The salamanders of the Chicago area

THE SALAMANDERS OF THE
CHICAGO AREA

BY
KARL P. SCHMIDT

ASSISTANT CURATOR OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

ZOOLOGY

LEAFLET 12

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
CHICAGO
1930

The Zoological Leafiets of Field Museum are de-
voted to brief, non-technical accounts of the history,
classification, distribution and life habits of animals,
with especial reference to subjects shown in the
Museum’s exhibits.

LIST OF ZOOLOGICAL LEAFLETS ISSUED TO DATE

No: 1 The: White-tailed: Deer i oo ar 10
No.2: Chicago Winter Girda ss Si ee 10
No. 3. The American Alligator ........ 10
No. .:4. The Periodical -Gieada oo eg) sh a 10
ING: Gy: “ERO Abpator Maer ra edn yo ee ee 10
No. 6. The Wild Turkey .. Gah rath Pea 2 10
No. 7. The Man-Eating Lions of Teavo. Fit hese -50
No. 8. Mammals of the Chicago Area. . . ... .20
No. 9. Pike, Pickerel and Muskalonge. . . .. . .50
No. 10. The Truth about Snake Stories .. : 15
No. 11. The Frogs and Toads of the Chicago Aven. F .25
No. 12. The Salamanders of the Chicago Area .. . .25

STEPHEN C. SIMMS, DrrEcToR

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
CHICAGO, U.S. A.

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FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
CHIcaAGo, 1930

LEAFLET NUMBER 12
CopyYRIGHT 1930 By FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

The Salamanders of the Chicago Area

The environs of any large city inevitably include
numbers of people interested in natural history, as well
as numerous schools and colleges and, with these, teachers
and students interested in zoology and perhaps more or
less dependent on the local animal life for study material.
The local fauna thus becomes an appropriate subject for
leaflets and handbooks designed to afford a simple means
of identification of the animals of the area concerned.
For the purpose of the series of zoological leaflets to which
the present belongs, the ‘‘Chicago area”’ is the area within
fifty miles of the center of Chicago. This, accordingly,
includes small corners of Michigan and Wisconsin, with
wide segments of northeastern Illinois and northwestern
Indiana. With the salamanders we complete the treat-
ment of the amphibians of the Chicago area, for the frogs
and toads have been dealt with in a former leaflet in
this series.!

While the number of different kinds of salamanders
in the area within fifty miles of Chicago is somewhat
smaller than the number of frogs and toads, the former
are even more interesting to the naturalist. They exhibit a
greater diversity of form and structure and a much greater
variety of breeding habits. In addition, there are numer-
ous problems about the local species which remain to be
solved.

1Zoological Leaflet No. 11, Field Museum of Natural History, 1929.

2 FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

The illustrations in the present leaflet, as well as the
cover vignette, are the work of Leon L. Pray, who has
illustrated so many zoological publications for Field
Museum. Special acknowledgment is due him for his
painstaking care in the preparation of these drawings and
for his unfailing interest in the project of illustrating the
local fauna. All of the figures except that of the newt
were drawn from specimens from the Chicago area, and
the species which are illustrated in color have been

painted from living specimens.

The word ‘‘salamander” has no very secure meaning
in popular usage. In mythology it referred to a creature
which was supposed to be able to endure fire with im-
punity. It is not at all clear that this myth originated
with the European “‘fire salamander’’ as its basis—it may
equally well have had an independent origin, the name
being subsequently transferred to the animals we now
know as salamanders. Their supposed ability to with-
stand fire has given rise to numerous technical uses of
the word for instruments used in fire—such as the metal
drum for coals used in drying plaster—or for the mass of
metal or slag remaining in the metallurgist’s furnace after
the fires are drawn. On account of their lizard-like body
form, salamanders are often known as lizards. They may
instantly be distinguished from all true lizards by their
moist, glandular, and scaleless skin, lizards being scaled
reptiles while salamanders are scaleless amphibians.

The salamanders form the second of the principal
groups of amphibians, the first being the world-wide frogs
and toads, while the remaining group, the caecilians, is
confined to the tropics. The technical classification is:

Order Salientia (frogs and toads)
Class Amphibia Order Caudata (salamanders)
Order Gymnophiona (caecilians)

The order of the salamanders is divided by students
of this group into nine families, no less than seven of

SALAMANDERS OF THE CHICAGO AREA 3

which (including the most remarkable forms) are found
in North America. The families of salamanders are:

1. Sirenidae Southeastern North America

2. Hynobiidae Northeastern Asia

3. Cryptobranchidae Eastern North America (Ohio
River)

4. Amphiumidae Southeastern North America

5. Proteidae North America, Europe

6. Ambystomidae North America

7. Pleurodelidae North America, Europe, North-

ern Asia
8. Salamandridae Europe
9. Plethodontidae North America, South America

The extraordinary large salamanders of the south-
eastern United States (illustrated on Plate IV) include
the eel-shaped siren which has branched external gills and
only one pair of limbs (fig. 1); the similarly shaped but
wery different Congo snake or lamprey eel (Amphiuma)
which has no external gills and both pairs of limbs, though
these are reduced to an extreme degree (fig. 3); the very
flat-bodied, stout-limbed hellbender (Cryptobranchus), with-
out gills (fig. 2), notable for its relationship to the giant
salamander of Japan and to a European fossil form of
Miocene age; and finally, our local fauna includes the
water-dog or mud puppy (Necturus) (fig. 4), which has
well-developed gills and well-developed limbs. The
Necturus is somewhat obscurely related to the blind
European cave salamander, the ‘‘olm’”’ (Proteus). These
forms are conspicuous for their size and for their isolated
distributions. The most abundant salamanders of North
America are the smaller forms of the family Plethodon-
tidae, a group characterized by the entire absence of lungs.
This family contains no less than eighty-six species, which
may be grouped into fifteen genera, but only two of its
forms are found in the Chicago area.

4 FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

The life histories of salamanders provide a fascinating
subject. Fertilization in all of our species takes place in
an extraordinary manner. There is usually a rather well-
defined courtship of the female by the male, after which
the male deposits a mucous-encased sac of sperm, known
as a “spermatophore.” This is taken up by the female
by means of her cloacal lips, and the spermatozoa then
migrate to their special receptacle in the female, the sper-
matheca, from which they fertilize the eggs as they are
laid.

The eggs of all the species which lay in water are
much like frogs’ eggs, and are frequently mistaken for
them in early spring. There is no uniformity, however,
in the place or manner of depositing the eggs, and these
questions will be discussed under the several species head-
ings below. The eggs segment regularly, and the young
salamander hatches as a gill-bearing larva, often provided
with a curious pair of rod-like “balancing organs.’’ Dur-
ing the gilled stage, the limbs develop, the front limbs
appearing first (which distinguishes them from the early
stages of frog larvae). The changes on the occasion of
transformation to the adult land stage consist principally
in the loss of the branched external gills and a change in
the texture of the skin, with considerable internal changes
in the skeleton. The mouth parts and feeding habits,
unlike those of frog tadpoles, undergo little change.

One of the most remarkable phenomena in the natural
history of salamanders is the fact that, under certain con-
ditions, transformation to the land form may not take
place at all. The aquatic larva, instead of losing its gills,
may become sexually mature and reproduce season after
season. This phenomenon, in a species normally with an
adult land stage, is called neoteny. It is most typically
developed in our common tiger salamander of the western
states.

LEAFLET NO, 12 PLATE I!

MUD PUPPY (Neciurus maculosus)

SALAMANDERS OF THE CHICAGO AREA 5

The occurrence of neoteny in certain salamanders
seems to throw some light on forms like the mud puppy
(Necturus), which may be thought of as a “permanent
larva.”’ It seems evident that in such forms the adult
stage has been lost during geologic history and that it is
a larval form which is known to us. Such a conjecture is
especially warranted in the case of the remarkable Texas
salamander from artesian waters (Typhlomolge rathbuni),
which has been shown to belong to the family Pletho-
dontidae, other members of which invariably have an
adult land stage.

Scarcely less remarkable than neoteny is the develop-
ment of numerous other salamanders on land, which
involves the passage of the whole larval life within the
egg. This is the case with one of our common species of
salamanders, and appears as a definite tendency among
the Plethodontid salamanders, culminating in viviparity
in their most advanced genus, Oedipus, of tropical America.

Salamanders possess remarkable powers of regenera-
tion, in which they are perhaps unique among vertebrates.
Lizards are able to reproduce a lost tail, but the new one
differs radically in structure from the true tail, and limbs
are not regenerated. Frogs successfully regenerate exten-
sive areas of skin, and occasional limb regeneration may
take place in adult frogs, but is exceptional. Complete
regeneration of limbs is the rule among tadpoles. In
salamanders this power of regenerating a limb or tail
with its bony structure complete seems never to be lost.

The position and number of ribs in land salamanders
is indicated externally by vertical grooves on the sides,
the “costal grooves,’’ whose number is frequently useful
in distinguishing the species.

Only four of the seven North American families of
salamanders are represented in the fauna of the Chicago
area which, furthermore, contains only seven species out

6 FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

of the total of eighty known from North America north
of Mexico. The Chicago species are:

PROTEIDAE
1. Mud Puppy (Necturus maculosus)

AMBYSTOMIDAE
Tiger Salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum)
Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma maculatum)
Jefferson’s Salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum)

ee

PLEURODELIDAE
5. Newt (Triturus viridescens)

PLETHODONTIDAE
Four-toed Salamander ( Hemidactylium scutatum)
Red-backed Salamander (Plethodon cinereus)

Se oid

KEY TO THE SALAMANDERS OF THE
CHICAGO AREA

A. Large, bushy, red gills always present; back more
or less black spotted on brown ground color,
always in water.

Mud Puppy ( Necturus maculosus).

AA. Adult without gills.
B. Small red spots, edged with black, on the sides.
Newt (Triturus viridescens).
BB. No small red spots on back or sides.
C. Small white spots on back and sides.
Jefferson’s Salamander (A. jeffersonianum).
CC. No small white spots. ;
D. Belly white, with sharply defined black

spots.
Four-toed Salamander (H. scutatum).

SALAMANDERS OF THE CHICAGO AREA f

DD. Belly not white.

E. No large yellow spots, back uniform gray
or red.
Red-backed Salamander (P. cinereus).

EE. Large yellow spots present.

F. Yellow spots in two rows on back.
Spotted Salamander (A. maculatum).

FF. Yellow spots irregular on back, in a
row along edge of belly.
Tiger Salamander (A. tigrinum).

THE Mup Puppy ( Necturus maculosus)

The wholly aquatic mud puppy (Plate II) is one of the
remarkable large salamanders of eastern North America.
It ranges widely to the north and west, from the Atlantic
Coast to Saskatchewan, and from the Gulf Coast to
Quebec. An allied species (Necturus punctatus), some-
what smaller in size, and with a very restricted range,
occurs in the Carolinas. Their only relative, within the
family Proteidae, is the olm, a blind white cave salamander
of the Austrian Alps. .

The mud puppy is not very well known to the residents
of the Chicago area. Fishermen bring one or two speci-
mens annually to Field Museum for identification. Even
the name ‘‘mud puppy” is not widely current, and country
school children are likely to know them as water lizards.

It occurs somewhat sparingly in the Desplaines,
Dupage, and Fox Rivers, and in the lagoons of Chicago
parks which are directly connected with Lake Michigan.
There seems to be a large population of mud puppies in
Lake Michigan with a well-defined annual migration up
the inflowing rivers, though definite observations and
records on this topic are wanting.

The mud puppy is immediately recognizable by its
large size, stout body, short limbs and tail and large,

8 FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

almost rectangular head, with the unmistakable velvety
red gills on the side of the neck. The gills are borne on
three fleshy stalks on each side. They are not seen in
their normal relation unless the animal is immersed in
water and at rest. The color varies from grayish brown
to darker brown, with a mottling of darker brown or
black spots. Occasional specimens are dark brown all
over with small black dots.

The eggs of Necturus are deposited singly, each attached
by a stalk of the gelatinous envelope to the under sides
of stones, logs, or other objects, in varying depths of water
up to five feet or more. The eggs are deposited in groups
or “‘nests” with an average of sixty to seventy eggs in each.
The time of egg-laying extends through May and June,
and hatching seems to take place in June and July. The
newly hatched larvae are about 18 mm. (three-fourths of
an inch) in length, and have very large yolk sacs which
provide them with food until they have doubled their size.
The gills are developed and the limbs are represented by
“‘buds’’ at the time of hatching. The juvenile Necturus
above 30 mm. in length have a light yellowish line on
each side of the back which distinguishes them from any
other local salamander larva.

The food habits of the mud puppy must vary in dif-
ferent situations. The under surfaces of rock in the rivers
west of Chicago afford an ample supply of insect larvae,
small crayfishes, and other invertebrates. They frequently
take hooks baited with earthworm, and are probably
wholly carnivorous. It is not impossible that the mud
puppies in turn are preyed upon by the larger fish. Their
relations with the fish fauna of the Great Lakes are quite
unknown.

Necturus plays a useful role in North American zoologi-
cal education, since it is a favorite for dissection in
courses in elementary vertebrate anatomy in high schools
and colleges. The number sold for this purpose by one

SALAMANDERS OF THE CHICAGO AREA 9

of the biological supply houses in Chicago amounts to
about 2,000 specimens per annum.

THE TIGER SALAMANDER (Ambystoma tigrinwm)

The tiger salamander (Plate III, fig. 2) is a typical
representative of the salamander group and is our most
familiar form in the Chicago area. The geographic range
of this species is an extraordinarily wide one, spanning the
North American continent almost from coast to coast, and
extending from the Mexican plateau to southern Canada.
Various local forms have developed in this widespread
population, the one at Chicago being distinguished by its
spotted, rather than cross-banded, color pattern. The
common name is accordingly much more appropriate for
the yellow-banded form of the western plains.

In our area, the tiger salamander is most readily
recognized by its large yellow spots, which are irregularly
arranged on the back and sides and more or less confluent
on the lateral edges of the belly. The spotted sides at
once distinguish the tiger salamander from the spotted
salamander, the only other species with which it might
be confused. .

These creatures are subterranean to an extraordinary
degree. They are sometimes encountered during the sum-
mer in garden soil. In the early fall they migrate over-
land, at night, to the nearest pond or marsh, where they
hibernate and are ready for egg-laying in the spring. It
is during this overland migration that they are most fre-
quently observed, for they fall into basement area-ways
which serve as pitfalls from which they are unable to
escape.

The eggs are laid in clusters three or four inches across
in early spring (March), and are usually attached to sticks
or weed stems in shallow water. Occasionally they may
be laid on the bottoms of ponds, attached to dead leaves
or chips or even stones. The number of eggs in a cluster
ranges up to at least seventy-five. Egg-laying takes place

10 FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

soon after the ponds and marshes are free from ice, from
the middle of March to early April. The larvae are
hatched about fourteen days after the eggs are laid, and
require about three months of growth before they are
ready to transform into the gill-less adult stage. The newly
hatched larvae do not have the curious balancing organs
which characterize the two related forms, the spotted
salamander and Jefferson’s salamander.

The larvae of the tiger salamander in the plains region
of western North America frequently fail to transform
and continue to live and grow as gilled larvae without
leaving the water. They attain sexual maturity and may
then continue in this stage for generations (see above,
p. 4). The large larvae are called ‘‘axolotles’ from the
Mexican name of the similar and related forms in the
lakes near Mexico City.

Neoteny has been a favorite subject of investigation
in recent years, especially with reference to the function
of the thyroid in inducing transformation. A curious
problem presents itself in this connection with respect to
the local tiger salamander, for these are not known to
produce axolotles. It would be interesting to experiment
with them to see if axolotles could be produced in the
laboratory. It seems not impossible that our eastern
tiger salamander is in reality more distinct from that of
the Great Plains than has been supposed.

THE SPOTTED SALAMANDER (Ambystoma maculatum)

The spotted salamander (Plate III, fig. 1) is an abun-
dant form throughout the northeastern United States. It
is apparently less abundant in the Chicago area than the
tiger salamander. Field Museum has specimens from
Willow Springs and from the vicinity of Highland Park.

Like the tiger salamander, the spotted salamander is
black or dark brown with yellow spots, and the two species
are closely similar in size and body form. The spotted
salamander may easily be distinguished by its unspotted

SALAMANDERS OF THE CHICAGO AREA 1%

sides and the arrangement of its spots in two fairly regular
rows on the back.

The eggs of this form are laid in earliest spring. They
are readily distinguishable from those of the other Am-
bystomas by the clear or semi-opaque mass of gelatine which.
encloses the egg-cluster. The young larvae, for the first
two weeks of their life, are provided with a pair of rod-
like structures beneath the head, which apparently func-
tion as “balancers.”’

The very remarkable courtship dance of this form was
discovered by Mr. and Mrs. Breder, of the New York
Zoological Society, in 1926. It has long been known that
this species hibernates on land and there is a well-defined
migration of great numbers of specimens to the breeding
pools in spring. The Breders found that, at the culmina-
tion of this migration, there is a sort of mass courtship in
which males and females in woodland pools weave in and
out in aggregations composed of large numbers of indi-
viduals. This activity doubtless serves to stimulate the
females to pick up the spermatophores as they are
deposited by the males.

The feeding habits of this species are apparently like
those of the tiger salamander. They are found under
logs, on the hardwood ridges northwest of Chicago, in
early autumn.

JEFFERSON’S SALAMANDER (Ambystoma jeffersonianum)

Jefferson’s salamander (Plate I, fig. 1) is much smaller
than either the tiger or spotted salamanders. Its black
ground color with irregularly scattered white spots distin-
guishes it adequately from any other salamander in our
area. The white spots are much smaller than the yellow
spots of the other two species. To the east and south,
however, a similar coloration appears in the wholly un-
related slimy salamander (Plethodon glutinosus), a member
of the family Plethodontidae.

12 FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

Jefferson’s salamander ranges from New England to
Minnesota and southward to Virginia and Illinois. It is
abundant under logs and railway ties in the Dune region,
in early fall, and under logs on the wooded moraine
northwest of Chicago. It doubtless occurs throughout
the originally timbered section of the Chicago area.

The egg masses of this species are much looser than
those of the two related forms, and the number of eggs,
averaging about fifteen, is much fewer. Egg-laying takes
place at an earlier date than in either of the other species,
almost as soon as the ponds are free from thick ice. The
larvae have balancers like those of the spotted salamander,
so that they are easily distinguished from tiger salamander
larvae. They may be distinguished from the larvae of
the spotted salamander by the concentration of the black
pigment on the sides into fairly well-defined spots.

THE COMMON NEwT (Triturus viridescens)

The common newt (Plate I, fig. 2) ranges throughout
the eastern United States, but is singularly rare in the
Chicago area. It has been collected at Hesseville, Indiana,
and in the Skokie marsh west of Highland Park.

The newt is easy to distinguish from any other sala-
mander in our area by its coloration, olive or yellowish
green with a row of black rimmed scarlet spots on each
side, and with sharply defined black spots on the belly.

The life history of this species has received a good deal
of attention. The male newt, during the breeding season,
has the tail-fin so much widened that it is twice as broad
as that of the female, and the hind limbs are much
enlarged and provided with horny pads on their inner
sides. The head of the male is provided with glands
which appear to stimulate the female during the highly
complicated courtship. The body of the female, distended
with eggs, is plumper than the male, so that the sexes are
very easily recognized. The eggs are laid singly, usually

2

LEAFLET NO. 12

PLATE Ill

AMBYSTOMAS OF THE CHICAGO AREA

1. Spotted salamander

2. Tiger salamander

14 FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

four. The china-white belly is not merely pale but has a
deposit of white pigment, against which the small black
spots are even more sharply defined than are those of the
newt. The costal grooves are sharply bent on the back,
which somewhat resembles scaling, and from this character
is derived the scientific name scutatum. There is a definite
constriction at the base of the tail.

The breeding habits are remarkable in that they illus-
trate a transitional stage between the purely aquatic
development of most salamanders and the terrestrial
breeding habits of the more advanced plethodonts. The
eggs are laid at the edges of ponds or in moss in sphagnum
bogs several inches above the water, and are guarded by
the female which coils about.them. They require about
five weeks to hatch, and the duration of larval life, which
is passed in the water, is about six weeks. Egg-laying in
this latitude takes place about mid-April.

As has been mentioned in the introductory notes,
salamanders are capable of complete regeneration of a
lost tail or limb. In a number of forms loss of the tail
forms a definite defensive procedure, the tail being cast
off when the salamander is attacked by an enemy, in
order to enable its owner to escape, while the tail, actively
squirming and wriggling with reflex motion, occupies the
attention of the enemy. This phenomenon, when the
tail is provided with special breakage planes for the pur-
pose, is known as autotomy. In the four-toed salamander
the tail is provided with such a breaking point near its
base, as may be seen in the figure. It is the only species
in our fauna with the breaking point so restricted.

THE RED-BACKED SALAMANDER (Plethodon cinereus)

The red-backed salamander (Plate I, fig. 4) is the
smallest species of salamander in the Chicago fauna. Its
identification offers a difficulty in that it occurs in two
color phases, one red-backed and the other uniform gray.

Aa Ve
; aes

SALAMANDERS OF THE CHICAGO AREA 15

It is easily distinguishable, however, by elimination of the
distinctive characters of the other species—it has neither
white nor yellow spots, and has no sharply defined black
dots on the belly like those of the newt or the four-toed
salamander. Adult breeding males have swollen snouts,
nasolabial grooves and elongated premaxillary teeth.
These may readily be distinguished by examination with
a hand lens. They produce a somewhat angular outline
in the shape of the head.

It has almost exactly the same range as Jefferson’s
salamander—the whole of northeastern North America,
ranging well north into Ontario and Quebec. It is pro-
nouncedly a salamander of the forested region, living in
and beneath decayed logs, where the wealth of small
insect life affords an ample food supply.

The life history is interesting for its complete adapta-
tion to land life. The spermatophores are probably trans-
ferred from the male to the female in late autumn. The
eggs, five to thirteen in number, are deposited in the
crevices of damp logs, probably no earlier than June, and
often as late as August. The young salamanders com-
plete their development within the egg and hatch as
small replicas of their parents.

The two color phases occur in about equal numbers,
and have nothing to do with sex or habitat.

Observations of egg-clusters of this species in the
Chicago region are much to be desired. Terrarium obser-
vation might yield important information as to the mode
of transfer of the spermatophores from male to female,
and the courtship activities, which doubtless exist, are
wholly unknown.

KARL P. SCHMIDT,
Assistant Curator of Reptiles and Amphibians.

16 FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

BOOKS AND ARTICLES ABOUT SALAMANDERS

BLANCHARD, FRANK N.......... “Topics from the Life-history and
Habits of the Red-backed Sala-
mander in Southern Michigan,”’
American Naturalist, Vol. LXII,
pp. 156-164, 4 figs. (1928).

RWDMR, RUTH BiiccsG-a cu koeh.cke “The Courtship of the Spotted
Salamander,” Zoological Society
Bulletin, Vol. XXX, pp. 51-56

(1927).

DUNN, EMMETT RBID........... The Salamanders of the Family
Plethodontidae. Northampton
(1926).

PROBED Gr, Bog yi et cece “Further Observations on the

Life-history of the Newt, Tri-
turus viridescens,’” American
Museum Novitates, No. 348
(1928) (with bibliography).

SMITH, BERTRAM G.............- ‘Notes on the Natural History
of Ambystoma jeffersonianum, A.
punctatum, and A. tigrinum,”’
Bulletin, Wis. Nat. Hist. Soc.,
Vol. IX, pp. 14-27, pl.1-8 (1911).

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