\m\ SM
CO
GIFT OF
Mrs. May L* Cheney
RUSSIAN NIHILISM
AND
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
A GRAPHIC AND CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY OF RUSSIA'S
BLOODY NEMESIS, AND A DESCRIPTION OF
EXILE LIFE IN ALL ITS TRUE BUT
HORRIFYING PHASES,
BEING THE RESULTS OF A TOUR THROUGH RUSSIA AND
SIBERIA MADE BY THE AUTHOR, WHO CARRIED
WITH HIM LETTERS OF COMMENDATION
FROM BOTH THE AMERICAN AND
UUS^AN GOVERN MFA'TS.
IB -v Cf . "W. IE3 TJ" JE "£j ,
\\
Author of "Heroes of the Plains," "Metropolitan Life Unveiled,"
"Border Outlaws," etc., etc.
ILLUSTRATED WITH OVER 200 ENGRAVINGS.
SAN. FRANCISCO, CAL. :
A. L. BANCROFT & COMPANY,
1883.
GIFT OF
Copyright, 1883, by J. W. BUEL.
i
CONTENTS.
PAGE
PURPOSES AND AUSPICES OF MY TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA, - -26 — 32
CHAPTER L
RUSSIAN NIHILISM.
Departure from America. — Arrival at the First 'Russian Port. —
Defensive Strength of Oonstadt. — My Arrest as a "Sus-
pect."— Going Through me for Seditious Papers. — Compli-
cations Increase Because of my Inability to Speak the Lan-
guage.— Custom House Examination. — A Quizzical Tout
Ensemble. — Droshky Drivers. — Engaging a Guide and Inter-
preter.— Under Close Surveillance. — Further Embarrass-
ments.— Brought Before the Famous "Third Section." — My
Release Accomplished Through the Intercession of our Minis-
ter.— Stories About the Third Section. — Horrible Tragedies
Enacted Therein. — How Nicholas I. Used to Punish Female
Offenders. — My Meeting With Minister Hoffman, and Presen-
tation of my Official Letters. — He Advises mo not to Attempt
an Investigation of Nihilism, on Account of Dangers I
Would be Certain to Encounter. — Americans not Easily De-
terred.— My Introduction to Count Tolstoi, Russian Minister
of the Interior. — My Letter from Minister W. H. Hunt. — A
Meeting With the Minister of Police. — Etiquette of the Im-
perial Court. — The Want of a Dress-Suit Places me in an Em-
"barassing Position. — An Interview With the Count. — He
Talks With me Frankly, and Proffers any Assistance in his
Power. — Access Granted me to all the Government Records. —
The Czar Sends a Note Proffering an Interview. — I submit a
Series of Questions on Nihilism. — One that was Objected to
for Decided Reasons. — My Second Meeting With Minister
Pleve. — How he Became Minister of Police. — He Transmits
His Photograph to me in America, With an Autograph Let-
ter. --------- 33—50
M49151
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER n.
Some of the Unwritten History of Kussia. — Extent, Population
and Manner of Government. — Religions, National Debt, Army,
and Imperial Expenses. — Kief, the Holy City. — Number of
Imperial Palaces, and How They are Maintained. — How Rus-
sia was Changed From a Republic to an Autocracy. — Early
Wars. — Chronology of the Ruling Dynasty. — Living Mem-
bers of the Present Imperial Family. — How the Grand Duke
Nicholas Became Commander of the Russian Forces in the War
With Turkey. — Why his Father Removed Him. — Grand
Duke Alexis' Appointment as Admiral of the Russian Navy. —
His Discovery of Nihilistic Sentiments Among the Marines. . 51 — 61
CHAPTER m.
The Three Greatest Characters in Russian History. — Some events
in the Life of Peter the Great Never Before Made Public. —
His Brother an Idiot. — His Fight With Five Assassins. — His
Wars with Charles XII., of Sweden. — Conspiracies Formed
Against Him in his own Army. — Ordering the Decapitation of
Three Hundred Men. — A Ghastly Incident of the Execu-
tion.— Peter's Infatuation fora Beautiful Woman. — Discov-
ered in a Treasonable Act, she is Ordered to the Block. — How
Peter Conducted Himself at her Execution. — " Oh ! Beautiful
Being, Would That I Could Take Your Place." —He Never
Gave a Pardon. — The Founding and Building of St. Peters-
burg. — Establishment of his Court at Peterhoff. — Striking a
Dagger Into the Heart of his own Son. — Securing a Wife for
Peter III. — Marriage of Catharine II. — Domestic Intrigues. —
Peter IH. Orders the Arrest of Catharine H.— How the Wily
Queen Foiled Her Husband's Purposes. — A Midnight Drive
From Peterhoff. — Descent of the Horse Guards Under Catha-
rine Upon the Winter Palace. — Flight of Peter III. to Cron-
stadt. — A Lovely Letter Which Allured Peter III. to His
Death. — Assassination of the Czar by his Wife's Orders. —
Circumstances Under Which Paul I. was Assassinated. — Poli-
cies and Wars Under Catharine II. — The Dreadful Massacre
of Poles in Warsaw. — Catharine's Debaucheries. — A Singular
Death-Bed Scene. - - - 62—76
CHAPTER IV.
Russia's Great Rulers. — Difficulties which Confronted Alexander
IL on his Accession. — The Reforms he Introduced. — First
CONTENTS. 7
Overt Act of Nihilists. — Attack on the Winter Palace in 1825,
and Dreadful Slaughter of the Mob. — Alexander Herzen and the
Revolutionary Press. — History of Serfdom. — Manumission of
the Serfs. — Scheme of Liberation as put into Execution by the
Emperor. — How the Noblemen Lived in Sumptuous Prof-
ligacy. — Results of the Liberation. — Revival of Nihilism. —
Inflammatory Organs. — A Remarkable Manifesto. — " God to be
Denied and Every Genius Stifled in its Cradle." — Peculiari-
ties of Russian Students. - - 77—94
CHAPTER V.
The Polish Insurrection. — First Attempt on the Emperor's Life. —
Mysterious Ringing of a Bell in Rappenberg. — Second Attempt
to Assassinate Alexander. — First Arrest of Students for Incen-
diary Speeches. — Revelations by Netschaief. — Complete Ex-
pose of the Nihilistic Organization. — How They Recruit,
Operate, and Carry on the Work of Murder. - - 95 — 99
CHAPTER VL
Effects of the War With Turkey. — General Trepoff 's Brutality.—
How he was Shot by Vera Zassulitch. — Remarkable Trial of
the Assailant. — The Court, Threatened by a Mob, Forced to
acquit her. — Collision Between the Mob and Police. — Escape
of Vera. — Her Strange History. — Daughter of a distinguished
General, but Persecuted to the Point of Desperation. — Stab-
bing to Death of General Mezentrieff and Escape of the Assas-
sins.— Attempt on the Life of Alexander II. by Solovieff. — All
the Large Cities of Russia Placed Under Martial Law. — Execu-
tion of Solovieff. — Futility of Repressive Measures. — Corre-
spondence from Nihilists in the Government Offices. — First Re-
sort to Dynamite. — Blowing up of a Train Supposed ^to
Contain the Emperor. — How and by Whom the Mine was
Laid. — Experts in the use of Dynamite Brought into the Ser-
vice of the Nihilists. — A Dreadful Plot. — Preparations for
Blowing up the Winter Palace. — The Terrific Explosion in
Which Forty-Five men were Killed. — Accidental Escape of
the Emperor. — Impressive Scenes. — Description of the Win-
ter Palace. — Finest Building in the World. — Thousands of
Workmen Killed During its Construction. — How the Royal
Family Dine. — Establishment of other Repressive Measures. —
Count Melikoff Entrusted with Their Enforcement. — Every
one Ordered Under Arrest who Should Appear on the Streets
8 CONTENTS.
After Dark. — Terrorism Inaugurated. — The Dreadful Third
Section. — Fate of Muishkin who was Lashed into Insanity. —
A Double Execution. — Famous Trial of Sixteen Nihilists. —
Remarkable Heroism Displayed by Female Revolutionists. — A
Desperate Fight with the Police. — History of Distinguished
Nihilists on Trial. — Attempted Assassination of Gen. Meli-
koff. — Execution of his Assailant. 100—135
CHAPTER VII.
The Culminating Event in Nihilistic Vengeance. — Alexander IL,
His Times and Adversities. — A Youthful Witness to the Decem-
brist's Outbreak. — His Early Inclination Opposed to the Will
of His Father. — Forced into the Army. — His Courtship and
Marriage. — Suicide of his Father. — Sad Circumstances under
which Alexander Accepted the Crown. — The Plot for his Assas-
sination.— Laying a Dynamite Mine in Petersburg. — Secret
Plans of the Conspirators. — The City barely Escapes Destruc-
tion.— Explosion of the First Bomb. — It Kills two of he
Imperial Guard, and Shatters his Majesty's Carriage. —
Explosion of the Second Bomb. — The Emperor Mortally
Wounded. — Great Excitement. — One of the Assassins
Killed by the Bomb he Throws. — The Czar Asks to be
carried to the Winter Palace. — Examination of His
Wounds. — His Sinking Condition Bulletined by Display-
ing a Flag from the Palace. — Administration of the
Last Sacrament. — Announcement of the Emperor's Death and
its effects. — Accession to the Throne of Alexander III. —
Funeral Services at the Fortress Chapel. — Description of the
Fortress Chapel. — Arrest of the Assassins. — Imperial Officers
Arrested for Neglect of Duties. — Uncovering the Secret Mine. —
Trial of the Assassins. — Descriptions of the Assassins. — A Bold
Speech. — Were the Criminals Tortured? — Condemned to
Death. — Efforts of a Mob to Rescue the Prisoners. — A
Desperate Fight in which Several are Killed. — One Man Hanged
Three Times. — Terrible Scenes at the Gallows. — A Memorial
Chapel in Remembrance of the Emperor. 136—163
CHAPTER VIIL
Accession of Alexander III. — His Dread of the Nihilists. — Removal
of the Court Residence to Peterhoff. — Description of the
Palace Grounds. — Bewildering Displays of Gold. — How the
Emperor Lives. — Precautions Against his Enemies. — High
CONTENTS.
Walls, Double Locks and Bars and. Three Cordons of Guards. —
Danger of Assassination. — Murder of an Old Gardener by an
Imperial Guard. — How Nicholas I. Quelled a mob. - 169—174
CHAPTER IX.
The Secret Printing Press. — Female Heroism. — Personal Charac-
teristics of Leading Female Nihilists. — Assassination of Gen.
Strelnikoff.— Military Execution of Soukahnoff.— Preparations
for the Coronation of Alexander III. — A Description of the
Grand Votive Church — Discovery of a Dynamite Mine under
the Royal Chapel— The Czar's Visit to Moscow — Secrecy
with which his Movements were Conducted — Postponement of
the Coronation — Moscow, the Holy City — Pilgrimages to her
Shrines. 176-186
CHAPTER X.
Difficulties of Satisfying the two Antagonistic Factions in Russia. —
Effects of a Conversation with a Russian Minister. — My Recep-
tion by the Terrorists. — A Syllabus of the Great State Trials,
Prepared by a Female Liberalist. — The Famous Sixteen Con-
spirators. — Wonderful Sacrifices of Private Fortunes to Aid
the Nihilists. — The Assassination of Prince Krapotkin. —
Secret Meetings and Pledges to Destroy the Czar. — Too many
Volunteer their Services as Assassins. — Arrest of (Joldenberg,
the Nihilist, and his Astonishing Confession. — A Complete
Exposure of all the Terrible Plots laid by Nihilists. — Graphic
Description of the Dynamite Mine near Moscow. — How the
Conspirators Worked and Averted Suspicion. — Mariana Semi-
ovna's Wonderful Zeal, Cunning, and Bravery. — Resolving to
Die Rather than Surrender. — An Ingenious Contrivance to
Blow up the House and Themselves should they be Detected. —
The Siberian Mines. — The Nobler Traits Manifested by Alex-
ander IL — Effects of his Assassination. - - 187-236
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
CHAPTER XI.
My Youthful Longings to Visit Siberia. — Preparing to Enter
the Frozen Wilderness. — Exiles in the Central Dismissal
Prison, Moscow. — Sad Sights and Affecting Good-byes be-
tween Exiles and their Families. — Woman's Love the same
10 CONTENTS.
Everywhere. — A Pathetic Incident. — A Visit to the Krem-
lin.— A Miraculous Picture of Christ. — How Napoleon's
Array Tried to Destroy It. — The Great Tower of Ivan Veliki
. and the Gigantic Bell. — Off for Nijni Novgorod with an Ameri-
can Companion. — A Visit to the Nijni Fair. — Daylight and
Night-time Scenes. — Description of Nijni. — A Voyage down
the Volga and up the Kama. — How People Travel on Russian
Steamers. — Inveterate Gambling. — Arrival at Perm. — Rail-
roading Across the Ural Mountains. — Appearance of Nijni
Tagilsk. — Visit to the Iron and Malachite Mines. — My First
Step on Siberian Soil. — The Journey to Ekaterineberg, and
how Mining for Malachite is Conducted. - - 237-258
CHAPTER XH.
Preparations for Overland Travelling. — Engagement of a Taran-
tass and Yemtschik — Description of Each. — Off with a
Dash. — Fears and Misgivings. — Arrival at the First Post
Station. — A Tea Drinking People. — Travelling Throughout
the Night. — Some of the Discomforts I Endured. — Forty-one
Hours in a Tarantass. — Arrival at Tieumen, Hungry, Sore and
Intensely Miserable. —A Dinner of Black Bread and Salt.— A
Talk with the Governor. — His History Respecting the Origin
of Banishment as a Punishment. — Boris Godunoff's Idea. —
An Enforced Settlement of Siberia. — Privileges of Village
Courts. — Offences Punishable by Deportation. — Those in
Exile Generally better Educated than the Masses. — How
Prisoners are Transported. — Driven Two Thousand Miles
Under the Stinging Lash. — Witnessing the Departure of Ex-
iles from Tieumen. — Resumption of my Journey Eastward. —
Engaging a Tumbril. — Bad News. — Checked by a Swollen
Stream. — Trying to Pass the Rubicon. — Capsized, Bag and
Baggage, in a Swift-flowing Creek. — Lost in the Jungles. —
A Night of Terror. —The Most Miserable Twenty-four Hours
of my Life. — Appearance of a Tartar Belle. - - 259-277
CHAPTER Xni.
Arrival at Tobolsk. — Description of the City. — A Famous Bell that
was Exiled with the Uglitch Insurrectionists. — My First Insight
into a Siberian Prison. — How the Prisoners Labor. — Punish-
ment by the Knout. — Heavy Manacles and Their Effects. —
Treatment of Female Convicts. — Punishment with the Plete. —
Engagement of Another Interpreter. — A Trip by Steamer from
CONTENTS. 11
Tobolsk to Tomsk. — The Ostjak People. — How They
Capture Fish in the Obi. - 277—289
CHAPTER XIV.
Debarkation at Tomsk. — How Russia Evades the Sacred Law. —
Description of the prisons in Tomsk. — Departure for Krasno-
iarsk by Tumbril. — A Horrid Dream. — Meeting with a
Convoy of Prisoners. — Tipping the Chief Guard. — Heavy
Shackles Worn by the Convicts. — A Pitiable Instance of Mal-
treatment.— Examination of an Exile at a Post-Station. —
Mortified Ankles and Wrists with the Tendons Exposed. — May
I Never see Another Sight so Horrible. — Appearance of a
Female Convict in Irons. — The Flesh Worn from Her Neck. —
Wives and Little Children Voluntarily Accompanying the Exiles.
289—301
CHAPTER XV.
Inspection of the Prison at Krasnoiarsk. — Convicts Driven to
Insanity. — A Hospital for Maniacs. — The Chains not Removed
from Exiles who Fall 111. — A Sad Case in Point. — Crossing the
Yenisei River by Means of a Flying Bridge. — Purchasing an
Outfit in which to Visit Yeniseisk. — A Trip Off the Highway. —
Camping Outin a Siberian Forest. —What Was That?— Ex-
. citing Adventure with a Bear. — Bear Hunting with Whips. 301 — 311
CHAPTER XVL
Arrival at Yeniseisk. — In the Midst of a Fur-bearing Country. —
Novel way of Catching Bears. — Description of the Tundras. —
Frigidity that Freezes Those Who Read About It. — Sledging and
Camping in a Frozen Wilderness. — Witnessing the Departure
of Tunguese for Their Winter Hunt. — Catching Sables. —
Elk Hunting. — How Reindeer are Taken and Domesticated. 311 — 320
CHAPTER XVIL
Siberia Rich in Precious Metals. — My Visit to a Mine Worked by
Convict Labor. — How the Mining is Conducted. — Conveying
Gold by Convoys to Irkoutsk. — My Meeting With an
Exile. — Determined to Visit His Abode. — Description
of his Hut. — The Exile's Story. — Torn Away from
Home and Sent into Exile Without Trial. — Terrible Suffer-
12 CONTENTS.
ings on the Transport Route. — Sent Down into the Mines. —
Flagellation with the Scorpion. — Tearing Pieces of Flesh out
of the Back.— A Pitiable Tale of Woe. — Message Which the
Exile Begged me Carry to his Wife. - - 320—334
CHAPTER XVIII.
Travelling in a Strange Country after Night. — Wolves ! a Success-
ful Shot. —The Governor's Story. — A Terrible Ride to Alex-
andreffsky Prison. — Chased by Wolves. — Discharging the
Last Shot. — Attacked in the Troika. — Down go the Outside
Horses. — Three Furious Wolves Drag the Driver From His
Seat. — Fighting with a Gun Barrel. — The most Desperate
Encounter ever Described. — Succor Arrives, but too Late to
Save the Horses and Driver. — My Departure for Irkoutsk. —
Wolves on the Highway. — Why I Slept in a Roadside Inn. —
Fast Travelling in Siberia. 334—847
CHAPTER XIX.
Situation of Irlcoutsk. — Attending the Races — How Horses are
Trained for Racing. — Visit to the Prisons. — Refused Ad'nis-
sion. — Meeting with an Exile from Kara. — His Statements of
How Prisoners are Treated at Kara. — Brutalities of Vicious
Guards. — The Russian Law for Punishing Convicts. — Proba-
tionary Sentences. — No Quick-Silver Mines in Siberia. —
Working Under Ground. — Superstitions of Exiles. — Political
Offenders at Kara. — The Prison Hospital. — Punishments that
Make Maniacs of the Convicts. — Dreadful Sights in the Hospi-
tals. — Branding of Convicts. — Dangers Incurred in Attempts
to Escape. —How I Verified Stories Told me by Exiles. - 347—360
CHAPTER XX.
The Native Tribes of Siberia. — Prominence of the Ostjak People. —
How they Hunt and Fish. — The Samoyeds. — Kirghiz Tartars,
Their Proclivities for Robbing and Fighting. — The Buriats. —
The Goldi, Their Strange Burial Customs. — The Gil yaks. —
Hunters and Polygamist?.— Bear Hunting by Gilyaks. — How
They Capture the Most Dangerous Animals. — Festival of Kill-
ing the Bear. — Strange Superstitions and Ceremonies. — Ainu-
lets of Bears' Claws. —The Tunguse and Kirghiz. —How
they Live. - ..... 360—374
CONTENTS. 13
CHAPTER XXL
Making Irkoutsk my Headquarters. — Cosmopolitan Character of
the Place. — Meeting With an American. — His Description of
the Island Sakhalein. — Treatment of Exiles at the Dui Mines. —
Dreadful Cruelties Practiced on Exiles at the Dui Mines. —
Rewards Paid for the Heads of Escaping Convicts. — How the
Gilyaks Hunt Exiles. — Description of the Natives on Sakha-
lein.— Nikolaefsk Prison. — Insanity Caused by Brutal Treat-
ment.— Attempts to Escape. — Killing Convicts for Their
Clothes. — Cannibalism Among a Battalion of Troops. — Hor-
rors of a Snow Storm. — The Manzas Robbers. - - 874—391
CHAPTER XXII.
Description of Yakoutsk. — Belles of Yakoutsk Riding on Oxen
Astride. — The Coldest Spot on Earth. — Killing of Reindeer
by Yukaghirs. — The Yakutes. — Their Peculiar Customs. —
Riding Reindeer. — Settlement of Yakoutsk by Exiles. — The
Scopsi. — A Religious Sect that Practices Castration. — Found-
ing their Faith upon St. Matthew and St. Paul. — Doctrines
Expounded by Scopsi Priests. — How the Operation of Castra-
tion is Performed. — Similar Practices in Italy and Turkey. —
Unsexing of Children for Mercenary Purposes. — Penal Quar-
ters at Villiski. - 391—409
CHAPTER XXIII.
Interesting Facts Concerning the Lena River. — A Description of
the Country which it Drains. — Early Adventurers who Crossed
Siberia. — A Trip Around the World on Foot and by Ship. —
Three Famous Voyages Down the Lena. — Discovery of Fossil
Remains. — A Chinese Legend of the Mammoth. — Legend of
the Samoyeds. — A Winged Rhinoceros. — Discovery of the
Great Mammoth. — Scientific Theories. — An Island Formed of
Mammoth Bones. — Captain Nordenskj old's Voyage Through
the Arctic Ocean and Down the Lena. - 409 — 423
CHAPTER XXIY.
Other Penal Mines of Siberia. — Dreadful Treatment of Convicts
at Nertchinsk. — Testimony of two Gentlemen who Visited the
Mines. — My Interview with Three Men who hud Served Long
14 CONTENTS.
Sentences at Nertchinsk. — Exiles Working Three Hundred
Feet Underground. — Never Permitted to see the Light of
Day. — Working While Weighted Down with Manacles. — How
the Men are Punished. — Tied over a Beam and Whipped with
the Scorpion. — Drawn up and then Lacerated with the Knout. —
Beating Convicts into Insensibility or Insanity. — Effects of
Constant Labor in the Mines. — Sights more Terrible than
Dancing Skeletons. — Witchcraft. — Torturing Women Accused
of Practising the Black Art. — A Humane Spirit Extending
Towards Siberia. - - 423-433
CHAPTER XXV.
Preparing for My Return to Russia. — Troubles with My Bear
Skin. — Visit to the Convict Mines at Nijni Udinsk. — Taking
a New Route. — Dreadful Exposures Experienced on the
Return Journey. — Virtues of My G-uide. — Big Game. — A
Bare-Back Chase after Siberian Antelope. — Wounding of a
Big Buck. — A Five Mile Race. — Securing the Prize. — Our
Camp at Night. — Arrival at Orenberg; its Peopler <and Fea-
tures.— The Long Bridge at Samara. — Visit to > Serf
Village. — Great Changes that have Taken Place Since the
Liberation. — Relation of Noblemen and Peasants. — Com-
parison of Serfs with Southern Negroes. 433—443
CHAPTER XXVI.
Strange Superstitions Among the Peasantry. — How Rooster Crow-
ing is Interpreted. — Pigeons Regarded as Holy Birds. —
Reverence for Icons. — Haunted by Good and Evil Spirits. —
A Singular Sight I Witnessed in Moscow. — The Black and
White Clergy. — Why the Serfs are so Poor. — The Wonderful
Splendor of Russian Churches. — 'A Drunken Priesthood. —
Another Cause for Nihilism. — One Hundred Annual Holi-
days.— Agriculture in Russia. — Primitive Husbandry. —
Harvesting with Small Sickles. — Threshing with Flails. —
Women in the Harvest Field, Decked in Gay Colors. — Some
of the Obstacles to Russian Farming. — Division of Lands
upon Communistic Principles. — What Her Agriculturists
Most Need. — Natural Advantages of Russia. — What a Great
Country for Emigrants, if the Laws were Liberal. - 443—452
CONTENTS. 15
CHAPTER XXVII.
Renewing Relations with Count Tolstoi. — Differences Between
Moscow and St. Petersburg. — Services at St. Isaac's Cathe-
dral.— Description of the Cathedral. — Bowing Down Before
Images. — A Big Thing in Candles. — Assuming an Attitude
of Prayer Under Difficulties. — Famous Russian Choirs. — A
Paralytic Carried to the Image of Christ. — Faithful' Efforts
but no Cures. — A Te Deum in the Alexander Monastery Sung
by Monks and Neophites. — $25,000 for a Burial Place in the
Monastery. — Strange Incident in the Life of a Lady Superior. —
How she Spent $20,000,000 to Improve the Condition of the
Poor. — But the Money Belonged to the Church. — Her Arrest,
Trial, Conviction, and Sentence. — Pardoned by the Emperor and
Reinstated. — Honored Above all Other Women. — Description
of the Monk Choir. — Heavenly Music. — My Entrancement. —
Singing for (rod and the Dead. — Disturbance Created by the
Employment of a Monk Tenor. — An Ovation that was Next to
a Riot. — A Silver Sarcophagus Containing the Bones of a Pa-
tron Saint. — Trouble Caused Peter the Great by Priests who
Stole the Sacred Bones. — $250,000 for a Casket. 452—462
CHAPTER XXVIII.
A Visit to the Cathedral Kazan. — Canonization of Lady Kazan. —
Clothed with Vestments of Great Value, and Crowned with
Precious Stones. —A $100,000 Diamond, and a $500,000
Sapphire. — $200,000,000 Invested in Church Property. — The
Church Supported by Poor People. — Holiday Celebrations. —
Ceremony of Blessing the Waters. — Miraculous Properties
Supposed to be Imparted by Priests. — Bottling the Waters for
Medicinal Purposes. — Celebration of St. George's Day. —
Release of Domestic Animals that are Sprinkled with Holy
Water. — Observance of Recollection Monday. — Paganish
Rites in the Cemeteries. — Revival of Old Jewish Customs. —
Shocking Bacchanalia in the Cemeteries. — Drunkenness and
Lewdness Among Priests and Parishioners. — Charging a
Fixed Fee for Prayers. — No Middle Class in Russia. — Govern-
ment Taxes all Paid by the Poor How Guild Merchants are
Created.— Society in St. Petersburg. — The Ten Command-
ments of Catharine II. — Requirements for Admission into So-
ciety.— Court Balls. — Flagrant Conduct as Told in Strange
Stories. — Witnessing a Genuine Russian Dance. - 462 — 476
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXIX.
Summer Cottages of the Kich at Parvelosk. — Life in St. Peters-
burg During Winter. — The Two Principal Streets. — Ice
Palace on the Neva River and the Grand Balls Given in it. —
Courtship Marriage, and Domestic Life in Russia. — Court-
ing by Proxy. — Beauty Among the Rich and Homeliness
Among the Peasantry. — Making Love Through Accordians. —
Fathers Courting for Their Sons. — The Matchmaker. — How
This Professional Body Plies Her Arts. — Fedotoff's Celebrat-
ed Painting, With a Description. — A Pleasing Description of a
Russian Marriage. — Eastern Customs in Russia. — Who'll be
My Butterfly? — The Tribulations of Married Life. — How
Russians Chastise Their ' Wives. — A Painful Incident. —
Women Declared by the Church to Have no Souls. — Worked
Harder Than Domestic Annimals. ... 476 — 492
HISTORY OF JEWISH OUTRAGES IN RUSSIA.
CHAPTER XXX.
My Interview With Count Tolstoi Concerning the Jews. — Indiffer-
ence Manifested by the Government. — The Czar's Personal
Application to Kothschild for a Loan. — Abrupt Termination
'of the Interview. — Count Ignatielf's Policy in Dealing With
the Jews. — How he Issued Dreadful Orders, But Prevented
Their Execution. — His Removal Accomplished by Jews. —
Bribery in the Imperial Court. — Inability to Procure Informa-
tion of Jewish Outrages in St. Petersburg. — My Decision to
Yisit Warsaw. — Description of my Rail Journey From Mos-
cow to Warsaw. — Having no Interpreter I Fall into Trouble. —
Stopping the Train to Let the Passengers Get Drunk. — Con-
flict Between Passengers and Troops. — How Railroading is
Conducted in Russia. — Ten Miles an Hour and no Sleeping-
Car. — Humorous Scene in a Brest Eating House. — Why I
Got up and Crowed Like a Rooster. — Gaining a Sudden Popu-
larity. - - 492—500
CHAPTER XXXI.
Arrival at Warsaw. — Description of the City. — Introduced to the
Mayor and Other Functionaries. — A Drive With the Mayor. —
Visit to Lazienski's Park. — A Beautiful Lake and Two An-
CONTENTS.
17
cient Palaces. — Description of a Novel Theatre Which wa»
Built for Kings. — Mementoes of a Q-lory Now Departed. —
Poland, the Hero's Elysian. — Her History Written in
Blood. — Visit to Wilanow Palace. — The Home of Sa' ienski,
Poland's Greatest King. — A Property That has Escaped uus-
sian Confiscation. — Sights in and Around the Palace. — De-
scription of Three Wonderful Sun-Clocks.— A Drive Through
the Jewish Quarters.— Remarkable Homogeneity of the Race. — •
How the Polish Jews Live, Dress, and do Business. — Foul
Smells From Foul Bodies. — Certain Occasions When the Jews
use Bacon. — How They Enforce Recognition From the Aris-
tocracy. - 500—506
CHAPTER XXXII.
Some of the Causes for Jewish Outrages. — Fanatical Zeal and Love
of Plunder.— Dreadful Riot at Elizabethgrad. — Thirty Jew-
esses Outraged and Several Killed. — Destruction of $1,000,000
of Property. — Proclamations Issued Declaring Russians Enti-
tled to all Jewish Property. — Mobs, Infuriated With Drink,
Wreaking a Dreadful Vengeance. — The Riot at Smielo in
which Thirty Jews are Killed, and Sixteen Hundred Rendered
Homeless. — Terrible Massacre at Kiew. — Soldiers Aiding the
Mob. — Refusal of the Governor to Protect the Jews. — Out-
rages at Kief. — Stoning Children to Death, Murdering Old
Men, Raping Women, and Burning Jewish Homes. —
Second Attack at Kief. — Desolation Everywhere. — Twelve
Towns in Flames at one Time. — Barrelling up Jews and Cast-
ing Them Into the Dnieper. — Outrages at Odessa. — $1,500,000
Worth of Property Destroyed, r- Third Attack at Kief. — The
Mob led by Merchants. — The Sarah Bernhardt Riots at Warsaw
and Kief.— The Terrible Riots at Warsaw. — Streets Deluged
With Blood. — Count Ignatieff Held Accountable. — Soldiers
Uniting With the Mob.— No Protection for the Jews. - 606—618
CHAPTER XXXIIL
The "Red Cock " Crowing Over Fifteen Towns. — Attacks on the
Jews of all Western Russia. — 6,000 Jews driven From Their
Homes in Minsk, and Their Houses Burned. — $80,000,000
Worth of Property Destroyed. — Red-Handed Murder. — Lurid
Faced Arson and Foul Visaged Outrage Stalking Through
Every Jewish Village. —100,000 Jewish Families Reduced to
Beggary. — Governors of Provinces, Government Officers and
18 CONTENTS.
Troops all Encouraging the Mobs. — 4,000 Jews Expelled Prom
Kief. — A Government Fine for Harboring Jews Over
Night. — A Governor Ordering 5,000 Jews to Quit His Prov-
ince.— Sad Scenes of the Last Meetings of Jews in Their
Synagogues. — Issuance of a Singular .Rescript. — The Gov-
ment's Reply to Jewish Complaints. — Charging the Jews with
Monopolizing Trade and of Swindling Russian Subjects. —
Appointment of Commissions to Investigate the Causes of Anti-
Semitic Prejudices. — Dismissal of Commissions That had Made
Their Reports Favorable to the Jews. — Observations on the
Short-Comings of the Government. — Are Three and One-Half
Millions of People to Perish Because They are Jews? - 618—530
CHAPTER XXXIV.
Distribution of the Jews. — Poles and Jews Generally Harmonize. —
Influence of Mussulmans in the Caucasus. — Singular Preju-
dices at Odessa. — Other Nationalities than Russians Opposing
the Jews. — Causes Assigned. — The Cry of "Mad-Dog." —
Charges Made Against the Jews. — Do they Violate the
Laws? — My Experience with Russians. — A Land Cursed by
Swindlers. — An Irish Millionaire's Experience ; Laughable,
but Typical. — The September Proclamation Against the
Jews Indefensible. — A National and Governmental Weak-
ness.— Jews No Worse than Russians. — Christians Placed in
a Bad Light. — How Italians Beat the Jews. — A Means by
which Russians Might Correct the Evils now Complained Of. —
A Lesson for Russia and Germany. - - 630 — 535
CHAPTER XXXV.
Review of My Trip Through Russia and Sibria. — The Largest
Nation on Earth. — The Russians and the Turks. — Hideous
Evidence of Muscovite Valor. — Meaning of the Word Czar. —
The Czar "Above All," and Chief Counsellor of Deity. — Ig-
norance and Slavery of the Russian Masses. — Bound JDown by
Church and State. — Poverty-Stricken and Debt-Ridden. —
Church Indulgences and Government Corruptions. — What
Russia Must Do to Place Herself on an Equality with Other
Civilized Nations. — Nihilism Apparently her only Hope. - 636— <
ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGES.
Portrait of the Author FRONTISPIECE.
View of Cronstadt from the East 34
Custom-house Examination, St. Petersburg 36
Street Scene, Showing Droshkies and Drivers 38
Suspected Peasants Before the Third Section 40
Count D. R. Tolstoi, Minister of the Interior 43
U. S. Minister W. H. Hunt 45
V. Pleve, Minister of the Secret Police 49
Holy Mountain Near Kief 52
Holy City of Kief 54
Principal Street of Kief 56
Christening a .Royal Infant . . . . . . . .59
Pyrotechnic Display in Honor of a Royal Birth 61
Peter the Great Vanquishing his Would-Be Assar- i K ... 63
Eexcution by Decapitation of 300 Conspirators . . . . . 66
Ropscha Palace, Where Peter III. Was Strangled . . . .74
Scene in a Serf Village 83
Serfs Celebrating Liberation Day 85
A Russian Noble Lady, XVI. Century 88
Arrest of a Revolutionary Student ' 90
The Czar Declaring the Freedom of Bulgaria 101
Vera Zassulitch 104
Conducting Solovieff to Execution 109
Execution of Solovieff . Ill
House from Which the Dynamite Mine was Laid .... 114
Reception of the Czar after the Railway-Mine Explosion . . . 116
19
20 ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGES.
Effects of the Explosion 118
A Te Deum in the Winter Palace . 121
Night Patrol in St. Petersburg 125
Execution of Kviatkovski and Presnhkov , 127
Portraits of Nine Leading Nihilists 12 i
Leo Hurtmann 131
Gen. Loris Melikoff 134
Conducting MelikoflTs Assailant to Execution 135
City of Tiflis 137
Street Along the Catharine Canal 139
Cellar Room from Whence the Mine was Laid 141
Explosion of the Second Dynamite Bomb 142
Scene Immediately after the Explosion ../... 144
Appearance of the Emperor's Carriage 145
Conveying the Wounded Czar to the Palace 14 3
View in Alexander Palace, at the Moment of the Emperor's Death . 143
Swearing Allegiance to the New Czar 150
Alexander III. Accepting the Imperial Crown 152
Kemains of the Emperor Lying in State 153
The Fortress Chapel ! 155
Tomb of the Emperor 156
Uncovering the Dynamite Mine 157
The Czar's Study . . 159
Driving Alexander HI. to His Palace .161
Trial of the Emperor's Assassins 163
Execution of the Emperor's Assassins 165
Memorial Chapel where the Czar Fell 167
Portraits of Eight Leading Female Nihilists 176
Execution of Soukahnoff 178
View of Moscow from the Moska Bridge 181
Gatchina Palace 183
Women on a Pilgrimage to Moscow 185
Police Surveillance 210
Mineral Spring where the Czar Bathed 213
Arrest of Goldenberg 220
ILLUSTRATIONS. 21
PAGES.
Precautions Against Nihilists . . 235
Central Dismissal Prison, Moscow 238
Last Partings at the Dismissal Prison . 240
Alexander III. and the Empress Entering Moscow .... 242
Great Bell and Tower at Moscow 244
Familiar Scenes at the Nijni Novgorod Fair 247
Wooden Church in Nijni Novgorod 249
View of the Great Central Square, Moscow 251
Principal Church in Perm 254
City of Nijni Tagilsk 256
The Demi doff' Mine, Ekaterineberg 258
The Tarantass . .260
View of Tieumen 263
Portions of Tieumen Overflowed 265
Convict Barge on the Kama River 269
Prisoners Leaving Tieumen for Eastern Siberia 271
Travelling by Tumbril 273
Upper and Lower Towns of Tobolsk 278
Administering the Knout 281
A Convict Laborer in Irons 283.
City of Tobolsk from the Irtysh River 285
Russianized Ostjaks 288
The Gostinnoi Dvor at Tomsk 291
View of South Side of Tomsk 293
Post Station and Church on the Highway 296
A Shackled Convict, on the Transport Route 299
A Convalescent Prisoner in Irons 302
"Waiting to be Ferried Across the Yenisei River 30-">
Siberian Roadside Inn 307
Bear Hunting with Whips .310
Hunting Reindeer on the Tundras . . . . . . .314
Gold Mine on the Vitim River 321
Gold Train in a Snow Storm 823
Arrest of the Pole and his Brother 327
City of Nijni Udinsk 330
22 ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGES.
The Exile's Abode 332
Courier Chased by Wolves 835
Alexandreffsky Central Prison 837
The Treasury and Governor's House 841
The G-overnor's Race with Wolves . . . . . . .843
City of Irkoutsk 346
Horse Racing at Irkoutsk 849
Gold Mine and Washing House at Kara 851
Ostjaks in Winter Dress 361
Samoyeds from the Lower Yenisei 362
Kirghiz Tartars Abducting Thibetan Women 864
A Goldi Dead House 866
Goldi in Winter Dress 367
Group of Gilyaks 369
Festival of Killing the Bear 370
A Tunguse Family and Birch-Bark Tent 872
Views of Irbit . ,. .375
Arrival of Gold Dust at Irkoutsk 876
Ainos, Aborigines of Sakhalein 878
Great Fire at Irbit, April 29, 1879 380
Military Post at Dui, Sakhalein 382
Views on the Island of Sakhalein 884
Killing Escaping Convicts for their Clothes ... .. . .386
The Etape Prison, Nikolaefsk .387
Vladivostock, Chief Russian Port on the Pacific . . 389
A Corean House in Vlaclivostock 390
Exiles on the Island of Sakhalein ... ... 392
View of the City of Yakoutsk 894
Views of the Abodes of the Exiles near Yiikoutsk .... 897
Penal Quarters at Yakoutsk 400
Exiles' Houses on the Lena, — Houses of Driod Dung . . . 403
Scopsi Colony Houses Near Yakoutsk 405
Scenes in Villiski 408
Yakute and Reindeer 411
Kirghiz of Northern Siberia 414
ILLUSTRATIONS . 2 3
PAOTCS.
Placer Q-old Mines of Malopatomski 424
Town and Principal Place of Upper Vidinski . 427
Branding a Woman Convicted of Witchcraft 432
Departure from Irkoutsk 434
Mining and Way Station on the Route to Siberia .... 436
Siberian Antelopes 439
Kail way Bridge Across the Volga at Samara, the Longest Bridge in the
World 441
Eussiun Agriculture 447
St. Isaac's Cathedral 454
Ceremony of Blessing the Waters 464
Ceremony of Blessing the Cows 467
A Kussian Peasant Village 468
Celebrating Kecollection Monday in the Smolensk! Cemetery . . 470
A Ball in the Winter Palace .472
View on Nevskoi Prospekt at the Bridge over St. Catharine Canal . 477
A Russian Courtship 481
The Matchmaker 483
Easter Customs in Russia 490
Scene in an Eating Station at Brest ....... 498
Jewish Synagogue at Orel 623
A Typical Jewish Peddler . . .685
PURPOSES AND AUSPICES
OF MY
TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA AND SIBERIA,
No country on the world's broad atlas, whether civil-
ized or unexplored, presents so many interesting and
anomalous phases as does Russia and its immense de-
pendency, Siberia. The very mention of this latter
tract of desert waste, its illimitable snow-fields, scintil-
lating under a fugitive sun or stretching away in solemn
shadows under a leaden sky until it infringes upon a cir-
cumambient horizon, excites our wonder and gives us the
one idea of dreariness. But ah ! not only is the wilder-
ness of Siberia's vast and lonely plain a topic which may
infuse the humblest pen with power to write a stirring
chapter on wild nature, ferocious beasts, and storm-beaten
shores freighted with wrecks of hardy adventurers ; would
that there were no more horrible stones of fact connected
with the history of that country which, from infancy, has
been an immense prison, or battle-ground — a grave-yard
of men's ambitions, the penal ground for patriotic expia-
tion ! The MIXES ! There is no word that so thrills the
Russian heart as this. " To the Bastile!" uttered during
the most dreadful days in French history, carried with it
but the shadow of a horror compared with that awful
sentence: "To the Mines of Siberia!" in Russia. In
France, Marat could only order his victims guillotined,
and death ca:ne speedily and painlessly. But in Siberia
25
26 .^ £*• : ; -PURPOSES AND AUSPICES OF
t litre w.as the kaout and other instruments of torture add-
ed to the sentence which confined men and women to a
life in the mines, where no light of day was ever permit-
ted to enter, and where the voice of lamentation could
never reach a sympathetic ear.
The history of Russia, such as has already been writ-
ten, possesses for me an interest felt for that of no other
country ; and since the revolutionary crisis, which had its
beginning or origin in the emancipation proclamation of
Alexander II., such startling events have occurred in that
nation that, being without parallel, they have focused the
interest of the world, until to-day the Czar's dominions
have become a country so alien in all its aspects of civil-
ization, and rent internally by such horrible atrocities,
that its current history is a story replete with exciting sit-
uations and horrifying culminations.
To obtain a true conception of Russia's policy, of her
insubordinate elements, of the Nihilistic demonstrations,
of her administration in dealing with the revolutionists,
and lastly, of the exile life led by so many thousand
persons in Siberia, I personally visited that country under
auspices peculiarly favorable for the acquisition of infor-
mation I specially desired. Before leaving America I
made application to Gen. Green B. Raum, Commissioner
of Internal Revenue, Washington, D. C., with whom I
have enjoyed an intimate acquaintance since boyhood, for
such letters of introduction to our representatives in Rus-
sia as he might feel disposed to give. The application
brought a response more favorable than I had expected,
for forthwith he requested the Secretary of State to give
me a letter which would secure for me the consideration
of our Russian Minister, and, added to this, the General
kindly wrote a personal letter to Minister Hunt, which
accredited correspondence is herewith appended :
MY TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA. 27
DEPARTMENT OF STATE, 1
WASHINGTON, D. C., ;June 21, 1882. /
The Honorable
WILLIAM H. HUNT,
St. Petersburg.
Sir:
At the request of the Honorable Green B. Raum, I introduce to
your acquaintance and commend to your courtesy the bearer of this
letter, Mr. James W. Buel of St. Louis, Mo., who is about to visit
Russia for the purpose of observing and writing upon the institutions
of that country.
I am Sir,
Your obedient servant,
J. 0. BANCROFT DAVIS,
Acting Secretary.
At the time of writing this letter, Mr. Davis informed
me that as Mr. Hunt had only recently received the ap-
pointment as Minister to Kussia, and had only departed
t\vo weeks previously to take up his official residence,
it was probable that I would find Hon. Wickham Hoff-
man still acting Charge d" Affaires on my arrival at St.
Petersburg, so he kindly gave me the following addition-
al letter :
DEPARTMENT OF STATE, \
WASHINGTON, D. C., June 21st, 1882. /
WICKHAM HOFFMAN, Esquire,
Etc., Etc., Etc.
St. Petersburg.
8Hr:
At, the request of the Honorable Green B. Raum, I introduce to
your acquaintance and commend to your courtesy the bearer of this
letter, Mr. James W. Buel, of St. Louis, Mo., who is about to visit
Jldssia for the purpose of observing and writing upon the institutions
i .f that country.
I am Sir,,
Your obedient servant,
J. C. BANCROFT DAVIS,
Acting Secretary.
Upon showing my letters from the State Department to
Gen. Eaum he at once wrote and handed me the follow-
ing :
28 PURPOSES AXD AUSPICES OF
TREASURY DEPARTMENT.
OFFICE OK INTERNAL RBVENI;
WASHINGTON, June 21, 1882.
HON. WM. HUNT,
U. S. Minister to Russia,
St. Petersburg, Russia.
Dear Sir :
Mr. James W. Buel bears letters of introduction to yourself and to
Mr. Hoffman from Hon. J. Bancroft Davis, acting Secretary of State.
I write to commend Mr. Buel to your favorable consideration,
and to request that you will introduce him into official circles so as to
enable him to make a study of the Russian Government and Russian
society.
I have known Mr. Buel [from boyhood and know that he visits
Russia with the best intentions. He will be no agitator against the
Government, as some Americans have been in Ireland, and he will not
betray any just confidence that may be reposed in him by the author-
ities. I have the honor to be,
Very Respectfully,
GREEN B. RAUM.
With this courteous correspondence I felt assured that,
notwithstanding the difficulties which attached to the
mission I was about to undertake, my investigations could
be prosecuted without fear of serious molestation, for I
considered these letters an implied promise from my gov-
ernment to protect me so long as I committed 110 overt
act against Russia, or manifested no revolutionary sympa-
thy, although hundreds of persons have felt the heavy
hand of the Czar's police for much less offence than an
inquiry respecting Nihilism, two of which instances I
must refer to :
Some time during the year 1881 an American citizen
arrived in St. Petersburg, as a seaman, without a pass-
port. Without reporting his case to our Minister or per-
mitting him to send any communication to our represent-
ative, the Russian authorities searched the unfortunate
man and found upon his person a letter of recommenda-
tion from his employers certifying to his sober and indus-
MY TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA. 29
trious qualities. This letter was from the Kemington
Fire Arms Company, and this trivial fact the Russian of-
ficers used as a pretext for holding the man as a suspect.
They said : " You are a revolutionist, and have been en-
gaged making cartridges and arms for the Turkish Gov-
erment to be used against us." They argued this way
because the Turkish Government during the war with
Russia had purchased large quantities of war munitions
from Remington & Sons. The poor fellow was taken to
the Fortress prison and there confined on a diet of bread
and water for an entire week before the facts accident-
ally came to the knowledge of our Charge d' Affaires,
who fiercely remonstrated at the outrage, whereupon the
innocent captive was liberated.
Another instance of even greater hardship and injus-
tice, is the present confinement of a Jewish- American
citizen who entered Siberia without a special permit from
the Imperial Police, not knowing that such was required.
It is easy to pass the Russian frontier into Siberia, but it
is a most perplexing and next to impossible matter to get
out again, and this American Jew having business in Si-
beria, and being provided with a passport into Russia, in-
nocently crossed the Urals, and at the first place he was
called upon to show his papers, he was apprehended and
thrown into solitary confinement, where he remained for
six months, notwithstanding the correspondence that has
passed between the Russian authorities and our minister
concerning his imprisonment. It is but justice to state,
however, that Minister Hunt expressed to me his doubts
about the prisoner being an American citizen, though he
claims protection from our government ; but the hard-
ships and injustice complained of grow out of the priso-
ner's inability, through lack of any privileges, to prove
his citizenship beyond the passport he held, which, how
30 PURPOSES AKD AUSPICES OF
ever, is not received as evidence because the period of its
effectiveness had expired at the time of his arrest, pass-
ports being good for only six months from the date af-
fixed to the visa — Russian consul's certificate.
Many other instances of intolerance might, and will be
cited in the following chapters, and hundreds of cases of
unmerciful injustice will be described to show how Rus-
sia maintains her autocracy and martial law, while her
people groan beneath the burdens of misgovernrnent and
repression .
Several books on life in Russia and Siberia have
appeared since the Turko-Russian war, but few that I
have read treat the subject in a manner that sug-
gests a personal visit to those countries by the authors.
Mackenzie Wallace wrote a very excellent and reliable
work on Russia, but it appeared before the war, and
though a standard history at the time of its first publica-
tion, it cannot be accepted as a history of Russia of to-
day, so great have the changes been since that time.
During the present year a work has appeared from the
pen of Henry Lansdell, entitled "Through Siberia,"
that has met with much favor because it treats of a coun-
try about which so little is known, and because the au-
thor claims to have been a missionary and philanthropist.
The facts are, however, that this work, I know, from
observations made while in Siberia, to be a pure fiction
so far as it relates to convict life ; its statements concern-
ing the prisons of Siberia are almost as wide of the
truth as any of Munchausen's choice yarns. I do not say
this through any prejudice, because I never saw Mr. Lans-
dell, and therefore have no private reasons for condemn-
ing his work. The London Graphic, reviewing the
book, pronounces it an aggregated canard throughout.
But I particularize Mr. Lansdell' s fault only because my
MY TRir THROUGH RUSSIA. 31
declarations and descriptions in the succeeding pages are
directly opposite to his assertions respecting the treatment
of exile prisoners in Siberia, and because the Russian
Government, having endorsed his work, might lead un-
thinking readers to suspect me of misrepresentations ; I
therefore write this to anticipate any reflections of this
character. I was told by many prominent persons in
Russia that the Government purchased several thousand
copies of Mr. Lausdell's book and has been active in
circulating it through several countries, because it repre,
sents convict life in Siberia as an existence of elegant
ease and epicurean luxury, while it greatly disparages the
treatment of prisoners in England and America.
What I have written concerning Russia is wholly
without malice, for I must acknowledge a treatment
while in that country of rare courtesy and consideration.
I can in a great measure excuse the Government for the
policy it pursues in dealing with its criminals. I can
readily understand how difficult it is for a ruler educated
to autocracy ; one whose remote ancestors were Czars
before him, with power so absolute as to repel advice
from their own counsellors, except as it was asked for ;
one who has been reared in the belief that all the world
owes homage to him — I can understand why such an one
refuses his ear to the complaints of his subjects, particu-
larly when they demand a constitution which would lead
to an abridgment of the crown prerogatives whilst con-
ferring the first taste of liberty to a people who never
drew a breath of freedom. Besides, to acknowledge the
policy of a revolutionary body, however weak, is always
a dangerous precedent, and destructive in its influences.
France is an illustration of this fact, and governments
have ever regarded it safer to employ the full strength of
their opposition by arms, rather than recognize any prin-
32 PURPOSES AND AUSPICES OF
ciple, however inconsequential, when incorporated in an
edict promulgated by insurrectionists. In this is found
ample reason why the Czar confronts Nihilism with ar-
mor and steel, and this has brought on an internecine
conflict which fills the very atmosphere of Russia with
blood, and stamps every highway in that miserable na-
tion with red-handed murder.
It is my purpose to describe, in a dispassionate, ungar-
nished way, the crimes of Nihilism, to give some of the
previously unwritten history of Russia, and to truthfully
tell what I know concerning exile life in Siberia, with ob-
servations on the people and mode of living in that won-
derful country. I have had every advantage for ascer-
taining all the facts, and am frank to say that no ex-
cuse is left me if I have made a single misstatement in the
narrative following.
J. W. BUEL.
RUSSIAN NIHILISM.
CHAPTER I.
I left America on the twenty-fourth day of June, for
St. Petersburg, going by way of London, thence to Hull,
and at the latter English port I engaged passage on a
Wilson line steamer (Marsden) which took me by way of
the North and Baltic seas. The latter part of the voyage
was particularly pleasant, and occupied less than six
days. We put into the port of Cronstadt, which is eigh-
teen miles from St. Petersburg, as, owing to the extreme
shallow water, vessels of any considerable burden cannot
approach nearer the Russian capital. Cronstadt is a
small town built upon an island, but though it has no
natural defences, .it is next to Gibralter in fortress
strength. Stretching across the Finland mouth to the
two mainlands, are ten forts of almost impregnable
strength, and counting the island fort of solid masonry
there are mounted more than one thousand immense
guns, the fire from all of which may be concentrated on
any point of entrance to the Gulf. So perfect are the
defences that no fleet, however powerful, could approach
within effective range of St. Petersburg without first de-
stroying the ten strongest artificial forts of the world ;
while to these defences is added a channel of only nine
feet, which makes the city safe from invasion by sea.
A canal is now being dug, however, by American contrac_
33
EXILE LIFE IK SIBERIA. 35
tors, from opposite Peterhoff to the Neva, which will
admit heavy ocean tonnage, but it will be guarded by the
strongest engines of war that can be brought into requi-
sition.
Upon landing at Cronstadt our vessel was boarded by
five customs officials and passport examiners, one of
whom detected an informality in my passport, which
caused my apprehension as a " suspect." When leaving
Washington City I neglected to have the Russian Con-
sul's visa affixed to my papers, and this omission sub-
jected me to much suspicion from a Government that
naturally supposes every one a revolutionist who is not
burdened with incontestible proofs of innocence.
I would never have been permitted to set foot in Russia
but for the letters I bore from the State and Treasury
Departments, upon the presentation of which I was given
a paper containing my promise to report in person at
the Third Section in St. Petersburg, on the following morn-
ing. I was then allowed to proceed to the city and take
lodgings at the Hotel de France, but under the surveil-
lance of the Imperial Police. No hotel in Russia is allowed
to entertain any one, whether a native or foreign sub-
ject, without first securing their passport, which must be
registered with the police, and the names of all guests
must be prominently posted on a blackboard in the hotels
where any one entering can see them.
I, together with the other passengers, was taken up to
the city in a tender and landed at the Custom House.
Being wholly unacquainted with the Russian language, I
would have fared badly but for assistance tendered me
by a fellow-passenger who kindly spoke for me. Ev-
ery bit of paper I had, on which there was any writing,
was critically examined by a score of underlings and then
conveyed to a higher functionary for inspection and
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 37
judgment. My things were unceremoniously dumped out
and all articles of clothing were searched with the care
an old soldier manifests when looking for carnivorous in-
sects.
After undergoing the customs examination, I passed out
into the street and was immediately received by a galling
lire of solicitations from droshky drivers, whose unintelli-
gible jabbering and strong entreaties so confounded me
that I knew not what; to do, as my friend had disappeared,
leaving me in a condition which I may well explain as
tongues and lungs everywhere but not a voice to speak to
me intelligently.
If there is anything that will make a cynic laugh or
startle a cosmopolite with wonder, it is a droshky driver
in his quizzical tout ensemble. The municipal law requires
him to wear a large, dark-blue stole, gathered at the waist
by a band, and on his head he wears a covering which is
half hat and half cap ; from under this quaint head-
gear emerges a profuse quantity of hair cut in a sharp
line all round. Hair cutters in Russia use a large cup
which is inverted and placed over their customer's head,
and then, with a large pair of shears, they trim squarely
around the cup's edge. The result must necessarily be
comical, especially since among no other people does the
hair grow so abundantly.
When I was first assailed by these peculiar, monkish-
appearing, but good-natured fellows, and had taken a
good look at their peculiar little vehicles, I could not re-
frain from laughter, at which, like a number of imitative
apes, they fell to laughing also. After several minutes
spent in contemplating my unhappy condition, the gentle-
man who had assisted me in the Custom House, appeared
again, and engaging a carriage we drove together to the
Hotel de France, where I was duly registered. My next
38
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
step was to engage a guide, which I found in the person
of Charles Kuntze, a German who could speak several
languages, whose services to me became absolutely ines-
timable.
It so happened that at the time of my arrival in St.
Petersburg, Minister Hunt had not yet reached the
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 39
tal, and Charge cT Affaires Hoffman was on a brief visit
to Finland ; I therefore had no other resource left me ex-
cept to obey orders and trust to luck. In obedience to in-
structions I called at the Third Section, where I was as-
sured that my passport would be waiting me, but I was
referred to another place, and from there to still another,
and then back again to the Third Section. This shuttle-
cock business continued active for four days, when at
length I found that it was a way they had in Russia ; that
I was thus kept in momentary expectancy until the au-
thorities could take information on me and definitely de-
termine my business in the country. At the expiration
of the fourth day Mr. Hoffman returned, and upon re-
porting my case to him he immediately procured my
passport and relieved me from further police surveillance.
The Third Section is one of the most noted institu-
tions in Russia ; simple, unpretentious in title, but within
its now crumbling walls have been enacted some of the
most shocking tragedies known in history. • It is a build-
ing occupying one entire square and divided off into pub-
lic offices, audience chambers, and prisons, though it is
no longer used for the detention of criminals. Under
the iron rule of Nicholas I., those who were ordered to the
Third Section rarely ever breathed the air of freedom
again, their sentence being either death or transportation .
The place derives its name from, the fact that the city
was formerly divided into three police districts, all under
the Minister of Police, whose office was in the Third Sec-
tion. It is told by those resident of St. Petersburg at
the time that Emperor Nicholas I. had a private office in
the Third Section where it was his custom to repair at a
certain hour each day for the purpose of keeping him-
self thoroughly advised 011 all matters appertaining to the
police administration. It is also declared that there was
KUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 41
a trap door in the floor of his office which was used for a
singular purpose, viz: when any female member of the
reigning family was discovered inveighing against his ad-
ministration— which was by no means an uncommon oc-
currence— the offender was ordered to appear before him
at his office. When there he gave such persons much
fatherly advice about their transgressions and, at a sig-
nal, the trap door, upon which they were made uncon-
sciously to stand, suddenly gave way precipitating the
woman to her arm-pits. While in this constrained posi-
tion, unable to move, she was severely lashed by a per-
son stationed underneath. In this wise the offender
was prevented from knowing who was administering the
castigation, nor could the person below know whom he
was punishing.
Upon meeting Mr. Hoffman I presented him with the
letters I bore, as already quoted, and then asked him for
such advice as he might give that would be serviceable to
me. His reply was a genuine surprise, and one which I
am not likely to forget soon. Said he :
" Your purpose, I discover from Gen. Raum's letter,
is to gather facts concerning Nihilism."
1 told him that was chiefly the object of my visit to
Russia, whereupon he replied :
" If my advice is worth anything, I will freely give it
to you, and it is this : stop where you are; don't take the
first step toward investigating that subject. The reason
I thus advise you is because Russia is under martial law
and the least .suspicion excited against one here is liable
to be followed by arrest, and once in the toils it is next to
impossible to get out. It matters not how much any
government may remonstrate against the arrest of its
subjects, Russia is not prone to regard them. So, for your
own safety, I say abandon the idea of investigating Ni-
hilism while on Russian soil."
42 RUSSIAN NIHILISM ANB
I thanked Mr. Hoffman for his well-intended advice,
and then replied :
" You put the matter in a very gloomy light indeed,
much worse than I expected ; nevertheless, I don't be-
lieve it is customary for an American citizen to give up
a mission that he has set his head and heart upon per-
forming, because the sun has set before his face."
He was evidently pleased with my answer, though he
sympathized with my poor judgment, for at once he prof-
fered such services as he was able to give, and promised
to look after me if I should suddenly disappear. At my
request he then wrote me the following letter to Count
Tolstoi, Minister of the Interior, who is also acting
Prime Minister. During the enforced retirement of Al-
exander III. Count Tolstoi is practically the Czar of Rus-
sia, all audiences on Imperial business being held with
the Count and by him communicated personally to the
Czar:
LEGATION OF THE UNITED STATES.
ST. PETERSBURG, July 21, \ , QC
August 2d, / 1}
His Excellency, COUNT TOLSTOI,
Minister of the Interior.
Mr. James W. Buel, a citizen of the United States, has come to St.
Petersburg, bringing to Mr. Hunt and myself letters of introduction
from the Secretary of State at Washington, stating that Mr. Buel
comes to Russia with a view of observing and writing upon the insti-
tutions of this country, and commending him to our courtesy.
Mr. Buel himself tells me that his work is upon Communism in the
United States, and that in this connection he desires to investigate
Communism in other countries under whatever forms it may exist.
For this purpose he desires access to certain unpublised documents.
Will your Excellency kindly give him such facilities for his work as
you may deem proper, and may feel at liberty to give.
I take this opportunity to renew to your Excellency the assurance
of my distinguished consideration.
WICKHAM HOFFMAN.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
COUNT D. R. TOLSTOI.
Minister of the Interior and Chief Councillor of the Czar,
44 11USSIAN NIHILISM AND
Before leaving St. Petersburg in August, for Siberia,
Hon. W. H. Hunt arrived in the Russian capital, and pre-
sented his credentials as Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary to the Court at St. Petersburg. I had a
very pleasant interview with him, and through him and
Count Tolstoi my request for an interview with the Czar
was communicated. Two days later his Excellency, V.
Pleve, presented me with an answer from the Czar, who
expressed regrets that he was holding his annual confer-
ence at Gatchina Palace with his Generals, which would
not be concluded for twelve days, but at the expiration
of that time it would give him great pleasure to re-
ceive me. My time was too limited to admit of so long
a delay, as I had already made my preparations and en-
gaged an interpreter in Moscow to accompany me on my
tour through Siberia.
Upon my return to St. Petersburg, in October, I again
called on Minister Hunt, who gave me the following let-
ter:
LEGATION O"F THE UNITED STATES.
ST. PETERSBURG, October 3, \1QQO
October 15, /1}
The undersigned lias the honor to present to his Excellency Count
Tolstoi, Minister of the Interior, Mr. J. W. Buel, a citizen of the
United States, who, it is believed, has already been accredited to his
Excellency by the late acting Charge d' Affaires of this Legation.
Mr. Buel is the bearer of letters from several distinguished func-
tionaries in the United States, who vouch for .his reliability and com-
mend him to consideration. Having occasion to obtain some inform-
ation from the authorities of His Imperial Majesty's Government,
Mr. Buel is d -sirous of obtaining an interview with His Excellency,
which the undersigned trusts may b^ accorded him.
The undersigned avails himself of the opportunity to renew to His
Exce Jency the assurances of his distinguished consideration.
WILLIAM H. HUNT,
Envoy Extraordinary, Etc., Etc.,
of the United States of America.
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA.
45
HON. W. 11. HUNT. MINISTER PLENIPOTENTIARY TO RUSSIA.
46 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
It is the etiquette of the Court that when a foreign
subject desires an interview with any member of the
Imperial Court, his request must come through a letter
from the representative of the country to which the
applicant belongs, although he may have been previously
recommended. This is the reason this, second letter
from the Legation was obtained and presented. The two
dates affixed to these letters represent the difference be-
tween the English and Eussian calendars, the latter still
holding to the ancient style, which is twelve days behind
the calendars of all other civilized nations.
At this season Minister Tolstoi, who had his resi-
dence in the suburbs of St. Petersburg, gave audi-
ences only twice each week, and as I was misinformed
as to the days he had set for this purpose, it was not un-
til the third day that I called to present my letter. It
chanced, however, that the Count was not in, but I was re-
ceived, nevertheless, by His Excellency, Y. Pleve, Direc-
tor of the Ministry of the Interior and Privy Counsellor to
the Emperor, and Minister of Police. I was pleased to
find him a very affable gentleman, and through my inter-
preter he promised me every aid I might require in pros-
ecuting my investigations. After conversing with him
for several minutes he made an engagement to meet me
again on the following day, and also to present me to the
Prefect of Police on the Monday following — this being
Saturday.
At the time appointed I met the Minister of Police
again, and also the Prefect of Police, both of whom
gave me considerable information, and at their request
I submitted in writing a series of questions on Nihil-
ism, the answers to which they promised to give me
on the Wednesday following. Parting with them I left
my letter of introduction with Count Tolstoi's secretary,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 47
and on the succeeding day received a note from the
Count, written in French, saying he would be pi eased to
see me at his office at eleven o'clock, Tuesday.
I was punctual in keeping the appointment, but upon
presenting my card to his valet I was told that it was et-
iquette of the Court to receive only persons with whom
appointments are previously made, and that no one is ad-
mitted unless he appear in Court dress — dress suit.
Though embarrassed somewhat at first, I was equal to the
occasion, for I sent my regrets to the Count, coupling
them with the observation that in America every citizen
is a sovereign, and that with us dress suits are used only
on party occasions ; that it was with tinexpressible cha-
grin I was compelled to acknowledge the fact that I nev-
er owned a dress suit. In a moment after, the valet re-
turned and ushered me into the Count's presence, who
advanced and greeted me in so cordial a manner,
laughingly commenting upon his valet's rigid Court man-
nerism, that I entirely forgot the presence of royalty,
and entered into conversation with a freedom from all re-
straint.
Count Tolstoi spoke with some warmth concerning the
reflections cast upon Russia by other civilized countries,
and earnestly denied the insinuation that the administra-
tion was lacking in mercy or that every measure and pol-
icy pursued was not thoroughly justified. He complained
that Russia was the most misrepresented country on
the globe, and as an earnest of his assertions he prof-
fered to me any assistance I might need to learn any and
all facts appertaining to Nihilism, and the manner in which
the laws are administered. He gave me access to the Im-
perial Library containing all the political records, and as-
sured me that I might talk and enquire about Nihilism
without the least fear of molestation, though he admitted
48 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
that without a disclosure of my purpose I might have en-
countered some trouble. My sole purpose in visiting the
Count was to procure from him a promise that I would
not be subjected to suspicion or annoyance by reason of
any inquiries I might institute, and to this end I frankly
told him the purposes of my visit and promised to treat
Nihilism in my work with all the fairness that my com-
prehension of the subject permitted. Before leaving him
he asked me as a favor to incorporate in my book the
Government's position taken in the four leading politi-
cal trials, viz : the trial of the Emperor's assassins; of
those suspected of attempting to blow up the Winter
Palace; of the assassins of Gen. Melikoff ; and the trial
of Yera Zassulitch, who shot Gen. Trepoff, Minister of
Police. I told him I should be glad to do him such a
favor if he would prepare the matter ; this he agreed to
do, and to transmit the manuscript through our consul to
me in America, which promise, however, he did not ful-
fill, and I am therefore absolved from the obligation.
On Wednesday, the day following my interview with
Count Tolstoi, I called on Minister Pleve again, who gave
me answers to the questions I had prepared, but they
were of an indefinite character, in fact evasive, and of
no value, though Count Tolstoi had also promised that
the questions I had submitted — with one .exception —
should be answered fully. The question to which direct
exceptions were taken, was this :
6 « Explain why noble families sympathize with the Ni-
hilists?"
This, I was told, involved the entire administration of
Alexander II. and to explain it fully would expose cer-
tain matters which the Government held as strictly pri-
vate.
I was very much interested in Minister Pleve, because
of the important part he acted in the most thrilling
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
49
drama of Russian history, and I spent nearly an hour in
a most agreeable conversation with him, though we had
to talk through my interpreter. At the time of the
Czar's assassination he was in very high repute as a skil-
ful detective, and upon the removal of Gen. Trcpoff—
after recovering from the wound inflicted by Vera Zas-
sulitch — Mons. Pleve was appointed Minister of Police.
The assassination of the Czar brought his detective skill
HIS EXCELLENCY, VAJESLAF KONSTANTINOVITCH PLEVE, MINISTER OF POLICE.
into service again, and it was through his ingenuity that
six of the accomplices were apprehended and brought to
trial. His last act of great public consequence was to
affix his signature to the death sentence of the assassins,
which many believed no officer had the courage to
do, because of the threats made in hundreds of anony-
mous communications to kill every officer remotely con-
50 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
cerned in the executions. But Pleve did not hesitate, and
while his life is yet liable to pay the forfeit of that act,
he takes few if any precautions to guard against assas-
sination.
I asked him for his photograph for use in my book,
and he promised to have one taken and send it to me at
an early day, a promise which he kept, as is seen in the
following letter :
ST. PETERSBOURG, Octobre 9, 1882.
MONSIEUR :
Confarmement a votre desir, je vous envoie ci-joint ma photo-
graphie en vous priant de recevoir 1'assurance de mes sentiment?
distingues. V. PELVE.
P. S. — Les notes promises vous seront envoyees sans peu.
TRANSLATION.
ST. PETERSBURG, October 9, 1882.
SIR:
In accordance with your desire, I send you herewith my photo-
graph, wishing you to receive the assurance of my high regard.
V. PLEVE.
P. S. — The notes promised you will be sent in a little while.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 51
CHAPTER II.
PROVIDED with what I considered a complete protection
from officious servants of the Government, I set about
gathering statistics and familiarizing myself with the
social and political life of Russia since the accession to
power of the Romanoffs. I was somewhat surprised to
learn that many interesting portions of Russian history
have never been given to the world, because of their
reflections on the ruling family, and I now take what I
conceive to be commendable pride in. presenting several
material incidents for the first time in print. It is essen-
tial to the thorough understanding of the causes which
have combined to render Russia so unhappy, by giving
life to a movement that is without precedent or simili-
tude, that at least a brief or outline history of the coun-
try should be familiar to the reader, and it is this which
shall be my excuse for presenting it here ; added to this
general history are several facts which, so far as my
information extends, were never before published.
The Russian Empire embraces an area of 8,444,766
square miles, or considerable more than twice the area of
all our States and Territories. This vast region, which
extends from the arctic to the torrid zone, has an esti-
mated population of 85,000,000, and though the most
fertile and extensive agricultural country in the world,
there are proportionately fewer persons following pastoral
pursuits in Russia than in any other civilized nation.
The Empire is divided into about one hundred govern-
ments, which are ruled directly by Governors whose pow-
ers, especially in Eastern Siberia, are almost absolute.
Of these governments fifty are in Europe, having a pop-
ulation of 66,000,000 ; Poland contains 6,000,000 souls -
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 53
Finland, 2,000,000; the Caucasus, 5,000,000. Siberia
proper has a population of 4,000,000, and Central Asia
3,000,000. These are approximate figures based on the
census of 1880. In this broad extent of country about
two-thirds of the entire population profess the Greek
religion. The Dissenters number about one million ;
the Roman Catholics two and one-half millions ; Protes-
tants and Mohammedans about the same as the Cath-
olics ; Jews, two millions. There are also one quarter
of a million Pagans, worshipping idols ; fifty thousand
Armenians, and about ten thousand Scopsi, a denomina-
tion that will be described fully hereafter.
Russia's national debt, since the loan of 1882, is about
four billion roubles — the paper rouble being equivalent
to fifty cents, makes the total debt, in United States
currency, two billion dollars. The expenses of the Gov-
ernment in 1881 were nine hundred million roubles, two
hundred millions of which were army appropriations.
The Emperor is allowed twenty million roubles annu-
ally for the support of the forty-four members of the
royal family. Russia now has a mobilized army, ready at
any time to be called out for service, of over two million
men ; and her fleet, consisting of two hundred and sixty-
three vessels, carries sixteen hundred and two guns.
The original settlers of Russia were Sclavonians, whose
history in the Empire dates from about B. C. 400. A
century later they founded the cities of Novgorod the
Great, and Kief — both of which cities afterward became
capitals of the country — and Ilrnen. Kief has always been
regarded as the Holy City, to which annual pilgrimages
are made for worship.
This ancient capital, though much of its former glory
has departed, is still one of the chief places in Russia ;
among its many squalid appearing buildings, always sug-
4
54
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 55
gestive of great poverty, is a palace provided, and still
maintained, for the Imperial family. In Russia there are
twenty-one palaces kept for the exclusive use of the Czar,
many of which never once sheltered his Majesty ; they are
always kept in readiness for him, however, being attended
by hundreds of servants, and having stables containing
many fine horses. I was surprised to learn this, and
upon asking why such a useless extravagance was per-
mitted, was answered : " The Czar is supposed to look
after the interests of his entire Empire ; his presence,
therefore, may be expected at any time in any place
therein ; so. palaces are provided for his entertainment in
various parts of Russia in order that at no time may he
have to lodge in apartments not befitting his Majesty."
This answer quite satisfied me.
The earliest Government of Russia was a Republic,
which continued for about one thousand years, when, in
851, a violent political disturbance took place which
divided the Republic into revolutionary territories and
inaugurated a warfare that threatened extermination.
The Republic continued to exist in name, however, until
8(>2, when a council, chosen from the various factions,
with the view of conciliating differences and protecting
the country from invasions, which neighboring tribes
threatened, convened at Novgorod, and after lengthy
deliberations decided to invite a Varago-Russian, named
Rurik, to accept the sovereignty, which he did, and Rus-
sia then became an Empire, Novgorod remaining the
capital of the new Government.
There is very little history known connected with the
Rurik dynasty. Vladimir was the greatest sovereign of
that House. It was he who introduced Christianity into
the Empire in 980, and at his death, which occurred in
1015, he was buried at Kief, and the church honored
RUS8IAN NIHILISM ANI>
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA.
57
his name by declaring him a saint. Dimetrius was also
a prominent ruler in the Rurik dynasty, and he is re-
garded as a saint by the orthodox church. It was Dime-
triits who founded Moscow in the twelfth century. A
portion of his skull, the size of a silver half-dollar, is
still preserved and exposed to view in the Royal Chapel at
Moscow. Every day hundreds of pious Russians visit
this chapel and reverently kiss the ghastly relic, murmur-
ing their prayers, and crossing themselves at the same
time. It is said that upon the occasion of a visit to this
chapel by an American lady, seeing so strange and dis-
gusting a performance by so many mouths, she grew
sick and vomited. The act, as I saw it performed by
dozens during my visit to Moscow, affected me almost
as seriously as it did the lady referred to.
The house of Rurik continued to rule Russia until the
year 101.-), when an interregnum occurred, owing to the
fa<-t that there was neither issue nor hereditary branch
to succeed the last ruler. The Empire continued, how-
ever, by the election of Michael Faodorvitch Romanoff
as Emperor, who ruled from the year 1613 until 1645.
He was succeeded by his son, Alexis Michaelovitch, who
wa* the father of Peter the Great. His reign continued
from 16-15 until 1676. The other rulers then came in the
order named.
Feodor Alexovitch, 1676-1682. Ivan Alexovitch the
V., who was an idiot, being senior brother of Peter
Alexovitch (Peter the Great), the Government became
a duarchy until the former's death, which occurred in
1606, when Peter the Great, who was in fact ruler from
1682, continued on the throne until his death in 1725.
Catharine I., wife of Peter the Great, ruled from 1725
until 1727, when she was poisoned by Count Ostermann
Peter II., nephew of Peter the Great, 1727 until 1730.
58 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
Anna Ivanovana, niece of Peter the Great, ruled from
1730 until 1740, when she was banished to Siberia and
died in exile.
Ivan Antonovitch succeeded, but ruled only one year,
until 1741, when he was thrown into prison, where he
died.
Elizabeth, youngest daughter of Peter the Great, ruled
from 1741 until 1761. She died without marrying, but
adopted the grandson of Peter I., who succeeded her as
Peter III., but he ruled only one year, until 1762, when
he was strangled by order of his wife, Catharine II.
Catharine II. ruled from 1762 until 1796.
Paul I., Catharine's only son, who was declared illegiti-
mate, ruled from 1796 until 1801, when he was strangled
in his palace by Count Parlen.
Alexander I., son of Paul I., ruled from 1801 until 1825.
He died from the effects of poisoned feet, the poison
being secretly placed in his boots.
Nicholas I., second son of Paul I., ruled from 1825
until 1855, when he ordered his physician to prepare
him a dose of poison, which he took on account of his
defeat by England and the Allied Forces in the Crimean
War.
Alexander II. ruled from 1855 until 1881, when he was
assassinated, after many unsuccessful attempts, March
1st, Russian style, 1881.
Alexander III. began his rule upon the day of his
father's (Alexander II.) death, and is now upon the
throne, which is like an active volcano under his feet, or
a magazine of powder toward which a lighted fuse is
steadily burning.
The members of the ruling family are as follows :
Emperor Alexander III. Alexandra vitch, born March
10th, 1845 ; he married Maria Sophia Frederica Dagmar,
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA.
59
daughter of Christian IX. King of Denmark. The Em-
press, who is a sister to the Princess of Wales and King
George, of Greece, was
born November 26th,
1847, and married the
Emperor, November 9th,
1866. She was engaged
to the Prince Imperial
Nicholas, elder brother of
t h o present E m p e r o r,
who, however, was seized
with a dreadful malady
brought on by his own
indiscretions, and died
before reaching man-
hood. On his death-
bed he begged his broth-
er, who became heir in
succession, to marry the
Princess , which request
was complied with.
The children of this
union are :
Nicholas Al exandro-
vitch, the Prince Impe-
rial, who was born May
18th, 1868.
George Alexandro-
vitch, Grand Duke ; born
May 9th, 1871.
Xenia Alexandrovna,
Grand Duchess; born
April 6th, 1875.
Michael Alexandroviteh, Grand Duke, born December
5th, 1878.
60 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
Olga Alexaiidrovna, born in May, 1882.
The christening ceremonies of this infant princess oc-
curred at Peterhoff, the Czar's present residence, and
was one of the most gorgeous affairs that ever took
place in Russia.
Brothers and Sisters of the Emperor — Vladimir Alex-
androvitch, Grand Duke ; horn April 22, 1847 ; married
August 28th, 1874, to Princess Marie, of Mecklenburg-
Schwerin.
Alexis Alexandrovitch, Grand Duke ; born January
14th, 1850. Morganatically married, but his wife was
never acknowledged by the Court, and he was compelled
to sever his relations with her.
Marie Alexaiidrovna, grand duchess ; born October 17,
1853 ; married to the Duke of Edinburg, second son of
Queen Victoria, January 23, 1874.
Sergius Alexandrovitch, Grand Duke ; born May llth,
1857.
Paul Alexandrovitch, Grand Duke ; born October 3d,
1860.
Uncles and Aunts — Olga Nicolaievna, grand duchess ;
born September llth, 1822 ; married to Charles, now
King of Wurtemburg, July 13th, 1846.
Constantine Nicholaievitch, Grand Duke ; born Sep-
tember 21st, 1827 ; married September llth, 1848, to the
Princess Alexandra Josef ovna, the daughter of Joseph,
late duke of Saxe Altenburg.
There are sixteen other members of the Royal Family,
children of the grand dukes and grand duchesses, all of
whom receive a large annual pension from the Govern-
ment.
Few of the grand dukes have held any office requiring
active service. The grand duke Nicholas wras field Mar-
shal at the outbreak of the war with Turkey, but his
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 61
father, Alexander II., had so little confidence in him that
he decided to assign the chief command of the Russian
forces to one of his old-
er-Generals. Learning
this, Nicholas presented
himself before his father,
and with pistol in hand
declared that rather than
suffer such disgrace he
would blow his own brains
out before his father's
eyes. This threat induced
the Emperor to give the
chief command to Nicho-
las, but before a year had
elapsed there was such a
general complaint of his
extravagance and incom-
petency that the Czar was
forced to remove him and
appoint Gen. Skobeleff-,
the hero of Goek-Teppe,
in his place.
The grand duke Con-
stantino was, for some
time, rear Admiral of the
Eussian fleet, but there
developed among the ma-
rines such strong revolu-
tionary sympathies that
in the spring of the pres-
ent year he was removed,
and the position given to the Grand Duke Alexis. The lat-
ter at once began a secret examination of the men in the
62 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
navy, which resulted in the arrest and conviction of three
hundred officers and privates in the marine service, all of
whom were sent into exile.
CHAPTER III.
THERE are three great historical characters among the
rulers of Russia, viz: Peter the Great, Catharine II.,
and Alexander II. Of these three the first named is pre-
eminent in history, while they all have made popular rep-
utations in the order named.
Even in boyhood, Peter the Great exhibited such traits
of character as indicated his special capacity for the po-
sition he was hereditarily called to fill. His brother,
upon whom the crown fell by succession, was an idiot,
and at a very youthful age the responsibilities of Imperial
State, under particularly perplexing circumstances, be-
came his inheritance.
His early life was characterized by those acts of brav-
ery which grew in importance as maturer years came
upon him. It is told of him that shortly after his acces-
sion to the throne a conspiracy was formed to consum-
mate his assassination. Those in the plot had a meeting
place in a peasant's house, where they secretly came to-
gether and arranged their plans for getting into his bed-
room, and for disposing of the body after death. By
some means, which tradition does not explain, Peter
heard of the conspiracy, and with a spirit of reckless
bravery undertook the task of visiting punishment upon
his enemies. He accordingly posted himself in a place
near the house where, unobserved, he might witness the
assembling of the assassins, When five of the party
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
63
64 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
had collected, and while they were taking an oath to
accomplish his murder, Peter broke in the door, and
with no other weapon than his powerful arm, he rushed
upon the affrighted men and knocked them into a condi-
tion of insensibility, then taking away their daggers he
kept them as a memento of his adventure.
This great ruler was only seventeen years of age when
he ascended the throne, but he was both warrior and
statesman ; a sovereign full of ambition and the courage
to force any extremity. His first desire was to extend
his Empire, and this he undertook by engaging Charles
XII., of Sweden, in a war which lasted, through shifting
fortunes, for many years. At the beginning of this war
Russia did not extend further north than the Neva River,
the territory lying beyond belonging to Sweden. As a pre-
liminary to the acquisition of Finland, Peter the Great
wrote a letter to Charles XII., asking the favor of build-
ing a small country residence on the north bank of the
Neva. He had already founded St. Petersburg, and his
request for permission to build a small house, even on
Swedish territory, but adjoining his own dominions, was
construed by Charles as nothing more than a natural de-
sire, as the spot selected was embowered by beautiful
trees and occupied a delightful site, commanding an ex-
tensive view up and down the river. The request was
therefore granted, and the wily Peter thus obtained his
first footing 011 Swedish soil, which he never relinquished.
It was a small house, in which Peter held counsel writh
his officers, and one portion was fitted up for a workshop,
for, although Czar, he was a skilful mechanic, whose chief
delight was the turning-lathe and handling of all kinds
of workmen's tools.
Before engaging in war, Peter equipped himself fully
by building a large fleet, providing abundant munitions,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 65
enlarging and drilling his army, and preparing all his
forts and other defenses.
When he had thus carefully arranged for a powerful
campaign, war was declared, upon some trivial diplo-
matic pretext, and there followed a twelve years' contest
that has rarely been equalled for fierceness in all history.
But the fortunes of war were all against him until his
exchequer was nearly exhausted, his troops were beaten
and driven at every point, the army became insubordi-
nate, and there appeared no hope ; yet Peter was one of
those rare characters that knew no such word as fail ; ev-
ery blow he received only served to impassion him to
more determined acts. While in this extremity three
hundred of his officers conspired to sacrifice him, and had
arranged all their plans. At the last moment he heard
of the conspiracy, and forthwith covertly despatched a
force of trusted men to arrest them, not in a body, but one
at a time so that no alarm might be occasioned, for he real-
ized how little sympathy there was among the people for
his administration. When all the arrests were made, and
the men conveyed to Moscow, he attended upon them in
person and announced their fate, which was to be decap-
itation. Peter was an interested spectator of the execu-
tions, his calculating deference being manifested by the
following incident: Among the number sentenced to
death was a young, gallant officer who had been a great
favorite of the Czar's. This man, as he laid his head
upon the block, in order to avert his gaze from the exe-
cutioner's sword, by a great exertion contrived to turn
his face sideways, which lifted one of his shoulders upon
the block. On seeing this Peter rushed up and catching
C? JL O
hold of the hair of his victim, violently drew back the
head into proper place, at the same time administering
this rebuke :
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
"A brave and considerate fellow indeed, who would
disgrace the headsman by causing him to cut your shoulder
rather than your neck."
SCENE OF THE KXKCUTIOIsS,
HE WALLS OF
It was less than a year after the executions at Moscow
that another conspiracy was discovered, headed by Pe-
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 67
ter's favorite mistress, a woman who is represented as
exceedingly beautiful and possessing such charms of per-
son as won from the Czar an affection that subordinated
his judgment and rendered him almost plastic in her
hands. She had arranged to deliver him into the power
of his enemies, but her purpose was disclosed to Peter in
time for him to foil the conspirators and bring them to a
judgment similar to that previously administered in Mos-
cow. The woman was among those adjudged guilty of
treason, and she was brought to the block arrayed in a
long white robe covered with beautiful lace ; around her
neck she wore a circlet of diamonds, a gift from the
Czar, and her uncommonly long, black hair was allowed
to hang disheveled over her shoulders. She is reported
to have presented an appearance which would have turned
any heart but that of the inflexible Peter, and even upon
him she produced such an impression that he broke into
tears, and throwing himself upon her neck in an agony
of grief exclaimed :
" Oh, beautiful being, I would gladly exchange places
with you this sad hour, but pardon you I cannot. It is
the Czar's duty to see no one convicted without just
cause, so is it the Czar's duty to see the law rigidly en-
forced."
Then after kissing her many times, he ordered her
head laid upon the block, and a moment after signaled
the headsman to do his bloody work.
It is true that during the forty-three years of his
administration Peter the Great never pardoned a single
convicted offender, and it was his pride to declare the
fact.
Though desperately beaten on nearly every battle-field
for nine years, and until a further continuance of the
struggle appeared hopeless, still the Great Peter sue-
68 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
ceeded in inspiring his army with his own dauntless spirit.
At length fortune changed in his favor, and soon hope
blazed up all over the once despairing Empire. The
battle of Pultova, which was fought under Imperial! ead-
ership by the flower of both armies, resulted in Peter's
favor, and was so complete an overthrow of Swedish
influence and power that it was the last blow struck on
either side. Charles XII. was himself desperately
wounded, his army almost annihilated, and he was ready
to sue for peace at any price. A treaty followed soon
after, which ceded to Russia nearly all that territory now
known as Finland, but the Government of Finland has
ever remained isolated from Russia, for the reason that
it has a limited constitution and is a Dukedom.
At the conclusion of peace Peter renewed the building
of St. Petersburg, intending that it should be the capital
of the Empire. He soon removed from his little palace —
which was called " palace ' ' because it was the Royal resi-
dence— to a spot eighteen miles west of the city, where
he built another palace, and called the place Peterhoff .
There were two houses constructed for his residence,
both of which are very small, one of them being beauti-
fullv situated on a bank of the Finland Gulf, and the
other in a delightful wood, before which was made a large
fish pond. He bestowed such attention on the grounds
at Peterhoff that they are regarded as the most pictur-
esque in all Europe.
He concentrated so much of his ambition on St. Peters-
burg, however, that notwithstanding the fact of its estab-
lishment on an extensive morass, he expended the means
which have, made it next to Paris in architectural beauty,
with broad streets and numerous parks, graceful monu-
ments, and the finest Imperial palace in the world. He
fostered the arts and sciences, gave encouragement to
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 69
every commendable enterprise, and made Russia a power
equal to any in Europe.
Generous in sustaining every scheme which he con-
sidered would advance the national interest, and genial
in his intercourse with those he met in diplomatic or
court relations, yet his stern determination and inflexi-
ble heart made him often appear like a man destitute of
human feeling and wholly without mercy. He had but
one son, who possessed many of the traits characteristic
of the sire ; this youth had an abnormally long head and
a strange visage which foreboded dark purposes. When
only fifteen years of age he became a disturbing factor
in the Empire by attempting to incite a rebellion against
his father ; so persistent was the youth in fomenting dis-
cord that his father ordered him thrown into prison, but
he was not so strictly confined as to prevent intercourse
with many officials whom he tried to influence against
the Czar. So incensed at length did Peter become that,
alone, he repaired to the prison, and with his own hand
struck a dagger into the heart of his recreant son.
The second greatest character in Russian history, as
before mentioned, was Catharine II., who was a German
princess brought to Russia under the following circum-
stances :
Elizabeth, youngest daughter of Peter the Great, was
without issue, though upon the throne from 1741 until
1762. In order to retain the throne in the family, she
adopted a grandson of Peter I., whom she raised at
Court under Imperial tutelage. When the young Peter
approached his adolescence Elizabeth grew anxious for
him to fix his intentions upon some princess who might,
as Empress, reflect credit upon himself and the nation,
but Peter was so diffident that he had to be coerced into a
courtship. To this end the Empress sent for four Ger-
5
< :.U RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
man princesses all about the age of the youthful Peter,
to visit her d uring the approaching winter. The girls were
brought to Russia in a post-chaise, and upon their arrival
they were met by the Empress, who observed a remarka-
ble difference between Catharine, one of the quartette,
and the other three princesses. This difference consisted
in a bold, frank, careless air manifested by Catharine
as she entered the Royal presence, whilst her three com-
panions exhibited such modesty and awkward diffidence
that Elizabeth declared, within half an hour after receiv-
ing them, that Catharine should become wife to her
adopted Peter.
The two were brought together and their respective suits
vicariously pleaded with such persistency that although
Catharine could scarcely endure the Prince Imperial, yet
she was induced to marry him. This union was a most
unfortunate one, as will appear hereafter.
Upon the death of Elizabeth, Peter I. became Czar
under the title of Peter III. He was a weak ruler and
directly opposite in desposition to Catharine, whose am-
bition was as all-absorbing as that displayed by Peter
the Great. After one year of contention Catharine took
up her residence at Peterhoff, while Peter III. remained
at the Winter Palace with his mistress, the Countess Stro-
ganhoff. This woman gained such an influence over him
that he decided to marry her. To accomplish his pur-
pose he had first to get rid of Catharine, which he at-
tempted to do by preparing charges against her of trea-
son and inconstancy. Following these he issued an
order for her arrest, which was to take place the morn-
ing following.
It was Catharine's good fortune to have a friend at
Peter's Court who, learning of the secret arrangement to
bring her to trial, which would have resulted in her ban-
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 71
ishment, drove quickly to Peterhoff and acquainted her
fully of the conspiracy. Catharine was not a woman to
quail or grow sick at heart over this discouraging news ;
but with a quick perception and the determination to
dare and do, she called her waiting maid, whom she im-
plicitly trusted, and ordering her sleigh to be quickly
brought, she drove with all possible dispatch to St. Pe-
tersburg and drew up her foaming horses before the bar-
racks of the Imperial Horse Guards. It was one o'clock
in the morning when she awakened the chief officer, and
with speech that characterized her as a puissant queen,
she told him of the conspiracy and demanded his assist-
ance. The .officer was thus placed in a truly dangerous
position, for his acts must now be treason either to the
Emperor or Empress, for obedience to one would be
treason to the other. In the moments of his indecision
and while Catharine was haranguing the officers and men
with words of burning eloquence, a young lieutenant
named Potemkin drew his sword from its scabbard and
holding it aloft declared his allegiance to the Empress
and offered his services and life in her behalf. This
spirit became at once contagious, and in an hour's time
the Horse Guards, to a man, swore fidelity to her and
promised to execute all her orders.
Catharine seized the advantage which was now clearly
hers, and while Peter was reposing in the arms of his
mistress, unconscious of betrayal, the strategic Queen
burst in upon the Winter Palace with her faithful force,
intending to summarily arrest and execute her faithless
husband. But the Emperor was aroused in time to effect
his escape down a private stairway and, half clothed, his
identity was so concealed that he fled undetected to Cron-
stadt-. Here he was comparatively safe, as there was no
force in all Russia that could have successfully assaulted
this the strongest fortress in the Empire.
72 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
Catharine assumed control as Empress without incur-
ring any opposition, and conducted the Government for
a period of three months without holding any communi-
cation with the dethroned Emperor. She was not satis-
fied, however, with the apparent acquiescence in her rule,
for there was a feeling of insecurity, occasioned by a
dread of some conspiracy which might arise against her
and restore the Emperor, so she concocted a diabolical
plan for his assassination, the details of which show her
to have been a cunning, but heartless woman.
Having thoroughly conceived her purposes, Catharine
wrote a lengthy letter, filled with the most affectionate
declarations, to the despondent Emperor, in which she
reminded him of their early courtship, the love that he
bore for her before the poisonous influences of imperial-
ism and sovereignty had alienated him ; she avowed her
inexpressible love for him still, which, she claimed, was
only realized when cruel circumstances had so strangely
separated him from her ; she also absolved him from cen-
sure for the part he had taken, throwing all the guilt
upon those who had, through jealousy, influenced him to
do that which she declared was foreign to his naturally
pious and loving nature. She also pointed out the evil
suffered by the nation by reason of a disgraceful act
which had brought nothing but sorrow to them both.
These specious pretenses were concluded by a cordial in-
vitation which she extended him, announcing that, being
so anxious for a reconciliation she would grieve her-
self to death if it were denied, she had arranged to give
him a royal dinner at Peterhoff , at which would be pres-
ent a special company of his friends to welcome him
back again to his loving wife and tjie throne of Russia.
This letter, so skilful in its construction, completely
captivated Peter, for being of a despondent nature he
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 73
only needed the effervescent spirit of such a communi-
cation to dissipate the gloom which had gathered so
densely about him. His friends, however, thought they
detected the signs of a conspiracy in the missive, be-
cause not a single sentence accorded with the nature of
Catharine, whom they knew to be ambitious, despotic
and unscrupulous, They therefore strongly advised him
not to accept the invitation, but he could discover noth-
ing in the communication beyond that which promised
him a restoration to power.
He accordingly ordered his yacht and sailed across to
Peterhoff, his heart exulting with proud expectations and
without the slightest suspicion of the dreadful death that
he was hastening to. Upon reaching Peterhoff he was
astonished to find no preparations for his reception, but
even this did not excite in him the least apprehension.
Arriving at the Palace he was told that the Empress had
arranged to meet him at the Ropscha Palace.
Still unsuspicious, he entered a carriage which was
placed at his disposal, and drove to Ropcha, which is
about twenty miles from Peterhoff, where he first be-
came alarmed by failing to observe anything that indi-
cated an expected visit from him. But he was now too
far advanced into Catharine's territory to turn back, for
flight could not have saved him. Entering the Palace he
was met by an officer, who, with profound obeisance ad-
dressed him as "Your Majesty," and conducted him
into the reception room where a score more of officers
greeted him in a manner becoming his rank. Being seated
he enquired for Catharine, and was told that Her Majesty
was in the toilette room with her maids, but would appear
presently .
In a short time dinner was announced, and he was in-
vited to accompany the officers to the dining hall, where
they assured him Catharine would appear at once.
74
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AN1>
Everything was of such strained and uncertain charac-
ter that Peter's alarm momentarily increased until when
he sat down at the table his face blanched with fright.
Calling again for Catharine and receiving an unsatisfacto-
ry answer, Peter arose from the table and exclaimed :
ROPSCHA PALACE, WHERE PETER III. WAS STRANGLED.
" I perceive, gentlemen, that I have been grossly de-
ceived, and that instead of inviting me to a reconcilia-
tion with the Empress, this is a scheme to assassinate
me.
As these words were uttered Count Oraloff approached
him suddenly from behind, and throwing a napkin around
his neck exclaimed :
"Yes, and it shall be as painless as we can make it."
KX1LK L.IFK IX SII5ERIA. 75
The Emperor had time then only to cry, "Shame!
shame ! ' ' when the napkin was drawn so tightly that he
soon died of strangulation
Catharine had but one child, a son, who was declared
illegitimate, and when he ascended the throne as Paul I. a
revolution was averted only by the most obsequious
promises to pacify the people. He ruled for five years, but
with such dissatisfaction that a conspiracy was organized
against him in his own palace ; the conspirators forced
themselves into his private study, and presenting a letter
of abdication demanded that he should sign it. This he
refused, whereupon Count Parlen, at'sisted by six others,
drew a napkin about his neck and strangled him to death
in the same way in which his father was executed
The reign of Catharine II. was marked by the great
progress Russia made, notwithstanding the wars she pre-
cipited which drew so heavily upon her treasury. She
did more for St. Petersburg even than Peter the Great,
some of her principal works being the construction of
three canals which run through the city and connect the
Volga with the Neva river, by which boats may run
through from the Caspian to the Baltic sea. Her politic
measures were no less important, for she confirmed the
abolition of the secret state inquisition ; she also educated
seven thousand children, and among many other acts of
public charity she established a foundling asylum at St.
Petersburg, and also one at Moscow. These institutions
arc the largest of the kind in the world. The one at
Moscow receives an average of one hundred foundlings
every day, while the one in St. Petersburg receives half
that number.
Her entire reign was distinguished for the successful
wars she waged against Turkey, at one time pushing her
arms so far that Constantinople would have been com-
7b RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
pelled to capitulate, but for the intervention of other
powers. Her efforts to annex Poland precipitated a
great civil war which resulted, through the intrigues of
Russia, Austria and Prussia, in an assault on Warsaw and
the most dreadful massacre that the pen of history has
perhaps ever recorded.
In 1784 Catharine gained complete possession of the
Crimea and the adjacent islands ; she then established
the great fort of Sevastopol, which became such a prom-
inent point of attack in the Crimean war of 1853-54-55.
Her private life was marked by the most demoralizing
excesses, which she took no pains to conceal. She be-
stowed every honor within her gift upon Potemkin,
the lieutenant of the Horse Guards who espoused her
cause against Peter III., and her favors were not limited
to offices of preferment. She had seven favorites who
were her daily companions and counselors, and these are
remembered in St. Petersburg by a large bronze statue of
Catharine, around the pedestal of which are grouped
smaller statues of the favored Septemviri.
Her ambition was abnormal, being irrepressible even
in the last moments of her life. When conscious that
death was at hand, with great effort she rose up so fur as
her strength would allow, but fell back with these last
words :
" Bring me the crown, that I may feel it on my head
once more before I die. The crown! the crown!"
and whispering these words she expired.
I
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 77
CHAPTER IV.
THE third and last distinguished historical character of
Russia is Alexander II., whose tragic death, March 13,
1881, startled the world. While I have selected as strik-
ingly great, in the Romanoff dynasty, only three rulers,
I would have it understood that my estimation of these
sovereigns is based entirely upon the civil policy which
they pursued, and their influence in promoting the com-
merce and arts of Russia. There were greater warriors
on the throne of Russia than Peter the Great, among
whom I may mention Tamerlane, Ivan IV., surnamed
the Terrible, and Vladimir the Great, but I have not at-
tempted to outline a general history of Russia, as that
task has been accomplished already by several writers
whose works have become standard in the various civil-
ized countries. My purpose in introducing Peter the
Great, Catharine II. and Alexander II. as pre-eminently
prominent sovereigns was to utilize their administrations
as a specially appropriate prelude to the subject of Rus-
sia's internal revolution. Their several policies and ten-
dencies serve to illustrate the mercurial and violent na-
ture of the Russian people, as well as the burdens
they have had to endure, and with the foregoing epitome
of the two greatest administrations in Russia an intelli-
gent comprehension of that which is to follow may be
had.
When Alexander came to the throne there was every-
thing to discourage him. His father had died under the
most lamentable circumstances ; the Crimean war fail-
ure had caused mutterings and a restlessness among the
people which seemed to threaten disruption, if not revo-
lution ; there was an empty treasury gaping at a debt of
78
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
ALEXANDER II., LATE EMPEROR OF RUSSIA.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. ' 79
frightful proportions ; and as the war with the Allied
Powers had not yet terminated, he reached the throne in
time to be held responsible for the downfall of Sevasto-
pol.
Nicholas I. was a despot whose iron hand had crushed
out every semblance of liberty, and the people were
naturally distrustful of the son of such a man, but the first
acts of Alexander II. was to reduce the public burdens
and inaugurate social reforms of great consequence to
the people. At the conclusion of peace he reduced his
army to the lowest possible limits compatible with the
safety of the Empire ; he next established trial by jury,
devised a code of laws for the restraint of the royal fam-
ily, and so mitigated the censorship of the press that
immediately literature was stimulated and with it fol-
lowed a rapid progress in all the arts and sciences. But
in making these reforms he met with a stubborn opposi-
tion from the noblesse, so that they finally became as
laws observed only in the breach. An author writing at
the time on the profession and practices of the adminis-
tration observes :
"In the administration of justice we find on the one
hand publicity and ample show of discussion during the
proceedings, and in the jury-box ; on the other a practice
which removes inconvenient persons from the cognizance
of a tribunal, and sends them ' administratively ' to Si-
beria. On the one side abolition of corporal chastise-
ment as a criminal and disciplinary punishment ; on the
other, incessant floggings in secret. On the one side a
recognition of the principles of self-government in the
provinces and towns ; on the other, the impossibility of
turning this to any practical use through fear of Gov-
ernors, Ministers, Councillors, or Chiefs of Gendarmes.
On the one side a strict demarcation of power among
80 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
„ the various authorities, and a distinct separation of judi-
cial from administrative functions ; on the other, an un-
bounded exercise of arbitrary power by higher police
officials, who in their turn are ruled over by the * Third
Section,' whose supreme command overrides everything
else."
Although the reforms sought to be established by
Alexander were suggested by an honest intention to
remedy many crying evils, instead of eradicating, or
even ameliorating any of the vicious practices so long
complained of, seem to have served no other purpose
than that of creating an inveterate hostility to him person-
ally, which culminated, after five unsuccessful attempts,
in his assassination.
We are now brought to a period in Russian history
where Nihilism had its beginning, for, strange enough,
this bloody creature of a disordered if not frenzied con-
ception had its birth in the very cradle of emancipation.
Communism was a disquieting, if not dangerous factor
in Russia as early as 1825, when a band of conspirators
attempted to substitute constitutional for despotic Gov-
ernment through the 'assassination of Alexander I., but
there was a great dissimilarity in the two organizations,
found in the fact that Communism of that time had a
defined policy and a formulated idea of the Government
it proposed to establish, while Nihilism is exactly what
the word implies, " nothing ;" a determination to wreak
vengeance without considering either the means or
o O
result.
Russian Communism in 1825 had its origin in a grow-
ing discontent with existing institutions and a desire to
see them replaced by laws more in accordance with mod-
ern ideas. This disposition, which was first manifested
among the nobles, grew out of that vast wave of thought
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 81
to which the French Revolution gave rise, and, to some
extent, to the unsettling forces set free during the great
struggle with Napoleon I.
The close of the life of Alexander I. was embittered
by the reflection of how much he had done for his people
and the ingratitude they had returned. From time to
time he received mysterious messages containing warn-
ings that his life and throne were in danger. His mind
became so gloomy under these threatened calamities that
he died of a broken heart at Togaurog.
An interregnum ensued, during which, while Nicholas
was refusing to exclude his elder brother from the throne
and while Constantine was undetermined whether or not
to swear allegiance to his younger brother, the Commun-
ists gained strength and their plans coherency. The re-
sult was a military insurrection in December, 1825,
which terminated in a dreadful carnage. The attack was
made on the Winter Palace by about five thousand men,
who gathered in the Alexander Square in broken ranks,
and with such weapons as they could collect. The mob
was met by a battery of heavy artillery, planted in front
of the Ministry of Justice, one hundred yards from the
Palace, which, with grape-shot, opened fire on the crowd
until nearly three thousand of the revolutionists were
mangled in instant death or left dying in a sea of blood.
This dreadful slaughter suppressed Communism until,
upon the accession of Alexander II., Alexander Herzen
organized a revolutionary committee and established a
printing office in London , where Nihilistic literature was
printed and used to inflame the passions of adventurers
and those who were conscious of Russian oppression.
This committee had its branches in Paris, Berlin and
Geneva, but was making little progress when the Em-
peror declared, by act of emancipation February 19,
82 El \s«$l AX MHILISM AND
1861, the freedom of the Serfs. This was a blow at the
Russain nobility which proved disastrous to their inter-
ests and led to evils far beyond those anticipated by the
Emperor.
The history of Serfdom may be briefly told, and as it
is essential to a correct understanding of the emancipa-
tion proclamation and its consequences, is herewith
given :
The original settlers of Russia being1 from the east and
~ o
south, the nomadic disposition which characterized them
continued to be a feature of the Government, until meas-
ures were taken, at first of a mild, persuasive nature, to
induce a permanent settlement of the people, in order
that agriculture might be promoted. Incursions from
neighboring tribes for purposes of forage and reprisal,
followed by hordes who retaliated upon the invaders, be-
came so general as to prevent any attempt to engage in
productive industry, until in 1592 Boris Godunoff, of
the Rurik dynasty, became convinced that there could
be no progress or cohesion in his Empire unless the per-
nicious custom was abolished. He accordingly promul-
gated a peremptory decree, forbidding peasants from
changing' their residence or appearing off their communal
estates without a permit from the Governor of their re-
spective districts. All efforts to enforce this decree
proved futile, because no adequate punishment was pro-
vided for its infraction.
Determined in his purpose, however, Godunoff had
enacted and put into execution another law which gave
the right to any nobleman — which was a wealthy class
of landed estate owners, whose occupation was chiefly
stock raising — to hold in bondage all the peasants em-
ployed by him, and also the further right of forcibly
taking and owning as slaves any peasant whom he might
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA,
83
84 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
find off the communal estate on which such peasant was
recorded as a resident. This latter law gave the noble-
men absolute ownership of the serfs thus forced into
bondage, with the right to dispose of them the same as
other chattels. The law remained unchanged until dur-
ing the reign of Nicholas I., when that sovereign issued
another decree taking away from the noblemen the right
of selling their serfs except as they might be disposed of
with the estates of their masters.
So extensive did this system of slavery become that in
the year 1858 it is computed there were 47,100,000 per-
sons in servitude, more than one-half the entire popula-
tion of European Russia. Of this number M. Rambaud
estimates that 20,000,000 were Crown peasants, 4,700,-
000 were peasants attached to estates, which were the
Appenages of the Crown, laboring in mines and factories
belonging to the Crown ; 21,000,000 belonged to private
individuals and 1,400,000, were domestic servants.
The serfs of the Crown and of the Appenages might
be considered as free men, subject to the payment of a
rent, and bound only to perform certain defined obliga-
tions to the State, while they were permitted to enjoy a
restricted local self-government. To emancipate these
involved only an Imperial edict of manumission, which
was done gradually by a series of ukases, the first of
which bore date July, 1858.
The emancipation of those serfs belonging to private
owners, however, was a task not so easily performed, for,
as Rambaud observes, " the liberation of these 22,400,000
human beings was to constitute the most prodigious social
revolution that has been accomplished since the French
Revolution." Particularly was the task a difficult one,
sin^e the scheme provided for the liberation of the
serfs under such conditions as left them in possession of
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
8G RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
the estates they hud cultivated, but imposed obligations
upon them which may be summed up in the following :
1st. The peasants were to be invested with the privi-
leges of free cultivators.
2d. They were to have, under conditions expressed in
the decree, the full enjoyment of their enclosure, and
also of a portion of productive land sufficient to enable
them by industry to discharge certain obligations to the
State. This enjoyment might become absolute posses-
sion of the enclosure by purchase.
3d. The noblemen were to surrender to the peasants
all the land actually occupied by them, a maximum and
minimum being fixed for each commune — the serfs lived
in communes in a manner which will be explained here-
after. The average allowance was nine acres of arable
land to each male serf ; the allotment differed greatly,
however, in different districts, according to the charac-
ter of the soil ; in some rich localities as little as three
acres were granted each serf, while in the most unpro-
ductive portions as much as twenty-five acres was the
portion.
4. The Government obligated itself to organize a sys-
tem of laws through which the serfs were to be enabled
to discharge their obligations to the State.
5. The domestic servants were to be granted an uncon-
ditional freedom after serving their masters forthe period
of two years.
6. The owners of the land and serfs were to receive
compensation, for the property thus yielded, by a money
payment, which was based upon the rents they had re-
ceived and the value of their serf labor, which was to be
calculated at a yearly rental of six per cent ; "so that,
for every six roubles which the laborer had earned an-
nually, he had to pay one hundred roubles to his
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 87
master as his capital value to become a free holder." Of
this sum, twenty per cent, was advanced by the Govern-
ment to the noblemen (owners) which was to be refund-
ed by the freed peasants in installments extending over
fifty-nine years. To secure this repayment, the Govern-
ment imposed a tax on the commune, making the house-
holders of each Mir, or village, individually responsible
for the entire sum, charging on each commune a portion
of the redemption dues and other imperial taxes propor-
tionate to the number of males in the census list, which
is revised and republished annually.*
This Imperial ukase of emancipation went into effect
February 19, 1861, and immediately produced a violent
feeling, which for a time threatened civil war. We, in
America, who know the effect of President Lincoln's
manumission proclamation, can readily understand the
rebellious spirit which must have animated the Russian
noblemen, for though there was a compensation fixed by
the Government, by which the serf owners were to re-
ceive a money consideration, yet the scheme of payment
Avas of such a character as to be practically valueless to
the noblemen. It was a virtual confiscation of both their
lands and serfs.
Under the system of serfdom there developed a no-
blesse class of aristocracy, who practiced the most extrav-
agant indulgences, maintaining fine country seats in
France, Switzerland and Bavaria, dressing in a garb of
richest splendor when in Russia, keeping scores of mis-
tresses, and breathing nothing but the atmosphere of
profligacy.
They not only derived an income from their pastoral
estates, but encouraged their more ambitious slaves to
* Russia, Past and Present, by H. M. Chester.
88
KITSSIAN NIHILISM AXD
engage in business in the cities. Thousands of serfs of
quick intelligence were glad to pay their masters the sum
A RUSSIAN NOBLE LADY OF THE XVITH CENTURY.
of one thousand roubles annually for what they could
earn in commercial undertakings. But there are hun-
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 89
dreds of instances in which greedy masters compelled
their serfs, who had prospered in business, to pay them
ten times the amount they had thus agreed to accept.
There was a law which made noblemen amenable to con-
tracts thus entered into with their serfs, but it was ren-
dered inoperative by the right of the owner, at the ex-
piration of such time as he had agreed to grant freedom
to his slave, to compel his serf to abandon business and
return to the commune.
Suddenly stripped of their wealth, and entirely unac-
customed to any employment, the noblemen were left in
a sorry condition by the Imperial ukase of 1861. Being
from almost time immemorial used to princely revenues,
and with a power which exalted their pride to the very
limit of aggrandizement, the aristocratic lords were pre-
cipitated, in a day, to the level of their minions, and we
are not surprised to learn that they felt bitter toward
the Government. This intense hatred soon developed
into an active opposition, which culminated in Nihilism.
The noblemen were educated, and their former position,
an aroma of which still clings to them, gave them that
influence among the ignorant classes which they have
wielded so potentially ever since. Keeping behind the
scenes themselves, they have used those whom flattering
speech and promises of an Utopia could beguile, to
commit revolutionary acts. The students, who are al-
most continually committing some overt act against the
Government, are the sons of those old noblemen who
have transmitted their grievances and who look to the
second generation for areclaimation of their rights.
There is a vast difference between Communism and Ni-
hilsm in Russia, the latter being far the more radical and
aggressive, with less direction of purpose. During the
early years of Alexander L, and following quipkly upon
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
EXILE LIFE IN KlliEiMA. 91
the overthrow of Napoleon, Russia, in common with all
Europe, shouted herself hoarse in an enthusiasm for na-
tionality. At this time the " Slavophils " were the na-
tional reactionists, with many discordant elements which
prevented homogeniety among them.
During the reign of Nicholas the existence of even a
shadowy form of liberalism was rendered impossible by
the energetic action of thousands of secret police,
though at Moscow there were individual liberalists, no
two being in concert, however, so that of an organization
there was not the least semblance. But toward the
close of Nicholas' reign a group of students in the Uni-
versity of Moscow began a discussion with the view of
securing refuge from the absolutism which hedged them
about in almost helpless conscription of thought and ac-
tion. This idea was no doubt created by a study of He-
gel's and Sch tiling's -philosophy, particularly the former,
which excited such an interest among the students that
there developed a mania for his works to the neglect of
all other studies.
There were two parties among these incipient philoso-
phers, one of which was under the leadership of Alexander
Herzen, who inclined to French Socialism, while the other
branch recognized as their champions Aksakof, Kiriec-
vskis and Samarin, who clung tenaciously to the Hege-
lian school until they progressed into Romanticists.
Their ideas finally crystalized around the belief that
Western Europe was in a vortex of ruin, while Russia
alone remained in that state of youth and vigor as gave
promise, through the adoption of measures they advo-
vocated, of reaching the highest plane in science, art and
cultured civilization.
To better accomplish their purpose, these fanatical
students adopted the garb of the peasantry, wearing their
92 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
shirts over their trowsers and going about in sleeveless
jackets to the great astonishment of Moscow. This
move was to obtain the favor of a major class as well
also as to manifest their sincerity.
Hegel's philosophy of history taught that a new race,
to have dominion over the world, must be the messengers
of new ideas and principles ; the discovery, therefore, of
the system of Russian Communism by Baron Von Hox-
thansen in 1842, was accepted by the Slavophils as a rev-
elation of the idea and principle upon which was to be es-
tablished the Pan-Sclavonic nation of the future. This
firmly imbedded belief became, as it were, the very con-
stitution of Communism, and was the basis upon which
Herzen builded his Socialism. Associated with the dem-
ocratic tendency of the Slavophils to regenerate the nation
through the common people, was their fidelity to the
Church, which it was positively believed had protected
them from Protestant infidelity and Papal oppression.
This school of enthusiasts, though small in numbers for
several years, had no little influence, and by the mani-
festation of almost unexampled persistency they at length
began to grow in numbers with great rapidity, while
with their growth they became more pronounced in a
developing sympathy with extreme radicalism.
In 1860 the celebrated novelist, Ivan Tourguenief , in
a popular story, applied the term "Nihilists" to the
Hegelian Slavophils, whom he accused of a desire to de-
stroy everything. But the word "Nihilism" was used
as a synonym for scepticism many years before by Roy-
ercollard and Victor Hugo. Alexander Herzen has
been credited with being the founder of Nihilism, but
this is a mistake, the real part he acted being that of an
Evangelist of Nihilistic doctrines in Russia. Associated
with Herzen were Tshernikevski and Bakunin, the latter
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
of whom succeeded Herzen in the editorship of the
famous Kolokol. Under Herzen, this organ advocated re-
forms and the introduction of Socialism with a modera-
tion, however, in all its articles which made it respected
by all parties, but under Bakunin it changed from a
radical into a revolutionary journal and in a fiery, un-
reasonable manner advocated the subversion of both
Church and State, even at the expense of chaos. The
violent manner in which Bakunin agitated his declared
Nihilistic purpose may be better judged by the fol-
lowing extracts from a manifesto, which he issued in 18G8
on behalf of an organization calling itself the " Alliance
Internationale de la Democratic Socialiste," of which he
was the head :
" Brethren, I come to announce unto you a new gospel,
which must penetrate to the very ends of the world.
* * The old world must be destroyed and replaced
by a new one. *• . * • The Lie must be stamped out,
and give way to Truth. * * * The first lie is God;
the second lie is Right > and when you have
freed your minds from the fear of a God, and from that
childish respect for the fiction of Eight :, then all the re-
maining chains that bind you, and which are called science,
civilization, property, marriage, morality, and justice,
will snap asunder like threads. * * * Let your own
happiness be your only law. * * * Our first work
must be destruction and annihilation of everything as it
now exists ; you must accustom yourselves to destroy
everything, the good with the bad ; for if but an atom of
this old world remains, the new will never be created."
It is unfortunate that some zealous pupil of the fanati-
cal agitator did not accept this advice and begin the
work of destruction, for the upbuilding of a new world,
by putting a quietus on Bakunin,
94 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
Another writer of seditious pamphlets in Russia makes
use of this language :
44 Down with instruction and science; we have had
enough of it for a thousand years. The thirst for it is
an aristocratic one which, like the desire for conjugal
felicity, engenders a love of wealth. We must extirpate
this taste, and develop in its place drunkenness, backbit-
ing, and a corruption till now unknown. All geniuses
must be stifled in their cradles. So we shall arrive at a
perfect equality."
It is difficult to find a reason why such insane declara-
tions find favor among any people, much less among the
Nihilist teachers, who belong to the more intelligent and
educated class. Yet according to the declarations made
by Solovieff, the Emperor's would-be assassin, in his
confession, more than three-fourths of all the Nihilists
with whom he was connected were formerly students of
the universities.
Signor Arnando, who has made a special study of Ni-
hilism, and who writes so intelligently on the subject, says :
"The association of so many Russian youths of culture
with doctrines so utterly at variance with common sense
and humanity, may be explained in three ways. First,
the Russians understand science easily, and like the study
of it, provided it is all prepared for them by others.
This accounts for the fact that Russia has produced very
little original talent. Secondly, the rising generation
shows a great tendency toward idleness, and a great lik-
ing for conversations and discussions. It has two defects :
It is too easily excited and never thoroughly investigates
a subject. The Russian youths are intelligent, and ap-
propriate with extraordinary promptitude all that comes
to them from abroad, but they take it as it comes and
build their own theories upon it. Thirdly, as Professor
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 95
Fleury has remarked, all the young men and women that
frequent the universities show the same inaptitude for
reasoning and abstract ideas ; their minds seize and retain
particulars and details, but with difficulty surmount the
conception of generality and collectiveness."
CHAPTER V.
TROUBLE grew apace in Russia after the liberation of
the serfs, in which even the freedmen were inclined
against their sovereign. They began to grumble because
the Czar had not given them their freedom without im-
posing a burden which it would require years of hard
labor for them to remove.
In 1863 Poland, that had dreamed of an untrammelled
autonomy, at least since 1815, became the scene of a
bloody insurrection, while all over Russia blazed up in-
cendiary fires, and St. Petersburg was threatened with
destruction. It was a gloomy period, but Alexander did
not exhibit any other disposition than that of determina-
tion. He argued that if a people will not be satisfied with
the perfecting of reforms as rapidly as the condition of
affairs would permit, the safest policy to pursue was coer-
cion. Accordingly the insurrection in Poland was put
down by a liberal, if not unmerciful, use of ball and
steel. He now began to receive mysterious warnings
that his life was in danger, but reckoning these as the
idle fancies or ulterior designs of zealots, he gave no heed
or care to such communications, until April 16, 1866, a
young Pole named Karakozoff, who was employed by
the revolutionary committee, made an attempt upon the
Emperor's life. It was on Sunday afternoon, when the
1)6 KUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
Czar was about to take his customary walk in the Sum-
mer Garden. A large crowd had collected near the
gates fronting the quay on the Neva to witness his Maj-
esty's departure. At the moment he was crossing the
pavement to enter his sledge, a man stepped hurriedly
forward from the crowd and presenting a pistol, which
he had drawn from beneath a large cloak, fired at the
Emperor. Fortunately for his Majesty a peasant hap-
pened to be standing very near the assassin and having
observed something suspicious in the movements of the
criminal, jumped forward in time to knock the pistoi up
and thus save the Emperor's life, when immediately the
man was arrested. The peasant who had saved the Czar's
life was named Kamissaroff, and in gratitude for his es-
cape the Emperor granted a liberal annuity to the fortu-
nate peasant, besides creating him a noble.
As an example of the number of superstitious stories
that were universally accepted by the common people as
true, and were gravely published in the Russian papers
as authentic facts, the following may be quoted :
At three o'clock on the day when the attempt was
made, the people of Rappenberg, a smail town in the
Government of Riazan, which was the native place of
Kamissaroff, were startled by the detonating peals of
the alarm bell. On rushing to the church to learn the
O
cause, the people were greatly terrified to perceive that
there was no one in the belfry ; that the rope still hung
unmolested on a hook in the wall, and that the bell had
rung of itself. Three days later the St. Petersburg pa-
pers reached Rappenberg, containing an account of the
attempt on the Emperor's life, when instantly the people
were satisfied why the mysterious warning had been
given.
It was only natural that this first attempt on the life of
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 97
the Czar, whose reign had been consistently manned by a
long series of popular reforms, should produce through-
out the Empire a feeling of intense indignation, but at
the time it was hoped that Karakozoff's crime was noth-
ing more than the rash work of a small and not very
powerful revolutionary party in Poland. All such hopes,
however, were soon dissipated, and from the facts brought
out at the trial it became evident that the Nihilists were
already a strong and dangerous organization, with a code
of laws and disciplined forces, as will hereafter be ex-
plained.
Karakozoff was brought to trial, found guilty and con-
demned to be hanged, but the sentence of death was
commuted by the Emperor to transportation to Siberia
for life.
The following year, 1867, another attempt to assassi-
nate the Czar was made while his majesty was driving
through the streets of Paris, with his two sons and the
Emperor, Napoleon III. This second attack was also
made by a Pole, named Berezovsky, who fired at the Em-
peror, but happily with imperfect aim. No further overt
act of the Nihilists was committed until in 1870, when a
party of students were arrested for incendiary speeches
and the publication of a paper filled with revolutionary
articles intending to incite the people against the Czar.
Among the sixteen that were arrested at this time was one
named Sergius Netschaief , who disclosed the furious zeal
with which Russian students of the advanced school em-
brace the wildest doctrines of Socialism. In addition to
this he also described the Nihilist organization, and as
these statements have been frequently verified by other
Nihilists who turned informers after their arrest, they
may be accepted as true.
The organization is divided into groups of members^
98 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
each group having either five, ten or fifteen members who
are under the authority of a chief, who alone is in imme-
diate communication with the commander of twenty
groups. These commanders hold intercourse with the
executive committee, but only through a delegate. The
executive committee forms the center of the Nihilist party
and serves to the maintenance of the most strict and se-
cret discipline. The slightest act of treachery or disobe-
dience to its orders is punished by death. Many bodies
of murdered men have been discovered in the cities or
highways of Russia, a small dagger piercing the corpse, to
which a scroll was attached bearing the significant in-
scription , ' ' Death for Treachery . ' '
Recruiting the ranks is done in this manner : There
are recruiting officers whose duty it is to search out per-
sons whom it is desirable to have in the organization, and
this is done in the following way : A man of apparent
intelligence but of evident poverty, of whom there are
thousands in every part of Russia, is, for instance, seen
haunting some park or public place for want of occupa-
tion. The recruiting officer watches him from day to day
until satisfied that the man is in sore need, when he cas-
ually approaches him and engages at first in a general
conversation. An acquaintance is thus formed, and famil-
iarity soon draws from the man an admission of his
poverty and a desire to engage in anything that promises
even such compensation as would afford him a livelihood.
The officer suddenly remembers that he has a friend who
is desirous of engaging a confidential agent, and proffers
an introduction and recommendation. The poor fellow
is, of course, elated at the prospect of securing employ-
ment and is punctual in keeping the appointment, which
is arranged for. He is told by the third person that a
vacancy exists, who offers the position with a salary of one
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 99
or two hundred roubles per month to the happy expect-
ant, who is immediately engaged. The poor man is re-
quired to report from day to day at the headquarters of
his employer, but has nothing in particular to do for per-
haps two or three months. He is gradually prepared in
the meantime for serious service .by prejudicing his mind
against the Government and in favor of the Nihilists, who
are represented as a band of patriots whose aims are all
for the eradication of evils which have long oppressed the
people. Thus, without acquainting him with the duties
he is expected to perform, the person controlling his
services at length fortifies him for the obligation which he
is soon after compelled to take. When these prepara-
tions are completed the man may be called on to assist in
laying a dynamite mine, lighting an incendiary fire, or to
commit murder. If he rebels at such orders he is told of
his engagement and that his services belong to the execu-
tive committee of Nihilists who will hold him to a serious
accountability. In other words, there is the alternative
of death or obedience, for he is now known to the com-
mittee without in turn knowing the members, and it is
'only in rare instances that he will incur the danger which
he is soon convinced will surely follow disobedience.
In this way hundreds of recruits are made in addition
to the large number who volunteer their services. The
expenses of this bloody organization are defrayed out of
a general fund which is created by subscriptions raised by
committees in foreign countries, particularly in Switzer-
land, France and England, and also by contributions from
noblemen, whose influence and purses are almost univer-
sally placed at the disposal of the revolutionary party.
100 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
CHAPTEK VI.
THE war with Turkey, declared on April 12, 1877, as
might be expected, gave fresh life and energy to the
cause of Nihilism, which had for its object the securing
of liberty at home. This war was ostensibly waged for
the protection of Christians who were living under Mos-
lum rule. When peace was concluded and a Representa-
tive Chamber was opened in Bulgaria, Russia was the
only European country that did not enjoy a constitu-
tional Government more or less developed. The action
of the Czar in declaring the freedom of Bulgaria and
granting special privileges and autonomy to that country,
while refusing like privileges to his own people, inflamed
the Nihilists anew and greatly strengthened their organi-
zation.
For a while the Nihilist leaders believed that the end
they had in view could be attained by striking a mortal
blow at officialism, and this is proved by the fact that—
not counting the attempt made at Paris by the Polish
advocate Berezovsky — an interval of no less than thirteen
years elapsed between the attempt made on the Empe-
ror's life by Karakozoff and that made by Solovieff in
1879. In that interval General Trepoff, then Police
Master of St. Petersburg, was severely wounded by Vera
Zassulitch ; General Mezentrieff, Chief of the Secret Po-
lice Department, was mortally wounded ; and General
Drenteln, his successor, was shot at. Of all that have
within the last thirty years occupied the high post of
Police Master of St. Petersburg, General Trepoff, without
doubt, was the most energetic and most zealous. But
like most comparatively irresponsible officials, he was fre-
quently apt to take the law into his own hands, and dur-
5 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
of 'power succeeded in amassing an enor-
mous fortune. Thus, once when on a visit of inspection
at the Fortress, one of the political prisoners, a certain
Bogolouboff , not having saluted him — though it was later
most clearly proved that he had done so— had his cap
knocked off by the irate General and was ordered to be
whipped, a sentence which, though manifestly in viola-
tion of all Russian law, was executed within twenty-four
hours. The whipping, somehow, in spite of all efforts to
have the affair hushed up, got public, and more than one
paper even ventured to expose the illegal nature of the
punishment. Vera Zassulitch, who had not long quitted
one of the Government educational institutes, and who,
as was alleged, had been on intimate relations with Bogo-
louboff, heard of the humiliation to which he had been
subjected and determined to revenge him. For this
purpose she came up to St. Petersburg from her country
home in the Government of Yaroslaff, and presenting
herself at the Police Master's official residence on one of
his public reception days, whilst pretending to give a
petition into his hands, drew forth a pistol from under
her coat, and wounded the General so severely that his
life for several days was despaired of, and he was com-
pelled to retire finally from all public duties. The woman
was arrested, and after long preliminary examinations was
brought to trial. There was no doubt of her guilt, nor
did she in any way attempt to deny it ; but on the con-
trary gave to the court a full and precise account of the
reasons that had prompted her to commit the crime.
The effect of her defence was so great that the jury, after
a short deliberation, brought in a verdict of not guilty.
The Litenaya, a wide street in which the court where
she was tried is situated, was thronged with a crowd of
people anxiously awaiting the result, and when the fact
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 103
of her acquittal became known, the verdict was received
with the most uproarious applause, and a serious collision
took place between the people and the police, in the
course of which several persons were killed, but Vera
was rushed away by the sympathizing mob and concealed
in a neighboring house. What is most remarkable, how-
ever, is that the metropolis press, without a single excep-
tion, warmly approved of her acquittal, one paper declar-
ing the verdict to be "the voice of God;" and the
Moscow Gazatte, the avowed organ of the Retrogradists,
was singular in its condemnation of what it declared to
be "a gross miscarriage of injustice."
A resident of St. Petersburg, who was present a't the
trial of Vera Zassulitch, and who was familiar with her
life, gave me the following history of the woman : She was
the daughter of a Russian officer in high rank, and at the
time of committing the crime was twenty-eight years of
age. She was a well educated and attractive lady, but
so thoroughly imbued with revolutionary doctrines that
she sacrificed all other interests for the cause of Nihi-
lism, though it is not known that she contributed any-
thing more dangerous than her influence ; notwithstand-
ing this, for more than eleven years preceding her attack
upon Gen. Trepoff, she endured continual persecu-
tions at the hands of the police, and it is to the sympa-
thy universally evoked by the account of her sufferings
that she mainly owed her acquittal from the terrible
crime of which she was manifestly guilty, and that the
great populur enthusiasm with which the verdict was re-
ceived in Russia is due. At the age of seventeen, while
trying to support herself as a bookbinder at St. Peters-
burg, she was arrested, owing to being the intimate school-
friend of a young lady named Netchaieff , whose brother
had just been implicated in some conspiracy at Moscow.
104
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
According to some accounts, Yera Zassulitch acted as a
species of go-between and letter-carrier ; but this is not
confirmed, and, be her offence what it might, she was
closely imprisoned for two years without the slightest
shadow of a trial. A few days after her release, more-
over, she was again arrested for no ostensible reason,
and carried off this time to Eastern Russia, and might
VERA ZASSULITCH.
have perished with cold on the journey had not a kind
gendarme lent her his cloak. She remained at Krestsi,
in the province of Novgorod, under police supervision
for two more years, and in 1871 was allowed to go to
Tver to live with a brother-in-law, also a political exile.
The latter, however, getting into trouble, owing to the
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 105
dissemination of prohibited books, Vera Zassulitch was
once more arrested and brought to St. Petersburg. In
1873 she was transferred to Kharkoff , and in 1875 was
at last liberated. From that time she appears to have
lived in retirement until July, 1876, when her feelings
were excited by the details of -the cruel treatment of a
political prisoner named Bogoluboff, who had been flog-
ged by order of General Trepoff , the Prefect of Police
at St. Petersburg, for some act of insubordination, but
mainly because he had neglected to take off his cap on
meeting that official for a second time in the prison pre-
cincts. As Vera Zassulitch well knew the hardships of
prison life, and the tyranny of the officials, this story
made an intense impression on her mind, and, after wait-
ing some time to see if any official notice would be given
to the affair, she determined to take the matter in hand
herself, and, in her own words, "At the price of my
own ruin to draw public attention to the affair, and prove
that a human being may not be insulted in that way with
impunity. It is a terrible thing to raise one's hand
against a fellow creature, but I could find no other
means. ... It was all the same to me whether I
killed or wounded the Prefect, and when I fired at him I
did not aim at any particular place." To be brief, Vera
Zassulitch sought an interview with General Trepoff in
his reception room, and then and there shot him in the
side with a revolver. For this she was brought to trial
early in the month, the jury before whom she appeared
being half composed of Government officials, the re-
mainder being formed of persons in good position. The
result was a verdict of " Not Guilty," a decision which was
greeted with tremendous -enthusiasm by an audience com-
posed of some 600 persons, the-applause being taken up by
the crowd outside. On her appearance a perfect tumult en-
10(5 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
sued, and numerous arrests were made by the police, sev-
eral of the rioters being shot. Had she not escaped,
through the aid of friends who had a closed carriage in
waiting, expecting her acquittal, Vera Zassulitch would
no doubt have been re-arrested and tried before a mili-
tary Court Martial, in which event she would have been
convicted a-nd executed. But on the other hand, so
. great was the popular sympathy for her that had the ver-
dict of the jury been " Guilty," no one who is acquainted
with the intense feeling manifested in her interest can for
a moment doubt that the mob would have rushed into the
court-room and torn to pieces not only the jurors but also
the judges a-nd prosecutors. She is supposed to be in
Switzerland, under protection of an assumed name and
the revolutionary party, but others stoutly maintain that
she was captured and secretly put to death.
Later events have proved that the acquittal of Zassulitch,
even more than the clemency shown to Karakozoff, was
a mistake. The Nihilists only became bolder in their
operations than they had shown themselves to be before.
The attack on Mezentrieff soon followed. In spile of
the hateful office which he held, the high character he
bore had long won for him general and ungrudged es-
teem. The plot against him was most cautiously planned
weeks before it was carried into execution A thorough
bred horse and a well furnished droshky were hired, and
for some mornings were regularly to be seen standing at
the corner of Michel Square and the Italianskaya street,
which the General invariably passed while taking his
usual early morning walk. On a morning of June, 1877,
as was afterward proved, the three or four droshkies
that happened to be in the street waiting to be hired were
engaged by persons privy to the plot, so that any attempt
to arrest them could be rendered, if not impossible, at
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 107
least very difficult. As the General, in company with
M. Makaroff,- his aid-de-camp, approached the corner, a
man extremely well dressed came quickly up as if intend-
ing to speak to him, and with a dagger stabbed him twice.
The blows were so instantaneously given that M. Makar-
off, who just then had fallen a few steps behind, had no
time to interfere, the assassins having leaped into the
droshky th'at was waiting and drove off down the Sado-
vaya street and across the Nevski at a furious rate. It
is true that a soldier, who had seen the whole affair, pur-
sued the criminals for some little distance, but they were
soon out of sight, nor were the real murderers arrested
till after the terrible assassination of March 13, 1881. In
the meantime, M. Makaroff hurried up to the Gen-
eral and raising him up with the assistance of those who
had run to the spot in answer to his cries for help, asked
him how he felt: "I am dying," was the reply, and
when conveyed home the doctors who were summoned de-
clared that there was no hope of recovery. He, however,
lingered in great agony till about five o'clock in the after-
noon. The crime, from its daringness and from the well
arranged skill with which it was carried out, naturally
caused a great sensation, and the question, what measures
should be taken for the prevention of such- crimes in
the future, was anxiously debated by the Imperial Min-
isters in council.
It would appear that no decision was immediately come
to. But before long a fresh and all but successful at-
tempt on the life of the Emperor convinced those in
authority that in the war they had to wage with the
party of Terrorism there could no longer be any dallying,
but that the sternest measures of repression ^rnust be
adopted. On April 14, 1879, the Emperor was taking his
usual early stroll round the Winter Palace, when on com-
108 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
ing near to that part of the building which adjoins the
Hermitage on the Millionaya side, he met an individual
who stopped as if to salute him, but drawing out a six bar-
reled pistol, tired deliberately three times at the Emperor,
none of which, however, took effect. The would-be as-
sassin was at once seized by the police and bystanders,
though not before he had made a most desperate resist-
ance, and had shot one of the crowd. As soon as he was
secured he was seized with fainting, and the fact that
poison was found under his finger-nails and about him
led to a suspicion that he had poisoned himself . Emetics
were at once administered, and he recovered. On being
questioned the prisoner stated that his name was Ivan
Solovieff, and that he was employed in a provincial branch
of the Ministry of Finance. Considerable anxiety was
excited by the . curious coincidence that for three days
before the attempt placards had been posted on the walls
of St. Petersburg, from the Secret Executive Committee,
and addressed to " Mr. Alexander Nicolaievitch," and de-
claring that the invisible advocates of the people had set
themselves to clear out the Augean stable of despotism,
but that neither the Czar nor any member of the dynasty
had been threatened. After declaring against the army,
"a cruel and insatiable army of thieves," the tribunals,
"a mockery of justice," and the generals, "so many
satraps," the document concluded, "Think, Alexander
Nicolaievitch, where this must all lead. You go directly
to perdition, and therefore we spare 3-0111- life."
It would seem that the Emperor's suspicions had been
excited by something that struck him in Solovieff1 s gait
and manners, and that he had furtively made a signal to
a soldier who was on guard close by, but that the latter,
failing to understand the Emperor's meaning, only came
up after the assassin had fired a third time. Although
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA,
109
110 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
the balls missed, the escape of the Emperor may be
almost regarded as miraculous, and was due to the for-
tunate circumstance that the Czar, having observed some-
thing suspicious in Solovieff, almost before the first shot
was fired, hurried forward in a zigzag direction, and
turned under the nearest gateway. That same day a
Council of Ministers was held under the immediate pres-
idency of the Emperor, and it was decided to declare
St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kieff, Odessa, and other large
cities of the Empire in a state of siege, and to appoint
military Governors, with all but unlimited powers, over
provinces of which these cities were the capitals. Thus
General Guerko, who had won to him self no little renown
in the inarch across the Balkans during the Turkish cam-
paign, was made military Governor of St. Petersburg.
Solovieff was soon brought to trial and convicted, and
on June 9th his execution took place publicly in a field
near the Smolensk Cemetery at St. Petersburg. At an
early hour crowds had collected round the scaffold, and
when the condemned man arrived it is estimated that
fully 6,000 spectators were present. Soon after 9 o'clock
the authorities made their way to the place of execution.
The scaffold was a plain wooden structure, painted
black, and surrounded by an iron rail ; outside this rail
was a strong guard of both infantry and cavalry. At a
quarter to ten the cart arrived in which Solovieff was
seated firmly bound. He was dressed in the black coat,
white trousers and cap usually worn by criminals of the
higher class, in addition to which a large black label was
hung round his neck, on which W7ere the words, " State
Criminal." He was unbound, and, having ascended the
steps which led to the scaffold, with undaunted firmness,
stood calmly regarding the crowd while the sentence was
once more read to him. The newspaper reporters alone
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA,
111
112 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
seemed to attract his attention. The priest then stepped
up to him, but his offers of consolation were quietly and
politely refused. The hangman then placed the white
shirt and cap on the unfortunate man, and exactly at ten
o'clock, amid the noise made by a band of drummers se-
lected from the different regiments, the board was
dragged away, and after a brief struggle Solovieff ceased
to exist. The body in half-an-hour's time was removed
by a strong escort of Cossacks to the place of burial.
The futility of all repressive measures was, however,
made evident by subsequent events. The work of the terror-
ists was not interrupted for a single day, as we now know
from the confessions subsequently made by one of their
agents, a certain Goldenberg, during his imprisonment in
the Fortress. Many of the stories concerning their activ-
ity are mere fictions, but the following has been vouched
for on the best authority : One day General Drenteln,
the successor of Mcventrieff, found on the table in his
office a threatening letter, and when he had read it, he
laughingly turned to his private adjutant, the only official
then in the room, with the remark: "They might as
well write their letters on clean paper." The next morn-
ing another letter was discovered on the same spot, apol-
ogizing for the " unseemly appearance of the letter of
yesterday," and expressing a hope that the present one
would meet with the General's approval. Three years
later, after the arrest of Kousakoff and the other crimi-
nals concerned in the assassination of the Emperor, proofs
were forthcoming of the actual complicity in the proceed-
ings of the Nihilists of more than one trusted official in
the Secret Police Department. But, as I have said, the
party of terror all this time continued their work. Ac-
cording to the statement made by Fliaboff at the great
State Trial in March, 1882, the central committee decided
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 113
*
in August, 1879, to make a mine under the railroad from
Krusk to Moscow, about 17 versts from the latter city,
the mine to be blown up when the train should pass with the
Emperor and his suite on their return from Livadia in
the Crimea. A small house was hired near the railway,
and an underearth passage was dug from the house up to
the right-hand rail, the work being carried on with the
greatest circumspection. It is strange and at the same
time shows how ineffective Russian police administration
is, that a work of such dimensions and requiring a long
period of time for its execution, could have been carried
out without exciting the suspicions of the police ; the more
so as it had been noticed that carts and wagons containing
packages more or less heavy were frequently of an even-
ing driven into the courtyard and there unloaded. The
Imperial authorities, it is true, wisely adopted the most
stringent methods of precaution. Thus not only one or
two pilot trains were sent along the whole line, but thn
train in which the Emperor was traveling was made to run
along the left instead of the right track. The explosion,
which took place on the evening of Dec. 1, 1879, proved
to be extremely violent. It tore up the ground for a consider-
able distance, destroyed several of the carriages, and severe-
ly wounded four or five persons. But, of course, it did not
touch the Emperor, who had already passed half an hour
previously in another train. When the place was search-
ed, it was discovered that the criminals, the principal ones
being Fliaboff and his mistress, must at the moment the
connecting wire was fired have escaped through the back
door of the house, and availing themselves of the dark
night easily succeeded in escaping. The house was found
to be furnished in such a manner as to perfectly disarm
all suspicion. On the walls were hung portraits of the
reigning Emperor and Empress as well as of the crown
114
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
prince and princess, whilst a lump was burning before the
holy image of St. Nicholas in the corner'of the room front-
ing the door. Behind the sofa the lower part of the wall
close to the floor liad been removed, from which point the
excavation had been made. The greatest indignation was
excited throughout Russia by the news of the attempt,
and the most enthusiastic popular greeting accorded to the
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 115
.Czar, who in his speech to the Moscow authorities alluded
to his escape with devout thankfulness, but added : " The
Revolutionary spirit must be exterminate^, and I therefore
turn to you and all well-thinking men for help in eradi-
cating the evil, which has taken deep root." Curiously
enough, this dastardly outrage' occurred after a special
act of clemency. At a trial of Socialists which took place
at St. Petersburg, one young man, Mirsky, who attempt-
ed to assassinate General Drenteln, being condemned to
death, was subsequently reprieved ; while another, named
Karkoff, had his sentence remitted from hard labor in the
Siberian mines to ten years' imprisonment in a fortress.
Though numerous arrests were made, 110 real clue was
discovered, and the true history of the attempt became
known only after the death of the late Emperor. Nor
were the terrorists discouraged by their repeated failures.
Several of the leaders of the movement, among others
the notorious Hartmaim, arrived in Russia from abroad ;
the services of experts well versed in the preparation of
dynamite explosions, as for example, Kiebalchitch, were
secured, and Fiiaboff had placed under his immediate or-
ders forty-seven men who were pledged to obey him im-
plicitly and to carry out blindly his instructions whatever
they might be. It was now resolved to strike a mortal
blow, not only at the Emperor but at the whole Imperial
Family, and the newly formed scheme for its atrocious
boldness can only be compared with the famous Gunpow-
der Plot in England. It was determined to blow up that
part of the Winter Palace in which the rooms of the Em-
peror are situated, the explosion to take place directly
under the large dining saloon, and to be fired at a time
when the Emperor, his family and guests were already
seated at the table. Wild as the attempt may appear,
the preparations for its execution were carried on w ch
116
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 117
greater success than many might suppose to be possible,
owing to the habitual laxity with which the officials Avhose
special charge it was to guard the palace, performed their
duties. In the course of subsequent investigations it
came out that more than one hundred and fifty persons,
supposed to be connected with the lackeys and servants
of the palace, had for years been living in the building un-
provided with any kind of passport and free from all sur-
veillance. Equally lax was the watch kept over the nu-
merous workmen almost constantly employed in repairing
one or another portion of the palace. Even to the pres-
ent day it is not positively known who placed the in-
fernal machine in the vault where some carpenters and
bricklayers were engaged working. Against those ar-
rested no sufficient evidence could be brought. They
were evidently mere decoys, and the real criminal, the
chief carpenter, succeeded in escaping. On February
17, 1880, a dinner party took place at the palace, the
principal guests being the Prince of Bulgaria and the
Duchess of Edinburgh. The dinner was fixed for six
o'clock, but the Emperor remained in his private room a
few minutes, not more than five, talking with the Prince,
and to this unintended delay must be attributed the es-
cape of the Emperor and his guests. They had scarcely
crossed the threshold of the room when a terrible crash
was heard, a large hole was torn in the floor immediately
in front of the Emperor, huge candelabras were thrown
from the table and lustres torn out of the wall, while the
whole place was covered with clouds of dust, masses of
broken glass, and fragments of shattered furniture. At
the same moment the gas throughout the palace was ex-
tinguished. As soon as lights could be brought, mes-
sengers were sent to make enquiries about the Empress,
who was lying ill in a distant room of the palace, and
8
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 119
who, happily, had not in any way been injured, a minute
search was set on foot and the extent of the catastrophe
soon became known. In the vaulted room, where the in-
fernal clock-machine had been placed, were a number of
soldiers belonging to the Finland Regiment and waiting
their turn to go on duty in the palace. Eight of these were
instantly killed and forty-five were terribly wounded. The
clock had been mounted so as to explode precisely at five
minutes past six, by which time it was expected the Empe-
ror and the others would have taken their places at the table.
The Czarevitch and the Grand Duke Vladimir were
the first to reach the guard-room after the explosion in
the palace, arriving there just as the officers, fearing dan-
ger to the Emperor, were about to lead the remaining
sentinels to the Imperial apartments. The Grand Duke
Vladimir hastened to the barracks to give the alarm,
and brought back the Preobrajensky Guards to the pal-
ace. It is said that at the moment of the explosion
bombs were thrown in the streets outside the palace,
some of which exploded under a private carriage, but
the facts are, the cavalry, telegraphed for as soon as the
alarm was given, galloped off in such haste that many of
their cartridges were jerked out of their cartouche cases,
and the streets were strewn with these explosives, which,
of course, went off under the wheels of passing vehicles,
the occupants of which were arrested by the police and
bystanders who were ignorant of what had really oc-
curred .
In striking contrast with the domestic treachery which
encompassed the Czar in his palace is the fidelity
of the Finnish soldiers who formed his body-guard,
who, through all political ordeals and insurrectionary
conflicts never once faltered in allegiance to their
•Sovereign. Horribly sudden as the whole mur-
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
derous surprise was, not one of the injured men
would leave his post until their own officer in charge,
who was himself wounded, came to give the word of
command.
The Czar is said to have been very much affected ; so
much so as at one time almost to have lost his self-com-
mand. When, however, Lord Dufferin called to con-
gratulate him upon his escape, the Emperor remarked
that it was to Divine Providence he stood indebted, and
that God having mercifully delivered him twice from
very imminent peril, he was content to trust his life for
the future to His protecting hand. The Duchess of Ed-
inburgh displayed great fortitude and presence of mind
in the trying crisis. This was the more noticeable
from the fact that Her Imperial Highness was much af-
fected on the occasion of Solovieffs attempt, being then
in a delicate state of health.
After the explosion the Emperor left the Winter Pal-
ace, and went under escort of thirty Cossacks to the old
Paul Palace, where he slept. Next day, on his way to
attend the Te Deum in the Imperial Chapel in the pal-
ace, he stopped before the officers of the Finnish Regi-
ment, and thanked the colonel for the manner in which
the soldiers had fulfilled their duty, referring to the fact
that all the sentinels remained at their posts, notwith-
standing that a company of the Preobrajensky Regiment
had arrived to relieve them.
On Friday following the soldiers of the Finnish Guards
who were killed by the explosion were interred with great
solemnity, the funeral being attended by the Grand Duke
Constantine and many generals and staff officers. The
coffins were borne to the grave by officers, and there was
an immense crowd of spectators. General Gourko, in
an order to the troops announcing the interment of their
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
121
122 BUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
comrades, said : " May the honorable conduct of the men
who were wounded by the explosion convince the insane
criminals who planned the attempt that neither their en-
deavors to bribe the soldiers nor the fear of "death itself
can shake the loyalty of the troops." The Emperor and
the Czarevitch attended the funeral ceremony celebrated
in the barracks previous to the starting of the procession
for the place of interment, and afterward visited the
wounded men in the hospital. It is a remarkable coinci-
dence that it was this same Finnish regiment which, in
1825, was suddenly called to the Winter Palace to over-
awe and supercede the Grenadiers, whose loyalty was
doubted ; and it was to them that Alexander, then only a
child of seven, was entrusted by his father Nicholas.
Taking the little Grand Duke Alexander by the hand, he
said, "I confide my son to your care; it will be your
duty to defend his life." The rough Finns, it is said,
were moved to tears. They took up the child in their
arms, passed him from rank to rank, and swore to form
a rampart of their bodies behind which he should be safe.
The building where the explosion took place, which is
the largest and finest palace in the world, is the usual win-
ter residence of the Czar and his Court. On one side it
fronts on the river Neva, while on the other there is a large
open space called the Palace Square, in which stands
Alexander's Column, a monolith of red granite eighty
feet high. On the right of the palace is Peter's Square,
which contains the celebrated statue of Peter the Great,
and the Field of Mars, a parade ground large enough for
40,000 men to manoeuvre in. On the east side of the
palace, arid connected with it by a covered way, is
the Empress Catharine's Hermitage, now a museum.
The Nevski Perspective is in front of the Admiralty
and close to the Imperial Palace, which, after being
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA . 123
burnt down in 1837, was rebuilt in six months in the
middle of winter by order of the Emperor Nicho-
las. Each story was dried with immense fires as soon as
erected, and several thousand workmen met with their
death during the rebuilding, in consequence of the alter-
nate exposure to the excessive heat while at work in the
apartments, and the rigorous temperature outside. The
palace, which is painted a brick red, is four stories
high, or about eighty feet. The frontage is 445 feet in
length, and the breadth 350 feet. The principal en-
trance is from the Neva, and leads by a magnificent
flight of marble steps to the State Apartments of the
palace. A gateway in the centre of the building, facing
Alexander's Column, opens into -a large court. The in-
terior is most gorgeous, suites of splendid halls being
filled with marble, malachite vases, and pictures ; whilst
the Crown and other jewels are of almost inestimable
value. The Czar has his apartments on the first floor
and in the corner of the Winter Palace that overlooks the
Neva and the Admiralty. The Empress inhabits the
other corner, and between the two is the family dining-
room. At one and six o'clock the Czar, the Czarina,
and the Grand Dukes Alexis, Sergius, and Paul formerly
met for breakfast and dinner. The Czarevitch and the
Grand Duke Vladimir, who are both married, have
also general invitations to join the Imperial circle ; but
the other members of the family wait until they are
bidden. Six covers are always laid, and the service
is performed by three French maitres d 'hotel ', who
relieve each other every fortnight. The arrangement
of the apartments is similar to that of Versailles,
there being a multitude of small rooms, and an im-
mense number of civil and military officials having
their abode here in separate suites of rooms. The
124 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
guards' room, beneath which the charge of dynamite was
deposited, is on the ground floor, and was formerly the
sleeping apartment of the Grand Duke Nicholas when a
child.
The indignation excited by a crime that involved the
lives of so many who, even adopting the views of its per-
petrators, were completely innocent, was greatly in-
creased in consequence of the general belief that on the
approaching 19th of February an imperial manifesto
would be issued, conferring political rights on Russian
subjects more in accordance with the ideas of the nine-
teenth century than those hitherto accorded. That all
this was more than mere rumor, is certain from papers
known to have been left by the late Emperor, and in ac-
cordance with which tk&zemstra, or provincial assemblies,
would have been granted representative rights which
they have long petitioned for but never obtained. We
can scarcely wonder that all such constitutional reforms
were abandoned, and it speaks much in favor of the late
Emperor, that even after February 17, he still had suffi-
cient nerve and belief in the future of Russia, to
refuse to adopt measures of an exclusively repressive
and retrograde character. On the 25th of February a min-
isterial committee " for the preservation of Imperial order
and public safety," was established under the presidency
of Count Loris Melikoff, which became an order in its
enforcement little less than terrorism. A night patrol
was organized in St. Petersburg which summarily ar-
rested every crowd, numbering more than five persons,
caught upon the streets after ten o'clock at night, and
single individuals were required to have their passports
constantly with them if they appeared away from their
homes after dark. But this was not the most serious re-
striction placed upon the personal liberty of citizens
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
12*
throughout Russia. The order became finally the means
which malicious persons utilized to destroy their enemies.
It was only necessary to report, under oath, the active
THE NIGHT PATROL IN ST. PFTERSBURG.
sympathy of any person with the Nihilists to secure their
imprisonment, and execution or transportation to Siberia.
Thus a cowardly criminal could go before the Third Sec-
126 KUSSIAN NIHILISM AXD
tion chief and make oath that he had detected his neigh-
bor in the act of circulating revolutionary papers, or com-
mitting some other prohibited act, and upon this infor-
mation the unfortunate, and perhaps innocent person,
would be summarily arrested and taken off to the Fortress
prison. Hundreds of instances occurred in which blame-
less men were torn from their families in the middle of
the night, and without being permitted to say even good-
bye to their wives or children, were ruthlessly carried to
that dreadful political prison from which they either
never departed alive or were sent across the desert wilds
of Siberia to spend the remainder of their wretched lives
in exile.
In 1878 no less than one hundred and ninety-three
persons were brought to trial at one time, charged
with various grades of treason and conspiracy against the
Government. Among the prisoners who were condemned
was a spirited and intelligent man named Muishkin, who
was once a justice of the peace, and proprietor of a print-
ing-office from which forbidden books were issued. In
1875 he went to the distant forests of East Siberia with
the intention of freeing the famous thinker and critic,
Tchernieshevski, who had been in penal servitude for
twelve years for his connection with a secret society, but
he was unsuccessful. His speech before the tribunal
brought tears to some, caused others to turn pale, to
tremble, or to become furious. He was condemned to
twenty years' penal servitude at the Central Prison at
Kharkov. Single-handed, and with no other implement
than his hands, this gigantic minded man began to make
an underground passage in his prison to effect his escape.
He had nearly finished the tunnel when it was discovered ;
he was unmercifully lashed then, and, like many other
Russian political prisoners, he has since become mad
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
127
12$ RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
from the barbarous treatment he received. Muishkin's
insanity dates from October, 1880.
But condemnations and repressive measures in no wise
deterred the Nihilists, who, in fact, became bolder and
more revengeful. In the meantime the Government was
active in bringing to punishment those arrested for treas-
onable crimes. In November, 1880, sixteen Nihilists of
both sexes were arraigned for treason in St. Petersburg.
The principal prisoner was Kviatkovski, who was accused
of contributing to the revolutionary organ Will of the
People, and also of being connected with the conspiracy
to blow up the Winter Palace. Others were charged
with complicity in the murder of Prince Krapotkin, in
Solovieff's attempted assassination of the Czar ; others
in the attempt to blow up the Imperial train at Moscow ;
two in the attempts at Alexandrovolsk and Odessa to
assassinate Imperial officers, and two others of being
connected with secret printing presses. Several of the
prisoners were arrested on their own confession, so brave
and fanatically patriotic to their purposes were some of
the Nilhists. Upon this trial it was proved that a car-
penter named Stephen Chalturen, or Halturin, who form-
erly lodged in the basement of the Winter Palace, was
the author and most active agent in the palace explosion.
Some of these prisoners were uncommonly well dressed
and presented a generally intelligent appearance. Kviat-
kovski and Presniakov were convicted and executed in
the fortress of St. Peter and St. Paul on the 5th of No-
vember, 1880. The public were rigidly excluded from the
scene of execution, and but one foreign correspondent was
permitted to be present. Early in the morning the two
prisoners were taken from their cells, and as usual were
driven to the scaffold in a cart, riding with their backs to
kerses, and bearing a placard with the inscription
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
" State Criminal " on their breasts. At the glacis •£ the
fortress where the scaffold had been erected the prisoners
descended and mounted the scaffold barefooted, where
MDMB. OLGA NATHANSON. STEPHEN SHIRAIEV. MDLLE. EUGENIA FIGNEB.
PORTRAITS OF LEADING NIHILISTS.
they were clad in the long penitential shirt of condemned
parricides and were pinioned to two upright posts
130 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
their sentence was read out to them. This over, a
priest came forward with a cross, which both kissed, and
then kissed one another, while he recited some prayers.
The executioner then adjusted the rope, and raising the
condemned men high in the air caused their speedy strang-
ulation. The ground was kept by a detachment of the
Finland Guard, who were on duty in the Winter Palace
on the night of the explosion.
Five others of those condemned at the same trial, No-
vember 10th, were Kviatkovski, Shiraiev, Mdlles. Fig-
ner, Ivanova, and Griasnova, whose portraits are given.
Alexander Kviatkovski, of noble descent, the most im-
portant of the prisoners, was arrested by the St. Peters-
burg police in December, 1879, at the same time as
Mdlle. Figner. Three mines ready for explosion, but in
dissected pieces, were found in their lodging, as well as
dynamite and fulminate, with revolvers, poison, and the
plan of the Winter Palace, in which, later on, the explo-
sion took place.
The evidence which came out at this trial disclosed
that Kviatkovski, who headed the Terrorist party, was
one of those concerned in the explosion of the Winter
Palace on April 14, 1880, when eleven men were killed
and sixty-six were wounded ; that he was an indirect
party to the attempt on the Emperor's life by Solovieff
on April 2, 1879 ; and that he took part in the secret
congress of the Terrorists at Lipetsk, in 1879, where a
serfes of attempts on the Emperor's life were decided
upon, in addition to other less well-known offences.
Mdlle. Figner, daughter of a high Russian official,
was twenty-two years old. She was acquitted of any
participation in the Winter Palace conspiracy, but
was condemned to fifteen years' penal servitude on
the charge of her connection with the Terroristic party,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 131
LEO HART MANN.
132 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
and for publishing forbidden works. The Court, pitying
her youth, begged of the Czarevitch to change her sen-
tence into transportation to Eastern Siberia, where her
sister was already in exile. Mdlle. Figner had been a
medical student, and she also studied music at the Con-
servatoire, St. Petersburg. Her voice is said to be one
of the most beautiful in Europe.
Shiraiev, of a peasant family, had been studying in a
veterinary institute. He lived some time in London and
in Paris, and on his return to Russia, in 1879, he joined
the Terrorist party, and with Hartmann prepared dyna-
mite for mines. He took part in the secret congress,
and with Hartmann again was a party in the Moscow ex-
plosion, December 1, 1879. He directed the digging of
mines near Odessa and Alexandrovska after this, and
shortly after was arrested by the police at St. Petersburg.
Condemned to be hung, his sentence was remitted into
one of penal servitude for life.
Mdlle. Ivanova, daughter of a major, is the heroine of
one of the most extraordinary transactions for a young
lady of her age (then only twenty-two years). When
the secret printing office of the Terrorist organ N~arod-
naia Volia (People's Will) was discovered, she, with
Mdlle. Griasnova and three men, revolvers in hand, kept
the police at bay for three hours, firing more than one
hundred shots. The gendarmes answered by volleys at
both the windows and the doors, and only succeeded in
overcoming the party when their stock of cartridges was
exhausted. One of the printers, an unknown person,
blew out his brains on seeing the inevitable end, the four
others surrendered. Mdlle. Ivanova' s hands and legs
were tied with ropes, and she was thrown on the ground ;
in this state she reproached her comrades for lack of en-
ergy in seif-defense. The gendarme officer, hearing
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 133
that, struck her in the face with the butt end of his re-
volver, and kicked her severely. She complained of the
man — then a witness against her — hefore the court mar-
tial, but the officer, though he could not deny the fact,
disregarded her words.
The two printers, Ivanova and Griasnova, were con-
demned to fifteen years penal servitude, but at the solic-
itation of the court-martial, the heir apparent changed
the sentence of the former to four years penal servitude,
and transportation to Siberia for the latter. Among
others, Papov, son of a priest, was convicted about the
same time by a court-martial held at Kiev, and sen-
tenced to be hung. He stood at the head of that party
of Socialist propagandists whose distinguishing feature
is that they do not practice any illegal measures either
for self-defense or for propagandism. His bold and
straightforward speech before the Court was the cause of
his condemnation to death, but his sentence was subse-
quently altered by the Emperor into penal servitude for
life.
Dr. Weimar, whose trial at St. Petersburg in the spring
of 1880 caused such a sensation throughout Europe, was
condemned to penal servitude at the same time as Mrs.
Olga Nathanson. Dr. Weimar was accused of helping
two other Nihilists, Mirski and Solovieff, in their crim-
inal designs. He gave his horse to Mirski for his attempt
on the life of Drenteln, Chief of the Third Section of
the Emperor's Chancellery, and bought the revolver for
Solovieff. In the month of October Olga Nathanson be-
came mad in the fortress of St. Petersburg, before she
could be sent to Siberia. The real cause of her insanity,
it is alleged, lies in the fact that she, with three other
young friends, was the subject of criminal violence on
the part of the prison officials.
134 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
The next attempt at assassination occurred directly
after the adoption of the repression measures of 1880,
when the Armenian General Loris Melikoff was appointed
Chief of the Executive, with unlimited powers, and had
inaugurated a more rigid policy than even his predeces-
sors. The attack was, no doubt, directly attributable to
the execution of a sub-lieutenant named Donbrovin, which
GENERAL LORIS MELIKOFF.
occurred at St. Petersburg, and upon which occasion Gen-
eral Gourko issued an order to the troops in which
he cited the example of Donbrovin as a proof that the
aim of the revolutionists was to make the military their
accomplices. General Melikoff warmly approved this
accusation and made many threats, declaring his purpose
to deal with the Nihilists despotically, and indeed he
did bring many of the revolutionists to judgment.
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA.
135
Many messages, containing desperate threats, were
sent to Melikoff, which caused that astute official to ob-
serve special care, but a determined fellow whose name
I could not find in the records, caught sight of Gen-
eral Melikoff as he was leaving his carriage to enter
the Third Section, and made a vicious attempt to shoot
him, discharging a pistol twice at the General but with-
out effect. The assassin was arrested and being brought
136 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
to trial was convicted and publicly executed. The pris-
oner was enveloped with a black shroud, only the face
being exposed, and, seated upon a peculiar kind of a
chair placed on a box wagon with the back toward the
horses, he was driven slowly through the streets, pre-
ceded and followed by mounted guards. The engraving,
besides giving a portrait of General Melikoff's assailant,
shows the method by which prisoners condemned to
death are conducted to the place of execution.
CHAPTER VII.
THE culmination of that desperate, unreasonable ven-
geance which animated the Russian Nihilists was reached
on the 13th of March, 1881, when the Czar Alexander II.,
who deserved little but praise from his countrymen, and
whose name must ever be associated with the greatest re-
forms ever projected by a Russian ruler, was struck
down, after five previous attempts, in a horrible death.
We can only measure the full terribleness of that most
atrocious act, by calling to mind the agony we ourselves
suffered in the assassination of our honored and chosen
rulers, Lincoln and Garfield. Autocrat though he was,
Alexander II. possessed such qualities of heart and mind
as made him very dear to the masses of his subjects.
Unfortunately he was cradled in adversity and brought
up through circumstances which enforced his familiarity
with conspiracy.
Born April 29, 1818, Alexander was only seven years
of age when the famous conspiracy of the " Decem-
brists " — Russia's first open cry for a constitution — broke
out against his father on his accession to the throne,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
137
138 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
which rooted in him a horror of reform and made his
reign one continuous repression of liberty and speech.
Alexander was provided with a tutor who inspired him
with a love for literature and romance, but he was not per-
mitted to follow this gratifying and peaceful inclination.
Nicholas, of iron will, compelled him to abandon every
pursuit that promised contentment, and at seventeen
Alexander became his father's Aid-de-Camp and com-
mandant of the Lancers' Guard. But the boy Prince
Imperial could not cultivate a love for the military, and
after a short service so weary of spirit did he become
that his father, much against his will, gave Alexander a
vacation, during which he visited Germany and there
wooed and won the Princess .Maria of Hesse Darmstadt —
a veritable love-match. Upon his return to Russia with
his young and loving bride, Alexander interested himself
in encouraging education and founded a chair of Finnish
literature. In 1850 he visited Southern Russia, where af-
ter campaigning for two months in the Caucasus, upon
Woronzow's recommendation, the order of St. George was
conferred upon him. But under Nicholas all persons, even
heirs to the throne, were inconsequential unless they had
won honors upon the field of battle or by diplomacy re-
dounding to his advantage. Thus, beyond certain disagree-
ments with the " Old Russian " party, whose idol was
his younger brother Constantine, and a decided though
silent disapproval of his father's policy in bringing on the
Crimean war, there was little to observe in the Czare-
vitch's unassuming life until the fateful day when defeat
and disappointment drove his father to seek surcease in
death. In his dying moments, March 2, 1855, Nicholas
called Alexander to his bedside, and taking his hand,
said: "My son, I now bestow upon you the crown of
Russia, in succession to your dying father ; you will, I
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
139
140 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
am sorry to say, find the burden heavy," and then ex-
pired.
How Alexander II. took up the scepter of Government
and wielded it for the benefit of his subjects has already
been told, and now remains the task of describing how,
after several diabolical attempts, he was at last stricken
down by the fell hand of assassination and left the whole
civilized world weeping beside his bier.
It was the custom of the Czar to take mid-day lunch
every Sunday with his sister in the Michael Palace, which
stands not far from the center of St. Petersburg, in a con-
siderable forest of trees surrounded by a high wall. This
custom being well known, a body of Nihilists set about to
compass his assassination in the following manner :
Two of the conspirators engaged a cellar-room under
a large, lead colored, four-story building which stands on
the corner of Little Garden street and the Nevski Pros-
pekt, and immediately facing the large bronze statue of
Catharine II. This place was chosen because there are
only two streets leading from Michael Palace, viz. :
Little Garden street from the east, and an exit south
into a narrow street running parallel with the Catharine
Canal. As the former was generally used by the Czar,
because of its smooth pavement, it was here that the
conspirators decided to make most ample preparations to
accomplish their deadly purpose.
The cellar-room engaged was used for a considerable
time as a milk and cheese depot, the better to enable the
assassins to disguise their real occupation. During this
time they excavated a tunnel entirely across the street and
placed therein the enormous charge of sixty pounds of
dynamite, which was connected by an electric wire, so that
the mine could be discharged at any instant. It is de-
clared by those familiar with the destructiveness of this
EXILE LIFE IN SIBEKIA.
141
most powerful explosive, that had the mine been ex-
ploded it would have razed fully one-half of the entire
city and killed thousands of people.
It is astonishing how great a work was carried on in
so central a place without detection, particularly since
the fact is known that General Melikoff received several
letters notifying him that the end of the Czar Alexander
was near at hand, and also that his assassination would
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
ftXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
be accomplished on the very day it was brought about.
This latter information Melikoff communicated to Alex-
ander and begged of him not to go out on that day,
but such threats had become too common for this one to
be specially observed.
The dynamite mine being completed and ready for its
deadly work, which it was expected to perform on Sun-
day afternoon, March 13th, 1881, the assassins posted a
watch to give information when the Czar should come
driving from the Michael Palace toward the Nevski Pros-
pekt. But to make their purpose more certain, although
it was only on extremely rare occasions that the Emperor
ever left the palace by the Catharine Canal street, yet in
view of the possibility that on this occasion he might do
so, another party of Nihilists were stationed along this
street, two of them taking their positions near the gate.
These two were each provided with Orsiui bombs — glass
balls the size of a hen's egg, loaded with dynamite — while
two others stood on the ice in the canal, also having
bombs in their pockets, while a woman, Sophia Perofs-
kaja, stood at the corner of the palace grounds from
whence, by waving a handkerchief, she could signal the
four conspirators if the Czar should leave the palace by
Little Garden street.
Shortly before two o'clock in the afternoon his Maj-
esty drove out of the palace grounds by way of the
canal, but scarcely had he proceeded a rod from the gate
when one of the conspirators threw a bomb which burst
so far to the rear of the carriage that its force was ex-
pended on two of the Cossack guards, who were instantly
killed, together with their horses, while the rear of the
Imperial carriage was shattered, but the Czar received no
injury.
The report was so great that many person* were iinme-
144
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
diately attracted to the spot. The Czar stepped out of
the carriage, though his coachman urged him to resume
his seat, and advanced toward Colonel Dvorketsky, Chief
of Police, who as usual, was following behindiuasledg*,
and who had already seized the culprit, who was struggling
violently with the Colonel and trying to use a pistol and
dagger. Assistance was at hand, however, and the as-
sassin was soon disarmed ; he proved to be n young student
named Rlsakoff, belonging to the Institute of Mining
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA
145
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 147
Engineers. A moment after, several officers congratu-
lated the Czar upon his marvellous escape, to whose kind
words he replied: "Give God the praise," and then
piously crossing himself, he gave directions concerning
the care of the wounded and started, on foot, toward the
Winter Palace. He had taken less than a half-dozen steps
when another bomb was thrown which struck and burst
at his feet with most horrible effect. The Czar reeled
and fell amid a cloud of smoke, uttering but a single cry,
"Help !" The force of the explosion was so great that
all the glass in neighboring houses was broken, the assas-
sin,' Elnikoff, was himself mortally wounded, and a boy
was instantly killed, while eleven of the Czar's body-
guard were seriously injured.
Staff Captain Novikoff was the first to reach his Ma-
jesty, and throwing himself weeping at the Emperor's
side, exclaimed, " Good God ! What has happened to
your Majesty?" The Emperor remained motionless, and
Novikoff, with the assistance of some sailors, who had
hurried to the spot, lifted him up, himself holding the
wounded Czar around the body and breast, while the sail-
ors, without letting go of their carbines, held the feet.
The Emperor then attempted to lift his hand to his
bleeding brow, murmuring twice the word "Cold."
Novikoff was just about to take his handkerchief from
his pocket to bind around the Emperor's head, when the
Grand Duke Michael came up and, bending down close
to the Emperor's face, said, " How do you feel?" What
his Majesty replied it was difficult to catch. The Grand
Duke ordered the sailors to throw down their carbines,
and then, taking a cap from one of the bystanders, placed
it on the Emperor's head. They then began to move
forward. Novikoff asked the Grand Duke whether he
would allow the bearers to carry the 'Emperor into the
148
RUSSIAN Ml-IILISM AND
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 149
nearest house for the purpose of applying bandages to
the wounded parts. The Emperor, who evidently re-
tained consciousness, on hearing this, whispered in broken
language, "Carry to palace, there die," and some few
more words which were unintelligible.
He was placed in Colonel Dvorketsky's sledge and
driven directly to the palace, followed by an immense
crowd of sorrow-stricken citizens, many of whom were
crying like children who saw before them the mangled
body of a beloved father.
Upon reaching the palace the Emperor was carried up
stairs into his study, where a bed was improvised, upon
which he was laid for a surgical examination. Six of the
ablest surgeons in St. Petersburg were instantly called,
but the moment they saw how dreadful were his wounds
they frankly told him there was no hope for recovery.
Plis Majesty suffered excruciating agony so long as con-
sciousness lasted ; both his legs were crushed and cut in a
shocking manner, the femoral arteries being severed, from
which alone he must have died through hemorrhage had
there been no other injuries ; but .portions of glass were
driven into the lower parts of his body, while there were
also two severe cuts in his face from which large pieces
of glass were extracted. Seeing that death was inevita-
ble, the Court Chaplain administered the last sacrament
during a short interval of consciousness and, while the
surgeons were considering an operation on the Emperor,
his Majesty surrendered the crown forever, at 3 :35 p. M.,
one hour and fifty minutes after receiving his wounds.
Surrounding his bedside at the time of dissolution was a
large number of the Imperial family, including the Czare-
vitch and Czarina, who manifested such grief as is rarely
witnessed.
During the painful suspense which followed the first
10
"RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
\
miK^, v
jBf!
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 151
news of the fatal attack on the Emperor an enormous
crowd of people gathered in Alexander Square fronting
the palace and gave expression to a sorrow deep-felt and
inconsolable. At intervals of every fifteen minutes a flag
was displayed from the palace which indicated the Em-
peror's condition, and as each time showed him to be
more rapidly sinking the crowd became more demonstra-
tive in their grief. When at length the Emperor's death
was announced by raising the Imperial standard at half-
mast, the assemblage fell upon their knees and became
mute in silent prayer.
On the same evening of the Czar's death the troops in
St. Petersburg and members of the Imperial family, ac-
cording to their custsom, kissed the Bible and then took
the oath of allegiance to the new Czar, who repaired to
the Winter Palace Chapel and in the presence of the State
and church dignataries placed the Imperial Crown of
Russia on his head and was proclaimed Emperor, under
the title of Alexander III.
After assuming the crown the new Emperor and Em-
press drove to their own palace, where they remained until
his manifesto of March 27th was issued, designating his
brother, the Grand Duke Vladimir, regent in case of his
own death before his son, the present Czarevitch, at-
tained his majority.
The remains of the dead Emperor lay in state for one
week, during which time expressions of sympathy and
horror at the dreadful act which brought about his
death, poured in upon the Royal Family from every na-
tion of the earth, besides hundreds of beautiful tokens,
from contemporary sovereigns in Europe, such as wreaths
of silver, crowns, crosses and mottoes, most artistically
worked, of the same precious material. On Sunday,
March 20th, the body of the Emperor was taken to the
15*
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
Fortress Chapel of St. Peter and St. Paul, where it was de-
posited in a marble sarcophagus beside the remains of his
loved Empress, who died of a lingering illness one year be-
fore. After the workmen had deposited the coffin in the
vault beneath the Fortress church, and removed their
tools, the Governor of the city went down into the pit
alone, srrnng t« *n«l l»«k«d tk« h«avy d«»r, and on
EXILE LIFI IN SIBERIA.
153
emerging handed the key to the chief of the new Czar's
household, in the presence of the mourners and the high
dignitaries. The key was afterward deposited in a place
of great security in the Winter Palace,
154 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AN»
The Fortress Chapel is one of the rnost elaborate and
gorgeous, in interior decoration, in the world. It is the
repository of all members of the House of Romanoff
since the time of Peter the Great, with the single excep-
tion of Peter II., who, dying in Moscow, was by his own
request buried there. The interior presents a rare com-
bination of gold, silver and tinsel work, giving an ap-
pearance of fairy-like splendor. Arranged around the
single immense room, in two rows, are the marble sar-
cophagi enclosed by an iron railing. From the ceiling
is suspended a rich canopy reaching down over the
sacristy, while the pillars are decorated with standards
taken in the wars with France, Sweden, Poland, Turkey
and Persia. There are also several silver and gold icons
— sacred images — before which candles are kept con-
stantly burning. On the sarcophagus of Alexander II.,
and also on that of the Empress, there is placed a gold
crown inside of which a small lamp is always burning,
which, throwing its rays through interstices of the
crowns, produces a beautiful effect. On the wall, imme-
diately opposite, are hung the emblems of mourning pre-
sented by other countries after the Czar's assassination,
and also wreaths of immortelles which are replaced, from
time to time, by those who revere his memory.
Directly after the Czar's death, Minister Pleve, who
had been commissioned to the position he now holds for
his services in detecting those concerned in the palace ex-
plosion of 1879, was called upon to discover all the con-
spirators concerned in the commission of the dreadful
crime, and so thoroughly did he prosecute his investiga-
tions, that scarcely had the Czar been laid away, before
he procured the arrest of Nicholas Jelaboft', Sophie Pe-
rofskaja, Hessy Helfmann, Nicholas Risakoff, Gabriel
Michailoff, Jean Kibaichich, and several others who,
however, proved their innocence.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
THE FORTRESS CHAPKL — LAST RESTING PLACE OF THE IMPERIAL DEAD.
156
KUSSIAX NIHILISM AND
Directly after these arrests were made another import-
ant step was taken in consequence of discoveries made in
examining the premises and opening the dynamite mine
laid in Little Garden street. It was proved that the
police had information in connection with the mine,
TOMB OF THE EMPEROR IN THE FORTRESS CHAPEL ONE WEFK AFTER BUK1AL,
which if utilized would have led to the arrest of the con-
spirators and prevented the Czar' s assassination . The pub-
lic officers accused of a criminal neglect of their duties
were Major General Constantine Mrovinsky ; Paul Teg-
leff , chief officer of the Spassky District ; General Fur-
soff, chief of the Secret Section of the Prefecture, and
15<S KUSSIAX A 1 11 1 LI SM AND
two State Councillors. It was asserted that Mrovinsky
had been instructed by Tegleff to make a thorough in-
spection of Kobezeff's quarters, whose milk and cheese
shop had been reported as being a headquarters for the
Nihilists. This investigation was not made by Mrovin-
sky, while Tegleff was charged with neglect in not en-
forcing the order, as he had direct information of Kobe-
zeff's plot. Fursoff was also brought to trial because he
took no measures to verify the suspicions which had been
communicated to him, and because he did not inform his
superiors of what was taking place until the evening of
the assassination. It was shown that the three officers
did visit Kobezeff's shop, but that fin ding his papers reg-
ular they made no examination of the premises.
It was three days after the assassination before the police
entered the shop, there being grave fears excited that an
attempt to do so would cause an explosion of the mine.
The greatest precautions were observed after an entrance
was at length made, when a tunnel was discovered lead-
ing across the street, and two batteries in wooden boxes
were found, with their wires ready for use. Had the
two poles of the batteries been brought in contact (and
they were not more than three inches apart) an instan-
taneous explosion would have followed. It is therefore
an act of singular fortune that the mine was uncovered
without causing a calamity of gigantic proportions.
The assassins, arrested through the skilful detective
ability of Pleve, were brought to trial on April 9th.
The Judges, who were presided over by Senator
Fuehs, held their sittings in the Circuit Court of the Li-
tejnaja Prospekt. Both the inside and the outside of the
building were carefully guarded by police, Who prevented
all persons except those furnished with special passes
from entering. At each end of the dock also stood two
EXILE LIF IN SIBERIA.
159
K)Q RUSSIAN NIHILISM AN»
gendarmes with drawn swords, and in front of the pris-
oners sat their counsel. The Procurer, or Crown Advo-
cate, sat at the end of the judicial bench, and on a table
in the centre of the room were tire mute evidences of the
prisoners' guilt in the form of bombs, bottles of explo-
sive liquids, etc. Above hung a picture of the late Czar,
draped in black hangings. The proceedings were ex-
ceedingly simple. First the indictment was read, and to
this each prisoner in turn replied by a long speech, in no
way repudiating his or her complicity in the Revolution-
ary movement, although some denied being concerned ii:
the actual assassination of the Czar. The prisoners were
six in number : Risakoff, the man who threw the first
bomb (Elnikoff, who threw the second, died from the ef-
fects of the explosion) ; Sophie Perofskaja, the well-
known female conspirator, who gave the signal by wav-
ing a handkerchief on the opposite side of the canal ;
Jelaboff, the organizer of the attempt, and an agent in
the third degree of the Revolutionary Executive Commit-
tee ; Kibaichich, who appears to have prepared the ex-
plosive liquids ; Hessy Helfman, a Jewess, who was ar-
rested in the Nihilist laboratory in Telejewskaja street a
day or two after the attempt, and Gabriel Michaeloff , who
was arrested while entering one of the Nihilists' resorts
which had been discovered and occupied by the police.
After the prisoners had made their speeches, witnesses
were examined, having been previously sworn by minis-
ters of their own persuasion. These pastors ranged from
a Moslem mollah to a Dominican monk, and contributed
a picturesque air to the scene. Then the Procurer, M.
Mouravieff, commenced his summing-up of the charges
against the prisoners, seizing the occasion for a political
denunciation of the Revolutionists and the countries which
sheltered them, and going minutely into the character and
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
161
career of the various prisoners. Of these Sophie Perofs-
kaja alone belonged to the class of nobles. She seems,
1
however, very early to have had a will of her own, as she
iled from her home at the age of fifteen, and is stated
to have lived thereafter on her own resources taking, ia
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
late years of her life considerable part in the Nihilists'
plots. She it was who gave the signal for the explosion
on the Moscow line when the pilot train was wrecked.
Her grandfather was a Minister of State, and her father
had been Governor of St. Petersburg. She had for some
time been the companion of Jelaboff, who is said to have
been the type of a Revolutionary leader, and one of the
most important members of the party. Kisakoff, who
had been a pupil of the School of Mines, andKibaichich,
once a member of the Academy of Engineers, were por-
trayed as simple instruments in Jelaboff 's hands, and also
Michael off , who was a poor, uneducated peasant. To the
Procurer replied either the prisoners or their counsel, as
the former thought proper, and Jelaboff made another
oration in favor of his Socialistic opinions.
There is nothing in the annals of criminal jurisprudence
of more thrilling interest, in the display of unexampled
fortitude and fanatical heroism, than is shown in the
record of this great political trial. So great was the
thirst of these criminals for the approbation of their com-
patriots, that when this opportunity came for immolating
themselves in the cause of anarchy, they unflinching!^
acknowledged their guilt and dared the Imperial power
to expend its vengeance on them. To the question put
to them by the Court : " Are you guilty or not guilty?"
Jelaboff, the arch assassin, responded: "Guilty, and I
would to God that my crime- had been greater. Of no
act in my life am I so proud, and it gives me a felicitous
pleasure in acknowledging the part I took in assassinat-
ing the Emperor. Not that I entertained a special per-
sonal dislike for him, but because, as a patriot, I de-
tested the policy which he pursued for the oppression of
his subjects. The fate which overtook the dead Emperor
awaits his successor as surely as there is a God who
reckons the crimes of oppressors."
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA,
1GB
1
1()4 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AXD
Jelaboff would have said much more had he not been
restrained by the bailiffs, this much of his speech being
delivered in spite of their efforts to enforce his silence.
The sentiment he expressed was re-echoed by his accesso-
ries, so that nothing remained for the Court to do but hear
testimony from the Government witnesses and to pass
sentence of death upon the accused. It has been stated,
but not confirmed, that after the prisoners were sen-
tenced and returned to the Fortress prison, one or more
of them were subjected to the most agonizing torture, in
order to force from them a confession that would expose
all their associates in crime, and whatever information
they possessed of the Nihilists' plots and intentions.
There appeared in several daily papers published in
America, a lengthy correspondence from abroad, detail-
ing elaborately the punishments inflicted upon the con-
demned ; that red-hot needles were introduced beneath
their finger nails, and that the nails on their toes were
torn off, after which fire was applied to the bared flesh ;
but though one gentleman in St. Petersburg assured me
that such torture was really committed upon Jelaboff, yet
T feel assured there is not the least truth in such report.
Indeed, two gentlemen who wore witnesses of the execu-
tion, and who were near enough to Jelaboff to observe
fully his condition, particularly as his feet were bare, de-
clared to me that the story of torture was an absurdity.
My purpose in mentioning the report here is only to give
it denial, which is an act of justice to the Russian Gov-
ernment that I cannot consistently withhold.
The day for the execution of the six criminals was
fixed for April 15th, but the sentence was commuted as
to Hessy Helfmann, to exile in Siberia for life, owing to
the fact that she was about to become a mother.
On the 13th of April a mad attempt to rescue the prison-
EXILE LIFE IN SLBEKIA.
165
ers was made by a mob of nearly two hundred persons,
who forced their way into the large court of the Fortress
and demanded the production of the culprits. A large
force of soldiers and police attacked the would-be rescu-
ers, killing some and wounding several, while nearly all
the others were arrested ; on the persons of twenty of
those arrested bombs were found, but why none of them
were used is a question difficult to answer.
166 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
It was expected that at the execution another attempt
would be made to rescue the condemned, to meet which
a large body of soldiers was ordered to escort the cul-
prits and form in hollow square around the gallows.
This served to prevent any demonstration upon the part
of sympathizers, for although the crowd who witnessed
the execution numbered not less than five thousand per-
sons, perfect order was maintained; indeed, strange
enough, there was no sympathy whatever manifested for
the assassins.
As the condemned mounted the gallows there was an
oppressive silence wholly unrelieved until Risakoff fainted
as the noose was being adjusted about his neck ; the
others manifested perfect composure to the last. The
execution, however, proved a sickening scene, for in ad-
dition to the feeling created by reason of Risakoff faint-
ing, the rope which suspended Michaeloff broke, so that
the half -suffocated criminal fell in a heap on the platform.
Unable now to stand, he was picked up in a limp condition
by two deputies who adjusted another rope about his neck.
But astonishing to relate, again the rope broke, and thus the
horrible scene of hanging one man three times was wit-
nessed, which drew forth many expressions of disgust from
the crowd, who jeered at and reviled the executioners.
Thus terminated the last act connected with the most
exciting and dreadful incident in Russian history. The
love borne for Alexander II., by a very large majority of
his subjects, was greater perhaps than that shown by the
Russians for any other sovereign, and as time passes their
appreciation for the many good qualities, which he un-
doubtedly possessed, rapidly increases, as may be seen by
the demonstrations still made to keep his memory fresh
in their hearts. A memorial chapel was erected over the
spot where the Emperor received his fatal wounds, which
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
167
CHAPEL ERECTED ON THE SPOT WHERE THE EMPEROR WAS ASSASSINATED.
168 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
was dedicated to his remembrance on the 29th of April,
1881, by the Metropolitan Archbishop Isidore. There
were present at the services an immense crowd of citizens
from every part of the Empire, nearly all the Imperial fam-
ily, Ministers of State, and many foreign ambassadors.
The new Emperor and Empress were the only notables
absent, a fact much commented upon at the time, as it
was an evidence that Alexander III. entertained fears for
his own life, and therefore would not trust himself among
a promiscuous assemblage, even though his person were
guarded by a multitude of soldiers.
The chapel thus erected was a light frame structure
covered with immortelles and beautiful flowers contribu-
ted from relatives and sympathizers at home and abroad.
During the present year, however, a more substantial
chapel was built to replace the original one, in which
there are three altars covered with a full service of
church plate of gold and silver of the finest chased work-
manship. It is intended to erect a magnificent memorial
church on the spot, which is regarded as sacred, out of
the voluntary contributions made for that purpose by
faithful subjects of the Empire ; to this end a repository
is affixed to the chapel which is daily filled by small of-
ferings from the hundreds of peasants who repair to the
place to offer up prayers. A guard is constantly sta-
tioned before the chapel to guard its treasures, and all
footmen passing the shrine reverently remove their hats
and cross themselves as a token of the love they bear for
the Emperor's memory.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
CHAPTER VIII.
WHEN Alexander III. assumed the royal purple, which
had been crimsoned by his father's blood, everyone confi-
dently predicted a great change from the previous ad-
ministration. So seriously was the nation shocked by
the death of Alexander II. that there was a revulsion in
public sentiment against the anarchists, and in favor of the
autocracy; many leading Nihilists even, particularly in
London and Geneva, expressed chagrin and condemnation
at the assassination, which produced an effect in Russia to
the serious detriment of Nihilism. But this sympathy
was short-lived, a fact which I have no hesitancy in de-
claring was due wholly to the retirement Alexander III.,
thus giving incontestable proof of his alarm. Not satis-
fied with the protection afforded him at his palace in St.
Petersburg, he removed his State residence to Peterhoff,
where special arrangements for his security were provided.
Upon a hill, overlooking the Finland Gulf and com-
manding a beautiful, though distant view of Cronstandt,
stands the Imperial Palace, a large and elegant structure
with all the accessories of royalty. There is a large fish
pond, and an immense lake adjacent, its shores embow-
ered Ivy lofty trees and its bosom studded with beau-
tiful islands, on one of which there is an ornate building
provided especially for the Emperor to dine in during
the summer months. The palace grounds are, beyond
compare, the finest in all Europe, far surpassing those
around the Great Trianon in Versailles ; indeed, they ap-
pear more like fairy-land than the surroundings of a self-
exiled potentate. Such fountains can be seen in no
other place, and are positively bewildering in their
beauty. One of these, called the Golden Stairway
1 70 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
Fountain, is extravagant with magnificence. It consists
of twenty-four steps, each twenty feet long, one foot high
and one foot in breadth, of pure gold. Of course
the steps are not solid gold, for there is not suffi-
cient of the precious metal in all the world to cast so
many blocks of such a size ; but the sheets of gold used
in making them are of enormous value, in fact princely.
This fountain leads down from the Court entrance of the
palace, and as the water pours over in a succession of
cascades, glimmering with a golden sheen, the effect is
bewitching in its incomparable splendor. But there are
many other fountains on the grounds of only secondary
importance, on which gold is a conspicuous feature,
blending inartistic beauty with statues of men, animals,
fowls and reptiles.
But the new Czar takes no pleasure in surroundings
so grandly beautiful, for looking only to a retreat that
promises security from Nihilistic conspiracies, he makes
his residence in a small cottage on thePeterhoff grounds,
which is enclosed by a double wall ten feet high and two
feet thick. There is only a small garden about this
humble building, in which the Czar takes occasional
walks, but never except in some disguise, on account of
a distrust which he has for every servant about him. A
party of Cossacks are day and night on guard around the
inner wall, and a full company of Finnish guards are al-
ways on duty, mounted, around the outer wall ; so that
a body of men who would attempt to forcibly reach the
Emperor, could only do so by dispersing two lines of
guards and overcoming a large body-guard that attends
his Majesty. But even these precautions do not com-
prise all the measures taken to preserve the Czar's life
from assassination. He has given an imperative order to
his guards to shoot down, without challenge, any one who
EXILE L1FK IX SL15KR1A.
171
ALEXANDER III. AND THE ROYAL FAMILY.
172 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
shall approach within fifty feet of him in his garden
without special permission. During my stay in St. Pe-
tersburg, in July, 1882, a melancholy incident of this
ridiculous order occurred, which shocked the whole city.
It being a warm day, the Emperor went into his garden,
and while passing along one of the gravelled walks, he
discovered a shrub that had been broken down by some
careless act. Not far from him was an old man, beyond
sixty years of age, engaged in cultivating flowers ; the
Czar beckoned to him, intending to instruct him to
bind up the broken shrub. In obedience to the tacit
call, the old man started over to where the Emperor was,
but when he approached within the forbidden distance,
a guard, who had not observed the Emperor's motion,
fired upon the innocent old gardener, killing him instantly.
It is said the Czar was very much angered at the guard,
and that besides having his victim buried with the honors
accorded a faithful soldier who dies on duty, he also
granted a pension to the murdered man's family.
But in addition to these precautions, there are three cor-
vettes stationed in the gulf facing the grounds enclosing
the Czar's cottage, armed with long-range rifle-guns, to
guard against approaches by sea. No boat, however
small, is permitted to land before the Emperor's grounds ;
electric lights are kept burning all night on the corvettes,
which flood the sea and shore with radience and enable
the naval guard to detect any craft which might appear
approaching the royal residence.
Occasionally the Emperor visits his palace at Gatchi-
na, twenty miles inland from Peterhoff, where equally
strong measures for his protection are provided. When
making the trip between these two places he is in dis-
guise and never allows any intimation of his visit to be an-
nounced beforehand.
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 173
This isolation, through fear, is an invitation to danger,
and serves to exalt 'Nihilism far beyond its own inherent
strength. How great the contrast between Alexander
III. and Nicholas I. is shown in the following historical
incident. In 1854, when Russia was staggering under
destructive defeats from the Allied Forces, a plague seized
upon the people, so that they died in great numbers.
Ignorant, superstitious and rebellious, a cry was raised
by his subjects that Nicholas had ordered all the waters
of Russia poisoned ; that he had colluded with the phy-
sicians of his Empire to destroy his people because they
grumbled at extravagances practiced in conducting the
war. This senseless cry soon grew into a concerted plan
for vengeance, which more than three thousand men as-
sembled in Alexander Square to put into execution. The
Emperor, who was in the Winter Palace, immediately
comprehended the danger of his position, and with quick
perception, seized upon the only possible plan that could
save his life.
The palace being surrounded escape was imposible,
while there were no soldiers whom the Czar could sum-
mon to his aid. Hastily putting on his Imperial helmet
and regimentals he declared to the attendants his inten-
tion of boldly facing the mob. All attempts to per-
suade him from this purpose being unavailing, his aid-de-
camp begged to be allowed the privilege of accompany-
ing him, but this Nicholas refused, saying : " If my life
is to be taken it would avail nothing to sacrifice yours
also." With this he descended the stairway and alone
marched out into the mob who, awed by his majestic
manner, gave way and permitted him unmolested to gain
the Alexander Column. Being now in the very center of
his enemies, he mounted upon a block which stood be-
side the column and in a stentorian voice shouted : " Chil-
174 ftUSStAX NIHILISM AND
dren ! Dogs! Down upon your knees!" As though
stricken by a stroke from heaven, that vast assemblage,
who had before been howling for the Emperor's blood,
dropped upon their knees with one accord and then
shouted: "Brave Nicholas! we hail you Emperor of
all Russia ; long live your Gracious Majesty !"
This incident serves to show the mercurial disposition
of all Russians. Brave themselves, nothing excites in
them such admiration as an act of defiance when dan-
ger threatens.
A knowledge of Russian character leads directly to
the belief- that if Alexander III. would assume a fearless
attitude, by presenting himself before his people, like
one under the segis of patriotic resolution, he would dis-
pel the specter of assassination and be hailed as a sover-
eign worthy the scepter he holds. But so sure as he
continues to manifest fear, and cowers before an exag-
gerated idea of his enemies, so sure will he be hurled from
the throne by either a gigantic insurrectionary movement
or fall a victim to some fanatic now plotting his destruc-
tion. No measures of protection, however rigid, can
save him, for assassins will spring up in his most secret
chamber, among those most implicity trusted, or reach
him through tunnels, which desperate Nihilists never tire
of digging. This is even now his dread, for before com-
ing to the throne he had his chin shaved every morning,
but since then no razor has touched his face ; not a mouth-
ful of food or wine is taken by him now until all the
dishes set before him are tasted by his butler ; the room
in which he sleeps is secured by two immense iron doors,
while the windows are provided with heavy bars, so that
household enemies may not steal upon him at night.
The humblest peasant in all Russia would not exchange
places with this unhappy autocrat, whose crown weighs
upon him like a besom of death.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 175
CHAPTER IX.
THE cessation of crime which followed the assassination
of Alexander II. inspired the law and order class of Russia
with the hope that Nihilism had spent its force and would
permit the results of that desperate work to determine
their purposes. But this hope was soon dispelled, for in
the succeeding fall fresh outrages were reported, which
were followed by a more retributive or vindictive policy of
police surveillance. About the same time there came re-
ports of the most brutal attacks being made upon Jewish
merchants in several districts of lower Russia, a descrip-
tion of which will be given hereafter.
Among the more harassing difficulties with which the
Government had to deal were the secret printing offices.
These breeders of sedition appeared in every large city,
and their products were scattered through every hamlet
in the nation. When one office was discovered and de-
stroyed another quickly took its place, so that suppres-
sion has rather worked against the Government. Many
of these offices became the scene of bloody conflicts be-
tween the Nihilists and police, in which not a few women
took active part, displaying a desperate bravery rarely
exhibited by the sex. In fact there has been a heroism
manifested by female Nihilists surpassed by no incidents
of individual fearlessness in all history.
Vera Zassulitch, whose shot inaugurated terrorism,
was the most modest of her sex. In the court room she
blushed when she perceived any one staring at her.
Eugenia Figner, a charming lady and an accomplished
singer, got her eight years in the Siberian mines by sit-
ting in a parlor playing the piano for weary hours, try-
ing to drown the noise made by the secret printing-press
176
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
in the adjoining room. Anna Lebedeff, a priest's
daughter, in the disguse of the wife of a switchman,
KATHERIKE HAMKRCLIDZE.
ANNA TOPORKOFK.
SOPHIA BARDIN.
LEADING FEMALE NIHILISTS
lived in a watch-house on the railroad, and was found on
a box filled with dynamite, chatting with the switchman.
Sophie Perof skaja, the daughter of a general and senator,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBEKIA. 177
who declined the dignity of maid of honor to the Em-
press and entered the Nihilist fraternity, dug the Mos-
cow mine and directed the late Czar's assassination.
Sophie Bardin, who was welcomed as a shining star in the
literary horizon, wrote a few poems which, though gems
of Kussian literature, were treasonable, and the singing
of them is a State crime.
The Soobotin and Lubatovitch sisters were ladies of
many accomplishments and noted also for their beauty
and purity, yet they stimulated their male colaborers by
many acts of cunning and recklessness. The two former
acted as spies, and actually secured from a leading offi-
cer all the immediate plans of Gen. Ignatieff for over-
coming Nihilism, besides finding put, through a different
source, the persons in their party against whom the Gov-
ernment had suspicions. The two latter distributed
incendiary literature not only throughout Moscow and St.
Petersburg, but in the very offices of the police authori-
ties. Helene Eossikoff planned the robbery of the treas-
ury at Cherson, from the vaults of which were taken
1,500,000 roubles ($750,000) for Nihilistic purposes.
Mary Griasnova incited three of her comrades, who were
detected conducting a revolutionary organ, to defend
their property against an attack made upon them by
nearly twenty policemen. In this fight she killed two
officers and wounded three others, though she was herself
seriously shot and had to fire from a prostrate position.
When her companions surrendered she reviled them as
cowards, and nothing silenced her but death, which came
after a lingering agony of three days. M'lles Torporkoff ,
Hamkrclidze, Khorjevski, Ivanova, and many other
women have signally distinguished themselves among the
Nihilists as leaders of great power, while their examples
have all served to infuse their confreres with determina-
178
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
tion to dare and do without regard for the results which
their desperate acts might entail.
On the 28th of February, 1882, the scene of serious
disturbance was transferred from St. Petersburg to
Odessa, where General Strelnikoff, the Public Prosecutor
at the Kieff Military Tribunal, who distinguished himself
in various Nihilist trials, was shot in broad daylight on
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 179
the Boulevard in that city. Three men were concerned
in the murder; two were captured, but the third es-
caped. The Czar was so angered at the news that he at
first ordered the prisoners to be executed within twenty-
four hours, but afterward changed his mind and decided
that they should be tried in due form. Accordingly they
were tried and sentenced to death on Saturday, March
llth. The funeral of General Strelnikoff took place on
Sunday morning, March 5th, with full military honors.
Curiously enough, this crime happened within a few
hours after the commutation by the Czar of the sentence of
death passed on the prisoners in the Trigonia trial. One
man alone, Soukahnoff, was excepted, owing to his being
a lieutenant in the navy. He, however, was spared the
disgrace of dying at the hands of the hangman, but was
taken to Cronstadt and shot by a detachment of marines.
It is the custom observed by all of Russia's former
Emperors to repair to Moscow six months after assuming
the title of Czar, and there, in the Royal Chapel, be
crowned according to ceremonies prescribed by the Greek
Church, for it must be understood that in tradition,
though not in fact, the Church is more potential than the
Czar. These ceremonies are magnificent beyond descrip-
tion and are participated in by every one who can crowd
into the city. They are invariably followed by a season
of festivities which frequently last for thirty days.
Owing to apprehensions of an attack being made upon
his person if exposed, Alexander III. still wears the
crown which he placed upon his own head the day of his
father's death. Several notices were semi-officially given
at various times to the effect that the coronation services
would occur at Moscow, and during my visit to that city,
in August, 1882, great preparations were being made for
the positively promised event. The Royal Chapel, which
180 RUS81AX NIHILISM AND
is used upon no other occasion, was being sumptuously
decorated, and three hundred Court waiters had just been
sent down from St. Petersburg, whose services were ex-
pected to be required at the Imperial feast, which was to
follow the coronation. In addition to these preparations,
made on so grand a scale, the Great Votive church was
thrown open for public inspection upon the presentation
of permits issued only by the City Metropolitan. This
church is used only once during each Czar's reign, these
occasions being the day following the coronation, when
the Emperor and Empress repair to its sanctuary for
blessings of the Church, and where they also listen to a
sermon prepared specially for their benefit. This sacred
edifice stands upon an elevation commanding a fine view
of the city, and is an object of veneration to all Muscov-
ites. With the exception of the Winter Palace there is,
perhaps, no building in all Russia that can compare with
it in magnificence. It is built of marble taken from the
Finland and Siberian quarries, and polished until all its
walls, floors and pilasters reflect images like a looking-
glass ; the dome is covered with gold, and there are many
gold and silver candelabras and icons, while in the inte-
rior of the dome is a painting of the Trinity involving a
marvellous conception. The principal figure measures
thirty feet between the out-stretched hands, though the
altitude is so great that it appears almost the natural size
of a man. There are two chairs reserved for the Em-
peror and Empress, which are stationary, fronting the
chancel, that for both beauty and value exceed the throne
chair in St. George's room of the Winter Palace. They
are made of ivory-colored marble, most exquisitely en-
chased with gold flower work, while the seats and cush-
ioned backs are covered with gold plates studded with
precious stones forming the national coat of arms.
EXILE LIFE LN SIBERIA
181
&USSIAN NIHILISM AND
Every day, for more than a month, the people ex-
pected to receive definite announcement of the Emperor's
coming, until the shocking news was received instead
that a dynamite mine had been discovered beneath the
Eoyal Chapel. This fact immediately dissipated further
expectation, and it was then predicted that the coronation
would not take place before the following year. No an-
nouncement, however, was made by the Government, and
preparations continued to be made. During all this time
Count Tolstoi was in communication with the Nihilists,
who promised to guarantee the safety of the Emperor at
the coronation services if he would, previous to the oc-
currence, publish his annual manifesto granting liberty to
certain of their compatriots then in exile or held in the
Fortress prison.
Suddenly, without any notice whatsoever, the Czar ap-
peared in Moscow. Before leaving St. Petersburg he
had ordered every one off the streets by 12 M., on the
night of September 15th. No one understood why such
an order was given until the next day, when it was learned
that the Emperor had departed by special train at one
o'clock, A. M., for Moscow. He also took the precaution
to line the rail route with thirty thousand troops, string-
ing them out so that the men were formed eighty feet
apart extending all the way between the two cities, and a
pilot engine was run half-a-mile ahead of the Imperial train
to report any obstructions which might appear. Thus
the Czar made his first trip to the "Holy Mother" (a
title long since given to Moscow by devout Muscovites),
but it was not for coronation purposes, as many at
first supposed. He visited the great exposition then
being held, also the Imperial Palace in the Kremlin,
but there was a large cordon of soldiers surround-
ing him wherever he went, besides a special guard' with
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
183
184 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
bayonets at a " present.'' After spending four days in
Moscow, and giving notice that he would remain one
week longer, so as to continue the impression that the
coronation would take place, he mysteriously disappeared
again and turned up at St. Petersburg/ It was two days
after his departure before the people learned positively
that their Emperor was not in Moscow, or credited the
report that the coronation had been postponed.
The fear which possesses Alexander III. has caused
a renewal of the agitation first begun during the
reign of Catharine II., for a removal of the Imperial
Court from St. Petersburg to Moscow, where it remained
established once for nearly five hundred years. It is
claimed that St. Petersburg is not a representative Russian
city, being too cosmopolitan in population, and Euro-
pean in architecture ; that it is for these reasons the Nihil-
ists make their headquarters there, so that their commu-
nications with foreign emissaries may be more direct.
Moscow, on the other hand, is intensely Asiatic in all its
characteristics and particularly loyal to the Greek Church.
This fact is outwardly indicated by the first sights which
strike the visitor upon entering the city, for rising up to
immense height, like a beautiful mirage, are hundreds of
glittering domes, surmounted by golden crosses, while
others counterfeit the blue canopy of heaven. There are
no less than four hundred and sixty-six churches, sixty-
two monasteries, and over two hundred chapels in Mos-
cow, all of which are sustained in a style of magnificence
found nowhere else in the world. These princely edi-
fices, and the pious reverence of her population, have
caused Moscow to be culled the "Holy City," and so
sacred is she regarded that every year long pilgrimages
are made by Russian peasant women to pay their devo-
tions and pray before her holy shrines. In this respect
EXILB LIFE IW SIBERIA
186 RUSSIAN NIHILISM
Moscow is to Russians what Mecca is to the Mohamme-
dan world.
It is not a matter for surprise therefore that there is
such general desire among the people for the Emperor's
removal from European influences, and his complete coa-
lescence with Russian style and ideas as taught by the
great Vladimir. Indeed, there is a large party in Russia
that would.be delighted if there were a wall around the
Empire large enough to forever keep out everything
European.
In the foregoing history of Nihilism I make no pre-
tense of presenting a complete description of all the out-
rages perpetrated by this bloody organization, but have
rather sought, by presenting the more important acts and
crimes of the association, to indicate its strength, coher-
ency and purpose (if it may be said Nihilism has any
clearly defined purpose). Anarchists are not generally
known to consider cause and effect, but like violent ma-
niacs, strike in obedience to a distracted mind, having the
one desire to kill, ruin or subvert. Nihilism has now
grown so strong that no one can compute its power ; no one
can judge of Russia's future, but all may well prophesy,
by the clouds which lower so bodingly over the nation,
that there is a Nemesis ready to dash out of the elements,
with fire and sword, at the Empire's heart.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 187
CHAPTER X.
IN the preparation of this work on Nihilism I found
many difficulties obtruding upon me from the beginning,
which it was wholly impossible to remove or reconcile ;
these annoyances arose from the extremities of two irrec-
oncilable parties whose sympathies seek favor from all
who investigate the insurrectionary causes so seriously
disturbing Eussia. Having been admitted to Govern-
ment circles in St. Petersburg, I was sought to be the
medium through which the Government might justify its
repressive measures and demonstrate the wisdom of its
laws ; so speciously did one officer of the Ministry pre-
sent to me the causes and inordinate assumptions of
Nihilism that, I must confess, he disposed me favorably
to his conclusions, which might have influenced me
throughout, in my investigations, but for a later contact
with liberals and terrorists. Through an introduction,
which it would not be just to explain, I was received con-
fidentially by several leaders in the revolutionary move-
ment, who presented to me their grievances and demo-
cratic needs in so forcible, if not convincing a manner, as
to materially change the opinions incited in me by
the Minister. I therefore found that in any event my
work must meet with much disfavor in Russia, if not
subject me to the suspicion of preconceived preju-
dices. This I am very anxious to avoid, and that
there may be no real ground for such a charge, in
addition to recording my own observations and results
of an honest investigation of Nihilism, I herewith pre-
sent an ably written syllabus of the leading State trials
of political offenders that have taken place in Russia dur-
ing the past five years. The author of this most inter-
188 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
esting chapter is a distinguished Russian lady, a resident
of St. Petersburg, and one whose liberal ideas recom-
mend her opinions to all thinking people. She belongs
to the Liberal Party, but prefers that her name should
not be disclosed, for reasons which will readily appear to
any one who has read the preceding chapters on Russian
Nihilism :
Of all countries in the world, Russia can of late years
claim the sad distinction of having produced in greatest
numbers the abnormal growths of a deeply convulsed
intellectual soil. The well known " Nihilists" (christ-
ened by Tourguenieff for all eternity), the boisterous,
pugnacious, ranting, yet talented and comparatively harm-
less boys of twenty and thirty years ago, have been suc-
ceeded by another and far more dangerous generation —
boys also, most of them, but who have developed the
quiet, dogged resolution; the merciless, unswerving se-
quence of thought and act, the unreasoning self-sacrifice
which lies at the core of the Russian nature when power-
fully aroused. The earlier ones contented themselves
with general fault-finding (in many cases with but too
much reason), with noisy denunciations of everything
and everybody, from existing social principles to poetry
and ladies' fancy-work, with sweeping and often ludi-
crously absurd negations of all that is not positive science
or material improvement. Not so the latter, the so-
called " socialists " — for that name begins very generally
to supersede the old one. Their predecessors' much-aired
grievances, instead of evaporating in more or less violent
talk, have with them settled into a dark purpose, which
they pursue literally to the death — to their own death
most frequently, sometimes also to that of their selected
victims. They take the risk and pay the forfeit man-
fully, stubbornly. The many criminal State-trials of the
JSXILJi LIFB IN »IBHRIA.
last five years have amply shown that Russia has been
visited by a virulent paroxysm of that form of political
aberration which made so great a patriot and so pure a
man as Mazzini an advocate of political murder, and
armed the gentle hand of the romantic, tender-souled
boy Sand with the assassin's dagger. On the 16th of
November, 1880, the execution of two important leaders
of the deadly secret organization called "the terroriz-
ing fraction" atoned for the long series of murderous
attempts against the Emperor's person which followed
the assassination of Prince Krapotkin in February, 1879.
The trial which preceded, conducted before the St.
Petersburg Military Court, was on so unusually large a
scale, involved so many points and persons, and resulted
in such vast and important revelations, that an account
of the judicial proceedings on this momentous occasion
may prove not uninteresting to American readers, and
may shed light on some of the questions concerning which
the intelligent curiosity of the cultivated public of this
country (Russia) has long been awakened.
On the 6th of November sixteen persons were brought
to trial for heavy political offenses before the St. Peters-
burg Military Court. Great and unusual precautions had
been taken to insure an undisturbed course to the judicial
proceedings. The general public were not admitted ; tick-
ets were distributed ; and it was noticed by an eye-witness
that although the audience was so numerous as to fill the
hall, it was composed of persons wearing the military or
civil uniform, there being present only four persons in the
ordinary garb of private gentlemen . Altho ugh the report-
ers of the press were admitted, the several dailies and
weeklies had been notified to abstain from publishing their
own reports from shorthand notes as is usual in such cases,
and to limit themselves to copying the full-length report
190 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
which would appear in a series of numbers of the daily
" Government Gazette." The sixteen prisoners entered
the court escorted each by two gensdarmes, and took
their places in a calm and dignified manner. In spite of
great differences in their social rank, education, even
race and religion, one characteristic feature was common
to all — they were very young; all, with one exception,
under thirty, one-half under twenty-five. There were
three women in the number — girls of twenty-one, twen-
ty-two, and twenty-three years of age. The single
exception was one Mr. Drigo, aged thirty-one, a land-
holder and business man of good standing, who was
merely an accessory to the revolutionary party with
regard to certain money matters. From the personal
facts and antecedents concerning the prisoners, given in
curt and dry phrase by the Act of Accusation, it appears
that of the thirteen men one was a Catholic, of Polish
family settled in Little Russia, and two were Israelites ;
that two never received any education at all, and seven
did not complete their education, but left the University,
or the Technological Institute, or Teachers' Seminary, or
other schools or colleges, in the first, second, or third
year of the course. Alexander Kviatkovsky , aged twenty-
seven, the most prominent among the prisoners, was one
of these ; but he must have been endowed with great nat-
ural parts and moral powers. From the first moment the
general attention was centered on him,' and his personal
appearance is thus described by the correspondent of the
Augusburger Zeitung : ' ( Kviatkovsky has a very intel-
ligent face ; long dark-blonde hair and a full beard
frame a set of features expressive of great energy and
power of will. He both bears himself and speaks well
and with ease." He immediately and naturally assumed
the attitude of a leader among his companions — a post-
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 191
tion which they all seemed tacitly to acknowledge, as
though from long and habitual deference, and to which
he was fully entitled, as proven by disclosures at the
trial. It was remarked that although he appeared to
have surrendered himself from the first, and with the
utmost philosophy, to a fate against which he knew that
not the ablest defence could prevail, he was unremittingly
anxious to shield his followers, and never missed an op-
portunity of taking the whole blame upon himself and
exonerating them from this or that charge, on the ground
of having been used by him as blind tools, and kept in
ignorance of his purposes.
The first day of the trial was almost entirely consumed
by the reading of the Act of Accusation. That this docu-
ment should have grown to so unusual a bulk is not to
be wondered at, since it covered a space of two years,
and contained a detailed relation of all the criminal acts
perpetrated in that interval by members of the ultra-
socialistic party, in which all prisoners then present at
the bar had directly and personally participated. The
Act was divided under ten different heads, comprising
the following offences : Participation in the murder of
Prince Krapotkin, the Governor of Kharkoff, in Febru-
ary, 1879 ; in Solovieff's attempt on the Emperor's life
in April of the same year ; in the socialistic-revolution-
ary convention which took place at Lipetsk in the follow-
ing June, and at which the subsequent attempts were
planned, it being at the same time resolved to use dyna-
mite instead of ordinary weapons ; in the ensuing three-
fold murderous attempt in November, 1879, by means of
dynamite mines laid under railway tracks at three different
places, of which one proved useless as his Majesty changed
his route at the last moment, another took no effect from
unknown causes, probably unskilful management, and the
192 RUiSIA^ NIHILISM AND
third did by its explosion cause the destruction of the
Imperial train, but did not endanger the Emperor's per-
son, owing to his having passed the spot a few moments
before in an ordinary train ; in the laying of a powerful
dynamite mine under one of the apartments in the Win-
ter Palace, resulting in the terrible explosion of the 17th
of February, 1880, which caused the loss of eleven lives,
and more or less severely injured fifty-six persons. Fur-
thermore, several of the prisoners were accused of organ-
izing and entertaining an active secret press in the capi-
tal, for the purpose of printing and spreading abroad
revolutionary proclamations, flying numbers of seditious
and terroristic papers, as also of forging passports and
other documents ; the same prisoners being moreover ac-
cused of having offered armed resistance to the police,
who surprised them in their hiding-place with the press
in full activity. The prisoner Presniakoff was charged
besides with having fired at two persons who aided a dis-
guised policeman in arresting him on one of -the public
streets, wounding both and causing the death of one.
Lastly, all the prisoners were "accused of belonging to
the secret society of the socialistic-revolutionary party,
whose object is, by sedition and violence, to subvert the
State institutions and social order, and which has mani-
fested its existence by a long series of the heaviest politi-
cal offences." They were also all charged, with three
exceptions, with having lived under numerous assumed
names, supporting their aliases by forged passports and
other documents ; while the prisoner Drigo was accused
of having supplied the socialistic-revolutionary party with
the funds necessary for carrying out their very expensive
undertakings and machinations.
The question of funds is one which has considerably
puzzled public curiosity. People cannot carry on costly
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
mining-works in different parts of the country and secret
publishing on a large scale, travel at the shortest notice
from end to end of so vast an empire, hire and buy
houses to conspire and work in, and maintain a large
number of subaltern agents, mostly needy young men,
who in devoting their time and energies to "the work"
give up their only chance of earning even a precarious
livelihood, — people cannot do all this without spending
large sums of money ; and where does the money come
from ? — for it is a curious but well-established fact, that
men as a rule are more lavish of their lives than of their
purses. The accusation against Mr. Drigo answers this
question very fully and very strikingly ; and as he
pleaded guilty, with only a distinction of degree in the
offense, and his case, therefore, presented no difficulty or
complication, it may as well be disposed of now, at this
early stage of the proceedings.
Though there may have been small contributions for
revolutionary purposes from the less needy members of
the party, it is now proved that the great bulk of the ex-
pended funds were derived from the private fortune of
Demitri Lizogoub, a prominent leader executed in
August, 1879. This gentleman, judging from no other
data but those supplied by the Act of Accusation, the
speech of the counsel for the Crown, and the few simple
remarks offered by Drigo in his own defence, appears to
have been by no means an ordinary character. Having
early come into an inheritance consisting of landed prop-
erty to the amount of something over one hundred and
eighty-seven thousand roubles (exactly half of that sum
in dollars, at the present low rate of exchange), as was
testified by his brothers at his trial, he immediately be-
gan quietly to. turn every acre into money, which he con-
sistently applied to the uses of " the party," limiting hiat
194 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
personal expenditure to the trifling sum of five hundred
roubles a year. He evidently looked on his wealth as a
sacred deposit, of which he was but the steward, in con-
science bound to husband it for the furtherance of " the
good cause," allotting to himself only the merest pit-
tance necessary for actually supporting life. So thor-
oughly did he carry out his sternly-planned self-denial,
that at the time of his death barely thirty thousand
roubles could be found of his considerable patrimony.
Eepeatedly implicated in political machinations, and once
already placed under temporary arrest, Lizogoub found
it unsafe to remit the required sums directly and in his
own person to the respective agents, as also to attend
himself to the final liquidation of his still remaining es-
tates,— a measure which became doubly urgent after he
was again and definitely arrested in 1878. Some time
before this event, he had placed his entire fortune, by
means of full powers of attorney, in the hands of his
neighbor and early friend, Vladimir Drigo, and used to
give him private directions as to the payment of more or
less considerable sums, from one hundred roubles to one
thousand and upward, and at different times to sundry
individuals who proved to be revolutionary agents of the
deepest dye. Even from his prison in Odessa Lizogoub
managed, by contrivances which have not been found out
to this day, and which seem to imply connivance from
quarters where such would least be looked for, to keep
up an active correspondence in short notes with his po-
litical friends and Drigo, who continued to carry out his
orders with respect to further payments out of his prop-
erty. One of these notes, bearing the postscript, pathetic
in its simplicity, " / trust you," came into the hands of
justice, and was shown to Lizogoub' s two brothers, who
recognized it as being in their brother Demitri's hand-
EXILE LIFE Iff SIBERIA. 195
Writing. Drigo meanwhile, urged by his friendship for
the prisoner, worked hard and anxiously to accomplish
the final liquidation, — partly by effecting sales in his own
name, partly by transferring large sums into his own
hands and those of other trusty friends, as the only way
of securing means of existence to Lizogoub in the future,
no more tragical issue of his trial being at first antici-
pated than a rigorous banishment. But a judicial sen-
tence is usually accompanied by degradation ; that is to
say, the condemned person is stripped of his rank and all
civil rights and privileges thereto pertaining, and dis-
abled from holding property, which, if he is in possession
of any, is either confiscated to the Crown or passes to his
heirs as though he were dead, as the sentence may be.
The most ordinary mode of eluding this severe clause,
which would leave a condemned prisoner penniless, is by
fictitious mortgages and bills, the friendly holders of
which foreclose at a given moment,, and thus rescue the
prisoner's real estate or movables from the law, and
either apply the income to his needs, or, by liquidation,
secure for him a capital. This operation Drigo was anx-
ious to accomplish in Lizogoub' s behalf, but the fatal ter-
mination of his friend's career rendered further efforts
unnecessary ; and, besides, not much of the fortune was
left, as has been seen. From the moment of Lizogoub's
death, Drigo' s connection with "the party" entirely
ceased, and none of its members received from him any
more pecuniary assistance. The latter fact was duly no-
ticed in the Act of Accusation as an extenuating circum-
stance. He was only charged with having supplied cer-
tain persons with funds, not his own indeed, but which
he knew would be used for illegal purposes. The case
against him was very fairly stated thus: " The person
who gave the 11101103^ might be ignorant of the meditated
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
crimes for* the perpetration of which it was raised, but it
could hot be unknown to him that the supplies which
passed through his hands were destined for revolutionary
purposes." Drigo did not deny the fact of having paid
sums of money to sundry persons, strangers to him, by
Lizogoub's order ; but pleaded that, placed as he was, he
could not act differently ; nor did he admit having any
knowledge whatever of their illegal character. He abso-
lutely denied ever having belonged to the revolutionary
party himself, a denial borne out by his antecedents,
which showed him to have been a model landlord, looked
up to by all his neighbors, and never implicated in any
political troubles before he consented to take on himself
the full management of Lizogoub's property. " I was
guided in my actions solely by my friendship to Lizo-
goub ; and if friendship constitutes a political offense, in
that case I must plead guilty." With these simple words
he closed his brief defence. The sentence passed against
Drigo was, in consideration of his exceptional position
and honorable character, as mild as could be expected, —
degradation and simple banishment to the Government of
Tomsk, in Western Siberia.
When, after the Act of Accusation had been read,
the prisoners were asked in the usual form whether they
pleaded guilty or not guilty, they did not attempt una-
vailing denial ; all, with one exception, pleaded guilty in
the main, but with certain qualifications and more or less
nice distinctions as to details, shadings of opinion or in-
tention. Some, while avowing that they belonged to the
socialistic-revolutionary party, denied all connection with
that fraction of it which advocated terrorization. One
said : " I admit that I am a socialist, but I am not a rev-
olutionist." Kviatkovsky and one other allowed that they
had taken part in the socialistic convention at Lipetsk,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 1D7
but would not concede that the ensuing attempts gainst the
Czar's person had been there resolved upon, except the-
oretically and conditionally : "Should certain contingencies
take place, it was to be done ; should they not, it might be
left undone." " It was decided," explained his compan-
ion, "to repeat the attempts, should the Government per-
sist in the line of conduct it' had pursued towards the
* party' and the people. But the Convention did not
discuss the questions as to how it was to be done, by
whom, and under what circumstances; so there was no
talk of mining and dynamite."
At the preliminary examinations the prisoners had
made confessions even more ample than they appeared
willing to indorse before the court. They may have been
advised by their counsel not to criminate themselves un-
warily, nor to make unnecessary admissions. Still, on
the whole, denial was certainly not the line of defence
which they adopted. Among the witnesses who would
be summoned to confront them they knew that one was to
be brought forward whose deposition would be evidence
most damning and conclusive against them — a witness
from the dead as it were, and one of their own number.
Goldenberg, an Israelite aged twenty-four, the mur-
derer of Prince Krapotkin, did not take his place on the
prisoners' benches with his sixteen companions, being
shortly reported in the Act of Accusation to "have
died in the fortress, on the 29th of July, 1880." His
act and his fate are not the least striking feature of
this extraordinary trial. He wrote and signed a relation,
most full and elaborate, not only of his own doings in the
service of the revolutionary party, but of all those of his
fellow-conspirators in which he had borne a part, or of
which he had a knowledge ; he laid bare all that was
known to him of the secret central organization called
13
198 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
" the directing and the executive committees;" he left
out no detail, no name. Then — he committed suicide!
Were it not for this last circumstance he would stand
branded as the blackest of traitors, and we should be
disposed to yield but scanty credence or sympathy to the
long preface in which he expounds his motives and aims,
even though it contains much weighty reasoning, much
deep, apparently genuine feeling awakened by the sor-
rowful retrospect and gloomy anticipations natural to a
spirit sobered by long confinement. As it is, we may at
least suspend our judgment, give the unfortunate youth
credit for sincerity, and wish that the sad reflections
wrung from him by suffering and despondency should
gain ground among his former associates, who would
possibly cease from their murderous machinations with
very weariness, if they could but once become convinced
that by persisting in them they only disgrace and undo
the cause which they seek to uphold.
Goldenberg begins by professing himself a member
not only of the socialistic-revolutionary party, but of
that fraction of the same which under the denomination
of " disorganizes " or " terrorists " has undertaken to
subvert the whole now .subsisting order of things, and to
compel the Government, by sheer force of intimidation,
to desist from its entire political course, and especially
the repressive measures which it has long pursued against
such of the association as fell into its hands. " I am an
advocate of political murders," he adds, "in so far as
they are substitutes for free speech, as they undermine
the public confidence in the government and its organi-
zation, and as a given agent of the government has
deserved his doom — that is, in so far as he is obnoxious
to the socialistic party." Then, after touching shortly
on the grounds which made him proclaim himself the
assassin of Prince Krapotkin, he goes on :
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 199
" A long interval of time has elapsed since then Solitary con-
finement, like every evil thing in the world, has its good side, which consists
in enabling a man to think, and think freely, unhindered and unswayed by the
course of events. I have done so, and found that after traveling so arduous
and bloody a road nothing is done anywhere, not among the people, not
among society, not among the youth of the land, and that the struggle still
continues — a most wearing struggle : men perish, and perish without end, in
dungeons, in Eastern Siberia, lastly on gibbets. I especially centered my
thoughts on the proceedings of the terrorists, and came to the conclusion that
they had entered on a mistaken course ; that while they strive with their
whole souls, with all their might, for the most natural and undoubted human
right — that of political liberty — they have not chosen the right means to
attain it. I found that political murders not only had not brought us nearer
to that better state of things for which we all long, but had on the contrary
made it incumbent on the Government to take extreme measures against us ;
that it is owing to that same theory of political murder we have had the mis-
fortune of seeing twenty gibbets raised in our midst, and that to it we are
indebted for the dreadful reaction which lies with crushing weight on all
alike. I reflected that the socialists ought to have known and remembered
that the Government is able to put forth the same means, but with an amount
of might which must destroy all that crosses its path. . . . Such were
some of the cheerless conclusions to which I came after much thinking. Of
course, I might have persisted in my former convictions. I might have gone
on leading men to death, and have calmly died myself on the gibbet, had I
known that I should be the final expiatory victim, that my death would close
this sad and horrible period of our social development. But the thought that
my death-sentence would not be the last, that more would follow and inevi-
tably call forth new reprisals, which in their turn would be visited on the party
by still severer measures, and thus the number of the victims would go on in-
creasing, until the Government would after all come out victor from the
unequal conflict, from which it never can desist as long as the entire move
ment is not put down — this thought filled me with inexpressible dread. . . .
I stand aghast at the certainty that persecution must at last overcome, sup-
press for a long time, the general active stir so healthful in itself in favor of
political reform, and that we shall then bitterly regret having manifested our
activity in so harsh a form as to drag to perdition numbers of unheeded vic-
tims."
There is nothing in all this that the most earnest,
upright lover of his country could not endorse ; no sound
head, no feeling heart, but must deplore with the solitary,
brooding prisoner the fatal excesses which he denounces,
and wish that all his associates might come to the same
tardy, dearly-bought insight. Can we refuse him our
200 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
sympathy when he expresses a passionate desire "to put
an end to all these evils, to assist in bringing about a
speedy transition to another and better state of things,
to save many from the death-sentence impending over
them?" But when he tells us by what means he intends
to achieve all this, we look at each other in puzzled be-
wilderment : can he seriously think he will save his
friends by turning informer against them? Does he
blind himself to the ugly word by the pompous phrase-
ology in which he clothes it?
" I have nerved myself to a most dire and terrible act; I have resolved to
employ a remedy which makes my veins throb painfully, and my eyes over-
flow with burning tears. I have resolved to repress within myself all feeling
of either enmity or affection, and to perform another great act of self-denial
for the good of our young men, of our society, of our beloved Russia. I have
resolved to lay open the entire organization, all that is known to me, as a
preventive against the dreadful future which awaits us, against a whole series
of executions and other repressive measures."
It would certainly be a satisfaction to be quite sure that
the converted terrorist meant well, and if he did commit
suicide after completing his revelation there would be
little doubt of his sincerity. Still, the connection be-
tween the end which he proposes to himself and the
means which he takes towards it is very difficult to estab-
lish— so much so that there have not been wanting scep-
tics who entirely disbelieved in his death, and considered
the report only as a clever mise en scene to avoid his per-
sonal appearance in the witness-box and a possible reac-
tion of feeling, 'or simply to shield him from the ven-
geance of the betrayed. I have heard many persons says :
" Goldenberg is fast becoming the hero of a cycle of legends. . . . Some
believe he is not dead at all, but is only kept in concealment ; and that he
suffered himself to be moved to a full confession by the promise of a very
large sum of money and impunity. Many persons in the best circles share
the belief that he is alive."
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 201
Yet his suicide was formally announced in the Narod-
naya Volia, the secret revolutionary organ.
Meanwhile, and whatever be the true solution of this
obscure and distressing point, Goldenberg's deposition,
which occupies a great many newspaper columns, is one
of the most extraordinary, the most thrilling documents
which it is possible to read. Not the most exciting
memoirs penned by a gifted hand in stirring times, not
those of Cellini himself, can surpass in fascination this
unadorned, unimpassioned narrative. We need only fol-
low its consecutive statements, but slightly commented
on or corrected in the subsequent answers of the prison-
ers, the final speeches for the accusation or the defence,
to see the whole strange drama enacted before our eyes,
appalling in its very homeliness and in its utterly com-
monplace details. The whole thing looks so familiar and
at the same time so wildly unreal, that we are tempted to
rub our eyes and ask, where are we? Are these things
done in the latter quarter of the nineteenth century? Are
these the men — the boys — whom we have sympathized
with and soothed in their grievances, their aspirations,
their alternations of despondency or exaltation?
Here is a circle of young people, with nice, homelike
names, gathered round a tea-table with its hissing samo-
var— a scene- which every Eussian woman has presided
over a hundred times. The young men are mostly stu-
dents of the universities of Kieff or Kharkoff ; the girls
belong to the same class of unquiet spirits. They talk
much and loudly, their animated gestures and excited
faces show that they are discussing one of those burning
questions du jour which in a certain circle turn every so-
cial gathering into a pandemonium on a small scale,
where through dense clouds of cheap cigarette-smoke
eyes flash, arms are flourished, voices ring, sharply iso-
202 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
lated or blended into a general din ; where there is every-
body to speak and no one to listen. We all have assisted
at some of these unparliamentary debates, where the
newly-brewed thought revels in ungovernable fermenta-
tion. But hark ! the theme is somewhat startling: it is
a question of life or death which is being canvassed.
Judgment is being passed on the governor, Prince Krap-
otkin, whose brutal ill-treatment of the students — both at
their last mass-meeting, when a troop of Cossacks rode
into the midst of them plying their nagaikas (horsewhips)
right and left, and later in the prison to which many
were summarily consigned — calls for retaliation. And
now a newly-arrived guest addresses the circle, ?,nd is
listened to as one whose word claims authority. Golden-
berg writes :
" I wished to alleviate the lot of the prisoners, and also to take vengeance
on Prince Krapotkin, as the cause of their sufferings. I came to the conclu-
sion that the best means to compass both these ends would be to kill
him, as a sure way to turn the attention of both Government and public to
the fate of political prisoners in general. ... I did not at once declare
my own determination to do the deed, but only expressed my opinion that
such a measure ought to be taken against him — an opinion to which all re-
sponded approvingly. There was much discussion concerning the manner
in which it should be done," so as more forcibly to influence the public. I
and* two others (one a woman) were for an open act, but the majority were in
favor of secret assassination. . . . The question was decided in this
sense, much against my earnest wish."
This was in the last days of December, 1878. From
that time to the 21st of February following Golden berg,
faithfully aided by a crowd of associates — some of whom
he knew only under their assumed names, since one and
all they lived with forged or borrowed passports — coolly
prepared the execution of the decree. Not less than
twenty persons are named as having in different ways as-
sisted him. One of them, Goldenberg's inseparable
attendant, entreated his friend to yield to him the honor
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 203
of the execution ; 'k but I told him and Zoubkavsky that
I would shoot the man who should interfere with me and
kill the prince in my stead." This young zealot was
Kobyliansky, one of "the sixteen," then not quite
twenty. " The little Pole," as he was called with some
degree of contemptuous pity, afterward boasted to f riends
at a distance from Kharkoff that he was the murderer,
but at the trial denied having even had any knowledge of
the contemplated deed, and altogether was the only one
of the party who bore himself in a way which showed
him to be a poor feeble-minded creature. The two con-
spirators dogged the Governor for weeks, and more than
one opportunity was missed ; one day a fog made it too
uncertain to fire, another day the distance was too great ;
one evening they met him in the theatre, " but he was
with his wife and daughter, and they did not wish to en-
danger them." At length, on the 21st of February, as
Prince Krapotkin was returning home alone between nine
and ten at night, Goldenberg, who was pacing the side-
walk before his house, ran up to the carriage, fired a
well-aimed shot through the open window, and disap-
peared in the darkness. Favored by the night and
watched over by friends, he had no difficulty in escaping
from the city. The death of the victim ensued only a
week later.
The scene changes to St. Petersburg. We find there
O O
Goldenberg, safe and undaunted, busily planning a more
terrible sequel to his first successful crime, and sur-
rounded by a numerous set of new acquaintances and as-
sociates, of whom he distinctly states that he did not
know the real name of one. "The little Pole" still
hovers admiringly round him, with unabated ardor. But
his most constant companion is a young man lately ar-
204 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
rived from a distant province, with a deep-set purpose
in his heart. The three frequently visited together a
shooting-gallery, where the new-comer assiduously prac-
tised his eye and hand. What his purpose was did not
long remain a secret. At a meeting held with amazing
recklessness, almost openly and within general hearing,
at a much-frequented tavern in one of the most crowded
streets, that purpose was declared and discussed. The
question propounded was the expediency of a decisive at-
tempt on the Czar's life, to be undertaken by a man of
strong nerve and unswerving resolution. There was no
lack of volunteers. Goldenberg coolly proposed him-
self, on the ground that he had been tried and had noth-
ing to lose, — his life being already forfeited by reason of
one murder. His offer was rejected on account of his
Hebrew nationality and religion, for fear that so desper-
ate a deed might throw too great an odium on his entire
race, since Christian communities have ever been but too
prone to hold it collectively responsible for offences com-
mitted by individuals belonging to it. " The little Pole/'
baffled in his ambition at Kharkoff , was anxious to obtain
the far higher distinction of laying low so much more
exalted a head. But he was set aside at once as entirely
unfit for so responsible and terrible a mission. His being
a Pole was judged a sufficient objection, since the conspir-
ators did not wish the regicide to be attributed to national
animosity. None but a Russian hand should be raised
against the head of the Russian people, that the world,
well aware how deeply the almost religious feeling of loy-
alty is rooted in every Russian breast, might from the
enormity of the deed judge of the magnitude of the pro-
vocation and the deadliness of the resolve. These youth-
ful enthusiasts seem to have approached this culminating
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 205
act of their political creed with a certain degree of awe,
somewhat in the spirit of Brutus : —
" Let us be sacrificers, but not butchers. . . .
Alas!
Caesar must bleed for it ! And, gentle friends,
Let's kill him boldly, not wrathfully. ...
This shall make
Our purpose necessary and not envious,
Which, so appearing to the common eyes,
We shall be called purgers, not murderers."
At last Solovieff, the new arrival, declared the debate
useless, since he was determined to strike the blow him-
self, whether empowered to it or not, having come from
Saratoff for no other purpose. He added ihat this re-
solve had originated in his mind independently of any in-
stigation, and that he would yield the execution to no
other person; that should "the party" decide to ad-
journ or forego it, he would separate himself from them
and act on his own responsibility. ' ' It was his idee fixe,' '
said Kviatkovsky , when questioned on the subject. Noth-
ing now remained but to settle questions of preliminaries
and details, of which the most urgent was to give secret
warning to "the illegal parties" — as they are expres-
sively named from the fact of their living illegally under
assumed names and with false papers — to leave the city
at once, so as to involve as few persons as possible in the
coming catastrophe. Tt is well known that the meditated
attempt was committed by Solovieff on the 14th of
April ; that he failed, and paid for his fanaticism with
his life.
But by far the most thrilling pages in Goldenberg's
narrative are those in which he describes, with the life-
like vividness of an eyewitness, the mining of the rail-
way track on the outskirts of Moscow, which ended in
the explosion of the 1st of December. At the convention
206 RUSSIAN NIHILISM ANT)
held by the leaders of the socialistic party at Lipetsk in
the preceding June, and whose doings and resolutions de-
serve a separate paragraph, the regicide question had
been amply discussed. It was settled in the affirmative.
Whether only " theoretically and conditionally" or in a
definite form, as to time and place, ways and means, is
of no material importance. Enough that very soon after
the convention separated, several of its most prominent
members, with a dogged stubbornness of purpose and an
almost incredible recklessness of danger and detection,
set to work to carry out the very elaborate preparations
for a great final and, as they confidently imagined, uner-
ring coup. The revolver was discarded for a surer and
even more deadly agent — dynamite. A sufficient quan-
tity— three pouds, about one hundred and twenty pounds
— was secretly manufactured in St. Petersburg and sent
off to Moscow under the care of two passengers who took
it as a favor with their own luggage, never suspecting
that the box labelled " Crockery" contained anything
else, and on arriving in Moscow left it, as directed, in the
luggage-room " till called for " by the person to whom
they had been requested to hand over the check. Three
pouds more were taken to Kharkoff by two of the con-
spirators, who carried it simply in their trunk. This
trunk they kept for some time at their hotel, then had it
conveyed first to the lodgings of a student, and lastly to
those of a lady friend, both of whom belonged to " the
party," yet were not informed of the contents of the
trunk, part of which was afterward carried as ignorantly
by a third person to Odessa, and there safely received.
That no accident should ever have happened in all these
peregrinations seems almost miraculous. But the manu-
facturing and transporting of dynamite was the least part
of the undertaking. Much the most difficult task was
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 207
the long and wearisome mining process, the difficulty
being greatly increased by the inexperience of the labor-
ers, the scarcity and imperfection of the tools, and the
necessity of submitting to countless discomforts in order
to preserve the silence and outward tranquillity indispen-
sable to avoid a detection always imminent at the best.
Nor would it have been possible to achieve even the pre-
liminaries without the assistance of the female associates,
an assistance which was rendered with unremitting cheer-
fulness, unflagging presence of mind, and absolute self-
devotion. Goldenberg shared for a time the exciting
life and labors of his Moscow friends. And if, as is
averred, some of them had been drawn into the current
of sedition and conspiracy mainly by a certain adventur-
ous restlessness of spirit, a craving for release from the
tame routine of modern life ; surely they must have
been amply satisfied. Such a state of constant alarm,
perpetual watchfulness, hair-breadth escapes, familiarity
with peril even to the blunting of the keen -edged sense
of danger, is just wrhat we look for in one of Cooper's
Indian stones or a Highland tale, but is infinitely startling
in the midst of a modern, orderly, civilized community.
Thoroughly and cunningly had the enterprise been
devised to the smallest details. A house situated in close
vicinity to the track had been purchased under the name
of one of the conspirators — assumed of course — who settled
in it with one of the young women who shared the secret
and gave herself out as his wife, and a few companions,
male and female. Several more took possession of fur-
nished lodgings hired in the city itself by another such
fictitious couple, who used to come over for the day. The
house was too small to accommodate permanently so
many inmates. Besides, it was deemed advisable not
to affront the wondering gossip of a prying neighbor-
208 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
hood, which would infallibly have been started on the
right scent by such an overcrowding of narrow quarters.
The city-lodgings, moreover, were to facilitate communi-
cations, and, in case of need, to favor concealment and
flight. The direction of the work was entrusted to the
nominal owner of the house, known under the nickname
of " the Alchemist." A subterranean gallery had to be
conducted to the track, passing under the embankment.
One or more openings were to be bored through the
track itself, and iron pipes containing dynamite were to
be inserted into the holes. The distance was somewhat
longer and the labor rather harder than had been antici-
pated. The sides and roof of the gallery, dug in the
soft earth by hand and shovel, were prevented from fall-
ing in by boards, which were placed triangularly, tent-
wise — a piece of work which necessitated a most uncom-
fortable twist of the body, since in no place was there
sufficient height to stand up. The whole stock of tools
consisted of two shovels and a sort of scoop, like that
used by grocers, to smooth the sides of the gallery
before placing the boards ; the auger or borer and the
pipes lay in readiness — they had been ordered in Mos-
cow, the workmen of course being ignorant of their des-
tination. The auger was afterward sent to St. Petersburg,
where it turned up in the secret printing office and served
as one of the most convincing items of evidence. The
earth was taken out on sheets of tin plate, provided with
casters and running on rails — an ingenious contrivance of
1 1 the Alchemist. ' ' Each load was brought under the hatch
or shaft cut in one of the rooms on the ground-floor, and
raised by means of ropes, worked from above by a spe-
cies of roughly constructed windlass. The greatest dif-
ficulty was how to dispose of the earth and rubbish. At
first it was spread out and smoothly trodden down in the
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 200
yard ; then they began to fill the cellar with it, and lastly
took to shovelling it into the larder on the ground floor,
which at one time was crammed so tightly that the walls
gave way, and boards began to fall out of them. Diffi-
culties increased as the work advanced. A wooden post
on which they stumbled gave them very much trouble.
Stones greatly obstructed their advance as they neared
the embankment. In one place water oozed through the
top of the vault and threatened an inundation, so that it
had to be pumped out ; and once the work was inter-
rupted for two days. Lastly, and in spite of ventilation-
pipes laid in every convenient place, the air grew more
and more oppressive and scarce, not to mention the dan-
ger of being buried under crumbling masses of earth — a
danger which became so great that "the Alchemist"
always carried poison about him, to insure himself a
prompt and painless death, should the expected catastro-
phe really come to pass. The fatigue, the hardship, and
the suffering must have been terrible to men for the most
part unused to manual labor. Yet this seditious house-
hold seems to have been by no means a gloomy one. Its
members were united ; the self-imposed duties were dis-
charged with enthusiastic emulation. Only one proved
"a wretched workman, and so lazy that he was dis-
carded ; " another was in bad health, and for that reason
was sent off on some easier errand, not without taking
with him a small stone from the gallery " as a keepsake."
One of the youngest members, though miserably ill all
the while, and probably consumptive, was the most inde-
fatigable laborer of all. His deep conviction of working
for the good of his country supported him through hard-
ship and pain. But even aside from the ultimate object,
the well-known beneficent, exhilarating power of work,
the actual process of labor in itself, independently of
210
RUSSIAN XIHILISM AND
every association or ambition, must have made itself felt
in heightened pulse and genial flow of spirits. These
fanatical young miners must often have rejoiced at some
obstacle overcome by patience, at some success achieved
under difficulties by some simple but clever contrivance, at
some gossip outwitted, without reflecting at every instant
that the result for which they strained nerve and brain
was to be death to many, and in all probability to them-
selves. There is a freshness and cheeriness about this
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 211
part of Goldenberg's relation which is very pathetic
when contrasted with the circumstances under which he
wrote. He dwells on little incidents of no importance
whatever with respect to the momentous facts of which
he treats, but full of interest and dramatic vividness, as if
even in the dreary, hopeless solitude of his prison cell he
still enjoyed the whiff of life and liberty wafted into his
living grave by the retrospect of those days of lawless-
ness and danger, but also of daring and enthusiasm. He
writes :
" We worked very assiduously, beginning generally about six in the morn-
ing ; by eight we usually had placed one pair of boards, when we came in to
tea. We then worked on till two, our dinner hour ; took a short rest, and
worked again till ten. ... I remember that once, during the first days
of my stay, the former owner of the house, Anna Trofimoff, came in to get
some sweet meats which she had left in the larder. This happened in the
morning, and she was met by Hartmann, as the rest were all underground.
Mariana Semiovna [the lady who played housekeeper to the party], being
aware that the larder was choke full of earth so that several boards had burst
out of the sides — a state of things which could not fail to excite the visitor's
attention — professed to have lost the key, and so kept her away from it.
Another morning Anna Trofimoff came in with a relative of hers, to take
away some other things. At that very moment Mariana Semiovna was ap-
proaching the house with her marketing. We did not wish her to be met by
Anna Trofimoff, who might have noticed the large quantity of her purchases,
so we rapped on the window and signed to her not to come nearer ; she un-
derstood us and retired. She was quite equal at any time to take care of herself
and us. Thus once, when Anna Trofimoff 's servant Mary came in and made
some remarks which caused us to feel uncomfortable, Mariana began to talk of
her housekeeping, and how the cat had drunk all the milk, and so turned off
the conversation. ... I also remember that Hartmann once forgot to
shut and lock the door of the kitchen, where we had cut the hatch. Next
morning an old man came, whose name I do not remember, but who used to
live in the house before it was sold, and, on entering, remonstrated with
Hartmann on the imprudence of leaving the door open. We were in the
next room, and hearing this were greatly frightened, lest the old man might
have noticed our work : but he had not."
The women shared the household duties with as much
eagerness and good-will as1 the men jointly pursued their
212 KUSS1AX MZU1JSM AM)
underground work. Nor was their assistance limited to
this humbler sphere. When the day and hour of the
Emperor's passage was announced in the. papers, and the
roles had to be finally distributed for tlie closing scene, it
was Sophia Perovsky who was ordered to stand on the
track, watch for the train, and give the signal by waving
her handkerchief. " She was greatly pleased," says
Goldenberg, " that this duty had devolved upon her, and
repeatedly told me that she considered herself fortunate."
Meanwhile it was known that the police hovered alarm-
ingly in the neighborhood, as they always do around
every railway station on the imperial itinerary ; and it
was unanimously resolved, in case of surprise, to blow up
the house, but on no account to surrender alive. From
that moment Sophia Perovsky or another continually
mounted guard with cocked revolver in the room where
the dynamite was kept in two large bottles under a bed,
ready at any moment to fire into it.
Shakespeare might have dramatized this' sketch ; but
could he have improved it?
Lipetsk is a small and rather insignificant town mid-
way between Moscow and Kharkoff, in the Government
of Tamboff. It glories in some springs of very mild
mineral waters, which in the short midsummer season,
with the orthodox accompaniment of noisy bands of mu-
sic and noisier casino, attract considerable crowds of
doubtful refinement, representatives of the second-hand
world of fashion, when the place flares up for a few
weeks into a sort of hectic, fictitious life. It was here
that Kviatkovsky, Goldenberg, and their friends, after
the failure of the 14th of April, met by previous ap-
pointment toward the end of June, openly, in the public
gardens, mindful of the fact that privacy is nowhere
more undisturbed than in a throng, and that it is safest
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
213
to talk secrets with doors wide open. These desultory
meetings and preliminary conferences went on for some
days, until all the lenders, convoked from different parts
of the empire, were assembled. Then, when the serious
14
214 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
business had to be attacked, it was deemed advisable to
adjourn to more secluded spots, and the party used to
saunter singly, or in small groups, into a neighboring
wood, or to row themselves across the river, and hold
their seance in an open meadow. The points to be dis-
cussed and resolved upon were all-important : they were
the expediency of renewed attempts against the Czar's
life at no distant period, and the urgency of giving the
party " a stronger, more compact organization." Gol-
denberg says :
" The first of these points was readily disposed of. I and several others
spoke in favor of a prompt execution of the intended regicide, in order quickly
to convince the Government that harsh measures would not put a stop to the
movement directed against it, and that therefore it would have to make con-
cessions. ... I moreover moved the assassination of the Governors-
General of Odessa, Kieff, and St. Petersburg, though, of course, only in case
that it should not interfere with the regicide, which was to be our first and
principal object."
It is especially impressive and painfully significant to
find these sanguinary measures countenanced by a young
man, Goldenberg's particular friend, whom he expressly
mentions as " one of the gentlest and most humane of
men, held in profound esteem by the entire revolutionary
party, although he belonged to one special faction of it.
1 should remark," he adds, " that he was not very favor-
ably inclined to the terrorizing system, and had but lately
joined it, moved solely by a revengeful and embittered
feeling against the Government in consequence of a long
series of cruel persecutions, which had impressed him the
more deeply that some of those who had suffered death
had been his associates and friends."
Little contradiction, then, was encountered by the
resolution decreeing a further continuance of the "ter-
rorizing system." The difficulties of the organization
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 215
question were much greater. It was, indeed, a compli-
cated question , at least practically ; for in theory all had
long felt the absolute necessity of greater unity, of more
concerted action. The different fractions of the social-
istic or revolutionary party, distinguished by various
shadings of opinion not merely as to the means to be em-
ployed, but frequently as to the ultimate objects to be
pursued, preserved toward each other an indifferent,
sometimes almost hostile, attitude, and carried on a sep-
arate propaganda by means of their several secret organs
printed and disseminated by different centres, which dis-
claimed all connection with each other. It was to con-
ciliate these dissentions, to merge all the various frag-
mentary cliques into one vast co-operative organization,
that so many leaders met at Lipetsk. It was, an almost
hopeless task ; and though they did achieve a certain re-
sult, and even produced a sort of statute, — which, how-
ever, was never printed, — it was, on the whole, a very
imperfect and makeshift performance. There was to be
a "directing committee," which, from the nature of the
duties it assumed, might be called a superior agent ;
while the " executive committee " clearly ought to have
taken an inferior position. On this Goldenberg, with a
characteristic directness which at once discloses the
feebleness of the organization, remarks :
" But our people generally objected to subordination, and therefore the
executive committee was not really placed under the control of the directing
committee. The latter was bound to know all that was going on in the ter-
roristic faction, and indeed, in the entire revolutionary party ; in its hands
were centred all the resources of the party, and it was to provide the neces-
sary means for whatever undertaking was in hand. The ' executive ' was to
consist of persons whose duty it was to take an active part in such undertak-
ings, of course with the knowledge of the directing committee. It does not
follow, however, that the initiative of a given undertaking belonged exclu-
sively to the directing committee ; far from it. The executive also had the right
of making motions and submitting them to the higher committee. There was
216 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
no such thing as a strict line of demarcation between the two, as can be seen
from the fact that a member of the directing committee could not issue binding
dispositions without the sanction of the executive, nor take on himself execut-
ive acts. It was, moreover, resolved to have agents of two degrees ; those
of the first degree to be invested with greater trust, those of the second with
lesser. The duty of these agents was to fulfil whatever was imposed on
them. The directing committee was to reside in St. Petersburg, the mem-
bers of the executive wherever their presence and services would be needed."
One of the prisoners completed this account at the
trial by remarking that "the distinction between the
members of the organization and its agents was real and
important. It was resolved that persons who were as yet
little known, but whom it could be hoped to find useful
and reliable in the sequel, should be attracted by every
possible means, and tried occasionally in small things,
with great care to find out, above all, whether they
approved of the general programme of the party, and
were fit to be trusted with the execution of more impor-
tant missions.
This is, indeed, the very infancy of co-operation ; and
if so many desperate deeds were achieved, or at least at-
tempted, it is to be attributed not so much to the effi-
ciency of the association, lacking as it was in blind dis-
cipline, that main nerve of every secret society, as to the
powerful individuality of some of its members, acting
severally or in groups. Goldenberg's rather naively
worded statement, "our people generally objected to
subordination," sets forth in homely fashion a lesson
taught by the whole history of Russia ; namely, that
" our people," though able at any moment to muster a
superb array of personal capacities, intellectual and
moral, have always been, through lack of training or
some more deep-lying natural bias, singularly unapt for
prolonged combined action. We are born protestants,
every one of us ; and however we may yield up our will
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 217
to external guidance, there always remains an indestruc-
tible nucleus of reasoning self, which rebels and shrinks
from going all lengths merely because we are told to do
so, even in a cherished cause, and under approved leader-
ship. This quality, like every other, has its good and
evil sides. It has at times disastrously asserted itself in
our history — as when, enforced by petty rivalries and
mutual jealousies, it retarded by more than one score of
years the final liberation of our land from the Tartar
yoke, which might have been thrown off earlier by the
united action of our several princes. Yet, on the other
hand, when called into play by honest motives, it con-
tains, perhaps, a safeguard against that passive subjec-
tion to mere authority which makes men follow a waving
banner when it has ceased to be anything but a rag of
silk or bunting, and stake their lives and souls on a
watchword after it has long been only the empty shell of
an idea. However that may be, this key-note makes
itself distinctly heard through the uproar of our late
troubles. It rings out very clearly in Solovieff's declara-
tion that, should his associates unanimously disapprove
of his project, he will separate himself from them, and
pursue it at his own risk, and on his own responsibility
before the law and before his conscience. We may be
very sure that the knot of underground workers on the
outskirts of Moscow would not have been deterred from
their undertaking by the most positive prohibition from
their party's highest authorities ; they would simply have
seceded, and gone on doing what they considered right
and necessary.
One item of the unwritten statute seems to have been
most consistently carried out — that of secrecy. The
means employed were twofold : first the lavish use of
false papers, most o'f the agents being provided with sev-
218 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AM ,
eral names and passports to match ; second; the strict
observance of the rule to keep every agent as much as
possible in the dark concerning everything but the par-
ticular " job" imposed on him, and, as far as feasible,
in ignorance even of his fellow-conspirators, who were to
be- introduced to him as occasion required, and as the
more knowing agents saw fit. No agent was, on any ac-
count, to discover himself even to his nearest and dearest
without the authorization of a superior agent. This sys-
tem must have produced a most intricate social status,
and made daily life a network of imbroglios to which old
Spanish comedy was simple and transparent. What a
curious state of mind to live in, when a man was liable
at any moment to see some inoffensive comrade — a light-
hearted sister, or cousin, or young lady friend — -appear
in the character of a blood-thirsty revolutionist : to rec-
ognize in the stranger to whom he was formally intro-
duced his dearest friend, whom he thought of as hundreds
of miles distant ; to form new friendships without ever
knowing his new friends' real names, or their knowing
his ! In short, every man must have lived under the be-
wildering impression that everybody, himself included,
was, or might prove to be — somebody else ! Indeed, the
sedulous observance of these aliases and disguises almost
suggests an amused suspicion that this, as one mightterm
it, masquerading part of conspiring was not without exer-
cising a peculiar attraction on the youthful plotters, after
they had been duly prepared and electrified at frequent,
though generally not numerous, meetings by the well-
directed harangues of able and experienced agitators.
Goldenberg has in one place very graphically described,
in his unadorned style, these match-and-gunpowder ex-
periments. The meeting of which he speaks had been
arranged at the house of a schoolmaster, and was at-
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 219
tended by some twenty persons, young men and young
women. Says Goldenberg :
"I spoke about the purport of the terroristic movement; alluded to regi-
cide, of course only theoretically, without even hinting that such an act was
really in contemplation. My object was merely to feel my ground, and find
out the views of the young people on this topic. I took care not to overstep
plausible bounds, and did not expatiate on the greatness of our power and
resources. Closely observing the impression which my speech produced on
the young people, I came to the conclusion that they did not fully comprehend
me, and that all the things I was talking of were rather novel to the major-
ity of my audience; at the same time, I could see that I had aroused in them
the wish to elucidate all these questions. The second meeting took place at
the house of a student ; it was attended by forty persons — the former twenty
and twenty more, whose names I cannot remember at this distance of time.
. . . The result of these meetings was that our young people took the
greatest liking to them, and began to manifest an almost passionate desire to
have them frequently repeated."
That so powerful and far-reaching a weapon should
not be neglected by the leaders of the party when they
discussed the practical questions of ways and -means, was
but natural. Accordingly we find it decreed that, " apart
from political murders and regicide, a vast plan of agita-
tion shall be pursued among ' the young people,' the
army and peasantry." It is well known, however, that
in the two latter classes, from organically historical
causes which it would take a separate paper to investi-
gate, revolutionary agitation has always signally failed,
to the confusion and not unfrequently the personal danger
of the agents employed.
Such were the principal acts and resolutions of the
famous socialistic convention held at Lipetsk in June,
1879, the immediate sequel to which were the threefold
railway mining attempt and the crowning scene of which
we still have to record. But in describing the horrors of
the 17th of February, 1880, and all that followed it, we
are deprived of our invaluable guide, Goldenber"g's depo-
220
NIHILISM AND
sition. The daring revolutionist's career came to a close
with those last busy days which he spent with his mining
friends near Moscow. He was sent off by them to
Odessa for the dynamite forwarded to that city several
weeks before, and now rendered useless by the Emperor's
change of route and consequent cessation of the mining
operations on the track, as it was thought the reinforce-
ment might be available for the Moscow mine, and insure
KXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA.
more complete success. In Odessa, Goldenberg had in-
terviews with several associates, received the dynamite,
and having packed it in his trunk, together with sundry
bottles of wine and cans of preserves, — a very welcome
offering from the ladies of the party to their Moscow
friends, — he was calmly proceeding on his way to the lat-
ter when he was arrested at Telizavetgrad, a railway sta-
tion half-way between Odessa and Poltava. This hap-
pened five days before the explosion on the Moscow track.
Yet, even though deprived of the valuable information
concerning the preparations for the final coup of the 17th
of February, which a continuation of Goldenberg' s nar-
rative would doubtless have afforded us, we still find in
the examinations of the prisoners and witnesses, as well
as in the speech of the counsel for the Crown, sufficient
scraps and traits from life to enable us to piece together
a very vivid picture of the dismay and confusion which
must have arisen in the Winter Palace when that tremen-
dous crash broke in upon the compliments with which the
Emperor was welcoming Prince Alexander of Hesse, who
was that evening to be his guest at a family dinner in the
private apartments. Officials wildly rushing into the
lower story, under the impression that either the steam-
boiler or the gas had exploded ; the alarm-bell of the
corps-de-garde ringing frantically at the same time ; the
shrieks and groans of the dying and wounded, who
struggled painfully from under the debris of the demol-
ished guard-room, or lay helplessly crushed beneath them
(sixty-seven persons in all!); lastly the sudden report
that one of the three carpenters in whose room the ex-
plosion was discovered to have taken place was missing, —
all this must have combined into a scene of uproar and
terror not easily matched outside of a beleaguered and
bombarded city. The report about the missing carpen-
222 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
ter, which was speedily confirmed, restored some degree
of order and composure, by giving a definite object to the
hitherto aimless search and random surmises of the
panic-stricken inmates. It was soon evident that this
man, and no other, had been the doer. He had been
seen in the basement and in his room a quarter of an
hour before the explosion ; had then been found busy in
the dark at something or other by one of his comrades,
who on entering had offered to strike a light, but had
been roughly prevented by him ; and from that moment
the carpenter had entirely disappeared. Further inqui-
ries showed that this person, who called himself Baty-
shkoff, had been employed in the palace over six months,
and, while he approved himself a well-behaved, thorough
workman, had been noticed by his companions and su-
periors as a man of education, highly intelligent, and
fully capable of taking a plan and making a correct draw-
ing. About a month before the explosion he had brought
a heavy chest and placed it in his room, and, on being
asked what he did it for, had jestingly answered that he
meant to hoard a treasure from his earnings in the palace.
Subsequent investigations and various discoveries, — such
as a cleverly-sketched plan of the Winter Palace, on
which were some words in his handwriting, his identifica-
tion by witnesses from a photograph, etc., — proved be-
yond a doubt that the supposed Batyshkoff was no other
than Khaltourin, a notorious revolutionist, who, under
the greatest variety of aliases, and as far back as 1875
and 1876, had been plying an active " agitation " among
the working-classes, and organizing the secret association
known under the name of " Northern Workingmen's
League." He was specially fitted for this circle of ac-
tion, being himself one of the working-class and by birth
a peasant, who, by self-education and a course of studies
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
in a technical school, had qualified himself for the part
of a leader. He was never found after his disappearance
from the palace, and we cannot help wishing he may
have effected a final escape, as it is known that he was in
the gripe of a foe as implacable as human justice, — con-
sumption, which in our clime seldom gives long respites
to its victims. He had been talking of going south, and
seems also to have had a vague intention of making his
way to America, to found or join some agricultural colony
on socialistic principles.
It was, of course, not for one moment supposed that
this attempt, planned as it was on so gigantic a scale,
with such far-reaching foresight, executed with such un-
exampled daring and infallible precision, should fiave
been the isolated deed of one fanatical schemer. Its
connection with the vast terroristic system, suspected
from the first, was soon established by the concatenation
in which it was proved to stand with certain other facts,
revealed a short time before, but not yet fully explained
— facts which, by the light now shed on them, stood
forth in their full significance, too obvious to need more
than recording, in order to bring the last crime home to
the central influence from which so many others had
emanated.
It is now that the name of Kviatkovsky first becomes
conspicuous. Until the very moment of his arrest, this
remarkable man, one of the "master-spirits" and mo-
tive powers of the whole engine, had contrived to escape
a notoriety which must have deprived the party of one
of its most gifted leaders, and had worked steadily and
covertly in the dark, participating, indeed, in all the
more important machinations, putting in an appearance at
Lipetsk, but reserving to himself more especially the
handling of that chief lever of all, the secret press,
224 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
whose discovery and suppression quickly followed his
arrest and the search instituted in his lodgings as early as
the 6th of December, 1879. Some articles produced by
this search were deemed, not unreasonably, to be con-
clusive evidence of his complicity in his party's crown-
ing act of frenzy. Yet Kviatkovsky himself, from
reasons difficult to fathom, saw fit utterly to deny to the
last having been concerned in this particular act, or hav-
ing had previous knowledge of it, even while protesting
that he had no hopes that such a denial could save his
life, which he admitted to be forfeited on many other
grounds, each of them sufficient to seal his doom. It is
hardly to be supposed that so clear-headed a man should
have expected his word to prevail against such circum-
stantial evidence as the following articles found in his
own room : ( 1) a plan, very correctly drawn from mem-
ory, of the Winter Palace, with some words aud short
notes proved to be in Khaltourin's writing, and found
crumpled up on the floor in a corner, amid a heap of
waste-paper; (2) three portable mines, complete and
ready for use; and (3) a passport under the name of
Batourin, one of Khaltourin's well-known aliases. Yet
he persisted in his most incredible statement that he
knew nothing of the plan until it was found in his room,
and that he had not the remotest suspicion by whom it
could have been brought or left there ; that the passport
had been given him to keep by a friend, who himself had
it from an unknown workingman, and that he had never
been told Batourin 's real name. As for the mines, he
simply declined telling who had brought them to his
rooms.
But this search, exhaustively carried on all through
the evening and night (from 6 p. M. to 5 A. M.), led to
even more important results, as hinted above. It em-
EXILE LIFE IN" SIBERIA. 225
braced not only his own room, hut that of Eugenie
Figner — a young lady of considerable ability and educa-
tion, Kviatkovsky's devoted fellow-worker, and to whom
he seems to have been attached by more than the bond of
a common cause. She was one of the sixteen prisoners
at the bar. Both of course lived under assumed names.
Her ostensible occupation was music, to which, as a
measure of precaution, she devoted enough time every
day to enable her cook to depose at the trial that " the
lady was mostly playing on the piano in the absence of
the gentleman, who used to go out early in the morning,
and to come home only to dinner and tea." The same
witness, however, added that both "the lady" and her
sister, who at one time stayed with her, " used to write
a great deal," — a piece of information which, consider-
ing her connection with the manager of the secret press,
was not interpreted in her favor. But then, nothing
much more criminating could have been adduced against
them both than a simple enumeration of the articles
found in their lodgings. In Eugenie Figner's room, a
glass vessel with dynamite ; a bundle of white paper, the
size and shape of Narodnaya Volia (Will of the Peo-
ple) ; and six hundred and fifty-three copies of odd
numbers of that paper itself. In the dining-room, forty-
five copies of a proclamation issued by the executive
coraittee on occasion of the late railroad explosion near
Moscow. In Kviatkovsky's own room, packed in a
trunk, proof-sheets of the Narodnaya Volia, and other
products of the "free press;" forty-five copies of
a revolutionary programme of action ; several manu-
scripts containing seditious matter, evidently ready for
the press ; a proclamation " To the brave Cossack army,"
and sundry letters ; lastly, a package of forged pass-
ports, certificates, and other documents. Kviatkovsky,
226 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
aware of the unanswerable nature of the evidence, did
not attempt denial for his own part, but only used every
effort to clear his friend by asserting that the crimina-
ting articles found in her bureau had been laid there by
him shortly before the search, in her absence and with-
out her knowledge. In his defence — for he, in common
with several of his companions, had refused the assist-
ance of the counsel proffered him by the court — he main-
tained this point as earnestly as his denial concerning his
complicity in the catastrophe at the Winter Palace.
The next important disclosures were made at the lodg-
ings of another active accomplice, searched a few days
later, on the 16th of December. From the nature of the
articles found in his possession it was evident that this
person — an inferior clerk in some government office — was
chiefly employed, probably on account of his skill in pen-
manship, in the manufacture of those false documents
with which agents were so lavishly supplied. A com-
plete set of the necessary materials and implements, to-
gether with a handsome collection of autograph signatures
of high officials, were discovered in a large leathern trunk,
besides a number of proof-sheets and papers similar to
those confiscated in Kviatkovsky's rooms, and the usual
accompaniment of dynamite obligate. Moreover, the
owner's connection with the secret press was made pat-
ent by the presence of a quantity of type of a size cor-
responding to that of the " Narodnaya Volia." But the
final and most tragical event came to pass a few weeks
later, on the 30th of January, 1880, when the police
descended in force, assisted by a party of gendarmes, on
the revolutionary printing office itself, after having first,
by long and patient spying and ferreting, ascertained be-
yond the possibility of a mistake that it was organized in
a private lodging kept by one of those fictitious couples
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 227
who form so conspicuous a feature of these strange
times. The scene which ensued must have been chaotic ;
for it is a hopeless task to try and elicit anything like a
consistent, orderly narrative from the mass of fragment-
ary, individual evidence given by the different actors.
Their statements are not contradictory, only vague and
confused ; like those of men who have been engaged in
action too exciting and too rapid to be able to account for
it minutely in cold blood. So much is certain : the door
was not opened in obedience to repeated summons, and
had to be burst in ; the police, when they at length
forced their way into the rooms, were confronted by
utter darkness, silence, and clicking revolvers ; a violent
blind scuffle ensued, in which about sixty shots were ex-
changed, without serious results, on account of the dark-
ness. At last there was a cry, " We surrender !" "How
many are you;" was asked. "Five!" answered a fe-
male voice. Another was heard in angry remonstrance :
" Cowards ! was it not agreed that we were all to tight it
out ! And now you skulk behind and leave us women in
the front." In another moment, and after some strug-
gling on the part of the men, four persons, two of them
women, were secured and bound, while six revolvers were
picked up from the floor.
One of the police officers who advanced into the
other rooms to look for his prisoner, was greeted on the
threshold of the furthest one by a double report ; and
when a lamp was at length brought in (it must be re-
membered that our private houses are not lit with gas),
he beheld a ghastly sight ; a man lying dead upon a mat-
tress on the floor, shot through the head, — evidently an
act of suicide, committed as a last resource against sur-
render. Both balls, from two shots fired in immediate
succession, had entered the right temple through the
228 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
same opening almost simultaneously, leaving a black and
carbonized edge around the wound, but had issued from
the skull, after traversing the brain, in two different
places, — through an opening just above the left ear, and
another in the crown of the head. When the prisoners
had been disposed of, and the search could begin without
further disturbance, the first thing that was discovered,
thrown into a corner of the room where the dead man
lay, and wrapped in some old matting, was the identical
auger which had been used for boring purposes in the
Moscow railway mine. The rest of the booty made up a
most formidable inventory : a printing press in perfect
working order ; about 25 pauds (1,000 pounds) of type,
4,000 copies of the "Narodnaya Volia" heaps of
forged documents, — passport blanks, certificates of dif-
ferent kinds, etc. — together with everything necessary
for the fabrication of those documents, some dynamite
of course, two pamphlets on the preparation of the sub-
stance, several plans illustrating the process of blowing
up a rapidly advancing train, and many other things, be-
sides the six revolvers and three daggers. This was
certainly sufficient to justify the accusation in affirming
that " these lodgings contained, besides the secret print-
ing office, the central agency for the manufacturing of
false papers and supplying therewith all persons for
whom it became necessary to assume an ' illegal ' posi-
tion, as well as a laboratory for the preparation of dyna-
mite and other explosive substances."
The separate charge against the prisoner Presniakoff—
given in the Act of Accusation under the head of
" Armed resistance to the agents of the law, as expressed
by two shots fired by the prisoner, wounding one and
causing the death of the other of his captors" — presents
no particular interest or complication, and may therefore
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 229
be dismissed with the brief remark that the prisoner's
guilt was amply proved. It remains to record the sen-
tence, pronounced late in the evening of the seventh day
of this long and laborious trial. For Kviatkovsky, Pres-
niakoff and three more, it was death by hanging ; for
the remaining eleven, banishment to Siberia in dif-
ferent grades of severity, with or without imprisonment
and hard labor, and for terms varying from fifteen
to twenty years. At the same time the latter prisoners
were recommended to mercy, and considerable commu-
tations proposed for all. In its final form, the sentence
condemned only two to hard labor in the mines for fif-
teen years. Of the rest, some were sentenced to hard
labor, not in the mines but in state factories, for four
and eight years ; some to banishment to more or less
remote parts of Siberia ; while Drigo and one other es-
caped with a very mild sentence, simply obliging them to
reside hereafter in the Government of Tomsk, the most
western, and consequently most civilized, region of Si-
beria. Degradation was passed alike against all. In
confirming the sentence of the court, the Emperor fur-
ther commuted the death penalty of three of the five
condemned prisoners to exile, with imprisonment and
hard labor for life. To Kviatkovsky and Presniakoff,
however, the imperial mercy did not extend ; and they
suffered death on the 16th of November, within the walls
of the fortress.
It is but fair to state that, throughout this long and
fatiguing judicial procedure, the treatment used towards
the prisoners was uniformly considerate and polite, the
mode of addressing and questioning them scrupulously
courteous ; also, that the counsel for the prosecution in
their speeches not only evidently strove to remain within
the strict bounds of impartial justice, but repeatedly
15
230 RUSSIAN" NIHILISM ANL>
showed a leaning towards leniency. Thus, in deferring
to one of the female defenders of the printing office — a
woman of the peasant class who had lived there ostensi-
bly as cook — the orator parenthetically expressed hope
that the judges would find it not inconsistent with their
duty to visit her with the lightest possible punishment,
in consideration of her ignorance, almost even of reading
and writing, and of her utter want of culture amounting
to stupidity, and accompanied by partial deafness. All
this is in keeping with the serious and dignified spirit in
which our lawyers, since the great judicial reform, regard
their profession. That compound of unseemly virulence,
ferocious vindictiveness, and bombastic phraseology
which, under the name of reqisitoire, is the disgrace of
French criminal courts and the glory of an aspiring pro-
cureur du roi — or de Vempereur, or de la republique, as the
case may be — is utterly repugnant to the deep humane
bent of the Russian nature. A Russian procureur would
scorn to dig into the past life of an unfortunate prisoner,
in order triumphantly to drag to light his most trivial
youthful peccadilloes, nay ! his schoolboy pranks, and by
dint of cruel ingenuity to force and twist them into so
many proofs of a precocious viciousness, an unnatural pro-
pensity to evil, until he stands before society a predestined
criminal, a monster branded even before he failed, and
now placed entirely out of the pale of humanity. Ever
since the European judicial forms and institutions were
transplanted into Russian soil, and quickly took root in
it, our parquet has been remarkable in the discharge of
its duties by a moderation and humane regard to fairness,
which prove it to have thoroughly grasped the higher
sense of its responsible and so often painful functions.
It could not be otherwise in a country where the common
people call prisoners of all kinds, without distinction of
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 231
rank or degree of criminality, by a generic name mean-
ing " unhappy ones," but conveying a shade of infinitely
deeper and tenderer pity than can be rendered by the
English word. When the chained gangs of malefactors
— and alas ! political convicts were not exempted from
the practice — used to be led across the whole Empire on
their endless, weary march to Siberia, the population of
the villages would pour out to meet them, and may be
escort them a short distance, not with insults and impre-
cations, but with gentle words and outstretched offerings
of food and even money. Now that convict trains and
convict cars run on all the lines, and have done away with
this long preliminary torture, popular sympathy still as-
serts itself at the railway stations, and many a douceur
of tobacco, delicate wheaten bread, or small coins, is
handed in at the windows.
Siberia ! the mines! Horror-laden, these words loom
out mysteriously, an awful impersonation of the great
bleak North, which appears in a vague remoteness, as a
limbo of punishment, desolation and despair ! And truly
it were difficult to overrate the dreadful import of those
names. The vast arctic continent with its huge, slug-
gish, silent rivers, its immense lowering forests teeming
with fur-bearing game, its stilt more immense expanses of
eternally snow-bound plains, its hidden ore, its convict
colonies, is not a cheerful picture to contemplate, at least
not this side of the picture. But there is another side to
it. The statesman and political economist sees in this
gigantic appendage to Russia a great promise for the
future, a rich reserve of potential resources. He watches
rejoicingly its growing cities, its incipient colonization,
its developing industrial and commercial enterprise, the
progress of culture which slowly but surely spreads,
"brinsniur with it its thousand demands of intellectual and
c o t
material refinement, where till lately money-making
232 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
reigned supreme in its most vulgar, unmitigated coarse-
ness. And he knows that these results are in great part
effected by the influx of the Russian element by means
of convict transportation. It would take me far beyond
my present limits, and away from my present theme, to
discuss this very extensive and intricate subject. But it
will not be inconsistent with either to attempt a sketch of
the probable future career of the hundreds of young men
who of late years have trodden the long, dreary road to
the far East.
Let us follow those whose doom is heaviest. Few of
them — probably none — will end their allotted term at
the mines or State factories. An untimely death will
doubtless end the sufferings of man}7, enfeebled from ill
health brought on or aggravated by confinement, hard-
ships, or climate, before the tardy hand of mercy can
reach them. Yet, wonderful to say, many more survive
the horrors of the first years than would seem possible
for men of gentle nurture and urihardened body. If
they are resigned and quietly behaved, they will after a
while — three, four, or five years instead of the fifteen or
twenty of their sentence — be brought under one of the
so-called " gracious manifestoes " which are always being
issued on occasion of birthdays, births, marriages, etc.,
in the Emperor's immediate family, and transferred to
some one of the convict colonies, from which in due
time they will be released in like manner and allowed to
live within some particular rural district, at a great dis-
tance from city or town, and under strict surveillance of
the local police. Gradually the range widens, till it
comprises district towns ; the surveillance is lightened ; at
last the capital of the Government itself is opened to
the half-pardoned convict, and with it society and re-
sources of every kind. Society, indeed, is apt to lionize
him. It now depends in a great measure on himself, his
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 233
good sense and abilities, to shape his further fortunes.
Men of education and scientific or technical attainments
are in as great demand, and for the same reasons, in our
far east as in the far west of this country. And when
by the end of ten or twelve years, as is generally the
case, and after having previously been transferred to the
more populous and civilized western Governments, the
political convict is restored to his rank and privileges,
freed from all disabilities and finally recalled from ban-
ishment, it is by no means rare to see him return to the
shores of the Baikal of his own free will, to settle there
for life. I have known such lawyers, physicians, engi-
neers, miners — able and energetic men, who had come to
love the wilderness, with its wide openings, its large hos-
pitality, its manifold possibilities, and would not have
exchanged it, except on compulsion, for what they had
already learned to call the cold, narrow spirit of the over-
crowded cities of the old world ; though heaven knows
they need not have objected to any portion of even old
Russia on account of over-crowding ! One young law-
yer in particular do I remember. He was little over
thirty, sturdy of frame, and keen of look ; his manners
had lost the polish of his early social training, and ac-
quired a certain not unpleasing self-relying nonchalance.
He had come to St. Petersburg on a hurried trip to see
his friends, assert his newly-recovered rights, and trans-
act some business ; but all his thoughts were centred on
a speedy return to Irkoutsk, where he had left a promis-
ing and already flourishing practice, some half-started
ventures in JL mining enterprise, and, as he almost hinted,
a fairer attraction than all these, in the form of a well-
dowered daughter of some wealthy merchant. He was
so enthusiastic in his descriptions as almost to become
poetical, and every day he was detained in the capital
appeared to him a real loss. Such political exiles as are
234 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
not deprived of their liberty, but only bound to reside
within certain assigned districts, of course have all the
more chances in their favor. The intercession of friends
at home also does much to shorten their term and hasten
their transfer to cities or more habitable regions, if thejr
behave judiciously, and have not the exceptional ill-luck
of falling under the rule of some of those ignorant and
wantonly brutal officials, whose number diminishes with
every year, and who will soon live only in local traditions,
the indignant records of the contemporary press, or the
memoirs of some prisoners endowed with literary talent.
The assassination of our Emperor, Alexander II., is of
too recent occurrence, the particulars of which, and of
the trial of his murderers are too well known by all the
civilized world for me to enter upon a consideration of
any of the circumstances connected therewith. All Rus-
sia mourns his loss as a grateful child would that of a kind
and indulgent father.
No sovereign, not Elizabeth herself, had done for his
people spontaneously what Alexander II. had done for
his. Splendidly supported by his nobility, he had car-
ried out the abolition of serfdom with a high hand, with
precipitation 'almost, and intolerance of all gainsaying
which was the very recklessness of an honest determina-
tion to '-do right quickly, and at all cost. This gigantic
act was followed, with scarce breathing time between, by
one of hardly less importance — the judicial reform, in-
troducing open courts of law and public trial by jury.
Then came the partial enfranchisement of the press
after the model, very imperfect indeed, of the French
press-laws under Napoleon III., but expressly announced
as preliminary and temporary. Was that the man, was
that the sovereign, to be requited with an assassin's ball?
Nothing was less justifiable than the shot fired at the
Emperor in 1866, but so naturally kind-hearted andmer-
EXILE LIFE IX SIB Kill A.
235
236 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
ciful was he, that there are few now who doubt if left
to himself he would have spared the life of his murder-
ous assailant. Had he followed the merciful dictates of
his own heart, the first "misunderstanding" between
him and his people might never have arisen. If at
that critical hour there were any by his side who took
advantage of the disturbed state of the monarch's spirit,
thrown off its balance by this gratuitous, most unmerited
assault, to whisper to him counsels of wrath and reprisal,
to increase their own importance by an exaggerated show of
devotion and alarm, to urge him into a course of general
suspicion and reaction, under pretence of insuring the
safety of his person, endangered by his too confiding
neglect of their previous advice — if any such there were,
Heaven forgive those men ! History will not, if she
ever lays hold of their names.
A passing misunderstanding ! Fifteen years blotted
out of a country's life ! A couple of hundred years
from now posterity will mention the name of Alexander
II. with the reverence of a martyred saint, and place
him in that galaxy of human satellites whose deeds still
fill the world with radiance. But we are not posterity.
We are burdened with affections which keep us down
and prevent our soaring to a bird's-eye view of our own
times ; so we see the accessories which will wane into the
indistinct back-ground of the ages some day, but which
stand out at present clear and mournful. A few hundred
human lives sacrified may be a very paltry item ; hardly
so to us, however, when they happen to be those of our
brothers, our sons, our lovers, our friends — of " our
boys," in short. It is vain that history sternly points
to other lands and other times, and reminds us thut with
such as these, crushed, laid low, with all their budding
promise, their splendid powers, their daring aspirations,
the path of all human progress has been strewn,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
CHAPTER XI.
THE interest which I hope has been inspired in the
reader by a perusal of the preceding pages, will, I trust,
increase in the following chapters describing my observa-
tions while in that most desolate, wild and so little
known portion of the earth — Siberia.
Looking back to the time when I was first able to read
imperfectly, I can remember my longings to visit, as an
adventurer, that wonderful country, about which so many
thrilling stories were told ; of its vast arctic expanse ; the
homes of wretched exiles in eternal isolation from the
world, as it were ; of packs of hungry wolves chasing or
devouring travellers ; of how the wild boar and Russian
bears are hunted, and many other printed relations des-
criptive of Siberia's frozen wilderness. Year by year
this desire intensified, until the outrages of Nihilism at
last determined me upon a visit to Russia, and an inves-
tigation of that subject naturally took me far into the
interior of Siberia, w^here my ambitions were at length
fully gratified.
Before leaving St. Petersburg I learned by chance that,
notwithstanding the correctness of my passport, it would
be necessary for me to procure a special permit before en-
tering Siberia, or it would be impossible for me to return
again without putting our minister to the trouble of se-
curing my liberation through official correspondence,
237
238
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
which even might not
be successful. After
procuring such pass-
port as was necesary
I took the train for
Moscow, where I
spent several days
viewing things of in-
terest in that quaint
| old capital. Among
§ the many places of
^special importance I
c visited in Moscow
£ was the celebrated
< Central Prison, which
g is a depot where is
5 collected all offend-
< ers whether political
£ or otherwise who
Cd
^ have been sentenced
£ to exile in Siberia.
< It must be remem-
| bered that capital
§ punishment is not
< practiced in Russia
| except for high trea-
w son. Convicts for
other high crimes are
sentenced to varied
terms of imprison-
ment or banished to
different parts of Si-
beria according to
the degree of crime ;
vthe most dangerous
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA . 239
criminals are sent far east to the mines ; others are
confined in Siberian prisons, whilst those guilty of
minor offenses are sent to swell penal colonies in vil-
lages which are under police surveillance. But all pris-
oners sentenced to Siberia are first brought to Moscow
and lodged in the Central Prison, from whence they
are taken under convoys, in relays of generally three
hundred, to the place of banishment.
This prison is constructed to hold twenty-five hundred
convicts, a number which it not unfrequently contains.
All the prisoners wear long, rough coats having an orange
colored square patch sewn into the back. There are two
yards, in one of which are the minor criminals unfet-
tered, while in the other are those convicted of serious
crimes ; these wear large chains on their feet attached to
which is an iron ball weighing about twelve pounds.
The saddest sights to bo witnessed at this prison are
the wives and little children of the convicts, who have
travelled many weary miles to say a last good-bye to those
they love, or who have decided to accompany their rela-
tives into exile. The number of wives who voluntarily
join their husbands in banishment is truly astonishing,
and is a striking exemplification of that truthful saying:
4< Nothing can equal a woman's love." The parting
scenes, witnessed almost weekly at this prison, are often
inexpressibly sad, one of which I now recall only to re-
awaken the sorrowful sympathy I then experienced. A
young, handsome fellow who, I was told, was a political
offender, had been brought to Moscow with a large party
of prisoners four days before I saw him. While engaged
with my interpreter making inquiries I was greatly
startled by a sudden scream, when, upon looking around
to discover the cause, I saw a young woman bearing a
little babe on her left arm, while her right was clasped
240
IIUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
tightly about the young fellow's neck ; they were both
crying and trembling in an agony of poignant grief.
Amid choking sobs they talked in their native tongue,
which to me was unintelligible, but I soon saw that the
young raau was expostulating with the woman about
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
something which only added to their already overwhelm-
ing sorrow. My interpreter soon gained for me the par-
ticulars, which were these : The young man was the hus-
band of the woman and had been convicted in the city of
Yaroslaf upon a charge of printing and circulating revo-
lutionary literature, his sentence being hard labor in the
Siberian mines for a period of ten years. When taken
to Moscow the young wife was not permitted to accom-
pany him on the train, but so strong was her attachment
that she determined to see him at least once more, and
gathering up her little girl babe, started alone, on foot,
for Moscow, one hundred and seventy-five miles distant.
Day and night she pushed as rapidly along as her feet
could carry her with the burden of her child, fearing that
she might not arrive before her husband's departure,
until on the morning of the fourth day she reached Mos-
cow and had the inexpressible satisfaction of greeting her
shackled and grief-burdened husband. This meeting
served only to increase their agony, for the wife insisted
upon accompanying her husband into exile, while he,
with feelings of wounded pride, could not consent, and
bade her return home. I left them still clasped in each
others' arms, crying bitterly, and never learned afterward
whether or not the young wife became an exile for her
husband's sake. Such incidents as these, however, are
very common at the Central Prison, but they only pre-
pared me for much more sorrowful sights which I was to
witness in Siberia.
Before leaving Moscow I went through the Kremlin,
which is an immense wall, 7,280 feet in circumference,
within which are many, in fact nearly all, the interesting
features to be found by a visitor in the city. In 1812,
when besieged by Napoleon, by command of Russia's
greatest field marshal, Suwarrovr, all of Moscow was
242
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
ALEXANDER III. AND THE CZARINA ENTERING THE KREMLIN AT MOSCOW.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 243
burned except within the Kremlin, but even this wonder-
ful citadel did not escape injury, as several mines were
sprung beneath it by the French. Napoleon took pos-
session of the Kremlin and had his quarters in the palace,
which is inside the walls, but there being no means for
provisioning his army, he was compelled to retreat with
the most disastrous results that are recorded in all
history.
The Kremlin is entered by five gateways, to each
of which some tradition attaches. The " Redeemer's
Gate" is the most important; over its arch is hung
a picture of Christ, so ancient that no one knows its
history ; many verily believe that it was hung over the
gateway by the Madonna herself. It is told and believed
by all devout Muscovites that the French tried to remove
this picture because they thought its frame was solid gold ;
to accomplish this, they placed ladders against the wall,
but every attempt to mount was frustrated by the ladders
breaking; they next tried to batter down the wall with
cannons, but the powder would not ignite ; fires were
then built under the cannons, but when they did explode,
'it was backward, killing many artillerymen. They
next tried to break the picture down with stones, but
never a stone could bo made to strike it. It is a fact, that
one of Napoleon's powder trains accidentally exploded
near the gate, which destroyed many surrounding build-
ings and cracked the tower and archway up to the holy
image, but the picture and lamp which hung before it
escaped injury.
The buildings inside the Kremlin include churches,
monasteries, jirsenals and museums, all of the Tartar style
of architecture, surmounted by belfries, turrets, donjons,
spires, sentry-boxes fixed upon- minarets, domes, watch-
towers, etc., and having walls pierced with loop-holes
244
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
and crenelated crowns after the fashion of fortresses in
the middle ages, the whole presenting a picture of great
THE GREAT BELL OF MOSCOW, AND IVAN VELIKI ToWER.
variety and pleasing aspect. The best views of Moscow
are obtained from the Sparrow Hills (from which Napo-
leon first sighted the city), the tower, or from the Moskva
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 245
Rekoi bridge, which crosses the Moskva river near the
south wall.
The great tower, Ivan Veliki, is 325 feet in height,
which may be ascended by a succession of very steep,
narrow stairways. It was erected by Boris Godunoff in
the year 1600, and contains forty-three bells of various
sizes, some of which are pure silver. The great bell,
"Czar Kolokel," which was cast in 1730, was hung in
the tower, but fell seven years later when the upper por-
tion of the tower was burned. Its immense weight
caused it to sink very deep into the earth, where it remained
one hundred years, until Nicholas I. caused it to be
mounted upon a pedestal where it still stands. This bell
is twenty-one feet in height and weighs 400,000 pounds ;
its value, estimated at the price for old metal, is
$200,000. A large piece, broken out of the bell by the
fall, lies beside it, and the clapper is in the chamber
underneath.
It was on Saturday, the 12th of August/that I left
Moscow for Nijni Novgorod, in the company of Captain
Spicer, of New London, Connecticut, and an interpreter
named Smith, who is a native of Jersey City, New Jer-
sey, but for the past seven years has been a resident of
Moscow, where he acts as guide and interpreter for
American visitors. Capt. Spicer was also enroute for Si-
beria, being interested in the fur trade, and intending to
explore northern Siberia in quest of fur-bearing animals.
His company was very acceptable to me, for I saw only one
other American while in Moscow, the Kev. John Hall,
of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian church, New York
City, who was spending his summer vacation in Russia ;
and in Siberia I did not expect to meet with any one who
could speak my language.
The distance from Moscow to Nijni is 273 miles, which
16
246 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
is accomplished by rail in 13 hours. I remained in Nijni
over Sunday and Monday to attend the great fair which
is held there annually from August 1st to October 1st ;
though in ordinary times the town does not contain a
population of more than 45,000, yet during the fair there
maybe seen fully 200,000 persons here engaged in barter.
The city, which is generally called Nijni, to distinguish
it from Great Novgorod, appears to have been founded
in 1222, and as early as 1366 fairs were annually held
there. In 1641 a charter was granted to the Monastery
of St. Macarius, 71 miles below the town, empowering the
monks to levy taxes on the trade carried on at Nijni. This
privilege they continued to enjoy, much to their gain,
until 1751, when the trade, which was created by the
fair, became so nearly free that the revenue, which now
became the Government's, did not exceed $500. Statis-
tics show that from 1697 to 1790 the value of the an-
nual trade carried on at this fair increased from $60,000
to $22,500 000, while now it is estimated at $80,000,000
annually.
The town is situated on a hill at the very center of that
water communication which joins the Caspian, Black,
White and Baltic seas, besides it is the eastern terminus
of the world's railway lines, and the point of contact of
European industry and Asiatic wealth. Below Nijni is a
vast bottom land over which flows in spring and winter
the confluent waters of the Volga and Oka rivers. Dur-
ing the summer season the waters recede, leaving this bot-
tom of sand ready for the purpose to which it is so well
adapted. Immediately a tattoo of hammers begins which
ceases neither day nor night until the whole vast plain is
covered with frame shanties of every conceivable descrip-
tion, into which fabrics of every design and complexion
are crammed ; the articles thus exposed at the fair come
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
247
FAMILIAR SCENES AT THE NIJM FAIR.
248 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
from all parts of the Empire as far east as Kamschatka,
while China, Thibet, Hindoostan, Tartary, and even
Japan are well represented when the fair opens. Such a
conglomeration of sights and smells can be found at no
other place in the world as in Nijni ; during the day-time
there is a jam and bustle among buyers and sellers who
crowd the sidewalks and streets, so that passage through,
on foot, is almost impossible. Beggars, orpin-grinders,
auctioneers, jugglers, performing bears, Punch and Judy,
and an olla prodrida of jumbling jacks and catch-on-as-
you-please kind of attractions are crowded in among the
legitimate features of the fair. When night throws its
shadows over the bustling scene, there is a magic change
in the panorama ; a million lights blaze up and throw
flickering rays, like dancing jimiii, over a weird en-
semble. The shops are closed about ten o'clock to give
place to a revelry of chaotic choruses. Open air concerts
are on every side, in which the chief features are half-
naked women howling bacchante songs and kicking at a
space much above their heads. Among these depraved
artistes Circassian girls are more numerous, those beauties
of the Caucasus we read so much about, but who, in fact,
are fair and luscious only at a distance of one thousand
leagues from the observer. Polish girls are also plentiful
in these bazaars of freedom, and as a class they are very
handsome. I saw two negro women (who were from
the West Indies) at one of the concerts, who attracted
as much attention as an Indian Rajah would in the United
States. They were rated far above ordinary mortals, and
had for escorts distinguished government officials, who
hung on their words like bumble bees on the honey of
fresh clover blossoms.
I perambulated around through the fair and night
scenes until exhausted nature could perform no more,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
249
when I retired to a room in which there were already
thirteen other occupants snoring off the potations they
WOODEN CHURCH IN NIJM-NCVGOKOD.
had indulged. I had an old quilt to repose on, which
smelt like^a Dutch cheese factory freshly stirred up, au<J
250 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
resembled the last assault in a Polish insurrection. But
putting a clothes-pin on my nose, I lay down and slept
with my eyes wide open to prevent being surprised by a
lot of murderers, whom I very agreeably supposed the
thirteen howling stump-suckers to be.
My visit to Nijni proper was much pleasanter because
I could not see so much. The town has a Kremlin in
imitation of that in Moscow, a grim, loose-jointed citadel,
having battlemented walls and mediaeval towers surround-
ing a score or more of Byzantine churches with cupolas
running up in bunches until their apexes terminate in
gilded crosses. Most of these churches are wooden struc-
tures, made in the ornate style peculiar to Russia and
Turkey, adapted equally well for devotional exercises or
a bonfire.
All the large cities on the Volga (Samara alone ex-
cepted), Saratof, Simbirsk, Kasan and Nijni-Novgorod,
are situated on the picturesque and hilly side of the
Volga — that is, on its right bank, for the left bank is
flat and featureless throughout. The only thing which
distinguishes Nijni-Novgorod from the others is that its
range of hills is higher and its situation consequently
more imposing, while the intervening country between the
village of Podnoveye and Nijni is eminently picturesque.
Two white buildings, the Pajorski Monastery and the
St. Mary's Institution for girls, are conspicuous amidst
the varied foliage which surrounds them ; and the white,
crenellated walls of the ancient kremlin, creeping up the
precipitous slope of the hill, flanked here and there by
small, square, minaret-shaped towers, with the old town
reposing under the shadow of its Fortress and looking
down serenely on the busy scene below, give to Nijni-
Novgorod an appearance unique among Eussian cities.
The town of Nijni consists of two parts — the old town,
252 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
nestling around its kremlin, and proudly disdainful of
the commercial advantages offered it by the proximity of
two great rivers ; and the new town, consisting of the
new quays built along the right bank of the Oka, and
the new streets which have sprung up behind them.
When the fair is held at this town, the view from the
Mouravieff Tower is perhaps the most remarkable in the
world. There, embraced within the compass of a glance,
is the whole scene of the Great Fair of Nijni-Novgorod.
A huge, flat, sandy plain, flanked by two great rivers, is
covered over with houses of different colors, mostly red
and yellow, made of brick and wood and matting ; mil-
lions of the world's richest merchandise stored or strewn
in every direction ; barges warped along the quays of
two rivers still busily engaged in unshipping their ex-
haustless cargoes. At one glance you see all this. Ev-
erywhere you meet outward signs of the devotion of the
people, and, in all the hurry of business, a moujik never
passes a shrine without stopping and making the sign of
the cross. It will not be deemed strange, then, that the
fair is opened by a grand religious ceremony in a church
in the great square.
I left Nijni at noon on Tuesday by steamer, for Perm,
which is four days' journey, or about six hundred miles.
The steamers which ply on the Volga are all named after
North and South American rivers, but they resemble
very little the steamers that are run on our American
waters. Nearly every one in Russia travels third-class, so
that there are three classes provided for, by building the
boats with three cabins, one above the other. Our voy-
age was a particularly delightful one, the weather being
pleasant and our steamer moderately fast. The Volga
is a large stream, but has a channel almost as treacher-
ous as the Missouri, On each side there is a wide, level
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 253
stretch of bottom, which is overflowed during spring
time, until the river becomes ninny miles in width, which
of course causes a constant change of channel.
After a run of seventeen hours we landed at Kasan, a
quaint, old, Asiatic looking town, full of Tartar people
and Tartar customs, but I did not stop over, as nothing
of special interest is to "be found in the place. Twenty
miles below Kasan we came to the mouth of the Kama
river, and here I was greatly reminded of the junction
of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, as the appearance
is almost identical. We left the Volga and turned up
the Kama at four o'clock in the afternoon, so that a
beautiful view was afforded of the meeting of waters and
a changing landscape. Our progress was now less rapid,
for there was a strong current against us. The scenery,
however, was more varied than that along the Volga,
though at no place were there any high hills, such as we
almost constantly pass on American rivers.
We reached Perm on Saturday afternoon and were
compelled to lie over until Monday morning, as no
trains leave there on Saturday evenings. The town con-
tains a mixed population of about 30,000 souls, whose
principal occupation is handling ore ; there are several
reduction works and also a Government mint in the place,
giving employment to a large number of persons. Perm,
though an old place, has grown to importance within the
last ten years. Alexander II. conceived the construc-
tion of a railroad across Siberia, and nearly all necessary
arrangements for its building were completed, when his
tragic death immediately stopped the enterprise. Sev-
eral years had been spent by three different commissions
who were sent to select the most feasible route across the
Ural mountains. One of these commissions reported in
favor of a route by way of Orenburg, which, it was
254
RUSSIAN" NIHILISM AND
strenuously claimed, would be more practicable bec
of its southern position. The other commission in
sisted that the passage at Nijni Tagilsk was preferable,
besides it would prove immediately remunerative by
reason of the large amount of mineral which would
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 255
be shipped from the Demidoff mines at Ekaterineburg.
These reports were followed by a long period of indecis-
ion on the part of the Emperor, who finally spoke so
favorably of both routes that he promised to give them
government assistance. The construction of a railway
from Perm was begun first, and in 1878 it was opened
for traffic from Perm across the Urals to Ekaterineberg, a
distance of three hundred miles. Work progressed
more slowly on the southern route, and when the Em-
peror died it ceased entirely, before any portion of the
road was ready for business.
Perm, like all other Eussian cities, is chiefly conspicu-
ous for its churches, which abound on every side and are
the most ornate feature of the place.
I left Perm on Monday morning, and began my jour-
ney across the Urals, which I had supposed were a range
of high mountain peaks perpetually covered with snow.
I was therefore very much astonished to find them hardly
more than ordinary hills, the highest point in the range
being only 5000 feet above sea level. The scenery was
also very disappointing, as there was scarcely any veg-
etation visible except a forest of slender pines, with
here and there a larch that seemed too lonesome for
healthy growth.
At eight o'clock in the evening we had passed over
the mountains, almost Avithout knowing it, and stopped
at Nijni Tagilsk, where I left the train to visit the great
Demidoff mines of copper, malachite and iron. This
place, which is the gateway to Asia, lies within the Sibe-
rian line, and is very prettily situated at the base of the
Ural range. It is an important commercial town of sixty
thousand inhabitants, most of whom are engaged in
mining. Nearly all of Russia's iron is produced here,
and among the manufactured products Russia-Iron (the
256
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 257
process of which is a secret known only to Tagilsk man-
ufacturers) is the principal article. Many years ago the
mines were operated by convict labor, but Prince Demi-
doff purchased them from the Government, since which
time they have been worked by paid miners and forgers.
There is a beautiful granite monument, surmounted by a
bronze statue of Prince Demidl)f£ , in the southern part of
the city.
Remaining over at Tagilsk one day, I proceeded by
rail to Ekaterineburg, which is another town built in an
immense mineral district, but the principal product is
malachite. From Tagilsk to Ekaterineburg the railroad
runs along the mountain base ; on one side hills green
with pines, and on the other a level plain stretching away
until it meets the horizon, with scarcely an object to re-
lieve its solitary wilderness of almost boundless expanse.
The city contains a population of thirty thousand,
but more Asiatic than Russian. I was rejoiced to find
three Americans, residents of the place, with whom I be-
came acquainted, much to my advantage. These mines,
which also belong to the Demidoff descendants, are very
interesting, particularly to those who have never wit-
nessed malachite mining. This mineral, of which I never
saw any specimens in America, is very precious, selling
at the mines at from $1 to $5 per pound, according to
the size of the pieces. When polished, the stone presents
an almost emerald green and is very hard.
The Demidoff s pay annually, in taxes to the Govern-
ment and Commune, $100,000, and employ 50,000 la-
borers. Before the emancipation they owned 56,000
male serfs, a large number of whom still remain on their
original estates and work in the mines, but receive ridic-
ulously small pay, compared with wages in America.
Common laborers roroivo about twenty cents a day ; pud-
dlers seventy-five cents, and the best rollers $1.25*
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 250
Siberia is rich in precious stones, and Ekaterineburg is
famous for its lapidists. Very near the town are found
beryl, topaz, aqua marine, chrysolite, and other gems of
great beauty, which are cut and set by jewelers in the
city and sold at prices which I regarded as wonderfully
cheap.
CHAPTER XIL
AFTER visiting the malachite mines in Ekaterineburg,
I instructed my guide to engage a vehicle to carry us on
to Tieumen, which was to be our next stopping place.
He was gone for some time, and upon returning told me
that it would be necessary to show my special permit to
the authorities before a vehicle could be secured. Thus
far I had only to show my regular passport, but now I
produced the special permit given me at St. Petersburg.
As the reading matter on it was in Russian (of which I
was as ignorant as of the hieroglyphics on Cheops) I had
little idea what request it contained. My guide, who
could speak but not read the language, took the paper to
an officer, who told us it was a, podorojna , or permit from
the Government to pass freely in and out of Siberia, and
also containing an order, addressed to all post-keepers,
to facilitate me in my journey by providing such convey-
ances as I might desire. We were now intelligently in-
formed of what to do, so in the evening we engaged a
larantass and yemstchik for our journey ; the former is a
four-wheeled vehicle setting low like a phaeton, and hav-
ing a large cover behind, which may be raised or lowered
at will. It is light, but drawn by three horses, the mid-
dle one working between shafts over which there is a
260
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
douga, or broad bow, to which bells are often attached ;
the outside horses work in traces, one of which is fast-
ened to a shaft and the other to the end of the spindle,
which extends about three inches outside the hub of the
front wheel. Yemstchik simply means driver.
I had engaged this outfit with the expectation of start-
ing for Tieumen on the following morning, but this ar-
O O O '
rangement did not suit either the owner or driver, who
insisted on an immediate departure or pay for the time
THE TARANTASS.
lost. It was now almost eight o'clock, but as Capt.
Spicer, who was still with me, felt no hesitancy about
proceeding at such an unseemly hour, we made ready and
took our places in the vehicle. Our guide sat beside the
yemstdiik, while Spicer and I occupied the one large seat
inside. Before leaving, however, we contracted to pay
two cents a verst, equivalent to three cents per mile, for
the driver and conveyance, a sum which we thought was
very cheap.
The sun had now sunk well down behind the Ural hills
— I can't help calling them hills because they are nothing
more — when, with a crack of the whip and an expression
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 261
which nothing but a Siberian horse could understand, we
darted off in a cloud of dust, through the town and out
upon the great waste of a Wonderful country. My feel-
ings were not altogether pleasant, for so strange did
everything appear that, despite myself, visions of wild
Tartar hordes, under some modern Genghis Khan, would
dart up in my imagination, to dispute our way ; or else
an unfamiliar sound would strike my ear like the bark of
a famished wolf calling his pack to the pursuit.
Along we flew in a swift gallop without for a moment
slacking pace, passing no one, nor having our imageries
relieved by any pleasing scenery ; nothing but a level,
illimitable expanse of prairie ; no farms, no baying dogs,
no lowing cattle nor squeal ing swine ; the voice of nature
was as mute as the songs of the dead. Thus we jour-
neyed for more than two hours, when through the riven
clouds there broke out a flood of moonlight by which we
saw ahead the outlines of a house. It was the first post-
station out of Ekaterineburg ; our yemstchik drove into
the yard on a dash and then shouting stoi to his horses,
he stopped with such suddenness that my companion and
I were thrown forward against the driver's seat.
We did not delay here long, taking only sufficient time
to change horses and drink a glass of tea. In this con-
nection I wish to say that no where in the world can
such tea be had as in Russia or Siberia. I have drunk
this delightful beverage in nearly all parts of the world,
including San Francisco, where I indulged my love for it
in a Chinese restaurant, and my opinion is that the Chi-
nese make the poorest, while the Russians make the best
tea to be found anywhere in the world. The excellence
of the tea made in Russia is partly, if not wholly, due,
as they themselves claim, to the fact that tea shipped
over water loses much of its flavor aiid essential quality.
17
262 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
All tea used in Russia is brought over-land from the
Chinese provinces, generally packed in the shape of
bricks and exposed to the atmosphere, there being a be-
lief that if packed in cases it loses much of its natural
excellence. Everybody drinks tea in Russia ; if you
enter the home of either prince or peasant in that coun-
try you are at once invited to drink tea. A vessel called
a Samovar is in every house, which is kept constantly
heated, in which tea is made always ready for use. Tea
therefore is the great national drink ; but there is also a
spirits, distilled from potatoes, called Vodka, which is
something like the Irish poteen, that is a very popular
drink among the peasantry and priesthood. So, whether
entertained in the home of an IspravniJc — a Russian Gov-
ernor— or stopping at a Siberian post-station, you will be
called on to slake thirst, either in a tipple of vodka or a
glass of tea — tea cups are not used.
After less than a half-hour's delay we were called to
take our places in the vehicle again, when cheerily our
driver cracked his whip over the fretting ponies' heads,
and sent them off in a run that at first nearly took our
breaths.
It was now almost midnight, but still the gray streaks
of day and bright lustre of a noble moon were with us.
In fact at this season of the year there is scarcely any
night in the latitude I was now travelling. Tired with
so much pounding as I had been subjected to for
several hours, my eyes grew languid, but it seemed that
each time I began to doze, in my compulsory bolt up-
right position, our driver would run us over a log
with such disturbing force that I either plunged into my
companion or he into me. In fact we had to keep awake
that we might not butt one another's brains out.
We continued in this rapid, hurly-burly, jerking,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
263
wretchedly uncomfortable style of traveling for forty-one
hours, having changed horses about every two hours,
when at last we reached Tieumen, which is two hundred
and five miles from Ekaterineberg. I was so sore, stiff
and exhausted
when we arrived at
Tieumen that I
felt like a Fakir
who, to do penance
for some imagina-
ry sin, assumes
one position with-
fgf out changing, un-
rtil all his joints
ossify and refuse
to articulate. The
first thing I want-
ed was everything
at once, viz. : a
bath, something
to eat, a bed, mus-
tard plasters for
my back and
knees, ice- water to
drink ; and above
all, I wanted to
know how to get
back again to
Ekaterineburg
without having to
pi|l!l|illjilin;;,JT:.!lU:lK.<nitB»ag«pa:.;:i;.i .. ::::.•> &!B;i!!S«BuSmiiiiiiSi;5lteigy
travel in the manner I had come.
Fortunately it was only a little after mid-day when we
arrived, and dinner was ready ; so I quickly washed my
face, after first rubbing a long, broad, deep crick out of
264 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AM)
my back so I could bend over, and then fell to with vo-
racious greed to devour — black-bread and salt. It's
a way they have in that country. It must, undoubt-
edly, be the product of some religious inspiration,
for I can't imagine anything else potential enough to
curtail the diet so extravagantly ; but whatever the cause,
black-bread (which is eaten after a thick layer of salt is
spread over it) and tea constitute almost the exclusive
diet of the native Siberians. By dint of expostulation
and particularly by promises of a large reward, I ob-
tained a piece of steak, which was as succulent and tender
as any I ever before ate. It is astonishing how these
people subsist on so limited a diet, and my wonder was
all the more increased when I learned that choice steaks
can be had for four cents a pound, while fish are even
cheaper. There is very little agriculture in Siberia, the
occupations chiefly followed being mining, inn keeping,
fishing and raising stock. Immense herds of horses and
cattle roam all over the country, the property of herds-
men who raise them for export, home consumption
being scarcely thought of.
I was so completely used up, so to speak, that after
dinner I called to the landlord to show me a bed, into
which I soon cast my wearied body and soul. After a
two hours' rest, I awakened and, though still in an ex-
hausted condition, reflected upon how precious was my
time, arose, took another glass of tea, and sauntered out
into the city in quest of information.
Tieumen is situated on the Tura river, which flows by
the Tobol into the Irtysh and Obi, and it is at this point
that steamboat conveyance is taken to those rivers, and
to the towns of Tobolsk, Omsk and Tomsk. The town
is subject to great overflows every spring when the ice
breaks up, and gorging below the bridge sometimes
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
265
266 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
inundates the whole city. It has a population of 16,-
000, with thriving manufactories of iron, earthenware,
glass, cloth, carpets and leather; but the houses are
mostly built of wood, and the place has a mean and
dreary aspect. It is in one respect the most import-
ant town in western Siberia, for it is here that all
the prisoners are first brought before their distri-
bution to the penal settlements and mines further east.
There is one building in the city, devoted to educa-
tional purposes, which cost $100,000, and is the finest
structure in all Siberia ; two specially important facts
connected with this institution are, that it was built by a
man who started with nothing, has acquired a large
fortune in Siberia, and donated the building to the
Government ; the other peculiarity is found in the build-
ing being furnished throughout with American furniture,
as is also the home of the liberal donor.
I found also here in Tieumen an American gentleman
who very kindly introduced me to the Governor and sev-
eral other functionaries, with whom I became intimate
enough to announce the object of my visit and to request
of them such information as I needed.
To a question which I asked the Governor respecting
the origin of punishment of offenders by exile, he made
answer :
44 1 do not know exactly when the practice begun, but
a well-known writer, M. Reclus, says the first degree of
banishment was promulgated by Boris Godunoff when, in
1591, he sent nearly five hundred of the Uglitch insur-
rectionists into exile, locating them not far from Tieu-
men. This story, however, is more traditional than his-
torical, though it may be true. But it is an established
fact that near the close of the seventeenth century several
thousand of Little Russians, who had revolted in the
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 267
Ukarine and were overcome by Great Russia, were sent,
in chains, to various parts of Siberia. After this, trans-
portation for all manner of serious offenses became com-
mon. A large number of religious dissenters, with their
families, were deported in 1682, and compelled to settle
in the Baikal district. Peter the Great also banished
many of the Strelitz, a tribe from southern Russia, who
were so wedded to bows and arrows that they refused to
use any other arms. They caused no little trouble by
their treachery, and finally rebelled against their sov-
ereign. During the reign of Elizabeth many distin-
guished persons, accused of political unfaithfulness, were
sent to the far eastern provinces, among whom were
Tolstoi, Munich, Menchikoff, Dolgornki, Biron, &c.,
who were afterward permitted to return. In 1758 began
the first deportation of Poles, but under Catharine II.
thousands of these unhappy people were thrust in to exile.
Nine hundred, who had served under Napoleon, were
convicted of treason and sent to the Yakoutsk district.
In 1826 three thousand Decembrists, who tried to assas-
sinate Nicholas and provide a constitution, were sent to
Siberia, followed in 1830 by a deportation of 80,000
Poles."
The original idea of Godunoff , which was to use Si-
beria as a place of punishment, grew into a fixed purpose
under Nicholas I. and Alexander II., to not only banish
offenders merely to punish them, but to make banishment
a means for settling Siberia. They very correctly argued
that here was a larger portion of the Empire, rich in min-
erals and boundless in agricultural possibilities, lying idle
because none would settle in it. They therefore con-
cluded to enforce an industrial occupation of the cauntry.
To this end not only were murderers and political offend-
ers sent to Siberia, but colonies were established by the
268 liUsSlAN NIHILISM AND
deportation of those guilty of petty crimes. A privilege
was given the peasantry to establish village courts, called
Zemsta, to which they might summon, or forcibly take,
any one of their number charged with being untrue or im-
provident, incorrigibly bad, lazy, a common drunkard, or
village nuisance, and upon conviction he could be sent to
Siberia. This practice was very extensive a few years
ago, and is not uncommon now. Such convicts, how-
ever, are not held, as prisoners, to any special labor, but
are sent to increase colonies that pursue any calling they
choose to obtain a living.
The Governor further told me that there are thirty-
four offenses punishable by transportation to Siberia.
The first and greatest crime in Russia is treason, which
is punished by execution, but for no other crime is the
death penalty inflicted. The following offenses are pun-
ished by exile : insubordination to lawful authority ;
stealing official documents ; .escape or abetting the es-
cape of prisoners ; embezzlement of Government funds ;
forgery; blasphemy (though it is a dead-letter law);
dissent and heresy (rarely enforced) ; sheltering or
giving aid to escaping convicts ; counterfeiting ; being
taken on suspicion and found without a passport ; va-
grancy, coupled with suspicious conduct; murder or
accessory thereto ; attempted suicide ; mayhem ; assault
with deadly weapon ; seduction and rape ; subornation ;
illegal holding or transfer of property ; arson ; burglary ;
theft ; horse-stealing ; debt ; dishonoring the Emperor's
name ; assuming false titles ; beastiality ; usury or extor-
tion (rarely enforced, though a common offense) ; eluding
military service; smuggling; illicit distilling; and the
practices of the Scoptsi, of which I will write fully here-
after, when describing their settlement.
I was told that for the past ten years, the number of
EXJLE LIFE IX SIBERIA,
269
270 RUSSIAN NIHILISM ANB
exiles sent annually to Siberia was about 20,000, of
which 12,000 are sent to the eastern district under sen-
tence of hard labor in the mines. I was permitted to
visit the Tieumen prison, in which there were confined
nearly five hundred prisoners, awaiting orders to be sent
further east. Of these five hundred there were nearly
one hundred who could read and write. This indicates
the intelligence of the criminals sent into exile. It is a
statistical fact that of Russia's entire population only
five per cent, can read and write, the lowest average of
education to be found in any civilized country on the
globe. Now, when we compare this fact with the prison-
ers at Tieumen, of whom twenty per cent, could read
and write, we are forced to the irresistible conclusion
that Russia's criminals are from her best educated peo-
ple.
All prisoners sent from Moscow are taken by rail to
Nijni-Novgorod, where they embark on a barge, which
is towed by steamer to Perm. This barge is built ex-
pressly for the purpose and will carry from seven to eight
hundred.
From Perm they are transported by rail to Ekaterine-
berg, and from that point they are taken to Tieumen by
wagons. Why they are not required to walk this latter
distance I cannot understand, particularly since beyond
Tieumen the prisoners are compelled to walk to what-
ever place they are destined, which is not generally less
than 2,000 miles further east. Sometimes it occurs that
there is special haste to get the prisoners to Irkout.sk or
Yakoutsk mines, before severe weather begins in the fall,
and for purposes of expedition they are taken by barge
on the Irtysh and Obi to Tomsk, from which latter place,
however, they must walk voluntarily or be driven like
refractory brutes under the stinging lash.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 271
On the morning after my arrival in Tieumen, as I had
been told by the Governor the previous evening, a party
of three hundred prisoners were taken out of their
a
PRISONERS LEAVING TIEUMEN FOR EASTERN SIBERIA.
stockade and started to Chita, which is a penal settle-
ment in the Trans-Baikal. It was raining very hard, but
the element* were not permitted to interfere with the
272 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
programme. About fifty soldiers acted as convoy-guard,
who marched out on foot in two files with the exiles be-
tween them, followed by weeping women and a large
number of curious citizens. At the suburbs of the place
horses were in waiting for the soldiers, but there was
nothing but a hard, foot journey before the unfortunate
prisoners, about one-third of whom carried heavy chains
on their wrists and ankles. I was affected almost to
tears by the sight, every phase of which was inexpres-
sibly sad.
I stayed over at Tieumen one day longer to gather
some additional facts and wait for more clement weather.
Capt. Spicer had intended to leave me here and start by
tarantass northward, but concluded to accompany me to
Tobolsk, where he could take a steamer on the Irtysh,
and have a journey to the Grulf of Obi, from which point
he decided to begin skirting Siberia across to Kam-
schatka. On the following day we engaged a new kind of
conveyance, as from appearance it promised more com-
fort than we had found in the tarantass. This vehicle
was what the Russians call a tumbril; I suppose they de-
rive the name from the English tumble, because it goes
tumbling over the road like an acrobat, bounding up in
dreadful jerks and coming down like a pile driver.
A small steamer plies between Tieumen and Tobolsk,
but at uncertain intervals, and gets through with greater
uncertainty, so we adopted the overland route and started
about three o'clock in the afternoon. The road was
very muddy and our progress slow, which saved us from
the sore affliction we suffered in the rapid tarantass. At
thejirst station we halted to change"horses, the post-
. keeper told us that the roads were almost impassable and
that a creek, five versts further on, was- so swollen that
crossing would be very dangerous. Nevertheless we con-
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA
273
274 RUSSIAN NIHILISM
eluded to push on and meet whatever adventure chance
might visit upon us. We drove with all possible speed,
in order to reach the creek before darkness set in, as ab-
sence of light always multiplies dangers. We ar-
rived at the stream about seven o'clock and found it
rushing madly over its banks, carrying driftwood of logs,
trees, brush, etc., so that our resolution gave way and we
thought of returning to the' post-station to spend the
night. Before deciding finally, however, a moujiJc — local
resident peasant — appeared , whom we accosted and asked
if there were any ferry-boat available that could set us
across. He admitted that much danger would be in-
curred in an attempt to pass the stream, but agreed to
get a boat, which lay moored one mile further up the
creek, and set us over for five roubles. This proposition
at once decided us, and without further delay we drove
up to where the boat lay and prepared to embark. The
boat was a flat scow with gunwales not more than a foot
out of water, and that it had been put to much service
was evidenced by the rot that had struck in and weakened
every board about it. The horses were so tractable, for-
tunately, that no difficulty was experienced in getting
afloat. The moujik used a long pole to push the boat
off, but once getting started, our frail craft begun to
spin around like leaves in a whirlwind. It now looked
doubtful about getting across without swimming, but
manfully we all pushed with poles, by which we managed
to near the opposite shore about six miles below the point
from whence we started. Prospects were brightening
every moment, when suddenly our boat struck a pro-
jecting log — they are called sawyers by Mississippi
river pilots — and before we could shift our cuds of to-
bacco, over we went, tumbril, horses and men, into the
water, while the boat, bottom side up, went on down the
EXILZ LIFE IX SIBERIA. 275
stream, still spinning around like a graceful coquette who
has just jilted her lover. It so happened that the water,
where we were capsized, was not more than three feet
deep, and we were able to keep our feet. My first act
was to grab two of the horses by their bridles, while
Capt. Spicer and our two men seized the tumbril and
righted it ; by skilful and instantaneous action we pre-
vented the horses from becoming tangled, and soon had
the satisfaction of getting on shore with no other incon-
venience than wet clothing. But our more serious diffi-
culty was yet to come, for it had now grown quite dark
and was still threatening rain. We had landed and were
on solid earth, but our surroundings were something like
the jungles of Central Africa. There was no semblance
of a road leading out of this swampy, brush-grown place,
nor did we have so much as a match to light our way.
But, figuratively speaking, shutting our eyes and trusting
to Providence, we started the horses along in the direc-
tion we supposed the road lay. After about one hour or
more of this delightful pic-nicing excursion in the garden
of the gods, we found ourselves — lost. I had a compass
in my pocket, but it might as well have been on top of
the north-pole, for having neither a light nor the eyes of
a nocturnal varmint, we " couldn't see the point." With
nothing but wet clothes and wetter blankets our condi-
tion was similar to that which the man fell into who in-
vented a new oath. But, as if dissatisfied with our cir-
cumstances, old Pluvius pulled out the stop-cocks of
heaven and deluged us with a rain of nearly six hours
duration, while the frogs, between dashes of rain, croaked
all manner of requiems around about us. If a pack of
wolves had descended upon us about this time I would
have gladly assisted them to ravish my body, and yet
every strange sound that seemed to presage an attack
276 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
from these chronically hungry desperadoes, produced a
momentary fear that made us forget our other misery.
Nothing could be done except face the artillery of mis-
fortune, so we unhitched the horses and made them fast
to our vehicle. Then came the rub of standing round
and taking turns in saying such bad words as a distressed
soul may be inspired to utter under the circumstances.
Morning broke at last, but such a morning as would
shame creation, for the rain still poured down, until what
wasn't mud was water, and what wasn't water was a dis-
tillation of exquisite melancholy. Frozen and drowned
though we were, there was still enough aggravation left
hi our natures to stimulate us to renewed endeavors to
get out of the woods — or purgatory, which is a more
appropriate term.
So confused were we by the desperate experience un-
dergone that wretched night that it was late in the after-
noon before we found the road again, and when we did
tind it there was nothing to make us proud except the
realization that we still lived. Through mud up to the
axles we plodded along, hungry, exhausted, wet, mad and
intensely miserable, until twelve o'clock the following
night before reaching the next station. So thoroughly
worn out was I that upon entering the station I threw
myself upon a bench and did not stir again until morn-
ing, though the master tried every way to arouse and
direct me to a comfortable bed. The opiate of exhaus-
tion was so powerful, in fact, that I no longer felt the
wet clothes that were on me, or took time to wish I was
in dear America.
Renewing our journey about noon, the sun came out
again, and we gradually forgot the miseries through
which we had passed and began to find, one by one, some
little pleasures in life. The roads also gradually became
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 277
more tolerable, while along the highway we met occa-
sional groups of Tartars, and passed through Tartar vil-
lages which presented many whimsical characteristics.
In Siberia (where less than one-fifth the population is
Russian) as in Russia, we found images of the Madonna
hung up over doors, in windows, on walls, nailed to
posts, strung up before ordinary village notices, and, in
short, we found them everywhere, while little candles
were burning before them all. The Tartars are very nu-
merous throughout Siberia and are proud of their history,
which is crowded with adventure and red with blood.
They are the same people as those who, under Genghis
Khan, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, over-
ran all of northern Asia and then penetrated Russia,
striking the Muscovites such strong blows that they al-
most accomplished the conquest of that nation.
The Tartar women still hold to the ancient Moslem
practice of wearing veils over their faces when strangers
are near, which, I must say, is very kind of them, for as
a stranger I speak, who having seen some few Tartar
faces, am very thankful that I was not permitted to see
more ; a Chinese god is beautiful when brought in com-
parison with the most distinguished Tartar belle.
CHAPTER
TOBOLSK is but little more than one day's journey
from Tieumen by steamer, but we encountered so many
difficulties that it was more than two days before we
reached the city, though the distance by land is but little
more than half what it is by water.
I had now reached one of the great Siberian prisons,
18
278
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
and my investigations became more interesting here be-
cause of immediate contact with some initiatory horrors
which previous study and reading had partly prepared
me for.
Tobolsk is a city of nearly 40,000 inhabitants and was
the first capital of
Siberia, the whole of
that enormous terri-
tory being acquired
in seventy years of
the seventeenth cen-
tury. The town was
originally built on a
high hill, having pre-
cipitous sides, and
around it was a strong
wall over the ramp-
arts of which still
glisten and frown
several large cannons.
Entrance to this part
of the city is through
fortress gates, to
gain which passage
must be made up a
steep, winding road-
way. As the town
grew, for lack of
space on the hill,
building began on the
plain below, until now the lower portion of the city is larger
and more regularly built than that on the hill.
The population of Tobolsk is composed of Eussians,
Tartars and Germans, the latter race being much more
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 279
numerous than circumstances permitted me to believe
until I had thoroughly convinced myself. They are an
object of bitter prejudice to the Russians, who very fre-
quently visit upon them rank injustice ; knowing this, I
was very much surprised that the Germans composed
nearly one-sixth of the entire population. Being some-
what familiar with the German language, I found it now
very serviceable to me, for I secured introductions to
several prominent persons of that nationality who took
much pains to make my visit both pleasant and profitable.
In Upper Tobolsk is a fine and celebrated cathedral,
near which is hung on a tripod the Ugtitch bell, with
which is connected a singular history, to this effect : The
bell was orginally in the turret of a cathedral in Uglitch,
Russia, where, for many years, it called the faithful to
assemble for worship. But in 1591 a great insurrection
took place in Uglitch, against the Czar Godunoff, on
which occasion the rebels used this bell to signal their
uprising and attack upon the Goverment officers. These
insurrectionists were very strong in numbers, and were
not overpowered for several months, but when their sub-
jection was at last accomplished, Boris Godunoff issued
an order of punishment against the bell, in obedience to
which it was thrown down from the turret, its ears were
broken off, and then a company of men were made to
publicly flog it. To this was added a decree of banish-
ment, so that the bell was taken, with several thousand
of the insurrectionists sent into exile, to the district of
Tobolsk. The disgrace which thus fell upon the bell for
aiding the rebels, has been so far removed now that it is
again used for calling Muscovites to prayers.
There is very little of interest to be seen in Tobolsk
outside the prisons, which are three in number, and gen-
erally contain from 1,000 to 1,200 prisoners. They are
280 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
located near a large pleasure garden, and directly under
a commanding view from the fortress. I managed to
secure an introduction to the chief prison guard, who
being able to speak a little German readily answered such
inquiries as I addressed to him, and also, after much per-
suasion and the gift of several roubles, finally gave me
permission to go inside the prisons. This privilege was
much more than I had expected, but I soon learned from
experience that a few roubles, judicously used, could be
made a magical sesame that would open any door in
Russia.
The buildings are of brick with small, square win-
dows, provided with double glass to keep out the cold.
As I entered, two guards stepped forward with fixed bay-
onets and followed me wherever I went in the prison.
The chief officer also accompanied me, and from him I
learned that Tobolsk was formerly the station to which
all hard -labor convicts were sent, but as mines became
developed further east the prisons here are now used to'
confine convicts one year before sending them eastward ;
it is only a comparatively small number who are de-
tained at Tobolsk at all, those in confinement being crim-
inals who have committed some new offense while on the
transport route, or convicts who have been retaken after
an attempt to escape.
Large workshops adjoined the prisons, in which all
those able to labor were busily employed ; there were
shoemakers, tailors, wagon-makers, cabinet-makers, etc.
All these were compelled to perform a certain amount of
labor each day or be knouted, which is no more than a
playful frolic between the floggerand his victim — accord-
ing to Mr. Lansdell, the philanthropist. This method of
punishment, though ostensibly abolished, is inflicted on
some poor convict at the Tobolsk prisons every day, as
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
281
several citizens assured me. A gentleman who had wit-
nessed several such floggings, described the process as
ADMINISTERING THE KNOUT.
follows : The culprit is taken to a room where there is
a large pillar, to which two rings are attached at an ele-
282 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
vation of about seven feet from the floor. Here he is
stripped entirely, but ti light cloth is placed about his
loins, not as an act of clemency, however, but of de-
cency; the poor victim, now panting and quivering at
the ordeal which he anticipates, is then bound about the
wrists with strong cords which are drawn up and fastened
to the rings, raising him almost off his feet. Two pro-
fessional floggers now enter the room in response to a
summons, bearing knouts in their hands. These instru-
ments of torture, rather than punishment, are composed
of several rawhide thongs bound together at one end in a
handle one foot long ; each thong terminates in a knot,
which serves the purpose of giving additional force to
each stroke and of greatly increasing the punishment by
bruising the flesh where each knot strikes. The floggers
begin their work generally by flourishing the knout sev-
eral times about their heads without striking the victim,
so as to take him by surprise, as it is believed a keener
agony is produced by striking when the victim is least
expecting it. When the whipping begins, ho\\7ever, it is
laid on by the floggers alternately, who strike all over the
body, so as to produce the largest surface of suffering.
With every stroke either several great blue welts rise un-
der the thongs, or, if the flesh be particularly tender,
gashes are made from whence streams of blood pour.
But it is said there is less suffering from cuts than
bruises, the former healing up rapidly, while the latter
not infrequently fester and cause an illness from which
many die. There are hundreds of instances, however,
where men and women have died under the administra-
tion, and in nearly all cases where as many as one hun-
dred lashes are given, the victim becomes unconscious
and does not revive for hours afterward.
Among the workmen I noticed not a few who wore
EXILE I, IFF. IN SIBERIA.
283
chains similar to those I saw on the prisoners at Moscow.
Upon inquiry respecting the cause of this, an intelligent
guard told me, through my interpreter, that the prison-
ers thus subjected to additional punishment were crimi-
nals who had been convicted of aggravated offenses, such
as unprovoked murder or serious political crimes, and
that the sentence they were under was hard labor for a
long period of years (or for life) and without mercy.
Through curiosity I approached
very near a half-dozen or more
of these shackled convicts, so
that the effects of their chains
were plainly visible ; in some
instances large abrasions were
noticed on their wrists, which
must have given extreme pain,
while in others the flesh under
the galling irons was so black
as to give an appearance of
mortification. I could not
discover what effect the heavy
anklets had, as large, extreme-
ly coarse socks hid the flesh,
but from outward indications I should judge the
ankles were badly swollen. When at work, the wrists of
these convicts were bound with a chain which gave
about two feet of free action to the hands, but when not
at labor the wrists were brought together and fastened ;
in addition to this, a strong leathern strap was attached
from the wrist bindings to double chains on the legs and
ankles, so that the hands were confined in one position ;
hard labor was far more preferable than idleness, when
bound in such heartless manner.
Women convicts were subjected to as severe treatment
A CONVICT LABORER IN IRONS.
1' - -4 KCSSIAX NIHILISM AND
as the men, except their labor was hardly so taxing.
They were chiefly employed scouring the prisons, cook-
ing, and washing clothes, hut I noticed a few who were
engaged in making baskets and polishing leather. Their
sex did not exempt them from the knout or plele. This
latter instrument of punishment is made of several short
but thick birches tied together atjone end, the others be-
ing left loose so as to strike in several places on the flesh
at each blow.
Having passed through the prisons, I had now seen
quite enough of Tobolsk, and made my preparations to
leave for Tomsk. Capt. Spicer had already left me the
day after our arrival in Tobolsk, taking steamer for
some destination on the Obi, which he himself had not
finally decided upon. The guide whom we had employed
at Moscow also accompanied him, to my great satisfac-
tion, for I had long since learned that, besides knowing
but little of the Russian language, he was incontinently
stupid, and his services were by no means satisfying.
Capt. Spicer, however, was an old Arctic whaler, and
was now going among the Esquimaux, whose tongue he
could speak ; he was therefore content to take the guide
with him as a servant.
I had no difficulty in securing another interpreter in
the person of a German named Sehieuter, who was a res-
ident of Tobolsk, speaking the Bii£«, Tartar, Samoyede,
Giiyak, and other languages m*d by the various tribes of
north and eastern Siberia ; be had also made several trips
the continent, and was well versed in all the ehar-
of both country and people. This engage-
a particularly fortunate one, for through
Sebleoter I obtained much information which, without
his services, most have remained undisclosed to me.
My experience with the taraatass and the tumbril,
28(> RUSSIAN NIHILISM AXH
I must confess, greatly prejudiced me, against them as
modes of conveyance, and as there was a tri-weekly ser-
vice of paddle-wheel steamers between Tobolsk and
Tomsk, I decided to travel to the latter city by boat.
Accordingly, in obedience to my instructions, Schleuter
purchased such things as we might need on the trip, and
on Wednesday afternoon we embarked for a six days'
voyage to Tomsk. As we backed out into the stream—
the Irtysh River — a beautiful view of Tobolsk was had,
reminding me of the appearance 1 had conceived of mid-
dle'century castles inhabited by the lords of rich manors,
with hundreds of outbuildings for the shelter of their
subjects. This creation was intensified by a recollection
of the country in which I was now traveling, and by
the peculiar features and faces that surrounded me.
There were perhaps one hundred and twenty-five pas-
sengers on the steamer, but of this number not more
than twenty occupied first-class accommodations. My
interpreter was quite willing to travel second-class (the
fare being fourteen roubles), but I preferred that he
should go first-class so that I might have the benefit of
his company constantly, particularly as the first-class fare
was only twenty roubles ($10.00). But this passage
money did not include table fare, which amounted to
about $1.25 each per day.
I have seen no little gambling in my life, but never
before did I make a journey on a steamer where all the
passengers were gamblers. As all Russia is a tea drink-
ing nation, so are all Russian subjects inveterate card
players. In fact the national laws foster gaming, for
the Government has a monopoly of card manufacturing,
the revenue from which is applied to the support of the
foundling asylums at Moscow and St. Petersburg.
JSight and day all the passengers, men and women ,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 287
were busily engaged throwing cards in a game I never
saw played before, but which resembled "Napoleon,"
a game quite common in England, in which the players
lay wagers on how many tricks they can take.
But except at night, when I backed Schleuter in a
game, I was too much interested in the scenery to take
any interest in cards. After we passed out of the Irtysh
into the Obi river our steamer made more frequent land-
ings and an opportunity was had to learn something of
Northern Siberia. At the towns of Shapsink, Sahabinsk,
Sol kin and Surgat we met hundreds of Ostjaks, who
are a race of people inhabiting the northern portion of
the Tobolsk and Tomsk Governments. They live by
fishing and hunting, chiefly by the former, and are as
filthy in their person as the Digger Indians of New Mexico.
They swarmed about our boat wherever we landed and
besought the passengers to buy their fish and game ; ducks
they sold at ten kopecks (five cents) a brace ; grouse at
fifty kopecks (twenty-five cents) a pair ; while fish were
so cheap that an American would not receive them as
a gift and peddle them at a Negro barbecue at such
prices ; sturgeons, which is perhaps the best fish found
in Siberian waters, were offered at t\vo kopecks (one
cent) per pound, or a fish weighing ten pounds might
have been purchased, by a little higgling, for about sevea
cents. Many other species of fish were offered at one-
half cent per pound.
These Ostjaks take all their fish from the upper streams
in winter time, their mode of fishing being as follows:
A hole is cut through the ice, over which a spring rod is
placed, having several lines and baited hooks. Little
balls of clay are heated and thrown into the stream, which
cause the fish to rise from hollow beds in the river, where
they collect in schools. When the fish move out of their
288
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
places they invariably swim some distance up stream at
which time they see the bait and take it with great vora-
RUSSIANIZED OSTJAKS.
ciousness. Sometimes a dozen lines set in this way will
take as many as a dozen fish at one time. After the fish
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 289
are caught they are packed and frozen, in which condi-
tion they are sent to all parts of Russia, or sold at inns
and to passengers along the steam or post-routes.
The Ostjaks, who number about 30,000, inhabit that
portion of Siberia lying between the rivers Irtysh and
Obi, and as far north as Obdorsk. They are nomadic
and live in a diffused state in tents which they call
youts.
The Obi is a stream of considerable width, and its
course lies through a plain without even once passing a
moderate sized hill. The scenery is therefore very mo-
notonous, and but for the peculiar people met with there
would be nothing on the water-route between Tobolsk
and Tomsk — 1,600 miles — to excite the least interest.
CHAPTER XIV.
WE arrived at Tomsk late Tuesday night, and so anx-
ious was I to leave the steamer, which had been little
more than a prison to me, that I called to Schleuter and
had him prepare for immediate debarkation. We en-
gaged a droshky and drove to a hotel, the Russian name
of which I have forgotten, but in English it was the
Tomsk Tavern, so my interpreter told me, kept by a
pleasing old fellow whose patronymic — Honkhominiski
— I could not well forget, because it is so suggestive of
hog and hominy.
I was shown to a room in the hotel, the furniture of
which was principally icons and candles. I might call
them images, but not in the presence of a Russian, unless
I wanted to insult him ; an icon, therefore, needs some
explanation. The religious Muscovite i* technical to a,
290 BUSS1AN NIHILISM AND
point of punctilliousness ; he observes that biblical in-
junction which forbids the making of idols or .images for
worship ; but his construction of the divine command is,
to say the least, about as badly mixed as was the Irish-
man who attended the accouchment of a double-headed
calf. A farmer coming by noticed Pat at work with the
calf, which he quickly observed was a freak of nature,
and addressed him : " Well, Pat, that is rather a singu-
lar lusus naturae, the like of which I never before wit-
nessed."
"Begorrah," responded the puzzled Hibernian, " that's
a noble name for sich a brhute ; I was afther callin' ov it
a badly mixed calf."
In order to avoid conflict with the command, and at
the same time secure his image, the Russian icon maker
first paints a picture of either Christ, the Madonna, or
whatever holy patriarch he desires to represent, and then
makes a bas-relief investiture, so that the clothing is a
relief image, while those portions which represent the face,
hands or feet are only painted on a flat back-ground.
This hybrid image the Russians call an icon, and they
believe with all their devout credulity that it is neither a
graven image nor the representation of an image. It is
only necessary to add that Russian religion is founded
upon faith alone — without works.
Surrounded by so much holiness, I slept with sound-
ness until Peter's cock split its throat crowing, and the
sun had started the bees on their third trip to the clover
blossoms — metaphorically, of course, as there is no clover
in Siberia. Starting out into the city about ten o'clock,
the first thing that arrested my attention was what Rus-
sians call a gostinnoi dvor, a market-place where are sold
all the vegetable products of Siberia, and many others
raised in Russia. I was very much entertained passing
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
291
through the numerous stalls making a hurried inspection
of the things on sale, and those who were bartering.
Around the market there is a large open space in the cen-
ter of which stands a handsome little chapel with white
and gilt sides and
a beautiful blue
dome representing
the starlit canopy
of heaven.
There are two
prisons in Tomsk,
both of which are
low, brick build-
ings, perpetually
damp and foul with
miasmatic exhala-
tions, owing to the
boggy character of
the soil over which
they are built.
One of these pris-
ons is used as a de-
tention building,
in which prisoners
on the way east
a r e temporarily
confined, from one
day to one week,
according as occa-
sion may require.
In the other prison, criminals sent into exile for short
terms are confined. These perform little labor, and they
are kept in such close quarters that inaction affects them
seriously.. Through the kindness of a local charity, a
292 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
school has recently been established for the benefit of
the prisoners and their children, but comparatively few
avail themselves of the benefit which it affords. There
is a reason for this which I did not understand at first.
The prisoners confined at Tomsk are only those con-
victed of petty crimes, whose sentence does not exceed
four }rears, and even this does not extend beyond mere
confinement ; naturally, such convicts are from a class so
densely ignorant that intelligence is repugnant ; they
never have spirit to do more than snatch a pocket-book,
assassinate some unsuspecting person, or assault a female.
There are no political convicts at Tomsk, and as it was
this class I was more particularly desirous of seeing, my
stay in that town was limited to a single day.
We were now at the terminus of water communication
eastward, of which fact I was not disposed to grumble,
because steamboating in Siberia can only be compared for
discomfort, to travelling by tarantass or tumbril ; when
you are on one, you invariably wish you were on the
other ; so, having just left a steamer, I was glad to get a
tumbril. Schleuter had no difficulty in engaging a ve-
hicle of this character, and being himself familiar with
the highway, we concluded to dispense with the services
of a yemstchik (driver) and go through to Krasnoiarsk,
which is distant from Tomsk about three hundred miles,
without any auxiliaries. Having completed arrange-
ments, we started from Tomsk in the morning with a de-
termination to reach Krasnoiarsk within two clays' travel-
ling. Schleuter was a good driver, and he knew just
how much speed to get out of three Siberian ponies
abreast. When we reined up at the first station, our
horses were in a foam but they still had many long
breaths in them ; nevertheless we changed them, and with
fresh animals our rapid travelling was resumed.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
293
294 KUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
As a pointer to those ambitious of visiting Siberia, let
me add one explanatory word here. First, a tumbril is
much to be preferred before a tarantass ; second, horse-
back is preferable to either ; third, walking, in any other
country, is far less objectionable than travelling in any
way through Siberia. It is true, that in a tumbril lying
down is possible, but consider the luxury of such a bed ;
between the two axles are three or more poles to which
the bed of the vehicle is fastened ; they are just long and
inelastic enough to throw you high in the air when the
tumbril crosses an obstruction, agd let you down again
with the force of a catapult. Under such circumstances
sleep visits the traveller in horrid dreams ; this I know
from experience, for the first night out, being exhausted
with the mascerating trituration to which J had been
subjected for eighteen hours, I fell into a doze which
lasted perhaps half an hour, during which time I dreamed
of being assaulted by six three-headed giants two miles
tall, who pounded me with spiked bludgeons and then
chewed me up between steel teeth six feet long. When
the giants concluded their feast, my dream changed and
I thought a large pack of wolves had surrounded a small
tree up which I had sought escape ; that they fell to with
their teeth and soon gnawed the sapling until it fell,
throwing me upon the ground with extreme violence,
when immediately my flesh was torn into shoe-strings by
a thousand snarling, voracious pests of Siberia's plains.
The cold chills even now creep in successive waves over
my body as I recall that dream, for it seems that I can
still feel the wolves planting their feet on my body while
stripping the flesh from my bones. This dream is only
a very slight exaggeration of the real miseries suffered
by travellers in Siberia.
When Schleuter became too tired for further service I
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 295
took his place as driver, and thus we lost no time until
the evening following our departure from Tomsk, when,
strange enough, we overtook the same convoy of prison-
ers I had seen leave Tobolsk, on foot, nearly a week be-
fore. This I considered a piece of good fortune, as it
enabled me to see how exiles in transport were treated,
and to discover with what feelings they accepted banish-
ment.
I got on good terms with the chief officer of the con-
voy by giving him sundry privileges with a little flask
which I carried for emergencies, just like the one to which
it was now applied. Through my interpreter I talked
with him familiarly for some time and then made inqui-
ries respecting his charge; he was not disposed to say
much about the prisoners at first, but as the flask lost its
contents, he became more loquacious until I had pumped
enough out of him to fill a book. Under the spirit-
ual influence which now possessed him, he exhibited
that careless indifference of his prisoners' comfort which
distinguishes the Russian aristocracy in their treatment of
the poor peasantry.
Tt was plain to be seen that the burdened convicts
were suffering from fatigue, although it is said they
travel only on alternate days, resting at post-stations and
attending church meantime, but of this I have my
doubts. It is probably the law, but what is a written law
in a country like Siberia ? My impression is, if the officers
of a convoy desire to recreate themselves — get drunk on
the highway — they stop one or more days at a time ; but,
on the other hand, if they are anxious to make a quick
trip in order to serve their own personal ends, then the
convicts are compelled to continue their march, regardless
of the fatigue they may be suffering. In fact, the officer
with whom I was conversing virtually admitted to me as
much.
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 297
There were three ambulances — tumbrils — with the con-
voy to carry those who could travel no longer, but the officer
told me they were used only in extreme cases ; said he,
"when a man or woman lags behind we sometimes touch
them up with a cracker ; and if this does not put new
life in their legs the plete, well wielded, almost invariably
does." This admission served to indicate the severe
measures sometimes used in compelling exiles to walk
when their condition was such that they could scarcely
support their exhausted bodies. I am not unconscious
of the fact that many would feign sickness in order to
secure a ride, but for the stringent measures used by the
guards ; human nature is not different in Siberia from
that we see in other countries, but the enforced travelling
of exiles is performed under circumstances peculiar, in
that the convicts are punished beyond what their sentence
contemplates.
As I rode beside the officer my attention was at-
tracted to one man who staggered along, with his face
towards the ground as if trying to lose consciousness in a
hypnotism of himself. He was heavily ironed, in fact
inhumanly, atrociously shackled, so that every step he
took his chains rattled in consonance with the extreme
suffering which I could plainly see he was enduring. His
wrists were bound together, to which was attached a
heavier double-chain that ran down and connected with
immense iron manacles on his ankles ; the weight of the
gyves he had to carry was not less than thirty pounds,
and though not at the time able to observe the effects, I
was quite certain that an examination would disclose a
sight sufficient to excite the sympathy of any human be-
ing. I was therefore determined in my efforts to see the
poor fellow and learn exactly the condition of his limbs.
To accomplish this I had recourse to a little stratagem,
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AXI)
in which Schleuter gave me such assistance as made my
plan successful. I knew that the next station was the
last before reaching Krasnoyarsk, so directly after refilling
my flask I went among the several officers of the guard
and gave them each so much as they desired to drink,
besides a few pleasant words, such as I thought would
place them on good terms with me. I next returned
to the chief officer and give him a full flask, after which
I began a dissertation on prisoners generally, and on
exiles in particular ; declaring that as a rule their treat-
ment was altogether too considerate ; that they should
be dealt with in a manner becoming their crimes ; if a
man commits murder he should be shown no more mercy
than that which he manifested for his victim ; I assured
him that the plete was a good stimulant and was quite
certain that the irons on his prisoners were in no wise too
heavy ; in fact they might be more wholesome if they
were a little heavier. A long commentary of this charac-
ter had the effect I had anticipated, for the officer not
only coincided with my views, but offered to prove that
he was a disciplinarian after the type I had pictured.
" Some of these fellows," said he, "are wretches who
ought to be fed to a slow fire ; well, I have the satisfac-
tion of knowing that they will remember me ."
To this I made a complimentary reply, and then begged
that he would accord me the privilege of examining one
or more of the convicts at the next station — those whom
he could recommend as having had something of their
deserts while under his charge.
I was very glad at receiving a favorable response, so
at a station between Balshe and Krasnoiarsk we stopped
an hour, during which time I examined the poor fellow
to whom I have referred, and also one woman who was
travelling with a large iron collar about her neck, to
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA.
299
which there were chains passing down and binding her
wrists. The two were taken into a private room of the
station, separately so as not to arouse the suspicion of
the other convicts or guards.
A SHACKLED CONVICT ON THE TRANSPORT ROUTE.
The shackles being removed we took off the man's
felt boots, when I saw a sight which may God forbid I
should ever again witness. There is nothing to which
300 fcUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
I might compare his condition except to some of those
tortured by the Spanish Inquisition, or to victims of
Bulgarian atrocity. The flesh had been bruised by the
cruel shackles, and then swelling had caused the irons to
slowly lacerate the sensitive parts until the ankles re-
sembled the last stages of leprosy, when the flesh grows
black and begins to drop away from the bones. Such a
sight I never before saw and hope never to see again, but
in addition to the suffering which this dreadful treatment
caused him, his wrists were in a condition almost equally
bad. His felt boots had, of course, somewhat aggra-
vated the injuries to his ankles, which were now worn
almost in two by the shackles ; but there was the
same rasping pressure on his wrists on which he bore
nearly all the weight of his chains in order to relieve his
ankles. Such compassion was aroused in me by his suf-
ferings that tears fell fast from my eyes, and in a mo-
ment when the officer was not looking I slipped a ten
rouble note into the poor fellow's pocket. I was well
aware that this sum of money would purchase for him
many little comforts and also secure him a place in the
ambulance. The look of "God bless you" which he
gave was so full of soulfulness and gratitude that in re-
membering the event since I have wished a thousand
times that I had made my gratuity tenfold greater. But
in addition to my gift I procured for him transportation
in the convoy trumbril by giving the chief officer five
roubles.
After examining the man and sending him out of the
room the woman was called in, but though her condition
was dreadful and pitiable, it was not to be compared with
that of the man's. Her wrists, which had supported but
little weight, were badly chafed and had bled until her
dress was stained ; but the greatest suffering she en-
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 301
dured was from her neck, which was so badly bruised that
when the iron collar was removed she could not bear the
least pressure on the injured parts without exhibiting
great pain. By giving the officer another five rouble note
he consented to permit the woman to travel into Krasnoy-
arsk without the shackles.
But I would not have the reader suppose that these
two were the only sufferers in that party of prisoners,
for there were, perhaps, three-score of men and women
no more fortunate ; the two I selected to examine were
not exceptional cases, but were a fair sample of the re-
sults produced by wearing galling irons while travelling
2000 miles on foot.
Beside these miserable convicts trudged nearly one
hundred foot-sore women and children who had elected, of
their own volition, to accompany their husbands or fathers
into exile. Among the women not a few carried little
infants strapped on their backs, Indian style, as their
arms could never have borne them so far, however
precious a child is to its mother. I distributed several
roubles among those whose appearance of misery ap-
pealed to my sympathy most ; but these little gifts served
to increase the pity I already felt, for as I would give to
one and not to another, the sorrowful looks I saw in the
eyes of those whose extended palms received nothing
pierced rue with compassion.
CHAPTER XV.
WE arrived at Krasnoiarsk on the evening of the third
day, a little in advance of the convoy of prisoners, and
found lodging in a hotel which gave us fair accommoda-
tions.
302
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
The town has a population of about 8,000, and is situ-
ated on one of Siberia's most famous rivers, the Yenisei,
which, starting in the Taugnou mountains of Chinese
Tartary, flows northward a distance of 2000 miles into
the Yenisei Gulf. Krasnoiarsk lies upon several small
hills, and is built in an irregular, straggling style. It
contains one prison which is used, I understood, for con-
fining local offenders, and others who, while enroute
further east, fall ill by the way-side. What is meant by
the word "ill," in this connection, may be inferred
when the fact is known that out of a total of one hun-
dred and twenty-two
prisoners confined in the
prison when I visited it,
fifty-one were insane.
I am not surprised that
so many exiles grow
mad, for it is only the
coarsest and strongest
minds that can bear up
under the afflictions
which a majority of ex-
iles are made to endure.
In passing through
the prison at Krasnoi-
arsk, I went into one
ward that contained an
unfortunate fellow who
had been so brutally maltreated while on the transport
route that his life was despaired of. He was therefore
left at the prison, where his treatment being less rigor-
ous he had so far improved as to be able to sit up and move
about. But the most remarkable circumstance concern-
ing this prisoner was found in the fact, that when he en-
A CONVALESCF.NT PRISONER IN IRONS.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 303
tered the prison he was in chains much heavier than those
I have previously described, and these had never been re-
moved. This statement is so startling as to appear incred-
ible, but receiving the admission from those in charge of
the prisoner, and with my own eyes beholding tho
wretched man still clothed with chains, there could be
no stronger proof produced to establish any statement.
As I saw him he sat on a clumsy chair to which he was
made fast, as seen in the engraving. Around his waist
was an iron girdle two inches broad and nearly one-half
inch thick, to which heavy chains were attached connect-
ing with an iron collar about his neck, and with an im-
mense bar of iron over his feet. This iron bar, which
must have weighed not less than twenty-five pounds, was
made fast to his ankles by staples in the bar, which
grasped the limbs in an unyielding embrace. It was
truly a lamentable sight, from which I turned away with-
out investigating the condition of his neck, waist or
ankles, for I was certain they would present an appear-
ance not unlike that I have already described as having
seen at a post-station.
There are not a few buildings in Krasnoyarsk of excel-
lent pretensions both as to size and architecture. It has
one church that cost nearly $500,000, which was built by
a rich gold miner who had seen much of the world even
on this side the Atlantic, and yet preferred Siberia as a
place of residence. His home, however, was such a
model of luxury and elegance that his preference was but
natural.
I Avas told that the city was but little more than half
as large as it was prior to the fire of 1880, which swept
away many of its most important buildings, the ruins of
which were still to be seen on the south side of the town,
for it must be remembered that they do not build up
T>04 UUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
burned districts in Siberia, or even in any part of Europe,
like they do in America. A pleasing incident of this fact
was told to me ut St. Petersburg. Some time in the win-
ter of 1881 the Livadia Garden buildings (a summer
retreat in the suburbs of St. Petersburg), took fire and
were entirely consumed. The buildings consisted of open
frame works under which there were seats and tables for
wine and tea drinking ; also an enclosed building used as
a saloon, and an open air theater ; the whole was made of
light pine timber, such as in America a rushing man gen-
erally gives himself one week to have built up from the
ground and in full operation. But the Livadia; Garden
was re-opened three months after the tire, the buildings
having been, replaced, which was regarded as such extra-
ordinarily quick work that the place has since been known
as the American Garden. The St. Petersburgers declare
that no where in the world outside of America was ever
such rapid construction of buildings known.
In the afternoon following my arrival in Krasnoiarsk
the convoy which I accompanied made ready for cross-
ing the Yenisei and continuing their journey tolrkoutsk,
where, upon arrival, convicts are distributed, according
to their sentences, to Sakhalein, Yakoutsk, Kara, and
other penal stations.
The Yenisei is nearly one mile wide at Krasnoiarsk,
across which prisoners are taken by what is called a
"flying bridge." This bridge, so called, consists of a
series of boats anchored in the river, over which passes a
long line connecting with the main shores ; a barge for
carrying the convicts is made fast to this lino, which,
moving by pullies, draws the boat from one side of the
stream to the other. This rather singular arrangement
O . £T
for ferriage is made necessary by reason of the extraor-
dinary current in the Yenisei, which often reaches a
rapidity of fifteen miles per hour,.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA
305
t:
306 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
There was nothing to detain me long at Krasnoiarsk,
and being desirous of visiting some mines where 1 might
witness the labor of convicts, after advising with Schleu-
ter, we decided to proceed two hundred miles north-
ward to Yeniseisk, As this would take us off the
transport route we had to purchase all provisions
needed on the trip, and also a complete travelling
outfit, including horses and tumbril. This, however, did
not involve so great an outlay as the reader might expect.
Horses in Siberia are surprisingly cheap, as are cattle. A
fatted calf, one year old, will not bring more than $1.50,
and a good pony may be had for from $5 to $8. The
outfit of three horses, harness and tumbril, cost me only
$48, and in the end I found my purchase had been a
most profitable one. Milk is nearly everywhere abund-
ant in Siberia, and of this useful article we purchased
four gallons ; butter is not so plentiful, but yet obtain-
able at from six to eight cents per pound ; we also took
with us a samovar — tea urn — two pounds of tea, fifteen
loaves of white bread, which were baked to our order,
and twenty pounds of fresh meat. For our horses we
provided five bushels of corn, which is raised in Siberia
and sold at twenty-two cents per bushel ; grass is gen-
erally abundant, but oats are almost unknown. We laid
in no other provender for our animals, having already
such a load that we could scarcely make room for our
bedding. Thus accoutred, away we went towards the
great tundras, which, beginning a little north of Yen-
iseisk, stretch away to the arctic shores of Siberia.
Before reaching Krasnoiarsk the country becomes
more broken, with a considerable showing of stunted
trees, chiefly pine, but going northward from that
city the vegetation rapidly grows more profuse, until
soon there appears an unbroken forest in which large
EXILi: LIFi: IX SIBERIA.
.307
gar.ie abounds. Of this latter fact I had abundant evi-
dence during the first night we went into camp. There
is a public highway between Krasnoyarsk and Yeniseisk
along which are occasional inns, but the intervals are so
SIBERIAN ROADSIDE INN.
rare that we concluded to make camp at nine o'clock
rather than push 011 ten miles further, where we might
have secured lodgings not nearly so good as our tumbril
afforded. Directly after lighting our camp-fire, which
308 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
was made within a few yards of the road-side, beside a
large log, Schleuter turned to me suddenly, with the re-
mark : « ' What was that ? ' '
I had heard no unusual noise, but must eonfess that
his enquiry immediately put me in a condition to sec or
hear anything dreadful upon the least symptom of a cause.
I had with me no arms except a Smith and Wesson for-
ty-four calibre revolver, and this was quickly drawn in
anticipation of approaching deadly peril. The night was
cloudless, so that objects not obscured by the dense growth
could be readily denned at a distance of thirty or fort y
yards. We therefore looked with eyes and ears, but could
discover nothing, though our horses manifested signs of
uneasiness. After several minutes of suspense, even
Schleuter came to the conclusion that he had given a
false alarm, but I was far from being satisfied, having
received a nervous shock from the suddenness of his ex-
citing enquiry which I could not rally from.
Under no circumstances is it an act of decorum or an
evidence of great courage for a gentleman to parade his
cool bravery before a company when every element of
danger is absent ; particularly inappropriate would it be
for ine to strike a self-eulogistic attitude here where the
opposite side has no opportunity of replying. But at
the sacrifice of modesty I must say that on my native
heath I have hunted such game as the country afforded
without at any time — save once — having either my con-
science or fears excited ; this placid condition is due,
however, to the fact that I always killed what I was hunt-
ing, and because I never got on the wrong side of the
fence. But the conditions were now very materially al-
tered, for what I knew concerning Siberian game had
been acquired by reading adventures which described the
animals as great hunters themselves and of the carnivorous
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. SO 9
Species. What I had forgotten of the ferocious wolves,
hears, boars, etc., of which I had read, came back to me
now in vivid panorama, so that an admission of my rest-
lessness is drawing it exceedingly mild.
I sat up rather late, smoking my pipe, but the drowsy
god at length alighted on my eye-lids and I turned in
with Schleuter, who had for an hour before been executing
a nasal refrain in the tumbril. One, perhaps two hours
had passed ; the fire was almost extinguished, and doz-
ing, I had lost my fear in a pleasant dream of home.
The dream was concluded abruptly by my being awak-
ened with a returning sense of danger ; the horses were
snorting and tugging violently to loose themselves. I
jumped up, and looking over toward the smouldering
embers saw a bear, which, in my dreadfully excited state,
appeared as large as a mammoth. I forgot to awaken
Schleuter, who obstinately slept without one disturbing
reflection, but reaching for my pistol I fired across and
very near Schleuter' s head just as the bear reared up on
his hind legs to drain our samovar, which had been left on
the log. If I had known a little pistol shot could have
created so much of a row I would have considered sev-
eral minutes before firing. Schleuter bounded up as
though a dynamite mine had exploded under him, and he
lit out of the- tumbril like one possessed of the devil. So
dreadfully' confounded was I by his actions that for a
moment I forgot all about the bear, notwithstanding that
it was howling with rage and advancing on Schleuter.
My aim had not been bad, for the bear's foreleg was
broken by the shot, but this served to rouse all the fight
in bruin's nature. Schleuter, half awake, could not see
the bear nor be made to understand his dangerous posi-
tion, until another shot from my pistol, placed almost
against the animal's ear, put a coup de grace on our ad-
venture.
20
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
There was no more sleep for either of us that night, so
rebuilding our fire we fell to and skinned the dead bear,
keeping the hide as a trophy and taking the carcass along
with us to Yeniseisk. I learned from natives that what
I considered a great adventure, in killing a bear, was an
event so commonplace that it could scarcely be esteemed
an adventure. In fact the country I was now in abounded
with such game, the hunting of which was followed not
only for the purpose of securing the game but for rid-
ding the country of pests which ravaged herds of young
cattle and horses. A favorite way of hunting the bear is
with a whip, fire-arms and ammunition not always being
obtainable in Siberia. To be successful in this kind of
hunting two men must hunt together on horses ; each
provides himself with a whip, made of plaited rawhide,
about twelve or fifteen feet long, to the end of which is
tied a leaden ball, which gives impetus to the lash,. and
also serves the more useful purpose of tying the lash
when whipped around the animal's neck. A bear being
found the two hunters, whose horses are generally trained
for the use, ride on each side of the animal, striking it
with the whip until it is almost exhausted ; they then, by
a movement which requires no little skill, throw their
whips around the bear's neck in such a manner that the
lash ties itself; now being drawn from opposite directions
the animal is powerless and is of ten taken into the village
in this way, where it is disposed of.
CHAPTER XVI.
WE reached Yeniseisk without further adventure, and
found it a city of much greater size and importance than
I hud supposed. It contains a population of nearly 20,-
000 souls, and is beautifully situated on the south side of
312 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
the Yenisei River. It is a great center for disposing of
furs obtained by the hunters of northern Siberia, who
are generally Samoyeds, Tunguses and Ostjaks, whose
numbers between the Obi and Yenisei rivers are estimated
to be about 25,000. They subsist almost entirely by
hunting and fishing, in which, with the use of the most
primitive hooks and bows, they are remarkably success-
ful ; but being nomadic and improvident, like our Amer-
ican Indians, they accumulate no more than will supply
their present necessities.
The principal animals found in the province of Yeni-
seisk are the bear, wolf, reindeer, white fox, ermine, elk
and sable.
In capturing the bear the Samoyeds adopt an original
plan, one which I do not remember being practiced by
any other tribe. Bears are more or less like the deer in
their habit of visiting a special locality by a particular
route ; the Samoyed therefore takes advantage of this
habit by fixing his trap in bruin's way : A wooden plat-
form is erected around a tree at such height from the
ground that to reach the center of it a bear must
stand upon his hind legs. The platform is filled with
very sharp iron spikes running up two inches above the
surface, while above them and made fast to the tree is
placed a piece of meat. In rearing up to secure this
meat the bear transfixes his fore-feet on the sharp spikes,
and is unable to release himself.
Snow was already falling about Yeniseisk during
my visit to the place in September, and I saw a large
party of Tunguses making ready for a trip to the tundras,
which begin about thirty miles north of Yeniseisk ; the
fishing season was now practically over, while the hunt-
ing was just beginning. I did not visit the tundras, be-
cause my time was too limited, but from several persons.
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 313
residents of Yeniseisk, who were thoroughly familiar
with Northern Siberia, I obtained a description which
was no doubt more accurate than I could have secured by
paying a short visit to that intensely dreary section.
There is no place on earth that can compare with the
tundras for desolation and extreme cold, unless we choose
to bring the arctic regions into the contrast. Our great
western plains are only miniature tracts of level country,
and their product of thin grass is as a bounteous dispen-
sation of nature when compared with the almost meas-
ureless, frozen-hearted, worse than barren deserts of
northern Siberia. This great verdureless plain extends
from the center of northern Russia, six thousand miles
across Siberia, until it impinges on the fretful shores of
the Kamtchatkan sea and Behring's Strait. For ten
months in the year this immense stretch of hunger-laden
shore is covered with snow ; not so much as a dry twig,
frosted leaf, or drifting scallops about some fallen tree,
is there to relieve the one dead, shimmering, shivering
ocean waste of trackless snow ; nothing, like a bubble in
mid-ocean, unless may be seen on the expansive plain some
lonely hunters braving arctic perils in quest of the rein-
deer.
An American who spent three years in Siberia gives the
following graphic description of life on the tundras :
'k A winter journey over the great northern tundras is
inexpressibly lonely and monotonous. Day after day
the eye rests upon the same illimitable expanse of storm-
drifted snow, and night after night the traveller camps
in an utter solitude, over which seems to brood the
mournful silence of universal death. I do not know
how to describe in words the impression of sadness,
loneliness and isolation from all human interests, which
these great barren plains make upon the imagination.
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 315
The world which you have left, with all its cares, strife
and busy activity, fades away into the unreal imagery of
a dream ; and you seem removed to an infinite distance
from all the interests and occupations of your previous
life. You cannot realize that you are still in the same
busy, active, money-getting world in which you remem-
ber once to have lived. The cold, still atmosphere, the
red, gloomy twilight of the low-hanging sun, and the
great white ghastly ocean of snow around you, are all
full of cheerless, mournful suggestions, and have a strange
unearthliness which you cannot reconcile or connect with
any part of your previous life.
"The pleasantest feature of winter travel in Siberia is
camping-out at night. All day long you suffer from
cold, hunger and fatigue ; you lose your way in blinding
snow-storms, or become exhausted by the constant strug-
gle to keep warm in a temperature of 40° or 50° below
zero ; but the anticipation of the bright evening camp-
fire sustains your flagging spirits, and enables you to hold
out until night. We usually camped as soon as we could
find wood for a fire after it grew dark. Three sledges
were drawn up together so as to make a little enclosure
about ten feet square ; the snow was all shovelled out of
the interior and banked up around the sides like a snow
fort ; and a fire was built at the open end. The little
snow cellar was then strewn to a depth of three or four
inches with twigs of trailing pine ; shaggy bearskins were
spread down to make a warm, soft carpet; and our fur
sleeping-bags and swans-down pillows arranged for the
night. In the middle of the enclosed space stood a low
table improvised out of a candle box, on which one of
our native drivers soon placed two cups of steaming tea,
a few pieces of frozen rye bread and some dried fish.
Then stretching ourselves out in luxurious style upon our
316 BUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
bearskin carpet, with our feet to the fire and our backs
again stPpillows, we smoked, drank tea, and told stories
in perfect comfort. After supper the natives piled dry
branches of trailing pine upon the fire until it sent up a
column of flame ten feet in height, and then, squatted in
their favorite position around the blaze, they would sing
for hours the wild, melancholy songs of the Kamchadals,
or tell never-ending stories of hardship and adventure on
the coast of the Icy Sea. At last, the great constella-
tion of Orion marked bed-time. Our stockings were
taken off and dried by the fire, the dogs were fed their
daily allowance of dried fish each, and putting on our
heaviest fur coats, we crawled feet first into our wolfskin
bags, pulled them up over our heads, and slept.
" A camp, in the middle of a dark, clear winter's night,
presents a strange, wild appearance. Imagine, if you
can, that you have waked up at some unknown hour
after midnight, and have thrust your head out of your
frosty fur bag, to see by the stars what time it is. The
fire has died away to a few glowing embers. There is
just light enough to distinguish the dark, crouching forms
of the natives, some sitting upon their heels, with their
backs against sledges, some squatting in a row by the
fire, and all asleep. Away beyond the limits of the camp
stretches the desolate steppe in a series of long snowy
waves, which blend gradually into a great white frozen
ocean, and are lost in the distance and darkness of night.
High overhead, in a sky which is almost black, sparkle
the bright constellations of Orion and the Pleiades, the
celestial clocks which mark the long, weary hours be-
tween sunset and sunrise. The blue, mysterious stream-
ers of the aurora tremble in the north, now shooting up
in clear, bright lines to the zenith, and then waving back
and forth in great majestic curves over the silent camp,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 317
as if warning back the adventurous traveller from the
unknown regions around the pole. Silence is as profound
as death. Nothing but the pulsating of the blood in jour
ears and the heavy breathing of your sleeping men,
breaks the universal lull.
" Suddenly there rises upon the still night air a long,
faint, wailing cry, like that of a human being in the last
extremity of suffering. Gradually it swells and deepens,
until it seems to fill the whole atmosphere with its vol-
ume of mournful sound, dying away at last into a low,
despairing moan. It is the signal howl of a Siberian dog.
In a moment it is taken up by another upon a higher key ;
two or three more join in, then a dozen, then twenty,
fifty, eighty, until the whole pack of one hundred dogs
howl an infernal chorus together, making the air fairly
tremble with sound, as if from the heavy bass of a great
organ.
" For fully a minute heaven and earth seem to be full of
yelling, howling fiends. Then, one by one they begin to
drop off, the unearthly tumult grows fainter and fainter,
until at last, it ends as it began, in one long and inex-
pressibly melancholy wail, and the camp becomes silent
again as death. One or two of your men move restlessly
in their sleep, as if the mournful howls blended unpleas-
antly with their dreams, but no one wakes, and a death-
like silence again pervades heaven and earth.
"Suddenly the aurora shines out with increased bril-
liancy, and its waving swords sweep back and forth
across the dark, starry sky, and light up the snowy steppe
with transitory flashes of colored radiance, as if the gates
of heaven were opening and closing upon the dazzling
brightness of the celestial city. Presently it fades away
again to a faint, diffused glow in the north, and one pale
green streamer, slender and bright as the spear of Ithu-
318 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AX I)
riel, pushes slowly up toward the zenith until it touches
with its translucent point the jewelled belt of Orion.
Then it, too, fades and vanishes, and nothing but a bank
of pale white mist on the northern horizon shows the lo-
cation of the celestial armory whence the Arctic spirits
draw the gleaming swords and lances which they brand-
ish nightly over the lonely Siberian steppes.
" With the earliest streak of dawn the camp begins to
show signs of animation. The dogs get out of the deep
holes which their warm bodies have melted in the snow ;
the natives push their heads out of the neck-holes of their
fur coats, and whip off the mass of frost which has accu-
mulated around the aperture ; a fire is built, tea boiled,
and you crawl out of your fur bag to breakfast. Fifteen
or twenty minutes are spent in drinking tea and eating
dried fish. The sledges are then packed, the runners wet
down to cover them with a coating of ice, and before the
aurora fades away in the increasing light of sunrise, you
are riding again at a brisk trot across the steppe. In this
monotonous routine of riding, camping and sleeping, day
after day, and week after week pass slowly and wearily
away."
During the summer season of two months, there de-
velops upon the tundras a coarse vegetation which very
much resembles moss, but so thick and strong is it that
nothing, not even a reindeer, can travel through it. But in
the winter season this moss-grass becomes food for these
animals, from which they remove the snow by digging
with their sharp feet.
The Tungueses whom I saw preparing for the hunt
had a large number of dogs which they took with them
to draw their sledges, as only dogs or reindeers can be
used for that purpose ; they also had a number of sledges
on which were thrown with other luggage several pairs of
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 319
snow-shoes. In answer to my questions, through an inter-
preter, one of the hunters told nie his party was going in
quest of sable, the skins of which sold in Yeniseisk as high
as $40. In hunting these little animals the Tunguese re-
lies chiefly on good luck, rather than any special skill.
Tracks of the sable being found. they are followed until
the animal is either caught, when it is despatched with a
stick, or run into a hole. As digging it out would be next to
impossible, and as the animal frequently lies abed for
three or four days at a time, the Tunguese goes into
camp to wait its appearance. Before lying by, as it
were, however, the hunter fixes a number of snares
around the hole, to which he generally attaches little
bells. He then takes up a position near the hole and
waits ; when the sable comes out and is caught the tink-
ling bells alarm the hunter, who rushes and secures his
prize before it can gnaw the threads in two which hold
its feet.
White foxes are caught in traps set on the highest
knolls that can be found, for it is well known that this
wary animal has a habit of repairing each night to some
hill to make his observations. Black foxes are also occa-
sionally caught in Siberia, but they are exceedingly rare.
While attending the Moscow exposition I was shown a
dressed black-fox skin for which the furrier asked
$1,000, and this he assured me was not an unusual price.
Elk hunting, or stalking, as it is called, is carried on
, by men on snow-shoes, which any one, not acquainted
with the numbers of these animals that roam the tun-
dras, would suppose very hard and unremunerative labor ;
but so numerous are elks, and also reindeer, in that bar-
ren country, that they may be found in large herds
without expending much time or labor. There are an-
nually brought down to Yeniseisk for sale from 10?000
to 20,000 elk skins.
320 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
Elks are generally shot, but reindeer hunting involves
great skill and a thorough knowledge of the animal's
habits, for they are taken alive and domesticated for
draught purposes. The more common way of catching
them is by building enclosures into which they are driven
and then secured by lassoing. As it would be impos-
sible to find material on the tundras out of which an
enclosure could be made, hunters provide themselves
with stakes and ropes which are carried on sledges to the
places desired. A herd of reindeer being located the
enclosure is hastily set up, after which a party of hun-
ters surround and drive them to the mouth, which is
large but gradually contracts until a small passage-way
leads into a circular enclosure. Their horns are so large
and many-pronged, that lassoing them may be easily
done by even a novice.
CHAPTER XVII.
THE first mine I had the privilege of visiting, worked
by convict labor, was at Yeniseisk, and to this part of the
object of my visit I now addressed myself. Siberia is rich
in mineral, nor is the country limited in quantity or qual-
ity to the more common metals, for it also has large
quantities of gold, silver, iron, malachite, copper, zinc,
etc. Americans are wont to look upon our own territories
as the richest in precious metals of any country in the
world, but this a mistaken idea. Siberia is unquestion-
ably richer in gold and silver than California, Colorado,
Nevada, or New Mexico ; she already produces more
gold than any other country, notwithstanding the obsta->
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
321
cles which hedge her about, and every year the product
largely increases.
The principal gold mines in Siberia are those of Yen-
iseisk, Irkoutsk, Kaust, Kara, Nijni Udinsk and several
322 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
along the Lena River, which hitter I am told are much
richer than any others yet opened in Siberia. There is
also a very large gold mine on the river Vitim, in the
tians-Baikal district, from which there is now taken
nearly $3,000,000 annually.
The Yeniseisk «;old mine is several miles distant from
o
the town and to reach it we had therefore to have re-
course to our tumbril. The road led through a dread-
fully rough country and crossed several streams that were
so deep the bed of our vehicle was wet. Beaching the
mine I was somewhat surprised to find it a placer digging,
for my idea was that here I should find convicts at work
far under the earth upon whom I might observe the effects
of perpetual banishment from sunshine. While I did not?
therefore, go under ground in quest of information of an
extremely unpleasant character, I did witness many sights
of interest connected with Siberian mining and the oper-
ation of convict labor.
A very large space of ground was dug over, but there
was employed altogether not more than 400 laborers,
about one-fourth of whom were free-men, that is, con-
victs who had served their sentences but remained in the
country because they could never collect enough money
to take them to Russia again, or for some other reasons.
*Thcse mines, like a majority of others in Siberia, are
worked by private corporations or capitalists, who hire
convict laborers from the Government. This system has
been in operation for many years, owing to the fact that,
prior thereto, dishonest officials robbed the Government
of the mineral yield so that the mines were worked at a
continual loss.
The mining at Yeniseisk is performed in a primitive
way. A large cylinder with maivy perforations takes the
place of the washing pan used in the early days of Cali-
324 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
forma. Into this cylinder, which is made to revolve, the
gold-bearing earth and stones are placed, over which a
stream of water runs. The yield was not large, but an
officer was there to inspect every cylinder and make re-
port of its contents, which report was transmitted to the
Government. The gold bullion, dust and quartz is taken
by team to Irkoutsk, where there are reducing works.
These teams are sent out from Yeniseisk about four times
each year and are always accompanied by a cossack guard
to protect the treasure from falling into the hands of
highway plunderers.
I witnessed no special hardships upon the convict lab-
orers at these mines, nothing more than may be seen on a
visit to almost any penitentiary in the United States. I saw
a few men chained to wheelbarrows, and others having
chains on their wrists and ankles, but it did not appear
that they suffered greatly. But I was afterward in-
formed that the mines near Yeniseisk were controlled by
a very humane and charitable capitalist whose treatment
of those in his employ was exceptionally considerate.
Upon our return from the mines we came upon a for-
lorn, exceedingly wretched appearing man who, in re-
sponse to Schleuter's inquiries, stated that he was an ex-
ile, having a habitation in the mountainous region
thereabouts. There was something about the man which
I could not resist, perhaps it was the melting and intelli-
gent expression of his eyes, or the sorrowful, pitiable
look that he gave us, or a thankful recognition for our
condescension in addressing him so kindly. I therefore
inquired the distance to his lodgings, and finding it com-
paratively near immediately decided to pay him a visit.
After a drive of perhaps half an hour we descended a
mountain beyond the base of which there was a long, level
stretch of treeless plain covered with snow. In this
EXILE LIFE IN SIBElilA.
cheerless solitude we soon found the exile's abode, which
I was astonished to see was an exact counterpart of 4 the
mud "dug-outs " still to be found scattered all over our
western territories.
T was glad to find that the poor exile who had excited
in me so much interest and compassion was not all
alone in this dreadfully dreary spot, and that he had a
companion whose lot was no more fortunate than his own ;
besides his fellow exile there was a faithful dog, companion
to them both, whose vigils never waned, guarding against
intrusions of wild animals and none the less suspicious
of strange people like ourselves.
The abode of our unhappy exile consisted of a slight
excavation over which was a boarded double room cov-
ered on the top with branches of trees ; the whole was
banked with earth, two feet thick, so that a fairly com-
fortable house was had, warm in winter and cool in sum-
mer. A door on the south side led, by one step down,
into the one spacious room, which was warmed by a fire
of fir-wood burning in an improvised stove of too hybrid
a character to admit of description. The floor of the
room was made of loose boards uneven in length and
thickness, but joined together with much care to exclude
dampness. A bed was made in one corner by driving
stakes into the ground which protruded about two feet and
to which lateral and cross- wise strips were nailed to receive
the bedding of wolf and bear skins. An icon of the Ma-
donna hung on the wall, before which a little tallow can-
dle, made of wolf's lard (so he told me), was kept burn-
ing ; three shelves, two stools and a box composed all
the funiture in the room. His cooking utensils were
meager, but there was a samovar steaming on the stove,
which to every Russian is next in importance to his icon.
We were welcomed to these primeval appearing quar-
21
326 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
ters with a genuine hospitality. After tea had been
drunk I begged of the exile to tell me the circumstances
under which he was banished, and something of the life
he had led in Siberia. First being assured that I was an
American in quest of information concerning convict
life in Siberia, he recited his story to me through my in-
terpreter, which briefly repeated is substantially as fol-
lows :
"My home was, until 1873, near the village of Mie-
chow, which is in the southern part of Poland, nearly two
hundred versts from Warsaw. I belonged to a commu-
O
nal estate, which was originally the property of our no-
bleman Kratznich, but after the order of liberation I
remained attached to the estate, and tried to draw f rom
the soil sustenance for my family, consisting of a wife
and two children. I was fairly prosperous, though there
is little certainty in the crops of my district, one year
being abundant, and perhaps for one or two seasons fol-
lowing a complete failure. However, I had no reason
for complaint, since many of my neighbors pronounced
me the most fortunate peasant among them.
44 My misfortune began in the spring of 1873, when
there came to my cottage home a brother to my wife,
who had fled from the authorities ; he was charged with
having given aid to the Nihilists and also with being
a member of the Terrorist party. Well, I gave him shel-
ter over night, and the next morning three gendarmes,
who had been pursuing him for several days, found and
arrested him in my house ; I felt certain of his innocence,
for he swore to myself and wife, before the Little
Mother, that the accusation was false. I tried to prevail
on the gendarmes to release him, but my pleadings,
alas ! only served to endanger my own liberty ; I was ac-
cused by the officers of aiding my brother to escape, and
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
327
despite the lamentations and prayers of my wife and
children they tore me away from home, which I have
never since beheld."
At this point in his narrative, the poor fellow broke
into tears, and burying his face in his hands, cried as if
his heart were breaking. We tried hard to console
him, so after venting his grief for several minutes he
proceeded :
ARREST OF THE POLE AND HIS BROTHER.
" I was carried to Warsaw and thrown into prison where
I remained nearly one week, at the expiration of which
time, in company with ten others, I was taken to Mos-
cow without having any trial whatsoever. From Moscow
I was banished to the mines at Nijni Udinsk, which are
on the transport route between Krasnoiarsk and Irkoutsk.
Would to God I could forget the sufferings which I en-
dured and witnessed among my fellow convicts while on
that dreadful journey.
"When I left Moscow and had learned my sentence my
grief was so intense that it seemed I could not possibly
survive ; day and night I could see my wife and children
328 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
standing beside our little log cottage casting their stream-
ing eyes after me as the gendarmes rushed me away with
them. This great grief , in a measure, made me uncon-
scious of the cruelties to which I was subjected. It was
in the summer time when we made the journey and the
weather was so hot as to blister every part of our persons
exposed to the sun. I was heavily ironed, like the most
despicable malefactor, though I was as innocent of doing
any wrong to the government, either in act or sympathy,
as a babe on its mother's breast. The irons I wore cut
my wrists and ankles so dreadfully that I became almost
exhausted from the loss of blood, early on the journey.
* « The officers gave me some felt to bind my wounds, but
this only aggravated my sufferings, as they no doubt
knew it would. The dust and heat caused a rapid swell-
ing of the afflicted parts, which turned black, and had I
not stopped at a way-station on the route they would cer-
tainly have mortified.
" I cannot tell you of all the acts of inhumanity prac-
ticed towards us while on our way to Udinsk ; my con-
dition was somewhat relieved through a judicious use of
the few roubles I chanced to have with me at the time of
my arrest, but the other prisoners who had no means what-
ever were literally goaded to death on the transport high-
way.
" I had heard much of the hardships endured by con-
victs in the mines, but so great were my sufferings on the
route that I was ready to hail the mines with joyful satis-
faction, so .when at last we came in sight of Udinsk
those of my party who were consigned to labor in the
gold mines there looked on its spires with many manifes-
tations of pleasure.
" A very great majority of the prisoners were ready
for the hospital rather than the mines, but several poor
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 329
fellows who had become the butt of official brutality
were hustled into the mines with feet and hands almost
putrifying from injuries produced by their heavy mana-
cles. I was more fortunate, however, thanks to my rou-
bles, and for two weeks I had a good bed in the hospital,
which was looked after by a local charity. When my re-
covery was complete I was ordered into the mines, f ully
three hundred feet under ground, and assigned to labor with
another convict ; we were required to trundle a large bar-
row, I at the handles and he to draw by means of rope
and breast-yoke attached to the axle of the barrow.
" Before my money was exhausted I did not have any
extreme hardships in the mine, but when my last copeck
was gone then began sufferings which I dread to recall.
Heavy chains were put on me again, about my neck,
waist and ankles, while I was compelled to labor at least
eighteen hours every day ; nor was the labor of an ordi-
nary kind, but required such exertions that I have seen
many men faint and fall under it. In numerous instances
when exhausted nature could do no more, a manifesta-
tion of fatigue would cause the sufferer to be unmerci-
fully punished ; my shoulders have been bared to the
knout on many occasions for imaginary derelictions, and
twice I was tied up by the thumbs because I fell on my
barrow from exhaustion. The more common modes of
punishment practiced at^Nijni Udinsk are by the knout,
plete, scorpion and suspension by the thumbs. I was
never subjected to the scorpion, but have seen it applied
not a few times. This instrument for flagellation is made
like the knout, except that in place of the knots on the
thongs there are small hooks which, with the force of
each blow, are driven into the flesh and on being jerked
out draw portions of flesh with them. It is a dreadful
sight to witness a flogging with this most terrible of
EXILE LIFK IX SIBERIA. 331
scourges, about one-fourth of those thus punished dying
from its effects.
" On rare occasions the heads of convicts, who have
incurred the hatred of their brutal guards, are bound
with strips of rawhide which are drawn so tightly that
the eyes of the sufferer burst out ; the face turns purple
and streams of perspiration pour from every part of the
body. This punishment is also generally fatal, but I am
glad to say it is not often inflicted. But there is a pun-
ishment which is more terrible than either of the others
mentioned, because it is protracted sometimes through
years. That which I refer to is the confinement of pris-
oners in damp portions of the mines from whence they
are never allowed to depart until death releases them. I
have seen men and women too, who were serving life sen-
tences at hard labor in the mines, loaded with chains and
kept at work in pools of water which were both work-
shops and bed to them for years. It is astonishing how
long some persons will survive this horrible treatment ;
they grow thinner and thinner each day until their bodies
become almost transparent ; thin cheeks and eyes can be
seen in dark recesses of the face, the hair falls out, the voice
becomes almost inaudible, the bones appear sharply defined
under athin skin and at last they fall to rise no more forever.
Amid the flickering lights which so imperfectly illumine
the mines these poor wretches appear like gnomes, or
spectres of famine, which no' one possessed of the least
humanity can look upon without deepest pity.
" I endured these dreadful sights and punishments
for eight years, which was the full term of my hard
labor sentence. But my misfortunes did not termi-
nate with this sentence, for I am yet doomed to nine
more years of exile life in the district which I now
inhabit. I do not believe it is a common thing to divide
332
UUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 333
a sentence into periods of hard labor and simple exile, but
this has been my lot, and I must endure it. An equally
hard portion of my misfortune is the impossibility of
communicating with my family, not a single word from
whom has been received since the day I was so causelessly
taken away from them, nine years ago. Neither my wife
nor I can write, nor could any of our neighbors, so that
I have found no means of exchanging messages, and am
therefore in ignorance of their condition; they maybe
dead ; or my wife, hopeless of my return again, may
now be wedded to another ; but, if there have been no
changes yet, what shall I expect in the next nine years?
My heart is buried under afflictions which have passed,
and forebodings of evils which must come to me.
" I live here in this little house, dividing it with my
equally unfortunate neighbor, and we subsist on what we
can make by hunting and fishing. My present condition
I would not deplore, but for remembrances of my home
in Poland, which, alas ! is my home no more."
I was so interested in the exile's story as to be quite
unconscious of the approach of darkness, or that I had
spent nearly three hours in the snow-covered cabin. But
I did not forget to place ten roubles in the poor fellow's
hand, and to promise him that I should visit Warsaw be-
fore returning to America, and make an effort to com-
municate whatever message he might wish to send his
wife. He thanked me with tears in his eyes, and said :
" Tell her that my greatest hope is to see her again, and
that the hardest part of my sentence having already been
served I shall not cease my prayers for the preserva-
tion of our lives that we may meet again and be happy
in the little cottage where we were parted so long ago."
That every statement made to me by the confiding exile
was true has never excited in me the least doubt, while I
334 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
i
have repeated them (though in my own language) with-
out any exaggeration. My own observations, besides the
corroborating stories I heard from others who had vol-
untarily and involuntarily visited the mines, quite con-
vince me that it would be next to impossible to exagger-
ate the brutal treatment practiced by guards in Siberia
towards their miserable prisoners.
CHAPTER XVIII.
BUT for the snow on the ground it would have been
quite dark when we left the exile's abode to drive back
to Yeniseisk. The way was not marked by any sem-
blance of a road, but I anticipated no difficulty in mak-
ing the return trip safely and speedily. Our horses had
been chilled by so long standing in the raw atmosphere,
and when we started them they broke away in a run
which threatened destruction to our tumbril and injury to
ourselves. We got them checked finally, however, and
were bowling along in a hilarious spirit until, reaching
the apex of a hill, I looked out over the glinting land-
scape, and was upon the point of making some observa-
tion on the beautiful scene, when I descried three black
objects nearly two hundred yards distant, which I thought
were dogs. But Schleuter was too old a traveller in
Siberia to be deceived, and immediately upon seeing them
he exclaimed: "Wolves! Get your pistol ready, for
we may be in for it to-night."
I must confess that his remark excited some fear in
me, for with it the stories I had read of travellers being
chased and eaten by these voracious beasts, came back to
me with chromatic exaggeration. This partially sub-
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA.
335
sided when I saw the wolves making off from us, and to
facilitate their retreat I tired two shots at them, but
1
without effect. However, we had not proceeded more
than two miles further when I saw standing in the way
we were going two more wolves, which were so bold that I
336 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
shot one of them not more than twenty feet from our
vehicle, while the other trotted off slowly, notwithstand-
ing the shots I fired at it. We had twelve miles to go
before arriving at Yenisiesk, and I saw on the route, al-
together, not less than fifty wolves, all of the large,
ferocious species which does not hesitate to attack trav-
ellers, when slightly pressed by hunger.
Arriving at the city about eleven o'clock, we related
our experience with the wolves, when the landlord told us
that a courier had just come in who had been set upon,
by a pack, nearly twenty miles south of Yeniseisk, on
his route from Irkoutsk, and that to save himself he
had ridden his horse almost to death.
Any mention of wolves before a crowd in a Siberian
inn is sure to call forth from one or more persons, who
may be present, stories of personal experience with the
dreadful creatures, in which hair-breadth escapes figure
very prominently, but as wolves are more plentiful in
Siberia than squirrels are in our western States, such re-
lations are made more out of vaunting ambition than with
O
an expectation of interesting those who listen to them.
But for me stories of wolf and bear hunting are always en-
tertaining, and I was therefore very much delighted to
hear second-hand — through rny interpreter — the fol-
lowing, told by an Ispravnik — Governor — from the Tomsk
Government. It chancod that this distinguished func-
tionary had arrived at Yeniseisk on the day I visited
the mines, and wsis a guest of the inn at which I was
slopping. He had four servants with him, all exiles,
and otherwise manifested the dignity of his magisterial
office, so that when he spoke all gave him a respectful
hearing. To preserve the identity of the relator I will
give the story in the first person :
" It has now been just two yvurs since business, con-
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
337
iiected with the Government, called me to Irkoutsk, and
from thence to the Alexandreffsky Central prison, which
is nearly one hundred versts north of the city. The
winter, you remember, set in unusually early in 1880,
and when I started from Tomsk there was so much snow
338 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
on the ground that a troika could be used. I met with
no adventure on the trip to Irkoutsk, where my business
was speedily transacted . The Governor at Irkoutsk placed
his own private team at my disposal for the trip to Alex-
andreffsky, and with a good driver I started out early in
the morning, calculating to reach my destination before
night set in, as I never fancied driving on a lonely high-
way even in the moonlight.
" It has been my rule, whenever travelling through
any of the Siberian Governments, to carry with me a
trusty rifle, which I purchased on my last visit to St.
Petersburg, because it has more than once served me well
in the midst of imminent danger, but unfortunately, on
the occasion which I am now about to relate, I failed to
provide myself with the usual complement of cartridges,
taking less than twenty, when I generally carry not less
than fifty.
44 We started out from Irkoutsk in high glee, taking
with us a good quantity of quass and vodka, which serves
one so well, you know, on a journey of the character I
was about to take. Nothing whatever occurred to im-
pede our progress until nearly three o'clock in the after-
noon, when my Yemtschik became so confused by the
vodka he had internperately indulged that he left the road
and ran the troika over a log, upsetting it into a bank of
snow, but we escaped injury. This episode was too com-
mon to be mentioned but for the fact that our vehicle
was so badly broken that we stopped nearly two hours
making repairs, and after going only a short distance
further we again broke down, our trouble being a broken
shaft and tug, which was caused by the fractious capers
of one of the horses.
" It was nearly seven o'clock in the afternoon when I
heard the prolonged howl of a wolf, which was directly
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 339
answered by several others in different directions. These
sounds, however, did not alarm me in the least, for I have
heard them too frequently ; but it was not long before I
saw crossing the roadway ahead of us packs of five and
six wolves, while others trotted along behind us in a
sneaking manner. 1 knew these were the skirmish ing-
forces and refrained from shooting, knowing full well
that if I should kill one the others would devour him, and
once tasting blood and flesh they would seek to finish
their repast on us.
"My driver kept the horses in a brisk gallop, realizing
more than 1 did the danger which now threatened. Grow-
ing more bold each minute as their numbers increased,
the wolves appeared on every side, some coming up
within a few feet of our troika and then stopping sud-
denly to stare at us. Such howling I never before or
since heard, the forest being apparently full of the hate-
ful brutes, and every howl seeming to multiply the num-
ber. At length they grew so fearless that several would
run out quickly and snap at the horses and then dart back
again. I now saw that it was full time for action, as
each moment served to embolden them, and once they
should attack our horses little chance would remain for
escape. Bringing my gun up, therefore, I shot one
of the wolves, and scarcely did his blood stain the snow
before not less than one hundred piled on the wounded
animal and tore him limb from limb almost instantly. I
then fired two other shots into the pack and must have
wounded several others, judging from the snarling and
growling which succeeded. Looking back to observe the
effects of my shots I could see a myriad of wolves run-
ning to where the others were feasting, until they were
like flies in summer time swarming over a putrefying car-
cass.
340 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
" It was only a few minutes after I had shot, and before
we got out of sight of the pack, when every vestige of the
wounded wolves had disappeared in the voracious maws
of their comrades, and the latter were again soon howling
after us.
" The rest which our horses had by reason of the acci-
dents already described was very advantageous to us, for
they were now put to their full speed without showing
any suffering; but this speed could not avail against the
wolves, which gained on us so rapidly that before we had
gone six versts from where I fired my first shot they were
upon us again. When they reached the troika and were
ready to spring in, I shot two more, which were immedi-
ately pounced upon by the entire pack, so we made
another gain of two versts before they left this second
feast and were upon us again.
" I had every reason for husbanding my shots, for our
escape lay in keeping the wolves from us by killing one
of their number at a time, so as to distract the pack.
I therefore continued this desultory warfare until my last
cartridge had been fired, and we were yet nearly ten
versts from Alexandreffsky. I had caused the death of
perhaps twenty-five or more wolves, but there was no
apparent diminution in number, nor were there any mani-
festations of abandoning the attack on the part of those
that had survived. Our horses had now become badly
jaded, my driver almost lost his reason through fright,
and the little hope I had left was hardly bright enough to
show on a back-ground of despondency. I was not per-
mitted to lapse into a reflective mood, however, for the
hungry, carnivorous, blood-loving wolves came after us
on lightning feet, their red tongues lolling out between
vicious fangs which sometimes snapped together as though
they felt our flesh already between their teeth. My gun
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
341
was now useless, but I carried it in my muffled robes until
the wolves came so near that they tried to leap upon me ;
then I wielded it as a bludgeon with excellent effect,
killing three, or wounding them so that they were fallen
upon and quickly devoured. But this successful way of
rePelling their at-
tacks did not avail us
long, for while I
combatted with more
than a score, nearly
ten times that num-
ber ran ahead and at-
tacked the horses. I
now felt that it was
tim e to abandon hope ,
cross myself and fall
to praying, but our
poor horses battled
so nobly for life that
I was encouraged by
their acts. The two
outsiders ran on at
full speed for nearly
a verst, while wolves
were hanging at their
haunches and throats
or cutting great
gashes in their legs
and sides. I was
astonished to see the
horses survive so long, but when one fell at length
the others could go no further, and here our last
efforts were made to protect our lives. My driver, hav-
ing nothing with which to defend himself, was, despite
22
342 JHJSS1AN NIHILISM AM)
inv exertions, draped from his seat by three strong
«/ O
wolves, and as he fell upon the snow his cries for aid
almost set me wild. Oh, how the poor fellow prayed and
called to me while the ferocious beasts stripped the flesh
from his bones until death ended the torture he endured.
Our horses shared my driver's fate, while with almost
superhuman strength I wielded my gun and scattered
about me nearly fifty of the wolves that had attacked
myself and driver. How I came out of that fiery fur-
nace alive it is almost impossible for me to say, for I
fought for many minutes, which seemed an age, before
assistance came in the person of two exile moujiks who
bravely seized clubs and rushed to my aid. We were
almost on the outskirts of Alexandreffsky, and the noise
created by our terrible encounter so*m brought others to
the scene of action. My escape was chiefly due to the
successful attack on the horses and driver, their bodies
serving to draw away from me nearly all the pack. But
when relieved at last, upon examination I found that my
clothes were literally in shreds, and on my hands and
legs were several severe scratches which, in my excited
condition, I had not before discovered.
" The wolves were driven away by shooting and beating,
but not until the horses had been almost entirely devoured,
and of the guide there only remained a grinning skull
bare of flesh, the half of one hand, and a portion of his
back and pelvic bone ; his limbs had been torn asunder
and carried off by greedy members of the pack to some
place where they could munch the bones undisturbed.
Of my rifle there remained only the barrel , the stock hav-
ing been broken and lost, and nothing in my possession
do I esteem so valuable as this relic of the saddest ex-
perience and adventure in all my life."
We all applauded heartily the Governor's story, which
THE GOVERNOR'S RACE WITH THE WOLVES.
343
344 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
was undoubtedly true, and this approbation stimulated
others to relate their encounters with wild animals of the
northern tundras ; but I was too sleepy to take any
further interest in Siberian adventures, and stole off to
bed.
Having gathered about all the information accessible at
Yeniseisk, on the following day I started for Irkoutsk, by
way of Krasnoiarsk, distant eight hundred miles. The
return trip to Krasnoiarsk was not without trouble on
account of snow, which had fallen to a depth of fully
six inches ; but I decided to hold to my tumbril rather
than buy a troika (sledge) because I felt quite sure, as did
Schleuter, that we should find no snow on the regular
transport route, which we would reach in less than two
days' travelling.
We had not proceeded more than half a dozen miles
from Yeniseisk before I saw two wolves dart across the road
about one hundred yards ahead of us. Quickly the
Ispravnik's story came back to me and I pictured myself
in the midst of a ferocious pack with not so much as a
club for defence. Every few minutes my forebodings
were intensified by seeing one or more wolves not far dis-
tant from us, a fact which did not appear to give Schleu-
ter the least alarm, while I was continually forming reso-
lutions what to do when ' ' worse should come to worse."
Let me assure the reader that we did not camp out ; 30
far from being satisfied with a big fire and a warm bed in
the tumbril, I was quite willing to forego comforts for
the protection of an inn, one of which we found about
nine o'clock in the evening.
" Expect nothing and you will not be disappointed,"
is an old saying which none should forget while travel-
ling in Siberia, but its moral was lost en me when, on
proceeding to bed at the inn, I found no where to lay
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 345
my head except on the floor, mid no coverings except
those of my own providing. But there were no wolves,
bears or dreadful night-mares, so that the night was
spent with really less discomfort than I had anticipated.
Upon arriving at Krasnoiarsk I sold my three horses
for the same money I had paid for them and started on
to Irkoutsk by post conveyance, which is more than twice
as rapid as I could have travelled with a single team.
We lost no time in preparation, but immediately after
disposing of my horses we got a fresh team and a yem-
tschik who was lineally descended from Jehu. It is as-
tonishing how rapidly one can travel in Siberia, when he
is willing to pay for fast driving. It is told that the late
Czar on one occasion sent a courier to Irkoutsk with in-
structions to bring back to St. Petersburg, at the earliest
possible moment, a distinguished person who had been
exiled and was at the time in the Irkoutsk mines. So
regardful was the courier of his order that he brought
the offender from Irkoutsk to St. Petersburg — distance
3,500 miles — in just eleven days, making the incredible
speed of three hundred and eighteen miles per day, or
fourteen miles per hour. Having no desire to exagger-
ate this story I will say that 1,000 miles of the journey
was performed by rail, and perhaps 500 by steamer. But it
is not an uncommon thing for the Czar's couriers to make
200 miles per day. In such cases the horses must suf-
fer, though each relay is driven not more than twelve or
fifteen miles. When extraordinary haste is necessary
everything must give way on the road to the courier, who
telegraphs ahead for horses, and has the swiftest reserved
for him. When an animal falls dead in harness, which
they frequently do, the courier cuts off one ear from the
horse, and drives on, with the remaining horses, to the
next station. The ears thus preserved are shown to the
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 347
Czar as a proof of the speed with which the courier exe-
cuted his mission.
Four days of rapid travelling brought us to Irkoutsk,
which is 600 miles from Krasnoiarsk. On the road we
passed only one small convoy of prisoners, the officers of
which I did not consider it worth my time to interrogate,
as they were half-drunk and inclined to be quarrelsome.
At Nijni Udinsk we stopped only a short time, prefer-
ring not to visit the mines there until upon my return, as
I was anxious to reach Irkoutsk in time to see the races,
which I was told had already begun and would continue
only two or three days longer.
CHAPTER XIX.
IRKOUTSK is a handsome city, situated very much like
New York, being built on a tongue of land formed by a
sharp curve in the Angara River. The place contains a
population of nearly 35,000, and among its buildings are
a score of churches of elegant architectural design and
~ o
expensive finish.
We had to cross the Angara by hand-ferry, but upon
reaching the city's side more than a dozen droshky driv-
ers beseiged us, like hackmen in American cities, one of
whom we engaged to take us and our luggage to De-
coque's hotel, where I was rejoiced to find that the mana-
ger could speak a little English.
Irkoutsk is next to Yeniseisk in age, having been found-
ed in 1680, the former in 1618. It has become the great-
est mart on the overland route between China and Rus-
sia, while many of the more devout, whose minds in-
cline constantly to sacred things, regard it as a holy city,
348 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
particularly as Siberia's patron saint lies buried there.
The climate is said to be very fine, except in the fall, when
heavy fogs prevail that are infinitely more disagreeable than
the rainy season in San Francisco, which is saying a great
deal. My experience may be exceptional, but it has always
happened that in visiting a strange country I invariably
arrive just in the very worst season, — or at least the na-
tives tell me so. But I have suspected, many times, that
these assurances of exceptional weather proceeded from
local prejudice, or the common love for home place.
Any how, I struck Irkoutskin a bad spell, for it was not
only snowing with great violence but there was a fearful
wind blowing which seemed to gather up big drifts of
snow for the sole purpose of dashing them into people's
eyes. This wretched blizzard put a temporary stop to
horse racing, but during the night there occurred a great
change for the better, the wind ceased entirely, and when
morning broke Aurora burst upon a beautiful scene. At
breakfast every one present was talking about the races,
and when I went out upon the street nothing else seemed
to be thought of. In fact I soon learned that horse rac-
ing at Irkoutsk served the same purpose there that pool-
rooms and market quotations in exchanges and bucket-
shops do in this country — they are the popular resources
of speculators.
I drove out about noon with my guide to the race-
course, which, was a mile track situated some distance out
of the city proper, and only partly enclosed by a very
low fence. On that side the track next to the town there
was a pavillion, in which the Governor, judges, and a few
other privileged persons stood — seats were nowhere pro-
vided— and conducted the racing. I was amused to wit-
ness the preparations, as they are so unlike the prelimi-
naries made by jockeys in other countries. The training
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
349
to which horses entered for racing are subjected appears
very harsh, if not inhumanly cruel, and generally lasts
for three weeks. This training consists in riding the
horses for several hours each day at their greatest speed and
350
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
until they are covered with foam ; they are then tied out in
an open field over night, under a sharp frost, so that the
perspiration may freeze in a white coat over their bodies ;
the Siberians declare thai this treatment (which Avould
kill nearly any ordinary horse) hardens the muscles and
at the same time makes the horse more supple. In addi-
tion to this they will not allow their horses a drop of wa-
ter for forty-eight hours preceding the race, their theory
being that water distends the animal's stomach and proves
a serious impediment to its speed. Horses used in the
races are not ridden, but driven to a sledge, to which two
animals are attached, but in reality only one does all the
pulling, the other being used only to encourage the draught
horse. All Siberian horses have enormous manes and
tails, the former reaching to their knees and the latter
often dragging a foot or more on the ground ; but that
this profuse growth may not interfere with the running,
the tail and mane are tied up in leather straps which im-
part a rather grotesque appearance to the horses.
After witnessing several races I returned to the city
and paid a visit to the prisons, which are located on a level
strip of ground on the opposite shore of the Irkut River,
a small stream which bounds one side of Irkoutsk. I was
chagrined, however, on applying for admission to the
prison to meet with a flat refusal, and though I produced
my letter from the St. Petersburg ministry request ing that
every facility be afforded me in my investigations, the
officer was none the less obstinate, but before leaving he
told me I would be admitted on the following day. I
was therefore compelled to return and await his disposi-
tion, which leisure interval I improved by returning to
Irkoutsk to gather such stray facts as might offer.
Through rare fortune I fell in with an exile who had
served several years in the mines at Kara, under a hard
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
351
labor sentence, but through the influence of friends at
St. Petersburg hud the remainder of his sentence commu-
ted to simple exile in the Irkoutsk Government. Through
Schleuter I obtained from this unfortunate man a thor-
ough and undeniably truthful statement of the treatment
accorded to convicts at the Kara mines, and^I present it
here with the full assurance that it is not in the least ex-
352 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
aggerated, for Schleuter himself had many ways of ver-
ifying and attesting all the facts.
His statements to me, made in the course of several
hours of conversation, embrace the following interesting
facts :
The mines at Kara are noted throughout all Eussia
for the atrocious treatment dealt out to convicts who
may be sent there. A large majority of the Siberian
gold mines are no longer worked by convict labor, hav-
ing passed into the hands of private capitalists, but that
at Kara is one of those still operated by Government
authority with convicts who are sentenced to hard labor.
Both gold and silver are found at Kara, but mining
for the former is so much more profitable that the
little silver gathered is from double running in reducing
the gold-bearing quartz.
Generally, the number of miners at Kara are from
300 to 500, and their daily labor is from 13 to 15 hours
according to the favor which they may find in the officers'
eyes. In 1857 there was a law passed in Eussia,
which may be found in Article 569, providing for the
punishment of convicts. According to this law all those
sentenced to hard labor must wear heavy irons on their
wrists and ankles for the period of two years, which is
called the probation sentence ; if, at the end of two
years, the convict is reported as having conducted himself
in a humble, contrite and thoroughly acceptable manner
to the officer in whose charge the exile may be, then this
first sentence is considered served, and he begins on the
second part of his sentence, which is apportioned as fol-
lows : Those condemned for life must wear the heaviest
shackles for a period of eight years (additional to the
probation sentence) ; those condemned for twenty years
wear the shackles six years ; for fifteen years, they weav
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 353
them four years ; for twelve years, they wear them three
years ; for eight years, they wear them two years ; for
six years, they wear them eighteen months ; and for
four years, twelve months. So that in any event a hard
labor exile must wear the most galling fetters upon his
hands and ankles for a period of not less than three
years. But this law, harsh, nay inhuman in all its phases,
does not disclose all the heinousness of its application by
officials in Siberia entrusted with its administration,
for since ignorant and more brutal guards are made
the censors of each exile's conduct, it is in their power
to indefinitely extend the probationary period and
keep a poor sufferer in chains so long as the guard's
own pleasure may dictate. That this is the construction
put upon the law by many Governors of penal colonies
cannot be disputed in the face of a thousand living wit-
nesses now slowly dying from torture and exposure in
the eastern mines where it is applied.
In justice to Russia it must be said, however, that the
crimes thus committed against humanity are only indi-
rectly chargable to the Government ; some discretionary
powers must be accorded Governors of penal districts
lying so remote from the chief administration ; that this
necessary power should sometimes be abused is so natu-
ral that the result is identical in all countries, being co-ex-
tensive with the good and bad qualities of human nature.
Not a few instances have occurred where Governors with
brutal tendencies have been recalled to St. Petersburg
and upon the establishment of charges preferred against
them for cruelty, they have suffered the penalty of a,
stern and exacting law.
Another erroneous impression prevails very generally,
but which has not the slightest foundation in fact, viz. :
that exiles are compelled to labor in quick-silver mines
354 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
until their hair falls out and the flesh drops away from their
bones. This error is inexcusable, because there is no
such thing as a quick-silver mine in all Siberia ; and yet
the Government has been time and again charged (by
those who must know that they are falsify ing facts) with
forcing thousands of men and women down into these
caverns of insidious death each year. The truth con-
cerning convict labor in the mines is dreadful enough,
without any exaggeration or misrepresentation.
For many years the mining at Kara was conducted
above ground, but as the placers became exhausted tun-
nels were sunk which resulted in the finding of much
richer gold-bearing ore than the placers yielded. This
discovery, though highly beneficial to the Government,
proved disastrous to those whose enforced labor had un-
covered the new auriferous deposits. Men who before
were compelled to work fifteen hours each day with task-
masters over them, had, at least, the blessed sun-light to
kiss their heads like sympathetic ministrations from
heaven ; they could hear, in summer time, the cheerful
songs of many birds, and in winter there were great fields
of snow laughing under the inconstant sun, or grown so
bleak that all nature appeared to share the convicts' hard-
ships. It is astonishing what inconsiderable circumstan-
ces serve to console one when doomed to the never pity-
ing injustice of those appointed to watch over and pun-
ish hard-labor exiles. To many of the superstitious
unfortunates there is luck in having a bird perch on a
branch above them ; good news is expected to follow the
song of a bird after sunset, and should a bird light upon
the shovel or barrow of a convict it presages to the one
who handles the implement, news from home promis-
ing his speedy release. So are the moonbeams considered
as harbingers of fate ; if a convict be wakened at night
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA* 355
by the moon shining in his face, he regards it as an omen
of fortune : that he will hear from home, be transferred
to more comfortable quarters, or in some other way be-
come the legatee of good luck.
All ambitions, hopes, and agreeable superstitions are
suppressed in the heart of every exile when he is forced
to labor underground ; it is to them a departure from the
earth into the abodes of evil spirits where mercy is un-
known. In consequence of this very prevalent belief
among exiles they suffer in mind more perhaps than phy-
sically, from the extreme punishment which is really
inflicted upon them.
In Kara, my informant assured me, as described on
page 229 of a work entitled " The Russians of To-Day,"
"there are scores who never see the light of day, but
work and sleep all the year round in the depths of the earth,
extracting silver under the eyes of task-masters, who
have orders not to spare them. Iron gates guarded by
sentries close the lodes, or streets, at the bottom of the
shafts, and miners are railed off from one another in
gangs of twenty. They sleep within recesses hewn out
of the rock — very kennels — into which they must creep
on all fours." Nearly all these prisoners are constantly
loaded with chains, while each has a daily task to perform,
or come under the terrible discipline of the knout, plete,
or scorpion.
Nearly all the convicts at Kara are political offenders,
against whom there is such prejudice among Government
officials that they are tortured to the limit of cruel inge-
nuity ; it is not one in twenty that can survive the
cruelties inflicted here without becoming hopelessly in-
sane. There is a prison-hospital established at Kara in
which none are cared for except those who receive cor-
poral punishment from the officers. So inhumanly se-
> RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
vere is this administration of injustice that after its
application the poor victim is little more than a piece of
bleeding, unconscious flesh ; from the room of punish-
ment he is carried to a ward, provided with small cots, at
the foot of which is written the word " Costegcetis,"
meaning, " an offender well birched." But though it is
called a hospital, the treatment is little calculated to im-
prove the patients' condition, they being literally left to
help themselves, the policy being that a dead convict is
better than a live one. This ward exceeds in terror any
portions of an insane asylum ; the poor sufferers are either
dumb from unconsciousness, or raving with delirium ;
some are lying like sheeted ghosts, their eyes half-closed,
and one might suppose them dead but for their deep and
sonorous respiration, indicative of approaching dissolution ;
others are talking in a wild and incoherent manner of
their wrongs ; or perhaps picturing the loved face of
some friend or relative back in Russia to whom they talk
in terms of rare affection ; others yet are storming with
a passion directed by a mind from which reason has fled ;
while lastly, on this or that dirty cot is a body purple,
distorted, with blearing but vacant eyes, the very image
of powerful agony, the hands clenched and stiff, happily
— dead. The poor wretches, not a few of whom have
been delicately nurtured, and whose crimes are opposi-
tion to a Government which they regard as oppressive,
never receive one word of sympathy, nor are their most
imperative needs attended to. Those whose brutality
can punish so severely are not the persons whom we
might expect would give a morsel of compassion to their
victims.
At Kara an instrument is used to punish convicts
which differs from any others in use, so far as the knowl-
edge of my informant extended. He described it as
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 357
three large pieces of raw hide, each three feet long, with
knots on the end like on knouts ; these three thongs are
plaited together at one end so as to make a handle, while
the other ends are loose. A castigation with this instru-
ment is next to an application of the scorpion . The sev-
eral modes of punishment practiced at Kara are : whipping
with the knout, plete, and the instrument just described,
and sometimes, though rarely, with the scorpion ; the con-
victs are also disciplined by being shut up in dungeons,
by slow starvation, increasing their irons, placing them in
beds of freezing water, and such other tortures as the
ingenuity of vicious officers may suggest.
But in addition to these cruelties, all prisoners brought
to the Kara mines for hard labor are branded on the
forehead and cheeks with three letters, K A T, which is
an abreviation of Katarjnik, meaning a hard labor con-
vict. The instrument used for this purpose is shaped
like a cup, the larger end being provided with needles set
so as to pierce the skin to a depth of about one-sixteenth
of an inch in the shape of the three letters. The convict
is bound to an upright post in an immovable position, and
then the instrument is applied to the forehead and each
cheek, after which a caustic liquid is rubbed briskly on
the fresh wounds. This produces the most intense pain,
which does not abate for several days, as the liquid aggra-
vates the wounds and generally causes them to suppurate.
When, after weeks, the brand is healed, conspicuous scars
are left which endure for life ; thus a man who receives
this stigma, however undeserved it may be, is doomed
to parade his disgrace to all the world. My informant
showed me the brands he had received, which resembled
large and angry ring-worms that had assumed lettered
shapes.
The female convicts at Kara receive much more con-
23
358 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
siderate treatment than the men ; they are not compelled
to labor in the mines, but are closely confined in iron
cells at night and made to perform menial chores, and
are in servitude to the officers during the day time.
Nearly all those who are there confined are under sen-
tence for murdering their husbands, a crime o£ great
frequency in Rus sia where wives receive little '/,'ner treat-
ment than blows. Indeed, under the e^riier laws
of the Russian Church it was a portion of the pre-
scribed ceremony of marriage for the groc'.p, to carry
with him to the altar a small whip, which he lay lightly
upon the bride's back as a token that she should be sub-
ject to all his wishes or caprices. During the prevalence
of this strange nuptial rite there was a law in Russia
which punished wives who murdered their husbands by
burying them alive up to their necks, and then turning
dogs loose to feed on the exposed heads.
My informant said that the danger incurred in at-
tempts to escape was so great that comparatively few
convicts, even if they had an opportunity, would take
the risk. They would not only subject themselves to
penalties provided by a law which was construed by inhu-
man officials, but would have to run the risk of starva-
tion, and also the chance of being shot by some of the
Siberian tribes who hunt convicts as they would wild
beasts, shooting them down in order to rob them of their
clothes.
I was greatly interested in the exile's relation of how
convicts are treated at Kara ; the fellow was well educated
for a Russian peasant, and he did not appear to have any
particular prejudices against the Government. He had
served fifteen years at Kara for having, with several stu-
dents at Kasan, incited a political disturbance in which
threats of assassination had been freely expressed. His
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 359
sentence was twenty years at hard labor, but, through
the influence of friends at home, after serving three-
fourths of his time the remainder of his sentence was com-
muted to simple exile in the Irkoutsk district ; he was there-
fore free to go whither he willed inside the territory, and
might have engaged in business, but I believe he was
doing nothing except a little hunting and fishing.
On the following day I again applied for admission
to the Irkoutsk prisons, but my success was not much
better than before ; in fact, so unsatisfactory that no
description of the prisons or treatment accorded the
convicts could be obtained except from persons in no
wise connected with the management, so I was compelled
to return to Irkoutsk and conduct my investigations
through such sources as were afforded, but these I
soon found quite sufficient. The suspicion may have
been already excited that such information as I have given
is hardly worthy full credence because of having been re-
ceived from exiles whose prejudices might lead them into
great exaggerations. Before proceeding further I hope
to relieve this impression by saying, that I had opportu-
nities for verifying, in a general way, all the stories I re-
ceived from exiles ; interviewing more than a dozen who
had served long periods in the mines, I would have been
liable to dotect any misstatement, especially since I did
not talk with more than one exile at a time. In all their
several statements not the least inconsistency appeared,
while each declaration was further confirmed to me by
business men in the various towns I visited in Siberia. I
did not attempt to interview any prison official, because
Mr. Lansdell's example was before me ; that they would
protect themselves by hiding behind a mountain of misrep-
resentations and denials is perfectly natural, notwithstand-
ing their statements are made in the very face of established
360 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
facts. I saw with my own eyes quite enough of the hor-
rible treatment of Siberian exiles to make me regard
nearly any story of torture inflicted on Russian convicts
appear as not improbable, but I have not the least dispo-
sition to spread the terrible tales of exile suffering which
have grown, by the accretions of repetition, to monstrous
proportions. My desire is to tell nothing but the truth,
and to this end I have not and will not repeat any state-
ment that I have not sifted and found to rest upon the
very strongest circumstantial evidence.
CHAPTEE XX.
IRKOUTSK is so situated that it is an excellent point
from whence to gather information respecting the natives
of Siberia, particularly as a majority of these tribes in-
habit the northern section and make that city their cen-
tral trading station. It is said there are thirty different
tribes in all Siberia, among the more prominent being Tar-
tars, Ostjaks, Samoy eds, Kirghiz, Jacuts, Goldi,Buriats,
Zyrians, Koriaks, Tchapogirs, Jukagires, Yogules, Kam-
tchadals, Coreans, Yakoutes, Gilyaks, Chukchees and
Tunguse.
The Ostjaks, of whom I have already written, have
some claim to be considered as the aboriginal inhabitants
of Siberia, occupying the north-western region. They
are principally found in rude settlements scattered along
the banks of the Ob or Obi, as far north as Tobolsk.
Their chief occupations are fishing and hunting. The
former yields them abundant means of subsistence, as
the rivers teem with fish ; and hunting supplies them
with valuable furs for barter. Some of the Ostjaks lead
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
361
a kind of pastoral life, and keep large herds of rein-
deer, which furnish them with both food and Clothing.
In summer they live in wretched temporary huts, framed
of boughs and covered with birch bark. Their filthy
bodies are but scantily clad. Small in stature, lean and
lank, with a scared, hang-dog look, and a stupid expression
on their broad ugly faces, they seem a degraded race. It
is true that on the water they show to better advantage
in their light skiffs or canoes, which they manage with
OSTJAKS IN WINTER DRESS.
wonderful dexterity. But the Ostjak is only seen at his
best in winter, and in that far north which is his home.
There he leads the primitive life for which he is best
suited ; and there, warmly clad in the skin of the rein-
deer, while swiftly gliding on his snow-shoes in pursuit of
game, or bounding along in the "narta," the sledge
drawn by dogs or deer, he may feel himself the true lord
of the snowy wilderness that stretches to the Arctic
Ocean. The winter habitations of the Ostjaks are rude
362
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
dwellings, built of logs, with an opening at the top for
the smoke. The light is admitted by means of a rough
but ingenious contrivance. An aperture made in the hut
is fitted with a large block of ice, which serves as a
window, and is renewed at will when it thaws. The
dress worn by the Ostjaks is of reindeer skins. It con-
sists of, first, a fur coat, which is seamless, and is slip-
ped on over the head and reaches to the knee ; next,
drawers of the same material, fastening round the body ;
SAMOYED FROM THE LOWER YENISEI.
FEMALE SAMOYEU.
lastly, fur boots, with the hair turned inside. Over this
dress is worn another, of which the various parts are the
same, only that the skins are those of the old reindeer,
the hair of which is thicker and longer.
O
Beyond the Arctic Circle, near the Kara Sea, and along
the estuaries of the Ob and the Yenisei, dwell the Sam-
oyeds, who in many points resemble the Ostjuks. They,
too, lead a kind of nomadic life, roaming about in quest
of pastures for their reindeer, of which they possess
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 363
large herds. They are more inclined to the chase than
to fishing. Keen and bold hunters, they do not even
shrink from encountering, single-handed, the huge polar
bear, with no other weapon than the bow, or a knife fas-
tened to a pole. They bring to market, at Obdorsk, on
the Ob and Yeniseisk, the choicest furs ; among the rest,
a peculiar variety of wolfskin,' much prized by the na-
tives. The Samoyeds are tall and slender, but the women
small. The dress of the latter is far more elegant than
that of their Ostjak neighbors. It is not made of deer-
skins, but of the different furs, carefully selected with
a view to effect.
The Kirghiz Tartars are more southernly in their habi-
tations, and besides being warlike in disposition are fre-
quently highwaymen, who have time and again been the
terror of Siberian travel. They are chiefly engaged rais-
ing horses and cattle, but though they pursue this voca-
tion generally with profit they cannot resist the prompt-
ings of a nature inherited from generation to generation,
and therefore forage, pillage, rob, with that same relish
exhibited by their Tartar ancestors many hundred years
ago. Even within the last few years they have been
guilty of many abductions, which is a revival of their
earlier practices. Like the Albanians who, during the
controversy with Montenegro in 1877, made descents
upon unprotected villages near the border and carried off
the most attractive female Montenegrins, so the Kirghiz
have recently despoiled their Thibetan neighbors and
made captive many women, carrying them off to their
ranches and subjecting them to servitude.
The Buriats inhabit a district in the Trans-Baikal — that
is, beyond Lake Baikal. They are not very numerous,
but not a few possess considerable wealth and dress in a
style which, if not exactly magnificently fashionable, is
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 365
very expensive. Many of them live in Yakoutsk, Chita
and olhi-r f.:r eastern cities, where the females wear dresses
and jewelry of great value ; but those leading a pastoral
life live in tents like most of our western Indians.
The Goldi are a small tribe, numbering about 5,000,
located along the Amoor river, which is the dividing line
between Siberia and China, and in the Ussuri district.
They are nearly allied to the Tunguse in habits and lan-
guage, but being on the Chinese border and mixing with
the Manchu, they imitate them in many particulars.
Formerly the Goldi did not bury their dead, but carried
them to a dead house where the bodies were left until
destroyed by time. Notwithstanding the dreadful exha-
lations of this charnal house friends of the departed paid
frequent visits to the building to mourn and pray for
their dead.
The Gilyaks are a tribe whose numbers I found no
one could approximate. They inhabit a portion of
the Island Sakhalein, and also a district adjoining that
occupied by the Goldi, but there is so great a difference
between them that no one single feature, in either habit
or appearance, is common to them both. The Gilyaks
have so great an aversion for water that they never learn
to swim or wash themselves. Their subsistence is de-
rived from fishing and hunting, fish being taken by nets,
and sometimes by spearing. They are polygamists, es-
teeming women of no more value than their dogs, but
polyandry is also practiced ; in case where a woman has
a patrimony of fair estimation, so many sledge-dogs, so
much brandy, or so many valuable skins, she can buy as
many husbands as her means will afford ; but polyandry
is seldom practiced among them, while polygamy is very
general. They are the most ignorant people to be found
in Siberia, and in many respects are like the Congo tribes
366
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
in Central Africa. Sickness among them is treated by
wearing amulets, and such fatalists are they that on no ac-
count would one Gilyak attempt to save another's life.
These people, though ignorant almost beyond belief,
are uncommonly brave, and while they have many super-
stitions, there is little connected with their faith that in-
spires terror. They prefer hunting to any other employ-
ment, but still use only primitive weapons for taking
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
ar,7
game ; yet there is a superstition which prevents them
from hunting the tiger or wolf. In Western Siberia
and Eastern Russia the peasants will not kill a wolf be-
cause, as it was explained to me, " the surviving compan-
ions or friends of a wolf will avenge the dead one."
GOLDI IN WINTER DRESS.
Many told me that if a peasant refused to kill a wolf his
flocks would never be molested, but if he did do so the
wolves would be sure to destroy his stock.
Bear hunting among the Gilyaks is most exciting sport,
368
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
because it is conducted something after the fashion once
practiced by ancient Norwegians. Their weapon consists
of a long pole, to one end of which is attached, by means
of small strips of raw-hide, a steel spear four inches long
and two inches broad ; there is also another weapon used,
but not so commonly as the former, which is made by
wrapping several sharp-pointed spikes together so that their
points will extend outward something like the bristles of a
hedge-hog when rolled up ; this chevaux-de-frize is firmly
fastened to a long pole, which is then used like the spear.
This latter weapon is employed to worry the bear by first
GROUP OF GILYAKS.
i.Titatiiigthe animal until, enraged, it rushes upon its as-
sailant ; the Gilyak hunter then defends himself by pre-
senting his spiked weapon, which the bear seizes only to
wound itself ; more violently enraged with these self-in-
Ilicted injuries, the bear endeavors to destroy the spikes
by biting and squeezing them, until it actually kills itself .
In using the spear there is really more danger incurred
than from the spiked weapon, for when a bear is wounded
with a spear it attacks the hunter, who sometimes be-
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 3(39
comes the victim. Nothing can equal, for ferocity and
vitality, the Grizzly bear of North America, but next to
this animal certainly comes the Russian bear, which is
equal in all respects to the Grizzly, except in vital pow-
ers. Yet terrible as it is when fully aroused, the Gil-
yaks not only attack and slay, with no other weapon than
a long spear, the most powerful Russian bears, but they
also capture them alive to provide amusement at annual
feasts. To capture these dangerous animals a party of
eight to a dozen men provide themselves with lassoes,
chains, collars and a muzzle, and in company seek their
game. Upon finding a bear, however large it may be,
they proceed to take it prisoner in the following manner :
Scattering out in a circle they surround the bear and
gradually contract the circle by driving the animal to-
wards the center, always taking great care not to excite
it. Dogs are not used at such times, because they would
enrage the bear and cause it to break precipitately, so
that a capture would be impossible. When the circle
becomes sufficiently contracted everything is made ready
for two men to cast ther lassoes, and while the attention
of the bear is directed towards one or more persons, an-
other of the party nimbly leaps upon the bear's back, as
the lassoes are thrown, and catching bruin by the ears
hold his head, assisted by others with the lassoes ; a col-
lar and muzzle are next adjusted on poor bruin, and he
then becomes a helpless captive. Should any of the
hunters be wounded in these dangerous attempts, which
they very frequently are, they think themselves lucky,
as such wounds are considered evidences of prowess, and
to be killed by a bear«is esteemed a happy death.
Bears thus caught are taken to the nearest village,
where they are kept and fatted on fish, for the approach-
ing festival . The most important fete day among these
370
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
FESTIVAL OF KILLING THE BEAR.
1. Gilyaks of the Upper Class, and Dog. 2. Bear Trap. 3. Wolf Trap* 4. Fish and Tackle.
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA . 371
strange people occurs early in January, but on no partic-
ular date, as the Gilyaks reckon time by the moon. On
this occasion the captured bear is taken from its cage and
shackled so it can commit no harm, is dragged or driven
all around the village and halted before each house,
where some cabalistic words are repeated, supposed to
bring good luck. , After this part of the ceremony is
completed, they lead the animal to some place for water,
and also serve it with a platter of food ; should the bear
take both water and food the sacrifice is postponed, but
owing to its anger it always refuses. The bear is now
dragged to the place of sacrifice, where it is made fast
between two posts by means of raw hide ropes connected
with its collar. Then succeed orgies not unlike those
practiced by several tribes of Indians about their sacri-
fices. The bear is beaten with sticks and stones in order
to make it growl, for manifestations of pain and an-
ger from the animal are taken as answers to the entreaties
of those engaged in the sacrifice for good luck. When at
length the bear becomes exhausted, the honor of shoot-
ing it through the heart with an arrow is accorded to
one who is chosen chief of the ceremonies for that day.
After its death the bear's head and paws are cut off, the
former being presented to the village patriarch, and to
which prayers are offered for a period of six weeks. The
paws are divided between four popular persons at the
feast, who keep them for good luck, sometimes wearing
them for years tied to a string about the neck. In pass-
ing through a Gilyak settlement it is very common to
find the ears, jaw-bones, skulls and paws of bears killed
in such sacrifices as I have described, hung up in trees,
where they are supposed to exercise a most serviceable
influence in keeping off evil spirits and bringing good
luck to the village.
372
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
Iii the Island Sakhalein these ceremonials of bear kill-
ing are much more frequent than on the Siberian shore,
for the reason perhaps that the Gilyaks are more nu-
merous on Sakhalein and because their customs are not
interfered with or influenced by neighboring tribes.
The Tunguse are a very numerous people inhabiting
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 373
many parts of Siberia. They are very much like the
Manchu of China, in appearance, while in habits they
assimilate with the Esquimaux, being found as far north
as the Arctic Ocean. In March these people go on snow-
shoes over snow, into which, at that season, cloven-
footed animals sink, and shoot elks, roe, and musk deer,
wild deer and goats ; the tent being fixed in valleys and
defiles, where the snow lies deepest. In April the ice on
the rivers begins to move, and the huntsman, now turned
fisher, hastens to the small rivulets to net his fish.
Those not required for immediate use are dried against
the next month, which is one of the least plentiful in the
year. In May they shoot deer and other game, which
they have decoyed to certain spots by burning down the
high grass in the valleys, so that the young sprouts may
attract the deer and goats. June supplies the hunter
with antlers of the roe. These they sell at a high price
to the Chinese for medicinal purposes. In July the na-
tives spend a large part of the month catching fish, taken
with nets or speared with harpoons. They are able also
to spear the elk, which likes a water-plant growing in the
lakes. He comes down at night, wades into the water,
and, whilst engaged in tearing at the plant with his teeth,
is killed by the huntsman. In August they catch birds,
speared at night in the retired creeks and bays of the
rivers and lakes. Their flesh, except that of the swan, is
eaten, and the down is exchanged for ear and finger
rings, bracelets, beads, and the like. Thus they spend
the summer months, afterward retiring again to the
mountains for game. In the beginning of September they
prepare for winter pursuits. With these people there is
very little of civilization found ; they live in birch-bark
tents, and delight in hunting on the tundras ; horses are not
374 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
favorably regarded by them, their domestic draught ani-
mals being reindeer and dogs ; of the former they pos-
sess immense herds, so that the fortune of a Tunguse is
estimated entirely by the number of reindeer he owns.
The Kirghiz, who are distinct from the Kirghiz Tartars,
are the largest framed people in Siberia. Some of them
own large herds of cattle and horses, in South Siberia,
and have some pretensions of refinement, living in wooden
houses and adopting a few customs which evidence civili-
zation ; but as a rule they are beggarly, indolent rapscal-
lions of the plains.
They are met with in nearly all the larger cities, ply-
ing their tricks of juggling, fortune telling and begging ;
they have not the least acquaintance with work or clean-
liness, and as a tribe they are generally despised.
The numerous other tribes of native Siberians are
hardly worthy of mention, because their numbers are
very small, and in many respects they are so nearly as-
similated to the principal tribes by intermarriage and
nationality that only an ethnologist can distinguish the
tribal Deculiarities of them all.
CHAPTER XXI.
MY journey eastward was concluded at Irkoutsk, which
I regarded rightfully as the central point of Siberia, at
which could be daily met people of all ranks from every
part of the Empire. I was pleased to find that my
opinion was correct and that here was afforded full and
ample means of collecting all the facts appertaining to
exile and commercial life in that portion of the Empire.
Situated within less than seventy miles of lake Baikal,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
375
376
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
the largest fresh water body on the eastern hemisphere,
on which ply numerous steamers deriving their business
chiefly from the overland travel and freightage, and being
midway on the great transport route, the city could not
be otherwise than
cosmopolitan and
important. Its
commercial fea-
tures exceed those
of Irbit, since in
1879 that large and
finest city in Siberia
was almost totally
destroyed by fire.
At all seasons may
be found on the
streets of Irkoutsk
and in its hotels,
representatives
from all over Eu-
rope. A great deal
of gold and silver,
in fact nearly all
the native product
from east of Tom-
sk, is taken to Ir-
koutsk for refine-
ment and coinage.
Nearly every day
gold trains, guarded by large convoys, or bags of gold-
dust conveyed by. tarantass, arrive in the city, while
long files of merchants with goods from China or Eussia
pass through its streets, so that an air of business is al-
ways maintained.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 377
On the second day of my stay in IrkoutskI became ac-
quainted with an American gentleman who was engaged
in running a small steamer on the Amoor, but he made so
many trips to Irkoutsk on business that his acquaintance
with prominent people of the city was quite extensive.
His name was Robert M. Gunsollis, and his native place
a small town in Robinson county, Kentucky. He was
very glad to see me, and upon disclosing to him the pur-
poses of my visit to Siberia, he took great interest in as-
sisting me. Through his kind services I secured an
introduction to the Governor of Irkoutsk, and several
merchants, all of whom tendered me their kind offices.
Mr. Gunsollis was a traveller, and only six months before
I saw him he had been on the island of Sakhalein spend-
ing several weeks among the natives and convicts. Being
a close observer and an uncommonly intelligent man, he
had gathered a great deal of information of much value
to the world at large, and as we spent an evening together
he gave me the advantage of his newly acquired knowl-
edge respecting Sakhalein.
This island, which is nearly 600 miles in length, and
about as large in area as the State of Illinois, was not
explored until the year 1848, previous to which time it
was supposed to be a portion of the Siberian, or Man-
churian mainland. Along the coast it is generally very
rocky and precipitous, while in the interior there is a
chain of mountains which rise considerably above the
limit of vegetation. Nearly every part of the island is
wild and desolate, with a population of 15,000 persons,
divided between Gilyaks, Tunguse, Oroks, Kuriles, and
Ainos, the latter supposed to be the aboriginal popula-
tion, while all the natives subsist on fish and wild game.
Nevilskoy, Rear Admiral of the Russian navy, landed
on the island in 1848 and accomplished a partial explora-
378
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
tion. Ho found it rich with coal, and this discovery led
his Government to negotiate with Japan (to which the
island belonged) for its purchase. Russia was in great
need of a coaling station in the Pacific, and this want
was supplied by
a purchase of
the island about
t AV e 1 v e years
ago. Directly
after the acquire-
ment of this des-
olate wilderness,
suggestions were
made to Alexan-
der II. which
subsequently led
that Emperor to
establish penal
colonies on the
island, by which
labor many coal
mines were open-
ed and are still
worked.
The port of
Dui, which is sit-
uated about the
center of the
western coast, is
a small military AINOS' A*OR'G*es OF SAKHALEIN.
station, but is nevertheless the most important place on the
Island. It contains five prisons, all of which are small build-
ings, in which are crowded nearly 2,000 exiles. In winter
the atmosphere is freezing cold, and but for the crowding
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 379
it would be impossible for the convicts to survive even a
moderate winter ; as it is, frost-bitten hands and feet are
very common among the inmates. From Dui, the exiles are
distributed to various parts of the island as prescribed in
their sentences.
The post is garrisoned by 500 men whose inactivity
and severance from social relations cause their existence to
be scarcely less unhappy than the exiles whom they
guard. About one hundred miles south of Dui is another
post called Korsakovsk, where a small force of soldiers is
stationed, whose lonesome, unchangeable lives are even
unrelieved by the sight of the supply vessels which put
in at Dui two or three times a year.
Out in the interior are two mines, one of which is called
Dui mine and the other Dui farm, where a large number
of convicts are employed, but the coal lies so near the
surface that all convicts there engaged luckily escape the
horrors of deep mining ; but while they are not forced
down into black caverns, away forever from the blessed
sunlight, as are many convicts in Siberian mines, their
lots are but one degree less melancholy ; in fact it would
sometimes appear that officials on Sakhalein are more
devilishly barbarous than are those at Kara. The knout
and scorpion are used almost without the shadow of a
cause ; malignantly brutal keepers, never so content as
when witnessing the agonies of extreme suffering, ex-
pend all their surplus force by exercising with instru-
ments of torture upon the bared backs of convicts. The
labor jDerfornied in these mines is not so onerous as in
many mines in Siberia, for the reason that they are
worked for the Government, while a majority of Siberian
mines are worked by private corporations interested in
getting as much out of the exiles as possible. But there
is little doubt that the punishment of convicts on Sakha-
380
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 381
lein is greater than that inflicted at any penal establish-
ment in Siberia proper.
To escape from these mines is almost impossible, for
though it would be comparatively easy to get outside the
guards, there is nothing upon which a convict might sub-
sist while journeying the 200 miles he would have to go
before reaching a point where. he could hope to" effect an
embarkation for the mainland. Besides the dangers of
starvation there is a reward of three roubles placed upon
the head of every escaping convict, dead or alive. This
barbaric outlawry is taken advantage of by the native
Gilyaks, who prowl through every by-way in search of
convicts, not with any intention of capturing them, but
to shoot them down like wild beasts. This system of
man-hunting is carried on so near the convict quarters
that many unfortunate exiles, with no thought of attempt-
ing to escape, fall victims within a stone's throw of their
barracks, having unknowingly come within range of
the perfidious Gilyaks, who, upon applying for the re-
ward, are sure to make out a big story of how they de-
tected their victims in a desperate effort to escape. The
proof required before payment is the production of the
severed head of the convict ; thus, when the Gilyaks kill an
exile on Sakhalein they cut off his head and carry it to
the Governor ; and inasmuch as the convicts are all
branded it is easy to decide whether or not the applicant
has made any mistake.
On the lower coast, which is sandy, there is a vegeta-
ble growth similar to South American Kale, which the
Amos gather for their own use ; and also for transport
to Japan, where they sell large quantities of the herb.
It is said to make a very palatable soup, while its cheap-
ness recommends it to the Japanese poor.
The Qraks, who number about 5,000, are hunters and
382
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
fishers ; they live in cone-shaped houses made of thatch,
which are set on poles about twelve feet above ground.
Bears are plentiful on the island, and these the Oraks
kill with spears, in a manner similar to that of the Gilyaks
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 383
of Siberia. Every Orak village has its sacred house,
which serves as a repository for the bones of those ani-
mals killed by residents of the village. The interior of
these sacred houses is filled with all the bones of the bears
except the skulls, which are placed on poles and set in the
ground around the building. The Oraks are very super-
stitious, worshipping no particular deity, but practice
many singular rites under the belief that they will bring
them good. They regard no other charm, or amulet, so
potential as that made of some portion of a bear's skull,
while all the bones of that animal are supposed to pos-
sess magical powers, hence the pains taken by each vil-
lage to preserve them.
I was anxious to find some one who had visited Mko-
laefsk, and was familiar with that famous prison, so com-
municating this desire to Gunsollis, he assured me that it
would not be difficult to find inlrkoutsk persons from any
part of Siberia ; we therefore went out together the fol-
lowing day, and before an hour had elapsed he found
three different persons thoroughly familiar with Niko-
laefsk, one of whom had been an exile there some years
ago. Through the assistance of Gunsollis and Schleuter
I obtained from these a large fund of information re-
specting that dreaded prison, which, in some respects, is
said to be more feared than Kara.
Nikolaefsk is situated near the extreme eastern coast
of Siberia, on a neck of the Gulf of Tartary and oppo-
site the north-west coast of Sakhalein, or, more properly,
at the mouth of the Amoor River. It contains a pop-
ulation of about 5,000, and has a few really excellent
buildings. My informants dispelled the popular impres-
sion concerning the treatment of prisoners there, and
assured me that the belief of cruelties practiced by Nik-
olaefsk officials arose out of the fact that it lies at the
384
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
VIEWS ON THE ISLAND OF SAKHALEIN.
l.Ainos Kale Hunters. 2. Anlva Harbor. 3; Orok Dwellings. 4. Island Gilyaks. 5. Port DuL
7, Korsakovtk. 8. Kuriles. 9. Orok Hunters.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA 385
end of overland travel. Convicts who are sent by the
transport route to Sakhalein here conclude their 4000
miles of foot journey, and the few who survive the ter-
rors of such a march are so broken down by their loads
of chains and unexampled miseries that they are quite
ready to regard this last place on the journey as a very
hades. This impression also extends to visitors, because
in no other place can such emaciated, sorrowful looking
people be seen, nearly one-half of whom are insane. It
is not an unusual sight to witness many patients in the
Nikolaefsk hospitals, the skin on whose wrists and ankles
is worn entirely away by heavy chains, leaving exposed
the raw and angry tendons.
The climate about Nikolaefsk is dreadfully severe in
winter, and on account of imperfect protection many
convicts die there in the prisons of cold. Yet there is a
humanity among the officers at these prisons found at
few other penal stations in Siberia ; the sufferings of
convicts are attended to by a commission who derive, in
addition to a salary from the Government, contributions
from those who are charitably disposed, which latter is
greater tnaii the salaries. When the exiles are so far re-
covered as to be able to proceed to Sakhalein they are
taken by a Russian man-of-war to port Dui and there
distributed.
It very frequently happens that rather than go to Sak-
halein the convicts will attempt to escape from Nikolaef sk,
sometimes in squads and at others singly or in small par-
ties. Formerly there was a reward offered in all of east
Siberia, by governors of the several districts, for the
head of every escaping convict, like that which still pre-
vails in Sakhalein. During the continuance of this bar-
barous regulation several native tribes left off fishing
and hunting wild animals, and took up the new occupa-
386
RUSSIAN NIHILISM ANt>
tion of hunting exiles. Such of those as could secure
guns conducted a thriving business in summer time when
the number of fugitives was greatest. These head hunt-
ers went on horseback, and around their waists they
wore a broad belt to which they tied the heads of their
victims. When a convict was found by these murderous
heathen they showed him no mercy, but shot him down ;
if the wound did not prove fatal, but sufficient to bring
KILLING OF ESCAPING EXILES FOR THEIR CLOTHES.
the victim to the ground, the hunter rushed upon him
with a large knife and cut off his head ; strings were
then made fast to the hair by which the severed head was
tied to the hunter's belt. The body was also stripped of
its clothing, which, though generally old and composed
of nothing but reindeer skins, was valued so highly that
since the withdrawal of money rewards by governors,.
EXILE LIISE Itf SIBERIA.
387
388 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
these hunters continued shooting convicts merely for
their clothes. Headquarters for the payment of these
rewards was Irbit, Irkoutsk, Yakoutsk, and Yeniseisk,
but a hunter might have his heads cashed at nearly any
post-station by accepting a liberal discount.
Even to this day not a few exiles are killed every year
by Gilyaks and Tartars for no other reward than the
clothes worn by the unfortunate men ; for though the
Government no longer pays a premium for heads, it ex-
empts the murderer of an escaping hard-labor exile from
punishment.
It is told that in September of 1856, a battalion of
soldiers started from Nikolaefsk up the Amoor land
route for Shilkinsk Zavod, but after proceeding less than
a hundred versts they were overtaken by a snow-storm
which so blinded them that progress was impossible, and to
keep from freezing they were compelled to bundle to-
gether. But a more horrible death than that by freezing
soon threatened, for having provided themselves with ra-
tions for only a few days their store of food failed them.
Grim necessity was fought against until at last they were
forced by hunger to draw lots to decide who should be
sacrificed that their bodies might furnish food for the
more fortunate. Nearly one-twentieth of the command
was killed in this way and eaten by their comrades.
Though no cases of cannibalism are known among con-
victs who were trying to effect an escape, there are hun-
dreds of incidents where they have been frozen to death
and their bodies found in the forests or on the highways.
So sympathetic are the people of Siberia, and particularly
do they so well know the sufferings which every exile
must undergo while fleeing for liberty, that it is their
custom, just before retiring each night, to place some
bread and salt on the outside window-sill, where it may
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
389
be convenient to any one
passing by ; many a poor
fugitive has thus been fed
and his life preserved.
There is one other dis-
tributing point, or etape
prison, on the Siberian
coast, Yladivostock, which
is a place of considerable
commercial importance, in
fact it is the chief Russian
sea port on the Pacific.
There is a considerable
Russian population in the
place, which has altogether
about 10,000 inhabitants,
but they are not in the ma-
jority. Situated so near
China, the town has at-
tracted a large number of
Mongolians , notwithstand-
ing the fact that they are
treated with great disre-
spect and on two occasions
have been ordered out of
the district, while China
has vainly tried to prevent
emigration of her subjects
to Russian soil. In 1861
China ceded the sea-coast
to Russia and at the same
time prohibited her sub-
jects from colonizing on
Siberian soil with their
wives. The rich Chinese
390
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
therefore returned home, leaving the poor who were
next to outlawed by the rigorous legal requirements
which they were unable to obey ; they naturally drifted
into crime, and being soon after joined by Manchu brig-
ands, known as Manzas, there succeeded a regular pirati-
cal organization which has not yet been entirely suppressed .
These Manzas robbers are upon both land and water, kill-
ing on the highways and scuttling small crafts on the
A COREAN HOUSE IN VLADIVOSTOCK.
coastwaters, so that travelling through the Primorsk dis-
trict is always very dangerous.
The Coreans are also in considerable numbers about
Vladivostock, and because of their frugal, industrious
habits they are despised and beaten by the Russ popula-
tion. This treatment is due to the identical causes which
have operated in San Francisco against the Chinese, for
inasmuch as nearly one-half of the commodities used by
the better classes in the Primorsk are of American pro-
duction, the merchant and mechanic think that American
prices and wages should obtain in Vladivostock. The
EXILE LITE IN SIBERIA. 391
Coreans, however, are willing to work for very small
wages and 'their bartering is conducted on small margins,
hence the race prejudice. The Government of Coreahas
attempted to arrest emigration by making it a capital of-
fence for any of its subjects to settle in a foreign country.
This law had a dreadful enforcement in 18G8, when 1,400
Coreans were run out of the Primorsk and upon returning
to Corea they were summarily beheaded.
CHAPTER XXII.
THE most interesting district in Siberia is about Yak-
outsk, which is a city of 6,000 inhabitants, and the capi-
tal of the Yakoutsk Government. A large trade is car-
ried on between Irkoutsk and Yakoutsk, so that I had no
difficulty in finding scores of persons who had been long
residents of the latter place, and would give me whatever
information I desired concerning it. By Schleuter's as-
sistance I interviewed the military Governor of Yakoutsk,
who was on a visit to Irkoutsk, and to whom I was intro-
duced by the Governor of the latter place. It was my
good fortune also to find and talk with three men who
had served short sentences of exile near Yakoutsk. From
these several sources I gained a very satisfactory descrip-
tion of life in and about the city.
The government of Yakoutsk is the largest in Siberia,
covering an area greater than that of all Europe, if we
except Russia. The town itself, situated on the Lena
River, in 65° north latitude, presents an odd blending of
cosmopolite architecture, from the graceful styles adopt-
ed by Russian nobility to the summer yourtsoi the native
Yakutes. Generally considered, however, there are few
392
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
modern appearances about the place ; instead of using
horses or reindeer for draught purposes, oxen are chosen,
and these slow, plodding creatures are also used for rid-
ing ; but a still more grotesque characteristic of the city
is found in the fact that, discarding horses and the con-
EXILES ON THE ISLAND OF SAKHALEIN.
ventional ways of other countries, the ladies of Yakoutsk
ride on the backs of oxen — a-straddle. I cannot well
imagine a more humorous sight than a Yakoutsk belle,
dressed in the bright toggery peculiar to fashion, going
out shopping in the city astride a mewling ox whose
EXILE LirE IN SIBERIA. 393
shambling gait is marked by sinuous droolings, and whose
whisking tail in summer time laps up little pools of
sewage in the streets to distribute in a delicate spray
over the fair rider.
Yakoutsk is said to be the coldest spot on earth ; from
December 1st to February 1st, the mean temperature be-
ing 58° Fah. below zero, while not infrequently it reach-
es 80° below. Extreme as this cold is, no particular dis-
comfort is experienced ; while the mercury is frozen
market women may be seen standing before their wares
with arms bared above the elbows, laughing and chatting
as if the weather were delightful. In sledge travelling
during such temperature, the driver sleeps in the clothing
he wears all day, and will curl up in his vehicle at night,
draw the fur hood of his great coat over his head and
sleep under the shivering stars, and no doubt dream of
violets and primroses bursting into life under a warm, ex-
hilarating, spring time sun.
The Russian population of the Yakoutsk Government is
confined chiefly to the Upper Lena, Yakoutsk and its
vicinity. The Tunguse are also found on the eastern
and western confines of the district, but are rarely met
with in the interior. There is another race called the
Yukaghirs, in the province, whose numbers are computed
at about 2,000, but so wild is their nature that their ethno-
logical peculiarities are but little known. They are only
met with near the Arctic shores, between the Yana and
Kolima rivers. They were once a very powerful tribe, so
tradition says, and which statement is" partly proved by
the tumuli and burial places still to be found along the
Lena river. These relics of former tribal power contain
human bones, bows, arrows, spears, and an instrument
similar to that occasionally found among the more ignor-
ant Laplanders, which they call a " magic drum," but it
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 395
resembles a pot more than a drum, being of considerable
depth and closed at one end with reindeer skin.
The Yukaghirs live almost entirely on the reindeer they
kill during spring and autumn. At these seasons a mos-
quito, not unlike the buffalo gnat of our Mississippi bot-
toms, and so numerous that at times they almost darken
the sky, so torment the reindeer that they seek
refuge in the rivers, where they remain until winter sets
in. This habit is taken advantage of by the Yukaghirs,
who post themselves under cover beside a frequented
stream and await the reindeer, which come down from
neighboring forests in immense herds and enter the water.
When the animals have taken to the stream they are set
upon by the hunters, who appear on both sides and with
long spears slaughter great numbers.
The Yukaghirs are inveterate smokers of a tobacco
O
grown in the Ukraine, which they mix with small, half-
decayed chips so as to make it go further ; in smoking
not a whiff is allowed to escape into the air, but all is in-
haled and swallowed, producing an effect somewhat sim-
ilar to a mild dose of opium. Tobacco is considered
their first and greatest luxury. Women and children all
smoke, the latter learning to do so as soon as they are able
to toddle. Any funds remaining after the supply of
tobacco has been laid in are devoted to the purchase of
brandy. A Yukaghir, it is said, never intoxicates him-
self alone, but calls upon his family to share the drink,
even children in arms being supplied with a portion.
In the center of the Yakutsk province, occupying the
valley of the Lena, roam the Yakutes, some of whom are
met as far off as Nikolaef sk. They are of middle height,
and of a light copper color, with black hair, which the
men cut close. The sharp lines of their faces express
indolent and amiable gentleness rather than vigor and
396 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
passion. They bear a close resemblance to the North
American Indians ; their appearance is that of a people
who have grown wild rather than of a thoroughly and
originally rude race. Those who have been long settled
among the Russians have perhaps become somewhat
more polished than their wandering brethren. As a nice
they are good-tempered, orderly, hospitable, and capable
of enduring great privation with patience ; but in inde-
pendence of character they contrast unfavorably with
their Tunguse neighbors. Lay a finger in anger on one
of the Tunguse, and nothing will induce him to forget
the insult ; whereas with the Yakutes, the more they are
thrashed the better they work.*
The winter dwellings of the people have doors of raw
hides, and log or wicker rwalls calked with cow-dung,
and flanked with banks of earth to the height of the
windows. The latter are made of sheets of ice, kept in
their place from the outside by a slanting pole, the lower
end of which is fixed in the ground. They are rendered
air-tight by pouring on water, which quickly freezes
round the edges ; and the fact that it takes a long time
to melt these blocks of ice thus fixed is highly suggestive
of what the temperature must be, both without and
within. The flat roof is covered with earth, and over the
door, facing the east, the boards project, making a cov-
ered place in front, like the natives' houses in the Cau-
casus. Under the same roof are the winter shelters for
the cows and for the people, the former being the larger.
* Strahlenberg divides them into 10 tribes, and Syboreen's Almanack for 1876
gives their number at 210,000. They belong to the great Turk family, and
hence their Siberian locality is remarkable, because the Turks have ever been
the people to displace others, whereas the Yakutes have been themselves dis-
placed, and driven into this inhospitable climate, it is supposed, by the
stronger Buriats,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
397
VIEWS OF THE ABODES OF THE EXILES NEAR YAKOUTSK.
1. & 2 Summer Houses of the liUiles. 3. & §. Inferior views of same. *. Types of the Bur»l Population.
0. Grave Yard.
398 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
The fireplace consists of a wicker frame plastered over
with clay, room being left for a man to pass between the
fireplace and the wall. The hearth is made of beaten
earth, and on it there is at all times a blazing fire,
and logs of larch-wood throw up showers of sparks to
the roof. Young calves, like children, are brought into
the house to the fire, whilst their mothers cast a con-
tented look through the open door at the back of the
fireplace. Behind the fireplace, too, are the sleeping-
places of the people, which in the poorer dwellings con-
sists of only a continuation of the straw laid in the cow-
house.
In the winter they have about five hours of <Jay light,
which penetrates as best it can through the icy windows ;
and in the evening all the party sit round the fire on low
stools, men and women smoking. The summer yourts of
these people are formed of poles about 20 feet long,
which are united at the top into a roomy cone, covered
with pieces of bright yellow and perfectly flexible birch
bark, which are not merely joined together, but are also
handsomely worked along the seams with horsehair thread .
The houses are not overstocked with furniture, and the
chief cooking utensil is a large iron pot. At the time of
the invasion of the Russians, this article was deemed such
a treasure that the price asked for a pot was as many
sable-skins as would fill it. They use also in winter a
bowl-shaped frame of wicker work, plastered with fro-
zen cow-dung, in which they pound their porridge. With
regard to their food, the Yakutes, if they have their
choice, love to eat horse-flesh ; and their adage says that
to eat much meat, and grow fat upon it, is the highest
destiny of man. They are the greatest gluttons. So far
back as the days of Strahlenberg, it was said that four
would eat a horse. They rarely kill their oxen
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 399
for food ; and ut a wedding, the favorite dish served up
by the bride to her future lord is a boiled horse's head,
with horse-flesh sausages. When, however, horse-flesh
or beef is wanting, they are not at all nice as to what
they consume, for they eat the animals they take for fur,
and woe to the unfortunate horse that becomes seriously
injured in travel ! It is killed and eaten then and there,
the men taking off their girdles to give fair play to their
stomachs, which swell after the fashion of a boa-constric-
tor. Thus earnestly do they aspire to their notion of the
highest destiny of man ! Milk is in general request
among them, whether from cows or mares ; and when
they are in the neighborhood of the Russians, and can get
flour, they do so ; but far away in the forests they make
a sort of porridge or bread, not exactly of sawdust, but
of the under bark of the spruce, fir, and larch, which
they cut in small pieces, or pound in a mortar, mixing it
with in ilk, or with dried fish, or boiling it with glutinous
tops of the young sprouts. In spring, when the sap is
rising, they gather the bark harvest. They make also fer-
mented beverages of milk ; and in the height of summer,
when the mares foal, an orgie is held, at which the men
drain enormous bowls of this intoxicating liquor ; whilst
the women, denied the privilege of intoxication, solace
themselves by getting as near to it as they can by smok-
ing tobacco. The distillation of sour milk is also prac-
ticed, producing a coarse spirit known as ariyui. They
devour likewise enormous quantities of melted butter.
This also can be prepared in such a way as to cause in-
toxication when taken in sufficient quantities.
The dress of the Yakut os resembles in its main fea-
tures that of the other natives of Siberia, save, perhaps,
that they are fonder of ornament. Both sexes riding a
good deal on oxen and horses, a perpendicular slit is made
400 KUvSSIAN NIHILISM AND
PENAL QUARTERS AT YAKOUTSK.
1. Governor's Residence. 2. Bazaar. 3. Lodges of Reindeer Skins. 4. Hospital. 5.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 401
up the back from the bottom of the synayakli^ or upper
garment, in order to render the wearer comfortable in
the saddle, and some of the women wear behind them a
cushion or pad, to save them from the rough motion of the
animals. During the milder part of the year a robe,
made of very pliable leather, stained yellow, is worn,
which indoors is frequently laid aside, and males and fe-
males sit by the fire, leaving the upper part of the body
naked .
The boots made of this leather worn by the women fit
tight to the leg, and have at the top a flap of black velvet
with red cloth trimming, which can be turned down and
exposed for show in fair weather, or turned up, bringing
the boots to the thighs. On each foot are two broad
leather thongs, five or six feet long, to wind around the
leg. Water-proof boots are also made by the Yakutes,
which they call Torbosis; these are cut from horse hide,
steeped in sour milk, then smoked, and lastly rubbed
well with grease and soot. They will wear indefinitely,
and are so impervious to dampness that the wearer
may tramp through water, mud and snow without incon-
venience.
There is a large travel between Yakoutsk and Okhotsk,
Kamtschatka, distance 800 miles, which is performed by
the use of dogs, horses and reindeer. The latter, I was
surprised to learn, are used for riding as much as for
draught purposes. It is much more difficult to maintain
one's seat on a reindeer than it is on a camel. To get on
the animal's back, as one would mount a donkey, would
probably cripple the deer for life. The saddle is there-
fore placed on its shoulder, close to the neck, and to
mount, the rider, holding the bridle, stands at the right
side of the animal, with his face turned forward. He
then raises his left foot to the saddle, which he never
402 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
touches with his hands, and springing with the right leg,
and aided also by a pole, which he holds in his right hand,
he gains his seat. The native girls and women are as ex-
pert in this jumping as the men, and rarely want assist-
ance in mounting.
The practiced reindeer riders acquire the habit of strik-
ing gently with the heel, alternately right and left, at
every step, just behind the animal's shoulders. This is
done, not for the purpose of stimulating the deer, but be-
cause the motion described is the surest means of main-
taining equilibrium. The staff, too, with which the rider
mounts is carried in his hand, and is used for maintaining
an equipoise in riding ; but any attempt of the rider, in
the first critical moment, to support himself by resting
the staff on the ground, is sure to end in his being
unseated.
There is a very large settlement of convicts in the
Ytikoutsk Government, a greater portion of which is on
the Lena river. These penal colonies are generally com-
posed of men and women sent into exile without hard
labor, in pursuance of an Imperial ukase that contempla-
ted a settlement of the province. The district about
Yakoutsk is wonderfully fertile, notwithstanding the fact
that the ground is frozen to a depth of fifty feet, while
during the summer it does not thaw out more than three
feet below the surface. But even with these drawbacks
to production, the soil is said to yield forty-fold of such
vegetables as cabbage, potatoes, radishes, turnips and
gherkins. Emperor Nicholas was very anxious to settle
this section with an industrious population, and to accom-
plish this he promulgated an edict designed for the pun-
ishment of petty offenders, by which they were to be sent
across Siberia and colonized at the most advantageous
points in the Yakoutsk Government. It was also this
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA.
403
idea which prompted Alexander I. to encourage the estab-
lishment of zemstas, communal parliaments, to which he
granted powers (heretofore described) to send into exile
any one of the commune adjudged guilty of vagrancy,
improvidence, drunkenness, or of any bad example. These
measures have caused a more general settlement of the
Yakoutsk Government than any other province in Siberia,
the population being about 250,000.
EXILES' HOMES ON THE LENA — HOUSES OF DRIED DUNG.
There are penal quarters in the city of Yakoutsk that
are fairly comfortable. They are made of hewn logs
joined together by dovetailing and are lined with dry
clay. These quarters, however, are only for a temporary
lodgment of prisoners, and are therefore called etape
prisons ; they rarely contain more than one hundred con-
victs at one time, as those received are quickly distribut-
404 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
ed to various points in the Government where they are
made to shift for themselves ; though if a convict be
accompanied by his family he is assisted for the first three
years by the Government, which gives him a daily allow-
ance of about ten cents. Along the Lena these convicts
are chiefly engaged cutting wood, fishing and hunting.
Their houses are made of baked cow-dung, because of the
warmth this material secures, excluding cold much better
than any other known substance.
But the most peculiar settlement in Siberia, indeed in
all the world, is that of the Scopsi, a religious sect
already mentioned, which is established in a forest
near Yakoutsk. These people entertain such a singular
belief that every other phase of fanaticism, whether
Shamanism, Fakirism or any other absurd ism, appears
transcendently consistent and wholesome in comparison.
I have searched through encyclopedias and questioned
the most learned Russians in vain to find anything con-
cerning the origin of their strange faith. Nevertheless
the Scopsi have existed for hundreds of years, but the
first decree of banishment against them was issued by
Peter the Great, though in what year I could not learn.
They found their faith upon the xix chapter, 12th verse,
of St. Matthew, which reads as follows :
" For there are some eunuchs, which were so born
from their mother's womb : and there are some eunuchs,
which were made eunuchs of men : and there be eunuchs,
which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of
heaven's sake. He that is able to receive it, let him re-
ceive it."
The interpretation placed upon this text by the Scopsi
is so literal that if it obtained generally the earth would
be without any human inhabitants in one generation.
They also base their doctrine upon some of St. Paul's
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA.
405
letters, wherein he advises against marriage and inferen-
tially predicts that the promised millennium can come
only through a complete abnegation of sexual desires.
I do not say that Paul intended to discourage the law of
replenishment, but that the Scopsi so interpret his writ-
ings.
This peculiarly fanatical sect has not only existed in
Russia, but, despite the most repressive measures under-
SCOPSI COLONY HOUSES NEAR YAKOUTSK.
taken by the Government for their suppression, they
have increased until well informed persons in the Empire
place their numbers at not less than 10,000. There is a
law on the Russian statute books making it a crime, pun-
ishable by deportation, for any one to attend services
held by the Scopsi, and all who are discovered to be mem-
bers of, or in sympathy with the sect, are sent into exile
26
406 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
,«
in the Yakoutsk district. Being denied all civil privi-
leges the Scopsi nevertheless continue to propagate their
doctrines by holding services in the thick forests, where
they hope to escape detection from government spies.
While in St. Petersburg I met a young man who had
been forced into an adoption of this singular faith, but
who was a servant in an aristocratic family of the city.
While I was interviewing Count Tolstoi this man came in
to communicate some message from his master to the
Prime Minister ; his voice and appearance were so strange
that my curiosity prompted me to enquire about him,
when the Count informed me of the facts, this being the
first time I had ever heard of such a sect. I therefore at
once began to question the fellow, whom I took to be
about twenty-seven years of age, and was rewarded by
receiving from him a description of the Scopsi' s prac-
tices.
Not only in retired country places, but also in cities do
the Scopsi hold their services, but they are necessarily a
secret denomination, who regard themselves as the espe-
cially anointed children of God ; they have priests who
travel about the country, providing their own sustenance
and holding services only among such persons as they
first obtain a satisfactory opinion from. These priests
profess great familiarity with the Bible, and their argu-
ments are addressed entirely to the emotional senses, and
so effectively that a majority of those who attend are
moved by such excitement that they gladly accept
mutilation of themselves. They believe that mankind
were conceived in sin, to purge which they must be born
again into a state of purity ; that the millennium cannot
appear until the world is regenerated through purification,
and that none can be pure in heart until the carnal im-
purities are removed ; hence the Scopsi baptize into
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 407
what they call the new life of purity by castration. Men
and women who unite with this sect must alike submit to
mutilation, the operation on the latter consisting of an
extraction of the oviaries through an incision made in
the side. This worse than heathenish ceremonial, how-
ever, does not stop with a mutilation of those who will-
ingly submit themselves ; but, influenced by the belief
that parents must provide means of salvation for their
children, the little ones of both sexes are forcibly put un-
der the priestly scalpel.
Practices which distinguish the Scopsi, revolting and
foully unnatural as they are, have also obtained in other
nations, and even to this day are not unusual in Turkey
and Italy. It is a well known fact that the tenor singers
in the Royal Italian Opera at Rome are castrates, made
so by Government orders. In Turkey the custom is very
common, parents frequently unsexing their own children
to sell them afterward as servants in harems or places of
monetary trust. In Russia it is also practiced upon chil-
dren who are afterward raised with great care, for when
grown they command large salaries in fiduciary posi-
tions. It is said that, however great the temptation of-
fered may be, a castrate will never betray a trust ; that
in all history one was never known to steal, or absent
himself from any duty. Male children who were sub-
jected to this barbarous custom in earlier days were not
mutilated by like means as now, but were much more in-
famously treated ; all the privates were cut away, after
which the child was buried to the waist in sand ; this was
to stop hemorrhage and prevent the exudation of serous
fluid. It is said that nearly two-thirds of those thus
treated died.
There is also a colony of political exiles in the Yak-
outsk Government, located at a small town on the Lugi-
408
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
na river, called Villiski. Its population is a fugative one,
for the reason that those sent there are at most only sus-
pects, many of whom are called to Russia on pardons, or
SCENES IN VILLISKI.
1. Barracks. 2. & 3. Private Residence 4. General view of the Town. &. Interior of a Private
House. 6. City Hail and Residence of the Magistrate. 7. Prison.
sent to other districts ; so that one month the town may
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 409
have a population of nearly two thousand, while the next
month it may have less than five hundred. The climate
at Villiski is dreadfully severe, even colder, some say,
than at Yakoutsk, but fortunately the exiles there have
little to do but fish in summer and keep themselves warm
in winter.
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE recent disastrous results attending the Jeannette,
or DeLong, exploring expedition, which are now (as I
write) being investigated before a commission at Wash-
ington, has brought the Lena River into such prominence
before Americans that a partial history of the stream and
the country which it drains has been considered applica-
ble in this connection. The wrecking of DeLong and his
party at the Lena delta, the loss of Lieutenant Chipp and
his men, the dreadful march of Ninderman, Melville and
Danenhower, and lastly, how the returning search party
under Lieut. Gilder found the bodies of eight of that
unfortunate expedition frozen under Siberian snows near
the upper Lena, have been too recently told and gener-
ally read to need repetition here.
While at Irkoutsk I was very near, perhaps within a
dozen miles of, the chief source of the Lena, and though
never along the stream, I saw enough of Siberia to ap-
proximate an idea of the desolate country through which
it passes. The history of this portion of Siberia, so far
as records give us any data or description, starts with the
conquests of the Buriats by Cossacks early in the 17th
century. After 30 years of fierce warfare between these
two races, the Cossacks made themselves masters of the
district about Lake Baikal, and then pushed northward
410 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
along the Lena River until, in 1632, they reached the
principal town of the Yakutes, where they built a fort
and founded the city of Yakoutsk. After this they crossed
the Aldan Mountains and, seven years later, reached the
Sea of Okhotsk. For two centuries this was the route
followed by those who would cross Siberia from the Urals
to the Pacific, or vice versa. In the present day there are
two other roads. All must go by the route from
Tomsk to Irkoutsk, but from thence the Pacific can
be reached either by crossing .the Mongolian desert to
Peking, or by traversing the Buriat steppe, and so de-
scending the Amoor. The second of these routes is now
the best, but not briefly to mention the old route would
be to omit much interesting information concerning the
Lena, with its native population and fossilized remains,
as well as to miss the opportunity of hearing a little of
some of the most daring and adventurous journeys of pre-
vious travellers.
I allude to the accounts of Strahlenberg, De Lesseps,
Billings, Ledyard, Dobell, Gordon, Cochrane, Erman,
Cotterill, and Hill.
Strahlenberg was a Swedish officer, who, at the begin-
ning of the 18th century, was banished for 13 years to
Siberia. He collected a vast amount of information con-
cerning the country generally, and compiled polyglot
tables of aboriginal languages, and amongst them that of
the Yakutes inhabiting the valley of the Lena, of whose
Pagan condition he gives many illustrations.
M. De Lesseps was French Consul and interpreter to
Count de la Pe rouse, the well-known circumnavigator.
De Lesseps entered the country at Kamchatka in 1788,
and wrote an account of his travels across Siberia and
Europe to Paris.
Captain Billings was an Englishman, who, after sailing
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA.
411
with the celebrated Captain Cook, was employed by the
Empress Catharine II. to make discoveries on the north-
east coast of Siberia, and among the islands in the East-
ern Ocean stretching to the American coast. For this
o
purpose he proceeded to north-east Siberia in 1785, sailed
down the river Kolima, explored a portion of the country
eastward, and then returned by way of Yakoutsk.
Another of Captain Cook's officers, John Ledyard, had
YAKUTE AND REINDEER.
the most romantic enthusiasm for adventure, perhaps, of
any man of his time. He conceived the project of trav-
elling across Europe, Asia, and America as far as possible
on foot, and to this end he set out from London with
about £50 only in his pockets. He reached Yakoutsk,
where he met with Captain Billings, and with him was
hoping to proceed to America, when, by order of the
Russian Court, Ledyard was arrested on suspicion of be-
ing a French spy, and was taken off to Moscow.
Another journey across Northern Asia was made after
the time of Billings by Peter Dobell, a counsellor of the
412 ttCSSlAX X1II1LISM AND
Court of His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of Russia.
Dobell landed in Kamchatka in 1812, and from thence
proceeded overland to Europe.
The most remarkable of these adventurers was an Eng-
lishman named John Dundas Cochrane, a captain in the
Royal Navy, who, in 1820, proposed to the Lords Commis-
sioners of the Admiralty that they should give their sanc-
tion and countenance to his undertaking alone a journey
into the interior of Africa, with a view to ascertaining the
course and determination of the river Niger. This they
declined, whereupon he procured two years' leave of ab-
sence, and resolved to attempt " a walking tour " round
the globe, as nearly as could be done by land, crossing
from Northern Asia to America at Behring's Straits, his
leading object being to trace the shores of the Polar Sea
along America by land, as Captain Parry was at the time
attempting it by sea. Accordingly he left London with
his knapsack, crossed the Channel to Dieppe, and then
set out. This gentleman was endowed with an unbounded
reliance upon his own individual exertions, and his knowl-
edge of man when unfettered by the frailties and mis-
conduct of others. One man, he said, might go any-
where he chose, fearlessly and alone, and as safely trust
himself in the hands of savages as among his own
D O
friends. His favorite dictum was that an individual
might travel throughout the Russian empire, except in
the civilized parts between the capitals, so long as his
conduct was becoming, without necessaries failing him.
He put his principle rather severely to the test, and it
must be allowed that he did so with very general success,
for he states that in travelling from Moscow to Irkoutsk
(3,000 miles by his route) he spent less than a guinea.
From Irkoutsk he descended the Lena to Yakoutsk, from
whence, accompanied by a single Cossack, he penetrated
EXILE LIFE i:ST SIBERIA. 413
in a north-easterly direction almost to the shores of the
Ice Sea at Nijni Kolimsk, where, having altered his
plans, he turned back by a most difficult route to Okh-
otsk. From this place he sailed to Kamchatka, and mar-
ried a native, whom he brought by sea back to Okhotsk,
and then in winter crossed the Aldan mountains to Yak-
outsk, whence the happy pair proceeded to Irkoutsk, and at
length reached England. For enterprise and bravery
this captain, I take it, easily bears off the palm from all
Siberian travellers.
The writer who has added most, perhaps, to our scien-
tific knowledge of the valley of the Lena is M. Adolph
Erman, who crossed Siberia in 1828, in conjunction,
though not in company, with Professor Hansteen, the
first professor at the Magnetic Observatory at Christi-
ania, in Norway, and famous for his researches in terres-
trial magnetism. They both travelled for the purpose of
making magnetic and other observations ; but, on arriv-
ing at Irkoutsk, Professor Hansteen returned to Europe,
whilst Erman continued down the Lena to Yakoutsk,
crossed to the Sea of Okhotsk, and so continued round
the- world.
Later on, one more Englishman has reached the Pacific
by the way of the Lena, namely, Mr. S. S. Hill, who
did soin 1848, and it is not unlikely that he may, for
some time, be the last of the intrepid travellers who
have accomplished this feat, since the Amooris now open
to the Russians, and presents a far easier way of crossing
the continent.
To follow the older route, the first portion had to be
traversed by post vehicles from Irkoutsk, a distance of
160 miles in a north-easterly direction. The road
crosses the water-parting of the Lena basin at or near
the station Khogotskaya, which is about 90 geographical
414
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
miles from Irkoutsk. The traveller journeys through a
hilly country, where there is abundant pasture, and
where the land is to some extent cultivated, to the vil-
lage of Kachugskoe, situated on the banks of the Lena.
Here various sorts of merchandise are embarked in large
flat-bottomed boats, which are floated down the river.
These goods are exchanged with the natives for furs, the
boats at the end of the journey being broken up in dis-
tricts where timber is scare, and the furs brought back
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 415
in smaller craft. It was in one of these flat-bottomed boats
that Mr. Hill descended the stream, in company with a
Russian merchant, accomplishing the journey to Ya-
koutsk in twenty-one days, with no worse mishaps by
water than occasionally being driven on sand or mud
banks, or into a forest of trees,, all but submerged by the
height of the spring floods.
Captain Cochrane chose a more independent course.
Being furnished with a Cossack, he drove from Irkoutsk
to the Lena, and, having procured an open canoe and
two men, paddled down the stream. Proceeding day
and night, they usually made from 100 to 120 miles a
day, finding hospitable villages at intervals of from fif-
teen to eighteen miles, as far as Kirensk, and so arrived
on the eighth day at Vitimsk. It was now late in the
autumn, and the ice began to come down the river, which
sometimes compelled the natives to strip, and, up to .their
waists in water, to track the boat, and this with the ther-
mometer below freezing-point. At length the captain,
in consequence of the difficulties of boating, was requested
at one of the villages to proceed on horseback, which he
did, and, being unable at the next station to get either
horses or boat, he had to shoulder his knapsack and
walk ; and so, by means of walking, riding, and paddling,
he reached Olekminsk. From thence to Yakoutsk is
about 400 miles, which, excepting the two last stages, the
captain completed in a canoe, arriving on the 6th of Octo-
ber. The weather was cold, snow was falling, and on
approaching Yakoutsk the canoe was caught in the ice,
so that he was compelled to make the remainder of his
journey on foot.
The descent of the Upper Lena to Yakoutsk by water
was undertaken by Mr. Hill in spring, and by Captain
4-1 G IIUSSIAN NIHILI&M AND
Cochrane in autumn, but Mr. Erman accomplished it on
the ice in winter, by a twenty days' sledge journey of
nearly 1,900 miles. As he passed along he observed,
first in the village of Petrovsk, several of the women
largely affected with goitre, and learned with surprise
that this malady, which in Europe characterises the
valleys of the Alps, is frequent on the Lena. As he pro-
ceeded he found goitre in men also, and asking an exile
at Turutsk, who appeared the only healthy person in the
place, how he had protected himself from goitre, was
told that adults arriving from Europe were never attacked
by the disease, but that the goitre was born with children
of the district, and grew up with them. Medical men in
Switzerland say that goitre proceeds from deposits in
chemical combination, washed down by mountain streams
that supply the inhabitants of the neighborhood with
drinking water, and that it attacks children on account
of their mucous membranes being very tender and easily
distended. Mr. Erman inquired carefully, as he went on,
respecting the prevalency of goitre, and having made
barometrical and other observations along the way, he
came at length to the conclusion that the disease was
traceable, in part, to the formation and altitude of vari-
ous places along the valley of the river, where the air,
being confined, is, in summer, heated to an extraordinary
degree, and loaded with moisture.
With regard to the stream of the Upper Lena, its head-
waters have their sources spread out for 200 geographic
cal miles along the counter slopes of the hills that form
the western bank of Lake Baikal, and the main stream
rises within seven miles of the lake.
At Kachugskoe, about GO geographical miles from the
Baikal, and not less than 75 geographical miles in a
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 417
straight line from its source, the Lena measures about
the width of East River, opposite New York. The
water, deep and clear, has in spring a very rapid cur-
rent, though Captain Cochrane speaks of the rate lower
down, in autumn, as only 1J or 2 knots per hour. The
next station after Kachugskoe . is Yercholensk, a town of
1,000 inhabitants, the first of that size on the north-east
of Irkoutsk, and is the chief town of the uyezd (district).
After flowing 500 miles further through a hilly country,
with high banks always on one and sometimes on both
sides, on which are 35 post-stations and more villages,
the river passes Kirensk, which again is the chief town
of an uyezd, and has a population of 800. Here cul-
tivation practically ceases, except for vegetables. At
this point, too, the river receives on its right the Kirenga,
which has run nearly as long a course as the Lena. The
stream thus enlarged now flows on for 300 miles more to
Yitimsk, where it is joined by its second great tributary,
the Yitim, from the mountains east of Lake Baikal. An-
other stretch of 460 miles, through a country still hilly,
but with villages less frequent, brings the traveller to
Olekminsk, the capital of another uyezd, a town of 500
inhabitants ; there the Lena receives from the south the
Olekma, which rises near the Amoor river. It then con-
tinues for 400 miles through a sparsely-populated dis-
trict, till it reaches Yakoutsk, where it is 4 miles wide
in summer, and 2| in winter, the river being usually
frozen about the 1st of October, and not free from ice
till about May 25th.
Hitherto the course of the river has been to the north-
east, but at Yakoutsk the stream makes a bend and runs
due north, receiving on its right, 100 miles below Yak-
outsk, one of its largest tributaries, the Aldan, which
rises in the Stanovoi range bordering on the Sea of Okh-
418 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
otsk. Yakoutsk is only 270 feet above the sea, and the
current of the river henceforth is sluggish. About 50
miles further the Lena receives its largest tributary from
the left, the Vilui, and then proceeds majestically through
a flat country with an enormous body of water to the
Arctic Ocean, into which it enters among a delta of
islands formed of the debris brought down by the river.
In the region of the Lower Lena, and to the west-
ward, have been found the remains of a huge rhinoce-
ros, and an elephant larger than any now existing — the
elephas primigenius, popularly called the mammoth. It
is so named from the Russian mamont, or Tartar mamma
(the earth), because the Yakutes believed that this ani-
imal worked its way in the earth like a mole ; and a
Chinese story represents the mamentova as a rat of the
size of an elephant which always burrowed underground,
and died on coming in contact with the outer air. The
tusks of the mammoth are remarkable for exhibiting a
double curve, first inwards, then outwards, and then in-
wards again ; several able naturalists are of the opinion
that the so-called mammoth is of the same species as the
Indian elephant, only much altered by the change of cli-
matic conditions. The Samoyeds say that the mam-
moth still exists wandering upon the shores of the
Frozen Ocean, and subsisting on dead bodies thrown up
by the surf. As for the rhinoceros, they say it was a
gigantic bird, and the horns which the ivory-merchants
purchase were its talons. Their legends tell of fearful
combats between their ancestors and this enormous
winged animal.
A trade in mammoth ivory has been carried on for
hundreds of years between the tribes of Northern Asia
and the Chinese ; but it was a long time before European
naturalists took a marked interest in the evidence of an
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 419
extinct order of animals which these remains undeniably
recorded. The Siberian mammoth agrees exactly with
the specimens unearthed in various parts of England, es-
pecially at Ilford in the valley of the Thames, near Lon-
don, on the coast of Norfolk ; but whereas on European
soil there remain but fragments of the skeleton, there
have been found in Siberia bones of the rhinoceros and
mammoth covered with pieces of flesh and skin. These
discoveries date back more than a century.
In December, 1771, a party of Yakutes hunting on the
Vilui, near its junction with the Lower Lena, discovered
an unknown animal half-buried in the sand, but still re-
taining its flesh, covered with a thick skin. The carcass
was too much decomposed to allow of more than the
head and two feet being forwarded to Irkoutsk ; but they
were seen by the great traveller and naturalist, Peter
Simon Pallas, who pronounced the animal a rhinoceros,
not particularly large of its kind, which might perchance
have been born in Central Asia.
In the year 1799 a bank of frozen earth near the mouth
of the Lena broke away, and revealed to a Tunguse,
named Schumachoff, the body of a mammoth. Hair,
skin, flesh and all had been preserved by the frost ; and
seven years later Mr. Adams, of the Petersburg Academy ,
hearing of the discovery at Yakoutsk, visited the spot.
He found, however, that the greater part of the flesh had
been eaten by wild animals and the dogs of the natives,
though the eyes and brains remained. The entire car-
cass measured 9 feet 4 inches high, and 16 feet 4 inches
from the point of the nose to the end of the tail, without
including the tusks, which were 9 feet 6 inches in length
if measured along the curves. The two tusks weighed
360 Ibs., and the head and tusks together 414 Ibs. The
skin was of such extraordinary weight that ten persons
420 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
found great difficulty in carrying it. About 40 Ibs. of
hair, too, were collected, though much more of this was
trodden into the sand by the feet of bears which had
eaten the flesh. This skeleton is now in the Museum of
the Academy at Petersburg, where I examined it during
my visit to the city in October, 1882.
Again, in 1843, M. Middendorf found a mammoth on
the Taz, between the Obi and the Yenesei, with some of
the flesh in so perfect a condition that it was found possi-
ble to remove the ball of the eye, which is preserved in
the Museum at Moscow.
In 1865 the captain of a Yenesei steamer by chance
learned that some natives had discovered the preserved
remains of a mammoth in latitude 67°, about 100 versts
west of the river. Intelligence was sent to Petersburg,
and Dr. Schmidt was commissioned to go and examine
into the matter. Accordingly he proceeded down the
Yenesei to Turukhansk, and thence to the landing-place
nearest the mammoth deposit, hoping to obtain the ani-
mal's stomach, and, from the character of the leaves
within, infer the creature's habitat, since it is known that
the beast lived upon vegetable food, but of what exact
character no one has yet determined. Unfortunately the
stomach was wanting.
In examining, under the microscope, fragments of vege-
table food picked out of the grooves of the molar teeth
of the Siberian rhinoceros at Irkoutsk, naturalists have
recognized fibres of the pitch-pine, larch, birch, and wil-
low, resembling those of trees of the same kind which
still grow in Southern Siberia. This seems to confirm
the opinion, expressed long ago, that the rhinoceros and
other large pachyderms found in the alluvial soil of the
north used to inhabit Middle Siberia, south of the ex-
treme northern regions where their skeletons are now
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
found ; but Mr. Knox, who travelled for some distance
with Schmidt on his return journey, says that the doctor
estimated that the animal had been frozen many thou-
sands of years, and that his natural dwelling-place- was in
the north, at a period when perhaps the Arctic regions
were warmer than they now are. Covered with long
hair, it could certainly resist an Arctic climate ; but how
on the tundras of the north could the animal have found
the foliage of tress necessary for its subsistence? Must
we conclude that formerly the country was wooded, or
that the mammoth did not live where its skeletons are
now found, but further south, whence its carcase has
been carried northward by rivers, and frozen into the
soil? These are questions debated among geologists,
and still awaiting solution.
The fact, however, remains, that mammoth ivory is
still an important branch of native commerce, and all
travellers bear witness to the quantities of fossil bones
found throughout the frozen regions of Siberia. It has
been suggested that the abundant supplies of ivory which
were at the command of the ancient Greek sculptors came
by way of the Black Sea from the Siberian deposits. So
far back as the time of Captain Billings, Martin Sauer,
his secretary, tells us of one of the Arctic islands near
the Siberian mainland, that " it is a mixture of sand and
ice, so that when the thaw sets in and its banks begin to
fall, many mammoth bones are found, and that all the
isle is formed of the bones of this extraordinary animal."
This account is to some extent corroborated by Figuier,
who tells us that New Siberia and the Isle Liakov are for
the most part only an agglomeration of sand, ice, and
elephants' teeth ; and at every tempest the sea casts ashore
new quantities of mammoths' tusks. Eechts speaks of
an annual find of fifteen tons of mammoth ivory, repre-
422 RUSSIAN" NIHILISM AXD
senting about 200 mammoths ; and, about 1840, Midden-
dorf estimated the number of mammoths discovered up
to that time at 20,000.
Each year, in early summer, fishermen's barques direct
their course to the New Siberian group, to the "isles of
bones-" and, during winter, caravans drawn by dogs
take the same route, and return charged with tusks of
the mammoth, each weighing from 150 pounds to 200
pounds. The fossil ivory thus obtained is imported into
China and Europe, and is used for the same purposes as
the ordinary ivory of the elephant and hippopotamus.
We cannot leave the Lower Lena and the neighboring
shores of the Arctic Ocean without alluding to the won-
derful sight those shores witnessed in 1878, for the first
time in the history of the world. It was no less a sight
than that of two steam vessels that had ploughed their
way from Europe round Cape Cheliuskin. One of them
was the Vega, in which was Professor Nordenskjold,
whose intention had been to anchor off the mouth of the
Lena, but a favorable wind and an open sea offered so
splendid an opportunity of continuing his voyage that he
did not neglect it. He sailed away, therefore, on the
28th of August, direct for Fadievskoi, one of the New
Siberian islands, where he intended to remain some days,
and to examine scientifically the remains of mammoths,
rhinoceri, horses, aurochs, bisons, sheep, etc., with
which these islands are said to be covered. The Vega
made excellent progress, but though on the 30th, Liakov
Island was reached, the professor was unable to land,
owing to the rotten ice which surrounded it, and the dan-
ger to which the vessel would have been exposed in case
of a storm in such shallow water.
After the Vega with Nordenskjold on board, had left
its sister ship the Lena, the latter vessel, under the com-
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 423
mand of Captain Johannesen, started to ascend the river
of its own name. A pilot had been engaged to descend
the river and await the arrival of the Lena, but as
neither he nor his signals were visible, the captain, after
considerable difficulty, from the shallowncss of the
water, made his way through the delta, and on the 7th of
September reached the main stream, where the naviga-
tion was less difficult. Yakoutsk was reached on the
21st of September, dispatches were sent on to Irkoutsk,
and from thence it was telegraphed to Europe that the
rounding of Cape Cheliuskin and the navigation of the
Lena by a steamer from the Atlantic had been accom-
plished.
Since this ascent of the Lena, no other vessel has
attempted to follow by way of the Arctic mouth, but
there are now several steam crafts navigating the stream
between Yakoutsk and towns located further south on the
river. About the delta, where the Jeiinnctte survivors
landed, there is still comparatively little known, though
two native tribes, the Samoveds and Ostjaks, hunt every
year all along the coast and sledge their game on the
frozen Lena from near its mouth to Yakoutsk. *
CHAPTER XXTY.
THERE are a number of mines worked by convict labor
which I have not yet mentioned, among the more import-
ant being those at Kadaya, Malopatomski, Klitchku,
Algatche, Akatuya, Vidinsky, Nertchinsky Zavod,
Chita, Nertchinsk, and Petrovsky Zavod. Of these the
* For much of the information here given concerning the Lena, I am in-
debted to Mr. Lansdell's "Through Siberia."
424
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
EXILE LIFE IN SIBEUIA. 425
Nertchinsk mines deserve special mention, because of
their magnitude and the reputation which they bear. Of
this place of labor and torment the author of " The Rus-
sians of To-day" writes (p. 216): "The miners are
supposed to be the worst offenders, and their punishment
is tantamount to death by slow tortune ; for it is certain
to kill them in ten years, and ruins their health long be-
fore that time. If the convict have money or influential
friends, he had better use the time between his sentence
and transportation in buying a warrant which consigns
him to the lighter kinds of labor above ground, otherwise
he will inevitably be sent under earth, and never again
see the sky until be is hauled up to die in an infirmary."
Again, a distinguished German writer, Robert Lemke,
visited several mines in Siberia with an official legitima-
tion from the Russian Government, among the mines so
visited beinj? those at Nertchinsk. Of the treatment ac-
o
corded to convicts, in an article contributed to the Con-
temporary Review, September, 1879, Mr. Lcmke says :
"Entering a room (in the mine) of considerable extent, but
which was scarcely a man's height, and which was dimly
lit by an oil lamp, I asked, 'where are we?' 'In the
sleeping room of the condemned ! Formerly it was a gal-
lery of the mine, now it serves as a shelter !' I shud-
dered. This subterranean sepulchre, lit by neither sun
nor moon, was called a sleeping room. Alcove-like cells
were hewn in the rock ; here, on a couch of damp, half-
rotten straw, covered with a sack-cloth, the unfortunate
sufferers were to repose from the day's hard work. Over
each cell a cramp iron was fixed, wherewith to lock up
the prisoners like ferocious dogs. No door, no window
anywhere.
" Conducted through another passage, where a few
lamps were placed, and whose end was also barred by an
4:26 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
iron gate, I came to a large vault, partly lit. This was
the mine. A deafening noise of pickaxes and hammers
grated on my ears. Here I saw hundreds of wretched
figures, with shaggy beards, sickly faces, reddened eyes,
clad in tatters — some of them barefoot, others in sandals,
and all fettered with heavy foot chains. No songs, no
whistling ; now and then they shyly glanced at me and
my guide."
Mr. Lemke also writes that in response to an inquiry
which he made about the time allowed convicts to rest,
the officer excitedly said : " Rest ! Convicts must always
labor. There is no rest for them ; they are condemned to
perpetual forced labor, and he who once enters the mine
rarely leaves it."
I had read these statements before leaving America, and
now, while in a position to test their accuracy, I deter-
mined to profit by the advantage. Mr. Gunsollis was
still with me, and upon communicating my desire to him,
he at once set about to assist me in finding some one who
was familiar with the treatment of convicts at Nertchinsk.
We had not long to search, for in a short time my friend
was directed to a merchant whose dvornik — house por-
ter— had been an exile at the noted mines for several
years. This fellow, however, appeared very stupid, so
that I did not like to trust his statement, from which
dilemma I was fortunately relieved by his referring me to
at least seven others in the city who had served terms of
hard labor at Nertchinsk. By his directions I found six
of these, three of whom were intelligent enough to com-
prehend my motives, while the other three were so suspi-
cious of me that they could not be induced to talk,
From the three with whom I conversed freely much
valuable information was obtained, which so thoroughly
accords with all other descriptions of the place that I
428 RUSSIAN NIHILISM ANI>
present it here, fully assured that it contains no misrep-
resentations. Of the three, one had served eight years
at Nertchinsk for participation in the Polish riots of 1863 ;
another had spent ten years at hard labor for an alleged
connection with Nihilist rioters at Karkoff, which, how-
ever, he denied, and the other had served twelve years for
burning Government property at YVirasloff. Each, of
course, had a long story of justification, but as this
might be expected from every convict, I did not rely on
their defensive statements, lest they should be colored by
excuses whicn had no existence in fact. But as to the
treatment of themselves, and others under their obser-
vation at Nertchinsk, they were qualified to speak truth-
fully.
The mines at Nertchinsk are entered through an exca-
vation made near the base of a mountain ; they are nearly
three hundred feet in depth, and, owing to the sup-
posed existence of volcanic fires near the tunnels,
are very warm. Into these tunnels, which ramify
a large district, generally five hundred convicts are
engaged mining silver ; about one-fourth of this num-
ber are never permitted to appear above ground ; that
is, while all are doomed to hard labor, the portion
referred to, having incurred the prejudice of those hav-
ing them in charge, are subjected to a treatment not con-
templated in their sentences. These unfortunates are
not only weighted with heavy manacles, their arms, necks
and ankles mutilated by the galling, rasping irons that
are never removed, but their tasks are allotted greatly
out of proportion to their ability, and yet they must per-
form them or be placed under such severe discipline as
few can long endure.
It is no excuse if these men become ill or exhausted,
they work nevertheless, and that too, with the same en-
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 429
ergy as though they were well and able-bodied. Those
who trundle wheel-barrows are chained to their imple-
ment ; those who wield the pick are generally chained to
a rock beside their work, and so no one can leave for
an instant the place where he is set to labor. In this
mine there is a gallery which is used only for punish-
ment ; it is provided with rings made fast in the rock,
and also with a large beam set at an angle of thirty-five
or forty degrees, similar to that used in some of our pen-
itentiaries, on which to punish convicts, and called the
"Widow." When an offender becomes a subject for
punishment he is taken into this gallery and either tied
up by his wrists to the rings, or made to lie face down-
ward on the beam, to which he is made fast by binding
his wrists and ankles underneath. The scorpion is very
frequently used upon those who are bound to the beam ;
from twenty-five to fifty lashes are given with this dread-
ful instrument, which latter number will, nine times out
of ten, make a raving maniac of the victim. Those tied
to the rings receive from one hundred to two hundred
strokes of the knout, which lacerate the back in a manner
no one can possibly describe ; the use of both these in-
struments of punishment is very of ten attended with fatal
results.
The shocking brutality of those who apply such, os-
tensibly, corrective means is further illustrated by their
refusal to care for their victims after the unmerciful pun-
ishment is awarded. There is no compassionate treat-
ment given the victims ; taken from the gallery, with
gashed and bleeding backs, their bodies quivering with
agony, and legs so enfeebled that they frequently refuse
support, the poor wretches are driven, or dragged, back to
resume their tasks. Many of these sufferers return with
disordered minds, crazed from pain, yet their idiotic ut-
430 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
terances often cause them to be led again to the gallery
for a double portion of punishment, or to be struck dead
by the ferocious guard. For beds on which to lay their
wounded bodies these poor convicts have only the ragged
surface of the mine in which they work ; nothing but rocks
for couch, pillow or coverlet; nothing with which to bind
their sores or alleviate their pains ; enforced neglect causes
a suppuration of the wounds, which, aggravated and poi-
soned by perspiration, grow more severe until fever suc-
ceeds, delirium is induced, and they fall victims indeed,
but to secure at last relief and rest.
Constant labor in the mines, without for one moment
being permitted to see the blessed light of day, shut
down in the damp cavern to breathe heated metalic fumes,
produces an effect upon the convict which must be seen to
be understood. The first changes noticeable, strange
enough, are found in the hair, which becomes coarse,
harsh and straggling ; next the features assume a pale cast,
which afterwards change to a dull, ashen color ; the
eyes then lose all lustre, and begin to sink ; the skin
shrinks on the cheeks, and the flesh dries up until,
after some years of labor, the whole frame seems to
grow rickety, the muscles become atrophied and the voice
is like a wheezy whisper ; the lips are thin as paper, and
the fingers are grown to double length by reason of the
flesh drying up between them. Such specter-like figures
seen through the flickering light of smoking torches,
which throw dancing shadows on the trickling tunnels'
sides, are wierdly grotesque, arousing in the observer a
conception of those nether regions peopled by tormented
souls and imps of iniquity ; it is indeed a place of tor-
ment, established and maintained in that spirit which gave
expression to the poetic, though none the less existent
fact : ' ' Ma 1 1 ' s i nhum a n ity t o in a n , m ak e s c < > u n t 1 e ss t h o u-
sands mourn/'
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 433
Were made about Salem, Massachusetts, in the last century,
and conviction almost invariably resulted. The punish-
ment provided for such cases consisted in branding, with
a red hot iron, upon the forehead and abdomen, a figure
of the cross. This was supposed to spiritualize the vic-
tim, and also to have a holy influence upon any offspring
which she might thereafter bear. The application of the
brand was accompanied with the most excruciating suffer-
ing, it being deemed essential to the potency of the coun-
ter-charm, to burn deeply into the flesh that the cross
might ever appear most conspicuous.
But this barbaric custom is no longer practiced in any
part of Siberia, while the treatment of female convicts
generally is now fairly considerate, though not entirely
humane. So do we have to record the fact, already men-
tioned, that a reward is no longer placed upon the heads
of escaping convicts, though there is no penalty provided
for the wilful murder of exiles, either in or out of prison.
The spirit of the ago is very slowly, but none the less
certainly, extending towards Siberia, and let us hope it
may completely possess thai: eountiy ere long.
CHAPTER XXV.
HAVING pretty fully informed myself on the several sub-
jects appertaining to Siberian life, on the 20th of Septem-
ber I took leave (if my now acquaintances at Irkoutsk and
prepared for the return jouniey, with Schlueter still acting
as my guide. There was considerable snow falling and
already on the ground, so adopting the most expeditious
mode of travelling we engaged a poxt-troika and yem-
stuhik, \vitli which vyestarted PprKrasuoiarsk. Up to this.
434
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
time I had carefully preserved the skin of the bear I
killed while en-route for Yeniseisk, but it became so trou-
blesome that, after many wavering resolutions, I finally
gave it to a mujik at whose house we stopped to purchase
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 437)
milk. My tribulations over that skin were manifold.
When I first perceived the bear it appeared to me of the
most stupendous size and ferocity; when fortune favored
me by directing the ball I fired to a fatal spot andthe ani-
mal rolled over dead, it must be admitted that I entertained
an opinion of myself which is simply and utterly beyond
description ; for several minutes I felt great anxiety to
get back to America for the sole purpose of having my biog-
raphy published. But when I began to skin the animal and
thoroughly familiarize myself with its size and weapons for
.defence, somehow it commenced to dwindle like a candle
lighted at both ends, or more properly like an object
looked at through the large end of a spy-glass. Actually,
that bear got so small before we finished the skinning
that I felt sorry rny rashness had destroyed an animal
which I might as well have caught and made a pet of.
But besides being very small, the skin refused to dry,
while at every exposure it would freeze in the most un-
comfortable shapes, and take up more room than all our
other luggage. These several reasons I considered, at
length, quite sufficient to make me part with the skin,
but I was very sorry to see the mujik throw it aside with
a look which plainly said: "Well, perhaps it will do
for the cats to gnaw."
Upon reaching Nijni Udinsk we made a short stop and
went out to the mines, which are nearly one mile from
the town proper. But my visit was without results, as
the chief officer was absent and none of his underlings
would permit me to descend into the mines.
Starting again on the following day, we proceeded with-
out interruption to Krasnoyarsk, and thence on to Tomsk
without do1. ay anywhere on the route. Everywhere
tlnTo seemed to bo plenty of snow except at Tomsk,
where we found the ground so bare that I had to discard
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
the troika for a tumbril. I here decided to change my
route and instead of returning to Russia by the same way
I had come, to cut straight across to Omsk and take the
\ower route which crosses the Urals at Orenburg. This,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 437
road I found, though not nearly so generally travelled as
that by the way of Perm and Tobolsk, was through a
more fertile country, and the roads were far better.
Omsk is a town of 3, 000 people, with nothing to com-
mend it above the smallest way-station, unless it be in
the matter of churches, which are somewhat finer than
those in Tieumen. I did not stop more than two hours
in Omsk, being now anxious to conclude my investiga-
tions in Russia and reach home before winter should be-
gin. As there were no post-stations upon which I could
rely for conveyance between Omsk and Orenburg, I was
reduced to the necessity of buying a tumbril and three
horses, for which I paid something more than for those
I purchased at Tomsk. It was also necessary for us to
hiy in a goodly store of provisions, as the distance we had
now to travel was about one thousand miles before reach-
ing the boundary of Russian civilization. This portion
of my trip through Siberia impressed me more, perhaps,
than anything I saw or heard on the convict route, for so
great was the exposure induced from inclement weather
that the effects I still keenly feel, while I was reduced in
weight nearly thirty pounds.
Schleuter, besides being a good guide, was a splendid
cook, and his services over the camp-fire had much to do
in sustaining my, at times, flagging courage, for I can
assure the reader that it is a rugged courage indeed that
can resist the complaints of nature when incited by
freezing cold, chilling rains, sickness, and the number-
less annoyances which one might expect to meet on so
long a journey, across a wilderness of unchangeable des-
olation, seven thousand miles from home.
At one point, nearPrisnovsk, we discovered a herd of
animals quite unlike any of the brute creation I had ever
before seen ; they were called Siberian Antelope and, as
28
438 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
I was informed, are quite numerous in the western part
of Siberia. As it was drawing toward evening, I ordered
Schleuter to stop and assist me in trying to kill one of
the animals, as we were in need of fresh meat and, besides,
I wanted the adventure. According to my instructions,
the horses were unharnessed, save their bridles, and
Schleuter mounting one while 1 rode another, bareback,
we set out to surround the antelopes, which were not
nearly so wild as the large game on our western plains.
I rode away to the north some distance, where there was
a small ravine in which myself and horse could remain
quite out of sight of the game, while Schleuter watched
my movements and at the proper time made a wide circuit
and came up leeward of the antelope which did not take
fright until he had approached within a few rods of them.
Fortunately, but as we both anticipated, they broke di-
rectly for the ravine where I was stationed ; they came
by me in a gallop, not more than twenty steps away, and
with a shaking, buck-ague aim I fired, once, twice, three
times, the last shot alone taking effect, breaking the hind-
leg of a large buck. Though disabled, the animal did not
surrender, but on three legs it went cutting through the
tall grass, while I hastily mounted and, waving my hat
for Schleuter to come on, started in hot pursuit. A Sibe-
rian pony is great in endurance, though his speed is hardly
above that of a mule's, but I was now thoroughly ex-
cited, and with beating, kicking and otherwise urging my
horse I got enough speed out of him to keep not far behind
the wounded buck. Thus we raced for nearly five miles
before I could approach near enough to make a finishing
shot. When the antelope was finally killed, we were
much puzzled how to get it to our tumbril, as its weight
was not less than four hundred pounds, I should judge.
But our difficulties were overcome by dressing the game
EXILE LIFE 13* SIBERIA.
439
440 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
and then equally, dividing it, which, by the way, was a
job of infinite tediousness and hard labor, since we had
nothing but pocket-knives to work with ; all our trouble
was, however, wholly forgotten while feasting off the
delicious steaks that night, such meat as I am sure can
be found nowhere else in the world, unless Siberian
Antelope are to be found in other countries.
We had no other exciting adventure between Omsk
and Orenburg, which latter place we reached in fifteen
days after leaving the former. The Ural mountains at
Orenburg Pass are not even so high as the range about
Perm. So far as my observations extended I was sur-
prised to find that Orenburg had not been selected for the
railroad passage instead of Perm, since nature certainly
favors the southern route. I found in Orenburg a sleepy
old town of pronounced Caucasian characteristics. Its
population embraces many Tartars and Circassians, but
all are a lazy, happy-go-lucky, to-morrow or next day
kind of people, whom it is far better to read about in
history than to mess with at table — in short, they stink.
My stay in Orenburg was very short, only long enough
to sell my team and take a bath. I proceeded on for
Nijni Novgorod by the regular post-route, which leads
through Samara, where the Volga is crossed. Samara is
noted for having the longest railroad bridge in the world,
a structure erected by the company that began the con-
struction of the southern railroad from Moscow through
o
Siberia, as already mentioned.
From Samara I went on to Nijni, by steamer, and
thence to Moscow, Schleuter still remaining with me, as
I had need for an interpreter, having decided to spend
two or more days in a serf village to acquaint myself
with the customs peculiar to Russian peasantry. After
stopping a few hours at Moscow I took the west-bound
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
441
442 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
train, which runs across Russia 500 miles to Warsaw, for
a large serf village located near the road, about forty
miles from Moscow. I decided to visit this place be-
cause an American £.;-: '-»inan from Philadelphia, whom
I met at the Hotel Bilk Tosco\v, had travelled through
the village a few days bei. -\d assured me of its rep-
resentative character. The .^n at which I stopped
contained only one or two builu.r>gs, £nd being unable to
engage any kind of conveyance 8cia;euf.--jv and I walked
out to the Serf village, which was a joi:,; two miles from
the station.
There is nothing to which I can compare a serf settle-
ment so well as to the negro log cabins still found on our
Southern plantations. The buildings are nearly all alike,
small, one or two room log huts having roofs of thatch,
and are built along* streets which seem to have been regu-
larly laid out. There are generally two small, square
windows in each house, and the floors are made of hewn
pine logs, same as those used for the walls. Invariably,
at a short distance from the village, is the nobleman's
residence and a chapel for religious worship, not always
near together, but never more than a half-mile apart.
The nobleman's house always stands on an elevated posi-
tion commanding a view of the village and estate.
Things are very much changed since the serfs were eman-
cipated, but there are yet visible traces of the relationship
which once existed between the serfs and their master —
nobleman. The glory, pomp and wealth of the nobility
have departed ; no longer are the serfs called to their daily
labor by the sounding horn, nor do they pay homage to or
work for lordly masters who spend their years in riotous
living. The mansion still stands a mule reminder of
slavery days, but its once proud owner is now draining
the dregs of poverty and spending his influence in fo-
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 443
meriting rebellion against the Government that by a man-
date deprived him of both wealth and position. But
there appears to be little independence or prosperity
among the serfs whose liberty came to them in a manner
which they have never been quite able to understand.
The communal estates still remain as in earlier days, the
villages are intact, and but for the loitering indiffer-
ence of the people we could hardly realize the change.
On Southern plantations the gregarious log cabins which
once sheltered negro bondsmen are now empty and fallen
into decay, but though the abolition of serfdom was ac-
complished before the manumission of slaves in America,
there is very little outwardly to show that the serf of
former days is not still a serf.
I went among the peasantry, who now hold the term
"serf" in disdain, and was kindly treated by them.
After once assuring themselves that the object of my
visit was to learn something of their customs, they
showed me every kindness and entertained me with a
generous hospitality.
CHAPTER XXVI.
SUPERSTITION is nowhere so absurdly general and gro-
tesque as among the Russian peasantry ; but this is not
surprising when we consider the fact that they receive no
education whatever ; a school house to them is only as a
dream ; they are nurtured in a church which recognizes
modern day miracles, and are taught by priests who are
the only monitors the poor classes know ; that God and
his saints spend their whole time looking for a fitting oc-
casion to do something that may be interpreted as a mir-
444 KUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
acle. The cock that crows in the morning is reckoned
us a mouth-piece of some old saint, and there are certain
patriarchs in each village who take it upon themselves to
render certain matutinal calls of the cock into decrees
from heaven. Pigeons are looked upon as holy birds,
for the lives of which the Russians are so regardful that
a severe punishment is provided for any who would wan-
tonly kill them ; in consequence of this the whole country
is fairly filled with pigeons, until they are an abominable
nuisance. Every peasant must have an " icon " and keep a
candle constantly burning before it ; should the candle
become exhausted in the night or be extinguished by ac-
cident, the entire household is at once seized with alarm ;
they immediately declare that a prowling spirit of dark-
ness is in the house, to rid themselves of which they burn
certain kinds of herbs and perform long series of strange
ceremonials. The Russians do not, so far as I could
learn, entertain any belief in faries or pixies, but they all
have implicit confidence in good and evil spirits, which
they believe are the angels of men and women who have
died leaving something undone of such serious nature
that they visit the earth to attend to the neglected matter.
Before neither chapel nor holy image will a peasant pass
without devoutly crossing himself. While in Moscow I
saw an amusing illustration of this devotional characteris-
tic : a priest came riding by in a carriage, carrying in his
arms a picture of St. Nicholas (in his life he was called
the iron-heeled despot, but after death his name was
dianged to St. Nicholas) ; the street was filled with peo-
ple, and as they saw the (un)holy image they all dropped
upon their knees and bent their heads to the sidewalk ; as
far as my eyes could follow the receding carriage I saw
the people dropping down in long files like double col-
umns of an army answering to a command. These people,
EXILE LIFE IX SiBEIilA. 445
poor, ignorant and superstitious, are hardly less serfs
now than before, because of the slavery they are still
under to the church. In Russia there are more priests
than d:>'rs and per consequence more degradation than
any oilier prevailing characteristic. The priests are
divided into two classes, viz., the white and black clergy ;
the former are privileged to do about as they please, but
the latter, besides being prohibited from marrying, do
not even receive the respectful regard of common people ;
they are nearly all drunkards, and so notoriously corrupt
that in their preaching they exhort the people to "Do as
we advise you, but not as we do." These travesties on
the gospel, nevertheless, succeed in filching from the
peasantry the means they can illy afford to .spare. But
under a suspicion that the highest reward hereafter
attainable is given to those most liberal in their donations
to the church, a belief which has been created by priestly
mercenaries, the peasants divide their last copecks and
go hungry that they may be called faithful. Churches,
monasteries and chapels abound in rare profusion
throughout Rus.sia ; nowhere in the world is there such a
lavish display in ecclesiastical edifices and decorations ;
altars of solid silver, candelabras of pure gold, steeples
and domes glittering with precious metals ; priestly robes
bedizened with diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and in short
the whole church government covered inside and outside
with a paraphernalia of extravagant, inestimable wealth.
Now, who pays for all this pomp and more than Roman
splendor? Why, none hut the peasantry, those whose
earnings are counted by copecks — half-cents — who go
without schooling, without bread, without any comforts,
and who bring up their children no better than them-
selves ; these are they who contribute the means that
make such a mockery of Godliness, justice, common-
44(} RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
sense, possible. Beside the icon in every peasant's home
is placed a small box into which something is dropped
every day, if but a copeck, for the benefit of the clergy,
and whenever a miracle is wrought in a peasant's family,
which, in their estimation, is very often, this church allow-
ance not infrequently extends to the last piece of coin
the family possesses.
In this barbaric superstition — the Russian Church — -is
found the primary cause of Nihilism. The oppressive
burdens complained of do not arise wholly from despotic
rulership ; the Czar does not prevent the earth from bring-
ing forth, nor does he withhold the hand of any husband-
man from the plow ; but the church has set aside one hun-
dred holidays annually, on which no man who is faithful
must labor ; by this edict she destroys one-third the pro-
ductiveness of the Empire and appropriates nearly all of
the other two-thirds to herself, to keep up appearances.
Poverty never considers the real cause that produces it,
but angry at fate, she is controlled by prejudice against
the more fortunate, and in these facts is patent reason
why the political dissensions in Russia are so serious. The
life of every nation is dependent upon the agricultural
resources it yields, so that every nation must be poor
whose pastoral people are poor ; it is better to stop the
spinning wheel than to arrest the plow, and more wisely
economical is it to burden the commerce of manufacture
than to encourage any scheme that looks toward a tax
upon the farmer. Russia has not yet learned this im-
portant truth.
Agriculture in all Russia is still conducted upon primitive
principles ; I found that the peasants were indisposed to
adopt any modern implement, but for what reason could
not be explained. Their plows are not wholly unlike
those used in China, consisting of a straight and narrow
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA .
447
448 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
plow-share, without any mould-board, which runs into
the earth not more than three inches and makes more of
a treneh than furrow ; their plow horses work in shafts,
and even here the douga is not discarded, but retained
as a relic of ancient usage. I>ut in the harvest lield there
is still less of modern farming seen, for the grain is cut
with hand-sickles, behind which follow gleaners, as in the
days of Ruth and Boaz. It is really a pretty sight to
witness the harvest gathering; as the peasants live in
communes, they work together upon a communistic prin-
ciple ; when the wheat has ripened — Russia raises com-
paratively little else — the village population, both men and
women, turn out with sickles at their labor, which begins
at break of day and continues until darkness. I have seen
more than one hundred reapers strung out in a line gath-
ering the grain of a single field, the men wearing trousers,
of some coarse material, outside of which the shirt is
worn ; but the women, if not more expensively dressed, an;
certainly more gaudily decorated. They are very fond
of bright colors, their hair being bound up with gay hand-
kerchiefs, while their dresses are either of a bright red,
blue or green ; viewed at a distance, against a back-
ground of ripened grain and, as a whole, moving in ec-
centric undulations, the sight is exceedingly pleasing.
When the wheat is gathered and ready for threshing, it is
taken into sheds, which can hardly be called barns, and
there the grain is beaten out with flails, as in old en times-
Notwithstanding the crude manner in which the peasantry
of Russia till their lands, yet Russia is the only competi-
tor America has in an ambition to feed the world.
Fortunately for us, what progress has been made in Rus-
sia has been in manufacture, to the almost utter neglect
of agriculture, the result of which is the unwonted de-
pression of all her energies, and the critical condition of
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 449
her finances. This may he accounted for by a considera-
tion of the following facts, which should have special
interest for Americans, because a removal of the causes
may seriously embarrass our prosperity :
With immense tracts of sparsely populated but fertile
lands, a great lack of native skilled labor, and undevel-
oped mineral resources, Russia is necessarily an agricul-
tural country, and must seek material progress in driving
the plough, and not in forging the ploughshare. Every-
thing, however, seems to militate against the success of ag-
riculture. The land, which is in the hands of the peasants
in the purely Russian provinces, is being rapidly exhausted
under unskilful and improvident husbandry, and where,
under proper management, the complaint would be that
there were not hands sufficient to work the soil, the actual
cry is, on the contrary, that there is not land enough to
feed the inhabitants. To the foreigner who knows the
vast extent of the Russian Empire and the comparative
paucity of its inhabitants, the idea of an earth-hunger in
the dominions of the Czar appears simply absurd. Never-
theless the fact exists that the present deplorable condi-
tion of the peasantry in many of the provinces is gravely
attributed to the smallness of the shares of land which
fall to the lot of the various village families.
The subject has become so important to Russia that the
Government has taken it into serious consideration, a
commission being appointed to enquire into the question ;
and steps having been taken to facilitate the removal of
large numbers of the peasants from the central provinces
to the vacant and fertile lands in the east of the Empire.
It is part of the theory of the largest and most influ-
ential class of Russian politicians that the welfare of the
country depends upon the possession by each peasant of
a plot of land sufficient under tillage to secure his main-
450 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
tenance, and great alarm is therefore felt at what is
considered the failure in this respect of the system intro-
duced on the abolition of serfdom. It is perfectly clear
that if, under the ukase of liberation, each peasant fam-
ily received only sufficient land for its support, the small-
est increase in the population must produce the greatest
distress, unless the system of agriculture be so improved
as to render the portions of land continually more pro-
ductive. The Russian press, however, and the poli-
ticians who have specially occupied themselves with the
land question, have for the most part paid but little atten-
tion to the consideration of the necessity for a general
improvement in agriculture. Tables have been drawn up,
and statistics have been prepared, proving beyond dispute
that the portion of land possessed by each male peasant
is smaller than was contemplated under the great Act of
Emancipation, and that under present conditions the pro-
duce of this portion is insufficient to satisfy the require-
ments of its possessor. All this, however, seems to fail
to suggest the desirability, and, indeed, necessity of
seeking to increase the value of the produce of each acre
of land. Great obstacles stand in the way of any rapid
or serious improvement, but still much might be done. A
first requirement is the introduction of capital for the im-
provement of stock, for works of irrigation, for the pur-
chase of machinery, and for providing the means for tid-
ing over bad seasons ; but this urgently required capital
is hard to get. One great obstacle in the unnatural di-
version of capital to manufacturing industries, has been
pointed out, but in addition to this, other circumstances
combine to prevent those classes that would be most likely
to come forward, from appearing as investors. The Jew
capitalists who are to be found in every provincial town
of the west, and many of whom as dealers in agricul-
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 451
tural produce, have intimate relations with the needy land-
owners and peasants, are prohibited by law from becom-
ing owners, mortgagees, or managers of landed property,
and this fact alone locks up from the land large sums
which would otherwise almost certainly be employed in
its development. After the Jews, the large landowners
are the class from whom most might be expected. Their
wealth and superior intelligence, if devoted to agriculture,
would be almost invaluable ; but since the emancipation
of the serfs few of them reside on their estates or take
any great interest in them. A barrier has arisen between
them and those who were formerly their slaves, and if
the mujik thinks that he can in any way struggle on inde-
pendently, even high wages will seldom tempt him to
work for his former master. The proprietor finds life
in the provinces exceedingly dull and monotonous ; his re-
lations with the peasantry around him are generally
strained, and the superior comfort of residence in one of
the capitals or abroad is so great that he seldom resists
the temptation to quit the provinces and hand over the
management of his estates to an agent. If the agent
were likely to be a man of intelligence and probity the
damage would not be so great, but such men are hard to
find, and as a rule under the administration of a deputy
the property is neglected, and instead of an example of
superior agriculture being given to the peasants, the in-
dolence and too often the dishonesty of the agent lead to
results on the estate of the large proprietors as bad as are
produced on the village lands by the incapacity of the
peasants. Thus do we observe the drawbacks to Russia's
prosperity, and may feel assured that so long as they
continue to exist the country will grow poorer until no
one may foresee the end. I am frank to admit that the
Russian Empire has infinitely more natural advantages
452 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
than the United States ; she has the finest agricultural
lands on earth, and more of it ; she has more mineral
wealth than any other nation ; every climate maybe found
in the Empire, and where is there a country that lias so
many and such great rivers as Russia.? The soil in what
is known as the "black earth district," south-east Russia,
is positively so rich that it will produce nothing but
potatoes, or such other vegetables as will only grow in
manure, and this district contains millions of acres.
Siberia itself has enough arable lands, that if properly
cultivated might be made to produce sustenance for the
whole world ; and yet, with all these advantages, Russia
is behind every nation, and her population is only seven
inhabitants per square mile. What a country for emi-
grants, if the laws were liberal !
CHAPTER XXVII.
AFTER visiting nearly two days among the serfs, I dis-
missed Schleuter, who returned home to Tobolsk, while
I went directly to St. Petersburg, and there renewed my
relations with Count Tolstoi through a second letter of
cordial introduction and recommendation, from Minister
Hunt, as already published. My desire now was to
inform myself of the social and religious life of the
aristocratic and middle classes, as found at the Russian
Capital.
Notwithstanding the fact that Moscow and St. Peters-
burg are both Muscovite Capitals, abounding with all the
paraphernalia of Imperialism, regarded socially they are
as distinct as Paris and Constantinople, having no single
characteristic in common save in the possible matter of
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 453
church decoration. 'Moscow is a gem in the Asiatic sig-
net still ; though in strongly pronounced antagonism to
Budhism and the Moslem creed, she nevertheless clings to
such observances as distinguish those faiths, and did the
spires of her churches wear crescents instead of crosses
we could readily believe that Moscow was the Mussul-
man's holy city. But St. Petersburg has a highly pol-
ished veneering of European civilization, whicji is con-
spicuous everywhere outside her monasteries ; on the
streets may be seen, though at infrequent intervals,
monks with round, band-box looking headpieces, from
which a piece of black muslin is suspended behind ; or,
members of the white and black clergy dressed in black
stoles, wearing hats tucked up at four quarters by
strings, the former having short and the latter long,
straggling hair ; but these are about all the ecclesiastical
sights to be seen on the streets in St. Petersburg, and
even they are not common. Sunday, too, is not a day
wholly devoted to religious observances, for I saw
large squads of men busy at work repairing streets,
which must have been done by municipal order, and
there is also more or less business done at the small
shops on Sunday ; but in Moscow such sacrilegious
employment would not be tolerated.
I attended services one Sunday at St. Isaac's Cathe-
dral, in company with my interpreter, Kuntze, and was
entertained in a much more agreeable manner than I had
~
anticipated. This famous cathedral, though hardly so
fine as the Grand Votive church in Moscow, is a marvel
of architectural beauty and magnificence ; its cupola is
a mass of burnished gold, lifting up against the sky its
wonderful hemisphere like a bright sun half set behind
a mountain peak. It has four fronts, with the same
number of main entrances, before each of which are
454
HtfSSIAN NIHILISM AXl>
eight granite pillars sixty feet in height and seven feet
through. The interior, however, is much more impos-
ing, being composed of many beautiful rooms supported
by pillars of malachite ; the steps are made of porphyry ;
the walls are of lapis lazuli, the floors are of variegated
marble, the inner dome is of malachite, and the gorgeous
ST. ISAAC'S CATHEDRAL.
interior is lighted by foliated windows of rare colors.
A feature of the decorations inside is the prestol form-
ing the shrine, which is made of malachite and was
a present from Prince Demidoff ; the cost of this shrine
was one million dollars, equal to the cost of the build-
ing's foundation.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 455
One peculiarity of all Greek churches is the absence"
of seats, and instrumental music ; every one, whether
prince or peasant, must stand up during the entire service,
which generally lasts two hours. As I walked into the
church it was between two files of beggars who haunted
the entrance, and with suppliant mien addressed a peti-
tion to each person who passed them ; they also held a
little board in their hands on which they allowed to
remain the copecks that were given them, as an incentive
to others to contribute. When I reached the interior
I found the congregation disposed in various naves, and
generally in squads, the principal portion of the audience,
however, being in the center nave, before which was the
chancel and .priest. My attention was attracted to bevies
of suppliants whose devotions were being made beforeicons
of Christ, Mary, Russian saints, and bi blical patriarchs ;
each suppliant was provided with a pocket-full of can-
dles, as every icon was surrounded with candelabras, some
having more than fifty, which were supplied with new can-
dles as soon as those burning were exhausted ; the use of
candles is so great that there are in Russia hundreds of very
large factories which produce nothing but these sacrificial
candles, and it is a most remunerative industry. Devo-
tions made to these icons consist in the suppliant first
addressing a short prayer before the image, while in a
standing position ; the suppliant then bows down and
touches the floor three times with his forehead, still
reciting prayers ; this worship is repeated many times,
and when concluded another prayer is offered, after
which the sign of the cross is made three times, when
the suppliant passes on to the center nave and participates
in the regular services, which are chiefly choral. I saw
many old men and women undergoing the preliminary
service in a way which excited my compassion ; in pros-
456 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
trating themselves I could hear their stiffened joints,
inflexible from age, crack with each motion, and J. could
plainly see that the exertion consequent upon so repeat-
edly rising and kneeling was of a most taxing, if not
exhausting, nature.
Russian choirs are famous the world over ; no other
people have such musical throats, and when animated by
the religious feeling which so thoroughly pervades them
they produce a harmony which I can best describe bycal-
ing it heavenly. I needed no interpreter to tell me of its
beauty, or to inspire me with the soul-attuning melody
which welled up until I became lost in its swells of rich
grace-imparting, spiritualizing concord of delicious music.
While entranced by this ecstacy of sweet sounds I was
suddenly alarmed by a shriek which rose above the
harmony, piercing and painful ; looking in the direction
from whence the excitement proceeded, I caught sight of
a woman who was being borne upon the shoulders of two
men through the audience toward a large image of the
crucified Christ ; instantly there occurred to me the idea
of sacrificial rites, that this woman, screaming as if she
were possessed of a thousand devils, was to do some
propitiatory act for absolvment from a penalty which she
conceived was about to be ad ministered ; these reflections
were produced by the strange influences which surrounded
me, but upon inquiry addressed to my guide for the
cause, he informed me that the woman was a paralytic
who, having received absolution, and the power of faith
through a reception of the holy spirit, had begged to be
carried to the feet of Christ, which, if she might touch, she
expected to be cured of her affliction. I found that this
was a very usual occurrence, there being few services
hold in the Cathedral that some incurable among the
audience did not seek to touch the sacred image,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 457
believing it would make them whole. I did not hear
that any one had ever been thus miraculously cured, but
then there is no limit to faith, and I did not expect to find
reason prevailing to any extent among a people so
exclusively religious as these.
I attended one other sacred service in St. Peters-
burg, which was even more interesting than that at St.
Isaacs Cathedral, and which, I may add, impressed
me more seriously. It was a te deum sung at the St.
Alexander Nevskoi Monastery by fourteen monks and
twelve neophytes. This ecclesiastical institution is
renowned throughout the Empire, being to Russia what
Westminster Abbey is to England. Under its marble
floors repose hundreds of the most famous characters in
Russian history, whose deeds are briefly recorded on the
tablature above them. In a large yard about the Mon-
astery lie buried many people once rich enough to pur-
chase a resting place in the sacred enclosure, for it is a fact
that none can find burial here except upon the payment
of a certain sum, which generally amounts to $25,000 ;
this is considered small enough price for a bed in so holy
a place, which many think is but a step removed from
heaven.
Some years ago there was a Lady Superior in charge
of the Monastery who was also financial agent of the
institution ; she was a woman of extraordinary force of
character and so popular among the aristocracy that she
secured from time to time most princely bequests from
rich people of the Empire ; she was on very intimate
terms with the royal family, particulary with the Em-
press of Alexander II., and possessed the confidence of
everybody. Her charities became the wonder of all, for
she built almost a score of institutions for the benefit of
the poor, and established hospitals in many parts of
458 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
Russia. It is estimated that in her ambition to amelio-
rate the condition of the Russian poor she spent not less
than $20,000,000. After a time it was hinted that all
this wealth had not been derived from the sources she
represented, but that she had appropriated the church
revenues. An investigation followed, which was
prompted by priests jealous of their own personal inter-
ests, which established the facts as charged. She was
then placed on trial for sacrilege, in misappropriating
church funds, and after one of the most exciting legal
contests that ever took place in St. Petersburg, her
guilt was established. The trial was attended not only
by scores of the most famous people of the Empire, but
also by the Emperor and Empress. It was clearly
proved that, though the Lady Superior had used funds
of which she was the trust agent, yet every dollar of it
had been charitably employed ; that even her own wants
and needs were neglected to the end that she might use
every copeck available for the betterment of those need-
ing aid. Her sentence was confinement in prison for
twenty years, but instead of this harsh judgment affix-
ing any stigma to her name, hundreds of aristocratic
women begged that they might be permitted to share
her imprisonment. When assigned to a cell in the Bol-
shaya Sadovaya prison she found it a solid bower of
perfume-laden flowers ; she was daily visited by mem-
bers of the Imperial family, and every possible attention
was paid her by people of the highest rank. After two
years of imprisonment, which was one continual ovation,
Alexander II. gave her a pardon, and within two months
after her liberation she was reinstated in the position of
Lady Superior in the Monastery, where she is still serv-
ing, with enlarged jurisdiction, and honored as no other
woman was ever honored in Russia.
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 459
I entered the monastery with my guide, who eon-
ducted me through long corridors, which seemed to be
endless, past dark chambers which looked like charnel
pits, and at times along narrow passages, until nearly
a half-mile had been traversed, when we emerged into the
main chapel. The te deum service begins at four o'clock
p. M., and continues uninterruptedly for two hours; it
was quarter past four when we arrived and the choir was
already chanting their musical invocations ; the first
rich notes that fell upon my ear charmed every sense
and thrilled me with melodious rapture. I walked for-
ward in the great hall, which was deserted save by three
women who were praying at the base of a gray pillar,
until near the chancel, upon a raised dais on which stood
the monks and neophytes, their backs toward the hall
and with faces turned upon a large painting of Christ.
There was about the whole scene something to inspire
the soul ; some overshadowing but impersonal presence ;
a strangeness that suggested infinity and spirituality ;
the shaking of hands and declaration of familiarity
between the living and dead. The monks were habited
in long, black surplices ; on their heads they wore the
black caps indicative of self-denial and retirement from
the world , and their hair hung far down the back in con-
sonance with the idea of a neglected body, but care for
the soul.
I have heard with delight the famous professional
singers of both continents, and measured their harmony
by the fullest sense of the ear, but to none of them,
Lind, Patti, Mlsson, could I compare the harvest of
symphony as produced by the monks ; indeed, one is as
an elevation of man's feelings from the sordid cares of
life to the bountiful love of domestic happiness and con-
tentment ; while the other is like lifting one from out a
460 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
life of disappointments for a transplanting into felicitous
fields of paradise, where the very essence of existence
is musical. I never before conceived the limits of
vocal culture, I did not appreciate the mesmerism of a
human voice, nor understand the magic of a song.
There I stood, before that wonderful choir, so em-
balmed with melody, and intensified by a rapture so won-
derful that I felt as one who might ascend upon wings
of love to the portals of Hesperides and there bathe in
a flood of joy which blessed souls find on the beautiful
shores. I am not unconscious of the suspicion which
many readers are liable to attach to so florid a descrip-
tion ; who may, indeed, pronounce it sophomoric exag-
geration, but my excuse for using such adjective expres-
sions is the genuine, soul-entranced feeling I had while
listening to the Monk choir, and which I have only
indifferently described. I might resc under the imputa-
tion of supersensitiveness were it not for the fact that
all who hear this famous choir are impressed with feel-
ings identical with my own. Princely offers have been
made the choir for their choral services in public, but
these have all been refused with the pious remark, " We
sing only for God and the dead." Some years ago a
great tenor of the chofr was ordered by Alexander II. to
sing on a public occasion at the Royal Italian Opera in
St. Petersburg. His appearance created such an intense
excitement that the Emperor was glad to have him
return to the monastery ; so great was the rush of peo-
ple to hear the tenor that many persons were trampled,
while those who gained admission to the theatre mani-
fested such delirious joy that they would hardly permit
him to leave the stage ; in addition to this rather annoy-
ing adulation, the church violently protested against his
public appearance, pronouncing it a sacrilegious sacrifice,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 461
and hurled dreadful anathemas at the Emperor for his
order. This was the first and last time that any mem-
ber of the Monastery choir has sung outside the chapel
of their own sacred institution.
When the services were concluded, at six o'clock p. M.,
the monks withdrew into their cells and I was left to
inspect the building. The chief object of interest inside
the chapel is a silver casket containing the body of St.
Alexander Nevskoi, who is the patron saint of Peters-
burg. This saint is a canonization of the Grand Duke
Alexander, who was a member of the Rurik dynasty, but
lived only a short time before the accession of the
Romanoffs. He is reputed to have been a great warrior,
and it is said of him that in a battle with the Swedes,
fought on the very spot where the monastery now stands,
he defeated his enemies with great loss and killed the
Swedish commander with his own sword. The bones of
this hero were originally buried near Kazan, but were
brought to St. Petersburg and canonized by order of
Peter the Great. Not long after this event some priests
of Little Russia slipped into St. Petersburg and succeeded
in stealing the canonized bones, which they removed to a
spot not far from where they were first buried. Much
distress was felt by Peter at this desecration, audit is said
he fell to praying for direction how to proceed to recover
the bones. His petition was answered by an angel who
appeared to Peter in a cloud of fire and told him how the
bones were taken away and where they were buried ; it
is told that the Emperor, accompanied by two of his royal
suite, visited the spot described by the angel and, with
his own hands, dug up the saint, boxed the bones and
carried them back to St. Petersburg, determined that
they should not be again disturbed Peter caused to be
made an immense silver sarcophagus, into which he
IlUSSiAX A'llllLIiSAr AND
placed the sacred remains, then closed down the lid,
locked it and threw the key into the Neva River. This
solid silver casket, or rather sarcophagus, is in a side
chapel, to the right of the sacristy. It is square shaped,
and at each corner is the figure of an angel (large as a
grown person) in an attitude of mourning. The value of
this piece of art and precious metals is $250,000.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
WHILE I did not attend divine services in but two
churches in St. Petersburg, yet I did not neglect to visit
the Cathedral of St. Petersburg, generally called Cathe-
dral Kazan, as it is dedicated to an imaginative deity, or
rather to a canonized woman, who doubtless never existed,
but who is supposed to have been named Kazan. This
church is the finest perhaps in all Russia, always excepting,
of course, the Grand Votive Church in Moscow. It is situ-
ated on the Nevskoi Prospekt, and is the most conspicu-
ous building on that great thoroughfare. In shape it is
that of a cross, its greatest length being 238 feet and its
width 182 feet, the whole being modeled after St. Peter's
at Rome, though in height the building does not meas-
are above 250 feet, and the cost did not exced $4,000,000.
The most curious and interesting object connected with
this cathedral is an image of "Lady Kazan," which
stands near the altar. This image is supposed to have
been made in the city of Kazan, in 1579. I say " sup-
posed" because the Russian priesthood do not want to
positively know anything, being mindful of the fact that
fascination is much more likely to be excited by legend
than by established history. The figure is known to have
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 463
been placed in the cathedral in 1821, where it has ever since
remained, a very strong attraction, and as an investment
it has no doubt paid the church enormously, for a devout
peasant can hardly look upon it without being moved to
make a contribution.
I have called this ideal representation of Lady Kazan
a figure, or image, but it is neither painting nor image,
being a medley of both. The Greek religion, as before
mentioned, prohibits the use of images, but the prohi-
bition is rather technical than literal. In reality the fig-
ure proper is a painting, but it is habilitated in regal attire
and almost covered with precious jewels. There is one
diamond in the crown valued at $100,000, and a sap-
phire which forms the center of the tiara is said to be
worth $500,000 ; it was contributed by the Grand-
Duchess Catharina Paulovna, who is now " supposed "
to be getting value received in the court of last resort —
heaven.
There is invested in churches, decorations and sacred
images in St. Petersburg more than $200,000,000, a sum
equal to nearly one-half the value of all other property in
the municipality ; yet I was surprised to learn that most
of the money used in sustaining the churches is derived
from the poorer classes ; this statement appears almost
incredible but it is none the less true ; its apparent
exaggeration is somewhat modified, however, by the fact
that in Russia the priests receive very little more than is
barely sufficient for their needs, which are few.
Although Russia is, as a nation, intensely religious, her
aristocracy incline to sacred matters with such indiffer-
ence that they cannot be called religious, while there is
not one among a hundred of her scientists or learned
men who is not an agnostic. I was told that scarcely
any of the upper classes attend divine service, and in the
464
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
homes of the nobility an icon i.s beginning to be a rarity.
So we can readily understand why the burdens of church
expenses have fallen upon the poorer people, whose loy-
alty to the faith of their ancestors is unwavering, same
as we find it in all countries. But as the poor in Eussia
are so much more numerous than the rich, and because
EXILE LIFE IN. SIBERIA. 465
they compose the sinews of the government and are its sole
dependence, their influence is recognized by the govern-
ment in continuing its religious observances, and in pro-
viding such pomp as delights the simple votaries of the
Greek Church.
It would require too much space to describe the many
holidays set apart by Russian laws, but some of them are
observed so generally, and with such display of ceremo-
nial, that I must mention a few. The most distinguished
day and festival occasion occurs on August first, which
is called " First Spass;" or Savior day. It is commem-
orative of the crossing of the Sea of Galilee by Christ
and his disciples. The service of celebration begins with
a te deum at church, which lasts about two hours ; at its
conclusion a procession is formed, composed of nearly
all the common people in St. Petersburg, few persons of
wealth or rank participating. At the head of this pro-
cession are six peasants, each bearing a sacred banner;
immediately behind them are two more peasants, who
carry between them a large painting of the Savior. Be-
hind these are peasant girls bearing icons of the Madon-
na and disciples. After the girls comes the chief priest,
who wears upon his head a golden cross and is clothed in
rich vestments of the church. Behind him marches the
long line of peasants, or all who desire to participate in
the services. The procession thus formed marches to a
bridge across the Neva River, which has been decorated
fortheoccitsion with trees, flowers and interlaced branches
of evergreens. Upon reaching this bridge a short prayer
is offered by the priest, who then signals a blessing of
the waters, which is followed by those bearing banners,
crosses and icons, dipping them into the river three times,
which is supposed to impart a miraculous influence. Im-
mediately upon this being done hundreds jump into
466 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
stream, while other hundreds fill bottles, jugs and barrels
with the precious water that is now believed to possess a
magic power to heal any and every ailment of humanity ;
many invalids are carried down to the water and sub-
merged, fully possessed of the belief that their afflictions
will be cured, while those who are in sound bodily health
bathe their heads to keep off disease. These waters,
which must be taken on the day they are blessed if their
potency be desired, are supposed to possess miraculous
virtues for one year, and no amount of evidence could
shake the faith of a peasant in this belief, although I
could not find any peasant who kneAv of a cure having
been effected by using the water.
The next most important holiday in Russia is St.
George's Day, which occurs on the 23d of April, and is
a celebration in honor of Russia's patron saint. So
severe are the winters in northern Russia that it is custom-
ary to keep cows and sheep stabled from November
first until St. George's Day, when they are turned out of
doors, their release being made a chief part of the holiday
ceremonials. On the morning of this day the peasants
arrange tables, spread with white cloths, about the stables
containing their domestic animals, upon which they place
bread, water and eggs. Around these tables stand the
peasants, male and female, each provided with an icon of
some saint, and at the stable door stands a priest who
bears a large banner having four portraits painted upon
it and also a picture representing St. George killing the
dragon. Beside him is a basin of water which he con-
secrates by dipping into it a small cross three times.
Afterpreachinga short sermon the priest opens the stable
doors, the cows and sheep come out before him, and he
sprinkles them with holy water, from the basin, with a
little bruih.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA,
I do not remember of having ever heard of a custom
among any people so singular, if not paganish, as that
which prevails among the poorer classes in Russia, and
known as Recollection Monday. Feasting among the
tombs, I am aware, was once a custom among the Jews,
who did it as a mark of respect for their departed friends,
as jilso do the lower classes of Irish hold " wakes," but
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA, 469
\
just for what purpose they cannot themselves tell. But
the custom, as now observed in Kussia, is much more
radical in character than either the Irish or ancient Jewish
ceremonies. The celebration of Kecollection Monday is
begun by services of mass held in the various chapels, at
the conclusion of which a large amount of food, consist-
ing of Easter eggs, salt, cake and fruit, which is brought
into the chapel sin baskets, is taken forward to the priest
for his blessing. Wine and vodka are not a necessary
part of the provisions used at the ceremonies, but con-
siderable quantities are nevertheless provided. After the
chapel services are finished processions are formed, headed
by priests, which march to the cemeteries and there be-
gin lamentations for the dead. But this manifestation
of grief very soon changes into a wild, bacchanalian
revelry; men, women and children drink vodka until
their condition is shocking to civilization ; ribaldry, lewd-
ness, and demoralizing actions of almost every kind
characterize those who visit the cemeteries on these occa-
sions. The priests, drunk and boisterous like their
parishioners, stagger around with tapers and crosses,
soliciting fees for reciting prayers over the graves ; these
priests, provided they are sober enough, will pray fifteen
minutes over any grave for the sum of fifty copecks
(twenty-five cents), this being the basis of the regular
tariff fixed by them ; the dead who have no friends will-
ing to pay this amount, have to sleep without prayers
and take their chances of being burned.
I have mentioned a middle class in Russia, but in re-
ality there are only two classes, the aristocratic and the
peasant. Russian subjects, as a rule, are either very
poor or exceedingly rich, so that in my references to a mid-
dle class I intended to designate what in America we
call the office-holding people. But in Russia this means
30
470
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
more than it does in America, for officers are much more
numerous in that country, and being in the government
service, even though they may be ever so poor, yet they
are accorded a position in society above the peasantry,
but not equal to the aristocracy ; thus we can only desig-
nate them as the middle class ex qfficio.
It is a fact no less singular than unreasonable, that the
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 471
poor pay nearly all the taxes in Russia ; the rich mer-
chant in St. Petersburg or the owner of municipal real
estate pays no taxes to the government ; the city revenue
is of course derived from city property, but the government
receives mot a dollar, except as a voluntary gift, from
any source but that of agriculture. When Alexander II.
granted freedom to the serfs and made the Empire as-
sume a debt of $50,000,000, to pay the noblemen for
their manumitted slaves, he did not change the revenue
laws, so that the liberated peasants are made to purchase
their own freedom . Every acre of land in Russia and every
product of the soil is assessed annually and taxed upon a
basis fixed to meet the annual budget. In all other occupa-
tions there is exemption from tax. A man who desires
to engage in business goes to the proper bureau and de-
clares his intentions ; he is there furnished with a license,
but he cannot pursue any business except that for which
his license is issued, under a severe penalty ; thus,. if one
secures a license to follow tailoring the person so privi-
leged cannot engage in any other vocation without sur-
rendering his license as a tailor and taking out a new
privilege ; his place of business cannot be ('hanged either
without first notifying the police ; neither can a man
move his place of residence without complying with the
same conditions. Merchants who are worth $50,000,
and who do a business of the same amount annually may
become members of the first "guild" upon an annual
payment to the government of $300. Those who are
worth $25,000 and do an annual busines e(juai to that
amount may become members of the second " guild"
by paying annually the sum of $150. These "guilds"
are established for the recognition of the aristocracy
similar to those which once obtained in England. Mem-
bers of the first guild wear a uniform to distinguish their
472
•RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. . 473
rank ; this uniform is more showy than that worn by a
Russian general ; the cloth is a navy blue, the pants
having a gold stripe down the leg, while the coat and
vest are embroidered with gold cord, and on the shoul-
ders are immense epaulettes of cord and tinsel. These
merchants are invited to the court balls, but may not
personally address the Emperor ; they must content
themselves with viewing' royalty and with being enter-
tained in the palace.
Society in St. Petersburg has about it more punctilio
than anywhere in the world ; it is surrounded by a very
high wall, and may be reached only by those having
magic keys ; an introduction will not suffice, as it does
in America, for every one who seeks admission must have
the requisites of discreetness, wealth and bizarre manners.
Catharine II. was the first to organize society in St. Peters-
burg, and since her character is pretty generally known,
we may readily surmise the kind of stamp she impressed
it with. There is in the Hermitage a tablet, which is
generally concealed from view by a curtain, upon which
is engraved the "ten commandments" of Catharine,
which she enforced upon those who attended her parties.
Literally translated they read as follows :
1. Leave outside your rank, your hat, and especially
your sword.
2. Leave outside your right of precedence, your
pride, and everything akin to them.
3. Be gay, but do not damage anything.
4. Sit, stand or walk, regardless of any person.
5. Talk calmly, and not too loud, so as not to make
the head and ears of others ache.
6. Discuss without anger or excitement.
7. Neither sigh nor yawn, nor make others gloomy
or dull-spirited.
8. Let all join in any innocent game proposed.
474 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
9. Eat whatever is sweet and good, but drink mod-
erately in order that every body's head may be level upon
leaving.
10. Tell no tales out of school ; that which goes in
at one ear must go out at the other before leaving the
room.
Punishments provided for a transgression of any of
these rules were as follows :
1 . Any person transgressing against any one of these
rules shall, if two witnesses appear against him, drink
one glass of cold water, not excepting the ladies, and read
aloud one page of the "Telemachiade," (written by a
Russian poet named Tretiakofsky, after whom Tapper
was probably fashioned . )
2. Whoever, during the same evening, acts contrary
to any three of these rules, shall commit to memory six
lines of the same work.
3. Whoever breaks the tenth rule slitill not again be
admitted.
There was no austerity in any of these prohibitions
except the last, which was made to protect the character
of those who attended ; but though well intended it did
not fully serve the purpose. If it were not for the fact
that the stories are too shocking for publication I could
fill a book with well attested tales of flagrant conduct
peculiar to these recherche entertainments of Catharine
II. ; I heard scores of them in St. Petersburg, but they
are more conducive to morals when forgotten.
Dancing is a favorite recreation in Russia, indulged in
by all classes, and carried, in some instances, to great
excess. While in Moscow I was taken to a public house
where there was a big ball, and on this occasion I had
the pleasure of witnessing a genuine Russian dance.
Among the wealthier people very little dancing is seen
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA,
475
47() IIUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
that is not common to Americans, as French masters hold
schools in St. Petersburg and Moscow, and the people
naturally adopt the French style. But at this public ball
there were several gentlemen with whom my guide was
intimately acquainted, and my request, through him, to
have the gentlemen execute the Russian dance, was com-
plied with by four couples. They advanced to the cen-
ter of the room, and, courtesying, one couple led off
with a varsouvienne step, which was soon changed to
lancers time. The other couples followed, and then they
took positions, so that the respective partners faced each
other ; now succeeded a movement which language is
wholly inadequate to describe ; the men crouched down in
what appeared to be a very painful attitude, as if sitting
on their heels ; in this position they would kick first with
one leg and then with the other, without changing their
attitude, and continued this violent exercise until exhaus-
tion was plainly manifested. During this time the ladies
waltzed around their partners and tossed their heads
from side to side in a coquettish manner. After the
crouching movements were concluded the men arose and
balanced before their partners, then placing their arms
akimbo, they began an awkward shuffling, or rather
stamping, something like the Sioux war dance, and \
doing this they tossed their heads, stuck out their tongues,
pouted and looked cross-eyed.
CHAPTER XXIX.
the summer season St. Petersburg is almost
deserted, all the better classes taking up their residence in
suburban places, the most popular and fashionable resort
EXILE LIFE IN SIT5KRIA
477
\t
478 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
being Parvelosk, which is situated eighteen miles out of
the metropolis. The ground on which Parvelosk is built
was donated by the Grand Duke Constantine, who erected
a music-stand, and laid out about two thousand acres of
the surrounding ground in a park, which has since been
improved at an expense of $1,00.0,000. Near this park
are hundreds of beautiful cottages, in the midst of green
lawns studded with flowers and statuary ; parties are
given nearly every night in these summer mansions, a
few of which I had the pleasure of attending. No people
are so polite and fashionable as the wealthy class of
Russia, and, I may add, that not even in Paris is there
such abandon, and perfect freedom, exhibited as at a
Russian ball.
About the first of October those who have summered
in rural towns begin to return to St. Petersburg, and
directly after this date "the fashionable season opens in
the city. There arc two streets in St. Petersburg which
can hardly be surpassed for beauty, one of these, Nevskoi
Prospekt, runs north and south, from the Admiralty
building to the Alexander Nevskoi Monastery", a distance
of three miles, and is as level as a floor ; the street is one
hundred and fifty feet broad, fifty foot of it being paved
with six-sided blocks, set in like the Nicholson pavement
except that there are no interstitial strips and fillings of
gravel, the blocks being laid in direct contact ; this makes
a driveway of rare excellence, and, indeed, such as cannot
be found anywhere else. The other noted street is the Bol-
shaya Moscowa, or great Moscow, which runs east and
west about two miles. It is constructed like the Nevs-
skoi Prospekt, and both streets arc lined with line build-
ings. These are the favorite resorts of fashionable people
with fine carriages, troikas, and magnificent sleighs.
These conveyances are sumptuously made, and are gen-
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
479
I -4
480 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
erallj drawn by black horses in beautiful caparisons
decorated with gold and silver, while in the semi-circle of
the douga are a dozen silver bells that merrily jingle and
fill the air with cheery music. There are also many drives
through Alexander Park, around the suburbs of St. Peters-
burg, and over the long, broad wooden bridges which
span the Neva.
When winter fairly sets in, early m November, the
court balls are given, and after the Neva freezes over an
ice palace is built every year on the frozen stream. This
palace is a thing of sucji great beauty that it, is worth
many miles of travel to see. It is built of translucent
blocks of ice two feet thick, which, upon being laid to-
gether, are solidified by pouring water over the outside
and inside walls. The roof and ceiling are also made of
ice, and the architecture of the whole is very beautiful.
The interior is elegantly furnished with furniture taken
from the Winter Palace, magnificent chandeliers are sus-
pended from the ceiling, golden sconses are set in the
Avails, and luxurious carpets cover the floors. It is in
this beautiful, fairy-like palace that some of the finest
royal balls given in St. Petersburg by the Imperial family
are held.
Courtship, marriage and domestic life in Eussia are
radically different from what they are in America. As
in China, the Russians conduct their love affairs largely
by proxy : not because of any peculiar timidity, but in
conformity with customs which have prevailed among
them from time immemorial. Among the upper classes
there are many very beautiful women, with forms as
graceful as may be seen among the Jiaut ton promenaders
on the Avenue del' Opera in Paris ; but among the peasantry
beauty is almost as rare as philosopher stones ; not only
are their faces coarse, flabby and devoid of delicate color,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
481
but their forms are vulgarly repulsive, every develop-
ment tending: towards shapeless obesity ; with them mod-
— . ,
A RUSSIAN COURTSHIP.
esty, too, is an unknown quality, while untidiness is a
peculiarity of them all. Yet, no more attractive swains
482 RUSSIAN NIHILISM
fall iii love with these mottled maidens, woo them in a
cholicy sort of way, and marry them without manifesting
any special pleasure over the event. In. Russia as in Ger-
many, there is a great love for accordions and concer-
tinas ; as the Spanish lover beguiles his inamorata with
dulcet notes trumnicd on a guitar, so does the Russian
peasant persuade his favorite to some secluded bower,
and there puffs into her ears with the bellows of his ac-
cordion some tune which he calculates will swell her
heart. But however greatly he may surcharge her with
love's melody, or however eager he may be to procure
an admission of her tender feelings, he will smother the
desire and abide the customs of his country. He there-
fore goes home to his father, to whom he declares his
love and desire to many; the father then invites the
parents of his son's flame to take tea ; this invitation
being accepted, the father cunningly broaches the subject
of marriage and at length speaks plainly of his son's
desire ; the matter is arranged entirely between the old
folks, but if either of them objects, then there can be no
marriage, for young people in Russia never disobey their
parents.
There is another custom in Russia no less peculiar than
the courtship just described; it is in using a "match-
maker" to arrange marriages. This personage is a very
important one, being a professional body, whose chief
occupation is dividing titles ; that is securing for poor but
titled lords well dowered butuntitled ladies, for it should
not be forgotten that all the world is in a scramble for
titles, however empty and unprofitable they are in fact.
The accompanying engraving, made from FedotofFs
celebrated painting entitled the Svakha — Matchmaker —
conveys a comprehensive idea of her employment ; briefly
described, and using terms employed by the Russians, this
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
483
picture reads thus : The man in the caftan (the long coat
worn by the middle and poorer classes in Russia) is evi-
dently a moujik parvenu, who has been fishing with a
golden bait for a husband of rank superior to his own for
his tseeplonok — chicken ; a "poulet engraisse," if money
can make her so. The fortunate svakha, not less con-
481: 11USSIAX NIHILISM- AXD
tented than the happy parents, is come to announce the
polkovnik (colonel), who has consented to he a suitor for
the fair one; and the officer -who, nothing diffident, has
come to take the offered prize, is giving the last stroke to
a well-cherished moustache. Both the mother of the
maiden and the syakka hold, displayed in their palms, a
nasavoi-platok (nose-handkerchief), according to the idea
of such persons that the exhibition of that article-is a
sine qua non of good breeding. On ti side-table refresh-
ments are awaiting the guests, the Tcoulibayalca ( fish-cake) ,
favorite dish of the middle classes, being the principal
attraction. The servants, who are whispering in the cor-
ner, and who address their -moujik-master as an equal,
with " Thou/' in spite of his wealth, are as much inter-
ested in the event as their Icazein (master) or the mistress
with \\QY pavoynik (head-dress), which gives her such an
important appearance. The young lady's apparent dis
tress is more than probably feigned. To complete the
ensemble, Fedotoff has painted a cat stroking or washing
with its paw the side of the head nearest the door by
which a visiter is expected, as intelligent cats are sup-
posed to do by anticipation.
I did not have the pleasure of seeing a marriage per-
formed while in Russia, but from an English gentleman
who has lived in St. Petersburg for the past fifteen years,
I obtained a description of the ceremony which he at-
tended at the marriage of his chambermaid, and which
he described to me as follows :
"I never had but one married servant in my house-
hold, and she was a chambermaid named Macha — a nice,
pretty, and obliging peasant girl, who had been with us
for about two years. For some time I had observed that
she seemed discontented, and on one occasion, asking her
why she was not as gay as usual, she replied that she was
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 485
nearly eighteen years old and not yet married. Had I
been a single man I might have had serious ideas of propos-
ing myself to such a pretty girl ; but I simply persuaded her
to bear up under her misfortune, and to bide God's time
for a husband.
I had quite forgotten the circumstance, when one night
late, hearing a great disturbance down in the servants'
offices, I went to see what was the matter. As I entered
the servants' room all was in confusion, boxes were
being opened, bundles ransacked, dresses measured, boots
thrown about, under-linen inspected, beads counted (the
Russian costume is never worn without as many as six to
eight rows of beads round their throat), stockings exam-
ined, bed-linen animadverted upon, jewelry valued, go-
loshes felt, and fur mantles tried on. After a glance at
these things, I turned my gaze upon the occupants of the
room. There were three or four women servants be-
longing to the house, a couple of respectable peasant
women, dressed in the usual red chintz short petticoats
and leather fur-lined mantles, with brilliantly trimmed
hoods on their heads, and three peasant men ; these last
were all fine muscular-looking fellows, with their high
knee boots, velvet breeches, and red-and-blue shirts,
worn loosely outside the nether garment, something like
our old English mock-frocks, except their being shorter,
and worn with a many coloured ceinture. All the persons
there present seemed to be thoroughly interested in the
exhibition of clothes going on ; but the youngest of the
three men showed a slight restlessness as box after box
was hurriedly opened, and the contents of each, meeting
with apparent approval from the elder among the peas-
ants, elicited from him grunts of satisfaction and digs in
the ribs for the young man.
At lust, when all had been well examined, Macha, the
31
486 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
chambermaid, who all this time had been doing much
the harder part of the work in opening and expatiating
on the merits of each article, received a hearty slap on
the shoulder from the fine old peasant there present, who
in his own native language wished her "much happi-
ness." On this the young man arose from the bench
where he had been sitting and, naming a day in that same
week wherein we then were, slouched out of the cell or
cave (as one might well call the apartments of the ser-
vants) to have, we may suppose, some of his favorite
" vodka" (the usual Russian spirit drunk by the peas-
ants). This scene that I had been witnessing was neither
more nor less than a preliminary before marriage. The
sturdy old peasant there was the father of the young fel-
low who had just gone out, and he had come up from
the country to find a wife for his son. He had heard of
this young woman from a traveling peddler who went
every three months to Moscow to replenish his pack, and
who knew half the girls by name who were in want of
husbands. On the strength of this information from
the peddler the old peasant (the father of the bridegroom-
elect), his wife and son had come to judge for themselves
as to the eligibility of Mancha's goods and chattels ; but,
if they had found any article or articles wanting in the
bride's trousseau, there would have been no marriage.
Everything depended upon the bride's clothes ; but all
was there, even to the 154 rubles of the hard-earned sav-
I
ings of the peasant-girl. So she was to be married ! and
she considered herself fortunate in having a husband
given her ; not that she liked him, for she had only seen
him for the first time that day. He and his father, the
old peasant, lived far away in the country; but as the
spring was coming on, and the old father would want
somebody beside his own wife to help to prepare the
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 487
earth for the seed to be sown , the best thing was to get a
wife for his son, and thus secure the help of another pair
of hands during seed time without the expense of extra
wages. So Mancha, our chambermaid, was to be mar-
ried. She was happy as a bird. For a long time she
had stood much chaff as to being an old maid ; but now
she was going to be married, and the " Benediction," (a
Russian rite preceding marriage) and wedding day had
already been fixed by the future husband himself. Now
she could make fun of others, for in Russia it is a seri-
ous thing for a girl if she is not married as soon as the
law permits — that is, at sixteen.
Friday came, the day of * ' Benediction . ' ' Macha went
about her work as usual ; she neither seemed anxious nor
nervous. As she had been a good servant, we were all
going to honor her by appearing at the ceremony. At
about 7 p. M. a small table, covered with a white cloth,
was arranged in one corner of our large family dining-
room, two or three images of saints, ornamented with
flowers and precious stones, were placed on the table,
together with a large round sort of bread or cake, which
was to play no mean part in the ceremony. A few
minutes later the steps of the priest were heard on the
marble staircase, together with the heavier step of the
peasants' feet, and in another moment the room was full
of the bride's friends, arrayed in the" most gorgeous
chintz dresses, and of the bridegroom's mates, dressed in
the usual outdoor black leather "pelisse," lined with
sheepskins. All those friends and relations belonging to
the lady in whose house the ceremony was taking place
stood immediately behind the priest. After everything
was arranged in place, a slight stir and bustle was heard,
and, the crowd making way, the future bride came sail-
ing in, beautifully attired in a salmon-colored silk and
488 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
tulle dress, which her mistress had worn at the very ball
given in honor of the Duke of Edinburgh and his Imperial
wife by the town of Moscow. How splendid all her
friends thought her ! She had innumerable rows of
pearls around her neck and arms ; her veil was of net ;
but though the dress was magnificent, and must have been
very effective when worn by a lady, yet on this peasant
woman, with her arms and hands and sun-burnt com-
plexion, it looked ghastly and made the wearer appear
repulsive. She passed awkwardly up the sails and took
her place before the effigies of saints, or " images," as
they are called, and immediately after, her future hus-
band (who seemed half-frightened) slipped from the
crowd, followed by his father, and took up his position
on the right side of the bride. Then the ceremony of
"Benediction" commenced; it lasted about forty min-
utes, the priest reading and chanting together with his
clerk many psalms and prayers, while the future man and
wife continually bowed themselves to the ground, touch-
ing the floor with their foreheads. Then the round cake
of bread was put into their hands by the priest, and
was kissed by the recipients, afterwards by the bride-
groom's father, and then again by the bride's mother,
father and friends. This part of the ceremony is to show
that "bread is .life, and that they pray they may ever
have bread both in this life and in the one to come."
As soon as the priest had finished, champagne was
brought in by the generosity of the lady of the house ;
the first glass was handed to the priest, and the next to
the engaged couple, who now remained as if struck dumb.
As soon as they put their lips to it, congratulations pour-
ed in from all the assembled crowd, who, on receiving
an acknowledgment for their kind wishes, could oblige
them to kiss each other as often as they were told.- Of
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 489
course everybody did so, while the poor unhappy pair
had to go through the loving, caressing ceremony as if
enjoying it. When all the glasses were emptied the
priest dismissed the happy couple, the " Benediction "
was over, and now nothing but " Marriage " remained to
be solemnized. This last ceremony was to be performed
on the following Sunday, so that acquaintance, examina-
tion of wardrobe, Benediction, and Marriage would be all
got through with in less than a week. The Sunday came,
and with it a great thaw ; the distance to the church was not
far, but the bride could not go in her thin boots even ten
steps, so an " Isvostchik" was called, who gently placed
the future bride in his vehicle, and drove her to the church.
There the ceremony was somewhat long, in fact, so much
so that the bride's cousin was unable to continue holding
the wreath over her head throughout the whole ceremony ;
he was relieved by another peasant, who took kindly to
the task, and who was heard to mutter, " The bride is a
bonny lass, I'd give six years to have her !" After the
ceremony all the party adjaurned to a public-house or
"Traktir," where they made as jolly as they possibly
could with five or six quarts of " vodka " for the men,
and as many quarts of quass, or what the French call
Limonade des Cochons, for the women.
This then is the usual style of Eussian marriages
amongst the peasantry, the difference being only that in
ordinary cases, where the lady takes no interest in the
persons marrying, the ceremony is performed in the
lower regions of the house, and the bride may not be so
elegantly attired as was our Macha. That Macha was
well married according to Russian ideas I have no doubt,
but would it not have been better had she married the
man who would have served six years to have her?"
Easter customs in Russia are very pretty, this day
430
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 491
being observed like Christmas or New Year is with us. *
Easter eggs, which, however, are not colored, are used
in a variety of ways to encourage courtship. " Catching
butterflies " is a peculiar sport of Easter, which consists
in young men of the villages going about on snow-shoes,
with nets, crying out, " who'll -be my butterfly;" the
idea is that the girl who is first seen in a doorway by one
who carries the net and who smiles upon him, will be-
come his wife.
But I am sorry to say that domestic life in Russia is
generally a very unpleasant existence. Among the peasan-
try there is little virtue but a great deal of vice. Men
and women are both prone to drink, and they never know
anything of refinement. A peasant thinks very much
less of his wife than of his horse, because he can easily
obtain the former, but the latter he must pay cash for ;
this is the way he looks at married life. During my
short stay in St. Petersburg, I saw scores of men beating
their wives in the street and no one cared to interfere.
One particular instance I witnessed of extreme brutality,
a man began abusing his wife who made no complaint
but doggedly hung her head (I suspected that she was
half drunk), whereupon he knocked her down with his
fists and then kicked her unmercifully ; she was very
badly hurt but he jerked her upon her feet again and
then squeezed her right hand until the bones were almost
crushed ; she screamed with pain and implored him to
desist, but he dragged her off with him still squeezing her
hand and occasionally striking her in the face. Although
a policeman and dozens of citizens stood by watchingthe
husband's cruelty, none offered to interfere. But I was
assured that all Russians whip their wives, which I am
quite prepared to believe of the poorer classes ; how
could we expect them to be kind and affectionate to the
492 KUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
wives when the church, which is all-powerful and influen-
tial in Russia, teaches that women have no souls and that
their proper relation to man is that of an inferior being
who may approach him only in subjection, and may not
dispute any of his acts however unjust or flagitious ; thus
wives in Russia are hardly as well cared for as domestic
animals, and their labor I am sure is much greater.
CHAPTER XXX.
A HISTORY OF THE JEWISH OUTRAGES IN RUSSIA.
As a race the Jews have endured more persecutions
than any other people, and yet they have always been
the most prosperous and homogenious. There are several
remarkable race peculiarities about them which may be
found in no other religious sect, chief among these strange
characteristics being their tenacity, whether regarded in
a religious or business sense. Everyday we meet intelli-
gent men, who may have been raised under the most
pious tutelage and had their youth fully saturated with
Christian precepts, going about denying Christ, but how
many Jews, in all history, have departed from their faith
and accepted Christ as the promised Messiah ? I never heard
of one. Yet, branded with contempt, driven from homes
which their own industry~builded ; despoiled of their
property by edicts of Christian governments, every sem-
blance of personal liberty taken from them, and bur-
dened with special taxes that was but another name for
confiscation, still, the Jews have prospered in every land,
under all circumstances, as no other people. We never
see a Jewish beggar, never hear of them being cared for
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA . 493
in municipal hospitals or poor houses, and in no other
way do they become burdens to the State. So that pros-
perity, despite all adversities, and loyalty to their ancient
religion, are distinguishing traits in the Jewish character.
If we ask why the Jews have been so remorselessly
pursecuted by all countries in which they have sought a
home — excepting in America — we are brought to the con-
sideration of a problem impossible of satisfactory solu-
tion. In this age of commerce and international reci-
procity, when the plowshare has superceded the sword,
when the broad principles of liberalism have taught us
to respect the opinions of others, even though they should
be in conflict with our own, it is a matter for surprise that
there should develope such race prejudices among people
acknowledging the same sovereign, as would lead to per-
sonal assaults and from these to outrages which shame
Russian civilization.
There are several causes operating in Russia to antago-
nize the relations between Russians and Jews. When 1
asked Count Tolstoi for an explanation of the outrages
he shrugged his shoulders, blandly extended his hands
and made only an untranslatable facial expression. I
got no satisfaction from the minister and therefore
extended my inquiries into other quarters, with better
results. In the early part of 1882 Alexander III. sent
for and requested an interview with one of the Roths-
child bankers, who was just completing a magnificent
residence in St. Petersburg. The Czar was in sore need of
money to meet the budget that had been submitted, so,
rather than entrust the negotiation of a loan to his Chancel-
lor or Minister of Finance he concluded that, by seeking
a personal interview with Rothschild, he could secure, at
a moderate rate of interest, the sum required. In re-
sponse to the Czar's request Rothschild appeared at the
494 % RUSSIAN NIHILISM ANU
Peterhoff Imperial residence, where he was very soon
made acquainted with the Emperor's wishes, but instead
of treating the request for a loan in a business way Roths-
child took advantage of the occasion to express a strong
disapproval of the Jewish outrages that had already taken
place in southern Russia, and then had the temerity to
remind the Czar that it was a Jew to whom the govern-
ment had come for financial aid. Without defending his
policy the Czar arose, and pointing his finger toward the
door said, "There is the exit, be gone at once, and I
order you to quit Russia entirely ; this country shall not
be your place of residence, for the sight of you would
pollute an honest man." Rothschild was not slow to
obey the peremptory order, and his unfinished palace in
St. Petersburg is now for sale at a great bargain. This
incident may serve as a straw to indicate from whence
the wind of Jewish oppression blows. But there is an-
other almost equally important fact having a direct bear-
ing upon this vexed question :
Count Ignatieff came to the office of Minister of
the Interior in 1880, I believe : he was trusted with
carte blanche powers because he ranked next to Gortcha-
koff as a diplomatist ; but it was within a few months
after his acceptance of the ministerial port folio that
fresh outrages were reported perpetrated upon the Jews
in Poland and southern Russia. The Count was expected
to punish those engaged in the attack and for a time
every person thought he would bring down a retributive
justice upon the heads of all who molested the Jews.
This idea obtained by reason of the Count's issuing
several dreadful orders addressed to commanders of
troops throughout Russia, ordering them to punish with-
out mercy all Jew baiters ; he went still further, and
declared that he intended to put down every Jewish out-
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 495
break by the strong force and law at his command. His
violent policy thoroughly alarmed the riotous factions for
a time, but as none of these laws or declarations were
put into effect the outrages were begun again and week
after week grew more horrifying. The Jews were not
only robbed of their money and merchandise, but mobs
entered their residences, killed their little children, bru-
tally and lustfully assaulted the females, brained the men
and then burned the desecrated homes. Ignatieff con-
tinued to threaten, but he never punished, until finally it
was currently reported that he secretly connived at and
encouraged the assaults ; not only was it so reported but,
impressed with the fact, many of the richest Jews in
Russia raised a purse of more than two hundred thousand
roubles, which they used to accomplish his removal. How
this money was applied I did not learn, but my informa-
tion that it was so used is of such a character as does not
admit of any doubt. Ignatieff, we know, was dismissed
very suddenly and at a time when he had planned many
changes which it was reported had been approved by the
Czar.
Being unable to obtain any satisfactory information in
St. Petersburg concerning the Jews, and as there were no
records from which official data could be had descriptive
of the outrages, I decided to visit Warsaw, in Poland,
because several outbreaks had occurred in that vicinity,
and because I knew Warsaw to be very largely populated
by Jews. Accordingly I went to Moscow and there took
the train for Warsaw, which is five hundred miles distant.
This road is not only the most aggravating line on which
I ever travelled, but it is next to the road which runs
from Moscow to Odessa, and I am told that travel on this
hitter line is worse than riding a country pig to market.
By advice of a gentleman whose acquaintance I had form-
496 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
ed in the Holy Mother City, upon taking passage I be-
sought the guard of a first-class van and gave him five
roubles not to put any other passenger in with me, so that
I might be the sole occupant and thus be enabled, to
stretch out on the seat and sleep. A little explanation
at this point will no doubt be of benefit to the reader : in
Russia, as in all Europe, passenger cars are made in com-
partments, generally four in each car, entrance to which
is made at as many side doors ; the guards are what we
call conductors, but instead of there being one in charge
of an entire train, as in this country, in Russia there is a
guard for each car. The guard to your compartment is
your keeper, because, as you enter he locks the door
which he does not open until a large station is reached.
There are no sleeping cars run on the line between Mos-
cow and Warsaw for fear, perhaps, that the passengers
might sleep themselves to death. Such monotonous
scenery, a level, gray, sandy, weird waste, not a mole
hill even to relieve the surface, and when a fine forest is
passed you instinctively remark on its striking resem-
blance to the others, every tree being apparently of the
same height, diameter, and general appearance. The
time between Moscow and Warsaw is fifty hours, but it
appears like an age in the earth's life and development.
At every little station the train stops to allow train-hands
and passengers to take tea ; when it is ready to proceed
again the chief guard blows a police whistle twice, which
is answered by two from the engine ; at this a fellow who
stands beside a switch generally one hundred yards ahead
of the engine, blows a little brass horn and holds up a fold-
ed green flag; another fellow rings a gong, ten or a
dozen guards cry out "all aboard," or its equivalent,
the doors are then shut, and if no accident occurs the
train starts off like an old man suffering from hypochon-
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA, 497
dria and inflammatory rheumatism. At every road
crossing there is a woman standing holding out her green
flag, I presume to let the engineer know that the coast is
clear, but then this seems to be unnecessary, for the
train would never do any damage to anything that could
crawl. But the funniest thing about railroading in
Eussia, or at least what amused me most, was to see
how the axle boxes were examined ; at every stopping
place, however small, and utterly regardless of the
speed at which we had been creeping, two well-greased
men passed along the train with hammers, tamping and
oil, sounded each wheel and critically examined for hot
boxes. They must have gotten the idea of hot boxes
from the road between St. Petersburg and Moscow, or
else read about them in foreign journals, for I am
quite sure there was never a hot box on the Moscow
and Warsaw road.
We stopped one hour and a half at three different
places, Smolensk, Minsk and Brest ; before, we had stop-
ped to drink tea, but at these cities the delay was made to
give every passenger and train-man time to get drunk,
and I never saw such an industrious use of opportunity
made as on these occasions ; every fellow made a rush
for vodka, which was kept in decanters on tables, and
distributed by women, in small glasses ; in about fifteen
minutes I was the only sober man on the train ; such
yelling, singing and carousal, but no one seemed to get
mad until another train met us at Minsk, loaded with
soldiers. The troops were in box-cars and their first sal-
utations convinced m,e that they, too, were drunk ; despite
every effort made by their officers the soldiers got out of
their cars, made a raid on the station, and then directed
their attention to about one dozen of our passengers who
had expressed some objections to the high-handed privil-
498
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
eges that were being indulged by the troops ; both sides
drew up their forces in fine style and then began a tongue
fight which for virulence, noise and froth I never saw
equaled, but with all their vehement gesturing, neither
party advanced beyond their original stations, so that a
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 499
collision was avoided, and the row, once so threatening,
became only a farce of cowardice.
In making the trip from Moscow to Warsaw I was
without an interpreter, and of course had to take the
blunt end of every obstacle. I had learned two or three
words of Russian, but only one that I could make use of
while railroading, this single word was cht\ meaning tea ;
thus, whenever I reached an eating station I would run
up to a luncheon counter, cry out chi and then pick up
whatever I saw that appeared palatable. But a diet of
tea, brown bread and Russian cakes becomes discouraging
after a time and I resolved to extend the bill of fare. I
wanted some meat, beef, mutton, veal, chicken, etc., but
to all intents and purposes I was a deaf mute. An idea
came to me, however, when we reached Brest that I was
not slow to put into execution. Seated at long tables in
the dining room were fifty or sixty Russians, many of
whom were officers, and all were drinking tea and
vodka, or munching dry cakes. Calling a waiter to me
I gave him to understand, by gesture, that I wanted
something, which something I indicated by rising to full
height, clapping my sides three times and then crowing
loud enough to rattle the dishes. Instantly every eye in
the room was centered on me, but as I took up my plate
and passed it to the waiter he comprehended my wishes
and soon brought me a piece of chicken. All those at
the tables now understood why I had crowed, and such
a capital joke did they esteem it that more than a dozen
came over, shook my hand, laughed immoderately and
then proffered me bottles of wine ; thereafter my com-
panions took such an interest in providing for me that
they anticipated all my wants.
500 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
CHAPTER XXXI.
I reached Warsaw on a Sunday afternoon and engaging
a carriage drove two miles or more, to the Hotel Vic-
toria. Warsaw contains a population of 350,000,
(twenty-three per cent of which are Jews) and is located
on the Vistula River, a pretty stream, large enough for
a considerable commerce. Nearly one-half the town is
built on bottom lands, which portion is so foul with
dirty people, crazy-looking houses and stinking streets,
that mufflers for the head could be used to great advan-
tage by respectable persons while passing through it.
That portion of the city built on the hill presents a mediae-
val appearance, particularly those buildings that overlook
the river.
I was now in Poland, a country that has passed through
more desperate ordeals than any other nation on the
globe ; Warsaw, her ancient capital, that has been the
home of so many distinguished heroes, whose streets
have been channels through which the blood of thousands
has rushed, and the scenes of massacres that are too
dreadful for contemplation ; here have flourished a peo-
ple so proud that rather than lose their identity by amal-
gamation with other powers, chose to sacrifice themselves,
and die in the blazonry of bravery, freedom and the his-
tory they had made. On every square there stands some
monument commemorating the deeds of her great men,
while tablets are here and there discovered by visitors,
telling in simple annals of bloody deeds on the spots they
mark. Though rent by three powerful nations, Ger-
many, Austria and Russia, who fastened their fangs in
poor Poland like hungry dogs fighting for a piece of
meat, she is still proud, though no longer glorious — a
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 501
sick lion that has yet a brave heart but cannot defend
itself.
Poland is now a orovinee of Russia, but, true to her
chivalric character., she refuses to assimilate with that
nation. There are only two Greek churches in Warsaw,
but of Lutherans and Catholics there are many. So great
is the hatred for Russia that Poland refuses to adopt
Muscovite exchange ; copecks and roubles are compara-
tively rare in Warsaw, in place of which the Poles use a
little coin called " grozy," equivalent to one-half cent,
which was the last coinage of Poland, in 1840.
I was very much rejoiced to find that the manager of
the Hotel Victoria spoke excellent English, and as he was
a man of some prominence in Warsaw, his services were
to me of great importance. Through him I obtained an
introduction to the Mayor and also to some other impor-
tant gentlemen of the city, who afterwards gave me such
assistance as I needed to secure the information for which
I had visited the place. Before proceeding with my in-
vestigations I accepted an invitation from the Mayor, who
spoke excellent German and a little English, to view the
city and its most interesting features. Of this drive I
have a very pleasant remembrance, for never shall I for-
get my visit to Lazienski Park and Wilanow Palace,
which are a few miles out of Warsaw, and reached by
driving over a very rough road, but they are the most
pleasing sights I witnessed in all Europe. In Lazienski
Park is the renowned palace of Poniatowski, consisting
of two buildings, which face each other, four hundred
yards apart, and both are built on the margin of a hike
that is grandly beautiful. Though very old the palaces
are kept in perfect repair, and are furnished in a manner
befitting the richest and most powerful potentate. But
though the rooms in these palaces are magnificent a.s
32
502 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
wealth can make them, I was attracted particularly to the
ruins of a theatre which, two hundred years ago, stood
in all its grandeur on the banks of the beautiful lake
referred to. The arrangement of this gallery of amuse-
ment was ingeniously romantic. On the banks of the
lake was built a large amphitheatre, of stone, provided
with private boxes, which, however, were in the center of
the semi-circle. Entrance was through doors beside
which were sculptured dragons, and up a stairway that
lead to the amphitheatre. The seats were of stone, but
elegantly cushioned and arranged suitable to the different
ranks of those who attended the entertainments. In
front of tips amphitheatre, but on an island in the lake,
was a stage, also made of stone, most elaborately fitted
up with all needful accessories for mimic deeds, the fury
of battle or the plaints of love. These stage representa-
tions were witnessed by those occupying seats in the
amphitheatre, the view being greatly enhanced by roman-
tic surroundings of forest trees, and limpid water spark-
ling under scintillating rays of a silver moon. But both
amphitheatre and stage are now in ruins, crumbled with
the glory of Poland, leaving moss-covered stones as a
memorial of those times when Polish Kings were in their
pride, and when ambition crowned their subjects.
From Lazienski Park we drove four miles to the
palace of Wilanow, which was built by Poland's great-
est King, Sobiesky (John III). This fine property is
the only estate that has escaped Russian confiscation,
and is still owned and occupied by Sobiesky 's descend-
ants, who are wealthy enough to preserve its former
grandeur. The palace is very large and contains many
galleries filled with curiosities, fine paintings and statu-
ary ; its floor,- like the palace at Lazienski Park, are of
polished woods ingeniously inlaid so as to produce a
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 503
most harmonious effect. The grounds cover nearly two
hundred acres, every foot of which is cared for by the
most artistic landscape gardeners ; there is also a large
lake connected with the palace which is kept stocked
with game fish, and the banks are embowered with trees
that are luxurious in growth and trimmed in a manner
which produces an effect almost magical. My curiosity
was very much excited by three sun-clocks which, by
chance, I observed on the palace, one being on the east
end, another on the south, and a third on the west gable
of the building. These clocks consist of a large dial
above which is a stone image representing "time;"
in the right hand of this image, or statue, is a sword
so exactly placed that the sun's rays falling upon it a
shadow is thrown upon the dial that indicates the time of
day, even to a minute. There were three clocks so that
the sun's position might be facing one of the clocks
morning, noon, and afternoon. This wonderful time-
piece— for the three must be taken as one— has marked
the hours for nearly one hundred years, having fortunate-
ly escaped the destructive influences that have desolated
Poland, and sent so many thousands of her people into
exile.
Returning to the city we drove through the Jewish
quarters, which are as distinct and clearly defined as is
the Chinese settlement in San Francisco. Here I ob-
served a race of people so wedded to their ancient cus-
toms and religions, as to resist every practice and senti-
ment of those by whom they are surrounded. Polish
Jews are as different in character from the Jews of
America as any two races having a common ancestry can
be ; they are marvellously exclusive and homogeneous ;
over their places of business they have signs printed with
Hebrew letters ; their costume never varies, every man
504 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
among them wearing a long-tailed coat, reaching to their
knees, and buttoned up tight in front ; around the neck
they wear a coarse, woolen comfort, and a little cap
crowns their head. I have no language at my command
that could describe their filth ; they literally reek with
stenches. I was told that though bacon is abhorrent
to them, on account of religious prejudices, yet the
Jews use it on a certain occasion, viz : when a Jew pur-
chases a new shirt, his next act is to procure a piece of
bacon, with which he thoroughly greases the gar-
ment all over ; he then puts on the shirt and does not
take it off for one or two years, or until it is entirely
worn out. The bacon is used to prevent vermin from
getting on their filthy bodies. I am quite prepared to
believe this statement, since only such a disgustingly
nasty practice can account for the odor which they carry
about them.
Foul, homely and narrow-minded as the Polish Jews
are, they succeed in accumulating so much money that
gentlemen of caste pay them tribute, and they therefore
force their importance among even the most aristocratic
class. The character of Shylock will certainly fit some of
them, judging by the experience of a professor of lan-
guages in the leading university of Russia, who borrowed
seven hundred roubles from one under the following cir-
cumstances, as he told me : A young man, with whose fami-
ly the professor had long been intimate, lost his mother
by a sudden illness, and being sorely pressed for funds
with which to provide burial and to meet other expenses,
he applied to the professor for a loan, which he promised
to return within one month. The professor did not have
the necessary amount, seven hundred roubles, but so in-
fluenced was he by the entreaties of his young friend,
that he went to a Jew and borrowed the money, upon
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 505
his situation, as will hereafter be explained. He gave
his note for the amount, and then, as required, gave an
agreement binding himself to pay ten per cent, per month
for the loan ; this he was influenced to'do by a belief that
the young man would fulfil his obligation at the time ap-
pointed for payment. But when the month expired the
promise was violated, so that the professor was left with
a security debt on his hands which he had no means of
liquidating. At the end of every month he had to pay
the Jew seventy roubles, and if he chanced to be one
day behind time the Jew would berate him soundly, and
threaten to throw him out of doors by taking all his
household property. The laws in Russia are such that if
a debtor becomes delinquent his creditor can peremptori-
ly attach every article of furniture or clothing belonging
to the debtor or his wife ; in addition to this, if the debt-
or holds any position of trust, upon complaint and proof
of debt made by the creditor, he may be removed, and is
thereafter disqualified from assuming any place of trust
again. This law is the creation of an aristocracy, and
forms one of the principal complaints of Nihilists. The
Jew was enabled, by threatening an enforcement of this
most oppressive law, to compel the professor to pay
the monthly interest, which at times caused him much
distress. Salaries paid to educators in Russia are so
small that the professor was never able to discharge any
portion of the original debt, and when he related the
circumstances to me he had paid in interest thirty-five
hundred roubles, while the original debt of seven hund-
red roubles was still held against him . Fortunately, he had
just discovered a technicality by which he could avoid the
further payment of interest ; this loop-hole, as he defined
it, consisted in the fact, of which a lawyer friend had
advised him, that the Jew was licensed as a merchant,
506 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
and that he had no broker privilege, so that the lending
of money by him was an offense, which the professor
declared he should make the Jew answer for. It was
another case of Shy lock brought to justice.
CHAPTER XXXII.
AT Warsaw I found there was such a general ac-
quaintance with the riots that had taken place against the
Jews throughout Russia, that I had no difficulty in collect-
ing all essential facts, and so many, too, that I could not
undertake to give them the extensive description which
they merit. I shall therefore have to present a history
of the riots in a concise form, and within the* space
remaining that was alloted for this work on Russia and
exile life.
The most outrageous atrocities perpetrated against the
Jews took place in the latter part of 1880 and in 1881.
Germany started the anti-Semitic agitation, which speedi-
ly spread to Russia, because of the revolution already ex-
citec] by factions which had pronounced against law and
inflamed the masses to disorder. Another reason is found
in the fanaticism of the Russian people who believe it is
a righteous act to slay a Jew ; and yet another, and per-
haps stronger reason still is the natural love of poor, de-
graded, ignorant and brutal people to engage in plunder.
The Jews were rich, and the peasantry poor, so a pretense
was had to despoil them, according to biblical precedent.
Within a period of eight months, four of 1880 and
four of 1881, a tract of country equal in area to the
British Isles and France combined, stretching from the
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 507
Baltic to the Black Sea, was the scene of horrors that
have hitherto only been perpetrated in medieval days
during times of war. Men ruthlessly murdered, tender
infants dashed to death, or roasted alive in their own
homes, married women the prey to a brutal lust that
often caused their death, and young girls violated in the
sight of their relatives by soldiers who should have been
the guardians of their honor. In the face of these hor-
rors loss of property is of little moment, yet they were
accompanied by the razing of whole streets inhabited by
Jews, by the systematic firing of the Jewish quarters of
towns in Western Russia, and by the pillage of all the
property on which thousands of Jewish families were de-
pendent for existence.
In addition to all this many Russian towns heartlessly
seized the occasion to expel from their limits crowds of
Jews, who were left by this inhuman and deliberate meas-
ure homeless amid masses infuriated against them. And
during these scenes of carnage and pillage the local au-
thorities stood by with folded arms, doing little or noth-
ing to prevent their occurrence and recurrence, and
allowed the ignorant peasantry to remain up to this day
under the impresssion that a ukase existed ordering the
property of the Jews to be handed over to their fellow-
Russians. So far from publicly expressing reprobation
of these outrages, the Minister issued a rescript clearly
betraying that the Russian authorities fully shared the
prejudice of the mob, and contemplated adding to the
burdens and inequalities which have been the direct cause
of the embittered feeling that has led to these disorders.
When the assassination of the Czar roused all Russia
to the highest pitch of excitement, it was confidently pre-
dicted that the approaching Easter would see an outbreak
against the Jsws, It was said afterwards that the pre-
508 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
diction was aided in its fulfilment by Panslavist emissaries
from Moscow, who planned all the subsequent troubles.
It is at least certain that rumors of a rising had reached
Elizabethgrad, and caused the heads of the Jewish com-
munity, who form a third of its 30,000 inhabitants, to
apply for special protection from the Governor. No
notice was taken of the appeal, and on Wednesday, April
27th, the dreaded outbreak took place. A religious dis-
pute in a cabalet led to a scuffle which grew into a general
melee, till the mob obtained possession of the dram-shop
and rifled it of its contents. Inflamed by the drink thus
obtained, the rioters proceeded to the Jewish quarter and
commenced a systematic destruction of the Jewish shops
and warehouses. At first some attempt was made by the
Jews to protect their property, but this only served to
increase the violence of the mob, which proceeded to
attack the dwellings of the Jews and to wreck the syna-
gogue. Amid the horrors that ensued a Jew named
Zololwenski lost his life, and no fewer than thirty Jew-
esses were outraged. At one place, two young girls, in
dread of violation, threw themselves from the windows.
Meanwhile the military had been called out, but only to
act at first as spectators and afterwards as active partici-
pants. One section of the mob, formed of rioters and
soldiers, broke into the dwelling of an old man named
Pelikoff, and on attempting to save his daughter from a
fate worse than death, they threw him from the roof,
while twenty soldiers proceeded to work their will on his
unfortunate daughter. When seen by the gentleman
who related to me this fact, Pelikoff was in a state of
hopeless madness, and his daughter completely ruined in
mind and body. The whole Jewish quarter was at the
mercy of the mob till April 29th. During the two days
of the riots 5QQ houses and 100 shops we re destroyed
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 509
whole streets were razed to the ground. It may be
added that the property destroyed and stolen was reck-
oned at 2,000,000 roubles ($1,000,000).
The evidence of pent-up anti-Jewish passion displayed
by these scenes encouraged the foes of the Jews to wider
and more systematic attacks. In. the excesses which fol-
lowed, the masses soon got to recognize professional
ringleaders from Great Russia. These distributed pla-
cards, found afterwards to have been issued from a
secret printing-press at Kiew, in which it was declared
that the Czar had given his orthodox subjects the prop-
erty held by the Jews. In most cases the very day on
which a riot might be expected was announced before-
hand— Sundays and saints' days being chosen, as the
days when the lower orders were at liberty. After a
week's pause, a whole series of riots broke out, commenc-
ing on May 7, at Smielo, near Czergassy, where thirteen
men were killed and twenty wounded, and 1,600 were
left without homes. On the following day, Sunday, May
8, a most serious riot broke out at Kiew, once the capital
of Russia, and still an important town, containing 20,000
Jews in a population of 140,000. Here the riot had
been definitely announced for the Sunday, and the Jews
sent a deputation to the Governor* requesting him to
call out his soldiers to prevent disturbance. He blunt-
ly refused, saying that he would not trouble his soldiers
for the sake of a pack of Jews. During the riot, which
broke out on the day fixed, the police and the soldiers
again acted the same part that they had at Elizabethgrad.
The first procedure of the mob had been to storm the
dram-shops, and, staving in the brandy casks, to wallow
in the spirit. During the period of license that followed
four Jews were killed, twenty-five women and girls were
violated, of whom five died in consequence, as was proved
510 11USSIAX NIHILISM AND
at the subsequent trials. At the house of Mordecai
Wienarski, the mob, disappointed in the search for plun-
der, caught up his little child, three years old, and brutally
threw it out of the window. The child fell dead at the feet
of a company of Cossacks who were drawn up outside,
yet no attempt was made to arrest the murderers. At
last, when several houses were set on fire, the military
received orders to make arrests, which they proceeded
to execute with much vigor, making 1,500 prisoners,
among whom 150 were Jews arrested for protecting
their lives and properties. No less than 2,000 Jews
were left without shelter by the dismantling or the
burning of their houses, and for the relief of immediate
necessities a Kiew committee soon afterwards had to
disburse the sum of $150,000.
Next day similar scenes of violence occurred at Brow-
ary, in the neighborhood of Kief, in the province of
Czernigow. On the same day still more disgraceful
deeds were enacted at Berezowka, in the province of
Cherson. Here lust seemed more a principal motive
than plunder. While the Jews of the village were at
synagogue a mob attacked the Jewesses and violated
many of them, causing the death of three ; others who
escaped the worse evil were driven into the river, and
nine ultimately died from the effects of the exposure.
When the Jews came to the rescue, two of them were
killed and a young lad was stoned to death.
The neighborhood of Kief was again visited on the
next day, May 10, at Konoptop and at Wassilkov. At
both places the attacks had been planned : at the former
wooden crosses were placed before the doors of Chris-
tians that their houses might be spared, while at the
latter the day of riot had been announced, and the report
diligently spread about that the Czar had given the
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA . 511
erty of the Jews away. At Wassilkov and in the neigh-
borhood eight lives were lost, seven at one fell swoop at
the inn kept by a Jew named Rykelmann. He was forced
to admit the mob to his. wine-cellars, and, during his ab-
sence in search of assistance, the drunken rioters cut the
throats of his wife and six children.
By this time the chief towns and villages of Southern
Russia were ablaze with violence and riot. Throughout
the whole of the provinces of Cherson, Taurida, Ekat-
erinoslav, Poltava, Kief,' Czernigov, and Podolia the
notion, spread fast as wildfire that the Jews and their
property had been handed over to the tender mercies of
the populace, a notion that seems almost justified in the
face of the inertness of the Governor-General in check-
ing the riots at Elizabethgrad and Kief. At Wasilgin
the Mayor even read a copy of the supposed ukase to the
citizens, and a riot would have ensued had not the village
priest done his duty and declared his belief that no such
ukase existed. At Alexandrovsk, on the banks of the
Dnieper, the operatives carried out what they thought to
be the will of the Czar, on May 13, rendering 300 out of
the 400 Jewish families of the place homeless, and de-
stroying property to the amount of 400,000 roubles. As
usual, the riots were previously announced, and the appeal
to the Governor to send for additional troops proved
fruitless. Even after the riots had commenced, a tele-
gram dispatched to the capital town of the province,
Ekaterinoslav, was delayed for four hours by the Gover-
nor before it was sent off. At Ekaterinoslav itself a
projected riot was happily prevented by the issue of a
proclamation by the local authorities declaring the Jews
to be true subjects of the Czar and entitled to protection
of their property. At Polonnoze, near Kief, a disaster
was averted by the forethought of the Mayor, who
512
RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
changed the market day to Saturday, and on the peas-
ants complaining he read them a lecture on the utility of
the Jews as middle-men, and induced them to promise
not to molest their Jewish fellow-citizens.
From Alexundrovsky the instigators paid a visit to the
Jewish agricultural colonies in the province ot Ekateri-
noslav, which have now been established for more than
forty years. The chief centres, Gulaypol, Orjechgw and
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 51 3
Marianpol, were visited in turn, and though no violence
seems to have been done to the persons of the Jews, their
farms were almost entirely destroyed. At Orjechow the
instigators who led the mob were dressed as police
officers, and produced a document falsely professing to
be the proclamation of the Czar. . The farming imple-
ments were all destroyed, and 500 cattle and 10,000
sheep driven off. At Kamichewka the Jews adroitly
turned the supposed ukase of the Czar into a safeguard.
Hearing that the rioters were advancing to attack, they
brought the keys of their houses to their Christian neigh-
bors, saying that if the ukase were true it would be bet-
ter that their neighbors should have their property than
the rioters, and if the ukase proved to be untrue, of
course their good neighbors would return the keys. The
Christians of the village accordingly repulsed the rioters,
and in a few days the Jews of Kamichewka were again
in possession of their property.
Up to this time the riots had chiefly arisen among
the urban populations, but they now spread into the rural
districts and reached every little village where even a
single Jew resided. A Jew was murdered at Rasdory,
a few miles southeast of Orjechow, and at Znamenka,
near Nikopol, on the Dnieper, a Jewish innkeeper named
Bessor was murdered and his wife dishonored, after
which both were cast into the river. At Balka, also on
the bank of the Dnieper, there was only one Jew, Allo-
wicz by name. A band of ruffians went to his house on
May 17, and, finding him absent, they violated his wife,
and, to conceal the crime, set fire to the house while the
poor woman lay helpless in it. All 'this was witnessed
by her little daughter, crouched in a ditch hard by.
On the preceding day another tragedy had occurred at
Kitzkis, where the house of one Preskoff was set on
514 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
and he, with his two little children, left to roast in it,
while the wife and mother looked on, vainly appealing
for mercy to the ruffianly perpetrators of the crime. At
Gregorievk a Jewish innkeeper named Ruff maim was
cooped in one of his own barrels and cast into the Dnie-
per. Again, at Kanzeropol a man named Enman was
murdered brutally and his wife violated and afterward
killed. Such were the deeds that were done on the banks
of the Dnieper during the month of May.
Meantime the seaport of Odessa had likewise been the
scene of an an ti- Jewish riot. Originally announced for
May 13, it was postponed till Sunday, May 15, with-
out, however, any precautions being taken by the Govern-
or, who had, as usual, been duly warned of the impend-
ing outbreak. Though only lasting for six hours, the
riot resulted in the death of a Jew named Handelmann,
and eleven cases of violation are reported, one resulting
in death. Here the Jews seemed to have been most
energetic in their resistance. Of the 800 arrests made,
150 were Jews, twenty-six of whom were afterward
charged with carrying revolvers without a permit. The
police estimated the damage done at 1,137,831 roubles,
while those more immediately concerned raised the sum
to 3,000,000. Similar scenes took place on the same
day at Wolvezysk, on the borders, where a riot had been
announced for the Sunday. A week afterward the lower
orders at Berdyczew rose against the Jews, and on May
24 a riotous disturbance occurred at Zmerinka, in Po-
dolia.
Thus, within a month of the first outbreak, almost
every town in Southern Russia had seen such horrors as
here described. Apart from t»?e influence of ringleaders,
the rioters had no cause to incite them to rapine, except
the force of contagion and the impression that the Czar
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 515
had really transferred all Jewish property to his ortho-
dox subjects. If once this impression had been officially
removed, the epidemic would have been checked. In
many cases it was distinctly shown that the peasants
liked the Jews, and only pillaged because they thought
it had been ordered. At Bougaifka, for example, a few
days after the peasants had destroyed the property of
the Jews, they became contrite, and gave their Jewish
neighbors 800 roubles as some compensation for the
damage they themselves had caused. In the face of such
a fact, it is tolerably certain that if the supposed procla-
mation had been energetically and officially denied the
riots might never have reached the extent that they even-
tually did. The contagion spread as far as Saratov in
early June, and thence to Astrakhan ; it even reached a
town near Tomsk, in Siberia, and caused an anti-Jewish
riot there. The only bright spot in all this gloom was
the condition of Poland, where Jews and Poles had
before lived in amity. This continued till General Igna-
tieff directed the Governor of Poland to appoint commis-
sions of experts to consider how the Jews should be dealt
with, to which fact persons on the spot attribute the rise
of anti-Jewish feeling that culminated in the Warsaw
riots. But outside Poland these outbursts of popular
prejudice placed a population of nearly two millions in
perpetual dread of their lives and property. At times
they dared not remove their clothes night .or day, fearing
that they might have to flee at any moment.
After the Saratov affair, on June 8, in which 30 Jews
were wounded, there was a comparative lull in the more
violent forms of outrage. But early in July the neigh-
borhood of Kief and the banks of the Dnieper were
once more visited by scenes which recall the horrors of
the Middle Ages. On Sunday, the 12th, open rioting
516 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
took place at Penjaslaw, which was characterized by the
fact that the mob were led to the attack by the sons of
the merchants of the district. Commercial rivalry add-
ing its sting to religious and social differences, the strug-
gle was here of a more violent nature than usual, and,
while 30 of the molb were wounded, no less than 200 of
the Jews received serious injuries at the hands of their
neighbors, and three died in consequence; 176 houses
were destroyed, some by fire. At Borispol, on July 21,
scenes occurred during the riots worthy of the worst days
of the Commune. Women, for almost the first time, made
their appearance on the scene as assailants, and added to
its horrors. During the rioting they encouraged their
friends on to the fight and were seen to assist them to
violate the Jewesses of the village by holding down the
unfortunate creatures. A curious petition afterward
sent from Penjaslaw, demanding, among other things,
that Jewesses should not be allowed to wear silks and
satins, may throw some light on the motives of these
viragoes.
The reader will be by this time satiated with the horri-
ble crimes which have been laid before him. The im-
agination may now be able to take in the full meaning
of the bare statement, so frequently telegraphed to the
world, that anti-Jewish riots had taken place in such and
such a district of Southern Russia. Suffice it then to add
that the month of August saw such riots at Njezin on the
2d, at Lubny on the 8th, at Borzny on the 18th, and at
Itchny on the 28th. If September was comparatively
free from disorders, the cessation must be attributed
rather to the needs of the harvest than to the quieting of
the popular mind, for, early in October, the mob attacked
the Jews of Balwierzyski, in the government of Suwalki.
October 3 was the Day of Atonement, the most sacred
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 517
day of the Hebrew calendar, and the mob took the occa-
sion to destroy the synagogue and wreck the Jewish
quarter, where one Jew was killed and 20 wounded.
Even as late as November, the myth of the spoliation
ukase imposed upon the peasantry. On the 15th of that
month, a band of 100 peasants at Czarwona, near Zito-
mir, pillaged the property of th-e Jews under that pre-
text. Lastly, to show the excitable state of the popular
mind, the Sarah Bernhardt riots at Kief on November
1$ and at Odessa on November 27 proved that a mere
suspicion that the actress was a Jewess was sufficient to
arouse once more the fury of the mob, and cause them
again to attack the Jewish quarter of those towns.
Finally, this catalogue of horrors must be concluded
by a reference to the riots at Warsaw on Christmas and
the following days. The detailed events of those days,
when 300 houses and 600 shops were pillaged and devas-
tated and thousands of victims rendered homeless and re-
duced to beggary, are doubtless fresh in every one's mem-
ory, but certain facts must be again referred to, owing to
their typical character. In the first place, the riot was
clearly planned, the alarm of fire being simultaneously
raised in at least two churches, and the mob being direct-
ed by men who spoke Polish with a Russian accent. The
culpable neglect of the military authorities of Warsaw
in refusing to make use of the 20,000 men forming its
garrison, finds its counterpart in the similar behavior of
the Governors of Kief, Elizabethgrad, and Odessa earlier
in the year. The behavior of the police, who are des-
cribed as only interfering to prevent the Jews from pro-
tecting themselves, exactly tallies with their behavior
elsewhere. And, finally, the attempts that were made by
telegraph officials and others to prevent the true state of
the case from reaching the rest of Europe may serve to
33
518 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
account for the extraordinary fact that the enormities of
the nine months only found the faintest echo in the press
of Europe or America. Thus, while outrages on women
were openly committed, the knowledge of this fact was
guarded so that it might not go outside the Russian
boundary.
The outrages recounted in the preceding pages, though,
no doubt, the most irnoprtant, are far from including all
the similar events that occurred during the year 1881.
They have been selected from a list of over 160 towns
and villages in which cases of riot, rapine, murder, and
spoliation have been known to occur during the last nine
months of 1881. Out of these information was collect-
ed from about 45 towns and villages in Southern Russia.
In these alone are reported 23 murders of men, women
and children, 17 deaths caused by violation, and no few-
er than 225 cases of outrages of Jewesses.
Such have been the horrors that throughout the past
year have assailed the 3,000,000 Israelites who inhabit
Russia. Nor is there any indication that the atrocities
will cease in succeeding years, unless the Russian Gov-
ernment will intervene in the sacred cause of civilization
and humanity.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
BESIDES appealing to the blind passions of the mob,
the Jew-haters of Russia have resorted to more system-
atic efforts to harass the hap less Israelites. The Russian
Moujik has a method almost peculiar to himself of ex-
pressing his rage and hatred. Whenever the fever point
of excitement is reached arson is usually the direction in
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
519
which it overflows. So well is this recognized in Russia
that the peasants have a technical name for the deliberate
firing of towns — the " red cock" is said to crow. Dur-
ing the year 1881 this method of revenge was resorted to
JEWS BEING DRIVEN FROM THEIR HOMES IN MINSK.
on a large scale against the Jews of Russia, especially in
the West. By the end of June the "red cock" had
crowed over 15 towns in Western Russia, including Mo-
hilew, containing 25,000 inhabitants, Witebsk, with 23,-
520 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND »
000, and Slonim, with 20,000, as well as smaller towns
like Wolcowysk, Scherwondt, Augustowo, Nowo-Gucdek,
Ponovicz, and Lipsk. Many thousands of Jews were
rendered homeless by this means, and on July 3d 6,000
Jews lost their homes by fire at Minsk, 4,800 being de- ,
prived of every means of subsistence at the same time.
The town of Pinsk, in the same province, suffered a like
fate. And shortly afterward a conflagration took place
at Koretz, in Wolhynia, in which 30 lives were lost and
5,000 souls left without a home. Every week added to
the number of fires in towns inhabited by Jews till, by
the end of September, " the list extended to 41 towns.
This probably involved the loss of homes to 20,000
Jews.
To the mass of homeless and penniless creatures in
Southern Russia must be added the many victims of pil-
lage. The violence of the mobs often wrecked whole
streets of houses as completely as any fire, and it is
known that 2,000 were thus rendered homeless at Kief,
1,600 at Smielo, 1,000 at Konotop, 600 at Ouehow, and
300 at Aluchpff. The value of property destrojed in
the south has been reckoned to reach $80,000,000.
It is possible that an aggregate of 100,000 Jewish
families has thus been reduced to poverty. The ranks
of the ruined were increased by those who dared not ap-
ply for their just debts, while in many cases the peasan-
try deliberately "boycotted" the Jews. It must be
further remembered that in several places the Jews an-
ticipated riots by evacuating their homes ; thus, near
Perejaslay, after the riot at that place, no fewer than 17
villages in the neighborhood were deserted by the Jews,
and the same, doubtless, took place in other localities.
Men fled from the villages in which they had resided all
their lives. Even after the events of Keiw the Jews of the
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 521
neighborhood, fearing the spread of disorder, crowded,
at the rate of 100 families a day, into the town which
had so lately shown itself hostile. .Others fled toward
the borders, and during the summer months a camp of
refugees in the open air at Podwoloczyska contained no
less than 1,500 souls, including children of the tenderest
age. A few who still possessed some means attempted
to flee across the frontier, but many were stopped. Of
5,000 who managed to reach Brody, on the Austrian
border, in a perfectly helpless state, 2,000 remained
there huddled in cellars for nearly one month.
Meanwhile, the municipalities, with the connivance of
the local governments, took every means in their power
to add to the misery of the situation. With rough logic
they argued that, as these riots were directed against the
Jews, if there had been no Jews, there would have been
no riots. They accordingly petitioned the governors of
their provinces to issue orders for the expulsion of the
Jews from towns in which they had no legal right of
domicile. The Jews of Russia are only allowed to reside
in 28 of its provinces, often only in certain towns, and
the number of permits to reside is, at least theoretically,
limited. For the last 20 years, however, these barbarous
laws have been somewhat allowed to fall into desuetude,
and many Jews have ventured beyond the narrow limits
assigned to them. Leaving aside the general question, it
was clearly a most heartless act to add to the miseries of
the Jewish population at the moment when the mob were
eagerly scanning the disposition of the authorities to dis-
cover to what lengths they might proceed with impunity.
Whatever be the legality of the measure, the occasion for
introducing its rigorous enforcement was inhumanly in-
opportune, and lays the corporations who enforced it
open to a charge of complicity with the more lawless per-
522 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
secutors of the Jews. At Kief, for example, even before
the excitement had entirely subsided, the governor or-
dered a stringent scrutiny of the right of domicile among
the Jews of that town. By July 29 the strict enforce-
ment of these harsh regulations had resulted in the ex-
pulsion of 4,000 Jews, and quite recently new rules have
been issued in Kief, as well as Odessa, still further limit-
ing the number of Jews capable of residing in either city.
At Liebenthal, near Odessa, the municipality, of course
with the permission of the Governor of Odessa, expelled
from fifteen to twenty Jewish families, and imposed a
fine of fifty roubles upon any one harboring a Jew for a
single night. From Podolsk 100 families were expelled,
while whole regions of Podolia have been relentlessly
cleared of the Jews ; the towns of Kromonitz, Dubno,
Constantinow, Vladimir, and Wolinsk, being the principal
offenders. More to the east the town of Charkooff ex-
pelled Jews at the beginning of August.
At Orel, in the Government of that name, the expul-
sion has recently taken place on a large scale, and under
peculiarly cruel circumstances. In that town 900
families of Jews, numbering 5,000 souls, have hitherto
dwelt in peace and good will with their neighbors. Soon
after the outbreak of the disturbances, the Governor of
Orel gave orders that all Jews must quit its bounds by
September 1. When that day arrived a further grace
was allowed them till October 25, and on the latter day
the Jewish congregation met for the last time in the syn-
agogue, and, after tearful prayers, removed the sacred
scrolls and left in mournful procession the town that had
been their home. Nearly 400 of them, however, did not
even possess the means of departure, and ventured to re-
main, only to be thrust out by the police into the snow
on the following night. In other places, where no legal
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA.
523
JEWISH SYNAGOGUE AT OREL.
524 HUSSIAN KIHILISM AND
objection could be taken to the domicile' of the Jews, pe-
titions were sent by the authorities requesting the
imposition of all sorts of restrictions. They desired to
restrict Jewish commerce in grain, and to limit the send-
ing of Jewish children to the higher gymnasia and
universities, thus stultifying their own complaints as to
the want of culture among the Jews. Many local com-
missions would prevent the Jews from holding
"harandas," erroneously described as "drain-shops,"
but really general stores, at which wine and spirits are
sold. I have already referred to the Perejaslav petition,
that Jewesses be not allowed to wear silks and satins.
These expulsions and petitions have formed the sole an-
swer which the town councils of Russia have given to the
Jewish question.
Meanwhile, what has been done in this emergency? It
is by no means difficult to suggest what could and should
have been done from the first appearance of an ti -Jewish
feeling in the South. If orders had been given and pub-
lished that every Governor-General should supply Jewish
communities with a guard on application from the Rabbi
and the elders of the community ; if an edict had been
passed rendering all damage to Jewish property by riots
chargeable to the communal rates of the town or village ;
if, above all, a proclamation had been issued declaring
that all Jewish subjects were as much entitled to protec-
tion of life and property as their orthodox fellow-citizens,
and denying the existence of any ukase purporting to
"convey" their property, it is safe to assert that the
disorders would not have spread far, and certainly would
not have lasted long. Instead of this, at Kief instruc-
tions were issued that the military should not be called
out till the last extremity.
As early as May 23 the Czar, having been appealed to
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 525
"by a deputation of the Jews of St. Petersburg, headed
by Baron Gunzburg, expressed his intention of dealing
with the evil. Accordingly, Count Kutaissow was de-
spatched to the South to make inquiries. He returned, it
would seem, with the answer that inquiries were still
further necessary. General Ignatieff now took the op-
portunity to introduce a system by which the Zemstras,
or Provincial Assemblies, might be superseded by local
committees of experts on this special subject, and on
September 3 the following rescript was issued :
" For some time the Government has given its atten-
tion to the Jews, and to their relations to the rest of the
inhabitants of the Empire, with the view of ascertaining
the sad condition of the Christian inhabitants, brought
about by the conduct of the Jews in business matters.
"For the last twenty years the Government has en-
deavored, in various ways, to bring the Jews near to its
other inhabitants, and has given them almost equal rights
with the indigenous population. The movements, how-
ever, against the Jews, which began last spring in the
south of Kussia, and extended to Central Russia, prove
incontestably that all its endeavors have been of no avail,
and that ill-feeling prevails now as much as ever between
the Jewish and the Christian inhabitants of those parts.
Now, the proceedings at the trial of those charged with
rioting and other evidence bear witness to the fact that
the main cause of those movements and riots — to which
the Russians, as a nation, are strangers — was but a com-
mercial one, and is as follows : —
" ' During the last twenty years the Jews have gradu-
ally possessed themselves of not only every trade and
business in all its branches, but also of a great part of
the land by buying or farming it. With few exceptions
they have, as a body, devoted their attention not to
526 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AXD
enriching or benefiting the countiy, but to defrauding,
by their wiles, its inhabitants, and particularly its poor
inhabitants. This conduct of theirs has called forth pro-
tests on the part of the people, as manifested in acts of
violence and robbery. The Government, while on the
one hand doing its best to put down the disturbances
and to deliver the Jews from oppression and slaughter,
have also, on the other hand, thought it a matter of
urgency and justice to adopt stringent measures in order
to put an end to the oppression practiced by the Jews on
the inhabitants and to free the country from their mal-
practices, which were, as it is known, the cause of the
agitation.'
" With this view it has appointed commissions (in all
the towns inhabited by Jews), whose duty it is to inquire
into the following matters : —
" 1. What are the trades of the Jews which are in-
jurious to the inhabitants of the place?
"2. What makes it impracticable to put into force
the former laws limiting the rights of the Jews in the
matter of buying and farming land, the trade in intoxi-
cants, and usury?
" 3. How can those laws be altered so that they shall
no longer be enabled to evade them, or what new laws
are required to stop their pernicious conduct in business?
" 4. Give (besides the answers to the foregoing sugges-
tions) the following additional information : (a) On the
usury practiced by the Jews in their dealings with Chris-
tians, in cities, towns and villages; (b) the number of
public houses kept by Jews in their own name, or in that
of a Christian ; (c) the number of persons in service with
Jews or under their control ; (r7) the extent (acreage)
of the land in their possession, by buying or farming;
(e) the number of Jewish agriculturists.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 527
"In addition to the above-named information to be
supplied, every commission is empowered to report on
such conduct and action of the Jews as may have a local
interest and importance, and to submit the same to the
Ministry."
That, after the events of May, June and July, any per-
son in authority in Russia should in August have been
thinking of aught else but the protection of Jewish lives
and the honor of Jewish women, is the first surprise that
meets us in this remarkable document. But that no word
of reprimand should be addressed to those who had in-
dulged in such misdeeds is a severer surprise still, the
only allusion to the whole catalogue of horrors being
couched in the half-apologetic allusion to "protests"
that have taken so deplorable a form. It is certain that
the direct cause of the objection of the Russians to their
Jewish fellow-citizens is the natural result of the Russian
laws, which restrict their rights and mark them off from
the rest of the nation. It is the lesson taught by all
experience that the only solution of the Jewish question
is the granting of full equality. It is absolutely certain
that the whole body of the Jews, forming one-eighth of
the population amid which they dwell, cannot be accused
of "exploitation," or "usury," as imputed by the re-
script, the fact being that the chief industries of Russia
are in the hands of the thrifty and hard-working Jews.
Again, objection to innkeeping by Jews is clearly a gross
injustice, seeing that statistics show drunkenness to be
more prevalent in provinces where Jews do not reside.
But, waiving all this, surely the poor women who had
been violated, the little children who had been murdered,
the farmers who had been robbed of their cattle and
implements, could not be accused of these charges,
and it was accordingly the refinement of cruelty to
528 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
issue this document, teeming with animus against the
Jews, at a time when the passions of the mob had been
raised against all Jews, without distinction of person, oc-
cupation, age or sex. The Jewish question at the present
moment is not how the Jews should be prevented from
competing with the Russians in certain trades, but whether
the lives of three millions and a half of Jews shall be left
at the mercy of the passions of the mob. A document
like this, far from helping to solve the question, rather
adds to its complexity by showing clearly to the populace
that the authorities share their prejudices. The appoint-
ments to commissions showed the same bias ; at the head
of the Kief Commission was placed General Drudkoff ,
the Governor of Kief, who initated the proceedings of
the first meeting by declaring, "Either I or the Jews
must go." On another Commission was placed M. Che-
garym, whose only claim to be considered an expert on
the Jewish question was that he had written a pamphlet,
entitled " The Annihilation of the Jews."
At Odessa the first Commission was dismissed because
it had recommended the only true solution of the questions
put by the Minister of the Interior, the granting to the
Jews fully equality of rights and equal liberty of settle-
ment with their fellow-citizens of other creeds. A second
Commission was thereupon appointed, with views more
in consonance with the spirit of the rescript. When the
Governor of Warsaw, Count Albedinski, was ordered to
publish the circular he at first refused, saying that Jews
and Poles had always lived on such friendly terms that
no Commission was necessary. He was, however, forced
to publish the rescript, and competent observers attribute
the rise of anti-Semitic feeling in Warsaw mainly to this
publication.
These acts and the tone of the circular itself made clear
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 529
to the Commissions what was expected of them. They
have accordingly made recommendations which will, if
adopted, bring back all the horrors of the Middles Ages
on the unfortunate Jews of Eussia. Thus, among other
proposals, they have advised that Jews should not be
allowed to build synagogues or establish schools and or-
phan asylums ; that they should not be permitted to re-
side in villages, nor own houses or landed property ; that
Jews should not lease factories or sell spirituous liquors
or be apothecaries; Besides this, it is rumored that it is
intended to restrict still further the right of domicile, and
to allow no Jew to reside within eighty miles of the bord-
ers. In short, it seems to be the intention to make Eussia
an impossible home for the Jews, or perhaps even to doom
them to complete extinction. The Eusso-Jewish question
may, therefore, be summed up in these words : Are three
and a half millions of human beings to perish because
they are Jews ?
CHAPTEE XXXIV.
THE Jews of Eussia are chiefly confined to the Southern
portion of the country and to Poland, which latter pro-
vince contains nearly one-half the entire Semitic popula-
tion. It is not in all sections that bitter prejudices pre-
vail against them ; in fact they generally live harmoni-
ously with the Poles. In the Caucasus, though not re-
garded with any special affiliation, they are certainly not
hated or envied with that intense feeling which has de-
veloped against them in other provinces of the Empire.
The influence of Mussulmans for so many years in the
Caucasian district, and the efficient measures taken by
530 KUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
them to enforce the " Truce of God " among the votaries
of different religions, have had the effect of establishing
and maintaining at least a partially considerate forbear-
ance toward the Jews whose thrift here, as elsewhere, has
given them control of the business of the district. Wherev-
er Jews come in contact with Turks, as in the Cauca-
sus, they usually prosper without exciting any prejudice ;
this may be accounted for, however, by the implacable
hostility which exists between Christians and Mussul-
mans, in which Jew and Turk may be regarded as com-
mon enemies of the cross.
But the most singular features connected with Jewish
persecutions are found in and about Odessa, where the
riots have been appalling in deep villainy and heartless
cruelties. These singular features are found in the fact
that Odessa, with a population of 200,000, is so cosmo-
politian as to be Anti-Russian ; the French are so numer-
ous that they have stamped their impress upon the city ;
in fact have Frenchified it ; the Russian tongue is rarely
spoken in Odessa, hardly so much as the Turk, while
among the upper class French and Italian are alone used.
We also observe the lack of Russian influence in the
absence of Greek churches, and, in short, there is abund-
ant evidence that the Russ people are despised in Odessa.
Yet, the Jews are persecuted here with a severity equal
to that which distinguished the rioters at Kief or Minsk.
The cause is found, not in religious intolerance nor in
race prejudices, but in that vicious desire which devel-
ops under conditions identical with those which are so
frequently found in Russia — the love for plunder when
incited thereto by a mob. It is like shouting * ' mad-dog ' '
Sit some poor canine, the cry being immediately taken up
by every person until the dog is killed. The Jews are
rich, but their defensive strength is poor, they therefore,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 531
become objects for spoliation, and whether the spoils-
man be Russian, Frenchman, Spaniard or Englishman,
if the occasion be flattering, the cry of " Jew," " Christ-
killer," etc., will be just as loud against them.
The trade of Odessa is in the hands of Polish Jews,
who are most thoroughly despised by the illiterate Russ.
Many of these Israelites are in possession of large tracts
of land in the Odessa district, which they cause to be cul-
tivated for their own account, and thus they enjoy to a
large extent a monopoly of the produce exports, while
they are both land owners and merchants. Their wealth
stirs up against them the hatred of all Russia, which
hatred extends to every officer of the Government and
also to the subjects of other nationalities doing business
in Russia. .
The Jews are charged with the most heinous offenses,
but the charges are vague, and reducible to no positive
evidence. " They make their money by the most infa-
mous practices," it is said ; "they lend money at outra-
geously high rates of interest, and do not keep their own
counting houses or shops, but prowl about the country like
wolves, seeking the peasants they may devour, selling
them liquor to encourage their drunken propensities, tak-
ing advantage of their distress to wrest from them deeds
of mortgage, and urging them on the road of ruin, so as
ultimately to drive them out of their homes and lands."
All this is tantamount to sajnng that the Jews are
usurers ; then the question arises, What are the provisions
of the Russian law with respect to usury, whether prac-
ticed by Jew or Gentile? Money is no more than an
article of trade on which Russians and Hebrews place a
like estimate; there is no Russian shopkeeper who will
not ask two or more times the value of an article if he
thinks his customer can be induced to pay it, so there is
532 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
no legal reason why the Jews should not follow the ex-
ample thus set before them.
My experience convinces me that nowhere under the
ethereal canopy is there another nation that can equal
Russia for swindlers. I must here relate an incident told
me while on my voyage up the Baltic Sea to St. Peters-
burg. Among our passengers was an Irish gentleman
who had, for nearly twenty years, been running a large
cotton mill in Yaraslof, Russia. He had been on a visit
to Ireland and was now returning to Yaraslof, where he
made his home. Said he: "The person who goes to
Russia without understanding the ways of the country
will undoubtedly be boldly swindled. Directly after first
going to Yaraslof I purchased a pair of felt boots for the
sum of 'twelve roubles, which I thought very cheap.
Soon after making the purchase I showed the boots to a
gentleman who was an old resident of Russia, but who
was an Englishman with whom I was going into business ;
I held up the boots in an admiring manner and comment-
ed upon the extraordinary bargain which I had made.
But instead of uniting in my opinion, the Englishman
laughed at me for being * taken in,' as he expressed it,
and then declared he could buy a pair exactly like mine,
and at the same place where my purchase was made, for
five roubles. Excitedly I offered to wager him a basket
of the finest wine to be obtained in Yaraslof, that he
could not. He accepted my wager, for which I was very
glad, for I felt certain to win. At his request we went
down to the store where I had bought the boots, and go-
ing in he enquired the price of a pair like those I had ;
the shopkeeper asked him fifteen roubles. Instantly I
clapped my hands in high glee and called on him to pay
the bet. But, said he, * give me a little time and I'll buy
the boots for five roubles.' He began to abuse the shop-
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 533
keeper in the most awful manner, calling him swindler,
thief, extortioner, etc. All these epithets did not dis-
turb the good humor of the shopkeeper, who finally con-
sented to let the boots go for twelve roubles. My friend
turned abruptly upon his heel and with many impreca-
tions went out of the shop, while I laughed and urged
him to pay the bet. We walked down the street a little
way and then returning came back by the shop again.
Seeing us go by, the shopkeeper ran out to my friend and
telling him a long story about how much the boots cost,
he offered them for ten roubles. My friend only gave
him another cursing and then went on ; returning in a
few minutes, we again walked by the shop, and again
the merchant ran out beseeching my friend to buy, but
still there was no trade, so that for the third time we
parted from the shopkeeper, who had, however, offered
the boots for seven roubles. I now began to be fright-
ened, yet I could hardly think that the man would
make a further reduction of two roubles. After staying
away nearly one hour, for the fourth time we passed.
The merchant, who, as before, ran out, caught hold of
my friend and began to argue with him. The English-
man manifested great umbrage and threatened to strike
the shopkeeper for interfering with him so many times,
when at the beginning he declared he would not give
more than five roubles for the boots. After considerable
quarreling the shopkeeper at length accepted the original
offer, and of course I had to pay for the wine."
This Jewish manner of doing business is common
among all Russian merchants, so that generally speaking
any article may be purchased from them for about one-
third the price which they first ask.
Now, if we even mistrusted the repeated assertions
made throughout Russia that Government agents were
534 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
sent among the populace to stir up their evil passions, to
justify and almost provoke their violence by a reference
to the Emperor's acts and wishes ; even if we disbe-
lieve the statements that men high in authority, civil or
military governors, refused to interpose between the mur-
derers and their victims, " not wishing to disturb their
soldiers for a pack of Jews ; " even if we deemed it im-
possible that men and officers belonging to the army or
the police, either remained passive spectators of the worst
outrages, or became participators in them ; even if we
make abstraction from all this, yet it would be impossible
to find words sufficiently severe to stigmatize the iniqui-
tious proclamation, or " Rescript," of September 3d, in
which, instead of denouncing the atrocities of the perse-
cutors of the Jews, the Government takes the opportunity
of enumerating the offences of the Jews themselves ; thus
palliating, if not actually sanctioning, any excesses that
may be committed against them, and almost inciting the
populace to run amuck them : '* not to nail the Jew's ear
to the pump."
And yet, after all, what are the alleged offences of the
Jews?
" They have possessed themselves not only of every
trade and business in all its branches, but also of great
part of the land, by buying and farming it."
" They have defrauded, by their wiles, the inhabitants,
and particularly the poor people."
But the question is, or should be : " Have the Jews
broken the laws? " " Do the laws allow either Jew or
Christian to carry on illicit trades or criminal business?"
If the Jews have acted within the law they should
have lawful protection. If their offences were of a na-
ture not foreseen by the existing law, then it should
be amended. But in any case the first duty of the Gov-
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA.
535
eminent should have been to uphold the law against the
persecuting populace, about whose unlawful proceedings
there could be no doubt whatever ; the gravest error or
crime that can, in a civilized country, belaid to the charge
A TYPICAL RUSSIAN JEW.
of a Government being that of allowing its subjects to
take the law into their own hands.
With respect to the main offences imputed to the Jews,
that of being usurious money lenders, and keeping dram-
shops, I must repeat that the fault is not so much. of the
Jews' greed and knavery as of the Christians' improvi-
536 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
deuce and intemperance. The peasants of Northern Rus-
sia, though there be no Jews among them, are no less ad-
dicted to drunkenness, and no less eaten up by debts and
mortgages, than peasants of the Southern and Western dis-
tricts ; for there are — both North and South — plenty of
Christians ready to lend money on usury and to keep
dram-shops.
There is nothing more certain than that the Jew, the
peddling Jew, has no chance of thriving, except among
people whom ignorance and unthrif t deliver into his hands
as easy victims.
It is not by banishing or exterminating the Jews that
Russia can hope to save her poor peasants, but by trying
what education may do toward curing a people (to whom
no one can deny many fine qualities) of those drunken,,
thriftless, and vagrant habits which have always been
their besetting sins. There was a time when Jews had a mo-
nopoly of the money business in Europe, when kings and
princes drew the teeth from the Hebrew's jaws to get at the
ducats in his purse. What was the result? The Italians,
-Lombards and Tuscans set up in competition. They en-
nobled money lending by creating banking houses. They
thus beat the Jew with his own weapon, and their names
still live in Lombard street and Boulevard des Italiens;
and men still write L. s. d. instead of P. s. p. This is
a good lesson for the Russian and German Governments
to study.
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 537
CHAPTER XXXV.
I have given, in as succinct form as possible, a descrip-
tion of Russian life in ail its phases, as I found it. My
trip through that country, made rather as an investigator
than tourist, was delightfully pleasant and profitable ;
not that I did not encounter serious difficulties or meet
with annoying obstacles, for it was my lot to suffer
many times from both, but all the unpleasant episodes
and positions which jeopardized my safety only served to
make the result, as a whole, more enjoyable. I have
written of Russia and Siberia at times both facetiously
and solemnly, but always with frankness, and, so far as
my judgment permitted, truthfully. It is most difficult
to write of a country (covering the scope which I have
undertaken in this work) while ignorant of the language
used by its people, because information received through
interpreters must always have about it the suspicion
which usually attaches to second-hand stories. But I
have exercised much care and discrimination, so that I
have no hesitation in reaffirming and declaring the truth of
every statement herein made.
Russia is the most remarkable as well as the largest
o
nation on the earth ; her history is wonderful, because it
recounts so many wars with barbaric hordes ; claiming to
be a great civilized power, yet her civilization is of a
doubtful character ; nor can we review the influences by
which she is surrounded and expect Russia to be more
progressive with the spirit of education and that uplift-
ing force of science which dazzles all creation with intel-
ligence ; to the south she has Turkey, with which nation
Russia has become partially amalgamated in spirit by
reason of the bitter wars that have waged between them ;
538 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
on the southeast is Persia and the Caucasus, and upon
the east are the wild tribes of Siberia and contiguous
countries. With these ferocious races Russia has been at
war since she became a nation, and the contests have
ever been conducted upon barbaric principles. Visitors
to the museum at St. Petersburg will not fail to see pre-
served in jars of alcohol, and mounted in glass cases,
several heads that have been struck off by imperial
orders, from the bodies of traitors or enemies to Russia.
These ghastly trophies are actualty paraded in the capital
as an exhibition of Muscovite valor, but what better ex-
ample of barbarism can be found than they afford ; or
what better proof do we require to establish the asser-
tion that Russia is a barbaric nation in the swaddling
clothes of civilization ?
The Government of Russia is fashioned after unen-
lightened Suzerainties, to be found nowhere except in
Pagan countries. The word Czar comes from Caesar,
but even the great power of Caesar could not compare
with that now exercised by Russia's ruler. Not only is
the Czar exalted above all temporal attributes, but his
name must perforce be mentioned with that awesome re-
gard which the faithful Moujik pays to God. No coun-
try has so much law as Russia, yet the first sentence in
her code is this : " The Czar is above all law." It does
not even say. " Czar, by the grace of God," as they do
in England, because, like the Pope of Rome, Russia's
sovereign is both a temporal and spiritual ruler, if not
equal to God, at least one of His chief counselors. This
is all barbarism, which is inversely developed into more
inordinate Paganism by a prohibition of secular freedom
and the exaltation of a particular creed whose very
essence is ignorance and superstition.
Shackled by faith in ancient ceremonials, bound fast
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 539
by gyves of church discipline, divested of the robes of
intelligence, confined in the damp, foul, pestilential at-
mosphere of slavery to rulership, blinded by fanatical
prejudices and worse than fanatical religion, hedged
about with intolerance, poverty-stricken with a debt
created by church indulgences, utterly lacking in homo-
geneity, injustice and corruption permeating every de-
partment of the Government, how shall Russia raise her-
self from under such grievous burdens and set her eyes
toward a civilization such as other Christian nations en-
joy?
I am sorry to say it, but the fact is so apparent that
none may misconstrue the events now taking place — the
future of Russia is in Nihilism ; if this bloody power does
not purge the nation and give it a new growth, then we
cannot predict any further than the dismemberment of
the Empire and its gradual absorption into other powers.
Civilization is spreading rapidly eastward, it cannot stop
or go around Russia, and whether with bayonet or psalm-
book the march will be made through every part of the
Czar's dominions ; resistance will be like a shadow fight-
ing the storms, only that to resist as a nation will be to
destroy every vestige of Muscovite Imperialism and leave
her as another Babylon ; or, to use a more moderate illus-
tration, like Poland, that has been so voraciously swal-
lowed and digested by her.
The Nihilists, aside from their inchoate condition and
lack of objective cohesion that concentrates revolutionary
parties under acknowledged leadership, are prompted by
policies and apprehensions at strange variance with the
object they ostensibly have in view. In this observation
I have reference to that prime Nihilistic faction which
aims at liberalism and a radical reformation of the Gov-
ernment, which shall have some elements of democracy in
540 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
it. They confidently believe that these reforms can be
obtained through a process of terrorization, particularly
by assassination. That this is a fallacy is proved by the
repeated failures which have followed its adoption in
nearly every country of both hemispheres since history
began to record the deeds of men.
The first logical step toward securing enlarged liber-
ties to the people of E-ussia, is education of the masses ;
not alone education in science, but in politics as well, a
mind development that will subvert the Greek Church,
which is a ban of barbarism almost as rank and more de-
basing than Shamanism. To-day the peasantry of
Russia are not prepared for liberty, which is to them no
more than a jewel before swine ; so long as the poten-
tentiality of the Church continues absorbing a revenue
doubly in excess of governmental expenditures, and im-
posing a yoke of servitude upon its subjects more
galling than ever a Romish Pope devised, so long must
Russians suffer. ' Abuses of the aristocracy and impe-
rialism are made possible by the Church, whose dic-
tatorial mandates are written to publish the Czar's
pleasure and to set up a fear of the devil for the coercion
of those who might otherwise think for themselves.
Liberalize the Church and a liberalization of the Gov-
ernment would be certain to follow. The Greek Church
forbids its subjects thinking, while the Government de-
nies its subjects the exercise of a voice in public affairs ;
that power which oppresses the mind is ten-fold more
injurious than that which prescribes the acts of men ;
hence, 1 repeat, the first important step toward re-
forming Russia must be directed to the curtailment of the
Church power and influence, so that her peasantry may be
free from superstitions and be made to understand that
they have a mind which God intended they should USQ
for themselves,
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 541
But the obstacles which now so seriously hinder
Russia's advancement are no greater perhaps than those
that have obstr ucted civilization in all other countries ;
hence, we cannot resist the belief that she, too, will ad-
vance by gradual steps and finally become established as
a free and fully enlightened government. If we may
look forward to the time when Russia shall develop into
a republic, or even a limited mo narchy, we may behold
in her not only a greater power than now, but we may
also observe her growth into a government absolutely
peerless, and more nearly in competition with the United
States than, any other nation ever can be. Already, with
all of Russia's drawbacks, she contests with America in
agricultural production and in feeding foreign nations,
and were her possible resources fully developed by im-
proved machinery and well-applied industry she would
produce enough wheat, corn, potatoes, rye, barley, etc.,
to shut our cereals entirely out of the European market.
The revolution in Russia means not only the downfall of
autocracy and the breaking up of those customs which
aggrandize a few by the impoverishment of many, but it
also means, though indefinite and doubtful under Nihi-
listic policy, an enforced recognition of agriculture as the
prime factor in national existence; it means encourage-
ment to industry of every chara cter and the subversion
of every element in the Government that is hurtful to
the masses.
Thousands of Russians have long despaired of reforms
being granted that would enlarge their liberties, and for
the first time in the history of that country there is a
considerable emigration from Russia, not an inconsid-
erable part of the hegira being directed toward
America. I have always considered it an ill-advised
policy to throw out flattering invitations to all dissatisfied
542 KUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
foreigners to make their homes with us, but since the
policy is in active operation I must say that no class of
immigrants would be more valuable to America than
Russians ; they are patient, honest, and, when put upon
their resources, very industrious ; no people are less ad-
dicted to disturbance, their amiable qualities, indeed,
being almost phenomenal. Raised in subjection to an
aristocracy, the peasantry seem to expect the treatment
of slaves ; they will submit to any indignity from those
whom they regard their superiors, and their confidence is
easily gained ; they are faithful to any trust, and consid-
ered in all their peculiarities they are the most humble,
frugal and deserving people on the earth. Placed upon
any of our Western prairies the Russians would thrive
greatly, though in their own country, where land is al-
most superabundant, they make little progress and mani-
fest a shiftlessness that is most reprehensible. But this
is due to causes lhave already explained in describing the
facts and results of serf manumission. Wherever a
Russian possesses absolute proprietary interests he inva-
riably prospers, nor does he exhibit any disposition to
idleness.
Though Russia may, and doubtless soon will become
the most dangerous competitor we can ever have, yet
America cannot help feeling a friendly interest in her
prosperity ; we cannot afford to forget the kind offices
extended us by Russia in the most distressing era of our
national life. The two Alexanders have always been our
friends, and to-day the subjects of no other nation are so
warmly welcomed in the Empire and so considerately
treated by all Russians as are those of America. To say
" I am an American," in St. Petersburg, is almost like
the open sesame of Ali Baba ; it is enough, and to all
such JRussiq, extends u most hospitable welcome..
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 543
It has been in no contentious or prejudiced spirit that
I have written of Russia as semi-barbaric ; so far from
using the term as one of reproach I have employed it
rather to excuse the manifest faults of the Empire, the
faults of the son as seen in the father, the faults of train-
ing, which are as natural and similar as the blood of
consanguinity.
The growth of Russia toward liberalism is slow, but
it is, nevertheless, apparent. Her greatest scientists,
poets, philosophers, are of the present century ; her
greatest newspapers and manufactories are of to-day ;
her finest churches were built many, many years ago, and
her priesthood has lost the respect of the masses. Are
not these gratifying evidences of improvement?
These were my reflections while in Russia, which have
been strengthened by a further consideration of the sub-
ject since, but while thinking of Russia's future I cannot
help feeling sympathy for poor Poland, whose subjuga-
tion is Russia's greatest disgrace. Suffering Poland!
distress has been the price of her patriotism, and though
she struggled with a bravery almost unparalled yet her
struggles were like those of Spartacus and the heroic
Thracians, for now she lies as one dead at the feet of
liberty.
Before leaving Warsaw I remembered my promise
made tc the exile in his lonely hut near Yeniseisk, and
determined to fulfil it. I therefore persuaded the man-
agers of the Hotel Victoria to address a letter, in Rus-
sian, to the exile's wife at Micahow, and to fill it with
many endearing words, which I thought would convey
the feelings of the exile toward one whom I was sure he
still loved devotedly. Nothing could have afforded me
more pleasure than to have witnessed the effect produced
by this letter, if it was received by the wife : but as my
544 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
curiosity in this direction must ever remain unsatisfied, I
will still take delight in thinking of the happiness I
caused the poor exile and the possible pleasure my act
may have given his wife.
Having spent nearly one week in Warsaw, and gathered
all the information available for my purposes, I prepared
to leave for London by way of Vienna and Paris. Before
departing, in company with a guide, 1 went to an ex-
change office in Warsaw to convert my Russian money
into Austrian florins. As all the exchange dealers in the
place are Jews, I of course went into the Israelitish quar-
ters and was conducted to what my guide declared was
the largest and most reliable broker in Warsaw. If the
guide had omitted to tell me this, I would certainly have
inclined to the belief that this same broker was a lean
and hungry apothecary ; his place was shabby in the ex-
treme ; there was a rickety counter behind which, on the
grimy walls, were shelves stored with phials and old
greasy packages ; an old Jew, of marked features, cov-
ered up in a long overcoat and with an immense muffler
around his neck, sat on a stool waiting for customers.
He appeared very glad when we entered, evidently in an-
ticipation of a few copecks, and bowed so graciously that
he quite impressed me, but 1 could only return his salu-
tation by a nod of the head and by smiling familiarly.
My guide did all the talking, and effected an ex-
change of one hundred roubles, the rest of my money
being in English pound notes. When we got back to the
hotel I made a calculation of what I should have received
in the exchange and found that the sagacious and con-
descending old fellow had discounted me so that I was
one florin short. I was so well satisfied that the broker
had knowingly swindled me that, with the guide, I imme-
diately returned and had my interpreter explain the
EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 545
shortage ; whereupon, without any discussion of the
matter, the Jew gave me another florin, with a look
which plainly told that he knew it all the time, and had
only experimented to see if I would find it out.
The train service between Warsaw and Vienna is excel-
lent, much better than I found it in any other part of the
continent. The sleeping cars are made into compart-
ments large enough to accommodate only two persons,
and since travel between the two cities is not usually
great, a compartment to one's self is easily obtained with-
out extra cost. These accommodations are even more
exclusive than the staterooms in Pullman sleepers, while
the upholstery is much more luxurious. My trip down
to Vienna was a very pleasant one, with two exceptions :
about one o'clock at night I was rudely awakened by a
man who pounded viciously at the door of my compart-
ment, and when I let him in his actions and speech were
such that I thought he was a train-robber. He spoke
Russian, and of course I had to rely on his gestures.
After thumping around for some time, he grabbed my
valise and began to wrench at it until I was on the point
of giving him the bounce or being bounced myself , when
the sleeping-car conductor made his appearance, and, as he
spoke German, I was soon made acquainted with the fact
that we had arrived at Granitza, on the Russian frontier,
where the passport examiner inspected the papers of all
persons leaving Russia. I got out my passport, to
which was attached, by large red seals, my Siberian
podorojna, and also a special order from the Russian
Government requesting all officers to facilitate my pur-
poses and to give me any aid I might require. Seeing
these special privilege papers, the examining officer took
off his hat to me as though he had just discovered that I
was a prince or king in undress, and gave me a five-*.
546 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND
minute speech of apology. I now tumbled into bed and
was not long in reaching a sound sleep again, but at three,
A. M., I was frightened out of rny slumber by another
kicking at my stateroom door and a yelling all along the
line. Great guns ! I thought, are we attacked by
brigands, thrown off abridge, or in a dreadful smash-up?
"Zollbeamte! " (Custom-officer,) cried a voice at the
door.
" Well, you need not make such an outrageous racket
about it, if you are," I answered. " I have nothing duti-
able, so pass on to the next customer."
This made the Austrian custom officer red-hot, so to
speak, for I now understood that we had passed out of
Russia and were at Shtchakova, the first station in Austria,
and levity before an Austrian is worse than a red flag in
France. He pounded with increased gusto until I opened
the door and showed him a small satchel filled with
manuscripts and second-hand books. At sight of these
he gave me a fierce look and then pasted a double eagle
on my bag and shot out of the room as though he had
lost a great deal of precious time with me. Thus I left
Russia and entered new dominions.
The matter is foreign to my subject, but as it is a part
of rny experience, I wish to s^iy that the trip from Vienna
to Paris is about as uncomfortable as stupidity can make
it. I engaged a sleeping-car berth of the International
Wagon Lits, and was assigned to a small compartment in
which there were already three others. The room was
so' small that only two persons could sit in it at the s:i:^
time, so we had to take turns in standing in the passage-
way. At Stuttgart, which is about intermediate between
Vienna and Paris, a common link coupling, which con-
nected our sleeper with the train, broke, and most aston-
ishing to relate, the sleeping-car was abandoned, because
EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 547
a new link was not obtainable. Thence we rode into
Paris in a third-class car, because there was no room in
the others. This trip was almost as harassing as my
journey from Ekaterineburg to Irkoutsk, but it taught
me why people go to Europe to spend their summers ;
first, because it is thought to be fashionable ; and second,
because the accommodations of every character through-
out the continent are so execrable, if not horrible, that
after spending a few weeks in Europe it is like stepping
out of the back door of hades into the front parlor of
heaven to get back to America again ; it teaches us how
to appreciate our own country.
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