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50004-2-17

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

AN ELEMENTARY TEXTBOOK
OF ENTOMOLOGY

FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND
AGRICULTURAL SHORT COURSES

BY
E. DWIGHT SANDERSON

AND

L. M. PEAIRS

FIRST EDITION

NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED
1917

E. DWIGHT SANDERSON AND L. M. PEAIRS

PPCSI Of

BRAUNWORTH A CO.

BOOK MANUFACTURES

BROOKLYN, N. Y.

INTRODUCTION

ENTOMOLOGY is briefly defined as the study of insects
in all their relations and activities. Its importance is due
to the numbers of species and the abundance of individ-
uals in the insect group. In both these respects insects
form by far the greater portion of our land fauna. Vari-
ous estimates place the number of species of insects at
from one to ten millions and the number of individuals
is far beyond calculation. Of these species nearly a half
million have been named and described.

The range of insects is almost universal on land, but
only a few forms are marine in habitat. Intensively speak-
ing, their range is equally great. In any given locality
insects may be found inhabiting every conceivable situ-
ation and living on the greatest variety of foods.

When we consider the vast numbers of insect forms
and their wide distribution and range in food habits it
seems inevitable that many of these forms should clash
with man, and this is indeed the case. Many of the
earth's products which are most useful and highly desira-
ble to man are attractive to insects as well. Man, in his
assumed character of the dominant animal, claims prior
right and such insects as affect his welfare or comfort are
listed as pests.

Less account is taken by man of his insect allies, those
forms which minister directly to his needs, or those which,
in a roundabout way, add to his pleasure or his revenues.

iii

iv INTRODUCTION

The extent of insect injuries in the United States has
been carefully estimated by experts in the U. S. Department
of Agriculture and these estimates place the total annual
loss at not far from the stupendous sum of one billion
dollars. This estimated loss is divided among various
classes of products. Of these, grain and forage crops are
the heaviest sufferers, bearing about one-third of the total;
the live stock industry assumes another third; truck
crops stand one-sixth the total loss. After these come,
with smaller totals, cotton, fruit, tobacco, forests and mis-
cellaneous products.

In addition to the tangible monetary losses occasioned
by the activities of the insects which attack crops, must
be considered the less definite, but none the less real, im-
portance which is based on their disease-carrying faculties,
the study and knowledge of which has been confined to
the more recent years.

No one can estimate the actual importance of the mos-
quitoes in terms of dollars. The money loss to the nation
in any year from malaria is undoubtedly great, but the
importance of the insects which transmit it from one
person to another would not be based on the consideration
of money at all. Nor is the comfort of the inhabitants
of the mosquito-ridden lands a financial problem, primar-
ily, although land values undoubtedly increase rapidly
when the mosquito-breeding places are destroyed.

The house-fly, carrier of filth as it has long been known
to be, and carrier of disease from a more recent convic-
tion, likewise is not a problem of the pocketbook. Both
are, in the larger sense, problems of the higher civiliza-
tion, and both add to the importance of the study of
insects and present this in an entirely different light than
the one of the billion dollar annual loss.

INTRODUCTION v

On the other hand are the beneficial forms. Those
that operate directly are familiar to all, the producers of
honey and of silk being the best known. Of far more
value even than these are the ones which fertilize the
flowers and make possible the production of seeds and
fruit. Take away the insects and a large part of our flora
would disappear through inability to propagate itself
without the aid of insects.

But the student of entomology does not necessarily
make the economic importance of the subject his prime
motive for taking up the study. To many the charm of
the subject lies, not in the consideration of the hundreds
of forms that have a direct bearing on the welfare of man,
but rather, in the thousands and thousands whose claim
to interest lies in the fact that they are a part of the
great scheme of nature and that the study of them will,
like few other studies, bring one into close touch with
nature. The economic phases of the subject are acquired
in a perfectly natural and logical manner through the
study of the life histories of the most common forms,
since many of these are at the same time the most in-
jurious.

To inculcate in the young student a love of nature and
to stimulate the faculties to observe what is going on in
the great world of nature, nothing is better than the
study of insects. This forces the student to take an in-
terest also in the kindred subject of botany, since there
are few plants that are not directly affected by insects
and which will not be involved in the studies of the biol-
ogy of the many forms.

Entomology may be studied to the best advantage in
the spring, summer and fall, but the subject is by no
means closed during the winter months, as there are many

vi INTRODUCTION

insects whose entire life histories cannot be studied with-
out continuation of the observations throughout the year.

This work aims to present the subject in a simple
fashion so that the student of the secondary schools can
use all that is given. It attempts to make the student
acquainted with only the more important groups and does
not go as deeply into the scientific phases of classification
and structure as a work intended for more advanced stu-
dents should.

Neither does it give as much attention to details of
description of species as a work of larger scope could.
The aim is rather to present the general idea of the sub-
ject so that it can be covered in the time that the schools
may reasonably be expected to allot to it. Brevity is
secured rather by omission than by any lack of accuracy
in the statements included. The classification employed
is the one in general use and the one best known to the
greater number of entomological students who will be
likely to use the work for a text. Its greater simplicity
warrants its use rather than the more scientific arrange-
ments and nomenclatures employed by the most modern
writers.

The chapters on economic entomology are presented
with the same object: to give as concise an idea of the
more common injurious forms as is possible in a limited
space. Here again, brevity is secured by the omission of
the less important and less generally distributed species
rather than by slighting those that are considered.

The junior author is responsible for the preparation of
Part I, and the senior author for Part II.

E. D. S.

L. M. P.
June, 1916.

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION iii

PART I
GENERAL ENTOMOLOGY

CHAPTER

I. DEFINITION OF THE SUBJECT 1

II. INSECT STRUCTURES 4

III. INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES 19

IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS 28

V. THE LOWER ORDERS 34

VI. NEUROPTEROID ORDERS 41

VII. ORTHOPTERA 48

VIII. HEMIPTERA 56

IX. LEPIDOPTERA 72

X. COLEOPTERA 107

XI. DlPTERA 131

XII. HYMENOPTERA 142

XIII. THE INSECT COLLECTION. . . 163

PART II
ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

XIV. INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS 175

XV. INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS AND STORED FOOD

PRODUCTS 214

XVI. FIELD CROP INSECTS 236

XVII. GARDEN INSECTS 266

XVIII. ORCHARD INSECTS 287

XIX. INSECT CONTROL 323

APPENDIX 339

INDEX 345

vii

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

PART I— GENERAL ENTOMOLOGY

CHAPTER I
DEFINITION OF THE SUBJECT

1. Entomology Defined. Entomology is the study of
insects and may properly include facts of any kind what-
soever that pertain to insects or any of their activities.

2. Insect Characteristics. Insects are animals belong-
ing to a branch of the animal kingdom known as the
Arthropoda. These animals all have, in their perfect state,
bodies made up of ringlike plates called segments, and they
have, on some of these segments, jointed legs. In some
members of the branch the segments are so nearly grown
together that they are not distinguishable. In some stages
of others, the legs are lacking, but all members of the
branch have, at some stage of their existence, at least,
traces of both these characteristics. The branch includes,
besides the insects, spiders and their relatives, centipedes
and millipedes, and crayfish and lobsters and their rela-
tives, of which there are many varied forms.

3. Classification. Each one of these groups forms
what is known in Zoology (Zoology is the study of all

2 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

animals and includes Entomology) as a class. The mem-
bers of any class that are alike in their general form and
structure are placed together in the first sub-division of
any class and constitute what we call an order. Those
forms in any order that show close resemblance group to-
gether and form a family and the members of a family
that are even more similar form a genus (plural genera).
The last division in animal, or plant, classification is the
species. Members of any genus which are exactly alike
or as nearly alike as the offspring from a single parent
form, constitute a species. An additional character of a
species which is, by the way, difficult to define exactly, is
that members of the same species will interbreed and pro-
duce young like unto themselves which will, in turn, breed
and produce fertile young. Some species will show varia-
tion on account of climate, of their food, or from some
other external cause, but still retain their power to inter-
breed and produce like young. Such differences are rec-
ognized under the name of varieties. In Zoological class-
ification we have, first, the
Animal Kingdom, divided into
Branches, composed of

Classes, each embracing one to several
Orders, in which are varying numbers of
Families, which contain
Genera, and finally the

Species.

4. Names. The classification of any animal shows
all the above divisions. The scientific name, which is
always Latin in* form for the sake of uniformity, is com-
posed of the name of the genus, capitalized, followed by
the name of the species, not capitalized, and then the
name of the man who first described and named the ani-

DEFINITION OF THE SUBJECT 3

mal. This last is frequently omitted as it serves no pur-
pose except for the student of classification. Names of all
the various sub-divisions are Latin in form. Family names
always have the termination -id& and may be so recog-
nized as no other scientific names are given that ending.
Super-family names end in -ina, or -oidce, but are not so
distinctive, since other names may be found with similar
termination. Sub-family names end in -ince. Generic,
specific and order names may have any accepted Latin
termination.

CHAPTER II

INSECT STRUCTURES

5. Definition for an Insect. The characters of the
branch to which insects belong have been given. The
characters which are possessed by all insects are embraced
in the definition for an insect which is as follows:

An insect is an Arthropod which has three distinct regions
to the body, the head, the thorax and the abdomen. It
bears, on the head, one pair of antennce or feelers, on the

thorax, three pairs of legs, and,
usually, one or two pairs of
wings.

6. The Head. The insect
body is made up of a variable
number of segments, but this
variation is always in the third
region or abdomen. The head
consists always of a single seg-
ment. This is made up of a
skull-like single piece to which
are attached the antennae and
the mouth parts and in which
are found the eyes. This skull
is called the epicranium. The
antennce are extremely varia-
ble. They are jointed but the number of joints ranges
from a single one to several hundred. They may be almost
too small to be seen or several times as long as the body.

FIG. 1. — Head of Grasshop-
per, Front View.

a, vertex; 6, compound eye; c,
ocellus; d, front; e, cheeks or
gene; /, clypeus; g, labruni; A,
edges of maxillse and labium; i,
mandibles.

INSECT STRUCTURES

Their purpose is primarily for feeling, but many forms
have organs of smell located in the antennae. Male mos-
quitoes hear with the antennae and the sense of taste,
being closely related to smell, may be found in some,
although this is by no means certain.

The eyes of insects are of two kinds, simple and com-
pound. Some forms have both, some only the one or the
other and some have neither, being entirely blind. The
compound eyes are borne by all the common insects.
They consist of a great number of separate lens-like struc-
tures crowded together to make one eye. Each one of
these has its own field of vision, the object as seen by the
insect consisting of a great number of separate parts
thrown on its retina and forming a mosaic showing the
shape of the object. There may be from a very few, fif-
teen, to as many as fifty thou-
sand separate lenses or facets
to the compound eye. In many
insects the eyes take up the
greater part of the head. The
simple eyes, more frequently
called ocelli, vary in number
from one to several. They are
small and their uses are not
certainly known.

On the lower or anterior
edge of the epicranium are
attached the mouth-parts.
These are, in the typical in-
sect, an upper lip or labrum,
a lower lip or labium, a pair of jaws or mandibles, one
on each side just below the labrum, and just below
these, a pair of supplementary jaws or maxillce. On each

FIG. 2. — Mouth-parts of Chew-
ing Insect (Grasshopper).

a, labrum; l.clypeus; 2, labrum,
proper ; 6, mandibles; c, labium;
1, submentum; 2, mentum; 3, ligula;
4, palpiger; 5, palpus; d, maxillae;
1, cardo; 2, stipes; 3, palpifer; 4,
palpus; 5, lacinia; 6, galea; e, hypo-
pharynx.

SCHOOL KNTuMuLOGY

-•a

maxilla is a finger-like structure called a palpus. The
labium hears a similar pair of palpi. In the insect which
has its mouth-parts modified for sucking these parts will

not be so readily recognized
and some of them may be ab-
sent. Most of them may be
identified by their relative posi-
tion at the point of attachment
to the head, as this never varies.
The part of the epicranium
that lies between the eyes and
the base of the labrum is de-
signated as the front. To either
side of the front are the cheeks
or gence. The highest point of
the epicranium, just at the limit
of the front, is the vertex. Back
of the vertex, eyes and cheeks

lies the occiput. This fits into the front or anterior margin
of the thorax.

7. The Thorax. The thorax of an insect is composed,
always, of three segments. The first of these is the pro-
thorax, the middle one is the mesothorax, and the last
or posterior segment, is the metathorax. Each of these
bears one pair of legs (in the perfect insect or adult).
The front wings, where there are two pairs, are borne on
the mesothorax, and the second pair of wings is attached
to the metathorax. Where one pair of wings only is pres-
ent it is the front pair.

The top of a thoracic segment is called the notum of
that segment, the side is the pkuron and the bottom plate
the sternum.

An insect's leg is composed of several joints or seg-

Fia. 3. — Mouth-parts of
Sucking Insect, (true bug).

a, labrum; b, labium; c, man-
dibles; d, maxilla.

INSECT STRUCTURES 7

ments. The first one, joining the body, is the coxa. This
is usually small and rounded. Next to the coxa is a small,
sometimes indistinct but sometimes two-jointed, part
called the trochanter. The first large joint is the thigh or
femur. Then comes the tibia, usually long and slender,
then the tarsus or foot. The tarsus has several joints

,oc.

I ant.

Mt. s. Ms. s.

p. stl.

m.p.

FIG. 4. — Grasshopper, from Side, Showing Main Parts of Skeleton of
Typical Insect.

A., head; c.e., compound eye; oc., ocellus; ant., antenna; m.p., mouth-parts;
B., thorax; P.N., pronotum; p.sll., prosternellum; Ms. s., mesosternum; Mt. s.,
metasternum; Cx. c., coxal cavity; Ms. es., meso-episternum; Ms. e., meso-
epimeron; Mt. es., meta-episternum; Mt. e., meta-epimeron; sp., spiracle; C.,
abdomen; (segments numbered); T., tergite, S., sternite; Ty., tympanum or ear;
sp., spiracles.

and usually ends in a claw of one or two parts. Between
the two parts of the claw there is often found a small,
pad-like affair, the empodium.

The wings are, typically, flattened sacks with very
thin walls, strengthened with tubes or veins between
the walls. The veins form important characters in the
study of some groups and are given names. The margins

SCHOOL KNTOMOLOCJY

and angles of the wings are also named. Fig. 5 shows

a typical wing with the names
of the veins, margins and
angles.

8. The Abdomen. The
abdomen of an insect oonabtfl
of several segments which
are generally more typically
ring-like than in the rest of
the body. At the tip of the
abdomen, and formed by
modifications of some of the
segments, is the egg-laying
organ, ovipositor, of the fe-
males and the external gener-
ative organs of the males.
These may be so retracted
within the body as to be not
prominent. With few excep-
tions, there are no other
appendages on the abdomen
of adult insects.
Along the sides of the segments of the thorax and
abdomen are small holes, called spiracles. They are the
external openings of the breathing tubes which will be
described in the discussion of the internal anatomy.

In any part of an insect's body, where two plates or
segments come together and make a flexible union, the
union is called a joint. If the plates have grown firmly
together the line of union is a suture.

9. The Body Wall. The body wall of insects is
hardened with a substance called chitin. This serves to
give it stability of form and protects the insect. This

FIG. 5. — Wings of Butterfly
Showing Veins and Margins.

1, costal margin; 2, humeral angle;
3, apical angle or apex ; 4, outer
margin; 5, inner angle; 5o, anal
angle (hind wing); 6, inner margin;
6a, anal margin (hind wing). C., costal
vein; Sc., sub-costal vein; R., radial
vein (and branches) ; M ., median vein;
Cu., cubital vein; A., anal veins.

INSECT STRUCTURES 9

body wall is not only the covering of the insect but also
the skeleton, there being no hardened framework inside
the body as is the case with the higher animals. An ex-
ternal skeleton like this is an exoskeleton. From this exo-
skeleton there are inward projections which serve as at-
tachments for the muscles and other internal organs. The
possession of the exoskeleton enables the insects to keep
their form after death and renders preservatives unneces-
sary for any but the softest bodied species.

10. Internal Organs. Internally insects differ widely
from the higher animals. Yet they have organs and sys-
tems of organs constructed for the performance of similar
functions. The names applied to these organs are, as a
rule, the same as for the organs in the higher animals
having similar uses.

The systems of internal organs in an insect as well as
in other animals, are grouped according to function. The
more important of these groups are: Digestive, Circula-
tory, Respiratory, Nervous, Reproductive and 'Muscular.
The Excretory system is distinguished by some writers.
In addition, there are the fat-bodies, certain connective
tissues and special organs.

11. The Digestive Tract. Young insects, and many
adults, have the interior of the body almost completely
taken up by the digestive tract. This is, primarily, a tube
running the length of the body. As the tube is often
longer than the body it is found to be more or less con-
voluted. Different parts of this tube are modified and
are given names according to their uses. The anterior
end forms the mouth and the back part of the mouth cav-
ity is the pharynx. Mouth and pharynx are for reception
of food and serve the same purposes as in higher animals.
Salivary glands are found in insects. These are usually

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

slender tubes opening into the mouth cavity. The phar-
ynx narrows rapidly and merges into the oesophagus or
gullet. This corresponds exactly to the oesophagus in
vertebrates, and is merely a passageway for the food on its
way to the stomach. In the thoracic region the oesophagus

Sromo

Mid. int.

Fn;. 6. — Internal Structure of a Caterpillar.

1. Dorsal view with upper wall removed, showing organs in place, ph, pharynx.

2. Inner surface of upper wall showing organs of the circulatory system. A,
aorta; A, heart or dorsal-vessel; H.M., heart muscles or "Wings of the Heart."

3. Digestive organs removed, exposing organs of nervous and respiratory
systems. Br., brain or supra-cesophageal ganglion; a.g., salivary gland; gl.,
ganglion; Tr., Trachea; n.c., nerve cord; or central nervous system; sp., spiracles;
R., rectum or posterior part of the intestine.

4. Silk gland removed. The location of the gland may be seen in the upper
figure.

5. The alimentary canal, removed, oea., (Esophagus ; M.T., Malpighian
tubules; Mid-int., mid-intestine From photographs of an " Azoux model " of
the silk-worm.

widens out into a pouch-like structure called the crop
which is followed by the proventriculus. Following the
proventriculus is the stomach proper or ventriculus. Here
the food is digested, much of the digestive fluid being

INSECT STRUCTURES

secreted by the glandular walls of the stomach. Most
insects have several pouches opening into the Stomach
near its union with the proventriculus and pouring into
it some of the digestive juices. After the stomach comes
the intestine. In some forms it is merely
a straight tube, but in others it is very
much curved and convoluted. Gene-
rally it is divided into more or less
distinct regions which are termed the
mid-intestine, the ileum, the colon, and
the rectum. Some absorption takes place
through the walls of the mid-intestine,
but this process is started and largely
completed in the stomach. At the point
of union between the intestine and the
stomach arise a great number of very
fine, convoluted tubes. These are the
kidney-tubules or Malpighian tubes. They
are supposed to function as kidneys and
to be excretory. They, with the intes-
tine, form the excretory system, such as
it is, of insects.

12. The Circulatory System. The
circulatory system differs greatly from
that of vertebrates. There is a so-called
heart which consists of a long tube
lying just beneath the dorsal wall
or back of the insect. The front end of this tube
is called the aorta and is the only blood vessel in
the body. Blood is drawn into the heart from the
body cavity, where it fills all space not taken up by
the organs, through valves along the side of the heart.
A system of muscles causes an alternate contraction

FIG. 7. — Digestive
System of an
Insect.

ph., pharynx; oe.,
oesophagus; s.g., sali-
vary gland; g.c., gastric
cceca; g., gizzard or
pro-ventriculus ; st.,
stomach or ventrie-
ulus; TO. p., Malpighian
tubules; f.i. , fore-
intestine; m.i. , mid-
intestine; h.i., hind-
intestine; a., anus.

12 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

and expansion in the heart by means of which the blood
is forced forward through the aorta and a sluggish cir-
culation is kept up. The blood bathes all the tissues of
the body and carries food to them. This is its sole func-
tion except that it may take up some of the waste prod-
ucts. These are, in turn, taken from the blood by the
kidney-tubules and carried out of the body through the
intestine. The blood does not carry oxygen to the tissues
as it does in the vertebrates. For this reason the slow
circulation found in insects suffices, even for those forms
that are most active, where it would not do for the active
vertebrates.

13. Respiratory System. Respiration is the function
of insects which is most different from the same function
in other animals. The respiratory system consists of
tubes, opening through holes in the sides of the thoracic
and abdominal segments, and branching and subdividing
into tubes that ramify throughout the body after the
fashion of capillaries. These carry the oxygen to all the
tissues and from them carry off the carbon-dioxide and
other gaseous wastes. The breathing tubes are called
trachea, and their external openings spiracles. There
are generally large tracheal tubes along each side of the
body and branches are given off in each segment. The
small tracheal tubes end in thin walled sacks in the tis-
sues and through these the gases are exchanged by os-
mosis. The blood receives only such oxygen as is re-
quired for its own purification. The air is forced from the
tracheae by muscular contraction. The tracheal tubes
themselves are lined with elastic coiled threads and when
the pressure from this contraction is relieved the elasticity
of the walls causes the tubes to regain their normal shape,
thus drawing more ah* into the body.

INSECT STRUCTURES 13

14. Nervous System. The central nervous system
consists of two nerve cords running the length of the body
and resting on the ventral or lower wall. Typically, there
is an enlargement of these cords in each segment. These
enlargements are called ganglia. Each ganglion gives off
nerves which supply the motor impulses and receive the
sensations for that segment. In the head the two cords
separate, one running on each side of the oesophagus.
Above the oesophagus they unite again and form what is
usually the largest ganglion of the body and is called the
brain. From this ganglion nerve fibers go to the com-
pound eyes, the ocelli and the antennae and the labrum.
There is a separate fiber for each facet of the compound
eyes which, as we have seen, might require as high as
fifty thousand for each compound eye and this will ex-
plain the larger size of the ganglion. There is, in the
head, a second ganglion below the oesophagus which ener-
vates the mouth-parts. This is the sub-cesophageal gan-
glion while the so-called brain is the supra-oesophageal
ganglion. From the latter arises also the sympathetic
nervous system which consists of a few fibers running pos-
teriorly along the top of the alimentary canal and carry-
ing the impulses incident to digestion.

15. Reproductive System. The reproductive system is
similar in its organization to that of the vertebrate ani-
mals. It consists primarily of two sets of fine tubes com-
municating with the outside of the body through passages
at first distinct but later united. In the females each one
of these sets of tubes forms what is called an ovary. Eggs
develop in each tube and, when fully grown, pass out into
the oviduct, a passageway into which all the egg-tubes
open. From the oviduct, the egg is carried to the vagina,
which is formed by the union of the oviducts from both

14 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

ovaries and which leads to the ovipositor or external ter-
mination of the female reproductive organs. Somewhere
in the vagina is a sort of sac or pouch in which the fer-
tilixing element, received from the males during copulation,
is stored. This sac is the spermaiheca. As the egg passes
over the opening of the spermatheca it receives, through
minute holes in one end, called the micropyle, the sperm
cells by which it is fertilized. Parthenogenetic individuals
lack the spermatheca.

The reproductive organs of the male are similar to
those of the female but are much smaller because the
sperm cells are very much smaller than the ova or egg
cells. The collections of tubes forming, in the females, the
ovaries, are called, in the males, testes. In these the sperm
cells are formed. The seminal tubes, as the separate ele-
ments of the testicle are called, open into a duct called the
vas deferens. The two vasa deferentia unite to form the
ejaculatory duct paralleling the vagina as the vasa defer-
entia parallel the oviducts. There is in the walls of this
duct, usually, a pouch formed by the invagination of the
wall and used for the storage of the seminal fluid until
needed. This is named the seminal vesicle and corre-
sponds to the spermatheca in the female. The external
organ through which the male reproductive organs open
is the penis. There may be specially developed claspers or
other structures used in copulation. They are homologous
with the modifications of the ovipositor for boring, etc.

Ovipositors show the most varied forms. They are
adapted for depositing the eggs in every possible situation.
The eggs, too, are of many different kinds. Stinging
organs are modifications of the ovipositor and usually are
connected with specially developed poison sacs which add
to their efficiency. They are adapted for two purposes,

INSECT STRUCTURES 15

protection and overcoming other insects which serve as
food for the larvae.

16. The Muscular System. Insects have a wonder-
fully developed system of muscles. As many as two
thousand separate muscles have been identified in certain
Iarva3. The muscle tissue is soft and watery in appear-
ance in the living insect and is made up of striated fibers
ending in tendon-like cords which are attached to the dif-
ferent organs and to the hardened processes projecting in-
ward from the skeleton for this purpose. The strength
of these muscles seems to be much greater in proportion
to their size than is the case in other animals and many
wonderful tales are told of the muscular power of insects.
Some of these may easily be verified by original observa-
tion.

17. The Fat-Body. Much of the space in the body
cavity of some forms of insects is taken up by the fat-
body. This is tissue similar to the fatty tissue of the ver-
tebrates and serves much the same purposes, namely,
storage of food and, to a degree, support for the more del-
icate organs. The fat-body consists of cells of rather large
size, arranged in masses which are usually distinct in the
different segments.

18. Special Organs and Adaptations. There are spe-
cializations, external and internal, of the most varied na-
ture, which are usually directly connected with the func-
tions of one or other of the above-mentioned systems of
organs. Among these there are few that are more striking
than those of the respiratory apparatus. These are fre-
quently adaptations for an aquatic habitat. The most
simple of the arrangements by means of which an insect
is enabled to obtain air while beneath the surface is that
by means of which the insect can carry a bubble of air

16 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

down with itself and remain submerged until the supply
is exhausted. This is usually accomplished by means of
hairs on the un<l<-r side of the body which retain the air
bubble. The air supply is sometimes imprisoned under-
neath the wings. Next to this in simplicity is the tube
which reaches to the surface of the water and into which
the tracheae open. The insect can remain under water
indefinitely at the depth which corresponds to the length
of this tube. Mosquito larvae and pupae and water-
scorpions are so equipped.

Insects that are most truly aquatic are provided with
tracheal gills, structures which can take up from the
water the oxygen necessary for the insect. These dif-
fer from the true gills of fish and crayfishes in that the
oxygen thus secured is carried to the tissues through
tracheal systems exactly similar to those of ordinary in-
sects while in the case of the true gills the blood is carried
to the gills as it would be to lungs.

Tracheal gills show many forms. Dragon-fly nymphs
have gills that consist of a large number of tracheal tubes
in the lining of the rectum. Water is drawn into this, the
air taken up and the water expelled, often with some force
so that it serves generally as a means of propulsion.
Damsel fly nymphs have gills in the leaf-like plates at the
tip of the abdomen. Other forms, notably the hel-
gramite or larva of Corydalis, have tracheal gills consist-
ing of tufts of hair-like tracheae projecting from the body,
the location varying with the insect.

Organs of special sense have many special structures.
The sense of feeling is often dependent upon hairs con-
necting with nerve fibers at different places on the body.
The antennae are, primarily, the main organs of feeling.
The sense of taste has organs located partly within the

INSECT STRUCTURES 17

mouth as with the vertebrates, and frequently accom-
panied by specialized hairs which may be found on the
palpi, outside the mouth cavity. The hypopharynx is the
main organ for the sense of taste.

The sense of smell is known to be located in the an-
tennae of many species. In others its organs are not cer-
tainly identified. Hearing organs occur in highly unex-
pected places. Male mosquitoes hear with the antennas.
An ear drum or tympanum is located on the first segment
of the abdomen in grasshoppers, while it is found on the
tibia of some crickets. In some insects the location of
the sense of hearing is not known, but it seems certain
that all forms are able to perceive sound. Of all the
special senses smell is usually most highly developed.

Many forms of body covering are noted. These are
largely protective. The body hairs of some insects are con-
nected with poison glands or are barbed or covered with
some irritating substance. The larvae of the Brown-tail
moth have barbed hairs which cause an itch or rash on
the human skin and so render them a great nuisance.

Scent glands are often present. These may be pro-
tective or they may serve to attract the mates. The
latter is the case in certain moths while in many bugs
and some beetles and butterflies the scents secreted pro-
tect from natural enemies by making the insects dis-
tasteful.

A special structure of much interest is the silk-pro-
ducing apparatus. This consists of a pair of silk glands
opening through little holes just beneath the mouth.
These glands resemble the salivary glands but are larger.
Other glands secrete such substances as the honey-dew
of Aphids and related insects, the wax covering of the
scale insects and Lac, also a product of scale insects.

18 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

Light-producing or luminescent insects have special
structures for the production of light which are not well
understood. The light is thought to be the result of a
very finely developed process of oxidation whereby prac-
tically all the energy from the oxidation is made into light
instead of into heat. These structures are closely con-
nected with the respiratory system.

External projections from the skeleton are frequent and
do not usually appear to serve any useful purpose. They
may be either ornamental or merely vestiges of structures
that were, formerly, of use to the species.

CHAPTER III

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES

\ »

THE Branch Arthropoda includes, besides insects, sev-
eral related groups which are usually considered with the
insects and which should be familiar to the student of
insects for the purposes of comparison if for no other
reason.

19. Crustacea. The Crustacea are forms which are
usually aquatic, breathe by means of true gills as do the
fishes, and have at least five pairs of jointed legs, the
anterior or front pair, in most common forms, bearing
pincer-like claws and being used as weapons rather than
as feet. Their bodies are made up of only two main parts
as the head and the thorax are grown together and form
what is known as a cephalothorax.

Our best known Crustaceans are the crayfish, or "craw-
fish," the lobster, crabs, shrimps and the terrestrial form
called sow-bug or pill-bug. Their economic importance is
not great. Sow-bugs injure greenhouse crops at times and
in the Southern States the crayfish is injurious to agri
culture in the marshy districts. These injuries are coun-
terbalanced by the importance of the class as food for man.
Lobsters and crabs are highly prized in America while
crayfish and shrimps are also used for food and many forms
are important as food for fishes.

20. Myriapoda. Myriapoda are the Arthropods with
the greatest number of feet. They are commonly called

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

" hundred-legged worms" and "thousand-legged worms*'

or centipedes and millipedes.

The centipedes have one pair of legs to each segment,

are generally flattened
and have the legs at-
tached near the edges
of the segments. Mil-
lipedes are oval or cylin-
drical, have two pairs of
legs per segment and
have these attached near
the median line of the
segments on the under
side. Both forms have
one pair of antennae and
have bodies composed of
head and an unspecial-
ized chain of segments
representing thorax and
abdomen.

Myriapoda are of
slight economic impor-
tance. Millipedes some-
times feed on vegetation
extensively enough to
be injurious, while cen-
tipedes are predaceous
and feed mostly upon
insects. Some forms of
centipedes, especially in
tropical and subtropical

countries, are provided with poison glands and may injure

man seriously by their bites.

Pio. 8. — Some Relatives of Insects.
Reduced.

a, the tailed Whip-scorpion (class Arach-
nida , order Pedipalpi) ; 6, Harvestman
(Arnchnida, Phalangidea); c. Spider (Arach-
nida, Araneida) ; d. Centipede (Myriapoda,
Cbilppoda); e, Sow-bug or Pill-bug (Crustacea);
f. Millipede (Myriapoda, Chilognatha) ; gt
Cray-fiah (Crustacea).

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES

21. Arachnida. Arachnida is the most important of the
Arthropod classes excepting the insects. The class includes
Spiders, Mites and Ticks, r
Harvestmen or " daddy-long-
legs/' Scorpions and many
other less common forms.

Arachnids have four pairs
of legs, no antennae and only
two body regions, the head
and thorax being combined
as in the Crustacea. They
are typically land animals.

The Spiders (order Ara-
neida) spin webs of silk which *- J

has been used commercially FlG 9 _A Tarantula (Arachnida,
to a very limited extent. Araneida). Greatly reduced.
They are predaceous and feed on insects. Except for
occasional bites which they inflict upon
man, they may be considered bene-
ficial.

Mites and Ticks (Acarina) are of
considerable importance. Mites are
usually very small and feed on both
plants and animals. They cause gall-
like growths in plant tissues and may
do great damage. The pear-leaf blis-
ter-mite is possibly the most important

example in the eastern United States.

FIG. 10. — Scorpion
Many mites are parasites on domes- (Class Arachnida,

tic animals. The mites on poultry order Scorpionidd).
are the best known forms with this
habit. Others cause sheep-scab* and other diseases of
* See page 203: Part II.

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

FIG. 11. — The Pear-leaf Blister-mite
(Arachnida, Acarina). Highly mag-
nified. After Parrott.

domestic animals. Ticks, which arc merely large mites,
are external parasites on many animals. One species, the
Texas-fever Tick, carries the organism causing Texas fever

in cattle from animal
to animal and is a
serious hindrance to
the stock-raising in-
dustry in the Southern
^^ Qther formg

transmit the Rocky
Mountain Spotted-
fever, which is a serious, and often fatal, disease of man.
Still others have similar and equally serious habits in
other parts of the world. (See page 209.)
Some forms of mites are beneficial
as parasites of injurious insects.

Harvestmen are the long-legged forms
commonly known as "daddy-long-legs"
and found in the woods and fields all
over the country. Their economic im-
portance is extremely slight.

Scorpions are found in the more
southern portions of the United States,
but occur as far north as northern Kansas. They have
the posterior part of the abdomen narrowed into a tail-
like appendage terminated with a sting with which they
can inflict more or less painful wounds.

Other Arachnids are Pseudo-scorpions, found in moist
situations, frequently under bark, small in size and very
inconspicuous; Jointed-spiders, found only in the Southwest,
and a few others which are still more rare in our fauna.

It is not advisable to take up here the further classi-
fication of the Arthropods, other than insects, into orders

FIG. 12.— A Tick
(Class A rachnida,
order Acarina).
Enlarged.

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES 23

and families, although the differences between the members
of the several classes are often very striking.

22. Hexapoda. The class Hexapoda, or the insects, is
by far the most important group in the branch, and as it
is the one which claims the major part of our atten-
tion, a discussion of the characters upon which their
arrangement into orders and families is based is here
given.

The grouping of insects into orders is based largely
upon variations in three characters namely, those of the
wings, of the mouth parts and of the metamorphosis. A
combination of the description of the wings, the type of
mouth and the nature of the development, whether direct
or indirect, will place any insect in its proper order.
Tables for the identification of adult insects may employ
certain other characters on account of the fact that the
nature of the transformations cannot be determined from
a specimen in the cabinet.

Families are identified by means of characters that
vary within each order. In some cases the only characters
that can be used appear to be those of the wing-venation.
Since these present difficulties that are too great for the
beginner they will be omitted. In other orders, families
are distinguished by characters of the antennae, of the
tarsi and of various parts of the head and thorax. Greater
refinements of these same characters serve to define the
genera and to some extent the various species. Species
may be separated in many cases by differences in color
and size, these characters being not available for use in
the case of the larger groups because the color and size in a
genus, for instance, may vary as greatly as it does in the
entire family. No attempt is made here to separate the
insects into their natural groupings lower than families

24 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

and in many cases the orders will not even be divided
into the families,

The number of orders of insects recognized by the
various authorities ranges from seven, in the earlier class-
ifications, to over twenty, in the latest works. We recog-
nize here twenty, that number being chosen because it
seems to suit the needs of the present occasion better than
the greater number of the most modern authorities, even
though the latter schemes are doubtless much more nearly
scientifically correct. The names employed are those in
most general use. The table appended will enable the
student to identify to the order any of the common insects.

Of the twenty orders here mentioned, six may be con-
sidered as major orders, the others being less important
because of fewer species and less economic importance.
The major groups are the Orthoptera, the Hemiptera, the
Lepidoptera, the Coleoptera, the Diptera and the Hymen-
optera. Any attempt to rank these according to their
degree of importance would be futile, although the Cole-
optera includes the greatest number of species.

The complete list of orders is as follows:

Thysanura Orthoptera

Ephemerida Hemiptera

Odonata Neuroptera

Plecoptera Mecoptera

Isoptera Trichoptera

Corrodentia Siphonaptera

Mallophaga Lepidoptera

Euplexoptera Coleoptera

Siphunculata Diptera

Physopoda Hymenoptera

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES 25

TABLE FOR SEPARATING THE ORDERS OF INSECTS

A. Wingless Insects.

B. With biting mouth-parts.

C. Mouth-parts poorly developed. Thysanura.
CC. Mouth-parts well developed.

D. Parasitic on warm-blooded animals. Bird lice.

Mallophaga.
DD. Not parasitic.

E. Ant-like in general appearance.

F. White, soft bodied, colonial. Termites.

Isoptera.

FF. Darker in color, bodies firm, in colonies or
solitary. Ants and some wasps — Hymenoptera.
EE. Not ant-like in form.

F. Very small, light in color, frequenting old
books and dry vegetable matter. Book lice.
Corrodentia.
FF. Larger species not occurring as above.

G. Head prolonged into a beak. Boreus.

Mecoptera.
GG. Head not prolonged into beak.

H. Hind legs fitted for jumping. Wing-
less grasshoppers, etc. Orthoptera.
HH. Hind legs not fitted for jumping.

I. Bodies and legs very long and

slender.

Walking sticks. Orthoptera.
II. Bodies not elongated.

J. Bodies flattened. Lobes at tip
of abdomen. Roaches. Orthop-
tera.
JJ. Bodies variable but without lobes

at tip of abdomen. Coleoptera.
BB. With sucking mouth-parts.

C. Bodies covered with scale-like hairs. Wingless moths.

Lepidoptera.
CC. Bodies not covered with hairs.

26 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

D. Parasitic upon man or warm-blooded animals.

E. Hind legs fitted for jumping. Fleas. Siphonap-

tera.
EE. Hind legs not fitted for jumping.

F. Beak, fleshy, un jointed. True lice. Siphun-

culata.
FF. Beak jointed.

G. Tick-like forms, parasitic. Sheep tick,

etc. Diptera.

GG. Not tick-like. Bedbugs. Hemiptera.
DD. Not parasitic; generally found on living plants.
Plant lice, scale insects, etc. Hemiptera (Homop-
tera).
AA. Winged insects.

B. With two wings.

C. With sucking mouth-parts. Diptera.
CC. Mouth-parts not for sucking.
D. Rudimentary mouth-parts.

E. Size almost microscopic, halteres present.

Males of Coccidce. Hemiptera.
EE. Size larger, no halteres. Ephemerida.
DD. Biting mouth-parts.

E. Wings hard and horny. Coleoptera.
EE. Wings flexible, many veins. Orthoptera.
BB. With four wings.

C. Mouth-parts for sucking.

D. Wings covered with scale-like hairs. Lepidop-

tera.

DD. Wings not covered with scale-like hairs. Hem-
iptera.

CC. Mouth-parts not for sucking.
D. Wings equal.

E. Bodies very long and slender. Wings narrow.
F Antennae inconspicuous. Dragon-flies, etc.

Odonata.
FF. Antennae prominent. Ant-lions, etc. Neu-

roptera.

EE. Bodies shorter.
F. Wings with few veins.

INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES 27

G. Wings fringed with long hairs. Size
usually less than one-eighth inch in
length. Mouth-parts indeterminate in
type. Thrips. Physopoda.
GG. Wings without fringes. Very easily
broken off or shed by the insect. Ter-
mites. Isoptera.
FF. Wing veins more numerous.

G. Finely netted wings. Neuroptera.
GG. Wings with fewer cross veins. Head
prolonged into a beak. Scorpion-flies,
etc. Mecoptera.
DD. Wings unequal in size.

F. Wings entirely membranous.

G. Front wings longer than the hind
wings.

H. Wings finely netted. Abdomen
with long tail-like filaments. Eph-
emerida.
HH. Wings with fewer cross veins.

I. Hind tarsi with two or three
segments. Psocids. Corrodentia.
II. Hind tarsi with four or five seg-
ments. Hymenoptera.
GG. Hind wings broader than front wings.
H. Wing veins with hair-like scales.

Trichoptera.
HH. Wings without scales along veins.

Hind wings folded. Plecoptera.
FF. Front wings leathery or hardened.

G. Front wings leathery but flexible and
usually partially transparent. Orthoptera.
GG. Front wings hardened, seldom flexible.
Coleoptera.

CHAPTER IV

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS

23. Metamorphosis. The changes which an insect
undergoes during its progress from the newly hatched
form to the adult vary in degrees of complexity and are
commonly grouped into two types. The more simple type
is spoken of as incomplete metamorphosis or direct develop-
ment. The word metamorphosis signifies change in form.
Therefore, the correct inference is that the change in form
in this type of development is not complete.

The second and more complex type of development is
that known as complete metamorphosis or indirect develop-
ment. In this case there is a complete change in form and
appearance between the earlier stages and the adult.

24. Direct Development. A description of the devel-
opment of the grasshopper is commonly given to illustrate
the direct type. Here, as in practically all insects, the
first stage is the egg. From the egg hatches a form which
may easily be recognized as a young grasshopper, even
though the proportions are distorted and there are no
wings. The form just hatched is known in this case as a
nymph, and the same term is applied to all the succeeding
stages of the insect before it reaches the final or adult
stage and becomes what is called an imago.

Each succeeding nymphal stage resembles the adult
form more than did the one preceding it. In one of
the earlier stages the wings make their appearance in
the form of small pads on the thorax. These become

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS

more and more prominent in each succeeding stage, but
are never used until the adult stage. The possession of
power of flight is a certain proof that any insect is an
adult.

The different nymphal stages are separated or limited
by moults which occur at more or less definite intervals.
These moults consist
of the casting of the
skins. The skin of
a newly hatched or
freshly moulted in-
sect possesses a cer-
tain amount of elas-
ticity, but does not
grow. When the
growth of the insect
has about taken up
all the stretching
power of the skin,
a new skin forms
beneath the old one,
the old one bursts
and the insect makes
its way out. The cast skin is called the exuvia. The more
striking changes in the appearance which occur during the
course of development come with these moults. The final
moult liberates the adult form which does not moult and
does not grow. Many of the adults do not even feed

25. Indirect Development. Where the development is
indirect there is a great difference in the process. The
form which is hatched from the egg bears, in most cases,
not the slightest resemblance to the parent form. There
would be no reason to suspect that the two belonged even

FIG. 13. — Metamorphosis of a Moth (Samia
cecropia), showing Larva, Pupa, Cocoon
and Adult. Much reduced.

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

to the same class of animals and the young must, in
each case, be connected with their parents by observa-
tions of their life histories.

The familiar form illustrating the indirect development

is the common house-fly
or any butterfly. Here
the newly hatched young
is worm-like and in one
case entirely footless
and more or less helpless.
These young are called
larvce. The larvae grow
and moult from time to
time as do nymphs, but
they show little change
in form. Their colors may
change and there is often
some change in the cover-
ing of the body.

After a larva has com-
pleted its growth it
changes into an inactive
object called a pupa.
This may be of various
forms. It may be naked
and exposed or enclosed
in some sort of cocoon or
case or buried in the earth.
It may be protected by
its own body wall, hard-
ened, smooth, and of a more or less oval, shape.

Within the pupa-case all the changes between the
larval form and the adult form are accomplished.

FIG. 14. — Early Stages of Insects.
Reduced.

1, Helgrammite or Dobaon-fly larva
(Neuroptera) ; 2, Pupa of the Spotted Pelid-
nota (Scarabceidce) ; 3, Cutworm (Noctuidce) ;
4, Slug-caterpillar (Eucleidce); 5, Corn ear-
worm (Noctuidce) ; 6, Pupa of round-headed
wood-borer (Cerambycidce); 7, Chestnut
worm (Curculionidce); 8, Larva of Rose-
chafer (Scarabceidce) ; 9, Larva of Colorado
potato^beetle (Chrysomelidce); 10, 11, Larvae
of Click-beetles (Elateridce): 12, Pupa of
Click-beetle; 13, Larva of Flesh-fly (Mus-
cina); 14, Imported Currant Saw-fly larva
( Tenthredinidce) ; 15, Red-humped Apple-
caterpillar (Notodontidce); 16, Maggot of
Drone-fly (Syrphidae) ; 17, Larva of Papilio
philenor (Papilionidce) ; 18, Giant Root-
borer (Cerambycidce).

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS

FIG. 15.-

Typical Pupa of a Sphinx
Moth.

The casting of the pupal skin and the emergence of the
adult constitutes the final moult in the cycle where the
development is indi-
rect. The life cycle is
completed with the
laying of eggs by these
adults.

26. The Purpose
of Metamorphosis.
The purpose of meta-
morphosis, especially the complete type, is explained as
are other specializations. It seems to be to the advan-
tage of the insects to have the diiferent vital functions
performed at
dLTerent pe-
riods of the
life of the in-
sects instead
of all at the
same time.
The larval
stage is de-
voted to
feeding and
growth and
the storage of

food material for the adult stage. The pupal stage is solely
for change in form and structure to adapt the insect for
the functions of the adult which are reproduction and
spread.

There are intermediate forms of metamorphosis. In
these the nymph may not resemble the adult even to
such a degree that it may be recognized. However,

FIG. 16. — Larva of Imperial Moth

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

when there is no sharply defined resting stage, as the
pupal stage, the development is still said to be direct.

FIG. 17.— Chrysalids of Butterflies.

1, 2, Papilionidce; 3, Pieridce; 4, NymphalidasS

In almost all cases where the development is direct the
young forms have compound eyes, but larvae, properly

FIG. 18.— Larvae of the House-fly. Enlarged.

speaking, never have more than ocelli and are often en-
tirely blind. This will ordinarily serve as a distinctive
point in cases of doubt.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS

Larvce are of the most varied forms. Butterfly or
moth larvae are called caterpillars and have false legs on

FIG. 19. — Pupae of the House-fly. Slightly enlarged.

the abdomen. Fly larvae, larvae of snout-beetles and most
Hymenopterous larvae are footless. Ordinary beetle larvae
have usually the three pairs of true legs.

FIG. 20. — Larvae of the Mourning-cloak Butterfly.

Many larvae will not be identified, even to the order,
by the beginning student, but close observation will soon
enable one to recognize the more common forms.

CHAPTER V
THE LOWER ORDERS

UNDER the general heading of the lower orders may be
considered all the less important forms which do not have
apparently close relationships. They are widely different
in structure and habits and are so grouped for the sake
of convenience only.

27. Thysanura. Thysanura are the most primitive of
insects. They have no wings and their mouth-parts are
of very rudimentary nature, adapted only for chewing soft
substances .or for feeding superficially on dried matter.
They have no compound eyes. On the tip of the ab-
domen are appendages of some sort, either filaments or
modifications of the same which enable the insects to
leap considerable distances. Those with the filaments are
known as Bristle-tails, while the others are called Spring-
tails. They may have, also, rudimentary appendages on
nearly all the segments of the abdomen. The most com-
mon of the bristle-tails is called the Fish-moth or silver-
fish. (Fig. 21, 1.) It is found in houses, in the pantries or
bathrooms or in rooms where the wall paper is loose.
It feeds on starchy material such as the dried paste be-
neath the paper and on some foods, and may be listed
as a minor household pest. This insect is of a silvery
color and is covered with minute scales.

Several spring-tails are common, but, on account of
their small size, are not noticed. One of these may be
found, especially in the early spring, beneath the loose

THE LOWER ORDERS

bark scales of old apple trees where there is plenty of
moisture. Others may be found during the summer on de-
caying wood.
Still others are
classed as injur-
ious and attack
certain of our
garden crops.
Their injury is
rarely serious.
One form, called
the Snow-flea, is
found in the
early spring on
the surface of
patches of snow.
28. Corro-
dentia. Certain
small insects
called Book lice
and Psocids form
this order, which
is of slight im-
portance. The
book-lice are mi-
nute and may
be found on
books, mainly in
dark places and

where the books are not frequently used. The Psocids
(Fig. 21, 4) are winged and live on plants. They resemble
large plant-lice more than any other common insects, but
have biting mouth-parts, while the plant lice suck sap.

FIG. 21. Slightly reduced.

1, Fish-moths (Thysanura) ; 2, Mayflies (Ephem-
erida) ; 3, Earwig (Euplexoptera) ; 4, Psocid (Corroden-
tia); 5, Stone-flies with nymph (Plecoptera) ; 6, Ter-
mites or white-ants (Isoptera),

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

29. Isoptera. The Termites or White ants (Fig. 21, 6)
form this order. They live in the central and southern
parts of the United States but are more at home in the
tropics, where there are many spe-
cies. Only one or two species are
found in this country. They are
not ants, nor are they structurally
related to them, but get their
common name from a certain su-
perficial resemblance in form and
from their habits. Colonies may
be found in dead and decaying
trees and in stumps, fence posts
and logs. They attack growing
plants at times and are often in-
jurious, especially to apple seedlings.
Termites frequently eat into the
foundations and at times go on up
into the superstructures of houses
where they mine and do great
damage. They are wingless during
the greater part of the year and
are of a dead white color, except
their jaws and a part of their heads.
There are different classes of indi-
viduals, males and females, work-
ers and soldiers, in the colony.
The true males and females, or

kings and queens, appear in the spring. They are dark
colored and fly from the nest in great swarms, mating
and forming new colonies. They have at first, four
long, narrow and delicate wings, poorly attached to
the bodies. After the flight the wings fall off or are

FIG. 22.— Work of Ter-
mites in Root of Cherry
Seedling.

THE LOWER ORDERS

gnawed off. The function of these individuals is repro-
duction only.

The workers are of both sexes but are not fully devel-
oped sexually. They do all the work pertaining to the
colony and are blind and avoid the light. They are
wingless. Soldiers are like the workers but have ex-
traordinarily large heads. Their function is said to be the
defense of the colony, but there is considerable doubt as
to their efficiency.

30. Mallophaga.* The members of this order are called
Bird-lice or Biting-lice, but are found as often on various
species of mammals as on birds.

They are wingless, have biting
mouth-parts and rather slender,
flattened bodies. They feed on
feathers, hair and scales of the
epidermis. They injure their
hosts rather by irritating them
than in any other way. Different
kinds may be found on poultry
and on most of the domestic
animals, as well as on many
kinds of wild birds and mam-
mals.

31. Siphunculata.f This group is composed of the
True lice or the Sucking-lice. They resemble the bird lice
superficially but are usually broader and more flattened
and have short fleshy beaks by means of which they suck
blood from their hosts, which are mammals. Three spe-
cies attack man and some others are known to attack
marine mammals, thus invading a field in which insects

* See Fig. 142, page 200, Part II.

f See Figs. 140 and 141, pages 198, 199, Part II.

FIG. 23.— A Bird-louse (Mal-
lophaga) . Highly magnified.

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

FIG. 24. — True Louse
(Siphunculata) .

are rare, the ocean. This order is usually classed as a
sub-order of the Hemiptera under the name Parasitica,
but it seems more logical to place
it separately, as it has little in com-
mon with the other Hemiptera.

32. Euplexoptera. The Earwigs
(Fig. 21, 3), as members of this order
are commonly called, are compar-
atively rare and of small size and
importance. They resemble certain
beetles, but may be identified by
the possession of a pair of pincer-
like appendages at the tip of the
abdomen. There are four wings,
the front pair thickened and very
short and the hind pair large, but

folded in a very complex fashion under the front pair
where they are completely concealed. The common name
is derived from an old English superstition that they got
into people's ears and injured them.

33. Siphonaptera. The Fleas are probably more nearly
allied to the true flies than to any
other group of insects. They are
wingless, compressed laterally so that
they stand "on edge," so to speak,
and have strongly developed hind
legs which enable them to leap great
distances. They feed through a
sucking tube and are parasitic, most
species attacking mammals, although

there is one species that attacks hens. Unlike all the
other orders in this group, the fleas develop indirectly.
Their larvae are footless and worm-like and are not well

FIG. 25. — A Flea (Si-
phonaptera) .

THE LOWER ORDERS

known. Those of the common species that attack man
and domestic animals are known to feed on minute par-
ticles of organic matter in the dust in the cracks in floors
and in other similar situations, even in the dust on the
ground, where it is protected from moisture. Fleas have
recently been proven to be active agents in the spread
of diseases, notably the Bubonic plague, which is carried
by the rat-flea.

34. Physopoda. Thrips. Many writers give the name
Thysanoptera to this order, but we prefer the name used

FIG. 26. — Tobacco Thrips, Adult and Nymphs (Physopoda). After
Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr. Highly magnified.

here because of the confusion that may result from the
use of a name so much like Thysanura.

The Thrips are very small insects with narrow wings
fringed with long hairs. The
mouth-parts are not strongly
developed, but are fitted for
chewing the softer plant tis-
sues, and, to a certain extent,
for sucking the sap from them.
The development is direct.
These insects are usually not
numerous and even when abundant are not often ob-
served on account of their very small size, most forms

FIG. 27.— Rose Thrips (Physo-
poda). Greatly, enlarged.

40 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

being less than an eighth of an inch in length and quite
slender. There are several injurious species. Most of
these are found in the tropical or sub-tropical countries.
Citrus fruits, in Florida and California, often suffer from
their work. We have also one species that attacks pears,
others in greenhouses, on carnations, one on onions and
one attacking roses, spoiling the appearance of the blossom.

CHAPTER VI
NEUROPTEROID ORDERS

OLDER writers on entomology placed several groups of
insects which we now class as separate orders together in
the old order Neuroptera. About the only character com-
mon to all the members of the group was the possession
of membranous wings with many veins. Even this char-
acter was by no means absolute. Later writers divided
the group into Neuroptera, proper, and Pseudo-Neurop-
tera,* the former including those groups which developed
indirectly and the latter those with direct development.
Both divisions normally have biting mouth-parts, although
in each group some are found with mouth-parts obsolete
or rudimentary.

35. Pseudo-Neuroptera. Three orders of insects having
membranous wings, direct development, biting mouth-
parts and aquatic nymphs are included here.

Plecoptera. Insects with four wings, the front pair
rather narrow, the hind pair broader and folded length-
wise, hidden, while at rest, beneath the front pair. The
mouth-parts usually well developed but sometimes nearly
obsolete and the nymphs living under stones in running
water which habit gives the adults the common name of
Stone-flies. Adults may be found in spring and early
summer about the streams in the evening and are fre-

* Some groups at times placed with the Pseudo-Neuroptera we
prefer to consider elsewhere. These are the Termites and the Book-
lice and their relatives.

42 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

quently attracted to lights in considerable numbers.
Nymphs may be secured by lifting flat stones from run-
ning streams and examining the under sides of these where
they will be found clinging closely. Common stoneflies
belong to the family Perlidoe.

Ephemerida. The May-flies are delicate insects with
four wings which have finely netted veins. The front
wings are large and the angles are considerably produced.
The hind wings are small and sometimes disappear en-
tirely. In the adults the mouth-parts are rudimentary.
At the tip of the abdomen are two or three thread-like
tails as long as, or longer than, the entire body. The
nymphs are soft bodied and live on the bottoms of streams,
usually where the current is sluggish. The adults live
only a short time. They may be found along streams
clinging back downward to leaves and twigs and are
attracted in immense numbers to electric lights. Floors
of bridges are often covered to a depth of an inch or
more with these insects on warm nights in early summer.
They are called also Shad-flies and Day-flies. The family
name is Ephemeridse and both it and the order name are
suggested by the short life of the insect.

Odonata. Dragon-flies and Damsel-flies. The members
of this order are better known than the other Pseudo-
Neuroptera as they fly by day and are numerous wherever
there is water. They have long narrow wings, finely
netted veined, and slender bodies. The nymphs live in
the water on the bottoms of ponds and in sluggish streams.
The Dragon-flies (Anisoptera) , are the larger members of
the order. Their wings are nearly the same width from
base to tip and they have very powerful flight. They are
variously called Mosquito-hawks, Snake-doctors, Snake-
feeders, Mule-killers and Devil's darning-needles.

NEUROPTEROID ORDERS

Dragon-fly nymphs are rather stout-bodied and live
near the bottoms of ponds or streams, and are, at times,

FIG. 28. — Types of Odonata. Above, Dragon-flies with nymphs;
below, Damsel-flies. Reduced one-third.

found buried in the mud. They swim by forcing water
from the anal tube, in the walls of which are located the

44 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

trachea by means of which they breathe. They feed on
other small animals in the water. These nymphs have very
curiously constructed mouths. The lower lip is prolonged
and hollowed out so that the rest of the mouth-parts and
the lower part of the head fit into it. Food is captured in
this " soup-bowl" and carried to the jaws. (See Fig. 28.)

Damsel-flies (Zygoptera), are smaller than the dragon-
flies and have the abdomen much more slender. They have
the wings suddenly narrowed at about one-fourth of the
distance from the base to the tip so that they seem to be
stalked. When at rest they hold their wings in a vertical
position, slanting backward over the back while the
dragon-flies hold theirs spread out horizontally.

Damsel-fly nymphs are also more slender than the
dragon-fly nymphs. They have three long and narrow,
oval, leaf-like tracheal gills.

Nymphs of both the above groups are easy to obtain
and make excellent aquarium material.

36. Neuroptera Proper. Three orders may be in-
cluded in this group. All have membranous wings, some
with netted veined wings, others with the veins mostly
longitudinal. The mouth-parts are typically biting. The
development is indirect and the larvae have various forms
and food habits, some being aquatic and some terrestrial.

The order Neuroptera in the strict sense includes the
largest and most numerous members of the group. They
have finely netted wings usually long and rather narrow.
The largest form is the Corydalis or Dobson-fly. This in-
sect has a wing expanse of five inches or more. The
females have strong jaws but in the males these are
greatly prolonged and shaped like a very slender cow-
horn. They are not dangerous and their pinch is scarcely
painful. Larvae of the Corydalis live under stones in

NEUROPTEROID ORDERS

swiftly running water and
Fishermen prize them
for bass bait. As it
takes them three years
to mature they may be
found at all seasons of
the year, either in the
water or under stones
near the water's edge.
The adults are attracted
to the lights during June
and July.

Several other species
of this family (Sialidce),
are aquatic, but most of
the remaining Neurop-
tera are found on land
in all their stages.

The Ant-lion (Myr-
meleonidce), or more pop-
ularly the "Doodle-
bug," makes small fun-
nel-shaped pits in sand or
dry, powdery, decaying -
wood. Small insects fall
into these pits, aided by
slides on the steep sides,
and are captured and
eaten. The ant-lion has
strong curved jaws
through which it sucks
the blood from its vic-
tims. Its body is stout

are known as " helgrammites."

FIG. 29. — Neuropterous Insects.
Reduced.

a, Dobson-fly, Corydalis cornuta (Neurop*
tera); b, Ant-lion, adult; c, Ant-lion, cocoon
and larva (Neuroptera) ; d, d, Caddice-flies
(Trichoptera) ; e, Aphis-lion or lace- wing fly
(Neuroptera) ; f, Bittacus sp., and g, Scor-
pion-flies, Panorpa sp. (Mecopterd).

46 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

and oval, being mostly abdomen. It digs its pits by
getting the sand on its head and flipping it sharply
backward, turning slightly after each "flip." The adults
resemble the damsel-flies, but have larger antennae and
fold their wings roof-like. The wings are not so distinctly
stalked.

Aphis-lions or lace-wing flies (Chrysopidce) have very
thin, lacy wings and are usually green in color. They
may be found flying in shrubbery throughout the summer.
The eggs are laid on long slender stalks fastened to leaves
or branches so that the hungry young first hatching may
not destroy those as yet unhatched. The larvse resemble
the ant-lions but are more slender and have usually some
yellow or red markings. They may be found in colonies
of plant-lice on which they feed, thus earning the name
of aphis-lions. The adults are also called " golden-eyes,"
from the brilliant golden color of the eyes.

Mecoptera are given the name of Scorpion-flies. They
have narrow wings with few cross veins. The head is
somewhat prolonged, forming a beak on which the mouth
is situated. The abdomen is slender and in the males of
some species is so formed at the tip as to resemble the
sting of the scorpion. The larvae are not often encoun-
tered and are caterpillar-like, having at least eight pairs
of pro-legs on the abdomen. Two groups in this order
are common, one the true scorpion-fly, another (Bittacus),
which has no distinctive common name but which super-
ficially resembles the crane flies.

Trichoptera, or Caddice-flies are usually small, moth-
like insects with long antennae and wings sparsely clothed
with hairs, which adds to their moth-like appearance.
The wings have few cross veins. The mouth-parts are
rudimentary in the adults.

NEUROPTEROID ORDERS 47

The larvae are aquatic and are called Caddice-worms.
They live in running water and form cocoons of various
materials, twigs, sand, pebbles and silk, which they spin
as do caterpillars. These are often attached to the under
sides of stones. The larvae are caterpillar-like, but may be
recognized by their habitat and by the absence of the pro-
legs.

CHAPTER VII
ORTHOPTERA

NEARLY all the groups of insects classed as Orthoptera
are well known. This is probably more true of this order
than of any other. Included here are the Grasshoppers
or Locusts, the Katydids, the Crickets and the Roaches. Less
common are the Walking-sticks and Praying mantids or
Rear-horses.

37. General Characteristics. Some species and indi-
viduals of other species are wingless, but there are typi-
ically four wings. Of these, the front pair is narrow and
leathery and the hind pair broad, folded fan-like and con-
cealed and protected by the front pair when at rest. The
mouth-parts are well developed and formed for chewing,
grasshoppers having been accused, with some truth, of
attacking pitch-fork handles and the edges of scythes.*
Orthoptera develop directly and as a rule the young re-
semble the adults in form and habits.

38. Acrididae. The grasshoppers, or true locusts, in-
clude the worst insect pests the world has known. Records
of them appear in the earliest history and their ravages
are recorded from all parts of the world. No insects have
ever produced such wide-spread desolation and misery as
the various migratory forms of these insects. Just here
it may be noted that the terms grasshopper and locust

* The author can vouch for the fork handle but not for the
scythe, although farmers have told him in good faith that grass-
hoppers dulled their scythes by gnawing the edges.

ORTHOPTERA

FIG. 30.— Types of Orthoptera. Reduced about one-half. ,

1. Walking-stick (Phasmidce) ; 2, Praying-mantis (Mantidce); 3, Cave cricket
(Locustidce) ; 4, right, egg mass of Praying-mantis; left, eggs of Katydid on twig;
center and 5, Katydids (Locuatidoe) ; 6, Long-horned grasshopper (Locustidce).

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

are synonymous, in spite of the fact that in the United
States the term locust has been applied to an entirely
different insect, the Cicada. This misapplication of the
term results in confusion, because in the literature of the

FIG. 31. — Types of Orthoptera. Grasshoppers (Acrididae).

world the term locust signifies grasshopper. Grasshoppers
scarcely need characterization. The fact that they have
antennae shorter than the body will suffice to separate
them from the family Locustidce.

ORTHOPTERA

Locusts are mentioned in the the book of Exodus
as the eighth plague of Egypt and at various other places
in the Bible and in secular literature. The forms that
attract the most notice are the migratory ones. One mi-
gratory species in the United States has done enormous
damage in times past and is still occasionally injurious,
and other species have the migratory habit to a degree.
The chief one is the Rocky Mountain Locust. In its flights
it spread from the Rocky Mountain region
eastward almost entirely covering the plains
regions to the Mississippi. It also invaded
the agricultural sections of Idaho, Utah and
Nevada. Non-migratory species are injur-
ious every year, but their damage is not
so universal as was that of the migratory
kind. They are successfully combated by
the use of poisoned bran-mash where they
occur in great numbers. Grasshopper eggs
are laid in masses in the soil and the winter
is usually passed by this stage. Some hatch
in the fall and pass the winter as young
nymphs which may be seen hopping about on warm
days in winter and in early spring. Common species are
the American Acridium, the Carolina locust, and the Dif-
ferential locust or Alfalfa grasshopper.*

39. Locustidae. This family is rather unfortunately
named, as it includes the katydids and long-horned grass-
hoppers, not the locusts. Its members are grasshopper-
like in form but are in general more delicate and have
antennae longer than the body. Some kinds are wingless,
but ordinarily the wings are longer than is usually the

* See page 241, Part II, for detailed descriptions of injurious
species.

I*"- -•

FIG. 32.— A

"Grouse-locust'

(Acrid/idee).

52 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

case with the grasshoppers. The best-known species are
the common Katydids, which have wings broad at the base,
giving them a hump-backed appearance, and are green in
color. They live mostly in trees, where they eat foliage.
Eggs of katydids are also placed on twigs. They are a
blue-gray in color and are a flat oval, about one-eighth
inch long. They are laid in a row on a twig and overlap
slightly. There are usually about a dozen in a row.
These eggs are sometimes mistaken for scale insects al-
though there is no real similarity. Some of the meadow-
grasshoppers resemble katydids, but are not hump-backed.
Others are brownish in color and still others have very
peculiar pointed heads. Most of these live on grasses and
weeds. Some cricket-like forms, living in cellars and caves,
called Cave Crickets, are yellowish-brown in color and wing-
less, and belong to this family.

40. Gryllidae. Crickets are of various forms, but differ
from the Orthoptera so far considered in that they are
flattened on top and hold their wings flat on the body
rather than roof-like. They are usually stout bodied, but
not necessarily so. Many are wingless.

The common Black Crickets found in houses, in fields,
under stones and rotting logs, are well known to all. The
Tree Crickets, slender, light in color, rather small in size, and
with long wings, are not so well known. Neither are the
Mole Crickets, curious forms with front feet resembling
those of a mole, which burrow in the ground after the
fashion of their namesake. Fig. 31 illustrates these forms
well enough to identify them.

41. Blattidae. (See Page 214, Part II.) Roaches are
the scourge of many households and it is as household
pests that they are best known, although many are found
in the woods, in decaying logs, and under stones, where they

ORTHOPTERA

are harmless. Roaches in a house do little real destruction,
but spoil food by running over it and eating parts of it.
They often seriously injure
book-bindings by gnawing
them. They hide in cracks
and crevices and in holes
made for plumbing. In old
houses it is next to impos-
sible to be entirely rid of
them. Many roach destroy-
ers, usually in the form
of powders, are sold and
some are said to be effi-
cient. Old houses, even if
entirely freed from roaches,
will always be likely to be
soon reinfested from neigh-
boring houses.

There are several spe-
cies of roaches but all that
live in houses are similar
in habits and appearance.
Both winged and wingless
forms may always be found.

42. Phasmidae and
Mantidae. Two very pe-
culiarly formed groups of
insects are the Phasmids
or " Walking-sticks " and
the Mantids or "Rear-horses." The former are elongated,
have very long and slender legs and antennae and are
wingless.* They are usually green or brown in color and
* Many tropical species have wings.

FIG. 33.— Types of Orthoptera.

1, 2, 3, and 4, Roaches (Blattida;) ;
5 and 6, Tree-crickets; 7, Mole-cricket;
8, 9, Ground-crickets (all Gryllidas).

54 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

when at rest on a twig or grass stem look so much like
the plant that they are very difficult to detect. They are
plant eaters, but rarely do much damage.

The Mantis, or Praying Mantis has a long slender
thorax, an abdomen which becomes, when full of food, or
eggs, very much distended and broadly oval, but is at other
times rather slender, and short wings. It captures and
kills other insects. The front legs are fitted for grasping
the victims and the thorax is carried nearly erect with the
front feet in a " prayerful" attitude. This position gives
rise to the common name. Eggs of this insect are placed
in masses on twigs of trees and cemented together, the
masses being over a half inch long and about one-quarter
inch high. They are more frequently observed than the
eggs of most other Orthoptera as they are more conspic-
uous.

TABLE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE FAMILIES OF

ORTHOPTERA

A. Legs fitted for jumping.

B. Antennae shorter than the body.

Grasshoppers. Acrididce.

BB. Antennae longer than body.

C. Wings carried, when at rest, in a vertical or roof-
shaped position. Ovipositors sword-shaped, curved
upward or straight.

Katydids, etc. Locustidce.

CC. Wings in a position approximately horizontal, flat
on the back. Ovipositors slender, spear-shaped.

Crickets. On/Hides.

AA. Legs not fitted for jumping.

B. Bodies flattened and oval. Roaches. Blattidce.

ORTHOPTERA 55

BB. Bodies elongated.

C. Front legs fitted for grasping prey. Prothorax car-
ried somewhat erect.

Praying Mantids. Mantidce.

CC. Front legs not fitted for grasping. Body and legs
very long and slender. Wingless.

Walking-sticks. Phasmidce.

CHAPTER VIII
HEMIPTERA

THE order Hemiptera is made up of insects having
sucking mouth-parts and direct development. They have,
typically, four wings but many kinds are wingless and -the
males in one group have two wings only. The order is made
up of two sub-orders that are so dissimilar in appearance,
structure and habits, that they may be considered sep-
arately.

43. Heteroptera. The members of this sub-order are
the true bugs and are the only insects to which the name
bug, not in combination with some other word, is properly
applied. Most bugs are winged. The front wings are
thick and narrow at the base and are broader and thinner
and overlap at the tips. They are usually carried rather
flat on the back, though some forms have strongly arched
backs. The beak is strong and arises from the front part
of the head. The habits are varied. Some bugs are
predaceous, some are plant-eaters and seriously injurious.
Several families, which we shall consider together as the
"Aquatic Bugs," live in or about the water.

Aquatic Bugs. Several families, which need not be
considered in detail, are aquatic. The largest of our bugs
are those known as the Giant Water-bugs or, sometimes,
as the "electric-light bugs." These are about three inches
long by one inch broad, flattened, brownish in color, with
legs fitted for swimming. They are frequently attracted
to the electric lights and may also be found swimming near

HEMIPTERA

the bottoms of pools. There is a smaller species which is
less abundant.

On the surface of the water of quiet pools and even

FIG. 34.— Types of True Bugs (Heteroptera). Slightly reduced.

1. Giant water-bug (Belostomidce) ; 2, Back-swimmers (N otonectidce) ; 3, Thread-
_ged bug (Emesidce) ; 4, Water-boatman (Corisidce) ; 5, Water-scorpion (Nepidad) ;
6, Bdostomidce; 7, Water-strider (Hydrobatidae); 8, Marsh-treader (Limnobat idee) ;
9, Toad-shaped bug (GalgulidoE) .

on running streams may frequently be seen numbers of
spider-like creatures with slender bodies and long legs.

58 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

These are the Water-striders (Hydrobatidce). They may be
either winged or wingless. Among the local names for
these bugs may be mentioned " Water-spiders," "Water-
skippers" and "Skaters."

Two families of medium to small insects, generally
found swimming below the surface of the water, are the
Water-boatmen (Corisidce), and the Back-swimmers (No-
tonectidce). Both have oar-like legs and powerful beaks
capable of inflicting painful stings. The boatmen are
flattened while the back-swimmers have "V "-shaped
backs and swim upside down, the angle of the back mak-
ing a sort of keel. Both these families are generally dis-
tributed in ponds and are easily recognized. Still another
water-bug is the Water-scorpion (Nepidce). The more com-
mon species of this family has a very slender body, long legs
and a long breathing tube projecting from the tip of the
abdomen. When at rest, a water-scorpion hangs head
downward in the water with the breathing tube just reach-
ing the surface. The common form is more than three
inches long, including the tail. Several other families of
water bugs are less numerous and less conspicuous.

Land Bugs. The land bugs are of the most varied
shapes and habits. The most numerous and widely dis-
tributed are the so-called Leaf -bugs (Capsidci). Sweep
through the grass with an insect net in midsummer and
you will find in the net a large number of small insects.
Many of these will easily be seen to be true bugs of which
the great majority are leaf-bugs. They are generally small
and usually green or brownish in color. Some are of eco-
nomic importance, but no one form is especially injurious.
The Tarnished Plant-bug is widely distributed and injures
fruits of various sorts, especially pears.

Probably the best known of the bugs are the Stink-

HEMIPTERA

bugs (Pentatomidce). They may be recognized by their
form and also by their pe-
culiar and unpleasant odors.
Many of us, unfortunately,
know them also by their taste,
as they frequently get on
berries. In form they are
rather short and broad with
moderately arched backs.
They are of medium to large
size and in color usually vary
from green to many shades
of brown. In this family
again, we have many forms
that are somewhat injurious,
but few that are notably so.
The brightly colored Harle-
quin Cabbage-bug is often a
serious pest in the South. It
is recognized by its red, black
and yellow colors. Many spe-
cies in this family, known
as Soldier-bugs, are preda-
ceous and destroy injurious
larvae. Most common among
these are the green soldier-bug
and the spined soldier-bug.

The Squash-bug family
(Coreidce) takes its common
name from the well-known
garden pest, the squash-bug.
Members of this family are rather longer and narrower
than the stink-bugs and are small to medium in size with

FIG. 35. — Types of True Bugs
(Heteroptera). Slightly re-
duced.

1. The Wheel-bug (Reduriifay,
2, Reduviidce; 3, Coreidce; 4, Cap-
sidce ; 5, Phymatidce ; 6, Stilt-bug
(Berytidce); 7, Negro-bug (Corime-
Icenidce) ; 8, Burro wer bug (Cydnidce) ;
9, Stink-bugs (Pentatomidce).

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

FIG. 36. — Types
of True Bugs
(Heteroptera).
Enlarged.

1. Lace-bug
(Tingitidce); 2,
Negro-bug (Cort-
melcenidce) ; 3, Bed-
bug (Acanthiidce);
4, Flat-bug Ara-
didce); 5, Chinch-
bug (Lygaeidoe); 6,
7, Lygceidce; 8, 9,
Leaf-bugs (Capsi-
doe); 10, Stilt-bug
(Merytidce).

a few large species included in the family.
Many have the powerful odor found in
the preceding group and are, on this ac-
count, often mistaken for them. The box-
elder bug of the Middle West and the leaf-
footed bugs of the South are members of
this family.

The Assassin-bugs (Reduviidce) are, in
general shape, much like the squash-bugs,
but give the impression of being softer
and more delicate. Their legs are longer
and more slender and heads and beaks
are also often more slender, although the
beaks may be short and powerful. Assas-
sin-bugs are, as their name implies, pre-
daceous, and -capture and eat large numbers
of other insects. Some forms get in houses
and even attack man. They may be
considered, in general, as beneficial insects.

One of the most serious pests the grain
grower of the Middle States has to fight is
the Chinch-bug. (See page 238, Part II.)
This insect is one of the smaller members
of a family (Lygceidce) which takes its com-
mon name from this species. Lygaeids are
intermediate between the squash-bugs and
the assassin bugs in form. They range
from very small to medium in size and
are usually of dark colors. They are gen-
erally plant eaters but, with the one ex-
ception, are not serious pests.

Still another well-known bug is the
common Bed-bug (Acanthiidce). It is less

HEMIPTERA 61

than one-quarter inch in length, very much flattened,
wingless, and dark brown in color. It feeds, as is well
known, on human blood. The individual unfortunate
enough to encounter it will recognize it without trouble.

Two very peculiarly shaped bugs are the representa-
tives of families known commonly as Thread-legged bugs
(Emesidce) and Stilt-bugs (Berytidce) . Both have very
slender bodies and long, slender legs. The common stilt-
bug has a body about three-eighths inojkin length while
the thread-legged bug is much larger. Its body is more
than an inch long and its legs are much longer. The
stilt-bugs may be found rather commonly in grass and
on shrubs but the thread-legged bugs are rare and more
frequently found in old barns and other open buildings.

44. Homoptera. The second sub-order of the Hemip-
tera is different in many ways from the true bugs. Here
the wings are either membranous or thickened, but in
either case are the same throughout. The beak is at-
tached to the back margin of the under side of the head
and often seems to arise from just between the forelegs.
The backs are typically "V "-shaped or rounded and the
wings do not overlap as in the bugs. There are some
highly specialized forms in the group which will not
be recognized by the characters given above, but rather
by their own peculiarities.

Cicadas. The Cicadidce or the Cicadas, sometimes
called Harvest-flies or Jar-flies, are the largest of the
Homoptera. To this family belongs the Periodical Cicada,
better known as the seventeen-year locust. So much has
been written regarding this insect that a description of its
appearance or habits would seem superfluous. The species
that appear every year are larger and take only two
years to develop. As there are two broods, we have

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

FIG. 37.— Types of Homoptera. Slightly reduced.

f*sa' feT'l9^ic&l Cicada; 6, Harvest-flies with nymph (Cicadidce) ; c. Tree-hoppers,
(Memoranda); d. Leaf-hoppers (Jassidce); e, /, Frog-hoppers (Cercopidae) ; g, h,
Fulgondce; i, Lecamum scale (Coccidce),

HEMIPTERA

some members of the species with us every
summer. The males in this family pos-
sess, at the base of the abdomen, two
drum-like organs with which they produce
their characteristic song or " shrill. "
Cicadas are, as a rule, harmless, but the
periodical cicada does great injury to fruit
trees by splitting the twigs to deposit its
eggs. Fortunately it does not come often
enough to be a serious menace to the
fruit industry.

Plant-hoppers. Several families of ho-
mopterous insects constitute a group gen-
erally spoken of collectively as the plant-
hoppers. Broadly speaking, we may in-
clude in this group the Spittle insects (Cer-
copidce), forms which, in young stages, live
concealed in a frothy secretion which
resembles spittle, and are found on several
common weeds; the Lantern-flies (Fulgori-
dce), among which are a few moth-like
forms and, in the tropics, some others
that are luminescent, but which do not
include our fire-flies; and the more impor-
tant and numerous Leaf-hoppers (Jassidce\
and Tree-hoppers (Membracidce) . All of these
families have the power of leaping but
they are otherwise sufficiently distinct for
easy recognition. The Jassidce are slender,
small, and have pointed heads. The tree-
hoppers are stouter bodied, larger and have
heads nearly concealed beneath the protho-
rax when seen from above, and usually cut

FIG. 38.— Types
of Homoptera.
Slightly en-
larged.

1, 6, Leaf-hop-
pers (Jassidae) ; 2,
8, Cercopidce; 3, 4,
Tree -hoppers
(M embracidce) ; 5, 9,
FulgoridcB; 7, Plant-
louse (Aphididce).

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

off squarely or rounded, not pointed. They have also very
strange growths on the prothorax which almost entirely
covers the head and projects backward and covers the
greater part of the wings and the abdomen. Its varied
shapes are often ludicrous and laughable and give the
insects the locally common name "Brownie-bugs." Both

families of hoppers
are plant eaters and
attack many eco-
nomic plants. Possibly
the worst common
forms are the leaf-
hoppers on the grape
and the apple and the
tree-hopper, known as
the "Buffalo tree-
hopper. " Many tree-
hoppers are injurious
from their egg-laying
habits, damaging
twigs in this way,
but are harmless so

FIG. 39. — Different Stages of a Scale-
insect. After Howard, U. S. Dept.
Agr. Highly magnified.

a, Adult male; c, Young nymph ; e, Adult fe- f ,-1 • * j-

male from beneath. far as their feeding

is concerned. Leaf-
hoppers, on the other hand, feed like the plant lice
and are even more difficult to control because they are
much more active.

By far the most important of the Homoptera and, in-
deed, among the most important of all insects are the
two families known as Scale-insects (Coctidce), and plant-
lice or Aphids (Aphididce).

Scale Insects will not be. at first recognized as insects
or even as living animals by the amateur. They are ap-

HEMIPTERA

parently, for the greater part of their lives, inanimate
objects on the bark of trees. They are usually less than
one-eighth of an inch in diam-
eter, oval or circular in outline,
and more or less flattened. The
young and the adult males have
eyes and appendages and move
about. • Other stages fasten them-
selves to the host-plant by means
of their beaks and also by a
waxy secretion. They are pro-
tected either by a separate scale
which is formed over them from
secretions of their bodies, but
not attached to them, or by a
hardening of the body wall it-
self. Scales in the latter group
are known as unarmored scales
while the others are called ar-
mored scales. Scale insects feed for the most part on
shrubs and woody plants, but some are found on grasses

FIG. 40. — San Jose Scale on
Apple Bark

FIG. 41.— The Tulip Scale.

and on ferns and other greenhouse plants. Mealy bugs,
which are also Coccids, feed on herbaceous plants. Some

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

of the worst pests of the fruit-growing industry are to
be found in this family. In the armored group we have

the San Jose Scale, the Oyster-
shell Scale, the Rose Scale and a
host of others. (See page 287, Part
II.) Among the unarmored forms
are the Cottony-cushion Scale, the
Terrapin Scale or Peach Lecanium
and others. There is scarcely a
woody plant that is not subject
to the attacks of one or more
species of scale insects. Fortu-
nately, fairly effective means
have been devised for the con-
trol of these insects.

Plant-lice are small in size,
. oval or egg-shaped, winged or

wingless. They live in colonies and are often found in
enormous numbers on plants. They often kill the leaves

FIG. 42.— Cottony Maple-
scale on Leaves of Soft
Maple.

Fio. 43.— A Winged Plant-louse (Aphididce). Greatly enlarged.

and may do great damage. Some species live on the
roots of plants for at least a part of their life-cycle. They

HEMIPTERA

are remarkable for the numbers of the plants they attack,
few groups of plants being entirely immune, and for
their methods of reproduction and their fecundity. In
this group is illustrated the phenomenon of partheno-
genesis or reproduction by the
females without the intervention
of males. Accompanying this
phenomenon is another, alter-
nation of generations. In brief,
a typical life cycle for an aphid
is as follows: In the autumn
or at some other time during
the year, true males and females
appear. These mate and the
females produce true eggs, just
as do insects of other groups.
These eggs, when they hatch,
usually in the spring, produce
wingless females which in turn,
without the intervention of
males, give birth to living young.
These, upon becoming grown,
produce other living young, all
females, and either winged or
not. These forms are spoken of
as the agamic females. During
the summer the sexual individ-
uals appear as noted above. The males are either winged
or not, but the true females, which produce the winter
eggs, never have wings. There may be more than a dozen
generations in a year without any of the sexual individuals
and in some species the sexual forms have never been
found. The number of progeny which might, theoretically,

FIG. 44. — Woolly-aphis on
Apple Seedling. (Photo
by W. E. Rumsey.)

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

be descended from one of the winter eggs if all survived
and reproduced, would, at the end of the season be
beyond human comprehension. They are rivaled in fecun-
dity only by some of the
scales and by other insects,
notably the May-flies.
Aphids secrete from the
abdomen through the in-
testine, a sweet sugary
substance called honey-
dew. This honey-dew is
a favorite food of ants and
any plant infested by
aphids will be found to be
frequented by ants which
arc at times accused of
doing the damage which is
actually caused by the
plant-lice. The ants do
sometimes injure us indi-
rectly on account of their
fondness for the honey-
dew. One species, for example, cares for the eggs of the
corn-root aphis during the winter and in the spring places
tin-in on the roots of suitable food plants. Many re-
markable and often fanciful tales are told of the care
< \< rrised by ants over their little green "cattle" as some
people are pleased to term the aphids.

For further discussion of some species and the reme-
dies used, see pages 295, 302, Part II.

FIG. 45.— Call Formed by Plant Lice
(Pemphiffua sp.), on Leaf Stem
of Cottonwood.

HEMIPTERA 69

TABLE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF COMMON FAMILIES OF
HEMIPTERA.

A. Front wings thicker at the base than at the tip; beak at-
tached to the front of the head. True bugs. Sub-order.
Heteroptera.

B. Antennae very short, usually concealed beneath the
head.
C. Legs oar-like, fitted for swimming.

D. Back somewhat V-shaped, light in color. Back-
swimmers. Notonectidce.
DD. Back more flattened; color darker.

E. Size usually larger than medium. One-half
inch to over two inches. Giant Water Bugs.
Belostomidce.

EE. Length less than one-half inch. Water Boat-
men. Corisidce.

CC. Legs not oar -like but very long and slender; ab-
domen fitted with a long breathing tube at the tip.
Water Scorpions. Nepidce.
BB. Antenna? longer than head.

C. Bodies very slender or linear.
D. All legs long and slender.

E. Last joint of antennae enlarged. Stilt-bugs.

Berytidce.
EE. Last joint of antennae slender.

F. Length about one-half inch. About water.

Marsh-treaders. Limnobatidce.
FF. Length one inch or more. Not aquatic.
Thread-legged bugs. Emesidce.

DD. Front-legs not used for walking and shorter than the
others. Aquatic, found running on surface of water.

Water-striders. Hydrobatidce.
CC. Bodies of broader shape, not linear.
D. Antennae four- jointed.

E. Wing-covers lace-like, size small.

Lace-bugs. Tingitidce.

70 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

EE. Wing covers variable or absent.
F. Beak three-jointed.

G. Common forms wingless. Bedbugs.

Acanthiidce.

GG. Generally winged. Not resembling bed-
bugs.
H. Front femora greatly thickened.

Ambush-bugs. Phymatidcs.
HH. Front femora not thickened. As-
sassin-bugs. Reduviidce.
FF. Beak four-jointed.

G. Front legs fitted for grasping. Wings

rudimentary. N abides .
GG. Front legs fitted for walking.

H. Membrane of wings without cells
but with a large number of more or
less interwoven veins. Coreidce.
HH. Membrane with few veins and usu-
ally with one or more closed cells
at the base.

I. Membrane with four or five sim-
ple veins and sometimes with
one cell. Lygceidce.
II. Membrane with two or three
cells. Otherwise without veins.
Leaf-bugs. Capsidce.
DD. Antennae five-jointed.

Stink-bugs. Pentatomidce.

(Several other minor families having five-jointed antennae will
not be included here.)

AA. Front wings of similar texture throughout. Sub-order
Homoptera.

I. Size large; length greater than one-half inch. Cicadidce.
BB. Size smaller.

C. Front wings slightly thickened or covered with a
waxy secretion.

D. Prothorax projecting backward over the wings.
Tree-hoppers. Membraddos.

HEMIPTERA 71

DD. Prothorax normal. Leaf-hoppers. Jassidce.
CC. Wings entirely membranous or lacking.

D. Wingless or with only one pair of wings. Wing-
less forms scale-like and, except in the very early
stages, without power of motion. Scale insects.
Coccidce.

DD. Wingless or with two pairs of wings. All stages
active. Plant-lice. Aphididce.

CHAPTER IX
LEPIDOPTERA

46. General Characteristics. The order Lepidoplera
includes those insects which are commonly known as
moths, millers and butterflies. They are recognized by
then- four wings, usually rather broad, which are covered
with very fine powdery scales. These scales also cover
the bodies of the moths and, in part, the butterflies.
Moths and butterflies have indirect development, the
young forms being known as caterpillars. Caterpillars,
like other larvae, are worm-like, but may be distinguished
from all other common larvae by the fact that they pos-
sess three pairs of true legs on the thoracic segments, and,
in addition to these, at least one pan- and usually as
many as five pairs of pro-legs. The only other common
insects which have pro-legs are the larvae of the sawflies
and these always have more than five pairs. (From
six to eight pairs. See Sawflies, page 154.)

46. Moths and Butterflies distinguished. Moths and
butterflies are easily distinguished from each other by sev-
eral characters. The most constant of these is the form
of the antennae. In the butterflies these are always en-
larged at the tips or clubbed. In the moths they are
never clubbed, although they may have various forms,
some being thread-like, and some feathery.

There are no characters by means of which the larvae
of the two groups may readily be separated, but the pupae
are quite different. Pupae of moths are generally smooth

LEPIDOPTERA

FIG. 46. — Early Stages of Lepidoptera. Two-thirds natural size.

1, Larva of Imperial moth; 2, Half-grown larva of Regal moth; 3, larva of the
Eyed Tiger-moth; 4, larva and pupa of a Sphinx moth; 5, Tussock-moth larva;
6, small Cutworm; 7, Bagworm cocoon; 8, Cocoon of Regal moth; 9, Chrysalis
of a Papilio; 10, Cocoon of Cecropia moth.

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

and are usually enclosed in some kind of cocoon or, at

least, in an earthen cell.
Those of butterflies are either
angular or smooth, but are
never enclosed in cocoons.
They are generally suspended
by a button of silk at the
tip end of the abdomen and
a silken girdle about the
middle of the body or by
the button alone, from some
twig, branch, or weed. Some
forms seek protection from
the weather and may be found
under trash in the winter,
but many are in exposed sit-
uations.

Adults in this order have
sucking mouth-parts, often
poorly developed, formed
from the maxillae, which are
elongated and grooved on the
inner faces which join and
form the sucking tube. In
some moths this sucking tube
is much longer than the in-
sect itself. It is usually not
adapted to piercing but is used
to suck up liquids like the
nectar from flowers, the juice
from rotting fruits or from

FIG. 47.-Sphinx Moth with even less attractive substances.
Mouth-parts Extended. The larvae have chewing

LEPIDOPTERA 75

B£BE*rSSrV9*3BBBPIHHBr

uouth-parts and are voracious
feeders. They attack a great va-
riety of substances ranging from
the most succulent foliage to dried
grains and wood of trees. Many
are of great importance to farm-
ing and to other industries. The
adults are rarely of direct impor-
tance but are of great popular in-
terest.

47. Micro-Lepidoptera. Three
extensive super-families of moths
are commonly grouped together
under this heading on account of
their general similarity and small
size. In contra-distinction to these
all other Lepidoptera are called
the ' ' Macro-Lepidoptera . ' '

The families or super-families
comprising this group all contain
species of considerable importance.
Some of these may be used to
illustrate the families. The first
of the groups is the Pyralidina.
The moths in this group are often
fairly large for " Micros." Their
wings are usually rather regular
in outline and often folded or
rolled about the body when at
rest. The larvae have a great diver- ^
sity of food habits. Many of them

FIG. 48.— Types of Moths. Micro-Lepi-
doptera. Natural size.

76 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

feed on leaves and roll or fold the leaves for protection, thus
acquiring the name Leaf-rollers, which is sometimes applied
to the family as a whole. Others feed on leaves without
rolling them and still others feed on fruits or vegetables.
Several species feed on stored grains and their products
and are among the most serious of the pests attacking

these substances.
Among the more im-
portant Pyralids are
the Mediterranean
Flour-moth,* which
feeds mainly in wheat
products in flouring
mills; the Indian
meal-moth,* of habits
somewhat similar to
the preceding species;
FIG. 49.— Melon-worm moth. One of the the Meal Snout-moth,
Larger Pyralidina. Enlarged. larger than the others

and feeding on a

greater variety of products; the clover-hay worm, which
injures old clover hay in mows or in the bottoms of
stacks; the melon-worm and the pickle-worm, two rather
large and strikingly colored species which attack melons
and other plants in the same family; the Grape Leaf-
folder; the bee-moth; Case Bearers and many species of
leaf-rollers.

The Tortricina are uniformly small, having wings
usually cut off more squarely at the ends than the other
"Micros" and frequently having the wing margins scal-
loped. When at rest they show an outline more nearly
rectangular than the other families in the group. Among
* See page 230, Part II.

LEPIDOPTERA

the Tortricids are some species even more important than
in the foregoing family. The most widely known of these
is the Codling-moth or the apple-worm. (See page 319,
Part II.)

Other Tortricids are the Bud-moth, which injures the
early shoots of the apple in the spring; the Strawberry
Leaf -roller and
other, so-called
leaf-folders and
leaf-crumplers.

The Tineina
are the smallest
of the Lepidop-
tera. They may
be recognized by
their narrow

FIG. 50.— The Codling Moth, a Type of
Tortricina. Greatly Enlarged.

wings fringed
with long hairs. Most of the plant eaters in this
family are leaf-miners, feeding between the two epi-
dermal layers of the leaf and forming mines of various
shapes, often characteristic of the species. Very few
common plants are not subject to the attacks of at least
one species of leaf-miners, although not many are seri-
ously injured by such attacks. The Tineids which prob-
ably attract the most notice are the common Clothes Moths. *
There are several species of these, but they are similar in
their general appearance. They may be best controlled
by placing all clothing made of woolens, silk, feathers and
fur, in a large goods box with a tight lid, preferably on
a back porch and fumigating with carbon bi-sulphide
at the rate of one-half pound to the hundred cubic
feet of space. Leave the clothes in the box for twenty-
* See page 220, Part II.

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

"."

^•91^^

four hours, air
them and replace
in the closets, which
should have been
cleaned and sprin-
kled with benzine
in the meantime.
Repeat this opera-
tion twice, at in-
tervals of three
weeks, and clothes
moth work will be
eliminated. Car-
bon bisulphide is
explosive but is safe
if handled like gas-
oline.

The Angoumois
Grain-moth is a Tin-
eid and works in
grain, both stored
and in the field.
In stored grain it,
as well as the other
moths mentioned,
may be destroyed

FIG. 51. — Types of
Moths. Reduced.

1, Eyed-Tigor-moth
(Arcliidat) ; 2, 3, Carpenter-
moths (Cossidce); 4, Slug-
caterpillar moth (Euclei-
dce) ; 5. Tent-caterpillar
moth (Lasiocampidct) , 6 •
7, 8, Clear-wing moths,
(Scsiidce).

LEPIDOPTERA 79

by fumigation as for the clothes moth. (See page 231,
Part II).

48. Sesiidae and Cossidae. Two families of moths have
wood-boring larvae but are otherwise distinct. The Ses-
iids are rather small, have very slender bodies and narrow
wings often almost entirely free from scales for which
reason the moths are commonly called the clear- wings;
many of them look much like wasps. The ever-present
and destructive Peach-tree Borer* is the most common mem-
ber of this family. Others are the Squash-vine Borer, the
Currant-borer, the Lilac-borer, a small species on maple, and
many others. There is no good remedy for these insects
when they are numerous.

Cossidce are commonly called Carpenter Moths on ac-
count of the habits of the larvae. They are large, stout-
bodied, have rather long and narrow fore-wings and small
hind- wings. There are few species and they bore mostly
in locust and other shade and forest trees.

The larvae in both the above families are typical cater-
pillars, usually white in color. The Cossid larvae are
sometimes somewhat hairy while the Sesiids are rarely
noticeably so.

49. Noctuidae. This family is the largest in the order,
not in size of the individual but in the number of species
and of individuals. It also contains a greater number of
destructive forms than any other family. A few species
are quite large; others are as small as some of the " Mi-
cros/' but the great majority are of medium size. A few
are brightly colored and striking in appearance but many
more are of dull, inconspicuous colors. The great major-
ity of the moths, which are attracted to light and, under
the appellation of millers, invite our commiseration for

* See page 297, Part II, peach-tree borers.

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

their singed wings and suggest one of our most time-
honored metaphors of the candle and the moth, are Noctuids.

On a window in a dark night
their eyes appear luminous

^^^A^^^J from the lighted room. This

gives rise to a name frequently
used, " Fiery-eyes." Others
call them " Owlet-moths," but
it is simpler to speak of them
as Noctuids and thus to elim-
inate an unnecessary name
which adds little to the de-
scription. If the adults in
this family are familiar objects,
the larvae are no less so.
Among the common ones may
be listed the various species of
cutworms. (See page 286, Part
II.) The Army-worms so
called because of their habit
of traveling, when numer-
ous, from field to field in
large bodies, like armies; the
Corn Earworm (see page 253,
Part II), known to every cook
that ever prepared " roasting
ears," except in the far north,
and known on other plants
under different names such
as the "cotton boll- worm,"
the "tomato fruit-worm,"
" tobacco bud-worm," etc.;
the Cotton-worm (see page 257,

Fio. 52.-Types of Lejridoptera
Moths. Reduced one-third.

> Notodontid*> othere'

LEPIDOPTERA

Part II), injurious to cotton in the South, but in the
adult stage more or less familiar to the people of the
North, whither it migrates in countless numbers in the
fall of the year. One of the cabbage worms, the Cabbage
looper,* is a Noctuid, and to complete the list would
require the mention of a large proportion of the two
thousand species which exist ,
in our fauna.

Larvae of Noctuidse may be
for the most part very well
illustrated by the common cut-
worms, dull colored, smooth or
even greasy in appearance, an
inch or more long and nearly
as thick as a lead pencil, vora-
cious feeders appearing mostly
at night and remaining con-
cealed during the day.

A few species in this group
are larger and of rather striking
appearance. Notable among
these are the Catocalas. These
expand from two to three
inches, have dull-colored fore-
wings which are often almost
indistinguishable from the bark upon which they usually
rest, and brilliantly marked hind wings, different shades of
red and yellow bands alternating with black or gray.

50. Arctiidae. The Tiger-moths are not so abundant

as the Noctuids, there being comparatively few species,

but they are likely to attract nearly as much attention on

account of the more striking appearance of both adults

* See page 284, Part II, cabbage caterpillars.

FIG. 53. — Underwing Moths
(Noctuidas). Reduced one
half.

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

and larvae. The adults are moderate sized moths with
the \\iii^.s rather narrower and more
pointed than those of the Noc-
I^^Mp tuids. Otherwise they are similar

in the conformation of the bodies.
In color the tiger-moths are either
light or strongly marked. Some
are pure white, some white with
yellow, black or red markings;
some, the typical tiger-moths, are
black, marked with red or orange
bands and spots.

Larvae of Arctiidce are hairy
caterpillars which have colors of
about the same range as those
shown by the adults. Few species
are injurious. The most important
one is the Fall Web-worm which
feeds on foliage of shade and fruit
trees in late summer and early fall
and forms unsightly webs over the
ends of branches, the worms living
in colonies within these webs.

^^^x^x^""^ The most commonly noticed

of the Arctiid larvae is the larva
of the Isabella Tiger-moth. This is
a red and black, hairy caterpillar
about an inch and a half in length
which is seen in the fall hurrying
about from place to place. It is so
common that it has given rise to the
saying "Hurrying like a caterpillar in the fall." It is also
supposed by many people to foretell the nature of the

Fio. 54.— Types of M« .: In
(Arctiidce) . Red uced.

1. Isabella Tiger-moth; 2,
the Tiger-moth; 3, the A era- a
moth; 4. the Tessellated
Tigfr-moth; 5, the Clymene
moth.

LEPIDOPTERA

FIG.

55. — Larva of the Isabella
Tiger-moth.

approaching winter, the varying amount and distribution
of the black color indicating a mild winter or the reverse.
Other tiger-moth larvae are
common at the same season
but they are found on the
foliage of several weeds.

51. Notodontidae. The
members of this family also
in many ways resemble the
Noctuids. The number of
species is comparatively

small and few are injurious. The most common among
the Notodontids are the members of the genus Da-
tana, of which there are
several species. They are
noticed in the larval stage
when they are variously
called " walnut-worms,"
"maple-worms" and "yel-
low-necked apple-caterpil-
lars." It is just as easy and
much more distinctive to
speak of them as Datanas
and the generic name is
quite widely used as a com-
mon name. Datana moths
are of moderate size, and
of light-brown color, marked
with narrow bands of

darker brown. Their wings have scalloped outer margins.
The larvae, when full grown, are dark in color but are
marked with several narrow yellow stripes running the length
of the body, and with a patch of yellow just back of the head.

FIG. 56. — Larvse of a Datana Moth
(Yellow-necked Apple-caterpillars) .

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

Still more distinctive as
the resting position.
Both ends of the body
are raised so that the
side view of the insect
presents an outline al-
most semicircular, which
renders it very easy
to recognize. These
larvae may often be found
in great clusters in the
forks of branches where
they go to moult. They
are most abundant in
late summer and occa-
sionally are seriously
injurious. (See page 315,
Part II, for further de-
scription.)

52. Liparidae. Stu-
dents will generally en-
counter only one or two
members of this family.
These are the Tussock-
moths. The more com-
mon species is the White-
marked Tussock-moth. Its

FIG. 57. — Types of Moths.
Slightly reduced.

1, 2, and 3, Notodontida; 4,
Eight-spotted forester (Agaris-
tidce); 5, Beautiful wood nymph
(Agaristidai); 6, Tussock-moth
(Liparidae); 7, Lithotiida.

LEPIDOPTERA 85

most conspicuous period is during the larval stage. The
larva feeds on several common shade trees as well as on
some fruit trees. It is light in color and bears several
characteristic tufts of hair. One row of these, down the
middle of the back, is composed of short white hairs growing
in dense tufts. Just back of the head is a pair of long
pencils of blackish hairs while at the posterior end of the
body a single similar pencil is found. Other scattered
hairs are all over the body. Just back of the head, between
the base3 of the black pencils, is a bright red band and,
the head itself is reddish in color. These larvae make
cocoons composed partly of their own hairs and attached
to leaves. The females are wingless and deposit their eggs
in masses on the outside of the cocoons where they may
be found during the winter and spring.

In the New England states the two worst insect pests,
the Gypsy moth and the Brown-tail moth, are the common
representatives of this family. They are so well known,
where they occur, that they do not need description here.
They are not native American insects, but were brought
over from Europe and were accidentally liberated.

53. Agaristidae and Lithosiidae. The Agaristidce and
the Lithosiidce are two families which compare in gen-
eral outline and proportions with the Noctuids. There
are few species, not of great importance, which may
attract the attention of the beginner on account of the
striking beauty of their forms. Among these, in the first
family, are the Eight-spotted Forester, black, with eight yel •
low spots on the wings, below medium size and feeding,
in the larval stage, on various vines, as grape and Virginia
creeper; and the Beautiful Wood-nymph, a still more
striking species, which may be recognized from the figure.
(See Fig. 57, 4 and 5, page 84.)

sc>

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

The family Lithosiidce will
probably be encountered in
the form of one small spe-
cies, which is colored a deli-
cate, though somewhat faded,
pinkish red, and striped with
black. There is no really
appropriate common name
for this insect.

54. Geometridse. This
family is well known to all.
The larvae, variously called
"span-worms," "inch-
worms " and " measuring-
worms," were among the
earliest of our insect friends.
Their presence upon our
clothing was welcomed as
presaging new clothes and
we were not even squeamish
about letting them crawl on
our fingers. They lack the
three pairs of pro-legs in
the middle of the body and
so must travel by looping
themselves along, hence,
another common name the
"loopers." They are the most
glender of the caterpillars,
are frequently green, but

FIG. 58. — Types of Moths (Geo-
metrina). Slightly reduced.

LEPIDOPTERA 87

often striped and sometimes colored to imitate twigs or
stems where they rest, so that they appear, when stand-
ing straight out from the resting place, as is their habit,
like lit tie- spurs from the twigs.

There are many species of the loopers and several are
distinctly injurious. The adults have slender bodies and
usually rather broad and very thin wings, the appearance
indicating delicacy and frailness quite different from the
more robust Noctuid-like forms in the preceding families.
Their colors are usually sober but not dark. The light
grays predominate but not a few are green. The fore-
wings are frequently scalloped.

Important species are the Canker-worms,* injurious on
orchard and shade trees, and loopers which feed on cur-
rants, gooseberries, raspberries and many other plants and
quite frequently are named for the plants on which they
feed>

Bagworms (Psychidce) are represented by one or two
common species only. The most common one of these is
the Evergreen Eagworm which feeds on apple, and on
junipers, maples, locusts, and many other shade trees.
The males are small, clear-winged moths which are seldom
seen. The insect will be identified by the bag which it
makes and in which the greater part of the life is spent.
The females never leave the bags but deposit their eggs
within them and die. Young larvae make small cone-
shaped bags, which they "wear" all the time, enlarging
them as they grow, finally attaching them to twigs and
pupating within them. The figure will enable the reader
to recognize the insect. This species is often seriously
injurious. A smaller species feeds on maples and is less
conspicuous and troublesome.

* See page 311, Part II.

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

FIG. 59.-Coeoons of the Bag-worm
Moth (Psychidce).

FIG. 60. — Nest of Tent-caterpil-
I:.™ (Lotfcttmputo). Compare
with Fig. 61. Reduced.

Slug-caterpillars (Eudei-
dce) represent another rather
small family which is known
much better through its
larvae than through the
moths. The moths are usu-
ally dark colored, though
some species are marked
with rich greens and are
very beautiful. The larvae
are not like ordinary cater-
pillars, but the legs are
reduced in size so much
that the insect crawls on

the under surface of its
^ much Uke the common

slug or a snail. These
slug-caterpillars are usually
brightly colored and take
the most bizarre shapes.
All are small. One species
is clothed with spines that
are slightly poisonous and
irritating. This is the "sad-
dle-back," so-called from
the marking on the back
which suggests a green sad-
dle on a rich, dark reddish
saddle-cloth. It feeds mainly
on apple and some orna-

mental shrubs.

.„
Tent-caterpillars (Lasio-

campidce) are represented by

LEPIDOPTERA

one or two species and may be injurious. A description of
the most important species will be found on page 313,
Part II.

55. Sphingidae. The Sphingidce are commonly called
sphinx moths, hawk-moths, and humming-bird moths.
The first name, as also the family name, is sug-

FIG. 61 —Nest of Fall-web-
worms in Small Apple Tree
(Arctiidoe). Reduced.

FIG. 62.— Larvae of the Catalpa
Sphinx. Reduced.

gested by the fancied resemblance of the larvae of this
family, in their characteristic resting position, to the Eygp-
tian sphinx. The adults are large, have stout bodies of
regular shape, the abdomen resembling a long and sharply
pointed bullet, and have wings which are long, narrow
and powerful. The general appearance and graceful flight

'.Ml

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

gives rise to the name Hawk-moth. From their feeding
habits comes the name Humming-bird moth. They have
rxtivmcly long tongues, adapted for sucking nectar from
the deepest flowers, like honeysuckles and morning-glories.
As the weight of these moths' bodies would not be sup-
ported by the flowers it is necessary for them to hover
or poise in the air over the flowers while they feed. They
may be seen at twilight on any summer evening and are
also attracted to the electric lights. The larvae are large,

FIG. 63. — The Tomato-worm Sphinx Larvae. Greatly reduced.

have stout fleshy bodies and usually have a backward
projecting horn at the posterior end of the body. They
are sometimes called Horn-worms. At rest they hold the
front end of the body up almost at right angles to the ab-
domen and remain motionless for long periods. The most
common examples are the Horn-worms which attack to-
matoes and tobacco.* The White-lined Sphinx and the
Clear-wing Sphinx are also abundant.

* See page 278, Part II.

LEPIDOPTERA

56. Saturniina. This super-family includes the largest
of the common moths. There are several families. The
Bombycidce includes the
Mulberry Silk-worm
which has been domestic-
ated and furnishes the silk
of commerce. The insect
is no longer found in the
wild state. It is reared
in China and Japan, in
India and in the Medi-
terranean countries, no-
tably France and Italy.
The silk industry has
been started in the
United States, but has
not proven profitable,
largely on account of the
high cost of labor, the
worms requiring con-
stant care. •

Several of our most
showy moths belong to
the Saturniidce, or giant -
silk-worm family.
Among these are the
Cecropia, the Polyphe-
mus, the Promethea, the
lOj the smallest of the
common species, and the
Luna. The latter is of
a delicate green color, large size, and possesses on
the hind wings long and gracefully curved tails which

FIG. 64. — Types of Moths (Sphingidos) .
Reduced.

1, The Modest sphinx; 2, Achemon sphinx;
3, Pandorus sphinx; 4, Tomato-worm moth;
5, the Lined sphinx; 6, Tersa sphinx.

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

make it easily the most striking of the moths in ap-
pearance.

The Ceratocampidce are called the Royal Moths and

• include the Regal moth,

probably the largest of
the whole group, the larvae
of which is called the Wal-
nut-worm or the " hickory
horned-devil," and the
Imperial-moth. The Regal
is of a rich, reddish brown
color, splotched with yel-
low, while the imperial is
yellow with variable pur-
plish-brown shadings.
Both have rather nar-
rower fore-wings than
the Saturniids. Smaller
species of this family are
the Rosy Dryocampa and
the Senator.

With the exception
of the Rosy Dryocampa
and the Cecropia, which
are sometimes injurious
to shade trees, none of
these species can be con-
sidered of economic im-
portance, but the family
will, nevertheless, remain

FIG. 65.— Types of Moths (Saturmida). one most generally inter-
Reduced, esting on account of the
5, pVo^eThTarinaie101 3' Polyphemu8; 4' Luna: large size of its members.

LEPIDOPTERA

67. Butterflies. Butterflies comprise two super-famil-
ies, the Papilionina or true Butterflies and the Hesperiina
or Skippers. They differ from moths in the antennal
characters already mentioned, in the fashion of holding
the wings while at rest and in the fact that they fly ex-
clusively in daytime while moths usually fly at night.

FIG. 66. — Larva of Polyphemus
Moth. Reduced.

FIG. 67. — Stages of the Mulberry
Silk-worm Moth. Reduced.

Other characters are less tangible but are, to the expert,
no less distinctive. Skippers usually have the antennal
club ending in a hook. They have an erratic, jerky
method of flight and when at rest usually hold the hind
wings horizontal while the front wings are held ver-
tical, like the wings of the true butterflies, and the bod-
ies give the impression of being stouter and more hairy.

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

Their larvae may be recognized by the fact that the
bodies are very much constricted behind the head and so
have distinct necks.

FIG. 68.— Types of Moths (Cithervn,iida>) . Reduced.

a, Regal; 6, Imperial; c, Honey-locust Moth; d, Stigma Moth; e, Rosy Maple-
moth.

58. Papilionidae. The Swallow-tails comprise, with a less
common group Parnassians, the family Papilionidce. They

LEPIDOPTERA

may easily be recognized, as they are the largest of our but-
terflies, and have tail-like projections on the hind wings.
The larvae have scent organs on the first thoracic seg-
ment. These are two orange-red, horn-shaped, extrusible
structures which are
thrust out when the
insect is disturbed. They
give off a strong and un-
usual, but not exactly
unpleasant, odor. Swal-
low-tail pupae or chrys-
alids are supported by
the button of silk at the
tail end and by the gir-
dle around the middle.
They are angular and
have two short projec-
tions at the front end
of the body. Swallow-
tail larvae are rarely nu-
merous enough to be in-
jurious.

The species common
over the greater part of
the eastern United States
are few in number.
The Black Swallow-tail
is -r probably the most
common and is the

smallest. Its larvae feed on celery, rue, parsley and sim-
ilar plants. The ground color is black and on the hind
wings are numerous yellow spots and some shading with
light metallic blue. The Tiger Swallow-tail or Turnus is

FIG. 69. — Larvae of the Rosy Maple-
moth. Reduced.

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

the largest common
species. The color
is yellow with black
markings except in
certain females,
which may be black.
They are distin-
guishable from the
"Black Swallow-
tail" by their larger
size. Ajax or the
Zebra is a showy
species with white
wings striped with
black and marked
with red. The tails
are longer and nar-
rower in this species
than in the others
and it is otherwise
unmistakable. The
larvae feed on paw-
paw.

Troilus is black
with olive green
shading on the hind
wings. It has no
pure yellow markings

FIG. 70.— Types of But-
terflies (Papilionidoe).
Reduced one-half.

o, Papilio philenor; b, J*.
turnus; c, P. ajax; d, Par-
nassius sp.

LEPIDOPTERA

above. The tails are
more rounded in this
species than in the
others.

Philenor is black on
the fore wings but the
hinds wings are the color
of green "changeable"
silk above and of green-
ish-blue silk spotted with
large orange-red spots
below. It also is un-
mistakable.

Cresphontes is com-
mon in the more south-
ern portions of the
country. It is the largest
of our butterflies and is,
in general, black with
conspicuous yellow
markings above, while
it is yellow with black
markings beneath. It
is a very handsome and
showy insect. Its larva
feeds on citrus trees in the
South, where it is called
the "orange puppy."

FIG. 71.— Types of Butter-
flies. (Papilionidce) . Re-
duced one-half.

o, Papilio turnus glaucus; b,
P. troilus; c, d, P. polyxenes; e,
P. cresphontea.

SCHOOL K.vm.MoLOGY

In the northern pan <•! its range it feeds on prickly
ash (Xantlio.ri/lon).

59. Pieridae. This group includes all our common yel-
low and white butterflies. They are mostly of medium

to small size and may at
times be injurious. There are
many species, but only a few
which are important. The
larvae are usually green and
are not conspicuous. The pupae
resemble those of the Papilios,
but have only one pointed
projection from the anterior
end of the body and are, of
course, smaller. The best-
known species is the "imported
cabbage-worm " or Cabbage
Butterfly.* There are other
native and imported species
which closely resemble this
one in general appearance and
habits.

The more common yellows
are the Clover Butterflies or
" sulphurs " of which there are
many species. Their larvae may

be found in clover fields and one species seems to be
becoming a pest in alfalfa fields. Several kinds, smaller
than the ordinary clover butterflies may be noted. Among
these will be the Dainty Sulphur. The largest of our Pierids
is a beautiful insect with wings of pure unmarked sulphur
yellow. It is called the Cloudless sulphur. Another
* See page 282, Part II.

FIG 72.— Larva of Papilio
cresphontes.

LEPIDOPTERA

species common on the hills of the Middle West is the
Dogs-heady a form slightly larger than the common sul-
phur but with the black markings
so arranged as to picture a dog's
head in profile on each front wing,
though some imagination may be
necessary to see the picture.

A group of whites which have
the tips of the front wings suffused
with grange is known as the
orange-tips and forms the third
group of Pierids. They are less
common than the whites and yellows.

60 Lycaenidae. The Gossamer-
wings are the smallest and most
delicate of the butterflies. Included
here are the "blues," the "cop-
pers" and the "hair-streaks."
The larvae are small and slug-like.
The chrysalids are supported like
those of the two families already
described, but they are never an-
gular in outline. The early stages
in this family are seldom seen.
There are several species of the blues
that are familiar objects. They
frequent moist places and often are
found about the culverts in a country
road. They may also be seen flying
over any meadow. Some of the blues
have very delicate tails on the

hind wings. This is true also of several *' hair-streaks."
Their larvae feed largely on plants in the pea family.

FIG. 73.— Types of But-
terflies. First four,
Pieridce; last four, Ly-
ccenidce. Reduced one-
half.

100

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

The "hair-streaks"
may be bluish or slaty
black above, but are
lighter beneath and are
marked with delicate lines
of white or red on the
under side. There are
many species, but few are
common. They are usu-
ally slightly larger than
the blues.

The ' ' coppers ' ' may
be dull colored, black,
brown or tan, but gen-
erally have some portion
of the wings coppery with
metallic luster. There are
but two or three species
which we may consider
common. They are less
delicate than the other
groups of the family, but
are by no means robust.

61. Nymphalidae. With
the exception of a few
subtropical forms which
occur in the Far South,

FIG. 74. — Types of Butterflies
(Nymphalidip). Reduced
about one-half.

a, a Fritillary; b, the Thistle
butterfly; c, the Red Admiral; d,
the Mourning-cloak ; e, the Red-
spotted Purple ; /, the Viceroy; g,
the Monarch; h, the Regal FritillaT.

LEPIDOPTERA 101

all the remaining species of butterflies may be ascribed
to this group, which is by far the most extensive of the
butterfly families. It is divided into several sub-families,
which are widely distributed.

The larvae have varied shapes and habits. Many are
clothed with spines or fleshy filaments, others are of un-
usual and irregular shapes; few are difficult to recognize,
although it is hard to characterize them as a group.
The pupae or chrysalids also vary in shape but they
always hang from the tip of the abdomen and lack the
girdle. Not many species in the family have economic
importance. The large reddish-brown butterfly with black
markings, abundant everywhere throughout the summer,
is the " monarch." It is the only common representative
we have of one sub-family (Euploeince) . It is found
practically all over the habitable world, but survives the
winter only in the warmer portions of this country, mi-
grating northward in the spring and early summer. The
larva feeds on milkweed. It is a smooth, greenish-
yellow caterpillar with narrow black markings and has
a pair of long, fleshy filaments at each end of the
body.

Another cosmopolitan species in a different sub-family
is the Thistle-butterfly. This is of medium size, of brown
color with markings of black, white and red, lighter,
and marked with bluish, eye-like circles beneath. Its larva
is a spiny caterpillar which feeds on thistles. The Red-
admiral, nearly related to the preceding, is distinguished
by the red bar across the angle of the fore wing, and the
mourning cloak, another relative, by its larger size, bluish-
purple color and golden margin of the wings. The Fritil-
laries, Silver-spots, or Argynnids, include many forms vary-
ing in size from small to quite large, but all resembling

102

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

ra?HH

each other in general color, brown with black markings
above and with silver spots on the under side of the
hind wings, and all having wings of regular outline.
Our largest common ones are Cybele and Idalia, the latter
having the hind wings nearly all black. The Angle-wings
include several more common species and the name itself
briefly describes them.

The Wood-nymphs are dull brown in color, frail in ap-
pearance and faintly marked with round black spots or

with circles. The Meadow-
browns are similar but deeper
colored and marked on the angle
of the fore wings with yellow
circles or spots.

/Jff The "purple emperors" are

moderately large and are nor-
mally purplish black with white
markings. The common one is
Astyanax. This is almost entirely
purple, but has small white
and reddish markings near the
angles of the wings. Another
one just as common is the Vice-
roy, so called because it departs
from the color of its nearest
relatives and has acquired almost

exactly the coloration of the monarch. This is explained
as a process of natural selection due to the fact that
the monarch is distasteful to birds while the group to
which the viceroy belongs is not. By acquiring the color
of the monarch the viceroy acquires also a certain de-
gree of immunity from bird attack. This selective process
is termed mimicry.

FIG. 75. — Larva of Viceroy
Butterfly Preparing to
Form Chrysalis.

LEPIDOPTERA

103

62. Hesperiina. The skippers have been sufficiently
described already. While our species are rather numerous
they are difficult, for the most part, to separate. The
larvse have been mentioned but the chrysalids or, rather,
pupae, differ from those of other butterflies in that they

FIG. 76. — Viceroy Butterfly Emerging from Chrysalis. Slightly en-
larged.

are enclosed in poorly constructed, flimsy silken cocoons.
Most skippers are of brownish or brownish-black color.
A few are nearly white or silvery. Many have extensive
markings of a yellow tan color. Our largest skipper is
the Silver-spot. This insect expands more than two inches,

104

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

is of dark brown color and has a conspicuous silvery spot
on the under side of the hind wing where it furnishes a

FIG. 77.— Types of Lepidoptera. Skippers (Hesperiina). Reduced
about one-third.

means of ready recognition for the insect at rest. The
beginning student will know the rest of the skippers
as a group rather than individually.

LEPIDOPTERA 105

TABLE FOR THE SEPARATION OF SOME OF THE MORE IM-
PORTANT GROUPS OF

LEPIDOPTERA.

(On account of the wing-venation characters involved in the
determination of some families, no attempt will be made to
make this table complete.)

A. Antennae with a knob or club at the tip. Butterflies and
Skippers.

B. Club with a recurved hook. Skippers. Hesperiina.
BB. Antennal club without hook. Mostly Butterflies. Pa-
pilionina.
C. Size large, hind wings with tail-like projections.

Swallow-tails. Papilionidce.

CC. Size variable. Hind wings without the tails, except
in smaller forms.
D. Colors white or yellow with or without black

markings. Pierids. Pieridce.
DD. Colors not white or yellow.
• E. Size small; colors usually blue or bluish; or
coppery with metallic reflections. Many forms
with very delicate tails on hind wings. Wings
very thin and delicate. Gossamer-wings. Ly-
ccenidce.

EE. Size and color variable but never as de-
scribed above. Usually medium to large
forms. Front legs abortive, not fitted for
walking. Nymphalidce.
AA. Antennas without knob at tip. Moths.

B. Moths with a frenulum, Bristle or bristles at base of hind

wing, overlapping base of front wing.
C. Wings more or less transparent.

D. Size small; body dark in color, short and stout.
Wings transparent, short and rounded. Front
wings noticeably larger. Larvae forming bag-like
cocoons. Bag-warm moths. Psychidce.
DD. Bodies slender. Wings long and narrow, of more
nearly equal length. Hind wings or both fore

106 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

and liinfl wings, clear. Clear-wing moths, Se-
siidos.
CC. Wings entirely clothed with scales.

D. Size uniformly small to very small. Wings usu-
ally narrowed; hind wings nearly as large as the
fore wings. Micro-Lepidoptera.
E. Wings fringed with delicate hairs. Size usu-
ally very small. Tineina.
EE. Wings not fringed. Size usually larger. Tor-

tricina and Pyralidina.
DD. Size usually larger than the Micros*

E. Size larger than medium; body stout. Front
wings long and rather narrow; hind wings
small.

F. Outer margin of front wings long. Car-
penter moths. Cossidce.

FF. Outer margin of front wings short. Hawk-
moths. Sphingidce.

EE. Moths with size variable but usually medium.
Wings usually of normal proportions.

Several common and important families
belong here. These can be distinguished
further only by wing-venation.

Notodontidoe.
ArctiidcB.
NoduidcK.
Liparidce.
Agaristidce, etc.
BB. Moths without a frenulum on the hind wings.

C. Size medium to very large. Wings usually rather

broad. Giant silk-worms, etc. Saturniina.
CC. Size smaller. Bodies stout and hairy. Tent-cater-
pillar, etc. LasiocampidcB. (

CHAPTER X
i

COLEOPTERA

CHILDREN and adults alike are attracted by the beau-
tiful colors of the butterflies and moths; farmers notice
and take an interest in any insect forms that threaten
their crops; philosophers have for ages past studied the
social insects; we are all forced to give a certain amount
of attention to flies and mosquitoes and to other forms
that disturb our comfort, and medical science is taking an
interest in the same forms, of late years, for rather differ-
ent reasons; but entomologists have, almost since the be-
ginning of the science, shown a decided preference for the
beetles. This is because of the number of species, the
order including more forms than any other one order, their
ease of collection, their universal distribution, and because
of their hard body covering which renders them easy to
mount and permanent in collections. The order has
been better classified than any other of the large orders
and is easier to study.

63. General Characteristics. Beetles have four wings,
the front pair hardened and forming a shield-like covering
for the membranous hind wings. They have biting
mouth-parts and develop from grubs, indirectly. Their
entire body covering is, like their wing-covers, or "elytra,"
hardened rather more than is the case in other insects.

There are two sub-orders; the first, called Coleoptera
Genuina, Genuina, or merely Coleoptera, includes all the
species which do not have snouts; the second, Rhyn-

107

108 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

chophora, includes the snout beetles. Larvae of Cole-
optera are typically six-footed, with sometimes a sort of
pro-leg at the tip of the abdomen. Some of the borers
have lost their feet through disuse. The larvae of snout
beetles are entirely footless. They are stout bodied, usu-
ally slightly curved beneath and humpbacked. They are
distinguished from some Hymenopterous larvae mainly by
their more distinct heads and stouter jaws. Larvae of
Genuina have many forms, some fleshy and cylindrical,
others hardened like the adults and of dark colors and
still others intermediate between these two types.

64. Food Habits. Adults and larvae of some beetles are
plant eaters, and are, many of them, among our most
important insect enemies. Many beetles are scavengers,
feeding on decaying animal and plant substances. One
is parasitic on beavers, but animal parasites are rare
among the beetles. Many beetles bore in solid wood,
both dead and alive, and many burrow in the ground
and live on the roots of plants.

As might be expected from the number of species
there are many families, and a considerable proportion of
these may be recognized from a few simple characters.
Space will not permit the mention of all, even of the
common forms, but those families having the greatest
number of important species will be briefly described.

65. Cincindelidae. The Tiger-beetks are usually of me-
dium size and somewhat flattened in form, with the
elytra broader than the pro-thorax and head. All species
have fairly long legs and bright colors. The common
species exhibit almost no variation in form and little in
size, the easily noted differences being in color. They
are encountered in warm, sunny situations, along paths,
dusty roads and railroad tracks, where they fly up and

COLEOPTERA

109

alight again some ten or fifteen yards
ahead of, but always facing the disturber.
The larvae are fleshy, white and cyl-
indrical. They live in holes in the
ground; and from the mouths of these
burrows capture other insects. They
are held in the holes by a forward pro-
jecting hook on the abdomen near the
posterior end. Tiger-beetle holes may
be found in great numbers in banks
or even in level ground. The adults
are also predaceous and capture other
insects. Tiger beetles have five-jointed
tarsi on all legs and thread-like antennae.
66. Carabidse. Ground-beetles have
also five-jointed tarsi and thread-like
antennse. They are, in a very general
way, flattened and have long legs, like
the tiger-beetles. No one acquainted
with the tiger-beetle form will mistake
them for ground-beetles and other fam-
ilies are easy to distinguish from these
two. Ground-beetles are generally black,
but some are bright colored, metallic
green and some shades of red and yel-
low being present in many species.
They range from small to very large.
As the name implies, they are found on
the ground, under logs, stones and
trash piles. They are attracted to lights

FIG. 78. — Types of Beetles. Ground-beetles
(Carabidce). Reduced one-third.

110

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

JWtt

•*?••

in great numbers.
Some of the ground-
beetles are distinctly
valuable as destroyers
of injurious caterpil-
lars, notably, those of
the gypsy-moth. In
numbers of species the
ground-beetles are near
the head of the list,
there being about a
thousand from the
United States.

67. Aquatic Beetles.
There are three com-
mon families of beetles
that are aquatic in
habit. They may be
recognized by their
regular oval outlines,
their legs fitted for
swimming, and the
uniformly dark colors,
as well as by the habi-
tat. The Whirligig-
beetles (Gyrinidce), are

FIG. 79.— Types of Beetles.
Slightly reduced.

Upper row , Tiger-beetles
(Cicindelidce) ; next two rows,
Aquatic forms (Hydrophilidae,
Gyrin idae, and Dytiscidae) ; fourth
row, Carrion beetles, (Silphidce) ;
fifth row, Staphylinidce; sixth
row, Lady-bug beetles and larva
(Coccinellidce); lower row, left,
Ptinidce; center, Erotylidce; right,
Larder beetle (Dermestidce) .

COLEOPTERA 111

the small beetles that are seen swimming in numbers on the
surface of the water, the common name coming from the
habit of swimming rapidly in circles. The scientific name
for the family is also suggestive of this habit. They do
not exceed three-eighths of an inch in length and some
common forms are not more than half that long. They
are called " money-bugs" and "sweet-bugs" by children.

Larger, usually, than the whirligig-beetles are the
Water-scavengers or Hydrophilidce. They are pointed oval
in shape, both ends of the body being narrowed in about
the same degree. On the under side of the thorax is a
long spine-like process that serves as a keel. They live
mostly under the surface of the water and fly to the
lights at night. One of the largest species may, in some
localities and at certain times, be collected by the hun-
dreds under a single electric light near the water. The
common form is more than an inch long and shining black
in color.

Predaceous diving-beetles (Dytiscidce) rival the Hydro-
philids in size but are flatter and have the heads more
squarely cut off. They also lack the keel. The larger
species are of a dull olive-green color, marked with
yellow and smaller ones are black and yellow, sometimes
being mostly yellow. They also may be attracted to
lights. Their larvae are called Water-tigers. They are
long and slender, pointed at the rear end, and have power-
ful jaws. They are, without exception, the fiercest ani-
mals that live in the water. The larva of the largest
common diver is three inches in length.

68. Scavenger Beetles. Several families of beetles,
not typically scavengers, include species that feed on re-
fuse and carrion. In two families, however, almost all
forms feed on decaying organic matter. These are the

112 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

Carrion-beetles (Silphidce), and the Short-winged Scavengers
(Staphylinidce) . Carrion-beetles are stout bodied or broad
and flattened and have clubbed antennae. Their elytra
and body walls are not so hard as in most beetles. They
feed, as larvae and as adults, on decaying flesh. The
stout-bodied forms have wing covers shortened but not
to the same degree as in the next family. The stout-
bodied carrion beetles are called burying-beetles. They
take the bodies of small animals such as mice and roll or
drag them to suitable places, where they bury them and
in them deposit their eggs, thus providing food for their
young. The more flattened species work their way under
the bodies of heavier animals where they feed and lay their
eggs, both adults and larvae frequently being found in the
same animal.

The Staphylinids, sometimes called rove-beetles, have
very slender bodies and extremely short wing covers.
These characters alone will distinguish them. They resem-
ble earwigs but do not have the forceps-like appendage of
the earwigs. In habit they vary. The majority feed on
decaying vegetable matter, but many others eat carrion
and are found with the carrion-beetles.

69. Coccinellidae. The Lady-bugs get their scientific
name from the food habit of a large number of the spe-
cies. These prey upon scale insects or Coccids and the
name for this family signifies Coccid-killers. Many of
them prey also upon aphids and other small insects.
They have almost hemispherical, usually brightly colored
bodies, the colors predominating being orange, yellow and
red with black dots. Some species are pure black, others
have only a few orange or red spots on a black ground
color. All are small and many are among our best-known
beetles. They, like the measuring worms, are among the

COLEOPTERA 113

few insects of early memory with which we were on
friendly terms. Many harmless superstitions and rhymes
describing them, some dating back hundreds of years
and originating in widely different localities, are connected
with the lady-bugs.*

Lady-bug larvae are soft-bodied, dull-colored with
brighter spots, rather stout and with pointed abdomens.
They are found in colonies of aphids and scales, often with
the adults. Eggs and pupae may be found in the same
situations. Some few species of lady-bugs feed on foliage.
One attacks beans, another squash vines. They are not
important as pests of these plants and ordinary control
measures easily keep them in check.

Cucujidce and Dermestidce are of interest mainly as
destroyers of stored products of various kinds. The
former are slender, very much flattened species, and the
common pests belonging to the family are of very small
size. The Saw-toothed Grain-beetle is the most abundant
and destructive species. It attacks stored grain and grain
products, and also such foods as dried raisins and cur-
rants. The Dermestids are small, stout-bodied insects
of dark colors or checkered with red, white and black.
The Buffalo-moth, attacking carpets and other products of
wool, feathers and fur, is the larva of one of these beetles
(Anthrenus scrophularice) , and another member of the same
genus attacks insects in collections and other museum

* "Maikatt
Flug weg
Stuff weg

Bring me morgen goet wedder med."

Folk rhyme from the Netherlands. Thorpe, "Northern Myth-
ology."

"May-cat, fly away, hasten away,
Bring me to-morrow good weather with you."

114

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

FIG. 80.— Types of Beetles.

1, Fireflies (Lampyridn); 2, Me-
tallic wood-borers (Buprestidce); 3,
Click-beetles (Elaleridae) ; 4, Larva of
click beetle or wireworm.

specimens. A larger species,
black, with shoulders of a
dull yellow, is the Larder-beetle
and destroys or spoils food-
stuffs, mostly animal products.
They will also, like other
members of the family, act
at times as scavengers, eating
dead and decaying animals.

70. The Click-beetles (Ela-
teridce), are well known and
are remembered with the
lady-bugs, as friends of early
days when they bore the name
of " Snapping " or "Flopover"
bugs. They are extremely
hard-shelled, even for bee-
tles, and have the joint
between the prothorax and
the rest of the body flexible
and fitted internally with a
sort of spring, by means of
which they are enabled to
spring, when resting upon
their backs, some distance in
the air and, sometimes after
repeated trials, to come down
right side up and ready to
travel. They are of dark
colors, black and olive-brown
predominating. The largest
common species is the Eyed
Elater, black with gray mark-

COLEOPTERA

115

ing and with two large, velvety, eye-like spots on the
pro-thorax. Some shin'ng black species rival this in size
and are frequently seen.

Larvse of click-beetles are slender, cylindrical, hard-
bodied and waxy yellow in color.
They are called wire-worms and
live in the soil and in decaying
wood. Some species injure the
roots of plants and destroy sprout-
ing seeds.

71. The Metallic Wood-Borers
(Buprestidce) , also have a very hard
body covering. They are generally
heavier-bodied than the click-
beetles, although some forms are
very slender, and have the pro-
thorax slightly narrower than the
base of the wing-covers. The adults
are sometimes found on flowers FIG. 81. -The "Eyed Elater"

and on the sunny side of tree-
trunks. Larvse of Buprestids are
wood-borers and are called, on
account of the fact that the tho-
racic segments are very broad while
the rest of the body is slender
and cylindrical, Flat-headed borers.
This designation separates them
from other beetle larvae which bore
in wood. Some important orchard
and forest-tree insects belong
here. Among these may be men-
tioned the Flat-headed Borer and the Red-necked Cane-
borer. (See page 294, Part II.)

(A laus oculatus) . (After
W.E.Rumsey.) Reduced
one-half.

FIG. 82.— Flat-headed
Wood-borers, Larva3
of Buprestidce.

116 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

72. The Fireflies, Lightning-
bugs or Lantern-bugs (Lam-
pyridce), differ from the other
families in the group in that
they are soft bodied and have
soft elytra. The under side of
the posterior abdominal segments
of some species is luminescent
and gives off flashes of light
when the insect flies or even
when it is at rest. As they fly
at night they are quite conspic-
uous and attract attention.
They form the basis for many
superstitions. In the tropics are
found many luminous species of
this family as well as some
Homopterous insects which have
similar light-giving properties.
There are many Lampyrids

A A ± which are day fliers and not

luminous. Among these are the
^_ soldier-beetles, slender, yellow

beetles, marked with black,
about five-eighths of an inch
long, which are extremely abun-
dant on goldenrod and other late
summer flowers.

73. Lamellicorn Beetles.
Two families called lamellicorn
beetles have antennae with

FIG. 83.-Types of Beetles clubs formed of thin, plate-like
(Scarabceidce). structures or lamellae; hence the

COLEOPTERA

117

name. The two families agree in being composed of large-
sized beetles with stout bodies. There are, however, many
quite small species.

Scarabceidce. Most of the lamellicorn beetles belong
to this family. The best-known species are large, but
many more are small. Their stout, oval bodies and their
antennae, on which the plates forming the club fit close
together like one piece, distinguish them from other beetles.

FIG. 84. — Rose-chafers (Scarabceidce}, on Apple-Leaves. Reduced
one-half,

The number of species is large and their activities varied.
The larvae are fleshy, white, strongly curved grubs and
live, for the most part, in the soil.

The group of Scarabaeids embraces species which are
scavengers. Some of these feed on animal matter, but
the more common ones live in or about decaying vege-
table matter and the excrement of domestic animals.

The most interesting of these scavengers are the Turn-

118

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

bk-bugs. These form balls
of manure in which they
lay their eggs, and which
they roll off to some safe
place and conceal in the
earth. Related species
make holes in the ground
under a pile of manure
and fill these holes with
manure in which they lay
their eggs. The tumble-
bugs are typical Scara-
bseids and one of them was
the sacred beetle or Scarab
of the ancient Egyptians.
Quite a complex system of
mythology was built up
about the habits of this
insect. The student will
find it interesting to con-
sult some standard ency-
clopaedia and there get
additional information re-
garding these myths.

There are no beetles of
large size more abundant
than those known as June-
bugs or May-beetles. They
represent a second group of

FIG. 85.— Types of Beetles.
Three-fourths natural size.

o, Rhinoceros-beetle (Scarabcndae):
remaining figures, stag-beetles (Luca-
nidae).

COLEOPTERA 119

Scarabceidce. These common beetles are brown in color,
oval in shape and from one-half to three-quarters inch
in length. They appear in early spring and fly to the
lights in great numbers. They do considerable harm to
vegetation by eating foliage, in the adult stage, but it
is as larvae that they are the greatest nuisances. The
common white-grub or "mully-grub" is the larval form
of these insects. (See page 236, Part II.)

Rose-chafers or Rose-bugs are among the smaller Scar-
abseids. They are rather slender for this family and have
comparatively long legs armed with many stout spines.
Their larvae resemble white grubs, but are smaller and
flatter, although similarly curved. These larvae live in the
soil, where they do some damage, but the species com-
mits the most of its depredations in the adult stage. The
beetles appear about the time the roses bloom and injure
them by eating both leaves and flowers. They are also
pests of the grape, of apple and of a large number of our
cultivated plants, mostly trees and shrubs, and will even
eat the leaves of sassafras, which is generally avoided by
insects. Rose-chafers are hard to kill, as arsenicals act on
them slowly, and they may do most of their damage be-
fore the poisons cause their death. No remedy, other
than spraying, has proven satisfactory.

Related to the rose-chafers are several species of Flower-
beetles. One of these is green and brown in color and is
called, in many parts of the South, the June-bug. It
may more properly be termed the Southern June-bug.
The flower beetles are more flattened than the other spe-
cies we have considered. They are pointed toward the
head and bluntly rounded at the posterior end. They
frequent flowers and some of them fly with a loud buzzing
noise and are so called Bumble-beetles. Another com-

120

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

mon leaf -eater is the Spotted Pelidnota. This is of a light
brown color with a few round black dots on the wing-
covers. It has much the shape of the June-bugs but is
larger. It sometimes injures grapes by eating the foliage.
Some very large beetles belong with the Scarabceidce.
Our largest species is the Rhinoceros Beetle. It is two
inches long, very stout bodied, olive-green and black.

Two large horns are
borne by the males, one
on the head and one on
the thorax, and these
give the insect the ap-
pearance of a miniature
rhinoceros. Related
species in the West In-
dies are six inches in
length.

Lucanidce. The Stag-
beetles compose the
second family of the

lamellicorns. They are a little more elongate and flat-
tened than most of the Scarabaeids and their an-
tennal clubs are less compact. Their larvae are similar,
though usually larger, and are found In rotting wood.
Males of some species have very strongly developed man-
dibles and are often called Pinching-bugs. There are few
species and these are not important.

74. Cerambycidae. These insects are called, as adults,
the Long-horned Wood-borers and as larvae, the Round-headed
Borers. The adults are slender, elongate beetles with an-
tennae unusually long, sometimes several times as long as
the bodies. They are among the most graceful and at-
tractive of the beetles. They have tarsi that are ap-

FIG. 86. — Typical " Lamellicorn "
Larva (Lucanidce).

COLEOPTERA

121

parently four-jointed, the third joint
being bilobed and the fourth joint
almost concealed at the base of the
lobes, and the fifth joint, which is
longer, appearing to be the fourth.
This character will not often be
needed to identify members of this
family. The larvae bore in the solid
wood of many trees and are often
destructive. The Round-headed Apple-
tree Borer and the Locust-borer belong
here. (See page 292, Part II, and Fig.
211, page 293.)

75. Chrysomelidae. The Leaf -beetles,
as these insects are called, include
many species, among which are a
great number of the most destructive
insects. They are small, usually
rounded beetles. Some of them may
be mistaken for lady-bugs, but the tarsi
will distinguish them, as the tarsi in
this family are the same as in the
one preceding. The larvae vary greatly
in form. Some feed on the foliage
of plants with the adults, others live
in the soil and attack roots. The
Colorado Potato-beetle is the best known
and one of the largest of the Chry-
somelids. (See page 276, Part II.)
Many leaf-beetles have the hind legs
strongly developed and are able to
leap actively. These are the Flea-
beetles. Different flea-beetles attack

FIG. 87.— Types of
Beetles. Long-horned
Wood-borers (Ceram-
bycidce).

122

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

FIG. 88.— Round-headed Wood-
borers, Larvae of Cerambycidce.

mmsmmmmfmmamimmmmm

FIG. 89.— Types of Beetles.

Leaf-beetles (Chrysomelidce).

many crops. The small beetles
attacking cucumbers (see
page 272, Part II), and
the one that works on aspa-
ragus are Chrysomelids. So
is the Elm Leaf-beetle. One
species works in the spring on
apple foliage and later in the
season on locust. Its larvae
mine in the leaves of the locust
and the insect is called the
Locust Leaf-beetle. It is brown
with a black band down the
middle of the back and is
flatter than most of the leaf
beetles, and somewhat wedge-
shaped.

Bruchidce include a few
small species with tarsi like
the Cerambycidce and with
stout bodies and shortened
wing-covers. Their larvae
feed within the seeds of peas,
beans and other legumes.
They will be recognized usu-
ally by their habitat. They
are known as Bean- and Pea-
weevils.*

76. Meloidae. The Blister-
beetles are soft bodied, elon-
gate, cylindrical beetles with
constricted prothorax and slug-
* See page 224, Part II.

COLEOPTERA 123

gish movement. Some forms will blister the skin if
crushed on it and this fact makes them of some value for
medicinal purposes. These species supply the Cantharides
or "Spanish-fly" of commerce. They feed on plants. The
old-fashioned potato beetles are blister-beetles. Some kinds
feed on clover and alfalfa, at times to such an extent as
to be pests. Larvae of blister-beetles have a curious and
very complex development. First they are active and

FIG. 90. — Asparagus Beetle, FIG. 91. — A Blister-beetle or

type of Chrysomelidoe, Oil-beetle, Meloe, sp. (Me-

Enlarged greatly. loidce). Twice natural size.

move about -to search for the insect eggs upon which they
feed. Later they attack different kinds of insects and
become parasitic. They then become fleshy and sluggish.
Some of them are of importance because they destroy
grasshopper egg masses.

77, Tenebrionidae. This family includes a considerable
number of species, few of which are either important or
conspicuous. The common name Darkling-beetles has
been given to the family. The larger members resemble
superficially the ground beetles, but have antennas larger
at the tip than at the base and have only four joints on

124

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

13.

the hind tarsi. Most of
these are found about
decaying wood and under
bark. Many species feed
on fungous growths. A
few Tenebrionids infest
stored grains and grain
products. The largest of
these is the Meal-worm.
It is nearly an inch long,
slender and parallel sided
and somewhat flattened.
The meal worms them-
selves resemble wire-
worms but are shorter and
stouter and flattened on
the under surface. They
may be found in old feed
bins where masses of part-
ly spoiled grain have been
left undisturbed. Some
of the other grain beetles
of this family are much
smaller, about an eighth
of an inch long, and are
found in company with
the saw-toothed grain
beetle.

FIG. 92.— Types of Beetles.
Natural size.

1, 2, 3, and 4, Tenebrionidce 5,
6, and 7, Blister-beetles (Meloidce);
8, MdandryidcE ; 9, Bruchidce ; 10,
Pyrochroidce ; 11, Spondylidce \ 12,
Histeridce ; 13, Trogositidce \ 14,
Cucujidae.

COLEOPTERA

125

Several minor families of beetles, especially the smaller
forms, are related to the Tenebrionids and may be found
with them about fungi.

78. Rhynchophora. This suborder of beetles contains,
as stated before, the Snout-beetles. HBOBI
These insects have the heads pro-
longed into more or less slender beaks
on the tip of which are located the
mouth-parts. The antennae are fre-
quently elbowed and are attached
to the snouts. The have other more
obscure points of difference from the
other beetles. Several families of
snout-beetles are recognized. Of these
we will mention only the more im-
portant.

• Curculionidce. Most of the insects
known as Weevils belong here, although
the term weevil may be applied to
certain others without impropriety.
A better common name is Curculios.
The curculios have snouts which are
mostly long and slender but may be
short. It is difficult to describe them
SD that the beginner may recognize
them, although the family is of the
greatest economic importance.

The Plum-curculio (see page 299,
Part II), one of the worst insects that
attacks fruits, the Nut-weevils, several
species of which, belonging to the genus
Balaninus, are found in chestnuts, hick-
ory nuts, acorns and other native nuts,

FIG. 93.— Types of
Snout-beetles (Rhyn-
chophora). Slightly
enlarged.

1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, Cur-
culionidce; 6, CatandridoR;
7, Brenthidce; 8, Rhynchi-
tidce; 9, Scolytoidea.

126

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

the Apple^weevil, the Apple-cur culio, the Strawberry-Weevil,
the Mexican Cotton Boll-weevil, see page 259, Part II, an in-
sect that invaded the Southern States by way of Mexico
and has injured the cotton-growing industry of that region
more than any other one factor, and the Alfalfa-weevil,
also an importation, at present confined to some of the
Rocky Mountain States, but a menace to the alfalfa crops
of the country in future years, are all Curculionidce and

FlQ. 94. — The Apple Curculio, Showing Different Stages (Curculioni-
dce). Enlarged. (After Riley.)

will serve to suggest the extent of the ravages of this
family.

Calandridce. The Bill-bugs, as the Calandrids are com-
monly named, include fewer species than the preceding
family, but some are quite important. The most familiar
examples are the common Granary-weevils, small, slender,
brown beetles with rather prominent snouts curving for-
ward and downward from the heads. These are every-
where found in stored grains. There are two species, one
being called the Rice-weevil, but they are similar in ap-
pearance and habits.

COLEOPTERA

127

In the Middle West, espe-
cially in muck lands, larger
bill-bugs injure corn. They
are nearly a half inch long
and rather stout bodied, and
are commonly called Corn-
Bill-bugs.

Scolytoidea. This super-
family, formerly classed as a
family, includes a great
number of species of small
insects that attack and destroy
shade, forest and fruit trees
by boring between the bark
and the wood. They are
called the engraver-beetles
because of the patterns on
the wood made by their
galleries. These can easily be
seen by removing the bark
from an infested branch.
Another common name is
the bark-beetles. The Fruit-
tree Bark-beetle (page 291 , Part
II), is the best-known ex-
ample. On account of the
numerous small round holes
which the emerging beetles
make in the bark of an in-
fested tree this insect is
better known as the Shot-hole
Borer. The group is, without
doubt, the most important

FIG. 95, — Engraver Beetles
(Scolytoidea}. Work of these
forms is shown in Fig. 96.
Enlarged.

FIG. 96. — Work of Engraver-
beetle (Scolytoidea).

128 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

of all insects from the standpoint of the timber industry.
Some members of the bark-beetle family have other habits,
as one which lives on the roots of clover.

TABLE FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE MORE COMMON
FAMILIES OF BEETLES

COLEOPTERA

A. Heads prolonged into distinct snouts bearing the mouth-
parts on the tips. .Snout Beetles. Rhynchophora.
AA. Heads not prolonged into snouts.

B. Aquatic beetles, legs fitted for swimming.

C. Palpi longer than the antennae; a keel-like structure

frequently found on under side. Hydrophilidos.
CC. Palpi not longer than the antennae.

D. Eyes divided into two parts. Gyrinidas.
DD. Eyes not divided. Dytiscidce.
BB. Not aquatic in habit.

C. Found mostly on the ground, concealed under rub-
bish or running in the open.
D. Legs slender, antennae thread-like.

E. Front vertical, mandibles pointing down-
ward. Cicindelidce.
EE. Front horizontal, mandibles pointing forward.

Carabidce.

DD. Legs usually shorter and stouter, antennae not
thread-like.

E. Scavenger beetles, found about decaying ani-
mal or vegetable matter.
F. Bodies slender, wing-covers very short.

Staphylinidce.

FF. Bodies stouter, wing-covers medium to
long.

G. Antennae gradually enlarged into a
club or with sharply rounded, compact
knob. SilphidcB.

COLEOPTERA 129

GG. Antennae with club made of flattened
plates, lamellate.
H. Plates of antennal club separated.

Lucanidce.
HH. Plates of antennal club appearing

as one piece. Scaraboeidce.

EE. Not scavengers. Feeding usually on vegeta-
tion.
F. Antenna? lamellate. Lucanidce and Scar-

abceidce, as above.
FF. Antennae not lamellate.

G. Antennae saw -like. Bodies usually slen-
der oval.

H. Body rather soft. Lampyridce.
HH. Body extremely hard.

I. Pro-thorax with angles projecting
backward and with process on
prosternum projecting backward
into groove on mesosternum.
Elateridce.

II. Pro- thorax generally narrowed
slightly; surface of body less
even than in previous family.
Buprestidce.
GG. Antennae not saw-like.

H. Tarsi with three joints easily seen.
Small, oval, nearly hemispherical,
black or yellow, red and orange mix-
tures. Coccinellidcs.

HH. Tarsi with more than three visible
joints.

I. Tarsi with four visible joints.
J. Antennae usually longer than
body. Medium to large in
size, slender. Wood borers.
Cerambycidce.

JJ. Antennae of normal length.
K. Short, oval, seed-infest-
ing species, usually found

130 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

in beans and peas. (Wing-
covers short.) Bruchi !ce.
KK. Usually small, oval or
more slender. On foliage
of plants. Chrysomelidce.
II. Hind tarsi with four joints;
front tarsi with five.
J. Bodies soft, cylindrical; pro-
thorax narrowed. Meloidce.
JJ. More flattened, harder bod-
ies; dark colors; found on
ground and in fungi. Tene-
brianidce.

CHAPTER XI
DIPTERA

79. General Characteristics. The flies (Diptera), consti-
tute one of the six major orders. They have two wings, and
sucking mouth-parts and they develop indirectly. The larvae
of most flies are called maggots. Flies have, in the place
of hind wings, a pair of more or less conspicuous knobbed
threads or balancers called halteres. Different common
names are applied to many flies and groups of flies. Mos-
quitoes, gnats, midges, etc., are among these names.
Many groups of flies have mouth-parts capable of piercing
or "biting" the skin of animals. Mosquitoes and horse-
flies are notable examples. Many other forms can eat
only exposed liquid food, the sucking tube ending in soft
flaps. Few adult flies attack vegetation but many feed
on the nectar of flowers.

80. Importance to Man. Flies are important to man
in a rather different way than most other insect pests.
While many species attack growing crops and various food
products, usually in the larval stage, their greatest im-
portance comes from the fact that they attack man and
domestic animals directly in the adult stage. In this way
they cause not only great annoyance and economic loss,
by rendering certain regions p actically uninhabitable for
civilized people, but even greater loss by carrying the
organisms, which cause certain diseases. Some are parasitic
on domestic animals and inflict much injury in this way.
The discovery of the disease-carrying powers of many species

131

132

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

that were previously considered as merely annoying pests
has opened up a new field in the study of insects

known as Medical En-
tomology.

81. Fly Larvae. Fly
larvae are footless and
sightless but fairly act-
ive in spite of these
handicaps. They feed
to some extent on grow-
ing plants, either on or
in the roots, foliage, or
fruit, but by far the
larger number of them
are scavengers, feeding
on decaying animal and
vegetable matter of
every description. Some
fly larvae grow with ex-
traordinary rapidity.
Thig ^ especiaUv tme of

™ f°rms that feed on
dead animals, probably

because the decaying flesh remains in a condition fit for
food for a limited time only.

82. Classification. The classification of the Diptera is
difficult for the beginner. This is largely because a use
of most of the descriptions and tables for the order, in-
volves wing-venation characters which are usually rather
complicated and will not be considered here. It is some-
what difficult to characterize even the more common
families so that the beginner can easily distinguish
them. For this reason no attempt will be made to de-

FIG. 97. — House-fly (above) and Stable
Fly, Showing Lapping Mouth-parts
and Piercing Beak. Enlarged.

DIPTERA

133

scribe any but the most common and easily recognized
forms.

83. Culicidae. The Mosquitoes, which form this family,
may be recognized by
their slender bodies,
long legs and by the
fringes of scales which
occur on the margins
of the wings and on
the wing veins. They
are rather below the
medium size although
there are many flies
which are much smaller.
The habits of the com-
mon forms are well
known. One species is
directly and solely re-
sponsible for the trans-
mission of yellow fever from one person to another, and
the members of the genus Anopheles are responsible for
the spread of malarial fever. Other species have to do
with the transmission of sev-
eral tropical diseases of man
and animals.

Mosquito larvae may be
found in the water, usually,
but not always, in stagnant
water. They are commonly
called wrigglers and may breed in any stagnant water,
even in what may be caught by an empty tin can in a
back yard. (See page 183, Part II, for a further discus-
sion of mosquitoes.)

FIG. 98.— The Yellow-fever Mosquito
(CuLiddce). (After Howard, U. S.
Dept. Agr.) Greatly magnified.

FIG. 99. — Mosquito Larva or
" Wriggle-tail " (Culiddoe).

134

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

84. Gnats and Midges. Several families of mosquito-
like flies are variously spoken of as Gnats and Midges.

They arc usually
4* smaller than the

I .

mosquitoesandlack
the fringes on the
wings. Some of
these are fungus
eaters and are
known as Fungus-
gnats (Mycetophi-
lidce) ; others are
largely plant eaters
in the larval stage
and form swellings
or galls in the stems
of their food plants.
These are called
gall-gnats.

Cecidomyiidce.
To this family be-

\ ^Hl longs the Hessian-

fly (see page 250,
Part II). Other
families of gnats
and midges include
forms that attack
man and domestic
animals and are
serious pest at
certain seasons in some localities, particularly the far North.

85. Tipulidae. The Crane-flies are not of great importance
but deserve mention on account of their abundance, their

FIG. 100.— Types of Flies (LKptera).

1, A mosquito (Culicidce) ; 2, Crane-flies (Tipu-
lidae); 3, Horse-flies (Tabanida).

DIPTERA

135

large size, and their peculiar form. The larger species
are unmistakable. They have bodies resembling those
of mosquitoes but with abdomen less regular in shape
and they have extremely long legs. They fly over mead-
ows and through underbrush in partially wooded tracts

and are most nu-

merous in the warm
days of late fall.
It is next to im-
possible to secure
specimens with the
full complement of
legs, since they are
so loosely attached
that the least touch
serves to detach
them. Crane-fly
larvae live in the
soil and are said
to be injurious to
the roots of plants
in the Western
States.

86. A s i 1 i d ae.
This is another
family which in-
cludes many large
species. The common name for them is Robber-flies. They
have slender, tapering, humpbacked bodies and rather
short and stout legs. They are predaceous and capture
and kill other insects of many kinds, frequently over-
powering and eating grasshoppers twice their size. The
beginner may not distinguish robber-flies from certain

FIG. 101. — Types of Flies. Above, a Midas-
fly (Midaidce) . Lower figures, robber-flies
(Asilidce). Slightly reduced.

136 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

other large flies, the Midas-flies (Midaidce), which are,
however, less numerous in species and individuals.

87. The Horse-flies. Tabanidoe. The mosquito form
and its modifications may be taken as the type of one
group of fly families. The other type is represented by
the horse-flies. They have broad, short and rather flat
bodies and short legs. They are medium to large in size
and have exceedingly powerful flight. They may often-
times be noticed circling easily around a horse in full
gallop. While few definite characters other than those of
wing venation can be cited to identify the horse flies, it
may still be noted that they give the impression of having
firm bodies of regular outline, the abdomens taper usually to a
blunt but definite point, and the hind angles of the large com-
pound eyes are usually slightly produced backward forming
an angle and giving the hind margin of the head a strongly
concave shape. The larvae live in wet soil or in the water.

Many species are annoying to horses * and cattle and
even to man. Some are called Ear-flies, some Gad-flies,
this name being applied also to some of the bot-flies,
mentioned later, and one small species with banded wings
is called the Shad-fly, or the Deer-fly, and frequently an-
noys man in low, wooded regions near the water.

88. The Black-flies, so-called (Simuliidcc) , are inter-
mediate in form between the mosqui!o-like type and the
house-fly type, having fairly slender bodies and short
legs. The family includes several species which attack
man and may be very annoying, and also some species
that attack domestic animals and poultry. The Buffalo-
gnat and the Turkey-gnat, both well known in the South
in the regions which they infest, are examples of forms
having the latter habit. They inflict severe losses in the

* See page 200, Part II.

DIPTERA

137

infested regions. Members of this family will be known
to beginners rather
by habits than by

structures.

89. Bee-flies
(Bombyliidce), and
the Soldier-flies
(Stratiomyiidce),
frequent flowers.
The latter are not
always abundant,
but are often notice-
able on account of
their bright color
markings. Yellow
and green bands
and stripes are
common in this
family. The sol-
dier-flies are of
small to medium
size. Their larvae
are usually aquatic.
The bee-flies pre-
sent many varia-
tions. Some species
are quite hairy,
many have very
long beaks and feed
on nectar. Banded
wings are also char-
acteristic of many
bee-flies. The habit

FIG. 102.— Types of Flies (Diptera). Natural
size.

a, Syrphidce; b, Tachinidce; c, Puparium of Ta-
china-fly: d, Bee-flies (Bombyliidce); e, Muscidce; f,
Snipe-flies (Leptidce) ; g, House-fly, and h, Stable-fly
(Muscidce).

138 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

of hovering or remaining poised in the air is well devel-
oped here but should not lead one to mistake bee-flies, for
some of the Syrphidos which have a similar habit. Bee-
flies, and certain syrphus-flies as well, mimic some of
the bees and wasps.

90. Snipe-flies (Leptidci), are not of great importance,
but may be mentioned because of a few of the more
abundant forms. These have bodies shaped like those of
mosquitoes but much larger and heavier. The legs are
relatively short and the wings, while narrow, are power-
ful. One species which is usually common has the top of
the thorax clothed with thick orange yellow or golden hairs.

91. The Syrphus-flies (Syrphidce), as these are com-
monly called, are very numerous and have many different
forms. They present a greater number of bee-like forms
than do the bee-flies themselves. Some resemble bumblebees
very closely; others look more like the honey-bee, one species
being known as the Drone-fly, on account of the simi-
larity. The typical members of the family are of small to
medium, or even large size, have flattened and rather broad
bodies, and colors usually, at least in part, yellow or green
or both. They hover or poise in the air, sometimes over
flowers or other food, more often apparently over noth-
ing in particular. Some species bite animals and man and
are called Sweat-flies. They are often confused with sweat-
bees, which are, properly, true bees and sting, while the
sweat-flies pierce the skin with their mouth-parts. The
wound from the fly bleeds slightly, while the bee sting
does not. Larvae of syrphus-flies are, many of them,
predaceous, feeding on plant lice. These larvae have bodies
tapering toward the heads, slightly flattened and scalloped
along the margins. They may be green with yellow mark-
ings. Other syrphus-fly larvae are entirely different. The

DIPTERA

139

larva of the drone-fly is aquatic and is known as the
" Rat-tailed Maggot," on account of the long, tail-like
breathing tube. They may be found in masses in stag-
nant water. The family, as a whole, may be considered
as beneficial.

92. Bot-flies, Warbles, Gad-flies or Heel-flies as the
(Estridce are variously called,

are parasites of domestic
and wild mammals. The
adults are usually hairy and
somewhat bee-like. The best-
known adult is probably
that of the Horse-bot, which
lays its eggs on horses in
late summer and always
causes the animals attacked
to become excited. Other
species attack sheep and cat-
tle. (See page 191, Part II.)
This family includes most
of the insects which are in-
ternal parasites of the higher
animals.

Hippoboscidce. These insects are external parasites,
in the adult stage, upon mammals and birds. They are
either winged or wingless, usually the latter, and have
flattened, louse-like, bodies. The larval stages are passed
within the bodies of the adult females and emerge from
them only when fully grown and ready to transform to
the pupa. The so-called Sheep-tick (page 202, Part II), is
our most common member of this group.

93. Muscina. The largest and by far the most im-
portant group of flies includes those that were formerly

FIG. 103. — Above, Larva of the
Ox-warble ; below, Horse
Bot-fly, Slightly enlarged.

140

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

all classed as one family, the Muscidce, of which the
House-fly is typical. This family is now considered as a
super-family and has been divided into several families.
Some of these it will be well to consider separately.

The Tachina-flies (Tachinidce), are, for most part, para-
sitic on other insects. Their larvae attack grasshoppers,
many kinds of caterpillars and other
insect forms. The adults are like the
house-fly in general shape, but may
be stouter bodied, are often con-
siderably larger, and are usually
clothed with short, stout bristles,
especially prominent on the abdomen.
As a whole this group is beneficial.

Flesh-flies (Sarcophagidce) , may be,
as larvae, either parasites or scaven-
gers. Many have habits similar to
the Tachinids while others feed on
decaying animal matter. Flesh-fly
eggs are often hatched within the
bodies of the females, the young
larvae being born alive. Flesh-flies
may be small, but are usually of
medium size or larger.

Anthomyiids (Anthomyiidce) , are
flies smaller in size than the average
for the super-family. They resemble

the common house-fly in conformation but may be more slen-
der and bristly. The maggots feed on decaying or living
vegetable matter. The ones attacking the roots of cab-
bage, onions, radishes and related crops are the most im-
portant forms. Dull colors prevail in this group.

The Fruit-flies (Trypetidce) include numerous species

FIG. 104. — Parasitic
Diptera. Enlarged.

1, Sheep bot-fly ((Estri-
da) ; 2, Louse-fly from hawk
(Hippoboscida) ; 3, "Sheep-
tick " (Hippoboscidce) ; 4,
Pupa of " Sheep-tick."

DIPTERA 141

of small flies. They may be brightly colored and many
of them have wings banded and spotted in a very at-
tractive manner. Their bodies are slender and their
legs inclined to be long. The larvae feed on decaying
or fresh fruit and some species are serious pests. Es-
pecially is this true of one called the Mediterranean Fruit-
fly, which attacks certain sub-tropical fruits. Consider-
able sums of money are being expended to keep this fly
from becoming established in the state of California.

Musddce. The typical Muscids are included in this
family which is represented by the common House-fly,
(see page 175, Part II), the Stable-fly the Blow-fly, Horn-
fly, and many other common species. Larvae of this
group are the familiar maggots which may be found in
decaying animal or vegetable matter of any description.
They are white, taper to a point at the head end, and,
though footless, are quite active. The pupae are smooth,
oval, or cylindrical with rounded ends. The family is
important on account of the numbers of species and of
individuals and the annoyance they cause man and ani-
mals, as well as for its part in the spread of many diseases.
Some forms, notably the Screw-worm Fly larvae, get into
flesh wounds of animals and cause serious inflammation
and even death. This insect is most abundant in the
Gulf States.

[Diptera. On account of the great difficulty of identifying, with
any degree of certainty, even the more important groups of flies
without the use of minute characters of the antennae and difficult
structures of the wings, no attempt will here be made to formulate
a table for the use of the beginning student. He will have to iden-
tify the more common forms by means of the descriptions and the
figures accompanying them.]

CHAPTER XII

HYMENOPTERA

THE bees, the wasps, the ants and a host of other
smaller insects comprise this order. It ranks second to
none in its biologic and economic importance. In its

economic status it is rather
beneficial than otherwise,
which will be brought out
later in the discussion of
the different groups.

94. General Character-
istics. Hymenoptera have
four wings, membranous
throughout, which usually
have few veins. With few
exceptions the front wings
are the larger. A row of
hooks on the hind wing,
which fasten in a fold in
the front wing, hold the two
together so firmly that the
beginner may easily mis-
take them for one wing.
The mouth-parts of Hymen-
optera are formed typically for biting. In many in-
stances there is also a modification of some parts of the
mouth to form a sucking tube. Many of the best-known
members of the group have this adaptation. Development

142

FIG. 105.— Swarm of Bees Clus-
tered in Grape-vine.

HYMENOPTERA 143

is indirect. The larvae of all but two groups of Hymen-
optera are footless, usually fleshy, white, grub-like, crea-
tures. Some of the exceptions are caterpillar-like, but
may be known by the fact that they have more than
five pairs of pro-legs. Where the larvae are helpless they
are either cared for by the adults until they are fully

FIG. 106.— A Modern Bee-hive Supported on Hollow Tiles.

grown or the eggs are placed in or on the food, and
left there.

95. Sub-Orders. There are two sub-orders. In one, the
females have the ovipositor modified into a stinging organ.
In the other, the ovipositor is fitted for boring plant tis-
sues to deposit the eggs and is not used as a weapon.
The one sub-order is called the Stinging-Hymenoptera or
Aculeata; the other, the Boring-Hymenoptera or Tere-
brantia.

96. The Stinging Hymenoptera. All the commonly ob-
served members of the order are classified in this sub-
order. While they are all properly called stinging Hy-

144

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

menoptera it must be understood that there are man>
forms in the group which do not sting or possess stinging
organs. All the members of this division, except two little
known and rather rare families, are placed in four super-
families, each one including several families. They will be
considered here under the super-family headings.

ST.Apoidea. This
group includes all the
Bees. There are sev-
eral families, but they
have many charac-
ters in common. Bees
may almost always be
recognized as such,
even by the beginner,
by the conformation

of the body. In ad-
FIG. 107. — Cocoons of the Bee-moth in . .

the Top of a Hive (Lepidopiera, Pyra- dition to this, most
lidind). of them have the basal

segment of the hind

tarsus flattened and armed with hairs and bristles,
and adapted for carrying pollen. Bees are generally
stouter bodied than the wasps and are frequently hairy.
The bodies are commonly more flattened than is the
case with the wasps. The habits of bees vary consider-
ably. Many are social, but a much larger number of
species is solitary in habit. Most bees feed on pollen
and nectar secured from flowers, and on such other sweet
substances as they may find.

The most common of the social bees is the hive-bee
or Honey-bee (Apis mellifera), which occurs throughout the
civilized world in a domesticated condition. Its habits
and social organization have been more widely studied

HYMENOPTERA

145

than those of any other insect and volumes have been
written concerning it. There are three different classes
of individuals in a bee colony; the true males, called
drones, the fully devel- __

oped females or queenSj
and the workers, which are
females not fully devel-
oped sexually. In a col-
ony there is one queen, a
varying number of drones,
and in a strong swarm,
many thousand workers.
The drones serve no pur-
pose aside from the fer-
tilization of the queens
and they are produced
in numbers far in excess
of the needs for this func-
tion. The queens lay the
eggs for the production of
workers and other queens
while unfertilized queens
and workers produce
eggs which develop into
drones.

The workers do all
the work of the colony,
build comb, gather nec-
tar, pollen and certain

other substances used in the hive, and care for the larvae
or brood. They keep the hive clean and also regulate
the temperature somewhat by " fanning " with their wings.
From the nectar they manufacture honey and wax.

12.

FIG. 108. — Types of Hymenoptera
Bees (Apoidea). Enlarged.

1, Carpenter-bee ; 2, 3, 4, Bumble*
bees; 5, 7, Honey-bee, queens; 6, Drone-
bee ; 8, 9, 10, workers; 11-15, Solitary-
bees.

146

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

Queens are produced from eggs which are just the same
as those which normally produce workers. The larvae
destined to form queens are fed with a specially prepared food
called "royal jelly" and the cells in which they develop
are altered to suit the needs of the larger individual.
When a new queen emerges in a hive she may be killed
by the old queen or may herself kill the old queen. Fre-

FIG. 109. — A Cut Bee-tree, Showing Combs in the Cavity.

quently, however, neither is killed but the old queen
leaves the hive and takes with her a large number of the
workers. These find a suitable situation and form a new
colony. The division of a colony in this manner is called
swarming. Queen raising, swarming and other operations
of the colony are done artificially by the modern bee
raiser or apiculturist.

Bees, especially honey-bees, are important not only for

HYMENOPTERA 147

the commercial products, honey and beeswax, which they
furnish, but, to a much greater extent, because of the part
they play in the fertilization of flowers. Many of the
valuable cultivated plants do not set fruit or produce seed
properly where there are not enough bees to provide for
their fertilization. Many flowers have remarkable adap-
tations of structure to insure pollination by the bees.
Honey-bees are found wild in all the countries where the
domestic bees have been carried, as escaping swarms live
in hollow trees or caves. In South America there are
found honey-producing bees which do not sting. This
apparent advantage is minimized by the fact that they
defend themselves by biting.

Bumble-bees or "Humble-bees" are larger and more
hairy than the honey-bees and differ somewhat in their
social organization. Only the queens live through the
winter. They start the new colonies in the spring and
do ah1 the work of the colony until such time as the
workers develop. Their nests are usually built on the
ground or under stones and are concealed with grass and
weeds. Their honey is stored in small oval sacks and is
not used commercially. There are workers and males
and, at times, several queens in one nest. The queens are
the largest individuals in the nests and are much more
active than the honey-bee queens. The over-wintering
females are fertilized in the fall.

Bumble-bees are able to cross-fertilize certain plants
whose flowers are too deep for the shorter tongues of the
honey-bees to reach. A common plant of this type is the
red clover.

Some bees bore in solid wood and make their nests in
the galleries which they construct. These are solitary.
One borer (Fig. 108, 1), or Carpenter-bee, resembles the

148 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

bumble-bees in size and general appearance. Other bees
dig burrows in the ground, mainly in the sides of steep
banks. Such bees are solitary, in the strict sense of the
term, but frequently a bank will contain the burrows of
hundreds of these bees. Some of the miners form colo-
nies, all members of which use one entrance to the nests,
the nests being separate for each individual. Professor
Comstock likens the abodes of the two classes of miners
here mentioned to villages of many separate houses and
to city apartment houses with many dwellings in one
house. There are bees which have a semi-parasitic habit,
the females laying their eggs in the nests of other bees
and leaving them to be cared for by the "hosts." These
are termed "guest-bees" or inquilines.

While we are accustomed to consider the economic
status of insects from the standpoint of the damage they
may do, the consideration of the fact that the bees are
indispensable to the production of many of our most val-
uable crops, should show us that insects, as a whole, are
indispensable and make us more tolerant of the injurious
species, if it be necessary that we have both kinds to have
the beneficial ones.

98. True Wasps. Wasps (Vespoided) are distinguished
from bees by the tarsi, which are not fitted for carrying
pollen, and by the more slender forms of most of the spe-
cies. They are separated from the next group (digger-wasps)
by the resting position of the wings. In the true wasps
the front wings at rest have one longitudinal fan-like fold;
in the digger-wasps the front wings are not folded.

Some of the true wasps are social and resemble the
bumble-bees almost exactly in their social organization.
All the insects commonly called Hornets and Yellow-
jackets are true wasps.

HYMENOPTERA

149

The social wasps make nests of a substance closely re-
sembling paper which is
formed from wood pulp as is
paper. These nests may be of
many forms and may be found
in different situations. The
most common ones are found
about houses. They are
roughly circular, consist of a
single layer of cells opening
downward and are attached
to a ceiling, or to some over-
hanging structure that will
afford a degree of protec-
tion, by a single stalk. The
wasps that make these nests
are brown in color, more than
an inch long and of rather slen-
der and very elegant form.
They belong to the genus
Polistes. Other social wasps
make nests composed of sev-
eral layers of cells, all enclosed
by an outer wall, the whole
structure being oval in form
and gray in color. Some of
these nests, made by the
insects best known as yellow-

^^^H

jackets, are found in the

woods, attached to limbs of FIG. 110.— Types of Hymenop-

trees. Others, made by hor- f «• Three lower figures,

Ants (Formicoidea); others,

nets, may be found either on True wasps (Vespoidea).
trees or on the ground, or Slightly reduced.

150 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

even under stones or in cavities in the ground. Hornets
and yellow-jackets are well known for the fighting pro-
pensities they display when their nests are disturbed and
for the effectiveness of their stings. They belong to the
genus Vespa.

Solitary wasps belonging to this family have many
forms of nests. Some of the most interesting of these are

FIG. 111. — Underground Nest of Hornet (Vespa).

made of mud arid atattached to twigs and to stems of
plants. They are shaped like miniature jugs and often
are almost perfect in their molding. Each contains a
single larva. Still other wasps have nesting habits like
some of the solitary bees, being miners, wood-borers or
carpenters, making nests of bits of vegetation and pieces
cut from leaves. Most solitary wasps feed on nectar
and pollen, but provision their nests with insects or feed
the young directly with other insects. The same is true
of the social wasps.

HYMENOPTERA 151

99. Sphecoidea. The Digger-wasps include a considerable
number of families. They have similar food and nesting
habits. All are solitary, most forms are miners and con-
struct their nests in the ground but some live in the stems
of plants.

Nests of digger-wasps are provisioned with insects or with
spiders, which have been stung by the wasps until they

FIG. 112.— Hornets and their Nest.

are in a comatose condition. They live until the larvae
are ready to use them as food. In this manner fresh
food is provided. One family of these wasps preys almost
exclusively on spiders; others prefer different kinds of
insects; one large species captures cicadas or harvest-flies
and is known as the cicada-killer.

To the digger-wasp family belong the Mud-daubers or
Mud-wasps and the Thread-waisted Wasps, also usually
mud-masons. Their nests, in and near houses, especially in
chimneys, are well known to all.

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

100. Ants. (Formtcvidea.)
The ants are best known as
wingless creatures because it
is only at certain times in
the year that the winged
individuals appear. These
winged forms are the true
males and females. They
mate, found new colonies
and either die or lose their
wings. In spite of the fact
that ants are almost invari-
ably small insects, and, while
numerous, not more so than
many other forms of equal size
that escape attention almost
entirely, they are, on the
contrary, among the best
known of insects and have
received much more study
than any other forms except,
perhaps, the bees. The
reason for the existing general
interests in ants is, without
doubt, their social habit and
communal organization. Of
nearly three thousand de-
scribed species, none is known
to be solitary.

In the ant colony are

^ found several kinds of individ-

FIG. 113.— Types of Hymcnoptera. uals; the males and females,

Digger-wasps (Sphecoidea). the workers and the soldiers.

Slightly reduced.

HYMENOPTERA 153

Workers are infertile females not fully developed. There
may be different sizes of workers, the soldiers themselves
being workers with greatly developed heads and jaws. Ants
have a wide variety of food habits and live in greatly different
situations. Some burrow in the ground, others in wood; some
construct nests on the stems of plants. Many ants are
almost omnivorous, but most species have a weakness for
sweets of all sorts. This fact often renders them very
annoying and destructive in dwellings. Some ants are
farmers or harvesters. They are often called agricul-
tural ants and are popularly, but erroneously, supposed
to plant the crops which furnish their food. Several ants
have the habit of making slaves of the workers of other
species. In some the slave-making habit is of such long
standing that they have forgotten how to care for their
own nests, and when they cannot obtain slaves they perish.
Much has been written about the communal organiza-
tion found in ant colonies and many writers ascribe to
ants intelligence of a human order and altruism of an
even higher degree. Undoubtedly, ants do possess very
highly developed instincts; their colonies are well organized
and their daily functions are performed in a most efficient
manner. At the same time there is, in the mind of the
writer, ample proof that the first gleams of anything that
may be called intelligence has yet to appear in any insect
type. The basis for the assumption that ants possess
intelligence has been the difficulty of explaining certain of
their actions on the ground of instinct alone. There are
other actions that are even more difficult to reconcile with
the idea that these insects have the slightest intelligence,
and added to that is the physiological reason of the lack
of a structure comparable to the brain of the thinking
animal.

154 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

Ants have, aside from their philosophical interest, a
considerable importance as economic insects. Some are
destructive to vegetation, others are indirectly injurious
because of their assistance to plant-injuring aphids, still
others are household pests and are injurious to foods and
stored products. The injurious species are most promi-
nent in tropical and sub-tropical countries, where it is
often almost impossible to protect stored products from
their attacks. Ant colonies, in houses, may be destroyed
by the use of a poisoned syrup and they may be kept
from tables and cupboards by so-called "Ant tape." (See
page 219, Part II.)

101. Terebrantia. The Boring Hymenoptera may be
known by the possession of two-jointed trochanters on
the hind legs as well as by the lack of the sting in the
females. They embrace many forms and their food habits
are even more variable than their structures. They
are roughly classed as plant eaters and as parasitic
insects, but this classification is not entirely satis-
factory, because some members of the parasitic groups
attack plants. The plant-eaters include the Horn-tails or
Wood wasps (Siricidce) , the Saw-flies (Tenthredinoidea) ,
the Gall-flies (Cynipoidea) , and in part the Chalcis-flies.
(Chalcidoidea) . The parasitic forms are grouped as the
Chalds-flies, the Ichneumon-flies (Ichneumonoidea), and
the Proctotrypids (Proctotrypoidea) . Many members of
these groups last mentioned are very difficult for anyone
but a pecialist to recognize.

102. Horn-tails and Saw-flies. The Siricidoe or Horn-
tails are named from the peculiar short, stout and
prominent boring organ borne by the females. They are
comparatively large in size, and have no constriction
between the thorax and abdomen. The latter character

HYMENOPTERA

155

separates them from all
saw-flies, and these do
not have the boring or-
gan. The larvae are white
and grub-like and bore
in the solid wood of
different trees, notably
hickory, locust and the
coffee bean. Not many
species occur and these
may easily be known
by the description here
given.

Tenthredinoidea. The
Saw-flies have, at the
most, a very slight con-
striction between the
thorax and the abdomen.
They have also rather
flat backs and broad
hind wings. The fe-
males have a short saw-
like organ used to form
a cavity for the recep-
tion of the eggs which
are placed most within
leaves or in growing
stems. Saw-flies are
variable in size, ranging
from one-fourth inch
to over one inch in
length. The larvae of
saw-flies are caterpillar-like

other Hymenoptera except the

FIG. 114. — Types of Hymenop'era.
Slightly reduced.

1, Pelecinus polyturator (Pelecinidce) ; 2,
3, and 4, Saw-flics (Tenthredinidce); 5, Horn-
tail or Pigeon Tremex (SiricidcE) ; 6, 6, and
7, Gall-flies (Cynipidce) ; 8, Cuckoo-fly (Chrys-
ididce) ; 9, Gouty-gall on blackberry, formed
by gall-fly (7).

or slug-like. The slug-like forms

156 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

usually become more like caterpillars at their last molt.
They have six to eight pairs of pro-legs. Their food is
the foliage of plants. The slug-like forms have very short
legs and are covered with a slimy substance. They are
usually larger through the thoracic region and taper to-
ward the tip of the abdomen. Many saw-fly larvae have
the curious habit of curling the tip of the abdomen
forward and downward, often looping it partly around the
twig or the edge of the leaf upon which they rest.

Important species of saw-flies are the Imported Cur-
rant-worm; the Pear-slug (see page 316, Part II), which
attacks pears and cherries, and skeletonizes their leaves,
causing them to turn brown and fall off; the Rose-slug,
similar to the pear-slug but smaller, and many species
attacking shade and forest trees. Slugs may easily be
killed with arsenate of lead or by dusting them with
almost any dust.

103. Gall-flies. The gall-flies, Cynipoidea, form another
of the highly specialized and unusually interesting groups
which are found so frequently in this order. The adults are
almost all small, often with metallic colors. They have
the abdomen compressed laterally and somewhat tele-
scoped. It is not by the adults, which are at best in-
conspicuous, nor even by the larvae, but by the abnormal
growths which the larvae produce on plants, that our at-
attention is attracted to this group of insects. Many
dwellings are produced on plants by insects of other orders
and all are known as galls. Some are caused by Diptera,
the gall-gnats, some by small moths and many others
by plant lice, but the great majority of galls are pro-
duced by members of this family. They are found
on stems and leaves of oak, on hickory leaves, on rose
twigs, on blackberry canes and on other plants. In form

HYMENOPTERA 157

they are extremely diverse. Some are globular, others
cone-shaped and others irregular in shape. Eggs are laid
by the female under the bark or in the leaf and the
gall growths are induced, no one knows just how, by the
presence of the young larvae feeding in the plant tissues.
Some gall-flies are parthenogenetic; that is, reproduce
without males for one or more generations, and, in fact,
there are species that are not known ever to produce
males. Others exhibit a peculiar phenomenon called
alteration of generations. First there will be produced
a generation of both males and females. The young
from these develop into forms that are all females and
resemble in no way either of the parent forms. They
may also produce galls in different plants and of widely
different appearance. The appearance of the galls and
the insects which form them sometimes deceives stu-
dents of these forms and causes them to be classified in
different genera from their parents. The next generation
will, however, be composed of both males and females
identical with the first individuals, their grandparents.

104. The Parasitic Hymenoptera or Parasitica. The
remaining groups of Hymenoptera, while containing some
non-parasitic forms, may best be studied as the so-called
Parasitica, they being, for the most part, parasitic on other
insects. They vary from large size, one species with its
ovipositor being more than six inches long, to the small-
est of insects, some being almost too small to be seen
with the naked eye and developing within the eggs of in-
sects which are, in the adult stage, themselves considered
as very small species.

The larger Parasitica belong to the family Ichneu-
monidce. These may be wasp-like in shape and size;
they may have abdomens very much compressed later-

158

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

ally and have very long, thread-like ovipositors. The
larger forms parasitize caterpillars and other larvae and pupae.

One, possibly the most
remarkable form in
the group, has an ovi-
positor several inches
in length with which
it bores through solid
wood to deposit its
eggs in the galleries
of the horn tail-larvae

rp (page 154), which it
parasitizes and kills.
Members of the fam-
ily Braconidce may
attack caterpillars
and, when full grown,

A form small silken co-

coons on the outside
of the body of the
host. Others in the
same family pupate
within the host. One
sub-family confines its
attention almost ex-
clusively to the plant-
lice and scarcely a spe-
cies of these insects
has not one or more parasites belonging to this sub-family.

In the super-family Proctrypoidea, we find the smallest
of the parasites and among the smallest of insects. Here
are found the egg parasites and some of numerous parasites
of the scale insects.

FIG. 115. — Parasitic Hymenop'era. Note
parasitized cocoon and mass of pupae.
Reduced about one-half.

HYMENOPTERA 159

Chalcis-flies (super-family Chalcidoidea) , may parasitize
species in many different groups, mainly of the smaller in-
sects. They may infest scale insects and many egg para-
sites belong to this division.

Parasitic Hymenoptera of many of these groups may
attack other parasites. In such case they are called
secondary parasites. Secondary parasites may in turn

FIG. 116. — Sphinx Larva Parasitized by Braconids.
Pupae attached.

be parasitized and their parasites are called tertiary par-
asites. It is thought that there are even quaternary par-
asites or forms that attack the tertiary parasites.*

In addition to the parasitic forms, there are some
plant-infesting species belonging to the Chalcis-flies. These
may be both beneficial and harmful. The Wheat Joint-

* "Big fleas have little fleas to bite 'em,

Little fleas have lesser ones, and so ad infinitum."

"So naturalists observe, a flea

Has smaller fleas that on him prey;
And these have smaller still to bite 'em,
And so proceed ad infinitum."

Swift. " A Rhapsody."

" Great fleas have little fleas on their backs to bite 'em,
And little fleas have lesser fleas, and so ad infinitum,
And the great fleas themselves, in turn, have greater fleas to go on;
While these again have greater still, and greater still, and so on."
DeMorgan, " A Budget of Paradoxes," p. 377.

160 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

worm (Isosoma tritici), and the Wheat Straw-worm (I.
grande) are both more or less serious pests to the
wheat crop. Other species feed on seeds of plants before
they ripen. One Chalcidid is beneficial because of its
habit of feeding on figs of certain sorts. The structure of
the fig is such that for cross-fertilization the presence of
this insect (Blastophaga grossorum), is necessary. The
females of the insect carry pollen from fertile blossoms of
the "caprifig" to the infertile blossoms of the valuable
Smyrna fig. The insects breed in the " caprifigs " and

FIG. 117. — Wing of Hymenopterous Insect. Letters indicate names
of the cells and of the veins on the anterior margins of the cells.

e, costa; Sc, sub-costa ; R, radius; M, median ; Cu, cubitus ; 1" A, first anal;
2".l, second anal; 3" A, third anal; s, stigma.

merely visit the Smyrna figs while in search of suitable
places for egg laying, but, as they often, in mixed groves,
come from the pollen-bearing flowers, they carry pollen
with them and in their activities within the infertile sorts,
dust this into their flowers. The process is called "cap-
rification." The discovery of the above facts and the
importation and colonization of the Blastophaga in south-
ern California has enabled growers there to produce
Smyrna figs of the best quality where they were formerly
unable to compete with the imported product. It serves
as an example of the extremely varied problems connected
with the science of entomology.

HYMENOPTERA 161

Chalcis-flies in plants often produce swellings and ab-
normal growths called galls, but these are not to be con-
fused with the true Cynipid galls.

TABLE FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE MORE IMPOR
TANT GROUPS OF

HYMENOPTERA.

A. Abdomen of female provided with an organ for boring or
sawing. Trochanters of the hind legs with two segments.
Sub-order Terebrantia.

B. Abdomen not at all or slightly constricted where it
joins the thorax.

C. Abdomen of female furnished with a prominent
boring organ. Mostly larger species. Horn-tails.
Siriddce.

CC. Abdomen of females furnished with less prominent
sawing organ. Usually smaller. Saw-flies. Ten-
thredinidce.
BB. Abdomen constricted at the union with the thorax.

C. Wings almost entirely without veins in many species.
Size small, colors often metallic; abdomen short.
Chakidoidea.
CC. Wings with more distinct venation. Size variable.

D. Abdomen very much compressed laterally seg-
ments usually appearing as if telescoped to-
gether. Gall-flies. Cynipidce.
DD. Abdomens more slender; fore wings without a

stigma.* Ichneumonoidea.

AA. Trochanters of the hind legs consisting of a single segment.
Females often with a stinging organ.

B. With what appears to be a knot or hump on the peti-
ole or stem connecting the thorax and the abdomen.
True Ants. Formicoidea.

*See Fig. 117.

162 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

BB. Without the knot-like structure on the petiole.

C. First segment of the posterior tarsi hairy and adapted
for carrying pollen. Bodies frequently hairy and
rather stout. Bees. Apoidea.

CC. First segment of posterior tarsi not adapted for car-
rying pollen. Usually naked forms or with few
hairs. (Exceptions are not rare.)
D. With the fore wings having a single longitudinal
fold or pleat when at rest. True Wasps. Ves-
poidea.

DD. Front wings not folded when at rest. Digger-
wasps. Sphecoidea.

CHAPTER XTII
THE INSECT COLLECTION

FOR the beginner as well as for the older student of
entomology, the collection of insects is the most fascinat-
ing phase of the work. It necessitates getting out into
the open. It develops the powers of observation and
affords at the same time a profitable study and a never-
failing source of amusement. And it need not be con-
fined to the warm months. The winter insect fauna is
extensive enough to furnish the excuse for many rambles
over the snowclad landscape. Winter studies of insects
are not only possible, but extremely necessary for the
person who wishes to learn of insects not only in their
active stages, but throughout their entire lives.

105. Collector's Outfit. The collectors outfit may be
simple or elaborate. The one who learns to take and
care for specimens with the simplest possible apparatus
will be least likely to lose desirable specimens on ac-
count of lack of equipment. The first necessity is the
killing-bottle. The standard killing-bottle is made of any
wide-mouthed bottle into which is put a little pure po-
tassium cyanide. This substance is a deadly poison, but no
danger attends its use if its nature is borne in mind and
the simplest care is exercised.

To make up a four-ounce cyanide bottle, pour a
scant teaspoonful of small lumps of the cyanide into
the bottle. Next, mix some plaster of Paris with water
until it is just thin enough to pour readily. Cover the

163

164 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

cyanide in the bottom of the bottle with this, Allow the
plaster to set and to dry thoroughly, place some absorbent
paper loosely in the bottle and keep tightly corked to pre-
vent its losing strength. This bottle will be effective for
an entire season and cannot harm one who handles it
unless it is broken. Discarded bottles should be buried.

In addition to the cyanide bottle one should have
small boxes or tobacco tins for living specimens, others for
the specimen taken out of the cyanide bottle, where they
should be left only until they are certainly dead, and
some tubes of alcohol or formalin in which to place speci-
mens which are to be preserved in liquid. All larvae
should be taken alive or placed in the liquid, never in the
cyanide jars. There should be several cyanide jars for
the different types of insects. Moths and butterflies
should be kept separated from other insects in the jars
and not more than one or two specimens of these should
go into the same jar at one time.

Any bag or knapsack in which a sufficient quantity of
these materials can be carried safely is a good collecting
bag.

Many collectors, especially beginners, think of the net
as a most necessary part of the equipment. The experi-
enced collector uses a net for comparatively few of his
captures. Specimens which can be taken without the
net are likely to be taken in better condition if it
is not used. Experience alone will teach where it must
be used. Satisfactory nets can now be purchased very
cheaply, or they can be made at home. The requisites
are: a bag of any light but strong material, from eight
to twelve inches in diameter and from twelve to twenty
inches deep; a strong metal ring firmly attached to a
light handle not more than three feet long. Special nets

THE INSECT COLLECTION

165

may be desired with longer handles. A large and strong
clasp knife or, better, a sheath knife, may well complete
the outfit for ordinary general collecting.

Experience, again, must teach where the insects are to
be found. It should be borne in mind that there are few
situations where some sort of insect life does not exist.
Special equipment for collecting aquatic forms is required.
This can always be improvised and no collection should be

FIG. 118. — Design for Insect-net Frame.

1, Heavy spring- wire ring; 2, detail of end of handle; a, groove into which
the wire at a, on figure of ring fits; b, clamp; c, holes into which ends of the
wire at c on the ring fit.

considered representative which does not include the in-
sect life of the near-by waters.

Electric lights are- quite a prolific source of specimens
for the collector, but they teach nothing of the habits of
the insects except that they are attracted to lights and
are night flyers.

106. Mounting Specimens. The equipment for mount-
ing and preserving the specimens may, like the collectors
outfit, be either simple or elaborate. For adult specimens
pins are usually considered necessary, and a place to keep
the pinned specimens is no less so. Insect pins must be

166

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

purchased but are fairly cheap and within the reach of
all. Never try to mount specimens with ordinary pins.
Aside from the pins nothing needs be purchased. Cigar
boxes, lined with pith or corrugated pasteboard, make
very satisfactory storage places for the beginner's collec-
tion and not a few insects in the larger collections are
stored in such receptacles. From these one may go up
the scale through the homemade boxes with either glass

FIG. 119.— Details of the Frame Work for an Exibition Case to be Made
at Home or in the School Laboratory.

or wooden cover, the homemade or purchased cabinet,
with drawers for the specimens, the specially made box
of the "Schmitt" type to the most modern metal boxes in
metal cabinets. Very cheap and serviceable exhibition
cases with glass tops, suitable for home use or for the
rural or even the city school, may be made at home or
by the local carpenter. Get at any planing mill some
strips of "nosing" about two and three-quarters inches

THE INSECT COLLECTION 167

wide by three-quarters thick. Have a groove one-eighth
inch wide and three-eighths deep, cut two and three-
eighths inches from the flat edge. Cut these strips in a
mitre box into lengths suitable for the size cases desired,
twelve inches by sixteen or eighteen is a good size. Var-
nish outside and paint white inside. Now, for bottoms,
take two thicknesses of corrugated pasteboard, such as is
used for packing. Cut these to the size of the inside of
the frame. Tack or glue them to a board cut just the
size of the outside of the frame. Paste clear white paper
over the pasteboard and a very neat pinning surface is
secured. Glass may be secured cut so that it will just
fit in the grooves already cut in the frame pieces. The
frame is completed by nailing the corners together with
small finish nails. This should be done before the varnish-
ing of the outside. The inner surfaces should be painted
before the nailing is done. The bottom may be fastened
with brads or with small hooks. The specimens are
pinned in the desired order on the bottom and the frame
then placed over them. They are then in good shape for
preservation and may be placed on the wall for an exhibit.

A box as described may be made in the manual training
department of any school , and makes an excellent exercise
for the members of the class. The cost for materials should
be less than twenty-five cents per box.

These boxes are suitable mostly for adult insects, but
some of the other stages may be kept in them also. Some
forms will have to be kept in liquid. These are not usu-
ally so suitable for exhibition purposes and may be stored
as convenient. Vials with specimens in liquid are fre-
quently pinned right in the boxes with the adults and
should be so kept where they are in such condition as
to show anything of the original form and color.

168

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

107. Method of Pinning Insects.
The preparation of the specimens
for the cabinet or exhibition case
requires some care, lots of patience,
and as much practice as one can
get. Beetles should be pinned
through the right wing cover,
near the base. So should grass-
hoppers and their relatives. All
other insects should be pinned
through the middle of the thorax
between the bases of the front
wings. The pin should be so placed
as to have the head of the insect
slightly higher than the opposite
end, and about one-fourth or one-
fifth of the length of the pin
should be allowed to project above
the body of the insect.

Different sizes of pins are made
so that the different insects may
be accommodated. Nevertheless,
there are many kinds that are
too small to be pinned without
serious damage. These may be
mounted on points. Points are
made usually of stiff paper or light
cardboard cut into "points" one-
fourth inch long and about one-

FIG. 120. — Methods of Pinning Insects.

1, Beetle, showing sjant of body on pin; 2,
beetle showing where pin is inserted : 3, grass-
hopper, showing where pin is inserted ; 4, true
bug, showing where pin is inserted ; 5, pointed
insect, showing method of pointing.

THE INSECT COLLECTION

169

sixteenth inch wide at the base and tapering to a point, the
width of the point depending to some extent on the size of
the insect to be mounted. These points are pinned, the pin
being placed as near to the base as possible. The insect
is glued to the other end of the point, glue, shellac or
Canada balsam being used for the sticking material. The
point is so arranged
that it reaches only to
the middle of the
under side of the in-
sect, the insect being
in such a position that
the head points forward
while the insect is to
the left of the pin.

Still smaller insects
may be mounted in
Canada balsam or gly-
cerine on glass slides
for study under the
microscope.

All insects collected
should be labeled. For
pinned insects this is
accomplished by pin-
ning small slips of paper

with the desired data on the pin just beneath the insect.
Several such slips may be used. The data placed on the
slips should include the date, the locality and the name
of the collector, the latter being the least important. In
many cases the name of the plant upon which the insect
was found is added. Notebook data may be and should
be more extensive. It is a good plan to have accession

FIG. 121. — Insect Collection Arranged
in Home-made Exhibition Cases.

170 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

numbers pinned on each specimen, these numbers refer-
ring to similar numbers in the notebook under which all the
data are recorded. For reared specimens this is the only
way to keep full accounts of the life histories of the specimen.
Card note systems are much more convenient than the
older notebooks, but the collector will make his own
choice in this.

108. Spreading Board. Moths and butterflies must be
spread on a spreading board which is another requisite

for the outfit. The spread-
ing board consists essen-
tially of two smooth pieces
of board, which must be of
some softwood, wide enough
to accommodate the wings

of the specimens, placed
FIG. 122. — Spreading Board Show- .,, ,

with a groove between
mg Manner of Placing the Spec-
imen for Drying. them for the body of the

insect. Below this groove

must be some soft material for the pin to stick in and
support the insect. The boards must be arranged so
that the insect's wings will slant upward from the body
very slightly. These parts are mounted so that they
will be firm. The figure accompanying the description
will suggest the details of construction.

Insects placed on the spreading board should be pinned
so that the bases of the wings are at exactly the same
height as the edges of the boards. The front wings are
laid flat on the board and pinned with their hind margins
at right angles to the body, and the hind wings are then
drawn forward so that their front margins are concealed
beneath the front wings. Next a strip of blotting paper or
other material is pinned over the wings, care being taken

THE INSECT COLLECTION 171

to see that no pin goes through the wing tissue. The
original temporary pins are taken from the wings and the
specimen is allowed to dry for several days. When thor-
oughly dry the wings will remain in position. Specimens
must be spread before they dry out and the wings "set."
Otherwise they must be relaxed and this is never a satisfac-
tory operation. Grasshoppers and other insects are some-
times placed on the spreader and have only the wings on
one side spread, but generally the only insects spread are
the Lepidoptera and some Neuropterous forms.

109. Breeding-cage. Life-history collections are of the
greatest value and students should be encouraged to get
all stages of as many insects as possible. This is some-
times easiest done by getting eggs or larvae and keeping
them in breeding cages while they undergo their trans-
formations. Many things may serve as such breeding
cages. The qualities required are some ventilation and
proper moisture and temperature , as well as regular feed-
ing. A simple breeding-cage for small insects is a lan-
tern globe set on a flowerpot filled with soil and having
a piece of cheesecloth tied over the top. Food may be
given day by day or may be furnished by plants grown
in the pot.

Larger cases may be made specially. A very satis-
factory one is figured. It is merely a box made to fit a
window. The outer side is enclosed with wire screen,
while the doors are of glass. There may be two or more
compartments in such a cage. It is better to have gal-
vanized iron pans made to fit the bottom. These may
be filled with sand or soil or they may contain water.
In the latter case the breeding-cage makes an excellent
aquarium for aquatic forms. Local conditions will gov-
ern the form of breeding-cage most used. The main

172

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

thing is not the cage but the careful attention given the
insects. Without this care and the observation it in-
volves the greater part of the value of rearing insects will
be lost.

Much more might be said on the subject of rearing
insects as well as about the apparatus for the collector
and the equipment in the laboratory. Just as good re-
sults may be expected, however, from allowing the stu-

FIQ. 123. — Window Breeding-cage.

dent to work out his own methods, merely being careful
to see that the conventional methods of mounting are fol-
lowed so that the specimens will not lose their value for
exchange with other collections. While all the equipment
here described is simple and inexpensive and it is not
necessary to have anything more elaborate, it does add to
the satisfaction of the work if some of the materials can
be purchased from the manufacturers of entomological
supplies, as these are in better position to make goods

THE INSECT COLLECTION 173

exactly adapted to the needs of the subject than the ama-
teur can be.

110. Protection from Injury. The collection, after it is
completed is subject to the attacks of many pests and
may also be injured by dust, mold, rusting of pins and a
variety of causes.

Boxes with tightly fitting lids are the best protection
against the insect pests, but even these will not entirely
prevent injury, as the insects will steal into the boxes while

FIG. 124. — A Group of Butterflies Arranged in a " Hiker Mount "
on Cotton for Decorative Purposes.

they are opened for study. These pests are most abun-
dant and destructive in warm weather but work to some
extent throughout the year, especially in warm rooms.

To free the collect 'on from pests requires a consider-
able amount of care. If the boxes are not tightly closed,
cigar boxes for instance, they may all be placed in a large,
paper-lined goods box for which a tight lid has been made,
and fumigated. The best substance for this fumigation
is carbon bisulphide. This will be still more effective
if the boxes are opened slightly before they are placed in

174 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

the fumigating box. Place the carbon bisulphide in an
open dish near the top of the box. Use at the rate of
about one ounce to ten cubic feet of space. Be sure to
have the temperature at least 65° to 70° F. Keep fire
away as the material is explosive. Repeat the fumigation
once every month or six weeks during the warm weather,
or whenever any signs of the injurious insects appear.

As protection against mold and similar troubles be sure
to have the insects reasonably dry before they are closed
up tightly and permanently, then keep the collection in a
dry place. Insect boxes must be handled with care at
all times to avoid breaking legs, antennae and other deli-
cate structures from the specimens by jarring.

111. Microscopes. In addition to the equipment neces-
sary for collecting and mounting insects a little more is
required for their study. Of this, the most important
part is the microscope or lens. The most useful lens will
be a hand lens magnifying about twenty diameters. Pro-
vided with such a lens the student will seldom need a
compound microscope. A good plan for a beginning
course in entomology is for the class to be furnished with
two or three compound microscopes and for each mem-
ber of the class to have his own hand lens.

PART II— ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY

CHAPTER XIV
INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS

112. House Flies (26).* The house fly is too well known
to need description. It will hardly be confused with any
other species except, possibly, the stable fly (p. 180), from
which it may be distinguished by the absence of the strong
piercing mouth-parts — which enable the latter species to
bite — and by the six dark lines on -the thorax. Smaller flies
belong to other species, contrary to the popular notion that
little flies grow larger as the season advances. Careful
counts have shown that practically 99 per cent of the flies
found in dining-rooms are house flies.

"Musca domestica commonly lays its eggs on horse
manure. This substance seems to be its favorite larval
food. It will oviposit on cow manure, but we have not been
able to rear it in this substance. It will also breed in human
excrement, and from this habit it becomes very dangerous
to the health of human beings, carrying, as it does, the germs
of intestinal diseases such as typhoid fever and cholera
from excreta to food supplies. It will also lay its eggs on
other decaying vegetable and animal material, but of the

* Musca domestica Linn. Family Muscidce, see page 141. Numbers
in parentheses refer to publications cited in Appendix A, which
should be consulted for more detailed information.

175

176

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

flies that infest dwelling houses, both in cities and on farms,
a vast proportion come from horse manure." (Howard.)
Where horse manure is not available it commonly breeds in
other manure or in fermenting vegetable material or slops.
The eggs hatch in about twenty-four hours, the larvae
or maggots become grown in from five to seven days, and
the pupal stage lasts about the same time, so that a complete
generation may develop in from ten days to two weeks, de-
pending upon the temperature. Each female lays about

FIG. 125. — The common house fly (Musca domestica) . (After Howard,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Puparium at left; adult next; larva and enlarged parts at right. All enlarged.

120 eggs in a batch and may lay four times, so that it is
evident that the species multiplies with extreme rapidity.
The adult flies hibernate over winter in attics, barns, etc.,
and the pupae may hibernate in the soil or under manure or
straw. It is evident, therefore, that the first flies which
appear in the spring should be vigorously combated so as
to prevent the countless numbers to which they will give
rise later.

"In army camps, in mining camps, and in great public
works, bringing together large numbers of men for a longer
or shorter time, there is seldom the proper care of excreta,

INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 177

and the carriage of typhoid germs from the latrines and
privies to food by flies is common and often results in epi-
demics of typhoid fever. ... In farmhouses in small com-
munities and even in the badly cared-for portions of large
cities typhoid germs are carried from excrement to food by

FIG. 126. — Window fly trap showing bait tray removed.

flies, and the proper supervision and treatment of the breed-
ing places of the house fly become most important elements
in the prevention of typhoid.

"In the same way other intestinal germ diseases are
carried by flies. The Asiatic cholera, dysentery, and in-
fantile diarrhea are also carried. . . . There is strong cir-

178 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

cumstantial evidence that tuberculosis, anthrax, yaws, oph-
thalmia, small-pox, tropical sore, and parasitic worms may
be, and are, so carried. Actual laboratory proof exists in
the cases of a number of these diseases, and where lacking, is
replaced by circumstantial evidence amounting almost to
certainty." (Howard.)

The screening of windows and doors and the use of sticky
fly-papers are preventive measures known to all. A two
per cent solution of formaldehyde will destroy the flies and
may be placed in shallow saucers to which they will be at-
tracted. Adding milk or syrup and dropping in a piece of
bread will make it more attractive. Where flies or mos-
quitoes become too numerous they may be destroyed by
fumigating with pyrethrum powder. About one pound
should be used for every 1000 cubic feet of space. Place
the powder on pans, dampening with a little kerosene into
cone shapes, to facilitate burning. Make all windows and
doors as tight as possible, light the cones, and leave over
night. The fumes are not poisonous to persons and will not
injure furnishings. The chief effort in the control of house
flies should be directed toward preventing their breeding in
horse manure, for a single stable will supply flies for a whole
neighborhood. As far as possible manure should be kept
in a tight box or pit which can be properly screened where
necessary. Recent experiments * of the U. S. Department of
Agriculture (26) have shown that the eggs and maggots in
the manure may be destroyed by the use of borax or calcined
colemanite. Ten ounces of borax or 12 ounces of calcined
colemanite should be used for every 10 cubic feet (8 bushels),
of manure immediately upon its removal from the barn.
Apply* the borax with a flour sifter or any fine sieve, particu-
larly around the edges of the pile, for there is where most of
* Bulletin 1 18, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 179

•^^

FIG. 127. — Top of garbage can with small balloon fly trap of the
Hodge type attached. (After Bishopp, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

FIG. 128. — Conical hoop fly trap; side view. (After Bishopp, U. S.

Dept. Agr.)

A, hoops forming frame at bottom; B, hoops forming frame at top; C, top
of trap made of barrel head; D, strips around door ; E, door frame ; F, screen on
door; G, buttons holding door; H, screen on outside of trap; /, strips on side of
trap between hoops; J, tips of these strips projecting to form legs; K, cone; L,
united edges of screen forming cone; M, aperture at apex of cone.

180 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

the eggs are laid and where the maggots congregate, and
sprinkle two or three gallons of water over the treated
manure. Such treatment should be given with each addi-
tion of fresh manure to the pile, but where it is kept in
closed boxes, less frequent treatment will be required. This
treatment is cheap and is well worth while. A maggot-trap
has also been devised (see 26), for the treatment of horse
manure, by which the maggots may be easily and cheaply
removed from horse manure.

Sanitary privies are absolutely necessary for the pre-
vention of the spread of disease by flies in country districts
(39). These should be required in all public places such as
schools, railway stations, etc., and private owners should
install their own in self-defense. The "wet system" should
be used so that the surface may be kept covered with kero-
sene and all possibility of fly-contamination be thus pre-
vented. Fly traps (see 40c) should be used on garbage
cans, and can be bought at most hardware stores. These
will catch quantities of flies and similar home-made traps
placed in barn windows, in barns, and wherever flies
assemble, will very materially aid in reducing their numbers.

113. The Stable Fly (27).* The stable fly is so called on
account of its habitual presence in stables, where it becomes
a serious nuisance by biting cattle and horses. It closely
resembles the common house fly, but may be distinguished
by its strong mouth-parts, which enable it to make a sharp
"bite," and by the black spots on the abdomen (Fig. 129).
On this account stable flies are sometimes called "biting
house flies" by those who do not distinguish them, and the
saying has come that "flies bite before a storm," because
the stable flies enter houses and are more annoying just be-
fore a storm. The stable fly has recently come into prom-
* Stonwxys calcitrans Linn. Family Muscidce, see page 141.

INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 181

inence as the possible means of the transmission of infantile
paralysis, though this indictment now seems unsubstanti-
ated, and probably is the means of transmitting other
diseases.

The life history is much the same as that of the house
fly, but development takes place more slowly, the complete
life cycle requiring three or four weeks under favorable con-
ditions. Although the larvae live in horse manure they have

FIG. 129. — The stable fly or biting house fly (Stomoxys calcUrans).
Adult, larva, puparium, and details. All enlarged. (After
Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

been found much more abundant in straw, particularly
oat straw, and in manure where straw has been used
liberally.

The same methods of control as advocated for the house
fly are advisable around stables, and the leaving of strawy
manure in piles and allowing the barnyard to become knee
deep in it, furnish the best conditions for the development
of these flies. In the grain belt, where large loose stacks of
straw are scattered over the fields, heavy summer and fall

182

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

rains will make them ideal breeding places for the stable fly.
Animals scatter the straw and add manure, which makes
conditions more favorable. It is important, therefore, that
straw which is to be fed be stacked with the sides nearly
vertical and the tops rounding, so as to shed rain. All straw
not required for feed should be burned or, better, scattered

FIG. 130. — Hodge type window trap. At left, trap with end removed
to show construction; at right, cross-section of trap placed in a
window. (After Bishopp, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

A, end of trap; B, upper side of folds in screen; C, lower side of folds in screen;
nd of trap sawed out and returned after attaching screen; E, holes

D, portion of e

g apex of f .

low sash; /, inside entrance for flies; O, outside entrances.

along apex of folds; F, door for removing^ dead flies; G, window sill; //, upper
indo

over the fields and plowed under. Stacks not used during
the winter should be destroyed in the spring, before the
flies commence to multiply rapidly. In portions of a stack
of straw in Gainesville, Texas, in March, 1913, as many as
300 pupae were found in a single cubic foot of straw.

The flies may be caught as they enter or leave the stable
by means of traps built in the window frames, as devised by

INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 183

Prof. C. F. Hodge (see 40c). They should be placed in
windows on the brightest side of the barn and near to the
cows or horses within. Other windows should be darkened
by hanging canvas or sacks over them, so as not to interfere
with ventilation, but so as to drive the flies to the lighter
window. Fig. 130 shows the construction of the trap. At
the bottom a space about one-fourth of an inch wide, running
entirely across the window, is left on both sides of the frame.
Above this is placed a roof or ridge of screen wire having
holes large enough for the flies to pass through punched
through its top at two-inch intervals. To capture the house
flies suitable bait is placed in the pans beneath this ridge.
The flies ascend through the holes and are then unable to
escape. The sides of the trap are also made of wire screen-
ing bent inward and upward in two horizontal folds across
the window, one toward the bottom and one toward the top.
The ends of the screen are tacked tight and a series of small
holes are punched along the inner edge of each of the folds.
The angles of these folds should not be too sharp and less
than 45° or the flies will not go up the angle. In trying to
go in and out of the window the flies enter the holes at the
apex of the fold, but are then unable to escape , as on the in-
side the holes are on the projecting ridge and are not found
by the flies, which seek the light. Portable traps made on
much the same plan may be used within the stable.

114. Mosquitoes (28, 34, 38, 46, 57).* Formerly mos-
quitoes were regarded merely as aggravating nuisances, but
in recent years we have come to learn that certain species
are among the most important carriers of disease, so that
the whole problem of mosquito control has assumed new
interest. The common house mosquito f (46), is entirely
innocent of carrying disease, so far as we know, but about
* Family Culicidae, see page 133. f Culex pipiens.

184 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

fifteen years ago it was demonstrated that nearly related
species of the genus Anopheles are responsible for the trans-
mission of malarial fever and that the dreaded yellow fever
is spread by the yellow-fever mosquito.* Indeed, these
diseases are spread entirely by mosquitoes. As a result
of this knowledge Havana and Panama have been prac-
tically freed from yellow fever, and large areas of country,
formerly almost uninhabitable on account of malaria, have
been reclaimed. The yellow-fever mosquito is strictly a
southern species, but different species of the malarial mos-
quitoes are found in all sections of the country. The latter
(Anopheles) may be distinguished from the common mos-
quitoes by the fact that their wings are marked with black-
ish spots, the palpi of the females are as long as the pro-
boscis or beak, and when they rest on a wall or ceiling the
body is held at an angle from the surface, while those of the
common species are parallel to it.

Mosquitoes usually hibernate as adults in houses, barns,
or whatever retreats they can find. With the first warm
days of spring the females lay their eggs on the nearest per-
manent pools and then die. The larvae of different species
have quite different food habits and hence are found in
different places, but practically all live in stagnant water,
and do not develop in damp grass or vegetation as commonly
supposed. The common house mosquito breeds in rain
barrels, open tanks or cisterns, in puddles, ditches, tin cans,
ponds, etc. Occasionally a clogged eaves trough will harbor
enough water to allow a generation to mature in the water
collected. The eggs are laid on the surface of the water and
hatch in a day or two. The larvae are the well-known
"wrigglers," and feed on small animals and vegetable life
in the water. Those of the house mosquito may be seen
* JEdes calopus Meig.

INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 185

hanging from the surface of the water, through which they
breathe by means of a long air-tube attached to the tip of
abdomen, while those of the malarial mosquitoes lie parallel

FIG. 131. — A malaria mosquito (Anopheles quadrimaculatus) .
Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.) All greatly enlarged.

o, eggs; 6, larva; c, pupa; d, male, and e, female adults.

(After

to the surface and do not have the air-tube. When grown
the larvae change to the curiously shaped pupae (Fig. 131),
which have breathing tubes attached to the thorax. In hot

186 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

weather the complete life cycle may be completed in two
weeks and as each egg-mass contains from 75 to 200 eggs,
mosquitoes multiply very rapidly. It is only the females
which have piercing mouth-parts enabling them to "bite,"
the mouth-parts of the males being more feeble and being
used for sucking vegetable juices, which are, doubtless, the
natural food of both sexes. The males may be distinguished
from the females by their feathery antennae.

The best means of mosquito control is to prevent the
development of the larvae, which may be done by abolishing
their breeding places or so treating them as to kill the larvae.
In many sections where mosquitoes have been a plague,
notably in New Jersey, large areas have been drained or
filled at public expense for this purpose. Usually many
breeding places may be found which can very easily be
eradicated. The introduction of fish will aid in ridding
ponds of mosquitoes. Where this is not possible breeding
places should be treated with low-grade kerosene, fuel-oil, or
some larvacide, which will destroy the larvae and pupae
through their breathing tubes. Use twelve ounces of kero-
sene to fifteen square feet of surface, or one-half cupful for a
barrel. Houses should, of course, be screened and in some
places it will be necessary to screen verandas with fine-meshed
screening. Rain-barrels, cisterns and other water receptacles
should be screened. Possibly the best repellent for mos-
quitoes is oil of citronella and for their bites nothing is better
than ammonia. Where they have become over-numerous
in a room they may be destroyed by burning pyrethrum
powder (page 178). Rooms and cellars may also be fumi-
gated with "culicide" (38) or by burning sulphur (page 336).

115. Fleas. The fleas (29, 51) most commonly annoying
in houses are the common cat or dog flea. * The adults are

* Ctenocephcdus canis Curt. Order Siphonaptera, see page 38.

INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 187

wingless, have the body strongly compressed laterally, are
provided with sucking mouth-parts, and have strong hind
legs which enable them to jump considerable distances.
The female lays her eggs in the hair of the dog or cat, from
which they become scattered, and the young develop in
cracks of the floor, under carpets, in rubbish, etc. In such

FIG. 132.— Cat and dog flea (Ctenocephalus canis). (After U. S. Dept.

Agr.)

a, egg; 6, larva in cocoon; e, pupa; d, adult; e, mouth-parts of same from
side; /, antenna; g, labium from below, b, c, d, much enlarged, a, e, f, g, more
enlarged.

situations the larvae feed on either animal or vegetable mat-
ter. The larvae are slender, worm-like creatures, scarcely
an eighth of an inch long, are quite active, and become grown
in about two weeks. They then spin delicate, silken co-
coons, in which they transform to pupae and from which the
adults emerge in a few days. In warm, damp weather a
whole generation may develop in a fortnight, although or*

188 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

dinarily about a month is required. Often when a house
in which a cat or dog has been kept is closed up for the sum-
mer, the fleas will multiply rapidly and the house will be
found alive with them when opened.

Where cats or dogs are kept they should be provided
with a rug on which to sleep and this should be given a fre-
quent shaking and brushing. Dusting the hair of a dog or
cat copiously with pyrethrum powder over a paper will cause
many of the fleas to fall off partly stupefied and they may
be destroyed. The best means to rid these animals of fleas
is to dip them in a tepid bath containing creolin or carbolic
solution. Where houses become infested they should be
thoroughly cleaned and gasoline or benzine should be in-
jected into the floor cracks. Badly infested houses may be
rid of fleas by fumigating with hydrocyanic acid gas (see
page 336).

116. Bedbugs. Probably no other insect is so thoroughly
detested as the bedbug * (32) by the good housewife, who
ofttimes considers herself disgraced by its mere presence.
Such a feeling is hardly warranted, for they are often intro-
duced by servants or are brought in after traveling, but
failure to get rid of them as soon as possible certainly is dis-
graceful. The full-grown adult is about one-fourth of an
inch long by half as wide, of an oval shape, reddish-brown in
color, wingless, and has a very characteristic, disagreeable
odor. Bedbugs are mostly nocturnal in their habits, and
after feeding upon the sleeping individual will again conceal
themselves in crevices. Partial relief from them may some-
times be secured by keeping a light burning. The small
whitish eggs are laid in masses in the hiding places and from
them the small whitish young emerge in a week or two. The
length of time for the development of the adult depends
* Cimex lectidarius Linn. Family Acanthiidce, see page 60.

INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS

189

upon the food supply, as they are able to go for long periods
without food.

«5

»il

-° -° a

L "s-"

The best remedy under ordinary circumstances is gaso-
line or kerosene. Every crevice in and about beds, and in

190 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

adjacent woodwork should be liberally treated. Another
application should be made in about two weeks. Unless
the walls and woodwork have become very badly infested,
thorough and persistent treatment will be effective, but in
such a case the building should be fumigated with hydro-
cyanic acid gas (see page 336).

117. Horse Bots.* Horses running in pasture are com-
monly infected with bots. They are the maggots of a large,
brown, hairy fly, looking much like a bee, with a wing ex-
panse of about three-fourths of an inch. Horses instinct-
ively become nervous upon the approach of these flies,
which lay their small yellowish eggs, sometimes called "nits,"
on the hair of the fore legs, shoulders and flanks. When the
horse licks these parts the eggs hatch and the little maggots
attach themselves to the tongue and then work their way
down the alimentary canal to the stomach. Here they
attach themselves to the walls, often occurring in such num-
bers as to form large patches. They continue growth during
the winter and the next spring they pass out through the in-
testines with the excrement and burrow into the ground,
where the pupal stage is passed. The adult flies emerge
a month or so later, there being but one generation a year.
The exact amount of damage which the bots do is a matter
of some dispute, but it is evident that when present in
large numbers they must irritate the lining of the stomach
and must absorb considerable nutriment both from the
stomach wall and the food in it. Cases have been observed
in which they have penetrated the wall of the stomach
and caused death.

During late summer horses kept in pasture should be
examined every two weeks and the eggs destroyed or re-
moved. This may be effected by washing the eggs with
* Gastrophilus equi Fab. Family (Estridx. See page 139.

INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 191

dilute carbolic acid, one part to thirty of water, by rubbing
the eggs over lightly with kerosene, or by clipping the hair
or shaving the eggs off with a sharp razor. Farmers some-

FlG. 134. — Portion of stomach wall showing points of attachment of
bots. (After Osborn, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

times hang a piece of frayed rope from the throat-latch of a
horse in pasture, and claim that the flies will deposit most of
their eggs on it, and thus do no harm to the horse. If there
are indications of the bots doing
such serious injury as to require
internal treatment a veterinarian
should be consulted.

118. The Sheep Bot-fly or Head
Maggot.* The sheep bot-fly looks
something like an overgrown house
fly, the upper part of the head and thorax being dull yellow,
covered with small specks so as to give it a brown appearance,
* (Estrus ovis Linn. Family (Estridce. See page 139.

FIG. 135.— Horse bot-fly.

192

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

and the abdomen is velvety dark brown variegated with straw
color. The fly has no mouth-parts and so takes no food.
The female lays the young maggots (the eggs having been
hatched in the body of the parent), in the nostrils of the
sheep. The attacks of the flies make the sheep frantic and
they will lie down and bury their noses in the dust, throw
dust in the air, and huddle together to try and ward off the
attack. The young larva works its way upward into the
frontal sinuses, the cavities between the plates of bone over

the eyes. It requires
about ten months for
the larva to become
mature, when it crawls
back into the nose
and is sneezed out.
Going an inch or two
below the surface of
the soil it transforms
to the pupa, from
which the adult fly
emerges in from four
to six weeks. When
the grubs become
numerous in the frontal sinuses they often cause very serious
injury, animals so affected losing their appetite, becoming
emaciated, discharging thick mucus from the nose, etc.

No entirely satisfactory method of control is known.
The best means is to smear coal-tar on the sheep's noses. If
one has but a few sheep this can be done now and then by
hand. Otherwise, place logs in which holes are bored with
a two-inch augur here and there in the pasture. Keep these
holes about half full of salt and the edges smeared with coal-
tar, so that it will get on the sheep's noses. Plowing a deep

FIG. 136.— Sheep bot-fly ((Estrus ovis).
(After Riley.)

1, 2, flies; 3, pupa; 4, full-grown larva.

INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 193

furrow across the pasture so that the sheep may stick their
noses in the dust when they are attacked is recommended.
Inasmuch as the flies are abroad only in the sunshine and
in the heat of the day, any kind of cheap shelter which will
afford shade and into which the sheep may run will prove a
welcome refuge for them from the flies. Four posts with
any sort of a roof and bagging hanging loose down the sides
will be sufficient. When the maggots become established
in the head there is practically nothing which can be done
to remove them except an operation — trephining — which
must be done by a skillful veterinary surgeon and will only
be practicable for valuable breeding stock.

119. The Ox Warble.* The ox warble (21), also known
as "bot-fly" or " heel-fly," is the cause of "grubby" hides
of cattle and in the grazing regions of the West and South-
west is the cause of considerable loss to both hides and beef.
Cattle allowed to run in pasture for the summer are always
more or less affected with the grubs, particularly if the owner
is not careful to destroy them. The holes in the hides, and
the loss in weight and quality, make the warble one of the
worst insect pests of cattle.

The adult fly is about the same size and of much the same
appearance as the honey-bee. It is about a half inch long,
blackish, and clothed with hairs. The edge of the head and
thorax and the base of the abdomen are covered with whitish
hairs. The upper part of the head and thorax and the
middle of the abdomen and legs are blackish-brown. The
tip of the body is reddish-brown. The flies lay their eggs
on cattle, not infrequently on the flanks and elsewhere, but
mostly just above the hoof, which latter habit has given
them the name "heel-fly." The presence of one of the flies
causes intense excitement among the cattle, often stampeding
* Hypoderma lineata Villers. Family CEstridce, see page 139.

194

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

them through shrubbery or water to escape. As the fly
causes no pain it is evident that this fright is instinctive.
When the animal licks the parts on which the eggs are laid,
the eggs hatch and the young larvae are taken to the mouth,
as in the case of the horse bot. They then penetrate the
walls of the oesophagus and migrate through the connective
tissues of the body for several months, working their way to

beneath the skin on the neck
and then backward until they
become lodged beneath the
skin in the region of the
back. The larva now makes
a hole through the skin so as
to secure air for breathing.
It develops rapidly, subsist-
ing on pus and serum which
its presence induces, and
causes a characteristic swell-
ing or tumor. When full
grown it is an inch or more
long so that it may cause
considerable irritation. It
then works its way out
through the hole which it
had made, drops to the ground, which it may enter, or it
may change to the pupa on the surface. The final trans-
formation to the adult fly takes place from three to six
weeks later, there being but one generation a year.

Various oils and repellent substances have been recom-
mended for smearing on cattle to prevent the attacks of
the flies, but it seems that there is no very conclusive evi-
dence of their efficacy, and it is certain that the applications
must be made every few days, so that such treatment is

FIG. 137. — Ox warble (Hypoderma
lineata), female, natural size
indicated by side line. (From
"Insect Life.")

INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS

195

entirely impracticable for cattle in a large pasture. The
best means of control is to examine the cattle carefully in
the winter and spring and to remove the maggots from be-
neath the skin as soon as they are in evidence. This can
be done by exerting a gentle pressure with the fingers on
either side of the hole and thus squeezing the maggot out.
A cheap pair of tweezers will aid in removing the younger

FIG. 138. — Ox warble (Hypoderma lineata). (From "Insect Life.")

a, second stage of larva from back; b and c, enlargement of extremities; d,
ventral view of third stage with details of extremities at e and /; g, dorsal view of
mature larva with enlargement of anal spiracles at h; i, the same, lateral view;
natural size indicated by side lines.

ones. Inject a few drops of cresol or carbolic solution in
the wound after removing the maggot. It is sometimes
recommended to kill the maggots by applying grease and
other substances which will stop up the breathing hole and
kill them beneath the hide, but this is liable to cause festering.

120. The Horn Fly.* The little horn flies (23), which
cluster upon the horns of cattle, are among their most

* Hcematobia serrata Rob.-Desv. Family Muscidce. See page 141.

196

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

troublesome enemies. The horn fly resembles a very small
house fly, but like the stable fly (page 180), it has piercing
mouth-parts which enable it to pierce the skin and suck out
the blood, which forms its normal food. When the horn flies
assemble in large numbers on the shoulders and elsewhere
out of reach of the head or tail, they cause great annoyance,

FIG. 139. — Horn-fly (Hcematobia serrata). Much enlarged.
Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Of egg; b, larva; c, puparium; d, adult in resting position.

(After

and have been thought to reduce the milk flow materially
and in many cases to cause loss of weight.

The flies lay their eggs upon freshly dropped cow dung.
The eggs hatch in about a day and the little white maggots
feed in the dung and become grown in a week or ten days.
They then change to pupae just at or below the surface of
the ground, and the adult flies emerge a few days later, the
whole life cycle requiring about two weeks.

INSECTS>FFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 197

Various proprietary repellent solutions are in common use
for protecting cattle from flies. The principal objection to
them is that repeated applications are necessary to be ef-
fectual. If it is desired to use such sprays, a home-made
solution will be cheaper and equally effective. Use either
one part of pine tar with three parts of crude cottonseed oil
or fish oil, or three parts of crude carbolic acid to one hun-
dred parts of either of these oils. Cottonseed oil is less
offensive than fish oil, and cheaper. These may be applied
with a hand atomizer or sponge, but an atomizer or small
spray pump will use less material and apply it more evenly.
By having a man stand on either side of the door to spray
the cows as they enter the barn, dairy cows may be quickly
treated and the flies kept out of the barn. There seems to
be some question, however, as to the real efficacy of these
repellents, and whether they are really worth the cost.
Such experiments as have been carefully conducted are
rather inconclusive (24) on this point, but indicate that
whether the fly-sprays are profitable or not remains to be
determined. Undoubtedly they afford some relief for a
day or two.

Preventive measures seem more promising. If the de-
velopment of the maggots in the cow manure can be pre-
vented, no flies will occur. In small pastures where the
manure is often dropped in particular places, it is entirely
feasible to send a boy around the field every few days and
let him spread out each dropping with a shovel, so that it
will dry out quickly in the sun. This is more necessary in
wet weather. At the barn, sprinkle lime or land plaster
over the manure every day or two, which will aid in pre-
venting the development of the maggots. Probably the
borax treatment advised for the house fly (page 178) will
be found even more elective.

198

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

121. Cattle Lice. Two or three species of lice commonly
affect neglected cattle and one inhabits hogs. Of these the
first three belong to the true lice.* The most common is the
so-called Short-nosed Ox Louse. f It is a bluish or dark gray
color, about one-sixth of an inch long, and of the general
shape shown in Fig. 140. These lice frequent the neck and
shoulders of cattle, which sometimes become badly rubbed

Vr TV

FIG. 140. — Short-nosed ox-louse (Hcematopinus eurysternus). (IT. S.

Dept. Agr.)

a, female; b, rostrum; c, ventral surface of the last segments of male; d, same
of female; e, egg; /, surface of same greatly enlarged.

by their efforts to be rid of them. The eggs are laid upon
the hair near the skin, and the young resemble the adults
in both structure and habits. Tho Lonj-nosed Ox Louse J is
very similar, except that the snout is more prolonged, but
it does not seem to be so injurious. Another somewhat
larger species of the same genus affects hogs.§ It is about

* Siphunculaia, see page 37.

t Hcematopinus eurysternus Nitzsch.

t Haematopinus vituli Linn.

§ Hcematopinus urius Nitzsch.

INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 199

They are more common

one-fourth of an inch long, or a gray color, the body broadly
oval and the head narrow.

The Biting Cattle Louse * is so called because its
mouth-parts are fitted for biting instead of sucking, it be-
longing to the same order as the common hen louse. They
are recognized as " little red lice " by cattle men, in con-
trast to the bluish sucking species,
in spring, but are not injurious
unless occurring in very large
numbers.

Spraying the affected animal
with kerosene emulsion diluted
ten times, or with tobacco ex-
tract (Black-leaf 40, 1 part to
800), or rubbing the affected
parts with sulphur, lard and
sulphur, or lard and kerosene,
will destroy these lice. Usually
these parasites are introduced
into a herd on animals which
have been neglected, which should
be treated at once so as to pre-
vent further spread. Recent ex-
periments at the West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion indicate that one of the best means of eradicating these
lice is by the use of blue ointment. On cattle the hair should
be clipped close to the skin on a space half the size of one's
hand. On hogs apply about two square inches, using only
enough to smear over the skin and rub on with the finger.
Apply the ointment in the crotches, back of the ears, be-
hind the shoulders or any place where the animal cannot lick
it. The ointment is a mercury preparation which can be
* Trichodectes scalaris Nitzsch. Order Mdlophaga. See page 37.

FIG. 141. — Long-nosed ox-
louse (Hcematopinus vituli.)
(U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Female, under surface of last
segments of abdomen of same,
showing brushlike organs,
larged.

En-

200

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

secured cheaply at any drug store. Its exact effect on the
parasites is not known, but it has proven effective in ridding
animals of them and when used as directed there have been
absolutely no symptoms of any injury to the animals.

122. Horse Flies.*
The large black horse
flies or gad-flies (48)
are well-known pests
of both horses and
cattle, which they
torture with their
bites. Only the fe-
males, having piercing
mouth-parts, are
bloodsuckers, the
males feeding on the
pollen of flowers. The
large Black Horse Fly\
is about one inch long
and has a wing expanse
of two inches. It has
a short broad head,
large eyes, a thick
body, a short oval
abdomen and large
powerful wings, which enable it to keep up with the swiftest
horse. Particularly along shady roads in woodlands these
flies are often so abundant as to make driving difficult.
The smaller Greenheads^ so called from their large green
eyes, are more common near the water and are well known

* Family Tabanidce. See page 136.
t Tabanus atratus Fab.
J Tabanus lineola Fab.

FIG. 142. — The biting cattle-louse (Tri-
chodectcs scalaris), enlarged. (U. S.
Dept. Agr.)

INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 201

to every boy who has been swimming. Not only are the
attacks of these flies annoying to animals, but it is quite
probable that such diseases as anthrax may be carried by
blood-sucking flies from infected to healthy animals.

The larvae are long, pointed maggots, most of them living
in water or in swampy places or along the edges of streams

FIG, 143.— The black gadfly (Tabanus atratus). (After Garman.)
a, Male, 6, larva — both twice natural size.

or ponds, and are carnivorous. In some parts of the coun-
try where there are large swamp areas, as along the Gulf
Coast, in Louisiana and Texas, these flies appear in such
numbers as to make it impossible to keep cattle at certain
seasons.

Nets or light covers and ear-nets will be appreciated by

202

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

horses where these flies are abundant. Various repulsive
ointments have been suggested, but are of doubtful value.
In sections where the flies are particularly troublesome, the
draining of marshy lands may remove their breeding places
as well as those of mosquitoes.

123. The Sheep Tick.* The sheep tick is one of the best-
known pests of the sheep. It is not really a tick, but a wing-
less fly. It is about one-fourth of an inch long when grown,

and of a reddish-brown color.
The head is small and sunken
into the thorax. The middle of the
thorax is rather slender and the
abdomen is broad. This species
is distributed over the world and
lives only on sheep. These insects
are peculiar in that the eggs hatch
and the larvae develop within the
body of the female, which gives
birth to pupae", from which the
adults soon emerge. When the
FIG. 144.— The sheep tick. old sheep are sheared the ticks
(Ky. Agr. Exp. Station.) ^ m[ ^ ^ ^ unsheared

Greatly enlarged. J °

lambs. They may cause con-
siderable damage to sheep if abundant, which is often indi-
cated by the lack of growth and poor condition, and when
they mass on lambs their injury is often very serious.

The only satisfactory method of control is to dip the
sheep just before shearing and again in the fall before going
into winter quarters. Any of the cresol or creosote dips,
lime-and-sulphur, or the tobacco dips, whose labels state
that they are approved by the U. S. Department of Agri-
culture, may be used as directed by the manufacturer.
* Melophagus ovinus Linn. Family Hippoboscidce. See page 139.

INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 203

Sheep should stay in the dip at least two minutes, so as to
get thoroughly wet, and the head should be ducked under.
Sheep introduced into the flock should be dipped so as to
prevent the introduction of ticks and other insect pests.
Spraying the pens or enclosures with zenoleum, cresol, or
any similar creosote preparation, or with kerosene emulsion,
will kill all wandering ticks and scab mites and is, therefore,
a good practice.

124. The Sheep Scab Mite.* The little mites (35, 49)
which cause sheep scab are not true insects, but belong to
the same class as spiders and all true mites. However, they
are commonly considered among the insect parasites of sheep,
of which they are probably the most important. The mite
is so small as to be scarcely recognizable without a magnify-
ing glass, the females being about one-fortieth of an inch
long and the males about one-sixtieth or about the size
of this period (.). They are light gray in color and resemble
minute spiders in shape, and have four pairs of legs, to the
third pair of which are attached some long thread-like
appendages. A female lays from 10 to 20 eggs which hatch
in from four to ten days. A new generation appears about
every two weeks so that the pest increases with enormous
rapidity and a sheep will soon become badly infested. Sheep
are the only animals affected.

The first symptom which will indicate the need of exam-
ination for scab mites, is the rubbing of the back, sides, or
tail of the sheep against some object, or its biting at these
parts, due to the itching caused by the mites. The infected
spot may at first be very small, so as almost to escape atten-
tion, consisting first of a yellowish, dandruff-like substance,
but if it is scratched the sheep will respond with a nibbling
motion of the mouth. Large patches are soon formed if the

* Psoroptes communis Furst. Class Arachnida. See page 21.

204

SCHOOL KNTOMOLO<;Y

animal is not treated. The innumerable little mites sucking
from the skin cause an intense irritation and a consequent
secretion of a large amount of serum. This forms at first a
dandruff and later a thick scab. As this goes on the wool
drops off, the sheep loses flesh, and presents a very unkempt
appearance. If badly infected and untreated, sheep may
be killed by the injury. The only sure diagnosis of the

FIG. 145. — The sheep scab mite (Psoroptes ovis). (After Good, Ky.
Agr. Exp. Sta.)

a, female; b, male — both very greatly enlarged.

scab is to find the mites. This can be done by placing some
of the suspected scabby material on a black background in
a warm place, when the small mites may be detected crawl-
ing around, the more readily by the aid of a magnifier. The
scab mites are spread from one animal to another by con-
tact and by the sheep coming in contact with sides of cars,
fences, or other objects against which scabby sheep have

INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 205

rubbed. The most common source of infection is securing
sheep from stock yards. It is well, therefore, always to dip
sheep as soon as received.

The same dips as recommended for the sheep ticks will be
satisfactory if used according to directions, and one dipping
will kill both, as well as sheep lice. The tobacco dip should
contain at least seven one-hundredths of 1 per cent of

FIG. -146. — The sheep in the middle of the group is affected with a
slightly advanced case of sheep scab, as is seen by the tufted wool
and bare spots on fore flank and crops. The other two sheep
represent advanced stages of the disease. (Ky. Agr. Exp. Station.)

nicotine when used. A nicotine-and-sulphur dip containing
not less than 5/100 of 1 per cent nicotine and 2 per cent
sulphur has been proven satisfactory in extensive tests.
The dipping should be repeated in ten or twelve days to
kill the mites hatched since the first dipping. It is best to
have the dip warm, about 100 to 105° Fahrenheit. If
scabby sheep are taken from buildings, the buildings should
be disinfected before returning healthy sheep to them. Pas-

206

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

tures kept free from sheep and exposed to sunlight do not
remain infectious for more than thirty to sixty days.

125. Poultry Lice. Several species of biting-lice are
common upon poultry, but the most common is the Hen-
louse * (25). It is about one-twentieth of an inch long, pale
dull yellow with darker marks on each side of the body,
though often reddish or pinkish in color after feeding. The
small eggs or "nits" are attached
to the feathers near the quill and
may hatch in about eight days, or
under unfavorable conditions, may
lie dormant for several months. The
young lice are much the same as
when full grown. All of these biting
lice bite off tho scales of the skin
and the edges of the feathers, but
do not suck the blood. The claws
of their feet are sometimes very
sharp, however, and by continual
scratching may draw blood which
is readily eaten by the lice and
accounts for their occasional reddish
color. They are quite hardy and may
live a long time without food. They
spread rapidly from one hen to
another on the roosts, from the nests, and from a hen to her
chicks, a setting hen in a foul nest furnishing them ideal food.
Little chicks are most susceptible and may die from their
attacks. The species on pigeons and geese are different,
as the species of bird lice usually have but one host.

To kill the lice on young chicks rub a pinch of lard under
the wings and a little on top of the head. A dust made of
* Menopon pallidum Xitzsch. Order MallopJiaga, see page 37.

FIG. 147. — The common
hen - louse (Menopon
pallidum). Greatly
enlarged. (U. S. Dept.

Agr.)

INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 207

ten pounds of sulphur to a half bushel of air slaked lime,
mixed together, should be used for dusting the hens and
nests and be mixed with the dust bath. A thorough spray-
ing of the house with kerosene emulsion as advised for mites
will also be valuable. In a recent circular Dr. C. A. Lueder
(50) states that the lice may be killed by treatment with
blue ointment according to the following directions: "Re-
move some feathers from the back part of the body near the
vent. Take a pinch of ointment a little larger than a pea
and thoroughly rub a portion of it where the feathers were
removed. Distribute the balance evenly on the shanks
of the legs and the lice will disappear. Blue ointment should
be applied during the month of December and again about
one month before brooding . season. Blue ointment is a
medical preparation containing mercury, which is poisonous
when taken into the system by the mouth or absorbed through
the skin in large quantities. Young animals are very suscept-
ible to mercury, therefore none should be used on young
chickens. Healthy fowls six months old may be treated."
126. Poultry Mites. The Chicken Mite* (25) is the most
common mite affecting poultry and belongs to the same order
of mites as that causing the sheep scab (p. 203). It is an
oval, flattened mite about one-twentieth of an inch long, of
a pale gray color with darker spots, unless it has been feed-
ing, when it is more or less reddish with blood. The eggs are
laid in cracks and crevices where there is some manure or
filth and the young mites feed largely, if not entirely, on
filth. They become grown in about ten days and, therefore,
increase rapidly. The mites remain on the poultry only
while feeding and then retire into crevices, being most active
at night. Dark, damp houses are much worse infested than
those with good ventilation and plenty of sunlight.

* Dermanyssus gallincc Redi. Class Arachnida, see page 21.

208

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

The walls and roof of the poultry house should be brushed
clean of all dust and filth. The litter and nests should be
kept clean and fresh. Clean the house, scraping the roosts,
dropping boards and floors clean, and then spray with 10
per cent kerosene emulsion, lime-sulphur mixture or with a
whitewash made as follows: Take six pounds of powdered
sulphur and eight pounds of lump lime and place in a

FIG. 148. — The chicken mite (Dermanyssus gallina). (U. S. Dept.

Agr.)

a, adult; 6, tarsus; c, mouth-parts; d and e, young — all enlarged.

wooden tub. Add enough boiling water to slake and keep
the lime from burning and stir continually until cool.
Add more boiling water to make a whitewash. To every
gallon of whitewash add one pound of table salt and four
ounces of creolin. Another application should be made in
four or five days to kill any mites which may hatch.

Another common mite is the one which causes "scaly
leg" and which attacks the feet, legs, comb and neck of

INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 209

poultry, and is often known as the Itch Mite. This is a
much smaller species, which burrows beneath the skin and
causes scales as does the sheep scab mite (p. 203). Under
these scales the mites live and multiply.

Wash the legs of affected fowls with warm soapsuds for
twenty minutes so as to soften the scales so that they may
be gently rubbed off without bleeding. Then apply lard
and kerosene, sulphur ointment, or an ointment made of
naphthalene crystals (moth balls), powdered and mixed
with nine parts of lard. An application of coal tar to the
scales on the legs has caused them to drop off without bleed-
ing and seems to be effective. Blue ointment has also
been used as described for hen lice (p. 206), with excellent
effect.

127. The Cattle Tick.* The cattle tick (22) is best
known as being the carrier of Texas or tick fever. This
disease is the most serious obstacle to the cattle industry in
the South and, therefore, to a better general agriculture.
The U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry (22) states "that the
Texas-fever tick is responsible for about $40,000,000 of loss
annually to the people of the infested country, and that it
lowers the assets of the South by an additional $23,500,000."
It is confined to the Southern States, and as shown in
Fig. 150, its range has been materially restricted by an
active campaign carried on by the Federal and State Gov-
ernments for its eradication.

The fully grown adult ticks may be a half inch long and
are oval in shape. The head is much smaller than that of
other ticks found on cattle, and is reddish-brown or chest-
nut in color. The body color varies from dull yellow to an
olive brown; often being mottled with yellow or brown or
streaked with wavy lines of these colors. There is a groove

* Margaropus annulatus Say. Class Arachnida, see page 21.

210

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

on either side at the front and three grooves toward the rear
of the body.

The adult female when gorged with blood and eggs, drops

FIG. 149. — The cattle tick (Margcropus annulatus). (U. S. Dept. Agr.)

3, mature female with eggs; 4, hide covered with ticks; 5, blood cells con-
taining Texas fever protozoa; 10, various stages of cattle ticks — natural size, except
5, which is enlarged 1000 times.

to the ground and there lays her eggs to the number of 1500
to 3000. From these light-brown eggs small larvae or seed
ticks hatch in from two to six weeks, depending on tempera-

INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 211

212 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

ture and moisture conditions. The young seed ticks crawl
around on grass, weeds, etc., waiting for a chance to attach
themselves to an animal; failing in which they die. They
are, however, exceedingly resistant and may live for three
or four months in summer or from September to April in an
open winter. When cattle are found they attach them-
selves to the soft skin inside the thighs or flanks, and on
other tender and protected parts of the body. They obtain
their nourishment by sucking the blood and though so small
as to be scarcely visible, may transmit the fever at this stage.
The complete life cycle requires from six to ten weeks in
warm weather and much longer during the cold seasons.
The fever is caused by a small protozoan organism which
lives in the red blood corpuscles of the affected animal,
breaking them down and causing a high fever. These mi-
croscopic organisms are transmitted by the female ticks
through their eggs to the young ticks, which then infect the
cattle to which they become attached.

The ticks may be eradicated (see 36), either from the
pastures or from the cattle. Possibly the greatest advances
in tick-eradication have been made in recent years by means
of cleaning the pastures of them. Pastures may be freed by
excluding all cattle, horses, and mules until the young ticks
have died of starvation, or the animals may be left on the
pasture and then treated at regular intervals so as to de-
stroy the ticks and thus prevent the engorged females from
dropping to the ground and reinfesting the pastures. Ticks
which get on the animals will be destroyed by the treatment
and those which fail to do so will die in the pasture. On the
other hand, animals may be freed from ticks by treating
them with a substance which will destroy the ticks or they
may be rotated on fields free from ticks until all the ticks
have dropped. The methods of rotating pastures and the

INSECTS AFFECTING MAN AND ANIMALS 213

time for starving out the young ticks in different latitudes
and at different seasons have been quite carefully deter-
mined, so that it is possible to proceed to eradicate the ticks
from large areas at very small cost (see 36). For destroy-
ing the ticks the cattle are washed, sprayed or dipped in
crude oil emulsion or arsenical dip. Dipping is much the
most satisfactory and is the method usually adopted for
herds of any size. The crude oil emulsion is made like kero •
sene emulsion, using one p:und of hard soap, one gallon of
soft water and four gallons of crude Beaumont petroleum for
making the stock solution and then diluting it to make an
emulsion containing 20 or 25 per cent of oil. The arsenical
dip is made by the following formula:

Sodium carbonate (sal soda) 24 pounds

Arsenic trioxide (white arsenic) .... 8 ' '

Pine tar 1 gallon

Water sufficient to make 500 gallons.

For further necessary details of dipping see reference 36
(p. 340)

CHAPTER XV

INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS AND
STORED FOOD PRODUCTS

128. Cockroaches (31).* Roaches are undoubtedly
among the most offensive of all household pests and are usu-
ally present only in old houses or where cleanliness has been
neglected. In restaurants, boarding houses and on ship-
board they often become very serious pests. They are so

FIG. 151. — The German roach (Blatella germanica). (From Riley.)

a, first stage; b, second stage; c, third stage; d, fourth stage; e, adult; /, adult
female with egg case; g, egg case, enlarged; h, adult with wings spread. All natural
size except g.

well known as hardly to need description, but there are
three species which may be distinguished. The German
Roach or Croton Bug f is so-called because it was imported
into New York City about the time of the installation of
the Croton water system and, as the roaches crawl through
the holes made in floors for water pipes, they spread more
* Family Blattidce, see page 52. f Ectobia germanica Linn.

214

INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 215

rapidly and were also often known as " water-bugs." This
species is a light-brown color with dark, brownish-black
markings as shown in Fig. 157, and is somewhat less than
an inch long when full grown. The Oriental Roach * is a
black species, an inch or more long. The female has only
rudiments of wings and the wings of the male extend from
one-half to three-quarters to the tip of the abdomen. The
American Cockroach f is a native species, about one and one-
half inches long. It is reddish-brown and the wings extend
beyond the end of the abdomen. The Australian Roach t
is much like the last species, but smaller, and has a brighter
and better defined band of yellow on the prothorax, and a
yellow dash on the sides of the upper wings. It is the most
abundant species in Florida and some of the Southern
States.

Roaches are fond of warm places and, therefore, frequent
kitchens and pantries. They are largely nocturnal in habits
and hide in cracks, back of wainscoting, etc., in the day.
They feed on all sorts of materials, attacking all kinds of
food products, and often do serious damage to bookbindings.
Otherwise, the real damage they do is not so serious as the
disagreeable roachy odor they leave and the presence of their
excrement and cast skins wherever they have been.

"One of the most effective simple means of ridding
premises of roaches is dusting with commercial sodium fluDrid,
either pure or diluted one-half with some inert substance
such as powdered gypsum or flour. With the use of some
dust gun or blower the sodium fluorid can be thoroughly
dusted over the shelves, tables, floors and runways and hid-
ing places of the roaches." — Marlatt (31).

* Periplaneta orientalis Linn.
t Periplaneta americana Linn
| Periplaneta australasiae.

216 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

Equal parts of chocolate and borax scattered in the
haunts of the roaches is claimed to be one of the best means of
destroying them. Badly infested buildings should be fumi
gated with hydrocyanic acid gas (see p. 336). Much may
be done by a thorough cleaning of the premises and then stop
ping up all cracks and crevices which furnish them shelter.
Rooms may also be fumigated by burning pyrethrum powder
powder as suggested for flies and mosquitoes (p. 178). An
ingenious method of destroying roaches used in Australia
is by placing a saucer of flour 3 or 4 parts, and plaster of
Paris, 1 part, where the roaches may feed on it and near by
a saucer of water, both being supplied with bridges of card-
board or sticks to give easy access. The roaches feed on the
mixture and when they become thirsty and drink the plas-
ter sets in the intestines and causes death. Phosphorus
paste, obtainable at drug stores, if spread thinly on bits of
card or paper and placed in the runways of the roaches will
destroy many of them, but should not be left where domestic
animals or children may be affected.

129. House Ants * (33). Several species of ants are
common household pests, where they are usually more of a
nuisance than the cause of much real damage. They are
all social species with the general habits described on
page 152.

The Little Red Ant f is the most common species and is
practically cosmopolitan in its distribution. It very com-
monly makes its nests in the walls of houses or beneath the
floors where they are difficult to eradicate. Owing to its
small size, being only about one-twelfth of an inch long, it
is able to go through very small openings, but only by fol-
lowing the workers may the nests be located and if perma-
nent relief is to be secured the nests must be destroyed.

* Family Formicidce, see page 152. f Monomorium pharaonis Linn.

INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 217

The Little Black Ant * is 3/16 of an inch long. It very
frequently occurs indoors, where it often is as troublesome
as the last species, but it ordinarily makes its nests under
stones in the yard or in the field. It may be recognized
by the little pyramids of fine grains of soil which surround
its entrances. By tracing the ants to the outdoor col-
onies they may be readily destroyed.

Another much larger species which sometimes invades
the house is the Black Pavement Ant^ a species quite com-

FIG. 152. — The little red ant (Monomorium pharaonis) . Enlarged.

(From Riley.)
a, female; 6, worker.

mon in Eastern cities. These ants are about one-half inch
long and commonly make their nests under sidewalk pave-
ments and stones where they are hard to reach.

In recent years the Argentine Ant\ has been introduced
into Louisiana and has spread to parts of Mississippi, Ala-
bama, Texas and California. It threatens to become one of
our worst insect pests over a large section of the country, for

*Monomorium minimum Buckley.
f Tetramorium ccespitum Linn.
» J Iridomyrmex humilis Mayr.

218

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

although it is most troublesome in the house it attacks vari-
ous crops. It is a small species, about one-tenth of an inch
long, of a uniform brown color. The nests are built beneath
and in the walls of houses, under stones, in hollow trees, and

FIG. 153. — The little black ant (Monomorium minutum). (After
Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

a, female; 6, same with wings; c, male; d, workers; e, pupa; /, larva; g, egg
of worker — all enlarged.

in various other places. These ants occur in enormous num-
bers and swarm into houses and over everything. They are
not only practically omnivorous, but do not hesitate to
attack a person, and although their bite is not severe, scores
of them soon make themselves decidedly disagreeable and

INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 219

may be positively dangerous to infants. Wherever this pest
appears it should be vigorously combated.

One of the best means of controlling the last species,
which should be equally effective for others, is by means of a
poisoned syrup. Dissolve 125 grains of arsenate of soda
in a little water and add it to a syrup made of one pound
of sugar dissolved in a quart of water. After boiling the
solution saturate a sponge with it and place it in a glass
jar with a perforated cover. This enables the ants to reach
it, but it is not open to animals or children. The ants will
enter the jar and feed on the syrup and even carry it to
their nests.

A method of destroying colonies of ants in their nests is
to saturate the upper surface of the nest with a solution of
cyanide of potassium made at the rate of one ounce to a
gallon of water, but this does not seem to be effective against
the Argentine ant. Injecting carbon bisulphide into the
nests is even more effective where the nests can be found
and it can be used. In many cases kerosene, crude petro-
leum or boiling hot water poured on the nest will destroy the
colony. A favorite way of ridding pantries of ants is to
trap them on a sponge saturated with syrup or sugar water.
The ants will swarm through it, and when it is well covered
drop the sponge into boiling water; then wash it thoroughly
of dead ants and repeat. Where this is kept up, they will
soon leave. To prevent ants from crawling up table legs and
into refrigerators, place the legs in small dishes of kerosene,
being sure that the article does not touch anything else.
Corrosive sublimate seems to be very offensive to ants and
throughout the South "ant-tape" is sold, which is placed
around the legs of tables or around anything to be protected
from ants. It is merely tape soaked in a saturated solution
of corrosive sublimate. It may be made by heating an

220

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

excess of crystals of corrosive sublimate in water in a granite
or porcelain vessel (not iron), then cooling and filtering
through cotton. Soak cotton tape or heavy cotton string
in this for several hours and then dry. It must not come in
contact with any iron, tin or aluminum. Corrosive subli-
mate is poison and should be handled with care. Naphtha-
lene, gum camphor, carbolic acid, and gasoline are also said
to be objectionable to ants and when sprinkled about their
haunts will help drive them away.

130. The Clothes Moths. The little yellowish moths
which sometimes flit about a light at night will quickly set

FIG. 154. — The clothes moth (Tinea pellionetta) . Enlarged. (From

Riley).

Above, adult; at right, larva; at left, larva in case.

the good housekeeper to looking over her furs and woolen
clothing for the presence of clothes moths (30). The moths
themselves are entirely harmless, but she has learned from
experience that where they occur some injury is probably
being done, and that if they are not destroyed, they will give
rise to further trouble. Other moths are frequently con-
fused with clothes moths but usually the latter may be
distinguished by the fringe of long hair on the hind wings,

INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 221

characteristic of the family to which they belong. The
most common species is the Case-making Clothes Moth,*
whose larva constructs a portable case for its protection.
The adult moth expands about half an inch, its head and
fore wings are grayish-yellow, with darker spots in the mid-
dle, and the hind wings are white or grayish. The larva is a
dull white caterpillar about three-eighths of an inch long
when grown, and lives within a tube-like case made from the
material on which it feeds, and lined with silk. The larvae
feed on woolens, carpets, furs, feathers, etc. There is but
one generation a year, the moths appearing in July and
August. The Webbing or Southern Clothes Moth] is the
more common species in the latitude of Washington, D. C.,
and southward. It is about the size of the preceding species,
but the fore wings are uniformly pale yellowish without
darker spots. Its larva does not construct a case, but spins
a silky web wherever it goes. When grown it makes a
cocoon of silk with bits of wool intermixed, within which the
pupal stage is passed. This species has two generations,
the first moths appearing in June and the second generation
in August and September. The Tapestry Moth \ is a much
rarer species in this country. It is larger, expanding three-
fourths of an inch, and is easily distinguished by its more
striking coloration. The head is white, the bases of the
fore wings are black, and the remainder a creamy-white
more or less obscured with gray. This species is more com-
mon on heavier cloths, carpets, horse blankets, tapestries,
etc., but also affects f el tings, furs, skins, and the woolen
upholstering of carriages. Its larva eats into the material
which it infests, lining its burrows with silk.

* Tinea pellionella Linn. Superfamily Tineina, see page 77.
t Tinea biselliella Hummel,
t Trichophaga tapetzella Linn.

222 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

Clothes moths are usually injurious only when articles
are put away and left for some time. Articles in use are
rarely attacked. Exposing stored articles to air and sun-
light, with a vigorous brushing and shaking are old methods
of moth control. Moth balls, naphthalene, cedar chips,
and other repellents are often used and are more or less
effective if the materials are free from the moths when
stored. The best means of preventing injury is to see that
articles to be stored are placed in tight receptacles which are
"moth-proof." The heavy paper bags sold by clothiers
for this purpose are satisfactory. Large, heavy, paste-
board boxes may be secured very cheaply and after packing
away the winter clothing in them, the cracks may be sealed
by gumming a strip of wrapping paper over them, thus
making the boxes moth-tight. Infested articles which must
be returned to storage may be fumigated with carbon bisul-
phide, by placing them in a trunk, and trunks or closets
harboring the moths should be fumigated with the same
material. For the protection of valuable furs and woolens,
furriers are now making use of cold-storage, which entirely
prevents the development of insect pests.

131. The Carpet Beetle.* The adult carpet beetle is a
small, oval, blackish beetle, about one-eighth of an inch
long, mottled with grayish-white, having the inner margin
of each wing-cover, where the whig-covers meet on the back,
marked with a narrow red line from which three short pro-
jections extend laterally. The beetles are most commonly
noticed in the spring, when they will fly to the windows if
they have developed in the house. Out of doors they are
found on the blossoms of spiraea and other plants, where
they feed upon the pollen. The small whitish eggs are laid
upon the cloth or other material upon which the larvae will

* Anthrenus scrophidarice Linn. Family Dermestidce, see page 113.

INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 223

feed. The larvae are about one-fifth inch long when grown
and are covered with thick tufts of coarse brown hairs,
longer at the sides and at the two ends, which have probably
given the insect its common name of Buffalo Moth. They
feed on furs and feathers, but preferably on woolens, and
frequently on the under sides of woolen carpets, especially
where they can conceal themselves in floor cracks.

Where rugs can be substituted for carpets there is much
less liability of injury by this pest, as well as by fleas. Infested

FIG. 155. — The carpet beetle (Anthrenus scrophularice) . (From Riley.)

o, larva, dorsal' view; 6, pupa within larval skin; c, pupa, ventral view; d,
adult. All enlarged.

carpets should be steam-cleaned wherever possible so as to
destroy the eggs. If this is not possible, heating the carpet
to 125° will probably be fatal to all eggs and larvae.
Cracks should be soaked with gasoline and then filled with
a crack-filler. The same methods of control and prevention
as advised for clothes moths {page 222), will also prove
effective.

A nearly related species known as the Black Carpet
Beetle* has very similar habits. It is a black or rusty-black,
slightly downy, oval beetle about 3/16 of an inch long and
* Attagenus piceus Oliv. Family Dermestidce.

224 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

half as wide. The larvae are about 5/16 inch long when full
grown, are reddish-brown, taper somewhat posteriorly, and
bear a tail-like brush of brown hairs half as long as the body.
132. The Pea- Weevil.* The common pea-weevil occurs
wherever peas are grown throughout the world and is the
cause of "buggy" peas. It does but little damage in the
more northern latitudes and seedsmen secure their seed from
Canada and northern Michigan and Wisconsin. The
weevil is of an oval shape, about one-fifth inch long and half
as wide, of a blackish ground color, variegated with black

b a c

FIG. 156. — The pea-weevil (Bruchus pisorum L.) (From Chittenden,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

a, adult beetle; 6, larva; c, pupa — all enlarged.

and white markings as shown in Fig. 156. The abdomen
projects beyond the wing-covers and is marked with two
black spots at the tip. The weevils appear in the fields
when the peas are in bloom and lay the eggs on the surfaces
of the young pods. The young larva bores through the pod
into the seed, in which it grows rapidly. When grown it is
about one-fourth of an inch long and half as wide, is a fleshy,
nearly cylindrical, strongly wrinkled, white grub, with a
brown head and very short stubby legs. It makes a round
hole in the pea, leaving the thin surface membrane as a
covering and then transforms to the pupa within the pea.
* Bruchus pisorum Linn. Family Bruchidce, see page 122.

INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 225

The adult weevils may emerge in from nine to seventeen
days. In more southern latitudes the weevils leave the seed
in August, but in the North they remain in the seed over
winter and are in it when planted. There is only one gener-
ation a year and this species does not reproduce in dry peas.

One of the best means of destroying the weevils, where it
can be done, is simply to hold the peas over for a year, so
that the weevils will emerge in the bags and finally die. A
remedy which many Canadian farmers have used success-
fully is to drench the seed with kerosene, using about half a
gallon to five bushels of peas. It is applied by placing the
peas on a floor where they can be shoveled over to insure
even treatment of all. When seed to be used for planting is
found infested with live weevils they may be destroyed by
pouring the peas into a pot of scalding hot water. The
water should be drained off at once and the peas cooled im-
mediately by pouring into cold water. The same result
may be secured by heating the seed to 145° Fahrenheit
and then cooling. Probably the best remedy is fumigation
with carbon bisulphide, using one pound to 100 bushels of
seed, or one ounce to 100 pounds. A kerosene barrel is a
convenient receptacle in which to fumigate small quantities,
requiring about three ounces of bisulphide. For further
directions for use, see page 335.

133. The Common Bean- wee vil. * The common bean-
weevil is the principal pest of the bean in the United States.
The adult weevil is about one-eighth of an inch long and is
covered with a fine gray-brown or olive pubescence, and the
wing-covers are mottled, as shown in Fig. 157. It may
be distinguished from the pea-weevil by the larger thorax
and by the two small teeth next to the large tooth at the tip
of the hind thighs. The eggs are inserted in the bean-pods
* Bruchus obtectus Say. Family Bruchidx, see page 122.

226

SCHOOL KNTOMOLOGY

by the females through any openings caused by drying and
splitting, or are laid loosely among the shelled beans. The
larva feeds within the bean and becomes a fat footless grub
as shown in the illustration. The pupal stage is also passed
within the bean. Experiments have shown that the com-
plete life cycle may require from twenty-one to eighty days,
according to the temperature. Probably about six genera-
tions occur annually in the latitude of the District of Colum-
bia, and fewer farther north. A number of weevils may

FIG. 157. — The common bean-weevil (Bruchus oblectus Say). (After
Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

a, beetle; b, larva; c, pupa — all greatly enlarged.

infest a single bean. Weevily seed should never be planted
as but a small percentage will germinate. Infested seed
may be thrown lightly into water, when that badly infested
will float and can be destroyed.

Either heat or fumigation as advised for the pea-weevil
will be effective, except that it is useless to hold the seeds
over, as this species breeds in the stored seed.

134. Grain-weevils and Grain-beetles (45). The term
" weevil" is commonly applied to almost any insect affecting
stored grain, but it should be used only for the true snout-

INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 227

beetles, of which the Granary-weevil * and the Rice-weevil f

are the most common. They

are small, brown, wingless

beetles, from one-eighth to

one-sixth of an inch in length,

with long snouts which are of

great service in boring into

the kernels of grain. By

means of them the females

puncture the grain and then

insert an egg in the cavity.

The larva hatching from this

is without legs, somewhat

shorter than the adult, white

in color, and of a very robust

build, being almost as broad

as long. It soon devours

the soft interior of the kernel

and then changes to a pupa,

from which the adult beetle

emerges in about six weeks

from the time the egg was

laid.

Only a single larva in-
habits a kernel of wheat, but
several will often be found in
that of corn. Not only do
the larvae injure the grain,
but the beetles feed upon it,
and then hollow out a shelter
for themselves within the hull.

FIG. 158. — The grain-weevil (Co-
landra granaria). (After Chit-
tenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

a, beetle; b, larva; c, pupa; d, the rice
weevil (C. oryza) : beetle — all enlarged.

* Calandra granaria Linn.

f Calandra oryzce Linn. Family Calandridce.

228

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

The beetles are quite long-lived, and thus do considerable
damage. As there are three or four broods in the North and
six or more in the South, it has been, estimated that the
progeny of one pair would amount to 6000 insects in a single
season.

Another beetle very common in the granary, but of quite
different appearance, is the Saw-toothed Grain-beetle * (Fig.
159). It is a cosmopolitan pest and is nearly omnivor

Fia. 159. — The saw-toothed grain-beetle (Silvanus surinamensis).
(After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

a, adult beetle; 6, pupa; c, larva — al! enlarged; d, the red or square-necked
grain-beetle (Cathartus gemellatus).

ous. The beetle is only about one-tenth of an inch long,
very much flattened, of a dark-brown color, and may be
easily recognized by the six saw-like fceeth on each side of the
thorax. The larva is of a dirty-white color, and quite dis-
similar from that of the granary weevil. Having six legs to
carry it about, it is not satisfied with a single seed, but runs
about here and there, nibbling at several. When full grown
the larva glues together several grains or fragments into a
* Silvanus surinamensis Linn. Family Cucujida.

INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 229

little case, and inside of this transforms to the pupa and
then to the beetle. There are from three to six or more
generations during a season, according to the latitude.

The Red or Square-necked Grain-beetle * is about the same
size as the last species, but is a reddish-brown color, and the
thorax is almost square, nearly as broad as the abdomen and
not notched at the sides. It breeds in corn in both the
field and granary, first destroying the germ, so that it is
particularly injurious to seed corn.

The Cadelle f also has the bad habit of first attacking
the germ of the kernel, and going from one kernel to another
destroys a large number for use as seed. It has the good
trait, however, of feeding on other injurious grain insects.
The beetle is about one-third of an inch long, oblong, flat,
and nearly black. The larva is a fleshy, whitish grub,
nearly three-fourths of an inch long when grown, with a
brown head, the thoracic segments marked with brown and
the abdomen ending in two dark horny processes.

The larvae of two species of beetles { are very common
in bran and meal, as well as other grain products, and are
commonly known as meal worms. They are used for bird
food and are grown in quantity by bird stores. The beetles
are about one-half inch long, T. molitor, being a shining black
and somewhat lighter than T. obscurus, which is a dull
black. Running lengthwise of the wing-covers are sixteen
furrows. The larvae, or meal-worms, are about one inch
long, yellowish in color, cylindrical, and have a hard, shiny
skin. At the tip of the abdomen are two small dark-colored
spines. They grow rather slowly and may live for a long

* Cathartus gemellatus Duv. Family.
t Tenebriodes mauritanicus Linn. Family Trogositidce.
J Tenebrio obscurus and Tenebrio molitor Linn. Family Tenebri-
onidce, see page 123.

230

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

time without food and in very dry material. There seems
to be but a single generation in a year.

135. Flour and Meal-moths (37). The larvae of several
small moths sometimes infest grain in store, but usually pre-
fer flour, meal and food products. The most destructive
of these is the Mediterranean Flour Moth. * It was imported
from Europe in the 70's and has now become generally dis-
tributed over the United States. The adult moth expands
about an inch, the fore wings are a lead-gray color with
transverse blackish markings, and the hind wings are dirty

FIG. 160.— The Mediterranean flour-moth (Ephestia kuehniella). (After
Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

a, moth; b, same from side, resting, c, larva; d, pupa — enlarged; e, abdominal
joint of larva — more enlarged.

whitish with a darker border. The caterpillars feed in cylin-
drical silken tubes which makes them a great nuisance in
mills, where the machinery becomes clogged with the felted
flour. The life cycle ordinarily occupies about two months,
but may be completed in thirty-eight days.

The Indian Meal-moth f (Fig. 161) larvae, like the grain-
beetles, have a special liking for the germ of wheat grains.
They spin a fine silken web as they go from seed to seed, to
which the seed becomes attached and to which the excre-

* Ephestia kuehniella Zell. Family Pyralidce. See page 75.

f Plodia interpunctella Hbn. Family Pyralidce.

INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 231

ment also clings, so that much more grain is spoiled for food
than is really injured. The moth expands about three-
fourths of an inch, the inner third of the fore wings being
a light grayish and
the outer portion a
reddish-brown with
a coppery luster.

The Meal Snout-
moth * (Fig. 162), is
of a light brown
color, the thorax,
base, and tips of the
fore wings being FIG. 161. — The Indian meal-moth (Plodia
darker brown. The interpunctella) . (After Chittenden, U. S.

Dept. Agr.)
WingS expand nearly a> moth. b> pupa; c> caterpillar-enlarged.

an inch and are other-
wise marked with whitish lines as shown in the figure. It is
very similar to the last-mentioned species in its habits, con-
structing long tubes with silk
and particles of the food in
which it is living. The life-
history is completed in abqut
eight weeks, and four genera-
tions may occur in a year. The
moisture of " heated" grain is
most favorable for the devel-
opment of this pest, and it
need not be feared if grain
is kept in a clean, dry place.

The worst pest of stored
grain in the South is the Angoumois Grain Moth.]

FIG. 162. — The meal snout-moth
(Py ralis farinalis) — twice
natural size. (After Chit-
tenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

* Pyralis farinalis Linn. Family Pyralida?, see page 78.
f Sitotroga cerealella Oliv. Family Gelechiidce.

232

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

receives its name from a province in France where it
wrought havoc in 1760. It occurs throughout the South
and as far north as Pennsylvania and Ohio. Wheat, corn,
oats, rye, barley, sorghum-seed, and even cow-peas are
injured. The moths quite closely resemble clothes moths
(page 220), expanding nearly three-fourths of an inch,
being of a yellowish-buff color, marked with black, and
with the same broad fringe on the hind wings. The moths

FIG. 163. — The Angoumois grain-moth (Sitotroga cerealelld). (After
Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

a, eggs; b, larva at work; c, larva, side view; d, pupa; e, moth; /, same, side
view.

emerge from infested grain in late May or June, when
they fly to the growing grain, on which each female lays
from 60 to 90 eggs. The young caterpillars bore into the
kernels, where they feed and become full grown in about
three weeks. Full grown caterpillars are about one-fifth
of an inch long, white in color, with a yellowish head, and
have four pairs of soft prolegs on the middle of the abdomen.
The second brood of moths appears about harvest time.
They lay their eggs in July, depositing them on the wheat in
the stack. The caterpillars hatching from these eggs may

INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 233

remain in the grain over winter, but in warm seasons a
third brood of moths may be developed by early September.
This species continues to breed within doors all winter, al-
though feeding stops in very cold weather. The number of
generations depends entirely upon latitude and weather.
In the South there may be as many as eight in a year.

Corn is frequently attacked, but not until it is ripe and
husked, and then but rarely when husked in October and
November and stored outdoors in slatted cribs. Seed-corn
stored in barns, and in the South in almost any situation, is
often badly injured.

Aside from the loss in weight, grain when badly infested
becomes unfit for milling purposes, and will even be refused
by cattle and horses, which should not be urged to eat it,
though hogs and fowls will readily consume it.

Grain should be threshed as soon after harvest as pos-
sible and placed in tight bins or sacks. Infested grain
should be fumigated with carbon bisulphide as soon as
threshed. Sacked grain will not heat if infested, and the
moths cannot get out and are stifled. If placed in bins,
they should be made tight and if the grain heats perceptibly,
it should at once be fumigated with carbon bisulphide.
Corn should be husked before storing. Barns and store-
houses should be cleaned up from scattered grain before
April first, and infested grain should be kept tightly
covered in the spring so that no moths will spread to the
field.

136. Control of Grain Insects. Cleanliness is pre-
requisite to freedom from grain pests. Wherever dust, dirt,
rubbish, sweepings of grain and its products, are allowed to
accumulate, ideal conditions for the reproduction of grain
insects are afforded. It is highly desirable where grain is to
be stored on the farm, that a separate building be provided

234 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

at some distance from other buildings. It should be con-
structed of matched flooring so as to be as near insect-tight
as possible. The doors should fit tightly, closing on a rabbet,
which may be covered with felt or packing. The windows
should be covered with fine wire screening to prevent the
passage of insects. The floors, walls and ceiling should be
made smooth, with no cracks in which insects may hide. It
is important that the building be dry, well ventilated and as
cool as possible, as reproduction is much more rapid in a
warm place, and infested grain will heat more quickly. It is
desirable to store grain in bulk, as a smaller surface is thus
exposed to infestation, and the moths do not penetrate far
beneath the surface. The best means of destroying insects
in the small granary is by fumigating with carbon bisulphide
(page 335) . The room or bin in which it is to be used should
be made tight. Bins may be covered with blankets. The
liquid may be poured directly on the grain, which it will
not injure. Care should always be exercised that no fire
comes near the place fumigated, as the gas is exceedingly
inflammable. Mills and storehouses which are badly in-
fested are often fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas (page
336). Prof. R. I. Smith has shown that sulphur dioxid, pro-
duced by burning sulphur slightly dampened with alcohol,
will kill most grain insects, but injures the germinating power
of the grain. "It was found that the fumes produced by
burning 1\ pounds of sulphur either in moist or dry atmos-
phere of 1000 cubic feet space, for twenty hours, would kill
all exposed adult insects and practically all the young stages
in the grain, but that this also destroyed its germinating
power. . . . While this treatment cannot be recommended
for general fumigation, there is no doubt of its being the
easiest and cheapest method of fumigating corn cribs, grana-
ries and similar places whenever they are being cleaned out

INSECTS AFFECTING HOUSEHOLD GOODS 235

and freed of insects in preparation for the reception of more
grain."

The heating of grain was one of the earliest means known
of combating grain insects, but has been little used in this
country. Recently, however, Prof. Geo. A. Dean (52), has
shown that by super-heating nulls they may be rid of insect
pests much more quickly and cheaply than by fumigation,
and with no risk from fire or from cyanide poisoning. His
experiments show that if the temperature surrounding an
insect be maintained above 120° F., with a normal amount
of moisture, that in a very few minutes it will be killed.
This promises to become one of the most practicable methods
of cleaning mills and may be used for small quantities of
grain, where there are facilities for heating it or placing it in
a superheated room.

•'si

CHAPTER XVI
FIELD CROP INSECTS

137. White Grubs.* The large grubs (15) with brown
heads and enlarged curled-up abdomens, which are thrown
out in plowing sod land, are commonly known as white
grubs. Although there are numerous species, they are all
very similar in general color and form and are the larva?
of different species of the large brown May-beetles or June-

FIG. 164. — A May-beetle (Lachnosterna arcuata). (After Chittenden,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

a, beetle; 6, pupa; e, mature larva — enlarged one-fourth.

bugs,- which frequently fly to lights in late spring. White
grubs are most abundant in sod land and often seriously
injure old meadows, but their injury is most commonly
noticed on corn, strawberries and garden crops.

The eggs are laid one to five inches below the surface of

the soil in grass lands, though sometimes in corn land or

gardens, and hatch by midsummer. The young grubs feed

* Lachnosterna spp. Family Scarabceidce. See page 118

236

FIELD CROP INSECTS 237

upon the plant roots available and grow slowly, as they
require two years or more to become full grown. In the fall
they go deeper in the soil and by the first freeze they are
from seven to fourteen inches deep. The next year they
do much more serious damage and crops are often ruined
on sod land which has been planted to corn, strawberries or
garden crops. As many as thirty-four grubs have been
found in a single hill of corn in an Illinois field in sod the
previous year. When the grub is two or three years old it
forms a cell from three to ten inches below the surface and
there changes to the pupa during midsummer. In August
or September the adult beetle wriggles out of the pupal skin
but remains in the earthen cell until the following spring,
when it emerges fully hardened. Thus three full years are
required for the life cycle, although grubs in all stages of
development may be found in the soil every year. The
adult beetles feed at night upon the foliage of various trees
and hide in the soil during the day. Different species have
favorite food plants, but all the common decidous shade and
forest trees are more or less eaten, maple and poplar par-
ticularly.

A frequent rotation of crops, following sod with some
crop not particularly injured by the grubs, will form the most
important general means of control, as allowing land to
remain in grass for several years furnishes them ideal con-
ditions for multiplication. Deep plowing and thorough
harrowing in late fall, winter and early spring will break up
many of the pupal cells and destroy the tender beetles, both
by burying and crushing them and by exposing them to
abnormal conditions. Swine will gorge themselves on the
grubs on badly infested land and if confined so that they
can thoroughly root it over, will effectively clean it of them.
Flocks of turkeys or chickens following the plow destroy

238

SCHOOL KNTOMOI.OdY

large numbers, as do crows and blackbirds. Lanterns hung
over pans or tubs of water with a surface film of kerosene,
placed near the trees on which the beetles feed, will catch
large numbers of them on warm nights.

138. The Chinch-bug * (16). Though individually in-
significant, when assembled in countless myriads chinch-
bugs have, doubtless, done greater injury to the farmers of
the Mississippi Valley than any other insect attacking grain
crops, the total damage from 1850 to 1909 being estimated at

FIG. 165. — The chinch-bug (Blissus leucopterus Say). (After Riley.)

Adult at left; a, 6, eggs magnified and natural size; c, young nymph; e, second
stage of nymph; /, third stage; g, full-grown nymph or pupa; d, h, j, legs; t,
beak through which the bug sucks its food.

$350,000,000. The principal injury is to small grains and
corn in the Central and North Central States, though oc-
casionally injury occurs in the Eastern States, particularly
to old timothy meadows. The adult chinch-bug is about
one-fifth of an inch long with a black body. Its white wings
lie folded over each other on the abdomen, and are marked
by a small black triangle on their outer margins, while the
bases of the antennae and legs are red. The young bugs are
yellowish or bright red, marked with brownish-black, be-
coming darker as they grow older.

* Blissus leucopterus Say. Family Lygcridce, see page 60.

FIELD CROP INSECTS 239

The bugs hibernate over winter in clumps of grass, in
the butts and in old shocks of corn, or under whatever rub-
bish is available. In early spring they feed upon grass and
small grains. The females lay their small yellowish-white
eggs upon the roots or bases of the stalks, each laying from
150 to 200 eggs from the middle of April until June first.
The eggs hatch in about three weeks. The young bugs often
do serious injury to small grains and grasses and become full
grown about the time the former are harvested. When the
small grains are harvested the bugs spread to corn, but
curiously enough, although the adults are winged they
usually travel from field to field on foot. Eggs are then
laid on the corn, between the leaf -sheaths and the stalks,
and hatch in about ten days. This second brood matures
in August and September and hibernates over winter,
although where corn is not available the whole season may be
passed on grass.

The burning over of grass land and the grass along fences,
hedges and roads, as soon as it becomes dry enough in late
fall and early winter, is of prime importance for destroying
the bugs after they have gone into hibernation, and if thor-
oughly done by co-operative effort over large areas, will be
the cheapest and most effective means of control. The
removal of all corn stalks from the fields and plowing the
butts under deeply, or, where the bugs are very abundant,
raking out the butts and burning them, will be of importance
in some sections.

It is practically impossible to combat the bugs success-
fully on small grains and grass, but the migration to corn may
be effectually checked. This may be done best by running a
line of thick, viscid road oil (No. 7 of the Standard Oil Co.,
Whiting, Ind.), around the field to be protected. The soil
should be prepared for this oil line by plowing a back furrow

240 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

and packing the top with a roller or beating it hard; or a
strip of sod may be prepared by scraping away the grass with
a scraper and then smoothing with shovels or hoes; or a dead
furrow may be run and the oil line run on the smooth bottom.
In any case it is important to have a fairly smooth, hard
surface for the oil line so as to conserve the oil and make an
effective barrier. The oil line may be run by pouring the
oil from a watering-can with the mouth stopped down,
so as to make a line about the thickness of one's finger.
Along the outside of this line post holes, a foot deep, should
be sunk every few feet. The bugs crawling along the oil
line, which they will not cross as long as it is intact, will fall
into the post holes, where they will collect and may be crushed
or otherwise destroyed. In place of the post holes the bugs
collecting along the line have sometimes been destroyed with
a blast torch. Coal tar may be used instead of road oil,
but is more expensive and must be renewed more frequently.

Where immediate action is necessary and road oil or
coal tar are not at hand, the corn may be protected in dry
weather by a dust furrow. Plow a deep furrow around the
field to be protected and thoroughly pulverize the soil by
dragging a heavy log back and forth through the furrow,
making the sides as steep as possible. Sink post holes every
few feet in the bottom. In attempting to climb this furrow
the bugs will slide back to the bottom and will collect in the
holes, where they may be killed. The dust furrow will be
of no value in showery weather and is most effective on light
soils in hot weather.

For destroying the bugs which pass the barriers and for
those which may hatch on the corn, a spray of rosin soap,
one pound to six gallons of water, has been found very
effective, and should be used on the outer rows, so as to pre-
vent the field from becoming generally infested.

FIELD CROP INSECTS

241

Extensive experiments in the use of fungous diseases
for the control of the chinch-bug were conducted for many
years, but have resulted in proving the impracticability of
their artificial use.

Where chinch-bugs are abundant the farmer should pre-
pare to devote himself and as many hands as necessary to
fighting them promptly if he would check their migration and
save his corn crop, for delay may mean ruin.

139. Grasshoppers * (40d). Almost every year in some
part of the country crops are destroyed by hordes of hungry
grasshoppers, or locusts, as
they are called in Europe.
In the 70's vast areas in the
Mississippi Valley were dev-
astated by the clouds of
Rocky Mountain Locusts
which migrated down from
the table lands of the Rocky
Mountain region, but in
recent years this species has
practically disappeared from Fio.166.— Rocky Mountain locust;
., ,, ., , 0, 0 ! adult and different stages of

the United States. Several g^th of young. (After Riley.)
species are commonly de-
structive throughout the country. One of the most com-
mon is the small Red-legged Locust,^ which is found in
almost every meadow. Very similar in both size and ap-
pearance is the Lesser Migratory Locust ,J so-called on ac-
count of its flying in large numbers from one point to another.
Another similar and closely related species is the California
Devastating Locust,§ which has usually been the most de-

* Family Acrididce, see page 48.

t Mclanoplus femur-rubrum Har.

t Melanoplus atlanis Riley.

§ Melanoplus devastator Scud.

242

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

structive species in that State. The Two-striped Locust *
is somewhat larger and is characterized by two yellowish
stripes extending from the eyes along the sides of the head
to the extremities of the wing-covers. Our largest winged

species is the Ameri-
can Acridium.\ It
is a Southern spe-
cies, being common
south of the Poto-
mac and Ohio rivers,
where it has often
become quite de-
structive.

Throughout the Mississippi Valley from Illinois south-
ward, the Differential Locust \ has become one of the most
common and destructive species and its habits may be de-
scribed to illustrate those of most of the other common

FIG. 167.— The two-striped locust (Mela-
noplus bivittatus Scud.). (After Riley.)

FIG. 168. — The American acridium (Schistocerca americana Scud.).
(After Riley.)

species. The young grasshoppers hatch in late spring and
are a dusky brown color, marked with yellow, resembling
the adults in shape, but lacking wings. During their growth

* Melanoplus bivittatus Scud,
t Schistocerca americanus Scud,
t Melanoplus differentialis Thos.

FIELD CROP INSECTS

243

they moult five times at intervals of ten days to two weeks
and are full grown by midsummer. The adults of this spe-
cies are l£ inches long with a wing-expanse of 2£ inches and
a bright yellowish-green color. The head and thorax are
olive-brown ; the fore wings are much the same color without
markings but with a brownish shade at the base; the hind

FIG. 169. — The differential locust (Melanoplus differentialis Thos.).
(After Riley.)

wings are tinged with green; the hind thighs are bright yel-
low, with four black marks, and the hind shanks are yellow
with black spines and a ring of the same color near the base.
The adults at once attack whatever crops are available,
often finishing the destruction of those injured by them as
nymphs, but in a few days their appetites ssem to become
somewhat appeased and they
commence to mate and wander in
search of suitable places for laying
the eggs. Relatively few eggs are
laid in cultivated ground, the fa
vorite places being neglected fields
grown up in grass and weeds, the
edges of cultivated fields, private roadways, banks of ditches
and small streams, and pasture lands. It is doubtless due
to these egg-laying habits and the abundance of food on un-
cultivated land that this species always increases enormously
on land which has been flooded and then lies idle for a year
or two. Most of the eggs are laid in August and early Sep-

FIG. 170. — Egg-mass of the
differential locust — enlarged.

244 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

tember. Each female deposits a single egg mass (most other
species lay several egg masses), of about 100 eggs just be-
neath the surface of the soil. During this season the females
may frequently be found with the abdomens thrust deep in
the soil, as the process of egg-laying requires some time.
The eggs are yellow and arranged irregularly in a mass which
is coated with a gluey substance to which the earth adheres,
and which protects them from variable conditions of moist-
ure and temperature.

Deep plowing in late fall or early spring effectually
buries the eggs too deep for the young nymphs to emerge.
On alfalfa land thorough disking is often used for the same
purpose. Thorough harrowing in the fall so as to pulverize
the soil for the depth of an inch will break up many of the
egg masses, though it is not as sure a control as plowing them
under.

When the young emerge, they may sometimes be de-
stroyed by burning over stubble, grass and rubbish where it
is present in sufficient quantities, or by augmenting it with
straw, which may be done to advantage on cold days when
the nymphs are congregated in such shelter. Plowing a
badly infested field in a square, working toward the center so
as to drive the young ny.nphs inward, will result in burying
many of them in the furrows, and the last may be burned or
trapped in holes as described below. Dust furrows may be
made as described for chinch-bugs and handled in the same
manner, the little hoppers drifting to the bottom, where they
are killed by the heat on a hot day or are caught in the post-
holes sunk every few feet in the bottom. This method may
be used to advantage in plots of corn, cotton, or garden truck
which have already become infested, by running furrows,
around the field and occasionally through it, and then driv-
ing the young hoppers toward them. This may readily be

FIELD CROP INSECTS 245

done by a number of children armed with branches. Where
ditches containing water are available the young hoppers
may be destroyed by oiling the surface of the water with
kerosene emulsion and then driving them into the ditches,
for even if they succeed in crawling out they will succumb
to the oil.

Where the young hoppers have congregated in large
numbers on the edges of fields, in patches of weeds, etc., they
may be destroyed by spraying them with kerosene or crude
petroleum either pure or, preferably, in an emulsion, and the
weeds and grass along fences and in neglected fields should
be thoroughly treated with a strong arsenical spray or dust.

On pastures, small grains or any crops permitting their
use, immense numbers of nymphs may be caught by the
use of hopperdozers, which may be utilized where the use
of poisoned bran would not be possible. The hopperdozer
consists of a shallow pan, mounted on runners or wheels, con-
taining water with a surface of kerosene or crude petroleum,
and, if larger than about three feet square, is usually provided
with partitions to prevent slopping. The back and sides are
high and sometimes are made of canvas. " A good cheap
pan is made of ordinary sheet iron, eight feet long, eleven
inches wide at bottom, and turned up a foot high at the back
and an inch high in front. A runner at each end, extending
some distance behind, and a cord attached to each front
corner, complete the pan (Fig. 171). It is easily pulled by
two boys, and by running several together in a row, one boy
to each rope, and one to each contiguous pair, the best work
is performed with the least labor." Larger hopperdozers
are drawn or pushed by horses.

Poisoned bran mash has been used against both nymphs
and adults, using from one to two pounds of Paris green to
25 pounds of bran. Poisoned horse-droppings have been

246

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

used very successfully, especially in the Northwest and in
Canada. One part of Paris green is mixed with 100 parts of
horse manure by measure. Enough water is added to make
the mass soft without being sloppy. The mixture is scat-
tered over the fields from a wagon or stone-boat with a
paddle. In Minnesota a similar mixture has been found
cheaper and more satisfactory. It is made of one pound of
arsenite of soda, 120 to 150 pounds of horse manure and one

FIG. 171 — The Price oil-pan or hopperdozer, with partitions to prevent
slopping. (After Riley.)

pint of cheap molasses. Dissolve the arsenite of soda in
water and then add to the manure, stirring well.

140. Grain Aphides.* The English Grain-aphis,^ the
most common aphid affecting wheat and other small grains,
is a large green species which occasionally increases so rapidly,
just as the heads are ripening, as to injure seriously the
quality and weight of the wheat. The wingless females are

* Family Aphididce, see page 66.
f Macrosiphum granaria Buckton.

FIELD CROP INSECTS

247

about one-tenth inch long, with black antennae as long as, or
longer than, the body. They are a yellowish-green color and
the long nectaries projecting from either side of the abdomen
are black. The winged females are about the same length,
the antennae are a third longer than the body, which is of
the same general coloration except that the lobes of the
thorax are brownish or blackish and the abdomen is marked
with four or five
transverse blackish
spots in front of
the nectaries.

The German
Grain-aphis* is
commonly associ-
ated with this spe-
cies and has very
similar habits. It
may be distin-
guished by its lack-
ing the blackish
markings on the
abdominal seg-
ments.

These aphides
appear on the

young wheat in the spring and multiply rapidly on the
leaves until the grain commences to head, when they crowd
among the ripening kernels. As the small grains ripen the
aphides migrate to various grasses and are not in evidence
during summer, but later migrate to volunteer oats and
wheat, upon which they breed until fall wheat is avail-
able.

* Macrosiphum cerealis Kalt.

FIG. 172. — The German grain-aphis (Macro-
siphum cerealis Kalt). (After Riley, U. S.
Dept. Agr.)

a, winged migrant; b, nymph of same; c, wing-
less parthenogenetic female; d, same showing exit
hole of parasite— enlarged.

248

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

The Oat Aphis (6), has been discussed (page 304), as an
apple pest, but should be here noted, as it is widely distrib-
uted on wheat and oats. The wingless females congregate
in the axils of the leaves, around the crown, and on the upper
roots, injury seeming to be worse in winter, when they often
cause the plants to turn yellowish. In the South this species

Flu. 173. — "Green bugs" on oat
seedling — enlarged.

FIG. 174. — Spring grain-aphis
(Toxoptera graminum). Adult
wingless female greatly enlarged.
(After S, J, Hunter.)

continues to reproduce on small grains without having an
alternate sexual generation on the apple.

The Spring Grain-aphis or Green Bug * (17), although

widely distributed, has been seriously injurious only from

Kansas southward, although damage has occurred in the

Carolinas and Tennessee and elsewhere. The wingless

* Toxoptera graminum Rond.

FIELD CROP INSECTS 249

female is from one-twenty-fifth to one-fourteenth inch long,
yellowish-green, with a median line slightly darker, and eyes
and most of the antennae black. The winged female is
slightly larger and of the same coloration except that the
head is brownish-yellow and the lobes of the thorax are
blackish. The agamic females multiply rapidly in summer,
for during its life of about a month each female will give
birth to fifty or sixty young, which commence to reproduce in
the same manner when about a week old. Reproduction is
slower in winter, but in an open winter a few individuals will
soon give rise to
infested spots
from which
countless indi-
viduals will
spread over the
field and en-
tirely ruin it by
the middle of FIG. 175. — Lysiphlebus parasite in act of depositing

A ™*il in north eggs in the body of a grain-aphis— much enlarged.
April in north- (After Webster> n g Dept Agr }

ern Texas. As

the food supply disappears almost all the young develop
wings and immense clouds of winged females are carried
northward by the winds, so that an outbreak in early
spring in the South leads to infestation further north. As
soon as they multiply they again spread northward. Pro-
gressing thus in 1907, they reached southern Minnesota
by July.

Grain aphides are prevented from becoming so over-
abundant as to cause frequent injury by the attacks of small
wasp-like parasites. These little parasites lay their eggs in
the aphides, which are soon killed by the growing larvae.
These parasites reproduce even more rapidly than the

250

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

aphides, but only at a temperature some ten degrees higher
than that required by the green bug. In cool wet weather
the aphides increase rapidly and may become destructive
before warmer weather enables the
parasites to become sufficiently
numerous to check them.

All of these grain aphides multi-
ply in the fall on volunteer oats and
wheat. Their destruction in early
fall and the abandonment of the
practice of growing volunteer oats
in the Far South, are, therefore, of
prime importance for their control.
Where small spots of young grain
plants have been injured the
aphides may be killed by spraying
with a 10 per cent kerosene emul-
sion, soap solution one pound to
six gallons, or Black-leaf-40 tobacco

FIG. 176.— Dead "green
bugs," showing hole

from which the ma- extract, one part to 900 parts of
-ter, to which should be added
top figure shows the one pound of soap to each 100 gal-
lid still attached, but Ions. Such spots may also be cov-
pushed back; the hot-
torn figure shows the
parasite emerging,

straw and burned, or be
plowed under. It is of considerable

Enlarged. (After importance, particularly with the
Webster, U. S. Dept. green bug, to observe small spots
when injury first occurs and to
treat them so as to prevent further spread.

141. The Hessian Fly.* The most destructive of any
of the insects attacking wheat is the Hessian Fly, a small
midge which received its name from the fact that it was first
* Mayetiola destructor Say. Family Cecidomyiidce.

FIELD CROP INSECTS

251

discovered on Long Island, in 1779, just where the Hessian
troops had landed three years before. It has been esti-
mated that it reduces the wheat crop by 10 per cent every
year and frequently 25 to 50 per cent is lost in restricted
localities.

The adult flies are small dark-colored gnats about one-

FIG. 177.— The Hessian fly (Mayetiola destructor). (After Marlatt,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

o, female fly; b, flaxseed stage or pupa; c, larva; d, head and breast-bone of
same; e, pupa; /, puparium; g, infested wheat-stem showing emergence of pupa
and adults — all greatly enlarged.

tenth of an inch long, so small as commonly to escape obser-
vation. The females lay their small reddish eggs usually
on the upper surface of the leaves. The maggots hatching
from these in the fall burrow beneath the sheath of the leaf
at its base, causing a slight enlargement at the point of at-
tack. In the spring they usually stop at one of the lower

252 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

joints, but always become fixed in the plant, absorbing its
sap and destroying its tissues. The dark color of the leaves,
the absence of central stems and the stooling out of the
plants are among the indications of injury in the fall or
winter wheat. Later many plants yellow and die. The
spring maggots attack the laterals, or tillers, which have
escaped the fall brood, so weakening them that the stems
break and fall before ripening and cannot be readily har-
vested.

The maggots become grown in about a month, when the
skin shrivels and turns brown and inside it is formed the
pupa. This outside case composed of the larval skin is
known as the "puparium," and this is commonly called the
" flax-seed" stage from its resemblance to that seed. The
winter is passed in the pupal stage and the flies emerge in
April or May. The summer brood remains in the "flax-
seed" stage in the stubble during the late summer and the
flies emerge when the first wheat is planted in the fall.

The principal means of control is by the late planting
of wheat in the fall. The flies appear within about a week
and then disappear and if planting be delayed so that the
wheat will not be up until after that time, there will be but
little injury. Dry weather in late summer and early fall
delays the appearance of the flies and the farther south, the
later they appear. In average seasons it will probably be
found safe to sow wheat in the latitude of northern
Michigan soon after September 1st; in southern Michigan
and northern Ohio about September 20th; in southern
Ohio after the first week in October; in Kentucky and
Tennessee, October 10th to 20th, and in Georgia and South
Carolina, October 25th to November 15th. The exact time
will also depend upon the altitude, every 100 feet of alti-
tude making the date about one day earlier. As the infesta-

FIELD CROP INSECTS 253

tion of the fall wheat comes from the stubble it is important
to disk the stubble immediately after harvest and three or
four weeks later plow the land at least six inches deep, so
that all stubble and volunteer wheat will be well buried.
The land should then be refirmed and worked into a good
seed bed, keeping it mellow and free from volunteer wheat.
The importance of the best possible preparation of the land
and the destruction of volunteer wheat cannot be over-
emphasized.

142. The Corn Earworm or Cotton Bollworm * (18).
This is practically the only insect seriously injuring the ears
of field corn. In the South it is so abundant on sugar corn
as to make it very difficult to secure uninjured ears, and in
the Middle States it greatly reduces the profit in growing
corn for the cannery. In the South it bores into the half-
formed cotton bolls, often materially reducing the crop, and
is, therefore, known as the Cotton Bollworm. In tomato-
growing sections it is called the Tomato Fruitworm, from its
habit of eating into the green fruits and in tobacco regions
it is the Tobacco Budworm on account of its injury by boring
into the buds and seed-pods. Numerous other crops such
as beans, peas, and many garden and forage crops are also
attacked.

The moths have a wing expanse of about If inches and
are quite variable in color and markings. Some are dull
olive-green while others are yellowish and with almost no
markings. Typically the wings are bordered with dark
bands, the wing-veins are black and the fore wings are
spotted with black. In the Gulf States the moths appear in
April and in the Middle States early in June. The eggs of
the first generation are laid on corn, peas, beans, or whatever
food-plants are available and hatch in from three to five
* Hcliothis obsolete Fab. Family Noctuidcc.

254

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

days. They are light yellowish, and prettily corrugated
The caterpillars of the first generation often attack corn
when it is about knee-high, feeding in the axils of the tender
leaves so that when they unroll they bear rows of holes.

FIG. 178. — The corn ear-worm (Hcliothis obsoleta Fab).

a, eggs on corn-silk; 6, the first thr«o larval stages; c, pupa from bclo^
eame from above; e, adult moth — all enlarged; 6. about twice natural size.

The caterpillars are also quite variable in color, ranging from
a light green, through rose color and brown to almost black,
and being either striped, spotted or perfectly plain. They
become grown in about two and a half weeks and are then
from H to H inches long. The grown caterpillar burrows into

FIELD CROP INSECTS

255

the soil for two to five inches and after making an upward
burrow nearly to the surface for the escape of the moth,
changes to a pupa at the bottom of the burrow. During
the summer the moths emerge in about two weeks, but the
last generation in the fall passes the winter in the pupal
stage. The second generation of moths appears about mid-
summer in the lati-
tude of Delaware and
Kansas. The cater-
pillars of the second
generation in the
South and of the
third farther north
prefer to lay their
eggs on corn silk and
tassels and do seri-
ous injury by eating
out the tips of theears.
From 2 to 3 per cent
of the corn crop of
the country, valued
at from $30,000,000
to $50,000,000, is
thus destroyed an- FlG- 179.— Bollworm at work on cotton

bolls, boring into grown boll — slightly
nually, and the an- reduced (After Quaintance and Brues,

nual damage to cot- u. S. Dept, Agr.)
ton is estimated at

$20,000,000. In the Gulf States there are four or five gener-
ations, the larvae of the third and fourth generations being
the most injurious to cotton in August and September. This
is also the season when tobacco is worst injured.

Inasmuch as the pupae pass the winter in the soil, the
most practical means of control is to plow infested land in

256 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

late fall or during the winter, and to harrow thoroughly.
This breaks up the pupal cells, crushing some, and exposing
others to the elements. Field corn which is planted early
is much less injured than that planted later. Where the
caterpillars of the first generation are noticed in the axils of
the young corn, they may be destroyed by sprinkling pow-
dered arsenate of lead in the axil. The same method should

FIG. 180, — Bollworm boring into green tomato. (After Quaintance
and Brues, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

be used for destroying the worms in tobacco buds. Thor-
ough spraying with arsenate of lead will prevent injury to
tomatoes. As with corn, cotton planted early and quickly
matured is but little injured. Dusting cotton foliage with
powdered arsenate of lead will destroy the young caterpillars
where they are sufficiently abundant to warrant. As the
moths prefer to lay their eggs on corn silk, cotton may be
protected by the use of strips of late corn planted through
the fields so as to act as a trap crop. About June first plant

FIELD CROP INSECTS

257

several alternate rows of Mexican June corn and cow-peas,
in strips, through the cotton, so that the corn will be in silk
about the first of August when the moths of the third gener-
ation are laying their eggs. They will be attracted to lay on
the corn in preference to the cotton and the cow-peas will
furnish them both food and shelter. As soon as the worms
become fairly grown, the corn and cow-peas should be cut
and fed to stock, and the land plowed to destroy any which
may have pupated. Planting small areas of corn and cow-
peas here and there on large plantations will have much the
same effect. They may follow early crops such as potatoes,
oats or wheat.

143. The Cotton Worm.* The cotton worm (19) is the
most serious insect pest of cotton foliage and prior to the
advent of the boll weevil was the
worst enemy of the cotton plant.
When very abundant these hungry
caterpillars will strip the foliage
over considerable areas in a few
days and will eat the buds and
even attack the twigs so that only
prompt action will save the crop.
Fortunately the worst damage is
usually not done until early fall,
and inasmuch as only early cot-
ton can be grown wherever the
boll weevil occurs and no effort
is made to secure a late or
"top-crop," the real injury by
the cotton worms, in the boll
weevil region, is not as serious as formerly.

During the winter months the adult moths hibernate in
* Alabama argillacea Hubn. Family Noctuidce.

FIG. 181. — Cotton worm
moths, natural size.
(Photo by Dr. W. E.
Hinds.)

2.->S

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

the southern portion of the cotton belt. The moth is a
grayish-brown color with a wing expanse of about H inches.
The wings often have ;i purplish luster and are marked with
darker lines, as shown in Fig. 181. Early in the spring
they lay their eggs on volunteer cotton, as many as 500 eggs
being laid by one moth. The caterpillars feed greedily on
the tender foliage and become grown in from one to three

FIG. 182. — Cotton worms, natural size. (Photo by Dr. W. E. Hinds.)

weeks. When grown they are lj inches long, greenish,
striped with black and marked with numerous small black
dots. The mature caterpillar draws together the edges of a
leaf and within the fold spins a thin silken cocoon in which it
transforms to a pupa, from which the moth emerges in from
one to four weeks.

Like most of the Noctuids the moths fly only after sun-
set, but unlike others their mouth-parts are so formed that
they are adapted to piercing the skin of ripe fruits and suck-

FIELD CROP INSECTS 259

ing their juices. They are strong fliers and the later broods
are often carried northward by the winds in large numbers,
even as far as Canada. The moths of the first generation
in the spring fly northward, and from eggs deposited by
them another generation develops in due time, which, in
turn, flies northward, and thus by late summer the worms
are found throughout the whole cotton belt. At least seven
generations occur along the Gulf Coast and three at the
northern limit of cotton growth. Considering the number
of eggs laid by each female, it is evident that the species will
multiply very rapidly, and it has been estimated that the
progeny of one moth, if there were no mortality, would
amount to over 300,000,000,000 individuals after four gen-
erations, which, if placed end to end, would encircle the
earth at the equator over four times.

The usual remedy has been to dust the plants with Paris
green. Powdered arsenate of lead would, undoubtedly, be
as effective. Dusting machines which will cover four rows
at once have been in common use where injury is frequent.
It may also be applied with powder guns. It has most com-
monly been distributed by being shaken from bags fastened
at the ends of a pole and carried by a man on horseback.

144. The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil * (20). Probably
no one insect has been so seriously and continuously injuri-
ous over so large a section of country as the boll weevil. As
its name indicates, it is a native of Mexico, whence it spread
into Texas about 1890. Since then it has spread steadily east-
ward until it now inhabits nearly all of the cotton belt west of
Georgia, and in the course of another decade, will, doubt-
less, cover the Eastern Cotton States. In 1904 the writer
made a careful estimate of the loss caused by the boll weevil
in Texas, which showed that it amounted to $25,000,000
* Anthonomus grandis Boh. Family Curculionidae.

260

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

per annum and had cost the State $100,000,000 up to
that time. The amount of injury has not increased in pro-
portion to the spread of the pest, and although no careful
estimates have been made recently, the total annual loss for
the cotton belt, as a whole, cannot be less than $50,000,000

per annum, and in some
years it has, doubtless, been
double that amount.

The boll weevil is a
small brownish beetle about
one-fourth inch long, includ-
ing the snout which is half
as long as the body. It may
be distinguished from nearly
related species and other
common weevils by the
two teeth at the tip of the
femora of the fore legs (Fig.
183). It feeds only on

cotton and weevils found feeding on other plants are
certainly of other species.

The weevils emerge from hibernation from the time
cotton is up until it begins to " square." During the spring
they feed on the foliage, particularly the tender terminals.
As soon as the squares are formed the females lay their eggs
in them, laying four or five a day, and depositing an average
of about 140. The egg hatches in about three days and the
grub feeds within the square, which usually fails to develop
and falls to the ground. The larva becomes grown in seven
to twelve days and then changes to the pupa, which lasts
three to five days. Thus, from egg to adult requires from
two to three weeks, depending upon climatic conditions, but
a full generation requires six weeks, and there are not over

FIG. 183. — The cotton boll weevil
— enlarged.

FIELD CROP INSECTS 261

four or five generations a year. The larva is a footless white
grub with a brown head and feeds entirely within the squares
or bolls. Many squares are destroyed by the feeding
punctures of the adult weevils. The squares are preferred
both for food and egg-laying, but in late summer and fall,
as they all become infested, the bolls are attacked, as many
as fifteen larvae having been found in a single boll. With the
first killing frosts the adult weevils go into hibernating
quarters. In seeking places for hibernation the weevils fly
from field to field, and it is at this season that the principal
migration takes place. They may hibernate in hedges,

FIG. 184. — The cotton boll weevil, natural size, showing variation in
size and color,

woods, corn-fields, haystacks or farm buildings, particularly
about seed houses or similar situations. Others crawl into
cracks in the soil in cotton fields, under grass, into Spanish
moss on trees, weeds or trash, into empty cotton burrs, and
in the more southern sections may hibernate in the injured
bolls.

By far the most important measure in the control of the
boll weevil is the destruction of the plants in the fall as soon
as the cotton can be picked. This both destroys the weevils
and prevents their increase. The stalks should be plowed
out and burned as soon as possible. It is well to plow out
all but a row here and there upon which the weevils will

21 V2

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

concentrate, then as soon as the piles are dry enough to burn,
cut the remaining rows and burn at once. In this way the
great bulk of the adult weevils and all of the immature
states in the squares and bolls are destroyed The few es-
caping weevils will be starved out before the weather becomes
cold enough for them to hibernate, or will be so weakened as

FIG. 185. — Cross-section
of cotton square show-
ing egg and opening
through which it was
laid — greatly enlarged.

FIG. 186. — Cotton squares broken open,
showing the boll weevil larva? within
— enlarged.

to die in hibernation. Thus it has been shown by Professor
Wilmon Newell, in Louisiana, that where the weevils were
forced into hibernation on October 15th only 3 per cent sur-
vived the winter, but that when the destruction of the stalks
was put off until after December 15th, 43 per cent survived,
with proportional numbers at intervening dates. Further-

FIELD CROP INSECTS

233

more, the development of the late broods which furnish the
majority of the weevils which hibernate is effectually pre-
vented. The removal of the plants also facilitates winter
plowing, which aids in producing an early crop the next
year. Many experiments of the experience of practical
planters have shown that the destruction of the stalks in
the fall is of primary importance in the control of the
weevil, particularly upon bottom lands. The defoliation of
the plants by the cotton worms (page 257), secures much

FIG. 187. — Chain cultivator for use in drawing weevil-infested squares
to center of row. (After Hunter, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

the same result as the destruction of the stalks, by remov-
ing the food-supply of the weevil. Therefore, when the
worms appear in weevil-injured fields late in the season,
planters should not poison the worms, for they will aid in pre-
venting the increase of weevils, and no further crop can be
secured.

Injury may be largely avoided by making an early crop
before the weevils have become sufficiently abundant to
do serious damage. Everything possible should, therefore,
be done to hasten early maturity. Land should be plowed
in winter and a good seed bed prepared. Plant as early as

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

a .•

"13

III

FIELD CROP INSECTS 265

possible with safety from frost. A liberal use of commercial
fertilizers will hasten maturity. Only early maturing varie-
ties should be planted, and selected seed of open-growing
sorts is to be preferred. Chop out the plants as soon as
possible. Frequent light cultivation should be given so as
to keep the soil well stirred. Deep plowing and cultivating
close to the rows should be avoided, as it causes the dropping
of the squares.

When infested squares fall to the ground and lie on the
unshaded hot soil the larvae or pupae within them are soon
killed by the heat. As many as 40 per cent have been
found killed in some fields. The rows should, therefore, be
planted fairly wide apart, and varieties producing a mini-
mum of shade are preferable, as are those which readily
shed their squares when injured. As most of the squares
drop beneath the plants where they are shaded, any means
of scraping them into the centers of the rows will aid in their
destruction. For this purpose a chain cultivator as de-
scribed by Hunter (I. c.) (Fig. 187), has proven very effi-
cient for this purpose. The chains may be attached to
ordinary cultivators by special attachments. An arm or
projection that will brush the plant should be attached to
whatever cultivator is used so that the squares will be
knocked to the ground, as the effect of the heat is greater
the earlier the squares drop.

CHAPTER XVII
GARDEN INSECTS

145. Cutworms.* The larvae of several species of moths,
which are more or less similar in general appearance and
habits and which feed on low-growing vegetation, cutting
off the stems just at the surface of the ground, are commonly

known as Cut-worms. They
should be distinguished from
the white grubs (page 236),
which are often wrongly
called cutworms on account
of their similar habits. Some
species prefer certain crops,
but most of them are almost
omnivorous, though most
injurious to garden crops
and to corn, cotton, tobacco
and similar crops grown in
hills or rows.

The adult moths have
dark fore wings, variously
marked with darker or lighter spots and narrow bands, as
illustrated, and expand from one to two inches. The wings
are folded over the back when at rest. Most of the larger,
dark-colored moths which fly into lights in summer, commonly
called "moth-millers," are cutworm moths. Like their
larvae they feed at night, sipping the nectar from flowers.
* Family Noctuidce, see page 80.
266

FIG. 189.— The dark -"sided cut-
worm (^4 gratis messoria) . (After
Riley.)

GARDEN INSECTS

267

The females lay their eggs on grass land or where a crop has
been allowed to grow up in grass and weeds in late summer.
The little larvae which hatch from these eggs in late summer
feed on the roots of whatever vegetation is available until
frost, when they go deeper in the soil and curl up snugly in
small earthen cells, where they hibernate until spring. They
then attack any vegetation with surprising voracity, often
subsisting on grass and weeds which have been turned under
until a planted crop is available. They become full grown
by late spring or early summer and are then from 1^ to 2
inches long, of a
dull brown, gray
or blackish color,
often tinged with
greenish, and more
or less marked with
longitudinal strips,
dots and oblique
dashes, these mark-
ings harmonizing in
color with the soil.
They have three
pairs of true legs

and five pairs of abdominal prolegs. The larvae pupate
in cells a few inches beneath the surface and the moths
emerge during midsummer in the Central and Northern
States and earlier farther south. There is usually only one
generation in the North, but there are commonly two and
sometimes three in the South.

It is evident from their life history that one of the best
means of control is thorough plowing and harrowing in late
fall and early spring, so as to keep the land fallow and thus
starve out the larvae. This is particularly true for staple

FIG. 190. — Granulated cut-worm (Agrotis
annexa). (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
a, larva; /, pupa; h, adult — natural size.

268 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

crops, such as cotton, corn and tobacco, on which it is expen-
sive to use other means. Poisoned bran mash (see page 329),
is an effective remedy for cutworms, particularly in gardens.
It should be applied a few days before the plants are set or
before the seed plants appear. Sow the mash broadcast late
in the afternoon so that it will be moist when the worms feed*
at dusk. Keep poultry away from fields so treated. Clover
which has been dipped in water containing one-third pound

"of Paris green per barrel may be used in the same way, par-
ticularly along borders of fields next to grass. Market gar-
deners commonly protect plants by means of tin cans from
which the bottoms have been removed or by paper cylinders,
which are sunk into the soil around the plants. Garden
plants may sometimes be protected from cutworms by dip-
ping in arsenate of lead, three pounds to the barrel, when
setting them, as advised for flea beetles.

146. Plant Lice or Aphides. Almost every garden crop
is attacked by one or more species of plant lice, which mul-
tiply so rapidly that if they are not promptly controlled
serious injury results.

Cabbage Aphis * (44). Cabbage, turnips and other
cruciferous garden crops are frequently found covered with
disgusting gray, waxy masses of cabbage aphides. The eggs
of this species are laid on cabbage during October and
November and, in central New York, hatch the next April.
Herrick and Hungate observed twenty-one generations
from early April until December. During the summer the
wingless females become full grown in about two weeks
and live for about forty-six days, during which time they
will give birth to about forty young. Generations of
winged females appear, particularly on crowded plants, and

• spread the pest. They live only about ten days and bear
* Aphis brassicce Linn. Family Aphididcc, see page 66.

GARDEN INSECTS 269

from seven to thirteen young. The wingless female is
covered with a grayish waxy coat, the body being a grayish-
green, marked with eight black spots down either side of the
back. The antennae are green with black tips and the eyes,
legs, and tail are black. In the South viviparous reproduc-
tion continues all winter and in the North many, doubtless,

FIG. 191. — Cabbage aphis (Aphis brassicce, Linn.). (After Herrick
and Hungate.) Very greatly enlarged.

survive the winter on cabbages stored in pits. The latter
might readily be destroyed by fumigation.

Spinach Aphis.* This species often becomes destructive
to spinach, celery, lettuce, cabbage and various greenhouse
crops. It is the same as the Green Peach Aphis, which
see (page 306).

Pea Aphis f (7). Large green plant-lice often become so
abundant on the foliage and pods of garden peas as to kill
* Myzus persiccB Sulz. f Macrosiphum pisi Kalt.

270 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

the plants. They pass the winter on clover and vetches,
sometimes becoming so numerous as to do serious injury.
The winged females migrate to the peas about the time they
are six to eight inches high, and give birth to young which
develop into wingless, viviparous females. Both wingless and
winged females occur throughout the season, the latter pre-
dominating whenever food becomes scarce. The winged
forms are about one-eighth of an inch long with wings ex-
panding two-fifths of an inch. The body
is a pea-green color, the eyes are red, and

fthe legs, antennae and honey-tubes are
yellowish tipped with black. The wing-
less females are similar, but somewhat
broader. A female becomes grown in

FlG> ?92'~"Tfhe ^ about eleven days after birth, lives about
aphis (Macrosi-

phum pisi Kalt). twenty-five days, and bears about 50

Winged and wing- young, though sometimes 100 are born.

less viviparous sixteen generations have been observed

young-enlarged, between March 23d and October 4th in

Central Illinois. The best means of

avoiding injury by this species is to grow early varieties.

Brushing the aphides from the vines with a pine branch and

following with a cultivator, will destroy many of them on a

hot summer day.

Melon Aphis * (8). The melon aphis may be found on
various weeds such as shepherd's purse and pepper grass in
early spring and on melons and other cucurbs soon after
they start growth. If allowed to multiply unchecked it will
often become so abundant as to ruin a crop just as the melons
are commencing to ripen. The wingless females are about
one-fifteenth of an inch long, varying in color from light yel-
low or tan to olive or deep green, appearing almost blackish;
* Aphis gossypii Glover.

GARDEN INSECTS

271

the legs and antennae are pale whitish-yellow, and the rather
long, tapering honey-tubes are jet black. The winged
female has black spots along the sides of the abdomen. In
the South this species is also a serious pest of young cotton.
No true sexual forms or eggs of this species have been ob-
served, but reproduction by agamic females goes on through-

FIG. 193. — The melon aphis (Aphis gossypii Glov.)- (After Chit-
tenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

a, winged female; aa, enlarged antenna of same; ab, dark female, side view,
sucking juice from leaf; 6, young nymph; c, last stage of nymph of winged form;
d, wingless female — greatly enlarged.

out the summer as with other aphides, winged forms ap-
pearing whenever the food-plant becomes overcrowded.

Control. Much the same remedies may be used for all of
these species. Spraying with contact insecticides will destroy
most of them, but the aphides must be hit to be killed, and
spraying must be done while the plants are small and before

272

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

the foliage is curled by the aphides or it will not reach them.
Kerosene emulsion containing from 5 to 8 per cent of kero-
sene is the oldest spray, but should be used with caution on
melons and peas. Whale oil soap; one pound to six gallons
of water, is entirely safe and equally effective. " Black-leaf "
extract of tobacco containing 2-fo per cent of nicotine is
effective when applied one part to 65 or 70 of water. Prof.
Franklin Sherman, Jr., states that any good laundry soap
used at the rate of one pound dissolved in three gallons of
water is effective against the cabbage aphis. Where water
under pressure is available in a small garden, many species
may be held in check by washing with a strong stream from a
garden hose. Cabbage plants infested in the seed bed
should be dipped in a soap solution when planted.

147. Flea-beetles.* Almost all of the common garden
crops are attacked by small beetles, which from their power
of making long, quick jumps, are
known as flea-beetles.

The Potato Flea-beetle f (45) at-
tacks potato and tomato plants
when they are but a few inches high
and often so riddles the foliage as to
cause the plants to wilt and some-
times to necessitate replanting toma-
toes. It is only one-sixteenth inch
long and is jet black, except the
yellowish antennae and legs. The
beetles hibernate under rubbish,
leaves, etc., and in the spring come

forth and lay their eggs on the roots of common weeds of

the nightshade family, such as the horse-nettle, or " Jimpson "

weed, etc. The larvae mine in the roots of these plants

* Family Chrysomelidce, see page 121. f Epitrix cucumeris Harris.

FIG. 194.— Potato flea-
beetle, greatly enlarged
(After Chittenden,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

GARDEN INSECTS

273

and transform to pupae in earthen cells among the roots,
from which the beetles emerge to attack the foliage. The
larvae are very slender, elongate, white worms. Occasion-
ally they mine into the tubers, doing considerable damage
and causing pimply potatoes, as has been observed in New
York and Colorado. There are two or three generations
each year, but the exact life history has not been fully
determined.

The Tobacco Flea-beetle * (10) does similar damage to
the same crops throughout the South as well as to tobacco
and egg plant. It is a small spe-
cies, one-twentieth inch long, light
brown in color with a dark band
across the wing-covers.

Bordeaux mixture forms an
excellent repellent for these little
beetles. Potatoes and tomatoes
should be sprayed with Bordeaux
mixture for the control of fun-
gous diseases, and arsenate of
lead or Paris green for the Colo-
rado potato beetle as soon as
they are six inches high. The
spray should be applied liberally
so as thoroughly to coat the
plants. Tomatoes are more sus-
ceptible to injury and may well
be dipped in arsenate of lead, one
pound to ten gallons of water, when planting. The destruc-
tion of the weeds upon which the larvae commonly de-
velop is obviously important in preventing their multi-
plication.

* Epitrix parvula Fab.

FIG. 195. — Tobacco flea-
beetle (Epitrix parvula}.
(After Chittenden, U. S.
Dept. Agr.)

a, adult beetle; b, larva, lateral
view; /, pupa — enlarged about
fifteen times.

274

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

Two other species with very similar habits are the Pale-
striped Flea-beetle * and the Banded Flea-beetle.^ They often
appear in enormous numbers and seem almost omnivorous
in their food-habits, being particularly injurious to young
corn and tomatoes, but also attacking beans, beets, pota-
toes, egg plant, melons, crucifers, and almost all garden
crops. The pale-striped flea-beetle is about one-eighth inch
long, cream colored, with the wing-covers marked with

FIG. 196.— The pale-striped flea-
beetle (Systena blanda Mels.).
(After Chittenden, U. S. Dept.
Agr.)

a, larva; b, beetle — much enlarged.

FIG. 197. — The striped turnip
flea-beetle (Phyllotreta vittata
Fab.). (After Riley, U. S. Dept.
Agr.)

a, larva; b, adult — greatly enlarged.

three stripes of light brown and the eyes and abdomen are
black. The banded flea-beetle is very similar, but the dark
stripes are expanded and darker, so that it appears to be a
polished black with two white stripes. Their habits and life
history are very similar to the preceding species so far as
known. They are best controlled by thoroughly spraying
the affected plants with Bordeaux mixture containing three
pounds of arsenate of lead to the barrel. Powdered arsenate
of lead dusted over the plants will doubtless be effective.
* Systena blanda Melsh f Systena tceniata Say.

GARDEN INSECTS

275

A number of species attack cabbage and other cruciferous
crops. The Striped Turnip Flea-beetle, * one of the most com-
mon, is polished black with each wing-cover marked with a
broad wavy band of pale yellow. The small white larvae
have sometimes injured the roots of cabbage and turnips,
but probably they usually feed on the roots of cruciferous
weeds. Where the plants
are sprayed properly for the
cabbage worms there will
usually be little trouble with
flea-beetles. Otherwise,
spray with arsenate of lead,
three to five pounds to the
barrel, or dust with pow-
dered arsenate of lead.
Where injury is anticipated
it will be well to dip the
plants, as advised above for
tomatoes. Where plants
are attacked in the seed-
bed, screening tightly with
cheesecloth is advised. By
thoroughly dusting the
plants with air-slaked lime,
land plaster, tobacco dust,
ashes, or any similar dusts, applying them in the early
morning while the dew is on the plants, they may be pro-
tected as long as they are kept thoroughly covered.

The Spinach Flea-beetle f is a larger species, one-fourth
inch long, and is commonly injurious to beets and spinach.
It is shining black with a greenish or bluish luster, the pro-
thorax and abdomen are red or reddish-yellow, and the legs

* Phyllotreta vittata Fab. f Disonycha xanthomelcena Dalm.

FIG. 198.— The spinach flea-beetle
(Disonycha xanthomelcena Dalm.).
(After Chittenden, U. S. Dept.
Agr.)

a, beetle; b, egg mass; c, larva; d, pupa
— five times natural size.

276

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

and antennae are pale yellowish. The larvae feed on the
foliage and pupate in the earth. The second generation is
usually the most injurious in late summer. This species is
readily controlled by spraying with arsenate of lead.

148. Colorado Potato Beetle.* The Colorado potato
beetle (11), is now so well known that it hardly needs descrip-
tion, although in many parts of the Gulf and Pacific Coast

FIG. 199. — The Colorado potato-beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say.).
(After Riley.)

a, eggs- b, larva; c, pupa; d, beetle; e, elytra or wing-cover of beetle; /, leg
of beetle.

States it does little if any injury. The adult beetles pass
the winter in the earth, where they hibernate until spring
sunshine brings them forth. As soon as the young potato
plants appear the females deposit their yellow eggs in masses
on the foliage, each laying about 500 in the course of a
month. At the same time the beetles are doing considerable
damage by eating the young plants, sometimes attacking
both potato and tomato plants in such numbers as to destroy
* Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say. Family Chrysomelidce.

GARDEN INSECTS 277

them. As a rule, tomatoes are not so much injured later in
the season.

The eggs hatch in from four to seven days and the young
grubs gorge themselves on the tender foliage, increasing in
size with astonishing rapidity and becoming full grown in
about three weeks. The grubs then enter the soil and a few
inches below the surface hollow out cells in which they trans-
form to pupse, from which the adult beetles emerge in one or
two weeks. Thus, in summer, the whole life cycle requires
from four to six weeks. After feeding a few days the new
beetles deposit eggs which give rise to a second generation
of grubs. These transform, in the same manner as de-
scribed, into the beetles which hibernate. Through the
Middle States, where most injury is done, there are two gen-
erations a year, but in the South there may be three genera-
tions and in the North there is but one.

When the young plants are attacked by the old beetles,
they should be sprayed with arsenate of lead 5 pounds to 50
gallons. Potatoes should always be sprayed about every
two weeks with Bordeaux mixture for the control of diseases
and if this is done, the potato beetle may be easily controlled
by adding a half pound of Paris green or three pounds of
arsenate of lead to each barrel, for the first two or three
sprayings. Paris green is often dusted on the vines, usually
mixed with 50 times its weight of flour, land plaster or air-
slaked lime, and applied while the plants are wet with dew.
However, dusting is more expensive and less efficient than
spraying, except where peculiar local conditions make spray-
ing impracticable, and burning of foliage often results, par-
ticularly when the dust is carelessly applied.

Cleaning up the vines and plowing potato land in the
fall as soon as the crop is dug will aid in reducing the num-
bers of the hibernating beetles.

278

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

149. Tomato Worms. The most common caterpillars
injurious to tomatoes are the large Horn-worms, which also
affect tobacco (10). Two species * are common, one being
more abundant in the North and the other in the South, but
they are very similar both in appearance and habits. The
full-grown larvae are about three inches long, of a dark green

FIG. 200. — Northern tobacco-worm, or "hornworm" (Phlegethontius
quinquemaculata). (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
a, adult moth; 6, full-grown larva; c, pupa — slightly reduced.

color with white stripes on the side of the body, those on the
northern species being a V-shape, while the Southern species
has simple oblique bands. At the tip of the abdomen is a
stout horn which gives them the name "horn- worms."
The larvae become grown in about three weeks, when they

* Phlegethontius quinquemaculata Haworth (Northern), family
Sphingidce, see page 89 and P. sexta Johansenn (Southern).

GARDEN INSECTS 279

pupate in the soil, the pupae being commonly called "horn-
blowers." The adult moths emerge about three weeks later
during midsummer. In the tobacco belt there are two gen-
erations a year, but in the North there is but a single genera-
tion and in the Gulf States there may be three. The adult
is a large gray moth, marked with black, white and yellow,
with a wing expanse of about five inches and may often be
seen gathering nectar from petunias and similar flowers.
From their size and flight they are often called "humming-
bird moths." The large caterpillars rag the foliage of toma-
toes or tobacco and will quickly do considerable damage.
When carried into the barn they sometimes injure tobacco
as it dries. On small patches the easiest method of control
is hand-picking. Tomatoes should always be sprayed with
Bordeaux mixture and arsenate of lead for diseases and other
insects, which treatment will also control these larvae.
Tobacco and tomatoes which have not been so sprayed
should be dusted with powdered arsenate of lead (12), diluted
with at least an equal bulk of dry wood ashes, applying 3|
to five pounds per acre. Or it may be used as a spray, two
pounds to the barrel. (See page 253 for Tomato Fruit-
worm.)

150. Striped Cucumber-beetle.* The little yellow bee-
tles with black heads and three black stripes on the wing-
covers, which appear just as the young melon and cucumber
plants are up, are known to every gardener. They swarm
over the plants and very frequently are so numerous as to
necessitate replanting.

The beetles hibernate over winter and emerge two or
three weeks before cucurbs are up, during which time they
feed on various flowers. After feeding on the young melon
plants for a few days the females commence to deposit their

* Diabrotica vittata Fab. Family Chrysomelidoe, see page 121.

280

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

eggs in crevices of the soil. During a month a female will
lay 100 eggs, which hatch in a week to ten days. The larva
is a slender, white, worm-like grub about three-tenths of an
inch long, with a dark head and anal plate. They bore
into the cucurb roots, often tunneling into the base of the
stem, and sometimes mine into melons lying on damp soil.
Injury to the roots is rarely very serious, though occasionally
cucumber and melon vines are killed. The larvae become

FIG. 201. — The striped cucumber beetle (Diabrotica vittata Fab.).
(After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
o, beetle; 6, larva; c, pupa; much enlarged.

full grown in about a month, when they transform to pupae
in small, earthen cells, from which the beetles emerge in one
to two weeks. In New England there is but one generation
a year, the new beetles appearing in early fall, but in the
Middle States there are two generations, the first appearing
about midsummer.

A few plants may be protected from the beetles by covers
of netting. A barrel hoop cut in two and crossed and the
ends fastened to another hoop makes a good frame. Cone-
shaped covers of wire screening may be made and kept from

GARDEN INSECTS 281

year to year. Many growers sow the seed in rows rather
thickly and then thin out to the desired distance after the
worst injury is over. Others make several plantings in each
hill at intervals of a week, but the former plan will ensure
earlier growth. Plants may be protected by keeping them
well covered with almost any sort of dust, which must be
applied to both the upper and lower surfaces of leaves while
the dew is on. This must be repeated as the dust is blown
or washed off and as the plant grows. Air-slaked lime mixed
with sulphur, and tobacco dust, have been found beneficial.
Bordeaux mixture repels the beetles, but seems to have a
stunting effect on the young plants. Thorough spraying with
arsenate of lead, three to five pounds per barrel, seems to repel
the beetles better than any other substance. Possibly dust-
ing with powdered arsenate of lead would be as satisfactory.
Cleaning up and destroying the vines as soon as the crop is
gathered will deprive the beetles of food and force them to
seek other hibernating places, thus increasing the mortality.
151. Squash Bugs.* Where leaves of squash and melon
vines are found to be wilting here and there just as they
are commencing to run, a careful examination will usually
reveal the presence of a slate-colored bug (13), about three-
fourths inch long, the common squash bug. At night or early
in the morning the bugs are usually found beneath rubbish
or clods of earth. The brownish eggs are laid in character-
istic masses on the under surfaces of the leaves, and hatch
in from one to two weeks. The young bugs are brilliantly
colored, the antennae and legs being bright crimson, the head
and anterior thorax a lighter crimson, and the posterior
thorax and abdomen a bright green, but in a little while the
crimson changes to jet black. They become full grown in
four or five weeks. In the North there is but a single gener-
* Anasa tristis DeG. Family Coreidce, see page 59.

282

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

ation and the adults hibernate, but in the South there are
two or three generations.

The eggs are readily seen and may be picked off and de-
stroyed. The adults are sucking insects and cannot be

killed by insecticides, but
may be collected in early
morning from beneath
small boards and other
rubbish used as traps.
The nymphs may be killed
by spraying with kerosene
emulsion. Cucumbers
and melons may be pro-
tected by planting early
squash among them, as
the bugs prefer the squash
vines and may be col-

FIG. 202.— The squash-bug. (After
Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

a, mature female; b, side view of head,
showing beak; c, abdominal segments of
male; d, same of female; a, twice natural
size; b, c, d, more enlarged.

lected from them. Clean-
ing up the vines in the
fall is of importance in
reducing the number which will hibernate.

152. Cabbage Caterpillars. Imported Cabbage Worm *
(14). One of our most common garden pests is the well-
known cabbage worm, whose parent is the common white
cabbage butterfly. It was imported from Europe into
Quebec about 1860, and has since spread to all parts of the
country. The butterflies are among the first to emerge in
the spring. The females may be distinguished by having
two black spots on each fore wing, while the males have but
one. Both sexes have the tips of the fore wings and a spot
on the front margin of the hind wings black. Eggs are laid
by the females as soon as the food plant is available, and
* Pontia rapcc Linn. Family Pieridas, see page 98.

GARDEN INSECTS

283

hatch in four to eight days. The eggs are yellowish, prom-
inently ridged and laid singly on end. The larvae gorge
themselves on the foliage and grow rapidly, becoming full
grown in from ten days to two weeks. When mature they
are about li inches long, of a velvety green color, very sim-

FIG. 203. — The cabbage butterfly (Pontia rapce). (After Chittenden,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

a, female butterfly; b, above, egg as seen from above; below, egg as seen from
side; c, larva in natural position on cabbage leaf; d, suspended chrysalis — a, c,
d, slightly enlarged; b, more enlarged.

ilar to the foliage, with a faint yellow stripe down the middle
of the back and a row of yellow spots on each side. The
chrysalis or pupa is attached to the leaf by a strand of silk
and is at first greenish and then light brown in color. In
the summer the butterflies emerge from the chrysalids in
one to two weeks, but the chrysalids of the last generation

284

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

hibernate among the old stalks and rubbish in the fields.

In New England there are three generations and in the

South probably five or six.

Southern Cabbage Butterfly.* Before the appearance of

the imported species this was the more common in the South

but has now been largely
replaced. The male
butterfly is very similar
to the female of the
former species in gen-
eral appearance, but the
female is much more
heavily marked with
black. The caterpillar
is a greenish-blue color
with four longitudinal,
yellow stripes and cov-
ered with black dots.
The habits are very sim-
ilar to those of the last

FIG. 204.— The Southern cabbage but- species.

terfly (Pontia protodice Boisd.). (After Cabbage Looper.^ The

Cabbage loOper Strips the

foliage in much the
same manner as the former species. It is so called on
account of its "looping" habit of walking, like that of a
measuring-worm, due to the absence of legs on the third
and fourth abdominal segments. The larvae are pale to dark
green in color, marked with several longitudinal white lines
and might readily be mistaken for the imported cabbage
worm were it not for their looping gait. Cabbage and cauli-

* Pontia protodice Boisd. Family Pieridce, see page 98. %

t Autographa brassicoe Riley. Family Noctuidce, see page 81.

a, male; 6, female.

GARDEN INSECTS

285

flower are the favorite food-plants, but lettuce, peas, celery,
beets and various other garden crops and weeds are often
attacked. Injury to cabbage seems to be worse in late
summer. The full-grown larva spins a very thin trans-
parent white cocoon on
the leaf where it has been
feeding and in it trans-
forms to the pupa from
which the moth emerges
in from one to two weeks
in summer. The pupae
of the last generation
hibernate. The moth
has a wing expanse of
about 1-f inches. The
fore wings are grayish-
brown mottled with white
and black, and just in-
side the center is a char-
acteristic white spot. A
prominent tuft arises
from the thorax when
the moth is at rest.

Control. Spraying or dusting with arsenate of lead is the
most satisfactory remedy for all of these caterpillars. This
should be applied as soon as the plants are set, and they
should be kept well covered until the heads are half formed.
If this is done the young larvae will be killed before they bur-
row into the heads and there will be but little danger from
them later. Plants should not be dusted with large quan-
tities of arsenate of lead or Paris green after the heads are
well formed, nor is there any occasion for this. Various
contact insecticides will kill these caterpillars, but their use

FIG. 205.— The cabbage looper (Auto-
grapha brassicce Riley). (After How-
ard and Chittenden, U. S. Dept.
Agr.)

a, male moth; b, egg from above and from
side; c, full-grown larva in natural position
feeding; d, pupa in cocoon — natural size; b,
enlarged.

286 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

necessitates hitting each one, which is often difficult, and
they have not been found as satisfactory as poisons. As
the pupae usually pass the winter on the old stumps and
foliage it is evident that they and all rubbish should be
destroyed and the field plowed as soon after the crop is
removed as possible.

CHAPTER XVIII
ORCHARD INSECTS

153. The San Jose Scale and Other Scale Insects.

Probably no one insect has done such widespread injury to
orchard trees as the San Jose Scale.* (2). The injury is
often due to the fact that its presence is not suspected until
the tree is badly damaged. The trunk and branches of
badly affected trees have a rough grayish appearance as if
covered with ashes. By scraping the surface the soft, juicy,
yellowish insects will be revealed beneath the covering
scales. The scales may most readily be detected on the
fruit and leaves, on which a bright red ring appears around
each scale. If a single female insect is examined, for which
a magnifying glass will be needed, it is found to be covered
by a small grayish-black, circular scale. Beneath this scale
may be seen a small, soft, oval, orange-colored object,
looking^ very little like an insect, which is the female; the
scale being merely a waxy covering. The male scale is
smaller and somewhat elongated.

When the males become fully developed they transform
into small two-winged flies. In late spring they emerge at
night and fly to the females. A month later the females
commence to give birth to live young, which look like tiny
yellow mites. They crawl around for a few hours and then
stick their mouth-parts into the bark and their scales form
over them. They become full grown in about a month and
there are several generations in a year, so that a tree with

* Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst. Family Coccidce, see page 64.

287

288

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

FIG. 206.— San Jos^ scale. (After Quaintance, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

o, adult female scale; 6, male scale; r, young scalps; d, larv-a just hatched;
d', same, much enlarged; e, scale removed, showing body of female beneath; /,
body of female insect, more enlarged; g, adult male of the San Jose scale.

ORCHARD INSECTS

289

but few scales in the spring may be covered by them in the
fall. Badly infested trees die in a year or two. All of our
common orchard trees are subject to attack.

This pest may be controlled by spraying while the trees
are dormant. This will be more effective if they have been
pruned and headed in and the rough bark scraped from
the trunks and limbs.
Every scale must be
hit to be killed, so
that every bit of the
tree must be thor-
oughly covered.
Lime-sulphur mixture
seems to be the best
spray, as it also de-
stroys various fun-
gous diseases and
some insects' eggs.
Miscible oils are also
used extensively and
have a certain advan-
tage on hairy apple
shoots and on badly
infested trees, as they
are more penetrating.
They are used diluted
ten or twelve times
for winter spraying. Kerosene or crude oil emulsion, con-
taining 20 to 25 per cent of oil, is also satisfactorily used.
The best time to spray is just after the trees have dropped
their foliage in the fall and in the spring while the buds are
swelling, but before the foliage appears. No summer spray
has yet been tried which more than checks the development

tf c f» />

FIG. 207. — The oyster-shell scale (Lepi-
dosaphes -ulmi Linn.). (After Howard.)

a, female scales on twig; b, female scale from
above; c, same from below showing eggs; d, male
scale — enlarged .

290

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

of the scale, for sprays which will kill all the scales usually
injure the foliage.

Another scale insect very common on old apple trees and
also on a number of shade and forest trees, particularly
maple and poplar, is the Oyster-shell Scale * (3), so called
on account of its oyster-shell shape. The mature female
scale is about one-eighth inch long, of a dark brown color,
shaped as shown in Fig. 207. The
male scale is much smaller. This
species is not so injurious, but not
infrequently stunts or kills young
fruit and shade trees. It is essen-
tially different from the last species
in its life history, as the females lay
eggs beneath the old scales, under
which the eggs pass the winter. They
hatch in late spring or early summer
shortly after apple blossoms drop
and the subsequent development is
"much the same, but there is only one
generation a season in the North
and two in the South. The same
sprays may be used against this spe-
cies as advised for the San Jose* scale,
but they should be applied just before
the buds burst in the spring. If this
has been neglected, spray with kerosene emulsion contain-
ing 15 per cent kerosene, or miscible oils diluted 25 to 30
times, just as the eggs are hatching.

Another species fairly common on apple, pear, and other
orchard trees, but rarely doing much injury, is the Scurfy
Scale, f The female is a dirty-gray color shaped as shown in
* Lepidosaphcs ulmi Linn. f Chionaspis furfura Fitch.

FKI. 208.— The scurfy
scale (Chinoaspis fur-
fura Fitch). (After
Howard, U. S. Dept.
Agr.)

a, females; b, males- —
natural size.

ORCHARD INSECTS 291

Fig. 208, while the male scale is much smaller, snowy
white, and with three distinct ridges. The life history is
similar to the last species and it is controlled by the same
means.

154. The Fruit-tree Bark-beetle.* The fruit-tree bark-
beetle (4, 41), is often known as the "shot-hole borer" from
the fact that an affected tree looks as if it had been struck
with a charge of bird shot. More or less gum often exudes
from these holes on stone fruits. Injury is largely due to
allowing dead and dying trees to stand in or near the orchard,

a 6 c d ^

FIG. 209.— The fruit-tree bark-beetle (Scolytus rugulosus}. (After
Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

a, b, beetle; c, pupa; d, larva — enlarged.

as such trees are most subject to attack, and healthy trees are
not usually injured in well-cared-for orchards. The holes
are caused by the exit of the small parent beetles and the
entrance of the females to lay then- eggs. The beetle is
about one-tenth inch long, and of a black color, except the
tips of the wing-covers and parts of the legs, which are red.
The beetles emerge in the spring. Between the bark
and the sap-wood the females eat out small burrows along
the sides of which the eggs are laid. The larvae excavate
little side-galleries which branch out and widen as they in-
crease in size. They become full grown in about three
* Scolytus rugulosus Ratz. Family Scolytidce, see page 127.

292

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

weeks, when they form cells at the end of their burrows and
transform to pupae, from which the adult beetles emerge
and eat their way out through the bark about a week later.
The destruction of all dead and diseased wood and the
burning of prunings is the most
important factor in the control
of this pest. Affected trees should
be liberally fertilized so that
they may better withstand in-
jury. The best means of pre-
venting the beetles from laying
their eggs seems to be to white-
wash the trees in early spring,
again in mid-summer, and again
in October. Use a good thick
whitewash and add one-fourth
pound of common salt or Portland
cement to each pailful to make
it more adhesive.

155. Apple-tree Borers.
Young apple and quince or-
chards are often seriously injured
by the Round-headed Apple-tree
borers * which burrow into the
heart wood and often girdle the
trees. Their presence may be
detected by the retarded growth
of the trees, a yellowing of the

foliage, the sawdust castings at the entrance of the bur-
rows, and the discolored bark over the burrows, from
which sap sometimes exudes. Injury is most severe in

FIG. 210.— Work of the fruit-
tree bark-beetle, showing
the main galleries, the side
or larval galleries, and the
pupal cells. (After Ratze-
burg.)

* Saperda Candida Fab.
No. 40a, Appendix A.

Family Cerambycidce, see page 120 and

ORCHARD INSECTS

293

neglected and stunted orchards where grass and weeds are
allowed to grow up.

The adults are handsome beetles about three-quarters
of an inch long with long antennae, silvery white beneath and
light brown above marked with two white stripes. The
females emerge from late May to mid-July and lay their

FIG. 211. — The round-headed apple-tree borer (Saperda Candida Fab.)
larva, adults, and exit hole — natural size. (After Rumsey and
Brooks.)

eggs in the bark of the trees. The larvae hatch out two or
three weeks later and feed on the sap-wood just under the
bark, working down toward the base of the tree. The next
year the larvae work in the sap-wood and the third season
they penetrate into the heart-wood and will often riddle a
small tree with their cylindrical burrows. The third spring

294 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

the larvae transform to pupae from which the beetles later
emerge, leaving large round holes in the bark. The full-
grown larva is a whitish-yellow grub about three-fourths of
an inch long, legless, with the body segments strongly con-
stricted.

The females may be prevented from egg-laying by wrap-
ping the trunks of the trees with wire-netting, building
paper, or wood veneer. Paper or wood wrappings should be
applied about May 1st and removed in late summer. These
wrappings should be tied tightly to the tree just below the
crotch and should extend into the soil. If wire netting is
used it should be held well out from the trunk by a layer of
cotton at the upper end. Painting the trunks with a thick
soap solution to every ten gallons of which has been added
a pint of crude carbolic acid, is said to prevent the beetles
from laying their eggs. Others advise a 'thick whitewash
to which a little cement has been added, or a paint made of
pure white lead and linseed oil. Such washes should be
applied by the middle of May and as often thereafter as
may be necessary to keep the bark well covered. Where
the borers have gotten into the heart of the tree it is difficult
to cut them out without damaging the tree, but they may
sometimes be reached by injecting a little carbon-bisulphide
into the burrow and stopping the opening with mud. Some-
times a girdled tree may be saved by bridge-grafting.

The Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer * is more common and
prefers weakened or diseased trees. The larva is about one
inch long and the thorax is very broadly expanded so as to
look like the head, which gives it the name of flat-headed
borer. The larvae work just beneath the bark where they
hollow out broad flat channels, which may be detected by
the discoloration of the bark. The larvae become full grown

* Chrysobothris femorata Fab. Family Buprestidce, see page 115.

ORCHARD INSECTS

295

in a single year and leave the trees" in early summer through
elliptical exit holes. The adult beetle is about one-half inch
long, of a dull metallic-brown color above, under the wing-
covers bright metallic greenish-blue, and the wing-covers
taper sharply at the tip. The beetles are active in the day
and may often be found on logs or trees.

Injury by this species is not so common if trees are kept
in a healthy condition, but where it occurs it may be com-
bated the same as the
round-headed borer ex-
cept that the washes
should be applied higher
on the trunks and on
the lower limbs as far
as they can be reached.

156. The Woolly
Apple-aphis.* The
woolly apple-aphis will
be found clustered in
bluish-white, cottony
masses, looking like
patches of mold, on the

smaller apple twigs, particularly water-sprouts, and around
wounds or scars on the trunk or limbs. Their presence
in these places is usually in indication that others are upon
the roots where they cause gall-like swellings so that the
roots soon become a mass of knots and die In a year or two
if the injury continues. When badly infected a tree becomes
sickly, the foliage turns yellow, and if not killed outright, it
falls an easy prey to borers and other pests.

In the spring the aphides found on the roots and under
bits of bark on the trunk are those which have successfully

* Eriosoma lairigera Hausm. Family Aphididce, see page 66.

FIG. 212.— The flat-headed apple-tree
borer (Chrysobothris femorata Fab.).
(After Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

a, larva; b, beetle; c, head of male; d, pupa
— twice natural size.

296

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

hibernated there over winter. As the foliage appears the
root aphides migrate to the new wood and upward to the
foliage where they feed and rapidly multiply. During the
summer all are wingless, reddish-brown females which are
covered with a white waxy secretion which forms a cottony
mass over the colony. In the course of a fortnight each
female gives birth to about 100 young, each of which becomes

FIG. 213. — The woolly apple-aphis (Eriosoma lanigera (Hausm.).
(After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

o, agamic female; 6, young nymph; c, last stage of nymph of winged aphis;
d, winged agamic female with enlarged antenna above — all greatly enlarged and
waxy excretion removed.

a full-grown female in eight to twenty days, and then in
turn gives birth to a similar number. Thus they increase
rapidly during the summer. Early in the fall a winged gen-
eration appears which migrates to elm trees. Each of these
winged females gives birth to from four to six wingless males
and females. These true sexes mate and the females each
lay a single egg in the crevices of the bark. The winter egg

ORCHARD INSECTS 297

hatches in the spring and the female attacks the opening leaf,
on which she gives birth to scores of young and soon causes
the leaf to twist up or " rosette." These young become
winged and migrate to the apple, where they give birth to a
wingless generation which lives on the twigs, and which, in
turn, gives rise to a fifth generation which crawls down to the
roots, and seems to do the most damage of any during mid-
summer.

The aphides may be destroyed on the foliage by spraying
with 7 per cent kerosene emulsion, miscible oils diluted 30
or 40 times, or tobacco extracts, "Black-leaf 40" being used,
one part in 70 of water. A strong spray must be used so as
to penetrate the waxy covering and wet the aphides. A
winter spray of miscible oil, kerosene emulsion, or lime-
sulphur will destroy the hibernating aphides on the trunk
if applied so as to go beneath loose bark. Where injury is
being done to the roots, the earth above them should be
removed for 6 or 8 inches deep and enough 10 per cent kero-
sene emulsion or dilute tobacco extract should be applied to
wet the soil thoroughly. Dilute miscible oil might be used
in the same way and some success has been secured with
lime-sulphur mixture. Where tobacco stems or dust may
be secured cheaply, they should be applied in the same way.
The surface earth should then be replaced. Nurserymen
commonly use tobacco dust in the trenches along the rows
and also destroy the aphides on the foliage by spraying.
Means of controlling this pest have never been satisfactorily
determined, but as its migration to and from the elm tree
has been only recently discovered, it is believed that greater
advance in methods of control may soon be expected.

157. The Peach-tree Borer.* (42). Possibly as many
peach trees are killed by borers as by any other pest. Their
* Sanninoidea exitiosa Say. Family Sesiidce, see page 79.

298

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

presence may be detected by the mass of gummy, gelatinous
material, more or less mixed with soil which exudes from the
crown of the injured trees, and by the yellowing of the foliage.
The larvae feed upon the soft inner bark of the lower trunk,
crown, and adjacent roots, and often so girdle a tree that if

FIG. 214. — Peach tree-borer moths (Sanninoidea exitiosa Say) — natural
size. The upper one and the one at the right are females, the
other two males, (After Slmgerland.)

not treated it will soon die. Such trees are also more sus-
ceptible to bark beetles and diseases.

The adults are clear-winged moths looking very much
like wasps. The females are deep steel-blue with a broad
orange band across the abdomen, the wings expanding about
11 inches. The males are smaller and the abdomen is

ORCHARD INSECTS 299

marked with three or four narrow yellow stripes. They
emerge during the late summer, and the females lay their
eggs on the bark near the base of the trees, a single
one laying from 200 to 800. The larvae hatch in ten days
and enter the soft bark in which they feed until winter. They
resume feeding in the spring and masses of gum exude from
their burrows. The full-grown borer is light yellowish,
about one inch long, with a brown head and legs, and five
pairs of pro-legs on the abdomen. The mature larva con-
structs a cocoon near the surface of the soil, usually on the
trunk near the burrow, which is composed of particles of
excrement and bark bound together with gum and a thin
lining of silk. In this it transforms to a brown pupa from
which the moth emerges in about three weeks.

One of the best means of control is to mound the soil
around the trunks of the trees in late summer, thus forcing
the moths to deposit their eggs well up on the trunk. In
the early fall level down the earth to facilitate finding the
larvae. This makes it much easier to find the young larvae
and the trees are not so badly infested when thus treated.
Various washes and wrappers have been recommended for
the peach borer, but it is yet to be demonstrated that any
are generally successful. After reducing the number by
mounding, the grower must dig the borers out by hand in
the fall and again in late spring, using a sharp knife and
strong wire, or a blacksmith's hoof-knife.

158. The Plum Curculio.* One of the most common
pests of the stone and pome fruits east of the Rocky Moun-
tains, is the Plum Curculio (1), whose larva is the common
whitish worm found in peaches, plums and cherries. The
larva is a footless grub (this distinguishes it from the cod-

* Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst. Family Curculionidce, see page
125.

300

SCHOOL KNTOMOLOGY

ling moth larva), about one-third of an inch long, whitish,
with a small brown head, and usually lies in a curved position.
The adult is a thick-set snout beetle, about one-fourth of an
inch long, brownish in color, marked with gray and black,
and with four black ridged tubercles on the wing-covers.

The beetles commence to emerge from hibernation in the
spring just as apple trees blossom or just as peach blossoms
have dropped and feed a little on the buds and unfolding

leaves and blos-
soms, but mostly
on the young
fruit as soon as
it is set. The
females at once
commence to lay
eggs in the
young fruit. The
female first eats
out a hole with
her snout and
deposits her
small, oval, white
egg in the cavity.

She then cuts a small segment around it so that the growth
of the fruit will not crush it. This gives rise to the charac-
teristic crescent-shaped mark, which has given the insect its
name of "little Turk." During her life of about two months
a female will lay 100 to 300 eggs and will make as many more
feeding punctures from which the gum will often exude on
stone fruits. The eggs hatch in from three to five days and
the larvae become grown in from two to three weeks. They
then enter the soil and form small cells, an inch or two below
the surface, in which they transform to the white pupae from

FIG. 215. — The plum curculio (Conotrachelus
nenuphar Herbst.). (After Chittenden, U. S.
Dept. Agr.)

a, larva; 6, beetle: c, pupa — all much enlarged.

ORCHARD INSECTS

301

which the adult beetles emerge in three or four weeks, or
during late summer and early fall.

Injured peaches and plums usually drop to the ground,
but cherries stick to the
tree and are small and
gnarled or eaten out by
the larvae. In apples the
larvae seem to develop
only in those which fall
to the ground, the rapid
growth of the apples on
the tree probably crush-
ing the eggs. The egg-
scars and feeding-punc-
tures make the apples
gnarly, summer varieties
sometimes being ren -
dered worthless, and even
winter sorts are much
blemished by the scars.
Injury to peaches and
apples by the feeding-
punctures of the newly
emerged beetles is often
fully as serious.

Clean cultivation
during the summer will FIG. 216. — (After Chittenden, U. S.
destroy many of the Dept. Agr.)

1, young plums showing crescent-shaped egg

DUD2B in the SOU. On punctures of the plum curculio; 2, adult curculio

on young peach — four times natural size.

plums and cherries the

beetles may be collected in early morning by spreading a
sheet (often mounted on a frame) beneath a tree and giving
the tree a quick jar, whereupon the beetles will feign death

302 SCHOOL ENTOM<>|«M,y

and drop to the sheet, and may be dropped in a can of water
and kerosene.

Chief dependence for control, however, is now placed on
spraying with arsenate of lead, two pounds to fifty gallons.
On apples the usual sprayings for the codling moth will give
all the benefit possible. On peaches the first spraying should
be given about ten days after the blossoms fall, and a second
spraying two weeks later, the arsenate of lead being added to
self-boiled lime-sulphur mixture applied for controlling the
rot and similar diseases. Practically the same applications
as for peaches will probably be found satisfactory for plums
and cherries. Only neutral arsenate of lead, i.e., that having
little or no soluble arsenic, should be used on stone fruits, as
a slight amount of soluble arsenious acid will burn the foliage
badly.

Orchards near woodlands are always more badly injured,
and where weeds, grass, and trash are abundant the beetles
find more suitable quarters for hibernating and are more
abundant. Cleaning up the orchard and its surroundings is,
therefore, important for this and other insect pests.

159. Leaf Aphides.* Nearly every plant is attacked by
some species of aphis and fruit trees are no exception. The
rapidity with which these little plant-lice multiply has
already been explained (page 270), and is the reason they
often become so destructive. Insignificant individually, they
will reproduce so rapidly that in a week or two the leaves are
covered with them and the growth of the tree is seriously
checked. The more common species may be recognized
by their coloration and habits, and though they differ some-
what in their life histories, most of them are controlled by
the same general methods.

Three or four species are common upon the apple.
* Family Aphididoe, see page 66.

ORCHARD INSECTS

303

The Apple-aphis * (5, 58), or green apple-aphis, is of a
bright green color with the tips of the antennse, the honey-
tubes, and the tail jet black. The small oval black eggs are
found around the buds of the trees during the winter and
hatch just as the leaf buds are bursting in the spring. The
young aphides soon cause the
young leaves to curl. They
excrete a large amount of
sticky honey-dew. This
attracts ants, which feed upon
it, and on it grows a sooty
black fungus which gives the
infested tree a characteristic
appearance. During the sum-
mer some of the generations
develop wings and spread to
neighboring trees, but only
apple, pear and quince are
attacked. In the fall the true
males and females appear,
each of the latter laying a
single winter egg.

The Rosy Apple-aphis f (5)
is larger than the last species,
and is commonly of a rosy
color, though the wingless fe-
males vary from salmon or tan
color to slaty-gray or purplish-
black. The wingless female is about one-tenth inch long,
the abdomen being dark reddish-brown, covered with a
powdery substance which gives it a deep blue color, the mid-
dle being lighter yellowish, and she becomes darker with age.
* Aphis pomi DeGeer. f Aphis sorbi Kalt.

FIG. 217. — The apple-aphis —
winter eggs on twig,

304

ENTOMOLOGY

The life history is much like the last species, except that the
third generation in the spring is winged and migrates to some
unknown food plant, upon which it subsists during the sum-
mer and from which it migrates back to the apple in the fall.
Its injury to the apple foliage is similar to that of the last
species, but when over-abundant it ssems to be even more
injurious to the young fruit.

The Oat-aphis * (6) is found on the apple, pear and

quince in the spring and
fall and on small grains
and grasses. The wing-
less females are distinctly
smaller than the previous
species and are of a light
green color, marked with
transverse diamond-
shaped bands of darker
green across the abdom-
inal segments. The
honey tubes are shorter,

and are distinctly en-
FIG. 218.- The rosy apple-aphU, larged at the middle and
wingless, viviparous female — greatly
enlarged. flared at the tip. The

winged females may be

distinguished from those of the other species by the very
short second fork of the median vein at the tip of the
fore wings. The second and third generations in the spring
are winged and migrate to small grains and grasses. In
the fall many of the aphides return to the apple on which
the winter eggs are laid, while others pass the winter at the
base of the grain plants, except in the far North. This spe-
cies does not curl the foliage of the apple so badly and seems
* Aphis avence Fab.

ORCHARD INSECTS

305

to be more abundant on the flower buds and blossoms than
the other species.

The Black Peach-aphis * (42) attacks the roots, tender
shoots and foliage of the peach. Young trees suffering from
its attacks on the roots have a yellowish sickly foliage and
are often much injured before its presence is suspected.
Usually, however, the numerous aphides on the leaves will
indicate the probability of their also being on the roots. In
early summer the aphides
cluster on the tender
shoots at the crotch of
the tree and on the lower
limbs and soon form a
disgusting black mass
over the young leaves,
which are tightly curled
up from the injury. On
young trees, both in the
nursery and orchard, this
injury is sometimes so se-
vere as to kill or severely
check the growth. Injury FIQ 219_The oat.aphUj

to trees seems to be worst viviparous female— greatly enlarged,
on light sandy soils.

Both winged and wingless forms are found on the foliage,
but only wingless ones occur on the roots. They are about
one-twelfth of an inch long and shining deep brown or black
in color when mature. The partly grown aphides, which
form the larger part of most colonies, are reddish-yellow or
amber colored. The life history of this species is not well
known, as neither, the sexual forms nor the eggs have been
observed. Like the other species it appears on the foliage

* Aphis persicce-niger Er. Sm.

306

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

as soon as the buds burst in the spring. During the mid-
summer the aphides are more common on the roots, partic-
ularly on the smaller and more tender roots.

The Green Peach-aphis * is well described by its name.
The winter is passed in the egg stage on any of the stone
fruit trees. The first generation in the spring is a deep pink
color, but the second and third are yellowish-green. Aphides
of the third generation are winged and are about one-

FIG. 220. — The black peach-aphis (Aphis persicce-niger Er. Sm.).
(After Gillette and Taylor.)

Winged viviparous female; young female, first instar; apterous viviparous
female — much enlarged.

twelfth inch long, with the head, antennae, thorax, honey-
tubes, a large spot on the center of the abdomen and smaller
spots in front of the honey-tubes, blackish. This third gen-
eration migrates to various common succulent vegetables
such as cabbage, rape, turnip, tomato, celery and a long list
of food plants, being troublesome in greenhouses the year
round. In the fall, migrants return to the peach. Injury
to the peach seems to have been most common in the South-
west, though it has been observed in other sections.
* Myzus persicce Sulz.

ORCHARD INSECTS

307

The Mealy Plum-louse * is a light green species covered
by a bluish-white mealy powder. It has a long narrow body
marked with three longitudinal stripes of a darker green.
The honey-tubes are short, thick, and slightly constricted at
the base. The aphides migrate to certain grasses upon
which they feed during the summer and return to the plum
or prune in the fall and there deposit their winter eggs.

FIG. 221.— The hop plant-louse. (After Riley, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

Third generation on plum — the generation which flies to the hop — enlarged;
head below at right — still more enlarged.

The Hop Plant-louse f also passes the winter in the egg
stage on the plum and migrates to hops, which are often
seriously damaged. Only rarely is it sufficiently abundant
to do much injury to plum foliage. The wingless forms are
light green or yellowish-green with no distinctive markings,
while the winged forms have the head, thoracic lobes and a
few dashes on the abdomen black. The species may be
readily distinguished by the prominent tubercle which pro-

* Hyalopterus arundinis Fab. f Phorodon humuli Schrank.

308

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

jects from the head on the inside of the base, and a less
prominent one on the basal segment, of each antenna.

The Rusty-brown Plum-louse * is readily distinguished
from others common on the plum and prune by its dark
rusty-brown color, with the base of the antennae, tibiae and
tail a contrasting white. This species has done considerable
injury in the Southwest and also in New England, so that it
is evidently widely distributed. It migrates to various com-
mon grasses upon which it feeds during the summer and

FIG. 222. — The black cherry-aphis (Myzus cerasi Fab.)- (After
Gillette and Taylor.)

1, apterous viviparous female; 2, winged viviparous female— enlarged.

returns to the plum in the fall. The wingless egg-laying
female and the male are almost black.

The Black Cherry-louse f has long been known as a pest
of the cherry in all parts of the country, and seems to be
peculiar to this food-plant. Both the winged and wingless
forms are deep shining black, the body is rather broad and
flat and the honey-tubes are unusually long and cylindrical.
The habits of the species are somewhat like those of the
black peach aphis in the way in which the aphides cluster on
* A phis setarice Thos. f Myzus cerasi Fab.

ORCHARD INSECTS 309

the smaller sprouts near the crotch before spreading to the
rest of the tree, and in the disgusting black masses of curled
foliage, dripping with honey dew and swarming with ants,
which they soon cause.

Control. Most of these aphides may be controlled by
much the same treatment. Spraying the trees in the winter
with lime-sulphur wash as for the San Jose scale (page 289),
will kill a large percentage of the eggs and thus materially
reduce the numbers, though it cannot be depended upon for
complete eradication. With all of these aphides it is impor-
tant to spray them in the spring just as the buds are bursting
and before they become secreted in the foliage which soon
curls around them, and thus protects them from being hit by
the spray. Early and thorough spraying is essential; spray-
ing after the foliage is curled is of but little value. Kerosene
emulsion, diluted to contain 7 per cent of kerosene, dilute
miscible oils, whale-oil soap 1 pound to 5 or 6 gallons of water,
or tobacco extracts, will destroy the aphides, though the
exact strength must be varied with the species. The most
successful spray for aphides of all sorts seems to be a to-
bacco extract known as Black-leaf 40 or Nicotine Sulphate.
The spray used against aphides should be applied with some
force so as to penetrate the expanding buds. Where Bor-
deaux mixture is being applied for plant diseases, either
whale-oil soap or tobacco extracts may be added to it for
the control of aphides. Lime-sulphur solution has not
proven satisfactory for the destruction of aphides on foliage.

160. Orchard Caterpillars. Several hundred species of
caterpillars have been listed as attacking the foliage of our
common fruit trees, but a few are so common as to require
attention almost every year.

The Fall Webworm * is so-called because its webs usually
* Hyphantria cunea Drury. Family Arctiidce, see page 81.

310

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

festoon the injured trees in August and September. All of
the common fruit trees, various shade trees, and even some

Fia. 223. — The fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea Dru.). (After
Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

a, light form of full-grown larva; 6, dark form of same; c, pupa; d, spotted
m of moth — all slightly enlarged.

form of

of our garden vegetables are commonly attacked. The
grown caterpillars are about an inch long, covered with long
black and white hairs, and vary in color from yellowish with

ORCHARD INSECTS 311

black and yellow tubercles, to almost black. The moths
have a wing expanse of about IT inches, and are pure white
or more or less spotted with black. In the North the moths
emerge late in June and lay their eggs in late July. Four
or five hundred eggs are laid in a patch on a leaf, and hatch
in about ten days. The young larvae at once spin a web
over the foliage on which they are feeding, which is enlarged
as necessary, so that before long it may cover a whole limb.
These webs are usually first noticed in early August in the
north and a month earlier in the Middle States. Within the
web the surfaces of the leaves are eaten off until they are left
dry and brown. The caterpillars then leave and form a new
web on a fresh branch, so that before long a tree may become
covered with the webs. The caterpillars become grown in
four to six weeks and then find secluded places under the
bark, in rubbish at the base of the tree, or just under the soil,
and there spin flimsy silken cocoons in which they transform
to small brown pupae, which hibernate over winter. In the
Middle States and farther south there are two generations
each year, the first generation of caterpillars appearing in
June and July and the second in August and September.

Orchards which are well sprayed with arsenate of lead
for the codling moth will rarely be troubled with this cater-
pillar, but when unusually abundant it will be well to spray
with arsenate of lead for this and other leaf-eating cater-
pillars just as they are hatching from the eggs, which will be
about August first in the North.

The Canker Worms * (1) are also common pests of or-
chard and shade trees, particularly of old orchards which
have been in sod and have not been sprayed. They are
among the most common of the "loopers" or "measuring

* Paleacrita vernata Peck and Alsophila pometaria Harris. Family
Geometridce, see page 87.

312

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

worms " and are the larvae of two nearly related species of
moths, very similar both in appearance and habits. The
spring canker worm is so-called because its eggs are laid by
the females in March and April and hatch a month later,
while the fall canker worms hatch about the same tune from

eggs laid the previous Novem-
ber or December. The female
moths are wingless and look
much more like spiders than
ordinary moths. The male
moths have delicate wings of
a dark gray color, expanding
about an inch. The fore
wings of the spring canker
worm male are crossed with

three rather indistinct darker lines, while those of the fall can-
ker worm are crossed by two whitish bands. The young cater-
pillars commence to feed on the leaves just as they are
expanding, and if abundant will soon devour all but the mid-
ribs. They have a habit of dropping from the trees and

FIG. 224. — The spring canker
worm (Paleacrita vernata).

a, male moth; b, female moth —
both natural size.

FIG. 225. — Eggs of spring canker worm — twice natural size.
(After W. E. Britton.)

hanging suspended on strands of silk. They become full
grown in four or five weeks and are then about an inch long,
slender, cylindrical, varying from ash-gray to green or yellow,
but mostly dark greenish-olive or blackish, marked with
narrow pale lines down the back and a whitish stripe along

ORCHARD INSECTS

313

each side. The spring canker worm has but a single pair
of pro-legs on the middle of the abdomen, while the fall
canker worm has two pairs of pro-legs. The mature cater-
pillars enter the soil to a depth of two to five inches, where
they hollow out earthen cells in which they change to pupae.

In old sod orchards where the
canker worms are always worst,
their pupae may be destroyed by
plowing and thorough cultivation
during the summer. The most
effective means of destroying the
caterpillars is to spray with arsenate
of lead, three pounds to the barrel,
just as the foliage has fairly ex-
panded. A second spraying just
after the blossoms drop will com-
plete the control.

The Tent Caterpillar* (1,9,43),
is common on wayside apple and
cherry trees everywhere east of the
Rockies. The little caterpillars
hatch just as the leaf-buds are ex-

panding in the spring and they at fe

once commence their characteristic FlG- 226. — Wingless fe-
, male moth and egg

tent-shaped web at the nearest

crotch. All the caterpillars from one
egg-mass co-operate in spinning the
tent which furnishes them a shelter
at night and during cold and wet
weather. The tent is gradually enlarged by adding new
layers of silk, the caterpillars living beneath the outer layers,
but no foliage is included as in the webs of the fall web-
* Malacasoma americana Fab. Family Lasiocampidce, see page 88.

male moth and
mass, and winged male
moth of the fall canker
worm — twice natural
size. (After W. E.
Britton.)

314

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

worm. When several colonies occur on a tree the caterpillars
will soon strip it of foliage, and not infrequently neglected
trees will be more or less defoliated every year. The cater-
pillars become grown in about six weeks and are then two
inches long, deep black in color, with a white stripe down the
back, and on each side of each segment is an oval pale blue

G. 227. — &gg mass oi the
tent caterpillar.

FIG. 228. — Half-grown tent caterpillars
on tent — reduced in size.

spot with a broader velvety black spot immediately in front
of it, giving somewhat the effect of an eye-spot. Having
found a suitable place under loose bark or rubbish or in a
fence corner the caterpillar spins a thin cocoon of tough white
silk in which it transforms to the pupa. About three weeks
later the adult moths emerge and the females lay their eggs
on the tips of the twigs. The moths are of a brownish color,

ORCHARD INSECTS

315

with two nearly parallel white bands extending obliquely
across the fore wings. The wings of the females expand
about H inches, while the males are smaller and may be dis-
tinguished by their feathery antennae. The egg-mass is
from one-half to three-fourths inch long, and contains about
200 eggs, placed
together on end. It
is covered with a
glue which gives a
tough glistening
surface to the whole
mass, and forms a
knot-like band
around the twig.

The egg-masses
may be easily found
and pruned off
during the winter.
It is well to leave
them in the orchard
in a box covered
with netting so that
the parasites may
escape. Neglected
apple and cherry
trees should be de-
stroyed, as they merely harbor this and other pests. Spray-
ing with arsenate of lead just as the foliage comes out
will readily destroy the caterpillars.

The Yellow-necked Apple Caterpillar.* In late summer
one often finds a mass of caterpillars, huddled together as
if confessedly guilty, on the defoliated tip of an apple

* Datana ministra Drury. Family Notodontidce, see page 83.

FIG. 229.— The tent caterpillar moth. (After
Lowe.)

316

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

limb. These usually belong to this species. The yellow-
necked apple caterpillar is about two inches long, with a
black head and the next segment a bright orange-yellow;
down the middle of the back runs a black stripe and
on either side of the body are three stripes of black
alternating with four of yellow. If the limb is jarred or

a caterpillar is touched,
it at once assumes a
characteristic position,
throwing the head and
tail into the air with a
jerk and clinging to the
limb with the pro-legs,
as shown in Fig. 230.
The caterpillars become
grown in four or five
weeks and then enter
the earth for from 2
to 4 inches, where they
transform to naked
brown pupae. The
moths emerge the next
FIG. 230. — The yellow-necked apple year from May to July,
caterpillar (Datana ministra Dru.); i ,, f i

mature larv* and moth-natural size! and the females ^

• their eggs in masses

on the foliage during midsummer. The moths have a
wing expanse of about two inches, the fore wings being a
reddish-brown color crossed by three to five darker lines,
and the head and thorax being chestnut brown.

161. The Pear Slug * (40). The pear slug is an old
European pest which is now found throughout the United
States and in many parts of the world. Its work is usually
* Caliroa cerasi Linn. Family Tenthredinidce, see page 155.

ORCHARD INSECTS

317

recognized by the browning of the leaves of pear and cherry,
or sometimes plum, where it has eaten off the surface of the
leaves.

The parent insect is a small saw-fly, about one-fifth of an
inch long, glossy black, with four iridescent wings, crossed
by a smoky band at the middle and folded over the back
when at rest. The flies appear by the time the foliage is
well out, by mid-April in Maryland and late May or early

FIG. 231. — The pear slug (Caliroa cerasi Linn.). (After Marlatt,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)

a, adult female saw-fly; b, larva with slime removed; c, same in normal state;
d, leaves with larvae — natural size; o, b, c, much enlarged.

June in Iowa and New England. Like other saw-flies, the
female has a strong ovipositor with saw-like teeth at the
tip, with which she cuts a little blister-like cell beneath the
upper surface of the leaf, in which the egg is deposited
(Fig. 232).

The bodies of the half-grown larvae are dark blackish-
green, covered with a viscid, slimy substance which has
given them the name of slugs. The head is dark brown, and

318

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

the anterior segments are much expanded, concealing the
head and legs. There are seven pairs of legs on the abdomen,
the usual pair at the tip being wanting, so that it is slightly
elevated. The slugs eat off the surface of the leaf until only
a network of veins, held together by the brown epidermis of
the lower surface, is left. Injured leaves drop and trees are
often nearly defoliated, thus seriously injuring the growth

and fruiting of the
tree. The larvae be-
come grown in about
twenty-five days and
are then about one-
half an inch long.
After the last moult
the larva becomes a
light orange-yellow
color, without the
slimy covering, but it
almost immediately
enters the soil where
it forms a small cell
and transforms to
the pupa. Some of
the larvae of each

generation and all of those of the last generation remain
in the soil over winter and transform to pupae the next
spring. In the North there are but two generations, the
second larvae appearing in August. In the latitude of the
District of Columbia, the second generation of larvae are
most injurious about the middle of July, and there is
probably a third generation later.

The best means of control is by spraying with arsenate
of lead, which quickly destroys the larvae. They may also

FIG. 232.— Illustrating method of oviposi-
tion and emergence of the pear slug.
(After Marlatt, U. S. Dept. Agr.)

o, cutting of cell beneath epidermis, showing
the tip of the ovipositor; 6, the cell after the egg
has been deposited; c, same after escape of the
larva — all much enlarged.

ORCHARD INSECTS 319

be killed by contact insecticides. Whale-oil, or other soaps,
1 pound to 2 gallons of water, or kerosene emulsion con-
taining 10 per cent kerosene, are effective. Hellebore, 1 part
to 5 parts of air-slaked lime, may be used as a dust or as a
spray 1 pound to 50 gallons of water. In gardens where
water under pressure is available, the slugs may be washed
off by a strong jet from a hose, as they are frequently washed
off by heavy rains and are much less injurious in wet
seasons.

162. The Codling Moth.* The common apple worm (1)
is well-known almost everywhere apples are grown and is
the most serious insect enemy of our most valuable fruit.
Where spraying is not practiced it often destroys 25 to 50
per cent of the crop and in 1907 Prof. A. L. Quaintance esti-
mated the total loss due to this insect in the United States at
$12,000,000.

The adult moths are rarely seen as they fly at dusk and
closely resemble the bark of the apple on which they rest
during the day. They are small grayish moths with a wing
expanse of about three-fourths of an inch. The wings are
crossed with numerous fine lines of gray and brown, and
bear a large bronze-brown spot near the tip.

When the larvae leave the apples in the fall they burrow
into corky crevices of the bark and there spin their white
silken cocoons in which they hibernate over winter. In this
stage large numbers of them are destroyed by woodpeckers.
About the time apples blossom the larvae transform to
small brown pupae, from which the moths emerge in two or
three weeks. The females then lay their eggs largely on the
leaves. The eggs are difficult to see, being about the size of
a pin-head, and look like small white blisters on the leaves.

* Cydia pomonella Linn. Family Grapholithidce, super-family
Tortricina, see page 76.

320

SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

They hatch in from five to ten days or about three to four
weeks after the blossoms fall. The young larva feeds a little
on the tender parts of a leaf, then crawls to the nearest
apple, which it usually enters through the blossom end, and

FIG. 233. — The codling moth (Cydia pomonella Linn.).

a. egg — greatly enlarged; 6, young larva, hatching from egg; c, larva in winter
oon on inside of a bit of bark; d, pupa — original; e, moth — after Slingerland

cocoon

— all much enlarged.

bores directly into the core where it devours the seeds. In
three or four weeks it eats its way out through the side of the
apple leaving its characteristic " worm-hole." The full
grown larva is about three-fourths of an inch long, whitish or
pinkish in color, with a brown head and faint tubercles over

ORCHAKD INSECTS 321

the body, and with three pairs of true legs on the thorax and
five pairs of false-legs on the abdomen. In New England
and the Northern States there is but a single generation
each year (at most only a very small second generation), but
in the Middle States a considerable proportion of the larvae
pupate at once and a second generation of moths emerges
in August, while farther south all transform to a second gen-
eration. The larvae of the second generation feed mostly
on the surface .of the apple, thus giving entrance to diseases
which cause its decay.

Although scraping off the loose bark from the trunks of
the trees and keeping them smooth so as to give less favor-
able conditions for the hibernation of the larvae, and the
attraction of birds to the orchard during the winter, will aid
in subduing the codling moth, its control is now accom-
plished almost entirely by proper spraying with arsenicals.
Paris green and various other arsenites were formerly much
used, but arsenate of lead has now practically superseded
them in commercial use. In spraying for the codling moth
the object of the first spray is to fill the calyx cavity, through
which the young larva enters the apple, with the poison so
that it will be killed before it enters the flesh of the apple.
To accomplish this the trees should be sprayed just as soon
as the blossoms fall with arsenate of lead, using three pounds
of the paste to 50 gallons of water. The spray must be
applied with sufficient force so that it will be driven through
the trees and will enter the blossoms pointing inward on the
side of the tree away from the sprayer. A second spraying
should be given about three weeks later, just as the eggs are
hatching, to destroy the young larvae feeding on the leaves.
Obviously this should be applied so as thoroughly to cover
the leaves above and below. In the West and South, where
the second generation of larvae is troublesome, a third spray-

322 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

ing about ten weeks after the petals fall and a fourth three
weeks later will be found advisable. With thorough spray-
ing not over 2 or 3 per cent of the picked fruit should
show any injury from codling moth. Both the first and
second sprays are usually combined with Bordeaux mix-
ture or lime-sulphur solution for the control of fungous
diseases.

CHAPTER XIX
INSECT CONTROL

WHEN one considers the multitude of different insect
pests which attack all of our cultivated plants it becomes
self-evident that methods for their control must be almost
equally varied. However, there are a few fundamental
principles which will greatly aid in planning how to combat
them.

First among these is the fact that it is essential to pre-
vent injury rather than to destroy the insect pests after dam-
age has been noticed, for usually by the time they have
been killed they have badly injured the plant. Thus it is
obviously important to have a knowledge of the more com-
mon insect enemies of any given crop and to plan for their
control as a part of the culture of the crop.

In the control of insects affecting the staple crops which
are grown over large areas in an extensive manner, it is im-
practicable to use insecticides and various mechanical
methods which can be used profitably in the orchard or
garden. Staple crop insects must be controlled, if at all,
by general methods of farm practice which may be carried
out as a feature of the culture of the crop, but which will
fatally interfere with their development. To accomplish
this successfully it is necessary to know the life history of
each insect so as to know just when it is most vulnerable
and how a given procedure affects it, as may be appreciated
from the description in the preceding pages.

323

324 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

Against insects affecting orchard and garden crops which
have a higher value per acre, the use of insecticides and
mechanical devices will also prove profitable, but to deter-
mine which will be effective we must know somewhat of the
insect's anatomy and habits, for it is entirely useless to apply
an arsenical poison for insects whose mouth-parts are so
constructed as to make it impossible for them to eat it.

163. Methods of Farm Practice for Insect Control.*
(a) Crop Rotation. Many insects feed on only one crop.
Evidently, therefore, if a field be planted in a different crop,
they will have to migrate from it and a very considerable
mortality will result, while if it were left in the same crop
they would have ideal conditions under which to multiply.
Thus the western corn root-worm may be practically con-
trolled by not growing corn on the same land for two suc-
cessive years, for it feeds only on corn and is not injurious
where rotation is practiced. Injury by the Hessian fly to
wheat and by the chinch bug to corn is also very materially
reduced by frequent rotation. Care should be taken to
arrange a rotation in which plants nearly related botanically
do not follow each other, for they are usually attacked by
the same insects. Thus, white grubs, wire-worms and cut-
worms live in sod land, where they often become exceedingly
abundant. If the land be put in corn these pests will con-
centrate on the fewer plants and do serious injury, whereas
if it had been planted in some small grain, buckwheat, cow-
peas, potatoes or some other crop which they do not affect,
the land could then be safely planted in corn the next rea-
son. The same principle applies to various garden crops.

* See F. M. Webster, Farm Practice in the Control of Field Crop
Insects, Yearbook, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1905, and Some
Things that the Grower of Cereal and Forage Crops Should Know
About Insects, Yearbook, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1908,
page 367.

INSECT CONTROL 325

(6) Time of Planting. Early planting or the use of early-
maturing varieties often enables the farmer to secure a crop
before its pests have become most abundant. This has been
repeatedly demonstrated with the cotton boll weevil and the
cotton bollworm or corn earworm. Early cabbage plants
seem to be less injured by maggots and early varieties of
peas escape the aphis. On the contrary, late planting some-
times enables a crop to escape its enemies, as in the case
when wheat is sown too late in the fall for the Hessian fly
to lay its eggs on it.

(c) Weeds. In many cases immature insects feed upon
some common weed and the adults attack a cultivated crop,
or they may multiply on weeds in neglected fields and then
migrate to a crop. "Volunteer" plants of the host crop
should be considered as weeds, for they afford food to insect
pests in the same way. Thus the corn root-aphis lives on
the roots of smartweed and other weeds and grasses until
corn is available, and cutworms feed on whatever vegeta-
tion is found before corn is planted, so that these pests are
more or less starved out on land kept free from weeds. The
cotton boll weevil feeds on volunteer cotton in the early
spring and the Hessian fly oviposits on volunteer wheat in
late summer and early fall. Seedling apple, peach and
cherry trees , may also be considered as weeds from the
standpoint of insect control.

(d) Fertilization and Culture. There seems to be no evi-
dence that any of our common fertilizers have any effect as
insecticides, but it is well known that plants which have
been weakened from any cause are more subject to insect
attack, while vigorous plants will often survive injury, so
that liberal fertilization is often of considerable importance,
particularly with insects affecting the roots or boring in the
stems. In the same way, thorough preparation of the soil

326 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

and good culture may give a crop such favorable conditions
as to enable it to withstand insect injury which would be
fatal to plants of weaker growth.

(e) Clean Farming. The insects peculiar to a crop often
feed and multiply in the refuse left on the land after the crop
is harvested and then hibernate over winter beneath it. All
remnants of a crop, such as stubble, vines, leaves or stumps,
should be removed from the field or turned under as soon

after harvest as possible. Numerous examples have been
cited in the preceding pages of insects which hibernate in
stubble or under the remains of the crop.

(/) Burning. Stubble and refuse may often be gathered
into piles in which the insects will congregate and then be
burned. The burning of grass land is often resorted to for
the control of army-worms, chinch-bugs, and grasshoppers,
but should only be practiced where they occur in sufficient
numbers to warrant it. Strawberry beds are sometimes
burned over to destroy the eggs of the root-aphis, and the
aphides affecting small grains may sometimes be controlled
when they occur in small spots by covering them with straw
and burning.

(0) Plowing. Deep plowing and thorough harrowing
are often exceedingly effective in the control of many insects
which pass some one stage in the soil. Late fall and winter
plowing is particularly beneficial, as the cells in which the
insects pass the winter are so broken up that they are
exposed to freezing and thawing and excessive moisture.
Thus cutworms pass the winter in the soil in the larval
stage; the cotton boll worm or corn earworm in the pupal
stage; May beetles and click beetles hibernate as newly
transformed beetles; and grasshoppers' eggs pass the winter
just under the soil; but all are largely destroyed by thorough
plowing and harrowing, as has been described.

INSECT CONTROL 327

(h) Trap Crops. It sometimes happens that one plant
or variety is preferred by an insect and can be used
for attracting it from the plants to be protected. For in-
stance, the cotton boll worm prefers to lay its eggs on corn.
If a few rows of corn be planted here and there through the
cotton field so as to come into silk about the time moths
which normally lay on cotton are flying, the eggs will be laid
on the corn, which can then be cut and fed to stock, and the
cotton will be protected. In a similar manner radishes are
sometimes used as a catch crop for the maggots affecting
cabbage and onions, while kale makes an excellent catch
crop for the harlequin cabbage bug.

164. Insecticides. Substances which destroy insects are
commonly called insecticides and may be divided into four
classes:

1. Poisons kill by being eaten and are usually composed
of some form of arsenic and are, therefore, called arsenicals.

2. Contact Insecticides kill either by clogging up the spir-
acles, the openings of the respiratory system, or by entering
the trachea, and thus causing suffocation, or by their cor-
rosive action on the skin.

3. Gases are used for fumigating buildings, stored
products, greenhouses and similar structures infested with
insects where other means are not practicable.

4. A fourth class of substances used against insects may
be known as repellents. They are not real insecticides, for
they do not kill the insects but merely prevent them from
attacking the plant or animal to which they are applied.

1. Poisons. Poisons are applied to the food of the insect
and must be eaten to be effective. It is evident, therefore,
that they are effective only against biting insects, or those
which lap up their food from the surface, and that they can
be of no use against the sucking insects, such as the true

328 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

bugs, which suck the juices from beneath the surface.
Poisons may not always, however, be the most effective
means of combating biting insects, for some caterpillars are
sometimes effectually checked by use of contact insecti-
cides.

Pans green is a green crystalline powder composed of
the aceto-arsenite of copper. When properly made it
should contain at least 50 per cent arsenic oxid (As2Os), and
there should be as little soluble arsenic as possible. Various
State laws require that there be not over 3i per cent soluble
arsenic, but even that amount often injures tender foliage.
Paris green is rather a coarse powder, settles readily in
water, and is washed off by drenching rains when used alone.
It is usually applied at the rate of from 3 to 8 ounces to a 50-
gallon barrel of water, 5 ounces to the barrel being satis-
factory for most purposes. If stirred up into a paste with a
little water it will mix more readily and uniformly. Add an
equal weight of quick lime, slightly more will do no harm,
which will help neutralize any soluble arsenic.

Ar senate of lead is sold both as a white paste and as a pow-
der. To be of standard grade the paste should contain at
least 12 J- per cent of arsenic oxid and not over f per cent
water-soluble arsenic oxid, and not over 50 per cent water.
Owing to the small amount of soluble arsenic it may be used
in much larger quantities than other arsenicals and on tender
foliage which others would injure. From 2 to 8 pounds of
the paste per 50-gallon barrel of water are used, 2 to 3 pounds
per barrel being sufficient for most of the pests of the orchard
and garden. Only about half as much of the powdered form
is required. Arsenate of lead remains in suspension in
water better than Paris green and is much more adhesive.
It has, therefore, very largely displaced Paris green and is
superior to it for most purposes.

INSECT CONTROL 329

Formerly London purple, arsenite of lime, and other
arsenicals were much used, but the above are practically
the only arsenicals now having a general use.

Arsenate of Lime. Recently the U. S. Bureau of Ento-
mology has reported favorably upon a home-made sub-
stitute for arsenate of lead, made of lime and sodium arsen-
ate, according to the following formula:

"Stone Lime (90% CaO) 55 pounds

Sodium arsenate, fused (dry pow-
dered) 65% As205 100 pounds

Water 26 gallons

"Place the stone lime in a wooden container and add
a small amount of water, just enough to start slaking. When
slaking is well under way, pour in the sodium arsenate,
which should first have been dissolved in hot water. Keep
stirring until the lime has thoroughly slaked. Sufficient
water should be added from time to time to prevent burning.
The resulting arsenate of calcium should contain about 18
per cent of arsenic oxid, or slightly more than in average
arsenate of lead paste. In making this compound, one
should know approximately the calcium oxid and arsenic
oxid of the materials employed and vary the formula ac-
cordingly.

" In the experience of the Bureau of Entomology, arsenate
of lime, made according to the above formula, compares fa-
vorably with arsenate of lead in killing effect, and has not
caused injury to foliage of plants treated. This new in-
secticide, however, must still be regarded in its experimental
stage. Its cheapness over arsenate of lead is its principal
recommendation . ' '

Poisoned Bran Mash. For combating grasshoppers and
cutworms arsenic is often employed mixed in a bran mash.

330 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

Mix one pound of Paris green or white arsenic colored with
a dye with 25 pounds of bran or middlings. Stir a quart or
two of cheap molasses into a gallon of water and moisten
the bran, stirring thoroughly, until it makes a stiff mash.
Do not add so much water that the mash will be thin and
will cake when exposed. Sow broadcast on infested fields.
Keep poultry out of fields thus treated.

Hellebore. The powdered roots of white hellebore are
often used as an insecticide in place of arsenicals, especially
for currant worms and similar saw-fly larvae and other in-
sects affecting crops soon to be eaten, as the hellebore is
much less poisonous to man and animals. It may be applied
dry, diluted with 5 or 10 parts of flour, or as a spray one
ounce to a gallon of water. It is too expensive for use except
on a few plants in the yard or garden and, like pyrethrum, it
deteriorates with age.

When properly applied arsenical insecticides are entirely
harmless to man and animals. It has been shown by chem-
ical analysis that cabbages properly dusted with Paris green
contain so small an amount that one would need to eat
twenty-eight of them at once to be poisoned. Of course,
instances of poisoning are occasionally recorded, for ignorant
people sometimes seem to think that an extra large amount
of poison will kill the insects "deader" and, therefore, apply
an unnecessary amount, particularly when dusting.

2. Contact Insecticides. Contact insecticides are used
against insects with sucking mouth-parts and against soft-
bodied biting insects, which may be more readily destroyed
by them than by arsenicals. The chitinous skin of an insect
is not easily corroded and in many cases a substance strong
enough to penetrate this skin will also injure foliage; hence
only soft-bodied insects can be safely combated with cor-
rosive substances on foliage. It is absolutely essential

INSECT CONTROL 331

that contact insecticides hit the insects which they are to
destroy, for the mere spraying of the foliage is of no value
whatever.

Kerosene emulsion is one of the oldest remedies for plant
lice and other sucking insects and is often used because it is
readily made and the materials can always be secured.
Dissolve one-half pound of hard soap (or one quart of soft
soap) in one gallon of boiling water. Add two gallons of
kerosene and churn by pumping back and forth into itself
for five or ten minutes until the oil is thoroughly emulsified,
forming a creamy mass with no drops of free oil visible. This
stock solution can then be diluted so that the resulting mix-
ture will contain the desired per cent of kerosene. Thus for
aphides one part of the stock solution should be diluted
with 10 to 15 parts of water, giving 4 to 6 per cent of kero-
sene in the spray, while for a winter wash, for the San Jose*
scale it should be diluted only three or four times, giving
16 to 22 per cent kerosene. It should be applied with a
nozzle throwing a fine spray. There are other formulas
for making the emulsion with buttermilk and it may be
made with crude oil instead of kerosene.

Miscible Oils are made by making petroleum soluble by
the addition of vegetable oils, "cut" or saponified with an
alkali, and are really a sort of liquid petroleum soap which
will combine readily with water. They are used principally
as winter washes against the San Jose* scale, for which they
are diluted 8 to 10 times. For a summer wash they have
been used effectively against plant lice and other insects for
which kerosene emulsion would be used, diluted 25 to 30
times.

Whale-oil and Other Soaps. Any good laundry soap made
into a thick solution one-half pound per gallon is an excel-
lent remedy for aphides on house plants and small bushes.

332 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

Whale-oil or fish-oil soap has been used extensively against
scale insects and plant lice, particularly by nurserymen and
florists. The best brands are made from caustic potash
rather than caustic soda and should not contain over 30
per cent of water. For most aphides one pound to six
gallons is effective.

Pyrethrum, Buhach, or Persian insect powder, is made by
pulverizing the petals of the pyre thrum blossom, and kills
insects by clogging their breathing pores. It is used chiefly
for household pests and in greenhouses and small gardens.
It deteriorates rapidly with age and should be kept in tight
cans. On this account large users buy directly from the
only American manufacturers, the Buhach Producing Co.,
Stockton, Cal. It may be used as a dry powder, pure or
diluted with flour, or in water at the rate of one ounce to
two gallons, which should stand a day before using. For
immediate use it should be boiled for five or ten minutes.
It is often burned in rooms to destroy mosquitoes and flies;
as it leaves no odor after the room has been aired.

Tobacco. A tobacco decoction may be made by steeping
tobacco leaves, stems, or refuse in water at the rate of 1
pound to 1 or 2 gallons, and then diluting for use according
to the strength of the tobacco and the insect to be combated.
Tobacco decoction is much used for dipping plants infested
with aphides and as a spray against aphides and similar soft-
bodied insects. Various extracts and solutions of tobacco
are now manufactured for use against plant lice, among the
best of which is "Black-leaf 40" or Nicotine Sulphate, and
are more satisfactory than home-made solutions on account
of their uniform strength. Tobacco dust has been widely
used against root-feeding aphides by removing the surface
soil and applying a liberal dressing and then covering. The
rains leaching through the tobacco carry the tobacco

INSECT CONTROL 333

water to the affected roots and destroy or repel the
aphides.

Lime-sulphur Solution. This is now the leading remedy
for the San Jose scale, as well as the pear leaf blister-mite,
and has been found to kill a large percentage of aphis eggs.
It is also an excellent fungicide, and spring applications just
before the buds open are very effective in killing out the
wintering spores of various fungous diseases.

The usual formula is, unslaked stone lime, 20 pounds;
flowers (or flour) of sulphur, 15 pounds, water to make 50
gallons. Stir up enough water with the sulphur to make a
thick paste. Slake the lime in the vessel in which it is to be
cooked with a small quantity of hot water. Then add the
sulphur paste to the slaking lime. Add 10 or 15 gallons of
water and boil for forty-five minutes. The mixture may
then be diluted to make a barrel of 45 or 50 gallons, straining
it carefully into the spray barrel or tank. A large iron kettle
or hog-scalder may be used for boiling the wash, or where
steam can be made available a steam pipe may be run into
several barrels and the wash boiled in them. Such barrels
may well be placed upon a platform so that the wash may
be drawn from them directly into the spray-tank. The
leading manufacturers and dealers in insecticides are now
selling concentrated lime-sulphur solution which is all ready
for use by merely diluting to the desired strength. In many
communities a central plant makes the wash and can sell it
with a fair profit at a low rate.

Hoine-made Concentrated Lime-sulphur. In recent years
many large growers have been making their own concen-
trated lime-sulphur solution, and where the quantity to be
used warrants, a considerable saving may be effected. The
usual formula calls for 50 pounds of fresh stone lime> 100
pounds of commercial ground sulphur and water sufficient

334 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

to make 50 gallons. In making this mixture it is important
that only high-grade, pure lime should be used, and lime
with less than 90 per cent calcium oxid (CaO), should be dis-
carded. The following directions are given by the New York
Agricultural Experiment Station:

"In making, slake the lime in about 10 gallons of hot
water, adding the lumps of lime gradually to avoid too violent
boiling and spilling over. . . . The sulphur must be thor-
oughly moistened and made into an even, fluid paste without
lumps (before adding to the lime). . . . Pour in the sulphur
paste gradually during the slaking, stirring constantly to
prevent the formation of lumps, and when the slaking has fin-
ished add the full amount of water and boil gently for one
hour. If kettles and fire are used, more than the required
amount of water may be used at first, to compensate for
evaporation, or the volume may be kept constant by adding
successive small quantities to hold the mixture at the original
level, as shown by a notch on a stick resting on the bottom
of the kettle, and marked when the mixture first begins to
boil. When boiling with live steam the mixture will be more
likely to increase in volume than to decrease, so that no
water need be added.

"This concentrate will keep with little change, unless the
weather is below 5° F., if stored in filled, stoppered barrels.
Even in open receptacles there will be no loss if the surface be
covered by a layer of oil to prevent access of air. Each
boiling should be tested with a Baume* hydrometer * and
its density marked on the barrels or other containers."

Below is given a table from which can be determined the
amount of dilution for concentrates for each degree Baume*

* These hydrometers, made specially for testing lime-sulphur mix-
ture, may be obtained from the Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester,
N. Y., and other dealers in laboratory glassware.

INSECT CONTROL

335

from 20 to 36, and the corresponding specific-gravity
reading.

Dilution table for concentrated lime-sulphur solutions.1

Number gallons concentrated lime-sulphur to

make 50 gallons spray solution.

Degrees

Specific

Hauni,'-.

gravity.

Summer

Winter or dormant strength.

or foliage-
strength.

San Jos6 scale.

Blister mite.

1.330

1.318

1.306

1.295

1.283

6£

1.272

1.261

.250

.239

.229

.218

.208

.198

.188

.179

101

.169

.160

^rom Farmers' Bulletin 650, U. S. Dept. Agriculture.

3. Gases. Carbon Bisulphide is extensively used against
insects affecting stored goods and grains, and for root-feeding
insects. It is a clear, volatile liquid giving off fumes heavier
than air. It may be thrown directly onto grain without
injury to it or placed in shallow dishes. For grain in store
in fairly tight rooms apply five to eight pounds to every 100
bushels, distributing the bisulphide over the surface or in pans
containing not over one-half of one pound each. Make the
enclosure as tight as possible, covering the grain with blankets
or other tight cover, if necessary, and leave for twenty-four
hours. Recent experiments have shown that the vapor is

336 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

much less effective at low temperatures and that the dosage
must be greatly increased at temperatures below 60° F.
For fumigating buildings " there should be about one square
foot of evaporating surface to every twenty-five square feet
of floor area, and each square foot of evaporating surface
should receive from one-half to one pound of liquid." For
fumigating clothing or household goods, place them in a tight
trunk and place an ounce of liquid in a saucer just under the
cover. The gas is exceedingly explosive; allow no fire or light
of any kind around the building or enclosure until it has been
well aired. The fumes should not be inhaled, for though not
seriously poisonous, they have a suffocating effect and will
soon produce dizziness and a consequent headache. Carbon
tetrachloride is now used for some purposes in much the
same manner as carbon bisulphide, and is not so explosive.

Hydrocyanic Acid Gas is used for the fumigation of nur-
sery trees and plants, certain greenhouse insects, pests of
dwelling houses, storehouses, mills, etc., and in California
for scale insects on fruit trees. It is made by combining
cyanide of potassium, sulphuric acid and water. The gas is
slightly lighter than air and is a most deadly poison. It
should be used only by thoroughly competent and careful
persons who are fully advised as to the method of use for
the particular purpose desired. Concerning its use advice
should be sought from the State Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, or from the State Entomologist, or from the
Bureau of Entomology of the U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture.*

Sulphur Dioxid. The fumes of burning sulphur, mostly

sulphur dioxid, have long been recognized as a standard

remedy for the fumigation of dwellings and barracks for

insect pests. Successful fumigation for the bedbug has been

*See Appendix A, No. 40.

INSECT CONTROL 337

reported when stick sulphur has been burned at the rate of
two pounds per 1000 cubic feet of space. The chief objection
is the strong bleaching effect of the fumes in presence of
moisture and their destructive action on vegetation. The
germinating power of seeds is quickly destroyed, but they
are not injured for food. One to five per cent of the gas,
with an exposure of twenty-four hours, is effective for most
seed and grain pests. It cannot be used on vegetation or
for moist fruits, and tarnishes brass, nickel or gilt and may
bleach fabrics.

Tobacco Fumes. Tobacco is extensively used as a fumi-
gant for aphides in greenhouses and for certain plants, such
as melons, by using it under covers. Several forms are now
commonly used. Tobacco or nicotine extracts are sold
under various trade names and are volatilized by heating
either with a small lamp or by dropping hot irons into the
dishes containing the fluid. The same material may be pur-
chased in the more convenient form of paper which has been
saturated with the extract and which is burned according
to directions, a certain amount being sufficient for so many
cubic feet of space. These tobacco preparations are excel-
lent for the fumigation of household plants, which may be
placed in a closet and then fumigated according to the direc-
tions of the particular brand employed. Melon vines,
young apple trees, bush fruits, and similar outdoor crops
may be effectively rid of plant-lice by fumigating with
tobacco-paper under a frame covered with canvas or muslin
sized with glue or linseed oil.

4. Repellents include any substances which may be ap-
plied to a plant or animal to prevent insect attack. A pop-
ular notion that any vile-smelling substance will repel insect
attack seems to have very little evidence for its support.
Tobacco dust, air-slaked lime, or even fine road dust, thor-

338 SCHOOL ENTOMOLOGY

oughly covering a plant will prevent the attack of various
flea-beetles and leaf-eating beetles, but to be effective the
plants must be frequently dusted and kept well covered.
Bordeaux mixture, our most widely used fungicide, when
liberally sprayed on potatoes and tomatoes, acts as a repel-
lent to keep off the little black flea-beetles which often seri-
ously damage the young plants.

The various fly-sprays which are used for spraying cattle
to prevent the annoyance of flies act merely as repellents.
Blue ointment is sometimes used against animal parasites,
evidently affecting them as a repellent.

Fruit trees are often painted with a thick soap solution
containing 1 pint of crude carbolic acid to 10 gallons as a
repellent for the adult borers which lay their eggs on the
bark.

Naphthalene or moth balls and similar substances used
for driving away household insects are effective as repellents.

Various proprietary insecticides are frequently offered
for sale with wonderful claims for their effect as repellents,
but only in rare cases are they of any value except for use as
dust as already suggested.*

* For further discussion of insecticides see Farmers' Bulletin 127»
U. S. Department of Agriculture.

APPENDIX A
PUBLICATIONS ON INJURIOUS INSECTS

THE following publications may be secured free of charge
by writing to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C., or to your Congressman or Senator, for those published
by the United States Department of Agriculture, and to the
several state agricultural experiment stations, whose post-
offices are given below, for those published by them. The
numbers are those used in parentheses ( ) in the text.

Published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture

1. The More Important Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Fruit

and Foliage of the Apple. Farmers' Bulletin 492.

2. The San Jose* Scale and Its Control. Farmers' Bulletin 650.

3. The Oyster-shell Scale and the Scurfy Scale. Farmers' Bulle-

tin 723.

4. Orchard Barkbeetles and Pinhole Borers. Farmers' Bulletin

763.

5. The Aphides Affecting the Apple. Circular 81, Bureau of

Entomology.

6. The Oat Aphis. Bulletin of the U. S. Dept. Agriculture, No.

112.

7. The Pea Aphis. Circular 43, Bureau of Entomology.

8. The Melon Aphis. Circular 80, Bureau of Entomology.

9. The Apple-tree Tent Caterpillar. Farmers' Bulletin 662.

10. The Principal Insects Affecting the Tobacco Plant. Farmers'

Bulletin 120.

11. The Colorado Potato Beetle. Circular 87, Bureau of Ento-

mology.

12. Arsenate of Lead as an Insecticide Against the Tobacco Horn-

worms. Farmers' Bulletin 595.
339

340 APPENDIX A

13. The Common Squash Bug, Circular 39, Division of Ento-

mology.

14. The Imported Cabbage Worm. Circular 60, Bureau of Ento-

mology.

15. Common White Grubs. Farmers' Bulletin 543.

16. The Chinch Bug. Farmers' Bulletin 657.

17. The Spring Grain Aphis. Circular 93, Bureau of Entomology.

18. The Cotton Bollworm. Farmers' Bulletin 290.

19. The Cotton Worm. Circular 153, Bureau of Entomology.

20. The Boll Weevil Problem. Farmers' Bulletin 512.

21. The Ox Warble. Circular 25, Division of Entomology.

22. Texas or Tick Fever. Farmers' Bulletin 569.

23. The Horn Fly. Circular 115, Bureau of Entomology.

24. Repellents for Protecting Animals from the Attacks of Flies.

Bulletin 131.

25. Mites and Lice on Poultry. Circular 92, Bureau of Entomol-

ogy.

26. House Flies. Farmers' Bulletin 679.

27. The Stable Fly. Farmers' Bulletin 540.

28. The Yellow-fever Mosquito. Farmers' Bulletin 547.

29. Fleas as Pests of Man and Animals. Farmers' Bulletin 683.

30. The True Clothes Moths. Farmers' Bulletin 659.

31. Cockroaches. Farmers' Bulletin 658.

32. The Bedbug. Farmers' Bulletin 754.

33. House Ants. Farmers' Bulletin 740.

34. Some Facts About Malaria. Farmers' Bulletin 450.

35. Sheep Scab. Farmers' Bulletin 713.

36. Methods of Exterminating the Texas-fever Tick. Farmers'

Bulletin 498.

37. Some Insects Injurious to Stored Grains. Farmers' Bulletin 45.

38. Remedies and Preventives Against Mosquitoes. Farmers'

Bulletin 444.

39. The Sanitary Privy. Farmers' Bulletin 463.

40. The Pear Slug. Circular 26, Division of Entomology.

40a. The Roundheaded Apple-tree Borer. Farmers' Bulletin 675.
406. Hydrocyanic Acid Gas Against Household Insects. Farmers'

Bulletin 699.

40c. Flytraps and their Operation. Farmers' Bulletin 734.
40d. Grasshopper Control. Farmers' Bulletin 747.

APPENDIX A 341

Published by State Agricultural Experiment Stations
(for addresses see below)

41. Orchard Bark Beetles and Pin Hole Borers. Bulletin 264,

Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station.

42. Insects Injurious to the Peach Trees of New Jersey. Bulletin

235, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station.

43. The Apple-tree Tent Caterpillar. Bulletin 177, Connecticut

Agricultural Experiment Station.

44. The Cabbage Aphis. Bulletin 300, Cornell University Agri-

cultural Experiment Station.

45. Potato Flea-beetle. Bulletin 211, Maine Agricultural Experi-

ment Station.

46. The House Mosquito. Bulletin 216, New Jersey Agricultural

Experiment Station.

47. Insect Pests of the Household. Bulletin 253, Ohio Agricul-

tural Experiment Station.

48. An Outbreak of Gadflies in Kentucky. Bulletin 151, Ken-

tucky Agricultural Experiment Station.

49. Sheep Scab. Bulletin 143, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment

Station.

50. Some Common Poultry Parasites. Circular, West Virginia

Agricultural Experiment Station.

51. Insect Pests of the Household. Bulletin 253, Ohio Agricultural

Experiment Station.

52. Mill and Stored Grain Insects. Bulletin 189, Kansas Agricul-

tural Experiment Station.

53. Making and Using Concentrated Lime-sulphur Wash. Bulle-

tins 329 and 330, New York Agricultural Experiment Station.

54. The Chinch Bug. Bulletin 191, Kansas Agricultural Experi-

ment Station.

55. The Corn Earworm. Bulletin, Kentucky Agricultural Experi-

ment Station.

56. The Hessian Fly. Bulletin 188, Kansas Agricultural Experi-

ment Station.

57. The Mosquitoes of New Jersey and their Control. Bulletin

276, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station.

58. Plant Lice Injurious to Apple Orchards. Bulletin 415, New

York (Geneva) Agricultural Experiment Station.

342

APPENDIX A

Addresses of State Agricultural Experiment Stations and of
State Entomologists.

Teachers and Students should write to the experiment station
and state entomologist of their state for all available publications
concerning insects.

Alabama, Auburn.

Arizona, Phoenix.

Arkansas, Fayetteville.

California, Berkeley.

California State Horticultural
Board, at Sacramento.

Colorado, Fort Collins.

Connecticut, New Haven.

Delaware, Newark.

Florida, Gainesville.

Georgia, State Entomologist,
Atlanta.

Hawaii, Honolulu.

Idaho, Moscow.

Illinois, State Entomologist, Ur-
bana.

Indiana, Lafayette.

Indiana State Entomologist, In-
dianapolis.

Iowa, Ames.

Kansas, Manhattan.

Kentucky, Lexington.

Louisiana, Baton Rouge.

Maine, Orono.

Maryland, College Park.

Massachusetts, Amherst.

Michigan, East Lansing.

Minnesota, University Farm
St. Paul.

Mississippi, Agricultural Col-
lege.

Missouri, Columbia.

Montana, Bozeman.

Nebraska, Lincoln.

Nevada, Reno.

New Hampshire, Durham.

New Jersey, New Brunswick.

New Mexico, State College.

New York, Geneva.

New York Cornell University
Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, Ithaca.

New York State Entomologist,
Albany.

North Carolina, State Entomol-
ogist, Raleigh.

North Dakota, Agricultural Col-
lege.

Ohio, Wooster.

Oklahoma, Stillwater.

Oregon, Corvallis.

Pennsylvania, State Zoologist,
Harrisburg.

South Carolina, Clemson Col-
lege.

South Dakota, Brookings.

Tennessee, Knoxville.

Texas, College Station.

Utah, Logan.

Virginia, Blacksburg.

Washington, Pullman.

West Virginia, Morgantown.

Wyoming, Laramie.

Wisconsin, Madison.

APPENDIX B

Books on Injurious Insects

Insect Pests of Farm, Garden and Orchard, E. Dwight Sanderson.
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1912.

Insects Injurious to Vegetables, F. H. Chittenden. Orange Judd
Co., New York, 1907.

Manual of Fruit Insects, M. V. Slingerland and C. R. Crosby.
Macmillan Co., New York, 1914.

Insects Injurious to the Household, Glen W. Herrick. Macmillan
Co., New York, 1914.

Injurious Insects, W. C. O'Kane. Macmillan Co., New York,
1912.

Handbook of Medical Entomology, Riley and Johannsen. Corn-
stock Publishing Co., Ithaca, N. Y., 1914.

Medical and Veterinary Entomology, Herms. Macmillan.

Books Valuable for Reference Shelves in the Library of the
Secondary School

Manual for the Study of Insects, Comstock. Comstock Publishing

Co., Ithaca, N. Y.

American Insects. Kellogg. Henry Holt & Co., New York.
The Insect Book, Howard. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York.
The Moth Book, Holland. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York.
The Butterfly Book, Holland. Doubleday, Page & Co., New

York.
Directions for the Collection and Preservation of Insects, Banks.

U. S. National Museum, Bulletin 67, Washington, D. C. Also,

Farmers' Bulletin 606, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Many more are valuable and desirable; the ones cited are the
most generally useful and, with the ones mentioned in the previous
list, will make a very adequate library for the ordinary school on
the subject of insects.

343

344 APPENDIX B

Dealers in Collectors* Supplies and Laboratory Materials

Ward's Natural Science Establishment, Rochester, N. Y.

The Kny-Scheerer Co., New York.

The Simplex Net Co., Ithaca, N. Y.

Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, N. Y.

Spencer Lens Co., Buffalo, N. Y.

Central Scientific Co., Chicago, 111.

Southern Biological Supply Co., New Orleans, La.

INDEX

Abdomen, 8
Acanthiidce, 60, 188
ACARINA, 21
Acrididce, 48, 241

ACULEATA, 143

Adaptations, 15
Adult, 28
Aedes calopus, 184
Agaristidce, 85
Agrotis annexa, 287

messoria, 286
Ajax butterfly, 96
Alabama argillacea, 257
Alfalfa grasshopper, 51

weevil, 126

Alsophila pometaria, 311
American Acridium, 51
Anasa tristis, 281
Angle-wing butterflies, 102
Agoumois grain-moth, 78, 231
ANISOPTERA, 42
Anopheles, 133
Antennae, 4, 16
Anthomyiidve, 140
Anthonormis grandis, 259
Anthrenus scrophidarice, 222
Ant-lions, 45
Ants, 152

Argentine, 217

black pavement, 217

house, 216, 340

little black, 217

little red, 216

Aorta, 11

Aphididce, 64, 246, 268, 295,

302

Aphids, 64
Aphis, apple, 303, 339, 341

black peach, 305

cabbage, 268, 341

cherry, black, 308

English grain, 246

German grain, 247

green peach, 306

hop, 307

mealy plum, 307

melon, 270, 339

oat, 248, 304, 339

pea, 269, 339

rosy apple, 303

rusty brown plum, 308

spinach, 269

spring grain, 248, 340

woolly apple, 295
Aphis avarice, 304, 339

brassicce, 268

gossypii, 270, 339

persicce-niger, 305

pomi, 303, 339

setaria;, 308

sorbi, 203
Aphis lions, 46
A pis mellifera, 144
APOIDEA, 144
Apple-aphis, 303, 339

woolly, 295

345

346

INDEX

Apple-caterpillar, yellow-necked,

315

Apple curculio, 126
Apple-tree borers, 292, 340
Apple weevil, 126
Aquatic beetles, 110
Aquatic bugs, 56
ARACHNIDA, 21, 203, 207, 209
ARANEIDA, 21
Arctiidce, 81, 309
Argynnid butterflies, 101
Army-worms, 80
Arsenate of lead, 328, 339
Arsenate of lime, 329
ARTHROPODA, 1, 19
Asilidce, 135

Aspidiotus perniciosus, 287, 339
Assassin-bugs, 60
Astyanax butterfly, 102
Attagenus piceus, 223
Autographa brass tea?, 284

Back-swimmers, 58
Bag- worms, 87
Balaninus, 125
Bean-weevil, 122, 225
Beautiful wood-nymph, 85
Bed-bugs, 60, 188, 340
Bee-flies, 137
Bee-moth, 76
Bees, 144
Beetles, 107
Berylidae, 61
Bill-bugs, 126
Bird-lice, 37
Biting cattle-louse, 199
Biting-lice, 37
Bittacus, 46
Black-flies, 136
Black swallow-tail, 95
Blastophaga, 160
Blister-beetles, 122

Blattidce, 52, _' 1 1

Blissus leucopterus, 238

Blow-fly, 141

Blue butterflies, 99

Body-covering, 17

Boll weevil, 259, 340

It .11 \vorm, 253, 340

Bombycidce, 91

Bombyliidce, 137

Book-lice, 35

Boring H ymenoptera, 143, 154

Bot-flies, 139

Braconidce, 158

Brain, 13

Bran mash, poisoned, 329

Breeding cages, 171

Bristle-tails, 34

Brownie-bugs, 64

Brown-tail moth, 85

larva?, 17

Bruchidce, 122, 224, 225
Bruchus oblectus, 225

pisorum, 224
Bubonic plague, 39
Bud-moth, 77
Buffalo-gnat, 136
Buffalo-moth, 113, 223
Buffalo tree-hopper, 64
Bugs, 56
Buhach, 332
Burnble-bees, 147
Bumble-beetles, 119
f!u/>r<'stidce, 115
Burning, 326
Burying beetles, 112
Butterflies, 72, 93

Cabbage aphis, 268, 341
butterfly, 98
caterpillar, 282, 340
looper, 81
worm, 282, 340

INDEX

347

Caddice flies, 46

worms, 47
Cadelle, 229
Calandra granaria, 227

oryzce, 227

Ccdandridce, 126, 227
Caliroa cerasi, 316
Canker-worms, 87, 311
Cantharides, 123
Caprifigs, 160
Capsidce, 58
Carabidce, 109
Care of collection, 173
Carolina locust, 51
Carpenter-bee, 147
Carpenter-moths, 79
Carpet-beetle, 222
Carrion beetles, 112
Case-bearers, 76
Caterpillars, 33, 72
Cathartus gemellatus, 229
Catocalas, 81
Cattle-lice, 198
Cattle-tick, 209
Cave-crickets, 52
CeddomyUdce, 134, 250
Cecropia, 91
Centipedes, 20
Cephalathorax, 19
Cerambycidce, 120, 292
Ceratocampidce, 92
Cercopidve, 63
CHALCIDOIDEA, 154, 159
Chalcis-flies, 154, 159
Cherry, black louse, 308
Chinch-bug, 60, 238, 340, 341
Chionaspis furfura, 290, 339
Chitin, 8

Cresphontes butterfly, 97
Chrysalis, 32, 95
Chrysomelida>, 121, 272, 276, 271)
Chrysopidce, 46

Cicada, 50, 61
Cicindelidce, 108
Cimex lectularius, 188
Circulatory system, 11
Classification of animals, 1

insects, 23

Clear-wing sphinx, 90
Click-beetles, 114
Clothes-moths, 77, 230, 340
Cloudless sulphur, 98
Clover butterflies, 98
Clover-hay worm, 76
Coccidce, 64, 287, 289, 290
Coccinellidce, 112
Cockroaches, 214, 340
Cocoon, 30
Codling-moth, 77, 319

COLEOPTERA, 107

Genuina, 107

table of families, 128
Collection, 163
Colon, 11
Colorado potato-beetle, 121, 276,

339

Conotrachelus nenuphar, 299
Copper butterflies, 99
Coreidce, 59, 281
Corisidce, 58
Corn bill-bugs, 127
Corn eanvorm, 80, 253, 341

CORRODENTIA, 35

Cossidce, 79

Cotton boll weevil, 126, 259, 340

bollworm, 80, 253, 340

worm, 81, 257
Cottony cushion-scale, 66
Corydalis, 16, 44
Coxa, 7
Crabs, 19
Crane-flies, 134
Cray-fish, 19
Crickets, 48, 52

348

INDEX

Crop, 10

Crop rotation, 324
Croton-bug, 214
CRUSTACEA, 19
Ctenocephcdus canis, 186
Cucujidat, 113, 228
Cidex pipiens, 183
Cidicidce, 133, 183
Curculionidce, 135, 259, 299
Curculios, 125
Currant-borer, 79
Cutworms, 80, 286
Cybele butterfly, 102
Cydia pomonella, 319
CYNIPOIDEA, 154, 156

Daddy long-legs, 21
Dainty sulphur, 98
Damsel-flies, 42
Darkling beetles, 123
Datana, 83

minislra, 315
Day-flies, 42
Deer-fly, 136
Dermanyssus gallince, 207
Dermestidce, 113, 223,
Development, direct, 28

indirect, 28, 29
Devil's darning-needles, 42
Diabrotica vittata, 279
Differential locust, 51, 242
Digestive tract, 9
Digger-wasps, 151
DIPTERA, 131

Disonycha xanthomelceTia, 275
Dobson-fly, 44
Dog's-head butterfly, 99
Doodle-bugs, 45
Dragon-flies, 42

nymphs, 16
Drone-fly, 138
Drones, 145

Driiocnmpa, 92
DyliscidcB, 111

Ear-fly, 136
Earwigs, 38, 112
Eclobia germanica, 214
Eight-spotted forester, 85
Ejaculatory duct, 14
Elaleridce, 114
Electric-light bug, 56
Elm-leaf beetle, 122
Elytra, 107
Emesidce, 61
Empodium, 7
EPHEMERIDA, 42
Ephestia kuehniella, 230
Epicranium, 4
Epilrix cucumeris, 272

parvula, 273
Eriosoma lanigera, 295
Eudeidce, 88

EUPLEXOPTERA, 38

Eupkeince, 101
Evergreen bagworm, 87
Exoskeleton, 9
Exuvia, 29
Eyed Elater, 114
Eyes, simple, 5
compound, 5

Fall web-worm, 82, 309

Fat body, 15

Femur, 7

Fertilization, 325

Fiery-eyes, 80

Figs and insects, 160

Fire-flies, 116

Fish-moth, 34

Flat-headed borers, 115, 294

Flea-beetles, 121, 272

Fleas, 38, 186, 340

Flesh-flies, 140

INDEX

349

Flies, 131

classification, 132

horse, 200

house, 175

stable, 180
Flour-moths, 230

beetles, 119
Fly larvae, 132
Formicidoe, 216
Formicoidea, 153
Fritillaries, 101
Front, 6
Fruit-flies, 140
Fruit-tree bark-beetle, 127, 291,

339, 341
Fidgoridce, 63
Fungus gnats, 134

Gad-flies, 136, 139
Gall-flies, 154, 156
Ganglia, 13
Gases, 335

Gastrophilus equi, 190
Gense, 6

GENUINA, Coleoptera, 108
Geometridae, 86
Giant silk-worm, 91
Giant water-bug, 56
Golden-eyes, 46
Gossamer-wings, 99
Gnats, 131, 134
Grain aphides, 246

beetles, 124, 226, 228

insects, 226, 340, 341

moths, 231

weevils, 226

Granary weevils, 126, 227
Grape-leaf folder, 76
Grasshoppers, 48, 241, 340
Green-bugs, 248
Ground beetles, 109
Grubs, 107

GryUidfe, 52
Gypsy-moth, 85
Gyrinidce, 110

Hcematopinus eurysternus, 198

urius, 198

vtiuti, 198
Hair-streaks, 99
Halteres; 131

Harlequin cabbage-bug, 59
Harvest-flies, 61
Harvestmen, 21
Hawk moths, 89
Head, 4
Heart, 11
Heel-flies, 139
Helgramites, 125
Heliothis obsoleta, 253
Hellebore, 330
Hcematobia serrata, 125
HEMIPTERA, 38, 56

table of families, 59
Hen-louse, 206
HESPERIINA, 93, 103
Hessian-fly, 134, 250, 341
HETEROPTERA, 56
HEXAPODA, 23
Hickory horned-devil, 92
Hippobosdd(B, 139, 202
HOMOPTERA, 61, 64
Honey-bee, 144
Honey-dew, 17
Hop plant-louse, 307
Hornets, 148
Horn-fly, 141, 195, 340
Horn-tails, 154
Horn-worms, 90
Horse-bots, 139, 190
Horse-flies, 136, 200, 341
House-fly, 140, 141, 175, 340
Humming-bird moths, 89, 90
Hundred-legged worms, 20

350

INDKX

Hyaloptcrus arundinis, 307
Ili^lrohalidce, 58
Hydrocyanic acid gas, 336, 340
I/l/'Irophilidce, 111
I h\i I:\OPTERA, 142

table of families, 161
Hyphantria cunea, 309
Hypoderma lineata, 193
Hypopharynx, 17
Humble-bees, 147

Ichneumon flies, 154
Ichneumonidae, 157

ICHNEUMONOIDEA, 154,

Idalia butterfly, 102
Ileum, 11
Imago, 28
Imperial moth, 92
Imported cabbage-worm, 98
Imported currant- worm, 156
Inch worms, 86
Indian meal-moth, 76, 230
Insect boxes, 166

control, 323

definition, 4
Insecticides, 327
Internal organs, 9
Intestine, 11
lo moth, 91

Iridomyrmex humilis, 217
Isabella tiger-moth, 82
ISOPTERA, 36
Isosoma grandi, 160

tritici, 160

Jar-flies, 61
Jassidce, 63
Joint, 8

Jointed spiders, 22
June-bugs, 118, 236

Katydids, 48, 51, 52

Ken.si'w emulsion, 331
Kidney tubules, 11
Killing bottles, 163

L-ibium, 5
Labrum, 5
Lao, 17

Lace-wing flies, 46
Lachnosterna, 236
Lady-bugs, 112
Lamellicorn beetles, 116
Lampyridce, 116
Land-bugs, 58
Lantern-bugs, 116
Lantern-flies, 63
Larder-beetles, 114
Larvae, 30, 33
Lasiocampidce, 88, 213
Leaf beetles, 121
Leaf-bugs, 58
Leaf-hoppers, 63
Leaf-rollers, 76
LEPIDOPTERA, 72

table of families, 105
Lepidosapfnx »//////, 290
L< />linotarsa decemlineata, 276
Lice, bird, 37

cattle, 198

poultry, 206

true, 37
Leptidce, 138
Life cycle, 31
Lightning-bugs, 116
Lilac-borer, 79
Lime-sulphur solution, 333
Liparidce, 84
Lithosiidce, 85
Lobsters, 19
Locust -borer, 121
Locust leaf-beetle, 122
/.»•<• ii xti'ifo, 50, 51

Locusts, 48, 241

INDEX

351

Long-horned wood-borers, 120
Long-nosed ox-louse, 198
Loopers, 86
Lucanidce, 120
Luminescent insects, 18
Luna moth, 91
Lyccmidce, 99
Lygcridce, 60, 238
Lysiphlebus, 249

MACRO-LEPIDOPTERA, 75
Macrosiphum cercalis, 247

granaria, 246

pisi, 269
Maggots, 131

Malacosoma americana, 313
MALLOPHAGA, 37, 199, 206
Malpighian tubes, 11
Mandibles, 5
Mantidoe, 53
Mantis, 54
Maple- worms, 83
Margaropus annulatus, 209
Maxillae, 5

May-beetles, 118, 236
Mayetiola destructor, 250
May-flies, 42, 68
Meadow-browns, 102
Meadow grasshoppers, 52
Meal-moths, 230
Meal snout-moths, 76, 231
Meal-worms, 124, 229
Mealy-bugs, 65
Measuring-worms, 86
MECOPTERA, 46
Medical Entomology, 132
Mediterranean flour-moth, 76, 230
Mediterranean fruit-fly, 141
Melanoplus atlantis, 241

bivittatus, 242

devastator, 241

differentialis, 242

Melanoplus femur-rubrum, 241

Meloidce, 122

Melon aphis, 270

Melon- worm, 76

Melophagus ovinus, 202

Membracidce, 63

Menopon pallidum, 206

Mesothorax, 6

Metallic wood-borers, 115

Metamorphosis, 28, 31

Metathorax, 6

Mexican cotton boll weevil, 259

MICRO-LEPIDOPTERA, 75

Micropyle, 14

Microscopes, 174

Midaidce, 136

Midas-flies, 136

Midges, 131, 134

Mid-intestine, 11

Millers, 79

Millipedes, 20

Mimicry, 102

Mites, 21

Mole-crickets, 52

Monarch butterfly, 101

Monomorium minimum, 217

pharaonis, 216

Mosquitoes, 131, 133, 183,340,341
Mosquito hawks, 42
Moths, 72
Moulting, 29
Mounting insects, 165
Mourning-cloak, 101
Mouth, 9
Mud-daubers, 151
Mud-wasps, 151
Mule-killers, 42
Mully-grubs, 119
Musca dotnestica, 175
Muscidce, 140, 141, 175, 180, 195
MUSCINA, 139
Muscular system, 15

352

INDKX

Mycetophtiidce, 134
MYRIAPODA, 19
Myrmeleonidce, 45
Myzus cerasi, 308
persicce, 269, 306

Natural selection, 102

Nepidce, 58

Nervous system, 13

NEUROPTERA, 41

Nits, 163

Noctuidce, 79, 253, 257, 266, 284

Notodontidoe, 83, 315

Notonectidce, 58

Notum, 6

Nut-weevils, 125

Nymphs, 28

NymphalidcB, 100

Occiput, 6
Ocelli, 5
ODONATA, 42
(Esophagus, 10
(Estridce, 139, 190, 191, 193
(Estris ovis, 191
Orange-tips, 99
Orchard caterpillars, 309
Orders of insects, 24
ORTHOPTERA, 48

table of families, 54
Ovaries, 13
Oviduct, 13
Ovipositor, 8, 14
Owlet-moths, 80
Ox-warbles, 193, 340
Oyster-shell scale, 66, 289, 339

Paleacrita vemata, 311
Palpus, 6
Papilionida, 94
PAPILIONINA, 93
PARASITICA, 38, 157

1 '.i r:i .-i f ic Hymenoptera, 157
Paris green, 328
Parnassians, 94
Parthenogenesis, 14, 67
Pea-aphis, 269
Pea-weevil, 122, 224
Peach scale, 66
Peach-tree borer, 79, 297, 341
Pear-leaf blister-mite, 21
Pear-slug, 156, 316, 340
Pentatomidce, 59
Periplaneta americana, 215

australasice, 215

orientalis, 215
Pcrlidce, 42

Persian insect powder, 332
Phasmidce, 53
Philenor butterfly, 97
Pharynx, 9

Phlegethonlius quinquemaculatus,
278

sexta, 278

Phorodon humuli, 307
Phyllotreta vittala, 274
PHYSOPODA, 39
Pickle-worm, 76
Pieridce, 98, 282, 284
Pill-bugs, 19
Pinching-bugs, 120
Pinning insects, 168
Plant galls, 156
Plant-hoppers, 63
Plant-lice (See Aphis), 64, 66
Planting time, 325
PLECOPTERA, 41
Pleuron, 6

Plodia interpunctella, 230
Plowing, 326
Plum aphis, 307
Plum curculio, 125, 299
Plum, rusty brown, aphis, 308
Poisons, 327

INDEX

353

Polistes, 149
Polyphemus moth, 91
Pontia protodice, 284

rapce, 282

Potato-beetle, Colorado, 276, 339
Potato-bug, 121
Potato flea-beetle, 272, 341
Poultry-lice, 206, 340
Poultry mites, 207, 340
Praying mantis, 48, 54
Predaceous diving-beetle, 111
PROCTOTRYPOIDEA, 154, 158
Promethea moth, 91
Prothorax, 6
Proventriculus, 10
PSEUDO-NEUROPTERA, 41
Pseudo-scorpions, 22
Psoroptes communis, 203
Psocids, 35
Psychida, 87
Pupa, 30

Purple emperor, 102
Pyralidce, 230
PYRALIDINA, 75
Pyralis farinalis, 231
Pyrethrum powder, 332

Queen-bee, 145

Rat-tailed maggots, 139
Rear-horses, 48, 53
Rectum, 7
Red admiral, 101
Red-necked cane-borer, 115
REDUVIID^E, 60
Regal moths, 92
Repellents, 337
Reproductive system, 13
Respiratory system, 12
Rhinoceros-beetle, 120
RHYNCHOPHORA, 107, 125
Rice-weevil, 126, 227

Roaches, 48, 52
Robber-flies, 135
Rocky Mountain locust, 51, 241
Rocky Mt. spotted-fever, 22
Rose-chafers, 119
Rose-scale, 66
Rose-slug, 156
Rosy Dryocampa, 92
Round-headed apple tree-borer,

121, 340

Round-headed borers, 120
Rove-beetles, 112
Royal moths, 92

Salivary glands, 17

San Jose scale, 66, 287, 339

Sanninoidea exitiosa, 297

Saperda Candida, 292

Sarcophagidce, 140

Saiurniidce, 91

SATURNIINA, 91

Saw-flies, 154, 155

Saw-toothed grain beetles, 113,

228

Scale insects, 64
Scarabceidce, 117, 236
Scarabs, 118
Scavenger-beetles, 111
Scent glands, 17
Scent organs of butterflies, 95
Schistocerca americatia, 242
Scientific names, 2
Scolytidce, 291

SCOLYTOIDEA, 127

Scolytus ruyulosus, 291
Scorpions, 22
Scorpion-flies, 46
Screw-worm flies, 141
Scurfy-scale, 290, 339
Seminal tubes, 14
Seminal vesicle, 14
Senator moth, 92

354

IXDKX

Sesiidce, 79, 297

Seventeen-year locust, 61

Shad-flies, 42, 136

Sheep bot-fly, 191

Sheep scab-mite, 21, 203, 340,

341

Sheep-tick, 139, 202
Short-nosed ox-louse, 198
Short-winged scavengers, 112
Shot-hole borers, 127
Shrimps, 19
Sialidce, 45
Silk glands, 17
Silkworm, 91
Silphidce, 112
Silvanus surinamensis, 228
Silver-fish, 34
Silver-spot skipper, 103
Silver-spots, 101
Simidiidce, 136

SlPHONAPTERA, 38, 186
SlPHtJNCULATA, 37, 198

Siricidce, 154
Sitotroga cerealella, 231
Skippers, 93, 103
Slug-caterpillars, 88
Smell, 17
Snake-doctors, 42
Snake-feeders, 42
Snapping-bugs, 114
Snipe-flies, 138
Snout-beetles, 108, 125
Snow-flea, 35
Social-wasps, 149
Soldier-bugs, 59
Soldier-flies, 137
Solitary- wasps, 150
Sow-bugs, 19
Spanish-fly, 123
Span-worms, 86
Special organs, 15
Spermatheca, 14

SPHECOIDEA, 151

Sphingidce, 89, 278

Sphinx moths, 89

Spiders, 21

Spinach aphis, 269

Spinach flea-beet Ic, 275

S pi nod soldier-bug, £9

Spiracles, 8, 12

Spittle insects, 63

Spotted pelidnota, 120

Spreading-board, 170

Spring-tails, 34

Squash-bugs, 59, 281, 340

Squash-vine borer, 79

Stable fly, 141, 180, 340

Stag-beetles, 120

Staphylinidce, 112

Sternum, 6

Stilt-bugs, 61

Stinging Hymenoptera, 143

Stinging organs, 14

Stink-bugs, 58

Stomach, 15

Slomoxys calcitrans, 180

Stone-flies, 41

Stratiomyiidce, 137

Strawberry leaf-roller, 77

Strawberry-weevil, 126

Striped cucumber-beetle, 279

Sub-cesophageal ganglion, 13

Sucking-lice, 37

Sulphur butterflies, 98

Sulphur dioxide, 336

Supra-oosophageal ganglion, 13

Suture, 8

Swallow-tail butterflies, 94

Swarming bees, 146

Sweat-flies, 138

Sympathetic nervous system, 13

Syrphidce, 138

Syrphus flies, 138

Systena blanda, 274

INDEX

355

Tabanidce, 133, 200
Tabanus atratus, 203

lineola, 200
Tachina flies, 140
Tachinidce, 140
Tapestry-moth, 221
Tarnished plant-bug, 58
Tarsus, 7
Taste, 16

Tenebrionidce, 123, 229
Tenebrio molitor, 229

obscurus, 229

Tenebroides mauritanicus, 229
Tent-caterpillars, 88, 313, 339, 341
Tenthredinidoe, 316
TENTHREDINOIDEA, 154, 155
TEREBRANTIA, 143, 154
Termites, 36
Terrapin scale, 66
Testes, 14

Tetramorium ccespitum, 217
Texas-fever tick, 22, 209, 340
Thistle-butterfly, 101
Thorax, 6

Thousand-legged worm, 20
Thread-legged bugs, 61
Thread-waisted wasps, 151
Thrips, 39
Tibia, 7
Ticks, 21
Tiger-beetles, 108
Tiger-moths, 81
Tiger swallow-tail, 95
Tinea biselliella, 221

pelionella, 220
TINEINA, 77
Tipulidce, 134
Tobacco fumes, 337
Tobacco, insecticide, 332
Tobacco bud-worm, 80, 253
Tobacco flea-beetle, 273, 339
Tobacco worms, 278, 339

Tomato fruit-worm, 80, 253
Tomato worms, 278
TORTRICINA, 76, 319
Toxoptera graminum, 248
Trachea, 12
Tracheal gills, 16, 44
Trap-crops, 327
Tree-crickets, 52
Tree-hoppers, 63
Trichodectes scalaris, 199
Trichophaga tapetzella, 221
TRICHOPTERA, 43
Trochanter, 7
Troilus butterfly, 96
True bugs, 56
True lice, 37
True wasps, 148
Trypetidce, 140
Tumble-bugs, 117
Turkey-gnat, 136
Turnus butterfly, 95
Tussock-moths, 84
Tympanum, 17
THYSANOPTERA, 39
THYSANURA, 34

Underwing moths, 81

Vagina, *13
Vas deferens, 14
Ventriculus, 10
Vertex, 6
Vespa, 150
VESPOIDEA, 148
Viceroy, 102

Walking-sticks, 48, 53
Walnut-worms, 83, 92
Warbles, 139
Wasps, 148
Water-boatmen, 58
Water-scavengers, 111

356

[NDEX

Water-scorpions, 58
Water-striders, 58
Water-tigers, 111
Web-worm, fall, 309
Weeds, 325
Weevils, granary, 227

rice, 227
Weevils, 125
Whale-oil soap, 321
WTieat joint-worm, 159

straw-worm, 160
Whirligig-beetles, 110
Whit cants, 36
White butterflies, 98
White-grubs, 119, 236, 340
White-lined sphinx, 90
White-marked tussock-moth. 84

Wings, 7
Wing-veins, 8

Win -worms, 115
Wood-ny rn phs, 1 02
Wood -was ps, 154
Woolly apple-aphis, 295
Worker-bees, 145
Wrigglers, 133

Yellow butterflies, OS

Y<-ll<>w-j;irkHs, 148

Yellow-necked apple caterpillar
83

Zebra swallow-tail, 96
Zoology, 1
ZYGOPTERA, 44

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