediterranean. 

In  the  plaice  and  its  allies  the  pectoral  fins  are  always  well 
developed,  but  in  the  group  to  which  the  common  sole  (Solea  vulgaris) 
belongs  these  may  be  wanting,  while  the  upper  eye  is  always  somewhat  in  advance 
of  the  lower  one,  both  being  on  the  right  side.  As  a  genus  the  numerous  species 
of  soles  (somewhere  about  forty  in  number)  are  characterised  by  the  median  fins 
being  separate  from  one  another,  and  the  ctenoid  scales ;  the  dorsal  fin  commencing 
on  the  muzzle,  and  the  lateral  line  being  straight.  The  cleft  of  the  mouth  is  very 
narrow,  and  twisted  round  to  the  left,  or  blind  side ;  and  it  is  on  this  side  only  that 
villiform  teeth  are  developed  in  the  jaws,  the  palate  being  toothless.  With  the 
exception  of  the  lower  south  temperate  zone,  soles  are  distributed  over  all  temperate 
and  tropical  coasts  in  localities  suited  to  their  habits ;  many  of  the  species  entering, 
or  even  dwelling  permanently  in  fresh  waters.  The  common  sole,  which  is  found 


444  TUBE-BLADDERED   GROUP. 

on  the  coasts  of  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  has  both  pectoral  fins  well  developed, 
and  the  nostrils  of  the  blind  side  very  narrow;  the  general  colour  being  dark 
brown,  with  the  tips  of  the  pectoral  fins  blackish.  Large  specimens  may  weigh  as 
much  as  5  or  6  Ibs.,  and  a  fish  of  9  Ibs.  in  weight  is  on  record.  -Soles  are  taken  by 
trawling ;  the  best  ground  in  England  being  along  the  south  coast  from  Dover  to 
Devonshire.  The  lemon-sole  (8.  aurantiaca),  which  is  a  more  southern  form, 
ranging  from  the  south  of  England  to  Portugal,  and  living  in  deeper  water,  is  one 
of  a  group  characterised  by  one  of  the  nostrils  of  the  blind  side  being  dilated  and 
surrounded  with  a  fringe  of  papillae.  It  is  smaller  and  wider  than  the  common 
species,  and  orange  or  light  brown  in  colour,  dotted  over  with  numerous  small 
brown  spots.  Other  British  species  are  the  banded  sole  (8.  variegata)  and  the 
dwarf  sole  (8.  minuta),  both  belonging  to  a  group  characterised  by  the  small  size 
of  the  pectoral  fins.  The  Mediterranean  sole  (S.  mnonocliir)  is  peculiar  in  lacking 
a  pectoral  fin  on  the  blind  side ;  while  the  Japanese  sole  (8.  japonica)  is  one  of  two 
species  in  which  both  these  fins  are  absent.  The  common  species  is  shown  in  the 
left  lower  corner  of  the  coloured  Plate. 

On  account  of  the  rudimentary  condition  of  their  eyes  we  must 
not  omit  mention  of  the  blind  soles,  which  are  divided  into  two 
genera,  the  one  (Soleotalpa)  characterised  by  the  separation  of  the  median  fins, 
which  are  confluent  in  the  other  (Apionichthys) ;  pectoral  fins  being  wanting  in 
both.  Each  genus  is  represented  only  by  a  single  species ;  Soleotalpa  coming  from 
the  West  Indies,  while  the  habitat  of  the  other  species  appears  to  be  unknown. 

THE  TUBE-BLADDERED  FISHES, — Suborder  PHYSOSTOMI. 

It  has  been  already  stated  on  p.  334  that  the  whole  of  the  four  preceding  sub- 
ordinal  groups  of  the  bony  fishes  are  regarded  by  Professor  Cope  as  constituting 
but  a  single  suborder  (Physoclysti)  characterised  by  the  absence  of  a  duct  to  the 
air-bladder,  the  separation  of  the  parietal  bones  of  the  skull  by  the  supraoccipital, 
and  by  the  pelvic  fins  being  usually  thoracic  or  jugular  in  position.  The  group  to 
which  we  now  come,  including  the  whole  of  the  remaining  representatives  of  the 
existing  bony  fishes,  differs  from  the  above  in  that  the  air-bladder,  when  present, 
has  a  duct  communicating  with  the  stomach  or  oesophagus,  wrhile  the  pelvic  fins 
are  always  abdominal  in  position,  and  the  parietal  bones  are  usually  in  contact 
with  each  other.  With  regard  to  the  constancy  and  importance  of  these  characters 
of  the  present  suborder,  Professor  Cope  writes  that  the  presence  of  the  duct  from 
the  air-bladder  which  characterises  it,  "  is  always  associated  with  an  abdominal 
position  of  the  pelvic  fins  and  cycloid  scales,  and  mostly  with  the  presence  of  the 
precoracoid  arch,  the  entrance  of  the  maxillary  bone  into  the  border  of  the  mouth, 
and  the  non-separation  of  the  parietal  bones  by  the  supraoccipital.  Yet  none  of 
these  characters  are  precisely  associated  at  the  point  of  change  in  each,  for  there 
are  Physostomous  fishes  with  separated  parietals  and  ctenoid  scales  (some  Cyprino- 
dontidce),  and  there  are  Physoclysti  with  abdominal  pelvic  fins."  In  the  present 
suborder,  with  the  exception  of  the  first  in  the  dorsal  and  pectorals,  which  may  be 
ossified  into  spines,  all  the  fin-rays  are  soft  and  jointed.  Very  different  views 
obtain  as  to  the  best  mode  of  arranging  the  families  constituting  the  suborder,  and 


EEL   TRIBE.  445 

a  final  classification  is  still  a  desideratum.  By  Professor  Cope  the  families  have 
been  arranged  in  a  number  of  sectional  groups,  mainly  distinguished  by  the  structure 
of  the  skeleton  ;  and  a  modification  of  this  arrangement  is  adopted  here,  although 
fewer  groups  are  recognised.  It  is,  however,  impossible  to  enter  here  into  the 
consideration  of  the  osteological  features  by  which  these  sections  are  distinguished, 
and  we  are  accordingly  compelled  to  rely  mainly  on  external  characters. 

THE  EELS  AND  THEIR  ALLIES,  —  Families 
SYMBRANCHID^E,  and 


The  whole  of  the  members  of  these  three  families  are  characterised  by  the 
elongated,  "  eel-like  "  form  of  the  body  ;  but  it  is  quite  probable  that  this  external 
similarity  is  due  to  parallelism  in  development,  and  that  the  three  families  have 
been  independently  derived  from  very  different  types  of  more  normally  formed 
fishes.  The  first  family,  which  includes  the  true  eels,  mursenas,  and  congers,  is 
characterised  by  the  normal  structure  of  the  upper  jaw,  which  is  formed  in  front 
by  the  premaxillse  (more  or  less  confluent  with  the  vomer  and  ethmoid)  and 
laterally  by  the  toothed  maxillge.  The  median  fins,  when  present,  are  either 
confluent  or  separated  by  the  projecting  tail  ;  the  pectorals  may  or  may  not  be 
developed  ;  but  the  pelvic  pair  is  invariably  wanting.  There  are  no  accessory 
breathing  -organs;  the  stomach  has  a  blind  appendage;  the  vent  is  generally 
situated  far  back,  but  may  be  near  the  pectoral  fins  ;  and  the  ovaries  have  no 
ducts.  Externally  the  skin  may  be  either  completely  naked,  or  may  contain 
rudimental  scales.  In  the  skeleton  the  pectoral  arch  is  unconnected  with  the 
skull,  and  attached  to  one  of  the  earlier  vertebrae.  Eels  are  found  in  the  fresh 
waters  and  seas  of  the  greater  part  of  the  temperate  and  tropical  regions  ;  some 
living  at  abyssal  depths  in  the  ocean.  The  young  of  some  forms  are  pelagic  for 
a  portion  of  their  existence  ;  and  it  is  believed  that  a  large  number  of  the  so- 
called  Leptocephali  (see  p.  322),  or  glass-eels,  are  abnormal  larvae  of  this  family. 
Geologically  the  family  is  a  comparatively  ancient  one,  true  eels  having  been 
discovered  in  the  Chalk  of  the  Lebanon,  as  well  as  in  the  Tertiaries  of  Europe. 
Congers  referred  to  the  existing  genus  Ophichthys  have  been  described  from  the 
middle  Eocene  of  Monte  Bolca,  and  there  is  also  an  extinct  genus  from  the  latter 
deposits,  and  a  second  from  the  London  Clay. 

The  mursenas  are  large  marine  eels,  remarkable  for  their  bright 
spotted  or  mottled  coloration,  and  taking  their  name  from  the  species 
here  figured  (Murcena  helena),  which  was  so  called  by  the  ancient  Romans. 
Belonging  to  a  small  section  of  the  family  characterised  by  the  gill-openings  into 
the  pharynx  being  in  the  form  of  narrow  slits,  they  are  specially  distinguished  by 
the  median  fins  being  well  developed,  and  the  total  absence  of  pectorals.  The 
skin  is  scaleless  ;  the  mouth  is  well  furnished  with  teseth  ;  and  there  are  two 
nostrils  on  each  side  of  the  muzzle,  the  front  pair  being  tubular,  while  the  hinder 
ones  may  be  either  tube-like  or  mere  flat  openings.  The  mursenas,  of  which  there 
are  more  than  eighty  species,  are  distributed  over  all  tropical  and  temperate  seas, 
and  a  few  ascend  tidal  rivers.  The  majority  of  them  are  armed  with  formidable 
teeth  —  which  frequently  alter  considerably  with  age  —  adapted  for  seizing  the  fish 


446 


TUBE-BLADDERED   GROUP. 


on  which  they  feed.  "  Large  specimens  thus  armed,"  writes  Dr.  Giinther,  "  readily 
attack  persons  in  and  out  of  the  water ;  and  as  some  species  attain  a  length  of 
6  or  8  feet,  they  are  justly  feared  by  fishermen.  The  minority  of  species  have 
obtuse  and  molar-like  teeth,  their  food  consisting  chiefly  of  crustaceans  and  other 
hard-shelled  animals.  Most  of  the  mursenas  are  beautifully  coloured  and  spotted, 
some  in  a  regular  and  constant  manner,  whilst  in  others  the  pattern  varies  in  a 
most  irregular  fashion ;  they  have  quite  the  appearance  of  snakes."  The  figured 
species,  which  ranges  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Indian  Ocean  and  Australia, 
has  the  ground-colour  a  rich  brown,  upon  which  are  large  yellowish  spots,  each 
dotted  with  smaller  spots  of  brown.  The  finless  mursenas  (Gymnomurcena),  of 
which  half  a  dozen  species  have  been  described  from  the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans, 
differ  in  the  reduction  of  the  fins  to  a  rudiment  near  the  end  of  the  tail. 


True  Eels. 


MEDITERRANEAN  MURJSNA  (1  liat.  size). 

The  typical  eels,  familiar  to  all  in  the  form  of  the  common 
European  species  (Anguilla  vulgaris),  agree  with  the  great  majority 
of  the  family  in  having  the  gill-openings  into  the  pharynx  as  wide  slits.  The 
skin  contains  small  scales  embedded  in  its  substance ;  the  upper  jaw  does  not 
project  beyond  the  lower ;  the  small  teeth  are  arranged  in  bands ;  the  narrow 
external  gill-openings  are  situated  at  the  base  of  the  well-developed  pectoral  fins, 
and  the  dorsal  fin  commences  at  a  considerable  distance  behind  the  back  of  the 
head.  Eels,  of  which  there  are  numerous  species,  appear  to  be  distributed  throughout 
the  fresh  waters  of  the  habitable  portions  of  the  globe,  being  reputed  to  be  absent 
only  from  those  of  the  Arctic  regions,  and  probably  also  from  cold  elevated 
districts  like  Turkestan  and  Tibet.  The  common  European  eel  is  spread  over 
the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  the  Mediterranean  area — although  unknown  in  the 
Danube — and  reappears  in  the  United  States.  The  so-called  grig,  or  glat-eel, 
characterised  by  its  lighter  colour,  broader  head,  and  snout,  and  the  more  backward 


EEL    TRIBE.  447 

position  of  the  front  of  the  dorsal  fin,  has  been  generally  regarded  as  a  distinct 
species,  although  this  is  not  admitted  by  Day.  About  a  yard  is  a  good  size  for  an 
eel,  although  much  longer  specimens  are  on  record.  Few  subjects  have  given  rise 
to  more  discussion  than  the  mode  of  propagation  of  eels,  and  as  this  must  be 
noticed  in  some  detail,  we  take  the  following  extracts  from  a  paper  published  a 
few  years  ago  by  the  last-named  observer.  After  mentioning  the  difficulties  that 


EELS  IN  THE  MUD  (J  nat.  size). 

took  place  in  the  identification  of  female  eels,  the  author  states  that  when  this 
point  was  cleared  up,  naturalists  became  rather  puzzled  where  to  look  for  the 
male  element,  so  the  idea  took  root  that  these  fishes  might  be  hermaphrodites. 
It  was  observed  that  in  addition  to  the  frill-shaped  band  forming  the  undoubted 
ovaries,  there  was  a  second  fatty  band  running  along  one  side  of  the  intestines, 
in  which  milt  was  erroneously  stated  to  have  been  discovered.  In  1873,  however, 
an  organ  was  discovered  in  an  eel  of  16  inches  in  length,  which  was  correctly 
identified  with  the  male  element,  since  which  date  numerous  males,  which  are 


448  TUBE-B  LADDERED    GROUP. 

generally  of  smaller  size  than  the  females,  have  been  recognised.  "  For  the 
generation  of  eels  it  would  seem,  so  far  as  we  are  at  present  aware,  that  the 
presence  of  salt  water  is  a  necessity,  for  it  has  been  observed  that  when  these  fish 
leave  rivers  and  brackish  waters  for  the  sea,  their  reproductive  organs  have 
scarcely  begun  to  develop.  But  their  maturing  in  the  sea  must  be  rapid,  because 
in  live  or  six  weeks  they  have  arrived  at  a  breeding  condition.  This  rapidity  of 
maturing  in  the  breeding-organs  would  seem  to  be  the  cause  of  extreme  exhaustion. 
Consequently,  after  the  breeding-season  is  over,  eels  die,  similarly  to  lampreys  and 
several  other  piscine  forms  ;  and  this  furnishes  the  explanation  why,  subsequent 
to  this  period,  old  eels  are  not  observed  reascending  rivers."  After  describing  the 
appearances  of  the  reproductive  organs  in  fully-developed  eels  of  both  sexes,  as  well 
as  those  of  sterile  individuals,  Day  observes  that  "  it  becomes  necessary  to  allude 
to  the  localities  in  which  each  of  these  forms  may  be  found.  Here,  again, 
imagination  seems  to  have  mixed  up  fact  with  fiction,  and  it  has  been  maintained 
that  should  very  young  eels  be  introduced  from  the  mouths  of  rivers  into  inland 
pieces  of  water,  they  invariably  develop  into  fish  of  the  female  sex,  as  it  was 
supposed  males  were  never  to  be  seen  in  fresh  water.  Whether  such  waters  are 
really  conducive  to  the  destruction  of  young  male  eels,  appears  to  be  a  subject 
requiring  further  elucidation.  The  female  eels  are  those  usually  captured  when 
descending  towards  the  mouths  of  rivers  during  the  autumn  months,  while  such 
as  are  developing  towards  a  breeding  condition  do  not  seem  to  feed  at  these 
periods.  Males  have  been  usually  obtained  from  the  mouths  of  rivers  or  in 
brackish  waters:  and  Dr.  Paul,  having  discovered  that  among  elvers,  or  young 

O  O  v  O 

eels,  captured  in  such  localities  were  males,  ascertained  (at  least  so  he  asserts)  that 
when  transported  to  fresh  waters,  they  retained  their  masculine  character,  develop- 
ing into  adults.  Some  have  been  captured  ten  or  twelve  miles  up  rivers ;  but, 
although  male  eels  undoubtedly  ascend  rivers,  their  proportionate  number  to  that 
of  females  decreases  in  accordance  to  the  distance  from  the  sea.  Sterile  eels  are 
found  in  fresh  waters,  and  likewise  in  those  which  are  brackish,  where  they  may 
often  be  captured  feeding,  but  these  fish,  of  course,  cannot  increase  in  numbers 
unless  they  have  access  to  the  sea,  and  consequently  above  impassable  barriers 
they  die  out,  should  no  young  be  introduced.  The  migrations  of  these  fishes  may 
be  said  to  be  two  annually,  adults  descending  seawards  to  breed,  as  they  do  in  the 
Severn,  about  the  month  of  September,  although  this  migration  in  Norfolk  is 
asserted  to  begin  as  early  as  July.  There  is  likewise  an  up-stream  migration  of 
young  eels,  or  elvers,  in  the  earlier  months  of  the  year  up  to  May  or  June,  or  even 
later;  during  this  period  the  banks  of  the  rivers  being  in  places  black  with  these 
migrating  little  fishes.  These  young  eels  have  been  observed  to  ascend  floodgates 
of  lochs,  to  creep  up  water-pipes  or  drains;  in  short,  mechanical  difficulties  scarcely 
obstruct  them,  and  they  will  even  make  a  circuit  over  a  wet  piece  of  ground  in 
order  to  attain  a  desirable  spot."  In  order  to  give  some  idea  of  the  vast  numbers 

I  O 

)f  young  eels  that  take  part  in  these  migrations,  or,  as  they  are  popularly  called 
' '•'•I-fan-s. '  it  iimy  be  mentioned  that  upwards  of  three  tons  of  elvers  were  dis- 
patched in  a  single  day  from  the  Gloucester  district  in  the  spring  of  188G,  and 
liat  it.  has  been  calculated  that  over  fourteen  thousand  of  these  fish  go  to  make  a 
pound  weight.  In  the  previous  year  the  annual  consumption  of  eels  was  estimated 


EEL    TRIBE.  449 

at  a  minimum  1650  tons,  with  a  total  value  of  £130,000.  It  is  almost  superfluous 
to  mention  that  eels  pass  the  greater  portion  of  their  time  when  in  fresh  water 
buried  in  the  mud,  from  which  they  issue  forth  at  night  to  feed.  During  the  cold 
of  winter  large  masses  of  them  are  not  unfrequently  found  tightly  coiled  together 
for  the  sake  of  mutual  warmth.  The  largest  species  occur  in  the  islands  of  the 
South  Pacific  and  New  Zealand,  where  they  inhabit  lakes ;  specimens  from  these 
regions  having  been  recorded  to  measure  from  8  to  10  feet  in  length. 

Resembling  the  true  eels  in  the  presence  of  pectoral  fins,  in  the 

tail  being  surrounded  by  the  median  fin,  and  the  free  tongue,  the 
gigantic  marine  forms  known  as  congers  differ  in  being  scaleless,  in  the  deep  cleft 
of  the  mouth,  in  the  presence  of  a  set  of  teeth  on  the  outer  sides  of  the  jaw  placed 
so  close  to  one  another  as  to  form  a  cutting  edge,  arid  by  the  dorsal  fin  commencing 
at  a  point  just  behind  the  base  of  the  pectorals.  The  common  conger  (Conger 
vulgaris),  which  may  grow  to  a  length  of  8  feet,  appears  to  be  almost  cosmo- 
politan in  distribution,  being  as  abundant  in  the  seas  of  Tasmania  as  it  is  in 
British  waters.  Congers  feed  chiefly  by  night,  and  prey  upon  crustaceans,  cuttles, 
and  various  kinds  of  fish,  such  as  pilchards  and  herrings.  Their  favourite  resorts 
are  either  hollows  or  crevices  in  the  rocks,  or  sandy  bottoms,  in  which  they  can 
bury  themselves ;  and  in  such  situations  they  are  sometimes  left  by  the  ebbing 
tide.  The  flesh  of  these  eels  is  of  a  highly  gelatinous  nature,  and  is  said  to  be 
largely  employed  in  soups.  Three  other  species  of  the  genus  are  known,  one  of 
which  is  abundant  in  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Among  the  numerous  other  generic  modifications  of  the  family, 

we  select  for  notice  the  serpent-eels  (Ophichthys)  as  an  example  of  a 
group  in  which  the  extremity  of  the  tail  is  free,  the  nostrils  are  situated  at  the 
extremity  of  the  muzzle,  and  the  tongue  is  fixed.  Teeth  are  present  on  the 
vomers,  those  in  the  jaws  being  either  obtuse,  or  pointed  and  arranged  in  a  single 
series ;  and  whereas  small  pectoral  fins  are  present  in  some  species,  in  others  they 
are  wanting.  Serpent-eels  are  represented  by  a  great  number  of  species,  ranging 
over  all  tropical  and  subtropical  seas,  but  none  attaining  any  large  size.  The 
difference  in  the  structure  of  the  teeth  of  the  various  species  may  probably  be 
taken  as  indicative  of  a  difference  in  the  nature  of  the  food  similar  to  that  already 
recorded  as  obtaining  among  the  mursenas. 

Only  a  few  words  can  be  devoted  to  the  deep-sea  members  of 
Deep-Sea  Eels. 

the  family,  which  are  represented  by  several  genera.     Among  these 

are  certain  congers  (Synaphobranchus)  occurring  in  all  oceans  at  depths  of  from 
three  hundred  and  forty  to  two  thousand  fathoms,  and  characterised  by  the  gill- 
openings  being  united  into  a  single  longitudinal  slit  on  the  under  surface  of  the 
body  between  the  pectoral  fins ;  the  gape  being  very  wide,  the  teeth  small,  and  the 
body  scaled.  In  these  forms  the  muscular  system  is  well  developed  ;  but  in  another 
genus  (Saccopharynx)  it  is  extremely  feeble,  except  on  the  head,  and  the  bones 
are  soft  and  spongy,  The  head  and  gape  are  of  immense  size ;  the  muzzle  is  short 
and  flexible ;  the  weak  jaws  are  armed  with  long,  slender,  curved  teeth,  placed  at 
intervals ;  and  the  gill-openings  are  wide  and  situated  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
sides  at  some  distance  from  the  head,  the  narrow  gills  being  free  and  exposed. 
The  long  and  band-like  tail  ends  in  a  long  tapering  filament,  and  the  dorsal  and 
VOL.  v. — 29 


45° 


TUBEBLADDERED   GROUP. 


anal  fins  are  rudimental.  As  in  the  last  genus,  the  stomach  is  capable  of  great 
distention,  and  specimens  which  had  swallowed  fish  of  many  times  their  own 
weight  have  been  found  floating  in  the  Atlantic  with  this  organ  dilated  to  its 
utmost.  In  a  third  type  (Nemichthys),  from  depths  between  five  hundred  and  two 
thousand  fathoms  in  the  Atlantic,  the  exceedingly  elongate  body  is  band-shaped, 
with  the  tail  tapering  to  a  point,  and  the  jaws  produced  into  a  long  slender  beak. 

It  has  been  already  noticed  that  in  one  of  the  deep-sea  eels  the 
gill-openings  are  confluent  into  a  longitudinal  slit  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  body ;  and  a  very  similar  condition  characterises  the  second  family 
(Symbranchidce)  of  eels,  only  in  this  case  the  slit  is  transverse.  A  better  dis- 
tinction is,  however,  afforded  by  the  structure  of  the  upper  jaw,  the  margin  of 
which  in  the  present  family  is  formed  entirely  by  the  premaxillse,  on  the  inner 
side  of  which  lie  the  maxillse.  The  paired  fins  are  rudimental,  and  the  vertical 


Single-Silt  Eels. 


BENGAL  SHORT-TAILED   EEL  (1  nat.  Size). 

ones  wanting .  while  the  scales,  if  present,  are  minute  ;  and  accessory  breathing- 
organs  may  be  developed.  An  air-bladder  is  wanting,  the  stomach  has  no  blind 
appendage,  and  the  ovaries  are  furnished  with  ducts  ;  the  vent  being  situated  far 
behind  the  head.  Whereas  the  majority  of  these  eels  inhabit  fresh  and  brackish 
waters  in  tropical  Asia  and  America,  they  are  also  represented  in  Australia,  where 
one  genus  is  marine.  Of  the  fresh-water  forms,  the  most  remarkable  is  the 
amphibious  eel  (Amphipnous  cuckia)  of  Bengal,  in  which  there  is  an  accessory 
breathing-apparatus,  the  body  is  scaled,  and  the  pectoral  girdle  is  detached  from  the 
skull.  There  are  only  three  gill-arches  with  rudimentary  laminaB,  separated  from 
one  another  by  narrow  slits ;  and  the  additional  breathing-organ  takes  the  form  of 
a  lung-like  sac  on  each  side  of  the  neck  communicating  with  the  gill-chamber. 
Day  states  that  "  this  amphibious  fish,  when  kept  in  an  aquarium,  may  be 
observed  constantly  rising  to  the  surface  for  the  purpose  of  respiring  atmospheric 
air  direct.  It  usually  remains  with  the  snout  close  to  the  surface,  and  in  like 
manner  lies  in  the  grassy  sides  of  ponds  and  stagnant  pieces  of  water,  so  that 


EEL    TRIBE. 


451 


without  trouble  it  may  obtain  access  to  air."  Indeed,  the  chief  respiration  of 
this  fish  is  carried  on  by  means  of  the  two  sacs  on  the  sides  of  the  neck,  which 
•can  be  inflated  and  emptied  at  will.  In  the  other  two  fresh- water  genera,  one  of 
which  (Monopterus)  is  confined  to  the  Oriental  region,  while  the  other  (Symbran- 
•chus)  has  a  distribution  coextensive  with  that  of  the  family,  there  is  no  additional 
breathing-organ,  the  body  is  naked,  and  the  pectoral  girdle  is  attached  to  the 
.skull.  Whereas  in  the  former  of  these  genera  the  gills  are  rudimental,  in  the 
latter  they  are  well  developed ;  and,  in  the  absence  of  an  accessory  apparatus,  it 
.seems  strange  how  the  one  species  with  rudimental  gills  manages  to  breath  at 
all.  The  Bengal  short-tailed  eel  (Symbranchus  bengalensis)  has  been  selected  to 
illustrate  the  external  form  of  the  members  of  this  very  remarkable  family. 


Electric  Eel. 


ELECTRIC  EEL  ( J  nat.  size). 

Together  with  four  other  genera  from  the  fresh  waters  of  Tropical 
America,  the  well-known  electric  eel  (Gymnotus  electricus)  constitutes 
the  third  and  last  family  of  the  group  under  consideration,  the  leading  charac- 
teristics of  which  are  as  follows.  The  jaws  are  formed  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
the  true  eels,  and  the  head  is  scaleless  and  without  barbels.  The  dorsal  fin  is 
either  totally  wanting,  or  reduced  to  a  fatty  rudiment;  the  anal  is  extremely 
elongated ;  pelvics  are  wanting :  and  the  caudal  is  likewise  generally  absent,  the 
tail  terminating  in  a  point,  which,  when  broken  off,  can  be  renewed  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  the  blind- worms.  The  vent  is  situated  in  or  near  the  throat ;  the 
gill-openings  are  rather  narrow;  an  air-bladder  is  present;  the  stomach  has  a 
blind  appendage;  and  the  ovaries  are  provided  with  ducts.  In  the  skeleton  the 
pectoral  girdle  is  attached  to  the  skull.  By  Professor  Cope  the  typical  genus  is 
considered  to  be  to  a  certain  extent  intermediate  between  the  last  family  and  the 
eel-like  representatives  of  the  cat-fishes. 


452  TUBE-BLADDERED   GROUP. 

As  a  genus,  the  electric  eel  is  characterised  by  the  absence  of  the  caudal  and 
dorsal  fins,  by  the  anal  extending  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  the  absence  of  scales, 
the  single  series  of  conical  teeth,  and  the  minute  eyes.  Abundant  in  the  rivers 
and  lagoons  of  certain  parts  of  Brazil  and  the  Guianas,  the  electric  eel  grows  to  a 
length  of  fully  6  feet,  and  is  capable  of  giving  a  more  powerful  shock  than  any  of 
the  other  fishes  endued  with  electric  power.  It  will  be  unnecessary  to  give  any 
description  of  the  electric  organs  here ;  and  it  will  accordingly  suffice  to  mention 
that  they  form  two  pairs  of  longitudinal  structures  lying  between  the  skin  and  the 
muscles ;  one  pair  being  situated  on  the  back  of  the  tail,  and  the  other  along  the 
sides  of  the  base  of  the  anal  fin.  That  these  organs  are  capable  of  giving  shocks 
sufficient  to  kill  other  fish  and  small  mammals  is  undoubted;  but  Dr.  Giinther 
considers  that  the  description  by  Humboldt  of  the  capture  of  electric  eels  by  horses 
driven  into  water,  in  order  to  receive  the  shocks  and  thus  exhaust  the  fishes,  seems 
to  be  the  result  of  the  imagination  of  some  person  who  related  the  supposed 
incident,  or  to  rest  on  some  isolated  incident,  since  no  recent  travellers  to  the 
district  have  found  evidence  of  the  existence  of  the  practice. 

SECTION  NEMATOGNATHI. 
THE  CAT-FISHES  OR  SHEATH-FISHES, — Family  SILURID^:. 

Although  represented  only  by  a  single  European  species,  and  that  confined  to 
the  rivers  to  the  eastward  of  the  Rhine,  the  great  family  of  cat-fishes  is  one  of 
extreme  importance  in  tropical  and  subtropical  countries,  its  members  being  extremely 
abundant  in  the  fresh  waters  and  estuaries  of  the  Oriental  region,  as  they  are  in 
those  of  South  America.  An  essential  characteristic  of  the  family  is  the  invari- 
able absence  of  scales,  the  skin  being  either  smooth  or  covered  with  bony  tubercles 
or  plates ;  and  this  character,  together  with  the  presence  of  the  barbels  from  which 
they  derive  their  popular  title,  will  always  serve  to  distinguish  the  cat-fishes  from 
the  other  great  fresh- water  family  of  the  carps.  In  the  skull  an  essential  feature  is 
the  absence  of  a  subopercular  element  to  the  gill-cover ;  while  the  margin  of  the 
upper  jaw  is  formed  mainly  by  the  premaxillse,  the  maxillas  being  more  or  less 
rudimental.  A  rayed  dorsal  fin  may  be  absent,  but  the  fatty  dorsal  is  generally 
present;  and  when  an  air-bladder  is  developed,  it  may  be  either  free  in  the 
abdominal  cavity  or  enclosed  in  bone,  but  always  communicates  with  the  ear  by 
the  intervention  of  the  auditory  ossicles,  which  are  somewhat  lenticular  in  form. 
The  skull  is  characterised  by  the  full  ossification  of  its  lateral  region,  the  septum 
between  the  eyes  being  also  bony ;  and  in  many  instances  the  skull  is  prolonged 
backwards  by  the  development  of  a  kind  of  bony  helmet  over  the  nape  of  the 
neck,  formed  by  dermal  ossifications  overlying  some  of  the  bones  of  the  pectoral 
girdle.  Frequently  this  shield,  as  well  as  the  hinder  bones  of  the  skull,  are 
ornamented  with  a  tuberculated  sculpture.  Many  of  these  fishes  have  also  a 
powerful  spine  at  the  front  of  the  dorsal  fin,  which  can  be  locked  into  a  fixed,  erect 
position  by  a  rudimental  spine  acting  as  a  kind  of  bolt  at  its  base,  and  is  itself 
articulated  to  the  vertebrae,  and  also  joined  by  a  ring  to  a  second  spine,  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  obtaining  in  the  angler-fish.  To  support  this  spine  certain  special 
modifications  exist  in  the  structure  of  the  pectoral  girdle.  Some  of  the  genera, 


CAT-FISHES.  453 

such  as  the  one  represented  by  the  eel-like  cat-fish,  have  additional  breathing- 
organs  ;  in  this  particular  instance  taking  the  form  of  a  branched  structure  attached 
to  the  gills.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  sac-gilled  cat-fishes  (Saccobranchus),  there 
is  a  long  sac  running  down  the  muscles  of  the  back  behind  the  proper  gill-chamber. 
Through  this  breathing-sac  blood  is  carried  from  and  returned  directly  to  the 
heart;  and  in  consequence  of  this  arrangement  these  fishes  can  remain  alive  for 
hours  or  even  days  apart  from  water,  so  that  they  are  able  to  traverse  spaces 
where  aquatic  respiration  is  impracticable.  Among  the  Indian  representatives  of  the 
family  it  is  somewhat  curious  that  whereas  most  of  the  forms  dwelling  far  in  the 
interior  of  the  country  near  and  in  the  hills  have  the  air-bladder  ossified,  this  is 
not  the  case  with  those  inhabiting  the  rivers  of  the  plains  and  the  sea.  The 
majority  of  the  cat-fishes  are  inhabitants  of  the  fresh  waters  and  estuaries  of  the 
tropical  and  subtropical  regions  of  the  globe ;  but,  as  we  have  seen,  one  species  is 
found  in  those  of  Eastern  Europe,  while  a  considerable  number  enter  the  sea, 
although  generally  keeping  near  the  coasts.  They  are  found  not  only  in  rivers, 
but  likewise  in  lagoons  and  marshes.  Day  writes  that  "  they  mostly  prefer  muddy 
to  clear  water,  and  the  more  developed  the  barbels  the  more  these  fishes  appear  to 
be  adapted  for  an  inland  or  muddy  fresh-water  residence.  The  wider  and  deeper 
the  rivers,  the  more  suited  they  are  for  the  Silwridce,  consequently  the  larger  forms 
are  comparatively  rare  in  the  south  of  India,  whilst  they  abound  in  the  Indus, 
Jumna,  and  Ganges,  as  also  in  the  Irawadi  and  other  Burmese  rivers."  It  may  be 
added  that  they  are  equally  common  in  the  muddy  waters  of  the  La  Plata  River. 
"  Owing  to  their  usual  resort/'  continues  the  same  writer,  "  these  fishes  appear  to 
employ  their  feelers  in  moving  about  in  muddy  places,  and  consequently  have  less 
use  for  their  eyes  than  forms  that  reside  in  clear  pieces  of  water.  This  is  one 
reason  why  the  size  of  the  eye  as  compared  with  the  length  of  the  head  is  much 
greater  in  the  young  than  in  the  adult.  The  eye,  in  fact,  atrophies,  instead  of 
increasing  in  size  in  proportion  with  the  remainder  of  the  head.  In  some  species 
the  skin  of  the  head  passes  over  the  eye  without  any  trace  of  a  free  orbital  margin. 
In  the  genus  Arius,  and  some  allied  marine  forms,  the  males  appear  to  carry  their 
ova  in  their  mouths,  perhaps  until  the  young  are  produced.  Many  of  these  fishes 
are  credited  with  causing  poisonous  wounds,  and  we  frequently  find  such  cases 
admitted  into  hospitals.  The  injuries  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  namely,  those 
in  which  the  wounds  are  of  a  distinctly  venomous  description,  and  those  in  which 
the  jagged  spines  occasion  intense  inflammation,  often  of  a  dangerous  character." 
The  flesh  of  the  cat-fishes  is  of  an  inferior  quality,  and  generally  eaten  only  by  the 
lower  classes.  All  the  members  of  the  family  are  very  tenacious  of  life,  and 
extremely  difficult  to  kill.  Geologically  cat-fishes  date  from  the  lower  Eocene 
London  Clay,  where  they  are  represented  by  the  extinct  Bucklandium,  apparently 
allied  to  an  existing  African  genus ;  while  in  the  higher  Eocene  of  the  south  of 
England  there  occur  species  referred  to  the  existing  genus  Arius,  An  extinct 
genus  has  also  been  described  from  the  Eocene  of  North  America;  and  in  the 
Eocene  of  Sumatra,  as  well  as  in  the  Pliocene  of  India,  the  fossil  forms  belong  to 
existing  genera,  and  some  of  those  from  the  latter  deposits  even  to  species  still 
inhabiting  the  same  country.  Numerically  the  cat-fishes  form  an  exceedingly 
large  family,  the  existing  types  constituting  considerably  over  a  hundred  genera, 


454  TUBE-BLADDERED    GROUP. 

many  of  which  contain  a  multitude  of  species.  In  this  work  only  a  very  few 
of  the  genera  can  be  even  mentioned,  some  of  those  selected  including  the  largest 
members  of  the  family. 

Clarias  anquillaris  is  a  well-known  representative  of  the  first 
Eel-Like  Cat-Fish.      ...       ..        .          ,.,,1        i  -, 

sublamily,  in  which  the    long  dorsal   and   anal   tins  extend  nearly 

throughout  the  length  of  the  trunk,  It  belongs  to  a  minor  group  confined  to 
Africa  and  the  Oriental  region,  and  characterised  by  the  dorsal  fin  being  either 
composed  of  weak  rays  throughout  its  length,  or  with  its  hinder  portion  modified 
into  a  fatty  fin. 

The  wels  (Silurus  glanis),  shown  in  the  larger  figure  of  the 
illustration  on  p.  436,  is  the  typical  representative  of  the  second 
subfamily,  in  which  the  rayed  dorsal  fin  is  but  little  developed,  and  if  present  at 
all  occupies  only  the  hinder  region  of  the  trunk ;  the  fatty  portion  being  small  or 
wanting.  The  anal  fin  is  not  much  shorter  than  the  caudal  region  of  the  backbone, 
and  the  pelvic  fins  are  behind  or  below  the  dorsal  In  the  wels  and  its  congeners  the 
short  dorsal  has  no  pungent  spine ;  the  fatty  fin  is  wanting ;  there  are  two  upper  and 
two  or  four  lower  barbels ;  the  head  and  body  are  naked ;  and  the  tail-fin  is  rounded. 
The  wels  itself,  which  is  confined  to  the  European  rivers  eastwards  of  the  Rhine, 
has  six  barbels,  of  which  the  upper  pair  are  considerably  longer  than  the  head,  and 
commonly  attains  a  length  of  from  6  to  9  feet,  although  it  occasionally  grows  to 
13  feet.  In  colour  the  head,  back,  and  edges  of  the  fins  are  bluish  black,  the  sides 
greenish  black  spotted  with  olive-green,  and  the  under-parts  reddish  or  yellowish 
white  with  blackish  marblings.  Frequenting  rivers  and  lakes  with  muddy 
bottoms,  the  wels  feed  on  fishes,  frogs,  and  crustaceans,  but  it  will  also  seize  and 
pull  down  ducks,  geese,  or  other  birds  swimming  on  the  surface.  The  spawning- 
time  is  in  the  middle  of  summer,  when  these  fish  resort  to  the  shallows  in  order 
to  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  stems  and  leaves  of  water-plants. 

YarreU's  Cat-  Another  gigantic  species  is  Yarrell's  cat-fish  (Bagarius  yarrelli), 

Fish,  etc.  from  the  large  rivers  and  estuaries  of  India  and  Java,  which  attains 
a  length  of  fully  6  feet,  and  from  its  huge  head  and  mouth  is  one  of  the  ugliest 
fishes  in  existence.  The  only  member  of  its  genus,  it  belongs  to  a  subfamily  in 
which  the  rayed  dorsal  fin  is  short,  and  situated  in  the  hinder  part  of  the  body  in 
advance  of  the  pelvics ;  and  there  is  always  a  fatty  fin,  which  may,  however,  be 
short ;  and  the  anal  is  shorter  than  the  caudal  region  of  the  backbone.  When 
nasal  barbels  are  developed,  they  belong  to  the  hinder  nostrils.  In  the  group  of 
genera  to  which  Yarrell's  cat-fish  belongs  the  front  and  hinder  nostrils  are  placed 
near  together,  with  a  barbel  between  them ;  and  in  this  particular  form  there  are 
eight  barbels,  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  head  is  naked.  This  gigantic  species  is 
of  especial  interest  on  account  of  its  fossilised  remains  occurring  in  the  Pliocene 
deposits  of  the  Siwalik  Hills  in  North-Eastern  India. 

The  well-known  genus  Arius,  from  all  the  tropical  regions  of  the  world, 
belongs  to  another  group  of  the  same  subfamily,  in  which  the  front  and  hinder 
nostrils  are  close  together,  but  have  no  barbel,  although  the  hinder-pair  are  provided 
with  a  valve.  The  Tropical  American  genus  Pimelodus  is  the  typical  representa- 
tive of  a  third  group  of  the  same  subfamily,  in  which  the  two  pairs  of  nostrils  are 
equally  devoid  of  barbels,  but  are  placed  at  a  considerable  distance  apart.  The 


CAT-FISHES.  455 

largest  species  is  the  leopard  cat-fish,  or  suravi  (P.  pati),  from  the  rivers  of 
Argentina  and  Uruguay,  growing  to  a  length  of  6  or  7  feet,  and  having  the 
yellowish  skin  marked  with  a  number  of  black  spots,  like  a  hunting-leopard. 
Somewhat  curiously,  this  genus  is  represented  by  two  outlying  species  from  West 
Africa.  The  best  known  representative  of  the  fourth  and  last  group  of  genera  in 
this  subfamily  is  the  bay  ad  (Bagrus  bay  ad)  of  the  Nile ;  the  group  being  easily 
recognised  by  the  circumstance  that  while  the  two  pairs  of  nostrils  are  remote  from 
one  another,  the  hinder  have  barbels.  Both  species  are  confined  to  the  Nile,  but 
the  allied  Chrysicthys  ranges  all  over  Tropical  Africa,  and  Macrones  and  Rita 
are  Oriental  forms.  In  these  forms  the  short  dorsal  fin  has  a  pungent  spine,  and 
the  head  and  neck  are  generally  protected  by  a  tuberculated  bony  shield. 

Electric  Cat-  On  account  of  the  property  from  which  they  derive  their  name 

Fishes.  brief  mention  must  be  made  of  the  electric  cat-fishes  (Malapterurus) 
of  Tropical  Africa,  belonging  to  a  subfamily  in  which  the  rayed  dorsal  fin,  when 
present,  is  short  and  confined  to  the  hinder  region  of  the  body,  while  the  pelvic  fins 
are  inserted  behind.  From  their  allies  these  fishes  are  distinguished  by  the  total 
absence  of  the  rayed  dorsal,  so  that  they  have  only  a  fatty  dorsal  immediately  in 
front  of  the  tail  (which  is  rounded),  and  opposite  the  anal.  The  head  and  body  are 
smooth,  the  pectoral  fins  have  no  spine,  and  there  are  six  barbels.  The  species 
inhabiting  the  Nile  grows  to  about  4  feet  in  length. 

Mailed  Cat-  The  only  other  members  of  the  family,  which  space  admits  of 

Fishes.  mentioning,  are  the  mailed  cat-fishes  (Callichthys,  Loricaria,  etc.), 
constituting  a  subfamily  mainly  confined  to  Tropical  and  South  America,  although 
represented  by  a  few  Oriental  forms.  In  all  these  fishes  there  is  always  a  rather 
short  rayed  dorsal  fin,  beneath  or  in  front  of  which  the  pelvics  are  generally 
inserted.  The  gill-membranes  are  confluent  with  the  skin  of  the  isthmus,  and  the 
gill-openings  constricted  to  small  slits.  The  pectoral  and  pelvic  fins  are  placed 
horizontally ;  and  the  vent  is  in  front  of,  or  only  slightly  behind,  the  middle  of  the 
length  of  the  body.  Among  these  fishes  the  species  of  the  genus  Callichthys, 
which  are  confined  to  the  rivers  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  South  America,  belong 
to  a  group  characterised  by  the  nearness  of  the  two  pairs  of  nostrils,  between  which 
there  is  generally  a  short  flap,  and  by  the  expansion  and  reversion  of  the  lower  lip 
to  form  a  broad  flap  more  or  less  deeply  notched  in  the  middle.  In  the  genus 
mentioned,  the  head  is  covered  with  bony  plates,  and  the  body  encased  in  two  rows 
of  transversely  elongated  overlapping  shields  on  each  side ;  all  the  species  being  of 
small  size.  Like  certain  other  South  American  forms  belonging  to  another  sub- 
family, of  which  the  members  of  the  genus  Doras  are  perhaps  the  best  known, 
these  mailed  cat-fishes  are  in  the  habit  of  making  nocturnal  journeys  during  the 
hot  season,  when  the  pond  they  inhabit  is  about  to  dry  up  to  another  of  greater 
capacity,  and  they  likewise  construct  nests  for  their  eggs.  In  the  case  of  the 
genus  last  mentioned,  these  journeys  may  occupy  several  nights,  during  which  the 
fish  travel  in  large  companies.  As  they  have  no  special  breathing-sacs,  they  must 
apparently  close  their  gill-openings,  and  thus  keep  the  gills  moist.  The  nests, 
which  are  made  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season,  are  formed  of  leaves, 
beneath  which  the  eggs  are  deposited  and  watched  over  by  both  parents ;  the  whole 
structure  being  sometimes  placed  in  a  hole  on  the  margin  of  the  river  or  pond. 


456  TUBE-BLADDERED   GROUP. 

In  the  armoured  cat-fish,  forming  the  genus  Loricaria,  the  body  is  remarkable  for 
its  elongated  and  slender  form ;  while  the  head  is  depressed,  with  a  more  or  less 
produced  and  spatulate  snout,  on  the  under  surface  of  which  the  mouth  is  situated 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  extremity,  its  margins  being  surrounded  by 
large  folds,  and  each  corner  having  a  barbel.  Both  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  are 
short  and  elevated,  and  the  entire  head  and  body  enveloped  in  a  bony  cuirass. 

SECTION  PLECTISPONDYLI. 
THE  CARP  TRIBE,— Family  CYPRINID^:. 

Adopting  a  modification  of  Professor  Cope's  classification,  the  eels  and  their 
allies  may  be  regarded  as  forming  one  sectional  group  of  the  suborder,  while  the 
cat-fishes  constitute  a  second  by  themselves.  A  third  equivalent  group  will  then 
be  made  by  the  carps,  together  with  the  under-mentioned  family  of  the  characinoids 
and  certain  allied  forms.  This  third  group — for  which  the  name  Plectispondyli  has 
been  proposed — while  agreeing  with  the  cat-fishes  (forming  the  group  Nematognathi) 
in  having  the  first  four  vertebra  fused  together  and  highly  modified,  differs  in  the 
presence  of  a  subopercular  bone.  As  in  the  last  family,  the  margin  of  the  upper 
jaw  is  formed  by  the  premaxilla3,  and  the  whole  mouth  is  toothless,  teeth  being- 
developed  on  the  pharyngeal  bones  alone.  While  the  head  is  invariably  naked,  the 
body  is  generally  covered  with  scales,  and  although  it  may  be  scaleless  it  is  never 
invested  with  bony  plates.  False  gills  may  be  developed,  and,  if  so,  are  glandular. 
When  an  air-bladder  is  present,  it  is  always  of  large  size ;  and  it  may  be  divided 
into  two  lateral  moieties  enclosed  in  an  ossified  capsule,  or  constricted  into  an 
anterior  and  posterior  portion  which  are  not  thus  protected.  The  numerous 
members  of  this  family  are  fresh-water  fish,  confined  to  the  Old  World  and  North 
America,  being  quite  unknown  in  the  southern  half  of  the  New  World,  and  also  in 
Australia.  Showing  much  less  diversity  of  form  and  habits  than  the  cat-fishes, 
the  carp  tribe  are  for  the  most  part  omnivorous,  although  a  few  of  its  members 
restrict  themselves  to  a  vegetable  diet.  Although  some  of  them  prefer  muddy 
situations,  where  their  barbels  are  probably  of  assistance,  the  majority  of  the  carps 
differ  from  the  cat-fish  in  selecting  clear  waters  for  their  haunts.  The  Indian 
forms  seem  to  be  more  carnivorous  than  their  European  relatives,  many  of  the 
larger  kinds  preying  upon  their  smaller  brethren.  Geologically,  the  carps  appear 
to  be  a  comparatively  modern  group,  the  earliest  known  forms  occurring  in  the 
Eocene  of  Sumatra ;  these  being  identified  with  existing  Oriental  genera.  Other 
fossil  carps  have  been  obtained  from  the  North  American  Eocene,  and  are  assigned 
to  extinct  generic  types ;  while  in  the  Continental  Miocene  we  find  representatives 
of  a  number  of  the  existing  European  genera,  as  well  as  of  a  few  now  mainly  or 
exclusively  Asiatic.  On  account  of  their  more  cleanly  feeding-habits  the  flesh  of 
the  carps  is  superior  to  that  of  the  cat-fishes.  The  family  is  represented  by  over 
a  hundred  existing  genera,  arranged  under  two  subfamilies. 

,_  The  common  carp  (Cyprinus  carpio)  claims  our  attention  as  the 

typical  representative  of  the  subfamily  Cyprinince,  characterised  by 

the  air-bladder  (wanting  in  one  Oriental  genus)  not  being  enclosed  in  bone,  and 

divided  into  an  anterior  and  posterior  moiety.     In  the  Oriental  genus  (Homalop- 


CARP  TRIBE. 


457 


terus)  without  an  air-bladder  the  number  of  barbels  is  six,  but  otherwise  there  are 
never  more  than  four  of  these  appendages,  which  may  be  reduced  to  a  single  pair, 
or  be  wanting. 

Belonging  to  a  group  in  which  the  anal  fin  is  short  and  usually  furnished  with 
five  or  six  branched  rays,  the  true  carps  have  the  lateral  line  running  along  the 
middle  of  the  tail,  the  dorsal  fin  placed  opposite  the  pel  vies,  and  containing  a  more 


GROUP  OF  CARP. 

1,  Carp  ;  2,  Large-scaled  variety  of  Carp  ;  3,  Crucian  Carp  ;  4,  Barbel  (£  nat.  size). 

or  Jess  strongly  serrated  bony  ray,  and  more  than  nine  branched  rays,  while  the 
pharyngeal  teeth  are  arranged  in  three  series,  with  those  of  the  outermost  one 
molar-like.  The  muzzle  is  rounded  and  blunt,  with  four  barbels,  and  the  rather 
narrow  mouth  at  its  extremity.  The  true  carps  form  a  small  genus  confined  to 
the  temperate  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  the  common  species  being  a  native  of  the 
latter  continent,  and  abundant  in  a  wild  state  in  China,  where  it  has  also  long  been 
domesticated.  Thence  it  was  introduced  into  Germany  and  Sweden,  and  subse- 


458  TUBE-BLADDERED   GROUP. 

quently  into  Britain — it  is  said  early  in  the  seventeenth  centuiy.  The  ordinary 
form  is  shown  in  the  upper  figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  457  ;  but  there  are  many 
domesticated  varieties,  differing  either  in  the  form  of  the  body  or  the  size  and 
arrangement  of  the  scales.  Among  the  latter,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  is  the 
so-called  spiegel-karpfen  (mirror-carp),  shown  in  the  right-hand  middle  figure  of 
the  illustration.  In  this  variety,  which  is  found  only  in  ponds,  the  scales  are  three 
or  four  times  the  normal  size,  and  instead  of  covering  the  whole  body  are  arranged 
in  from  one  to  three  longitudinal  rows,  with  bare  skin  between  them.  In  Western 
Europe  the  carp  has  taken  kindly  to  its  new  habitat,  not  unfrequently  attaining  as 
much  as  a  yard  in  length,  with  a  weight  of  25  Ibs.,  while  very  much  larger  specimens 
are  on  record.  Preferring  still  waters,  with  a  soft  muddy  bottom  in  which  it 
grovels  with  its  snout  for  food,  the  carp  feeds  on  various  vegetable  substances,  as- 
well  as  on  insects  and  other  small  aquatic  invertebrates.  When  the  surface  of  their 
haunts  is  locked  in  ice,  carp  lie  deeply  buried  in  holes  in  the  mud,  frequently 
consorting  in  numbers,  and  undergoing  a  partial  hibernation,  which  is  not  broken 
till  the  returning  warmth  of  spring.  Their  growth  is  extremely  rapid,  and  their 
fecundity  extraordinary,  nearly  three-quarters  of  a  million  eggs  having  been  counted 
in  the  roe  of  a  medium-sized  specimen.  They  are  capable  of  living  a  considerable- 
time  out  of  water,  especially  if  they  are  moistened  from  time  to  time ;  and  are 
known  to  live  to  a  very  great  age.  Carp  will  interbreed  both  with  the  Crucian 
and  golden  carp. 

Crucian  and  Easily  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  barbels,  the  Crucian  carp 

Golden  Carp.  (Carassius  vulgaris\  and  the  golden  carp,  or  gold-fish  (C.  auratus}- 
are  the  best  known  representatives  of  another  closely  allied  genus;  the  former 
being  a  native  of  Central  and  Northern  Europe,  but  also  found  in  Italy  and  Siberia,, 
while  the  home  of  the  second  is  China  and  the  warmer  parts  of  Japan.  Both  are 
comparatively  small  species,  and  have  been  long  domesticated ;  whereas,  however^ 
the  Crucian  carp  always  retain  the  original  brownish  colour,  the  domesticated 
variety  of  the  golden  carp  has  assumed  the  well-known  golden  tinge  from  which 
it  takes  its  name ;  an  albino  form  being  also  known.  Among  the  numerous  varieties- 
of  this  fish  the  most  curious  is  the  so-called  telescope-fish,  shown  in  the  right-hand 
figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  412,  taking  its  name  from  the  prominence  of  the 
highly  movable  eyes,  and  likewise  characterised  by  the  great  development  of  the 
caudal  fin.  In  Europe  gold-fish  thrive  best  in  waters  heated  somewhat  above  the 
ordinary  temperature,  and  they  are  accordingly  frequently  kept  in  engine-ponds, 
where  the  water  may  have  a  temperature  of  some  80°,  and  in  which  they  breed 
freely.  The  Crucian  carp,  shown  on  the  left  of  the  illustration  on  p.  457,  is  con- 
fined to  ponds  and  lakes,  where  it  seeks  the  deepest  parts. 

Barbels  Represented  by  some  two  hundred  species  from  the  tropical  and 

temperate  regions  of  the  Old  World,  the  barbels  are  best  known  by 
the  common  European  species  (Barbus  vulgaris),  shown  in  the  lower  figure  of  the 
illustration  on  p.  457,  and  the  gigantic  mahasir  (B.  tor)  of  India  and  Ceylon. 
Agreeing  with  the  carps  in  the  structure  of  the  anal  fin,  and  the  position  of  the 
lateral  line  and  dorsal  fin,  they  belong  to  a  subgroup  of  genera  in  which  there  ar& 
generally  not  more  than  nine  rays  in  the  dorsal  fin,  the  pharyngeal  teeth  being 
arranged  in  three  rows,  the  greater  part  of  the  cheek  not  covered  with  bone,  the 


CARP  TRIBE.  459 

anal  scales  not  enlarged,  and  the  eye  unprovided  with  a  fatty  lid ;  while  they  are 
specially  characterised  by  the  arched  mouth — which  is  devoid  of  internal  folds — and 
by  the  presence  of  false  gills.  The  anal  fin  is  frequently  tall,  the  lips  are  devoid  of 
any  horny  covering,  and  the  barbels,  if  present,  may  be  either  two  or  four  in 
number.  The  scales  may  be  either  small  or  very  large,  and  the  body  is  frequently 
of  a  much  more  elongated  form  than  in  the  true  carps.  While  some  species  are 
not  more  than  2  inches  in  length,  the  m  ah  a  sir,  and  some  other  kinds,  may  grow 
to  at  least  6  feet.  Of  the  Indian  forms,  Day  writes  that  those  with  four  barbels 
(among  which  is  the  mahasir),  "  provided  they  are  soberly  coloured,  attain  a  large 
size  ;  the  brilliantly  coloured  forms  are  mostly  residents  in  clear  or  rapid  mountain- 
streams,  or  rivers  contiguous  to  hills,  and  generally  small.  A  strong  dorsal  spine 
is  usually  (if  not  invariably)  a  sign  that  the  species  lives  in  the  vicinity  of  high 
mountains,  the  streams  of  which  it  ascends  to  breed.  An  exception  has,  however, 
to  be  made  of  those  forms  with  serrated  dorsal  spines,  which  are  usually  resident 
in  the  waters  of  the  plains/'  The  common  barbel,  which  has  four  of  the  appendages 
from  which  it  derives  its  name,  not  uncommonly  grows  to  a  length  of  2  feet,  with 
a  weight  of  from  8  to  10  Ibs.,  but  may  attain  much  larger  dimensions. 

Confining  our  attention  mainly  to  the  European  representatives 
of  the  family,  we  have  next  to  mention  the  gudgeons  (Gobio),  which 
may  be  distinguished  from  the  foregoing  by  the  pharyngeal  teeth  being  arranged 
in  a  double  or  single  series ;  the  body  being  entirely  covered  with  scales ;  and  the 
muzzle  having  two  small  barbels,  with  the  mouth  inferior  in  position,  and  the 
premaxillary  bones  protractile.  The  scales  are  of  moderate  size,  the  short  dorsal 
fin  has  no  spine,  and  the  intestine  is  remarkable  for  its  shortness.  These  small 
fishes  are  represented  only  by  two  species,  of  which  G.  fluviatilis  is  British ;  and, 
like  the  barbels,  they  are  purely  animal-feeding.  The  British  species  is  shown  in 
the  lower  figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  462. 

m^.  From  the  whole  of  the  members  of  the  family  noticed  above  the 

White-Fish.  J 

so-called  "  white-fish  "  belong  to  a  group  of  genera  in  which  the  anal 

fin  is  short  or  of  medium  length,  with  from  eight  to  eleven  branched  rays,  and  not 
extending  forwards  beneath  the  line  of  the  dorsal ;  the  lateral  line,  when  complete, 
running  nearly  or  quite  in  the  middle  of  the  tail.  From  certain  allied  forms  they 
are  distinguished  by  the  short  dorsal  fin  having  no  bony  ray  ;  and  the  pharyngeal 
teeth  form  a  single  or  double  series,  the  margin  of  the  lower  jaw  is  not  cutting, 
and  there  are  no  barbels.  As  distinctive  peculiarities  of  the  white-fish  may  be 
mentioned  the  protractile  premaxillary  bones,  the  imbricating  scales,  and  the 
smooth  outer  surface  of  the  pharyngeal  teeth.  The  numerous  representatives  of  the 
white-fish  are  distributed  over  the  rivers  of  the  North  temperate  zone,  the  New  World 
forms  somewhat  exceeding  in  numbers  those  of  the  Old.  Among  the  European 
representatives  of  the  genus,  the  roach  (Leuciscus  rutilus),  shown  in  the  right- 
hand  middle  figure  of  our  illustration,  agrees  with  several  other  species  in  having 
a  single  series  of  pharyngeal  teeth,  at  least  ten  rays  in  the  anal  fin,  and  the  dorsal 
nearly  opposite  the  pelvic  fins ;  its  deep  body  being  silvery,  and  the  lower  fins  of 
the  adult  generally  tinged  with  red.  Its  range  is  confined  to  Europe  north  of  the 
Alps.  On  the  other  hand,  the  chub  (L.  cephaliis),  shown  in  the  lower  figure  of  the 
illustration,  may  be  selected  as  an  example  of  a  second  group  in  which  there  are  two 


46o  TUBE-BLADDERED    GROUP. 

series  of  pharyngeal  teeth.  This  fish  has  a  somewhat  wider  distribution  than  the 
last,  extending  southwards  into  Italy  and  eastwards  into  Asia ;  it  is  uniformly 
coloured,  with  greyish  margins  to  the  scales.  To  the  same  group  of  the  genus 
belongs  the  dace  (L.  vulgar  is),  with  the  same  distribution  as  the  roach,  to  which  it 
presents  a  considerable  external  resemblance,  although  smaller  and  longer  in  form  ; 


GROUP  OF  WHITE-FISH. 

Me,  Kudd,  Koach,  and  Chub  (£  nat  size). 

its  sides  being  silvery,  but  the  fins  not  tinged  with  red.  Roach  and  dace  are 
commonly  found  in  company,  and  have  identical  habits.  The  fish  shown  in  the 
upper  figure  of  our  illustration  is  confined  to  the  central  and  northern  countries  of 
the  Continent,  where  it  is  known  as  the  ide  (L.  idus),  and  is  a  uniformly-coloured 
species  nearly  allied  to  the  last.  It  is  of  special  interest  on  account  of  a  golden- 
coloured  domesticated  variety  bred  in  Germany,  and  known  as  the  orfe.  Another 


CARP  TRIBE. 


461 


member  of  the  same  group  is  the  rudd  or  red-eye  (L.  erythopthalmus),  of  which  a 
specimen  is  represented  in  the  left-hand  middle  figure  of  the  illustration ;  this 
species,  which  ranges  all  over  Europe  and  Asia,  may  be  distinguished  by  its  scarlet 
lower  fins,  the  general  hue  of  the  scales  being  coppery.  The  familiar  and  diminu- 
tive minnow  (L.  phoxinus)  differs  from  all  the  foregoing  members  of  this  group  by 
the  incomplete  lateral  line  ;  its  range  being  limited  to  Europe,  although  it  is  repre- 
sented by  an  allied  species  in  North  America.  The  habits  of  all  these  familiar  fish 
are  too  well  known  to  need  notice ;  but  it  may  be  mentioned  that  several  of  them 
will  interbreed,  as  they  will  with  species  belonging  to  other  genera  of  the  family. 

Representing  a   genus   by  itself,    the    European    tench   (Tinea 
vulgaris)  differs  from  the  white-fish  by  the  presence  of  a  small  pair 
of  barbels  to  the  mouth ;  the  pharyngeal  teeth  forming  a  single  series.     The  small 


Tench. 


nat.  size). 


scales  are  deeply  embedded  in  the  thick  skin  ;  there  is  a  complete  lateral  line  ;  both 
the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  are  short  ;  and  the  caudal,  instead  of  having  the  markedly 
forked  form  characteristic  of  the  roach  and  its  allies,  is  but  slightly  emarginate. 
The  terminally-situated  mouth  has  its  lips  moderately  developed.  Whereas  white- 
fish  prefer  clear  running  streams,  the  tench  frequents  ponds,  lakes,  and  other  more 
or  less  stagnant  water  ;  its  colour,  which  is  sometimes  bronzy  golden,  and  in  other 
cases  olive-green,  with  a  more  or  less  blackish  tinge,  is  stated  to  vary  with  the 
purity  or  otherwise  of  the  water  in  which  it  lives.  Tench  always  keep  near  or  in 
the  mud,  beneath  which  they  entirely  bury  themselves  during  the  colder  months, 
after  the  fashion  of  so  many  members  of  the  family.  A  good  tench  will  wTeigh 
4  Ibs.,  but  examples  of  5  Ibs.,  and  even  over,  are  not  very  uncommon.  It  is  probably 
owing  to  the  abundant  supply  of  mucus  secreted  by  the  skin  that  the  tench  was 
considered  to  be  endowed  with  healing  powers.  Tench  are  exceedingly  prolific, 
and  as  they  bear  transport  easily,  are  admirably  adapted  for  stocking  ponds. 


462  TUBE-BLADDERED   GROUP. 

By  this  name  may  be  distinguished  a  small  genus,  containing 
Beaked  Carp.  J  ' f     ,.         ,    ,  %  ,     117te  .    . 

seven   species,   from    Continental    Europe    and     Western   Asia,   and 

differing  from  the  two  foregoing  by  the  margin  of  the  lower  jaw  forming  a  cutting 
edge,  overlain  with  a  brown  horny  layer ;  one  of  the  species  (Chondrostoma  nasus) 
being  represented  in  the  lower  figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  465,  These  fishes 
are  further  characterised  by  the  medium  or  small  size  of  the  scales,  the  termination 
of  the  lateral  line  in  the  middle  of  the  deepest  part  of  the  tail,  by  the  dorsal  fin 
having  not  more  than  nine  branched  rays,  and  being  situated  opposite  the  root 


BITTERLING,    BLEAK,    AND   GUDGEON  (nat.  size). 

of  the  pelvics,  and  also  by  the  rather  elongate  anal  bearing  ten  or  more  rays. 
The  mouth  is  inferior  in  position,  and  transverse ;  and  there  are  no  barbels, 
•Commonly  known  in  France  as  le  nez,  the  figured  species  does  not  usually  exceed 
18  inches  in  length,  with  a  weight  of  about  3  Ibs.  It  is  generally  found  in  deep 
water,  where  it  feeds  on  various  vegetable  substances,  but  more  especially  on  the 
green  confervoid  growth  covering  submerged  stones,  which  is  neatly  mown  off 
by  a  scythe-like  action  of  the  horny  margin  of  the  transverse  lower  lip. 

The   small   roach-like   fish   known   as   the  bitterling  (Rhodeus 

amarus),  of  which  two  examples  are  shown  on  the  left  side  of  the 

accompanying  illustration,  is  the  European  representative  of  four  genera  of  small 


CARP  TRIBE.  463 

carps  mainly  characteristic  of  Eastern  Asia  and  Japan,  and  having  the  following 
distinctive  features.  The  anal  fin  is  of  moderate  length,  and  extends  forwards  to 
below  the  line  of  the  dorsal ;  the  lateral  line,  when  fully  developed,  runs  on  or 
near  the  middle  of  the  tail ;  and  there  is  but  a  single  series  of  pharyngeal  teeth. 
The  bitterling,  which  belongs  to  a  genus  characterised  by  the  incomplete  lateral 
line,  and  the  small  size  of  the  scales,  is  locally  distributed  in  Central  Europe, 
where  it  is  not  unfrequently  found  in  hot  springs.  It  is  one  of  the  smallest  of 
European  fishes,  the  females  being  generally  about  1J  inches  in  length,  while  the 
males  do  not  exceed  twice  this  size.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  bitter  taste  of 
the  flesh ;  and  it  is  only  perch  and  eels  that  will  take  this  fish  when  used  as  a  bait. 
In  common  with  its  allies,  the  bitterling  is  remarkable  for  the  circumstance  that 
in  the  breeding-season  the  oviduct  of  the  female  is  produced  into  an  elongated  tube, 
projecting  a  considerable  distance  beyond  the  surface  of  the  body.  This  organ, 
which  may  be  compared  to  the  ovipositor  of  an  insect,  is  introduced  within  the 
shells  of  fresh-water  mussels,  and  the  eggs  are  thus  deposited  in  a  situation  where 
they  will  be  protected  from  the  attacks  of  enemies. 

The  common  European  bream  (Abramia  brama),  shown  in  the 
lower  figure  of  the  illustration  on  the  next  page,  is  the  type  of  a  large 
group  of  genera,  characterised  by  the  elongation  of  the  anal  fin,  and  by  a  portion 
or  the  whole  of  the  abdomen  being  compressed  so  as  to  form  a  sharp  edge.  In  the 
type  genus  the  much  compressed  body  is  deep  or  oblong  in  form,  with  the  scales  of 
moderate  size,  and  the  lateral  line  running  below  the  middle  of  the  tail ;  the  short 
dorsal  fin,  which  is  not  furnished  with  a  spine,  being  situated  opposite  the  interval 
between  the  pelvic  and  anal  fins.  In  both  jaws  the  lips  are  simple,  the  upper 
being  protractile,  and  generally  longer  than  the  lower,  although  occasionally  the 
reverse  condition  obtains.  The  pharyngeal  teeth  may  be  arranged  in  either  a 
single  or  double  series ;  and  the  scales'  do  not  extend  across  the  sharp  edge  of  the 
lower  surface  of  the  hinder  part  of  the  body.  Distributed  over  Europe  north  of 
the  Alps,  portions  of  Western  Asia,  and  North  America,  the  breams  are  repre- 
sented by  about  fifteen  species,  of  which  the  common  bream  and  the  white  bream 
(A.  blicea)  are  found  in  Britain.  The  white  bream,  shown  in  the  upper  figure  of 
our  illustration,  has  the  general  colour  of  the  sides  bluish  white,  without  any  trace 
of  the  golden  yellow  lustre,  from  the  presence  of  which  the  common  species  is  often 
termed  the  carp-bream.  They  may  also  be  distinguished  by  the  iris  of  the  eye  in 
the  latter  being  yellow,  and  in  the  former  silvery  white,  tinged  with  pink.  Yarrell 
writes  that  "  bream  swim  in  shoals,  feeding  on  worms,  and  other  soft-bodied  animals, 
with  some  vegetable  substances ;  and  if  the  water  they  inhabit  suits  them,  which 
is  generally  the  case,  as  they  are  hardy  in  their  nature,  they  grow  rapidly,  and 
spawn  in  May.  At  this  season  one  female  is  generally  followed  by  three  or  four 
males,  and  they  bear  at  this  time  a  whitish  tubercle  on  their  scales,  which  causes 
them  to  feel  rough  to  the  hand."  In  some  of  the  Irish  lakes  bream  run  to  as 
much  as  12  or  14  Ibs.  in  weight ;  and  as  they  are  a  greedy  fish,  great  numbers  can 
be  taken  by  the  aid  of  ground -baiting.  Of  the  other  two  species  here  figured,  the 
zope  (A.  ballerus),  forming  the  second  figure  from  the  top,  is  an  inhabitant  of 
Germany,  Holland,  and  Sweden;  while  the  zarthe  (A.  vimba),  is  found  in  the 
Danube,  as  well  as  in  the  rivers  of  North  Germany,  Sweden,  and  Russia.  The 


464 


TL  'BE-n  LADDERED    GROUT. 


latter  species  may  be  easily  LH -cognise! i  by  the  keeled  upper  surface  of  the  tail, 
aii'l  the  projecting  muz/le :  while  tin-  /ope  is  characterised  by  the  great  elongation 
of  tin-  anal  tin.  which  commences  opposite  to  the  dorsal,  and  extends  nearly  to  the 
tail,  combined  with  the  oblique  direction  of  the  cleft  of  the  mouth. 


Rapfen. 


<a;ori>  OF  ISKEAM. 
White  Brciuii,  Xopc,  Xarthe,  and  Common  Bream  ((\  nat.  size). 

lly  this  name  is  known  in  Austria  the  typical  representative 
J>7»'"x  i'<i i MI. !•)  of  a  small  genus  of  carps,  containing  four  species 
from  Ka>t«'rn  Kurope  aixl  Cliina,  and  somewhat  intermediate  in  structural 
characters  between  the  breams  and  the  bleaks.  Agreeing  with  the  former  in  the 
shortness  of  the  gill-rakers,  these  fishes  alwavs  have  the  lower  jaw  projecting 
considerably  beyond  tin-  upper,  which  is  but  sliiditlv  protractile;  the  anal  fin 
never  lias  less  than  thirteen  ravs:  and  the  sharp  lower  edge  of  the,  abdomen 
"•hind  tin-  pelvic  lius  is  crossed  h\-  the  scales.  Common  in  Kastern  and  Northern 


CARP  TRIBE.  465 

Europe,  although  unknown  in  the  British  Islands,  the  rapfen,  is  generally  found 
in  lakes  or  rivers  flowing  through  level  country,  as  it  requires  clear  but  tranquil 
waters,  In  colour  it  is  bluish  black  above,  with  the  sides  bluish  white,  and  the 
under  surface  white ;  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  being  blue,  and  the  others  tinged 
with  red.  In  weight  this  fish  does  not  exceed  a  dozen  pounds,  and  in  length  never 
measures  more  than  a  yard. 


SICHEL,    RAPFEN,    AND  BEAKED   CARP. 

Especial  interest  attaches  to  the  beautiful  little  fish  known  as 
Bleak. 

the   bleak  (Alburnus  lucidus),  of  which  a  figure  is  given  on  the 

right  side  of  the  illustration  on  p.  462,  on  account  of  the  use  of  the  pearly  matter 
from  its  scales  in  the  manufacture  of  artificial  pearls.  Of  bleak  there  are  fifteen 
species,  ranging  over  Europe  and  Western  Asia ;  the  common  British  species  being 
found  only  to  the  north  of  the  Alps,  although  represented  by  an  allied  form  in 
Italy.  From  both  the  preceding  genera  these  fish  are  distinguished  by  the  slender 
and  lanceolate  form  of  the  closely  set  gill-rakers.  The  body  is  more  or  less 
VOL.  v. — 30 


466  TUBE-BLADDERED    GROUP. 

elongate,  with  the  scales  of  moderate  size,  and  the  lateral  line  running  below  the 
middle  of  the  tail.  The  fins  are  generally  similar  to  those  of  the  last  genus ;  and 
the  lower  jaw  projects  more  or  less  beyond  the  upper,  which  is  protractile.  In 
the  hinder  part  of  the  abdomen  the  scales  do  not  extend  across  the  sharp  lower 
edge.  Generally  about  4  or  5  inches  in  length,  and  never  exceeding  7,  the 
common  bleak  is  steel-blue  in  colour  above,  with  silvery  white  sides  and  under 
surface,  and  the  dorsal  and  caudal  fins  grey,  the  others  being  colourless.  It  is 
found  in  rivers,  lakes,  and  ponds,  preferring  clear  water;  and  in  calm,  warm 
weather  swimming  rapidly  about  near  the  surface  in  search  of  flies  and  other 
insects.  During  the  spawning-season,  which  is  in  May  and  June,  bleak  collect  in 
large  shoals,  which  are  preyed  upon  not  only  by  perch,  but  likewise  by  gulls 
and  terns. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  bleak  is  a  small  fish  (Leucaspius  delineatus)  from  the 
rivers  of  Eastern  and  Southern  Europe,  distinguished  by  the  extreme  shortness  of 
the  lateral  line,  which  scarcely  extends  beyond  the  extremities  of  the  pectoral  fins. 
The  scales  also  are  of  a  regular  ovate  form,  without  the  distinct  fan-like  rays  so 
characteristic  of  the  bleak. 

The  last  member  of  this  great  subfamily  that  we  shall  mention 

is  the  curious-looking  fish  (Pelecus  cultratus)  shown  in  the  upper 
figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  465,  known  in  Germany  as  the  sichel,  and  forming 
the  sole  representative  of  its  genus.  It  is  at  once  characterised  by  the  whole  of 
the  abdominal  surface  of  the  oblong  and  compressed  body  forming  a  sharp  cutting 
edge ;  the  scales  being  small,  and  the  lateral  line  making  a  sudden  descent  behind 
the  pectoral  fin  towards  the  lower  surface.  The  cleft  of  the  mouth  is  always 
peculiar  in  having  a  nearly  perpendicular  direction.  The  pectoral  fins  are 
unusually  tall,  and  the  dorsal  is  placed  far  back,  and  above  the  anal,  which 
resembles  that  of  the  bream  in  its  numerous  rays.  On  the  pharyngeal  bones  the 
teeth  are  arranged  in  a  double  series,  and  are  strongly  hooked.  In  profile  this 
fish,  which  generally  ranges  from  6  inches  to  a  foot  in  length,  is  remarkable  for 
the  straightness  of  the  line  of  the  back,  and  the  convexity  of  its  lower  border.  It 
is  widely  distributed  in  Eastern  Europe,  being  common  in  the  Black  and  Caspian 
seas,  as  well  as  in  their  affluent  rivers.  In  form  this  fish  makes  a  curious  approach 
to  the  members  of  the  herring  tribe. 

With  the  small  fishes  known  as  loaches,  of  which  there  are  three 

European  genera,  we  come  to  the  second  subfamily  (Cobitince)  of 
the  carp  tribe,  which  is  characterised  by  the  air-bladder  being  either  partially  or 
entirely  enclosed  in  a  bony  capsule;  false  gills  being  always  absent.  In  these 
fishes  the  body  may  be  elongate,  oblong,  compressed,  or  cylindrical,  but  is  never 
depressed ;  the  muzzle  and  lips  are  fleshy ;  and  the  small,  inf eriorly-placed  mouth 
is  furnished  with  from  six  to  twelve  barbels.  The  median  fins  are  spineless,  the 
dorsal  having  a  variable  number  of  rays,  but  the  short  anal  possessing  but  few, 
while  the  pelvic  pair  may  be  wanting  ;  scales  small,  rudimental,  or  absent,  and  when 
present,  cycloid,  and  usually  immersed  in  mucus ;  in  one  Oriental  genus,  developed 
upon  the  back  and  sides  of  the  head.  The  loaches  of  this  subfamily  are  confined 
to  Europe  and  Asia  ;  and  while  some  of  those  from  the  former  continent  are 
partial  to  swift  clear  streams  with  a  stony  bottom,  the  Indian  forms  delight  in- 


CARP  TRIBE. 


467 


muddy  tanks,  where  they  bury  themselves  in  the  mud.  All  are  carnivorous ;  and, 
in  spite  of  their  small  size,  the  European  species  are  esteemed  as  food.  The  giant 
loach  (Misgurnus  fossilis),  forming  the  central  figure  of  our  illustration,  is  the 
largest  European  member  of  the  group,  and  belongs  to  a  genus  of  four  species, 
common  to  Europe  and  Asia  north  of  the  Himalaya.  The  genus  is  characterised 
by  the  elongate  and  compressed  form  of  the  body,  the  absence  of  an  erectile  spine 
near  the  eye,  and  the  presence  of  from  ten  to  twelve  barbels,  four  of  which  belong 
to  the  lower  jaw;  the  dorsal  fin  being  placed  above  the  pelvic  pair,  and  the  caudal 
rounded.  The  European  species,  which  grows  to  a  length  of  10  inches,  is  found 
in  stagnant  waters  in  Southern  and  Eastern  Germany,  and  North- Western  Asia ; 


GIANT  LOACH,    COMMON  LOACH,    AND  SPINY  LOACH  (^  nat.  size). 


being  replaced  by  an  allied  form  in  China  and  Japan.  The  true  loaches  (Nema- 
chilus),  on  the  other  hand,  have  six  upper  barbels,  and  none  on  the  lower  jaw. 
They  are  represented  by  some  fifty  species  from  Europe  and  Temperate  Asia  ;  the 
common  British  loach  (N.  barbatulus),  shown  in  the  upper  figure  of  the  illustration, 
being  found  in  clear  streams  all  over  Europe  with  the  exception  of  Denmark  and 
Scandinavia.  The  spiny  loach  (Cobitis  tcvnia),  shown  in  the  lower  corner  of  the 
illustration,  is  the  typical  representative  of  a  third  genus,  distinguished  from  the 
last  by  the  presence  of  a  small,  bifid,  erectile  spine  below  each  eye.  The  figured 
species  is  locally  and  sparingly  distributed  in  Britain,  but  more  common  on  the 
Continent.  Certain  Indian  loaches  formerly  included  in  this  genus  are  now 
regarded  as  distinct,  the  subfamily  being  represented  by  eight  other  genera 
in  the  same  country. 


46S  77 'BE-B LADDERED    GRO 1 7>. 

An; K -A \   L< >A< 'iiKs. — Family  KXEiun^E. 

Two  small  loach-like  tishes  from  the  fresh  waters  of  Tropical  Africa,  one  of 
which  (K n>  /'/"  ctnitjuli  //x/x)  is  figured  in  the  annexed  illustration,  alone  represent  a 
famih"  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by  the  absence  of  teeth  on  the  pharyngeal 
bone-,  and  bv  the  elongated  air-bladder  being  undivided,  barbels  being  wanting. 
While  the  figured  species  is  from  the  west  coast,  the  other  (K.  x/>r/,r/')  inhabits 
Central  Africa. 

Tin:  CiiAiiAcixoiD  FISHES. — Familv  El\ 


As  an  example  of  a  very  extensive  family  of  fresh-water  fishes,  confined  to 
Tropical  America  and  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara,  we  select  an  American  form 
known  as  the  piraya  (Serniscdmo  iriraya),  siuce  in  our  limited  space  it  is  quite 
impossible  to  deal  with  any  of  the  others.  It  may  be  mentioned,  in  the  first  place, 


ANGOLA    LOACH  (liat,   size). 


that  these  fishes  are  commonly  known  as  the  CJi(iwtciiri(1<i',  but  as  there  is  no 
such  genus  as  ('1m  I-<K-UI  "*.  it  is  obvious  that  this  term  cannot  stand,  and  we  have 
accordingly  adopted  another.  According  to  Professor  Cope's  arrangement,  these 
fishes  In-long  to  t  he  same  sectional  group  as  the  carp  tribe,  from  which  they  may 
he  distinguished  by  the  brain-case  not  being  produced  between  the  orbits,  and 
-  number  ol  upper  pharyngeal  bones  varying  from  four  to  one 
g  always  two:  a  further  point  of  difference  occurring  in  the 
upper  jaw.  \vhi--h  is  formed  in  front  by  the  premaxilhe,  and  at 
maxilla-.  Like  the  carps,  the  body  is  scaled  and  the  head  naked  : 
I'1'1  barbels  are  invariably  wanting,  and  the  jaws  may  be  either  toothless,  or 
turiiished  with  a  dentition  of  a  yerv  ])O\\"erl'ul  t\'])e.  In  most  cases  there  is  n 
^I||;I'I  t':|n.v  'iii  behind  the  dorsal:  1h<-  air-bladder  is  always  transversely  divided 
into  halves,  and  lln-iv  ;m-  no  false  gills.  "I  "nfortiniMfelv.  there  are  no  fossil  forms 
'"''"''  In  the  explanation  of  the  peculiar  geographical  distribution  of  the  family, 
wliiHi  is  v.-j-y  similar  to  thai  of  (he  chromids:  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
t'1"  fiiKM-xf.,-.,l  type,  originally  inhabited  the  great  land-mass  of  the  Northern 
l''iiiis]»lii-rc.  tVoin  whence  they  migrated  southwards  io  their  ]»resent  isolated 


t 


CHAR  A  C I  NO  IDS. 


469 


distributional  areas.  It  is,  however,  not  a  little  remarkable  that  whereas  in  their 
migration  to  Africa  they  have  been  accompanied  by  members  of  the  carp  tribe, 
in  Tropical  America  they  entirely  take  the  place  of  that  family.  The  numerous 
genera,  none  of  which  are  common  to  the  two  hemispheres,  are  ranged  under 
eleven  groups  or  subfamilies,  the  majority  of  which  are  confined  to  either  the  one 
or  the  other  half-  of  the  distributional  area,  although  a  few  have  representatives 
of  both.  As  regards  their  habits,  some  of  these  fishes  are  strictly  carnivorous, 
while  others  are  as  exclusively  vegetable-feeders. 

The  figured  species  belongs  to  the  last  subfamily,  which  includes  four  exclus- 
ively American  genera,  represented  by  some  forty  species,  and  characterised  by  the 
somewhat  elongated  dorsal  fin,  behind  which  is  a  small  fatty  fin;  by  the  gill- 
membranes  being  free  from  the  isthmus,  and  also  by  the  distinct  serration  of  the 
middle  line  of  the  under  surface  of  the  body. 

On  account  of  their  large  size,  two  other  genera  of  these  fishes,  which  have 
respectively  received  the  names  of  Hydrocyon  and  Cynodon,  must  be  mentioned ; 


THE  PIRAYA  (£  nat.  size). 

the  former  being  from  Tropical  Africa,  and  the  latter  from  Brazil  and  the  Guianas. 
They  grow  to  the  length  of  4  feet,  and  are  highly  predacious ;  the  subfamily  to 
which  they  belong  being  characterised  by  the  presence  of  a  short  dorsal  and  anal 
fin,  the  large  conical  teeth,  the  want  of  attachment  between  the  gill-membranes 
and  the  isthmus,  and  the  approximation  of  the  nostrils. 

THE  CYPRINODONTS,— Family  CYPRINODONTID^:. 

•The  small  fishes  which,  for  want  of  an  English  title,  we  may  designate 
3yprinodonts,  bring  us  to  the  first  family  of  another  sectional  group  termed  the 
Haplomi,  which  also  includes  the  pikes.  In  addition  to  certain  other  structural 
features  of  the  skeleton,  this  group  is  characterised  by  the  first  four  vertebrse  being 


470  TUBE-BLADDERED    GROUP. 

separate  and  of  normal  form ;  while  in  the  skull  the  parietal  bones  are  separated 
by  the  supraoccipital,  all  the  opercular  bones  are  present,  and  the  pharyngeals  are 
distinct,  the  upper  ones  being  directed  forwards,  and  three  or  four  in  number.  As 
a  family,  the  cyprinodonts  are  specially  distinguished  by  the  margin  of  the  upper 
jaw  being  constituted  solely  by  the  premaxillse,  and  the  enlargement  of  the  third 
upper  pharyngeal  bone.  Externally  they  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  the 
carps  by  the  head  being  scaled  as  well  as  the  body,  and  they  have  no  barbels.  Both 
jaws  are  toothed,  and  the  pharyngeals  are  also  furnished  with  teeth,  which  are 
heart-shaped.  There  is  no  fatty  fin,  and  the  dorsal  is  situated  in  the  hinder  half 
of  the  body.  The  air-bladder  is  simple,  and  the  false  gills  are  wanting.  Inhabiting 
either  fresh,  brackish,  or  salt  water,  these  fish  are  distributed  over  the  south  of 
Europe,  Africa,  Asia,  and  America ;  some  being  purely  carnivorous,  while  others 
feed  on  the  organic  substances  to  be  found  in  mud.  Most  of  the  forms  are 
viviparous ;  and  the  males,  which  are  much  inferior  in  size  to  the  females,  and, 
according  to  Dr.  Gunther,  probably  the  smallest  living  fishes,  frequently  have  the 
anal  fin  specially  modified  to  aid  in  the  reproductive  process.  As  a  rule,  the  fins  are 
relatively  larger  in  the  males  than  in  the  females,  and  there  is  likewise  some 
difference  in  the  coloration  of  the  two  sexes.  In  a  fossil  state,  remains  of  the 

typical  genus  occur  in  the  Miocene  strata  of  the 
Continent,  which  have  also  yielded  others  re- 
ferred to  an  existing  American  genus;  while 
the  head  of  a  species  much  larger  than  any  now 
living  has  been  described  from  the  Pliocene  of 
India,  this  specimen  being  figured  in  the  accom- 
panying illustration  in  order  to  show  the  scales 
on  the  head  so  characteristic  of  the  family. 
Cyprinodonts  are  represented  by  about  a  score 
of  genera,  which  may  be  divided  into  two  sub- 
families, according  to  the  nature  of  the  food. 
In  the  first  of  these,  which  includes  the  typical 
genus  Cyprinodon,  and  has  a  distribution  co- 
extensive with  that  of  the  family,  all  the  forms 

HEAD  OF  A  FOSSIL  CYPRINODONT,   WITH  .  ... 

ONE  OF  THE  SCALES  ENLARGED.  are  carnivorous  or  insectivorous,  and  are  char- 

acterised by  the  firm  union  of  the  two  branches 

of  the  lower  jaw  in  front,  and  likewise  by  the  shortness,  or  slight  convolution 
of  the  intestines.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  second  subfamily,  which  is  exclusively 
restricted  to  Tropical  America,  the  species  seek  their  food  in  mud,  and  have  the 
two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw  but  loosely  joined  together,  while  the  intestine  is 
highly  convoluted.  It  is  in  this  group  that  the  sexual  differences  are  most  strongly 
marked. 

Doubles  es  ^S   an   examP^e   °^   the   family  we   take   a   remarkable  genus 

belonging  to  the  first  subfamily,  represented  by  three  species  from 
Tropical  America,  one  of  which  (Anableps  tetropthalmus}  is  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying illustration.  Having  a  broad  and  depressed  head,  with  the  region  over  the 
eyes  much  raised,  the  elongate  body  compressed  in  front  and  depressed  behind,  a 
protractile  muzzle,  and  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  horizontal  and  of  moderate  size,  these 


BLIND  FISH. 


471 


fish  are  specially  characterised  by  the  structure  of  the  eye,  which  is  quite  unique 
among  vertebrates,  and  from  which  they  derive  their  name.  In  each  eye  the 
integuments  are  divided  into  an  upper  and  a  lower  moiety  by  a  dark-coloured 
transverse  band  in  the  outer  layer ;  the  pupil  being  likewise  bisected  in  the  same 
plane  by  means  of  a  lobe  projecting  from  each  side  of  the  iris.  The  scales  are  of 
small  or  moderate  size ;  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  short,  the  latter  being  placed  in 
advance  of  the  line  of  the  former,  and  in  the  male  (which  in  this  genus  is  larger 
than  the  female)  modified  into  a  long,  thick,  scaly  organ,  with  an  aperture  at  the 
end.  These  fishes  are  the  largest  existing  members  of  the  whole  family,  growing 
nearly  to  a  foot  in  length.  They  are  abundant  in  North  Brazil  and  the  Guianas, 
where  they  frequent  mud-banks  on  the  coast  and  in  the  estuaries  of  the  larger 


FEMALE  AND   MALE   DOUBLE-EYE  (J  nat.  size). 

rivers ;  many  of  them  being  often  left  stranded  by  the  retiring  tide,  where  they 
progress  on  the  slime  by  a  series  of  leaps.  After  birth  the  young  are  carried  about 
by  the  female  in  a  thin-skinned  sac  divided  by  a  partition,  until  they  are  suffici- 
ently advanced  to  take  care  of  themselves.  When  swimming,  these  fishes  frequently 
go  on  the  surface  with  the  eye  half  in  and  half  out  of  the  water ;  and  it  is  in 
accordance  with  this  habit  that  the  eyes  are  divided,  the  upper  portion  being  able 
to  see  in  the  air,  while  the  lower  is  adapted  for  vision  under  water.  That  such  is 
really  the  case,  is  proved  by  the  structure  of  the  lens  of  the  eye.  In  terrestrial 
animals  the  lens  is  lenticular,  that  is  to  say,  of  the  shape  of  two  watch-glasses  put 
edge  to  edge ;  whereas  in  ordinary  fishes,  which  have  to  see  in  such  a  dense  medium 
as  water,  the  lens  is  spherical.  Now  in  the  double-eye  that  portion  of  the  organ  of 
vision  which  is  above  the  level  of  the  water  has  the  lens  lenticular,  while  in  that 
portion  which  is  below  the  water  the  lens  is  spherical.  In  Brazil  the  flesh  of  these 
fish  forms  an  article  of  consumption. 


472  TUBE-BLADDERED    GROUP. 

THE  BLIND-FISH, — Family  AMBLYOPSID& 

The  celebrated  blind-fish  (Amblyopsis  spelcm)  from  the  Mammoth  Cave  in 
Kentucky,  the  Wyandotte  Cave  in  Indiana,  and  the  subterranean  streams  which 
appear  to  connect  the  waters  of  the  two,  is  generally  regarded  as  the  typical  repre- 
sentative of  a  family  closely  allied  to  the  last.  This  fish,  which  does  not  exceed  5 
inches  in  length,  and  breeds  viviparously,  closely  resembles  the  genus  Cyprinodon 
in  that  certain  specimens  (which  have  unnecessarily  been  separated  as  Typhlichthys) 
lack  the  pelvic  pair  of  fins.  All  traces  of  external  eyes  are  wanting,  and  the  skin  is 
totally  devoid  of  colour.  In  order  to  enable  the  creature  to  find  its  way  about  in 
the  dark  subterranean  waters  of  the  limestone  rocks  of  the  Central  United  States, 
its  head  is  provided  with  a  large  supply  of  organs  of  touch,  arranged  in  a  series  of 
transverse  ridges  on  each  side ;  while  its  sense  of  hearing  is  also  stated  to  be  very 
highly  developed.  Professor  Cope  writes  that  if  these  fish  "  be  not  alarmed,  they 
come  to  the  surface  to  feed,  and  swim  in  full  sight  like  white  aquatic  ghosts. 
They  are  then  easily  taken  by  the  hand  or  net,  if  perfect  silence  is  preserved,  for 


KENTUCKY  BLIND-FISH  (liat.  size). 

they  are  unconscious  of  the  presence  of  an  enemy  except  through  the  medium  o 
hearing.  This  sense  is,  however,  evidently  very  acute,  for  at  any  noise  they  turn 
suddenly  downwards  and  hide  beneath  stones,  etc.,  on  the  bottom.  They  musi 
take  much  of  their  food  near  the  surface,  as  the  life  of  the  depths  is  apparently 
very  sparse.  This  habit  is  rendered  easy  by  the  structure  of  the  fish,  for  th< 
mouth  is  directed  partly  upwards,  and  the  head  is  very  flat  above,  thus  allowing 
the  mouth  to  be  at  the  surface.  It  thus  takes  food  with  less  difficulty  than  othei 
surface-feeders,  as  the  perch,  where  the  mouth  is  terminal  or  even  inferior ;  foi 
these  require  a  definite  effort  to  elevate  the  mouth  to  the  object  floating  on  the 
surface."  Nearly  allied  to  that  variety  of  the  blind-fish  in  which  pelvic  fins  are 
absent  is  a  small  fish  known  as  Chologaster,  in  which  small  external  eyes  are  retained 
and  the  body  is  coloured ;  the  front  of  the  head  being  provided  with  a  pair  of  horn- 
like appendages.  These  small  fish  were  first  known  from  three  examples  taken  in 
the  ditches  of  the  South  Carolina  rice-fields,  but  a  fourth  specimen  was  captured  in 
a  well  in  Tennessee  in  the  year  1854.  The  retention  of  the  eyes  and  their  dark 
colour  indicates  that  these  fishes  have  taken  to  a  partially  subterranean  life  more 
recently  than  the  blind-fish. 


473 


THE  UMBRES,  —  Family  UMBRID^E. 


A  small  fish  from  Austria-Hungary  known  as  the  umbre  (  Umbra  krameri), 
together  with  a  second  (V.  limi),  locally  distributed  in  the  fresh  waters  of  the 
United  States,  indicate  a  family  distinguished  from  the  Cyprinodontidoe  by  the 
upper  jaw-margin  being  formed  in  front  by  the  premaxillary  bones  and  by 
the  maxillary  bones  at  the  sides  ;  the  base  of  the  skull  being  of  simple  structure 
in  both  families.  Like  the  cyprinodonts,  the  umbres  have  the  head  and  body 
scaled,  and  no  barbels  to  the  mouth.  There  is  no  fatty  fin,  and  the  dorsal  is 
opposite  the  pel  vies,  or  a  little  behind  them,  while  the  anal  is  short,  and  the 
caudal  rounded.  The  stomach  merely  forms  an  expansion  of  the  intestine  ; 
the  air-bladder  is  simple;  and  the  false  gills  are  hidden  and  glandular.  The 
European  species,  which  is  known  as  the  hunds-fisch  in  Germany,  dwells  in 
marshes  and  muddy  pools,  where  it  buries  itself  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom.  As  in 
most  cyprinodonts,  the  males  are  smaller  and  more  slender  than  the  females,  scarcely 
reaching  a  couple  of  inches  in  length,  whereas  the  latter  grow  to  3  or  3J-  inches. 

THE  PIKE,  —  Family  ESOCID^J. 

Such  a  familiar  fish  as  the  pike  (Esox  lucius)  scarcely  requires  much  in  the 
way  of  description,  but  it  is  an  important  one  as  representing,  with  other  members 
of  the  same  genus,  a  family  by  itself.  Agreeing  with  the  umbres  in  the  structure 


COMMON   PIKE. 


of  the  jaws,  pike  may  be  distinguished  externally  by  the  absence  of  scales  on  the 
head,  and  internally  by  the  more  complex  structure  of  the  base  of  the  skull.  The 
body  is  covered  with  cycloid  scales ;  there  are  neither  barbels  nor  a  fatty  fin ; 
and  the  dorsal  is  situated  in  the  caudal  region  of  the  vertebral  column,  in  the 
position  of  the  fatty  fin  of  the  salmon  tribe.  The  stomach  has  no  blind  appendage, 
the  false  gills  are  glandular  and  concealed,  and  the  gill-opening  is  unusually  wide. 
In  the  upper  jaw  sickle-shaped  teeth  are  borne  by  the  premaxillse,  palatines,  and 
vomer,  the  maxillae  being  toothless,  while  the  lower  teeth  are  of  variable  shape. 
The  long  narrow  body  terminates  in  a  forked  caudal  fin;  and  the  long,  broad,  and 
depressed  snout  has  the  lower  jaw  exceeding  the  upper  in  length.  Confined  to 
the  fresh  waters  of  the  temperate  regions  of  the  three  northern  continents,  pike 
may  be  considered  a  western  rather  than  an  eastern  type,  seeing  that  whereas  the 
common  species  has  a  range  equivalent  to  that  of  the  family,  the  whole  of  the 
other  six  species  are  confined  to  the  United  States.  In  Europe  the  pike  inhabits 


474  TUBE-BLADDERED    GROUP. 

all  the  Russian  rivers,  with  the  exception  of  those  of  the  Crimea  and  Trans- 
caucasia, and  is  likewise  found  in  Siberia.  In  Lapland  it  extends  even  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  birch,  while  to  the  south  it  is  common  in  the  Venetian  lagoons. 
Growing  very  rapidly,  the  pike  not  uncommonly  attains  a  length  of  45  or  46 
inches,  with  a  weight  of  35  or  36  Ibs. ;  and  although  fishes  of  much  larger 
dimensions  are  on  record,  the  accounts  of  these  must  be  received  with  great 
caution.  It  is  pretty  well  ascertained  that  fish  of  45  inches  are  not  commonly 
more  than  about  fifteen  years  old,  and  the  stories  of  examples  living  for  a  century, 
or  even  more,  appear  to  be  legendary.  Pike  are  among  the  most  predaceous  and 
greedy  of  all  fresh-water  fish,  nothing  coming  amiss  to  their  voracious  appetites, 
since  not  only  will  they  devour  worms,  leeches,  frogs,  trout,  carp,  and  other  fishes, 
but  they  pull  under  the  young,  and  often  even  the  adults,  of  all  kinds  of  water- 
birds,  and  have  no  objection  to  an  occasional  water-vole.  Their  habit  of  lying 
like  a  log  in  the  water  (from  which  trait  they  probably  derive  their  name),  as  well 
as  the  sudden  rush  they  make  after  their  prey,  are  well  known  to  all ;  and  the 
damage  these  fish  do  to  trout-streams  is  almost  incredible.  Pike  are  also  great 
devourers  of  the  smaller  members  of  their  own  kind.  Frequenting  alike  ponds,  lakes, 
and  rivers,  pike  in  Ireland  spawn  as  early  as  February,  but  in  England  a  month 
or  two  later,  while  in  some  parts  of  the  Continent  the  season  lasts  till  May.  Males, 
which  are  inferior  in  size  to  their  consorts,  are  said  to  be  more  numerous  than  the 
latter ;  and  it  is  not  uncommon  for  a  female  in  spawning-time  to  be  attended  by 
three  or  four  members  of  the  opposite  sex,  who  crowd  around  her  as  she  lies  quiet 
to  deposit  her  eggs. 

THE  AFKICAN  BEAKED  FISH, — Family  MORMYRID^. 

The  very  remarkable  fish  (Mormyrus  petersi)  shown  in  the  upper  figure  of 
the  illustration  on  p.  475,  is  the  best  known  African  representative  of  a  large 
genus  of  fresh- water  fishes  confined  to  Africa,  and  constituting  not  only  a  family 
but  likewise  a  distinct  section,  to  which  Professor  Cope  applies  the  name  of 
Scyphophori.  Having  the  narrow  parietal  bones  of  the  skull  distinct  both  from 
one  another  and  from  the  supraoccipital,  these  fishes  are  especially  distinguished 
by  having  each  of  the  pterotics  (which  lie  on  each  side  of  the  parietals)  large, 
funnel-shaped,  and  enclosing  a  cavity  expanding  externally,  and  covered  by  a 
lid-like  plate  of  bone.  The  anterior  vertebrae  are  simple  and  unmodified;  and 
a  subopercular  bone  is  present  in  the  gill-cover.  Externally  both  the  body 
and  tail  are  covered  with  scales,  but  the  head  is  naked,  and  the  muzzle  has  no 
barbels.  In  the  upper  jaw  the  middle  portion  is  formed  by  the  united  premaxillse, 
and  the  sides  by  the  maxillae  ;  the  gill-opening  is  reduced  to  a  small  slit ;  there 
are  no  false  gills ;  and  the  air-bladder  is  simple.  A  fatty  fin  is  wanting ;  and 
whereas  in  the  typical  genus  all  the  other  fins  are  well  developed,  in  the  allied 
Gymnarchus  (which  is  likewise  exclusively  African,  and  is  sometimes  regarded  as 
the  representative  of  a  distinct  family),  the  caudal,  anal,  and  pelvic  fins  are  want- 
ing, the  tail  tapering  to  a  point,  instead  of  terminating  in  a  deeply  forked  fin. 
The  beaked  fishes  are  divided  into  groups  according  to  the  length  of  the  dorsal 
fin  and  the  form  of  the  muzzle,  the  figured  species  belonging  to  a  group  in  which 


FEA  THER-BA  CKS. 


475 


the  dorsal  fin  is  relatively  short,  scarcely  exceeding  the  anal  in  length,  while  the 
muzzle  is  long  and  bent  down.  From  its  nearest  allies  the  species  in  question  is 
distinguished  by  the  production  of  the  extremity  of  the  lower  jaw  into  an 
elongated,  conical,  dependent,  fleshy  appendage,  nearly  equal  in  length  to  half 
the  head.  In  colour  the  skin  is  dark  brown,  relieved  by  two  lighter  crossbands 
between  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins.  Other  species  have  the  muzzle  short  and  blunt ; 
and  whereas  some  grow  to  a  length  of  between  3  and  4  feet,  others  are  compara- 
tively small  fishes.  No  less  than  eleven  species  of  this  genus  are  found  in  the 
Nile ;  which,  together  with  some  of  the  West  African  rivers,  is  likewise  the  home 
of  the  single  representative  of  the  genus  Gymnarchus.  In  form  the  latter  fish 


PETERS'  BEAKED  FISH  AND  SLENDER  PIKELET  (^  nat.  size). 

is  eel-like ;  its  jaws  being  armed  with  a  series  of  incisor-like  teeth,  and  its  length 
reaching  to  upwards  of  6  feet.  Both  genera  are  furnished  with  a  pair  of  organs 
lying  on  the  two  sides  of  the  tail,  which  are  stated  to  be  transitional  in 
character  between  ordinary  muscle  and  a  true  electric  organ ;  although,  if  this  be 
correct,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  what  can  be  the  object  or  use  of  such  a  structure. 
Each  consists  of  an  oblong  capsule,  divided  by  vertical  partitions  into  a  number  of 
chambers  filled  with  a  gelatinous  substance.  One  of  the  species  (M.  oxyrhynchus) 
from  the  Nile,  is  frequently  depicted  in  the  frescoes  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 

SECTION  ISOSPONDYLI.i 
THE  FEATHER-BACKS, — Family  NOTOPTEEID^E. 

According  to  the  classification  we  are  following,  the  whole  of  the  remaining 
members  of  the  tube-bladdered  fishes  form  a  group  denominated  Isospondyli,  and 

1  On  p.  333   the   group  Isospondyli  is    given  as  of  equivalent  rank  with  the  Physostonii,  of  which,  in  the 
scheme  here  followed,  it  should  be  only  a  section. 


476 


TUBE-BLADDERED   GROUP. 


characterised  as  follows.  The  parietal  bones  are  completely  separate ;  the 
symplectic  bone,  which  is  wanting  in  the  group  last  treated  of,  is  present;  the 
anterior  vertebrae  are  simple  and  unmodified,  and  both  the  upper  and  lower 
pharyngeal  bones  are  separate.  The  group  includes  the  least  specialised  of  all 
the  bony  fishes,  and  those  forming  a  transition  to  the  ganoids.  From  the 
peculiar  form  of  the  dorsal  fin  certain  fresh-  and  brackish-water  fishes  from 


BORNEAN  FEATHER-BACK   (J  nat.  Size). 


West  Africa  and  the  Oriental  region,  one  of  which  (Notopterus  borneensis) 
is  shown  in  the  illustration  herewith,  have  received  the  not  inappropriate  name 
of  feather-backs.  They  constitute  a  family  differing  from  all  the  others  in 
this  section  by  the  tail  being  tapering  and  fringed  inferiorly  by  a  continuation 
of  the  anal  fin,  as  well  as  by  the  presence  of  a  cavity  in  the  ring-like  pterotic 
bone,  the  base  of  the  skull  being  double.  Both  the  body  and  the  head  are 
covered  with  small  scales;  barbels  are  wanting;  the  margin  of  the  upper  jaw  is 
formed  in  front  by  the  premaxillae  and  at  the  sides  by  the  maxillae  ;  and  the 
opercular  bones  are  incomplete.  There  is  no  fatty  fin,  and  the  dorsal,  when 
present,  is  very  short,  and  situated  in  the  caudal  region;  the  pelvic  pair  being 
rudimental  or  wanting.  The  air-bladder  is  divided  internally  into  several  com- 
partments, and  terminates  at  each  end  in  a  pair  of  narrow  prolongations,  of  which 
the  anterior  ones  are  in  communication  with  the  organ  of  hearing.  A  further 
peculiarity  is  that  the  spawn  falls  into  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen  previous  to  its 
exclusion.  There  are  two  Indian  representatives  of  the  genus,  one  of  which  grows 
to  a  couple  of  feet  in  length;  a  third  is  Bornean,  and  the  other  two  are  West 
African.  An  extinct  species  has  been  described  from  the  Eocene  of  Sumatra. 


THE  SOUTHERN  PIKELETS,  —  Family 

For  want  of  a  better  name  we  may  designate  by  the  name  of  southern  pike- 
lets a  genus  of  small  fresh-water  fishes  from  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  one  of  which 
(Galaxias  attenuatus)  is  represented  in  the  lower  figure  of  the  illustration  on 
p.  475.  Together  with  the  members  of  the  next  family,  these  fishes  are  dis- 
tinguished from  the  other  genera  of  the  present  sectional  group  noticed  here  by 
having  the  base  of  the  cranium  simple,  the  tail  being  rounded  or  forked,  and  the 


ARAPAIMAS. 


477 


pterotic  bone  devoid  of  a  cavity  in  its  interior.  Externally  these  fishes  may  be 
recognised  by  the  naked  body  and  the  absence  of  barbels ;  the  fatty  fin  being 
absent,  and  the  medium-sized  dorsal  opposite  the  anal.  Internally  the  air-bladder 
is  large  and  simple ;  and  the  eggs,  as  in  the  last  family,  fall  into  the  abdominal 
cavity.  Represented  by  rather  more  than  a  dozen  species,  the  largest  of  which 
seldom  exceeds  8  inches  in  length,  these  fish  are  of  especial  interest  from  a 
distributional  point  of  view,  since  they  occur  in  such  isolated  areas  as  New 
Zealand,  New  South  Wales,  Tasmania,  and  the  southern  extremity  of  South 
America.  From  their  spotted  bodies,  the  New  Zealand  representatives  of  the  genus 
were  formerly  known  as  trout  by  the  colonists.  An  allied  New  Zealand  genus 
(Neochanna),  represented  by  a  single  species,  differs  in  the  absence  of  pelvic  fins ; 
all  the  known  specimens  of  this  singular  form  having  been  found  buried  in  burrows 
of  clay  or  hard  mud  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  water. 


BRAZILIAN  ARAPAIMA  (^  nat.  Size). 

THE  ARAPAIMAS, — Family  OSTEOGLOSSID^E. 

Agreeing  with  the  last  family  in  the  conformation  of  the  base  of  the  skull, 
the  large  tropical  fresh- water  fishes,  which  may  be  collectively  known  as  arapaimas 
(although  this  name  properly  belongs  only  to  the  Brazilian  species  here  figured), 


478  TUBE-B  LADDERED   GROUP. 

are  fully  as  interesting  as  the  latter  from  their  geographical  distribution, 
which  presents  a  curious  general  similarity  to  that  of  the  existing  lung-fishes, 
although  in  the  present  instance  one  of  the  genera  has  a  much  wider  range  than 
either  of  the  lung-fishes.  In  confirmation  of  the  northern  origin  of  the  present 
group,  it  is  noteworthy  that  an  arapaima  exists  in  Sumatra,  and  also  that  an  extinct 
genus  (Dapedoglossus)  occurs  in  the  Eocene  strata  of  the  United  States.  From  the 
preceding  the  more  typical  representatives  of  this  family  are  structurally  dis- 
tinguished by  the  upper  pharyngeal  bones  being  three,  instead  of  only  two  in  number. 
Externally  these  fishes  have  the  body  covered  with  large,  hard  scales  of  a  mosaic-like 
structure ;  the  lateral  line  being  formed  by  wide  openings  of  the  mucus-canal ;  and 
the  scaleless  head  nearly  covered  with  roughened  ossifications  of  the  skin.  The 
margin  of  the  upper  jaw  is  formed  both  by  the  premaxillse  and  maxillae,  the  gill- 
openings  are  wide,  and  false  gills  are  wanting.  The  long  dorsal  closely  resembles 
the  anal  fin,  over  which  it  is  placed  in  the  caudal  region  of  the  body ;  both  coming 
very  close  to  the  tail-fin,  with  which  they  may  unite  as  an  abnormality.  In 
structure  the  air-bladder  may  be  either  simple  or  divided  into  cells. 

The  true  arapaima  (Arapaima  gigas)  of  the  larger  rivers  of 
Brazil  and  the  Guianas,  which  is  the  sole  representative  of  its  genus, 
occupies  the  proud  position  of  being  the  largest  fresh-water  bony  fish,  its  length 
not  unfrequently  exceeding  15  feet,  while  its  weight  may  reach  upwards  of  400  Ibs. 
As  a  genus,  it  is  distinguished  by  the  broad  cleft  of  the  mouth,  in  which  the  lower 
jaw  is  very  prominent,  and  the  absence  of  barbels,  as  well  as  by  the  rounded  lower 
surface  of  the  body,  and  the  moderate  length  of  the  pectoral  fins.  In  addition  to 
an  outer  series  of  small  conical  teeth  in  the  margins  of  the  jaws,  there  are  rows  of 
rasp-like  teeth  not  only  on  all  the  bones  of  the  palate,  but  likewise  on  the  tongue 
and  hyoid  bones.  In  spite  of  its  enormous  dimensions,  the  arapaima  is  captured 
by  the  natives  of  Brazil  with  a  hook  and  line ;  its  flesh  being  highly  esteemed  as 
food,  and  in  a  salted  condition  largely  exported.  It  is  also  taken  by  being  struck 
with  an  arrow,  to  which  a  line  is  attached ;  and  a  graphic  account  of  this  method 
of  hunting  is  given  by  Schomburgk.  It  appears  that  a  party  go  out  in  a  boat, 
and  row  about  until  a  fish  is  sighted,  when  the  bow  and  arrow  are  brought 
into  requisition,  and  if  the  shot  be  successful,  the  monster  is  at  length  landed. 
Barrelled  The  four  representatives  of  the  typical  genus  Osteoglossum  may 

Arapaimas.  \^Q  distinguished  from  the  last  by  the  presence  of  a  pair  of  barbels  to 
the  lower  jaw,  the  obliquity  of  the  cleft  of  the  mouth,  the  sharp  lower  surface  of 
the  body,  and  the  greater  length  of  the  pectoral  fins.  Of  the  four  species  the  first 
is  American,  and  has  the  same  distribution  as  the  true  arapaima,  the  second  occurs 
in  Sumatra  and  Borneo,  while  the  other  two  are  Australian.  The  two  latter  have, 
however,  but  a  very  local  distribution,  the  one  (0.  leichardti)  being  confined  to  the 
rivers  of  Queensland,  where  it  is  known  to  the  natives  as  the  barramundi,  and  to 
the  colonists  as  the  Dawson  River  salmon ;  while  the  second  (0.  jardinei),  which 
is  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  a  spine  to  the  anal  fin,  inhabits  the  rivers  dis- 
charging into  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria.  The  flesh  of  both  these  species  is  highly 
esteemed  as  an  article  of  food. 

Small-Mouthed  The  third  genus  of  the  family,   which  includes  only  a  single 

Arapaima.      species  (Heterotis  nilotica),  differs  from  both  the  foregoing  in  having 


MOON-EYE  AND   CHISEL-JAW. 


479 


the  pharyngeal  bones  numerically  the  same  as  in  the  southern  pikelets,  on  which 
account  Professor  Cope  regards  it  as  the  type  of  a  distinct  family.  Differing  from 
the  other  two  genera  in  the  comparatively  small  size  of  the  cleft  of  the  mouth,  and 
also  in  the  approximate  equality  of  the  length  of  the  jaws,  this  fish  has  no  barbels, 
and  only  a  single  series  of  teeth  in  the  jaws,  teeth  being  also  present  on  the 
pterygoid  and  hyoid  bones,  but  wanting  on  the  vomer  and  palatines.  A  further 
peculiarity  is  to  be  found  in  the  presence  of  a  peculiar  spiral  organ  on  the  fourth 
gill-arch ;  and  the  air-bladder  differs  from  that  of  the  other  members  of  the  family 
in  its  cellular  structure,  while  the  stomach  comprises  a  membranous  and  a  muscular 
portion.  The  fish  in  question  is  found  alike  in  the  upper  Nile  and  in  the  rivers  of 
Western  Africa.  It  grows  to  about  2  feet  in  length. 


MOON-EYE  AND  CHISEL-JAW,— Families  HYODONTID^J  and  PANTODONTID^. 

Each  of  the  two  fishes  figured  in  the  annexed  illustration  is  the  only  represent- 
ative not  only  of  a  genus,  but  likewise  of  a  separate  family ;  these  families  agreeing 


CHISEL-JAW  AND   MOON-EYE  (J  nat.  size). 


with  all  the  remaining  ones  of  the  •  present  section  in  having  the  pterotic  bone 
normal,  the  base  of  the  skull  double,  and  four  upper  pharyngeal  bones,  all  of  which 
are  distinct,  and  the  third  the  largest  and  directed  forwards.  In  the  first  family 
the  parietal  bones  are  united,  and  there  are  two  true  tail-vertebrae  in  front  of  the 
complex  bone  supporting  the  rays  of  the  caudal  fin. 


480 


TUBE-BLADDERED   GROUP. 


Moon-Eye. 


Externally,  the  moon-eye  (Hyodon  tergisus),  as  the  single 
representative  of  the  first  of  the  two  families  is  popularly  termed,  has 
the  body  covered  with  cycloid  scales,  the  head  naked,  and  no  barbels.  The  margin 
of  the  upper  jaw  is  formed  by  the  premaxillse  in  front  and  the  maxillae  at  the  sides, 
the  latter  bones  being  articulated  to  the  former  at  the  point  of  junction;  and  all 
the  elements  of  the  gill-cover  are  present.  There  is  no  fatty  fin,  and  the  short 
dorsal  is  placed  in  the  caudal  region,  above  the  fore-part  of  the  longer  anal ;  the 
caudal  fin  being  forked.  The  gill-openings  are  wide ;  the  stomach  is  horseshoe- 
shaped,  the  intestine  short,  and  the  air-bladder  simple ;  false  gills  being  absent. 
In  form  the  body  is  oblong  and  compressed,  with  a  part  of  the  lower  surface  form- 
ing a  sharp  edge ;  and  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  is  somewhat  oblique ;  all  the  bones  of  the 
palate  bearing  small  teeth,  and  the  edges  of  the  tongue  carrying  a  larger  series. 
Before  their  exclusion,  the  eggs  fall  into  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen.  The  moon- 
eye, shown  in  the  lower  figure  of  the  cut  on  p.  479,  grows  to  a  length  of  from 
1  foot  to  18  inches,  and  is  confined  to  the  fresh  waters  of  North  America,  where 
it  is  abundant  in  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  the  western  side  of  the  continent. 

The  small  fish  (Pantodon  buchholzi)  represented  in  the  upper 
figure  of  the  cut  on  p.  479,  was  discovered  not  very  many  years  ago  in 
the  rivers  on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa,  and  takes  its  name  from  the  strong  dental 


Chisel-Jaw. 


BEAKED  SALMON  (J  nat.  size). 


armature  of  the  jaws.  Remarkably  like  a  cyprinodont  in  external  appearance, 
this  fish  has  the  body  covered  with  relatively  large  scales,  and  the  sides  of  the  head 
with  bony  plates ;  the  margin  of  the  upper  jaw  being  formed  in  front  by  the  united 
premaxillse,  and  at  the  sides  by  the  maxillae.  The  short  dorsal  fin  is  situated  still 
further  back  than  in  the  last  genus,  its  front  margin  being  considerably  behind 
that  of  the  rather  longer  anal ;  both  the  pectoral  and  pelvic  fins  are  very  tall,  the 
rays  of  the  latter  forming  isolated  filaments,  and  the  caudal  is  long  and  pointed, 
with  some  of  its  rays  projecting.  The  muzzle  is  blunt,  and  the  cleft  of  the  mouth 
directed  upwards.  In  the  gill-cover  there  is  only  an  opercular  and  a  preopercular 
bone,  the  gill-openings  are  wide,  and  the  branchiostegal  rays  are  numerous. 
False  gills  are  absent;  the  air-bladder  is  simple;  and  the  ovaries  of  the  female, 
and  the  corresponding  organs  of  the  opposite  sex,  are  furnished  with  a  duct. 


BEAKED  SALMON.  481 

THE  BEAKED  SALMON, — Family  GONORHYNCHID^:. 

A  third  fish  of  the  present  section,  constituting  a  family  by  itself,  is  the  so- 
called  beaked  salmon  (Gonorhynchus  greyi)  from  the  seas  of  the  Cape,  Japan,  and 
Australia.  Agreeing  with  the  two  preceding  families  in  the  absence  of  a  fatty  fin 
this  fish  differs  in  having  barbels  to  the  mouth,  while  in  the  tail  there  is  no  true 
caudal  vertebra.  Both  the  head  and  body  are  completely  covered  with  scales,  of 
which  the  free  edges  are  spinose  ;  and  the  margin  of  the  upper  jaw  is  formed  entirely 
by  the  short'  premaxillse,  which  are  continued  downwards  over  the  maxillae.  The 
short  dorsal  fin  is  situated  far  back  on  the  body,  above  the  pelvic  pair,  the  still  shorter 
anal  having  a  more  posterior  position;  and  the  tail-fin  is  slightly  forked.  The 
gill-openings  are  narrow,  the  air-bladder  is  wanting,  and  the  stomach  simple. 
Measuring  from  12  to  18  inches  in  length,  this  fish  seems  to  be  partly  pelagic 
and  partly  littoral  in  its  habits ;  being  found  in  New  Zealand,  where  it  is  known 
as  the  sand-eel,  in  bays  with  a  sandy  bottom,  while  elsewhere  it  has  been  taken 
in  the  open  sea.  In  New  Zealand  its  flesh  forms  an  article  of  food.  The  family 
is  also  represented  by  an  extinct  genus  (Notogoneus)  from  the  Eocene  of  the 
United  States. 

THE  SCOPELOIDS, — Family  SCOPELID^:. 

As  an  example  of  an  important  family  of,  for  the  most  part,  pelagic  or  deep- 
sea  fishes,  we  select  the  so-called  phosphorescent  sardine,  Scopelus  engraulis,  as 
being  a  member  of  the  typical  genus.  The  members  of  this  family  agree  with  the 
last  in  having  the  parietal  bones  united  and  no  true  tail- vertebra,  but  they  may 
be  distinguished  externally  by  the  absence  of  barbels  and  the  presence  of  a  small 
fatty  fin  some  distance  behind  the  dorsal,  and  likewise  by  the  want  of  spines  on 
the  scales,  when  the  latter  are  present ;  some  genera  having  the  body  scaled,  while 
in  others  it  is  naked.  The  margin  of  the  upper  jaw  is  always  constituted  solely  by 
the  premaxillse ;  the  gill-cover  may  be  incompletely  developed ;  the  gill-opening  is 
wide ;  false  gills  are  present ;  but  an  air-bladder  is  wanting.  The  intestine  is 
remarkable  for  its  shortness ;  and  the  eggs  are  enclosed  in  the  sacs  of  the  ovaries, 
whence  they  are  extruded  by  means  of  ducts.  Containing  a  large  number  of 
existing  genera,  the  family  is  likewise  represented  by  several  extinct  types,  the 
earliest  of  which  dates  from  the  Cretaceous  of  Istria. 

In  the  typical  genus  the  body  is  oblong  in  form  and  more  or  less  markedly 
compressed,  with  the  investing  scales  of  large  size.  Along  the  sides  run  series  of 
phosphorescent  spots ;  while  similar  glandular  structures  may  in  some  species 
occur  on  the  front  of  the  body  and  on  the  back  of  the  tail.  The  cleft  of  the 
mouth  is  unusually  wide  ;  the  prernaxillary  bones  being  long,  slender,  and  tapering, 
and  the  maxillaB  well  developed.  The  teeth  are  villiform,  and  the  eye  is  relatively 
large.  The  pelvic  fins  are  inserted  just  in  front  of  or  immediately  below  the  line 
of  the  foremost  rays  of  the  dorsal  (which  is  situated  nearly  in  the  middle  of  the 
length  of  the  body),  and  are  composed  of  eight  rays ;  the  fatty  fin  is  very  small ; 
the  anal  is  generally  long ;  and  the  caudal  forked.  There  are  from  eight  to  ten  rays 
in  the  branchiostegal  membrane.  Dr.  Giinther  writes  that  "  the  fishes  of  this  genus 
are  small,  of  truly  pelagic  habits,  and  distributed  over  all  the  temperate  and 

VOL.  V. 31 


482  TUBE-BLADDERED   GROUP. 

tropical  seas;  they  are  so  numerous  that  the  surface-net,  when  used  during  a 
night  of  moderate  weather,  scarcely  ever  fails  to  enclose  some  specimens.  They 
come  to  the  surface  at  night  only ;  during  the  day,  and  in  very  rough  weather, 
they  descend  to  depths  where  they  are  safe  from  sunlight  or  the  agitation  of  the 
water.  Some  species  never  rise  to  the  surface ;  indeed,  scopeli  have  been  brought 
up  in  the  dredge  from  almost  any  depth  to  two  thousand  five  hundred  fathoms." 
Upwards  of  thirty  species  of  this  genus  are  known,  and  there  is  also  an  allied 
genus  (Gymnoscopelus)  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  scales. 

Among  several  other  remarkable  forms  of  the  family,  we   may  especially 
notice  a  very  curious  fish  (Ipnops)  obtained  at  great  depths  during  the  voyage  of  the 


PHOSPHORESCENT  SARDINE  (nat.  size). 

Challenger.  Possessing  an  extremely  elongate  and  cylindrical  body,  covered  with 
large,  thin,  deciduous  scales,  this  fish  has  a  depressed  head  and  an  elongate,  broad, 
spatulate  muzzle,  of  which  the  whole  upper  surface  is  occupied  by  a  luminous  or 
visual  organ,  divided  longitudinally  into  two  halves,  and  representing  the  highly- 
modified  eyes.  The  whole  length  of  this  strange  fish  does  not  exceed  between  5 
and  6  inches.  Another  deep-sea  fish  (Plagyodus)  is  noteworthy  on  account  of 
its  large  dimensions,  and  the  formidable  armature  of  its  mouth  ;  the  scaleless  body 
being  long  and  compressed,  the  snout  much  produced,  and  the  teeth  of  the  jaws: 
and  palate  of  very  unequal  size,  some  forming  long  and  sharply-pointed  tusks. 

THE  PHOSPHORESCENT  SCOPELOIDS,  —  Families  STERNOPTYCHID^ 

and 


More  or  less  nearly  allied  to  the  scopeloids  are  two  families  of  deep-sea  or 

pelagic  fishes  usually  bearing  phosphorescent  organs  along  the  sides  of  the  body  ; 

an  example  of  each  being  represented  in  the  accompanying  illustration. 

Silvery  Light-  The  fish  (Photichthys  argenteus)  shown  in  the  upper  figure  of  the  \ 

illustration,  is  taken  as  our  representative  of  the  first  of  the  two 

families,  of  which,  in  addition  to  the  phosphorescent  organs,  the  leading  characters 

are  as  follows.     The  body  may  be  either  covered  with  thin  deciduous  scales,  or 


PHOSPHORESCENT  SCOPELOIDS. 


483 


entirely  naked ;  barbels  are  wanting ;  and  the  fatty  fin  is  either  rudimental  or  of 
very  minute  size.  Both  the  premaxillse  and  maxillae  take  a  share  in  the  formation 
of  the  margin  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  bear  pointed  teeth  of  variable  length.  The 
bones  of  the  gill-cover  are  not  fully  developed ;  the  gill-opening  is  of  great  width ; 
false  gills  may  or  may  not  be  developed ;  and,  when  present,  the  air-bladder  is  of 
simple  structure.  The  ovaries  are  furnished  with  ducts.  Whereas  in  the  figured 
species  the  teeth  are  small,  in  the  allied  genus  ChoMliodus  they  are  greatly 
elongated,  and  thus  indicate  highly  predaceous  habits  on  the  part  of  their  owner. 
Hedgehog-  The  members  of  the  second  family,  of  which  the  bearded 

Mouths.       hedgehog-mouth  (Echiostoma  barbatum),  shown  in  the  lower  figure 
of  our  illustration,  is  taken  as  an  example,  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  the 


SILVERY   LIGHT-FISH,    AND  BARBED   HEDGEHOG-MOUTH  (|  nat.  size). 

preceding  by  the  presence  of  a  long  barbel  to  the  hyoid ;  the  skin  being  either 
naked  or  covered  with  exceedingly  delicate  scales,  and  the  fatty  fin  (as  in  the 
figured  specimen)  frequently  wanting.  In  other  characters  these  fishes  closely 
resemble  those  of  the  preceding  family.  When  a  fatty  fin  is  present,  as  in  the 
genus  Astronesthes,  the  rayed  dorsal  is  of  considerable  length,  and  placed  in 
advance  of  the  anal ;  but  in  the  other  genera  both  the  anal  and  dorsal  are  short,  and 
placed  opposite  to  one  another  a  short  distance  in  advance  of  the  forked  caudal. 
In  the  genus  represented  by  the  figured  species,  the  body  is  naked  and  the  pectoral 
fins  are  filamentous ;  but  in  the  allied  Stomias  there  are  exceedingly  small  scales 
which  scarcely  overlap  one  another.  Occasionally  met  with  floating  in  a  helpless 
condition,  these  fishes  have  been  dredged  from  depths  of  eighteen  hundred  fathoms ; 
and  it  will  not  escape  the  notice  of  the  reader  that,  although  dwelling  in  total 
darkness,  they,  like  most  of  their  allies,  have  well-developed  eyes.  On  this  point, 


TUBE-BLADDERED   GROUP. 

Monsieur  Filhol  writes  that  "  the  existence  of  eyes  in  fishes  which  we  believe  to 
live  in  a  dark  medium,  seems  at  first  sight  impossible  to  understand.  But  this  fact 
receives  an  explanation  when  we  learn  that  the  creatures  furnished  with  these 
organs  are  covered  with  a  coating  of  luminous  mucus,  or  bear  phosphorescent 
plates.  The  phosphorescence  with  which  the  fishes  of  the  ocean  depths  are  endowed 
serves  indeed  both  to  guide  them  and  to  attract  their  prey,  filling  for  them  in  the 
latter  case  the  same  office  as  a  torch  in  the  hand  of  a  fisherman.  This  peculiarity 
has  been  long  noticed  in  surface-fishes  which  pursue  their  prey  at  night ;  Bennett, 
for  instance,  having  described  a  shark  which  gives  off  a  bright  green  phosphor- 
escence from  the  lower  surface  of  its  body.  On  one  occasion  that  zoologist 
brought  into  a  room  a  freshly-caught  specimen  of  this  shark,  upon  which  the 
whole  chamber  was  illuminated  with  the  light  given  off  from  its  body.  It  is 
probable  that  the  different  species  of  sharks  living  at  moderate  depths,  like  the  one 


THE  DORAB  (^  nat.  size). 

described  by  Bennett,  make  use  of  their  luminosity  solely  for  the  purpose  of 
attracting  their  prey  within  reach.  In  most  cases  the  origin  of  this  light-giving 
mucus  must  be  attributed  to  glandular  organs  distributed  along  the  flanks  and  tail, 
on  the  head,  and  more  rarely  on  the  back.  There  exists,  however,  in  certain  fishes, 
which  lack  these  glandular  organs,  an  apparatus  of  a  totally  different  nature  for 
the  emission  of  light ;  this  apparatus  consisting  of  a  kind  of  biconvex  transparent 
lens  closing  the  front  of  a  chamber  filled  with  clear  fluid.  This  cavity  is  carpeted 
by  a  blackish  membrane,  formed  of  hexagonal  cells,  thus  recalling  the  retina  of  the 
eye,  and  is  connected  with  certain  nerves.  Phosphorescent  plates  of  this  type 
may  be  situated  either  beneath  the  eyes,  or  on  the  sides  of  the  body,"  one  of  th 
fishes  thus  furnished  belonging  to  the  family  now  under  consideration,  in  which  it 
forms  the  genus  Malacosteus.  A  specimen  of  this  fish  captured  before  death  had 
ensued  was  observed  to  emit  a  yellowish  light  from  the  uppermost  plate  beneath 
the  eye,  while  that  from  the  lower  plate  had  a  greenish  tinge.  In  the  genus 
Stomias,  continues  our  author,  "  the  sides  of  the  body  present  a  double  longitudinal 
series  of  phosphorescent  plates,  which  emit  light  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cause  the 


^  i 

: 


DORAB.  485 

whole  fish  to  be  bathed  in  a  brilliant  luminous  halo.  This  fish  must,  indeed,  be  a 
formidable  creature  to  the  other  inhabitants  of  the  ocean  abysses :  being  in  every 
way  constructed  and  armed  for  strife,  and  its  powerful  teeth  admirably  fitted 
to  seize  and  tear  the  flesh  of  the  other  fishes  upon  which  it  preys."  In  other 
species  (e.g.  Eustomias)  the  barbel  is  greatly  lengthened,  all  the  fins  form  long 
dentated  filaments;  the  whole  of  these  structures  being  apparently  modified  for 
the  emission  of  phosphorescent  light.  In  our  figured  species  not  only  are  there 
luminous  dots  down  the  sides  of  the  body,  but  also  larger  plates  beneath  the  eyes. 

THE  DORAB, — Family  CHIROCEXTRID^:. 

With  the  fish  represented  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  which  ranges 
from  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  is  commonly  known  in  the  East 
as  the  dorab  (Chirocentrus  dorab),  we  come  to  the  first  of  what  we  may  term  the 


LONG-FINNED   HERRING  (£  liat.  size). 

herring  and  salmon  group,  the  more  typical  members  of  which  differ  from  the 
preceding  families  of  this  section  in  having  the  parietal  bones  of  the  skull  separated 
from  one  another  by  the  intervention  of  the  supraoccipital.  In  common  with  the 
herrings,  this  fish,  which  is  the  sole  representative  of  its  family,  has  but  a  single 
true  tail-vertebra.  Externally  the  body  is  covered  with  thin  deciduous  scales ; 
barbels,  and  a  fatty  fin  are  alike  lacking ;  but  the  elements  of  the  gill-covers  are 
fully  developed.  The  margin  of  the  upper  jaw  is  formed  partly  by  the  premaxillse 
and  partly  by  the  maxillae,  which  are  firmly  welded  at  their  junction ;  the  short 
dorsal  fin  is  situated  in  the  caudal  region  of  the  vertebral  column  above  the  much 
longer  anal,  the  tail  is  deeply  forked,  the  pelvic  fins  are  minute,  the  lower 
surface  of  the  body  is  sharp,  the  gill-opening  wide,  and  false  gills  wanting.  The 
upward  direction  of  the  cleft  of  the  mouth,  which  is  armed  with  formidable  teeth, 
coupled  with  the  elongation  of  the  lower  jaw,  gives  a  rather  peculiar  expression  to 
the  head,  and  the  eyes  are  remarkable  for  being  covered  with  skin.  The  stomach 
is  furnished  with  a  blind  appendage,  the  intestine  is  short,  and  the  air-bladder 
cellulated.  As  this  fish  attains  a  length  of  fully  a  dozen  feet  it  is  a  sufficiently 
formidable  monster,  and  when  captured  is  said  to  bite  viciously  at  every  object 


486  TUBE-BLADDERED   GROUP. 

within  reach.     Its  flesh  is  of  poor  quality.     It  has  been  considered  that  the  extinct 
Chiromystus,  from  the  Eocene  of  Brazil,  may  belong  to  this  family. 

LONG-FINNED  HERRING,— Family  BATHYTHRISSID^;. 

Although  its  osteology  has  not  apparently  been  described,  we  may  place  here 
the  fish  (Bathythrissa  dorsalis)  shown  in  the  illustration  on  p.  485,  which  is 
another  of  the  numerous  forms  in  the  present  section  representing  a  family  by 
itself.  Having  an  oblong  body,  with  a  rounded  under  surface,  invested  with 
cycloid  scales,  the  head  naked  and  devoid  of  barbels,  and  no  fatty  fin,  this  fish  may 
be  at  once  recognised  by  the  great  length  of  the  many-rayed  dorsal  fin,  which 
occupies  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  back,  and  is  situated  in  advance  of  the 
short  anal.  There  is  no  air-bladder,  and  very  small  eggs  are  produced  by  the 
ductless  ovaries.  This  fish,  which  attains  a  length  of  two  feet,  has  been  obtained  in 
Japanese  waters  at  a  depth  of  between  three  and  four  hundred  fathoms. 

THE  EXTINCT  SAURODONTS,— Families  ENCHODONTID^E, 
SAUEOCEPHALID^:,  etc. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  consideration  of  the  herrings,  we  may  briefly  refer 
to  a  group  of  more  or  less  closely  allied  extinct  families,  mainly  characteristic  of 
the  Cretaceous  period,  but  also  represented  in  the  lower  Tertiaries.  From  the 

large  size  of  their 
lanciform,  reptile- 
like  teeth,  all  the 
members  of  the  group 
are  collectively 
spoken  of  as  the 
saurodont  fishes. 

SKELETON  OF  A  SAURODONT  FISH  (Eurypholis).  „,,  n  „          ., 

The    first    family 

(Dercetidce)  is  typified  by  the  genus  Dercetis,  of  the  Chalk,  and  is  characterised  by 
the  elongated  form  of  the  body,  the  large  size  of  the  teeth,  which  are  implanted  in 
sockets,  and  the  presence  of  several  rows  of  large  triangular  bony  plates  along  the 
sides  of  the  body  ;  the  muzzle  being  frequently  produced  into  a  beak,  and  the  dorsal 
fin  single.  Nearly  allied  is  the  family  (Enchodontidce)  represented  by  the  widely 
spread  Cretaceous  genera  Enchodus  and  Eurypholis ;  these  fishes  having  the  body 
moderately  compressed,  and  either  naked  or  partially  protected  by  bony  plates, 
and  the  elongated  upper  jawbones  armed  (like  those  of  the  lower  jaw)  with  small, 
immovably  welded  teeth.  To  a  third  family  belongs  the  genus  Saurocephalus, 
from  the  North  American  Cretaceous,  which,  together  with  the  allied  forms,  has 
the  body  much  compressed,  the  large  upper  jaw  armed  with  powerful  teeth,  usually 
set  in  sockets,  and  a  single  series  of  similar  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw,  the  palatine 
bones  being  toothless.  A  peculiarity  of  the  vertebrae  of  these  fishes,  with  the 
exception  of  those  of  the  neck,  is  the  presence  of  two  deep  grooves  and  pits  on 
their  sides.  Some  of  these  fish  attained  huge  dimensions;  the  American  and 
Australian  Cretaceous  genus  Portheus  being  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  an 
enormous  bony  crest 'in  the  middle  line  of  the  skull. 


HERRING    TRIBE.  487 

THE  HERRING  TRIBE, — Family  CLUPEID^. 

Second  to  none  in  their  commercial  importance,  the  herring  tribe  are  remark- 
able for  the  enormous  number  of  individuals  by  which  several  of  the  species 
are  represented  rather  than  for  the  multiplicity  of  the  species  themselves;  this 
being  probably  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  the  great  value  of  these  fishes  as  a 
food-supply.  Although  the  existing  representatives  of  the  family  may  be  readily 
distinguished  from  the  salmonoids  by  the  absence  of  a  fatty  fin,  yet  extinct  forms 
indicate  such  an  intimate  connection  between  the  two  groups  as  to  induce  some 
naturalists  to  include  both  in  a  single  family.  Whatever  may  be  the  ultimate 
verdict  on  this  point,  in  a  work  like  the  present,  where  we  are  mainly  concerned 
with  living  types,  it  is  obviously  preferable  to  follow  the  ordinary  system.  While 
the  typical  representatives  of  the  family  have  the  parietal  bones  of  the  skull 
separated  by  the  supraoccipital  and  but  one  true  tail-vertebra,  in  the  genus  Elops 
the  parietals  are  in  contact,  and  there  are  two  caudal  vertebrse.  On  this  account 
it  has  been  proposed  to  make  the  latter  genus  the  type  of  a  distinct  family ;  a 
similar  proposal  having  been  made  in  the  case  of  an  analogous  departure  from  the 
ordinary  type  among  the  salmonoids.  In  addition  to  the  absence  of  the  fatty  fin, 
most  herrings  are  characterised  by  the  presence  of  small  bony  plates  on  the  lower 
margin  of  the  body.  Externally  the  whole  body  is  scaled,  with  the  lateral  line 
mostly  wanting ;  while  the  head  is  generally  naked,  and  the  muzzle  always  without 
barbels.  The  under  surface  is  more  or  less  compressed,  and  generally  so  much 
so  as  to  form  a  sharp  edge,  which  is  usually  serrated.  In  the  gill-cover  the  four 
elements  are  present,  and  the  gill-openings  are  in  most  cases  very  wide.  Both 
premaxillse  and  maxillae  enter  into  the  formation  of  the  margin  of  the  upper  jaw, 
but  each  of  the  latter  bones  is  peculiar  in  being  composed  of  three  separate  pieces. 
The  single  short  dorsal  fin  has  a  small  or  moderate  number  of  weak  rays,  and  the 
anal  may  be  many-rayed.  The  stomach  is  furnished  with  a  blind  sac ;  the  air- 
bladder  is  of  more  or  less  simple  structure ;  and  well-developed  false  gills  are  usually 
present.  Distributed  over  all  temperate  and  tropical  seas,  herrings  are  mainly 
littoral  fishes,  none  of  them  being  inhabitants  of  deep  water,  and  none  truly 
pelagic.  Although  the  majority  are  marine,  many  of  them  will  enter  fresh  water, 
and  some  live  permanently  therein,  while  it  is  probable  that  all  can  be  acclimatised 
to  such  conditions.  As  might  have  been  expected  from  their  generalised  structure, 
herrings  are  an  ancient  group,  the  typical  genus  dating  from  the  period  of  the 
Chalk,  while  anchovies  and  other  existing  generic  types  are  known  from  the 
Eocene.  A  number  of  more  less  nearly  allied  Cretaceous  genera  appear  to  connect 
the  family  very  closely  with  the  higher  ganoids. 

The  common  herring  (Clupea  harengus)  belongs  to  a  group  of 
genera  characterised  by  the  equality  in  the  length  of  the  two  jaws, 
the  presence  of  free  fatty  lids  to  the  eyes,  and  the  serration  of  the  lower  border  of 
the  hinder  part  of  the  body ;  the  typical  herrings  being  distinguished  from  the 
allied  genera  by  the  anal  fin  being  of  moderate  length,  with  less  than  thirty  rays, 
and  the  serration  of  the  under  surface  commencing  from  the  chest  or  point  of 
origin  of  the  pectoral  fins.  Usually  the  scales  are  of  moderate  or  large  size, 
although  they  may  be  small ;  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  is  of  medium  width ;  and  if 


488 


TUBE-B LADDERED    GROUP 


teeth  are  present  at  all,  they  are  rudiments!  and  deciduous.  In  position  the  dorsal 
fin  is  opposite  the  anal,  and  the  caudal  is  deeply  forked.  Represented  by  some 
sixty  species,  the  genus  has  a  distribution  coextensive  with  that  of  the  family ; 
but  whereas  the  flesh  of  the  majority  of  its  representatives  is  of  excellent  quality, 
that  of  some  tropical  forms  may  acquire  poisonous  properties.  In  the  case  of  such 
a  well-known  fish  as  the  common  herring  it  will  be  superfluous  to  give  any  descrip- 
tion ;  but  it  may  be  mentioned  that  this  species  may  be  distinguished  from  its  allies 
by  the  presence  of  a  patch  of  small  ovate  teeth  on  the  vomer.  It  has  also  the 
dorsal  fin  situated  exactly  midway  between  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle,  and  the 
longest  ray  of  the  caudal  fin,  and  the  pelvic  fins  are  directly  under  the  dorsal. 


SHAD,  SPRATS,  AND  HERRING  (the  shad  i,  the  others  \  nat.  size). 

Whitebait  are  for  the  most  part  the  young  of  this  species.  Common  to  both  sides 
of  the  cooler  regions  of  the  Northern  Atlantic,  the  herring  ranges  eastwards  to 
the  seas  on  the  north  of  Asia.  Associating  in  shoals  numbering  millions  of 
individuals,  the  herring  feeds  upon  crustaceans,  worms,  insects,  and  the  young  and 
eggs  of  other  fishes,  as  well  as  those  of  its  own  kind.  "  During  the  day,"  writes 
Mr.  J.  M.  Mitchell,  "  the  shoals  are  sometimes  observable  near  the  surface,  and  may 
be  seen  playing  on  the  water,  as  the  fishermen  call  it,  making  a  ripple,— a  dark 
roughness  similar  to  what  we  may  see  at  the  beginning  of  a  slight  breeze,  this  being 
somewhat  observable  without  the  appearance  of  either  whales  or  birds.  The  passing 
near  or  over  them  of  a  boat  or  ship  makes  them  instantly  dart  off  in  every  direc- 
tion, leaving  the  appearance  of  long  trails  of  light,  if  at  night.  We  have  been 


HERRING   TRIBE.  489 

informed  by  fishermen  of  Newhaven  that  the  herrings  take  considerable  nights  out 
of  the  sea :  off  Stonehaven,  in  the  month  of  September,  one  of  these  men  having 
seen  a  shoal,  after  the  spawning-season,  rise  up  out  of  the  water  in  a  vast  mass  of 
many  yards  in  extent,  sparkling  and  flashing  and  flying  several  feet  above  the 
surface.  .  .  On  some  of  the  coasts,  as  on  those  of  Norway,  the  herring-shoals  are 
frequently  accompanied  or  pursued  by  numbers  of  whales  and  aquatic  birds,  which 
are  all  occupied  in  preying  on  them.  The  large  dark  masses  of  the  whales  rising 
and  blowing  and  throwing  up  great  quantities  of  the  herring  into  the  air,  sparkling 
and  glittering  in  the  clear  winter  day  ;  the  constant  movements  of  the  birds,  with 
their  shrill  notes,  actively  engaged  in  seizing  their  easily-obtained  food,  vying  with 
man  in  their  attacks  on  the  countless  myriads  of  herrings,  form  a  most  wonderful 
sight.  .  .  .  When  the  herrings  swim  near  the  surface,  if  it  is  calm  weather,  the 
sound  of  their  motion  is  distinctly  heard  at  a  small  distance ;  and  at  night  their 
motion,  if  rapid,  causes  a  beautiful  bright  line  from  the  phosphorescent  quality  of 
the  skin ;  and  it  is  also  said,  that  when  a  great  body  of  them  swims  near  the  surface, 
their  presence  is  ascertained  by  a  strong  fishy  smell."  In  another  passage,  after 
stating  that  the  idea  of  fish  migrating  from  the  Arctic  regions  southwards  is  purely 
erroneous,  the  same  author  observes  that  "  from  all  circumstances  known  of  the 
natural  history  of  the  herring,  in  regard  to  its  visits  on  our  own  coasts  and  the 
coasts  of  other  countries,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  it  inhabits  the  seas  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  coasts  on  which  it  spawns,  and  that  it  arrives  at  particular 
seasons  near  the  coasts  for  the  purpose  of  spawning,  the  shoals  leaving  the  coasts 
immediately  thereafter ;  and  the  early  or  late,  distant  or  near,  approach  to  the 
coast  in  diiferent  years,  perhaps  depends  on  the  clear  and  warm,  or  dark  and  cold 
weather  of  the  seasons,  as  well  as  upon  the  depth  of  water  at  the  feeding  and 
spawning-grounds."  Herrings  have  been  kept  in  a  brackish-water  pond  com- 
municating with  the  Humber,  where  they  became  dwarfed  in  size. 

The  much  smaller  sprat  (C.  sprattus),  so  abundant  on  the  Atlantic  coasts  of 
Europe,  differs  by  the  absence  of  vomerine  teeth ;  while  the  shad  (C.  finta),  shown 
in  the  upper  figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  488,  may  be  distinguished  by  having 
one  or  more  black  blotches  on  the  sides.  In  this  species,  which  not  only  frequents 
the  European  coasts,  but  ascends  rivers,  and  is  abundant  in  the  Nile,  the  bony  gill- 
rakers,  of  which  there  are  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-seven  on  the  horizontal 
portion  of  the  outer  gill-arch,  are  short  and  stout.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
similarly  spotted  allice-shad  (C.  alosa)  the  gill-rakers  are  very  long  and  fine,  and 
number  from  sixty  to  eighty  on  the  part  mentioned.  Both  the  shads  are  consider- 
ably larger  than  the  herring.  Whereas  in  both  the  herring  and  the  sprat  the 
opercular  bone  is  smooth,  in  the  pilchard  or  sardine  (C.  pilchardus)  this  part  is 
marked  by  ridges  radiating  towards  the  subopercular.  This  species  is  abundant 
in  the  English  Channel,  the  seas  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  the  Mediterranean ; 
Vigo  Bay  being  noted  for  its  sardine-fishery. 

The  following  account  of  the  sardine-fishery  is  taken  from  the  Asian  news- 
paper. "  Sardines  are  migratory  in  their  habits,  and  the  exact  locale  of  their 
winter  quarters,  despite  frequent  research  on  the  point,  remains  a  mystery.  In 
ordinary  years  it  is  the  custom  for  the  fish  to  make  their  first  appearance 
on  the  coast  of  Africa  about  the  end  of  March,  then  passing  northward  in 


49o  TUBE-BLADDERED    GROUP. 

large  shoals,  they  follow  the  coast  of  Portugal,  crossing  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  till 
they  strike  the  coasts  of  Vendee  in  the  month  of  April  or  May.  Before  day- 
break the  fishing-boats  leave  port  to  search  for  the  shoals  of  sardines;  indeed, 
many  leave  in  the  evening  and  anchor  at  sea.  When  a  peculiar  bubbling  of 
the  water  reveals  the  fish,  the  nets  are  immediately  thrown.  Each  net  is 
from  900  to  1000  yards  in  length,  about  3  yards  in  width,  and  black  in  colour. 
On  the  upper  part  of  the  net  are  corkfloats,  and  on  the  lower  part  leaden 
sinkers  to  keep  the  net  in  an  upright  position.  The  oarsmen,  generally  two  in 
number,  row  always  either  against  the  wind  or  the  tide.  One  man  casts  the  net 
as  the  boat  advances,  while  another  throws  the  roque  into  the  water.  This  bait  is 
an  important  feature  of  the  sardine  catch,  as  it  is  expensive,  and  fishermen  often  lose 
considerable  quantities  of  it.  It  is  made  of  the  roe  of  cod-fish  or  mackerel  mixed 
with  clay,  and  costs  from  80s.  to  £3,  10s.  a  barrel,  and  it  is  thrown  into  the  water 
in  small  balls,  which  slowly  dissolve  and  sink.  At  nightfall  the  boats  return  to 
port,  where  they  sell  their  fish  to  the  canners  at  prices  varying  according  to  the 
abundance  of  the  catch  and  the  size  and  freshness  of  the  fish.  Sales  are  made  by 
the  c  thousand,'  but  this  term  does  not  always  indicate  exactly  a  thousand  sardines. 
For  example,  at  Belle  Isle  1240  fish  are  supposed  to  make  a  thousand.  Factories 
for  preserving  sardines  are  located  at  all  the  ports,  for  the  fish  spoil  easily  and 
cannot  bear  transportation.  The  fishermen  convey  the  sardines  to  the  factories  in 
baskets.  The  process  of  canning  is  as  follows  : — The  sardines  are  spread  on  boards 
and  salted,  and  the  heads  removed.  They  are  then  thrown  into  brine,  where  they 
remain  half  an  hour.  They  are  next  washed  in  clean  water  and  dried  on  screens. 
This  work  is  done  almost  entirely  by  the  wives  and  children  of  the  fishermen, 
ttyeir  united  wages  during  the  season  enabling  the  family  to  subsist  during  the 
following  winter.  After  the  fish  have  been  thoroughly  dried  they  are  cooked  by 
clipping  them  for  a  few  minutes  in  oil  heated  to  212°  F.  They  are  again  drained 
and  handed  over  to  workmen,  who  pack  them  in  small  tin  boxes,  which  are  filled 
with  pure  olive  oil  and  then  soldered.  The  oil  used  is  imported  from  the  province 
of  Bari.  Italy.  The  boxes  are  next  thrown  into  hot  water,  where  they  remain  for 
two  or  three  hours,  according  to  the  size  of  the  boxes.  When  withdrawn,  the  boxes 
are  first  cooled,  then  rubbed  with  sawdust  to  cleanse  and  polish  them,  and  packed 
in  wooden  cases  of  one  hundred  boxes  for  export :  during  their  immersion  in  the 
boiling  water  oil  will  escape  from  all  boxes  not  properly  soldered,  and  in  such  cases 
the  loss  is  sustained  by  the  solderer,  but  so  skilful  are  those  in  the  craft  that  a  good 
workman  rarely  misses  more  than  two  or  three  boxes  per  hundred  Periodically 
the  fish  entirely  disappear  for  a  season  or  so  from  the  coasts  of  Spain,  France,  and 
Italy." 

Fresh- Water  Especial  interest  attaches  to  the  Australian  fresh- water  herrings 

Herrings.  (Diplomystus),  which  differ  from  the  typical  genus  in  having  a  series 
of  bony  plates  similar  to  those  on  the  lower  surface  between  the  back  of  the  head 
and  the  dorsal  fin,  since  a  similar  type  of  fish  has  been  long  known  in  a  fossil  state, 
having  been  obtained  from  the  Cretaceous  rocks  of  Brazil  and  Syria,  and  the  Lower 
Tertiary  of  the  United  States  and  Britain.  The  persistence  at  the  present  day  of 
this  ancient  type  of  herring  in  the  fresh  waters  of  Australia  is  an  instance 
of  the  survival  of  primitive  forms  of  life  in  that  region. 


SMOOTH-HEADS  AND  SOUTHERN  SALMON.  491 

The  common  anchovy  of  the  Mediterranean  (Enqraulis  encras- 

Anchovies.         .        ,  .  .        J  '  i        «j  i  i 

sicholus)   is   the  typical  representative   of   a   second   widely-spread 

genus,  with  over  forty  species,  differing  from  the  last  by  the  more  or  less  nearly 
conical  muzzle  projecting  beyond  the  lower  jaw,  and  also  by  the  eyes  being  covered 
with  skin ;  while  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  is  deep,  and  the  tail-fin  forked.  In  most 
cases  each  side  of  the  body  is  ornamented  with  a  broad  longitudinal  silvery  stripe. 
The  common  anchovy  is  met  with  off  the  south-western  coasts  of  England,  but 
wanders  still  further  to  the  north,  and  serves  to  supply  the  markets  of  the  world. 
Some  species  have  the  rays  of  the  pectoral  fins  produced,  and  thus  lead  on  to  the 
allied  Oriental  genus  Coilia,  in  which  the  foremost  rays  of  these  fins  are  fila- 
mentous, and  the  exceedingly  long  anal  fin  extends  backwards  to  join  the  caudal. 

A  very  distinct  group,  which,  as  already  mentioned,  is  regarded 
by  some  as  a  distinct  family,  is  typically  represented  by  the  two 
species  of  the  tropical  and  subtropical  genus  Elops.  In  addition  to  the  characters 
of  the  skull  noticed  in  p.  487,  these  fish  have  the  lower  jaw  longer,  a  thin  plate  of 
bone  extending  backwards  from  the  point  of  union  of  the  two  branches  of  the 
lower  jaw,  and  the  whole  under  surface  of  the  body  smooth  and  rounded.  The 
common  species  grows  to  a  yard  in  length.  An  allied  type  (Rhacholepis)  occurs 
in  the  Cretaceous  rocks  of  Brazil. 

The  earliest  allies  of  the  herring  tribe  seem  to  be  the  extinct 
Slender-Scales.     in  7      •  7  •  7    \        ,.       7  •  T       i  •  -i       -i  i 

slender-scales    (Leptoiepididce,),  or   which   there    are  a   considerable 

number  of  species,  ranging  throughout  the  Jurassic  period.  In  the  typical 
Leptolepis  the  dorsal  fin  is  placed  immediately  over  the  pelvic  pair,  but  in  the 
nearly  allied  Thrissops  it  is  over  the  anal.  Although  there  are  a  number  of  other 
extinct  generic  types,  more  or  less  closely  related  to  the  herrings,  it  is  impossible 
to  enter  into  their  consideration  here,  and  we  accordingly  pass  on  to 


BLACK  SMOOTH-HEAD  (£  nat.  size). 

THE  SMOOTH-HEADS  AND  SOUTHERN  SALMON. 
Families  ALEPOCEPHALIDJ8  and  HAPLOCHITONID^:. 

The  first  of  these  two  families  is  typically  represented  by  the 
Smooth-Heads.  . 

genus  Alepocephalus,  of  which  a  species  (-4.  niger)  is  shown  in  the 

annexed  illustration.     While  agreeing  with  the  typical  salmonoids  in  the  structure 


492 


TUBE-BLADDERED    GROUP. 


of  the  skull  and  the  presence  of  two  true  tail- vertebrae,  as  well  as  in  other  features, 
these  fish  may  be  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the  fatty  fin.  Whereas  barbels 
are  invariably  absent,  and  the  head  is  always  naked,  the  body  may  be  either  scaled 
or  bare.  Both  premaxillse  and  maxillae  enter  into  the  formation  of  the  margin  of 
the  upper  jaw,  the  former  occupying  the  upper  front  edge  of  the  latter.  All  the 
elements  of  the  gill-cover  are  present ;  the  dorsal  fin  is  situated  opposite  the  anal 
in  the  caudal  region ;  the  gill-openings  are  very  wide :  false  gills  are  present ;  the 
air-bladder  is  wanting;  and  the  curved  stomach  has  no  blind  appendage.  All 
these  fish  have  the  teeth  feebly  developed,  the  eye  large,  and  the  bones  thin ;  while 
they  are  remarkable  for  their  uniformly  black  coloration.  The  whole  of  them  are 
deep-sea  fishes,  with  an  apparently  almost  cosmopolitan  distribution,  some  of  them 
having  been  taken  at  a  depth  of  over  two  thousand  fathoms.  Whereas  the  body 
of  the  typical  genus  is  covered  with  thin  cycloid  scales,  in  another  type  the  place  of 
these  is  taken  by  fine  granules. 


Southern  Salmon. 


ZEBRA-SALMON. 

By  this  name  may  be  designated  two  genera  of  fresh-water  fish, 
'constituting  a  family  which  represents  the  salmonoids  in  the  Southern 
Hemisphere ;  the  zebra-salmon  (Haplochiton  zebra)  being  figured  as  an  example  of 
the  typical  genus.  Like  the  salmon  and  herrings,  devoid  of  barbels,  these  fish 
agree  with  the  former  in  the  presence  of  a  fatty  fin,  but  differ  in  having  the  margin 
of  the  upper  jaw  formed  solely  by  the  premaxillary  bones.  The  body  may  be 
either  naked  or  covered  with  scales ;  the  gill-opening  is  wide ;  false  gills  are 
present ;  and  the  air-bladder  is  simple.  The  ovaries  are  in  the  form  of  plates,  and, 
in  the  absence  of  a  duct,  the  eggs  fall  into  the  abdominal  cavit}r.  The  species  of 
the  typical  genus,  which,  although  devoid  of  scales,  are  externally  very  similar  in 
appearance  to  trout,  are  confined  to  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  Chili  and  the  extreme 
south  of  Patagonia  and  the  Falkland  Islands.  In  South  Australia  and  New 
Zealand  the  family  is  represented  by  the  genus  Prototroctes,  in  which  the  body  is 
scaled  and  the  jaws  are  armed  with  minute  teeth ;  the  New  Zealand  species  being 
commonly  known  to  the  colonists  as  the  grayling. 


SALMON  TRIBE. 
THE  SALMON  TRIBE,— Family  SALMONID& 


493 


With  the  salmon  tribe,  which  include  the  finest  and  "  gamest "  of  all  fresh-water 
fish,  we  come  to  the  last  group  of  the  true  bony  fishes,  which  may  be  distinguished 
from  the  preceding  family  by  the  margin  of  the  upper  jaw  being  formed  by  the  pre- 
maxillge  in  front  and  by  the  maxillae  at  the  sides.  As  a  rule,  the  body  is  scaled, 
while  the  head  is  invariably  naked ;  the  under  surface  of  the  body  being  rounded. 


SALMON  AND  SEA-TROUT  (£  nat.  size). 

Inhabiting  alike  salt  and  fresh- waters,  those  species  which  spend  a  part  or  the 
whole  of  their  existence  in  rivers  or  lakes  are  in  the  main  confined  to  the  Temperate 
and  Arctic  zones  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  although  one  outlying  genus  occurs 
in  New  Zealand ;  and  whereas  the  majority  of  the  marine  forms  are  deep-sea 
fishes,  two  genera  are  entirely  pelagic  in  their  habits.  A  considerable  number  of 
the  species  inhabiting  fresh  waters  descend  periodically  or  occasionally  to  the  sea ; 
and  in  some  cases  it  is  perhaps  rather  difficult  to  say  whether  these  fishes  should 
be  regarded  as  marine  or  fresh-water.  All  the  salmonoids  are  remarkable  for  the 


494  TUBE-BLADDERED   GROUP. 

excellent  quality  of  their  flesh,  which  in  many  forms  is  of  a  more  or  less  strongly 
marked  pinkish  hue,  brought  about  by  the  crustaceans  on  which  these  carnivorous 
fishes  so  largely  feed.  Fossil  marine  salmonoids,  some  of  which  belong  to  existing 
genera,  are  known  from  the  upper  Cretaceous  period,  several  of  them  apparently 
connecting  the  family  very  closely  with  the  herrings.  As  mentioned  above  (p.  487) 
the  more  typical  members  of  the  family  have  the  parietal  bones  of  the  skull 
separated  from  one  another  by  the  supraoccipital,  but  in  Coregonus  and  Thymallus 
they  unite  together  in  front  of  it.  There  is,  however,  a  genus  (Stenodus)  in 
which  both  conditions  exist,  so  that  there  is  no  justification  for  making  the 
union  of  the  parietals  a  reason  for  referring  Coregonus  to  a  family  apart.  In  all 
cases  the  supraoccipital  extends  forwards  to  join  the  f rentals  (passing  beneath 
the  parietals  in  the  genera  where  those  unite),  and  is  thus  quite  different  from  the 
condition  obtaining  in  the  carps  and  characinoids. 

Having  the  dorsal  nearly  or  quite  opposite  the  pelvic  fins,  the 
members  of  the  typical  genus  Salmo  are  characterised  by  the  small 
size  of  the  scales  of  the  body,  the  strong  and  fully  developed  teeth,  and  the  presence 
of  not  more  than  fourteen  rays  in  the  anal  fin,  and  of  numerous  blind  appendages 
to  the  intestine.  The  cleft  of  the  mouth  is  always  deep,  the  maxilla  extending  up  to 
or  beyond  the  line  of  the  eye.  Conical  teeth  are  present  not  only  in  the  margins 
of  the  jaws,  but  likewise  on  the  vomer  and  palatine  bones,  as  well  as  on  the  tongue, 
although  there  are  none  on  the  pterygoids.  The  eggs  are  remarkable  for  their 
relatively  large  size ;  and  the  young,  like  those  of  most  or  all  the  other  genera,  are 
marked  with  dark  crossbars.  In  the  males  the  lower  jaw  is  more  developed  than  in 
the  females,  and  at  certain  seasons  may  be  developed  into  an  upturned  hook.  The 
genus  is  confined  to  the  colder  portions  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  its  southern 
limits  in  the  Old  World  being  the  rivers  of  the  Hindu  Kush  and  the  Atlas  range, 
and  in  America  the  rivers  flowing  into  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  California. 

Few  zoological  subjects  have  given  rise  to  a  greater  amount  of  discussion  than 
the  life-history  of  the  members  of  this  genus,  and  the  number  of  species  by  which 
it  is  represented.  As  regards  the  latter  point,  great  difference  of  opinion  still 
prevails  among  experts.  Thus,  for  instance,  Day  considered  that  all  the 
indigenous  British  salmonoids  might  be  arranged  under  three  specific  types, 
namely,  the  salmon,  the  trout,  and  the  charr ;  while  other  authorities  admit  an 
almost  endless  amount  of  species.  The  subject  is  not  one  which  admits  of  dis- 
cussion in  this  work ;  and  we  shall  accordingly  confine  our  notice  to  the  salmon,  the 
typical  sea-  and  river-trout,  and  the  charr.  As  regards  the  variability  of  these 
fishes  we  may,  however,  quote  a  passage  from  Dr.  Giinther,  who  writes  that  "  these 
are  dependent  on  age,  sex,  and  sexual  development,  food,  and  the  properties  of  the 
water.  Some  of  the  species  interbreed,  and  the  hybrids  mix  again  with  one  of  the 
parent  species,  thus  producing  an  offspring  more  or  less  similar  to  the  pure  breed. 
The  coloration  is,  first  of  all,  subject  to  variation ;  and  consequently  this  character 
but  rarely  assists  in  distinguishing  a  species,  there  being  not  one  which  would  show 
in  all  stages  of  development  the  same  kind  of  coloration.  The  young  of  all  the 
species  are  barred ;  and  this  is  so  constantly  the  case  that  it  may  be  used  as  a 
generic,  or  even  as  a  family  character,  not  being  peculiar  to  Salmo  alone,  but  also 
common  to  Thymallus,  and  probably  to  Coregonus.  The  number  of  bars  is  not 


SALMON  TRIBE.  495 

quite  constant,  but  the  migratory  trout  have  two  (and  even  three)  more  than  the 
river-trout.  In  some  waters  river-trout  remain  small,  and  frequently  retain  the 
parr-marks  all  their  lifetime ;  at  certain  seasons  a  new  coat  of  scales  overlays  the 
parr-marks,  rendering  them  invisible  for  a  time.  When  the  salmonoids  have 
passed  this  '  parr '  state,  the  coloration  becomes  much  more  diversified.  The  males, 
especially  during  and  immediately  after  the  spawning- time,  are  more  intensely 
coloured  and  variegated  than  the  females ;  specimens  which  have  not  attained  to 
maturity  retaining  a  brighter  silvery  colour,  and  being  more  similar  to  the  female 
fish.  Food  appears  to  have  much  less  influence  on  the  coloration  of  the  outer-parts 
than  on  that  of  the  flesh ;  the  more  variegated  specimens  being  frequently  out  of 
condition,  whilst  well-fed  individuals  with  pinkish  flesh  are  of  a  more  uniform, 
though  bright,  coloration.  .  .  .  The  water  has  a  marked  influence  on  the  colours ; 
trout  with  intense  ocellated  spots  are  generally  found  in  clear  rapid  rivers,  and  in 
small  open  Alpine  pools ;  in  the  large  lakes  with  pebbly  bottom  the  fish  are  bright 
silvery,  and  the  ocellated  spots  are  mixed  with  or  replaced  by  X-shaped  black  spots  ; 
in  pools  or  parts  of  lakes  with  muddy  or  peaty  bottom,  the  trout  are  of  a  darker 
colour  generally ;  and  when  enclosed  in  caves  or  holes,  they  may  assume  an  almost 
uniform  blackish  coloration."  A  change  of  colour  also  takes  place  in  the  migratory 
species  with  the  renovation  of  the  scales,  which  occurs  during  their  residence 
in  the  sea,  the  newly-grown  portion  of  the  silvery  scales  concealing  the  spots ;  and 
this  change  of  coloration  varies  greatly  according  to  the  habitat  of  the  individuals 
of  some  of  the  species.  Variations  of  size  are  also  common,  these  being  for  the 
most  part  dependent  upon  the  abundance  or  otherwise  of  the  food,  and  the  extent 
of  the  area  in  which  the  fish  dwell;  but  differences  in  this  respect  also  occur 
among  the  fish  hatched  from  the  same  batch  of  spawn,  and  living  under  the  same 
conditions.  The  variations  in  the  form  and  proportions  of  the  body,  and  more 
especially  in  the  head  and  jaws,  according  to  age,  sex,  and  season,  are  likewise  very 
important,  but  cannot  be  noticed  fully. 

The  true  salmon  (8.  salar),  together  with  the  kindred  species 
and  the  trouts,  belongs  to  a  group  of  the  genus  characterised  by  the 
presence  of  teeth  on  the  whole  length  of  the  vomer  during  at  least  some  period  of 
life.  In  the  case  of  such  a  well-known  fish — and  also  one  which  is  generally 
pretty  easy  to  distinguish  from  its  congeners — it  will  be  unnecessary  to  give  a 
description.  Dr.  Gtinther  gives,  however,  certain  characters  by  which  this  fish 
may  always  be  identified,  and  among  these  the  following  may  be  noticed.  The 
scales  on  the  tail  are  of  relatively  large  size,  and  each  transverse  series  running 
from  behind  the  fatty  fin  towards  the  lateral  line  contains  only  eleven,  or  occa- 
sionally twelve,  whereas  in  the  trouts  there  are  from  thirteen  to  fifteen.  Secondly, 
the  main  part  or  body  of  the  vomer  carries  a  single  series  of  small  teeth,  which, 
with  advancing  age,  gradually  disappear  from  behind  forwards,  so  that  half -grown 
and  adult  individuals  have  but  a  few  remaining.  Having  a  circumpolar  distribution, 
the  salmon  ranges  southwards  in  America  to  41°  north  latitude,  and  in  the  Old 
World  to  43°,  being  unknown  in  any  of  the  rivers  flowing  into  the  Mediterranean. 
Salmon  will  grow  to  a  length  of  between  4  and  5  feet,  and  commonly  reach  as 
much  as  40  Ibs.  Much  heavier  fish  are,  however,  occasionally  captured.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  a  salmon  of  60  Ibs.  from  the  Severn  in  1889 ;  one  from  the 


496  TUBE-BLADDERED   GROUP. 

Tay  of  62  Ibs.  in  1891 ;  a  third  of  63  Ibs.  from  the  Esk  in  1890 ;  another  of  68  Ibs. 
from  the  Tay  in  1893;  and  a  fifth  from  the  same  river  taken  in  1870,  which 
weighed  a  fraction  under  70  Ibs.  There  is  an  earlier  record  of  a  British  salmon 

O 

of  83  Ibs.  weight,  while  a  Russian  is  stated  to  have  scaled  upwards  of  93  Ibs. 

For  the  following  brief  sketch  of  the  life-history  of  the  salmon,  we  are 
indebted  to  a  paper  by  Mr.  G.  Hooper,  from  which  the  following  extracts,  with 
some  verbal  alterations,  are  taken.  After  mentioning  the  well-known  periodical 
migration  of  salmon,  the  writer  observes  that  the  eggs  are  deposited  by  the  female 
"  some  time  during  the  winter  months,  in  beds  of  gravel  over  which  a  rapid  stream 
flows,  principally  in  the  upper  reaches  of  the  river,  where  the  water  is  more 
aerated  and  free  from  pollutions  of  any  sort — since  clay,  earth,  or  any  extraneous 
substance  would  choke  and  destroy  the  embryo  fish.  Indeed,  from  the  time 
of  entering  the  river,  the  object  of  the  fish  seems  to  be  to  arrive  at  its  source. 
Until  they  have  spawned  they  never  descend,  but,  resting  at  times  in.  favourite 
pools,  continually  struggle  upwards.  Only  the  late  fish  spawn  in  the  lower 
waters.  To  such  as  have  only  seen  the  salmon  in  prime  condition,  the  appearance 
of  the  fish  when  on  the  eve  of  spawning  would  come  as  a  surprise.  The  female 
is  then  dark  in  colour,  almost  black,  and  her  shape  sadly  altered  for  the  worse 
from  that  which  she  presented  when  in  condition.  As  for  the  male,  he  is  about 
as  hideous  as  can  well  be  imagined,  his  general  colour  being  a  dirty  red,  blotched 
with  orange  and  dark  spots.  His  jaws  are  elongated,  and  the  lower  one  furnished 
with  a  huge  beak,  as  thick,  and  nearly  as  long  as  a  man's  middle  finger :  while  his 
teeth  are  sharp  and  numerous,  and  his  head,  from  the  shrinking  of  the  shoulders, 
appears  disproportionally  large.  His  skin  also  is  slimy  and  disagreeable  to 
handle,  and,  in  fact,  scarcely  a  more  repulsive  creature  in  appearance  exists. 
Arrived  on  the  spawning-ground  the  female,  then  called  a  baggit,  alone  proceeds 
to  form  the  nest,  or  '  redd '  as  it  is  termed.  This  she  effects  by  a  sort  of  wriggling 
motion  of  the  lower  part  of  her  body  working  on  the  loose  gravel.  Many  authors 
state  that  this  is  effected  by  the  action  of  the  tail,  but  I  think  the  convex 
formation  of  the  body  at  that  period  would  prevent  the  tail  touching  the  gravel, 
unless  the  fish  stood  at  an  angle  of  45°,  in  which  case  the  stream  would  carry 
her  down.  The  redd,  a  deep  trench,  being  formed,  the  female  proceeds,  attended 
by  the  male  fish — frequently  by  two  kippers,  as  they  are  then  called — to  deposit 
her  eggs.  This  she  does,  not  all  at  once,  but  in  small  quantities  at  intervals, 
frequently  returning  to  the  redd  for  the  purpose.  The  eggs  are  at  once  fecundated 
by  the  milt  of  the  kipper ;  this  process  going  on  for  two  or  three  days,  the  fish 
sinking  down  occasionally  into  the  pool  below  to  rest  and  recover  their  strength. 
The  effect  of  the  fertilisation  of  the  ova  is  to  add  greatly  to  their  specific  gravity ; 
the  eggs  sink,  and  are  at  once  covered  with  gravel  by  a  similar  motion  on  the 
part  of  the  baggit  to  that  used  in  the  formation  of  the  redd.  Here,  the  process 
being  completed,  the  eggs  remain  during  a  period  of  from  one  hundred  and  twenty 
to  one  hundred  and  forty  days,  according  to  the  temperature  of  the  water.  At 
the  expiration  of  that  time,  the  little  fish  come  into  existence,  and,  after  a  few  days, 
wriggle  out  of  their  gravelly,  bed  and  seek  refuge  under  an  adjacent  rock  or 
stone,  where  they  remain  in  safety  for  some  twelve  or  fourteen  days  longer. 
The  appearance  of  the  young  fish  at  that  time  gives  little  promise  of  the  beautiful 


A    SALMON    LEAR 


SALMON  TRIBE.  497 

form  to  which  they  subsequently  attain.  They  are  indeed  shapeless  little 
monsters,  more  like  tadpoles  than  fish,  each  furnished  with  a  little  bag  of 
nutriment  forming  a  portion  of  the  abdomen.  On  this,  for  two  or  three  weeks, 
they  subsist,  until  it  is  absorbed,  when  they  take  the  form  of  fishes.  They  are  then 
about  1  inch  in  length,  and  are  known  as  salmon-fry  or  samlets.  A  portion  of 
the  eggs  are  washed  down  the  stream  during  the  process  of  spawning,  and,  become 
the  prey  of  trout  and  other  fish  which  attend  the  redds  for  the  purpose  of  feeding 
on  them.  In  this  they  do  no  harm  whatever,  for  these  eggs,  being  uncovered  and 
unfecundated,  could  never  arrive  at  maturity.  The  kippers,  when  not  actually 
engaged  in  the  spawning  process,  swim  rapidly  about  the  redd,  fighting  fiercely 
with  one  another.  The  use  of  the  beak  appears  then  to  come  into  operation. 
Many  authors  erroneously  describe  this  beak  either  as  a  weapon  of  offence,  or  as 
a  sort  of  pickaxe  used  in  digging  out  the  redd ;  but  it  seems  to  me  that  nature 
has  provided  this  singular  excrescence  as  a  protection  and  safeguard  against  the 
savage  attacks  made  on  each  other.  So  large  is  its  size,  and  so  closely  does  it  fit 
into  the  hole  or  socket  formed  in  the  upper  jaw,  that  it  would  appear  almost 
impossible  for  the  fish  even  to  open  his  mouth ;  but  he  does  so,  to  some  extent  at 
least,  and  with  its  cat-like  teeth  inflicts  deep,  and  sometimes  dangerous  wounds 
on  his  antagonists.  As  to  its  alleged  use  as  a  digging  implement,  the  substance 
of  the  beak  is  cartilaginous,  not  horny,  and  by  no  means  hard ;  it  would  be  worn 
down  in  the  process  of  digging  in  ten  minutes,  and,  moreover,  the  female  alone 
prepares  the  redd.  After  leaving  the  stone  or  rock  under  which  it  has  sought 
protection,  the  young  fish  grows  very  rapidly,  as  is  natural  in  one  destined  to 
attain  such  huge  dimensions  as  the  salmon.  In  the  course  of  a  month  or  six 
weeks  the  fry  have  attained  to  the  length  of  4  inches,  and  are  then  called  '  parr  ' ; 
when  they  bear  conspicuously  on  their  bodies  transverse  marks  or  bars,  which 
are  common  to  the  young  of  every  member  of  the  salmon  family.  Unfortunately, 
there  is  another  little  fish,  a  humble  relation  of  the  lordly  salmon,  also  barred,  very 
similar  in  appearance,  which  too  is  called  a  parr,  and  the  identity  in  name  and 
similarity  in  appearance  has  occasioned  great  confusion  and  controversy,  especially 
as  they  are  inhabitants  of  the  same  waters,  and  affect  to  some  extent  each  other's 
company.  The  time  of  their  remaining  in  the  parr  stage  is  also  a  subject  of 
dispute ;  and  while  some  say  two,  three,  or  sometimes  four  years,  my  opinion  is 
that  they  remain  one  year  only.  In  the  second  April  of  their  existence  a  change 
in  the  appearance  of  the  parr  occurs,  which  assumes  the  silvery  scales  of  the  adult 
fish,  wearing  his  new  apparel  over  his  old  barred  coat.  He  is  now  called  a  '  srnolt,' 
and  perhaps,  with  a  wish  to  exhibit  himself  in  his  new  and  beautiful  apparel, 
evinces  a  daily  increasing  restlessness  and  desire  to  quit  his  home.  With  the 
first  floods  in  May  myriads  of  these  lovely  little  fishes  start  on  their  downward 
journey  toward  the  sea.  It  is  a  beautiful  sight  to  watch  their  movements  when 
descending ;  and  for  many  days  the  river  teems  with  them,  not  a  square  foot  of 
water  being  without  one  when  the  stream  is  at  all  rapid.  As  fry  the  smolts  were 
exposed  to  many  dangers,  but  they  were  nothing  to  those  which  beset  them  as 
parrs  on  their  journey  towards  the  sea.  Their  enemies  are  legion.  Trout  and 
pike  devour  them;  gull  swoop  down  and  swallow  them  wholesale.  Herons, 
standing  mid-leg  deep  in  the  water,  pick  them  out  as  they  pass ;  and  even  their 

VOL.  V. 72 


498  TUBE-BLADDERED   GROUP. 

own  kindred  devour  them  without  scruple.  Unluckily,  too,  for  them,  a  certain 
number  of  great,  hungry  kelts  (as  the  fish  are  called  after  spawning),  having 
recovered  to  a  great  extent  their  condition,  accompany  them  on  their  seaward 
journey,  and  prey  upon  their  young  companions  as  they  travel;  and  I  believe 
that  a  hungry  kelt  will  devour  upwards  of  forty  or  fifty  sinolts  in  a  day.  Arrived 
at  the  sea,  the  little  fish  are  met  by  a  fresh  array  of  enemies.  The  army  of  gulls 
is  always  with  them,  and  these  are  reinforced  by  cormorants,  divers,  and  other 
sea-birds,  besides  which  shoals  of  ravenous  fish  await  their  arrival,  and  assist  in 
thinning  their  ranks.  It  is  wonderful  that  any  should  escape,  and,  but  for  the 
extraordinary  fecundity  of  the  salmon,  they  would  speedily  be  annihilated;  but 
such  is  their  prolific  nature  that  a  remnant  always  survives  to  return  to  the 
spawning-beds  and  keep  up  the  supply.  Buckland  calculated  that  the  number  of 
eggs  laid  by  a  salmon  was  about  one  thousand  to  the  pound  weight,  a  fish  of 
15  Ibs.  therefore  producing  fifteen  thousand  eggs.  The  food  of  the  smolt  during 
his  sojourn  in  the  sea  is  abundant,  consisting  chiefly  of  sand-eels,  molluscs,  and 
marine  insects.  The  smolts  increase  accordingly  very  rapidly  in  size,  and  in  three 
or  four  months  the  fish  that  came  down  5  or  6  ounces  in  weight  returns  to  the 
river  from  whence  he  came,  a  grilse  of  from  4  to  6  Ibs. ;  the  grilse  being  the  fifth 
stage  of  the  salmon's  existence.  Unless  accidentally  prevented  the  grilse  always 
returns  to  the  river  from  whence  it  came,  and  after  spending  the  autumn  and 
winter  at  home,  and  providing  for  the  continuance  of  the  family  by  spawning,  as 
already  described,  returns  as  a  kelt  to  the  sea  in  the  following  year,  reappearing 
the  next  as  a  salmon  of  at  least  10  or  12  Ibs.  weight.  It  should  be  added,  that, 
after  spawning,  the  fish  speedily  recover  their  colour,  and  to  a  great  extent  their 
condition ;  the  baggit  at  once  losing  her  dark  complexion,  and  the  kipper  discarding- 
his  hideous  livery,  his  great  beak  being  rapidly  absorbed,  his  sides  becoming 
silvery,  and  his  back  assuming  a  dark  bluish  tinge." 

With  reference  to  the  statement  in  this  account  that  salmon  always  return  to 
the  river  of  their  birth,  it  may  be  observed  that  although  this  is  generally  the 
case,  the  circumstance  that  salmon  occasionally  make  their  appearance  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Thames  and  other  rivers  which  they  have  ceased  to  inhabit,  shows  that 
there  are  exceptions  to  the  rule.  The  obstacles  that  salmon  will  surmount  in 
their  ascent  of  rivers  during  the  return  from  the  sea  are  too  well-known  to  require 
notice;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  height  to  which  they  can  leap  has  been 
exaggerated.  The  period  of  spawning  varies  with  the  country,  taking  place  in 
the  south  of  Sweden  and  North  Germany  at  the  latter  part  of  October  or  early 
in  November;  while  in  Denmark  it  may  be  deferred  till  February  or  the 
beginning  of  March ;  November  and  December  being  the  usual  spawning-months 
in  Scotland. 

T  In  spite  of  their  diversity  of  habitat,  and  likewise  of  coloration 

and  structure,  Day  is  of  opinion  that  the  migratory  sea-trout,  or 
salmon-trout  (£  trutta),  and  the  stationary  river-trout  (S.  fario),  as  well  as  the 
various  forms  from  the  British  lakes,  are  nothing  more  than  varieties  of  a  single 
variable  race ;  and  it  must  be  confessed  that  no  one  has  hitherto  been  able  to  define 
all  the  nominal  British  species  with  anything  like  definiteness.  Still,  however,  in 
the  modem  sense  of  the  words  there  is  no  possibility  of  drawing  a  hard-and-fast 


SALMON  TRIBE. 


499 


line  between  a  species  and  a  variety ;  and  the  question  is  accordingly  of  no  very 
great  importance  one  way  or  another.  Some  of  the  characters  distinguishing  the 
salmon  from  the  trout  have  been  already  indicated  on  p.  494 ;  and  it  will  suffice  to 
note  very  shortly  some  of  the  reasons  given  by  Day  for  regarding  all  the  British 
trout  as  referable  to  a  single  species.  It  is  well  known  that  sea-trout — as 
represented  not  only  by  the  typical  form,  but  likewise  by  the  so-called  sewen 
(S.  cambricus)  of  the  Welsh  rivers — are  silvery  in  colour,  with  black  spots  during 
their  sojourn  in  the  sea ;  when,  however,  they  enter  the  rivers  for  the  purpose  of 
spawning,  an  orange  margin  appears  on  the  upper  and  lower  edges  of  the  caudal, 


MAY-TROUT  AND  HUCHO  (^  nat.  size). 

and  likewise  on  the  fatty,  fin ;  while  spots  of  the  same  colour  show  themselves  on 
the  body.  On  the  other  hand,  the  nonmigratory  forms  may  be  arranged  under 
two  types  of  coloration,  some  loch-trout  (which  may  have  been  originally  migratory, 
but  are  now  landlocked)  being  mainly  silvery  during  the  smolt-stage.  and  subse- 
quently golden  and  spotted ;  while  the  estuarine,  lake,  and  river-trout  are  all 
golden,  with  purplish  reflections,  and  more  or  less  fully  marked  with  black  and 
vermilion  spots.  It  appears,  indeed,  that  a  long  residence  in  fresh  water  generally 
leads  to  the  disappearance  of  the  silvery  sheen  characteristic  of  the  salmonoids 
while  in  the  sea  (and  which  is  probably  their  primitive  type  of  coloration),  and  to 
the  promotion  of  colour.  As  a  partially  transitional  type  between  sea-trout  and 


500  TUBE-BLADDERED   GROUP. 

river- trout  may  be  taken  the  Lochleven  trout,  which  is  somewhat  silvery  during 
the  smolt-stage,  with  the  spots  generally  black,  and  no  orange  border  to  the  fatty 
fin,  but  at  a  later  stage  assumes  the  general  coloration  of  the  river-trout,  although 
lacking  the  white  black-based  front  margin  to  the  dorsal,  anal,  and  pelvic  fins 
characteristic  of  the  latter.  Silvery  trout  do,  however,  occasionally  occur  in  fresh 
waters,  where  there  is  no  possibility  of  their  having  migrated  from  the  sea.  In 
concluding  his  observations  concerning  the  coloration  of  trout,  Day  writes  that 
"  reasons  have  been  shown  for  admitting  that  sea-trout  might  breed  in  fresh  waters 
without  descending  to  the  sea.  That  they  can  be  traced  step  by  step,  and  link  by 
link,  into  the  brook-trout,  and  vice-versa ;  that  the  Lochleven  trout,  which  normally 
possesses  a  smolt-  or  grilse  -  stage,  passes  into  the  brook-trout;  and  also  that 
breeding  any  of  these  two  forms  together  sets  up  no  unusual  phenomena."  Later 
on,  he  observes  that  some  of  the  chief  distinctions  between  the  sea-  and  fresh-water 
forms  of  trout  consist  in  the  comparatively  more  complete  system  of  dentition  in 
the  fresh-water  races,  their  generally  longer  head,  blunter  muzzle,  and  stronger 
upper-jaw,  irrespective  of  the  smaller  number  of  blind  appendages  to  the  intestine. 
The  dentition  is,  however,  excessively  variable ;  and  specimens  with  the  coloration 
and  form  of  the  river-trout  taken  in  estuaries,  or  even  in  the  sea,  usually  have  the 
small  number  of  vomerine  teeth  characteristic  of  the  migratory  forms ;  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  fresh-water  examples  with  the  coloration  of  the  migratory  type, 
may  have  a  dentition  of  the  nonmigratory  type.  "It  has  been  asserted  that 
brook-trout  invariably  have  a  double  row  of  teeth  along  the  body  of  the  vomer, 
and  some  authors  have  gone  so  far  as  to  assert  that  these  teeth  are  not  deciduous. 
Doubtless  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  trout  up  to  2  Ibs.  weight,  or  even  more,  with 
all  the  vomerine  teeth  thus  remaining  intact  when  a  double  row  is  present ;  but 
it  is  by  no  means  rare  to  see  only  one  irregularly-placed  row,  while  in  very  large 
specimens  these  teeth  (unless  they  have  entirely  disappeared)  are  always  in  a 
single  row,  and  the  vomer  may  be  found  toothless,  or  with  only  one  or  two  teeth 
at  the  hinder  edge  of  the  head.  Equally  incorrect  is  the  statement  that  the  teeth 
disappear  differently  in  different  forms,  for  in  all  they  first  assume  a  single  row, 
and  then  fall  out,  first  commencing  from  behind.  But  in  the  rapidly  growing 
sea-trout  the  vomerine  teeth  are  shed  sooner  than  in  the  brook- trout."  The  limits 
of  our  space  preclude  our  entering  further  into  the  consideration  of  this  interesting 
subject.  The  ordinary  sea-trout,  which  is  essentially  a  North-European  fish,  much 
more  common  in  Scotland  than  in  England,  and  grows  to  a  length  of  3  feet,  is 
depicted  in  the  lower  figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  493 ;  while,  as  an  example  of 
a  spotted  form,  we  take  a  variety  of  the  Continental  lake-trout  (S.  lacustris), 
shown  in  the  upper  figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  499.  Known  on  the  Continent 
as  the  maiforelle  (May-trout),  this  fish  has  the  sides  of  the  body  marked  with 
irregular  angular  or  X-shaped  black  spots,  between  which  are  red  spots,  these 
spots  becoming  less  numerous  beneath  the  lateral  line,  while  the  under  surface 
may  be  tinged  with  red.  On  the  gill-cover  the  spots  are  larger  and  more  rounded. 
In  the  typical  variety  of  this  trout,  from  the  Lake  of  Constance,  the  spots  do  not 
extend  below  the  lateral  line ;  this  form  being  known  as  the  schwebforelle.  The 
migrations  of  the  sea-trout  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  salmon ;  in  Sutherland 
the  great  run  of  these  fish  to  the  sea  taking  place  in  June,  while  they  reascend 


SALMON  TRIBE.  501 

the  rivers  in  autumn  to  spawn.  Jardine  writes  that  "  in  approaching  the  entrance 
of  rivers,  or  in  seeking  out,  as  it  were,  some  one  they  preferred,  shoals  of  this  fish 
may  be  seen  coasting  the  bays  and  headlands,  leaping  and  sporting  in  great 
numbers,  from  1  to  3  or  4  Ibs.  in  weight ;  and  in  some  of  the  smaller  bays  the 
shoals  can  be  traced  several  times  circling  it,  and  apparently  feeding."  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Continental  May-trout  spends  the  colder  months  in  the  deepest 
waters  of  the  mountain-lakes,  only  coming  to  the  surface  in  May.  During  the 
summer  these  trout  may  be  seen  swimming  round  the  shoals  of  small  fishes  on 
which  they  prey  until  they  get  them  well  together,  when  they  make  a  sudden  rush 
among  them. 

Much  the  same  difference   of  opinion    as   obtains  with    regard 
to   the   number   of   species   of   trout   exists   in   the   case    of    charr, 


Charr. 


GRAYLING  AND   CHARR  (J  nat.  Size). 

Dr.  Giinther  recognising  five  British  lacustrine  species,  which  he  regards  as  distinct 
from  8.  umbla  of  the  Swiss  lakes ;  while  Day  includes  the  whole  of  these  under 
the  latter,  which  is  also  taken  to  embrace  the  sibling  (8.  salvelinus)  of  the 
mountain-lakes  of  Bavaria  and  Austria,  as  well  as  the  migratory  northern  charr 
(8.  alpinus),  ranging  from  Lapland  and  Scandinavia  to  Iceland  and  the  northern 
parts  of  Scotland.  All  charr  differ  from  salmon  and  trout  in  having  the  teeth  at 
all  ages  confined  to  the  head  of  the  vomer,  instead  of  being  distributed  over  its 
whole  length ;  and  all  the  forms  mentioned  above,  which  have  a  very  uniform 


5o2  TUBE-BLADDERED   GROUP. 

type  of  coloration,  agree  in  having  median  teeth  on  the  hyoid  bone.  Without 
committing  ourselves  definitely,  we  confess  that  we  are  inclined  to  agree  with 
Day  as  to  the  specific  identity  of  the  whole  of  them.  To  illustrate  the  group,  we 
have  the  ssebling  depicted  in  the  lower  figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  501. 
In  the  spawning-season  the  upper-parts  of  this  fish  are  brownish  green,  and  the 
sides  lighter ;  the  under  surface  passing  through  all  shades  of  orange  to  vermilion, 
from  the  throat  to  the  pelvic  fins,  where  the  colour  attains  its  greatest  intensity. 
The  sides  are  ornamented  with  rounded  spots  varying  from  white  to  red  in  colour ; 
the  dorsal  fin  has  dark  markings,  and  the  pectoral  and  pelvic  fins  are  brilliant  red. 
This  form  commonly  grows  to  a  length  of  8  or  9  inches,  but  the  northern  charr 
attains  much  larger  dimensions.  Day  writes  that  "  the  colours  of  the  British 
charr  do  not  vary  to  so  great  an  extent  as  in  the  trout,  owing  to  their  residing  in 
deeper  waters,  and  usually  merely  ascending  towards  the  surface  at  night-time  to 
feed,  while  other  changes  in  tint  are  consequent  upon  the  breeding-season.  In 
the  Lakes  of  Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  and  Lancashire  this  fish  in  its  ordinary 
state  is  the  case-charr  of  Pennant;  when  exhibiting  the  bright  crimson  belly 
which  it  assumes  before  spawning,  it  is  called  the  red  charr ;  when  out  of  season, 
the  spawn  having  been  shed,  it  is  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the  gilt  charr.  .  .  . 
Charr  are  a  more  delicate  and  apparently  shorter-lived  fish  than  trout,  requiring 
deeper  and  stiller  pieces  of  water,  and  a  colder  temperature ;  they  have  even  been 
recorded  as  residing  in  lochs  where  the  sun  never  reaches  the  surface  of  the  water. 
They  are  readily  destroyed  by  poisonous  substances ;  while  attempts  to  introduce 
them  to  fresh  localities  have  not  been  so  uniformly  successful  as  with  the  trout." 

The  North  American  charr  (S.  fontinalis),  which  has  been  successfully  intro- 
duced into  British  waters,  together  with  the  hucho  (S.  hucho)  of  the  Danube,  differ 
from  the  foregoing  in  the  absence  of  median  teeth  on  the  hyoid  bone ;  the  latter 
fish  being  shown  in  the  lower  figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  499.  The  general 
colour  of  the  American  charr  is  greenish, — lighter  above  than  beneath, — beautifully 
shot  with  purple  and  gold,  ornamented  with  numerous  dark  spots  above,  and  fewer 
below  the  lateral  line,  many  of  which  in  front  of  the  dorsal  fin  coalesce  into 
streaks,  and  also  with  red  spots  above  the  aforesaid  line.  Most  of  the  fins  have 
dark  markings ;  and  in  the  breeding-season  the  male  assumes  a  black  line  along 
the  under  surface.  These  fish  usually  range  in  size  from  2  to  3  Ibs.,  although 
they  may  be  larger.  The  hucho,  on  the  other  hand,  which  is  readily  characterised 
by  its  elongated,  slender,  and  almost  cylindrical  form,  attains  dimensions  equal  to 
those  of  the  salmon. 

Many-Rayed  A  group  of  migratory  salmonoids  (Onchorhynckus)  inhabiting  the 

Salmon.  North  American  and  Asiatic  rivers  flowing  into  the  Pacific  differ 
from  the  typical  genus  in  having  more  than  fourteen  rays  in  the  anal  fin ;  while 
their  kelts  are  remarkable  for  the  degree  to  which  the  jaws  are  hooked,  and  the 
humping  of  the  back.  An  early  writer  in  describing  the  hordes  in  which  these 
salmon  annually  visit  Kamschatka,  states  that  they  "  come  from  the  sea  in  such 
numbers  that  they  stop  the  course  of  the  rivers,  and  cause  them  to  overflow  the 
banks ;  and  when  the  waters  fall  there  remains  a  surprising  quantity  of  dead  fish 
upon  the  shore,  which  produces  an  incomparable  stink ;  and  at  this  time  the  bears 
and  clogs  catch  more  fish  with  their  paws  than  people  do  at  other  places  with  their 


SALMON  TRIBE. 


503 


nets."  Dr.  Guillemard  adds  that  "  every  year  the  various  kinds  of  salmon  arrive 
at  the  mouths  of  the  Kamschatkan  rivers  with  surprising  regularity.  The  date  of 
the  advent  of  these  different  species  extends  from  May  to  mid-August ;  but  each 
has  its  own  time  of  arrival,  which,  from  its  constancy,  appears  to  be  more  or  less 
independent  of  seasonal  influences.  A  few  fish  apparently  remain  at  or  about  the 
river  mouths  during  the  summer,  and  eventually  return  to  the  sea,  but  these  are  so 
few  as  to  be  scarcely  worthy  of  mention.  The  vast  majority — practically  all,  in 
fact — ascend  the  streams  to  spawn,  and,  having  once  done  so,  die.  In  the  case  of 
some  species  every  fish  appears  to  perish ;  in  others,  a  few  get  back  to  the  sea." 
The  Oriental  salmon  (0.  orientalis)  of  Kamschatka  commonly  grows  to  a  weight  of 
from  50  to  60  Ibs. ;  and  the  flesh  is  said  to  be  superior  in  flavour  to  that  of  any 
other  member  of  the  family. 

The  beautiful  and  delicately  flavoured  little  fish  known  as  smelts 
are  represented  by  three  species,  one  of  which  (Osmerus  eperlanus)  is 


Smelts. 


COMMON  SMELT  (|  nat.  size). 


an  inhabitant  of  the  seas  and  many  fresh  waters  of  Northern  and  Central  Europe, 
while  the  second  (0.  viridescens),  which  is  perhaps  only  a  variety,  is  confined  to 
the  opposite  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the  third  (0.  thaleichthys)  is  found  on  the 
coasts  of  California.  These  fish  form  a  kind  of  connecting  link  between  the 
salmon  and  its  allies  and  the  under-mentioned  Coregonus,  but  internally  differ 
from  both,  the  appendages  to  the  intestine  being  short  and  few  in  number,  and  the 
eggs  small,  while  the  teeth  are  strongly  developed.  The  scales  are  of  moderate 
size  ;  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  is  wide,  with  the  maxillary  bone  extending  nearly  or 
quite  to  the  hinder  margin  of  the  eye  ;  the  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  are  much  smaller 
than  those  of  the  lower;  the  vomer  is  armed  with  a  transverse  series  of  teeth, 
several  of  which  are  tusk-like  ;  the  palatines  and  pterygoids  bear  conical  teeth  ; 


5o4  TUBE-BLADDERED  GROUP. 

while  there  are  also  tusk-like  teeth  on  the  front  of  the  tongue,  and  several 
longitudinal  series  of  small  ones  on  the  hinder  part  of  the  same.  In  length  the 
pectoral  fins  are  medium.  Growing  to  a  length  of  7  or  8  inches  in  the  sea,  the 
common  smelt  is  also  found  in  rivers  and  landlocked  lakes,  where  its  size  is  always 
considerably  less.  The  allied  candle-fish  (Thaleichthys),  of  the  Pacific  coasts  of 
North  America,  distinguished  by  its  rudimental  teeth,  has  flesh  of  such  an  oily 
nature  that  it  can  be  burnt  as  a  candle,  although  it  is  likewise  used  as  food. 

For  want  of  a  collective  English  name,  we  must  allude  by  a 
modification  of  their  Latin  title  to  an  extensive  group  of  mostly 
fresh- water  salmonoids,  among  which  the  powan  (Coregonus  clupeoidcs),  the 
vendace  (C.  vandesius)  of  Lochmaben,  and  the  pollan  (C.  pollan)  of  the  Irish  lakes, 
are  well-known  British  forms.  In  these  fish  the  scales  are  not  strikingly  large ; 
the  cleft  of  the  mouth  is  of  moderate  size,  with  a  broad  maxilla,  either  short  or  of 
medium  length,  and  not  extending  beyond  the  front  margin  of  the  socket  of  the 
eye ;  while  the  teeth,  if  present  at  all,  are  minute  and  deciduous,  in  the  adult 
usually  remaining  only  on  the  tongue.  The  dorsal  fin  is  not  over  long,  and 
the  caudal  is  deeply  forked.  Whereas  in  the  small  size  of  their  eggs  these  fish 
resemble  the  smelts,  they  differ  in  having  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  blind 
appendages  of  nearly  uniform  length  attached  to  the  intestine.  As  already 
mentioned,  these  fish  differ  from  the  typical  salmonoids  in  the  relations  of  the 
bones  on  the  top  of  the  skull,  on  which  account  they  are  regarded  by  Professor 
Cope  as  indicating  a  separate  family.  Kepresented  by  over  forty  species, 
ranging  over  Northern  Temperate  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America,  core- 
gonoids  are  for  the  most  part  entirely  fresh- water  fishes,  although  a  few  make 
periodical  migrations  to  the  sea,  while  the  European  schnsepel  (C.  oxyrhynchus)  is 
as  much  a  marine  as  a  fresh- water  fish.  Local  in  their  distribution  in  Europe, 
although  as  many  as  three  different  species  may  inhabit  the  same  lake,  coregonoids 
are  extremely  abundant  in  all  the  fresh  waters  of  North  America  (where  they  are 
commonly  known  by  the  name  of  white-fish) ;  and  whereas  all  the  British  forms 
are  small,  some  of  the  continental  species  may  attain  a  length  of  fully  two  feet. 
The  genus  may  be  divided  into  groups,  according  to  the  conformation  of  the  muzzle 
and  jaws.  Of  these,  the  first  is  represented  solely  by  the  schnsepel  (C.  oxyrhynchus), 
which  frequents  the  coasts  and  rivers  of  Belgium,  Holland,  Germany,  and  Sweden, 
and  occasionally  wanders  into  British  waters.  It  is  easily  distinguished  by  the 
production  of  the  extremity  of  the  upper  jaw  into  a  conical  fleshy  snout  projecting 
beyond  the  lower,  while  its  scales  are  more  or  less  nearly  circular.  In  length,  this 
fish  grows  to  a  foot  and  a  half.  As  an  example  of  the  group  in  which  the  muzzle  is 
obliquely  truncated,  with  the  nose  projecting,  we  may  take  the  marane  (C. 
lavaretus),  shown  in  the  lower  figure  of  our  illustration ;  this  fish  being  widely 
distributed  in  the  lakes  of  the  Continent,  where  its  flesh  is  highly  esteemed  as  food. 
Whereas  in  the  Austrian  lakes  this  fish  does  not  exceed  14  or  15  inches  in  length, 
with  a  weight  of  half  a  pound,  in  Lake  Constance  it  grows  to  a  couple  of  feet  in 
length,  and  from  4  to  6  Ibs.  in  weight.  Living  at  great  depths,  this  fish  feeds 
on  worms,  insects,  and  water-snails.  While  the  powan  belongs  to  another  group 
characterised  by  the  vertical  truncation  of  the  muzzle,  the  pollan  and  vendace  are 
assigned  to  yet  another  division  in  which  the  lower  jaw  is  longer  than  the  upper, 


SALMON  TRIBE. 


505 


into  a  shallow  notch  of  which  it  is  fitted.  As  a  representative  of  this  latter  group  we 
take  the  pigmy  marane  (C.  albula)  of  Northern  Europe,  shown  in  the  upper  figure 
of  the  illustration.  Pollan,  which  grow  to  a  length  of  about  6  inches,  are  largely 
sold  in  Belfast  during  the  spawning-season,  at  which  time  they  come  up  from  the 
deep  waters  of  Lough  Neagh  to  the  shallows.  At  times  they  occur  in  enormous 
numbers,  upwards  of  seventeen  thousand  having  been  taken  on  one  occasion  in  the 
early  part  of  this  century. 


Grayling. 


PIGMY-  MARANE   AND   MARANE  (i  liat.  size). 

Jhe  last  of  the  salmonoids  that  we  have  space  to  notice  are  the 
grayling,  of  which  the  European  species  (Thymallus  vulgaris)  is  shown 
in  the  upper  figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  501.  Nearly  allied  to  the  coregonoids, 
the  grayling  are  readily  distinguished  by  the  greater  height  and  length  of  the 
dorsal  fin,  which  includes  from  thirteen  to  twenty-three  rays.  The  cleft  of  the 
mouth  is  also  smaller,  and  the  maxilla  of  small  size.  Small  teeth  are  present 
in  the  jawbones,  as  well  as  on  the  palatines  and  the  head  of  the  vomer,  but  they 
are  wanting  on  the  tongue.  The  blind  appendages  of  the  intestine  are  less 
numerous  than  in  either  the  salmon  or  the  coregonoids,  and  the  air-bladder  is 
unusually  large.  The  range  of  the  genus  includes  a  large  portion  of  Europe, 
Northern  Asia,  and  the  colder  regions  of  North  America.  The  common  species  is 
found  locally  over  a  great  part  of  Europe,  ranging  from  Lapland  to  Venice,  and 
from  England  to  "Russia.  It  is,  however,  unknown  in  Ireland,  and  has  only  been 
introduced  of  late  years  into  Scotland ;  while  in  England  it  is  most  abundant  in 
the  rivers  flowing  from  the  limestone  Pennine  chain  in  the  north,  and  the  Red 


506  GANOIDS. 

Sandstone  districts  of  the  central  counties,  and  likewise  in  the  chalk  streams  of  the 
south.  In  the  latter  area  grayling  occasionally  run  to  nearly  4  Ibs.  in  weight, 
but  in  Northern  Scandinavia  they  may  reach  1  Ib.  more.  In  Switzerland  they  are 
found  in  Lake  Constance  and  other  large  pieces  of  water.  An  elegantly-shaped 
fish,  the  grayling  varies  considerably  in  colour  according  to  the  season  of  the  year, 
the  back  being  generally  greenish  brown,  passing  into  grey  on  the  sides,  while  the 
under-parts  are  silvery.  The  sides  of  the  head  are  yellow,  with  black  spots,  which 
also  occur  on  the  fore-part  of  the  body ;  and  brownish  grey  longitudinal  stripes 
run  in  the  direction  of  the  rows  of  scales.  The  pelvic  and  anal  fins  are  violet, 
frequently  marked  with  brown  crossbars ;  the  pectorals  are  yellow,  turning  to  red 
in  the  breeding-season ;  while  the  black-bordered  dorsal  and  caudal  are  generally 
red,  although  sometimes  blue;  the  former,  and  sometimes  also  the  latter,  being 
ornamented  with  longitudinal  dark  bands  or  rows  of  spots.  A  second  species, 
with  smaller  scales,  inhabit  the  mountain  streams  of  Dalrnatia,  but  the  other  two 
are  North  American. 

A  remarkable  fish  from  the  fresh  waters  of  the  United  States 
known  as  Percopsis  guttata,  which  has  the  general  characters  of  a 
salmonoid  but  the  mouth  and  scales  of  a  perch-like  type,  is  regarded  as  represent- 
ing a  family  (Percopsidce)  by  itself,  nearly  allied  to  the  salmon  tribe. 

THE  BONY  PIKE  AND  ITS  KINDRED, — Suborder  u93theospondyli. 

The  remaining  groups  of  the  Teleostomous  fishes  exhibit  a  more  or  less  decidedly 
lower  type  of  organisation  than  those  described  above ;  and,  although  the  sturgeons 
are  still  well  represented,  these  groups  as  a  whole  are  evidently  waning  ones 
at  the  present  day,  having  only  very  few  living  forms,  whereas  in  past  epochs 
some  of  them  formed  the  dominant  types  in  the  fish-fauna  of  the  world.  The  bony- 
pikes  of  the  fresh  waters  of  North  America  constitute  a  family  (Lcpidosteidcv) 
which  forms  the  sole  existing  representative  of  a  distinct  suborder.  While 
agreeing  with  the  preceding  suborders  in  the"  divisional  characters  mentioned 
on  p.  334,  the  members  of  this  group  and  the  next  exhibit  much  more 
marked  differences  from  all  the  foregoing  groups  than  do  the  latter  from  one 
another.  With  the  exception  of  the  extinct  spear  -  beaks,  the  tail  is  of  the 
abbreviated  heterocercal  type ;  that  is  to  say,  that  while  its  fin  is  more  or  less  nearly 
symmetrical,  the  vertebral  column,  which  retains  its  primitive  tapering  extremity, 
runs  in  the  upper  half.  The  scales  are  ganoid,  and  very  frequently  quadrangular, 
although  they  may  be  rounded  and  distinctly  overlapping.  In  the  living  represen- 
tatives of  both  suborders  the  air-bladder  is  connected  with  the  oesophagus  by  a 
duct,  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  tube-bladdered  fishes ;  but  the  optic  nerves 
simply  cross  one  another,  without  any  interlacing  of  their  fibres,  and  there  is 
a  spiral  valve  to  the  intestine.  Whereas,  with  the  exception  of  one  extinct 
group  of  herrings,  the  whole  of  the  suborders  of  bony  fishes  hitherto  noticed  are 
unknown  previous  to  the  Cretaceous  epoch,  members  of  the  two  groups  to 
be  now  considered  were  abundant  in  the  antecedent  Jurassic  period.  The 
group  including  the  bony-pike  may  be  distinguished  from  the  next  by  the  full 
ossification  of  the  internal  skeleton ;  the  scales  being  always  of  the  typical 


BONY-PIKE.  507 

quadrangular  ganoid  type,  and   the  branchiostegal  rays  having   no   gular  plate 
in  advance  of  them. 

Existing  Family.  As    a  family'  the    bony-pikes,    of    which    the    common    species 

(Lepidosteus  osteus)  is  shown  in  our  illustration,  are  distinguished 
from  all  other  fish  by  having  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  convex  in  front  and  con- 
cave behind,  instead  of  having  both  surfaces  cupped.  The  fins  are  furnished  with 
fulcra,  the  dorsal  and  anal  consisting  of  soft  rays  only,  and  placed  far  back,  and 
near  the  caudal,  which  is  of  the  abbreviated  heterocercal  type  ;  while  the  trunk  is 
much  longer  than  the  abdominal  portion  of  the  vertebral  column,  and  the  bran- 
chiostegal rays  are  comparatively  few,  and  have  not  an  enamelled  outer  surface. 
In  form,  the  body  of  the  bony-pikes  is  elongate  and  subcylindrical ;  the  long- 
muzzle  is  either  spatulate  or  beak-shaped ;  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  wide  ;  and  both 


BONY-PIKE  (£  nat.  size). 

the  palate  and  jaws  are  armed  with  bands  of  rasp-like  teeth,  and  also  with  larger 
conical  ones.  There  are  four  gills  and  three  branchiostegal  rays  on  each  side  ;  and 
the  air-bladder  is  cellular.  Bony-pike,  of  which  there  are  three  existing  species, 
are  now  confined  to  North  and  Central  America  and  Cuba ;  but  they  are  repre- 
sented in  the  European  Eocene,  and  b}^  allied  extinct  genera  in  the  Eocene  and 
Miocene  strata  of  the  United  States,  one  of  these  also  occurring  in  the  French 
Eocene.  The  existing  forms  grow  to  a  length  of  6  feet,  and  are  carnivorous,  feed- 
ing upon  smaller  fishes.  They  are  often  known  by  the  name  of  gar-pike,  although, 
as  mentioned  on  p.  400,  that  title  is  best  restricted  to  a  totally  different  group. 

The  extinct  Jurassic  spear-beaks  (Aspidorhynchus)  constitute  a 
second  family  (Aspidorhynchidoe),  distinguished  by  the  normal 
structure  of  the  vertebrae,  the  homocercal  tail,  and  the  production  of  the  upper 
jaw ;  the  general  form  of  the  body  and  the  arrangement  of  the  fins  being  very 
similar  to  that  obtaining  in  the  bony-pike. 


Spear-Beaks. 


5o8  GANOIDS. 

THE  Bow-FiN  AND  ITS  ALLIES, — Suborder  Protospondyli. 

The  so-called  bow-fin  (Amia  calva)  of  the  fresh  waters  of  the  United  States 
is  the  sole  existing  representative  of  a  second  and  larger  subordinal  group,  differ- 
ing from  the  last  by  the  imperfect  ossification  of  the  skeleton,  the  notochord  being 
either  persistent  throughout  life,  or  if  more  or  less  completely  replaced  by  vertebra, 
those  in  front  of  the  caudal  region  have  their  bodies  composed  of  three  distinct 
elements  (pleurocentra  and  intercentrum),  which  remain  separate  and  alternating 
even  when  fully  developed.  The  lower  jaw  is  complex,  and  composed  of  several 
pieces ;  in  the  pectoral  arch  the  infraclavicular  plate  is  absent;  and  the  pectoral  fin  has 
more  than  three  basal  elements  belonging  to  the  true  internal  skeleton ;  while  the 
tail  is  always  abbreviated  heterocercal. 


Existing  Family. 


THE  BOW-FIN  (i  nat.  size). 

Together  with  three  extinct  genera,  the  bow-fin  constitutes  a 
family  (Amiidce)  characterised  as  follows.  The  lower  jaw  has  its 
suspending  arrangement  directed  backwards,  and  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  is  wide ; 
the  degree  of  ossification  of  the  vertebrae  is  variable,  although  these  often  form 
complete  discs ;  the  body  is  elongate  or  fusiform ;  the  margins  of  the  jaws  are 
armed  with  an  outer  series  of  large  and  conical  teeth,  internally  to  which  are 
smaller  ones ;  fulcra  to  the  fins  are  either  wanting  or  of  minute  size ;  and  the 
dorsal  fin  is  of  variable,  although  usually  of  considerable  length.  Having  the  scales 
thin,  somewhat  rounded,  and  overlapping,  the  bow-fin  represents  a  genus  in  which 
there  are  no  fulcra,  and  the  long  dorsal  fin  occupies  three-fourths  the  length  of  the 
body,  while  the  anal  fin  is  short,  the  caudal  rounded,  and  the  throat  furnished  with 
a  single  gular  plate,  followed  by  a  number  of  branchiostegal  rays.  The  single 
existing  species  of  the  genus,  which  attains  a  length  of  2  feet,  is  confined  to  the 
fresh  waters  of  the  United  States,  where  it  is  exceedingly  abundant  in  some  of  the 


THE  BOW-FIN. 


5°9 


Extinct  Families. 


northern  lakes,  but  remains  of  extinct  species  have  been  obtained,  not  only  from 
the  Eocene  rocks  of  the  same  country,  but  likewise  from  the  upper  Eocene  and 
Miocene  strata  of  Europe.  Carnivorous  in  its  diet,  preying  both  upon  other  fish 
and  also  upon  aquatic  crustaceans  and  insects,  the  bow-fin  is  capable  of  living  for 
fully  an  hour  out  of  water ;  and  when  in  its  native  haunts,  especially  where  the 
water  is  foul,  comes  frequently  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  rising  to  the  surface,  and 
taking  in  large  mouthfuls  of  air  without  the  emission  of  a  single  bubble.  When 
near  the  surface,  this  fish  often  utters  a  bell-like  note,  probably  due  to  the  passage 
of  air  from  the  air-bladder.  The  breeding-season,  during  which  the  colours  of  the 
fish  are  more  brilliant,  lasts  from  May  till  the  beginning  of  June.  The  bow-fins 
breed  among  floating  islands  of  herbage  fringing  the  great  lakes.  Here  they  lay 
thousands  of  minute  eggs  on  the  water-plants  which  form  the  base  of  a  series  of 
tunnels,  composed  partly  of  root-fibres,  and  partly  of  a  moss-like  growth.  Of  the 
nest  thus  formed,  the  male  fish  takes  entire  charge  till  the  fry  are  hatched ;  the 
development  of  the  eggs  being  unusually  rapid.  The  embryos,  while  agreeing  in 
many  respects  with  those  of  the  typical  ganoids,  are  stated  to  approximate  in  other 
points  to  those  of  the  higher  bony  fishes.  Megalurus,  from  the  upper  Jurassic,  is 
an  allied  extinct  genus  with  a  short  dorsal  fin  and  fulcra;  while  the  Jurassic 
Eurycormus  and  Liodesinus  likewise  belong  to  the  same  family. 

Among  several 
extinct  families  of 
which  the  members  are  mostly 
of  Jurassic  age,  we  may  notice 
the  Pachycormidce,  as  represented 
typically  by  Pachycormus,  in 
which,  while  the  body  and  jaws 
have  the  same  form  and  structure 
as  in  the  bow-fish,  the  notochord 

is  persistent,  and  the  ethmoid  bone  fused  with  the  vomer  to  form  a  long  beak ;  the 
fin-rays  being  slender  and  closely  set,  the  dorsal  fin  short,  and  fulcra  absent  or 
minute.  Eugnathus  and  Caturus  are  well-known  members  of  a  third  family 
distinguished  by  the  vertebrae  being  usually  represented  by  incomplete  rings,  by  the 

large  fulcra,  and  the  short  dorsal  fin ;  the  caudal 
fin  being  forked.  The  Pycnodonts,  ranging  from 
the  Lias  to  the  Eocene,  constitute  another  family 
group,  in  which  the  body  is  either  deeply  fusiform 
or  rhomboidal ;  the  notochord  has  no  ossification 
around  it ;  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  is  narrow  ;  the 
teeth  are  small,  nodular,  and  aggregated  into  a 
pavement,  without  vertical  successors ;  the  gill- 
cover  is  of  a  very  simple  type;  branchiostegal 
rays  and  fulcra  are  alike  absent ;  and  the  dorsal 
fin  is  elongated.  The  family  is  typically  repre- 
sented by  the  genus  Pycnodus ;  but  we  have 

RIGHT  HALF  OF  THE  LOWER  JAW  OF  A     %ured  as  an  example  of  the  dentition  the  lower 
PYCNODONT  (Mesodon).—  After  Gaudry.       jaw  of  the  allied  Mesodon.     Yet  another  family 


SKELETON  OF  AN  EXTINCT  AMIOID   (Caturus). 


510 


GANOIDS, 


(DapediidcK)  is  represented  by  Dapedius,  Lepidotus,  and  several  other  allied 
genera,  in  which  the  body  is  more  or  less  deeply  fusiform,  the  suspensory  apparatus 
of  the  lower  jaw  either  vertical  or  inclined  forwards,  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  narrow, 
the  teeth  cylindrical  or  in  the  form  of  button-like  knobs,  the  vertebrae  not  more 

than  rings,  and  the 
dorsal  fin  not  ex- 
tending more  than 
half  the  length  of 
the  body.  In  this 
family  the  teeth 
have  vertical  suc- 
cessors ;  and  while 
some  of  the  earlier 
genera  date  from 
the  Trias,  the  scale- 
tooths  (Lepidotus),  of  which  an  example  is  figured  in  the  illustration,  survived  till 
the  Chalk.  Some  of  the  species  of  this  genus  attained  very  large  dimensions  ;  arid 
their  remains  are  beautifully  preserved  in  the  Lithographic  Limestone  of  Bavaria. 
In  all  these  the  scales  are  of  the  typical  quadrangular  ganoid  type. 


THE   GIANT   SCALE-TOOTH,  WITH  A  DETACHED   SCALE   AND  TEETH 

(much  reduced). 


THE  STURGEON-TRIBE, — Suborder  Chondrostei. 

This  important  suborder  brings  us  to  the  last  group  of  the  fan-finned  fishes 
(Actinopterygii),  which  forms  a  division  by  itself  differing  in  several  important 
particulars  from  the  one  including  the  whole  of  the  foregoing  suborders  ;  the  more 
important  characters  of  the  first  division  having  been  given  on  p.  334.  Whereas 
in  that  division  the  number  of  dermal  rays  in  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  is  equal  to 
the  supporting  elements  in  the  true  internal  skeleton,  in  the  present  division  the 
dermal  rays  are  more  numerous  than  their  supports.  Then,  again,  whereas  in  the 
former  division  the  pelvic  fins  have  their  superior  row  of  supporting  ossicles,  or 
baseosts,  rudimental  or  wanting,  in  the  present  group  these  are  well  developed. 
The  living  representatives  of  the  sturgeon  tribe  agree  with  the  bow-fish  and  its 
allies  in  the  want  of  any  interlacing  of  the  fibres  of  the  optic  nerves  at  their  crossing, 
and  likewise  in  the  presence  of  a  spiral  valve  to  the  intestine.  In  both  the  living 
and  extinct  types  the  tail  is  of  either  the  diphycercal  or  heterocercal  type.  As  a 
suborder,  the  sturgeon  tribe  may  be  characterised  by  the  more  or  less  completely 
persistent  notochord,  by  the  inferior  and  superior  supporting  ossicles  (axonosts  and 
baseosts)  of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  forming  a  simple  and  regular  series,  and  also 
by  the  presence  of  a  pair  of  infraclavicular  plates  in  the  pectoral  girdle.  In  all 
the  known  forms  there  is  a  single  dorsal  and  anal  fin,  both  of  which  are  well 
separated  from  the  caudal ;  while  in  the  existing  members  the  air-bladder  is  fur- 
nished with  a  duct.  Although  represented  at  the  present  solely  by  the  sturgeons 
and  their  allies,  the  group  was  very  abundant  during  the  Secondary  epoch  ;  and 
whereas  the  sturgeons,  together  with  certain  extinct  families,  form  what  may  be 
termed  a  degenerate  specialised  series  characterised  by  the  absence  of  ganoid  scales 
in  a  second  and  normal  series  the  body  was  covered  with  such  scales. 


STURGEON  TRIBE. 

Toothed  The  toothed  sturgeons,  of  which  there  are  two  existing  repre- 

Sturgeons.  sentatives,  each  forming  a  genus  by  itself,  constitute  the  family 
Polyodontidce.  While  agreeing  with  the  other  members  of  the  series  in  having 
the  cartilaginous  skull  invested  with  a  series  of  superficial  bony  plates,  these  fishes 
are  specially  distinguished  by  possessing  a  median  unpaired  series  of  bones  in  this 
shield ;  by  the  absence  of  branchiostegal  rays ;  the  presence  of  minute  teeth  in  the 
adult ;  the  heterocercal  tail ;  and  by  the  skin  being  either  naked  or  with  some  scales 
on  the  upper  lobe  of  the  tail.  The  first  of  the  two  existing  genera  is  represented 
by  the  spoon-beaked  sturgeon  (Polyodon  folius)  of  the  Mississippi,  which  grows  to  a 
length  of  6  feet,  and  is  characterised  by  the  production  of  the  upper  jaw  into  a 
very  long  spoon-like  beak,  with  thin,  flexible  margins,  equal  to  one-fourth  the 


SPOON-BEAKED   STURGEON   (^  Hat.  size). 

total  length  in  the  adult,  but  still  longer  in  the  young.  The  gill-cover  ends  in  a 
long  tapering  flap ;  the  upper  lobe  of  the  tail  bears  a  numerous  series  of  narrow 
fulcra;  and  the  air-bladder  is  cellular.  On  the  other  hand,  the  slender-beaked 
sturgeon  (Psephurus  gladius)  from  the  Yang-tse-kiang  and  Hoangho  rivers  of  China, 
differs  in  the  more  conical  form  of  the  beak,  and  in  the  large  size  and  small  number 
of  the  caudal  fulcra.  Growing  to  an  enormous  length — it  is  said  as  much  as 
20  feet — this  fish  agrees  with  the  preceding  in  the  very  small  size  of  its  eyes,  from 
which  it  may  be  inferred  that  both  seek  their  prey  without  depending  upon  sight. 
Indeed,  in  the  muddy  waters  of  the  rivers  they  inhabit,  eyes  can  be  of  little  use, 
and  it  has  been  suggested  that  these  fish  depend  chiefly  upon  their  beak,  which  is 
probably  employed  as  an  organ  of  touch.  The  flesh  of  both  species  is  eaten. 
Among  several  fossil  forms,  we  may  mention  the  genus  Crossopholis,  of  the  North 
American  Eocene,  on  account  of  the  retention  of  a  series  of  oblique  rows  of  scales 
VOL.  v.— 33 


514  GANOIDS. 

on  the  upper  lobe  of  the  tail,  as  we  thus  have  evidence  of  the  descent  of  the  family 
from  fully  scaled  fishes. 

Toothless  From  the  preceding  family  the  typical  sturgeons  (Acipenseridce) 

sturgeons.  may  foe  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  teeth  in  the  adult,  and  the 
presence  of  five  longitudinal  rows  of  bony  plates  on  the  naked  body,  which  is 
elongate  and  subcylindrical  in  form,  as  well  as  by  the  presence  of  four  barbels  in  a 
transverse  line  on  the  under  surface  of  the  muzzle.  The  muzzle  is  somewhat 
produced,  and  either  subspatulate  or  conical  in  form,  with  the  small,  transverse 
mouth  on  its  lower  surface.  All  the  vertical  fins  are  armed  with  a  single  series  of 
fulcra  on  their  front  edges ;  the  dorsal  and  anal  are  situated  at  a  moderate  distance 
from  the  caudal ;  and  the  large  air-bladder  is  simple.  Confined  to  the  temperate 
regions  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  sturgeons  are  either  exclusively  or  partially 
fresh-water  fish,  some  of  them  only  ascending  rivers  for  the  purpose  of  spawning, 
after  which  they  return  to  the  sea.  With  the  slender-beaked  sturgeon,  they 
include  the  largest  fresh-water  fishes  of  this  region,  several  of  the  species  commonly 
growing  to  10  feet,  while  some  are  much  larger.  The  females  deposit  enormous 
numbers  of  extremely  minute  eggs,  the  product  of  a  single  individual  having  been 
estimated  at  upwards  of  three  millions  during  a  season.  This  wonderful  fecundity 
easily  accounts  for  the  enormous  numbers  in  which  sturgeon,  in  spite  of  constant 
persecution,  still  crowd  the  northern  rivers  during  the  spawning-season.  In 
addition  to  the  excellence  of  their  flesh,  sturgeon  are  valued  for  their  roe,  from 
which  is  manufactured  caviare,  and  for  their  air-bladder,  the  inner  coat  of  which 
forms  the  basis  of  isinglass.  In  a  fossil  state  sturgeons  are  unknown  before  the 
upper  part  of  the  Eocene  period.  All  the  members  of  the  genus  are  exceedingly 
voracious  fishes,  and  the  majority  are  mainly  carnivorous.  During  the  winter 
many  or  all  of  them  crowd  together,  either  in  inlets  of  the  sea,  estuaries,  or  the 
deep  pools  of  rivers,  where  they  undergo  a  kind  of  hibernation ;  and  it  is  stated 
that  in  some  localities  they  bury  their  noses  in  the  mud,  with  their  bodies  and  tails 
standing  vertically  upwards  like  a  series  of  posts.  They  increase  very  rapidly  in 
size ;  and  the  eggs  are  hatched  in  five  days.  Although  still  abundant  in  the 
northern  rivers,  in  those  of  Central  Europe  sturgeon  have  greatly  decreased  in 
numbers,  and  few  really  big  fish  are  now  taken.  In  the  beginning  of  the  year, 
when  they  are  still  torpid,  sturgeon  are  captured  by  breaking  the  ice,  and  stirring 
up  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  their  haunts  with  very  long  poles  armed  with  barbed 
prongs.  As  the  fish  seek  to  escape,  some  are  stabbed  with  the  spears ;  and  it  is 
said  that  half  a  score  of  large  fish  may  be  thus  taken  by  a  single  fisherman.  In 
summer  regular  fishing-stations  are  established  on  the  Russian  rivers,  where  the 
approach  of  a  shoal  is  heralded  by  a  watchman.  Upwards  of  fifteen  thousand 
sturgeon  have  been  taken  in  a  day  at  one  of  these  stations ;  and  when  the  fishing 
is  suspended  for  a  short  time,  a  river  of  nearly  four  hundred  feet  in  width,  and 
five-and-twenty  in  depth  has  been  known  to  be  completely  blocked  by  a  solid 
mass  of  fish. 

The   common   sturgeon   (Acipenser   sturio),  of   which   a   small 

'  example  is  shown  in  the  illustration    facing  p.  510,  is    the    typical 

representative  of  the  first  genus,  in  which  the  rows  of  bony  plates  remain  distinct 

from  one  another  on  the  tail,  spiracles  are  present  on  the  head,  the  upper  lobe  of 


STURGEON  TRIBE.  515 

the  tail  is  completely  surrounded  by  the  fin-rays,  and  the  muzzle  is  either  short  or 
developed  into  a  narrow  beak  of  moderate  length.  There  is  some  doubt  as  to  the 
exact  number  of  species  of  sturgeons,  as  these  fish  vary  considerably  according  to 
their  age,  but  it  is  probable  that  nearly  twenty  different  kinds  may  be  admitted. 
Among  the  better  known  forms  one  of  the  most  esteemed  is  the  sterlet  ( A.  ruthvenus), 
which  although  rarely  exceeding  a  yard  in  length,  yields  better  flavoured  flesh  and 
finer  caviare  than  any  of  the  others.  It  is  characterised  by  its  narrow,  pointed 
snout,  and  by  the  great  number  of  bony  plates  on  the  sides  of  the  body ;  these 
varying  from  sixty  to  seventy.  Common  in  the  Black  Sea  and  Caspian,  as  well  as 
in  their  influent  rivers,  the  sterlet  is  likewise  found  in  the  Siberian  rivers,  while  it 


STERLET  (^  nat.  size). 

ascends  the  Danube  as  far  as  Vienna.  In  contrast  to  this  species,  may  be  noticed 
the  giant  sturgeon,  or  hausen  (8.  huso),  shown  in  our  full-page  illustration. 
Having  from  forty  to  forty-five  lateral  bony  plates,  this  species  may  be  readily 
distinguished  by  the  absence  of  shields  on  the  muzzle,  which  is  rather  short  and 
pointed.  It  is  found  in  the  Black  Sea,  Caspian,  Sea  of  Azov,  and  their  tributaries, 
and  occasionally  enters  the  Mediterranean.  At  one  time  this  sturgeon  was  to  be 
met  with  in  the  Danube  by  thousands,  among  which  specimens  of  upwards  of 
24  feet  in  length  were  by  no  means  uncommon ;  but  relentless  slaughter  has 
greatly  reduced  not  only  their  numbers  but  likewise  their  size,  although  even  now 
fish  of  from  1200  to  1500  Ibs.  weight  are  occasionally  taken.  These,  however,  are 
mere  pigmies  to  certain  Russian  examples,  one  of  which  is  stated  to  have  weighed 


GANOIDS. 


2760,  and  a  second  3200  Ibs.  Migratory  in  its  habits,  this  sturgeon  crowds  into 
the  Russian  rivers  as  the  ice  is  breaking  up,  when  many  individuals  are  more  or 
less  severely  injured  by  being  jammed  against  the  floes.  It  appears  that  only  full- 
grown  fish  ascend  some  rivers,  as  no  small  ones  are  found  in  the  Danube ;  but  in 
the  Volga  these  sturgeon  are  stated  to  remain  during  the  winter  in  a  semi-torpid 
condition.  Although  extremely  powerful,  the  hausen  is  an  inactive  and  timid  fish, 
fleeing  even  from  the  diminutive  sterlet,  and  passing  much  of  its  time  on  the  mud 
at  the  river-bottom,  but  rising  occasionally  to  swim  near  the  surface.  In  diet  it  is 
both  carnivorous  and  herbivorous,  feeding  on  vegetable  substances,  other  fish, 
especially  various  kind  of  carp,  and  even  water-fowl.  Its  isinglass  is  inferior  to 
that  of  the  common  sturgeon.  Rarely  visiting  the  British  coasts,  where  it  is  a 
"  royal "  fish,  the  latter  species  has  only  from  twenty-six  to  thirty-one  lateral  plates, 
and  from  eleven  to  thirteen  down  the  middle  of  the  back ;  the  muzzle  peing  pointed, 
and  about  equal  to  one-half  the  length  of  the  head.  It  is  a  widely  distributed 
form,  frequenting  the  coasts  of  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  but  absent  from  the 
Caspian,  although  found  in  the  Black  Sea.  In  Italy  it  ascends  the  rivers  from 
March  to  May;  and  while  in  that  country  it  does  not  commonly  exceed  5  or  6  feet 
in  length,  specimens  of  upwards  of  18  feet  are  on  record. 

Shovel-Beaked  The  four  species  of  the  genus  Scaphirhynchus  (which  must  not 

sturgeons.     be  confused  with  the  toothless  sturgeons)  differ  from  the  preceding 

genus  by  the  production  of  the  muzzle  into  a  spatulate  beak,  by  the  narrow  and 

depressed  hinder  portion  of  the  tail  being  completely  covered  by  the  bony  plates, 

as  well  as  in  the  absence  of  spiracles,  and  by  the  fin-rays  not  surrounding  the 

extremity  of  the  upper  lobe  of  the  tail,  which  terminates  in  a  long  filament.     Of 

the  four  species,  one  is  restricted  to  the  Mississippi  river-system,  while  the  others 

inhabit  the  rivers  of  Central  Asia ;  all  being  exclusively  fluviatile  in  their  habits. 

Allied  Extinct  The  genera  Chondrosteus  and  Belonorhynchus  from  the  European 

Families.       Ljas  severally  represent  two  families  differing  from  all  the  modern 

sturgeons  in  the  absence  of  a  median  unpaired  series  of  bones  in  the  head-shield, 

and  also  in  the  possession  of  branchiostegal  rays.     In  the  latter  family  the  tail  is 

diphycercal,  and  there  are  longitudinal  series  of  bony  plates  on  the  body ;  whereas 

in  the  former  the  tail  is  heter- 
ocercal,  and  the  body  is  either 
naked  or  with  a  small  series  of 
scales  on  the  upper  lobe  of  the 
tail ;  both  being  furnished  with 
teeth. 

The  scaled 
types  of  this  sub- 
order are  so  utterly  unlike  the 
sturgeons  in  external  appear- 
ance that  it  is  only  by  a  study 
of  their  internal  structure  that 
their  true  affinities  have  been 
determined.  They  are  all 
extinct,  and  mainly  character- 


Scaled  Types. 


AN  EXTINCT  ACiPENSEROiD  FISH  (Platysomus),  from  the 
Maguesian  Limestone. 


FRINGE-PINNED   GROUP.  517 

istic  of  the  Secondary  period,  their  remains  being  especially  common  in  the  British 
Lias.  In  both  of  the  two  principal  families  the  tail  is  of  the  heterocercal  type. 
In  one  family,  as  typified  by  the  genus  Palceoniscus,  the  body  is  elongated  fusiform, 
and  the  teeth  are  slender  and  conical  or  straight.  On  the  other  hand,  Platysomus 
represents  a  second  family  (Platysomatidce),  in  which  the  body  is  rhomboidal, 
and  the  teeth — in  the  upper  jaw  mainly  confined  to  the  pterygoid  bones — obtuse. 
In  both  groups  the  scales  are  of  the  ganoid  type. 

THE  FRINGE-FINNED  GANOIDS,— Order  CROSSOPTERYGII. 

The  whole  of  the  members  of  the  subclass  under  consideration  described  in 
the  foregoing  pages  constitute  one  great  order  (Actinopterygii),  characterised,  as 
mentioned  on  p.  334,  by  the  fan-like  structure  of  the  paired  fins,  and  frequently 
also  of  the  caudal  fin ;  the  scales  being  generally  of  the  cycloid  or  ctenoid  type. 
These  fishes  form,  indeed,  the  dominant  group  at  the  present  day ;  whereas  the  group 
now  to  be  considered  is  represented  only  by  two  existing  species — referable  to  as 
many  genera,  and  is  mainly  characteristic  of  the  earlier  epochs  of  the  earth's 


THE   BICHIR. 


history,  being  abundant  even  in  the  Devonian  and  Carboniferous  epochs,  since 
which  time  it  has  been  steadily  decreasing  in  numbers.  These  fringe-finned 
ganoids,  as  they  may  be  called,  have  the  paired  fins  lobate,  with  an  internal 
longitudinal  axis  belonging  to  the  true  skeleton  more  or  less  fringed  with  dermal 
rays,  the  caudal  fin  being  either  of  the  diphycercal  or  heterocercal  type.  A  pair 
of  large  jugular  plates,  bounded  in  some  instances  by  a  series  of  smaller  lateral 
ones,  and  an  anterior  unpaired  element,  are  developed  in  the  branchiostegal 
membrane  to  fill  up  the  space  between  the  two  branches  of  the  lower  jaw,  and 
thus  representing  the  branchiostegal  rays  of  the  first  order.  In  all  the  scales  are 
coated  with  ganoine,  although  they  may  be  thin,  overlapping,  and  rounded,  or  thick 
and  quadrangular.  The  existing  forms  have  the  optic  nerves  simply  crossing  one 
another,  a  spiral  valve  in  the  intestine,  and  a  duct  to  the  air-bladder ;  the  presence 
of  the  latter  being  also  shown  in  certain  extinct  types.  Next  to  the  sharks  and 
rays,  this  group  is  one  of  the  oldest,  being  well  represented  in  the  Devonian. 

The  sole  existing  survivors  of  this  great  group  of  fishes  are  the 
Existing1  Species. 

bichir  (Polypterus  bichir}  of  the  Nile,  and  other  rivers  of  Tropical 

Africa,  and  the  reed-fish  (Calamoichihys  calabaricus)  from  Old  Calabar;  these 
constituting  the  family  Polypteridce,  which  has  no  fossil  representatives,  and 
probably  forms  a  subordinal  group  by  itself.  In  this  family  the  notochord  is  more 
or  less  constricted  and  replaced  by  ossified  vertebrae;  the  baseosts,  or  superior 
supporting  elements,  are  rudimentary,  or  wanting,  in  the  median  fins ;  whereas  the 


5i8  FRINGE-PINNED   GANOIDS. 

axonosts,  or  inferior  supports,  form  a  regular  series  equal  in  number  to  the  dermal 
fin-rays  with  which  they  articulate.  The  scales  are  ganoid,  and  the  fins  without 
fulcra.  The  dorsal  fin  is  divided  into  a  number  of  finlets,  each  formed  by  a  spine 
in  front  and  a  series  of  rays  behind;  the  anal  fin  being  situated  close  to  the 
diphycercal  caudal,  and  the  vent  near  the  end  of  the  tail,  while  the  whole  caudal 
region  is  very  short.  In  the  bichir  the  body  is  moderately  elongated ;  the  teeth 
are  rasp-like,  and  arranged  in  broad  bands  in  the  jaws  and  on  the  vomers  and 
palatines,  the  jaws  also  bearing  an  outer  series  of  larger  pointed  teeth :  and  the 
pelvic  fins  are  well  developed,  but  do  not  show  the  obtusely  lobate  structure 
characterising  the  front  pair.  The  large  air-bladder  is  double.  The  bichir  is 
found  in  the  Upper  Nile  and  the  rivers  on  the  west  coast  of  Tropical  Africa, 
examples  being  occasionally  carried  down  into  the  Lower  Nile.  The  number  of 
finlets  varies  from  eight  to  eighteen,  and  in  size  this  fish  grows  to  as  much  as 
4  feet.  Nothing  is  known  of  its  habits.  The  reed-fish  is  a  smaller  form,  charac- 
terised by  the  great  elongation  of  the  body,  and  the  absence  of  pelvic  fins. 

_    .  Very  little  can  be  said  here  as  to  the  numerous  extinct  repre- 

Extinct  Families. 

'sentatives  of    this    group.       One    subordinal   group   (Actinistia)   is 

represented  by  the  hollo w-spined  ganoids  (Coelacanthidce),  which  range  from  the 


SKELETON  OF  A  HOLLOW-SPINED   FRINGE-FINNED   GANOID, 

(From  A.  S.  Woodward.  Cat.  Foss.  Fish,  Brit.  Mus.) 

Carboniferous  to  the  Jurassic,  and  are  best  known  by  the  genera  Coelacanthus  and 
Undina.  In  these  fishes  (as  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure)  the  notochord 
persists ;  the  axonosts  of  the  anal  and  two  dorsal  fins  are  fused  into  a  single  piece ; 
in  the  caudal  fin  the  dermal  fin-rays  are  each  supported  by  a  series  of  axonosts, 
equal  in  number  to  the  upper  and  lower  spines  of  the  vertebrse ;  and  each  pelvic 
has  a  single  axonost,  which  is  not  united  with  that  of  the  opposite  side.  In  these 
fishes  the  body  is  deeply  and  irregularly  fusiform,  with  the  scales  overlapping, 
rounded,  and  more  or  less  coated  with  ganoine.  There  is  a  gill-cover  and  a  single 
pair  of  jugular  plates;  the  paired  fins  are  obtusely  lobate;  the  tail  is  diphycercal, 
frequently  with  a  small  supplemental  fin  at  the  extremity;  and  the  air-bladder 
is  ossified.  A  third  suborder  (Rhipidistia)  includes  most  of  the  other  forms, 
especially  those  from  the  Devonian  formation,  and  while  agreeing  with  the 
preceding  group  in  having  a  more  or  less  completely  persistent  notochord,  and 
the  axonosts  of  the  anal  and  two  dorsal  fins  each  fused  into  a  single  piece,  differs 
in  that  in  the  caudal  and  other  median  fins  the  baseosts  are  fewer  in  number  than 


EXTINCT  FAMILIES.  519 

the  dermal  fin-rays,  by  which  they  are  overlapped.  The  suborder  is  represented 
by  three  well-defined  families.  In  the  first,  which  is  typified  by  the  genus 
Holoptychius,  the  lobes  of  the  pectoral  fins  are  long  and  acute,  while  the  teeth 
have  complex  infoldings  of  the  outer  layer,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  those 
of  the  primeval  salamanders,  and  the  scales  are  thin  arid  cycloidal.  The  second 
family,  of  which  Rkizodus  is  the  typical  genus,  differs  by  the  lobes  of  the  pectoral 
fins  being  shorter  and  blunter,  and  also  by  the  less  complicated  infoldings  of  the 
teeth.  To  this  family  belongs  Gyroptychius,  from  the  Devonian  or  Old  Red 
Sandstone  of  Scotland.  While  agreeing  with  the  last  in  the  obtusely  lobate 
pectoral  fins,  the  third  family,  as  represented  typically  by  Qsteolepis  of  the 
Old  Red  Sandstone,  is  characterised  by  the.  walls  of  the  teeth  being  slightly 
infolded  only  at  their  bases,  and  by  the  scales  being  of  the  true  quadrangular, 
ganoid  type.  Remains  of  these  fishes  occur  in  extraordinary  abundance  in  the 
Old  Red  Sandstone  of  Scotland ;  and  as  this  deposit  is  of  fresh-water  origin,  it  is 
evident  that  they  were  either  fluviatile  or  lacustrine  forms.  The  reason  why  these 
and  so  many  other  ancient  creatures  were  enveloped  in  coats-of-mail  has  not  yet 
been  discovered. 


CHAPTEE    IV. 
SHARKS  AND  KAYS, — Subclass  ELASMOBRANCHII. 

THE  last  subclass  of  the  fishes  is  represented  by  the  existing  sharks  and  rays, 
together  with  a  number  of  more  or  less  closely  allied  extinct  forms ;  some  of  the 
latter  being  the  most  primitive  members  of  the  order  yet  known.  Indeed,  taking 
these  primitive  types  into  consideration,  and  remembering  that  sharks  and  their 
allies  are  the  oldest  fishes  with  which  we  are  acquainted — dating  from  the  lower 
Ludlow  beds  of  the  Silurian  epoch — it  seems  probable  that  the  present  subclass 
may  have  been  the  stock  whence  all  other  fishes  were  derived.  Agreeing  with 
the  bony  fishes  and  ganoids  in  having  the  suspending  apparatus  of  the  lower  jaw 
movably  articulated  to  the  skull  (generally  with  the  intervention  of  a  distinct 
hyomandibular  element),  the  sharks  and  rays  have  the  'skeleton  entirely  cartila- 
ginous throughout  life  ;  membrane-bones — except  in  one  extinct  group  —  being 
entirely  wanting.  The  gills  open  by  separate  external  clefts,  and  have  no  cover. 
When  bony  elements  are  developed  in  the  skin,  these  agree  in  structure  with  teeth, 
and  have  nothing  to  do  with  true  bone.  In  all  the  living  members  of  the  subclass 
the  optic  nerves  cross  one  another  without  giving  off  any  mutually  interlacing 
fibres,  the  arterial  bulb  of  the  heart  is  furnished  with  three  valves,  the  intestine 
has  a  spiral  valve,  the  eggs  are  large  and  detached,  and  an  air-bladder  is  wanting. 

The  whole  of  the  existing  representatives  of  the  subclass  form  an  order 
(Selachii)  characterised  by  the  cartilaginous  internal  skeleton  being,  as  a  general 
rule,  only  superficially  calcified ;  while,  except  in  some  of  the  earlier  extinct  types, 
the  notochord  is  constricted  at  the  centre  of  each  vertebra.  The  superior  and 
inferior  arches  of  the  vertebrse  are  short  and  stout,  and  intercalary  cartilages  are 
very  generally  developed.  The  pectoral  fin  has  not  a  segmented  longitudinal 
central  axis,  its  cartilaginous  rays  forming  a  fan-shaped  structure  radiating  from 
an  abbreviated  base,  into  the  anatomical  details  of  which  it  will  be  unnecessary  to 
enter  here;  and  the  axis  of  each  pelvic  fin  is  developed  in  the  males  into  a 
"  clasper,"  connected  with  the  reproductive  function.  With  regard  to  the  structure 
of  the  skull,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  hyomandibular  usually  intervenes 
between  the  palatopterygoid  bar  (forming  the  functional  upper  jaw,  and  carrying 
the  teeth)  and  the  cranium  proper ;  but  in  the  genus  Notidanus  the  hyomandibular 
takes  no  share  in  the  support  of  the  jaws,  the  palatopterygoid  bar  articulating 
directly  with  the  cranium  by  means  of  a  facet  behind  the  socket  of  the  eye ;  this 
structure  being  probably  the  original  one.  We  have  already  said  that  the  tooth- 
bearing  palatopterygoid  bar  serves  the  function  of  an  upper  jaw,  by  which  name 
it  may  be  conveniently  referred  to ;  and  similarly  the  functional  lower  jaw  is  in 
reality  the  element  known  as  Meckel's  cartilage.  The  gills  are  attached  to  the 


DISTINCTIVE    CHARACTERS.  521 

skin  by  their  margins,  and  usually  communicate  with  the  exterior  by  means  of 
live  vertical  slits  on  the  sides  of  the  neck,  although  occasionally  the  number  of 
these  clefts  is  increased  to  six  or  seven.  Very  generally  the  mouth  is  situated  on 
the  inferior  aspect  of  the  head ;  and  the  teeth  carried  on  the  functional  jaws  may 
be  either  sharply-pointed  and  separate,  or  blunt  and  articulated  together,  so  as  to 
form  a  more  or  less  pavement-like  structure.  In  the  former  case  there  is  a 


HAMMER-HEADED  SHARK  (^  nat.  size). 


continuous  succession  of  new  teeth  to  replace  the  old  ones  as  they  are  worn  away 
and  shed.  As  a  rule,  the  tail-fin  is  heterocercal,  with  the  upper  lobe  greatly 
elongated  ;  the  pelvic  fins  are  always  abdominal  in  position  ;  and  the  dorsal  fins 
of  many  extinct  and  a  few  living  types  bear  large  spines  on  their  front  edge, 
which,  unlike  those  of  the  bony  fishes,  are  simply  imbedded  in  the  flesh,  without 
articulating  with  the  internal  skeleton,  and  are  consequently  immovable.  Spiracles 
are  frequently  developed  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  head  ;  and  the  intercalary 
cartilages  already  alluded  to  are  ovoid  or  diamond-shaped  structures  occurring 


522  SHARKS  AND  RAYS. 

between  the  superior  arches  of  the  vertebrae.  The  eggs  are  generally  invested  in 
horny  rhomboidal  capsules,  furnished  at  the  four  corners  with  long  tendril-like 
filaments,  by  which  they  attach  themselves  to  the  stems  of  seaweeds  and  other 
bodies,  as  shown  in  the  figure  of  the  lesser  spotted  dog-fish  given  on  p.  529.  In 
some  species,  however,  the  eggs  are  hatched  within  the  body  of  the  female ;  and 
in  all  cases  the  embryos  are  furnished  with  external  gills,  which  are  shed  before 
birth.  All  the  members  of  the  order  subsist  on  animal  substances,  but  whereas  the 
typical  sharks  are  highly  predaceous  creatures,  seizing  and  devouring  everything 
they  come  across,  some  of  the  largest  species  are  armed  only  with  small  teeth,  and 
feed  on  molluscs  and  other  invertebrates.  The  rays,  too,  are  largely  shell-fish 
eaters,  and  most  of  them  differ  from  the  sharks  in  living  on  or  near  the  bottom, 
instead  of  swimming  about  actively  at  or  just  below  the  surface.  All  the  species 
are  typically  marine,  but  many  ascend  tidal  rivers,  and  in  the  Viti  Levu  Lake  in 
Fiji,  as  well  as  in  the  Nicaragua  Lake  in  South  America,  there  are  sharks  dwelling 
permanently  in  fresh  water.  The  species  inhabiting  the  former  lake,  which  is  cut 
off  from  the  sea  by  a  cataract,  is  Carcharias  gangeticus,  common  alike  in  the 
Ganges  and  in  the  Tigris,  and  ascending  in  the  latter  river  to  a  distance  of  three 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  the  sea  in  a  straight  line.  Then,  again,  a  species  of 
saw-fish  is  found  in  a  fresh- water  lake  in  the  Philippines.  It  has  been  commonly 
stated  that  sharks  have  the  power  of  scenting  their  prey  from  a  distance,  since 
they  rapidly  congregate  whenever  animal  refuse  or  other  decomposing  matter  is 
cast  overboard  from  a  ship  ;  but  it  may  be  suggested  that  such  assemblages,  as  in 
the  case  of  vultures,  are  rather  due  to  one  shark  following  the  movements  of 
another,  and  thus  being  attracted  to  the  central  point.  The  order  was  formerly 
divided  into  two  subordinal  groups,  based  upon  the  conformation  of  the  body; 
the  one  group  including  all  the  sharks  and  dog-fishes,  and  the  other  the  rays  and 
their  immediate  allies.  It  has  been  found,  however,  that  although  this  difference 
in  bodily  form  is  of  considerable  importance  in  classification,  yet  that  it  does  not 
constitute  the  essential  line  of  distinction,  which  is  based  upon  a  difference  in  the 
internal  structure  of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae.  Taking  this  character  as  a  basis, 
the  members  of  the  order  may  be  arranged  in  two  subordinal  groups,  the  first  of 
which  comprises  the  true  sharks  and  dog-fishes,  while  the  second  includes  the 
spiny  dog-fishes,  saw-fishes,  eagle-rays,  and  rays. 

THE  BLUE  SHARK  AND  ITS  ALLIES, — Family  CARCHARIID^. 

The  well-known  blue  shark  (Carcharias  glaucus),  of  which  examples  are 
depicted  in  our  coloured  Plate,  may  be  taken  as  the  typical  representative  of  the 
leading  family  of  the  first  suborder.  Before,  however,  indicating  the  characters 
of  the  family,  we  must  refer  to  those  of  the  suborder,  for  which  the  name  of 
Asterospondyli  has  been  suggested.  The  essential  feature  of  this  group  is  to  be 
found  in  the  circumstance  that  when  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  are  fully  calcified, 
the  radiating  plates  in  the  interior  predominate  over  the  circular  ones,  so  that  a 
transverse  section  presents  a  star-like  arrangement.  All  these  fishes  have  an  anal 
fin,  and  the  form  of  the  body  elongated  and  subcylindrical,  while  the  tail  is 
powerful  and  well  adapted  for  swimming.  In  no  case  are  the  pectoral  fins 


TYPICAL   GROUP.  523 

expanded;  and  the  spiracle  is  always  small  and  may  be  wanting.  The  front 
teeth,  and  very  frequently  also  those  on  the  sides  of  the  jaws,  are  formed  on  the 
type  of  a  laterally  compressed  cone  with  cutting  edges,  at  the  base  of  which  two 
or  more  smaller  cones  may  be  developed ;  but  in  one  existing  and  many  extinct 
genera  the  hinder  teeth  have  blunt  crowns  adapted  for  crushing.  The  two  branches 
of  the  jaws  do  not  run  parallel  to  each  other,  in  consequence  of  which  the  teeth 
form  oblique  rows,  whereas  in  the  rays  they  are  set  in  straight  longitudinal  rows. 
From  the  other  sharks  the  members  of  the  present  family  may  be  distinguished 
by  the  absence  of  spines  in  both  the  dorsal  fins,  of  which  the  first  is  situated  above 
the  interval  between  the  pectoral  and  pelvic  pairs ;  by  the  presence  of  a  nictitating 
membrane  to  the  eye;  and  by  the  teeth,  when  fully  formed,  being  hollow,  and 
usually  pointed.  The  bony  elements  in  the  skin  take  the  form  of  minute  granules, 
thus  constituting  the  well-known  "  shagreen,"  as  the  dried  skin  is  termed. 

In  all  the  members  of  the  typical  genus  (Carcharias) 
the  muzzle  is  produced  forwards,  and  the  inferiorly-placed  mouth 
is  crescentic  and  armed  with  large,  flat,  triangular,  single-coned  teeth,  of 
which  the  upper  ones  differ  considerably  in  form  from  those  of  the  lower  jaw. 
Spiracles  are  absent,  and  there  is  a  pit  at  the  root  of  the  caudal  fin,  which  has  a 
distinct  lower  lobe.  At  the  present  day  these  sharks  are  represented  by  between 
thirty  and  forty  species,  of  which  the  blue  shark  is  one  of  the  commonest  and 
most  widely  distributed ;  while  in  a  fossil  state  the  genus  is  known  from  the 
Tertiary  formations.  The  blue  shark  frequently  attains  a  length  of  from  12  to 
15  feet,  but  some  of  the  other  species  are  stated  to  grow  to  as  much  as  25  feet. 
In  common  with  the  other  larger  members  of  the  suborder,  all  these  sharks  are 
more  abundant  in  tropical  than  in  temperate  seas ;  but  the  blue  shark  is  by  no 
means  an  uncommon  visitor  to  British  waters,  more  especially  on  the  southern  and 
western  coasts  of  Ireland.  Mr.  J.  T.  Carrington  writes  that  they  more  usually 
wander  to  the  British  coasts  "  in  warm  weather,  especially  in  autumn,  but  they 
have  been  seen  in  June,  and  even  in  the  month  of  March.  They  are  nocturnal  in 
their  more  active  habits,  taking  rest  and  sleep  in  the  daytime,  often  on  the  surface 
of  the  water,  with  a  portion  of  the  dorsal  fin  and  extremity  of  the  tail  exposed 
above  in  the  air.  So  gentle  are  they  in  their  movements  that,  unlike  many  other 
monsters  of  the  deep,  they  do  not  disturb  the  luminous  creatures,  which  at  the 
same  time  will  be  lighting  every  wavelet  with  their  phosphorescence.  Blue, 
sharks  are  not  very  particular  as  to  what  fish  they  take  as  food,  though  those 
which  are  gregarious  in  their  habits,  like  mackerel,  pilchards,  and  herring,  are 
most  commonly  hunted  by  them.  It  is  on  record  that  big  fish,  such  as  congers 
and  the  larger  dog-fish,  were  found  in  a  dead  specimen  from  Cornwall.  Occasion- 
ally they  become  entangled  in  the  drift-nets  set  by  the  pilchard-fishers,  but  these 
sharks  will  also  take  a  bait.  Great  care  is  necessary  in  landing  a  hooked  specimen, 
in  case  it  gives  a  blow  with  its  tail,  which  may  result  in  serious  consequences,  such 
as  broken  limbs  or  ribs."  It  is  a  somewhat  remarkable  fact  that  in  places  like 
Aden,  where  sharks  of  various  kinds  abound,  the  natives  will  swim  and  dive 
fearlessly  in  the  open  sea,  where  a  European  would  be  almost  instantly  devoured 
by  these  monsters.  The  blue  shark  has  the  whole  of  the  upper-parts  slaty  blue, 
and  the  under  surface  white. 


524  SHARKS  AND  RAYS. 

Our  next  representative  of  the  family  is  the  small  shark 
commonly  known  as  the  tope  (Galeus  canis),  which  belongs  to  a 
genus  including  only  two  species  and  characterised  as  follows.  The  muzzle  is 
short  and  the  mouth  crescent-shaped ;  very  small  spiracles  are  present ;  there  is  no 
pit  at  the  root  of  the  caudal  fin,  which  has  only  a  single  notch ;  and  the  teeth, 
which  are  similar  in  the  two  jaws,  have  serrated  edges,  and  a  notch  on  the  hinder 
border.  The  common  tope,  which  is  usually  about  6  feet  in  length,  although  it 
may  grow  to  7  feet,  is  a  very  widely  spread  species,  ranging  over  all  temperate 
and  tropical  seas,  and  visiting  the  shores  of  such  widely  separated  localities  as 
California,  the  British  Islands,  and  Australia.  In  colour  it  is  dark  grey  above, 
and  dirty  white  beneath.  The  second  living  species  inhabits  the  Japanese  seas ; 
and  teeth  from  the  Tertiary  formations  of  Europe  have  been  referred  to  the 
genus.  In  habits  the  tope  is  a  bottom-haunting  species — especially  during  the 
winter  months — and  devours  other  fish,  crustaceans,  and  star-fishes.  It  is  not 
unfrequently  taken  by  the  line,  and  is  thus  a  great  source  of  annoyance  to  fisher- 
men, especially  on  the  Norfolk  coast,  where  considerable  numbers  are  sometimes 
hooked.  The  young  are  produced  alive,  and  it  is  stated  that  there  have  been 
instances  of  as  many  as  fifty  individuals  in  a  single  brood. 

Having  teeth  very  similar  to  the  true  sharks,  the  five  species 
Hammerheads. 

known  as  hammerheads,   or  hammer-headed   sharks,  one  of    which 

(Sphyrna  malleus)  is  represented  in  the  illustration  on  p.  521,  form  a  genus  unique 
among  fishes  in  the  extraordinary  conformation  of  the  head.  Instead  of  retaining 
the  usual  more  or  less  pointed  form,  the  front  part  of  the  head  of  these  sharks 
is  broad,  flattened,  and  expanded  on  each  side  into  a  process,  on  the  flat  terminal 
surface  of  which  is  situated  the  eye.  This,  of  course,  is  quite  sufficient  to  dis- 
tinguish the  genus ;  but  it  may  be  added  that  the  caudal  fin  has  a  single  notch 
and  a  pit  at  its  root,  there  are  110  spiracles,  the  nostrils  are  situated  on  the 
front  edge  of  the  head,  and  the  mouth  is  crescent-shaped.  The  teeth  differ  from 
those  of  the  true  sharks  in  being  similar  in  both  jaws ;  their  margins  being  either 
smooth  or  serrated.  Hammerheads  range  over  all  the  warmer  seas,  the  common 
species  being  sometimes  taken  on  the  British  coast ;  and  an  extinct  form  occurs 
in  strata  of  Miocene  age.  Growing  to  a  length  of  some  14  or  15  feet,  the  common 
hammerhead  is  one  of  the  most  formidable  and  voracious  of  its  tribe,  and  is  much 
feared  in  the  Indian  seas. 

und  By  this  somewhat  inappropriate  title  are  designated  two  small 

British  sharks,  one  of  which  (Mustelus  Icevis)  is  shown  in  the  lower 
figure  of  the  accompanying  illustration.  Externally  these  sharks  are  not  unlike 
the  tope,  but  the  snout  is  less  pointed.  As  a  genus  they  are  characterised  by  the 
rather  short  muzzle ;  the  crescent-shaped  mouth  ;  the  presence  of  minute  spiracles ; 
the  absence  of  a  pit  at  the  base  of  the  caudal  fin,  which  has  scarcely  any  lower 
lobe;  and  the  slight  difference  in  the  size  of  the  two  dorsal  fins.  The  teeth, 
moreover,  are  small  and  numerous,  being  either  blunt  or  with  indistinct  cusps, 
and  forming  a  kind  of  pavement-like  structure ;  those  in  the  upper  jaw  being 
similar  to  these  in  the  lower.  The  smooth  hound,  which  is  the  species  here 
figured,  is  generally  about  4  feet  in  length,  although  it  may  reach  to  6  feet.  The 
sides  of  the  back  are  marked  by  a  series  of  whitish  spots,  more  distinct  in 


PORBEAGLE   GROUP.  525 

the  young  than  in  the  adult.  Feeding  on  molluscs  and  crustaceans,  this  species 
(which  ranges  over  most  warm  seas)  produces  about  a  dozen  young  at  a  birth, 
these  being  attached  by  a  placental  structure  to  the  walls  of  the  uterus  of  the 
parent.  Curiously  enough  such  connection  is,  however,  totally  wanting  in  the 
young  of  the  other  British  species  (M.  vulgaris).  In  habits  the  hounds  are  bottom- 
haunting  species,  as  indeed  might  be  inferred  from  the  nature  of  their  food.  On 


SPINY  DOG-FISH  AND  SMOOTH   HOUND  (i  nat.  size). 

the  English  coast  the  smooth  hound  generally  makes  its  appearance  during  the 
summer  in  pursuit  of  the  shoals  of  pilchard  and  herring.  Several  other  genera  of 
this  family  must  be  passed  over  without  notice. 

THE  PORBEAGLE  GROUP, — Family  LAMNIDJE. 

Agreeing  with  the  typical  sharks  in  the  position  of  the  two  spineless  dorsal 
fins,  the  members  of  the  present  family  may  be  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  a 


526  SHARKS  AND  RAYS. 

nictitating  membrane  to  the  eye;  and  also  by  the  solid  structure  of  the  fully 
formed  teeth,  which  are  pointed,  and  in  most  of  the  genera  relatively  large.  In 
addition  to  these  features,  it  may  be  noted  that  the  gill-openings  are  generally 
wide,  and  the  spiracles  either  minute  or  wanting.  This  family  dates  from  the 
period  of  the  Chalk,  where  there  occur  remains  of  species  some  of  which  are 
referable  to  genera  still  existing,  such  as  the  porbeagles,  while  others  indicate 
extinct  generic  type.  The  fox-sharks  and  the  gigantic  Carcharodon  are,  however, 
unknown  before  the  Tertiary  period. 

The  shark  (Lamna  cornubica)  commonly  known  to  the  British 

fishermen  as  the  porbeagle — a  word  supposed  to  be  derived  from 
its  porpoise-like  appearance  and  active  predatory  habits — is  the  type  of  a  genus 
containing  three  existing  species,  and  characterised  by  the  small  size  of  the  second 
dorsal  and  anal  fin,  and  the  presence  of  a  pit  at  the  root  of  the  caudal  fin — of  which 
the  lower  lobe  is  much  developed — and  also  of  a  keel  along  the  sides  of  the  tail. 
The  teeth  are  narrow  and  slender,  with  one  or  two  pairs  of  small  accessory  cones 
at  their  bases ;  the  edges  of  the  main  cone  being  smooth.  The  common  porbeagle 
wanders  all  over  the  North  Atlantic,  and  has  also  been  taken  in  Japan ;  it  does 
not  commonly  exceed  10  feet  in  length,  and  its  colour  is  dull  grey  above  and 
whitish  beneath.  Its  food  chiefly  consists  of  fishes,  which  are  apparently 
swallowed  whole;  the  lancet-like  teeth  of  this  shark  being  apparently  more 
adapted  for  seizing  and  holding  than  for  tearing  prey.  The  porbeagle  is  stated  to 
be  a  viviparous  species. 

Rondeieti's  The  most  formidable  of  all  the  existing  members  of  the  group  is 

Shark.  the  gigantic  Rondeieti's  shark  (Carcharodon  rondeletii),  distinguished 
from  the  porbeagles  by  the  great  size  of  the  broadly  triangular  teeth,  which  have 
strongly  serrated  edges,  and  may  possess  basal  cusps.  The  existing  species,  which 
is  a  purely  pelagic  creature  ranging  over  all  the  warmer  seas,  is  known  to  attain 
a  length  of  40  feet,  one  of  the  teeth  of  a  specimen  of  36  feet  in  length  measuring 
2  inches  along  the  edge  of  the  crown,  and  If  inches  across  the  base.  Similar 
teeth  are  found  in  the  Crag  deposits  of  Suffolk,  and  are  referred  to  the  existing 
species;  but  from  these  same  beds,  and  also  froih  the  bottom  of  the  Pacific, 
between  Polynesia  and  Australia,  there  are  obtained  other  teeth  of  much  larger 
dimensions,  some  of  them  measuring  upwards  of  5  inches  along  the  edge  and 
4  inches  in  basal  depth.  These  teeth  evidently  indicate  sharks  beside  which  the 
existing  form  is  a  comparative  dwarf :  and  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  the 
specimens  dredged  from  the  bed  of  the  Pacific  indicate  that  these  giants  must  in 
all  probability  have  survived  to  a  comparatively  recent  date.  Observations  are 
still  required  as  to  the  mode  of  life  and  breeding-habits  of  Rondeieti's  shark. 
Two  other  species  of  large  sharks  constitute  the  genus  Odontaspis.  With  teeth 
almost  indistinguishable  from  those  of  the  porbeagles,  these  species  differ  by  the 
second  dorsal  and  anal  fins  being  nearly  as  large  as  the  first  dorsal,  and  the 
absence  of  a  pit  at  the  root  of  the  caudal  fin,  and  of  a  keel  on  the  sides  of  the  tail. 
FOX  s&ark  Another  species  not  uncommonly  met  with  in  British  waters  is 

Lhe  fox-shark  or  thresher  (Alopecias  vulpes),  the  sole  representative 
of  its  genus,  and  easily  recognised  by  the  inordinate  length  of  the  upper  lobe  of 
its  tail-fin,  from  which  it  derives  its  name.  Growing  to  a  length  of  15  feet,  of 


B  ASKING-SHARKS.  527 

which  more  than  half  is  taken  up  by  the  tail,  this  shark  has  the  second  dorsal  and 
anal  fins  very  small ;  the  caudal  fin  extremely  elongated,  and  without  a  pit  at  its 
root ;  no  keel  on  the  sides  of  the  tail ;  and  the  teeth,  which  are  similar  in  both 
jaws,  of  small  size,  compressed  and  triangular,  with  smooth  edges.  Like  most 
sharks,  the  thresher  has  a  wide  range,  being  abundant  throughout  the  Atlantic  and 
Mediterranean,  and  also  found  off  the  coasts  of  New  Zealand  and  California.  The 
comparatively  small  size  of  its  teeth  indicates  that  it  is  not  adapted  for  killing 
large  prey ;  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  this  shark  chiefly  feeds  upon  the  various 
species  of  the  herring  tribe  and  mackerel,  among  which  it  inflicts  terrible  destruc- 
tion. It  derives  its  name  of  thresher  from  its  habit  of  beating  the  water  with  its 
long  tail  in  order  to  drive  the  members  of  the  shoals  on  which  it  preys  into  a 
compact  mass,  when  they  can  be  the  more  readily  seized ;  and  its  voracity  may  be 
inferred  from  the  fact  of  no  less  than  nineteen  mackerel  and  two  herrings  having 
been  taken  from  the  stomach  of  a  single  individual.  It  is  commonly  reported  by 
sailors  that  threshers,  in  company  with  killers  and  sword-fish,  make  attacks  on  whales 
by  leaping  high  in  the  air  and  belabouring  the  unfortunate  cetaceans  with  powerful 
blows  of  their  tails  as  they  descend ;  but  these  statements  have  been  generally 
discredited  by  naturalists,  apparently  on  the  ground  that  the  teeth  of  these  sharks 
are  not  adapted  for  rending  the  flesh  of  large  animals.  It  is,  however,  somewhat 
difficult  on  such  grounds  to  refuse  to  believe  the  circumstantial  accounts  we 
possess,  and  it  may  be  that  the  threshers  join  in  the  fray  in  order  to  feed  on  the 
smaller  fragments  left  by  their  more  powerfully  armed  coadjutors. 

The  largest  of  the  North  Atlantic  members  of  the  suborder  is 
'  the  basking-shark  (Cetorhinus  maximus),  which  now  alone  represents 
a  genus  with  the  second  dorsal  and  anal  fins  very  small,  a  pit  at  the  root  of  the 
caudal  fin,  a  keel  on  each  side  of  the  tail,  the  gill-clefts  very  large  and  wide, 
and  the  teeth  very  small,  numerous,  and  conical,  without  basal  cusps,  and  seldom 
serrated  at  the  edges.  This  shark,  which  grows  to  a  length  of  over  30  feet,  is 
regularly  hunted  on  the  west  coast  of  Iceland  for  the  sake  of  the  oil  from  its  liver, 
of  which  a  single  fish  may  yield  considerably  more  than  a  ton.  It  derives  its 
name  from  its  habit  of  lying  motionless  during  calm,  warm  weather  on  the  surface 
of  the  water,  with  the  tall  first  dorsal  fin  and  a  considerable  portion  of  its  back 
exposed ;  several  individuals  often  consorting  together.  The  gill-arches  are  provided 
with  very  long  rakers  bearing  granular  tooth-like  structures ;  and  in  the  young 
the  muzzle  is  relatively  longer  and  more  pointed  than  in  the  adult.  Unless 
attacked,  when  it  can  inflict  blows  with  its  tail  capable  of  staving  in  the  sides  of 
a  boat,  this  shark  is  perfectly  harmless,  its  food  consisting  entirely  of  small  fishes 
which  swim  in  shoals,  and  various  invertebrates.  Kemains  of  an  extinct  species 
occur  in  the  Pliocene  deposits  of  Belgium,  while  others  from  older  Tertiary  beds 
have  been  tentatively  assigned  to  the  genus. 

INDO-PACIFIC  BASKING-SHARK, — Family  RHINODONTIDJS. 

Although  resembling  the  true  basking-shark  in  the  large  size  of  its  gill-clefts 
and  the  structure  of  its  gill-rakers,  the  gigantic  species  (Rhinodon  typicus)  figured 
in  the  illustration  on  p.  528  differs  in  having  the  mouth  and  nostrils  situated 


528  SHARKS  AND  RAYS. 

near  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle,  as  well  as  in  the  backward  position  of  the  small 
first  dorsal  fin,  which  does  not  reach  to  the  level  of  the  highest  point  of  the  back, 
instead  of  standing  immediately  above  it.  Moreover,  instead  of  being  subcylindrical, 
the  whole  body  of  this  shark  is  markedly  depressed  and  the  huge  mouth  forms  a 
nearly  oblong  aperture,  and  is  armed  with  bands  of  very  small  and  numerous 
teeth.  The  sides  of  the  tail  bear  a  well  -defined  keel,  and  the  lower  lobe  of  the 
caudal  fin  is  well  developed.  In  its  varied  coloration  this  fish  differs  markedly 
from  the  majority  of  sharks,  being  ornamented  with  buff  spots  and  stripes  upon  a 
dark  ground.  Although  probably  widely  distributed  within  the  tropics,  this 


INDO-PACIFIC  BASKING-SHARK 


nat.  size). 


monster  has  hitherto  been  met  with  but  locally.  For  many  years  the  sole  evidence 
of  its  existence  rested  upon  a  specimen,  15  feet  long,  brought  ashore  in  Table  Bay 
in  April  1828,  which  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  late  Sir  Andrew  Smith,  who 
described  and  figured  it.  This  specimen  was  preserved  by  a  French  taxidermist, 
who  sold  it  to  the  Paris  Museum,  where  it  still  remains.  Forty  years  later,  in 
1868,  Dr.  Perceval  Wright,  whilst  staying  at  the  Seychelles,  met  with  this  shark, 
and  obtained  the  first  authentic  information  about  it.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  rare 
in  that  archipelago,  but  is  very  seldom  obtained  on  account  of  its  large  size  and  the 
difficulties  attending  its  capture.  Dr.  Wright  saw  specimens  which  exceeded 
50  feet  in  length,  and  one  that  was  actually  measured  proved  to  be  more  than 
45  feet  long.  Nothing  more  was  heard  of  the  species  until  January  1878,  in 


DOG-FISHES. 


which  year  the  capture  of  another  specimen  was  reported  from  the  Peruvian  coast 
near  Callao ;  finally,  in  the  "  nineties "  it  was  discovered  on  the  west  coast  of 
Ceylon,  where  two  or  three  specimens  were  obtained.  One  of  these  was  presented 
to  the  British  Museum :  and,  having  been  mounted,  is  now  exhibited  in  the  Fish 
Gallery,  where  it  forms  one  of  the  most  striking  objects,  although  only  a  young 
example,  measuring  17  feet  from  the  end  of  the  snout  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail. 
It  has  been  stated  that  this  fish  feeds  on  seaweeds,  but  it  is  more  probable  that 
its  food  is  similar  to  that  of  the  basking-shark. 


LESSER  SPOTTED   DOG-FISH  AND  ITS  EGGS  (\  liat.  size). 

THE  DOG-FISHES  AND  THEIR  ALLIES, — Family 

Agreeing  with  the  preceding  families  in  the  absence  of  spines  to  the  dorsal  fin, 
the  dog-fishes  and  their  allies  may  be  distinguished  from  the  sharks  hitherto 
noticed,  in  which  the  mouth  is  inferior  in  position,  by  the  more  backward  situation 
of  the  first  dorsal,  which  is  placed  above  or  behind  the  line  of  the  pelvic  fins. 
They  have  no  nictitating  membrane  to  the  eye;  and  the  teeth  are  small,  with 
several  series  generally  in  use  at  the  same  time.  In  all  there  are  distinct  spiracles. 

VOL.  v. — 34 


53o  SHARKS  AND  RAYS. 

Represented  in  British  waters  by  the  larger  (ScyUiwm  canicula), 
True  Dog-Fishes.        _  ,  -    ,        *  •,    /a        *    i      \   xu«  •       i.  •      j  i 

and  lesser  spotted  dog-fish  (8.  catulus),  this  genus  is  characterised  by 

the  first  dorsal  fin  being  above  or  behind  the  line  of  the  pelvic  pair ;  by  the  origin 
of  the  anal  being  in  advance  of  the  line  of  that  of  the  second  dorsal ;  the  absence 
of  serration  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  caudal  fin ;  and  the  small  and  delicate  teeth, 
which  are  arranged  in  numerous  series,  and  generally  have  a  long  central  cusp, 
flanked  by  one  or  two  small  ones  on  each  side.  About  half  a  score  of  species  have 
been  described,  ranging  over  the  coast-regions  of  most  temperate  and  tropical  species, 
and  all  of  comparatively  small  size ;  the  majority  having  prettily  spotted  skins. 
Their  food  consists  mainly  of  crustaceans  and  molluscs ;  and  their  flesh  is  eaten 
not  unfrequently  by  fishermen,  while  in  the  Orkneys,  where  the  British  species  are 
more  abundant  than  elsewhere,  it  is  regularly  dried  for  winter  consumption.  The 
shagreen  of  their  skins  is  also  employed  in  wood-polishing.  These  sharks  lay  eggs 
of  the  form  shown  in  our  illustration.  Fossil  dog-fishes  date  from  the  period  of 
the  Chalk ;  and  they  are  represented  in  the  Kimeridge  Clay  by  the  extinct 
Palceoscyllium,  in  which  the  origin  of  the  second  dorsal  fin  is  placed  in  advance  of 
that  of  the  small  anal. 

Among  several  allied  genera  we  may  especially  notice  the  zebra- 
shark  (Stegostoma  tigrinum)  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  attaining  a  length 
of  from  10  to  15  feet,  and  noticeable  for  its  handsome  coloration,  which  consists  of 
a  brownish  yellow  ground-colour,  marked  with  black  or  brown  transverse  bars 
or  round  spots.  In  this  fish  the  first  dorsal  fin  is  above  the  line  of  the  pelvic  pair, 
while  the  second  is  in  advance  of  the  line  of  the  anal,  which  is  approximated  to 
the  caudal ;  the  latter  being  greatly  elongated,  and  equal  to  half  the  total  length. 
Young  specimens  of  this  shark  are  generally  met  with  near  the  coast,  but  the 
adults  are  more  or  less  pelagic.  Dog-fishes  of  smaller  size  from  the  Indian  Ocean 
constitute  the  genus  Chiloscyllium,  in  which  the  first  dorsal  fin  is  either  above  or 
behind  the  line  of  the  pelvics ;  while  the  anal  is  far  behind  that  of  the  second 
dorsal,  and  close  to  the  caudal;  the  teeth  being  small  and  triangular,  with  or 
without  lateral  cusps.  The  existing  species  are  very  handsomely  ornamented  with 
dark  bands  and  spots.  In  a  fossil  state  the  genus  has  been  recorded  from  the 
Miocene  Tertiary.  Three  bottom-haunting  sharks  from  the  Japanese  and  Australian 
seas  have  been  described  under  the  name  of  Crossorhinus,  and  are  remarkable  for 
the  presence  of  leaf -like  expansions  of  the  skin  on  the  sides  of  the  head.  As  in 
the  case  of  other  fish  similarly  adorned,  these  structures  are  probably  for  the 
purpose  of  attracting  prey ;  and  in  order  that  they  may  be  well  concealed,  these 
sharks  have  a  coloration  closely  assimilating  to  that  of  a  rock  covered  with  sea- 
weed or  corallines. 

THE  PAVEMENT-TOOTHED  SHARKS,— Family  CESTKACIONTID^. 

The  well-known  Port  Jackson  shark  (Cestracion  pldlippi)  and  three  allied 
species  are  the  sole  existing  representatives  of  a  family  which  was  exceedingly 
abundant  during  the  Secondary  epoch.  They  differ  from  all  the  foregoing  in 
the  presence  of  a  strong  spine  on  the  front  edge  of  each  of  the  two  dorsal  fins. 
The  first  dorsal  fin  is  situated  above  the  space  between  the  pectoral  and  pelvic 


PAVEMENT-TOOTHED   SHARKS.  531 

pairs ;  and  the  teeth,  of  which  several  series  are  in  use  at  the  same  time,  are  more 
or  less  blunt  and  broad,  more  especially  in  the  hinder  part  of  the  jaws,  although 
those  in  each  oblique  row  are  never  fused  together  into  continuous  plates.  In 


PORT  JACKSON  SHARK 


the  existing  genus  there  is  no  nictitating  membrane  to  the  eye ;  the  body  is 
moderately  elongated,  with  the  second  dorsal  fin  in  advance  of  the  line  of  the 
anal ;  and  the  mouth  is  almost  or  quite  terminal.  In  the  dentition,  the  front  teeth 
are  small,  numerous,  and 
sharp,  while  the  hinder  ones 
are  broad  and  flattened,  with  a 
slight  longitudinal  ridge  and  a 
net-like  ornamentation.  The 
spines  of  the  dorsal  fins  are 
smooth,  covered  on  the  sides 
with  a  thick  layer  of  ganoin ; 
the  shagreen  is  fine ;  and  the 
head  is  devoid  of  spines.  In 
the  existing  species  the  egg- 
capsules  assume  a  remarkable 
screw-like  form,  quite  unlike 
that  of  any  other  member  of 
the  family.  The  living  mem- 
bers of  the  genus,  none  of 
which  exceed  5  feet  in  length, 
have  been  recorded  from  the 
seas  of  Japan,  Amboyna,  LOWER  JAW  OF  PORT  JACKSON  SHARK  (\  nat.  size). 

Australia,       the       Galapagos 

Islands,  and  California ;  while  remains  of  extinct  forms  occur  in  the  Cretaceous 
and  Upper  Jurassic  strata  of  Europe.  Very  little  appears  to  be  known  as  to  their 
habits ;  but  their  food  is  stated  to  consist  principally  of  molluscs,  the  hard  shells 
of  which  are  crushed  by  the  pavement-like  hinder  teeth. 


532  SHARKS  AND  RAYS. 

Of  the  numerous  fossil  genera  of  the  family  only  a  very  brief 
mention  can  be  made.  One  of  the  earliest  is  the  Carboniferous 
Orodus,  with  teeth  very  like  those  of  the  later  Hybodus,  ranging  from  the  Trias 
to  the  lower  Cretaceous.  In  the  last-named  genus  the  notochord  is  persistent,  the 
bluntly  conical  or  cusped  teeth  have  a  central  and  two  or  more  lateral  cusps,  the 
fin-spines  are  ridged,  and  there  are  two  hook-like  spines  below  each  eye.  Acrodus, 
with  a  nearly  similar  range,  has,  on  the  other  hand,  blunt  teeth ;  while  the  Jurassic 
Asteracanthus  differs  from  Hybodus  by  its  rhomboidal,  roughened,  and  flattened 
teeth,  and  the  star-like  ornamentation  of  the  spines  of  the  dorsal  fins.  In 
Synechodus  of  the  Chalk  all  the  teeth  are  cusped ;  the  anterior  ones  having  a  tall 
central  cusp,  flanked  with  from  three  to  five  small  lateral  pairs.  An  allied  extinct 
family  (Cocldiodontidce),  confined  to  the  Carboniferous  rocks,  differs  by  the 
component  teeth  of  at  least  one  of  the  oblique  rows  being  fused  into  a  continuous 
curved  plate,  which  may  be  either  smooth  or  ridged.  Many  of  the  extinct 
representatives  of  these  families  exceeded  the  Port  Jackson  shark  in  size. 

THE  COMB-TOOTHED  SHARKS, — Family  NOTIDANID^E. 

A  very  remarkable  family  is  now  represented  by  the  four  species  of  comb- 
toothed  sharks  (Notidanus)  and  the  frill-gilled  shark  (Chlamydoselache  anguineus), 
the  latter  of  which  is  shown  in  the  illustration.  Whereas  in  all  other  sharks  the 
gill-clefts  are  four  in  number,  in  the  present  family  they  are  increased  to  five  or  six ; 

while  there  is  a  further 
peculiarity  in  regard  to  the 
structure  of  the  skull.  It  has 
been  already  stated  (p.  520) 
that  in  the  more  typical 

LOWER   TEETH  OF  EXTINCT  COMB-TOOTHED   SHARKS.  sharks      tll6      functional      loWei* 

jaw    is     articulated    to     the 

cranium  by  the  intervention  of  the  hyomandibular  element;  but  in  the  Port 
Jackson  shark  this  element  becomes  reduced  in  size,  and  the  palatopterygoid  bar 
(the  functional  upper  jaw)  has  a  facet  by  which  it  articulates  directly  with  the 
cranium.  In  the  present  family,  on  the  other  hand,  the  hyomandibular  takes  no 
share  in  the  suspension  of  the  jaws,  which  are  articulated  to  the  cranium  solely 
by  means  of  the  facet  on  the  palatopterygoid  bar;  the  latter  joining  a  corre- 
sponding facet  on  the  cranium  behind  the  socket  for  the  eye.  In  addition  to  their 
more  numerous  gill-slits,  the  comb -toothed  sharks  are  distinguished  externally 
from  all  those  hitherto  considered  by  having  only  a  single  dorsal  fin,  whicli  is 
situated  far  back  on  the  body  and  has  no  spine.  The  eye  is  devoid  of  a  nictitating 
membrane ;  the  spiracles  are  small ;  and  the  teeth,  of  which  several  series  are  in 
use  at  the  same  time,  have  sharply-pointed  cusps. 

T    ical  Genus  "^n   ^e   typical   gen^s   the   body  is   moderately  elongated,  the 

mouth  inferior  in  position,  and  the  gill-openings,  which  may  be  either 

six  or  seven  in  number,  are  devoid  of  flaps.     The  principal  teeth  consist  of  a  series 

of  cusps  placed  upon  a  long  base,  all  inclining  in  one  direction,  and  decreasing  in 

size  from  the  front  to  the  back ;  the  number  of  these  cusps  being  greater  in  the 


FRILL-GILLED  SHARK. 


533 


teeth  of  the  lower  than  in  those  of  the  upper  jaw.  With  the  occasional  exception 
of  some  portions  of  the  tail,  the  notochord  persists  throughout  life.  At  the  present 
day  the  range  of  the  existing  members  of  the  genus  includes  most  temperate  and 
tropical  seas,  some  of  the  species  reaching  as  much  as  15  feet  in  length.  Whereas 
in  the  grey  comb-toothed  shark  (Notidcmus  griseus),  of  the  Atlantic  and  Mediter- 
ranean, the  number  of  gill-clefts  is  six,  in  each  of  the  other  three  species  it  is  seven. 
Fossil  species  occur  from  the  Pliocene  to  the  middle  Jurassic ;  many  of  these,  like 
the  one  of  which  two  teeth  are  shown  in  the  illustration,  being  of  much  larger 
dimensions  than  any  of  the  existing  forms.  As  to  the  habits  of  these  sharks,  there 
appears  to  be  practically  no  information. 

Friii-Giiied  From  the  typical  genus  of  the  family  the  Japanese  frill-gilled 

Shark.        shark  differs  by  the  greatly  elongated  and  slender  form  of  the  body ; 

and  by  each  of  the  six  gill-clefts  being  protected  by  a  frill-like  flap  of  skin.     The 


FRILL-GILLED   SHARK. 


teeth  are  also  of  a  somewhat  simpler  structure,  being  similar  in  both  jaws,  and  each 
consisting  of  three  slender,  curved,  and  subconical  cusps,  separated  by  a  pair  of 
rudimentary  ones ;  while  there  is  an  unpaired  median  series  at  the  extremity  of 
the  lower  jaw  only,  instead  of  in  both  the  upper  and  the  lower.  Although  mainly 
persistent,  the  notochord  is  in  part  replaced  by  ill-developed  vertebrae  of  the  type 
characteristic  of  the  suborder.  Fossil  teeth  from  the  European  Miocene  have  been 
assigned  to  this  genus. 


THE  SPINY  DOG-FISHES  AND  THEIR  ALLIES, — Family 

Although  the  members  of  the  present  family  approximate  in  their  external 
conformation  more  to  the  typical  sharks  than  to  the  rays,  yet  in  the  structure  of 
their  vertebrae  they  agree  with  the  latter.  Accordingly,  both  the  spiny  dog-fishes, 
rays,  saw-fishes,  and  their  kindred  are  regarded  as  forming  a  suborder  (Tecto- 
spondyli)  distinguished  from  the  one  including  the  preceding  families  by  the 
following  characters.  In  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae,  when  fully  developed,  the 
concentric  calcified  plates  are  more  numerous  than  those  radiating  from  the  centre ; 


534 


SHARKS  AND  RAYS. 


and  the  anal  tin  is  invariably  wanting.  In  the  more  specialised  forms  the  body  is 
greatly  developed,  and  the  pectoral  fins  attain  an  enormous  development ;  while  the 
spiracles  are  of  large  size,  and  always  retained.  The  present  family  includes  the 
most  generalised  members  of  the  group,  in  which  the  body  is  cylindrical  or 
triangular,  and  but  very  slightly  depressed ;  the  mouth  being  gently  arched,  and 
the  muzzle  blunt.  The  pectoral  fins  have  no  forward  prolongation,  and  are  not 
notched  at  their  point  of  origin;  and  the  small  and  lateral  gill-clefts  may  be 
either  in  the  line  of  the  pectorals,  or  half  below.  The  large  spiracles  are  placed 
behind  the  eyes ;  there  is  no  nictitating  membrane  to  the  eye ;  and  the  two  dorsal 
fins  may  or  may  not  be  provided  with  spines. 

The  common  spiny,  or  picked,  dog-fish  (Acanthias  vulgar  is) } 
'  shown  in  the  upper  figure  of  the  illustration  on  p.  525,  is  the  most 
familiar  representative  of  a  very  small  genus  characterised  by  the  presence  of 
spines  to  the  dorsal  fins,  and  by  the  peculiar  form  of  the  teeth,  which  are  similar 
in  the  two  jaws,  and  small,  triangular,  and  compressed,  with  the  points  much  turned 
aside,  and  the  cutting-edge  formed  by  the  inner  margin.  The  common  species 
measures  from  3  to  4  feet  in  length,  and  is  slaty  blue  above,  and  yellowish  white 
beneath.  It  is  very  abundant  on  the  British  coasts,  sometimes  making  its  appear- 
ance in  such  incredible  numbers  that  upwards  of  twenty  thousand  were  once 
captured  in  a  single  haul  on  the  Cornish  coast.  In  common  with  an  allied  species 
(A.  blainvillei),  this  dog-fish  presents  the  peculiarity  of  inhabiting  the  two 
temperate  zones  but  being  unknown  in  the  intervening  tropical  seas.  The  eggs 
are  hatched  within  the  body  of  the  female,  and  a  considerable  number  of  young 
are  produced  at  a  birth.  Somewhat  dangerous  wounds  result  from  the  spines. 

Among  other  types,  we  may  notice  the  genus  Centrophorus, 
represented  by  eight  European  species,  and  a  ninth  from  the  Moluccas, 
all  of  which  differ  from  the  last  by  the  upper  teeth  being  erect  and  spear-like,  with 
a  single  cusp ;  the  dorsal  spines  being  often  very  small.  Apparently  not  exceeding 
5  feet  in  length,  these  sharks  are  noteworthy  on  account  of  the  depth  at  which 
they  live ;  one  of  the  species  being  caught  with  lines  at  a  depth  of  from  three  to 
four  hundred  fathoms  off  the  coast  of  Portugal.  When  hauled  up,  these  fish  are 
quite  dead,  owing  to  the  diminished  pressure.  A  fossil  species  occurs  in  the  Chalk 
of  Syria.  In  the  typical  genus  Spinax  the  teeth  in  the  two  jaws  are  likewise 
dissimilar ;  but  those  of  the  lower  one  are  broader  than  in  the  last,  although  with 
the  points  similarly  turned  aside.  The  genus  is  now  represented  by  three  small 
species  from  the  Atlantic  and  the  extremity  of  South  America;  but  has  been 
recorded  from  the  Miocene  Tertiary.  The  Greenland  shark  (Lcemargus  borealis) 
of  the  Arctic  seas,  which  occasionally  strays  as  far  south  as  Britain,  represents 
another  genus  characterised  by  the  small  size  of  all  the  fins  and  the  want  of  spines 
to  the  dorsals,  the  first  of  which  is  situated  considerably  in  advance  of  the  pelvic 
pair ;  the  skin  being  uniformly  covered  with  small  tubercles.  In  the  upper  jaw 
the  teeth  are  small,  narrow,  and  conical ;  but  those  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  are 
numerous  and  form  several  series,  have  their  points  so  much  bent  to  one  side  that 
their  inner  margins  form  the  cutting-edge,  which  is  not  serrated.  Growing  to  a 
length  of  15  feet,  the  Greenland  shark  is  a  determined  enemy  to  the  right  whale 
of  the  same  seas;  and  when  feeding  on  the  carcase  of  one  of  those  mammals 


ANGEL-   AND   SAW-FISHES.  535 

becomes  so  intent  on  its  occupation  as  to  allow  itself  to  be  harpooned  without 
attempting  to  escape.  Four  living  young  are  stated  to  be  produced  at  a  birth. 
Finally,  we  have  the  spiny  shark  (Echinorhinus  spinosus)  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  Atlantic,  which  while  agreeing  with  the  last  in  the  small  size  of  the  fins  and 
the  absence  of  spines  to  the  dorsals,  differs  by  the  teeth  being  alike  in  both  jaws, 
and  by  the  presence  of  large  rounded  tubercles  scattered  over  the  skin ;  the  body 
being  very  bulky,  and  the  tail  short.  This  shark  lives  at  considerable  depths,  and 
but  rarely  comes  to  the  surface. 

THE  EXTINCT  PETALODONTS, — Family  PETALODONTID^. 

The  extinct  genera  Petalodus  and  Janassa,  together  with  several  other  allied 
types  from  the  Carboniferous  rocks,  represent  a  family  apparently  connecting  the 
last  with  the  more  typical  rays.  In  these  fishes  the  body  is  moderately  depressed, 
and  the  pectoral  fins  are  large  and  continued  anteriorly  towards  the  head.  The 
teeth,  which  generally  have  large  roots,  are  compressed  from  front  to  back,  with  the 
crown  more  or  less  bent  backwards,  and  either  with  a  sharp  cutting-edge,  or  very 
blunt.  In  the  mouth  they  were  arranged  in  straight  rows  to  form  a  pavement. 

THE  ANGEL-FISH,— Family  SQUATINID^E. 

The  sole  existing  representative  of  its  family,  the  angel-fish,  or  monk-fish 
(Squatina  vulgaris),  constitutes,  so  far  as  external  form  is  concerned,  a  kind  of 
connecting  link  between  the  sharks  and  the  rays.  Having  the  body  as  much 
depressed  as  in  some  of  the  latter,  the  angel-fish  differs  in  the  nearly  terminal 
position  of  the  mouth,  and  also  in  the  circumstance  that  while  the  basal  portion  of 
the  pectoral  fins  is  much  produced  forwards,  it  does  not  extend  so  far  as  to  join 
the  head.  The  wide  gill-clefts  are  lateral  in  position,  and  partly  covered  by  the 
base  of  the  pectoral  fins ;  the  spiracles  are  wide  and  placed  behind  the  eyes ;  and 
the  teeth  are  conical  arid  pointed.  Spines  are  wanting  to  the  dorsal  fins,  which  are 
situated  on  the  tail ;  and  the  skin  is  studded  with  tubercles.  Not  unfrequently 
growing  to  a  length  of  at  least  5  feet,  the  angel-fish  has  an  almost  cosmopolitan 
distribution,  and  is  by  no  means  uncommon  on  the  British  coasts,  more  especially 
in  Scotland.  In  colour  it  is  mottled  chocolate-brown  above,  and  whitish  beneath, 
and  except  that  it  produces  living  young,  which  may  number  as  many  as 
twenty  at  a  birth,  its  general  habits  are  similar  to  those  of  the  rays.  Fossil 
species  of  angel-fish  range  through  the  Tertiary  and  Cretaceous  strata  to  the 
upper  Jurassic. 

THE  SAW-FISHES,— Families  PRISTIOPHORID^E  and  PRISTID^:. 

Unique  among  the  whole  class  on  account  of  the  production  of  the  upper  jaw 
into  a  long  flattened  beak,  furnished  on  either  edge  with  a  series  of  large,  sharp, 
and  pointed  teeth,  set  in  distinct  sockets  at  a  considerable  distance  from  one 
another,  the  saw-fishes  form  two  well-defined  families,  the  first  of  which  approxi- 
mates to  the  sharks  in  the  position  of  the  gill-clefts,  while  the  second  agrees  with 


536 


SHARKS  AND  RAYS. 


the  rays  in  the  same  particular.     Each  contains  but  a  single  existing  genus,  and 
the  first  is  unknown  previous  to  the  present  epoch. 

Side-GiUed  The  four  species  belonging  to   the  first  family,  one  of   which 

Saw-Fishes.  (Priskiophorus  japonicus)  is  shown  in  the  illustration,  are  com- 
paratively small  fishes  confined  to  the  Japanese  and  Australian  seas.  Having  the 
body  scarcely  depressed,  and  the  pectoral  fins  of  moderate  dimensions,  and  not 


ANGEL-FISH  (TV  nat.  size). 

extending  forwards  to  the  head,  these  saw-fishes  are  distinguished  by  the  lateral 
position  of  the  gill-clefts,  and  full  development  of  the  so-called  prepalatine 
cartilage,  and  the  presence  of  a  pair  of  long  tentacles  on  the  lower  aspect  of  the 
jaw.  In  habits  these  fishes  probably  resemble  those  of  the  next  genus. 

Distributed  over  all  the  warmer  seas,  the  members  of  this  genus, 
among  which  Pristis  antiquorum  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic 
is  most  commonly  met  with,  differ  from  the  last,  not  only  in  the  inferior  position 
of  the  gill-clefts,  but  likewise  in  the  small  development  of  the  prepalatine 


True  Saw-Fishes. 


SA  W-FISH. 


537 


cartilages.  The  teeth  of  the  saw  are  firmly  implanted  in  distinct  sockets  of  calcified 
cartilage,  while  those  in  the  jaws  are  minute  and  blunt.  The  wide  spiracles  are 
situated  behind  the  eyes ;  the  dorsal  fins  are  without  spines,  the  first  being  placed 
above  or  near  to  the  line  of  the  base  of  the  pelvic  pair ;  and  the  large  caudal  fin 
may  or  may  not  have  a  distinct  lower  lobe.  The  saw  consists  internally  of  three, 
or  sometimes  five,  hollow  calcified  cartilages,  in  the  form  of  long  tapering  tubes, 
placed  side  by  side,  and  held  together  by  integument,  which  is  likewise  more  or 
less  hardened  by  the  deposition  of  calcareous  matter.  Several  existing  species  of 
the  genus  have  been  described,  which  are  most  abundant  in  the  tropical  seas,  and 


JAPANESE  SAW-FISH  (|  nat.-  size). 

some  of  which  are  distinguished  by  the  shape  of  the  caudal  fin,  and  the  number  of 
pairs  of  teeth  in  the  saw.  These  fishes  not  uncommonly  grow  to  20  feet  in 
length,  but  Day  records  one  of  24  feet ;  in  such  monsters  the  saw  may  be  fully 
6  feet  in  length,  with  a  basal  width  of  1  foot.  Some  of  the  Indian  species  ascend 
rivers  to  a  considerable  distance  beyond  the  influence  of  the  tides.  Saw-fishes  us& 
their  weapon  of  offence  by  striking  sideways  through  the  water,  and  thus  inflict 
terrific  injuries,  literally  tearing  to  pieces  the  soft-parts  of  such  animals  as  they 
may  strike  ;  and  it  is  stated  that  in  the  Indian  estuaries  large  ones  have  been 
known  to  cut  bathers  completely  in  two.  After  tearing  off  pieces  of  flesh,  or  ripping 
up  the  body  of  their  victim  with  the  saw,  these  fishes  seize  and  swallow  the  smaller 
fragments  thus  detached  in  their  mouths.  In  the  Malayan  region  the  flesh  of  one 


538  SHARKS  AND  RAYS. 

of  the  species  is  highly  esteemed  as  food ;  and  its  fins,  like  those  of  sharks,  are, 
after  due  preparation,  exported  to  China. 

Fossil  remains  of  extinct  species  of  the  genus  occur  throughout  a  large  portion 
of  the  Tertiary  formations ;  and  an  allied  Eocene  genus,  Propristis,  differs  by  the 
circumstance  that  the  teeth  of  the  saw  are  not  implanted  in  calcified  sockets.  A 
very  remarkable  type  of  saw-fish  (Sclerorhynchus)  has  left  its  remains  in  the 
Cretaceous  rocks  of  Syria.  Not  only  does  this  fish  differ  from  the  living  forms  by 
the  distinctly  depressed  form  of  the  relatively  short  and  broad  body,  and  the 
backward  extension  of  the  pectoral  fins,  which  almost  reach  the  pelvic  pair,  but 
the  teeth,  instead  of  being  implanted  in  sockets,  are  merely  attached  to  the  skin  by 
an  expanded  and  crimped  base.  Moreover,  the  central  of  the  three  rods  in  the 
interior  of  the  saw  extends  to  the  saw's  extremity,  instead  of  stopping  short; 
and  it  is  not  a  little  interesting  to  find  that  from  the  smaller  teeth  at  the  base  of 
the  saw  a  complete  gradation  can  be  traced  to  the  tubercles  dotting  the  skin. 
Assuming,  as  is  most  probably  the  case,  that  saw-fishes  are  nothing  more  than 
highly  specialised  sharks,  it  is  somewhat  remarkable  to  find  that  the  earliest  known 
member  of  the  family  has  a  somewhat  skate-like  form  of  body,  and  a  type  of 
dentition  which  could  not  apparently  be  very  readily  modified  into  that  of  the 
existing  forms. 

THE  BEAKED  KAYS, — Family  UHINOBATIV^E. 

With  this  family  we  come  to  the  first  of  what  may  properly  be  termed  the 
rays  and  skates,  in  all  of  which  the  pectoral  fins  are  so  extended  forwards  as  to 
join  the  head,  and  thus  form,  with  the  body,  the  so-called  "disc";  the  dorsal  fins 
being  always  situated  on  the  tail,  and  the  mouth  being  generally,  and  the  gill-clefts 
always,  inferior.  In  the  present  family  the  tail  is  long  and  powerful,  with  two 
well-developed  dorsal  fins,  and  a  longitudinal  fold  on  each  side ;  the  disc  is  not 
excessively  dilated,  the  rayed  portion  of  the  pectoral  fins  stopping  short  of  the 
beak ;  and  there  is  no  electric  organ.  Skates  and  rays  in  general  are  among  the 
most  hideous  and  repulsive  of  all  fish,  some  of  them — especially  in  the  warmer 
seas — attaining  enormous  dimensions ;  while  some  are  dangerous  from  the  wounds 
inflicted  by  the  spines  of  their  tails.  The  tooth -like  tubercles  on  the  skin 
frequently  attain  a  great  development,  and  are  aggregated  into  prominent  bosses 
or  longitudinal  ridges.  Dr.  Glinther  writes  that  the  mode  of  life  of  these  fishes  is 
quite  in  accordance  with  the  form  of  their  body,  the  true  rays  leading  a  sedentary 
life,  moving  slowly  on  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  rarely  ascending  to  the  surface. 
Their  tail  ha's  almost  entirely  lost  the  function  of  an  organ  of  locomotion,  acting  in 
some  merely  as  a  rudder.  They  progress  slowly  by  means  of  the  pectoral  fins,  the 
broad  and  thin  margins  of  which  are  set  in  an  undulating  motion,  entirely  identical 
with  that  of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  of  the  Pleuronectidce.  Like  the  sharks,  they 
are  exclusively  carnivorous,  but  being  unable  to  pursue  and  catch  rapidly  moving 
animals,  they  feed  chiefly  on  molluscs  and  crustaceans.  The  colour  of  their  integu- 
ments assimilates,  however,  so  closely  to  that  of  their  surroundings,  that  other  fishes 
approach  near  enough  to  be  captured  by  them.  The  mouth  of  the  rays  being 
entirely  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  head,  the  prey  is  not  directly  seized  by  the 


BEAKED  RAYS. 


539 


jaws ;  but  the  fish  darts  over  its  victim  so  as  to  cover  and  hold  it  down  with  its 
body,  when  it  is  conveyed  by  some  rapid  motions  to  the  mouth.  Rays  do  not 
descend  to  the  same  depth  as  sharks ;  with  one  exception,  none  are  known  to  have 
been  caught  by  a  dredge  working  in  more  than  one  hundred  fathoms.  The  majority 
are  coast-fishes,  and  have  a  comparatively  limited  geographical  range,  none  extend- 
ing from  the  northern  into  the  southern  temperate  zone.  Some  of  the  eagle-rays 
are,  however,  more  or  less  pelagic,  although  when  these  are  met  with  swimming  in 
the  open  sea  it  is  probable  that  shoal-water  exists  at  no  great  distance.  As  may 
be  observed  in  many  of  the  lochs  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  where  these  loath- 
some creatures  may  be  seen  flapping  lazily  alone  at  the  bottom  of  the  clear  water, 
skates  and  rays  are  more  or  less  gregarious  fishes.  They  frequently  arrive  suddenly 
on  oyster-beds, — to  the  dismay  of  the  owners, — where  they  appear  to  remain  so  long 


HALAVI  RAY  (\  nat.  size). 

as  any  of  the  molluscs  are  obtainable.  Writing  of  the  species  armed  with  caudal 
spines,  Day  observes  that  they  "  lie  concealed  in  the  sand,  and  are  reputed  to  be 
able  to  suddenly  encircle  fish  or  other  prey  swimming  above  them  with  their  long 
whip-like  tails,  and  then  wound  them  with  their  serrated  tail-spines."  Many  rays 
ascend  rivers  to  considerable  distance,  and  some  kinds,  especially  in  Tropical 
America,  are  exclusively  inhabitants  of  fresh  waters.  Nearly  all  lay  eggs. 

To  illustrate  the  typical  genus,  which  is  represented  by  about 
Typical  Genus.  ^  dozen  Species  from  the  warmer  seas,  we  take  the  halavi  ray 
(Rhinobatis  halavi),  which  ranges  from  the  Mediterranean  and  the  coasts  of  Western 
Africa  to  China.  In  these  fish  the  depressed  body  passes  imperceptibly  into  the 
tail ;  the  muzzle  is  produced  into  a  long  beak,  the  space  between  which  and  the 
pectoral  fin  is  occupied  by  a  membrane ;  and  the  wide  nostrils  are  oblique,  with 
their  front  valves  separate.  The  blunt  teeth  are  marked  by  an  indistinct  trans- 


540  SHARKS  AND  RAYS. 

verse  ridge ;  the  dorsal  fins,  which  are  situated  far  behind  the  pelvic  pair,  have 
no  spines ;  and  the  caudal  has  no  lower  lobe.  Fossil  species  are  found  from  the 
Tertiary  to  the  upper  Jurassic.  The  allied  Australian  genus  Triyonorhina  differs 
in  having  the  front  nasal  valves  united,  and  forming  a  broad  quadrangular  flap. 


THORNBACK  SKATES  (^  nat.  size). 

Khynchobatis  ~        third  genus  of  the   family,  which  is  represented   by  two 

species  from  the  coasts  of  the  tropical  portions  of  the  Indian  Ocean, 
differs  in  that  the  first  dorsal  fin  is  placed  above  the  pelvic  pair,  in  the  presence 
of  a  lower  lobe  to  the  caudal,  and  also  in  the  form  of  the  dental  plate,  which  is 


TRUE  RAYS.  541 

deeply  undulated,  so  that  the  prominences  of  one  jaw  fit  into  hollows  in  the 
opposite  one  ;  the  individual  teeth  being  more  or  less  diamond-shaped.  These  rays 
do  not  exceed  8  feet  in  length.  Several  extinct  genera  occur  in  the  upper 
Jurassic  strata  of  Europe 


THE  TRUE  RAYS  OR  SKATES, — Family 

Represented  by  upwards  of  seven  British  species,  all  of  which  belong  to  the 
typical  genus,  the  true  rays  are  characterised  by  the  broad  and  rhombic  form  of 
the  disc,  the  skin  of  which  is  generally  marked  with  tooth-like  rugosities.  The 
tail  has  a  longitudinal  fold  on  each  side,  the  degree  of  development  of  the  median 
fins  is  variable,  and  the  rayed  portion  of  the  pectoral  fins  extends  to  the  muzzle. 
With  the  exception  of  occasional  traces  in  the  tail,  electric  organs  are  wanting. 
Of  the  typical  genus  we  take  as  a 
well-known  example  the  common 
British  thornback  (Raia  clavata), 
of  which  two  examples  are  shown 
in  the  illustration.  In  this  genus 
the  tail  is  very  sharply  defined 
from  the  disc,  which  is  generally 
covered  with  rugosities ;  the 
pectoral  fins  stop  short  of  the 
extremity  of  the  muzzle;  the 
pelvics  are  deeply  notched,  with 
a  stout  front  cartilaginous  ray; 
the  tail  carries  two  dorsal  fins, 
and  the  caudal  is  rudimentary,  or 
wanting.  Most  of  these  skates  are  remarkable  for  presenting  sexual  differences, 
which  in  the  thornback  and  several  other  species  display  themselves  in  the  dentition, 
the  teeth  of  the  males  being  sharp  and  pointed,  while  those  of  the  opposite  sex 
are  blunt  and  flattened.  Whereas  the  males  of  all  the  species  are  armed  with  patches 
of  claw-like  spines  lying  in  grooves  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  pectoral  fins,  and 
frequently  also  on  the  sides  of  the  head,  the  females  of  some  species  have  a  kind 
of  buckler  of  asperities  on  the  disc,  which  is  wanting  in  the  other  sex.  In  other 
cases  the  variation  takes  the  form  of  a  difference  in  colour.  The  numerous 
members  of  this  genus  are  in  the  main  characteristic  of  the  cooler  seas,  and  while 
they  are  more  abundant  in  the  Northern  than  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  some 
of  them  approach  nearer  to  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  Circles  than  is  the  ca.se  with 
any  other  rays.  The  flesh  of  all  of  them  is  eatable,  that  of  many  species  being 
commonly  sold  as  an  article  of  food.  The  common  skate  (Raia  batis),  which  is 
ordinarily  of  from  2  to  4  feet  in  length,  is  greyish  white  in  colour,  with  black 
specks,  the  whole  upper  surface  being  more  or  less  granulated.  Buckland  records 
an  unusually  large  specimen  which  weighed  90  Ibs.  The  thornback  takes  its  name 
from  having  the  whole  of  the  upper  surface  studded  at  intervals  with  the  above- 
mentioned  claw-like  spines ;  the  tail  being  also  armed  with  longer  spines,  of  which 
a  row  runs  along  the  middle  of  the  back.  The  prevailing  colour  of  the  upper 


JAWS  OF  MALE   (A)  AND   FEMALE   (B)  THORNBACK   SKATE. 


54- 


SIIARKS  A 


surface  is  brown,  with  numerous  lighter  spots,  while  beneath  it  is  pure  white. 
Fossil  skates  of  this  genus  range  through  the  Tertiaries  to  the  upper  Cretaceous. 
At  the  present  day  the  family  is  represented  by  three  genera,  each  with  but  few 
from  the  warmer  seas  :  and  there  are  likewise  certain  extinct  generic  types. 


THE  ELECTIUC  RAYS, — Family  T 

In  common  with  the  electric  eel,  the  members  of  this  family  are  characterised 
by  their   power  of  communicating  galvanic  shocks;  the  organs  from  which  this 


PO\V<T  ]"•  derived  inking  the  form   of  a  series  of  vertically-placed  prisms,  situated 

on  each  -id*-  of  the  front   of  the   disc  between  the  head  and  the  pectoral  fins.      In 

addition  to  tin;  distinctive,'  feature,  these  ravs  are,  characterised  by  the  broad  and 

>th    disc,  in  which    the   rays  of  the   pectoral  tins  do  not  extend  in   advance  of 

;i^<-   of  the   mu/y.]e.  while  the  median  fins  are  well   developed.      The  family  is 


EAGLE-RAYS.  543 

represented  by  several  genera,  ranging  over  the  Mediterranean,  Atlantic,  and  Indian 
Ocean,  into  the  distinctive  features  of  which  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  enter  here. 
A  well-known  example  of  the  typical  genus  is  the  marbled  electric  ray  (Torpedo 
marmorata),  represented  in  the  lower  figure  of  our  illustration.  The  hexagonal 
prisms  forming  the  electric  organs  are  subdivided  into  a  series  of  cells  by  a  number 
of  delicate  transverse  partitions ;  the  cells  at  the  two  ends  of  the  prisms  being 
in  contact  with  the  skin,  and  the  whole  structure  liberally  supplied  with  nerves. 
Internally  each  cell  is  lined  by  a  nucleated  structure,  within  which  is  a  mass  of  jelly- 
like  substance.  "The  fish,"  writes  Dr.  Gtinther,  "gives  the  electric  shock  voluntarily, 
when  it  is  excited  to  do  so  in  self-defence,  or  intends  to  stun  or  kill  its  prey;  but  to 
receive  the  shock  the  object  must  complete  the  galvanic  circuit  by  communicating 
with  the  fish  at  two  distinct  points,  either  directly,  or  through  the  medium  of 
some  conducting  body.  If  an  insulated  frog's  leg  touches  the  fish,  by  the  end  of 
the  nerve  only,  no  muscular  contractions  ensue  on  the  discharge  of  the  battery, 
but  a  second  point  of  contact  immediately  produces  them.  It  is  said  that  a  painful 
sensation  may  be  produced  by  a  discharge  conveyed  through  the  medium  of  a 
stream  of  water.  The  electric  currents  created  in  these  fishes  exercise  all  the  other 
known  properties  of  electricity ;  they  render  the  needle  magnetic,  decompose 
chemical  compounds,  and  emit  the  spark."  Specimens  measuring  from  2  to  3  feet 
across  the  disc  are  stated  to  be  able  to  disable  a  man  by  the  discharge  of  the 
battery.  A  writer  in  Land  and  Water,  for  1869,  in  reply  to  Buckland,  observes 
that  "  I  have  taken  two  torpedos  in  the  estuary  of  the  Tees.  You  say  the  one  you 
dissected  had  nothing  in  its  stomach.  I  was  curious  enough  to  see  what  those  I 
caught  were  living  upon,  so  I  put  my  knife  into  one,  and  took  from  him  an  eel 
2  Ibs.  in  weight,  and  a  flounder  nearly  1  Ib.  The  next  one  I  opened  also,  and  was 
astonished  to  find  in  him  a  salmon  between  4  and  5  Ibs.  weight ;  and  what  I  was 
more  astonished  at  was  that  none  of  the  fish  had  a  blemish  of  any  description, 
showing  that  your  idea  of  the  fish  killing  his  prey  with  his  electrical  force  is 
quite  correct." 

THE  EAGLE-RAYS, — Family  MYLIOBATID^Z. 

Known  also  by  the  ill-sounding  title  of  devil-fishes,  the  eagle-rays  include  the 
largest  representatives  of  their  tribe,  and  are  characterised  by  the  extreme  width 
of  the  disc,  owing  to  the  great  development  of  the  pectoral  fins,  which  are,  however, 
interrupted  at  the  sides  of  the  head,  to  reappear  as  one  or  two  small  cephalic  fins 
on  the  muzzle.  The  tail  is  slender  and  whip-like,  the  cleft  of  the  mouth  straight, 
and  the  teeth,  when  present,  take  the  form  of  a  solid  pavement,  adapted  for 
crushing  the  shells  of  molluscs,  and  other  hard  substances.  The  eagle-rays  are 
inhabitants  of  tropical  and  temperate  seas  ;  and  the  members  of  some  of  the  genera 
are  remarkable  for  the  development  of  the  so-called  cephalic  fins  into  a  pair  of 
horn-like  appendages,  which  are  stated  to  be  employed  in  capturing  the  prey  and 
helping  to  convey  it  to  the  mouth.  Five  genera  are  included  in  the  family,  all 
the  members  of  which  appear  to  be  viviparous. 

The  typical  genus  is  represented  by  a  small  number  of  existing 
Typical  Genus.  •        L  .      ?.  ,  ^  p  xi  TIT  T  i    *-  •; 

species,  two  of  which  are  European ;  one  of  these,  Myhobatis  aqmla, 


544  SHARKS  AND  RAYS. 

occasionally  visiting  the  British  coasts,  where  it  is  often  termed  the  whip-ray. 
In  this  group  the  head  is  free  from  the  disc,  and  the  tin  on  the  muzzle  single. 
The  large,  flat,  hexagonal  teeth  form  a  tesselated  pavement,  highly  convex  in  the 
upper,  but  flat  in  the  lower  jaw;  the  individual  teeth  are  arranged  in  seven 
longitudinal  rows,  those  of  the  unpaired  middle  row  being  much  elongated  and 
transverse,  while  the  others  form  less  irregular  hexagons.  The  whip-like  tail,  in 
addition  to  a  dorsal  fin  near  the  root,  is  generally  armed  with  a  large  barbed  spine 
about  the  middle  of  its  length.  In  the  young  the  middle  row  of  teeth  are  not 
larger  than  the  lateral  ones,  and  their  relative  width  continues  to  increase 
throughout  life.  The  species  above  named,  which  has  an  almost  cosmopolitan 
distribution,  may  attain  to  a  length  of  upwards  of  15  feet,  with  a  weight  of  about 
800  Ibs.  When  captured,  these  rays  lash  out  with  their  tails,  and  thus  inflict 
severe  wounds  with  the  spine.  Fossil  species  of  this  genus  occur  through  most  of 
the  Tertiary  strata ;  and  among  these  one  from  the  Eocene  of  Egypt  is  remarkable 
for  its  enormous  size,  the  teeth  of  the  middle  row  being  rather  more  than  5  inches 
in  width.  Although  it  is  difficult  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  exact  size  of  the  fish 
to  which  these  teeth  belonged,  it  is  thought  that  the  width  of  the  disc  must  have 
been  about  15  feet. 

In   the   allied   irenus  Aetobatis,   now   represented   by   a   single 
Other  Genera. 

widely-spread  tropical  species  but  common  in  the  Tertiary  forma- 
tions, the  muzzle  carries  two  fins,  and  the  dentition  comprises  only  a  single  series 
of  transversely  elongated  teeth,  corresponding  to  the  central  row  of  the  typical 
genus.  In  a  third  genus  (Rkinoptera),  of  which  there  are  seven  living  and  several 
Tertiary  species,  the  so-called  fins  on  the  muzzle  are  likewise  double,  while  the 
tesselated  teeth  form  five  or  more  series.  Of  these  the  middle  one  is  the  largest, 
the  first,  or  first  and  second,  lateral  series  somewhat  narrow,  and  the  remainder  in 
the  form  of  more  or  less  nearly  regular  hexagons ;  the  dental  plates  of  both  jaws 
being  strongly  arched  from  back  to  front.  The  largest  existing  members  of  the 
family  belong  to  the  genera  Dicerobatis  and  Cephaloptero.,  which  are  mainly 
confined  to  the  tropical  seas,  and  to  which  the  name  of  devil-fish  might  well  be 
restricted.  In  the  former  of  these  the  pectoral  fins,  do  not  extend  on  to  the  sides 
of  the  head,  which  is  truncated  in  front,  and  furnished  with  a  pair  of  forwardly- 
directed  appendages  containing  fin-rays,  the  nostrils  being  widely  separated. 
Both  jaws  contain  numerous  rows  of  flat  or  tuberculated  teeth ;  and  the  whip- 
like  tail  has  a  single  dorsal  fin  above  and  between  the  pelvic  pair,  and  may  be 
armed  with  a  spine.  In  the  second  genus,  the  mouth  is  terminal,  and  teeth  are 
present  only  in  the  lower  jaw.  One  of  the  Indian  representatives  of  the  first 
genus  is  known  to  measure  fully  18  feet  across  the  disc,  and  a  weight  of  over 
1200  Ibs.  has  been  recorded.  Sir  W.  Elliot  states  that  the  horn-like  appendages 
"  are  used  by  the  animal  to  draw  its  prey  into  its  mouth,  which  opens  like  a  huge 
cavern  between  them.  The  fishermen  [in  India]  say  they  see  these  creatures 
swimming  slowly  along  with  their  mouths  open,  and  flapping  these  great  sails 
inwards,  drawing  in  the  smaller  crustaceans  on  which  they  feed."  The  capture 
of  such  hideous  monsters  is  a  work  of  no  little  difficulty  and  danger,  as  they  are 
quite  capable  of  overturning  a  boat ;  and  the  danger  is  said  to  be  the  greatest  in 
the  case  of  a  female  accompanied  by  its  single  offspring.  We  must  not  leave  this 


STING-RA  YS.  545 

family  without  referring  to  the  curiously-ridged  quadrangular  teeth  from  the 
Chalk  described  under  the  name  of  Ptychodus,  which  appear  to  indicate  an  extinct 
type  of  eagle-ray.  In  these  teeth  the  highly-polished  crown  is  ornamented  with 
large  transverse  or  radiating  ridges,  surrounded  by  a  more  finely-marked  marginal 
area  of  variable  width.  They  are  arranged  in  longitudinal  rows ;  the  upper  jaw 
having  the  teeth  of  the  middle  row  the  largest,  and  those  of  the  lateral  rows 
gradually  decreasing  in  size :  while  in  the  lower  jaw  the  middle  teeth  are  rather 
small,  and  the  two  adjacent  rows  the  largest. 

THE  STING-RAYS, — Family  TRYGONID^E. 

Apparently  the  most  specialised  members  of  the  entire  group  are  the  sting- 
rays, in  which  the  pectoral  fins  ure  continued  uninterruptedly  round  the  extremity 
of  the  muzzle,  so  that  the  whole  of  the  margin  of  the  very  wide  disc  is  formed  by 
these  fins,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  the  more  elevated  head  and  body.  The  long 
and  slender  tail,  which  is  frequently  armed  with  a  serrated  spine,  is  sharply 
defined  from  the  body  ;  and  the  median  fins,  if  present  at  all,  are  either  imperfectly 
developed,  or  are  modified  into  serrated  spines.  The  forms  with  armed  tails,  to 
which  the  name  of  sting-ray  is  alone  strictly  applicable,  inflict  very  severe  wounds, 
dangerous  not  merely  from  the  actual  lesion,  but  apparently  also  from  the  pre- 
sence of  some  poisonous  substance.  In  the  larger  kinds  these  formidable  spines 
may  be  as  much  as  8  or  9  inches  in  length ;  and,  as  they  wear  out,  they  are  from 
time  to  time  shed  and  replaced  by  new  ones  growing  from  behind.  Very 
numerous  in  species,  and  arranged  under  several  genera,  the  sting  -  rays  are 
most  abundant  in  the  seas  of  the  tropics,  although  some  range  into  temperate 
waters. 

The  typical  genus  includes  some  twenty-five  species,  one  of  which  (Trygon 
pastinaca)  ranges  from  the  south  of  England  westwards  to  America  and  east- 
wards to  Japan.  In  this  group  the  greatly  elongated  and  tapering  tail  is  armed 
with  a  barbed  arrow-shaped  spine,  while  the  skin  is  either  smooth  or  dotted  over 
with  tubercles,  the  nasal  valves  unite  to  form  a  quadrangular  flap,  and  the  teeth 
are  flattened.  Mainly  characteristic  of  tropical  latitudes,  these  rays  are  most 
abundant  in  the  Indian  and  Atlantic  Oceans,  although  some  species  are  inhabitants 
of  fresh-water  lakes  in  Eastern  Tropical  America.  The  rough  ray  (Urogymnus 
asperrimus),  of  the  Red  Sea  and  Indian  Ocean,  which  may  measure  from  4  to  5 
feet  in  length  from  the  head  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  is  the  sole  representative  of 
a  second  genus,  characterised  by  the  long  tail  being  devoid  of  either  fin  or  spine, 
although  sometimes  furnished  with  a  narrow  fold  of  skin  below.  The  whole 
of  the  body  is  thickly  covered  with  teeth-like  tubercles,  the  teeth  themselves 
being  flattened.  The  third  genus  (  UrolopliusJ—in  which  the  tail  is  of  medium  length, 
furnished  with  a  distinct  terminal  rayed  fin,  armed  with  a  barbed  spine,  and  some- 
times with  a  rudimental  dorsal  fin,  while  the  teeth  are  flattened — contains  several 
rather  small-sized  species  from  the  tropical  seas,  and  likewise  an  extinct  one  from 
the  Eocene  rocks  of  Italy.  A  fourth  genus  (PteroplcitecC),  of  which  there  are  some 
half-dozen  representatives  from  temperate  and  tropical  seas,  is  characterised  by 
the  great  width  of  the  disc,  which  is  at  least  twice  as  long  as  wide,  and  also 

VOL.  v.— 35 


546  SHARKS  AND   RAYS. 

by  the  shortness  of  the  thin  tail,  which  always  bears  a  serrated  spine,  and  may 
have  a  rudimental  fin ;  the  minute  teeth  being  either  singly  or  triply  cuspidate. 
The  oldest  representative  of  the  family  seems  to  be  the  extinct  Cyclobatis  from 
the  Cretaceous  rocks  of  Palestine,  in  which  the  disc  is  either  circular  or  oval  in 
form,  the  tail  very  short,  only  slightly  projecting  beyond  the  margin  of  the  disc, 
and  devoid  of  either  spine  or  fin,  while  the  upper  surface  of  the  body  has  one  or 
more  longitudinal  series  of  large  spiny  tubercles  running  backwards  from  the 
pectoral  girdle,  the  remainder  of  the  body  and  disc  being  more  or  less  sparsely 
covered  with  minute  prickles. 

THE  EXTINCT  LOBE-FINNED  AND  FOLD-FINNED  SHARKS, — Orders  ICHTHYOTOMI 

and  CLADODONTIA. 

The  whole  of  the  preceding  members  of  the  subclass  are  included  in  a  single 
order,  the  characters  of  which  have  been  already  described ;  but  in  the  Palaeozoic 
strata  of  both  Europe  and  the  United  States  there  occur  remains  of  extinct  sharks, 
indicating  two  perfectly  distinct  ordinal  groups. 

Lobe-Finned  The  essential  characteristic  of  this  group,  as  shown  in  the  restored 

Group.        skeleton  figured  on  p.  317,  is  the  lobed  structure  of  the  pectoral  fins, 

which  consist  internally  of  a  long  tapering  segmented  axis,  from  which  are  given 

off  a  double  series  of  cartilaginous  rays, 
as  shown  in  the  figure  on  p.  319.  The 
internal  skeleton  of  these  sharks  shows 
granular  calcifications  in  the  cartilage; 
but  the  notochord  is  never  or  but  seldom 
constricted  into  distinct  vertebrae,  the 
calcification,  except  in  the  tail,  stopping 
short  at  an  incomplete  stage,  when  the 
body  of  each  segment  of  the  backbone 
consists  of  three  separate  pieces,  as  in 

TEETH  OF  A  LOBE-FANNED   SHARK.  -  After  Fritsch.  the      Cample      figured      On     p.     312.          The 

upper  and  lower  arches  and  spines  of  the 

backbone  are  tall  and  slender ;  the  upper  spines  having  no  intercalary  cartilages 
between  them.  As  represented  by  the  genus  Pleur acanthus,  common  to  the 
Permian  and  Carboniferous  rocks  of  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  these  sharks  are 
further  characterised  by  the  slender  and  slightly  depressed  form  of  the  body,  the 
terminal  position  of  the  mouth,  and  the  diphycercal  tail.  The  long  and  low 
dorsal  fin  is  continued  along  the  whole  of  the  back  from  a  short  distance  behind 
the  head,  and  its  cartilages  are  more  numerous  than  the  subjacent  spines  of  the 
vertebrae ;  immediately  behind  the  head  is  a  long  barbed  spine,  and  the  body  was 
probably  devoid  of  shagreen.  The  teeth,  as  shown  in  the  annexed  illustration, 
are  very  peculiar,  consisting  of  two  divergent  and  generally  unequal-sized  cones, 
supported  on  an  expanded  base. 

Foid-Finned  The    oldest   and   most    primitive    representatives    of  the    entire 

Group.         subclass    are    the    armoured    sharks    of    the    Devonian    and    lower 

Carboniferous  epochs,  especially  characterised  by  the  simple  structure  of  their  fins, 


SPINE-FINNED   SHARKS. 


547 


which,  as  explained  on  p.  319,  are  of  the  fold-type,  and  consist  simply  of  a  series  of 
parallel  cartilaginous  rods  arising  from  a  broad  base.  In  many,  but  not  all  of  them, 
the  granules  con- 
stituting the  sha- 
green of  modern 
sharks  coalesced  so 
as  to  form  large 
shields  protecting 
the  body ;  and 
these  fish  were 
also  armed  with 
more  or  less  mark- 
edly triangular 
spines  inserted  in 
the  skin  by  their 
bases.  In  some 
cases  the  teeth  con- 


RESTORATION  OF  A  FOLD-FINNED  SHARK  (Cladoselache).—  After  Dean. 


sisted  of  a  single  cone,  with  one  small  basal  cusp ;  but  in  other  forms  they  seem 
to  have  coalesced  into  a  pavement-like  structure.  No  traces  of  calcification  have 
been  detected  in  the  notochord.  As  might  have  been  expected,  these  primitive 
sharks  were  of  comparatively  small  size,  averaging  from  3  to  4  feet  in  length. 


THE  EXTINCT  SPINE-FINNED  SHARKS, — Order  ACANTHODIL 

Whereas  the  two  preceding  groups  contain  the  most  primitive  and  generalised 
representatives  of  the  subclass,  the  order  now  to  be  considered,  which  is  likewise 
confined  to  the  Palaeozoic  epoch,  comprises  sharks  of  -a  more  specialised  type  than 
any  existing  forms.  Indeed,  these  spine-finned  sharks  bear  much  the  same 
relationship  to  the  lobe-finned  group,  as  is  presented  by  the  bony  fishes  to  the 
fringe-finned  ganoids ;  and  in  a  strictly  natural  arrangement  these  forms  should 

stand  at  the  head  of  the 
class,  although  it  is 
more  convenient  to  con- 
sider them  in  this  place. 
One  of  the  essential 
features  of  the  group 
is  to  be  found  in  the 
development  of  mem- 
brane -  bones  overlying 
the  original  cartilagin- 
ous skull ;  the  socket 
ring  of  bones  of  similar 


RESTORATION  OF  A  SPINE-FINNED   SHARK  (Acanthodes). 

(From  A.  S.  Woodward,  Cat.  Foss.  Fish.  Brit.  Mus.} 


of   the 
origin. 


eye   being   also   frequently  surrounded  with 

In  the  internal  skeleton  the  notochord  is  persistent,  and  the  cartilages  are 


superficially  calcified,  frequently  with  a  granular  structure.  When  teeth  are 
present,  these  are  firmly  fixed  upon  membrane-bones  overlying  the  cartilages  corre- 
sponding to  the  functional  jaws  of  other  sharks.  The  gill-arches  bear  a  series  of 


548  SHARKS  AND  RAYS. 

appendages  which  during  life  were  probably  furnished  with  membranous  expan- 
sions similar  to  those  of  the  existing  frill-gilled  shark.  In  the  fins  the  cartilages 
of  the  internal  skeleton  are  greatly  reduced,  and  the  membranous  portions  are 
almost  destitute  of  cartilaginous  rays ;  while  each  of  the  paired  and  most  of  the 
median  fins  are  provided  with  a  large  spine  on  the  front  edge.  The  tail  is  of 
the  heterocercal  type,  and  the  males  lack  the  claspers  characterising  the  existing 
forms.  Externally  the  body  is  covered  with  small  and  closely-arranged  quad- 
rangular granules,  between  two  series  of  which  runs  the  lateral  line.  Three 
families  constitute  the  order;  the  first  of  these,  as  represented  by  the  genus 
Acanthodes,  having  but  a  single  dorsal  fin ;  while  in  the  other  two — respectively 
typified  by  Ischnacanthus  and  Diplacanthus — there  are  two  of  these  fins. 


M 

u    4 

%  § 


THE  LOWEST  VEBTEBRATES  AND 
THEIR  ALLIES. 


CHAPTER   I. 
THE  LAMPREY  GROUP, — Class  Cyclostomata. 

TILL  within  recent  years  both  the  lampreys  and  the  strange  little  creature  known  as 
the  lancelet  were  generally  included  among  the  class  of  fishes,  which  was  also  taken 
to  comprise  a  number  of  armoured  extinct  forms,  of  which  a  brief  notice  is  given 
below.  On  the  other  hand,  the  marine  animals  commonly  termed  sea-squirts,  but 
technically  known  as  ascidians,  together  with  certain  aberrant  worm-like  creatures, 
were  classed  with  the  great  assemblage  of  so-called  Invertebrates.  Anatomical 
and  palseontological  investigations  have,  however,  revolutionised  our  ideas  concern- 
ing the  creatures  in  question,  with  the  result  that  while  the  lampreys  are  now 
separated  from  the  fishes  to  form  a  class  by  themselves  in  the  vertebrate  subking- 
dom,  the  lancelet  and  sea-squirts,  together  with  the  above-mentioned  worm -like 
creatures  are  now  regarded  as  forming  a  subkingdom  by  themselves,  known  as  the 
Semivertebrates,  or  Protochordata.  The  reason  for  the  separation  of  the  lampreys 
from  the  fishes  will  be  gathered  when  we  come  to  that  group ;  but  we  must  briefly 
notice  in  this  place  the  considerations  which  have  induced  naturalists  to  brigade  in 
one  group  such  very  dissimilar  creatures  as  the  lancelet,  sea-squirts,  and  the  afore- 
said worms. 

In  the  introduction  to  the  Vertebrates  given  in  the  first  volume  we  have  indicated 
the  leading  structural  features  of  that  group — more  especially  as  developed  in  its 
higher  members ;  among  these  one  of  the  most  important  being  the  dorsal  position 
of  the  great  nervous  system,  or  spinal  marrow,  which  in  the  higher  forms  is  under- 
lain by  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae.  In  our  description  of  the  fishes  we  have,  how- 
ever, seen  that  in  some  of  the  lower  forms  the  vertebrae  are  represented  only  by  the 
original  cartilaginous  rod  known  as  the  notochord,  from  which  they  are  developed 
by  constriction  in  the  higher  types.  To  this  we  have  to  add  that  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  their  development  all  vertebrates  possess  gill-slits,  which  persist  in  their 
original  condition  only  in  the  fishes  and  lampreys.  Now  the  result  of  anatomical 
investigations  has  been  to  show  that  the  lancelet,  sea-squirts,  and  the  aforesaid  worm- 
like  creatures  agree  with  the  Vertebrates  in  the  possession  of  a  dorsally-situated 
nervous  system,  of  a  notochord,  and  of  gill  -  slits ;  and  thereby  differ  from  all 


550  LOWEST   VERTEBRATES. 

other   known   animals.      Consequently  we  may  classify  the  animal  kingdom  as 
follows : — 

I.  CHORDATE  ANIMALS — Division  CHORDATA  JNervous  system  r>orsai;  a 

.  l    Notochord,  and  Gill-Slits. 

1.  Vertebrates — bubkmgdom  VERTEBRATA. 

(1)  Mammals — Class  MAMMALIA. 

(2)  Birds— Class  AVES. 

(3)  Reptiles — Class  REPTILIA. 

(4)  Frogs  and  Salamanders — Class  AMPHIBIA. 

(5)  Fishes — Class  PISCES. 

(6)  Lampreys  and  Hag-Fishes — Class  CYCLOSTOMATA. 

2.  Semivertebrates — Subkingdom  PROTOCHORDATA. 

(1)  Lancelets — Class  LEPTOCARDII. 

(2)  Sea-Squirts — Class  TUNIC  AT  A. 

(3)  Worm-Like  Forms— Class  ENTEROPNEUSTA. 

II.  NON-CHORDATE  ANIMALS — Division  lNVERTEBRATA-[NervousSystem  Ventral;  no 

<•    Notochord  or  Gill-Slits. 

We  shall  consider  briefly  the  suggestions  that  have  been  made  concerning  the 
relationships  between  the  semichordates  and  nonchordates  at  the  close  of  this 
volume,  and  therefore  proceed  at  once  to  the  lampreys.  Before  doing  so  it  may, 
however,  be  as  well  to  mention  that  to  rightly  understand  the  peculiarities  of  all 
these  matters  requires  a  considerable  amount  of  anatomical  knowledge  on  the  part 
of  the  reader ;  and  structural  features  will  accordingly  be  alluded  to  as  simply  and 
shortly  as  possible. 

THE  LAMPREYS  AND  HAG-FISHES, — Subclass  Marsipobranchii. 

As  a  class,  the  lampreys  and  their  near  allies  the  hag-fishes,  with  which  may 
probably  be  grouped  certain  armoured  extinct  forms,  are  distinguished  not  only 
from  the  fishes,  but  likewise  from  all  the  vertebrates  hitherto  described,  by  the   i 
absence  of  true  jaws,  by  the  single  aperture  of  the  nostrils,  as  well  as  by  the  rasp- 
ing tongue ;  there  being  no  limbs  or  ribs,  and  the  notochord  either  persisting  in  its 
original  form  or  being  merely  surrounded  by  a  series  of  calcified  rings.     Probably 
many  or  all  of  these  characters  are  applicable  to  certain  extinct  forms  now  con- 
sidered as  more  or  less  nearly  allied  to   the  lampreys,  and  we  may  accordingly 
provisionally  regard  these  as  distinctive  of  the  subclass.     On  the  other  hand,  we  may   < 
consider  the  under-mentioned  features  distinctive  of  the  lampreys  as  the  represen- 
tatives of  a  subclass  (Marsipobranchii),  apart  from  the  aforesaid  extinct  forms.     In 
the  existing  members  of  the  group  the  skeleton  is  cartilaginous ;  the  skull,  as  in 
the  chimseroid  fishes  and  some  of  the  sharks,  is  immovably  joined  to  the  vertebral 
column ;  and  the  gills  are  in  the  form  of  fixed  pouches  (hence  the  name  of  the  sub- 
class), without  gill-arches,  and  either  six  or  seven  in  number,  with  their  external   < 
apertures  usually  opening  on  the  sides  of  the  neck.     Anterior  in  position,  and 
adapted  for  sucking,  the  mouth  is  surrounded  by  a  circular  or  subcircular  lip 
supported  by  cartilages.     The  naked  body  is  provided  with  median  fins,  having  1 
cartilaginous  rays  like  those  of  many  fishes.     Internally,  the  heart  is  devoid  of 
the  anterior  expansion  known  as  the  bulbus  arteriosus ;   the  intestinal  canal  is 


LAMPREYS  AND  HAG-FISHES.  551 

straight  and  simple ;  and  the  reproductive  organs  discharge  into  the  cavity  of  the 
body.  The  place  of  teeth  is  taken  in  some  forms  by  horny  structures,  while  in 
others  the  mouth  is  completely  unarmed.  Some  difference  of  opinion  exists  among 
naturalists  as  to  whether  the  absence  of  the  true  jaws  in  the  lampreys  is  an  original 
or  an  acquired  feature ;  but,  to  our  mind,  the  apparent  want  of  these  organs  in 
the  primitive  extinct  lampreys  seems  to  be  strongly  in  favour  of  the  former  view. 

The   true   lampreys,  of   which  the  sea  -  lamprey  (Petromyzum 
marinus),   river-lamprey   (P.  fluviatilis),  and    the    small    lamprey 
(P.  branchialis)   occur   in   Britain,   are   the   typical    representatives  of   a  family 


True  Lampreys. 


SEA-LAMPREY,    RIVER-LAMPREY,    AND    SMALL   LAMPREY  (£  liat.  Size). 


(Petromyzidce)  characterised  by  the  nasal  duct  terminating  in  a  closed  sac 
behind,  without  perforating  the  palate.  As  in  all  the  other  members  of  the  group, 
the  naked  body  is  eel-like  in  form  ;  but  the  family  is  peculiar  in  that  its  members 
undergo  a  metamorphosis,  the  young  being  devoid  of  teeth,  and  furnished  with  a 
single  median  fin,  whereas  in  the  adult  the  sucking-mouth  is  furnished  with  horny 
teeth  resting  on  a  soft  cushion,  and  the  median  fin  is  divided.  In  ths  adult  the 
tongue  is  furnished  with  rasping  teeth,  while  above  and  below  the  aperture  of  the 
mouth  there  are  a  series  of  upper  and  lower  teeth,  and  the  sucking-disc  is  likewise 
provided  with  smaller  isolated  teeth.  Eyes  are  present  in  the  adult  ;  and  the 
aperture  of  the  nostrils  is  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  head.  The  seven-gill 
pouches  open  externally  by  as  many  apertures  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  but  com- 


552  LOWEST  VERTEBRATES. 

municate  with  the  pharynx  by  a  common  opening  to  which  the  ducts  of  all  con- 
verge.    The  intestine  is  furnished  with  a  spiral  valve,  and  the  eggs  are  minute. 

The  true  lampreys  are  characterised  in  the  adult  condition  by  having  two 
dorsal  fins,  the  hindmost  of  which  is  continuous  with  the  caudal ;  and  likewise  by 
the  upper  series  of  oral  teeth  consisting  either  of  a  doubly -cusped  transverse  ridge, 
or  of  two  closely-placed  separate  teeth ;  while  the  teeth  on  the  tongue  are  serrated. 
The  genus  appears  to  be  represented  by  four  species,  which  are  confined  to  the 
coasts  and  fresh  waters  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  ranging  as  far  south  as  West 
Africa.  The  largest  of  these  is  the  sea-lamprey,  represented  in  the  upper  figure  of 
our  illustration,  which  may  grow  to  as  much  as  a  yard  in  length,  and  is  common  to 
Europe,  North  America,  and  West  Africa.  On  the  other  hand,  the  river-lamprey, 
or  lampern,  which  at  certain  seasons  ascends  the  rivers  of  Europe,  North  America, . 
and  Japan  in  innumerable  hosts,  is  somewhat  less  than  two  feet  in  length,  and  differs 
from  the  last  species  in  being  uniformly  coloured,  instead  of  marbled  with  black. 
Still  smaller  is  the  small  lamprey,  also  known  as  the  pride  or  sand-piper,  which  is 
likewise  common  to  Europe  and  Western  North  America,  and  scarcely  reaches  one 
foot  in  length ;  its  coloration  being  uniform.  The  young  of  this  form  was  long 
regarded  as  a  distinct  genus,  under  the  name  of  Ammoccetes ;  but  its  true  nature 
was  discovered  by  watching  the  transformation  into  the  adult.  The  larva,  writes 
Dr.  Glinther,  requires  three  or  four  years  for  its  full  development.  At  first  the 
head  is  very  small,  and  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  "  surrounded  by  a  semicircular 
upper  lip,  the  separate  lower  lip  being  very  small.  There  are  no  teeth,  but  several 
fringed  barbels  surround  the  mouth.  The  extremely  small  eyes  are.  hidden  in  a 
shallow  grove  ;  but  there  is  a  median  single  nasal  opening,  and  seven  gill-openings, 
as  in  the  adult.  The  vertical  fins  form  a  continuous  fringe,  in  which  the  later 
divisions  are  more  or  less  distinctly  indicated."  When  open,  the  mouth  of  lampreys 
is  nearly  circular  in  shape,  but  when  closed  forms  a  narrow  slit. 

Much  has  still  to  be  learned  regarding  the  habits  of  lampreys,  but  it  appears 
that  all  the  members  of  the  present  genus  ascend  rivers  for  the  purpose  of  spawn- 
ing, and  that  some  of  them  pass  the  whole  of  their  larval  conditions  in  fresh  waters. 
They  are  all  carnivorous,  and  in  the  adult  state  attach  themselves  by  their  mouths 
to  the  bodies  of  fishes,  from  which  they  rasp  off  the  flesh  with  their  horny  teeth ; 
fish  being  not  unfrequently  met  with  bearing  the  scars  of  wounds  thus  inflicted, 
and  a  salmon  has  been  taken  high  up  in  the  Rhone  with  a  sea-lamprey  tightly 
adhering  to  its  side.  Bathers  have  also  been  known  to  be  attacked  by  the  same 
species.  Commonly  keeping  to  the  bottom,  the  sea-lamprey  may  at  times  be  seen 
swimming  near  the  surface  with  a  serpentine  movement  of  the  body.  In  the 
Severn  the  capture  of  this  species  lasts  from  February  to  May,  while  in  the  Thames 
the  season  is  May  and  June  ;  but  in  the  Scottish  rivers  the  lampreys  do  not  ascend 
till  the  end  of  June,  remaining  till  the  beginning  of  August.  During  the  spawn- 
ing-season these  fishes  excavate  furrows  in  the  river-bottoms  for  the  reception  of 
their  eggs,  and  are  said  to  remove  impeding  stones  by  lifting  them  up  with  their 
sucking-mouths.  Being  much  exhausted  by  the  function  of  spawning,  at  its  con- 
clusion they  make  their  way  with  all  speed  to  the  sea.  The  river-lamprey  was 
at  one  time  thought  to  be  a  permanent  inhabitant  of  fresh  waters,  but  it  has  been 
taken  in  the  sea,  and  it  has  even  been  considered  that  it  may  undergo  its  meta- 


LAMPREYS  AND  HAG-FISHES,  553 

morphosis  in  salt  water.  Always  restricted  to  low-lying  countries,  this  lamprey 
may  be  found  alike  in  rivers,  streams,  lakes,  and  marshes,  although  it  only  spawns 
where  the  water  is  clear  and  flows  swiftly  over  a  stony  bed.  During  the  spawning- 
season,  which  takes  place  in  March  and  April,  the  lampreys  acquire  a  brilliant 
metallic  lustre;  while  at  the  conclusion  of  the  function  they  generally  perish. 
Formerly  these  lampreys  occurred  in  enormous  quantities  in  many  of  the  English 
rivers,  upwards  of  three  thousand  having  been  taken  at  Newark  in  a  single  night ; 
but  the  numbers  in  the  Thames  are  now  considerably  diminished.  Their  chief  use 
is  as  bait  for  cod  and  other  fish ;  for  which  they  are  specially  adapted  on  account 
of  the  ease  with  which  they  can  be  kept  alive.  There  is  nothing  calling  for  special 
notice  with  regard  to  the  habits  of  the  small  lamprey. 

Southern  In  the  Southern  Hemisphere  the  family  is  represented  by  three 

Lampreys,      genera,  in  one  of  which  there  is  a  single  species  (Mordacia  mordax) 

common  to  the  coasts  of  Chili  and  Tasmania ;  while  in  a  second  (Geotria)  there  is 

one  Chilian  and  another  South  Australian  species.     The  first  of  these  two  genera 

agrees  with  the  typical  representatives  of  the  family  in  the  continuity  between 


HAG-FISH  (5-  nat.  size). 

the  second  dorsal  and  caudal  fins,  but  differs  in  having  two  groups  of  three-cusped 
teeth  above  the  aperture  of  the  mouth ;  whereas  in  the  second  genus  the  two  fins 
above-mentioned  are  separate,  and  there  is  a  four-lobed  plate  above  the  mouth. 
Some  of  these  lampreys  grow  to  a  length  of  a  couple  of  feet ;  and  in  the  adults  of 
some  or  all  of  them  the  skin  of  the  throat  is  so  much  expanded  as  to  form  a  kind 
of  pouch.  The  third  genus  (Exomegaa)  appears  to  be  known  only  by  two 
examples  from  the  Atlantic  side  of  South  America,  one  of  which  was  picked  up 
in  the  streets  of  Buenos  Aires  in  1867,  while  the  second  was  obtained  from  the 
Bay  of  Monte  Video  in  1890.  With  the  exception  that  the  dentition  is  of  a 
peculiar  type,  very  little  is  known  as  to  the  structure  of  this  rare  form.  It  will 
not  fail  to  be  noticed  that  the  remarkable  geographical  distribution  of  these 
southern  lampreys  is  paralleled  by  that  of  certain  fresh-water  fishes  already 
described,  with  the  exception  that  there  is  rib  instance  among  the  latter  where 
a  species  is  common  to  Australia  and  South  America. 

The    hap>fishes,    of   which   there  are   two  genera,  constitute  a 
Hag-Fishes.  & 

family   (Myxinidce)  distinguished  from    the  last  by  the  nasal   sac 

having  a  posterior  duct  which  perforates   the  palate ;    the  single  external  nasal 


554 


LOWEST  VERTEBRATES. 


aperture  being  situated  above  the  mouth  at  the  extremity  of  the  head,  which  is 
furnished  with  four  pairs  of  barbels.  The  mouth  is  devoid  of  lips,  the  palate 
is  provided  with  a  single  median  tooth,  and  there  are  two  comb-like  series  of 
rasping  teeth  on  the  tongue.  The  gill-apertures,  or  aperture,  are  situated  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  head ;  and  each  gill-pouch  has  a  separate  duct  opening 
into  the  oesophagus.  The  sides  of  the  abdomen  carry  a  row  of  mucous  sacs,  and 
there  is  no  spiral  valve  to  the  intestine.  The  large  eggs  are  invested  in  a  horny 
envelope,  furnished  with  threads  for  adhesion.  In  the  true  hag-fishes,  of  which 
the  common  species  (Myxine  glutinosa)  is  found  on  the  coasts  of  Europe  and 
North  America,  there  is  but  a  single  gill-opening  on  each  side  of  the  abdomen, 
leading  by  means  of  six  ducts  to  as  many  gill-pouches.  Another  species  has  been 
recorded  from  the  extremity  of  South  America ;  and  the  range  of  the  genus  also 
includes  Japan.  In  the  second  genus  (Bdellostoma),  of  which  there  are  two  species 
from  the  coasts  of  the  South  Pacific,  there  are  six  or  more  gill-openings  on  each 
side,  each  communicating  by  a  separate  duct  with  a  gill-chamber.  All  these 

creatures  are  marine,  and  are  frequently  found  deeply 
buried  in  the  bodies  of  fishes,  more  especially  members 
of  the  cod  family,  into  wrhich  they  bore  for  the  purpose 
of  feeding  on  the  flesh.  They  are  totally  blind,  and 
secrete  vast  quantities  of  slime,  which  seriously  inter- 
feres with  fishing  in  localities  where  these  creatures 
abound.  Met  with  in  the  fjords  of  Norway  at  a  depth 
of  about  70  fathoms,  hag-fishes  have  been  dredged  from 
depths  of  nearly  350  fathoms. 

Primeval  The  Old  Red  Sandstone  of  Caithness 

Lampreys.  has  yielded  the  skeletons  of  a  small  limb- 
less creature  (Palceospondylus),  which  there  is  little 
doubt  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  forerunners  of 
the  modern  lampreys.  Measuring  only  about  a  couple 
of  inches  in  length,  these  skeletons  show  a  well-calcified 
skull,  while  the  notochord  is  surrounded  by  a  series  of 
calcified  rings,  and  the  tail  has  a  large  fin,  of  which  the 
supports  on  the  upper  side  are  forked  like  those  of 
lampreys.  The  front  of  the  head  has  a  circular  opening 
surrounded  with  a  ring  of  tentacles  (dc,  Ic),  probably 
corresponding,  to  the  nose  of  a  modern  lamprey;  the 
opening  of  the  nose  itself  (n)  appears  to  be  single ;  and 
there  are  a  pair  of  plates  (x)  behind  the  head  not 

improbably  representing  gill -plates.  It  may  be  confidently  assumed  that  this 
little  creature  is  but  one  among  a  series  of  lost  types. 


SLIGHTLY  ENLARGED  RESTORATION 
OP  THE  SKELETON  OF  THE 
PRIMEVAL  LAMPREY.  —  After 

Traquair. 


CHAPTER   II. 

THE  ARMOURED  PRIMEVAL  VERTEBRATES, — Subclass  OSTRACOPHORI. 

A  GROUP  of  remarkable  armoured  forms  from  the  Palaeozoic  rocks  formerly 
placed  among  the  fishes,  are  now  regarded  as  probably  constituting  a  subclass  of 
the  class  typically  represented  by  the  lampreys,  although  it  must  be  confessed 
that  we  have  at  present  no  evidence  of  the  links  which,  on  this  view,  must  be 
supposed  to  have  connected  the  two  groups.  Strange  in  form,  and  utterly  unlike 
any  living  animals,  these  primeval  armoured  vertebrates  are  characterised  by  the 
great  development  of  the  external  skeleton,  the  head  and  fore-part  of  the  body 
being  protected  by  large  bone-like  plates.  There  are  no  hard  structures  to  the 
mouth,  and  there  are,  at  most,  but  rudimental  indications  of  arches  for  the  support 
of  limbs,  while  the  notochord  is  persistent.  They  may  be  divided  into  three  chief 
groups ;  and  one  of  the  most  curious  features  connected  with  the  first  of  these  is 
the  apparent  structural  identity  of  one  layer  of  its  shield  with  a  layer  found  in 
the  investment  of  the  living  king-crabs. 

The  simplest  of  these  armoured  forms  is  typified  by  the  genus 
Pteraspis  of  the  Devonian  rocks,  a  partial  restoration  of  which  is 
given  in  the  annexed  figure.  In  these  creatures  the  head  and  fore-part  of  the 
body  are  protected  both  above  and  beneath  by  shields;  while  the  tail,  in  some 
cases  at  least,  is  scaled.  The  structure  of  the  shield  is  curious,  each  plate  consist- 
ing of  an  outer  and  inner  hard  layer,  between  which  is  a  thick  stratum  of 
polygonal  chambers,  perforated  by  delicate  tunnels  of  the  sensory  canal-system 
of  the  skin ;  all  the 
layers  lacking  the  ele- 
ments of  true  bone,  and 
the  outer  surface  being 
marked  with  fine  con- 

,     .         ,     .  rpn  PARTIAL   RESTORATION  OF   Pteraspis. 

ine  eyes  (From  A  g_  Woodward?  Catm  Foss.  Fish.  BriL  Mus.} 

are  lateral  and  widely 

separated,  and  towards  the  hinder  end  of  the  back  shield  (which  is  provided  with 
a  spine)  there  is  an  aperture  on  each  side  for  the  escape  of  water  from  a  gill- 
cavity.  Although  nothing  is  known  as  to  the  form  and  structure  of  the  nose 
and  mouth,  the  nostrils  must  evidently  have  been  placed  near  the  mouth  on  the 
under  surface  of  the  head.  A  pit  between  the  eyes  probably  marks  the  site 
of  a  rudimental  median  eye ;  and  the  structure  of  the  under  surface  of  the  shield 
indicates  the  presence  of  separated  gill-pouches,  which  were  probably  supported 
by  arches.  From  an  examination  of  the  whole  structure  of  the  remains,  Mr.  A.  S. 
Woodward  is  of  opinion  that  the  shield  probably  covered  "  a  truly  fish-like  head ; 


556 


LOWEST   VERTEBRATES. 


Cephalaspis. 


and  if  it  was  not  for  the  invariable  absence  of  limbs  and  jaws,  and  the  forward 
position  of  the  breathing  apparatus  in  Pteraspis  and  its  allies,  these  animals  might 
be  placed,  without  hesitation,  in  the  class  of  fishes.  The  possibility  that  limbs  and 
jaws  were  present,  but  not  calcified  enough  to  be  preserved,  must,  however,  be 
borne  in  mind;  while  the  negative  evidence  on  this  subject,  and  the  want  of 
information  as  to  the  nature  of  the  tail,  are  factors  necessitating  caution  in  the 
determination  of  affinities." 

The  next  family  of  the  group  is  typified  by  the  genus  Cephalaspis, 
in  which  the  front  shield  appears  to  be  confined  to  the  head  and  gill- 
region,  and  consists  of  a  sirtgle  piece,  rounded  or  pointed  in  front,  abruptly 
truncated  behind,  and  with  the  rounded  margin  bent  inwards  below  to  form  an 
ornamented  flattened  rim.  Of  the  triple-layered  shield,  the  inner  layer  is  bony, 
the  thick  middle  one  solid,  although  traversed  by  a  network  of  blood-vessels,  while 
the  upper  one  is  tuberculated  and  resembles  teeth  in  structure.  The  eyes  are  placed 
close  together  in  the  middle  of  the  shield,  the  nostrils  must  have  had  much  the 
same  position  as  in  Pteraspis,  and  at  the  back  of  the  shield  there  occurs  on  each 
side  a  small  flap  which  must  be  regarded  as  a  gill-cover.  Immediately  behind  the 

shield  commences  the 
ordinary  scaling  of 
the  body,  without  any 
signs  of  arches  for  the 
support  of  limbs. 
Paired  fins  appear, 
indeed,  to  be  totally 
absent,  although  a  dorsal  and  a  caudal  fin,  stiffened  by  little  elongated  scales  in 
place  of  rays,  are  present.  The  large,  deep,  quadrangular  scales  covering  the  body 
form  a  series  of  interlocking  rings,  doubtless  corresponding  in  the  living  state  to 
the  underlying  muscle-plates  of  the  body. 

The  third  modification  of  the  group,  as  represented  by  the 
Devonian  Pterichthys,  agrees  in  the  general  structure  of  the  shield 
with  certain  members  of  the  last  section  in  which  there  is  -no  dividing  line  between 
the  head-shield  and  the  united  scales  of  the  body.  The  head  is,  however,  sharply 
defined  from  the  body;  and  the  armour,  instead  of  being  simple,  consists  of  a 
number  of  overlapping  plates  arranged  symmetrically  to  one  another.  An 
important  point  of  distinction  from 
all  the  preceding  forms  is  to  be 
found  in  the  presence  of  a  pair  of 
hollow  limb-like  pectoral  append- 
ages, jointed  near  the  middle.  A 
small  movable  plate  between  the 
eyes  seems  to  have  lodged  a  median 
eye;  another  movable  plate  on  the  RESTORATION  OF  PTERICHTHYS.  (FromTraquair.) 

cheek  appears  to  represent  the  gill- 
cover ;  and  a  pair  of  loose  jaw-plates  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  front  of  the  head, 
in  some  forms  at  least,  are    finely  toothed  on  the    hinder    border:    but  nothing 
definite    is   known    with    regard   to    the    nature    of   the    nose,  mouth,   and  jaws. 


RESTORATION  OF  Cephalaspis.     (From  Woodward,  Cat.  Foss.  Fish.  Brit.  Mus. ) 


Pterichtliys. 


EXTINCT  ARMOURED  FORMS.  557 

The  arrangement  of  the  median  fins  is  generally  similar  to  that  obtaining  in 
the  second  family.  With  regard  to  the  true  nature  of  the  pectoral  appendages. 
Mr.  Woodward  writes  that  they  are  commonly  considered  "  as  homologous  writh 
the  paired  pectoral  fins  of  fishes,  and  certainly  in  their  mode  of  fixation  to  the 
trunk  there  is  much  to  favour  that  supposition;  but  the  discovery  of  an  allied 
organism  in  the  Devonian  of  Spitzbergen  suggests  the  wisdom  of  suspending 
judgment.  The  dorsal  body -shield  of  the  latter  is  simpler  than  that  of 
Pterichthys,  but  the  arrangement  of  the  plates  on  the  ventral  aspect  is  identical, 
and  there  are  also  hollow  pectoral  appendages.  These  appendages,  however,  are 
merely  simple  triangular  spines,  firmly  fixed  by  suture  to  processes  of  the  body- 
armour  ;  and  if  they  are  an  inferior  or  special  condition  of  the  ordinarily  movable 
arms,  it  seems  not  unlikely  that  those  arms  will  prove  to  be  different  in  origin 
from  the  paired  limbs  of  fishes." 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE  LANCBLETS,— Subkingdom  PROTOCHORDATA. 
Class  Leptocardii. 


COMMON  LANCELET,    SINGLY,    AND   IN  A  CHAIN  (  nat.  size). 

WITH  the  curious  semi  transparent  little  creatures  known  as  lancelets,  forming 
the  only  family  (Branchiostomatidce)  and  genus  of  the  class  to  which  they  belong, 
we  leave  the  Vertebrates  and  come  to  the  lower  group  of  Protochordates ;  all  of 
which  retain  the  three  essential  vertebrate  features  mentioned  on  p.  549.  First 
described  by  the  German  naturalist  Pallas  in  1778,  from  a  specimen  captured  on 
the  Cornish  coast,  the  common  lancelet  (Branchiostoma  lanceolatum)  w^as  referred 
to  that  refuge  for  the  destitute,  the  Mollusca,  where  it  remained  till  1834,  when  it 
was  rediscovered  by  Costa,  on  the  Neapolitan  coast,  who  gave  the  name  of 
Branchiostoma,  and  placed  it  among  the  fishes,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
lampreys  and  hags.  It  was  again  discovered  by  Yarrell  in  1836,  who  assigned  the 
title  of  Amphioxus,  and  was  the  first  to  recognise  the  existence  of  a  cartilaginous 
vertebral  column,  or  notochord.  The  upper  figure  of  our  illustration  shows  the 
pointed  extremities  of  the  body,  and  also  a  number  of  chevron-shaped  lines,  with 
their  angles  directed  forwards,  these  being  the  partitions  dividing  the  longitudinal 
mass  of  muscle  clothing  each  side  of  the  body  into  a  series  of  segments.  And  it  is 
due  to  this  segmented  structure  that  the  lancelet  is  enabled  to  swim  so  speedily  as 
it  does,  its  progress  being  effected  by  serpentine  movements  of  the  body.  Paired 
fins  are  wanting ;  but  the  back  is  provided  with  a  continuous  dorsal  fin,  expanded 
posteriorly  into  a  caudal  fin,  and  continued  forwards  to  join  the  ring  of  feelers,  or 


LANCELETS.  559 

tentacles,  growing  from  the  margin  of  the  hood-like  expansion  of  skin  which 
surrounds  the  mouth.  The  notochord  extends  to  the  anterior  and  posterior 
extremities  of  the  body,  reaching  beyond  the  muscle-plates,  and  likewise  in  advance 
of  the  front  extremity  of  the  overlying  nerve-chord;  the  latter  feature  being 
peculiar  to  the  lancelet.  An  aperture  distant  about  two-thirds  of  the  whole  length 
from  the  head,  and  opening  in  the  middle  line  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  body,  is 
the  outlet  of  a  large  cavity,  or  atrial  chamber,  surrounding  most  of  the  internal 
organs,  and  especially  the  large  pharynx ;  and  the  vent,  as  in  many  tadpoles,  is 
situated  high  up  on  the  left  side,  near  the  hinder  end  of  the  body.  The  reproduc- 
tive organs,  which  form  oval  structures  lying  below  the  muscle-plates,  differ  from 
those  of  the  Vertebrates  in  that  they  consist  of  a  large  number  of  perfectly  distinct 
chambers,  corresponding  to  the  muscle-segments  of  the  region  of  the  body  along 
which  they  extend.  In  connection  with  the  fins,  it  should  be  observed  that,  except 
at  its  two  extremities,  the  dorsal  fin  is  supported  by  a  series  of  gelatinous  rays,  each 
lying  in  a  chamber  of  its  own ;  while  the  ventral  portion  of  the  caudal  fin  has  a  paired 
series  of  similar  supports.  In  young  and  transparent  examples,  the  pharynx,  or  that 
portion  of  the  alimentary  tract  immediately  behind  the  mouth,  is  distinctly  visible 
through  the  walls  of  the  body,  and  can  be  seen  to  be  perforated  on  each  side  by  a  very 
large  number  of  vertical  gill-slits,  opening  into  the  atrial  chamber.  In  the  living 
creature  an  almost  continuous  current  of  water  is  drawn,  for  the  purpose  of  breath- 
ing and  feeding,  through  the  mouth  into,  the  pharynx,  whence  it  escapes  by  means  of 
the  gill-slits  into  the  atrial  chamber,  from  which  it  is  discharged  through  the  pore. 
Unlike  even  the  lowest  Vertebrates,  lancelets  have  no  cartilaginous  skull ;  the  only 
solid  structure  in  the  head  taking  the  form  of  a  ring  of  cartilage  in  the  hood  surround- 
ing the  mouth,  which  gives  off  a  series  of  processes  for  the  support  of  the  feelers. 
Although  paired  eyes,  as  well  as  organs  of  hearing,  are  totally  wanting  in  these 
strange  little  creatures,  a  pigment-spot  at  the  front  end  of  the  nerve-tube  represents 
a  median  eye ;  behind  which  is  a  small  nasal  pit,  communicating  in  the  larva  by 
means  of  a  small  pore  with  the  front  of  the  nerve-tube.  With  regard  to  the  other 
soft- parts,  it  will  suffice  to  mention  that  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  nerve-tube 
is  not  expanded  to  form  a  true  brain ;  and  that  the  heart  is  represented  merely  by 
a  series  of  pulsating  dilatations  of  the  great  blood-vessel ;  the  blood  itself  being 
devoid  of  colour. 

Lancelets  are  represented  by  some  eight  or  nine  species,  all  of  which  may  be 
included  in  a  single  genus ;  although  one  from  the  Bahamas  is  peculiar  on  account 
of  the  unsymmetrical  arrangement  of  its  reproductive  organs.  Essentially  littoral 
forms,  inhabiting  shallow  water,  especially  where  the  bottom  is  sandy,  these 
creatures  have  an  almost  universal  distribution  on  the  temperate  and  tropical 
coasts,  although  they  are  often  curiously  local.  The  European  form  has  been 
recorded  from  Scandinavia,  Heligoland,  the  English  Channel,  France,  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  Chesapeake  Bay,  growing  to  an  unusual  size  in  French  waters. 
Other  species  occur  on  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  shores  of  North  and  South 
America,  as  well  as  on  the  coasts  of  Australia,  Japan,  Ceylon,  and  the  Fiji  Islands. 
Mr.  A.  Willey  remarks  that  the  lancelet  "  possesses  an  extraordinary  capacity  for 
burrowing  in  the  sand  of  the  seashore  or  sea-bottom.  If  an  individual  be  dropped 
from  the  hand  on  to  a  mound  of  wet  sand,  which  has  just  been  dredged  out  of  the 


560  SEMIVERTEBRATES. 

water,  it  will  burrow  its  way  to  the  lowest  depths  of  the  sand-hillock  in  the 
twinkling  of  an  eye.  Its  usual  modus  vivendi  is  to  bury  the  whole  of  its  body  in 
the  sand,  leaving  only  the  mouth  with  the  expanded  buccal  cirri  [tentacles]  pro- 
truding. When  obtained  in  this  position  in  a  glass  jar,  a  constant  inflowing  current 
of  water,  in  which  food-particles  are  involved,  can  be  observed  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  upstanding  mouths.  The  food  consists  almost  entirely  of  microscopic 
plants  (diatoms,  desmids,  etc.)  and  vegetable  debris  .  .  .  Occasionally  it  emerges 
from  its  favourite  position  in  the  sand,  and  after  swimming  about  for  some  time  it 
will  sink  to  the  bottom,  and  there  recline  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period  upon  its 
side  on  the  surface  of  the  sand.  When  resting  on  the  sand,  it  is  unable  to  maintain 
its  equilibrium  in  the  same  position  as  an  ordinary  fish  would  do,  but  invariably 
topples  over  on  its  side, — indifferently,  the  right  or  left ; "  this  inability  to  maintain 
its  balance  being  due  to  the  absence  of  certain  structures  of  the  internal  ear,  to 
which  this  function  is  assigned  in  fishes.  According  to  another  observer,  lancelets 
occasionally  attach  themselves  to  another  by  their  mouths  in  a  chain-like  manner, 
as  represented  in  our  illustration.  That  lancelets  indicate  an  extremely  archaic 
type,  and  also  that  they  are  more  nearly  allied  to  the  Vertebrates  than  to  the 
Invertebrates,  may  be  considered  certain ;  although  there  is  still  a  difference  of 
opinion  whether  they  should  be  looked  upon  as  simple  or  degraded  forms. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

THE  SEA-SQUIRTS  OR  ASCIDIANS, — Class  Tunicata. 


A  LEATHERY  FIXED  SEA-SQUIRT,  Microcosmus  (nat.  size). 

EXTERNALLY,  scarcely  any  creatures  are  more  unlike  the  lancelet  than  those 
fixed  marine  animals  commonly  known  as  sea-squirts,  and  technically  as  ascidians, 
or  tunicates.  Nevertheless,  in  the  opinion  of  those  best  qualified  to  judge,  the 
relationship  is  probably  closer  than  that  existing  between  the  former  animal  and 
the  larva  of  a  lamprey,  in  spite  of  the  much  greater  external  resemblance  between 
the  two  latter.  It  is,  however,  when  we  dissect  a  sea-squirt  that  we  meet  with 
structures  recalling  certain  features  in  the  anatomy  of  the  lancelet ;  while  to  find 
evidence  of  the  chordate  affinities  of  the  former,  we  have  to  go  back  to  its  larval 
condition.  In  the  adult  condition,  writes  Mr.  Willey,  most  of  the  sea-squirts  "  are 
sedentary  animals,  remaining  fixed  for  their  lifetime  on  one  spot,  whether  attached 
to  rocks,  stones,  shells,  or  seaweeds,  from  which  they  are  incapable  of  moving. 
There  are,  however,  several  very  extraordinary  genera  of  ascidians,  which  swim  or 
float  about  perpetually  in  the  open  ocean,  and  have  become  adapted  in  the  extremest 
VOL.  v. — 36 


562 


SEMIVER  TEBRA  TES. 


manner  to  a  pun-ly  pelagic  environment,"  As  there  are  botli  simple  and  compound 
fixed  ascidians,  so  there  are  two  similar  types  among  the  pelagic  forms:  but  some 
of  the  latter  are  complicated  !>y  an  alternation  of  generations,  the  one  generation 
being  a  simple  form,  whereas  in  the  other  generation  the  units  are  aggregated  into 
chains,  as  shown  in  our  Plate  of  the  creatures  known  as  salpa>.  Among  the 
compound  fixed  types  the  colonies,  as  they  are  termed,  consist  of  a  number  of 
individuals  produced  by  budding  from  a  single  parent-stock:  such  colonies  frequently 
attaining  very  large  dimensions,  and  being  remarkable  for  their  brilliant  coloration, 
although  in  other  cases  they  merely  form  thin  incrustations  on  the  surface  of  various 
marine  objects.  Other  forms,  on  the  contrary,  are  merely  connected  at  their  bases 
bv  a  common  creeping  root-like  base,  from  which  new  buds  are  from  time  to  time 
given  off.  the  individuals  being  otherwise  free.1 


ONE    SIDE    OF    Till-:    OUTER   TUX1C    liK.MUVED    (nat.  size). 


structure  of  Externally  a  simple  sea-squirt,  like  the  one  (^1.  microcosmus)  re- 

Ascidians.  presented  in  the  first  illustration,  has  been  aptly  compared  to  a  leather 
bottle  with  two  spouts;  these  spouts  forming  funnel-shaped  projections,  one  of 
which — generally  situated  at  a  higher  level  than  the  other — takes  in  water,  which  is 
discharged  from  the  second.  The  whole  organism  is  invested  in  an  external  tunic, 
varying  much  in  structure,  but  being  frequently  warty,  and  generally  opaque, 
although  in  the  salp;e  it  is  transparent.  A  remarkable  feature  connected  with 
this  outer  tunic  is  that  it  contains  a  substance — cellulose — identical  in  composition 
with  that  form  hi"1  the  cell-walls  of  plant-tissues.  On  cut-tin"'  throu"'h  the1  outer 

<~  J  r"i  <"""» 

tunic,  we  come,  as  in  our  second  illustration,  to  an  underlying  muscular  tunic, 
forming  the  true  body- wall,  and  consisting  externally  of  an  epidermis  underlain 
by  interlacing  muscular  fibres.  In  the  illustration.  «  indicates  the  inhalent.  and 
^  the  exhalent  orifice  of  this  inner  tunic.  On  cutting  into  the  inner  tunic,  we  find 
a  large  so-called  atrial  cavitv.  enclosing  to  a  great  extent  the  viscera,  and  com- 
municating with  the  exterior  by  means  of  the  exhalent  orifice.  The  inhalent 
orifice,  or  mouth,  communicates,  on  the  other  hand,  directly  with  the  exceedingly 


lints  |, 


SEA-SQUIRTS.  563 

large  pharynx  or  branchial  chamber,  which  extends  nearly  to  the  hinder  end  of 
the  body,  and  is  perforated  by  a  vast  number  of  gill-openings,  through  which  the 
water  taken  in  at  the  mouth  passes  into  the  atrial  chamber.  Instead  of  passing 
directly  into  the  latter  chamber  with  the  water,  the  food  is  caught  up  in  a  mass  of 
slime,  and  carried  round  the  base  of  the  mouth-tube  until  it  reaches  the  entrance 
to  the  oesophagus,  which  lies  near  the  hinder  end  of  the  dorsal  surface  of  the 
branchial  chamber.  Hence  it  passes  into  the  stomach,  and  along  the  intestine, 
which  forms  a  U-shaped  curve  turned  away  from  the  dorsal  aspect;  the  vent 
opening  on  the  same  aspect  into  the  atrial  cavity  below  the  exhalent  orifice.  With 
regard  to  the  nervous  and  circulatory  system,  it  will  suffice  to  say  that  there  is  a 
large  nerve-ganglion  embedded  in  the  tissue  of  the  inner  tunic,  and  lying  on  the 
dorsal  surface  of  the  body  between  the  inhalent  and  exhalent  orifices ;  and  true 
blood-vessels  are  wanting,  the  blood  merely  flowing  through  a  series  of  spaces  in 
the  muscles  and  other  tissues  of  the  body  and  between  the  viscera,  and  the  heart 
forming  a  dilated  tube.  Unlike  the  higher  Chordates,  all  the  ascidians  are 
hermaphrodite ;  the  reproductive  organs  frequently  lying  within  the  loop  of  the 
intestine,  and  discharging  into  the  atrial  cavity  alongside  of  the  vent.  A  remark- 
able physiological  feature  of  the  group  is  to  be  found  in  the  periodical  reversal 
of  the  action  of  the  heart;  the  blood  being  driven  for  a  certain  time  in  one 
direction,  after  which  the  heart  makes  a  short  pause,  and  then  propels  it  in  an 
opposite  course. 

In  addition  to  certain  other  structural  features,  into  the  consideration  of  which 
it  would  be  impossible  to  enter  in  a  work  of  the  present  nature,  the  essential 
resemblance  between  the  adult  sea-squirts  and  the  lancelets  is  to  be  found  in  the 
possession  by  both  of  a  pharynx  perforated  by  a  large  number  of  gill-openings, 
which  convert  it  into  a  branchial  chamber,  opening  into  an  atrial  cavity  instead  of 
directly  to  the  exterior.  Several  of  the  differences  between  the  two,  such  as  the 
hermaphrodite  reproduction  and  the  bent  intestine  of  the  sea-squirts,  are  probably 
due  to  their  sessile  habits,  since  such  features  are  characteristic  of  most  fixed 
organisms.  Other  points  of  difference  are  to  be  found  in  the  absence  of  segmentation, 
and  the  want  of  a  dorsal  nerve-tube  and  notochord  in  the  adult  ascidian,  although, 
as  we  shall  see,  a  remnant  of  the  latter  exists  in  the  tail  during  the  larval  condition. 

All  ascidians,  whether  fixed  or  free  in  the  adult  condition,  go 
Development.  .         .        ,  ,  ,.       ,  .  ,      . 

through  a  tree-swimming  larval  stage,  during  a  part  or  which  they 

develop  a  tail  containing  a  notochord  and  nerve-tube ;  and  as  this  feature  is  all 
important  from  a  morphological  point  of  view,  it  must  be  mentioned  here,  although 
necessarily  in  a  very  brief  manner.  Generally  the  larval  condition  lasts  but  a 
short  time ;  and  this  may  be  the  reason  for  the  development  of  the  tail,  as  a 
powerful  swimming  organ  would  seem  to  be  essential  in  order  to  enable  the 
creature  to  reach  a  spot  suitable  for  its  permanent  existence.  During  its  develop- 
ment a  groove  makes  its  appearance  on  one  surface  of  the  ascidian  embryo,  the 
large  cells  on  the  side  of  which  grow  inwards  so  as  to  enclose  a  tube,  corresponding 
to  the  nerve-tube  of  Vertebrates,  beneath  which  is  the  notochord.  When  of  an 
oval  shape,  and  while  still  contained  in  its  investing  membrane,  the  embryo  assumes 
a  ventral  curvature,  and  at  the  same  time  produces  a  long  tapering  tail,  which 
eventually  becomes  coiled  round  it.  In  addition  to  certain  other  structures,  this 


564  SEMIVERTEBRATES. 

outgrowing  tail  includes  the  nerve-tube  and  the  notochord;  and  in  some  forms 
contains  the  only  muscles  developed  at  all.  Subsequently  a  rudimentary  brain, 
corresponding  to  a  simple  structure  in  the  lancelet,  makes  its  appearance;  and 
likewise,  an  unpaired  eye,  agreeing  precisely  in  structure  and  mode  of  develop- 
ment with  the  rudimental  median  eye  of  the  tuatera.  After  certain  other 
changes,  among  which  the  development  of  a  stomach  and  intestine  are  included, 
the. larva  is  ready  to  burst  from  its  membranes,  which  it  does  by  spasmodic 


A  CARTILAGINOUS  FIXED  SEA-SQUIRT,  Phallusia  (nat.  size). 

jerkings  of  the  tail;  and  it  thereupon  starts  on  a  free-swimming  existence. 
Before  long  the  cellular  structure  of  the  notochord  in  the  tail  begins  to  disappear 
by  the  formation  of  vacuities ;  and  eventually  the  whole  structure  becomes  filled 
with  gelatinous  matter.  After  a  brief  free  existence  it  fixes  itself  by  its  muzzle  to 
some  submarine  object,  with  the  tail  stretched  out  and  generally  motionless.  In 
a  short  time  this  appendage  commences  to  shorten,  and  finally  disappears,  by  being 
drawn  up  into  the  body  of  the  developing  sea-squirt  and  absorbed.  A  further 
process  of  development  results  in  the  production  of  the  perfect  sea-squirt ;  but  it 


SEA-SQUIRTS.  565 

would  be  quite  foreign  to  the  scope  of  this  work  to  enter  into  the  details  of  the 
metamorphosis;  and  we  may  conclude  this  portion  of  our  subject  by  stating  that 
ascidians  are  probably  the  degenerate  descendants  of  permanently  free-swimming 
forms  provided  with  a  complete  notochord  and  nerve-tube ;  both  of  which  structures 
are  now  in  most  cases  only  temporarily  retained  in  the  tails  of  the  larvae. 

Typical  According  to  the  classification  adopted  by  Professor  Herdman, 

Ascidians.  the  tunicates  may  be  divided  into  three  orders,  the  first  of  which  is 
known  as  the  Ascidiacea.  This  group  includes  both  fixed  and  pelagic,  simple  and 
compound  types,  none  of  which  are  provided  in  the  adult  state  with  a  tail  and 
retain  no  trace  of  a  notochord ;  the  free-swimming  forms  constituting  colonies,  and 
the  simple  types  being  generally  fixed.  The  outer  tunic  is  permanent  and  well 
developed,  generally  increasing  with  the  age  of  the  individual ;  and  the  muscular 
structure  of  the  inner  tunic  takes  the  form  of  an  irregular  network,  and  never  of 
hoop-like  bands.  The  walls  of  the  large  branchial  chamber  are  perforated  by 
numerous  slits,  opening  into  a  single  atrial  cavity,  which  in  turn  communicates 
with  the  exterior  by  means  of  the  exhalent  aperture  of  the  tunic ;  the  vent  opening 
into  the  atrial  cavity.  Many  of  the  forms  reproduce  their  kind  by  budding,  and  in 
most  the  sexually  produced  embryo  develops  into  a  tailed  larva.  The  order  is 
divided  into  three  subordinal  groups,  of  which  the  first — Ascidise  Simplices — 
includes  fixed  (rarely  unattached,  but  never  free-swimming)  and  generally  solitary 
forms,  which  very  rarely  reproduce  by  budding.  When  colonies  occur,  each  of 
their  individual  members  has  a  distinct  outer  tunic  of  its  own,  the  whole  society 
never  being  buried  in  a  common  investing  mass.  Four  families  are  contained  in 
this  suborder,  each  represented  by  a  large  number  of  genera.  Omitting  mention 
of  the  first  family,  we  may  take  as  an  example  of  the  second  (Cynthiidce)  the 
genus  Microcosmus,  of  which  specimens  are  shown  in  the  figures  on  pp.  561,  562. 
As  a  family,  these  sea-squirts  are  characterised  by  being  usually  attached,  and 
sometimes  stalked,  although  rarely  free.  The  outer  tunic  is  generally  membranous 
or  leathery,  but  occasionally  cartilaginous  or  covered  with  sand ;  while  the  inhalent 
aperture  is  usually,  and  the  exhalent  aperture  invariably,  provided  with  four  lobes, 
meeting  together  at  the  centre.  The  branchial  chamber  is  longitudinally  folded, 
with  its  gill-slits  straight ;  and  the  tentacles  may  be  either  single  or  compound. 
In  the  figured  genus  the  body  is  attached  and  sessile,  and  the  tunic,  which  is  not 
incrusted  with  a  continuous  coat  of  sand,  is  thin,  leathery,  and  tough ;  both  its 
apertures  having  four  lobes,  and  the  tentacles  being  compound.  As  an  example  of 
the  family  Ascidiidce  we  may  take  the  well-known  Phallusia  mammillata,  from 
the  seas  of  North- Western  Europe  and  the  Mediterranean,  which  is  shown  in  the 
accompanying  illustration,  and  is  the  sole  representative  of  its  genus.  In  the 
family  to  which  it  belongs,  the  body  is  attached  and  usually  sessile,  although 
rarely  stalked;  the  inhalent  aperture  generally  has  eight,  and  the  exhalent  six 
lobes ;  and,  as  a  rule,  the  outer  tunic  is  either  gelatinous  or  cartilaginous,  although 
it  may  be  horny.  The  branchial  chamber  is  devoid  of  folds,  with  the  gill-slits 
either  straight  or  curved ;  and  the  tentacles  are  simple  and  thread-like.  In  the 
figured  genus  the  body  is  erect  and  attached,  and  the  outer  tunic  of  a  cartilaginous 
nature ;  its  surface  being  mammillated  in  a  very  characteristic  manner.  It  may 
be  mentioned  here  that  all  the  simple  sea-squirts  of  this  group,  when  touched,  emit 


SEMU'ERTEBRATES. 

1:  and  that  some  of  them,  like  the  one  figured  on  p.  f>(il.  arc  used  as 
d.  To  the  same  subfamily  as  7V/c///'*/"  also  belongs  the  extensive 
"•eiius  Avritl.'n.t,  in  which  tlie  outer  tunic  is  soft  and  flexible,  instead  of  bein^ 
cartilaginous.  A  totallv  distinct  subfamily  is,  however,  indicated  by  the  remark- 
able deep-sea  "vnus  // /// >< >1  > )/ /////'.<.  of  which  the  two  known  species  were  obtained 
at  depths  varviii"'  from  six  hundred  to  two  thousand  nine  hundred  fathoms, 
duriii"  the  vova-'-e  of  tlie  ( 'Im/friit/t',:  Here  we  tind  the  cup-shaped  or  pear-like 


dy  at  tachetl  by  n  loiio-e]-  (»•  shoi'tei1  stem:  Avhile   tlie   a])ci'turcs  are  circular  and 

t  closed  by  lobes.      The  outer  tunic  is  cai'tilaj^'iiious.  but  soft   and   thin,  although 

icken.-.!    in  places  to    form    plates.       Tin;   internal  longitudinal  bai's  usually  found 

the    branchial    chamber  a  re  *vant  in^   in   this  ^-cnus  :  th(;  ^'ill-slits  are  small  and 

H'ularly  placetl  ;   and   the    \-iscera   form    a    com])act    iri'ee'ular   mass   on    the  dorsal 

''  "1    this   chamber.      In    the   species  here  figured   ( //.   ('(ili/coddH),  which   is    tVom 

N'oi-tli    Pacific,   the   stem    is  of  ^reat    leiio'th.  ami   the  outei1  tunic  thickened   so 

1()   loi-m   a    number  of   nodules  or  plates:    but   in  the  South   Atlantic   form   (//. 


SEA-SQUIRTS.  567 

inoseleyi)  the  stem  is  much  shorter,  and  there  is  only  a  single  plate,  situated  on 
the  dorsal  side.  Of  very  large  dimensions,  these  deep-sea  ascidians  are  decidedly 
the  most  beautiful  members  of  the  class,  and  present  some  resemblance  to  the 
glass-sponges.  A  totally  different  type  of  structure  is  presented  by  the  last  family 
(Clavelinidcv)  of  the  suborder,  in  which  the  body  of  each  individual  is  attached 
by  its  posterior  end,  and  usually  by  means  of  a  stalk,  to  a  creeping  basal  stolon, 
or  common  mass,  from  which  young  individuals  are  produced  by  budding.  The 
outer  tunic,  which  is  usually  thin  and  transparent,  is  in  most  cases  gelatinous, 
although  occasionally  cartilaginous;  and  its  circular  apertures  are  but  seldom 
distinctly  lobed.  Folds  are  wanting  in  the  branchial  chamber,  but  longitudinal 
bars  may  be  present,  although  these  lack  the  papillae  found  in  the  preceding 
family;  and  the  gill-slits  are  straight.  The  tentacles  resemble  those  of  the  last 
family  in  their  simple,  thread-like  form ;  but  the  digestive  tract  is  usually 
extended  behind  the  branchial  chamber  to  form  an  abdomen.  In  addition  to 
the  ordinary  sexual  reproduction,  colonies  may  be  formed  by  budding  from  the 
common  stolon.  Ten  genera  are  included  in  the  family,  from  among  which  the 
typical  Clavelina  is  selected  for  illustration.  Here  the  body  is  elongated  and 
club-shaped,  but  with  no  peduncle  beyond  the  abdomen,  and  is  attached  to  a 
delicate,  branched,  creeping  stolon,  from  which  arise 
the  buds.  The  thin  outer  tunic  is  gelatinous  or 
cartilaginous,  with  its  circular  apertures  devoid  of 
lobes.  The  inner  tunic  is  likewise  thin,  with  its 
muscles  mainly  longitudinal ;  and  the  intestinal  tract 
is  extended  to  form  a  well-marked  abdomen.  In  its 
restricted  sense,  the  genus  includes  only  half  a  dozen 
small  species  from  North -Western  Europe  and  the 
Mediterranean ;  the  one  here  figured  (C.  lepadiformis) 
being  characterised  by  the  yellow  or  brown  lines  on 
the  region  known  as  the  thorax. 

The  second  suborder  of  the  typical  sea-squirts — 

A      .  -,.       ,0,  .,  -11/211?  1-1  A  CEEEPING  ASCIDIAN,  Clavelina 

Ascidise  Composite — includes  fixed  torms  which  repro-  (nat  size) 

duce  by  buds  so  as  to  constitute  colonies  in  which  the 

individuals  are  buried  in  a  common  investing  mass,  and  thus  possess  no  separate 
tunics.  The  group  includes  seven  families ;  and  Professor  Herdman  remarks  that 
as  many  of  these  have  originated  independently  from  simple  forms,  the  whole 
assemblage  is  to  a  certain  extent  an  artificial  one.  In  the  first  family  (Botryllidce) 
the  colonies,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  on  p.  568,  usually  form  thin  incrusta- 
tions on  seaweeds  or  stones,  although  they  occasionally  take  the  shape  of  thick 
fleshy  masses  ;  the  individuals  being  arranged  so  as  to  form  either  circles  or  ellipses, 
or  in  branching  lines.  The  common  apertures  of  discharge  are  distinct,  and  usually 
furnished  with  lobes ;  the  individual  units  are  short,  and  show  no  division  of 
the  body  into  regions ;  and  the  outer  tunic,  which  is  usually  soft,  is  traversed 
by  numerous  vessels  with  large  terminal  knobs.  Internal  longitudinal  bars  are 
present  in  the  large  and  well-developed  branchial  chamber,  in  which  the  gill-slits 
are  numerous ;  and  the  simple  tentacles  do  not  exceed  sixteen  in  number.  Budding 
may  take  place  either  from  the  sides  of  the  units  constituting  the  colony  or  from 


568 


SEMIVER  TEBRA  TES. 


the  vessels  in  the  tunic.  Among  the  five  genera  constituting  the  family,  the 
typical  Botryllus  (figured  on  p.  572)  has  the  colony  thin  and  incrusting,  with  the 

individuals  arranged  in  a  circular  manner,  whereas  in 
Botrylloides  they  form  ellipses  or  branching  lines.  In  the 
figured  species  of  the  latter  (B.  albicans),  from  North- 
Western  Europe  and  the  Mediterranean,  the  colony  is 
pure  white  in  colour,  but  in  some  it  is  purple  with  yellow 
or  green  markings,  and  in  others  yellowish  green.  As 
an  example  of  forms  in  which  the  colony  is  thick  and 
massive,  we  may  cite  the  genus  Polycyclus.  Passing  over 
the  second  family  of  the  suborder,  we  come  to  the  third 
(Polyclinidce),  in  which  the  colony  is  usually  massive, 
being  sometimes  incrusting,  but  in  other  cases  lobed,  or 
even  stalked.  The  arrangement  of  the  individuals  is 
highly  variable ;  and  the  common  apertures  of  discharge 
are  usually  inconspicuous.  Although  of  an  elongated 
form,  the  individuals  usually  differ  from  those  of  the 
family  last  noticed  by  being  divided  into  three  regions; 
the  inhalent  aperture  having  six  or  eight  lobes,  while  the 
exhalent  is  frequently  provided  with  a  tongue-like  process. 
The  gelatinous  or  cartilaginous  outer  tunic  is  frequently 
stiffened  by  embedded  grains  of  sand ;  and  the  branchial 
chamber  is  usually  small  and  poorly  developed,  with 
minute  gill-slits  and  no  internal  longitudinal  bars.  The 
tentacles  are  small  and  not  numerous ;  the  digestive  tract 
is  extended  posteriorly  to  a  considerable  distance  beyond 
the  extremity  of  the  branchial  chamber ;  and  budding  takes 

place  from  the  end  of  the  postabdominal  region.  The  family  is  represented  by  well 
nigh  a  score  of  genera,  among  which  Amarucium  may  be  selected  as  an  example, 
on  account  of  its  numerous  species.  Here  the  colony  is  massive,  being  sometimes 

lobed  or  stalked ;  the  mode  of  arrange- 
ment is  usually  compound  and  irregular ; 
and  the  individuals  are  elongated,  with 
six  lobes  to  the  inhalent  orifice,  and  the 
postabdominal  region  elongated.  The 
species  here  figured  (A.  densum)  is  from 
North- Western  Europe,  and  is  character- 
ised by  its  greyish  yellow  colour,  and 
the  abundance  of  sand  in  the  tunic ;  but 
other  kinds  may  be  black,  orange,  or 
rosy  red,  or  white.  In  our  figure,  a  shows 
fully  active  individuals ;  while  those  in 
the  outer  ring  indicated  by  b  assume  a  kind  of  torpid  condition  during  the  winter, 
but  give  rise  to  fresh  buds  in  the  spring. 

Omitting  mention  of  the  remaining  families  of  the  group  just  considered,  we 
come  to  the  third  and  last  suborder  of  the  typical  ascidians,  namely,  the  phos- 


AN        INCRUSTING        ASCIDIAN 

(Botrylloides)  ON  A  SEA- 
WEED (nat.  size). 


A  COMPOUND  ASCIDIAN  (Amarucium)  IN  WINTER 
CONDITION  (nat.  size). 


SEA-SQUIRTS.  569 

phorescent  ascidians, — A.  Luciae.  These  are  represented  solely  by  the  genus 
Pyrosoma,  which  is  thus  the  only  member  of  the  family  Pyrosomatidce.  These 
ascidians  are  free-swimming  pelagic  forms,  reproducing  by  buds  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  form  colonies  in  the  shape  of  a  sac;  such  colonies  sometimes  attaining  huge 
dimensions.  In  the  sack  thus  formed  the  constituent  individuals  are  embedded  in 
such  a  manner  that  all  their  inhalent  apertures  open  on  its  outer  surface,  while 
their  exhalent  orifices  are  situated  within  the  cylinder;  the  mouth  of  the  sac 
forming  the  common  discharging  aperture.  The  apertures  of  the  units  are  not 
lobed ;  and  the  outer  tunic  is  gelatinous  and  transparent,  containing  no  hard 
spicules,  but  provided  with  numerous  minute  cells.  The  branchial  chamber  is 
well-developed,  and  the  tentacles  are  simple.  The  first  four  individuals  of  the 
colony  grow  in  the  form  of  buds  from  a  rudimentary  sexually-developed  larva ; 
the  subsequent  increase  taking  place  by  budding  from  a  ventral  posterior  stolon. 
The  genus  is  represented  only  by  four  species,  in  one  of  which  (P.  elegans)  the 
individuals  form  regular  oblique  rows  in  the  walls  of  the  sac,  while  in  the  other 
three  they  are  arranged  irregularly.  The  largest  of  all  is  P.  spinosum,  from  the 
Atlantic,  in  which  the  total  length  of  the  colony  may  be  upwards  of  four  feet ;  this 
species  being  distinguished  by  the  surface  of  the  sac  being  provided  only  with 
short  sharp  spines,  instead  of  with  large  processes  of  the  tunic.  It  is  to  these 
ascidians  that  the  most  beautiful  phosphorescence  of  tropical  seas  is  due,  each  colony, 
when  stimulated  by  a  touch  or  shake  of  the  water,  giving  forth  a  brilliant  ball  of 
bluish  light,  which  lasts  for  several  seconds,  as  the  organism  floats  along  beneath 
the  surface,  and  then  suddenly  disappears.  A  colony  is  figured  on  p.  576. 

Describing  the  luminosity  produced  by  these  ascidians,  Bennett  states  that  on 
one  occasion  in  the  Australian  seas,  when  he  reached  the  deck,  he  observed  a  "  broad 
and  extensive  sheet  of  phosphorescence,  extending  in  a  direction  from  east  to  west, 
as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach.  The  luminosity  was  confined  to  the1  range  of  animals 
in  this  shoal,  for  there  was  no  similar  light  in  any  other  direction.  I  immediately 
cast  the  towing-net  over  the  stern  of  the  ship,  as  we  approached  nearer  the 
luminous  streak,  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  this  extraordinary  and  so  limited 
phenomenon.  The  ship  soon  cleaved  through  the  brilliant  mass,  from  which, 
by  the  disturbance,  strong  flashes  of  light  were  emitted ;  and  the  shoal,  judging 
from  the  time  the  vessel  took  in  passing  through  the  mass,  may  have  been  a  mile 
in  breadth.  The  passage  of  the  vessel  through  them  increased  the  light  around  to 
a  far  stronger  degree,  illuminating  the  ship.  On  taking  in  the  towing-net,  it  was 
found  half  filled  with  Pyrosoma,  which  shone  with  a  pale,  greenish  light;  and 
there  were  also  a  few  shell-fish  in  the  net  at  the  same  time.  After  the  mass  had 
been  passed  through,  the  light  was  still  seen  astern,  until  it  became  invisible  in  the 
distance."  Frequently  the  phosphorescence  is  intermittent,  periods  of  luminosity 
alternating  with  intervals  of  darkness.  Moseley  writes  that  during  the  voyage 
of  the  Challenger,  "  a  giant  Pyrosoma  was  caught  by  us  in  the  deep-sea  trawl. 
It  was  like  a  great  sac,  with  its  walls  of  jelly  about  an  inch  in  thickness.  It  was 
4  feet  in  length,  and  10  inches  in  diameter.  When  a  Pyrosoma  is  stimulated  by 
having  its  surface  touched,  the  phosphorescent  light  breaks  out  at  first  at  the 
point  stimulated,  and  then  spreads  over  the  surface  of  the  colony  as  the  stimulus 
is  transmitted  to  the  surrounding  animals.  I  wrote  my  name  with  my  finger  on 


570 


SEMIVERTEBRA  TES. 


the  surface  of  the  giant  Pyrosoma,  as  it  lay  on  deck  in  a  tub  at  night,  and  my 
name  came  out  in  a  few  seconds  in  letters  of  lire." 

Non-Luminous  With  the  exception  of  the  family  just  mentioned,  and  also  of  a 

Pelagic  Ascidians.  seconcj  one  which  constitutes  the  third  order,  the  present  ordinal 
group — termed  the  Thaliacea — includes  the  whole  of  the  free-swimming  pelagic 
representatives  of  the  class.  Either  simple  or  compound  in  structure,  these 
ascidians  lack  both  a  tail  and  a  notochord  in  the  adult,  but  have  a  persistent 
outer  tunic,  which  may  be  either  feebly  or  fully  developed.  In  the  inner  tunic 
the  muscles  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  more  or  less  nearly  complete  circular 
bands,  the  contraction  of  which  forms  the  motive  agency  of  the  creatures.  The 
branchial  chamber  has  either  two  large  openings,  or  a  number  of  smaller  gill-slits, 
leading  to  a  single  atrial  cavity ;  the  latter  communicating  with  the  exterior  by 
the  exhalent  aperture,  and  the  vent  opening  within  it.  In  all  the  members  of  the 
group  an  alternation  of  generations  takes  place ;  and  this  may  be  further  com- 
plicated by  the  individuals  of  a  single  generation  being  unlike  one  another. 
During  one  period  of  existence  temporary  colonies  may  be  formed,  but  these  never 
increase  by  the  budding  of  the  constituent  units,  which  eventually  separate  from 
one  another  and  disperse. 


AN   INDIVIDUAL  OF  A   CHAIN-SALPA. 

a,  inhalent,  and  b,  exhalent,  orifice  ;  d,  gill ;  c,  e,  viscera  ;  /,  eye  (?) ;  gt  pedicle  of  union  (nat.  size). 

The  well-known  salpse  form  a  suborder — Hemimyaria — characterised  by  the 
formation  of  temporary  colonies  in  the  sexual  generation,  and  represent  a  family 
(Salpidce)  distinguished  by  the  muscular  bands  of  the  inner  tunic  being  incomplete 
on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body.  Pelagic  in  habit,  and  transparent  in  structure, 
salpse  have  been  not  inaptly  compared  to  a  barrel  with  both  ends  knocked  out ; 
and  really  consist  of  little  more  than  a  huge  pharynx,  swimming  through  the 
water,  and  taking  in  large  mouthfuls  of  the  same  at  each  contraction  of  its 
muscles.  Through  the  hollow,  to  below  the  hinder  aperture,  runs  obliquely  a 
rod-like  gill  (d)  from  above  the  mouth,  although  this  is  too  narrow  to  interfere 
with  the  free  flow  of  the  water ;  while  the  lower  surface  of  the  interior  of  the 
creature  is  furnished  with  a  ciliated  slime-secreting  band,  corresponding  to  the 
structure  known  in  other  ascidians  and  the  lancelet  as  the  endostyle.  It  may  here 
be  well  to  mention  that  in  the  lancelet  the  structure  in  question  is  an  elongated 
gland  situated  at  the  base  of  the  pharynx,  and  against  which  the  ends  of  the 


SEA-SQUIRTS.  571 

gill-bars  abut.  The  only  part  of  the  salpa  that  is  not  transparent  is  the  thick 
mass  of  viscera  (e,  c)  at  the  hinder  end  of  the  body ;  while  the  muscular  bands, 
by  the  contraction  of  which  the  water  is  driven  through  the  barrel,  may  be 
compared  to  the  hoops  of  the  latter.  fc  Externally  the  w^hole  animal  is  invested 
with  a  thick,  tough,  transparent  tunic :  and  in  some  forms  there  are  two  tail-like 
appendages  to  the  hinder  end  of  the  body.  Such  is  the  structure  of  a  salpa ;  but 
there  are  two  generations  in  the  life  of  these  creatures,  namely,  the  simple  form, 
and  the  chain-like  or  aggregate  form ;  the  first  being  shown  in  the  upper,  and  the 
second  in  the  lower  figure  of  the  Plate  facing  p.  561.  It  will  be  observed  that 
in  the  chain  the  individuals  are  attached  to  one  another  by  their  upper  and  lower 
surfaces,  and  thus  have  these  two  apertures  free ;  and  when  taken  from  the  water 
the  whole  chain,  which  is  several  feet  in  length,  can  be  easily  resolved  into  its 
component  units.  The  specimen  represented  in  the  annexed  figure  is  one  of  these 
detached  units  from  a  chain,  the  projection  marked  g  being  for  the  purpose  of 
attachment  to  the  neighbouring  individual.  Although  extremely  interesting  and 
curious,  the  whole  history  of  the  development  of  salpee  is  so  complicated  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  explain  it  fully  in  a  popular  work.  It  may  be  stated, 
however,  that  the  solitary  salpa  is  born  from  an  egg  carried  within  the  body  of 
one  unit  of  the  aggregate  form,  the  embryo  being  nourished  by  means  of  a  placenta 
from  the  blood  of  the  parent.  On  the  other  hand,  the  chain-salpse  are  produced 
asexually  by  budding  from  a  stolon  within  the  body  of  the  solitary  form.  In  the 
chain-salpa  the  eggs  arise,  however,  at  an  exceedingly  early  period  of  its  develop- 
ment, with  the  curious  result  that  three  generations  are  present  at  one  time  in  a 
single  individual.  Thus  a  solitary  salpa  has  within  it  the  buds  of  an  aggregate 
salpa,  the  units  of  which  may  each  contain  eggs  which  will  ultimately  develop 
into  the  next  solitary  form.  And,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  in  a  solitary  salpa  the 
germ-cells  of  the  embryo  of  the  next  solitary  form  are  actually  visible  before  the 
development  of  the  stolon  which  is  to  give  rise  to  the  chain-form.  As  the  stolon 
forms  in  the  body  of  the  latter,  it  includes  within  it  the  mass  of  germinal  cells ; 
and  while  the  former  elongates  to  form  the  chain  of  units,  the  mass  of  germ-cells 
likewise  lengthens,  with  the  result  that  a  single  egg-cell  is  shut  off  in  each  unit 
of  the  chain.  Simple  salpse  vary  in  size  from  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  upwards  of 
eight  inches ;  and  in  some  parts  of  the  ocean-surface  are  met  with  in  incalculable 
swarrns.  Although  more  abundant  in  tropical  than  in  the  cooler  seas,  their 
northward  range  extends  beyond  Scotland  and  Norway,  while  to  the  south  they 
have  been  taken  below  the  latitude  of  Cape  Horn  and  the  most  southern  point  of 
Australia.  Dr.  Brooks  writes  that  "  they  are  abundant  only  after  the  water  has 
been  for  some  time  undisturbed  by  winds ;  and  as  prolonged  calms  are  most 
frequent  in  warm  seas,  those  waters  are  most  favourable  for  the  development  of 
these  animals,  which  multiply  with  most  astonishing  rapidity.  The  smaller  species 
are  often  so  abundant  that  for  hundreds  of  miles  any  bucketful  of  water  dipped  up 
at  random,  will  be  found  to  contain  hundreds  of  them.  In  such  places  collecting 
with  the  surface-net  becomes  impracticable,  for  almost  as  soon  as  the  net  is  dropped 
into  the  water,  it  becomes  choked  with  a  mass  so  dense  that  nothing  can  enter  it." 
The  food  of  these  creatures  consists  of  minute  marine  organisms,  both  animal  and 
vegetable.  In  swimming,  chain-salpse  progress  by  an  undulating,  snake-like  move- 


5  7  2  SEMIVER  TEBRA  TES. 

ment.  Usually,  the  family  is  divided  into  the  two  genera  Salpa  and  Cyclosalpa,  the 
latter  being  distinguished  by  having  the  digestive  tract  coiled  up;  but  some  writers 
have  divided  the  first  of  these  two  into  several  subgeneric  groups.  A  second  family 
is  represented  by  the  very  imperfectly  known  genus  Octacnemus,  dredged  at  depths 
of  between  one  and  two  thousand  fathoms  in  the  South  Pacific ;  the  body  being 
much  flattened,  and  probably  attached  by  one  extremity.  Nothing  is  known  as 
to  the  life-history  of  this  singular  form. 

The  second  suborder — Cyclomyaria — of  the  free-swimming  non-luminous  as- 
cidians  takes  its  name  from  the  muscular  bands  of  the  inner  tunic  forming  perfect 
rings,  and  is  typically  represented  by  the  genus  Doliolum.  The  life-history  is 
complicated  by  polymorphism ;  the  tailed  larva  developing  into  a  sexless  form, 
the  buds  from  which  give  rise  to  nutritive  units,  fostering  units,  and  reproductive 
units.  In  the  typical  genus  all  the  muscles  form  encircling  hoops,  and  the  three 
forms  of  the  sexual  generation  occur  together  on  one  stolon,  or  outgrowth ;  but  in 
Anchinia  there  are  only  two  complete  muscular  rings,  and  the  three  forms  of  the 
sexual  generation  are  produced  successively. 

The  free-swimming  form  known  as  Appendicularia  is  the  type 
Tailed  Ascidians 

'  of  the  third  and  last  order — Larvacea — of  the  class,  all  the  members 

of  which  are  characterised  by  the  possession  in  the  adult  state  of  large  tail-like 
appendages,  furnished  with  a  skeletal  axis.  These  creatures,  which  are  of  minute 
size,  have  not  undergone  the  degeneration  so  noticeable  in  the  adult  of  the  other 
tunicates,  and  thus  correspond  much  more  closely  to  the  larval  stage  of  the  latter. 
A  curious  feature  is  the  rapid  production  of  a  temporary  outer  tunic,  which  may 
be  shed  at  any  time,  and  replaced  by  a  second  one.  There  is  no  separate  atrial 
cavity;  and  the  branchial  chamber  is  simply  an  elongated  pharynx,  with  two 
openings  on  the  lower  surface,  which  correspond  to  the  gill-slits,  and  are  well 
furnished  with  cilia.  The  nervous  system  consists  of  a  large  ganglion  placed  in 
the  anterior  part  of  the  dorsal  surface,  followed  by  a  long  chord,  provided 
with  smaller  ganglia,  and  extending  backwards  over  the  intestine  to  reach  the 
tail,  where  it  runs  along  the  left  side  of  the  skeletal  axis.  The  intestine  itself  is 
situated  behind  the  branchial  chamber,  and  the  vent  opens  on  the  inferior  or 
ventral  aspect  of  the  body  in  advance  of  the  gill-slits.  Neither  budding,  meta- 
morphosis, nor  alternation  of  generations  takes  place ;  and  the  reproductive  organs 
are  situated  at  the  hinder  end  of  the  body.  The  group  comprises  only  the  single 
family  Appendiculariidce,  which  contains  five  genera,  the  names  and  characters 
of  which  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  mention. 


Botryllus  (nat.  size  and  enlarged). 


CHAPTER    V. 


THE  WORM-LIKE  PROTOCHORDATES,  —  Class  Enteropneusta. 


Balano  lossus 


t  tlie  Same  t*me  tne  l°west>  grouP  of  the  Proto- 
chordates  is  typically  represented  by  the  marine  Balanoglossus. 
Living  buried  in  the  sand  or  mud  of  the  seashore,  these  worm-like  creatures  exhale 
a  peculiar  odour  resembling  that  of  the 
chemical  substance  termed  iodoform,  and 
secrete  a  copious  supply  of  slime,  to  which 
adhere  particles  'of  sand,  thus  forming 
a  protective  tube  for  their  bodies.  At  the 
front  extremity  of  the  creature,  writes 
Mr.  Willey,  "  there  is  a  long  and  extremely 
sensitive  proboscis,  which  is  capable  of 
great  contraction  and  extension,  and  is  in 
the  living  animal  of  a  brilliant  yellow 
or  orange  colour.  Behind  the  proboscis 
follows  a  well-marked  collar-region,  con- 
sisting externally  of  a  collar-like  expansion 
of  the  integument,  with  free  anterior  and 
posterior  margins  overlapping  the  base 
of  the  proboscis  in  front  and  the  anterior 
portion  of  the  gill-slits  behind.  (The  gill- 
slits  are  seen  in  our  illustration  below  the 
collar.)  In  the  ventral  middle  line,  at  the 

base  of  the  proboscis,  and  concealed  by  the  collar,  is  situated  the  mouth. 
Following  behind  the  collar  is  the  region  of  the  trunk  or  body  proper,  which, 
in  the  adult  of  some  species,  reaches  a  relatively  enormous  length,  even  extending 
to  2  or  3  feet.  The  ectodermal  covering  of  the  body  consists  in  general  of  ciliated 
cells,  among  which  are  scattered  unicellular  mucous  glands  ;  the  cilia,  however, 
appear  to  be  more  prominent  on  the  proboscis  than  elsewhere.  In  the  region 
of  the  trunk,  which  immediately  follows  upon  the  collar-region,  there  are  a  great 
number  of  paired  openings  on  the  dorsal  side  of  the  body  placing  the  anterior 
portion  of  the  digestive  tract  in  communication  with  the  outer  world.  These  are 
the  gill-slits,  and  they  are  arranged  strictly  in  consecutive  pairs  to  the  number 
of  upwards  of  fifty  in  the  adult.  In  their  structure,  and  more  especially  in  the 
possession  of  tongue-bars,  they  bear  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  the  gill-slits  of 
the  lancelet.  This  is  particularly  striking  in  young  individuals.  As  the  adult 
form  is  approached  in  the  development,  the  bulk  of  the  gill-slits  sinks  below  the 


A  YOUNG  BALANOGLOSSUS  (much  enlarged). 


574  SEMIVERTEBRATES. 

surface,  only  opening  at  the  latter  by  small  slit-like  pores,  and  thus  their  true 
character  is  obscured  in  superficial  view."  On  dissection,  a  rod-like  structure,  which 
arises  as  an  outgrowth  of  the  alimentary  canal  above  the  mouth,  is  seen  projecting 
into  the  interior  of  the  proboscis;  and  this  rod  has  been  identified  with  the 
vertebrate  notochord.  Above  this  rod,  and  extending  farther  back,  is  a  dorsal 
nerve-chord,  corresponding  to  the  vertebrate  nerve-tube,  and  having,  as  in  the 
latter,  a  central  canal,  at  least  during  the  earlier  stages  of  growth.  Some  distance 
behind  the  notochord  this  nerve-tube  gives  off  a  descending  branch,  connecting 
it  with  a  similar  chord  lying  on  the  ventral  aspect  of  the  animal. 

We  thus  have  evidence  of  the  existence  in  this  strange  worm-like  creature  of 
three  essentially  vertebrate  characteristics,  namely,  gill-slits,  a  notochord,  and  a 
nerve-tube ;  and  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  while  in  the  sea-squirts  the 
notochord  is  found  in  the  transitory  tail,  in  Balanoglossus  it  is  situated  in  the 
anterior  extremity,  where  it  extends  some  distance  in  advance  of  the  mouth. 
Quite  recently  it  has  been  shown  that  the  tornaria-larva  of  one  species  of  Balano- 
glossus also  possesses  an  entostyle  (see  p.  570),  comparable  to  that  of  the  lancelet 
and  sea-squirts.  That  the  creature  under  consideration  is  closely  allied  to  the 
other  Protochordates,  and  thus  to  the  Vertebrates,  may  be  considered  fairly  certain  ; 
but  there  are  also  indications  of  affinity  with  Nonchordates.  In  the  first  place, 
while  certain  species  of  Balanoglossus  pass  through  the  earlier  stages  of  their 
existence  without  undergoing  a  metamorphosis,  in  other  kinds  such  a  transforma- 
tion takes  place ;  the  young  making  its  first  appearance  in  the  world  in  the  form 
of  what  is  known  as  a  tornaria-larva,  or  one  closely  resembling  that  of  a  starfish. 
And  it  is  held  by  competent  naturalists  that  this  resemblance  must  be  indicative 
of  some  kind  of  genetic  relationship  between  Balanoglossus  on  the  one  hand,  and 
starfish  and  sea-urchins  on  the  other.  In  the  second  place,  there  are  not  wanting 
indications  of  affinity  with  the  so-called  Nemertine  worms,  described  in  the  next 
volume;  these  resemblances  presenting  themselves  in  the  structure  of  the  outer 
layer  of  the  skin,  the  presence  of  a  proboscis  (kept  retracted  in  the  Nemertines), 
as  well  as  in  regard  to  the  nervous  system,  the  reproductive  organs,  and  the 
alimentary  canal. 

The  two  other  forms  included  among  the  Protochordates  are 
Otlier  Forms. 

respectively  known  as   Ceplialodiscus  and  Rliabdopleura,  and  bear 

the  same  relation  to  the  last  as  is  presented  by  the  compound  ascidians  to  the 
lancelet.  Both  these  curious  creatures  are  fixed  forms,  living  in  societies,  repro- 
ducing their  kind  by  means  of  buds,  and  having  a  U-shaped,  instead  of  a  straight, 
intestine.  Both  are  likewise  deep-water  creatures,  the  former  having  been 
dredged  in  the  Straits  of  Magellan  at  a  depth  of  two  hundred  and  forty-five 
fathoms,  while  the  latter  has  been  taken  off  the  Shetland's  in  ninety,  and  oft'  the 
Lofoten  Islands  in  two  hundred  fathoms.  Extremely  minute  in  size,  Cephalodiscus 
lives  in  colonies,  the  individuals  wandering  about  the  tubes  of  a  common  house, 
the  walls  of  which  are  composed  of  a  gelatinous  material,  covered  with  spiny 
projections,  and  perforated  by  numerous  apertures  for  the  free  circulation  of  water. 
The  mouth  is  overhung  by  a  large  shield-like  plate,  surmounted  by  the  row  of 
plume-like  tentacles ;  while  on  the  side  of  the  body  is  a  pedicle  from  which  grow 
the  buds:  locomotion  being  probably  effected  by  means  of  this  pedicle  and  the 


ANCESTRY  OF  CHORDATES.  575 

mouth-plate.  The  latter  contains  a  short  notochordal  rod ;  and  there  is  a  single 
pair  of  gill-slits  opening  from  the  pharynx,  water  being  passed  into  this  from  the 
mouth  by  the  action  of  the  tentacles.  In  the  allied  genus  Rkabdoplewa  the 
individuals  which  go  to  form  a  colony  are  connected  with  one  another  by  means 
of  a  common  stem,  representing  the  remnants  of  their  original  contractile  stalks ; 
this  stem  gradually  drying  up  with  the  growth  of  the  colony  in  the  region  most 
remote  from  the  living  polyps.  Each  polyp  has  but  a  single  plume-like  tentacle ; 
and  the  buds  arising  from  the  soft  part  of  the  common  stem  never  become 
detached.  While  the  nervous  system  and  notochord  are  essentially  the  same  as  in 
Cephalodiscus,  gill-slits  are  wanting. 

Ancestry  of  Before  making  a   few  brief   remarks   on   this   interesting   but 

Chordates.  perplexing  subject,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  while  we  have  no 
satisfactory  clue  as  to  the  first  origin  of  the  notochord,  it  has  been  suggested  that 
the  original  function  of  gill-slits  was  to  carry  off  the  superfluous  water  entering 
the  mouth  with  the  food ;  the  connection  with  respiration  being  a  later  addition 
to  these  structures.  It  is  also  an  important  factor  in  the  consideration  of  this 
subject  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  whole  of  the  existing  Protochordates  are  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  degenerate  types,  although  they  doubtless  retain  some  original 
and  simple  primitive  features.  For  the  proud  position  of  the  original  ancestral 
stock,  from  which  have  sprung  both  Protochordates  and  Vertebrates,  there  are 
many  claimants ;  among  these  being  segmented  worms  or  annelids,  creatures  allied 
to  the  existing  king-crab,  and  star-fishes  and  sea-urchins.  With  regard  to  the 
annelid  theory,  Mr.  Willing  very  significantly  remarks  that  in  this  case  the  doctrine 
of  parallelism  in  development  has  not  been  sufficiently  taken  into  account ;  and 
that  the  more  complete  the  superficial  resemblance  between  an  Annelid  and  a 
Vertebrate,  in  the  same  measure  is  the  parallelism  in  their  developmental  history 
the  more  striking,  and  their  genetic  affinity  the  more  remote.  Neither  is  it  likely 
that  the  king-crab  line  of  descent  (in  spite  of  the  apparent  identity  in  the  structure 
of  one  layer  of  its  shell  with  that  of  the  Cephalaspidians)  will  hold  good.  The 
evidence  in  favour  of  an  alliance  between  Vertebrates  and  Echinoderms  (sea-urchins 
and  star-fishes),  through  the  intervention  of  Balanoglossus,  seems,  however,  to  be 
steadily  gaining  ground.  Mr.  Willey,  for  instance,  remarks  that  while  it  is 
probable  that  the  proximate  ancestor  of  the  Vertebrates  was  a  free-swimming 
creature,  intermediate  in  structure  between  an  ascidian  larva  and  the  lancelet,  the 
ultimate  or  primordial  ancestor  may  be  assumed  to  have  been  a  worm-like  animal, 
with  an  organisation  approximately  on  a  level  with  that  of  the  bilaterally  sym- 
metrical progenitors  of  the  Echinoderms.  Mr.  Garstang  also,  having  proved  that 
the  larvae  of  the  whole  of  the  latter  group  can  be  derived  from  a  single  common 
type,  and  likewise  having  shown  that  the  tornaria-larva  of  Balanoglossus  can  be 
referred  to  the  same  modification,  expressed  an  opinion  that  the  Vertebrates  also 
trace  their  origin  to  the  same  free-swimming  pelagic  form.  Perhaps  still  more 
probability  may  attach  to  a  later  theory  of  the  same  observer,  who  now  comes  to 
the  conclusion  that  Echinoderms,  Enteropneusta,  and  Chordates  are  all  divergent 
branches  from  a  common  unknown  ancestor;  such  ancestor  being  a  bilaterally 
symmetrical  creature  with  the  general  appearance  of  a  certain  type  (Auricularia) 
of  Echinoderm  larva.  From  the  hypothetical  common  stock  the  Echinoderms 


576  SEMIVERTEBRATES. 

appear  to  have  been  derived  by  a  series  of  changes  mainly  correlated  with  the 
assumption  of  their  characteristic  radial  symmetry  ;  while  the  Chordates  retained 
the  original  bilateral  symmetry,  at  the  same  time  undergoing  certain  changes,  into 
the  consideration  of  which  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  enter  in  this  place.  Still  more 
complicated  are  the  changes  necessary  to  evolve  Balanoglossus  and  its  allies  from 
the  ancestral  form.  Such  of  our  readers  as  are  desirous  of  pursuing  further  this 
interesting  subject,  may  be  referred  to  the  works  of  the  observer  last  mentioned. 


A  PYROSOMA- COLONY. 

In  life  the  colony  assumes  a  horizontal  position. 


INDEX 

VOL.  V. 


Ablepharus,  168. 
Abramis,  463. 
Acanthoclinidas,  395. 
Acantlioclinus,  395. 
Acanthias,  534. 
Acanthodactylus,  166. 
Acanthodes,  548. 
Acanthodii,  315,  547. 
Acanus,  340. 
Acerina,  337. 
Acichelyidse,  86. 
Acipenser,  514. 
Acipenseridae,  514. 
Bert's,  279. 
Acrochordus,  198. 
Acrodus,  532. 
Acronuridse,  362. 
Acronurus,  363. 
Actinistia,  518. 
Actinopterygii,  315,  334. 
Adders,  220. 

Banded,  221. 
Death,  225. 
Puff,  235. 
Resplendent,  220. 
jEtheospondyli,  506. 
Aetobatis,  544. 
Agama,  120. 
Agamas,  120. 
Armed,  120. 
Rough-Tailed,  122. 
Spinose,  121. 
Agamidas,  117. 

Aglyphct,  198. 

A g onus,  384. 

Alburnus,  465. 

Alepocephalidse,  491. 

Alepocephalus,  491. 

Alligator,  18. 

Alligators,  18. 

Double-Tusked,  20. 

Alligator-Terrapin,  79. 

Alopecias,  526. 

^%fes,  285. 

Amarucium,  568. 

Amblycephalidee,  229. 

Amblyopsidse,  471. 

Amblyopsis,  471. 

Amblyrhynchus,  136. 

Amblystoma,  299. 

Anwiva,  156. 

^4  mm,  508. 

Amiidae,  508. 

Ammocostes,  552. 

Ammodytes,  438. 

VOL.  v.— 37 


Amphibians,  257. 
Amphichelydia,  98. 
Amphicyon,  198,  202. 
Amphignathodontida?,  286. 
Amphioxus,  558. 
Amphipnous,  450. 

iphisb&na,  158. 
Arnphisb&nidae,  156. 
Amphisile,  406. 
Amphiuma,  305. 
Amphiumidse,  302. 
Anabantidas,  409. 
Anobas,  410. 
Anableps,  470. 
Anacanthini,  430. 
Anacantlius,  427. 
Anaconda,  189. 
Anarrhichas,  394. 
Anchinia,  572. 
Anchovy,  491. 
Ancistrodon,  243. 
Andytropidae,  171. 
Angel- Fish,  535. 
Anglers,  378. 
Anguidae,  145. 
Anguilla,  446. 
Anguis,  147. 
Anolis,  130. 
Anomalochilus,  196. 
Anomodonts,  254. 
Anoplogaster,  355. 
Antennarias,  380. 
Anthias,  339. 
Aphyonus,  437. 
Apionichthys,  444. 

o^a,  309. 
Aporoscelis,  127. 
Appendicularia,  572. 
Arapaimas,  477. 
Arius,  454. 

Armed  Bull-Head,  384. 
Arthrodira,  315,  330. 
Ascidia,  566. 
Ascidians,  561. 
Ascidiidas,  565. 
Asp,  236. 
Aspidites,  186. 
Aspidorhynchidae,,  507. 
Aspidorhynchus,  507. 
A  spins,  464. 
^4sjm>,  336. 
Asteracanthus,  532. 
Astronesthes,  483. 
Atherina,  397. 
Atherinidse,  397. 


Atlantosaurus,  35. 
Auliscops,  406. 
Aulostoma,  406. 
Aulostomatidse,  403. 
Australian  Lung-Fish,  326. 
Axolotls,  299. 


352. 

98. 

Bagarius,  454. 
Bagrus,  456. 
Balistes,  427. 
Balistidse,  427. 
Balanoglossus,  573. 
Band-Fishes,  391. 
Baptemys,  78. 
Barbel,  458. 
Barbus,  458. 
Barracuda  Pike,  397. 
Barracudas,  362,  397. 
Barramundi,  326. 
Basiliscus,  132. 
Basilisks,  132. 
Bass,  339. 
Batagur,  75. 
Bathydraco,  375. 
Bathythrissidas,  485. 
Batrachidse,  376. 
Batrachopsis,  284. 
Batrachus,  377. 
Batr  achy  perus,  302. 
Bdellostoma,  554. 
Beaked  Fish,  474. 
Beaked  Gurnards,  385. 
Beaked  Lizards,  252. 
Beaked  Salmon,  481. 
jft^m,  72. 
Belone,  400. 
Belonorhynehus,  517. 
Berry-Bone  Fishes,  330. 
Berychidse,  353. 
Beryx,  354,  355. 
^c^to,  413. 
Bichir,  517. 
Bitterling,  462. 
Bleak,  465. 
Blennies,  391,  393. 
Blenniidse,  391,  393. 
Blennius,  394. 
Blind-Fish,  471. 
Blind-Soles,  444. 
Blind-Worm,  147. 
Blue  Shark,  522,  523. 
-Boa,  191. 

,  181. 


578 


INDEX. 


Boinae,  186. 
Boas,  187. 

Dog-Headed,  189. 

Keeled,  189. 

Tree,  187. 

True,  191. 
Bolieria,  195. 
Bombinator,  284. 
Bony  Fishes,  333. 
Bony  Pike,  506,  507. 
Bow-Fin,  508. 
BotryllidtK,  567. 
Botrylloides,  568. 
Botryllus,  568. 
Box,  347. 
Brachydirus,  331. 
Brachylophus,  140. 
Brandiiostoma,  558. 
Branchiostomatidaz,  558. 
Bream,  463. 
Brontosaurus,  35. 
BrooJcesia,  172. 
Brosmius,  437. 
Brotula.  437. 
#M/0,  277. 
Hufonidee,  276. 
BiUl-Heada,  380,  381. 
Bungarus,  221. 
Burbot,  435. 
Bushmaster,  243. 

Cadiuga,  74. 
Caimans,  15. 
Caiman,  17. 
Calabaria,  186. 
Calamoichthys,  517. 
Californian  toad,  142. 
Oallagur,  75. 
Callichthys,  455. 
Callionymus,  491. 
Callorhynchus,  332. 
Callophis,  220. 
CteJofe*,  119. 
Canthurus,  347. 
Cantoria,  218. 
Carangidx,  363. 
Caranx,  363,  364. 
Carassius,  458. 
Carcharias,  522,  523. 
Carchariidx,  522. 
Carcharodon,  526. 
Carettodielyidse,  97. 
Carettochelys,  97. 
Carps,  456. 

Beaked,  462. 

Crucian,  458. 

Golden,  458. 

True,  456. 
Casarea,  193. 
Cat-Fishes,  452. 

Eel-Like,  454. 

Electric,  455. 

Mailed,  456. 

Yarrell's,  454. 
Caturus,  509. 
Oaudata,  289. 
Cave-Fish,  437. 
Ccntrarchidse,  338. 
Centrarchus,  338. 
Centriscidse,  403. 
Centriscus,  406. 
Centroyenys,  338. 


Centrophorus,  534. 
Centropristis,  339. 
CepJialaspis,  556. 
Cephalodiscus,  574. 
Cephaloptera,  544. 
CfepoZa,  391. 
CepolidaR,  391. 
Cerastes,  236. 
Ceraterpetum,  313. 
Ceratobqtradiidae,  273. 
Ceratobatrachus,  273. 
Ceratodus,  326. 
Oeratophrys,  274. 
Ceratops,  39. 
Cestracion,  530. 
Cestraciontidee,  530. 
Cetorhinus,  527. 
Chsetodon,  343. 
Chsetodontidse,  343. 
Chalcides,  170. 
Chameeleon,  172. 
Charnseleons,  171. 
Cham&leoutidse,  172. 
C'hamaesaurus,  144. 
Ohanna,  408. 
Characinidse,  468. 
Characinus,  468. 
Charina,  195. 
Charr,  561. 
Chauliodus,  483. 
Chelmon,  343. 
Chelodina,  93. 
Chelone,  82. 
Chelonia,  42. 
Chelonidae,  81. 
Chelydra,  79. 
Chelydridse,  78. 
Ckelyida,  88. 
Chelys,  90. 
Ohersydrus,  199. 
Chilodactylus,  351. 
Chiloscyllium,  530. 
Chimsera,  331. 
Chimeeridee,  331. 
Cliimseroids,  315,  331. 
Chioglossa,  294. 
Chiridas,  392. 
Chirocentridse,  484. 
Chirocentrus,  484. 
Chirotes,  157. 
C%inw,  392. 
Chisel-Jaw,  480. 
Chitra,  100. 
Chlamydosaurus,  123. 
Chlamydoselaclie,  532. 
Chologaster,  472. 
Chondropython,  186. 
Chondrostei,  510. 
Chondrosteus,  516. 
Chondrostoma,  462. 
Choridactylns,  351. 
Chorincmus,  350. 
Chromididee,  418,  422. 
Chromis,  423. 
Ohrysemys,  73. 
Chrysichthys,  455. 
Chthoncrpetum,  310. 
Chub,  459. 
Cladocj/dus,  397. 
Cladodontia,  546. 
Cladoselache,  547. 
Claosaurus,  38. 


Clarias,  454. 
Claudius,  78. 
Clavelina,  567. 
Clavellinidee,  567. 
Clemmys,  70. 
Clidastes,  249. 
Climbing-Perch,  410. 
Clupca,  486. 
Clupeidae,  486. 
Cimoliosaurus,  102. 
Cinosternidee,  77. 
Cinosternum,  77. 
Cinixys,  63. 
Cirrhites,  350. 
Cirrhitichthys,  350. 
Cirrhitidaz,  349. 
Cistudo.  66. 
Coal-Fish,  434. 
Cobitis,  467. 
Cobras,  222. 
Coccosteidss,  331. 
Coccosteus,  330. 
Cod  Tribe,  431. 
Ccecilia,  310. 
Ccecilitdee,  309. 
Codacanthus,  518. 
Coffer-Fishes,  427,  428. 

a,  491. 

,  209. 
Colubridse,  198. 
Comb-Gilled  Fishes,  423,  427. 
Comeplwrus,  396. 
Compsognathus,  36. 
Conger,  449. 
Conolophus,  137. 
Conyrodus,  439. 
Corallus,  189. 
Coronella,  205,  209. 
Coryphsena,  368. 
Coryphsenidaz,  368. 
Corythophancs,  134. 
Cotiidae,  386. 
(7o«ws,  381. 
Craits,  221. 
Crenidens,  347. 
Crocodiles,  10. 

Earlier,  32. 

Estuarine,  22. 

Existing,  15. 

Indian,  21. 

Long-Nosed,  27. 

Nile,  24. 

Orinoco,  27. 

Sharp-Nosed,  26. 

Siam,  25. 

Stumpy,  20. 

True,  21. 
Crocodilia,  10. 
CrocodilidsB,  15. 
Crocodilus,  21. 
Crossoptcryqii,  315,  333   517. 
Crotalus,  239. 
Cryptobranchus,  304. 
Cryptodira,  89. 
Ctenosaura,  141. 
Curtidse,  355. 
Ctorfow,  355. 
Cybium,  371. 
Cyclanorbis,  100. 
C'ydcmys,  66. 
Cydoderma,  100. 
Cydomyaria,  572. 


INDEX. 


579 


Cydopteridse,  386. 
Oyclopterus,  387. 
Cyclosalpa,  572. 
Cyclostomata,  549. 
Cydura,  140. 
Cynodon,  469. 
Cynthiidse,  565. 
Cyprinidae,  456. 
Gyprinodon,  470. 
Cyprinodontidse,  469. 
Cyprinus,  456. 
Cyttidse,  366. 
Cy^s,  367. 

Dadylopteridas,  384. 
Dactylopterus,  385. 
Dace,  460. 
Damonia,  72. 
Danubian  Perches,  336. 
Dapedius,  510. 
Dapedoglossus,  477. 
Dasype'ltis,  214. 
Dendrelaphis,  214. 
Dendr  abates,  271. 
Dendrobatidee,  271. 
Dendrophis,  214. 
Dendrcphrynisffidas,  27 G. 
Dentice,  348. 
Derinatemydidte,  77. 
Dermatemys,  78. 
Desmognathus,  302. 
Devil-Fish,  543. 
Dibamidse,  171. 
Dicamptodon,  302.. 
Dieerdbatis,  544. 
Dicynodonts,  255. 
Dinosauria,  33. 
Dinosaurs,  33. 

Armoured,  38. 

Bird- Like  Group,  36. 

Carnivorous  Group,  35. 

Horned,  38. 

Lizard-Footed  Group,  34. 
Diodon,  429. 
Dwdontidss,  428. 
Dipnoi,  315,  326. 
Diplacanthus,  548. 
Diplocynodon,  20. 
Diplomystus,  490. 
Dipsas,  217. 
Discoglossidse,  284. 
Discoglossus,  284. 
Distira,  229. 
Ditrema,  422. 
Ditrematidx,  421. 
Dog-Fishes,  529,  530. 

Spiny,  533. 
Dolichosauria,  249. 
Dolichosoma,  313. 
Doliolum,  572. 
Dorab,  484. 
Doras,  455. 
Dories,  366. 
Doryichthys,  425. 
Double-Eyes,  470. 
ZJraco,  118. 
Dragonets,  391. 
Dragon-Fish,  386. 
Drum,  356. 
Dryophis,  217. 

Eagle-Rays,  543. 


Ecaudata,  257. 
Echeneis,  371. 
Echiostoma,  483. 
.fib/m,  238. 
JSdaphodbn,  332. 
Eel-Pout,  435. 
Eels,  445. 

Conger,  449. 

Deep-Sea,  449. 

Electric,  451. 

Serpent,  449. 

Short-Tailed,  450. 

Single-Slit,  450. 

Spiny,  395. 

True,  446. 
Eja,  237. 
Elacate,  371. 
JEops,  218. 
Elasmobranchii,  315. 
Elasmodus,  332. 
Electric  Eel,  451. 
Electric  Rays,  542. 
.Stfqps,  491. 
Elseya,  93. 
Emperor-Fish,  344. 
Emyda,  100. 
Emydura,  93. 
j^?iy«,  68. 
Enchelioplns,  438. 
Engraulis,  491. 
Engystoma,  271. 
Engystomatidfe,  271. 
Enteropneusta,  573. 
Enygrus,  189. 
Eosphargis,  88. 
Epicrates,  188. 
Erythrinidse,  468. 
^rya;,  194. 
Escuerzos,  275. 
Esocidss,  473. 
JS'soa?,  473. 
Eublepharis,  11C. 
Euneces,  191.  « 
Eustomias,  484. 
Exomegas,  553. 

Fan-Finned  Fishes,  334. 
Feather-Backs,  475. 
Fer-de-Lance,  248. 
Ferreiro,  281. 
Fierasfer,  438. 
Fighting- Fish,  413. 
File-Fishes,  427. 
Firm-Fin,  350. 
Ffshes,  314. 
Fish-Lizards,  250. 
Fistularia,  406. 
Fiat-Fishes,  439. 
Flounder,  443. 
Flute-Mouths,  403,  405. 
Flying-Dragons,  39. 
Flying-Fish,  400,  401. 
Flying- Gurnards,  384. 
Fold-Fiimed  Sharks, 546. 
Fringe-Finned  Ganoids,  517. 
Frog-Fishes,  376,  377. 
Frogs,  257,  265. 

Agile,  266. 

Antillian,  276. 

Bull,  268. 

Common,  266. 

Darwin's,  272. 


Frogs — continued. 

Disc-Tongued,  284. 
Edible,  266. 
European,  266. 
Extinct,  284. 
Fire- Bellied,  284. 
Flying,  269. 
Grasshopper,  279. 
Guppy's,  268. 
Horned,  274. 
Leaf,  276. 
Midwife,  285. 
Montezuma's,  268. 
Moor,  266. 

Narrow- Mouthed,  271. 
Piping,  276. 
Pouched,  282. 
Sharp-Nosed,  273. 
Short-Headed,  272. 
Southern,  273. 
Spur-Toed,  286. 
Tongueless,  286. 
Tree,  271,  279. 
Typical,  265. 
Water,  265. 

Gadidae,  431. 
#acte,  433. 
Galesaur,  255. 
Galeus,  524. 
Garial,  30. 

Extinct,  31. 

Schlegel's,  29. 
Garialis,  30. 
Gar-Pike,  400. 
Gastrochisma,  369. 
Gastrosteidse,  403. 
Gastrosteus,  403. 
GecJconidas,  110. 
Geckos,  110. 

Eyelid,  116. 

Fringed,  114. 

Lobe- Footed,  112. 

Turkish,  112. 

Wall,  114. 
•,  310. 
Genypterus,  438. 
Geoemyda,  64. 
Geotria,  553. 
Gerrohonotus,  146. 
Gilt-Heads,  348. 
Glauconia,  180. 
Glauconiidse,  180. 
Globe-Fishes,  428. 
Gobies,  388. 
GoUidse,  388. 

o,  459. 
Gobius,  388. 
Gobioesocidae,  407. 
GoUoesox,  408. 
Gongylophis,  195. 
Goniognathus,  369. 
Goniopholis,  32. 
Gonorhynchidsei,  481. 
Gonorhynchus,  481. 
Grayling,  505. 
Grey  Mullets,  399. 
Gudgeons,  459. 
Gurami,  412. 
Gurnards,  380,  382. 
Gymnarchus,  475. 
Gymnelis,  431. 


580 


INDEX. 


Gymnoscopelus,  482. 
Gymnotidae,  445. 
Gymnotus,  451. 
Gyroptychius,  519. 

Haddock,  433. 
Hag-Fishes,  550,  553. 
Hair-Tails,  362. 
Hairy-Backs,  392. 
Hake,  435. 
Halargyreus,  435. 
Half-Beaks,  401. 
Haliophis,  439. 
Hamadryad,  223. 
Hammer-Headed  Shark,  524. 
Haplochiton,  492. 
ffaplochitonidse,  491. 
Haplodactylus,  347. 
Hardella,  75. 
Ifaroltia,  332. 
Hausen,  515. 
Hedgehog-Mouths,  483. 
Hdicops,  204. 
Hell-Bender,  304. 
IMminthophis,  180. 
Heloderma,  148. 
Jfelodermatidas,  148. 
Hemerocoetes,  392. 
Hemibungarus,  221. 
Hemi&helys,  97. 
Hcmimyaria,  570. 
Hc/niphractidse,  286. 
ffemirhamphus,  401. 
Hemirhynchus,  362. 
Heniochus,  344. 
Herrings,  486,  487,  490. 
ffeterocarpus,  422. 
ffcteroccphalus,  239. 
Hetcrotis,  478. 
Hippocampus,  426. 
Hlppoglossus,  442. 
Histiophorus,  358. 
Holacanthus,  344. 
Jfolocentrum,  354. 
Holocephali,  315,  326,  331. 
Holoptychius,  519. 
Holibut,  442. 
ffomalopsis,  218. 
Homalopterus,  456. 
Homwosaurus,  254. 
ffomopus,  62. 
HoplognathidsR,  349. 
Hoplognathus,  349. 
Hoplosaunts,  35. 
Horned  Lizards,  142. 
Horse -Mackerels,  363. 
ffybodus,  582. 
Hydrctspis,  93. 
Hydrocyon,  469. 
Hydromedusa,  92. 
Hydrophis,  228. 
Hydrus,  228. 
Hylxobatrachus,  300. 
ffylseochelys,  97. 
Hylidse,  279. 
777/to,  280. 
ffylodes,  276. 
Hylonomus,  313. 
Hypnobius,  302. 
ffyodon,  479. 
Hyodonf.idae,  479. 
Hyperodapedon,  254. 


Hypobythius,  566. 
Ichthyophis,  310. 
Ichthyopterygia,  250. 
Ichthyosaurs,  250. 
Ichthyoscopus,  375. 
Ichthyotomi,  315,  545. 
Ide,  460. 
Iguana,  139. 
Iguanas,  128. 

Black,  141. 

Extinct,  142. 

Fijian,  140. 

Ring- Tailed,  140. 

True,  139. 
Iguanavus,  142. 
Iguanidse,  128. 
Iguanodons,  37. 
/fysia,  195. 
IZysiidse,  195. 
Ischnacanthus,  548. 
Isospondyliy  475. 

Jacares,  16. 
Jacuaru,  154. 
Jararaca,  248. 

Knerria,  468. 
Knerriidse,  468. 
Knife-Jawed  Fishes,  349. 
Kreuzotter,  230. 

Labaria,  248. 
Labridi-e,  418,  419. 
Labrus,  419. 

Labyrinth-Gilled  Fishes,  409. 
Labyrinthodontia,  311. 
Lacerta,  159. 
Lacertidas,  158. 
Lacertilia,  104. 
Lachcsis,  243. 
L&margus,  334. 
Lamna,  526. 
LamnidsB,  525. 
Lampreys,  549,  550. 
Lampris,  368. 
Lancelets,  558. 
Lariosaur,  103. 
Larvacea,  572. 
£«fcs,  340. 
Latilidas,  375. 
Latilus,  375. 
Latris,  351. 
Latrunculus,  389. 
Leathery  Turtles,  86. 
Lepadogaster,  407. 
Lcpidocottus,  381. 
Lepidcqms,  360. 
Lepidosiren,  328. 
Lcpidosirenidee,  326. 
Lepidostcidze,  506. 
Lepidosteus,  507. 
Lepidotus,  510. 
Lcptocardii,  558. 
Leptodactylidae,  273. 
Lcptodoctylus,  276. 
Leptolepis,  491. 
Lcptoscopus,  375. 
Leucaspius,  466. 
LeMciscus,  459. 
Lialis,  116. 
Liasis,  186. 
Lichanura,  195. 


Light  Fish,  482. 
Ling,  436. 
Liodesmus,  509. 
Liodon,  249. 
Lizards,  104. 

Agamoid,  107. 

Anolis,  130. 

Australian  Frilled,  122. 

Beaked,  252. 

Bronze,  170. 

Ceylon  Horned,  120. 

Flying,  118. 

Fringe-Toed,  166. 

Galapagos,  135,  137. 

Girdled,  143. 

Greaved,  153. 

Green,  160. 

Horned.  142. 

Keeled,' 165. 

Long-Necked,  249. 

Moloch,  127. 

Oriental  Tree,  119. 

Pearly,  159. 

Poisonous,  148. 

Ridge-headed,  134. 

Sail-Tailed,  123. 

Scale-Footed,  116. 

Sea,  135. 

Snake-Eyed,  168. 

Snake-Like,  145. 

Stilted,  134. 

Stump-Tailed.  167. 

Thorny-Tailed,  124,  127. 

True,  158. 

Viviparous,  162. 

Wall,  163. 
Loaches,  466. 

African,  468. 
Lobe-Finned  Sharks,  546. 
Loggerhead,  83. 
Long- Finned  Herring,  485. 
Long-Fins,  351. 
Long-Tails,  439. 
Lophiidw,  379. 
Lophius,  379. 
Lophobranchii,  423. 
Lopholatilus,  375. 
Lophotes,  414. 
Lophotidse,  414. 
Lophurus,  123. 
Loricaria,  455. 
Zoto,  435. 
Loxocemus,  186. 
Lucifuga,  437. 
Luciocephalidas,  409. 
LiLciocepholus,  414. 
Lucioperca,  336. 
Lump- Suckers,  386. 
Lung-Fishes,  315,  326. 
Luth,  86. 
Lycodcs,  431. 
Lycodidse,  430. 
Lytoloma,  86. 

Mackerels,  369. 
Macroclcmmys,  80. 
Macrones.  455. 
Macruridse,  439. 
Macrurus,  439. 
Mailed -Tube-Mouths,  423. 
MalacanthidiB,  376. 
Malacanthus,  376. 


INDEX. 


Malacoclemmys,  72. 
Malacosteus,  484. 
Malapterurus,  455. 
Mantella,  271. 
Many-Rayed  Salmon,  502. 
Marane,  504,  505. 
Marsipobranchii,  550. 
Mastodonsaurus,  313. 
Matamata,  90. 
Meagres,  357. 
Megalobatrachus,  302. 
Megalosaurus,  35. 
Megalurus,  509. 
Melamphsees,  354. 
Jfewe,  369. 
Merluccius,  435. 
Metoposaurus,  313. 
Metriorhynchics,  32. 
Microcosmus,  565. 
Minnow,  461. 
Miolania,  97. 
Miolaniidse,  97. 
Misgurnus,  467. 
Jfotye,  294. 
Moloch,  127. 
JMm,  436. 
Monacanthus,  427. 
Monitors,  149. 
Monk-Fish,  535. 
Monocirrhus,  352. 
Monopterus,  451. 
Moon-  Eye,  479., 
Mordacia,  553. 
Morelia,  184. 
Morenia,  74. 
Mormyridae,  474. 
Mormyrus,  474. 
Morone,  339. 
Mosasaurus,  249. 
Mud-Fish,  328. 
Mud-Skippers,  389. 
Mugil,  399. 
Mugilidae,,  397. 
Mullets,  345,  399. 

Grey,  399. 

Red,  345. 
Mullidas,  345. 
Mullus,  345. 
Muraena,  445. 
Mur&nidse,  445. 
Mustdus,  524. 
Myliobatidaz,  543. 
Myliobatis,  543. 
Myriacanthidse,  332. 
Myripristis,  354. 
Myxine,  554. 
Myxinidse,  554. 


222. 
Nandidse,  352. 
Nandus,  352. 
Nardoa,  186. 
Naucrates,  365. 
^ecfes,  277. 
Nedophryne,  277. 
Nedurus,  308. 
Nemachilus,  467. 
Nematognathi,  452. 
Ncmichthys,  450. 
Nerophis,  425. 
Newts,  289,  295. 
Alpine,  296. 


Newts — continued. 

Banded,  297. 

Common,  296. 

Crested,  295. 

Marbled,  296. 

Waltli's,  297. 

Webbed,  296. 
Nicoria,  64. 
Nom&iclaz,  369. 
Nom&us,  369. 
Notocanthidse,  417. 
Xotacanthus,  417. 
Kothopsis,  199. 
Notidanus,  532. 
Notidanidse,  532. 
Notogoneus,  481. 
yotopteridse,  475. 
Notopterus,  475. 
Notothenia,  376. 
Nototrema,  282. 

Oblique- Spined  Blenny,  395. 
Ocadia,  74. 
Oil-Fish,  396. 
Olm,  307. 

Onchorhynchus,  502. 
Onychodactylus,  302. 
Ophichthys,  445,  449. 
Ophidia,  174. 
Ophidiidse,  437. 
Ophidium,  438. 
Ophiocephalidse,  408. 
Ophiocephalus,  408. 
Ophisaurus,  146. 
Opisthoglypha,  198. 
Ornithosauria,  39. 
Oroc^s,  532. 
Orthagoriscus,  430. 
Osmerus,  503. 
Osphromenus,  412. 
Osteoglossidse,  477. 
Osteoglossum,  478. 
Osteolsemus,  20. 
Ostracion,  428. 
Ostracophori,  555. 
Oxybelis,  218. 
Oxyglossus,  269. 

Pachytriton,  299. 
Pagellus,  346. 
Pagrus,  348. 
Palseobatrachidee,  284. 
Paleeobatrachus,  284. 
Paleeohatteria,  254. 
Palseoniscus,  517. 
Palseophis,  195. 
Pal&orhyncMdse,  362. 
Palaeorhynchus,  362. 
Pal&osiren,  313. 
Paleeospondylus,  554. 
Pantodon,  480. 
Pantodontidfe,  479. 
Paradise-Fish,  411. 
Paraperca,  336. 
Parasitic-Fish,  438. 
Pariasaurians,  255. 
Parrot- Wrasses,  421. 
Pegasus,  386. 
Pelagosaurus,  32. 
Pelecus,  466. 
Pelamys,  371. 
Pelobates,  283. 


Pelobatidse,  283. 
Peloehelys,  100. 
Pelodytes,  284. 
Pelomcdusa,  97. 
Pelomedusidse,  88,  94. 
TWor,  351. 
Pelorosaurus,  35. 
Pdosaurus,  313. 
Pempheris,  355. 
Perca,  335. 
Percarina,  337. 
Perch, 

African,  340. 

Oriental,  340. 

Sea,  339. 

South  American,  338. 
Perch  Tribe,  335.    ' 
Percichthys,  338. 
Pcrcidse,  335. 
Perciformcs,  335. 
Periophthalmus,  389. 
Pcristethus,  385. 
Pctalopteryx,  384. 
Petalodontidee,  535. 
Petalodus,  535. 
Petromyzidas,  551. 
Pfitromyzum,  551. 
Phallusia,  565. 
PMlodryas,  217. 
Phosphorescent  Fishes,  482. 
Photichthys,  482. 
Phrynocephalus,  122. 
Phrynosoma,  142. 
Phyllodus,  419. 
Phyllopteryx,  426. 
Physodysti,  334. 
Physostomi,  444. 
Pike,  473. 
Pike-Head,  414. 
Pike-Perches,  336. 
Pilchard,  489. 
Pilot-Fish,  365. 
Pimelodus,  454. 
Pinguipes,  376. 
Pipa,  286. 
Pipidte,  287. 
Pipe-Fishes.  424. 
Plagyodus,  482. 
Plaice,  443. 
Ptoto,  366. 
Platemys,  93. 
Platurus,  227. 
Platysomatidas,  517. 
Plcitysomus,  517. 
Platysternidse,,  75. 
Platysternuin,  75. 
Plectispondyli,  456. 
PlcdognatM,  423,  427. 
Plesiochelyidas,  97. 
Plcsioclielys,  97. 
Plesiops,  352. 
Plesiosauridse,  102. 
Plcsiosaurus,  102. 
Plethodon,  302. 
PI.  cur  acanthus,  546. 
Pleurodira,  88. 
Pleuronectes,  439,  443. 
Pleuronedidse,  439. 
Pleurosternum,  98. 
Pliosaurus,  103. 
Podocncmis,  93. 
Podocys,  340. 


582 


INDEX. 


Pogonias,  356. 
Po'llan,  504. 
Polyacanthus,  411. 
PolyccntriddB,  352. 
Polycentrus,  352. 
Polyclinidee,  568. 
Polynemidae,  355. 
Polynemus,  356. 
Polyodon,  513. 
Polyodontidae,  513. 
Polypcdatcs,  270. 
Polyprion,  340. 
Polyptcridas,  517. 
Polyptcrus,  517. 
Pomacentridse,  418. 
Pomacentrus,  418. 
Porbeagle,  525,  526. 
Portheus,    486. 
Port  Jackson  Shark,  530. 
Powan,  504. 
Power-Cod,  434. 
Primeval  Salamanders,  311. 
Prionurus,  363. 
Pristidee,  535. 
Pristioplioridse.  535. 
Pristioplwrus,  536. 
Pristipoma,  340. 
/Visa's,  536. 
Propseudopus,  147. 
Proteidte,  306. 
Proteus,  307. 
Proteroglypha,  198,  218. 
Protcrosaurus,  254. 
Protochordata,  549,  550,  558. 
Protopterus,  329. 
Protosphargis,  88. 
Protostega,  88. 
Prototroctcs,  492. 
Protriton,  313. 
Psammodromus,  165. 
Psammopcrca,  340. 
Pscphophorus,  88. 
Psephurus,  513. 
Psettodcs,  442. 
Psettus,  366. 
Pseudechis,  225. 
Psciidobranchus,  309. 
Pscudochromis,  376. 
Pteraspis,  555. 
Pterichthys.  556. 
Pterodactyles,  39. 
Ptcrodactylus,  41. 
Pterois,  351. 
Pteroplatea,  545. 
Pfy«s,  208. 
Ptychozoum,  114. 
Ptyodactylus,  112. 
Pydodus,  332. 
Pygopodid&j  116. 
Pygopus,  117. 
Pyrosoma,  569. 
Pyrosomatidse,  569. 
Python,  182. 
Pythoninae,  132. 
Pythonomorpha,  249. 
Pythons,  181. 

Amethystine,  184. 

Anchieta's,  186. 

Indian,  182,  186. 

Reticulated,  184. 

Royal,  186. 

Timor,  164. 


[  Pythons  —  continued. 
True,  182. 

West  African,  182,  185. 
64. 


541. 
Kaiidas,  541. 
Raj  -Samp,  221. 
./fcww,  265. 
tianidee,  265. 
Ranidens,  302. 
Rapfen,  464. 
Rattle-Snakes,  238. 

Common,  239. 

Diamond,  240. 

South  American,  240. 
Rays,  520. 

Beaked,  538. 

Eagle,  543. 

Electric,  542. 

Halavi,  539. 

Sting,  545. 

True,  541. 
Red  Mullets,  345. 
Reed-Fish,  517. 
Regalecus,  416. 
Reptiles,  1. 
liJiabdopleura,  574. 
Rhachole2)is,  491. 
Rhacophorus,  270. 
Rhampholeon,  172. 
Rhamphorhynchus,  41. 
RiiamplwsucJius,  31. 
Rhinechis,  212. 
Rhinemijs,  93. 
Rhinobatidte,  538. 
Rhinobatis,  539. 
Rhinodon,  527. 
RhinodontidcV,  527. 
Rhinophrynus,  277. 
Rhinoptera,  544. 
Rhipidistia,  518. 
Rhi2)toglossa,  171. 
Rhodeus,  462. 
Rhynchobatis,  540. 
Rhynchobdella,  396. 
Rhynchobdellidse,  395. 
Rhynchoccphalia,  252. 
Rhynchosaurus,  254. 
RhynchosucJius,  29. 
Ribbon-Fish,  414,  415. 
P*to,  455. 
Roach,  459. 
Rockliug,  436. 
Ruffes,  337. 

Saccopharynx,  449. 
ftaccostomus,  239. 
Ssebling,  501. 
Salamanders,  289,  291. 

Alpine,  293. 

Black,  293. 

Eel-Like,  305. 

Fish-Like,  302. 

Giant,  302. 

Gilled,  306. 

Mississippi,  304. 

Primeval,  310. 

Siren,  309. 

Spanish,  294. 

Spectacled,  298. 

Spotted,  291. 


Salamanders— continued, 

Three -Toed,  305. 

Two-Legged,  308. 

Typical,  291. 
Salamandra,  291. 
Salamandridae,  291. 
Salamandrella,  302. 
Salamandrina,  298. 
Salamandrinse,  291. 
Salmo,  494. 
Salmon,  493,  495. 

Beaked,  480. 
Salmonidas,  493. 
Salpa,  572. 
Satyidee,  570. 
Sand-Eels,  437,  438. 
Sand-Smelts,  397. 
Sardine,  489. 
Sargus,  347. 
Saurocephalidae,  486. 
Saurocephalus,  486. 
Saurodonts,  486. 
Sauropterygia,  101. 
Saury,  401. 
Saw-Fishes,  535. 
Scabbard-Fish,  360. 
Scaled  Reptiles,  104. 
Scaly-Finned  Fishes,  343, 
Scaphiopus,  283. 
Scojjhirhynchus,  516. 
Scar  us,  421. 
S'catharus,  347. 
Scatophagus,  344. 
Scheltopusiks,  146. 
Schnsepel,  504. 
Scieena,  357. 
Sciaenidfe,  356. 
Scincidse,,  166. 
Scincus,  169. 
Scomber,  369. 
Scomberidae,  369. 
Scombresocidas,  400. 
Scombresox,  401. 
Scopelidee,  481. 
Scopelus,  481. 
Scorpeenct,  351. 
Scorpaenida,  351. 
Scorpsenoids,  351. 
Scylliidae,  529. 
Scyllium,  530. 
Sea-Bats,  366. 
Sea-Breams,  346. 
Sea-Horses,  424, 
Sea-Perch,  339. 
Sea-Snakes,  226. 
Sea-Squirts,  561. 
Sebastes,  351. 
Selachoidei,  315. 
Semivertebrates,  549,  550. 
Serpent-Eels,  449. 
Serpent- Heads,  408. 
Serranidse,  338. 
Serranus,  339. 
Serrasalmo,  468. 
Shad,  489. 
Sharks,  520. 

Basking,  527. 

Blue,  522,  523. 

Comb -Toothed,  533. 

Fold-Finned,  546. 

Fox,  526. 

Frill-Gilled,  533. 


INDEX. 


583 


Sharks — continued. 

Greenland,  534. 

Hammer- Headed,  524. 

Hound,  524. 

Pavement-Toothed,  530. 

Porbeagle,  525,  526. 

Port  Jackson,  530. 

Rondeleti's,  526. 

Spiny,  535. 

Thresher,  526. 
Sharks  and  Rays,  315. 
Sheath-Fishes,  452. 
Siohel,  466. 

Side-Necked  Tortoises,  88. 
Siluridse,  452. 
Silurus,  454. 
Siphonostoma,  424. 
Siren,  309. 
Sirenoidea,  326. 
Sirenoidei,  315. 
Skates,  541. 
Skinks,  166. 

Common,  167. 

True,  169. 
Slime-Heads,  353. 
Smelts,  503. 
Smooth-Heads,  491. 
Snake-Fishes,  438. 
Snakes,  174. 

JEsculapian,  209. 

Back-Fanged  Tree,  217. 

Blind,  180. 

Bushmaster,  243. 

Cat,  216. 

Chain,  209. 

Climbing,  209. 

Colubrine,  198. 

Copper-Head,  245. 

Coral,  218. 

Coral  Cylinder,  195. 

Cylinder,  195. 

Dark  Green,  206. 

Diamond,  184. 

Earth,  197. 

Egg-Eating,  214. 

Fierce,  206. 

Four-Lined,  210. 

Four-Rayed,  211. 

Garter,  203. 

Green,  217. 

Horseshoe,  207. 

Keel-Tailed,  204. 

Leopard,  210. 

Moccasin,  203,  245. 

Moon,  215. 

Nocturnal  Tree,  217. 

Oblique-Eyed,  203. 

Oriental  Freshwater,  218. 

Pantherine,  208. 

Pigmy,  204. 

Rat,  207. 

Rattle,  238. 

Red,  196. 

Ringed,  200. 

Running,  208. 

Sand,  193. 

Sea,  226. 

Sharp-Nosed,  218. 

Shield-Tailed,  197. 

Sling,  205. 

Smooth,  205. 

Tree,  214,  217. 


Snakes — continued. 

True,  158. 

Viperine,  201. 

Wart,  198. 

Water,  200. 

Whip,  217. 

Wood,  213. 
Snappers,  78. 

Temminck's,  80. 
Soft- Finned  Fishes,  430. 
Soft-Spines,  376. 
Soft-Tortoises,  98. 

Cantor's,  100. 

Granulated,  100. 
Solea,  443. 
Solenostoma,  423. 
Solcnosiomatidae,  423. 
Solcotalpa,  444. 
Soles,  443. 

Southern  Salmon,  491. 
Sparidse,  346. 
Spear-Beaks,  567. 
Spelerpes,  302. 
Sphenodon,  252. 
Sphyrsena,  397. 
Sphyr&nidee,  397. 
Sphyrna,  524. 
Spinacidas,,  533. 
Spinax,  534. 

Spine-Finned  Fishes,  334. 
Spine- Finned  Sharks,  547. 
Spiny  Eels,  395. 
Sprat,  489. 
Squaloraia,  332. 
Squaloraiidse,  332. 
Squamata,  104. 
Square-Tail,  398. 
Squatina,  535. 
Squat inida?,,  535. 
Star-Gazers,  373,  374. 
Staurotypus,  78. 
Stegostoma,  530. 
Steneosaurus,  32. 
SteneoptycMdas,  482. 
Sternotherus,  97. 
Sticklebacks,  403. 
Sting-Bull,  375. 
Stolickzaia,  199. 
Stomateidas,  482. 
Stomias,  483. 
Stromateidse,  367. 
Stromateus,  367. 
Sturgeons,  510. 

Giant,  514. 

Shovel-Beaked,  516. 

Slender-Beaked,  513. 

Toothed,  513. 

Toothless,  514. 

True,  514. 
Stylophorus,  416. 
Sucker- Fishes,  407. 
Sucking-Fishes,  371. 
Sun-Fish,  368. 
Sun-Fishes,  428,  430. 
Suravi,  455. 
Surgeons,  362. 
Sword-Fishes,  357. 
Symbranchidse,  445,  450. 
Symbranchus,  451. 
Synaphobranchus,  449. 
Synechodus,  532. 
Syngnathidee,  424. 


Syngnathus,  424. 
Tarbophis,  216. 
Tarentola,  114. 
Tautoga,  419,  421. 
Teiidee,  153. 
Teju,  154. 

Teleostomi,  315,  333. 
Tench,  461. 
Tentacle-Fish,  380. 
Terrapins,  64,  70. 

Alligator,  79. 

Caspian,  71. 

Chaibassa,  65. 

Chinese,  74. 

Eyed,  74. 

Hamilton's,  72. 

Hinged,  66. 

Japanese,  71. 

Land,  64. 

Maw's,  78. 

Mud,  77. 

Painted,  73. 

Pennsylvania!!,  77. 

Salt- Water,  72. 

Sculptured,  70. 

Spanish,  71. 

Spinose  Land,  65. 

Thick-Necked.  72. 

Three-Keeled,  65. 
Testudinidse,  47. 
Tcstudo,  49. 
2Jctragonurus,  398. 
Tciro'doii,  429. 
Teuthididee,  353. 
Tcuthis,  353. 
Thalassochelys,  83. 
Thaliacca,  570. 
Theriodonts,  255. 
Thick-Rayed  Fishes,  349. 
TJwracosaurus,  3 1 . 
Thorius,  302. 
Thornbacks,  417. 
Thorny-Nose,  392. 
Thresher,  526. 
Thrissops,  491. 
Thymalhts,  505. 
Thynmis,  370. 
Thyrsites,  362. 
Tile -Fish,  375. 
Tinea,  461. 
Toad -Frogs,  283. 

Brown,  283. 
Toads,  257,  276. 

Common,  277. 

Green,  278. 

Natterjack,  278. 

Sharp-Nosed,  279. 

Surinam  Water,  287. 

True,  277. 
Tope,  524. 
Torpedlnidse,  542. 
Torpedo.  543. 
Torsk,  437. 
Tortoises,  41. 

Aldabra,  56. 

Amazonian,  94. 

Angulated,  61. 

Areolated,  62. 

Big-Headed   75. 

Box,  66. 

Brazilian,  49. 

Burmese  Brown,  50. 


5^4 


INDEX. 


Tortoises — conti»  u.eiJ, 

Carolina,  66, 

Elegant,  51. 

Elongated,  61. 

Florida,  49. 

Forsten's,  61. 

Galapagos,  57. 

Giant,  55. 

Greaved,  93. 

Grecian,  59. 

Hinged,  62. 

Horned,  97. 

Horsfield's.  61. 

Land,  47. 

Long- Necked,  93. 

Mascarene,  57. 

Mataraata,  90. 

Pond,  68. 

S-necked,  89. 

Side-Necked,  92. 

Snake-Necked,  92. 

Soft,  98. 

Spider,  64. 

Wide-Shielded,  98. 
Toxotes,  344. 
Trachichthys,  354. 
Trachinidse,  373. 
Trachiuops,  352. 
Triifkiiius,  375. 
Trachodous,  37. 
Troc/iyboa,  189. 
Tracliypte  r  idee,  414. 
Traehypterus,  416. 
Trachysaurus,  167. 
Tree- Frogs,  271,  279. 

European,  280. 

Pouched,  282. 

Typical,  280. 
Triaectnthus,  427. 
Ti'it'/tt't't-fi.-hthys,  360. 
Tfii'.hiiirida,  360. 
Ti-i<-/i.  turns,  362. 
Tridumotida,  392. 
Triclionotus,  392. 
Trigla,  382. 
Trigonorhina,  546. 


Trimercsaurus,  247. 
Triodon,  428. 
Trionych-idee,  98. 
Trionyx,  99. 
Tropidonotus,  200. 
Trumpet-Fish,  403,  406. 
Trygon,  545. 
Trygonidee,  545. 
Tuatera,  252. 

Tube-Bladdered  Fishes,  444. 
Tuft-Gilled  Fishes,  423. 
Tunicata,  561. 
Tunnies,  370. 
Tupinainbis,  154. 
Turbot,  442. 
Turtles,  81. 

Extinct,  86. 

Green,  82. 

Hawksbill,  82. 

Leathery,  86. 

Loggerhead,  83. 
Tylotriton,  299. 
Typhlichthys,  471. 
Typhlonectes,  310. 
Typhlonus,  437. 
Typlilopliis,  180. 
Typhlopidse,  180. 
Typhlops,  180. 

Umbra,  472. 
Umbres,  472. 
Umbridw,  472. 
Umbriiia,  357. 
Undina,  518. 
Ungalia,  189. 
UngaliopMs,  189. 
Unicorn- Fish,  414. 
Uraniscodon,  134. 
Uranoscopus,  374. 
Urogymnus,  545. 
Uroloplius,  545. 
Uromastix,  125. 
Uronectes,  431. 
UropeltidsB,  197. 

Varwiidae,  149. 


Varanus,  149. 
Vendace,  504. 
Vipcra,  230. 
Viperidas,  229. 
Vipers,  229. 

Common,  230. 

Desert  Saw,  237. 

Halys,  243. 

Horned,  236. 

Long-Nosed,  233. 

Pit,  246. 

Rattle,  238. 

Russell's,  234. 

Sand,  233. 

Southern,  230. 

True,  230. 

Water,  246. 
Viviparous  Blennies,  394. 

Weavers,  373,  375. 
Wels,  454. 
White-Fish,  459. 
Whiting,  434. 
Whiting-Pollack,  434. 
Whiting-Pout,  434. 
Wolf- Fish,  394. 
Wrasses,  418,  419. 

Parrot,  421. 

Viviparous,  421. 

Xenodermus,  199. 
Xenopeltidie,  198. 
Xenopeltis,  198. 
Xenopodidee,  286. 
Xenopus,  286. 
Xiphias,  358. 
Xiphiid&,  357. 
Xiphocercus,  132. 

Zamenis,  206. 
Zarthe,  463. 
Zebra-Fish,  344. 
Zoarccs,  394. 
Zonuridse,  143. 
ZOIIUTUS,  144. 
Zope,  463. 


MORKISOX   AND    GIBB.    1'KINTEHS,    EDIXBCRGH. 

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