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“
SCIENCE IN AFRICA
A REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH RELATING
TO TROPICAL AND SOUTHERN AFRICA
BY
E. B. WORTHINGTON, M.A., Ph.D., (Cantab)
Director of the Freshwater Biological Association of the
British Empire
formerly Demonstrator in Zoology at Cambridge University
Issued by the Committee of the
African Research Survey
under the auspices of the
Royal Institute of International Affairs
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fr + \ * ¢ ~
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OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
LONDON NEW YORK TORONTO
1938
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
AMEN HOUSE, E.C. 4
London Edinburgh Glasgow New York
Toronto Melbourne Capetown Bombay
Calcutta Madras
HUMPHREY MILFORD
Publisher to the University
PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN
FOREWORD
T an early stage in the collection of material for the purpose
ae the African Research Survey, it was decided to commission
a number of preparatory studies of subjects on which material
was not readily available; among other such studies, Dr. E. B.
Worthington, a Cambridge Zoologist with experience of respon-
sible field work in Africa, was asked to prepare a report on the
progress of scientific research which had a bearing on Africa.
This work was begun in the autumn of 1933. The first draft
appeared to the members of the Committee in charge of the Survey
to contain material which merited separate publication, as a
supplement to the report of the Survey, and Dr. Worthington was
requested to complete his work with this object in view.
The Survey method was chosen with deliberation. It would
have been possible to invite a number of specialists in different
countries to contribute summaries of research in their respective
branches of science. Since, however, the purpose of the African
Survey was to present, within a limited compass, a general review
of the many problems involved in a number of different territories,
it was felt that an account of scientific activity conceived in similar
terms would be more likely to achieve the objectivity, scale and
proportions required.
Such a method has its own disadvantages. The presentation of
sciences other than his own by a specialist in one of them will
inevitably differ materially from accounts by experts in each of
those sciences, particularly if an attempt is made to write for the
lay reader. It is not to be expected that all the disadvantages have
been successfully avoided. We can, however, point to the fact
that this is the first attempt to render some account of the extent
to which scientific knowledge and research are being applied to
the continent of Africa.
vi FOREWORD
For the contents of the book the Committee owe a debt which
cannot be overstated to the many specialists in all fields, who
have assisted in the preparation of the first draft, criticized it at
an early stage, and given extensive help by subsequent checking
of facts, bibliographies, and the like. While none of them have
responsibility for the contents of this volume, it is, in itself, a
monument to their labours, and we must ask their indulgence if,
in compressing so much into a relatively small space, we have
failed to do full justice to the material which they have supplied.
The development into an independent volume of what was
originally undertaken as a factual memorandum for the purpose
of the Survey, has involved certain changes of form. Any opinions
which are expressed are those of Dr. Worthington himself, for
which he takes full responsibility; but I desire to acknowledge
here the value of the contribution he has made to the work
involved in the preparation of An African Survey, in which the
report of the African Research Survey has been embodied. The
preparation of this volume, as a part of the work of the African
Research Survey, has been made possible through the generosity
of the Carnegie Corporation of New York. They do not, however,
accept any responsibility for statements or opinions contained in it.
HAILEY
31 Fuly 1938
AUTHOR S PREFACE
His book is one of a series of reports prepared in connection
lea. the African Research Survey.! The problems of Africa,
as they present themselves to those whose concern is with the
development of the continent, are discussed in An African Survey.
The purpose of this volume is to summarize the present position
of studies in the various sciences which have a bearing on African
conditions. As far as possible the more important work up to
1936 has been mentioned; in the sections dealing with medical
research, however, it has not been possible to give a complete
account of work done after 1934.
As a zoologist by profession and acquainted at first hand with
African research only in connection with biology and the fisheries
of the great lakes, I can offer no authoritative opinions on most
of the subjects discussed. Accordingly, I am indebted to those
authorities whose names are listed on pages 615 to 625, with a
note of the chapters in which their help has been specially valu-
able. I should like to express my thanks for the generous way in
which they have placed their time and experience at my disposal.
At the same time, I do not wish by the mention of any individual,
institution or government department in this list of acknowledge-
ments to engage their responsibility for opinions expressed or the
accuracy of any statement made.
I had the advantage of joining Lord Hailey, the Director of the
African Research Survey, for the last part of his tour through
Africa in 1935-6, and of travelling with him through Nigeria,
Dahomey, Togoland, the Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, the Gambia,
Senegal, and the French Sudan. Previous work in connection
with the great lakes had given me some knowledge of East Africa.
As many of the subjects dealt with in this volume are still
» See An African Survey, Oxford, 1938.
Vili AUTHOR’S PREFACE
necessarily matters of controversy, an attempt has been made to
state the views of experts as objectively as possible, without attempt-
ing to assess the merits of rival theories. As far as possible the
material has been arranged uniformly in each chapter, under the
headings of introduction, organization, and results. Territorial
arrangement has been followed when subjects lent themselves to
such treatment.
Unfortunately shortage of time has resulted in the omission of
much interesting work, particularly in the Union of South Africa
and in the French territories, and there is consequently a lack of
proportion in the treatment of some subjects. Much as I regret
this, it seemed preferable to a general scaling down of the volume
in order to preserve a more even balance.
In addition to those mentioned in the list, I would like to thank
Lord Hailey and the members of the African Research Survey
Committee, as well as Miss Hilda Matheson, for help and advice
in all stages of the work; Professor J. Stanley Gardiner for reducing
my duties in the Zoological Department at Cambridge to a
minimum, so that I have been enabled to spend as much time as
possible on this work; the Conference of East African Governors,
for providing me with a research assistant, so that studies of
African lakes have been continued at the same time; my wife, for
much assistance in extracting information and translating foreign
memoranda; Miss J. L. Hopkins, for performing many duties
which usually fall outside the scope of secretarial assistance, and
Mrs. R. M. C. Fasnacht for preparing the index. When preparing
the final draft for press Dr. L. Mair and Dr. M. Lambert very
kindly revised the whole volume from an editorial viewpoint, and
most of the chapters were submitted to individual experts for final
comment and revision, in some cases involving considerable addi-
tions and corrections. These experts, to whom thanks are specially
due, were as follows (the numbers in brackets indicating the chap-
ters examined): Sir A. Richard Gregory, Bt., F.R.S. (I), Brigadier
M. N. MacLeod, D.S.O., M.C. (II), Professor O. T. Jones, F-R.S.
(IIT), Mr. L. W. C. Bonacina (IV), Sir E. John Russell, F.R.S.
(V and XI), Dr: G. V. Jacks (V), Mr. A. D. Cotton; 'O:B-E. (Vie
Mr, J. N. Oliphant,- Professor R. S. Troup, G.M.G2(GAees
F.R-S., and Dr. J. Burtt Davy, F:R.S. (VU); Drs jules:
AUTHOR’S PREFACE 1X
Huxley, F.R.S. (VIII), Sir Guy A. K. Marshall, C.M.G., F.R.S.
and Mr. B. P. Uvarov (X), Mr. H. CG. Sampson, C.I.E. (XI, XII,
and XIII), Dr. F. C. Kelly, Professor F. A. E. Crew and
Mr. A. D. Buchanan-Smith (XIV), Dr. H. H. Scott (XV, XVI,
and XVII), and Dr. L. Mair (XVIII). I must again emphasize
that the mention of their names in no way commits them to
responsibility for opinions expressed or factual accuracy.
The photographs were taken by the author during the tour of
the African Research Survey, with the exception of the lower
photographs of Plates II and VIII, for which I am indebted to
Dr. P. W. Richards and Dr. Cicely Williams respectively.
E. B. WorTHINGTON
September 1938
NOTE ON REFERENCES
Glee bibliography, which is intended to be representative rather
than comprehensive, is arranged at the end of the volume
under chapter headings. Thus it can be used either in connection
with the text or independently as an indication of the more im-
portant literature available on each subject. Reference in the
text is made by author (or source of origin when anonymous) and
date according to the system usually adopted in scientific literature.
Details of the system are explained in a note on p. 614, preceding
the bibliography.
The African Research Survey is deeply indebted to the Librar-
ians at many Institutions for answering queries, lending material,
and giving facilities for reference.
CONTENTS re
FOREWORD by The Rt. Hon. Lord Hailey, Director of the African Research
Survey page v
AUTHOR’S PREFACE page vil
NOTE ON REFERENCES page x
ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS page xv
CHAPTER I. SOME PROBLEMS OF RESEARCH page 1
Interrelations between branches of science. Outline of the principal changes
taking place in the African environment. Land Planning. Co-ordination and
Centralization of Research. Finance and Agencies for Research. Waste of
Research. Conclusion
CuHapTer II. SURVEYS AND MAPS page 25
Introduction—the value of survey in development. Organization—territory
by territory. Finance. Staff and Training—European and African. Results
in geodetic triangulation, including arc of the thirtieth meridian; topography
and publication of maps. Air Survey—its special uses in Africa
CuHapTer III. GEOLOGY page 61
Introduction—the value of geological surveys. Organization—territory by
territory. Results—geological mapping and publications. Hydrology and
Water-supply. Geophysical Prospecting—especially for water; different methods
in use. Geophysics and Palaeontology
Cuaprer IV. METEOROLOGY page 88
Introduction—the utilization of climatic conditions and the prevision of weather
changes; need for uniformity in the collection of data; the development of air
routes. Organization and Results—region by region. Changes of Climate.
Alleged Progressive Desiccation. Bioclimatology—the effects of climate on
plant and animal life. Meteorology and Medicine—the effects of climate on
(a) insects and other carriers of disease; (b) the human system
CHAPTER V. SOIL SCIENCE page 123
Introduction—soil problems in the tropics; the value of soil surveys. Organiza-
tion and Results—territory by territory. Deterioration and Erosion of Soils—
the nature of the problem and its importance throughout Africa; the factors
leading to soil erosion: (a) natural; (b) human. Soil Biology—the importance
of bacteria, protozoa, etc.; the effects of termites on soil fertility
CHAPTER VI. BOTANY page 143
Introduction—the relationship between botany and other subjects. Organiza-
tion—territory by territory. Results—region by region: taxonomy, plant
ecology, swamp vegetation and water-supply, plant poisons and medicinal
herbs. Pasture Research. Plant Breeding and Plant Pathology. Preservation
of Flora—the changing vegetation of Africa; reserves for indigenous flora
Xi CONTENTS
CHAPTER VII. FORESTRY page 178
Introduction—factors in progress depending directly or indirectly on forests;
water-supplies, fertility of the soil, timber, etc. Organization, including training
of officers. Destruction and Conservation of Forests—classification of reserves
and their utilization; shifting cultivation—the position in the various territories.
Forest Botany, Ecology and Stocktaking. The Introduction of Exotic Trees—
reasons for planting and problems raised; danger of disturbing the natural
balance. Timbers. Minor Forest Products. Pests and Diseases of Forests
CuapTer VIII. ZOOLOGY page 211
Introduction—importance of wild animals to man. Organization—territory by
territory; objects to which it is directed. Results—taxonomy and animal ecology;
the relation between animal periodicity and the control of diseases of domestic
animals and humans. Conservation of Wild Animals—preserves, reserves and
national parks; international agreement concerning game preservation
CuapTeR IX. FISHERIES page 236
Introduction—importance of developing Africa’s fisheries; the need for know-
ledge and for control. Organization and Results. Introduction of Freshwater
fish—problems raised by such action. Preservation of Fish for Market
CHAPTER X. ENTOMOLOGY page 257
Introduction—importance of taxonomic studies; the menace of insect pests.
Organization. Locusts—international research. Tsetse Flies—methods of
attacking the problem with special reference to Tanganyika, Southern Rhodesia
and Nigeria. Pests of Cultivation: cereals, oil-seeds, cotton, root crops, coffee,
cacao, miscellaneous; termites; sericulture. Pests of Stored Products. Insects
and Ticks in relation to Diseases of Man and Stock
CHAPTER XI. AGRICULTURE—GENERAL page 301
Introduction—difficulty of dividing agricultural science into distinct categories;
the necessity of understanding native methods of cultivation; aspects of agricul-
tural policy; the future for mixed farming. Organization—territory by terri-
tory
CHAPTER XII. CROP-PLANTS page 335
Introduction—improvement of crops dependent on co-operation between many
branches of research; scientific study of cash-crops; establishment of alternative
crops. Origin of Crop-Plants. Research on Crop-Plants—cereals, pulse crops,
fodder crops, oil-seeds, fibres, root crops, beverages, fruits, miscellaneous, essen-
tial oils and insecticides
Cuapter XIII. PLANT INDUSTRY page 376
Shifting Cultivation. Improvement of Native Cultivation—green manuring;
rotation of crops; mixed cropping; composting; mixed farming. Co-operative
Societies and Agricultural Policy—peasant versus plantation agriculture;
chartered companies. Agricultural Education of Africans. Plant Industry of
Non-natives—the fertilizer problem
CHAPTER XIV. ANIMAL INDUSTRY page 410
Introduction—the future for animal industry; importance of water-supply.
Stock Surveys—the native breeds of Africa. Improvement of Stock—nutrition
and breeding. Overstocking—effects and extent; methods of prevention. Animal
Disease—the relationship between the control of disease and overstocking; the
present position in Southern, East and West Africa. Hides and Skins—methods
of improving their value. Preservation of Meat for Market—problems involved
by the African climate. Dairy Industry
CONTENTS X11
CHAPTER XV. HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL page 461
Introduction—medical policy considered in relation to the cause and preven-
tion of disease; the need for a better standard of living; co-operation between
government departments, missions, etc. Organization—international and in
all the territories. Payment for Medical Services—arguments for and against.
Medical Education of Africans. Health Propaganda
CHAPTER XVI. HUMAN DISEASES page 517
Introduction—relation of human diseases to other branches of science; diseases
caused by (a) primitive life in agricultural communities; (b) insanitary con-
ditions; (c) ignorance of the causes and spread of infection; (d) malnutrition.
Research and Control—malaria, blackwater, yellow fever, sleeping sickness,
plague, relapsing fever, typhus, tuberculosis, leprosy, helminthiasis, typhoid,
yaws and veneral diseases, other diseases
CuapTerR XVII. HEALTH AND POPULATION page 557
Vital Statistics and Demography—the lack of accurate data. Rurat Hygiene—
the special problems raised by agricultural life. Food and Nutrition. Physiology
and Development of Africans—possible differences between Africans and
Europeans. Health of Europeans
CuapTerR XVIII. ANTHROPOLOGY page 590
Introduction—the relation of ethnology and sociology to subjects considered
previously. Organization—facilities for research; need for extension of research
through governments and acentral institution. Pre-history. Racial Types. His-
tory and Material Culture. Social Anthropology—references to existing litera-
ture
LIST OF AUTHORITIES page 615,
Who have assisted by providing information or commenting on the drafts
BIBLIOGRAPHY page 626
Arranged under chapter headings as above
INDEX page 692
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1. Mean annual rainfall
2. Distribution of tsetse flies
3. Density of population
4. Principal language groups
5. Physical features
Insets Political boundaries: Distribution of vegetation
ILLUSTRATIONS
Plate
I. Tin-mining near Jos, Northern Territories of Nigeria
The advancing Sahara at Timbuctu
II. The extremes of African vegetation
III. Native fisheries
IV. Practical measures against insect pests
V. Irrigation works on the River Niger in French Sudan
VI. Plant industry in French West Africa
VII. Mixed farming
Veterinary work
VIII. The Gold Coast Hospital, Accra
Ashanti mothers and children
facing page 95
268
592
End of volume
Facing page 116
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CHAPTER I
SOME PROBLEMS OF RESEARCH
INTERRELATIONS BETWEEN BRANCHES OF SCIENCE
| Odes discussing in detail the problems of the separate sciences,
it is necessary to consider certain general principles of research.
In the first place the view is generally held that so long as facilities
for research are limited, studies which are likely to lead to the pro-
motion of human welfare, whether of native Africans or of immi-
grant races, should take precedence. Any work directed towards
this process of ‘bonification’ is bound to influence and be influenced
by that done on allied problems, so that in deciding the subjects
to be selected for special attack a review of the whole field is neces-
sary. The following diagram is designed to show in broad outline
the interrelations of the subjects considered in this volume, and to
explain the order in which they are treated.
An attempt has been made to arrange the subjects in such a way
that each topic discussed depends on those which have gone before.
Thus knowledge of the configuration of the land (Surveys and
Maps, II) necessarily precedes the study of the structure of the
rocks comprising it (Geology, III) and of the atmosphere above it
(Meteorology, IV). But the surface configuration is itself deter-
mined by geological structure and climate, and this is indicated in
the diagram by connecting arrows pointing in both directions.
These three subjects, constituting the physical basis of the environ-
ment, include that all-important factor in Africa—water-supply.
The combination of water-supply and ground structure is respon-
sible for the character of the soil (Soil Science, V), which in turn
determines and is determined by the flora growing uponit (Botany,
VI). From the wild flora we proceed to the two main applied
branches of botanical study, Forestry (VII) and Plant Industry
SCIENCE IN AFRICA
(‘staqumu 193dvy9 d}0uNp sJoxoVIq UT SIIMSY 9y,T)
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SOME PROBLEMS OF RESEARCH 3
(XI, XII, XIII). Again, studies of forestry and agriculture are
relevant to the problems created by the native practice of shifting
cultivation. ‘They are connected with soil science through the
effects of excessive destruction of pests and intensive cultivation
upon soil erosion, and with meteorology through the interaction
of these factors with the rainfall.
All the animal kingdom, whether wild, domestic, fish, insects, or
man himself, must depend directly on plants for food, since plants
are the only agents for building inorganic into organic substances.
Thus all the upward-pointing arrows in the upper part of the
diagram represent food relations. There are also, however, back-
ward effects: the wild animals (Zoology, VIII) and domestic
animals (Animal Industry, XIV) affect the wild and domestic
plants by consuming them and by manuring the soil in which they
grow; aquatic animals (Fisheries, IX) have similar relations with
the flora of the ocean, lakes, and rivers; and insect pests (Entomo-
logy, X) affect not only man and animals, but forest trees and
crops. Finally the study of man himself (XV-—XVIIJI) is related to
that of every aspect of the environment, either through the con-
ditions of health and nutrition which it imposes on him or through
activities such as agriculture, forestry, and mining by which he
modifies it.
Although in setting forth the recent advances in these subjects,
the individual sciences have to be treated separately, it cannot be
too strongly urged that their interrelations have important prac-
tical applications; progress in one field may often be hampered
through neglect of related studies.
Africa as a field for pure as opposed to applied science, if such
a distinction can be drawn, is almost infinite, and only the boun-
daries have yet been explored. In a work of this nature but little
space can be devoted to fundamental problems of science such as
the shape and structure of the earth, the processes by which the
continents have reached their present configuration, the mecha-
nism of evolution, or the early ancestry of man. Africa has already
contributed its quota to the solution of such questions, and
references to the work accomplished have been incorporated
where possible.
4 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
THE CHANGING ENVIRONMENT
As an aid to the appreciation of the interdependence of scientific
studies in Africa, some description may be given of the main
aspects of the African environment with the changes which they
are undergoing at the present time.
Under natural conditions, the forms of plant and animal life
which survive in a particular régime represent a kind of ‘balance
of nature’ in which constructive and destructive factors are in
general equilibrium. The balance involves both the vitality of
organisms and their surroundings. Environmental changes can
be classed in the same categories as are used in the diagram on
page 2. Ina mechanical sense the balance of nature is not a simple
balance, but a complex system of levers and links all balanced with
each other, so that extra weight placed on any part of the system
may cause the whole to change its equilibrium. First, the structure
of the surface and of the underlying rocks may be taken together.
These parts of the environment typically exhibit very slow change,
such as steady erosion, which carves out valleys, leaving mountains
between, the rending of the surface to produce rifts, and the build-
ing-up of volcanoes. Such changes have undoubtedly had great
effect on the evolution of early man, but they can be disregarded
when considering the present and the immediate future, except
in so far as the acceleration of erosive processes can, under certain
circumstances, lead to the direct loss of soil.
Measurement of the surface configuration leads to the produc-
tion of accurate maps. At first sight this again cannot have much
effect on the African, but on it depend many of the developments
of civilization which are already causing most drastic changes to
his environment, for example, railways and roads. Furthermore,
the study of the physiography of rivers from precise levelling and
the measurement of their flow is leading to the development of
irrigation, and of all changes to the environment the irrigation
project, coupled with settlement schemes, calls upon the most
extreme adaptability of the African. Thus the Gezira irrigation
scheme in the Sudan has produced great changes in the social
structure of the agriculturalists involved. As another example, the
great irrigation projects of the French in the region of the Middle
SOME PROBLEMS OF RESEARCH 5
Niger may be cited; vast areas of desert country are there being
put into intensive cultivation by the construction of barrages and
feeder canals, but there is no settled agricultural population in the
immediate neighbourhood. It is necessary, therefore, to convert
nomad pastoralists into fixed cultivators, and it is even proposed
to transplant some of the dense population of Algeria to this region,
separated as it is from their home by the Sahara Desert. Other
schemes have been suggested in the native reserves of East Africa;
for example a recent study of the Tana River showed how a large
area, at present ravaged by soil erosion, could be changed into
a centre of permanent settlement by anirrigation work. It issignifi-
cant here that nothing further can be done until the whole region
is mapped to a degree of accuracy far surpassing that of the present.
Another question in which the measurement of Africa’s surface
is all important, is that of the exploitation of mineral resources.
The momentous changes in environment which this has made are
more prominent in southern Africa than elsewhere, but there is
no reason to suppose that the rocks of South Africa are more rich
in valuable minerals than those of the tropical regions. ‘The
greater degree of change so far produced in South Africa is due
solely to the greater efforts that have there been devoted to the
discovery of minerals.
Of all environmental factors, water-supply is the most impor-
tant because it controls all plant and animal life. In general the
character of vegetation and the crops which can be raised are
determined not by the total rainfall so much as by its distribution
through the year. Thus the double maxima of rainfall occasioned
by the type of atmospheric circulation in tropical latitudes, where
the sun passes vertically overhead twice during the year, involve
a double climax in vegetable growth, and hence in agriculture.
Local climatic conditions, however, sometimes obliterate one of
the rain maxima in certain areas, such as the belt of country
between the Guinea lands and the Sahara, which includes the
French Sudan, the northern parts of Nigeria, the Gold Coast,
Dahomey, etc. In all this belt, human activity follows a single
cultivation cycle during the year. We can state that in any given
set of conditions which are constant from year to year, an agricul-
tural or pastoral people will evolve suitable methods of cultivation
6 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
or husbandry: for example, in the more arid regions pastoralists
migrate with their cattle back and forth to the wet-season pastures,
resorting during the dry season to country where a permanent
water-supply remains. What happens then when this annual regi-
men of rainfall and water-supply changes, and in fact, does it
change?
In answer to this question it is only possible to mention the sup-
posed progressive desiccation of Africa: to point out that the con-
tinent is still emerging from the last pluvial period; that river-
capture has caused many internal drainage basins to run out to
sea; that some believe the Saharan sands to be shifting slowly
southwards; that the filtering action of swamps tends to the pro-
duction of dry land; and finally, but more important still, to point
to the effects of human activity in accelerating run-off by the
destruction of forests, overcultivation -and overgrazing.
Apart from this general change to drier conditions, if such
exists, there are undoubtedly minor changes in rainfall of a secular
or perhaps cyclical nature. The period of records is too small to
show whether the Briickner cycles with a periodicity of about
thirty-five years, which have been traced back in Europe through
several centuries, also exist in Africa. It is generally supposed that
the Briickner cycles are less well marked in tropical than in tem-
perate regions; but the eleven-year cycle of solar activity, repre-
sented by a periodic increase and decrease in the number of sun-
spots, is said to show up better in the tropics, where the annual
cycle is more constant. The level of Lake Victoria and of some
other lakes in East Africa, rises and falls with the increase and
decrease of sunspots, and there is evidence of similar correlations
with records of rainfall in West Africa, but this is not so conclusive.
The eleven-year cycleis believed by some to account for the apparent
southward migration of peoples along the southern borders of the
Sahara. During the dry years of the cycle they are driven south to
maintain connection with permanent water, and then, taking to a
more fixed state of agriculture, they do not move north again dur-
ing the wet years. If this cycle is eventually proved to be estab-
lished over wide areas, it may well explain a number of variations
in the biological environment; for example, there is already reason
to suppose that the periodic outbreaks of locusts, which have caused
SOME PROBLEMS OF RESEARCH 7
more sudden change in the African’s activity than any other factor,
may fit in with the scheme, and in Uganda, times of food shortage,
due to failure of the short rains in the preceding years, appear to be
similarly periodic.
Perhaps more important than the periodicity of general climate
are the less obvious changes in the minute climate surrounding a
single animal or plant. Little enough is known about this subject
yet, but it is certain that the temperature and humidity surround-
ing a human being, for example, alter to an astonishing degree in
the course of a day, and this must have great effect on his physical
and mental vigour. Similarly in vegetation; work at Amani has
shown how the air in a few cubic feet around a coffee bush or over
a patch of earth changes to a degree which would never be
imagined from the study of meteorological instruments in screened
cases.
Passing to the changes in water-supply due to man’s interven-
tion, the environment in many arid parts is being altered to an
extent which must influence human customs and social behaviour;
for example, in the northern Emirates of Nigeria the discovery of
a water table at one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet below
the surface has led to the boring of numerous wells, so that areas
of pasturage which were formerly available only during wet
seasons can now be centres of human activity throughout the
year. In Tanganyika, similar activity will soon lead to the settle-
ment of peoples in areas of pasturage, which formerly were given
over to tsetse fly. Such changes influence also the original habi-
tations of the people involved, because the old pastures, which
are to-day being impoverished by overstocking, can be allowed to
rest during the all-important dry season, and may therefore return
to their original value. The general result of such activity is to
cause the settlement of wandering peoples on definite areas of
land, a change which is a principal object of most of those respon-
sible for agriculture in Africa.
The soils are determined by the structure of the land and under-
lying rocks, the water-supply, especially rainfall, and also by vege-
tation. The soil-vegetation unit as a controlling factor in environ-
ment is only now being recognized by scientists, but it is significant
that the Africans themselves still know more about it than we, for
8 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
every cultivator bases his selection of plots for different crops on
recognized associations between certain plants and certain types
of soil. The deterioration and erosion of soil is perhaps the best
example of any to show the rapidity of environmental change. This
likewise has been recognized by African farmers for centuries, and
on it have been built up the complicated systems of shifting culti-
vation which so admirably suit the soils and climate, provided the
area of land is sufficiently large. There are many examples of
individual tribes which have apparently evolved methods of avoid-
ing soil erosion which could hardly be bettered by science. Thus
the primitive pagan peoples of the Bauchi plateau in Nigeria pick
the stones from their millet fields and arrange them in rows
along the contours, with the result that in a few seasons the annual
soil-wash leads to a definite terracing of the land. Furrowing along
the contours and mound-cultivation in wet climates are likewise
admirably suited to special conditions.
Before enlarging on agriculture the vegetation must be con-
sidered. This is directly dependent on the factors already dis-
cussed. The changes which constantly take place are dependent
on, and themselves cause changes in, rainfall and water-supply.
Perhaps man himself is the principal agent in these changes; for
example, he fells an area of evergreen forest to cultivate a garden,
to establish a cocoa plantation or to obtain timber. He burns
hundreds of square miles of savannah for the sake of hunting honey,
or of grassland to stimulate the young nutritious shoots and to kill
the carriers of animal disease; and he may ruin pasture by too
concentrated grazing on the part of his stock. After any of these
drastic actions the natural balance is, of course, upset, and a series
of changes in vegetation and soil set in which, if left to go their own
way, would eventually lead on to the original type of vegetation
by a succession of plant associations leading to the climax. But
more usually a continual or intermittent interference on man’s
part prevents the natural succession, so that an entirely new type
of vegetation becomes established; for example, in Uganda the
huge areas of elephant-grass were once closed forest.
The effect of natural vegetation and particularly forests on
water-supply is an aspect of the changing environment about
which very little is yet known. It is recognized, though it is diffi-
SOME PROBLEMS OF RESEARCH 9
cult to prove, that forests slow up the run-off of waters, thereby
making streams run perennially instead of intermittently, and con-
sequently their destruction, especially on watersheds and high
ground, means that water is available in the soil for shorter periods.
It is generally assumed also that a single stand of trees, such as a
cocoa plantation, is less effective than the natural mixed forest in
holding up the run-off. In the forest belt of West Africa there are
many cases of destruction for the purposes of establishing planta-
tions which have led to a very great reduction of forests during the
past twenty-five years. In the Gold Coast, for example, it has been
estimated that, ifthe recent rate of cutting were to go on unchecked,
there would be no closed forest left in another fifty years. The forest
question is so involved with meteorological conditions, that the
number of balancing factors is legion. Some people hold that
forest actually increases the rainfall directly, others that its destruc-
tion causes rain to be precipitated in occasional heavy storms rather
than in frequent gentle falls. Again, in certain areas the destruc-
tion of forest in one place may affect the climate of another region
far removed; for example, in the Guinea lands, where the rainfall
of the dry regions bordering the Sahara is dependent on the local
monsoon from the Atlantic Ocean, which passes over the belt of
high forest, it is supposed by some that destruction of the high
forest will cause a reduction of rainfall in the dry regions of the
north.
Opposed to these changes, most of which lead to lessened water-
supply, forestry departments are attempting to maintain the original
environment by the reservation of forest areas, and in some cases
by direct planting. Here again, another question arises in that
many exotic trees which are used in afforestation grow more
rapidly and have a higher transpiration rate than the original
indigenous trees. Accordingly it is supposed that the new forests,
in parts of South Africa for example, actually reduce rather than
increase the soil moisture. The amount of timber available for
building and firewood clearly depends upon the area of forests,
and the conditions imposed upon its use. It is a striking fact that
at present there are practically no data as to the amount of timber
required by native populations.
Wild animals are important factors in the environment, as food,
IO SCIENCE IN AFRICA
as destroyers of crops stock and even man himself, and in pro-
viding reservoirs for diseases such as rinderpest, trypanosomiasis
and east coast fever, which may endanger domestic animals. It
appears that the western parts of Africa have never supported wild
game in numbers comparable with the east, but for a century or
more this difference has been accentuated by the extensive use of
firearms in West Africa. In general throughout Africa there has
been a pronounced change in the last fifty years, in that the num-
ber of wild beasts has been reduced to a striking degree, the extreme
being reached in those parts where anti-game campaigns are being
waged with a view to ridding the country of tsetse flies, as in
Southern Rhodesia. But there are certain exceptional areas,
mainly the game reserves, where the African now lives under the
restraint of game ordinances, so that the number of animals sur-
rounding his farms and stock ranches is greater now than ever
before. On the whole it appears that the development of game
organizations has led the African to rely for the protection of his
possessions more on the local game scout armed with an elephant
rifle than on his own prowess.
The water environment, sea, lakes, and rivers, as a source of
food for man, is likewise undergoing change. Sometimes the stocks
of fish have been reduced by the introduction of European methods
of fishing, or by commercial exploitation; in certain cases exotic
fish have been introduced to African lakes and streams; but on
the whole the fishery resources of the continent present a con-
siderable undeveloped opportunity for human activity.
In the subject of cultivation we start with conditions in which
man has become closely adapted to the environment of climate
soil and vegetation, having evolved systems of shifting cultivation.
Two kinds can be distinguished; one in which the people live
permanently in the same place and cultivate surrounding plots in
rotation, and the other in which the village sites are changed at
frequent intervals. The former is characteristic of comparatively
dense populations, and the latter of forest areas where there is no
limit to the amount of land. The really important factor is the
proportion of resting years to cropping years necessary for the soil
to regain its original fertility, a proportion which varies through-
out the continent from about 1/3 up to 1/infinity. The proportion
SOME PROBLEMS OF RESEARCH 1g
has been altered over large areas by too-frequent cultivation, partly
by direct pressure of population, but mostly by the introduction of
cash crops, which necessitate the cultivation of much larger areas.
An extreme case is the Owerri Province of Southern Nigeria,
where the agricultural population is probably denser than any-
where else in the continent, between 300 and 400 per square mile.
In this area the resting period which the soil actually receives has
been reduced almost to nil, with the result that the resting period
which would be required to restore its original fertility is very long
indeed. ‘The reduction of soil fertility which results from these
factors is well demonstrated in Senegal, which has been given
over to the production of groundnuts. Here three belts can be
defined in terms of rainfall conditions, one in the dry land to the
north, the second stretching east in the latitude of Dakar, and the
third in the damper country surrounding the Gambia River.
When groundnut production first started the northern belt was
found the most suitable and population concentrated there. Soon
the soil deteriorated, and to-day practically all the export comes
from the middle and southern belts, whereas in a few years’ time it
is feared that the middle belt will become much less profitable.
This series of events has naturally helped in the southern migration
of people referred to above.
Against these factors agricultural workers are attempting every-
where to change the crop/fallow proportion in the other direction
by establishing systems of fixed cultivation, building upon that
type of shifting cultivation where the population remains in the
same place. The methods which are being introduced involve the
rotation of crops, mixed cropping, green manuring, composting,
and especially mixed farming, all of these being designed to put
fertility back into the soil as fast as it is drawn out by crops. As an
example of the adaptability of such systems when under pressure of
population, we may refer to Ukara Island in Lake Victoria, where
a genuine system of mixed farming, of the type which agricultural
experts are attempting to popularize in both East and West Africa
by various kinds of education, has apparently been spontaneously
evolved.
Many of the environmental changes considered above affect
man indirectly through his stock, and therefore some of the changes
12 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
in stock husbandry must be reviewed. Since the arrival of the
European, the number of large and small stock has increased
beyond measure. This has naturally reflected upon the condition
of the grazing and thereby has formed a vicious circle by removing
the vegetation and stimulating soil erosion in a way closely com-
parable with the effects of shifting cultivation. In an effort to
replace the superfluous numbers of native stock by fewer animals
of better quality, European science is causing another marked
change in the African environment. The experiments have not
extended widely in purely native areas, but they will make them-
selves felt in the next quarter of a century. Efforts are directed
primarily to producing better animals for the dual purpose of
milk production and draught, and have been closely connected
with attempts to introduce mixed farming as an alternative to
shifting cultivation.
Meanwhile animal diseases, which were formerly important
agents in keeping down the numbers of domestic animals, have
been reduced by the introduction of European science. Rinder-
pest, for example, was introduced to Africa in the latter half of
last century, and was spread throughout most of the continent
partly by the migrations of wild animals, many of which, particu-
larly buffalo, are very susceptible to the disease. Intensive study,
stimulated by its occurrence in epizootic form, has led to the per-
fecting of vaccination. The results in changing the environment
for stock may be gauged from the fact that to-day almost every
animal in the Fulani herds of Northern Nigeria is inoculated
against rinderpest before it is a year old. In a similar way east
coast fever, a tick-borne disease which is indigenous throughout
eastern and southern Africa is being brought under control by the
compulsory dipping of animals at regular intervals to destroy the
ticks. This and related diseases provide an interesting example of
a measure of control which is employed by native pastoralists, even
though they do not fully understand the part played by ticks: the
habit of burning pastures during the dry season not only stimulates
the growth of young nutritious grass, but also destroys the ticks
which find their home in the old grass. This custom, in so far as it
contributes to the increase of the herds, plays its part in the vicious
circle of overgrazing and soil erosion, and hence is a cause of much
SOME PROBLEMS OF RESEARCH 13
anxiety to those who are responsible for conserving the pastures as
well as destroying the ticks.
Another important source of animal disease is the tsetse fly. It
is well known that the so-called tsetse belt covers the greater part
of tropical Africa between a line from the Senegal River to Italian
Somaliland and another in the south from the coast of Angola to
Mozambique. A large part of this area is dominated by one or other
of the twenty species of fly rather than by man. The numerous
fly-fronts are continually subject to oscillations, many of them
recurring annually when in the dry season high temperatures
drive the fly to take refuge in the narrow bands of vegetation
bordering the watercourses. But the great changes in fly distribu-
tion which are now hoped for depend primarily on human en-
deavour. In Tanganyika, for example, the clearing by organized
native labour of the bush which harbours the fly has enabled
5,000 natives to return to land in one chieftainship from which it
had previously driven them. Again, in Southern Rhodesia, the
destruction of the wild animals on which the fly feeds has resulted
in freeing considerable areas from trypanosomiasis.
Periodic locust invasions injure man through the destruction of
his crops. Here too, advances in studies which are slowly leading to
an understanding of locust ecology may be expected before many
years pass, to prevent or at least reduce these visitations, and there-
by render the African environment far more favourable to man.
In connection with the numerous other pests of agriculture, it is
noteworthy that the change from extensive to intensive land utiliza-
tion tends to make the environment more favourable to pests. The
distribution of an insect or fungal parasite must clearly be easier
where the plant on which it lives is cultivated as a single crop over
a large area, than where a number of plants are grown together,
as in the native system, in small fields which may be separated by
forest areas. A parasite, which in these circumstances causes prac-
tically no damage, may become a pest of first-rate importance
where modern methods favour its rapid spread. Another factor
has been the introduction of domesticated plants from one territory
to another, and from other continents. These often bring their own
parasites with them, which find suitable hosts in indigenous crops.
Thus the mosaic disease of cassava, which is growing in importance
I4 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
throughout West Africa, and in parts of East Africa, is supposed to
have been introduced in comparatively recent years. Certainly its
distribution around the Guinea Gulf is now extending inland from
a number of foci near the coast.
The influence of these factors on the food supply is one of the
most obvious ways in which they may affect human welfare. The
social significance of seasonal changes in the quantity of food
available has recently been studied by anthropologists as part of
the analyses of the native agricultural practice and economic
organization. Variation in quality of food is also important, since
different items in the dietary become available at different seasons,
often for only very short periods. These variations are particularly
significant in the case of African peoples whose staple diet is gener-
ally so monotonous that the curtailment of any of the subsidiary
foods, small though the proportion of the diet that they represent
may be, may result in a complete lack of animal proteins or other
essentials, and so give rise to malnutrition and disease. ‘Therefore,
on the variation of food supply depends to some extent the African’s
resistance to disease, and hence the relation to the last of our
environmental categories.
The internal environment of the human organism above all
others is altered by its biological content, and is capable of adap-
tation thereto, as shown particularly well by immunity or partial
immunity to diseases. Some of the changes involved may be illus-
trated by reference to three important diseases: malaria, yellow
fever, and sleeping sickness. Nearly every African is infected
with malaria before he is three years old, and subsequently develops
at least a partial immunity, because his body at that age is capable
of much greater adaptation than later on. In many parts of Africa
measures are now being taken to stamp out malaria, particularly
in townships, and a section of medical opinion favours the exten-
sion of these measures into rural areas wherever possible. Such
action would probably reduce the high infant mortality of many
parts of Africa. But the adult native, who had not become inocu-
lated in childhood, would be certain to meet the disease at a later
stage in life when his adaptability is not so great.
Yellow fever also is often contracted by Africans at an early age;
the patient either dies or attains immunity for life. Recent work
SOME PROBLEMS OF RESEARCH Ph
has shown that this disease is not restricted to the endemic centres
on the west coast, but extends in a dormant form throughout
large tracts of Africa as far east as Uganda and the Sudan. It
has been pointed out recently by medical authorities that these
potential centres offer opportunities, through the agency of air
transport, for the spread of the disease to huge populations not
only in eastern and southern Africa but even in a wider area.
Slower transport by road, rail, and ship can create similar prob-
lems. For example, sleeping sickness is caused by small organisms
in the blood, of which there are probably many local strains. A
population accustomed to one strain and having developed a cer-
tain degree of immunity may wander into the realm of another
strain, and thereby suffer from a violent epidemic. This has prob-
ably occurred in many parts of Nigeria, where the environmental
conditions both inside and outside man differ so widely from north
to south, and where it is believed that sleeping sickness has increased
during the last quarter of a century. In estimating the increase or
decrease of disease, it must be remembered that in the absence of
comparable statistics, figures of incidence depend in a large degree
on the activity of doctors.
In this sketch of the changes now proceeding in the African
environment, the principle of the cinematograph has been adopted
rather than that of the snapshot. Although this volume as a whole
attempts to depict a cross-section of present-day scientific activity,
the cross-section is only made possible by imagining the process of
change to be temporarily suspended for examination. The picture
really presented by Africa is one of movement, all branches of
physical, biological and human activity reacting on each other, to
produce what biologists would refer to as an ecological complex.
LAND PLANNING
Every branch of human activity, including cultivation, grazing,
forestry, game preservation, mining, and administration, involves
the utilization of land, and the claims of the various activities often
come into conflict. An analysis of the existing utilization and poten-
tiality of land is therefore of great significance. The policies which
have been followed in defining rights to land are discussed in An
16 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
African Survey. Data from various areas have been made available
through surveys of topography, geology, soils, water-supply, forests,
cultivation, stock, etc. Such surveys are merely the raw material
on which a planned system of land utilization could be based.
The kind of data which throw most light on the problems of
land utilization vary with the state of development of different
territories. In every case a topographical survey is essential: it is
also widely held that soil and ecological surveys are indispensable.
Where agriculture is highly developed as in most parts of Uganda,
an ecological survey in the usual sense would be mainly ofacademic
interest. In such areas a general agricultural survey, based on
the knowledge of field officers already at work, should give all
relevant information, especially when combined, as it is now in
Uganda, with surveys of water-supplies, health conditions, etc.
The same might be said of the southern parts of Nyasaland,
where a full agricultural survey, which will be of fundamental
importance for later developments, is in progress. Again, the
agricultural officers in ‘Tanganyika, in the course of their ordinary
duties, have accumulated material for agricultural surveys and
such data have been published for one or two districts. ‘The results
can be combined with those of the topographic and geological
surveys already in progress, the soil survey which 1s coming from
Amani, and the ecological data gathered by the Tsetse Research
Department and by studies of livestock and medical subjects. Such
material would give an adequate basis for a policy of land utiliza-
tion, with regard, for example, to such questions as the effect on
the soil of a rapid extension of commercial cultivation.
In the vast areas of Africa, where population is scanty and the
potentialities of the land are not yet known, as exemplified by
most of Northern Rhodesia and the Southern Sudan, the problems
of land utilization are still more important. Here it is important
to point out that in many parts of Africa, soil and vegetation are
being altered at so great a rate that there is danger of many areas
being soon rendered uninhabitable for man. Surveys of soil
erosion and studies of vegetation, with a view to its preservation,
are therefore of the utmost significance and will be considered in
some detail in later chapters.
SOME PROBLEMS OF RESEARCH I]
CO-ORDINATION AND CENTRALIZATION OF RESEARCH
For the very reason that the greater part of Africa is still in the
early stages of development, the continent may offer the most
fruitful field in history for experiment concerning the place of
expert scientific knowledge in land planning. The formulation of
any such policy must depend upon close co-operation between
different territories and between the technical departments in each
territory who are concerned in its application, in particular the
agricultural, veterinary, and forestry services. In India and the
British Dominions this need is met by the combination of these
departments under one executive head.
The organization of the research work on which policy must be
based is also a question of major importance. Although scientists
in general are coming to agree that no valid distinction can be
drawn between pure and applied science, there are many prob-
lems, often those the solution of which will prove to have most
valuable practical applications, which require detailed concentra-
tion for considerable periods. Such concentration is not possible if
the duty of the research worker is conceived as being confined to
the solution of problems of immediate policy. Accordingly there
is much to be said for the system applied in the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan, of separating research organization from the executive
work of the technical departments and placing it under a separate
Director of Research. Such a Director would logically have the
same standing as the executive head referred to above. In a Crown
Colony it would be desirable that both should have seats on the
Executive Council. ‘Taking the three subjects of Agriculture,
Veterinary Services, and Forestry, such an organization could be
represented as follows:
Executive Head Executive Head
of Administration
Agriculture Veterinary Forestry
Services
ciate, VLE Ne Perea EGET i ATES Ve
Adminis- Research ini Adminis- Research
tration tration tration
B
18 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Despite the close connection of the medical and sanitary services
with those discussed, it would hardly be practicable to place them
under this unified control; but here again the detachment of the
long-term research worker from preoccupation with administra-
tive detail would have a beneficial effect. It is interesting, there-
fore, to note that the appointment of a Director of Medical
Research for the block of British East African territories has been
suggested. This might have the double effect of enabling some
kinds of research to proceed uninterrupted, and of promoting
closer co-operation between the several territories concerned.
The relations between Entomology and the other studies men-
tioned are rather complex. Although insects are of the utmost
importance as disseminators both of animal and human disease,
the same insect is rarely responsible for disease both in men and
animals. Accordingly there seems no great advantage to be gained
by centralizing entomological research as a whole. In the case of
the tsetse fly the position is very different, and the question may
be raised whether all studies on trypanosomiasis of humans and
animals should not be centralized instead of dispersed between
a number of departments as at present.
The development in recent years of periodic conferences for the
discussion of research on a wide basis has produced a great im-
provement in the interchange of information and co-ordination
of results. Conferences of officers in the different services, surveys,
geology, forestry, agriculture, and medicine, are held from time to
time, and in British East Africa the meetings arranged by the Con-
ference of East African Governors have become a regular feature
of scientific life. The time may perhaps come when similar gather-
ings will be held in West Africa. International pan-African health
conferences have already been held, and it is to be hoped that
similar conferences, dealing with other sciences, such as are
organized for the Pacific and America, will follow in due course.
FINANCE AND AGENCIES FOR RESEARCH
Any discussion of the centralization of research at once raises
the question of finance. At present it is practically all financed
from current revenue and therefore the annual votes are bound to
SOME PROBLEMS OF RESEARCH 19
fluctuate with economic conditions. Since the planning of research
depends above all else on the guarantee of continued support for
a sequence of years, it has been urged that all research of the long-
range type should be financed from special funds raised by loan.
The disadvantages peculiar to land survey work are discussed in
some detail in Chapter II, but the same arguments apply to many
other branches of study. In medicine for example, a research fund,
raised by the group of East African territories and allocated by the
Director of Research mentioned above, would enable work to be
carried out without the haste which reduces the value of much
research, and without the worry entailed to the workers from the
possibility that they will not be given an opportunity of attaining
their objects. In this particular case there would be no need to
expend money on the erection of special buildings, because the
existing institutes should provide ample accommodation and
facilities, so that the whole fund could be used to provide salaries
and equipment for workers. By such means, which are similar to
those adopted in India in connection with the Indian Medical
Research Fund, the most economical use could be made of any
money available for fundamental studies, while routine work and
small pieces of research which arise locally would be carried on by
the local staff of the various laboratories.
In surveying the agencies which exist for research, as outlined in
the following chapters, there are striking and instructive differences
in the systems adopted by the British, French, and Belgian adminis-
tration. The British territories have permanent research officers as
members of the departments of agriculture, medicine, etc. The
number of such officers is designed to be more than sufficient for
the routine work, so that some, at least, have time for research. In
the Belgian, and to a less extent the French systems, fewer perma-
nent scientific officers are employed in Africa, but an extensive
organization exists whereby special surveys or scientific studies are
undertaken in Africa by missions sent out from Europe, often
arranged with the collaboration of universities. Both the British
and Belgian systems have their own advantages: the former leads
to the establishment of a regular cadre of workers who look upon
Africa as the home of their work, while the latter retains closer
touch with the centres of science in Europe.
20 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Clearly a combination of both methods would be the ideal and
one which should not be hard to achieve. In the case of Great
Britain there seems to be scope for more co-operation on the part
of the universities. A few university departments have contributed
to the study of African problems, such as those to which certain
of the Imperial Agricultural Bureaux are attached, the forestry
department at Oxford and the anthropological department of the
London School of Economics. But with these exceptions, it cannot
be said that the great universities are playing an important part
in the modern scientific development of Africa, except in providing
training for some of the men who are subsequently absorbed into
the services. From time to time expeditions go into the field under
the auspices of universities or scientific societies to undertake special
inquiries, but nearly always the financing of these depends on indi-
vidual initiative on the part of their members. It may in the future
be found possible to introduce post-graduate students and others
in search of subjects for research to matters related to African
problems. There are already a number of first-class centres of
research suitable for visiting workers, and at nearly all of these are
specified problems of wide application, of the type that the local
staff have no time or opportunity to undertake. Ifthe universities
were to assist in the solution ofsuch problems the advantages would
be many, both to the African territories in obtaining for short
periods keen men possessing the latest knowledge in their special
subjects, and to the workers themselves in the opportunity for
widening their experience and in carrying out the type of research
which may become widely known. Difficulties would arise in
financing these schemes, but it might be possible to pool contribu-
tions from various sources in such a way as to encourage a method
of work by which more than one partner would benefit.
Another instructive contrast between the British and French
colonies is that in the former there sometimes appears to be a cer-
tain lack of economy in apportioning the work to be carried out by
officers who have had a high scientific training. Especially perhaps
in East Africa, there are many first-class agricultural officers,
trained at Cambridge and Trinidad, among whose work there
figures prominently the kind of routine field duties which could
be discharged at least as efficiently by men less highly trained. It
SOME PROBLEMS OF RESEARCH Pi |
is true that the employment of first-class officers in the agricultural
departments was responsible for the great progress of cotton culti-
vation in Uganda, but whether the same agency is required else-
where remains open to question. It is also true that there are diffi-
culties in the division of an agricultural department into two sec-
tions, the more highly trained men employed in research and the
control of pests, and the less highly trained performing routine
field duties only, because scientific work is an integral part of the
department alike in the field and laboratory. Nevertheless, these
considerations point to one of the greatest needs of Africa to-day,
that of trained subordinate staff. This lack is felt not only in agri-
culture, but in every other branch of activity, and great efforts are
being made in many parts of the continent to fill the gap by the
higher education of African natives.
WASTE OF RESEARCH
The efforts of scientists throughout Africa result in the publica-
tion each year of a great quantity of material, mainly in official
documents such as annual departmental reports, bulletins, pam-
phlets, and occasional papers. Itis worth considering for a moment
how many of these results eventually reach the scientists, outside
the territory concerned, who are working along similar lines or on
kindred subjects. To the busy scientist whose work includes the
perusal of many hundred books and papers generally presented in
a more or less uniform manner so that he can extract the contents
with little trouble, the average annual report is somewhat difficult
to handle. In their present form, they are not designed primarily
to give information to the scientific expert: they are reports on
departmental activities rather than on the progress of scientific
research as such. In some cases the results obtained by individual
workers are rewritten as scientific papers and submitted for publi-
cation to scientific societies or journals, but this represents an
additional labour, which many officers are unwilling to under-
take.
It might be possible to adopt an agreed scheme for the presenta-
tion of reports which would include a common format, the separa-
tion of scientific fact from administrative detail, a standardization
22 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
of form for statistical tables and some means of referring to the
contents. This question is discussed in Chapter III with reference
to the publication of geological surveys, which are by no means
more complicated than those of other departments.
Another serious source of waste in scientific work comes from the
fact that a great deal of data which is not published, and indeed in
its raw form is quite unsuitable for publication, becomes lost. In
the course of ordinary duties officers of medical, agricultural,
administrative, and other departments, record a mass of detail
about the country and its inhabitants. Some officers have collected
notes of great scientific value about the people, their customs, food,
diseases, etc. The bulk of these notes are kept in the files of district
offices, where they are not easily unearthed and may never be
remembered when at a later date some investigator wishes to
make enquiries on similar lines. In these days, when research on
African problems is coming to depend more and more on organized
co-operation, all such data are of value and could be saved for
posterity, without any large organization or heavy expense, if in
each territory there were a clearing-house to which all such in-
formation were sent and classified, probably on the basis of the
administrative district from which it came. From time to time the
material collected would be worked through and sifted, and per-
haps written up into suitable publications.
A further source of waste relates to the exchange of information
and bears upon interterritorial co-operation. It so often happens
that work is duplicated in different parts of Africa, or that sets of
data are obtained which might be of the utmost comparative
value, only each piece of work is done in ignorance of the other
and by slightly different methods, so that comparison is difficult.
Furthermore there are many papers published which are of impor-
tance to African workers, but are never heard of except by casual
reference in some book or article published long afterwards. The
admirable services of the Imperial Agricultural Bureaux and of the
Bureau of Tropical Diseases have gone far to override these diffi-
culties by publishing abstracts and bibliographies and enabling
workers in Africa to obtain copies of articles of interest; but these
bureaux deal only with their own special subjects, and there still
seems room for some organization interested in African develop-
SOME PROBLEMS OF RESEARCH 26
ment to assist in this interchange of publications and information
on more general lines.
Any subject concerning Africa has really to be studied as a world
subject and not merely in regard to its implications in that con-
tinent. Thus the mapping of Africa’s surface must be designed to
fit into the geodetic triangulation of the world; anyone working on
sleeping sickness needs to be familiar with literature on biting-flies
and their habits in all parts of the world, with studies on plant
succession, etc. It follows, therefore, that such an organization as
that suggested above would be most useful in putting the inquirers
into touch with the right authorities in each subject, and in know-
ing who is working in Africa on all branches.
CONCLUSION
There has been a great awakening of interest in the part that
science can play in African affairs. This is shown by the formation
in recent years of organizations such as the Association Colontes-
Sciences in Paris, the Institut Royal Colonial Belge in Brussels, the
Commission of Scientific Research for the Portuguese colonies,
established in 1935, and a similar organization recently formed in
Rome for the increased Italian possessions. Then the societies
and universities of South Africa, especially the Royal Society of
South Africa and the South African Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, have had an influence which extends far beyond
the frontiers of the Union. In England the Royal African Society
and the International Institute of African Languages and Cultures
have done valuable work, and in most territories societies have
sprung into being, many of which publish their own journals con-
taining articles of much value.
In spite of all such signs of interest, however, and in spite of the
admirable hands in which, asa general rule, the direction of science
lies, it could not be claimed that African development has so far
been greatly influenced by the results of scientific research. In
a continent which has been developed almost wholly in the twen-
tieth century, there might have been more room than elsewhere
for such influence, but this has not been the case; economic
development has taken the lead and often chooses the wrong turn-
24 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
ing. Science follows, but the pace is laboured, and falling behind
she is neglected. Often she has to follow along the wrong path for
some distance before beckoning development back to the direct
way. Roads and rails have been built before there were accurate
maps on which to mark them; crops have been introduced and
grown under all kinds of conditions, regardless of the suitability of
the soil; inter-tribal warfare has been stopped; we seek to increase
the native population, improve their standard of living, and econo-
mic status, and native stock multiplies to such an extent that the
earth is denuded of vegetation and the soil may be washed away
to sea by the next storm. A development based on a real under-
standing of Africa’s potentialities has hardly yet begun, and will
be impossible until the necessity of scientific knowledge is recog-
nized.
CHAPTER II
SURVEYS AND MAPS
INTRODUCTION
Kee of the size, shape and characteristics of a territory,
such as is obtained by survey and mapping, is an essential
preliminary to further study. Of primary importance is the con-
struction of a correct framework on which to base mapping of
every kind in order that inconsistencies may be avoided. Such a
framework may be compared with the foundation of a house.
The three stages of survey, from the foundation to the smallest
detail of the finished building, are designated as geodetic, topo-
graphical and cadastral, terms which are used throughout this
chapter in the senses defined below.!
Since the requisite accuracy can now be attained with small
light theodolites, geodetic triangulation is much less costly than it
used to be. Base lines also have ceased to involve the large
expenditure of time and labour that they used to entail; they are
now measured swiftly and easily by a small party of men. Con-
spicuous examples of the advantages to be gained are provided by
2 Geodetic Survey is concerned with the positions of certain series of points, that is to
say their latitudes and longitudes (or their co-ordinates on any other system) and their
heights. ‘These points and the lines joining them constitute the framework. They are
fixed by means of baselines and triangulation of Ist, gnd or 3rd order, or a framework
by means of precise traverse when the terrain is unsuitable for triangulation, as in
country covered by heavy forest. Geodetic survey provides the foundation of all maps,
whatever their scales.
Topographical Survey is concerned with features. It shows whatever is visible on the
ground, as for instance roads, railways and houses, and it will also probably show
major boundaries such as those separating different territories or administrative
divisions of a country. Topographical maps may either be ‘small scale’ which
includes scales from 1:2,000,000 (313 miles to 1 inch) to 1:250,000 (about 4 miles to
1 inch), or ‘Large scale’ ranging from 1 :125,000 (about 2 miles to 1 inch) to 1 :25,000
(about 1 mile to 23 inches).
Cadastral Survey is concerned with property boundaries which are often invisible
on the ground, and is frequently carried out with a view to the assessment of taxation.
Cadastral maps are seldom on scales smaller than 1 :5,000,
26 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
India and South Africa (see below). On the other hand, there are
instances where the lack of adequate topographical data has led
to unnecessary expenditure. In the Gold Coast, for example, the
railway from Sekondi to Kumasi, which was constructed at the
end of the last century without full topographical knowledge, had
to be realigned in 1922 and subsequent years at a cost of some
£2,000,000. In Kenya, Uganda, and the Rhodesias, some railways
have had to be realigned, while in others the cost of operation is
unduly high. Numerous instances could be selected where roads
have had to be realigned at heavy expense for the same reasons.
The case for the comparatively small expenditure on funda-
mental surveys was well put in 1933 by Brigadier Winterbotham,
until lately Director General of the Ordnance Survey: ‘The geo-
detic triangulation of a country is not only the guarantee of the
accuracy of surveys—it Is an undertaking which cheapens as well
as co-ordinates, all other surveys. It is the first step in relieving
the property surveyor from a reiteration of patchwork triangula-
tion and traverse. It sets a term to perpetual revision and recompu-
tation. It is at once a real practical economy and a contribution
to general knowledge conceded everywhere as a duty to scientific
development.’
In his Presidential Address to the Geographical Section of the
British Association in 1936 Brigadier Winterbotham pointed out
that passages could be quoted from eminent administrators,
engineers and scientists of all kinds stressing the necessity of good
maps for development, and yet in many parts of Africa the maps
available do not even show main roads correctly.
In this connection it is instructive to contrast the history of
survey work in India and in Africa. In India a framework of
major triangulation was completed early as a basis for all subse-
quent work. Systematic topographical and finally cadastral sur-
veys followed. In Africa north of Southern Rhodesia, we have so
far only one chain of primary triangulation, the 3oth meridian,
of which several stages are still incomplete. The difference is
clearly attributable in part to the greater difficulties of the work
in Africa with its sparse population and great areas of undeveloped
country.
The topographical data which would he desirable include detail
SURVEYS AND MAPS 74)
of areas of permanent cultivation, grazing, scrub, and forest. Maps
of the type of the later Indian survey 1 inch series, but elaborated
along the lines of the Danish survey or the British land utilization
survey, would be the ideal. Asa preliminary, however, a map on
a smaller scale such as 1:250,000 would serve, provided it were
contoured, but even this can only be drawn with accuracy after
a secondary network of triangulation is firmly based on chains of
primary triangulation.
In the absence of such work, however, results of sufficient accur-
acy for many purposes can be attained by the method recently
evolved in French West Africa of making topographical maps of
an advanced reconnaissance type by means of rapid traverses.
This method has been employed with advantage in the little-
known areas bordering on the Sahara Desert. It is possible owing
to the fact that longitude is now quite easy to obtain accurately
by receiving wireless time from Greenwich; as easy, in fact, as
latitude has been for the past fifty years. Therefore rapid route
surveys can be accomplished with reasonable accuracy. Such
route surveys made by surveyors, as they travel from place to
place on triangulation or cadastral work, could contribute much
valuable information for topographic purposes. The data required
as a general basis for scientific and administrative work could
thereby be produced quickly, the tedious geodetic work following
later. ‘This system would be particularly appropriate to areas
where population is small and where great accuracy for purposes
of cadastral survey is therefore not required.
Cadastral survey itself is necessary in Africa on account of con-
ditions peculiar to undeveloped areas; it requires an accurate
geodetic basis, but this fact has unfortunately tended to be dis-
regarded in parts of the continent. In England compulsory
registration of title with Crown guarantee is not universal, and
even in those counties where it has been introduced, land titles
rest on the topographical map only. The guarantee does not
exclude the possibility of a boundary dispute between neighbours
nor does it insure a landowner against loss arising from such a
dispute. In short the landlord is given title to a piece of land
marked on a general map but not precisely defined by boundaries
of stated lengths and bearings. This system suits English con-
28 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
ditions well enough, mainly because there are relatively permanent
physical features such as hedges, ditches, and fences to safeguard
the rights of the owners.
In Africa farms are for the most part unfenced and only par-
tially developed. The title of a landowner rests on a plan attached
to his deeds on which are shown the beacons marking the corners
of his land and the lengths and bearings of his boundaries. These
lengths and bearings have been calculated by a cadastral survey
based on the controlling triangulation, and the co-ordinates of
the corner beacons have been mathematically computed in rela-
tion to the framework provided by that triangulation, and regis-
tered on plans in the Survey Records Office. The field notes of
the original survey are also registered in that office. Ifthe beacons
are destroyed, as they often are, ownership is still safeguarded by
the assurance that they can be replaced from registered data with
the accuracy attained in the original survey. Such a system 1s essen-
tial to all security of ownership in territories such as South Africa
or Kenya, and the work which it entails absorbs the entire energies
of the survey staffs which the Colonies have found it possible to
maintain in times of depression.
The history of land surveying in South Africa illustrates the dis-
advantages which ultimately result from cadastral surveys made
without adequate geodetic control. This question is so important
that a few quotations from authorities in South Africa are given
by way of illustration.
The Government of the Cape Colony in 1878 appointed a
Commission ‘to make a full investigation into and report upon a
more adequate means of testing the accuracy of land surveys in
the Colony’. The principal recommendation (No. XVIII) was
that a secondary triangulation based upon the geodetic coastal
chains of Maclear and Bailey be extended over the Colony (1878).
A year later Sir David Gill, in submitting his famous scheme for
the geodetic survey of South Africa to the High Commissioner,
objected to this uncontrolled triangulation. He insisted that a
scientific system of triangulation ‘is much more economical both
in execution and reduction than that recommended in Section
XVIII of the report; and coupled with secondary triangulation
can be made to afford any desired accuracy’ (1880).
SURVEYS AND MAPS 29
Gill’s scheme was accepted by the Government, and in 1905
the geodetic framework of the Union of South Africa was com-
pleted: Unfortunately very little was done to fill in the framework
with primary and secondary triangulation, neither was legislative
effect given to the recommendations of the 1878 Commission. Con-
sequently the Government found it necessary to appoint a second
Commission in 1921 to enquire into the unsatisfactory state of
survey affairs in the Union.
This Commission opened its report with the following statement:
‘The Commission cannot state too emphatically that the present
system of land surveying is unsound, inefficient, expensive, and
without finality’; and (in paragraph II, 5) ‘the system involves
the community at the present time in an unnecessary expenditure
on farm surveys alone of, we estimate, approximately £50,000 a
year’.
The importance of the geodetic survey to property surveys is
expressed by the Commission (in paragraph ITI, 1) as follows: “The
history of the survey of a country follows the same course in every
land. All governments experience the same difficulties in the first
settlement; security of title and other advantages cannot be guar-
anteed because the country is not properly surveyed; on the other
hand, the proper survey cannot be carried out because the land
value does not justify the necessary expense; hence we find in every
country initially the system of isolated surveys. As the country
develops and the land becomes more valuable, the system of sur-
vey leads to litigation about boundaries, to increased interest on
money advanced on mortgage of land, and renders the civil and
military administration of the country expensive and unsatisfac-
tory. In the end the government of the country is compelled to
establish a scientific system in order that development be not
retarded. Legislatures, whose members are mostly laymen in sur-
vey matters, have everywhere shown a disinclination to face the
facts of the survey situation, because the substitution of a scientific
system entails the scrapping of the work of generations. The longer
the scrapping is delayed the greater is the waste. In South Africa
each surveyor engaged upon a survey measures his own base, and
resultant therefrom, millions of bases have been measured, all of
varying standard; this is one of the main causes of error in survey
30 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
work, and if the present system is continued, then further millions
of bases will have to be measured and scrapped when the time
comes for all surveys to be made on one standard base—namely
the trigonometrical triangulation of the country.’
It is important to note that the funds for the geodetic survey of
the Union, upon which about half a million pounds have been
expended, have been obtained mainly on the grounds that, ulti-
mately, it will provide a final solution to the cadastral problem
(Grobler 1927). Furthermore, Sir David Gill succeeded in per-
suading the Government of Southern Rhodesia to undertake the
arc of meridian through its territory solely on the ground that it
would enable the Government to establish a system of sound title
to land. In 1928 the mover ofa motion in the Legislative Assembly
of Southern Rhodesia for continuing the trigonometrical survey in
that country, stressed its importance in both cadastral and topo-
graphical surveys (Fletcher 1928).
At a conference of Survey Officers of the Empire in 1936, Mr.
Whittingdale, Director of the Trigonometrical Survey of South
Africa, spoke in emphatic terms of the immense saving that
had accrued to that country from the geodetic survey. He drew
particular attention to the importance of such work even where
the land traversed appeared to be valueless. The fact that the
geodetic survey of the Union preceded the discovery of many
important mineral deposits has saved the country enormous sums.
The degree of precision aimed at and obtained in the successive
orders of triangulation in the geodetic survey of Southern Africa
would not be necessary for the control of a topographical survey
alone. A country with a valuable mining industry, which is
extending every year, and sometimes in the most unexpected
areas, cannot afford to be careless of inches in its land surveys.»
ORGANIZATION
BRITISH
In the Union of South Africa each of the four provinces, the Cape,
Natal, Transvaal, and the Orange Free State, has its own Survey
Department under a Surveyor-general, which deals solely with
property survey. All other surveys are carried out by the Union
Trigonometrical Survey, established by the Land Survey Act,
SURVEYS AND MAPS ZI
which provides that the Director shall conduct all geodetic, topo-
graphical, level and tide surveys and geophysical operations in the
Union. The Survey Board, consisting of the four Surveyors-
general and the Director of Trigonometrical Surveys, has advisory
functions in matters of general policy, the Secretary for Lands
being the executive officer.
It is sometimes suggested that, as provided in the Survey Act, a
Director-general of Surveys should be appointed to take general
and executive control of the whole survey organization in the
Union. Nevertheless, uniformity of practice and policy is well
maintained under the present system. The greatest drawback to
progress does not lic in the method of control, but in the system
whereby all survey work is undertaken by private practitioners.
The topographical survey is an exception to this rule and the
appointment of a salaried staff for carrying out trigonometrical
survey operations, other than triangulation, is under consideration.
An excellent framework of geodetic chains was established by
Sir David Gill and Sir William Morris, R.E., in the years 1883 to
1906. Since 1919 the primary and secondary triangulation has
been extended and based upon this geodetic framework over most
of the Union. About £20,000 is now being expended annually in
completing this triangulation and also a tertiary triangulation over
the more valuable and highly developed areas of the country. The
principal triangulation is admittedly efficient and provides a per-
manent basis for surveys of all kinds, and the cadastral system
meets all technical and legal requirements to ensure security of
title.
The topographical survey has not been pursued to a comparable
extent: of the topographical maps still in use the majority were
made after the South African War by military surveyors under the
direction of the War Office. A comprehensive scheme for topo-
graphy has now been approved and a start has been made.
In Southern Rhodesia the reorganization of departments in 1931
brought surveys together with meteorology, agriculture, veterinary
work, etc., under the Department of Agriculture and Lands.
Trigonometric survey has followed the example set by the Union
and several of the chains of triangulation are direct continuations
of those to the south, Like other parts of Africa, Southern Rhodesia
32 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
has its own problems of cadastral survey which absorb a consider-
able part of the survey staff’s effort.
Each of the British Colonies, Protectorates and Mandated areas
(except the Gambia) has a survey department whose duties are
(1) triangulation and topographical mapping: (2) cadastral sur-
veying, including the delineation of property boundaries and
town-planning. Expert advice on the correlation and the direction
of survey policy is tendered by the Colonial Survey Committee
and also by the War Office.
With increased settlement and competition for land there is a
tendency for property and settlement surveys to come into promi-
nence to the detriment of topographical work. Topographical maps,
where they exist at all, are seriously out of date for many areas, and
very little work in geodetic triangulation is being done. Most
authorities at home recommend the development of triangulation
and topographical mapping in the colonies, and with this in view
the representation on the Colonial Survey Committee, of expert
opinion on geodesy, has recently been increased.
In view of the limited resources of the Colonial Governments
it seems probable that the extension of such work must depend
on the allocation by the Imperial Government of special funds for
the purpose. Moreover, some kind of inter-colonial organization
would be desirable. It might be possible to form a single geodetic
survey department for British Africa. Some experts would go so
far as to suggest an Imperial Geodetic Department similar to the
Hydrographic Department of the Admiralty, but others argue that
the control of African surveys would be best exercised from some
point in Africa. The case for centralized control was put forward
by Brigadier Macleod (1936) at the Conference of Empire Survey
Officers in 1935, and discussed by delegates from the Union of
South Africa, Southern Rhodesia and most ofthe colonies. Various
difficulties were put forward, but all delegates were agreed as to
the desirability of central co-ordination of geodetic surveys, and all
were willing to be given a lead by the Imperial Government. The
Royal Society, at the request of the National Committee for Geo-
desy and Geophysics, has addressed a memorandum to the Imperial
Government urging it to undertake responsibility for geodetic work
in the Empire. Whether or not the ideal can be attained, it seems
SURVEYS AND MAPS 33
clear that central departments could be created for groups of terri-
tories with an organization analogous to that of the Union. The
Surveyors-general of the different territories and the Director of the
central department would form the directing board. Under such
an arrangement plans of work could be co-ordinated, and con-
sultation between the colonial and home authorities could be
arranged through the Colonial Survey Committee, in connection
with the periodic conference of Empire Survey Officers.
FRENCH
The fact that surveys in French territories are directed by the
Service Géographique de 1 Armée gives a military character to the
work done. In addition, organizations exist in Africa which are
more or less independent of the department in Paris. The details
are given by M. de Martonne (1928 and 1935). The Service Géo-
graphique in French West Africa will serve as an example. The
Director, with an office in Dakar, is responsible only to the
Governor-general and has a staff of seven specialist surveyors and
‘ nine sous-officiers, of whom half work on geodetic triangulation
and halfon topography. In addition there are officers in charge of
the drawing, computing and printing offices where most of the
work is carried out by African subordinate staff. The French do
not stress the importance of triangulation very much, and the only
area where this is complete is the mountainous region of French
Guinea. Most of the other country is so flat that triangulation is
difficult and the subsequent surveys depend on points fixed
astronomically to one-hundredth of a second.
Topographic maps are constructed from route surveys, as has
been mentioned on page 27. This method is used in the desert
areas such as Mauritania, the Sudan and Niger Colonies, where
all survey is carried out by officers of the Gamel Corps who are
responsible to the Service Géographique de Armée in Paris. By
this means it is claimed that practically every large rock in the
Sahara is now fixed in position. Cadastral survey is carried out
only in the large urban areas.
BELGIAN
The Belgian organization differs from the British in that the
34 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
actual direction of field work comes from an office at the Ministry
of Colonies in Brussels. Perhaps as a result of this centralization,
more stress has been laid on the wider aspects of surveying such
as major triangulation and the publication of topographical maps.
The survey of Katanga is organized separately by the Comité
Spécial du Katanga, also with offices in Brussels, which directs both
geographical and geological work. Since the Katanga administra-
tion has developed independently as regards research, a few details
of its programme may be given. The first object is to establish a
geodetic network of triangles over the whole country to serve as a
foundation for maps showing topography, soils, geology, and vege-
tation. The network at present extends over all southern Katanga
and most of the northern territory to the east of the Lualaba
River. The next stage, which is complete for 10° square in the
south of Katanga, is to make topographical maps, which are
drawn on the scale of 1:100,000, and published on 1:200,000, the
contours being inserted at intervals of 25 metres. ‘The sheets already
published give a very good idea of the province. They are referred
to in subsequent chapters.
PORTUGUESE
As part of the recent reorganization of the Ministry of Colonies
at Lisbon, a new department was established for geographical and
scientific investigation, so that a centre now exists comparable
with those mentioned above for the British, French, and Belgian
colonies. In Angola and Mozambique there are large Public
Works Departments which include sections devoted to survey and
mapping. The area administered by the Mozambique Company
has its own survey staff, and in the Tete District, between Northern
and Southern Rhodesia, a special geographical mission has been
at work for a number of years. In Angola the Ministry of Colonies
is now organizing a special mission to triangulate the southern
part of the Benguela-Mossamedes plateau.
FINANCE
During the years of economic depression from 1930 onwards,
the survey departments of the Empire were more severely cur-
SURVEYS AND MAPS 35
tailed than any other branch of the public service. It is doubtful,
however, whether the economies realized in this way offset the
waste that is incurred in development which is not based on ade-
quate mapping. This argument for a comprehensive programme
of high-precision basic surveys has long been stressed by experts,
but its validity is not yet recognized by the general public.
The geodetic and topographical surveys of a new country are
in fact as fundamental as roads, bridges, and railways, and there-
fore it can be argued that survey work, like other branches of
development, should be financed by pledging the future and anti-
cipating the increase in revenue at which development aims. All
states view the financing of roads and railways as capital expendi-
ture for which they will readily secure loans on general security.
Yet, except in the Union of South Africa, Southern Rhodesia and
one or two of the colonies! surveys are financed from current
expenditure, so that it is impossible to make a long-term plan with
any certainty that it will be carried out. The present system can
be explained by the fact that surveys cost so little in comparison
with roads and railways that they have not been considered as
belonging to the same category. The effects are particularly
unfortunate in the case of geodetic triangulation, where continuity
is essential.
It is necessary to discriminate between the first production of
maps and their subsequent maintenance. The former is properly
a subject for capital expenditure and the latter for financing from
revenue. The analogy with roads and bridges is here quite exact.
The necessity for maintaining a map and of maintaining the bench
marks and beacons on the land itself, a matter of considerable
difficulty in parts of Africa, is very commonly forgotten. The
topographical survey of the Orange Free State is an example of
the importance of maintenance: the whole operation was a model
of efficient organization, good technique, and able direction; time
and usage have proved the resulting maps to be as reliable as they
are artistic. The triangulation control was carefully carried out
1 In the Union of South Africa approximately one-quarter of a million pounds
have been expended from loan funds since 1903 upon the principal triangulation
surveys. Since 1927 the annual vote has been £21,000; in 1935 £30,000 was provided
from loan funds, the increase being for the topographical survey. The topographical
survey of Sierra Leone was financed from ‘Loans service’ at a cost of £78,000.
36 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
and adjusted to the geodetic framework. The triangulation stations
were marked but unfortunately were not permanently beaconed,
and no arrangements were made for their protection or for keeping
the map up to date. When the Trigonometrical Survey of the
Union, organized in 1920, investigated the possibility of incor-
porating this triangulation, some fifteen years after it had been
surveyed, so many marks were missing, that, on that score alone,
the idea had to be abandoned and a fresh triangulation had to be
extended over the province—an area of 50,000 square miles. In
Kenya also, where land has been widely beaconed for cadastral
purposes, survey marks are unpopular with natives, and as they
cannot be expected to distinguish between triangulation and
boundary marks they are apt to remove both indiscriminately.
Much damage to the existing triangulation has already been done
in this way, and the question of maintenance will require consi-
deration before further geodetic survey is begun.
At the Conference of Empire Survey Officers in London in 1931,
the following resolution was carried unanimously. ‘In view of the
immense permanent value ofa sound framework of primary survey
in the development of a country, and the proved difficulty of
financing the execution of such a framework out of revenue, and
in order to avoid needless confusion and waste of public money
on surveys of a temporary nature which are being, and must inevi-
tably be, undertaken: consideration should be given to the employ-
ment of loan funds for the immediate provision of an adequate and
permanent controlling framework in all colonies where such does
not already exist, or is incomplete.’ This resolution received the
approval of the Colonial Office which drew the attention of the
Colonial Governments to it so that the views expressed might be
borne in mind when schemes of development were under considera-
tion. It appears, however, that little practical effect has been given
to the resolution.
Another problem, perhaps equally important, arises from the
difficulty of obtaining trained personnel at short notice. With
permanent branches to deal with the geodetic and topographical
work in a survey department, this difficulty does not arise in so
acute a form. When schemes of survey are sanctioned, finance
should be assured over a term of years in order to avoid these
SURVEYS AND MAPS 37
difficulties with regard to staff. Moreover, the purchase of instru-
ments would be tantamount to locking up capital, if they are not
put to constant use.
On the whole it would seem that in any case geodetic survey
and possibly also such topographical survey as is required in the
more productive regions, should be financed from loans. Cadastral
survey is in a different category; it is so closely connected with the
raising of revenue that it may very well be made to depend on the
revenue. Moreover, it can be taken up when and where wanted,
because once the framework has been established it is not so
necessary to presume continuity in the subsequent processes.
An annual budget may contain no item of expenditure for geo-
detic survey or topographical survey, but if departmental appro-
priations are carefully examined, it will sometimes be found that
large sums of money are expended on surveys to provide maps or
topographic data, the value of which is seriously limited through
the tact that they have not been made as part of a comprehensive
plan. For example, the South African Commission of 1921! stated
that the Irrigation Department budget provided at that time for
an annual expenditure of £19,000 and the Railway Department
£11,000 for reconnaissance surveys, the greater part of which
would have been unnecessary if there had been reliable topogra-
phical maps of the country. In 1933 the Union Government found
it necessary to authorize a reconnaissance survey to provide a small-
scale map of the Union on 1:500,000 (8 miles to 1 inch), esti-
mated to cost £60,000 and to take three years to complete. This
survey will not materially assist the general topographical survey
of the country. Such unco-ordinated measures have no permanent
value and are proportionately much more expensive than a general
topographical survey.
STAFF AND TRAINING?
EUROPEANS
In the Union of South Africa the training of survey officers,
which has a fundamental bearing upon the whole survey system,
is organized in co-operation with the University authorities and
1 See above, p. 29. 2 This section deals with British Territory only.
38 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
the Survey Board. Under this scheme, a university degree course
in surveying can now be taken and the candidate receives an edu-
cation and training in the general principles of survey in all its
branches, analogous to that provided for other professions.
In the British Colonies there is a certain proportion of army-
trained and Ordnance Survey-trained men, with traditions of
topographical mapping, and between 1920 and the recent eco-
nomic depression a number ofsurveyors trained at British Universi- —
ties entered the colonial departments. Owing, however, to the
fact that survey departments are expected to produce revenue by
charging fees for surveys of property boundaries, some of the per-
sonnel who subsequently come to hold responsible positions, gain
little experience of work other than that in property survey.
Some authorities hold that in many areas in Africa survey work
can best be carried out by officers and men seconded from the
Royal Engineers, the reason being mainly that geodetic survey
is best handled by a central organization. It is true that this
method costs less than the maintenance of large local survey de-
partments, but if, as usual, an officer has only a short term of duty
in Africa, part of that time must be spent in learning the local
difficulties and these must be learned afresh by his successor. Offi-
cials in Africa have said that this lack of continuity has hampered
the progress of mapping in many areas. Particularly on the West
Coast it has been asserted that the work done by Royal Engineer
officers is generally no more accurate, though more expensive,
than that done by civilian personnel. This does not apply to self-
contained pieces of work such as a boundary survey or a portion
of a geodetic arc (see below), but for ordinary topographical work
there are advantages in the employment of personnel who have to
live where their maps are constantly under review and criticism.
While, therefore, for maintenance it is probably best to employ
men whose careers lie in Africa, for first production there are ad-
vantages to be gained by making use of military personnel in some
colonies, at any rate until such time as local cadres can be built up.
The justification for using army personnel is that the experience
is valuable and that the army is willing to pay for it to the extent
of bearing the cost of part, or all, of the salaries of the officers if
necessary.
SURVEYS AND MAPS 39
AFRICANS
In some territories much of the routine fieldwork, such as plane-
tabling and drawing, is generally done by highly paid European
officials, though it could be done efficiently by suitably trained
Africans. In West Africa natives are employed much more for
these purposes than in the East, and it is worth recording the num-
ber of staff for purposes of comparison. In the Gold Coast the
European staff consists of fifteen, the duties of five of whom are
mainly administrative; two work on the triangulation framework,
one is in charge of topography and three are on cadastral survey.
There are forty-five African surveyors who do all the field work,
with the exception of the main triangulation and the observation
of astro-radio points, and require very little supervision. In the
drawing, computing, and printing offices of the department, each
of which is in charge of a European, forty-six Africans are per-
manently at work. These offices prepare all the diagrams and
drawings required by other government departments, and also
print maps for Sierra Leone, which started its own topographical
work in 1927. To train this large African staff a special survey
course of three years was organized by the department and ten
pupils per annum were passed out as surveyors. The school was
closed down in 1930 as a result of economy cuts, but was reopened
in October 1937. Any boys passing out of the survey school could
sit for the licensed surveyors’ examination and undertake individual
property work for mining concessions, etc. A large number did
so, and there are now only three European licensed surveyors still
at work in the Gold Coast. The department of Nigeria is roughly
the same size as that of the Gold Coast, there being forty-three
African surveyors, including two on staff appointments on a par
with Europeans, forty draughtsmen and seven lithographers. The
department likewise has its own drawing and printing offices and
had until recently its own survey school.
In East Africa, courses in surveying are given in Uganda and
Tanganyika, where students from Zanzibar are also taken; but
shortage of skilled African personnel is acutely felt. ‘The Director
of Lands and Mines in ‘Tanganyika recommends the centralization
of a training establishment at Makerere, whence the East African
group of territories could obtain recruits, His colleague in Uganda,
40 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
however, prefers a system of departmental training (East Africa
1937). Brigadier Winterbotham has suggested that African survey-
ors could be recruited through military channels, and has pointed
out that the King’s African Rifles already train numbers of signal
boys; he considers that a similar education directed to surveying
would supply the right class of material. As an example of the
use of military training, in Northern Rhodesia the survey platoon
of the King’s African Rifles was absorbed by the survey depart-
ment in 1932. The personnel was originally selected from natives
of a very low standard of education, but a limited number of
them, after two years’ training in the drawing office, are now
producing work of a high standard. These proposals by Brigadier
Winterbotham were not, however, adopted by the governments
concerned.
Against the view that African surveyors should be recruited on
military lines it may be urged that some background of general
education is desirable. Furthermore cadastral survey, which pro-
vides fixed and mechanical tasks, is probably the best immediate
apprenticeship for topography which, more than any other sur-
veying operations, calls for individual judgement. It appears that
the only satisfactory way of training Africans for survey work is to
obtain candidates of as good educational qualifications as possible
and give them a three or four years’ technical course, which will
include both theory and practice, at a properly constituted school
or training institution.
There seems to be a general demand for native auxiliary staff in
all East Africa, except perhaps Kenya, where there is no use for
plane-tablers at present, because the topographical work is at a
standstill. In Kenya, moreover, there is no printing office for the
reproduction of maps (other than sun-printing by hand), so that
there is no demand for skilled labour in printing, and most of the
drawing is done by Indians,
RESULTS
GEODETIC TRIANGULATION
As has been emphasized above, relatively little geodetic work
has been accomplished in Africa, compared with most other parts
SURVEYS AND MAPS 41
of the world. The British territories, other than Northern Rhodesia
and Nyasaland, and most of the non-British areas have completed
a primary triangulation network over the more important areas,
and some secondary and tertiary triangulation has been done, so
that maps can be drawn individually, but there is little to connect
these separate pieces of work. Thus Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast,
and Nigeria have reasonably accurate maps which are in no way
correlated across the intervening French territories.
In certain noteworthy instances international co-operation has
led to the thorough demarcation of boundaries on a geodetic basis,
such, for instance, as the Congo-Angola boundary, the Congo-
Uganda boundary surveyed in 1908, and the boundary between
the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and French Equatorial Africa, settled
in 1921-3. But many international boundaries are ill-defined, and
there are cases on record where points fixed astronomically many
years ago have been found recently to be as much as 10 or 20
kilometres in error. It is obvious that, should mineral resources be
discovered in the neighbourhood of international boundaries,
errors of this magnitude may lead to difficulties; but a much more
potent reason for proceeding immediately with geodetic triangula-
tion is that the lack of framework has held back topographical and
cadastral work.
The geodetic work essential as a preliminary to an adequate sur-
vey of Africa comprises two or three meridional chains and at least
as many parallels at right angles to them, cutting across all inter-
national boundaries. In the immediate future the piece of work
which demands attention is the completion of the arc of the goth
meridian. Later the parallel of 10° north may be looked to,
passing through French Guinea, Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast,
Togoland, Dahomey, Nigeria, the Gameroons, the French Sudan,
Abyssinia, British Somaliland, and Italian Somaliland. A chain
of triangulation fixed along this parallel will greatly assist the de-
~marcation of the boundaries. It is worth noting that the present
programme of the Gold Coast survey department includes the
measurement of a chain of triangulation between Wa and Gam-
baga in the northern territories, lying between the 1oth and 11th
parallels.
In recent years British policy has been to regard geodetic tri-
42 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
angulation as the responsibility of the local administrations, but
lack of resources and trained personnel make it difficult for them
to carry out the work. Other geodetic work, together with level-
ling with a view to topographical maps, is progressing well in
certain British territories, particularly Nigeria, the Gold Coast and
Tanganyika. In the Gold Coast the full survey is complete as far
northas 7°30’ N. latitude, and the framework to 10° 30’ N.. Nigeria,
having a much greater area, is not so well placed, and the Surveyor-
general estimates that an expenditure of £15,000 to £20,000 is
required to complete the framework, after which the department
will be in a position to proceed steadily with topography. In
Tanganyika a scheme was prepared in 1925 primarily with the
object of incorporating all known triangulations within a proper
net, the chains of triangles being arranged to pass through the
areas of most economic importance, as indicated by the presence of
minerals, European colonization and dense native population. A
loan of nearly £24,000 was received from the Colonial Develop-
ment Fund, and progress has been rapid. This survey will form
the subject of a special report by the Director of Surveys, and sum-
maries of progress, with maps showing the completed and pro-
posed chains of triangles, are included in recent annual reports of
the survey department.
In the Belgian Congo geodetic surveys have been carried out in
the following regions: for the Bas-Congo, a boundary triangulation
has been almost completed along the Belgian-Angola boundary
by collaboration between the two administrations. The boundary
between the Congo and Northern Rhodesia has also been fixed by
triangulation from the Luapula River to the Congo-Zambesi
divide, and along the divide as far as the 24th meridian East; this
was done by Belgians and British in collaboration. In Ruanda-
Urundi, a complete secondary triangulation has been carried out
and another line of secondary triangulation extends westward
from the north end of Lake Albert. Commandant Maury, the
Director of Surveys at the Belgian Ministry for Colonies, has
planned a line of triangulation roughly following the fifth parallel
south, in order to join the Bas-Congo with the Ruanda triangula-
tion and the 3oth arc when complete. Then it is proposed to work
round the great north bend of the Congo from the Bas-Congo to
SURVEYS AND MAPS 43
join the fifth parallel about where it cuts the 27th meridian, Maury
(1934) has published a detailed account of all the triangulation in
the eastern part of the Congo. A large part of the Katanga has
been triangulated by the Service Géographique et Géologique du
Comité Spécial du Katanga.
In Mozambique geodetic triangulation has been carried out on
_ the frontiers and in the Tete District, where 130,000 square kilo-
metres have been covered. This system has been carried along the
parallel of 15° South and connects with the main triangulation
chain of the Rhodesias. In Angola geodetic triangulations have
been carried along most of the boundaries by special commissions,
but in many areas framework for mapping depends on points
located by astronomical observations. Similarly in Portuguese
Guinea, geodetic work is limited to the frontiers.
A correlation of triangulation in the Congo, Kenya, Uganda,
and Tanganyika by connection with short chains of triangles
would be desirable. The Uganda triangulation is based on a
small completed sector of the arc of the 30th meridian, and work in
Tanganyika will connect with the sector of this arc recently com-
pleted there, but correlation cannot be entirely satisfactory until
these two sectors are joined and a wider gap to the north of Uganda
is also filled. Therefore, the history of the triangulation of the 3oth
arc and the possibilities of continuing it are summarized in the
following paragraphs based upon an Ordnance Survey Publication
(1933).
ARC OF 30th MERIDIAN
Proceeding northwards from South Africa, the section of this
arc through Cape Province, Transvaal, and Southern Rhodesia
was completed at the beginning of the century under Sir David
Gill, and was continued in Northern Rhodesia in 1903-7 (results
published by the War Office in 1933). This work was resumed in
1931-3 and extended to the boundary between Tanganyika Terri-
tory and Ruanda-Urundi under Major Hotine, a distance of 402
miles at a cost of £17,000, funds being provided by the Northern
Rhodesian and Tanganyika Governments and the Colonial De-
velopment Fund. From here there is a gap in Ruanda-Urundi of
315 kilometres from 4° 20’ S. to 1° 30’ S.,, followed by a small strip
44 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
of Tanganyika of 55 kilometres, 1° 30’ to 1° 00’ S. For the com-
pletion of this small stretch the Belgians are ready to co-operate
and have finished the preliminary reconnaissance work. Alter-
natively it could be carried entirely through British territory
by deviating through Tanganyika, at an approximate cost of
£2,000, ifin conjunction with other work, or £6,000 if the subject
of a special expedition.
Passing north, the Uganda sector from 1° S. to 10’ N., was com-
pleted by a special Anglo-Belgian operation carried out in imme-
diate sequence to the Boundary Commission of 1908. Following
on this, there is a large gap comprising a small piece of Northern
Uganda, 275 kilometres, and the whole of the Sudan, as far as the
Egyptian border at 22° N. The portion from the Egyptian frontier
to Cairo was completed in 1930: quoting from a statement by
F. S. Richards: “Geodetic survey was started in Egypt in 1908 with
the object of completing the Egyptian portion of the 30th meridian
arc. Before starting work Captain H. G. Lyons (Sir Henry Lyons)
sought the best advice available and eventually decided to use
methods similar to those used by Sir David Gill at the Cape. So
well was the foundation laid that there has been practically no
change in methods or instruments up to the present time. The
triangulation chain from Cairo to Halfa, which is claimed to have
as high a degree of precision as any geodetic survey in the world,
was completed in 1930.”!
The importance of completing this arc is stressed by every
authority on the subject. The Ruanda-Urundi gap would be easy
to close, since the country is open and most of the necessary expen-
sive instruments used recently by Major Hotine are already in use
by the geodetic branch of the survey departments in Tanganyika
and in Northern Rhodesia. The Sudan gap presents greater diffi-
culties; the northern part from the Egyptian border to Khartoum ,
is easy desert country, and its completion would consist simply in
extending the Egyptian work, but the southern part from Khar-
toum to Uganda cuts directly through the sudd area of the White
Nile, where triangulation is recognized to be impossible, so devia-
tion is necessary. The best way would be to make a complete
circuit round the sudd area, but, if this involves too much work,
2 Private Memorandum.
SURVEYS AND MAPS 45
valuable results would be achieved by deviating to the east along
the Abyssinian-Sudan frontier and thus fixing this vague frontier
on a geodetic basis. It has been estimated roughly that £40,000
to £50,000 would be necessary for this work, which, with £2,000
for the Ruanda sector, makes a heavy sum, most of which would
be expended on salaries for European officials. The outlay would
be large but by the time the work was finished there would already
be some return of an indirect kind. Brigadier Winterbotham has
pointed out, moreover, that the completion of the 30th arc would
cost Africa very little if the War Office were persuaded to lend
staff. Engineer officers have to gain experience, and work in this
region would provide the best possible training.
TOPOGRAPHY AND PUBLICATION OF MAPS
An important centre for British Africa is the Geographical Sec-
tion, General Staff, of the War Office, where small-scale maps are
published for all British Africa and maps of foreign territories are
prepared when required for strategic purposes. The principal
series is on a scale of 1:2,000,000 (314 miles to the inch), and covers
the whole Continent in thirty-four sheets, of which most are now
on sale. This series is published by the British War Office and the
French Service Géographique de l’ Armée in collaboration, but the
data on which mapsare based are usually provided by the territories
themselves; for instance the Belgian Congo provided documenta-
tion for the two sheets covering the Upper Congo and the Congo
Forest. The French Service has also just completed the publication
of a 1:5,000,000 series covering the continent in twenty-four sheets.
Of the 1:1,000,000 series, eighty-two sheets are published. The
Geographical Section, General Staff, has in the past published a
number of topographical maps of British territories, on scales of
1:250,000, and 1:125,000, but it has handed over this duty to local
survey departments where these have been formed. Thus it no
longer tries to maintain any series besides the 1:2,000,000, except
for countries like Somaliland where no survey organization exists.
It should be pointed out that many of the old 1:250,000 maps are
little more than reconnaissance sheets. To suggest how unsatisfac-
tory the maps of ten and twenty years ago are for present purposes,
it is worth instancing a recent case where an engineer made an
46 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
eleven-mile error in the position of an important steel bridge by
mistaking a 1913 mail-runner’s path marked on the map for the
‘sreat north road’ of 1925.
The old plane-table surveys were incorporated in a series of
sheets on a projection reasonably good for the purpose, and on a
well thought out numbering and arrangement. But as triangula-
tion grows, and as the property surveys come into a rigid frame-
work, it becomes important and economical to work upon a more
flexible projection. South Africa already has such a system, but
has adopted certain methods which are unsuitable for topographi-
cal purposes. Accordingly Brigadier MacLeod, after the Confer-
ence of Empire Survey Officers in 1931 and again in 1935, put for-
ward an alternative method for projection of the 1:250,000 series,
whereby the whole of Africa is divided into meridional belts each
representing six degrees of longitude.!- His memorandum on the
subject has been circulated to survey departments, etc., and it
seems highly desirable that some international agreement should
be reached. Commandant Maury has already used a somewhat
similar scheme for projection by dividing part ofthe Belgian Congo
into meridional belts.
It would clearly be desirable that a unified system of map pro-
jection should be adopted at an early date by all countries holding
territory in Africa. The rate of publication of maps is accelerating
so rapidly that a change in the method of projection, say in ten
years’ time, would entail great cost and perhaps for this reason
alone could not be accomplished.
This question is closely connected with that of the unit of
measurement to be adopted. The international metre is the only
unit to which the French, Belgians, Italians, Portuguese, and
Spanish Governments are likely to agree. Egypt already uses the
metre, and the case for its adoption generally appears to be very
strong, as pointed out by Brigadier MacLeod (1936). It would
involve certain difficulties in the British territories, where the sur-
vey work so far done has been in feet, particularly since, if the
metre were adopted, the change would probably have to be ex-
tended to cadastral surveys. A full statement of the various argu-
1 6° belts were unacceptable to Tanganyika, where work is in progress using
meridional belts of 5°.
SURVEYS AND MAPS . 47
ments for and against the change to the metric system cannot be
given here, but as far as topographical maps are concerned there
is a strong case for the adoption of a unit of length which is not
only the scientific, but also the only unit which can ever become
truly international. It is worth remembering that in the future
Africans themselves will enter more and more into active partici-
pation in surveying, and that they are the people who actually use
maps even more than the British. Also it is significant that a con-
siderable part of British Africa already has the decimal system in
coinage.
Many maps of Africa are published locally by the printing and
publishing offices of the Dominions and Colonies. Since some of
these publications are not readily available in other parts of the
continent or in Europe, reference is made to the more important
‘series’ and ‘general’ maps.! All African territories are included,
not only those south ofthe Sahara, with which the African Research
Survey has been primarily concerned.
In addition to the maps referred to under the separate territories,
the series on the scale of 1:1,000,000 of the Carte du Monde are
valuable. This series has already covered the greater part of
Northern Africa and a number of sheets have appeared for East
Africa and a few for the southern part of the continent. Full
details of the publications to date are to be found in a report issued
by the Central Bureau of the Garte du Monde (Ordnance Survey
1937). The Carte du Monde represents international effort to
co-ordinate the maps of the world, which has been in progress for
some years, and the publications indicate the important results
achieved.
t
British
The Union of South Africa has published an excellent general map
on 1:1,000,000 and has in contemplation a topographic series on
1:500,000, but no sheet has yet appeared. The War Office series
on 1:250,000 of a portion of Cape Colony is still the only topo-
graphic map of that province. The Orange Free State has a
topo-cadastral series on 1:125,000; Basutoland is embraced by the
War Office 1:250,000 series. The Transvaal has a Degree sheet
? A list of these has been kindly provided by Brigadier MacLeod.
48 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
series (farm area map), on 1,000 cape rods to 1 inch, and similarly
Natal has a 1-inch (farm area), series, but for general topographi-
cal maps these two provinces are less well provided than some of
the colonies such as Uganda or Nigeria. For the Mandated
Territory of South-West Africa, there is an excellent 1:500,000
(covering about go per cent of the country), compiled and drawn
in the Surveyor-General’s Office, Windhoek.
The Southern Rhodesia Survey and Geological Survey Depart-
ments have produced isolated topographic maps for land develop-
ment and the former has published recently a 1:500,000 and a
I:250,000 series.
For Northern Rhodesia the old 1:1,000,000, published by the War
Office, is still regarded as the standard map, though recognized
to be inaccurate. The territory is also covered by a local roughly
compiled map on 1:250,000. This is being superseded by a greatly
improved and more reliable series on the same scale which will
embody the recent air surveys.
For Nyasaland the old War Office publications on 1:1,000,000
and 1:250,000 were found by the Lands Officer to be seriously
out of date by 1922. Information from District Gommissioners and
others has been incorporated in a new general map on 1:1,000,000
and in district maps on 1:250,000, which are published locally by
the Lands Office. More accurate maps cannot be prepared with-
out a triangulation survey from which the topographical details
can be developed.
The whole of Tanganyika is covered by a War Office 1:1,000,000
series compiled during the War from very indifferent material.
The Survey Department has recently done some topographical
work in connection with land development; so also has the Geo-
logical Survey Department. A series of square degree sheets on
the scale of 1:250,000 are being compiled and a number are already
published.
Kanzibar Island is being topographically mapped on the 6-inch
to 1-mile scale by the local Public Works Department and Pemba
Island is published on 1-inch to 1-mile by the War Office.
In Kenya organized topographical surveys were begun in 1908
and ended six years later when the officers and N.C.O.s of the
Royal Engineers were recalled to their units on the outbreak of
SURVEYS AND MAPS | 49
war. The series of maps published by the War Office are on a scale
of 1:250,000, and a few sheets on 1:125,000. These cover about
one quarter of the country, and the remainder will be incorporated
in a new War Office 1:500,000 series now in hand. The country
therefore relies on maps which are now much out of date and do
not show roads, but the original fieldwork was of a high standard
and the sheets could be cheaply and quickly revised. The Tri-
gonometrical and Topographical branch of the Survey Depart-
ment was finally closed down in 1921, when the Government
decided that the only essential surveys were those of farms and
town plots for alienation. After the visit of Brigadier Winterbotham
in 1929, a proposal was made to revive the topographical section
on a small scale with a view to this revision, but this was rejected
as part of the economy measures of 1930. The only topographical
survey of any importance which has been carried out since the War
is one of a portion of the Kakamega Goldfields which was done in
1932 on a scale of 1:62,500. It is clear that a topographic branch
and a publishing office are badly needed as additions to the Survey
Department.
Uganda, which publishes its own maps, showing roads and other
recent developments, has 1:1,000,000 and 1:500,000 maps of the
whole country. Also there are produced a 1:50,000 series, designed
as a key to property surveys combined in some areas with topo-
graphy, and a topographic 1:250,000 which, with the rather out-
of-date War Office series on the same scale, covers more than half
of the country. For the remainder, compiled 1:250,000 District
maps are available.
The Nigerian Survey Department has produced compiled maps
on 1:1,000,000 and 1:500,000 which are kept well up to date.
There are also recent topographic maps on 1:125,000, and 1:62,500,
but only a relatively small area is at present published (about
12 per cent of the area in the 1:125,000 series). For geographical
purposes the Survey Department published in 1933 a valuable
series of 1:3,000,000 maps of Nigeria, showing relief, communica- ~
tions, temperature, rainfall in wet and dry seasons, vegetation,
population density and products. These were modified and re-
duced for inclusion in the Handbook of Nigeria (1933).
The Gold Coast Survey Department produces topographic series
C
50 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
ON 1:250,000, I: 125,000, and 1:62,500; the combined area covered
represents about 80 per cent of the country, but of this 21 per
cent was done before the war and is now seriously out of date.
During the depression the topographical branch was cut down to
a mere nucleus and very little new survey—apart from revision—
has been done. The department considers that it is not advisable
to undertake further topographical work in the Northern Terri-
tories until the possibility of air survey has been investigated (see
page 58). In 1935 the Survey Department published a useful atlas of
the Gold Coast including fourteen maps of the whole territory on
a scale of 1:500,000, showing geographic data such as relief,
geology, population, rainfall, forests, products, etc.
Sierra Leone has been topographically surveyed on 1:62,500 by
the local Survey Department, but so far only about half of the
sheets have been printed. The War Office 1:500,000 map is based
on this survey, but contours are not shown.
For the Gambia, which has only a Lands Department, the only
general maps are the War Office publications on 1:500,000 and
I:250,000. |
Somaliland has no Survey Department. The only maps are War
Office publications on 1:1,000,000 and 1:250,000. The latter, much
out of date, will be superseded by a new series now in preparation.
The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan Survey Department publishes a com- *
piled 1:250,000 series which is systematically revised as new data
accumulate. It publishes also International 1:1,000,000 sheets.
Egypt
The seven sheets of the International one million map which
cover Egypt were completed in 1934. In addition to these the
whole country is covered by a provisional 1:500,000 which
soon will be superseded by a better series. Lower Egypt, the Nile
to Aswan, the Red Sea Coast, the Northern Littoral and the whole
Peninsula of Sinai on the 1:100,000 scale, and nearly all Lower
Egypt, some of the oases and part of the Nile are topographically
mapped on 1:25,000. All these maps were produced in Egypt. For
Northern and Central Sinai the War Office 1:250,000 and 1:125,000
series are still the only contoured maps, but these are being replaced
by a new series produced in Egypt.
SURVEYS AND MAPS 51
French
For general maps of all the French territories the magnificent
Atlas des Colonies Frangaises, edited by M. Grandidier (1933), is a
most important reference work. It includes orographical, political,
geological, rainfall, economic, and other maps, and must be of
great value to all concerned with administration or development.
Such a publication for the British territories would be invaluable.
The Service Géographique de ’ Armée, Paris, publishes of Algeria
1:200,000 and 1:50,000; of Tunisia 1:200,000, 1:100,000, and
1:50,000; the same Department and its sub-section, the Service
Géographique du Maroc, produces 1:200,000, 1:100,000 and
1:50,000 of Morocco. There is also a general series on 1:500,000
which extends well into the Sahara.
For French West Africa the Service Géographique de l’Armée re-
produces the final editions of the maps prepared by the Service
Géographique de l'Afrique Occidentale Francaise at Dakar. All
French West Africa and the adjoining countries are covered by
sheets on the 1:1,000,000 scale published in Paris and the Dakar
department has produced a compiled series on 1:500,000. There
is in addition a 1:200,000 series of parts of Senegal, Guinea, the
Ivory Coast, Niger Colony, Sudan, and Mauritania, a 1:100,000
of a small part of Senegal and of Southern Dahomey, and a
1:50,000 of part of French Guinea.
For French Equatorial Africa there is a 1:1,000,000 map published
in 1935 by the Service Géographique de Armée. Other small-
scale maps have been published by the same organization and by
the Ministry of Colonies.
The Cameroons and Togoland areas administered by the French
are covered by the 1:1,000,000 mentioned above. They have no
general series other than the German compiled maps on 1:300,000
for the Gameroons and 1:200,000 for Togoland. Small-scale maps
of both areas are published by the Ministry of Colonies, Paris.
French Somaliland is mapped by the same Ministry, the largest
scale being 1:500,000.
Madagascar has an active survey and mapping establishment. It
possesses 1:200,000 and 1:100,000 topographic maps which mark
steady progress. Various small-scale general maps are also pro-
duced.
52 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Belgian
The Belgian administration has carried out a large-scale pro-
gramme of map production, the results of which are of high value.
A 1:5,000,000 map of the whole Congo, for instance, is published
in five editions, political, communications, orographical, hydro-
graphical, and geological. ‘The whole Congo 1s covered also on the
scale of 1:1,000,000, and a new series on 1:500,000 compiled from
all sources is in production. There is a rough topographic series
on 1:100,000 of the lower Congo and a provisional 1:100,000 of
Ruanda-Urundi. All of these are published by the Ministry of
Colonies, Brussels.
The Comité Spécial du Katangais publishing an excellent contoured
1:200,000 series of their territory. The topographical, geological,
soil, and vegetation work is published in maps and separate leaf-
lets as well as in the magnificent Atlas du Katanga (1929 onwards).
Italian
Tripolt and vicinity is mapped on 1:200,000, 1:100,000, and
1:25,000; Benghazi and the adjoining country on _ 1:200,000,
1:50,000, and 1:25,000. For the whole of Libya there are com-
piled series on 1:800,000 and 1:400,000, neither of which is com-
plete. The Instituto Geografico Militare, the Ministero delle
Colonie and the local services of Tripolitania and Cirenaica have
all participated in the mapping of Libya.
Eritrea is mapped by the Instituto Geografico Militare and the
Ministero delle Colonie. For the whole country there is a compiled
1:400,000, and contoured 1:100,000 and 1:50,000 series exist for
small areas.
For Italian Somaliland the Ministero delle Colonie is publishing a
compiled series on 1:400,000; about one-third of the colony is
completed. A small area in the Lower Juba Coastal region is
covered by topographic maps on 1:200,000, 1:100,000, and
1:50,000. Various small-scale maps are prepared by the local
geographic office at Mogadishu.
Abyssinia
There are no maps published in Abyssinia. General maps have
been published by the British War Office and the Italian Colonial
SURVEYS AND MAPS 53
Office, the scale in each case being 1:2,000,000. The best map,
on I:1,000,000, was produced in 1934-7 by the Instituto Geografico
Militare, covering all Abyssinia. The frontier areas are also well
covered by the series of the adjoining countries.
Portuguese Colontes
Angola is mapped by the Ministerio das Colonias, Lisbon,
1:1,500,000 being the scale adopted.
Mozambique is mapped by the same authority. Three Inter-
national 1:1,000,000 sheets have appeared, but the best map is
by the Direcg¢ao dos Servigos de Agrimensura, Lourengo Marques,
on I:I,000,000.
Portuguese Guinea is mapped on 1:500,000 by the Ministerio das
Colonias.
Spanish
For Morocco maps from 1:1,000,000 to 1:100,000 of part or the
whole of the territory exist, and a new 1:50,000 topographic series
is in rapid production.
Rio de Oro, Ifni, and Spanish Guinea are indifferently surveyed.
The best maps are made by the Madrid Geographical Society.
Liberia
The maps of this State are not much more than skeleton in form.
The latest, called a preliminary base map, is published by the
Department of State, Monrovia, on 1:600,000.
AIR SURVEY
Recent development in air survey has led many to suggest that
in it lies an obvious solution to the problem of mapping the
enormous unsurveyed areas of Africa, and much enthusiasm has
been expressed at the rapidity with which results have been
achieved. On the other hand some authorities, while appreciating
the great value that air survey can render in certain special cir-
cumstances, consider that general mapping programmes can be
carried out more efficiently and more economically by the well-
tested methods of ground survey. In order to appreciate air survey
54 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
in relation to other branches of development, it seems best to con-
sider the value of air photography in two aspects: (1) as a method
of making maps, and (2) as a means of showing the resources of a
country apart from the mere plotting of physiographic features.
It should be realized that the air photograph cannot in any way
replace triangulation, the fixing of a number of prominent features
to form the groundwork for a map. It is in the later stages of sur-
vey, for which the plane-table is generally used, that the camera
has many advantages. For topographical air survey in country like
so much of Africa, where the triangulation network is incomplete
or non-existent, strong ground control parties are required in order
to fix the position of features which can be recognized in the
photographs. The minimum distance between ground control
points depends, of course, on the scale of mapping, but as a rule
such points cannot be more than about ten miles distant from each
other on account of photographic distortion. Using a wide-angle
lens or a multilens camera for small-scale work, it is claimed that
the distance can considerably exceed this figure without loss of
accuracy.
In highly mapped countries like Great Britain air survey has
proved of much value in bringing existing maps up to date by
showing recent developments in the form of buildings, roads, and
rails, and this type of air survey has been applied also in Tangan-
yika in connection with town-planning, etc. It represents a special
case, however, and has little to do with the question at issue—
whether the aeroplane and camera have advantages over the theo-
dolite, level, and plane-table in the mapping of unsurveyed areas.
In putting forward a few arguments both for and against air sur-
veying in the following paragraphs, it is not intended to suggest
that it is an alternative to ground surveying, but rather that the
aeroplane and camera are instruments of survey which can with
advantage be added to those in more general use.
The time and cost of air and ground surveys have often been
compared. At a discussion on Topographic Air Survey at the 1931
Conference of Empire Survey Officers (1932), 1t was concluded
that for small areas of open undulating country the plane-table is
cheaper, but for large areas this is probably not the case. Against
this, recent experience of the Survey of India was that ground
SURVEYS AND MAPS 55
work proved to be cheaper in a country which would appear to be
much more suitable for the camera than is most of Africa. Com-
parison of cost is not really very helpful, however, because air
survey is valuable particularly in those places where ground sur-
vey, owing to lack of communications, can either not be done at
all or is unduly expensive. In swampy country such as the sudd
region of the White Nile, and possibly round Lakes Bangweulu
and Mweru, the advantage lies entirely with air work. In heavily
forested land also, the general configuration can be shown more
cheaply by air survey, although details like bush paths may be
obscured. Such features can best be inserted by ground traverses
after the photographic mosaic is complete.
A topographical map must of course be reasonably accurate in
three dimensions, and although contouring from air photographs
gives promise of a great future, it cannot yet compete in cost or
accuracy with ground work, except in special types of country
such as precipitous or broken land covered with vegetation, where
ground survey is exceedingly difficult. H. Hemming (1933) gives
an example of such a case in South America where air survey for
a proposed railway line proved to cost one-eighth as much as
estimates for work on the ground.
A full account of methods used in surveying from air photo-
graphs has been published by Major Hotine (1931). ‘Two methods
are commonly employed. One consists of taking oblique photo-
graphs and scaling them to the form of a plan by means of a
vertical grid. This method shows general topographical features,
but is of little value for contours or for ascertaining land poten-
tialities.1. The other method employed for contouring from the
air depends on taking vertical photographs always in overlapping
series, from which trained draughtsmen can plot heights by stereo-
graphic methods. The mosaic of photographs together with the
map drawn from them gives a complete picture of the land and
is most useful for revealing natural resources, but the method is
expensive and can only be employed where the land is already
known to have high potential value, for mineral resources, forest
exploitation or farming. The time required for the cartographical
? Contoured maps have been made from oblique air photographs for some parts
of the world, for instance East Greenland. The necessary apparatus is very costly and
does not exist in either Great Britain or Africa.
56 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
stages of aerial survey is very considerable, and since the cost of
draughtsmen capable of contouring from air photographs may
be as high as, or higher than, that of the plane-tabler who works in
the field, it is clear that claims for extreme rapidity or lower costs
of air survey should be made with caution. The perfecting and
speeding up of a mechanical technique for contouring from air
photographs may be hoped for before many years pass, and should
then alter the balance in favour of air work. Another and more
recent review of methods of air survey and the apparatus at present
available is given in the second Report of the Air Survey Com-
mittee (1935). This Committee grew from a suggestion of the
Army Council in 1919, and now includes representatives of the
War Office, Air Ministry, Admiralty, Ordnance Survey, and
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. An appendix
to their most recent report analyses the cost of air survey based on
the future existence of an air survey organization on a permanent
basis, undertaking operations on a large scale. In undeveloped
country where land transport is difficult, the cost of survey is esti-
mated for an area of 1,000,000 square miles, which would entail six
years devoted to air photography. The total cost, including photo-
graphic material, but not the production of maps, works out at
23s. per square mile. For smaller areas this cost would be con-
siderably more, rising to 180s. per square mile for an area of 500
square miles, and it would be much higher in urbanized areas.
At present the situation with regard solely to the production of
maps may be summed up in the words of Brigadier MacLeod who,
as former Chairman of the Air Survey Committee, is by no means
an antagonist: ‘Wherever there are sufficient communications, or
there is a reasonable choice between the two methods as alterna-
tive, ground methods are, from the purely survey point of view,
almost always better for a given standard of accuracy.’
Air survey provides, however, not only topographical maps
drawn from the photographs, but the photographs themselves, and
this introduces the second aspect of the question, namely air photo-
graphy as a means of showing the natural resources of a country.
In choosing routes for railways and roads, sites for townships and so
forth, air photographs have already saved much laborious ground
work in some places. In addition to this the distribution of vegeta-
SURVEYS AND MAPS 57
tion, and geological features, such as outcrops, faults, dykes, and
sometimes even the location of mineral resources which would be
unnoticeable to the ground worker, can be seen at a glance by the
expert. The differences in soils can often be revealed by the actinic
eye of the camera, and recent work in Australia has shown that on
flat plains much can be learned concerning underlying geological
structures by studying soil in this way. The type and extent of
native agriculture and the location of native villages can also be
seen at a glance.
As a particular example, though not from Africa, reference may
be made to the recent air survey of the forest-covered Irrawaddy
Delta, carried out in 1924 (Kemp and others 1925). The total cost
was under Rs. 300 per square mile compared with about Rs. 500
for ground work which would have given no indication of forest
types. The time for all stages did not much exceed one year com-
pared with some three to four years on the ground. The Irrawaddy
Delta is far more favourable than most of Africa by reason of its
lack of ground relief, but the example shows the advantage of air
survey under suitable conditions.
The only air survey carried out by Government in British Africa
has been in Tanganyika, where an Air Survey Section was esta-
blished in 1931. Since then, most of the important townships and
harbours have been photographed, and in 1934 assistance was
given to the Zanzibar Government in taking air photographs
for town-planning and cadastral purposes (Tanganyika 1933,
Deh). )
The principal companies which have operated in Africa to date
are: H. Hemming @ Partners, Ltd., who, through the agency of
their operating companies, Geological Air Surveys, Ltd., and
African Air Surveying Co. (Pty.) Ltd., have carried out extensive
operations in South Africa, principally for mining companies. An
air survey of the Witwatersrand Reef is in progress at the moment.
Mr. H. Hemming (1933 and 1934, etc.) has written a number of
articles stressing the value of air work both in mapping and in
revealing natural resources. The Aircraft Operating Company,
Ltd., and the Aircraft Operating Company of Africa, Ltd.,! have
+ This branch company with headquarters at Johannesburg is now in the charge
of Mr. Robbins who has stressed the value of air photographs in plant ecology and
whose work in this connection is mentioned in Chapter vi.
58 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
undertaken a variety of surveys on various scales from 1:4,800 to
1:250,000. In Northern Rhodesia an area of some 72,000 square
miles was mapped on the smaller scale for the Government for
general administrative purposes, and in 1930 the Northern
Rhodesia-Katanga Boundary survey was based to some extent on
their photograph work. ‘They have also photographed a large area
of the Kavirondo District, Kenya, for prospecting companies,
in connection with the recent gold developments, as well as a
number of mining concessions in the Union and the Rhodesias.
They mapped another stretch of country for the Beit Railway
Trust which shows the Imperial Airways Route through Northern
Rhodesia. It must be stated, however, that these surveys are un-
contoured and therefore of small value for the development of
communications.
These two companies have also interested themselves in the
possibilities of aerial survey in West Africa, and have made pre-
liminary inspections of parts of Nigeria and the Gold Coast. In
the Gold Coast heavy vegetation in the Colony and Ashanti would
probably make air survey impossible, or at any rate of little use
for mapping, particularly since maps on scales of 1 inch and 2
inches to the mile are already published for the whole area; but
an air survey of the Northern Territories has been proposed,
though it is objected by the Survey Department that sufficient
framework does not exist. In a few years, however, the primary
framework will be practically complete and, once this is so, a con-
centrated effort on topography would soon establish fixed points
which would be close enough to enable a survey from the air to
be satisfactory. The lack of prominent ground features might be
a difficulty, but this could probably be overcome by clearing small
areas of bush or making other marks which would show up on the
photographs. The fate of air survey in the Gold Coast will depend
largely on the results obtained by prospectors who are now work-
ing on the undeveloped gold areas. If the fields are really valuable
the expense of air survey will probably be justifiable.
The Air Survey Company has recently completed a very exten-
sive piece of work in the Sudan and Uganda for the Physical
Department of Egypt. It is concerned with the schemes for the
proposed Lake Albert barrage and the possible deviation of the
SURVEYS AND MAPS 59
Bahr-el-Jebel.1. The work was hampered by bad visibility, par-
ticularly in the dry season, and the country is of course difficult,
but it is quite certain that the mass of detail about the swamp areas
could have been collected in no other way. For the purpose in
view, precise levelling is required, of a higher standard than is
usually included in ground control for air survey. The main lines
of levels are already complete (Hurst and Phillips 1933).
In French West Africa, over the Gold Coast border where the
country is open and the rivers give easy ground control, consider-
able areas have been photographed with success, and these activi-
ties are being extended. Another foreign area where air survey
combined with thorough ground work has proved successful is the
Lower Belgian Congo. This was done by the Compagnie Aérienne
Frangaise. Apart from this and the survey of the boundary be-
tween Katanga and Northern Rhodesia referred to above, no air
survey has been attempted yet in the Belgian Congo except in a
small corner of Katanga, where some air photographs have been
used in preparing the detailed series of published maps. It was
found to be too expensive and less efficient in results than ground
work and so was discontinued, but this small experiment cannot of
course be held to show that air survey is of no value in Katanga.
In the case of the surveys carried out by commercial firms under
special contract for mining companies, the results are confidential
and are not released to science for several years. Where photo-
graphs have been made available for examination, little advantage
has so far been taken of the opportunity. More extensive use could
be made of these results if local survey officers were trained to
interpret them, but it must be remembered that a scientific under-
standing of the geology, soils, and vegetation of the region in
question is at least as helpful in the interpretation of aerial photo-
graphs as any special training. In those parts of Africa where
organized air surveys would provide the best basis for develop-
ment the question of cost is important. The high cost of the air
’ The proposal has been to construct an artificial watercourse from Mongalla, to
the east of the sudd area, in order to join the existing channel of the River Sobat,
which enters the main White Nile at Malakal. The result would be to circuit the
sudd area, thereby reducing the enormous wastage of water which the sudd entails.
Probably such a flow will be left along the present channel of the Bahr-el-Jebel, as can
be carried without loss of water. This will enable water transport to follow its present
route.
60 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
surveys so far made is due partly to the necessity of employing
expert personnel for short periods. This difficulty might be met
for the British dependencies by the creation of a permanent Air
Survey Squad which could be sent to any area where information
was desired at the moment. Owing to the long consecutive periods
during which African weather conditions are suitable for photo-
graphy, one operating aircraft plus strong ground parties could
keep a considerable staff of draughtsmen occupied in making
topographical maps. In order to make the results available to the
various departments interested, liaison officers, to help in inter-
preting the photographs, might be required in the initial stages.
The desiderata of an Empire air survey organization are there-
fore: (1) Two or three aeroplanes with skilled staff. (2) Ground
control officers to relate the photographs to fixed triangulation
points. (3) A central headquarters with a technical staff to inter-
pret the photographs and to prepare maps from them. (4) In the
initial stages, experts to demonstrate the value of the photographs
to local department officers.
CHAPTER III
GEOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
A he every country in which a geological survey has been started
the economic development of the mineral resources has been
its real object and justification; scientific results are either acces-
sory or contributory to this object, or they are by-products. But
if the development of the mineral resources is the main object, the
preparation ofa geological map of the country is the chief method
employed by a survey to reach this end.’ This quotation from
Sir Thomas Holland (1934) gives in a nutshell the application of
geology to economic progress. ‘The importance of the geological
map cannot be over-emphasized, but geological surveys and maps
are dependent in their turn on good topographical maps. A sig-
nificant illustration of this fact is the development of the U.S.
Geological Survey which eventually had to become responsible
for all topographical, though not geodetic, surveying.
Although the revealing of mineral resources has been the main
object of geology in Africa up to now, much of the work done by
geological surveys is of more immediate interest to other depart-
ments as Sir Albert Kitson (1929) has shown. The characters of
many soils, especially the sedentary types, depend in large degree
on the nature of the underlying rocks.
In locating underground water-supplies geologists have been
able to indicate large artesian basins, local basins, and waterlogged
superficial deposits. Some geological departments actually under-
take boring and well-sinking operations, and during the recent
depression, the work of several of them was reduced almost
entirely to problems of water-supply. In connection with the
planning of public works, geological surveys are of value in dis-
62 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
covering rocks suitable for road metal and building material: it
is economical to take the roads, if possible, through regions where
such rocks occur. ‘The structure and nature of underlying rocks
and the depth of sound rocks below the surface are of the first
importance when deciding on foundations for bridges, large build-
ings, dams and breakwaters.
The geologist makes his contribution to the science of public
health by pointing out how the texture and porosity of under-
ground strata are related to drainage and springs. In one case
the cause of a typhoid epidemic was found to be a night soil depot
on one side of a hill, the drainage from which passed through
strata of porous rock and over the top of an underlying impervious
stratum into a spring on the other side. The spring supplied a
village which developed the infection.
Indeed, geological research, though popularly regarded as a
purely academic pursuit, has a striking variety of practical appli-
cations.
ORGANIZATION
BRITISH
In the early years of colonial development the gathering of
knowledge concerning mineral resources and geological structure
was left entirely to prospectors and the few scientists who organized
expeditions to study areas of peculiar interest. Later on, minerals
surveys were arranged in several areas, under the control of the
Imperial Institute, and these led to geological surveys, most of
which were established since the war.
In the Union of South Africa official geological work started much
earlier than elsewhere. A Geological Commission for the Cape
was set up in 1895, and was followed by independent organizations
in the Transvaal and Natal. The Natal survey was short-lived,
but the Cape and Transvaal organizations were united in 1912 to
form the Geological Survey of South Africa, which, with the
Department of Mines, comes under the general direction of the
Secretary for Mines. Of recent years the staff of the geological
survey has been considerably increased, and in 1936 comprised
a Director, an Assistant Director, twenty geologists, two mineralo-
gists and two cartographers. Particular attention is being paid
GEOLOGY 63
to the study and development of the mineral resources of the
Union, and recently a minerals development officer has been
appointed to spend part of each year in London, in order to main-
tain close touch with the markets.
The Southern Rhodesian department, built up under Mr. H. B.
Maufe (now retired), has done much work on the distribution
of economic minerals. General geological survey is also well
advanced and soils are a subject of particular study.
In the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan a Geological Department under Mr.
Grabham has accomplished valuable work, though little has yet
been published. The department is seriously under-staffed, there
being one geologist to about a million square miles.
Nearly all the British Colonies Protectorates and Mandates have
efficient Geological Departments and in ten or fifteen years valu-
able data have been accumulated. Exceptions are the Gambia,
which was the subject of a special report by the Gold Coast
department (Cooper 1927), and Somaliland, where the duties of
Director of Agriculture and geological officer are combined.!
Northern Rhodesia has no official department, but active geologi-
cal work is carried out by mining companies. In Kenya extensive
pioneering was done by the late Professor ]. W. Gregory and others,
but an official geologist was not appointed till 1933, after the dis-
covery of the Kakamega Goldfields; the staff now consists of two
geologists as part of the Mining and Geological Department.?
Fortunately the men originally appointed as directors of the well-
established Colonial Geological Surveys, such as Sir Albert E.
Kitson in the Gold Coast (retired), Dr. E. O. Teale in Tanganyika
(now appointed minerals development officer and spending part of
his time each year in London), Mr. E. J. Wayland in Uganda, Dr.
R. GC. Wilson in Nigeria, Dr. F. Dixey in Nyasaland, and Dr.
N. R. Junner in Sierra Leone (now transferred to the Gold Coast),
have realized that economic research by itself is insufficient to
ascertain the extent of mineral resources in an unknown country.
Systematic geological surveys and mapping are necessary for the
1 A survey of mineral resources was carried out in 1924 (British Somaliland 1924)
and three petroleum surveys of various parts of the country have been made on differ-
ent occasions.
2 A geological survey of the north Kavirondo area, where the goldfields occur, is in
progress, and the surveys made by concessionaires, as one of the conditions of their
exclusive prospecting licences, add to the Government’s information.
64 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
discovery, and especially for the proper development of these
resources.
In most territories the geological departments embrace the sub-
ject of mineral resources, but the granting of mining licences and
leases, and the preparation of statistics of production, are under
the mining departments. Kenya and Sierra Leone have a Depart-
ment of Geology and Mines united, and ‘Tanganyika has recently
amalgamated the former Geological Department, so that there is
now a Department of Lands and Mines at Dar-es-Salaam, with
separate divisions for Survey, Geology, and Mines at other centres
in the territory.
The staff of these departments is small, and consists usually of
four or five geologists of whom one or two may be specialist officers.
Recruitment is usually made from graduates of British Empire
universities. The opinion has been expressed by several directors
that the right sort of men, suitably trained, are by no means easy
to obtain. At present there are the following numbers of trained
geologists in the departments: Nigeria—6, Gold Coast—4, Sierra
Leone—1, Kenya—2, Uganda—4, ‘Tanganyika—5, Nyasaland—
3. Those departments which undertake well-sinking operations
have in addition engineers and other European staff; for instance,
Nigeria, which has devoted much attention to the water-supply
of the Northern Emirates, has four engineers, five European fore-
men in charge of well-sinking gangs, and one driller.
Geologists in the Gold Coast and Sierra Leone spend six months
of each year during the dry seasons working in the field and then
return to an office in London during the wet season to work up
the results. This system enables them to keep in close touch with
other geologists in England, and allows time for the field results
to be properly recorded. In Nigeria the geological department
had the same system up till 1930, but then changed to eighteen
months in West Africa, followed by six months’ leave in England.
In East Africa the tours comply with the usual two and a half
years of other departments.
The difficulty for these small staffs of combining specialized
research with routine work is great. In particular, the petrological
and chemical sides of the work are severely handicapped. At
present, Tanganyika and Uganda are the only territories with
GEOLOGY 6 5
petrological chemists permanently on the staff. Nigeria feels the
lack badly, and the Director there is obtaining an African, trained
in chemistry at the Higher College, Yaba, with a view to training
him for routine analyses. At present in Nigeria the information
gathered by the four field geologists cannot be used until the
requisite analyses are made. Although a certain amount of ana-
lytical work can be done in England at the laboratories of the
Imperial Institute and elsewhere, the long delay occasioned by
sending material to England makes this an unsatisfactory arrange-
ment. In particular the information obtained by preliminary
determinations of minerals and assays must be prompt to be of
value to prospectors.
With regard to paleontology the position is more difficult, since
every specialist is an expert on only one or two groups of fossils.
Hence, the departments must rely on specialists in England. In
Africa, however, there are comparatively few areas where it is
necessary to study stratigraphy in detail with the aid of fossils,
because the greater part of the continent is made up of ancient
or igneous rocks. Sir Thomas Holland (1934) considers that, from
experience in Great Britain, U.S.A., Canada, and elsewhere, a
minimum efficient staff for a geological survey should be twenty-
one geologists, including at least seven specialist officers, such as
petrologists and paleontologists. In view of the small funds
available from colonial governments an increase in personnel to
such numbers is impossible at present, but Sir Thomas Holland
is fully convinced that geological and mines development would
be greatly accelerated by the amalgamation of services in near-
by colonies, according to the following groups: 1. Gold Coast,
Nigeria, Sierra Leone. 2. The Rhodesias. 3. Kenya, Uganda,
Tanganyika, Nyasaland.
This question is so important that it may be considered in rather
more detail. With regard to the West African group of territories,
the Directors of Geological Surveys, though agreeing that group
amalgamation is desirable, do not consider that it is practicable
at the present time, in view of the difficulty of communications.
Moreover, the present staff consists of six geologists in Nigeria,
four in the Gold Coast, and one in Sierra Leone, so that to reach
Sir Thomas Holland’s minimum number of twenty-one, the staff
66 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
would have to be doubled and heavy expenditure would be en-
tailed in establishing suitable headquarters, laboratories, etc.
Usually about one-third of the staff would be on leave. The
difficulties involved in the creation of a unified headquarters are
likely to be increased by delay, since each territory is developing
its own reference collections and laboratory equipment. In
Nigeria there are already two reference collections of minerals,
those of the Geological Department at Kaduna and the Mines
Department at Jos. Until amalgamation is practicable, facilities
might be given to geologists to visit other British colonies and group
conferences could be organized on the lines of the conferences of
other departments, arranged in East Africa from time to time. At
present stratigraphical correlation and progress in regional geo-
logical mapping are rendered difficult through the absence of
collaboration between local departments. Exchange visits between
geologists of our colonies and those of neighbouring foreign terri-
tories might also be encouraged.
Amalgamation in East Africa would involve a measure of
financial co-operation and stability which is far from realization
at present, since geological surveys are at present extensively
financed only during periods of mining activity. Once again,
facilities for interchange visits between the officers of different
territories would be of value, and could be accomplished with
little loss of time by the new air travel. The position of Northern
Rhodesia in any co-ordinated system would be complicated by
the fact that in this territory geological studies are carried out
entirely by the mining companies. Since this grouping was pro-
posed by Sir Thomas Holland, the view has come to be accepted
that in any co-ordination of services between neighbouring terri-
tories Nyasaland would be more suitably grouped with the Rho-
desias.
The geological departments are not as a rule required to raise
any proportion of their own revenue. There are exceptions in the
case of Tanganyika and Nigeria, where boring for water 1s under- |
taken on contract for settlers or for native authorities. Apart from
such minor revenue, however, the departments as a rule do much
more than pay their way by opening up opportunities for mineral
exploitation. Thus in the Gold Coast the discoveries of the small
GEOLOGY 67
geological staff since 1913 have led to the annual export of dia-
monds and manganese to the value of one and three-quarter
million pounds (1930), the revenue from which has paid for the
upkeep of the department several times over. The story of mineral
development in Sierra Leone is even more striking. Until 1926
no minerals of economic value were known in that country, but
important deposits of gold, diamonds, iron ore and platinum were
discovered by the two government geologists during the years
1926 to 1931. These deposits are already being worked on a
large scale and the annual export of minerals was by 1935 nearly
three-quarters of a million pounds in value. The direct revenue
received by the Sierra Leone Government from diamonds alone
in the year 1935 is more than double the cost of the geological and
mines department since its formation. Again, the work of the
geological department has contributed to raise the value of ex-
ports of minerals from Tanganyika to £1,750,000, and the growing
revenue from minerals in Uganda has resulted largely from the
discoveries of the geological survey. In Nigeria much ofthe activity
of the geologists in recent years has been devoted to water-supply,
a service which it is impossible to assess in sterling value, but there
can be no doubt that the surveys of underground water carried
out there, and the well-sinking operations, will increase prosperity
to a marked degree. The department has assisted also in the
mineral development.
Northern Rhodesia as a colony has no geological survey, but much
good work has been done by the mining companies. ‘The methods
differ strikingly from those followed in territories where the mineral
rights are vested in the Crown as in most colonies, or are owned
by the native holders of the land, as in the Gold Coast Colony
and Ashanti, and deserve to be described in some detail.2 The
mineral rights in Northern Rhodesia belong to the British South
Africa Company, who have granted exclusive prospecting rights
over very large areas to three concession companies under definite
terms of obligatory expenditure. Their aim is to search for all
occurrences of economic minerals and to develop those deposits
that can be worked profitably. In 1929 over ninety geologists
1 Information supplied by J. Austin Bancroft, Consulting Geologist to the British
South Africa Company.
68 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
were engaged in this work, and the field staff in 1936 included
twenty-two geologists whose efforts were chiefly directed towards
traversing, and ten prospectors who were engaged in the trench-
ing of mineral discoveries. In addition, 679 natives were working
under the direction of the thirty-two Europeans. The staff is still
maintained at about that strength and with its aid the concession
areas are being mapped by parallel traverses one quarter of a
mile or less apart, between base lines. All rock outcrops are
examined and their positions located on the map; all streams are
systematically panned, and in areas where streams contain gold,
much soil-panning is done and all favourable-looking rocks are
crushed and panned. In the course of a year, several thousand
samples from occurrences of economic minerals are assayed in the
central laboratory. Each month, a progress map on the scale of
2 inches to 1 mile and a brief report is submitted by each member
of the field staff, and the data are compiled on map sheets on the
scale of 1 inch to 2 miles at headquarters. :
To date, more than half the territory has been mapped topo-
graphically and geologically, and it is claimed that no portion of
the earth’s surface of similar area has been more thoroughly
searched for occurrences of economic minerals. The development
of the copper, manganese, and cobalt deposits are direct results of
the activities of these companies. The information obtained is the
property of the companies, but topographical data have been sup-
plied freely to the government, and it is hoped that before long
copies of the geological map-sheets will also be available for general
use.
For the British territories other than South Africa and the
Rhodesias, the Mineral Resources Department of the Imperial Institute
in London serves important functions in supplying information
and other assistance in relation to the marketing of minerals, the
commercial valuation ofoils and similar subjects. Such an arrange-
ment will be indispensable until the individual departments have
either grown much larger or have been amalgamated so that ample
specialist work is provided for in Africa, and until special officers
are appointed to keep in touch with the markets in Europe, as has
been done in South Africa and Tanganyika.
GEOLOGY 69
FRENCH
There is a headquarters at the Ministry of Colonies in Paris
under the organization of the Inspecteur-général des Travaux Pub-
liques. Monsieur Hubert is the scientific and technical advisor.
A similar central headquarters for the French African colonies
exists in Madagascar. In addition, information is centralized in
the Bureau d’ Etudes Géologiques et Miniéres pour les Colonies Frangatses
in Paris, under the direction of Monsieur Blondel, who at the same
time is collating information from all sources for an international
geological map of Africa (see p. 71). This bureau has published
a series of volumes on the geology and mineral resources of the
French colonies, including full bibliographies. That for 1932 con-
tains a number of articles by specialists on individual colonies,
surveying the geology and the mining activity at that time. Volumes
published in 1933-5 have special reference to all the known mineral
deposits of importance; and the series was supplemented in 1934
with a volume on general aspects of the mining industries.
In each of the three major political divisions, French West
Africa, Equatorial Africa and the Cameroons, there is a geological
and a mining department as sections of the large public works
organization. ‘The system adopted in French West Africa, where
the department is the most fully organized, will serve to indicate
the scheme of work. The headquarters are at Dakar, where there
are offices and laboratories for chemistry, petrology, and paleon-
tology. Astaffof eleven geologists, of whom two or three specialize
in paleontology and the rest in petrology, is maintained. Eight of
these spend seven months each year during the dry season working
in the field, and return to Dakar to work up their results in the wet
season. The total area as far north as the 17th parallel, which
coincides roughly with the southern border of the Sahara Desert,
is to be covered by 171 map sheets on the scale of 1:200,000, each
showing an area of 11,000 square kilometres. Each field geologist
can work out one such sheet during the year, so it is hoped that the
whole survey will be complete in twenty-two years. Each geolo-
gist traverses his area in diagonals, eight kilometres apart. The
total cost is about 100,000 francs per sheet.
In addition to this big programme of geological mapping, sur-
veys of underground water have been made for parts of Mauritania
7/8) SCIENCE IN AFRICA
and Niger colony. For advice on sinking wells there are three
French mining engineers attached to the department.
BELGIAN
In the Congo there is no official geological department in the
usual sense, but a permanent mapping commission under Dr.
Fourmarier, with sub-commissions on subsidiary branches such as
petrology, meets in Brussels every month. Field workers are sent
to areas from which information is required and a valuable frame-
work of geological knowledge is being built up. When the com-
mission was first established it was composed of eminent geologists
in Europe, most of whom had not been to Africa, and who only
met occasionally. Now, however, it is composed mainly of geolo-
gists who have worked in Africa for the mining companies or for
the Comité Spécial du Katanga, and who have placed their results
at the disposal of the Government. It is expected that the com-
mission’s task of making a geological map of the whole Congo on
the scale of 1:500,000 will be completed in a few years’ time. It
is a matter of debate whether this system of sending out experts
for short-term work, which the Congo adopts in other subjects
besides geology, is as satisfactory as the organization of a settled
geological survey department. British authorities generally con-
sider that the settled survey produces more solid results.
In the Congo most of the purely economic geology is carried
out by three large mining companies, the Union Miniére, For-
miniére (Société internationale forestiere et miniére du Congo),
and Compagnie Miniére des Grand Lacs (Société des Mines d’Or
de Kilo-moto), each of which has a special geological department
established in the Congo itself. In addition, financial concerns
such as the Banque de Bruxelles and Crédit Général du Congo
have staffs of geologists and mining experts who frequently go into
the field. The Comité Spécial du Katanga has a permanent geological
department in Africa as well as geologists in Brussels, who visit
Katanga from time to time. The programme of intensive map-
ping has already been mentioned on page 52.
PORTUGUESE
Angola and Mozambique have geological departments as sec-
GEOLOGY 71
tions of the large public works departments; these functioned
from about 1921-31, when the personnel was much reduced on
account of budget difficulties in the depression. The area adminis-
tered by the Mozambique Company has its own mining and geo-
logical section, and a geologist is permanently attached to the
staff of the geographical mission in the Tete District, mentioned
in Chapter II. Geologists attached to the Portuguese colonies
spend four or five months of each year, during the African rainy
season, in Europe, for the purpose of working up the results of field
work. Portuguese Guinea and St. Tomé have no geological depart-
ment, but work has been carried out there by special missions.
INTERNATIONAL
For purposes of international co-operation in geological studies
throughout the world, congresses are held from time to time. That
of 1929 in South Africa was the occasion for international discus-
sion of many subjects bearing on the African continent, and the
published volumes (Congress 1930) include many valuable con-
tributions, the sections devoted to pre-pleistocene glacial periods,
the Karroo and rift valleys, being of leading importance. The
Internationaler Geologen und Mineralogen Kalender (1937-) contains,
amongst other useful information, a list of the geologists who are
now engaged in study in all parts of Africa.
RESULTS
MAPPING
It has been recognized for many years that a geological map of
the whole of Africa on a uniform scale was urgently required for
general reference purposes, and all territorial maps were sent to
the late Dr. J. W. Evans to be incorporated. Little came of the
project, however, until the International Geological Congress in
South Africa in 1929, when the preparation of an international
map was put in hand. M. Emmanuel de Margerie was appointed
general secretary of the Special Commission for this purpose, and
M. Blondel accepted the responsibility for most of the work en-
tailed. A list ofall existing maps from which the international map
will be compiled has now been prepared, together with an index
72 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
sheet showing the areas for which data are available. The merits
of the individual surveys vary considerably, but data sufficent for
mapping on the scale of 1:5,000,000 are available for the whole
continent, with the sole exceptions of the Rio de Oro and Kenya.
The international map itself will cover the whole continent in
nine sheets and is now in course of publication.
The International Geological Congress of 1929 also appointed
a Sub-Commission of African Geological Surveys, comprising the
Directors of the Geological Surveys concerned. ‘This sub-com-
mission met in 1931, and as a result published an International
Geological Map of Southern Equatorial Africa on the scale of
1:5,000,000. These international maps include full references to
all previous maps of special areas which have been used in com-
pilation, so it is unnecessary to go into details here; but certain
particular mapping activities deserve notice.
In the Union of South Africa the mapping programme has been
accelerated recently, especially in areas which are of potential
mineral value. In addition to a 1:1,000,000 map of the whole
Union, the geological department has published large-scale maps
at approximately 1 inch to the mile of the principal mineral-
bearing areas; and there are also twenty-one sheet maps on a scale
of 1:148,750, and five sheet maps on a scale of 1:238,000 (now dis-
carded). All these publications are accompanied by the necessary
explanations.
Geological maps of the territories have been published in recent
reports of the geological departments in Uganda and Tanganyika,
and some important areas have been mapped in considerable
detail; for instance the Uganda Geological Survey has issued maps
on scales of from 1 to 3 miles to the inch for the Ankole tin-
fields (Combe and Groves 1932), the Bufumbira volcanic region
and parts of the eastern province. In the Gold Coast, regional
geology has been worked out perhaps in greater detail than in the
other British colonies, partly owing to its small area and to the
relatively larger staff that it has been able to maintain. A revised
geological map (1:1,500,000) of the whole colony and protectorate
was prepared for the Gold Coast Atlas (1935), and the southern
section is covered by a more detailed published map on a scale of
I 500,000.
GEOLOGY 73
The programme of wide and rapid mapping in French West
Africa and the Belgian Congo has already been mentioned. The ©
series of 1:500,000 sheets of the Belgian Congo will cover the whole
area in about fifty sheets, a number of which have already been
published. Each sheet is accompanied by a descriptive leaflet.
The detailed geological maps of the Katanga on 1:200,000 have
also been mentioned before. For the French territories and adjoin-
ing regions the atlas of the French colonies contains some of the
best co-ordinated geological maps (Grandidier 1933).
PUBLICATIONS
It is impossible to touch in a small space on the numerous other
results of the individual departments, but some idea of the available
literature may be given before passing on to a brief survey of the
known mineral resources and then to a discussion of geological
problems in relation to water.
In the first place an industrious and brilliant German geologist
has succeeded in writing a systematic geology of the whole con-
tinent (Krenkel 1925-8). There are also several notable books on
the regional geology of big sections of the continent, especially
those by du Toit (1926) for South Africa, Gregory (1921) for East
Africa, with particular reference to the rift valleys, and Lemoine
(1913) for West Africa.
The British Geological Survey Departments publish summaries
of progress, usually in the form of annual reports, while the results
of special research work are generally published in bulletins,
occasional papers, etc. In Nigeria, in addition to the annual
reports, the results of research are published in bulletins, occa-
sional papers and pamphlets. Sixteen bulletins have appeared,
covering various subjects from tin-fields, coal-fields, and water-
supply, to eocene fish and mollusca. There are also six occasional
papers, including such subjects as ‘coal, district geology, and
fossils. Of the pamphlets, only one is published. In addition, an
important report on the goldfields appeared in 1935 as a sessional
paper of the Legislative Council. These publications contain a
mass of important information, but the difficulty of following up
specific subjects tends to discourage experts from making use of
Te.
74 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
The Gold Coast Department produces annual reports (since
1913), bulletins (six to date), and memoirs (four to date). Tan-
ganyika has annual reports (8vo. since 1928), bulletins (eight),
and short papers (twelve).
Uganda has a series of annual reports (since 1925), occasional
papers, and memoirs. Two of the latter, on South-West Ankole,
by Combe and Groves (1932), and the volcanic area of Bufumbira
by Combe and Simmons (1933), may be singled out as examples
of the detailed regional surveys now in progress. In 1931, the
Director published a most valuable summary of the progress of
the Geological Survey from its inception in 1919 to 1929. In 1934
the annual report was reduced to a twelve-page document con-
taining necessary references to the movements of the staff, finance,
etc., with the minimum of technical and scientific data, and a
series of annual bulletins was inaugurated for the publication of
the latter. This system will eventually be of great assistance to
the outside scientist.
In view of the advantages of a uniform system of publications,
the following scheme, based on a combination of the most valuable
methods at present in use, is suggested:
(1) Annual Reports (8vo.) reduced to a minimum and contain-
ing only information concerning staff, finance, etc., required by
the Government in question or by the Colonial Office.
(2) Annual Bulletins (small 4to.) containing articles on the
results of research by members of the department, sometimes
articles by outside authorities who have visited the territory,
CLE:
(3) Memoirs (small 4to.) published as required, each consisting
of an individual piece of work which is too long or too detailed for
inclusion in the annual bulletins.
(4) Maps.
An attractive system is that adopted by the French, of publish-
ing nearly all results of research in the journals of scientific societies
in France. The geological service for French West Africa, for
instance, has published short annual reports since 1932, each of
only fifteen to twenty pages, with a two-page list of references to
papers in societies’ journals by members of the departmental staff.
This method has the advantages of making the results of research
GEOLOGY 75
known to a wide scientific public, and having the several contribu-
tions checked and sometimes modified by the publication com-
mittee of the society in question.
In this connection, it is important that the Sub-Commission of
African Surveys, appointed by the International Geological Con-
gress at Pretoria in 1929, is doing much to make known the results
of local study. Working on the assumptions that ‘many important
publications never reach all the geologists who could draw some
profit from them’ and that the results of many field reconnaissances
remain unpublished, the sub-commission publishes annual sum-
maries of work and references to publications for French West and
Equatorial Africa, Angola, the Belgian Congo, and British colonial
territories (Chronique des Mines Coloniales 1933 onwards). The
secretary of the sub-commission is J. Lombard of the Services
des Mines, Brazzaville.
HYDROLOGY AND WATER-SUPPLY
Water is of prime importance in all tropical lands which suffer
from pronounced dry seasons, since agriculture and most other
branches of human endeavour depend upon it. Indeed it is often
claimed that water is the most important of Africa’s mineral re-
sources.
Unfortunately very little is known about even the major rivers,
with the exception of the Nile and its tributaries, certain South
African rivers, the Middle Niger, and the Senegal, where irriga-
tion schemes have been put into effect. The dependence of the
native population upon water for their villages, their crops, stock,
and fishing, calls for the record and classification of streams as
perennial, intermittent and so forth. The variation of these charac-
ters over considerable periods will give valuable indications of such
phenomena as weather cycles and the effect of the destruction of
vegetation. Another question which calls for research is the posi-
tion of the water table in relation to soils and to vegetation cover,
whether natural or modified by agriculture. In places where the
water table is near the surface regular observation, of the type
requiring little training, could produce fruitful results. Water
table surveys such as those inaugurated recently in parts of India
76 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
should certainly be started when funds become available, as well
as the study of subterranean reservoirs.
Even for the Nile Valley there are certain important gaps in
our knowledge, especially concerning part of the Lake Plateau
basin, the Upper Blue Nile, and the valleys of the Sobat and
Bahr-el-Ghazal. But a mass of data has been accumulated since
scientific irrigation was introduced and has been made available
by Drs. H. E. Hurst and P. Phillips (1931-3).
Knowledge of hydrology for irrigation purposes demands data
on altitudes of an order of precision which can only be attained
by precise levelling. This branch of survey has been applied in
Africa in a few parts of the major river valleys only, and in connec-
tion with railway construction. Elsewhere heights have in many
cases been fixed by vertical angles, and are therefore subject to
considerable error. For the Nile Basin the extent of levelling is
shown by Hurst and Phillips (1933, vol.3, plate 1): lines of level-
ling of first order precision have been carried out from Alexandria
upstream to Wadi Halfa, and again from Khartoum up the White
Nile to the Murchison Falls above Lake Albert and up the Blue
Nile as far as Roseires. The intermediate stretch between Wadi
Halfa and Khartoum, including the main series of cataracts, has
been levelled with less precision, and so has a line from the Mur-
chison Falls to Entebbe on Lake Victoria. In connection with the
proposed scheme for a barrage below Lake Albert and an artificial
water-course to shortcut the sudd area, another line of first order
levelling has been carried from Malakal on the White Nile, up the
Sobat River and thence across country to rejoin the White Nile
above the sudd area.
In territories where development has reached an advanced
stage, special irrigation departments have been found necessary.
This is the case in the Union of South Africa, Southern Rhodesia,
and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. In most of the colonial territories
water-supplies are supervised by the geological departments, and
prospecting for water absorbs a considerable part of their resources.
In some territories the sinking of wells or bore-holes is undertaken
extensively by the geological departments, while in others these
activities are carried out by the public works engineers. In several
of the colonial territories it is felt that greater knowledge and con-
GEOLOGY 7g
trol of water-supplies is necessary. ‘This may entail the formation
of independent departments which would probably take charge
later of irrigation works.
More work has been done in South Africa than in other terri-
tories, but farmers in many areas may still have to spend several
hundred pounds in sinking useless borings before discovering a
suitable site for a permanent well. In Southern Rhodesia, the geo-
logical and agricultural departments and the irrigation engineers
have paid special attention to water-supply, and the water situa-
tion there is comparatively well known.
For Northern Rhodesia there is little published information, but
the government has recently initiated water-boring for the relief
of dry areas. The geological department of Nyasaland has been
particularly active. Dr. Frank Dixey, Director of the Geological
Survey, has written a valuable book on water-supply (1931),
which has special reference to African conditions. Chapter VI
on water-finding methods, is particularly instructive, and the last
chapter summarizes the water-supply conditions of southern, cen-
tral, and eastern Africa. References are given there to the more
important publications on the subject for the special areas.
Tanganyika has a special water-drilling branch attached to the
geological department which has been at work steadily since
1931. With regard to water surveys and the action required to
make better supplies available, Mr. C. Gillman, Chief Engineer
of the Railways, has been particularly interested. In collabora-
tion with Dr. E. O. Teale, formerly Director of the Geological
Survey, he made a survey of the whole water question in the
Northern Province, and their report (1935) is based on a detailed
background of geographical setting, including geological struc-
ture, relief, climate, soils, vegetation, population, and economic
development. In his geographical studies on population, Gillman
(1936) again emphasizes the importance of water-supply in Tan-
gangyika.
In Uganda, where a drilling branch was added to the geological
department in 1921, extensive work has been carried out, especi-
ally in Karamoja, where the water problem is most acute in view
of the arid nature of the land and the increase in population. Up
to now a hydro-geological survey of that area has not been
78 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
attempted, but Mr. E. J. Wayland, Director of the department,
is pressing for such a study, as an essential basis for the drilling
and well-sinking programme. Wayland and his staff have con-
tributed much data concerning hydrology in other parts of Uganda,
particularly in relation to changes towards drier conditions which
have taken place in recent geological times, and the possibility of
these being continued into the future. This subject, and also the
hydrology of the great lakes of eastern Africa, is intimately related
to meteorological conditions, and the question whether precipita-
tion and evaporation are subject to cyclical changes. ‘These matters
are considered in Chapter IV.
In Kenya, this branch of work has been impeded by the concen-
tration of the geological staff on minerals. A. Beeby Thompson
(1929) has discussed the water problems facing the colony and
H. L. Sikes (1934) has given an account of the known facts
regarding underground water resources. Scientific surveys of
underground water are badly needed in native reserves and
especially in the more or less arid country in the Northern Fron-
tier and Turkana provinces. Since 1928 the public works depart-
ment has had a dozen or more power drills in operation, and the
extension of this service is expected to open up large areas of land
now almost valueless through lack of water. It is becoming realized
in Kenya, moreover, that many parts of the native reserves lie in
poorly watered country where if possible river irrigation would be
a benefit. This was stressed by the reports of the Carter Land
Commission and of the Tana River Expedition of 1934. In the
latter, Messrs. Harris and Sampson (1935) surveyed the possibili-
ties and conclude tentatively that the irrigation of the flood valley
itself is out of the question, but a case seems to exist for an irriga-
tion canal in the upper Tana valley. It is significant that, in
view of the inadequacy of existing maps, no definite conclusion
can be reached until a satisfactory land survey, as well as a soil
survey, has been made.!
In British Somaliland water-boring operations were started in
1930 under a grant by the Colonial Development Fund with the
object of opening up grazing areas which at present can be used
only for a short time during the rainy season, and discovering
1 See above, Chapter ii.
GEOLOGY 79
underground supplies near the centres of civil and military adminis-
tration. The work closed down in 1931, after a certain measure of
success, but was started again in 1935, with a new scheme, under
which several centres of population and grazing areas have been
supplied satisfactorily.
Turning to West Africa, the greater part of geological activity
in Nigeria is devoted to water-supply, especially in the Northern
Provinces. Surveys of underground water have been carried out
along the northern frontier in the region where it is alleged that
the Sahara Desert is advancing. Since 1927, when, after a period
of dry years, attention was focused on the water problem in
Sokoto, geological investigations have been carried out in that
province, and also in Bornu and Hadejira Emirates. It is con-
cluded provisionally that right along the northern frontier of
Nigeria water can always be tapped at depths from one hundred to
one hundred and fifty feet. Since it occurs in sub-artesian basins,
the water is generally under pressure and usually rises to the level
of ground water. The deepest shaft constructed measures three
hundred and seventy feet, while the highest pressure rise recorded
is one hundred and nineteen feet, although there are several of
over one hundred feet. By the end of 1935, seven hundred and
ninety-three wells had been completed. ‘The work of sinking is
financed almost entirely by the various native administrations to
the extent of about £18,000 per year, but the cost of all geological
investigations and of the administration of the work is borne
by the government. The department now advises on all water-
supply projects, whatever their nature and scope, and controls
and carries out all work connected with sub-surface supplies. In
the Southern Provinces a power-driven drill is now at work at
Otta, twenty-three miles from Lagos. A scheme for open wells
has been approved also for Owerr1 Province, where permanent
running streams are so widely spaced and the population pressure
is so great that serious water shortage occurs during the dry season
in spite of an annual rainfall of one hundred inches. Full details
of investigations on Nigeria’s water-supply are given in recent
annual reports of the geological department, and in addition
Beeby Thompson (1933) has discussed the water problems as a
whole, while the geology and water-supply of parts of the Northern
80 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Territories are dealt with by Raeburn and Brynmor Jones (1934)
in their volumes on the Chad basin.
The question of water-supply in the north of the Gold Coast has
not yet been investigated, except during a preliminary survey of
conditions by Mr. Cooper, one of the government geologists. The
conditions there are in some ways similar to those of northern
Nigeria, since the agricultural progress of a large population is
held back for want of water. It is interesting to note that the
veterinary department at Pong-Tamale has opened up several
billigers or water reservoirs used by a former native civilization in
the northern Gold Coast. These are caverns hollowed out in
impervious strata below a hard layer of laterite concretions, a few
feet thick, at ground level. During the rainy seasons the caverns
are flooded, and the water can be drawn upon for domestic pur-
poses and for stock. Billigers are known over a large area, and,
though entirely disused and choked with earth and debris, their
renovation may contribute materially to the welfare of cattle-
owning peoples in that district.
In French West Africa the public works department, with
advice from geologists, has worked steadily at well-sinking, in the
Sudan and Niger colonies along the southern border of the Sahara.
Moreover, the great irrigation developments on the Middle Niger
at Macina and Sotuba have necessitated a full organization for
hydrographic studies, and the Office du Niger maintains a staff
of experts. M. Bélime, the Director of the office, has published
(1928) a short account of early work on the Middle Niger. For
the past ten years or so the levels and flow of the Middle Niger
have been fully recorded as a preliminary to the great engineering
works now in progress, but the results have not yet been pub-
lished.
In other parts of French West Africa, E. de Martonne (1928)
made a study of the upper Gambia, and more recently A. Minot
(1934) and others have studied the Senegal River in detail with a
view to irrigation schemes. Colonel Tilho, whose work is referred
to in Chapter IV, has also contributed much data on the hydro-
logy of the Niger, Senegal, and Lake Chad basins, and he has
shown how several of the major water-courses in this part of Africa
have been profoundly changed in recent geological times. It is
GEOLOGY SI
interesting to note also that an hydrographic survey of French
Equatorial Africa has been organized.
Of importance in all the regions bordering the Sahara is a
method of determining the depth of water in arid country developed
by Dr. J. Ball (1927 and 1933), Director of the Egyptian Desert
Survey, working in the Libyan Desert. Dr. Ball was able to
determine a regular slope of the static water level from the hills
near the Mediterranean coast-line southwards into the desert. He
mapped the slope of the water level by the use of depth ‘contour
lines’, and wells sunk at selected points found water at the pre-
dicted depths. In 1932 K. S. Sandford (1935a) applied similar
methods to the south and south-west, in French, Italian, and
Sudan territory. He was able to continue Ball’s contour mapping
of the water level with a few minor alterations. It would appear
that this method of establishing the depth of underground water
has possibilities in many of the arid parts of Africa, though ob-
viously it would not apply to granite rocks and some other
geological formations where the water usually occurs in pockets.
For many years G. W. Grabham, Director of the Geological
Survey of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, has interested himself deeply
in the water-supplies of that country. He has published several
papers on the subject, as well as a recent general work (1935),
which should be of value in many African territories.
Concerning developments for hydro-electric power, although
there are many waterfalls scattered through Africa they have
been used remarkably little, chiefly because the falls are distant
from industrial regions or towns. It was stated in Nature, 1930,
that the total hydro-electric power generated in Africa is scarcely
equal to the production of a first-class steam power station in
England. Since then, however, the Tanganyika Government has
completed negotiations for harnessing the Pangani Falls, the
power from which, it is estimated, could be made sufficient to
supply the whole of the territory. Suggestions were put forward
a long time ago for using the Victoria Falls for this purpose, but
so far only a small hydro-electric plant is in operation there, which
supplies the neighbouring town of Livingstone. There are water-
power stations in Northern Rhodesia in connection with the
copper-mining industry, and in Katanga the Cornet Falls on the
D
82 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Lufira River have been harnessed and develop 45,000 h.p. In
the large mining areas in the southern part of Africa the proximity
of coal-fields makes water-power unnecessary. In Uganda, a
scheme is being considered for using the Ripon and Owen Falls
to supply electricity to Jinja, Kampala, Entebbe and possibly the
Kakamega Goldfields.
GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING
Geophysical prospecting has been developed only in recent
years and its value is still a matter of controversy. Much more
fundamental research is certainly required in order to determine
the physical and geological conditions under which indications on
the instruments are obtained, and particularly where electrical
methods are used, the relation of rock conductivities to the amount
and kind of the fluid content of the various kinds of rocks; neverthe-
less it may be claimed that fundamental research has reached astage
which warrants a thorough examination of its possibilities in Africa,
especially for the location of underground water in arid regions.
Interest in geophysical work has been widely aroused as a result
of extensive testing of methods in Australia in 1928-30, under the
joint auspices of the Australian Government and the Empire
Marketing Board. Mr. A. Broughton Edge, one of the best-known
exponents, was in charge of the investigations, and the report
(1932) is an illuminating document.
Methods of geophysical prospecting (Broughton Edge 1932),
which of course are not all suitable for the same purpose, are
divided into 1. Magnetic, 2. Gravimetric, 3. Electrical: (a) Surface
potential, and (b) Electro-magnetic, and 4. Seismic. The gravi-
metric method requires very expensive apparatus (torsion balances)
and a high degree of skill. The seismic method, which depends on
making explosions at the surface and measuring the time for the
percussion to be reflected off subterranean bodies and recorded
by seismometers at various distances, is also expensive. The mag-
netic and electrical methods are much cheaper and are generally
of wider application. They are discussed in some detail in relation
to the finding of ground water, with the aid of numerous diagrams,
by Bruckshaw and Dixey (1934).
GEOLOGY 83
These methods have been used by commercial companies for
the location of mineral deposits and petroleum-bearing rocks.
Government departments will be primarily interested in their use
for the detection of underground water-supplies. For this purpose
the electrical method is most suitable.
The electrical or ‘resistivity’ method depends on the principle
that strata saturated will conduct electricity better than dry strata.
Therefore, by applying an electric field to the ground and measur-
ing the potential at various points, the degree of resistivity of
underlying rocks can be measured and the depth and extent of
water can be estimated. Depths from two hundred and fifty to
five hundred feet are usually given for the effectiveness of the
electrical method for locating minerals. ‘These figures do not apply
in the case of water, however, for under favourable conditions it
is claimed that the depths and extent of water-bearing formations
can be determined down to one thousand feet or more. The
Australian work has shown that under suitable conditions the
presence of saline water can be detected; this would have great
practical value in obviating the risk of sinking wells only to find
that the resulting water is useless for either stock or irrigation. It
must be stressed that only trained geologists can produce satisfac-
tory results, as the interpretation of any geophysical observations
involves a full understanding of the rocks.
It seems desirable that this method of locating supplies should
have extended trials with as little delay as possible. The necessary
instruments can now be purchased for £200 or even less, so experi-
ments need not prove too expensive. Interest has already been
aroused in parts of Africa and some work fully worthy of considera-
tion has been carried out. In South Africa, the Geological Survey
of the Union is pursuing investigations into the value of various
geophysical methods of prospecting for minerals and for under-
ground water, the work being done by trained geologists. In
addition, there are a number of experts of varying qualification,
who work on contract for mining companies, for the purpose of
discovering valuable mineral resources.
In Southern Rhodesia Mr. Shaw (1934), working on under-
ground water, has made investigations which were checked by
bore-holes. The drillings confirmed the indications from resistivity
54. SCIENCE IN AFRICA
measurements In a very satisfactory way. Since the cost of operat-
ing the resistivity method is negligible compared with that of
drilling, it is concluded that the savings from its use must be very
large. Mr. Shaw emphasizes that the success of the method in
locating underground water depends largely on the geological
interpretation of the electrical evidence by which the formations,
supposed to carry and yield water, may be discovered. Following
Mr. Shaw’s work, the Irrigation Department of Southern Rhodesia
has carried out further electrical surveys for water, with most
encouraging results.
The Department of Geophysics at Gambridge and a few other
centres have been actively pursuing geophysical research for
many years, but the facilities for training in the application of the
methods were restricted until the recent establishment of a School
of Applied Geophysics at the Imperial College of Science and
Technology in London. The geological departments of the Gold
Coast, Tanganyika, and Nyasaland, however, have already sent
members to London for periods of training.
In Nigeria, where a member of the department, Dr. Tatham,
has studied the subject at the Colorado School of Mines, electrical
prospecting for water has been going on for several years. This
method has been used in Ijaw, Katsina and Owerrl, and the last-
named province, where a programme of well-sinking based on the
geophysical survey has been put in hand, will provide a good
opportunity of testing the results of the electrical method. In the
Gold Coast, three members of the staff have received some training
in London, and experiments are being carried out to ascertain
the value of electrical methods as applied to local problems. Mag-
netic methods will also receive attention as soon as the necessary
instruments can be acquired.
It is needless to devote much space to the merits of the divining-
rod and pendulum, which are believed by some exponents to be
capable of detecting not only water but also minerals and a variety
of other objects. There are scientific men who have put the methods
to the test and conclude that the successful diviner finds water by
a process of conscious orsub-conscious appreciation of topography
and geology, and that the activity of the actual rod is purely inci-
dental and of no significance; others hold that the diviner is a
GEOLOGY 85
super-sensitive individual interpreting some unrecognized hygro-
scopic sense, and still others deny the possibility of divining on
general scientific principles. Divining is still employed in many
parts of Africa where European settlement and farming are well
established, but it has caused considerable disappointment and
waste of money. It is an occupation which allows ample scope for
charlatans, and the fact that the majority of diviners are ready to
ply their trade for absurdly small pay leads one to regard it with
suspicion. In addition to the human diviner, there are certain
instruments on the market with the same object in view. These
have been tested by scientists in several parts of Africa and in other
parts of the world, without success. The need to base methods of
water- and mineral-finding on irrefutable scientific principles is
an added reason for an increased study of geology and geophysics.
GEOPHYSICS AND PALZONTOLOGY
There are certain other aspects of geology and geophysics which
it is easiest to regard as pure rather than applied science, but which,
nevertheless, have indirect bearing on development. In geophysics
there are the subjects of seismology, vulcanology, gravity, and ter-
restial magnetism, each of which has received some attention in
parts of Africa. In geology there is the vast subject of paleontology
of which one branch deals with the interpretation of stratigraphy
and the age of rocks, and the rest is concerned more with under-
standing the evolution of organisms, including man. In this Africa
has already made very important contributions to knowledge.
This array of subjects merits at least a book in itself, but a few
points only are selected for mention below.
Sersmology is the recording and interpretation of earth move-
ments, and has been studied to a small extent. Seismographs are
installed and under continual observation at six places in Africa;
namely at Cairo, Dakar (maintained by the Meteorological Ser-
vice established in 1931), Loméin French Togoland, Accra in the
Gold Coast, Capetown, and Johannesburg. At Entebbe in Uganda
seismometers are also installed, but since 1931 observations have
had to be suspended owing to lack of staff. This was the only ob-
servation centre in the very important region of the rift valleys
86 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
where earth movements occur at frequent intervals, and served as
the only link in the records between Cairo and the Cape. During
1930 and 1931 twoseismometers were working at Entebbe, oriented
at right angles to one another. ‘Two epicentres for the numerous
local shocks of Uganda were discovered, one in the Ruwenzori
Mountains and one at the north-west end of Lake Albert. This
branch of research has its practical application, since the Fort Hall
earthquake of 1928 was a fairly serious matter, and a somewhat
stronger shock from this epicentre might damage buildings in
both Kenya and Uganda.
The variation in gravity over different parts of the earth’s surface
has received attention from geophysicists in connection with the
structure of the earth. In Africa it is interesting chiefly in the
region of the rift valleys. Previous to the war, observations were
made in Tanganyika by the Germans, and in 1933-4 Dr. E. C.
Bullard, from Cambridge, made a special expedition to the rifts
of Kenya and Uganda. A summary of his results is published by
the geological department of Uganda (Bullard 1935), and E. J.
Wayland remarks in his preface that the work is a valuable con-
tribution to the controversy with regard to the nature and origin
of rift valleys. Its significance is more than academic, for it has
certain bearings on the petroleum-winning possibilities of the
Albertine depression. ‘The full results of this investigation have
been published by Bullard (1936), and on the same subject the
veteran American geologist, Bailey Willis, who visited East Africa
recently, has written an important book (1936). This work, which
is discussed by Simmons (1937), consists of two main parts, the
first giving the general picture and the second detailing characters
of the several areas. An hypothesis is advanced for the formation
of the whole plateau of eastern Africa and of the rift valleys. The
measurement of gravity, if carried out more or less evenly over the
whole surface of the earth, would lead to practical results in an-
other way. Numerous determinations would enable the true form
of mean sea-level to be computed with reference to an adopted
mathematical figure. If this form were known, then astronomical
determinations of latitude and longitude could be used with con-
fidence for the control of certain classes of survey.
Passing to the subject of Paleontology, it may be fairly stated that
GEOLOGY 87
Africa presents a boundless field of research. Already it has sup-
plied important evidence on the history of evolution; in particular,
mention may be made of the Transvaal Museum and the researches
of its Director, Dr. R. Broom, during the past thirty-five years, on
the fossil reptiles of the Karroo. In his book (1932) Dr. Broom
remarks (p. 309): ‘If any intensive collecting is done in the next
twenty or fifty years we shall know not three hundred and fifty
species of South African fossil reptiles, but 20,000 to 50,000 species,
and we may then not only be able to trace the lines of evolution,
but perhaps be able to see what has been the guiding or compel-
ling force behind it all.’ Farther north, the rich beds of fossil
reptiles in Nyasaland and southern ‘Tanganyika have attracted
several collecting expeditions from the British Museum, Gambridge
University, and elsewhere. ‘The results have contributed greatly
to knowledge of the diversity of reptilian life in the mesozoic era,
and to that important link in the chain of vertebrate ancestry
when reptiles were changing into mammals.
The study of fossils leads up to the origin of man and the geo-
logical contribution which Africa has already made to knowledge,
and the important discoveries made by Professor R. Dart, Dr. R.
Broom, Dr. L. 8. B. Leakey, and others are outlined in Chapter
XVIII. The study of ancient man has involved that of stone tools,
which are widely used in working out the stratigraphy of recent
geological deposits. ‘This in itself may have practical bearings: for
instance, Wayland’s work on stone tools in Uganda demonstrated
the reversal of some of the principal rivers, a result which has been
of great importance to those prospecting for alluvial tin.
Man’s history, stone tools, changes in hydrology, tectonics of
rift valleys, aquatic fauna and numerous other subjects apparently
of academic interest, all contribute to the understanding of the
late geological history of Africa, of pluvial periods and arid periods.
Understanding of these is of importance in appreciating conditions
of aridity in the future, when climatic change may yet take place.
Many such problems are concentrated in the region of the great
lakes, and the geological survey of Uganda has paid special atten-
tion to them (Wayland 1933-4, 1934a, 1934b and 1935, Groves
1932). The subject is considered further in Chapter IV.
CHAPTER IV
METEOROLOGY!
INTRODUCTION
HE modern development of air communications, from Europe
ff Siriaas Egypt or down the Red Sea to East Africa, and across
the Sahara or down the Atlantic coast-line to West Africa, necessi-
tates a close degree of co-operation between the meteorological
services of countries bordering the Mediterranean with those lying
to the south of the Sahara. This chapter accordingly includes the
Mediterranean countries in its purview.
The principal applications of meteorology to human progress
are two: the utilization of climatic conditions and the prevision of
weather changes. The agricultural capacity of different areas
depends largely on climatic conditions; water-supply, navigation
and the development of hydro-electric works depend in different
ways on the variation of rainfall. Weather forecasts of relatively
long periods are valuable for the farmer and for the traveller,
who wants to know what roads will be open; and daily forecasts,
supported by more frequent warnings of sudden change, are
essential for the purposes of air transport.
The major industry of Africa—farming—is often seriously handi-
capped by weather, especially by variation in rainfall, and experi-
ence of past disasters has shown the need for data collected over
long periods of years at numerous stations. Meteorological records
have been somewhat unsystematic in the past, and this is still true
for some areas, where rainfall is measured by African clerks. Ina
1 Arrangements were made in 1934 for a specialist, Mr. L. C. W. Bonacina of the
Royal Geographical Society, to prepare a separate memorandum on Meteorology in
Africa. ‘This has been most valuable in writing the following summary of the subject,
but it has been supplemented by other information, and the draft has been completely
revised after comments and criticisms were received from twenty-five specialists who
are referred to in the Preface.
METEOROLOGY 59
very few regions recording stations are unnecessarily close together,
butin most they are still too far apart, and international co-operation
is difficult to organize when, as in some of the British territories,
the collection of data is the duty in one of the agricultural depart-
ment, in another of the survey department, in others of admin-
istrative or medical departments.
For the development of airways climatological observations
require to be supplemented by observations of visibility, height and
amount of low cloud, direction and velocity of upper winds obtained
by pilot balloons, and, if possible, temperature in the free air as
recorded by aeroplanes and registering balloons.
The development of engineering works raises another aspect of
the application of meteorology. In certain areas regions of ex-
tremely high rainfall are not very far removed from arid regions
where water is required for the supply of towns or for irrigation.
The time may come when the value of the products of intensive culti-
vation might justify the expense of collecting mountain rainfall in
reservoirs for transference in canals or pipes to arid regions nearby.
For agricultural purposes the form in which rainfall data are
presented is of importance. In comparing different parts of Africa
it is usual to deal with the annual rainfall, or sometimes the
monthly rainfall, but experience is showing that even the monthly
unit is too large, and that ten days is the longest unit of real agri-
cultural value for research. Since the year cannot be divided into
ten-day periods, the pentad (five days) might prove a more
satisfactory unit. In a year divided in this way, February goth
would be included with the appropriate pentad to make a six-day
period once in four years. Whatever the unit selected, a uniform
method of presentation over the widest possible area is desirable,
this might be based on the five-day unit, and give figures for each
unit’s total rainfall and for the number of days of rain in each unit.
In making such a suggestion it is presumed that the daily readings
would be permanently available for research purposes in the several
meteorological offices. The wet and dry seasons of those regions
in which the year falls into two periods of contrasted rainfall
should also be studied as units, though of varying duration. In
many places the study of evaporation from water and land surfaces
is also important. 3
go SCIENCE IN AFRICA
The collection of the data required for the development of air
services necessitates a high degree of organization, especially in
transmitting daily weather reports by wireless, and such organiza-
tion must be international. Uniformity such as will make com-
parison possible is of extreme importance and must be sought
through the collaboration of meteorological officers in the different
territories. A detailed statement from each territory describing
the present methods employed and suggesting the lines on which
uniformity could be achieved would contribute greatly towards
this end. Full data would be required for each territory on the
number of first order, second order, and rainfall stations compared
with the area and type of country; the type and accuracy of instru-
ments used and the method of exposing them, 1.e. screening of
thermometers, height of rim of rain-gauges above the ground, etc.;
and the detail given in weather forecasts and warnings. It is worthy
of note that in 1936 there met for the first time at Lusaka, Regional
Commission No. 1 of the Office Météorologique Internationale;
subsequent meetings of this and other similar commissions should
be of the greatest assistance in achieving uniformity and the rapid
exchange of data.
Of meteorological literature, A. Knox’s book on the climate of
Africa (1911) is a landmark, but other authors must be consulted
for the results of more recent studies. Notable among recent works
are papers by Dr. C. E. P. Brooks on the British colonies, while
the report of the South African Drought Commission of 1923 is a
most important document in showing the relation of rainfall to
other subjects such as deforestation, soil erosion, and the subsidiary
changes which those processes involve (Kanthack 1930). Impor-
tant general works which have appeared since Knox’s book are
given in the bibliography—notably Brooks and Muirrlees (1932),
Cox (1935), Eckardt (1917), Geiger and Zierl (1931), Sir Henry
Lyons (1917), and Shantz and Marbut (1923). The standard
modern reference work is the volume on Africa in the Handbuch
der Klimatologie edited by W. K6ppen and R. Geiger (1927).
In view of the stimulus which meteorology has received in recent
years from the establishment of air transport, and the probability
that co-operation between adjacent services is likely to take
place along the lines of air routes, those which already exist and
METEOROLOGY QI
some which are proposed are mentioned in the following note:
Air Routes
The British Imperial Airways main route from Cairo follows
roughly the course of the Nile via Khartoum and Malakal to
Kampala and Kisumu on Lake Victoria, thence eastward to
Mombasa, along the coast to Dar-es-Salaam, Mozambique, Beira,
Lourengo Marques and Durban. Wilson Airways run a branch
service from Kisumu to Nairobi, and thence two services, one via
Mombasa, Tanga, and Zanzibar to Dar-es-Salaam, the other via
Moshi, Dodoma, Mbega, Mpika to Broken Hill, and Lusaka.
Another branch service connecting Bulawayo, Salisbury, and
Blantyre with Imperial Airways at Beira is run by Rhodesian and
Nyasaland Airways. Early in 1937 Imperial Airways discontinued
their service from London to the Rand, and opened their flying
boat service down the east coast to Durban. Imperial Airways
opened a branch service from Khartoum via Fort Lamy to Kano
in 1935, which was continued to Lagos in 1936. It was extended
along the Guinea Coast to Accra in 1937 by Elders Colonial Air-
ways and is to be extended to Takoradi in the Gold Coast. South
African Airways, controlled by the Union Government, run ser-
vices from the Rand via Kimberley to Windhoek, the Rand to
Kisumu, the Rand via Bloemfontein to Port Elizabeth, the Rand
to Durban, the Rand to Capetown, Capetown to Durban along
the coast, and the Rand to Lourenco Marques.
The French central African services operated by Air Afrique
alternate with the Belgian Sabena services in providing a trans-
Saharan crossing, either via Algiers, El Golea, and Aoulef, or
Oran and Regan, to Gao, and from thence eastwards to Niamey,
Zinder, Fort Lamy, Fort Archambault, and Bangui. Here one
route runs westwards via Coquilhatville to Brazzaville. The other
runs south-east via Stanleyville and Elisabethville, where it is con-
tinued by the Madagascar Government service via Broken Hill to
Quelimane and Mozambique on the coast, and thence to Mada-
gascar. ‘he west African service, operated by Air France only
with flying boats, runs along the coast from Casablanca to Dakar,
thereby connecting with the transatlantic service. From Dakar
the Aeromaritime service continues the coastal route to Pointe
92 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Noire, touching at the French ports of the Gulf of Guinea and at
Monrovia. A branch line from Niamey runs through Dahomey to
the coast.
The Belgian service, Sabena, besides the main trans-Saharan
crossing in which they alternate with the French service, run
internal services connecting Brazzaville (Leopoldville) with Boma
and Matadi on the west, and eastwards with Port Franqui, Lulua-
borg, and Lusambe. Another internal service connects Brazzaville,
Coquilhatville, Lisala, Basakoto, and Stanleyville.
In Portuguese East Africa, the D.E.T.A. Portuguese Government
service runs from Lourengo Marques to Johannesburg in connec-
tion with the Imperial Airways service along the east coast. In
Angola a projected line runs from Humpala via Loanda to Kabinda
in the Belgian Congo.
The Jtalian air line, Ala Littoria, connects directly with Rome,
Benghazi, Melita, Tunis, Tripoli on the Mediterranean coast; and
there has recently been established a regular route to the colonies
of the East Coast, running via Cairo and Khartoum to Asmara,
Assab, and Jibuti. These three are all directly connected to Dire
Dawa, as are Addis Ababa on the west and Mogadishu on the
east coast.
The German line by sea-plane runs down the West Coast to
Bathurst in the Gambia, and thence across the Atlantic to South
America.
The Dutch line to the Far East crosses the north-east corner of
the continent from Tobruk in Libya, via Cairo to Baghdad.
ORGANIZATION AND RESULTS
At present the four meteorological organizations which cover
the greatest area of Africa, but not in all cases the most highly
developed, are those of (1) The Union of South Africa; (2) British
East Africa; (3) Egypt, which has close relation with the Sudan
and to some extent with Abyssinia, and (4) French West and.
Equatorial Africa. These correspond to the four regions into which
it is convenient to divide the continent for meteorological purposes,
the South, Central, North-East, and North-West. The first. of
these regions includes Southern Rhodesia, Mozambique, and
METEOROLOGY 93
Madagascar, each of which has an independent, active, and effi-
cient meteorological service. Each of the regions will be consi-
dered in turn.
SOUTHERN AFRICA
Since most of this region is under British rule, the establishment
of centralized control should not prove difficult. At present the
meteorological offices of the Union, Southern Rhodesia, and South-
West Africa are independent. .
In the Union of South Africa the Meteorological Office at Pretoria
comes under the Irrigation Department. Data from the Protec-
torates are also collected and published by the same office.
The service for air transport, comprises six first order stations
at Pietersburg, Germiston, Kimberley, Victoria West, Matroos-
berg, and Capetown, which form a line through the country from
approximately north-east to south-west, on the main Imperial Air-
ways route. At these stations continuous records of pressure, tem-
perature, humidity, surface wind direction and velocity (except at
Matroosberg), and hourly observations of visibility from 6.30 a.m.
to 4.30 p.m. have been made since January 1932. Pilot balloon
observations were begun in 1918, and since 1932 have been made
at the same six stations several times per day, mostly limited to
10,000 feet to meet the requirements of aviation; at least one per
day at each station to the greatest height attainable. The results
of pilot balloon observations are given in great detail by Cox
(1934). In addition, visibility has been recorded daily at 173 other
stations, and the height and quantity of cloud at 55 stations, since
August 1932.
There is a full organization for the preparation of daily weather
forecasts based on reports from 100 stations in the Union, seven
in Southern Rhodesia, one in Northern Rhodesia, six in South-
West Africa, and twelve in Madagascar. The forecast is broadcast
daily (except on Sundays and holidays) for the benefit ofall sections
of the community, and for shipping additional broadcasts are made
from Mozambique, Lourengo Marques, Durban, Port Elizabeth,
and Capetown (Union of South Africa 1934). For aviation, how-
ever, these daily weather reports are not sufficiently frequent, in
view of the rapid changes to which South African weather is sub-
SCIENCE IN AFRICA
94
.
d
ee
CLE —
RENEE ore ararerers
SX ooo soem!
.
.
(SEs 5°
?
English Miles
inches
5]
= 10
ea Less than 4
ne Over 60
1000
500
hes
inc.
Map 1. Mean Annual Rainfall. (After Fitzgerald, 1934.)
|
METEOROLOGY 95
ject. Weather reports every three hours would be desirable, but
since the development of aviation at present does not warrant this,
a system of telegraph and wireless communication between mete-
orological stations has been evolved to provide individually for
each flight. For non-scheduled flights the arrangements are not
yet satisfactory. Since flights usually begin at an early hour, the
issue of weather reports from all stations soon after dawn 1s being
urged. It should be remembered that African circumstances are
very different from those of Europe, where numerous aeroplanes
are always in transit.
Data on rainfall are more complete for the Union than for any
other part of the continent, with the possible exception of Egypt.
Rainfall is now recorded at 4,074 stations, including the seventeen
in Bechuanaland, thirty in Swaziland, and thirty-one in Basuto-
land. The official publications on this subject are the annual
reports of the Meteorological Office and chapters in the annual
handbook; A. D. Lewis (1927), of the Meteorological Office, has
analysed all rainfall normals up to the end of 1925. Much material
has also been published by the universities and in scientific journals,
and reference is made in the bibliography to important papers by
J. M. Sim (1917), F. E. Plummer (1926 and 1932), Professor of
Geography at Pretoria, J. R. Sutton (1921), Schumann and
Thompson (1934) on rainfall; Howard (1920), Spencer (1926),
Evelyn (1904), and Schumann (1936) on general climatology;
Schénland and Craib (1927) on the electric fields of thunder-
storms. In addition to the Meteorological Office and the Universi-
ties, the Union Observatory at Johannesburg is a centre of research,
and the Director, Mr. Wood, Bes contributed much to meteorology
in South Africa.
A general analysis of the available data has been made by Plum-
mer and Leppan (1927), who point out the practical importance of
even minute local variations in determining the competitive advan-
tages of different agricultural areas. Professor Plummer is aiming
at procuring accurate standard normals of rainfall over the whole
country. It should be noted, however, that stable averages of rain-
fall, or any element of weather, do not exist in any part of the
world. Approximations to averages on a fifty-year period are as
much as can profitably be sought.
96 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
The study of secular variation of rainfall is carried much further
by Schumann and Thompson (1934) who have analysed all useful
data in the Union, dividing the territory into thirty-two rainfall
districts. By the use of smoothed curves they have revealed more
or less pronounced secular variations during the period of about
fifty-five years for which records exist. Their conclusions are of
great importance in relation to the alleged desiccation of Southern
Africa and are considered in detail below.
In the western part of the Cape, there is a section with winter
rains, one with summer rains, and one with rain at all seasons.
The rainfall (Plummer 1932) is extraordinarily variable not only
from year to year, but also from place to place, both the wettest
and driest spots in the Union occurring in this province. In the
Cape Peninsula great variations in the average rainfall within
short distances are brought about by contrasts between the warm
water of False Bay and the cold water of the open Atlantic in
relation to the prevailing winds and relief of the land. Even within
the limits of Capetown District variability is pronounced, though
the average rainfall of the city as a whole is about the same as that
of London and is just as reliable from year to year. The more
northerly parts of the Union, especially the Transvaal (Plummer
1926) and the Orange Free State, are intensely hot in summer and
subject to a somewhat unfavourable seasonal régime of rainfall, a
large part of it falling in thunderstorms which are probably the
worst in the world. Hail is a great scourge, stones varying in size
from walnuts to cricket balls being quite common, with deadly
effect on livestock.
All parts of the Union which lie at any altitude experience from
time to time heavy falls of snow. In Basutoland, where there are
extensive tracts of country over 6,000 feet, snow may fall even in
summer. During the heat of summer low pressure over the interior
of South Africa causes a reinforcement of the moisture-laden south-
east trade wind from the Indian Ocean, and where this moist
wind strikes the high Drakensberg scarp heavy rain results.
In South-West Africa there is an official Meteorological Office at
Windhoek created by the German administration. Little work is
now undertaken beyond the collection and summarizing of mete-
orological data. In this respect a good start was made by the
METEOROLOGY 97
Germans before the war. Two papers by Range (1915) and Reenen
(1925) are valuable. In spite of the aridity due to the absence of
considerable rainfall, the climate is somewhat damp by reason of
the copious night fogs and dews caused by the cold Benguela
current. The provision for aviation appears to be undeveloped;
upper air research has been confined to fifteen months’ intensive
observations with pilot balloons at Walvis Bay (Cox 1934, p. 230),
and similar observations are now in progress at Marienthal: all
these were carried out by the Union meteorological department.
Since the air service in this territory is run by Union Airways, this
seems to be a case where centralization of meteorological services
is desirable.
In Southern Rhodesia the official meteorological service is part of
the Irrigation Division of the Agricultural Department. ‘The col-
lection of climatic information dates from 1897. ‘There are two
first order observatories at Salisbury and Bulawayo, where inten-
sive studies have been made at high altitudes with pilot bailoons,
and the results have been considered with the South African data
by Cox (1934). More than forty other stations, well distributed
over the country, observe temperature and pressure in addition
to rainfall, and there are about 550 stations for rainfall only. The
records are made entirely by Europeans, a system of regular
inspection is in force, and the results are published in monthly
bulletins and annual reports (the latter since 1900). A system of
daily forecasting and the preparation of weather maps has been
in operation since 1923 (Robertson 1927; Sellick 1934), and more
recently a twice-daily service including upper wind observations
for aviation has been established. The radio exchange of synoptic
reports is in operation with Northern Rhodesia, Mozambique,
Madagascar, and the Union.
A special feature of the service is the preparation of seasonal
forecasts according to Sir Gilbert Walker’s methods. ‘The pre-
diction of excess or defect in rainfall was published in ten years
between 1922 and 1934, and in eight of these the anticipation proved
correct. Sir Gilbert Walker (1933) points out that meteorological
conditions are more persistent in tropical than in temperate coun-
tries, and concludes that prediction is, accordingly, more likely to
be successful in the former. Since in southern Africa the upper
98 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
levels of hilly country are better for cultivation in wet years, and
the lower levels in dry years, the prediction of an abnormally wet
or dry year would be of the greatest value to agriculture. It is to
be hoped, therefore, that the system adopted in Southern Rhodesia
may be extended to other territories. A section on the climate of
Southern Rhodesia, prepared in the meteorological office by C. L.
Robertson and N. P. Sellick, is included in Képpen and Geiger’s
great work (1927).
In Angola there is an important meteorological and magnetic
station at Loanda, but little organization in the hinterland. The
literature is not extensive, but two valuable papers by Mar-
quardsen (1917) and Roque (1925-26) are cited in the biblio-
graphy.
Mozambique has an official service centred at the Campos
Rodrigues Observatory, Lourengo Marques, where upper winds
are observed and daily weather charts are plotted. There are
three first order stations, all situated on the coast, at Inhambane,
Quelimane, and Mozambique, and another at Beira under control
of the Mozambique Company. There are a number of second
order and rainfall stations, but their distribution inland is some-
what irregular. The annual and monthly reports are models which
might well be followed elsewhere. The climate is described in
K6ppen and Geiger (1927) and by Peres (1931).
Madagascar has an official service and a well-equipped laboratory
at Tananarive. Short-term forecasting and the broadcasting of
weather reports are highly developed. The island has been studied
thoroughly, and practically all that is known about its climate and
weather is embodied in the standard work by Poisson (1930). For
no country on the mainland of Africa, except Egypt, is there such
a complete account. Tropical cyclones and thunderstorms are both
formidable manifestations, and are discussed by the author with
remarkable acumen. Appendices deal with native weather-lore,
and the influence of the moon on barometric pressure and other
elements. It is pointed out that Madagascar is exceptionally well
situated for the study of minor lunar influences on the atmosphere.
This, of course, lends no support to the popular belief that the
_ weather is controlled by the phases of the moon.
METEOROLOGY 99
CENTRAL AND EAST AFRICA
The meteorological service of British East Africa was developed
in 1929, principally with a view to the organization of meteoro-
logical studies throughout East Central Africa, but also in order to
connect under a single organization a series of stations along the
Imperial Airways route. This is the reason for the inclusion in the
group of Northern Rhodesia, although this territory is affected to
a large extent by climatic conditions in areas farther south. The
service does not cover Nyasaland. The central office is at Nairobi,
where a qualified statistician, Mr. Walter, is in charge of the corre-
lation of all data. £7,000 per annum is contributed toward this
service by the Governments of Egypt, Sudan, Zanzibar, and the
East African colonies. Egypt contributes the largest share because
the highland rainfall controls so much of the Nile’s water-supply.
There are five first order stations, at Kampala, Kabete, Tabora,
Zanzibar, and Broken Hill. Here hourly values of the meteoro-
logical elements are recorded and upper air data are obtained
from pilot balloon ascents twice daily. Only a few magnetic,
electric, and solar radiation data are collected, but further mag-
netic results are being obtained with the assistance of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington. There are forty-eight second order
stations, of which eleven are in Kenya, fifteen in Uganda, twelve
in Tanganyika and eight in Northern Rhodesia. These stations
take full climatological observations twice daily and at three
(Dodoma, Mbeya, and Mpika), pilot balloon ascents are made.
In addition, 750 rainfall stations record the daily rainfall, and at
160 the temperature is also read. Of these, 310 are in Kenya,
go in Uganda, 200 in Tanganyika, and 150 in Northern Rhodesia.
There appears to be need for a better organized system of wireless
communication to promote closer contact between the adjoining
British territories and with the foreign colonies, especially the
Congo. It is worth noting that the study of daily weather variations
in East Africa and also in Rhodesia is rendered difficult by the
lack of topographical surveys, because heights of some of the
barometric stations are not known with sufficient accuracy.
Before this service was established, each of the territories had its
own network of recording stations and the data from separate areas
had been analysed by several authorities, especially Brooks (1924)
I0o SCIENCE IN AFRICA
for Uganda and Kenya, Rodwell Jones (1933) for Kenya, Hurst
and Phillips (1933) for all the regions lymg within the Nile Basin,
Sir Henry Lyons (1917) and Paap (1934) for the former territory
of German East Africa (Tanganyika and Ruanda-Urundi). There
are still large areas, such as the northern arid regions of Kenya,
where information is scanty. The meteorology of these countries
is exceptionally interesting on account of the local complexities
introduced by such impressive natural features as the rift valleys,
the equatorial snow peaks, and the great lakes. The investiga-
tions of Dr. Brooks and others on the rainfall of British East
Africa show that this is governed to a much greater extent by
vertical relief than might perhaps have been expected near the
equator where the rains are mostly of the doldrum type without
much wind. In England we are accustomed to associate ‘oro-
graphic’ rainfall with the effects of mountain slopes in forcing
upwards damp cyclonic winds, condensation resulting from cocling
by adiabatic expansion as the air rises into levels of reduced pres-
sure. ‘This effect undoubtedly occurs also in East Africa, as is
shown by the considerable precipitation which occurs on the rising
ground exposed to the south-east monsoon. But mountains also
increase rainfall by hindering the free passage of rain-bearing cur-
rents of air, so that rains last longer than in open plains, and also
by favouring local thunderstorms. The latter factor is apparently
of great importance in the tropics.
Nyasaland has its own service under the Department of Agricul-
ture. Two rainfall maps of the whole territory, for November to
April (wet season) and May to November (dry season), have been
compiled by Hornby (1935) and the climate of Central Nyasaland.
has been described by Hornby (1933).
The whole East African region, where meteorology is intimately
bound up with hydrology, is of the greatest scientific interest,
particularly in relation to the oscillations of climate, as indicated
by recent geological history and the change in levels of the great
lakes. These subjects are treated later in this chapter.
In the Belgian Congo! a meteorological service under the Institut
Royal Colonial Belge was established in 1911 and reorganized after
the war on a somewhat different plan. There are now three first.
1 Information from notes by M. Gasthuys.
METEOROLOGY IOI
order stations under meteorological specialists; two, at Eala and
Elisabethville, were established before the war, and a third, at
Tshibinda in the Kivu area, was opened in 1928. The station at
Elisabethville is the best equipped of the three and controls the
meteorological service of Katanga. There are some 300 rain
stations, of which 100 also make observations of temperature. All
these are in charge of agricultural officers, administrative officers
or missions, but, in spite of careful instruction, the temperature
observations, in particular, have sometimes been found unsatis-
factory. In the Kivu area the rain stations, in addition to that at
Tshibinda, were organized by M. Scaétta, and a remarkable piece
of work was the installation of four rain-gauges for high altitude
observations on the mountains Buzezu (2,460 metres high), Bugoi
(2,230 metres), Kahuzi (3,308 metres), and Karissimbi (4,506
metres). The water collected in these gauges is measured every
six months.
Before 1911, some observations were made by administrative
officers and missions, but the records in general lack continuity,
except one at Banana which continued for twenty years. Impor-
tant papers on the climate are by Gasthuys (1924) on various re-
gions of the Congo, and by Scaétta (1933) on the rift valley.
Air services in the Congo are developing rapidly. The distribu-
tion of meteorological information by wireless has not yet com-
menced, but arrangements to effect this service are reported to be
in preparation.
NORTH-EAST AFRICA
Egypt, through its dependence on the Nile, has interests in
meteorology and hydrology which extend beyond its territorial
boundaries, and its Physical Department has undertaken researches
over nearly the whole Nile basin, and has established recording
stations in the Sudan and in Abyssinia. The connection between
Egypt and Great Britain has, further, led to a close co-operation
between the meteorological services of the two countries, especially
for the development of the Imperial air service.
Much material has been published on the meteorology of Egypt.
Hurst and Phillips (1931) have brought together all important
data in the first volume of their book on the Nile basin. The
102 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Meteorological Atlas of Egypt (1931) is a handsome production
prepared by order of King Fuad I. It gives maps and diagrams
of the geographical and seasonal distribution of elements, in some
cases for Egypt only, in others for Egypt and the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan, and in others again for the whole of the Nile basin, includ-
ing the great lakes. The papers by Peters, Sutton, Range, Spath,
Lahmeyer, and Dorno, referred to in the bibliography, may be
selected as of especial value. In addition, numerous papers have
been published in recent years on local Egyptian climatic condi-
tions, including one by B. E. F. Keeling on the climate of Abbassia
and one by L. J. Sutton on the climate of Helwan.
It is interesting to note that the network of meteorological sta-
tions includes the oases of Siwa, Dakhla, and Kharga in the Libyan
Desert. For these it has been considered safe to base normal values
on a ten-year record. Even at such almost entirely rainless stations,
severe storms occasionally occur, yielding from one to two or more
inches of rain within twenty-four hours.
A belief that was held some years ago, that the extensive Nile
irrigation works were making Egypt colder and damper, was found
to have no basis, although it is quite likely that localized night fogs
are now more frequent over the irrigated surfaces.
In the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan special study has been made of the
northern region near Khartoum where cotton cultivation is de-
veloped. The most important paper is by Sutton (1923). A string
of stations has been established down the Nile in connection with
irrigation works; some of these have been enlarged and additional
stations created for the airways. Summaries of the observations
made in Egypt and the Sudan are published in the Annual
Meteorological Reports issued by the Physical Department, Cairo.
They comprise observations from about eighty meteorological sta-
tions and a hundred rainfall stations.
British Somaliland has an efficient station at Berbera. There are
six other stations in the Protectorate which record particulars of
temperature, rainfall, and velocity and direction of ground winds.
Libya maintains an official service with headquarters at Tripoli.
A considerable number of meteorological studies have appeared of
late years in Italian journals. Eredia has published numerous
papers on the meteorology of this and the other Italian colonies
METEOROLOGY 103
in Africa; that of 1923 is of particular interest because it was at
Azizia, an oasis some thirty miles inland from the Mediterranean
coast, that there occurred on 13th September 1922 a shade air
temperature of 136° F., the highest ever recorded under standard
conditions. ‘The work of Fantoli (1930 and 1932) is also important.
In Eritrea there is no official service, but climatological stations
have been established, and the main features of temperature and
rainfall are known. A useful paper by Eredia (1932) discusses the
seasonal distribution of rainfall in relation to the physical features
of the country. It is shown that the rainfall is heaviest (some forty
inches a year) on the eastern plateau slopes, whence it declines to
a few inches on the hot Red Sea coast, being there confined to the
winter months. On the plateau summit about 7,000 feet above
sea-level the rainfall, which comes in summer, is fairly heavy, but
lower down, on the western side sloping to the Sudan, it is again
scanty.
The late Duke of Abruzzi set up a number of stations in the
southern part of [talian Somaliland. These have furnished valuable
data which have been discussed by Eredia (1927). This territory,
though it lies in a latitude normally affected by the equatorial
rain-belt, has very scanty rainfall. The explanation is to be sought
in the disturbance of the normal equatorial circulation by the
Asiatic summer monsoon system. On the west side of Africa, on
the other hand, the equatorial rains are reinforced by monsoonal
influences.
In Abyssinia, there was no weather service up to 1936, apart
from the few stations controlled by Egypt. The climate has been
studied by three British and Egyptian scientific missions, in con-
nection with the scheme for regulating the outflow of Lake Tana.
NORTH-WEST AFRICA
Tunis, Algeria, and Morocco (French and Spanish) have official
meteorological services and are well supplied with data. In par-
ticular, several stations have recently been established in Algeria
down the air route across the Sahara. The Institut de Météorologie
et de Physique du Globe at Algiers serves as a centralizing base
for the French North African territories.
In Tunisia the winter rainfall is quite heavy on the coast but
104 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
declines rapidly southward towards the Sahara. The Tell plateau
has a continental climate. In spite of intense summer heat, heavy
snowstorms occur now and then in winter at 2,000 feet.
For Algeria there are two important papers by Franc (1923) and
Prat (1929). The second is of special interest in showing the bene-
ficial influence of fog-moisture in rainless regions. On the south
side of the Murdjadjo range, which faces the scorching winds of
the Sahara desert, there is no vegetation on the lower slopes, but a
xerophilous type flourishes precisely down to the level reached by
heavy nocturnal mountain mists. The northern flank of the range
comes under the influence of heavier rainfall and is forested.
For Morocco three important papers are those of Bernard (1922),
Wattier (1926), and Russo (1931). The Moroccan littoral is rather
cool for its latitude, subject to copious night dew and mist, as well
as a liberal winter rainfall. In the interior the rainfall diminishes
and the summer heat is severe at low levels, but great local com-
plexity of climate results from the influence of the Atlas range.
Although one or two peaks actually reach the limit of perennial
snow, it may be said of the Great Atlas as a whole that at 12,000
feet it just manages to clear itself of snow for a short time in summer
—much in the same way as the Scottish Grampians do at 4,000
feet in a much colder latitude. But there is indisputable geological
evidence that during the pluvial epoch, which was contempor-
aneous with the pleistocene ice age in Europe, the Atlas mountains
bore powerful glaciers.
The meteorological services of French West and Equatorial Africa’
and the French Cameroons were reorganized in April 1929 and
have developed noticeably since that date. Each of these ad-
ministrative areas has now an efficient independent service,
centralized and correlated by a special department of the Min-
istry for Colonies in Paris under M. Hubert. The service in West —
Africa, under M. L. Welter, was established in 1931. There are
nineteen principal stations, each in charge of a qualified meteoro-
logist, where observations are made on the ground and in the
upper air with pilot balloons, on temperature, pressure, humidity
and wind velocity, some of these being observed hourly and others
2 Tt is convenient to include French Equatorial Africa in this group for reasons of
its organisation, although it really belongs to the Central climatic region.
METEOROLOGY 105
three-hourly. Data from each of the principal stations is trans-
mitted twice daily to the central office at Dakar, where daily
weather maps are prepared and forecasts are broadcast. This
system of weather forecasting cannot attain its full significance,
however, until corresponding methods are adopted by the sur-
rounding territories. There are, in addition, fifty-eight first class
stations, where ground observations are made twice daily, and 141
second class stations for rainfall. Most of the rainfall records were
started in 1900-1905, but a few records on the Senegal coast go
back for fifty years. The service in Equatorial Africa, which is
organized on the same lines, was fully established only in 1935.
The most important publication on this region is the large
volume by Hubert (1926) on West Africa, containing all data
available at that time, and profusely illustrated with maps and
graphs. Many of the results since 1931 are published in the Annales
de Physique du Globe de la France d’ Outre Mer, edited by Hubert and
published bimensually. Welter (1930) has compiled a useful list
of eighty-five papers and books, of which thirty-five are by Hubert,
on the meteorology of French West Africa, while the most recent
publication on the subject is by Foissy and others (1937).
Rousseau’s paper of 1931 on the rainfall of Senegal is particularly
interesting. The distribution of rainfall shows a marked latitudinal
or solar control, the average annual quantity ranging from sixty
inches in the south to twelve inches in the north. North of Cape
Verde cold water keeps the coast arid. The rainy season or
‘hivernage’ occurs between June and October. The rains follow
the two passages of the vertical sun in May and August but are
accentuated by a coastal monsoon accompanied by tornados which
make August the wettest month. The rainfall is much more
uncertain from year to year in the dry north than in the wet south.
Welter (1931) has analysed the rainfall of Dakar from records at
the railway station from 1887 and at the hospital from 1903. ‘These
show a pronounced eleven-year periodicity over four cycles, coin-
ciding with the periodicity in sunspot numbers. In years of greatest
solar activity the annual rainfall amounted to 650-700 millimetres,
and in years of minimal solar activity it was reduced to 350-450
millimetres. Another long series of records at St. Louis has been
analysed by Constantin (1930). Apart from the eleven-year perio-
106 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
dicity, there is no evidence that total rainfall has suffered any
reduction during the fifty years in which records have been kept.
Two valuable contributions in English on the coastal region are
by Gautier (1933) on French Guinea, and Braby (1913) on the
harmattan wind.
Meteorological data for the Sahara are by no means numerous,
but the new principal stations at Gao, Aquelhock, Tamanrasset,
and Regan will provide serial records before long. A notable
paper is that of Brooks and Mirrlees (1929) on records made by
Francis Rodd whilst travelling in the Sahara, mainly in A’ir during
1922-7. An extreme maximum air temperature of 114° F. was
recorded in June, and an extreme minimum, slightly below freez-
ing point, in December. The most interesting data, however, are
afforded by the humidity readings. The relative humidity varied
between 82 per cent. and 2 per cent., and the absolute humidity
or pressure of aqueous vapour between 22 mb. and 1 mb., indi-
cating that while the air of the Sahara desert is at times almost
dry, it can at times contain more moisture than is practically ever
contained in the air of England. In tropical latitudes the air even
in deserts cannot remain dry for any length of time because of the
incursion of moist winds from surrounding regions.
In the Cameroons and neighbouring territories, the conspicuous
climatic feature is the high rainfall. Here the ordinary equatorial —
rain-belt is reinforced by the south-west monsoon blowing on to
the mass of Mount Cameroon which attains some 13,000 feet
above sea-level. Under the German administration a number of
private rainfall stations were set up, and an important paper by
Semmelhack (1933) on the rainfall of Debundja, one of these
stations near the south-western foot of Cameroon Mountain,
analyses a forty-year record. It is pointed out that, with an aver-
age of 350 inches a year, Debundja is the wettest spot near sea-
level so far known in the world, and that in all probability the
higher levels of Gameroon Mountain are wetter than the very wet
mountain stations in the Khasi Hills of Assam and in Hawaii. As
this enormous rainfall is spread over 261 days in the year, the cli-
mate is extremely rainy. In 1919, according to Semmelhack, as
much as 532 inches fell, compared with only 273 in 1909. The
greatest fall in 24 hours is 18 inches, but this is not outstanding for
METEOROLOGY 107
the tropics. Debundja now lies in British mandated territory and
an official recording station was established there after the war.
The official record for r1g1qg 1s still greater—577} inches.
In Nigeria (with part of the Cameroons) the official service is
organized by the Surveyor-general. Since 1935, when the Im-
perial Airways extension to Kano was opened, two members of
the survey department have been seconded entirely for meteoro-
logy, and other observers have been trained to take charge of the
six major stations which are planned for the use of aircraft. In
addition to these there are some sixty-five stations distributed
throughout the country, but most of them are poorly equipped
and can supply data on only a few of the meteorological elements.
Where survey offices exist, the data are collected by the survey staff,
but for the most part the observations are in charge of district
officers and medical officers, and may be left to African subordi-
nates. Hence many of the observations are not reliable, though
improvement has been effected in recent years by extensive corres-
pondence regarding discrepancies in the data submitted. British
West Africa as a whole is one of the few quarters of the habitable
globe where data on pressure systems are not available, but this
state of affairs will be remedied in Nigeria by the new principal
stations. Comparatively few of the existing stations are situated in
the dry parts of the Northern Provinces, where data on rainfall
are important in connection with agriculture, forestry, etc.
Concerning publications, Brooks (1920a and 1920b) has written
two papers on the distribution of temperature and the distribution
of relative humidity. There is a great difference between the
Southern Provinces which have in places a very heavy rainfall,
and the Northern which are under Saharan influences, particularly
during the season of the dry harmattan wind from the north-east.
H. N. Thompson (1928), when Director of Forests, reported on
the irregularities of rainfall in Nigeria over a period of twenty
years. The object was to ascertain the extent of association, if any,
between the irregularity of rainfall and the alleged desiccation,
especially in the regions bordering the Sahara. No definite con-
clusions could be reached, except regarding the best ways of
ensuring future water-supplies by preserving natural vegetation,
especially along streams and water-divides (see Chapter VII).
108 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Nigeria took an active part in the Polar Year observations of
1932-3, and the results have been printed in a special publication
(Nigeria 1934) which includes data obtained at eight selected
stations. In 1933 the Survey Department published two rainfall
and wind maps, for November to April (dry season), and April to
May (wet season). A particular feature of the Southern Provinces
is the short dry season in July and August, which divides the rainy
season into two. This is of great importance to agriculturalists in
that it allows two crops to be raised during the year; it has never
been satisfactorily explained by meteorologists.
In the Gold Coast meteorological services are divided between the
Agricultural and Survey Departments. The former is responsible
for ninety-three observation stations for rainfall and some of these
record also temperature, pressure, humidity, and winds. Some
trouble has arisen concerning the records of temperature, in that
thermometers have shown remarkable diversity of performance
after a few years’ work in the Gold Coast climate.
A map of annual rainfall is published every year for the Gold
Coast, and in 1930 a rainfall chart was prepared for the whole
of West Africa, including French territory (West Africa 1930).
The climate has been described in the bulletins of the agricultural
department by the Director of Agriculture, G. G. Auchinleck
(1926a and 1926b) and by N. P. Chamney (1928). An important
problem with regard to rainfall is concerned with the effect of the
escarpment in Ashanti. This ridge of high land, running across the
territory from north-west to south-east, appears to control precipi-
tation, and hence coincides with the limit of forest land and cul-
tivation of cocoa. Observation centres for rainfall north of the
escarpment are, however, very few, so that the rainfall map can be
regarded as only approximate. The heavy precipitation on the
coast near Axim remains unexplained, but it has been suggested
that the moisture-laden winds from the Gulf of Guinea travel
north-east as far as the escarpment, where they rise, precipitate
part of their moisture and return towards the south-west to preci-
pitate most of their rain near the coast.
The meteorological work necessitated by the extension of the
air route from Nigeria has been placed under the survey depart-
ment. Two complete stations are established, at Accra and Tak-
METEOROLOGY 109
oradi, for recording pressure, winds, etc., at ground level and in the
upper air with pilot balloons. A difficulty in selecting the best
sites for aerodromes arises in that the direction of prevailing winds
at the coast is not known adequately.
The survey department has been in charge of observations
relating to tides, which are important in connection with the port
of Takoradi, since this harbour was built. The division of meteoro-
logy into two sections administered by different departments is
somewhat unsatisfactory. It is anticipated, however, that with
the further development of airways, it will be necessary to estab-
lish a unified meteorological service in all the British territories
of West Africa.
Szerra Leone has an official meteorological service as part of the
Department of Agriculture, organized on the same lines as that of
the Gold Coast. There are eleven stations for rainfall, dating back
sixteen years, except that at Freetown, which has a fifty-six-year
record. ‘The climate has been described by Brooks (1922). As no
British air routes to Sierra Leone are contemplated at present,
the need for fully equipped meteorological stations has not yet
arisen.
In the Gambia meteorological work 1s in charge of the Colonial
Secretary, and published records are scanty. ‘There are two rain-
fall stations, at Bathurst and Georgetown, with records of about
twenty-six years. The annual rainfall is some forty inches.
Portuguese Guinea has no official service and information is not
readily available.
For Rio Muni and Fernando Po information is wholly lacking
beyond references in general works. The rainfall is generally very
heavy, particularly in the mountainous island of Fernando Po.
Rio de Oro. This Spanish territory is climatically part of the
Sahara, but nothing appears to be available in print concerning
its meteorological development. The interior, towards or beyond
the Mauretanian border, is difficult of access in consequence of
the hostile attitude of the Moorish tribes.
In Liberia there is no regular meteorological service, but the
climate has been described by H. J. Coolidge (1930).
IIo SCIENCE IN AFRICA
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
Special reference must be made to the circulation of the atmos-
phere in view of its importance for understanding local variation
in weather and for forecasting. Since Africa is bisected by the
equator it is in a symmetrical position in relation to the equatorial
rain-belt. This is flanked by sub-tropical belts of high pressure,
dominated by the trade winds. In the north the trade wind desert
belt stretches from the Atlantic to the Red Sea, but in the south
desert conditions are confined to the Atlantic Coast, because the
Drakensberg scarp obstructs the passage of the moisture-laden
trades from the warmer Indian Ocean, and induces abundant
rainfall. The extreme north and south of Africa are influenced by
the westerly cyclonic belt during the winter months, and enjoy
higher rainfall.
Two factors, however, alter this symmetry of climate: the greater
width of North Africa, which causes the actual thermal equator
to deviate northward because in tropical latitudes the land is
warmer ‘than the sea, and the greater height of South Africa
(average of 4,000 feet above sea-level, compared with 1,000 feet
in the north), which increases this asymmetrical effect.
It is in analysing the influence of these factors on the climate
that the recording of atmospheric circulation has the greatest
interest. Since the war studies have been made by Lyons (1917)
on North Africa, by Brooks and Mirrlees (1932) for Central Africa,
and by Cox (1935) for South Africa. The authors have considered
conditions in the upper air as well as at sea-level, making use of
modern methods of upper air research. Thus Sir Henry Lyons
shows that the south-west monsoon or surface air-current of the
Guinea Coast has a vertical thickness of not more than 5,000 feet,
being overlain by the north-east harmattan. Mr. Cox points out
that the South African plateaux interfere so much with the surface
circulation that at some places, such as Durban, the wind often blows
in complete opposition to the barometric gradient. In summer
apparently the south-east trade, which brings much rain to the
Drakensberg scarp, does not succeed to any great extent in passing
over the range into the Transvaal, but is deflected and reaches
that country from the north and passes out to sea in Natal from the
METEOROLOGY ip
north-west. In winter the cold of the high veld raises the pressure
sufficiently to cause something of an outflowing monsoon, weaken-
ing the south-east trade. Dr. Brooks and Mr. Mirrlees relate the
distribution of rainfall in tropical Africa in each month of the year
to the main stream-lines of the circulation. Rain falls: (1) along the
line of separation or ‘front’ between currents of different physical
quality, as between the humid south-west monsoon and the dry
harmattan of the Guinea Coast; (2) where two or more stream-
lines converge, as in the case of northerly and southerly trade
winds meeting in the equatorial rain-belt; (3) where humid winds
meet or converge upon mountains, as in the Cameroons and
Abyssinia.
A great contrast exists between West and East Africa in the
equatorial belt. In West Africa the equatorial rains are enormously
enhanced in their northern summer migration by the moist south-
west monsoon which interacts with dry winds from the north. In
East Africa, on the other hand, the local circulation is entirely
dominated by the centre of low pressure on the Persian Gulf. This
prevents the indraught of any moisture-laden monsoon, or any
convergence of air-currents over Italian Somaliland, where the
equatorial rains are almost entirely suppressed.
The encircling equatorial rain-belt, which moves northward and
southward with the vertical sun, may be regarded as the main-
spring of the atmospheric circulation in the sense that its position
and intensity help to actuate the other wind and pressure belts of
the earth’s surface. It is likely to be specially sensitive to any
periodic fluctuations in the output of solar energy. In view of the
probability that Abyssinia receives the whole of its summer rain,
which supplies the autumn Nile flood, from winds blowing ulti-
mately from the Gulf of Guinea, there is great need for meteoro-
logical stations capable of taking pilot balloon observations, in the
north part of the Belgian Congo and the south-west part of the
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
CHANGES OF CLIMATE
It is now well established that a pluvial epoch occurred in Africa
at about the same time as the glacial epoch in Europe, and that
£i2 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
while the British Isles were buried under ice, the Sahara was in
large measure green, populous, and fertile. At the same time the
snow-line on the equatorial mountains was much lower than at
present, the drainage systems were strikingly different, and the
equatorial lakes were very much larger than now. Furthermore,
it has been shown, especially in eastern Africa, by the work of
Wayland (1935), Leakey (1931 and 1935), and Nilsson (1935),
that the pluvial epoch was not a continuous time of intensive
rains and snows, but was divided into a series of pluvial periods
separated by arid interpluvials when the climate was much drier
than it is to-day. The importance of these arid periods, especially
in relation to past and present fauna, has been stressed by Fuchs
(1934) and Worthington (1933).
A question of significance for the study of changes in climate
throughout the world, is whether the series of pluvial periods in
Africa were contemporaneous with the series of glacial and inter-
glacial periods in the northern hemisphere. This question is not
yet settled. It has been discussed by several authorities, notably
by Brooks (1931). Whether the desiccation that has since over-
taken the Sahara and affected all equatorial Africa is yet com-
pleted on the geological time scale, we have no definite means of
knowing, but several experts are of the opinion that Africa is even
now emerging from the last pluvial period, and is still undergoing
a steady change to drier conditions, though not without oscilla-
tions and temporary damp phases. Wayland and Leakey in
particular reach this conclusion from their studies of prehistoric
climates in Uganda and Kenya. On the other hand, J. D. Falconer
(1911 and 1937), who has discussed the geological evidence for
climatic change in Northern Nigeria, concludes that the desert
pulsates with an expansion and contraction of its margins and that
the most recent movement has been one of contraction, with the
consequent spread of more humid conditions over the country
between Lake Chad and the River Niger. This question is further
discussed in the next section.
Turning to changes in climate on a smaller scale, which may be
recognizable in the records collected since the European came to
Africa, there is also a considerable literature, some of which is
referred to in a valuable paper, devoted mainly to the European
METEOROLOGY 1
climate, by A. J. Brunt (1937). The fact that annual changes of
climate are more regular in tropical regions, especially over large
continents, renders Africa peculiarly favourable for the study of
cyclical variations, but unfortunately there are few records which
extend back to fifty years or over. ‘The well-known Briickner
cycles, with a periodicity of about thirty-five years, covering three
eleven-year cycles of sunspots, have been traced back in Europe
through several centuries. It appears, however, that ‘generally
speaking the Briickner cycles characterize the higher latitudes
while the eleven-year cycle (i.e. one cycle of sunspots) is more
strongly expressed in equatorial regions.’ Wayland (1935, p. 106).
According to some authorities the sunspot cycle is felt with par-
ticular intensity in the East African region, where meteorology is
intimately bound up with hydrology. During the years of sunspot
minimum, solar radiation and hence evaporation are greatest and
rainfall is less than the average. This 1s reflected in the rise and fall
of the levels of the great lakes which offer enormous areas for
evaporation. The years of highest level have been roughly, 1895,
1906, 1917, 1927-8, and the next is predicted for about 1939.
Dr. Brooks (1923) has shown that the levels of Lakes Victoria and
Albert rise and fall with a periodicity of about eleven years, the
lakes being high at sunspot maximum. He argues that, although the
rainfall over these basins is higher at sunspot maximum, the corre-
lation between lake levels and rainfall is much weaker than that
between lake levels and sunspot. Hence he concludes that the
physical explanation is to be sought in increased evaporation at
sunspot minimum, which is in keeping with the known fact that
the mean temperature in equatorial regions is about one degree F.
higher at sunspot minimum.
A similar response to solar activity is disclosed by Dr. Dixey’s
(1924 and 1927) researches into the level of Lake Nyasa, but the
relation here has been complicated by the blocking of the outlet
via the Shiré river, which since 1920 led to a continuous rise in
lake level. The levels of Lake Tanganyika since 1912 have been
made available by Gillman (1933), who shows that they too follow
the eleven-year cycle closely. His paper includes a series of graphs
bringing the data for Lakes Victoria, Albert, and Nyasa up to
1931, but he adds a note of warning against premature generaliza-
E
It4 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
tions in view of the fact that in 1930 and 1931, when the sunspots
were nearing their minimum, the levels of all the lakes rose in an
unexpected manner when they should have been falling.
It is important to note that some authorities do not believe that
a connection between the lake levels and sunspots has yet been
proved, particularly in view of the unexpected developments of
the last few years. Dr. H. E. Hurst, Director of the Physical
Department in Egypt, for instance, who has paid particular atten-
tion to the effect on the variation in level of Lakes Victoria and
Albert on the flow of the Nile, points out that Brooks’ correlation
co-efficient of 0-83 between the level of Lake Victoria and sunspot
numbers for the period 1896-1922, has fallen in the period 1923-
1934 to 0-06, and for the whole period 1896-1934 to 0-60 which is
scarcely significant. Furthermore, he shows mathematically that
there should be a difference of a quarter of a period, two and,a
half to three years, between the maximum sunspot numbers and
the maximum lake level, whereas Brooks found these coincident.
For these reasons Dr. Hurst regards the correlation between lake
levels and sunspots as a chance relation which has now disappeared.
If it can be concluded in general that the recent abnormal rise -
of the great lakes is a temporary variation from a permanent cycle,
then we should expect that records of rainfall over long periods in
other parts of the continent would show similar cyclic variations.
The fifty-year record at Dakar, according to Welter (1930), shows
a striking correspondence with sunspot numbers (see page 105),
but appears to be the only case; Schumann and Thompson (1934)
in their study of South African rainfall conclude that ‘cycles of
fixed periodicity are not in evidence in South African rainfall. If
cycles do exist, they are more or less completely masked by the
much more prominent irregular secular variations.’ They are
dealing, however, with a part of Africa where conditions are those
of temperate rather than tropical latitudes.
It is interesting to consider the effect of these periodic changes
on biological cycles and even cycles of human activity, though
here we are mainly in the realm of speculation. It has been sug-
gested that the eleven-year cycle influences plant growth and so
the incidence of locust invasions. Simmons (1929) has pointed out
the striking fact that the periods of food shortage in Uganda,
METEOROLOGY 115
especially in 1898, 1908, 1918-19, and 1928, appear to be similarly
periodic, and are essentially due to failure of the short rains in the
preceding year.
Though the relation between rainfall, lake levels, Ata sunspots
might seem to be of academic interest, these examples suggest
that full understanding of climatic cycles in Africa may eventually
lead to long-range weather forecasting of sufficient accuracy to be
of real economic value.
ALLEGED PROGRESSIVE DESICCATION
Some authorities believe that the whole continent of Africa is
affected by a progressive desiccation, which is said to have been
accelerated in recent years. There is an extensive literature on the
subject, particularly in relation to West and South Africa. Colonel
Tilho is the authority for the Chad Basin, and M. Hubert for the
Senegal region. The late Professor Schwarz discussed the problem
as affecting Africa as a whole, but it should be noted that some of
his conclusions have been discredited as a result of more recent
work. The evidence strongly suggests that large tracts of Africa
are drying up, through a combination of influences, geographical,
meteorological, and human.
The chief geographical factor 1s river-capture, though the silting
up of streams and lakes and the movement of sand dunes have also
played their part. Schwarz (1921) laid great stress on the unfavour-
able topography of Africa, which is such as to give rise to steady
head-stream erosion by short coastal rivers, resulting in the capture
of water which formerly drained the interior of the continent. He
considered this the fundamental cause of the disappearance of
Lake Ngami in the Kalahari, and of the dwindling of Lake Chad,
as well as of a great diminution in the volume of the Niger in
modern times. He suggested also that the ultimate fate of Lake
Victoria will be capture by an affluent stream of Lake Tanganyika,
which is cutting back the low watershed to the south-west of Lake
Victoria. A thorough examination of the area, however, has
shown that this cannot happen for many thousands, if not millions,
of years. Colonel Tilho (1928) fears that Lake Chad may dis-
appear through the capture of the Logone and ultimately of the
116 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Shari by the Benue River, unless the process can be thwarted by
engineering works.
Schwarz’s well-known scheme (1923) for making a lake in the
Kalahari Desert by restoring water to the Okavango drainage
system which is now tapped by the Kunene, has been found im-
practicable by engineers, but the possibility of forming great arti-
ficial lakes in Africa in order to create cultivable land and sources
of hydro-electric power has been discussed more recently by
H. Soergel of Munich (1936). He suggests that a great dam two
and a half miles long about 500 miles from the mouth of the Congo
would turn the basin into an inland sea with an area of about
350,000 square miles. An outlet by the lower Congo would provide
abundant water power, or, alternatively, an outlet could be
arranged to the north to create a second inland sea centring on
Lake Chad. A further suggestion is for a dam on the Zambesi
River above the Victoria Falls in order to create an inland sea
over much of the Kalahari Desert. These suggestions are men-
tioned here merely in order to indicate how the physiography of
Africa might favour change at some future date.
Apart from such comparatively rapid change as that produced
by river capture, the Sahara appears to be noticeably extending
southwards, especially in the Chad region and along the border
of northern Nigeria. Wells are said to be drying up, villages have
been deserted and a general southerly movement of population has
been noticed. All this evidence has been put on record and dis-
cussed by several authors, notably Hubert (1920), Bovill (1921),
and Mangeot (1932).
More recently Professor Stebbing (1935), after travelling through
the area, concluded that the only way to arrest the advance of the
desert is to establish a great belt of protected forest along its south-
ern boundary. Other experts, however, deny that the Saharan
advance is really a menace to civilization in that area. The mem-
bers of the geological department of Nigeria, for instance, who
carried out the surveys of water resources mentioned in Chapter
III, do not accept Professor Stebbing’s evidence as conclusive.
Dr. Raeburn (1928) concluded that this region, like the rest of
Africa, has undoubtedly undergone a process of desiccation in the
remote past since the pluvial periods, but ‘whether this regional
PLATE I
Above: TIN MINING NEAR JOS, NORTHERN TERRITORIES
OF NIGERIA
The tin ore is washed out by a powerful jet of water
Below: THE ADVANCING SAHARA AT TIMBUCTU
In historic times this land was fertile, but to-day sand-dunes are entering the city
METEOROLOGY Ly
desiccation is in progress in Nigeria at present is unproved and
demands the closest scientific investigation before the fact can be
accepted.’ The real criterion must lie in records of rainfall, but
these cover so short a period of years in the area in question, that
they contribute no evidence. Whether or not the desert is advan-
cing as a whole, all are agreed that the effect of man has been very
serious in this danger zone, and that the establishment of forest
‘shelter belts’ would be of great advantage. This subject is con-
sidered in connection with forestry in Chapter VII.
Some authorities are inclined to attribute the apparent desicca-
tion to the cyclical changes of climate discussed on page 113. In
French West Africa for instance, where the eleven-year cycle is so
evident in the rainfall records of Dakar, M. Welter considers that
the population tends to move southward during the years of
reduced rainfall, but does not subsequently return to the north.
As regards the meteorological evidence, careful examination of
long rainfall records fails to reveal much sign of diminished pre-
cipitation in recent years. The best data are from South Africa,
given by Schumann and Thompson (1934). Their conclusions are
so important that a few points are quoted: ‘3. The greater part of
the Union enjoyed a period of plentiful rains around the year
1890. ‘This possibly accounts for the popular idea that South
Africa is drying up. 6. Over the last forty to fifty years the annual
rainfall in certain parts of South Africa shows a more or less defi-
nite, though irregular downward trend. There is no proof, how-
ever, of any permanent diminution, and periods of plentiful rains
may confidently be expected in the future. 9. The depopulation
of the Midland Districts, to which attention is drawn by the
Drought Investigation Commission (1923), appears to be funda-
mentally attributable to the downward trend of the rainfall in this
area over the last forty to fifty years.’ There is a widespread belief
in the drought-stricken regions that reckless deforestation and burn-
ing of grassland have tended to make a larger percentage of the
rain come in destructive storms instead of in well-distributed gentle
downpours.
The principal human activities concerned in the process are the
destruction of forests and natural vegetation in association with
unenlightened methods of farming. Studies of the influence of
118 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
forests on rainfall have led to inconclusive results. Deforestation
probably does not diminish the actual annual rainfall, but it
nevertheless produces drought. When forest cover is removed the
rainwater, instead of percolating slowly into the soil and draining
gently into the rivers, tends to flow away rapidly and violently,
causing soil erosion and temporarily extensive flooding. Eventually
large tracts of country, which were formerly well watered, become
arid.}
Whether or not Africa, as a whole or in part, is undergoing
progressive desiccation, one conclusion seems certain: the drought-
stricken parts of Africa are in no position to meet a possible pro-
longed cycle of drier years. If these came, all the various factors
of drought here mentioned would, unless countered, be intensified
in a vicious circle of interacting effects that might cause extensive
depopulation.
BIOCLIMATOLOGY
The word bioclimatology is used to describe the general study
of the effects of climate on life. One aspect of bioclimatology is
concerned with the ‘ecoclimate’, or the meteorological conditions
occurring in a particular limited environment, such as a bush or
cubic metre of atmosphere overlying soil. Such variations are
often of a surprisingly large order; hence the objection to the pre-
viously used term ‘micro-climate’ with its implication of minute
variations. In reality any climate is made up of a number of
ecoclimates, and large-scale representations are merely approxi-
mations of value in comparing one area with another, or tracing
the differences associated with seasons. From the biological point
of view, moreover, the changes in climate from hour to hour and
from day to day are often of as much importance as seasonal
changes.
The study of ecoclimates has scarcely yet come into prominence
in Africa, but the work accomplished shows to how great an extent
insects and other organisms may depend on slight changes in
1 The subjects touched on here are treated in more detail as follows :—Influence of
forests and other vegetation on rainfall in Chapters vi and vii, pp. 161, 178, etc.; soil
erosion in Chapter v, p 136.
METEOROLOGY 11g
meteorological conditions. In relation to tsetse flies and other
insect pests, the study promises most fruitful results.
The first detailed studies of ecoclimates in Africa were made by
J. Phillips at Knysna in the Union. In 1928 a series of similar
studies were started by the Department of Tsetse Research in
Tanganyika, and some results have been published in papers on
the ecology of tsetse flies, referred to in Chapter X. Since 1931,
ecoclimatic studies have been in progress at the Botanical Depart-
ment of the Witwatersrand University, in connection with veld
studies, and the ecological research on pastures of South Africa
inaugurated by Dr. Pole Evans has necessitated further studies
which are now in progress.
T. W. Kirkpatrick (1935), of Amani Research Station, finds that
‘in most respects the climatic conditions 1n a coffee plantation
differ widely from those that obtain in a standard meteorological
screen, and not always in the direction that might on first thoughts
have been anticipated’. As an example, the temperature of the
outer leaves of a coffee bush may fall in some cases to as much as
7°G. below the minimum recorded in the meteorological screen.
Thus coffee may suffer from the direct effect of freezing, even where
no frost has ever been officially recorded. Many other deviations
from the standard climate, of a magnitude that undoubtedly exer-
_ cises a great influence on the fauna of a coffee plantation, have
been recorded, and some of these are susceptible to at least partial
control.
For biological purposes the study of evaporation is particularly
important in connection with the problem of soil erosion and in
estimating the effects of forests and other vegetation on rainfall and
run-off. Even in South Africa data are very scanty, and for evapora-_
tion rates the old free-surface evaporimeter is still in official use.
In 1923 at the Forest Research Station of Knysna, J. F. V. Phillips
introduced Livingston atmometers of various kinds. These have
proved to be greatly superior to the free-surface evaporimeter, and
they have subsequently been used in Tanganyika and elsewhere.
The various potentialities of land can only be fully understood
with knowledge of evaporation rates. It is largely through their
effects on plant life that climatic changes such as the possible
desiccation of Africa affect human beings. Hence the need has
I20 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
been felt for some index of the amount of water available for
plants at different times and places. Various indices have been
suggested for this purpose. R. Lang in 1915 proposed a ‘rain
factor’ depending on precipitation and temperature; in 1926 de
Martonne proposed and used as an ‘indice d’aridité’, precipita-
tion (in millimetres) divided by temperature (in degrees Centi-
grade plus 10); both of these may be criticized in that temperature
is not the sole factor controlling evaporation, since humidity and
wind-rate are also very important. A. Meyer in 1926 suggested
precipitation divided by saturation-deficit, but this could only be
used in places where records of humidity are taken frequently, or
are obtainable from recording instruments. A better index, where
the evaporation rate is obtainable, is precipitation divided by
evaporation, a ratio which is considered fully by Livingston and
Shreve (1921). A similar index is proposed and used for French
West Africa by R. Portéres (1934). He terms this the ‘indice de
sécheresse’ which is ‘hauteur d’eau en mm. au moment ou nous
percevrons sur A (i.e. the plant in question) le seuil de sécheresse’.
Rates of evaporation are also relevant to hydrological studies,
particularly in the region of the great lakes, on most of which
evaporation from the surface is nearly equal to or even greater than
the sum of rainfall on their surfaces and the water received from
affluent rivers. Some uniform system for recording evaporation Is
therefore a matter of importance.
METEOROLOGY AND MEDICINE
Meteorological studies are relevant to medical work from two
points of view. The first is concerned with the effects of climate on
such animals as mosquitoes, tsetse flies, and ticks, which convey
disease. These are the effects which are normally implied in the
expressions ‘good climate’ and ‘bad climate’ in the tropics. In
this branch of the subject, known as insect ecology, numerous
special studies are being made, showing how closely the carriers of
disease depend on relatively minute changes in their meteorological
environment, especially perhaps on humidity.
Secondly, there are the direct effects of meteorological conditions
on the human system; about these relatively little is known, even
METEOROLOGY 20
in the case of the European climate. It seems probable that uni-
formly high temperature is a factor adverse to health and occa-
sional changes to a cooler climate, either at a hill station or in
temperate latitudes, are desirable for Europeans working in the
hotter parts of Africa. The adverse effects of high temperature
are greatly intensified when it is associated with high relative
humidity, as the latter greatly reduces the cooling power of moving
air. In desert climates the surprising paradox is found that during
the hot dry season there is often actually more moisture in the
atmosphere than is normal for Great Britain, but the drying effect
of the air is very much greater on account of higher temperature.
This has been pointed out by CG. E. P. Brooks (1932) and by
L. J. Sutton (1923). On the other hand the moisture content of
desert air can fall much lower than in temperate climates, and on
occasions may be reduced to almost nothing on account of the
complete lack of evaporating surface over vast areas. Under these
circumstances the desiccating power of desert winds becomes
terrible.
Biologically, light and direct radiation as elements of climate
may be fully as important as temperature, moisture, and wind,
but this is not always realized, and knowledge of radiation,
especially in the tropics, is very scanty. Lately Sir Napier Shaw
has drawn attention to this defect in meteorological descriptions.
It is significant that medical science has not yet decided what kind
of radiation is responsible for the sunstroke from which Europeans
so frequently suffer in tropical Africa; some attribute this to ultra-
violet radiation, others to infra-red. The first published account
of light intensity in the tropics in terms of photochemical units
appears to be that of Phillips, Scott, and Moggridge (1931).
Working in Tanganyika for a year with an Eder-Hecht photo-
meter, they found the light intensity (measured in Bunsen-Roscoe
units) to be very high, even in the absence of direct sunlight, and
this appears to indicate that the unpleasant effects of tropical sun-
light on cloudy days result from radiations of short wavelength.
In South Africa some preliminary work has been done on the
ultra-violet content of sunlight by Osborn and Raftery (1932), and
more recently Fraulein Riemerschmid of Jena University has made
more detailed investigations of solar radiations in East and South
22 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Africa (results not yet published). An American meteorologist,
A. Garnett (1935), has suggested lines on which the duration and
intensity of insolation could be studied in relation to the sites of
settlements and agriculture.
CHAPTER V
SOIL SCIENCE
INTRODUCTION
HE geological structure of the underlying rocks, together with
a. long-continued action of climate and of vegetation, deter-
mine the type of soil in any area. Animals, agriculture, and indeed
the whole life of primitive peoples depend on this soil-vegetation
unit. Therefore soil science, which is often regarded as a special
branch of agriculture, is given prominence in this volume between
geology and meteorology on the one hand and the biological sub-
jects/on/the other.
Since agriculture began, the importance of differences of soil
from place to place has been recognized, and the most primitive
native agriculturalist realizes that vegetation, or the lack of it,
affects soil fertility. Hence there has grown up the common prac-
tice known as shifting cultivation, which consists of allowing land
to lie failow and revert to grass, bush, or forest between short
periods of cultivation.! ‘This process can be envisaged as a primi-
tive type of crop rotation in which forest is an intermediate crop.
In general the members of cultivating tribes are extraordinarily
good judges of land and will nearly always pick the area which
has the most productive soil, but the difficulty of clearing new land
and the type of timber required for domestic purposes also in-
fluences their choice. The underlying principles, according to
which the type of soil controls vegetation and changes in vegeta-
tion affect soil fertility, have been studied scientifically only in
recent years, and therefore soil science (or pedology, as it is now
often called) is still in a state of flux compared with other more
established branches of agricultural science.
1 Shifting cultivation is considered in more detail in Chapter xii, p. 376.
I24 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Until the war period, the geological nature of the country and
the composition of underlying rocks were considered of prime im-
portance in the formation of soils. After the war, when the work
of the Russian school of pedologists became recognized in western
Europe, climate was stressed as a factor of even more importance,
and some authorities went so far as to claim that almost any kinds
of rock, subjected to identical climate, would be reduced in time
to the same type of soil. The last few years have seen a swing back
from the ‘dominance of climate’ view, and climate is now gener-
ally ranked as a contributory factor in soil formation, together
with rock structure, land morphology, vegetation and intervention
by animals and man. In the tropics it is fully realized that
the effect of climate on soil is much more profound than was
thought twenty-five years ago. Many soil properties are now
recognized as being of primary importance: among them are the
varying soil texture, the distribution and nature of the humus, the
constitution of the clay-substance, and the degree of acidity or
alkalinity. The vertical movement of soil moisture and its seasonal
fluctuation are now known to be of fundamental importance, and
to depend on the interaction of numerous factors. Progress in the
domain of colloid physics and chemistry has shown that the nature
of the water-holding forces in the soil is more important than the
total water-content. All of these factors differ not only from one
soil to another but at different depths in the same soil, and are
intimately bound up with its nature and suitability for different
crops.
There is a prevalent idea among laymen that tropical conditions,
except in desert regions of very low rainfall, imply exuberant vege-
tation and rich soil which lends itself admirably to agriculture by
the simple process of removing the indigenous vegetation and in-
troducing crop plants. How far this idea is from the truth 1s shown
by the mass of intricate research which has become necessary with
almost every crop. As knowledge concerning tropical soils pro-
gresses, it becomes more and more evident that to judge them from
a European standpoint is entirely misleading. For instance, soils
which have so high a clay content as to be totally unfit for cultiva-
tion in a temperate climate, are sometimes found to break down
and become friable under tropical conditions. Against this it is
SOIL SCIENCE 125
becoming evident, especially when dealing with methods of farm-
ing employed by Europeans in the tropics, that frequent manuring
is necessary to maintain fertility, and often to make the soil fertile
in the first place. Many native methods do succeed in maintaining
a certain degree of fertility, but as population increases and com-
mercial cultivation extends, greater demands must inevitably be
made on the soil.
Soils of the arid and semi-arid parts of Africa, which make up
considerably more than half the total area, contain very little
humus, which is usually regarded as a main essential for the main-
tenance of fertility. In addition, some of the elements which
are essential for all plant and animal growth, notably calcium
and phosphorus, especially in the regions of high rainfall, are insuf-
ficient over wide areas.! In many areas tending to arid conditions
there 1s serious trouble from ‘brak’ or ‘alkali’, usually sodium salts
which are sucked up from the sub-soil under the influence of sur-
face evaporation, and become deposited in the superficial layers,
where they are often toxic to plant growth and may even form an
efflorescence at the surface.
When the vegetable cover to the soil is removed, either by the
plough or the native hoe in order to plant crops, or by excessive
grazing of domestic animals, the great bane of agriculture in
tropical and southern Africa—soil erosion—will probably begin.
Even where climatic conditions or agricultural practice do not
lead to erosion, suitable means for keeping the ground in produc-
tion vary enormously from place to place according to the structure
and composition of the local soil. Knowledge of the original soil
and an appreciation of the changes involved are essential both in
order to increase fertility and to prevent deleterious changes which
may follow agricultural development, the burning of grassland and
other human activities.
In treating African soils as a whole it is essential to make a dis-
tinction between the major geological classes. The soils of the old
basement complex, derived from granites, gneisses, etc., are rela-
tively poor, and since they spread over wide areas of the drier parts
1 Deficiency in other minerals has been noticed in special cases, for instance the
unusual case of lack of sulphur, which affects some tea soils in Nyasaland (see Chapter
Xil, p. 365).
126 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
of the continent, it is to them that remarks about poverty of African
soils generally apply. In contrast, the soils of volcanic areas can be
very rich, and so also can the alluvial soils. Conditions vary so
much from place to place, however, that even these rough state-
ments have their exceptions; for instance in Uganda some of the
richest soils, especially those of Busoga, are developed from rocks
of the basement complex, and many examples could be found of
poor soils derived from volcanic rocks.
The value of soil surveys must be considered in relation to the
other subjects treated in this volume. In order to obtain satis-
factory results from soil surveys the field conditions of water-
supply, vegetation, agricultural practice, numbers of stock, etc.
must be taken into the fullest account. Vegetation may be an
important indicator of soil types, and, as has been pointed out,
the plants themselves and their destruction by man affect the soil
very materially. For this reason many workers believe that all
such surveys should be based on the soil vegetation unit, a method
which is being developed particularly by Mr. C. G. T. Morison
at Oxford.
A second and perhaps still more important consideration 1s
that surveys of soil, or of soil and vegetation combined, over the
vast areas of Africa must always be extremely rough, in view of the
limited resources available. The question arises therefore, to what
extent they can be of value in the allocation of land for different
uses. In some parts of Africa surveys over a wide area would be
of value to the European farmer in the choice of a farm, but in the
greater part of the continent the unit farm is that of the African
peasant, having an area of only a few acres, and differences in
soil from one plot to the next, though often pronounced, could
never be shown in the kind of survey contemplated. It would be
of value only if combined with agricultural experience obtained
from many small-scale experimental farms, while for opening up
new areas it might be claimed that the study of vegetation, especi-
ally of plant ecology, checked by a few soil analyses, is sufficient
for most purposes. Moreover, many other factors are involved in
the agricultural potentialities of a territory, particularly the atti-
tude of the native population, the cost of transport of crops and the
possibilities of irrigation.
SOIL SCIENCE 127
In a country without an agricultural population or developed
transport, soil and ecological surveys are of great value in indicat-
ing the lines of development, as was the case in the early days of
exploration in the Canadian Middle West. In most of Africa, how-
ever, there have been populations for many centuries, and long
before British occupation the good soils had been discovered and
developed. A soil survey made at this date can hardly be expected
to do more than confirm and enlarge the knowledge already gained
‘in other ways.
The value of soil surveys lies not in their immediate practical
application, but in the data which can be obtained from them on
the fundamental qualities of the soil: these data will clearly be of
increasing importance as changes take place under the influence
of agricultural development.
ORGANIZATION AND RESULTS
BRITISH
Before giving a sketch of the work which is progressing in each
of the territories, central research institutions will be described.
The Imperial Bureau of Soil Science in Great Britain serves as a
central organization for Empire soil science. Being associated
with the Rothamsted Experimental Station under Sir John Rus-
sell, it is in the closest touch with modern research in Europe.
Like the other Imperial Agricultural Bureaux (see Chapter XI)
it does valuable work in collating literature on a world-wide basis,
abstracting all important papers and bringing them to the notice
of imperial and foreign workers through the medium of Soils and
Fertilizers, a bi-monthly journal circulated to all British institu-
tions in Africa concerned with the study of the soil. In addition,
special subjects such as soil erosion, tropical crop production, and
lateritic soils have been treated separately in technical communica-
tions from the bureau (Imperial Bureau of Soil Science 1930-8).
The Rothamsted Experimental Station at Harpenden is one of the
foremost centres for soil research in the world, and also serves as a
training centre. Many of the Empire soil chemists have either been
trained there or have attended special courses. Empire agricultural
officers meet annually at Rothamsted, on a convenient date in June,
128 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
The Mineral Resources Department of the Imperial Institute 1s well
equipped for the chemical and mineralogical examination of soils
and a large amount of work is done for the African colonies. The
Institute works in close co-operation with the Imperial Bureau
of Soil Science, from which soil samples from colonial sources are
forwarded for examination.
The new Sozl Laboratory at Oxford is likely to fulfil an important
function as a centre for soil studies as a pure, as opposed to an
applied, science.
The Macaulay Institute for soil research at Aberdeen has paid
special attention to methods of soil survey, and is responsible for
all survey work in Scotland. This institute offers facilities for the
training of workers in this subject.
Conferences of soil scientists, held from time to time, serve very
important functions. At the third international congress of soil
science, held at Oxford in 1935, it was agreed to prepare a soil
map of British Africa on the scale of 1:5,000,000, the first draft to
be ready by 1940, the date of the next international congress.
Mr. C. G. T. Morison agreed to act as general editor. For the
foreign countries also it is hoped to publish similar maps, and M.
Agafanoff (Paris) is the editor. This will make a valuable com-
panion to the international geological map on the same scale men-
tioned in Chapter III, p. 71.
Among publications of a general nature the book by H. L.
Shantz and C. F. Marbut (1923) on the vegetation and soils of
Africa has been helpful as a basis for soil research, if only in pro-
viding something for subsequent workers to criticize. It aims at a
general account of the whole continent, keeping constantly in
mind the soil-vegetation unit rather than either soil or vegetation
alone. P. Vageler (1933) has contributed an important book,
recently translated into English, on tropical soils, partly based on
work in German East Africa before the war. Another recent book
of general use, though not written especially with regard to Africa,
is on the biological processes in tropical soils by S. Corbet (1935).
The few soil scientists at work in the continent have contributed
results of value, some of which are referred to below.
In the Union of South Africa the Division of Chemical Services of
the Department of Agriculture and Forestry at Pretoria, under
SOIL SCIENCE 129
Dr. St. CG. O. Sinclair, appears to be well staffed and equipped for
soil investigation. In its soils section there are, besides several
analytical and other assistants, twelve qualified officers, of whom
eight devote their time mainly to soil survey and four to funda-
mental research on the structure, composition, and classification of
soils. In the section of agricultural chemistry work is undertaken
by some eight qualified officers and their assistants on fertilizer
requirements, brak reclamations, and soil biology. The Division
of Veterinary Services at the Onderstepoort Laboratory, under
Dr. P. J. du Toit, studies soils in connection with mineral and
other deficiencies in animal diet; and the Division of Plant Indus-
try, under Dr. I. B. Pole Evans, undertakes soil research on pasture
lands, particularly in relation to the effect of humus on fertility.
The two agricultural faculties at Stellenbosch and Pretoria and
the four schools of agriculture are also studying soils, with special
reference to problems of composition, alkalinity, manuring, and
biology. At Pretoria University, work carried out by the agricul-
tural department clearly indicates the great importance of the
relationship between soil moisture and plant nutrients. The results
already obtained throw new light on this relationship in semi-arid
and irrigated soils. A committee on soil erosion, consisting of
officials of various departments of state as well as representatives
of farmers’ and other organizations, has been in existence for
several years.
A soil map of the Union, based on a survey by the division of
chemistry, was published in 1929.! Every class of soil from gravels
to heavy clays is represented in several varieties, but, in compari-
son with European standards, practically every soil in the Union
was found to be seriously deficient in phosphorus, humus, and
nitrogen. These deficiencies affect the nutritive value of the grass
and so may influence the incidence of stock diseases.
Systematic classification of soils in the Union is more recent
than this publication. Valuable data from portions of the summer
rainfall area have, however, been collected, much of which was
presented to the recent international soil congress at Oxford by
C. R. van der Merwe (1935). The remaining portion of the Union
1 The title of ‘Official Soil Map’ is somewhat misleading, because it was compiled
not from a scientific point of view, but purely for utilitarian purposes, for farmers
and others,
130 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
has been taken in hand and it is hoped to complete the pre-
liminary survey in another five years. The following soil groups
have been recognized and studied physically and chemically in
some detail: 1. Laterites and lateritic red earths; 2. Yellow earths;
3. Grey ferruginous lateritic soils: (a) Brown to reddish-brown
ferruginous lateritic soils; 4. Immature mountain soils; 5. Podsolic
soils: (a) Prairie soils; (b) Podsolic mountain soils; 6. Subtropical
semi-arid soils: (a) Reddish-brown unleached soils; (b) Black
clays; 7. Desert soils: (a) Kalahari sand; (b) Kalahari sand on
lime; 8. Aeolian sandy soils; 9. Solonetz soils; 10. Solonchak soils.
These soil groups are climatic types, influenced, in some cases
markedly, by the parent material. The decisive influence of
climate on the course of weathering of rocks to soil in subtropical
conditions is clearly shown in a detailed study of a few soil types
in South Africa by two German scientists, Behrend and Utescher
(1932).
Experiments with manures in relation to the nitrogen and car-
bon cycles of soils have occupied much attention in South Africa.
Two recent papers are by Kamerman and Klintworth (1934) of
the division of chemistry and Williams (1932) of the Cedara
school of agriculture.
Soil surveys in connection with irrigation have been developed.
Irrigation, especially in semi-arid regions, drastically changes the
chemical constitution of the soil by removing soluble material
from one region and depositing it elsewhere. Moreover, the irri-
gation of certain soils may result in widespread waterlogging. It
is important to foresee such results, and generally the irrigation
department submits proposals to the chemical division of the
agricultural department, which makes a detailed survey of the
area affected, especially with a view to the presence of soluble
salts and the chemistry of the proposed water-supply. (Imperial
Bureau of Soil Science 1930.)
In Southern Rhodesia there are four chemists in the department
of agriculture. The geological survey has also achieved pre-
liminary results in soil survey. Many analyses have been made,
but the results are not yet published. H. B. Maufe (1915) formerly
director of the geological survey, has written papers on the origin
of Rhodesian soils from the underlying rocks,
SOIL SCIENCE T3931
In the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan there are five chemists, three at
Khartoum and two at Gezira, who work mainly in the cotton
areas and have accomplished some of the most detailed investiga-
tions yet undertaken in Africa. The whole of the southern Sudan
is practically untouched from soil or other agricultural points of
view, except by Mr. C. G. T. Morison (1935) who is carrying out
a series of expeditions to study the soil-vegetation relationships.
He hopes that his new soil department at Oxford may co-operate
with the Sudan government to organize more intensive studies
of the southern Sudan with a view to determining its agricultural
and other potentialities. Several publications by Professor Vageler
(1932-3) deal with some of the soils of the Sudan.
In the Colonies, Protectorates and Mandates, soil science comes under
the direction of the departments of agriculture. As a rule the soil
samples are collected by field agricultural officers or others inter-
ested, and are transmitted to central laboratories for study by the
agricultural chemists. In East Africa the numbers of chemists
employed in the agricultural departments are as follows: Kenya, 2;
Uganda, 2; Nyasaland,1; Tanganyika 1 (on the staff of the new
Coffee Experimental Station near Moshi)!; Zanzibar, 1; none in
Northern Rhodesia? or Somaliland.
The soil scientist at the East African Agricultural Research
Station at Amani, Mr. G. Milne, is the one person in the African
colonies whose time is given wholly to soil survey. In co-operation
with the agricultural chemists in the several colonies and the
assistant chemist at Amani, he is attempting a general soil survey
of the East African dependencies. All data on soils collected in the
several territories are sent to Amani for correlation, and soil
samples from Tanganyika itself are analysed at Amani by Milne
and his assistant. This work when complete, will give a good idea
of the relative potentialities of land in native and settled areas, and
may be expected to point the way for agricultural development.
The results up to 1935 were presented at the third international
1 Outside the Agricultural Department, Tanganyika has a keen student of soils,
particularly on erosion questions, in the Pasture Research Officer of the Veterinary
Department, Mr. R. R. Staples; and the Chief Engineer of the Railways, Mr. C.
Gillman, has contributed notable observations on soil conditions in many parts of
the territory. ‘
_ ? Mr. C. G. Trapnell, in his ecological survey of N. Rhodesia, which is referred to
in more detail in Chapter vi, has already paid some attention to soils.
132 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
congress of soil scientists at Oxford, and subsequently, a pro-
visional map on the scale of 1:2,000,000, covering Kenya, Uganda,
and Tanganyika, together with a classification and description of
soils, has been published (Milne 1936). Large areas of the terri-
tories are left blank, and much of the data is regarded as essen-
tially preliminary; moreover, the author does not profess that the
work in its present form can be of much value to the practical
agriculturalist. Nevertheless, the publication is a most valuable
summary of the present state of knowledge, and will no doubt,
stimulate further work to fill the blanks.
Conferences of agricultural and soil chemists from different
territories have done much to keep individual workers in touch
with one another and with general advances in the science. The
first for East Africa was held at Amani in 1932 and a second at
Zanzibar in 1934 (Conference, East Africa, 1932 and 1935). At
these the classification and nomenclature of soils, and methods of
analysis were standardized. In general, East African humid soils
are of types which depend for their origin on local climate rather
than on the geological structure of underlying rocks, whereas dry
soils fall more readily into lithological classification. The following
provisional list has been adopted by all the soil chemists concerned:
1. Desert soils. 2. Saline soils. 3. Plains soils. 4. Black or grey
clays. 5. Mottled clays. 6. Red earths, non-laterised. 7. Red
earths, laterised. 8. Plateau soils. 9. Podsolised soils. 10. Lithologi-
cal types. Details of each of these major groups are given by Milne
(1936). This soil survey of East Africa has been considered in
some detail because the results provide an excellent example of
the type of work for which Amani exists—the correlation and
enlargement of results obtained by a number of workers in the
several East African colonies.
In addition to the general East African soil map, certain studies
for the separate territories deserve notice. In Kenya some soil
work was done by D. S. Gracie (1930) and Mr. Beckley, the
present agricultural chemist, has prepared a draft soil map. For
Uganda there is a draft soil map prepared by Drs. Martin and
Griffith, and for Zanzibar and Pemba Islands one was prepared
by Dr. L. Raymond. In Tanganyika a special study has been
made of the chemistry of waters from Mount Mweru by Sturdy,
SOIL SCIENCE 139
Calton, and Milne (1933). The streams, originating on volcanic
rock, contain much soda in solution, and this may have serious
effects on the coffee plantations on the lower slopes of the moun-
tain.
Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia are not included in the East
African map. For the former A. J. W. Hornby (1935) has pub-
lished a detailed soil map of the territory at the south end of Lake
Nyasa, in connection with the agricultural survey, and he has
prepared a draft map of the whole country. For Northern Rho-
desia, C. G. Trapnell and J. N. Clothier (1937) have published
soil-vegetation maps for the north-western area as a result of the
ecological survey.
In the West African Colonies there are three agricultural chemists
in Nigeria, one in the Gold Coast, none in Sierra Leone or the
Gambia, but the Director of Agriculture in Sierra Leone, Dr. F. J.
Martin, was formerly chemist in the department, and is one of the
pioneers of African soil science. Periodic interterritorial confer-
ences have not yet become established recurrent events as they
have in East Africa; the last held was the second conference of
West African agricultural officers, in the Gold Coast in 1930
(Conference, West Africa, 1930), which included a section devoted
to soil science.
Nigeria is a difficult country to cover by soil survey on account
of the extreme diversity of conditions, but for this very reason—
the large variation in climate and geology over what in Africa is
a small area—work there might achieve results of fundamental
importance comparatively quickly. The three agricultural chemists
have already done much.
In the Northern Provinces a chemical laboratory is maintained
at Samaru where the work deals mainly with animal nutrition and
soil analysis of a specialized nature, mostly concerning local
manurial trials and pot experiments with farmyard and artificial
manures. The Moor Plantation Laboratory at Ibadan, where
Mr. Doyne is the chief chemist, is carrying out a soil survey of
Nigeria, in addition to soil investigations directly connected with
the work of the agricultural department. Some thousands of soil
samples have been collected, many being profiles taken several
feet in depth, and most of these have been analysed. The variation
134 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
of soils in Nigeria is enormous, as would be expected in a country
ranging in altitude from sea-level to over 13,000 feet, and in rain-
fall from over 300 inches annually in the Cameroons to under
25 inches in the north. The pH, for instance, was found to range
from g (very alkaline) in the limestone region near Lake Chad to
under 4 (very acid) in the pleistocene area in the south of Benin
Province. The practical results which can be expected from an
understanding of soils are shown by the fact that, in certain very
acid soils with a pH of 4-0-4-3, a small dressing of lime (sufficient
to raise the pH to 4-8 or 5-0) increased the yield of maize appreci-
ably, but heavier dressings had a definitely depressing effect on
the green manure crops. As another example, which is a most
significant discovery, it has been established on the experimental
stations of the agricultural department at Zaria and Kano that
small applications of farmyard manure—one to two tons per acre
compared with the usual ten tons per acre in England—produce
astonishing responses in increased yields of guinea corn and cot-
ton. Hartley and Greenwood (1933) have done important work
on this.
The trend of recent work in Nigeria is to indicate that, both in
the humid and semi-arid regions, the lack of mineral plant food,
particularly phosphorus, is a more important factor than the
lack of nitrogen; but nitrogen and humus appear to become
more important again in the very dry areas. The mere fact that
in the humid tropics good crops are obtained immediately after
clearing old bush may be largely due to an accumulation of
mineral matter which is set free by the rapid oxidation of the
humus rather than to nitrogen derived from the humus. For in
Nigeria it is found that, in soils under high bush or forest, the base
status and pH are high at the surface, but diminish rapidly with
depth; whereas on a soil which has long been under continuous
cultivation this is not the case.
In the Gold Coast the agricultural chemist has, since 1931, been
able to devote most of his time to work on the soils. Attention is
being given mainly to cultivated lands, but work is resulting ina
general classification. Already several hundred samples have been
examined, and the work aims at a soil survey of all cultivated
lands, which should be ready soon. A map showing the results
SOIL SCIENCE I35
would certainly be a valuable addition to the published Atlas of
the Gold Coast.
Szerra Leone was the first British colony to have a soil survey
completed in outline; it was done by Martin and Doyne (1932)
and was based on the analysis of 1,500 samples, each taken to a
depth of four feet. Problems here are relatively simple since con-
ditions are similar over most of the territory. Laterite or lateritic
souls! predominate, with a resultant lack of lime and prepon-
derance of acidity; phosphorus and potassium contents are low,
and humus is high before cultivation, but very low afterwards.
Surveys such as this provide a useful basis for further study, but
the authors would be the first to point out that additional informa-
tion is necessary in order to determine the areas suitable for dif-
ferent crops. Studies of the relation between the vegetation dis-
tribution and soil types are required and then the agricultural
significance of soil type and soil change should be worked out, but
the agricultural department no longer includes a chemist who
could undertake such work.
FRENCH
In French territory studies of this and of other subjects have
been carried further in Indo-China and Madagascar than in
Africa. The laboratory of agricultural chemistry at Tananarive in
Madagascar for example, has published during the past few years
numerous soil studies, some of which are important in relation to
work on the African continent. In French West Africa there are
now agricultural chemists at the chemical laboratory of the
Office du Niger at Segou in the Sudan, at the experimental
station for groundnuts at M’Bambey in Senegal and in the Ivory
Coast. Wide-scale soil survey has not been attempted, but impor-
tant researches have been carried out, in connection with the cul-
tivation of the banana in French Guinea, and of the oil palm in
the Ivory Coast, and others in the Sudan in connection with the
Niger irrigation works. ‘The laboratory attached to the botanic
1 The terms laterite and lateritic have been used somewhat loosely by some authors.
Martin and Doyne (1932) laid down precise definitions based on the silica-alumina
ratios : soils with a ratio less than 1-33 are laterite, from 1-33-2-0 lateritic, and above
2-0 non-lateritic. That definition has been used in their soil survey of Sierra Leone,
but most workers now incline to the view that though the ratios may be used to
define the terms, they have little relation to any soil property,
136 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
gardens at Hann near Dakar has devoted some attention to the
local soils.
In French Equatorial Africa little research work has been done in
agricultural subjects, but the active geological survey may be
expected to produce valuable results on soils. French Somaliland is
too small to warrant a special agricultural service or chemical
work, but various geological expeditions there have made some
observations on the soils. Results of these studies have not ap-
peared in any form available to the public.
BELGIAN
In the Belgian Congo the importance of this subject is realized,
and the Institut National d’ Agronomie Coloniale is proposing to start
a reconnaissance soil survey. Professor L. Baeyens, head of the
Pedological Institute of Louvain University, spent some months in
1934-5 in the Congo for this purpose, and visited the soil chemists
at Amani, Nairobi and Kampala. For the Aatanga region an
essential part of the scientific programme of the Comité Spécial is
the production of maps of topography, geology, soils, vegetation,
etc. (as mentioned in previous chapters). The soil maps already
published in the Atlas du Katanga (1931) are probably as complete
as those for any other part of Africa. It appears that the maps
have been prepared largely from the superficial appearance of the
soils, but work on analyses is progressing, and the details will be
filled in later.
DETERIORATION AND EROSION OF SOILS
In the development of virgin country the problem of soil
deterioration is reflected in every activity connected with agricul-
ture; it is therefore, one of the main themes running through this
volume. Nearly every science has some bearing on the subject. It
has been pointed out that in many parts of Africa knowledge of the
soil itself is still deficient. Then the effects of climate, of water-
supplies, of plants and animals, and above all, of human activities
must be considered. In southern Africa, as a whole, the stock-
bearing capacity of the land has been progressively reduced over
a long period of years, and many native reserves have been devas-
SOIL SCIENCE 137
tated by soil erosion. In eastern Africa overstocking and destruc-
tive methods of cultivation are steadily reducing the productivity
of land which is required for an increasing native population. In
western Africa the destruction of forest has also played its part, and
in some areas the pressure of population on land of which the
fertility has been reduced to a dangerously low level provides an
administrative problem of some urgency.
Nearly every report from Africa on agriculture, animal hus-
bandry, forestry or geology, refers to the serious nature of the ero-
sion problem, and most of the special enquiries bearing on agri-
culture have attempted to analyse the position and to suggest
measures for its amelioration. Among them may be mentioned
the report of the South African Drought Commission (1923), the
report of the Agricultural Commission in Kenya (1929), the
report of the Kenya Land Commission (1934), and the enquiry
in Southern Rhodesia into the economic position of the agricul-
tural industry (1934). These and other enquiries have borne fruit
by making the urgency of the problem widely known, but they
have been limited to certain aspects only, with the exception of
the South African Drought Commission, of which the report deals
only with a small part of the continent and will soon be out of
date.
The Imperial Bureau of Soil Science produced a short report on
soil erosion in 1933, and a fully documented report (1938) des-
cribing the causes of erosion and the measures taken to control it
in every affected country in the world.
Soil erosion is usually divided into sheet erosion and gully
(donga) erosion according as the surface soil is removed bodily
from wide areas of country, or ever-deepening water channels are
cut through the soil and underlying deposits. This distinction is
drawn for example, by Champion (1933) and Hobley (1933) with
reference to Kenya. It is perhaps more exact to divide the damag-
ing effects of soil erosion by water into four categories, which
rougly represent the stages of damage as erosion proceeds. These
are: 1. Soil is washed from the surface of sloping land; 2. This soil
is deposited on flat land at the foot of the slopes, but in the con-
dition of infertile débris, because the original mixed ingredients
are sorted by water action, the coarse sands being deposited on the
138 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
upper parts and the heavy muds on the lower. The effect of this
deposition is often to bury fertile soils on the flat land with infer-
tile débris; 3. The increased run-off which follows these processes
causes serious torrents which cut gullies or dongas deep into the
subsoil. At the same time flooding may lead to destruction in
lower parts of the drainage systems; 4. ‘These three processes tend
to lower the ground-water table in every part of the country. In
addition to the effects of water, erosion by wind is often serious,
for in areas where high winds are coincident with the dry season,
as in the rift valleys of eastern Africa, pulverized soil is often carried
away in the form of dust storms.
The factors leading to soil erosion can be divided into the
natural agencies, which result in the first place in the breaking
down of rocks to form soil, and later under special conditions, in
a loss of soil quantity and quality; and into human activities,
agricultural and other.
In discussing natural agencies in soil erosion, authorities, especi-
ally in South Africa, have emphasized the alleged progressive
desiccation of Africa which is supposed to have led, not only to the
conversion of wide tracts of fertile country into desert, but also to
the deposition of alkali or brak! over wide areas. This progressive
desiccation has been discussed in Chapter IV, where it was pointed
out that there has certainly been a great change since the pluvial
periods, some 10,000 or.15,000 years ago, and that this change may
still be continuing to-day. Most authorities are now agreed, how-
ever, that although reduction in rainfall may have had a slight
effect in localized areas, the recent spread of desert conditions
which has undoubtedly affected wide areas, especially in South
Africa, is due principally to human agencies.
The effect of human activities depends on the basic principle
that when the natural cover of vegetation over the earth is re-
moved and the elements are allowed free play, the soil is seriously
affected or even washed away bodily. Increases in human and
cattle population since the arrival of the white man are held to be
largely responsible for the erosion of the African soil. There are,
however, areas where the population has remained at a steady
1 Under arid conditions the subsoil waters are raised near to the surface, and on
evaporation deposit their dissolved salts as brak in a form which is often toxic to plant
life. When storm rains come they wash away not only the brak but the soil itself.
SOIL SCIENCE 139
low level for the last forty-five years, and yet the productive capa-
city of the land has been systematically destroyed. The western
section of the Kamba tribe in Kenya 1s a case in point, and their
outlook to-day is very serious: their country has been well-nigh
ruined, they can no longer migrate elsewhere and famines
are frequent. The country occupied by the Sukuma south of
Mwanza in Tanganyika is also in a bad condition owing to over-
stocking, although the population has probably not increased much
since European occupation. As a third example the great migra-
tion of the Jaluo (Nilotic Kavirondo) southward from the hills east
of Gondokoro to their present situation on the Kavirondo Gulf of
Lake Victoria, is held by some to have been caused by decreasing
fertility of the land they left. Whether or not soil erosion was com-
mon before the European occupation of Africa, the coming of the
white man has probably given it a stimulus by causing increase of
population and at the same time encouraging the extension of cul-
tivation.
The human activities which produce erosion are shifting culti-
vation combined with land hunger and overgrazing, each of
which 1s considered fully in Chapters XIII and XIV. Some authori-
ties would make a third category, namely fire, but burning of
forest or grassland is usually a feature of the native agricultural
systems, though it is also carried out in some areas to facilitate
movements of man for the purpose of collecting wild products such
as honey and gum. It is alleged that pastoral tribes associate the
dry grass with tick-borne disease such as east coast fever, and the
burning does in fact destroy the ticks. In some parts annual burn-
ing appears to be a traditional practice for which no economic
reason is given. Undoubtedly the burning of vast areas of grass-
land and savannah forest is a more potent factor in destroying
vegetation in some districts than is either grazing or cultivation,
and it lets in the desert on an extensive scale in arid regions.
It is only during the last fifteen years or so that attention has
been focused on the dangers of soil deterioration, but it is impor-
tant to realize that the European influences to which soil erosion
is partly ascribed have been at work in parts of the continent for
some centuries. T. D. Hall (1934) for example, in summarizing the
historical evidence for South Africa, points out that changes in
140 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
the character of natural vegetation were noticeable as early as
1751, within one hundred years of the first settlements, and that
these changes can only be attributed to the effects of overgrazing.
Indeed there are many examples of erosion in southern and eastern
Africa which have resulted from European methods of farming.
Once the causes are recognized and the best ways of preventing
erosion are discovered, it is comparatively easy to arrest the trouble
on land under management by white peoples. A much greater
problem is to be faced in the vast areas farmed by Africans, whose
methods can be controlled only with extreme difficulty by Euro-
pean administrative officers and agriculturalists.
The collection of data in the field, showing the severity and ex-
tent of damage to the soil in each territory, is urgently needed.
Such surveys of soil erosion are being made in parts of Africa, and
the subject was discussed at the second conference of East African
soil chemists in 1934 (East Africa, Conference, 1935), when a paper
by Mr. Gethin Jones outlined the results of a reconnaissance survey
of the extent of soil erosion in Kenya. In Uganda also, a special
survey has been made for the Teso district and a wider survey of
the protectorate is also being conducted. It is to be hoped that
further studies of this type will be organized.
The question of soil erosion is closely allied to that of the regu-
lation of water-supplies. It is generally admitted that the destruc-
tion of natural vegetation, forest or otherwise, adversely affects
the water-supply, causing floods in times of heavy rain and the
disappearance of springs and streams in the dry season, while the
maintenance of the natural vegetation prevents run-off and causes
rain water to percolate into the soil and issue subsequently in the
form of springs. One of the most complete investigations into this
question has been carried out in the northern part of Tanganyika by
Teale and Gillman (1935), as mentioned in Chapter III. The
conserving power of forest reserves in suitably chosen areas is now
widely recognized, and action is being taken with regard to their
creation or enlargement in many parts of the continent; these
questions are discussed in Chapter VII. Agricultural methods of
soil conservation are considered in Chapters XIII and XIV where
the subjects of cultivation and animal husbandry are discussed in
some detail in relation to soil deterioration and erosion.
SOIL SCIENCE I4I
Among recent publications on remedial measures are articles by
the agricultural engineer in the Rhodesia Agricultural Journal,
by Ducker in the Empire Cotton Growing Corporation’s Journal,
and by Harrison in the East African Agricultural Journal. Beckley
(1935), the senior agricultural chemist in Kenya, has also produced
a valuable bulletin with many practical details of anti-erosion
methods which are applicable in that country.
SOIL BIOLOGY
The study of the flora and fauna of different soils and their
effects on fertility has not been highly developed, even in Europe.
In Africa it has scarcely been touched, though recently the divi-
sion of chemical services in the Union has established a small soil
biological section which is now studying questions relating to the
nitrogen cycle and humus supply in pastures and citrus orchards.
The study of bacteria will probably be the most fruitful on account
of their role in the food-cycle from soil to green plant to animal,
particularly in connection with the fixing of atmospheric nitrogen
by the roots of leguminous plants. As has been mentioned, recent
work, especially in Nigeria, suggests that on the whole the presence
of mineral salts has more influence than that of nitrogen on fertility,
but at the same time it is a general experience in Nigeria and else-
where that an intermediate crop of leguminous plants increases
fertility very considerably.
Other organisms also offer wide fields for study, and may well
prove to be of great economic importance. The role of moulds
and other fungi in soil economy may rival even that of bacteria.
In particular, the association between fungus and plant root
known as Mycorrhiza is essential for the germination and growth
of many plants. The importance of mycorrhiza in orchids and
heaths is widely recognized, but it is not so widely known that many
kinds of forest trees must have the correct specific fungus in the soil
in order to flourish. This subject has scarcely been touched in
Africa, though a fair amount of work has been done on mycor-
rhiza in other parts of the tropics, notably by Dutch workers in the
East. It has been estimated that some 70 per cent. of failures to
re-establish plantations of local forest trees are due to lack of the
right mycorrhizal fungus in the soil. Again, the importance of
I42 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
protozoa in the soil has been stressed by workers in England, but
the group has not been studied in tropical conditions.
One way in which such biclogical studies may give fruitful
results is in relation to the use of mulches and manures. In Uganda
for example, marked success has been achieved by using cut grass
as a mulch for coffee. This effectively prevents erosion and soil
deterioration, but the reason is not known. A comparative study
of the biological and chemical changes occurring when the mulch
is, and is not used, would be of value, and might be undertaken at
Amani in collaboration with the technical staff of the territories
interested.
One particular group of animals, the termites or white ants, of
which many species are abundant in Africa, deserve special atten-
tion. The ground forms are certainly agents in soil evolution since
they are continually occupied in bringing to the surface quantities
of subsoil, or partly weathered rock, in order to build their termi-
taria, but the effect on fertility is not yet known. Vageler (1933)
states that in tropical Africa termitaria directly enrich the soil,
and experience in Nyasaland at the Zomba Experimental Station
also seems to indicate that their effects are beneficial; but Dr. A. L.
du Toit (1934) writing on South Africa, suggests that termites do
immense harm by cutting up, consuming, or storing grasses and
other growth, and thereby prevent the formation of humus. Dr.
T. J. Naudé (1934), in one of the few studies so far published on
termites in relation to agriculture, also stresses the effect of these
insects in pastoral areas in South Africa. He considers that drought
conditions favour termites, and that, in the recent succession of dry
years which South Africa has suffered, the denudation occasioned
by termites has had a considerable bearing on soil erosion and the
loss of storm water by increasing the run-off.
In arid regions, where wood and green vegetation are scanty or
lacking, termites are still numerous and must have food. The
habit which many species have, of cultivating fungi in their nests,
may provide this to some extent, but it has been suggested also
that they can feed directly on humus, and thus may be in part
responsible for the poverty of so many soils. In many parts of
Africa there are huge extinct termitaria, which are used by natives
for cultivation. These insects are considered more fully in Chapter X.
CHAPTER VI
BOTANY
INTRODUCTION
LANTs depend directly on the physical and chemical conditions
P of their environment, which are included in the sciences con-
sidered in the last four chapters. The study of botany is also inti-
mately related to the applied sciences of forestry and agriculture.
Furthermore, the fact that all animals depend upon a food-chain
which contains plant products as its fundamental link renders the
study of vegetation a basic necessity in relation to all questions
affecting animal nutrition.
No distinction between pure and applied science can be drawn
in the case of biological studies, since a sound knowledge of taxo-
nomy, morphology, histology, physiology, ecology, genetics, and
kindred subjects is directly relevant to all practical questions. For
example, in studies of the pasture-lands which cover so large a
part of Africa, the identification of species and varieties of grasses
legumes and other fodder plants cannot be sharply divided from
the discrimination of those of value for stock, and the study of
conditions under which they increase. Again, in order to under-
stand the economic potentialities of rain-forests, studies on the
classification of trees, the histology of wood, physiology and forest
ecology are indispensable. In this chapter an attempt is made to
state the present position in Africa of botanical studies as a basis for
economic applications in forestry and agriculture.
It is convenient, though somewhat arbitrary, to divide the results
of botanical researches under four headings: (1) Taxonomy, includ-
ing the identification and classification of plants; (2) Ecology, or
the study of plants in relation to their environment, plant associa-
tions, changes in the type of vegetation as a result of activity,
144 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
human or animal, etc.; (3) Selective breeding for economic pur-
poses; (4) Plant pathology, which again is concerned mainly with
crops. Plant breeding and pathology are discussed in relation to
other studies of each kind of crop in Chapter XII so the present
chapter is devoted mainly to taxonomy and ecology. Special
sections are devoted to the improvement of pasture-lands, to which
ecology is closely relevant, and to the conservation of the unique
flora of the continent. Several of these subjects are dealt with in
later chapters, notably Chapters VII, IX, and X.
The question arises here, as in other subjects, of the value of the
survey method in estimating the potentialities ofland. It is certain
that the study of ecology, and particularly that branch of the sub-
ject which deals with the changes in vegetation produced by
human intervention, is of extreme importance, and for this reason
considerable space is devoted to it below. Though the addition
of plant ecologists to the several agricultural departments would
be highly desirable, it must be admitted that any large ecological
surveys are probably not justified at the present stage of develop-
ment.
Stress must be laid again on the soil-vegetation unit, since the
use of this as a basis of research is one of the principles which dis-
tinguish the ecological from the purely botanical survey. It is not
intended, however, to minimize the importance of the relation
between plants and climate, physiography and animals, all of
which must be included in any ecological study. As the science
advances it becomes increasingly evident that one man cannot deal
with all aspects, and recourse must be had more and more to team
work.
Studies on ecology and most researches devoted to breeding and
pathology can only be carried out in Africa itself. As regards
taxonomy, the position is somewhat different because the flora of
Africa is so diverse that one expert can, as a rule, only deal effec-
tively with a comparatively small group. Moreover, owing to the
fact that most of the African flora has been described by botanists
working in European herbaria, the ‘type’ or authentic specimens
of the species described are preserved in British or Continental
institutions. Therefore, however carefully field studies are now
carried out in Africa, the taxonomist must still largely rely on
BOTANY 145
Europe, since it is often necessary to compare his plants with
authentic specimens. For these reasons it is impossible for any
single territory, with the exception, perhaps, of the Union of South
Africa, to become self-supporting in regard to taxonomy. The
growth of headquarters of research like that at Amani, serving a
group of territories, will in part make good this latter deficiency.
The present method, whereby systematic work is undertaken at
central institutions in Europe, is both necessary for the reasons
mentioned, and obviously efficient, provided there are members
of staff at these institutions ready to devote a large part of their
time to routine identifications. Amongst the most important
of these institutions are the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, the
British Museum (Natural History), the Botanic Gardens at Brus-
sels, Stockholm, and Berlin, the Natural History Museum in Paris,
and Coimbra University in Portugal.
ORGANIZATION
BRITISH
In Great Britain the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew serve as the
headquarters for Empire botanical investigation, and do important
advisory and other work besides systematic botany. Activities in
the herbarium, which is the largest and most representative in
existence, are of necessity directed to the systematic side. Studies
of native crop plants are undertaken by the Economic Botanist,
who has recently written a most valuable book on crop plants of
the British Empire (Sampson 1936). Studies at Kew involve not
only the designation and description of the different plants, but
include suggestions for trials under diverse conditions. Seeds sent
from Africa to Kew are distributed for trial to the agricultural
research stations at Amani, Trinidad, and in India.
Until the dissolution of the Empire Marketing Board several
members of the Kew staff, in particular Sir Arthur Hill, Director,
Mr. H. G. Sampson, Economic Botanist, Mr. A. D. Cotton, and
Dr. J. Hutchinson, were given grants for visits to Africa to consult
with local experts and investigate special subjects, but the con-
tinuation of this practice now depends on invitations from the
individual governments. The great Floras entitled Flora Capensis,
F
146 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
in seven volumes, Flora of Tropical Africa, in eight volumes, and
Flora of West Tropical Africa, in three volumes, are amongst the
important works on the systematic botany of Africa which have
been published at Kew.
The Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information and other reference
works mentioned in the bibliography are also published from the
Gardens. Sir Arthur Hill in an article in Nature (1937) has des-
cribed the relation of the work at Kew to that in the Dominions and
Colonies.
The Botany Department of the British Museum (Natural History), under
Mr. J. Ramsbottom, who visited South Africa, Rhodesia, and
Kenya in 1929, has an herbarium which is second only to Kew
among herbaria in the British Empire. It possesses important col-
lections from many parts of Africa, including early historic collec-
tions from South Africa. The Museum has published several
important works on African plants, notably Welwitsch’s African
plants and Talbot’s Nigerian plants (British Museum 1896-1901
and 1913), and is at present collaborating with the authorities at
Coimbra University in Portugal in publishing a flora of Angola,
(Carrisso 1937 onwards). Studies on systematic botany relating
to Africa by members of the department are numerous, and collec-
ting expeditions to the Gulf of Guinea by A. W. Exell, the Sudan
by J. E. Dandy, Mount Ruwenzori and other mountains by
E. ‘Taylor, and Angola by A. W. Exell, have recently been under-
taken by members of the present scientific staff.
Valuable monographic works have been published by specialists
at the Museum. Of these, E. G. Baker’s volume on the Leguminosae
of Africa, J. E. Dandy’s work on Potamogeton, and A. W. Exell’s
work on the Combretaceae may be mentioned. Further treatises are
in hand by G. Taylor (Podostemaceae) and A. G. H. Alston (Sela-
ginella).
The Imperial Forestry Institute, Oxford, which has a forest botany
section including a forestry herbarium, under Dr. J. Burtt Davy,
serves as a headquarters in England for that subject. Its work is
described in Chapter VII.
The Imperial Mycological Institute, under Mr.S.F. Ashby, is the
central headquarters for the study of all fungi of economic impor-
tance. It has recently come under the control of the Executive
BOTANY 147
Council of the Imperial Agricultural Bureaux (see Chapter XI).
In the Union of South Africa the Division of Plant Industry of the
Department of Agriculture and Forestry under Dr. I. B. Pole
Evans has instituted a botanical survey. The total staff numbers
one hundred and nine, and includes nine systematic botanists. In
addition to these permanent officers of the government, the botani-
cal survey has the co-operation of certain university botanists, not-
ably Professor R. S. Adamson of Capetown, Professor J. W. Bews
of Natal, Professor W. J. Lutjeharms of Bloemfontein, and Profes-
sor J. Phillips of the Witwatersrand University, each of whom
undertakes the investigation of systematic botany and ecology in
a defined region.
South Africa is well equipped with reference collections of plants,
as shown by the following list of herbaria: At Capetown—the
Bolus Herbarium at present attached to the National Botanic
Gardens at Kirstenbosch and shortly to be removed to the Uni-
versity of Gapetown, the South African Museum Herbarium, and
the Herbarium of the University of Capetown; at Stellenbosch—
the Herbarium of the University; at Grahamstown—the Albany
Museum Herbarium; at Durban—the Natal Government Her-
barium; at Kimberley—the McGregor Museum Herbarium; at
Pretoria—the National Herbarium and the Transvaal Museum
Herbarium; at Johannesburg—the Herbarium of the Witwaters-
rand University. ‘There is one large botanical garden in South
Africa, at Kirstenbosch near Capetown, the director of which,
Professor R. H. Compton, is also a Professor at Capetown Univer-
sity; an interesting garden is attached to the Stellenbosch Uni-
-versity and another is at Matgesfontein on the Karroo. There
were formerly five other botanical gardens, but all of these have
now been replaced as centres of botanical science by the new agri-
cultural experimental stations and forestry arboreta.
Southern Rhodesia has a Department of Agriculture to which two
plant pathologists are attached. The post of systematic botanist
was suppressed during the financial depression. There is also a
Department of Forestry which has carried out extensive work and
which maintains a considerable herbarium. A large general her-
barium of Rhodesian plants is also to be found in the Queen
Victoria Memorial Museum, Salisbury.
148 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
In the Sudan two economic botanists are included in the staff
of the Gezira agricultural research service, and the director of
agricultural research formerly on the botanical staff, still supervises
the plant-breeding work, which is concerned mainly with cotton.
In the various Colonies, Protectorates, and Mandated Territories it is
difficult to assess the number of workers engaged on botanical
subjects, because the title of ‘botanist’ is not always used in the
same sense in the different territories. However, the following
officers belonging to agricultural and veterinary departments are,
according to recent departmental reports, engaged for at least part
of their time on research: Northern Rhodesia—an ecologist and an
agricultural officer in charge of ecological survey; Nyasaland—
none; Tanganyika—one plant pathologist in the Agricultural
Department, one botanist in the Veterinary Department on pas-
ture research, and one in the Tsetse Department on botanical
survey; Kenya—two plant breeders, two plant pathologists, and
one agricultural officer investigating grasses!; Uganda—three
botanists and one mycologist; Nigeria—six botanists; Gold Coast—
one botanist; Sierra Leone—one plant pathologist. In addition to
these the East African Agricultural Research Station at Amani has
a systematic botanist, a plant breeder, a plant physiologist, and a
pathologist, and the Empire Cotton Growing Association main-
tains a research staff distributed in Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia,
Southern Rhodesia, the Sudan, and the Union of South Africa,
some members of which are occupied in plant-breeding work. The
Departments of Forestry in each of the territories include officers
who spend much of their time on botanical work, some of which is
mentioned in this chapter. The majority of the botanical staff
mentioned above is of necessity occupied with the investigations
of immediate economic problems, such as the production of im-
proved strains of crop plants, the control of fungoid diseases or
improvement of pastures. Amongst botanists permanently engaged
in long-term research in tropical Africa are the ecologist in Northern
Rhodesia, the botanical survey officer of the Tanganyika Tsetse
Department and the systematic botanist, physiologist, and patholo-
gist at Amani. Botanical study in Africa has benefited much from
» There is also a botanist at the Coryndon Memorial Museum at Nairobi, a govern-
ment-aided institution.
BOTANY 149
a number of scientific and other officers in the colonies who have
taken up the study of the flora as a hobby, and co-operate with
institutions in England. A part of the botanical work in Africa
has resulted also from scientific enterprise carried out under the
auspices of universities in Europe and South Africa. This field
for the activities of British scientists seems to be capable of expan-
sion, particularly in West Africa, which has not attracted the scien-
tist nearly so much as the east.
Most of the agricultural and forestry departments are collecting
herbaria of the native flora which serve as important reference
collections. There are also a few botanical gardens, on which, how-
ever, expenditure has recently been much reduced. Ideally, a
botanic garden should be staffed to build up an herbarium and to
meet the local needs of systematic botany and perhaps also plant
ecology, and should maintain close co-operation with agricultural
experimental stations. The educative value of botanic gardens is
one of their great assets, and for this reason it might be undesirable
to develop them before centres of higher education are definitely
fixed. Establishments like Makerere in Uganda, Achimota in the
Gold Coast and Yaba in Nigeria, will eventually require botanic
gardens near at hand, as they grow to the status of universities.
The more important centres of botanical research already in
existence are as follows: in East Africa the research institute at
Amani, of which Mr. A. H. Glend Hill is director, was originally
established by the German administration, and now has a large-
scale acclimatization station together with departments for physi-
ology, genetics, biochemistry, and plant pathology. ‘There is also
a large herbarium in charge of Mr. P. J. Greenway from which
information is constantly supplied for purposes of agriculture,
forestry, animal husbandry, toxicology, and medicine. Tangan-
yika also has a herbarium at Shinyanga, for collections made by
members of the tsetse research department. In Uganda there is
a botanic garden at Entebbe, which serves a useful purpose as a
place where plants of potential value, from either the economic or
decorative aspect, can be grown under observation, and distributed,
but this last function is now largely met by a private nursery estab-
lished near Nairobi. A well-stocked herbarium is attached to the
agricultural department at Kampala, and the forest department
I50 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
at Entebbe also has a representative collection of woody plants. In
Kenya there is an excellent arboretum at Nairobi under the con-
servator of forests and the grounds around the Scott Laboratories
are used as an acclimatization station. There is also a herbarium
attached to the agricultural department, and a good herbarium
at the Coryndon Memorial Museum in Nairobi. In Nyasaland the
agricultural station at Zomba is used as an acclimatization station
and the forest department has its own arboretum.
In West Africa, Nigeria has the Moor Plantations, the head-
quarters of the agricultural department, which are used for accli-
matization purposes as well as for agriculture. Several of the other
agricultural stations have developed from botanical gardens which
were originally in the charge of gardeners sent out from Kew, and
some are still used for the acclimatization of plants. There is, in
the Cameroons, the Victoria Botanic Garden established under
the German administration. This was far the finest garden in
West Africa, but much of it has now been abandoned, and for the
remainder the upkeep has been reduced to a bare maintenance
level. There is a herbarium at Victoria, and another, which is of
larger size and better kept up, has been established by the forest
department at Ibadan. In the Gold Coast the Aburi Garden, where
many of the technical officers of the agricultural department have
their headquarters, was established about 1890, and is used for
acclimatization purposes and for horticulture. An herbarium of
forest plants is maintained at Kumasi, and a larger herbarium,
containing over 10,000 named sheets, has been built up at the bio-
logical laboratories of Achimota College. In Sierra Leone the head-
quarters of the agricultural department is at Njala, where there is —
an acclimatization station and an herbarium.
With regard to the future of botanical research in British terri-
tories, it is clear in the first place that the breeding of crop plants
and the study of pathological problems will always be required.
Concerning natural vegetation, it can be claimed that, though far
from being perfectly known, most of the common plants excepting
the lower orders such as fungi and mosses, are now sufficiently
listed and described to provide a working basis for other subjects.
Accordingly studies in plant physiology and ecology are becoming
really profitable. Ecological studies, to be comprehensive and use-
BOTANY 151
ful, must include the effects of cultivation and animal husbandry,
which are among the most important factors in Africa. Their study
in relation to the native flora will provide a valuable connecting
link between botany and agriculture. The Imperial Botanical Con-
ference in 1924 set up the British Empire Vegetation Committee to
further the study of ecology, and the book edited by Tansley and
Chipp (1926) on the aims and methods in the study of vegetation,
published by the committee and circulated widely in the Empire,
has stimulated interest in the subject, and has been of great value
to local workers. The British Ecological Society, founded in 1913,
publishes the Journal of Ecology, many contributions to which are
mentioned in the bibliography.
The development of ecological survey work would have impor-
tant practical results through the light thrown on the effects of
agricultural developments, afforestation and deforestation, ero-
sion, etc. The ecological survey of Northern Rhodesia, carried out
by one botanist and one agricultural officer, has already shown
important results in a few years. From time to time suggestions
have been put forward for the inauguration of wide-scale ecological
surveys by co-operation between adjacent territories. For instance,
J. F. V. Phillips (1931a) outlined an ambitious scheme for South,
Central, and East Africa. The organization of work on a large
scale at present would be premature, for the methods of ecological
survey to produce the most useful results have yet to be worked
out for African conditions. The ecological survey of Northern
Rhodesia and that started by the department of tsetse research in
Tanganyika provide admirable bases for future development.
FRENCH
The headquarters of systematic botany in France are at the
Musée National d’ Histoire Naturelle in Paris, under Professor Hum-
bert. He and members of his staff have travelled and collected
widely in Africa and Madagascar. His colleague, Dr. A. Cheva-
lier, Director of the section devoted to Agronomie Tropicale and
Productions Coloniales d’ Origine Végétale, is in the closest touch with
the problems of the African colonies, and has published very
extensive material dealing with them.
In French Africa there are practically no botanists except plant
154 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
was carried out by H. Bolus, Schonland, Marloth, and Medley
Wood. The work published under the direction of Dr. I. B. Pole
Evans from the Division of Plant Industry at Pretoria is very exten-
sive, some of the most important contributions being those of E. P.
Phillips, I. C. Verdoorn, R. A. Dyer, and H. G. W. J. Schweic-
kerdt. In addition to these government workers, much investiga-
tion has been carried out by other Transvaal botanists, specially
by C. E. Moss and Mrs. Moss (University of Witwatersrand),
Miss A. A. Obermeyer and C. E. B. Bremekamp, whose paper on
the origin of the flora of the Kalahari is of particular note. Sys-
tematic research in the Cape Province is centred at the Bolus
Herbarium, whence many important papers have been published,
notably by Mrs. L. Bolus (present Curator) and N. S. Pillans.
Valuable work has also been carried out at the Stellenbosch
University, especially by P. A. van der Bil and Miss A. V.
Duthie. From the University of Capetown R. $. Adamson has
published important treatises (see under Ecology) and Mrs. Levyns
several important systematic papers, including a useful handbook
on the Flora of the Cape Peninsula (1929b). The publication of a
new Flora of the Cape Peninsula has been commenced under the
general direction of Professor R. H. Compton. For Natal and
Zululand J. S. Henkel has published a book on woody plants
(1934), and for the whole of the Transvaal Dr. Burtt Davy (of the
Imperial Forestry Institute) is preparing a Flora embracing the
flowering plants and ferns, of which two parts (1926 and 1932)
have been published. Numerous other works of high value on
plant systematics have resulted from the Botanical Survey of the
Union of South Africa. Poisonous plants have been dealt with by
E. P. Phillips (1926) and later by Watt and Breyer-Brandwyk in
their important volume entitled The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of
South Africa (1932). In the field of biochemical and physiological
research, Dr. Marguerite Henrici has made valuable contributions
on various problems connected with the study of South African
grasses and other pasture plants. Further details need not be given
here, since Dr. E. P. Phillips (1930) has provided an historical
sketch of the whole development of botanical science in South
Africa.
BOTANY 155
Southern Tropics
For the south tropical region the catalogue of Welwitsch’s African
plants, prepared by the British Museum Department of Botany
(1896-1901), is a monumental work; it 1s published in five parts
running to 1,350 pages and is based on the finest collection of
plants ever made in tropical Africa. Another work on this region
is the enumeration of John Gossweiler’s Angolan plants, published
continuously since 1926 as a supplement to the Journal of Botany,
and already running to about 450 pages (Exell, Good and others
1926 onwards). A critical revision of all the Angola material from
the great herbaria is being prepared by members of the staff of the
Department of Botany in collaboration with Mendonga to be pub-
lished in a work entitled Conspectus Florae Angolensis. The first volume
of this, by L. G. Exell and Mendonga, which covered the families
from Ranunculaceae to Malvaceae, appeared in 1937. Many
other studies on the Angolan flora have been published in Portugal,
mainly from Coimbra University.
The Rhodesias are not well equipped with systematic reference
works, but the list of Southern Rhodesian plants by F. Eyles (1916),
though now out of date, has proved valuable. Two Swedish expe-
ditions have contributed to our knowledge of the Rhodesias. The
first, under Graf von Rosen (1911-12), visited Northern Rhodesia,
and the second and smaller expedition of 1930, led by Th. Fries,
explored the Inyanga Highlands of Southern Rhodesia. The
botanical results of von Rosen’s expedition have been published
by R. E. Fries, and those of the second expedition are being dealt
with in a series of monographic studies by various Swedish bota-
nists. E. Milne-Redhead has made two extensive tours in Northern
Rhodesia, the first in connection with the aerial survey of that
territory. His collection has been named and the MS. list is avail-
able for consultation. For Nyasaland Burtt Davy and Hoyle (1937)
have compiled a check-list of all the forest trees and shrubs.!
Central Tropics
For the central tropical region, Professor Engler and the staff of
the Botanical Museum at Berlin have published much material on
East Africa, Dr. Engler’s own work (1891 and 1895) being especi-
1 See Chapter vii, p. 198.
156 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
ally valuable. Dr. Burtt Davy is preparing check-lists of the forest
flora,! in collaboration with officers of the forestry departments.
E. Battiscombe’s useful book on the common trees and woody
plants of Kenya has been revised (1936).2, Our knowledge of the
high mountain flora of Africa was summarized by Engler in his
Hochgebirgsflora des tropischen Afrika (1892), and numerous works of
a general nature published since then have added considerably to
it. Humbert and Mildbraed are prominently connected with the
subject, and their work, though partly ecological, includes lists of
species from various mountains. Individual mountains have
claimed the attention of other authors. Lists of the flora of Mt.
Elgon have been given by various botanists, the most comprehen-
sive being that of Bullock in Lugard’s Flora of Mt. Elgon in the Kew
Bulletin (1933). Ruwenzori is still only partially explored, and
the list by Rendle and Baker (1908) is still the most complete.
Others have been given by Chiovenda and Hauman. The Virunga
Mountains have attracted much attention since they include a
number of active volcanoes, and Mildbraed, B. D. Burtt, and Staner
have dealt with various aspects of the botany. The Aberdares and
Mt. Kenya were explored by the brothers R., E. and Th. C. E.
Fries, and lists of the plants they collected have been published by
them and others. Kilimanjaro, Africa’s highest mountain, early
attracted botanical exploration, and Oliver’s list of Sir Harry
Johnston’s plants was the first important work on the flora of the
mountains. The high mountain flora includes several remarkable
endemic groups, and these have attracted much attention from
monographers. ‘The giant Senecios have been dealt with by Fries
(brothers), Cotton, and Hauman, and the columnar Lobelias
have lately been revised by Miss E. A. Bruce (1934). ‘The results
of the recent British Museum expedition to the East African
Mountains will be awaited with interest.
Northern Tropical Africa
For the north tropical region the Flora of West tropical Africa
(1927-36) by J. Hutchinson and J. M. Dalziel has already been
mentioned, and the latter author (1937) has published an appendix
to these volumes which deals with economic plants and their uses.
1 See Chapter vii. 2 Ibid:
BOTANY 157
There are several publications on the individual British colonies.
For Nigeria there is a book on the useful trees of the Northern
Provinces by Lely (1925) and a forest flora of Southern Nigeria by
Kennedy (1936). Holland’s Useful Plants of Nigeria (1908 and 1922)
is a valuable volume on the economic side. For the Gold Coast,
Chipp (1913 and 1914) provided check-lists of forest flora and herbs,
and more recently Irvine (1930) has written a valuable reference
volume as a result of his work at Achimota. Sierra Leone has a
work on forest botany by Lane-Poole (1916).! Very fine collec-
tions have been made by French botanists in their possessions in
West Africa. Information regarding the floras, published by A.
Chevalier and others, is rather scattered, but it is proposed in the
near future to bring it all up to date in a large publication. Work
is now in progress in Paris on the forest flora of French Equatorial
and West Africa. For the north-eastern region, Chiovenda pub-
lished many papers on the flora of Eritrea and Abyssinia, and he
has recently issued a work on the flora of Somaliland. For Eritrea
there is a treatise in three parts edited by Pirotta, entitled Flora
della Colonia Eritrea (1903-1908). For the Sudan there is a useful
volume published by Broun and Massey in 1929. Recently J.
Gillett made an extensive collection in conjunction with the
Anglo-Ethiopian Boundary Survey, an account of which will soon
be published.
Some of the above are mere lists without descriptions, or with
brief notes only. Workers in Africa, who have not extensive lib-
raries for reference, need floras covering wide regions, with simple
descriptions of the known species of plants and diagnostic keys for
their determination. Regions for which no satisfactory works
exist are (1) the eastern tropics, a flora of which has been planned
by Kew; (2) the southern tropics, including the Zambesi basin,
Nyasaland and the Rhodesias, and (3) the north-east tropics.
The above account is concerned only with the higher orders of
plants. Much less is known in the whole continent concerning the
lower plants or Cryptogams. Of these the fungi have probably been
most studied. A considerable amount of systematic work on fungi
has been done in South Africa, mainly by Dr. E. M. Doidge and
by other members of the staff of the Division of Plant Industry,
1 See Chapter vii.
158 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Pretoria, and also by Prof. van der Bil of Stellenbosch. In tropical
Africa a number of collections especially of the larger fungi, have
been named and lists published, notably by G. Massee and Miss
E. M. Wakefield of Kew and by Mr. J. Ramsbottom and Miss
Lorrain Smith of the British Museum. C. G. Hansford has recently
published the first of a series of papers on the fungus flora of
Uganda. The parasitic fungi which are important in connection
with diseases have naturally also been dealt with (see under
plant diseases, p. 175). A notable venture is the forthcoming
publication for the Belgian Congo of an illustrated work on the
larger fungi, edited by M. Beeli. This will be one of the first of its
kind for any country in the tropics. As regards freshwater algae,
several extensive lists have been published by the late G. S. West
and also by F. E. Fritsch and Miss M. F. Rich on algae occurring
in the African lakes, but, as every algologist knows, such work can
be extended almost indefinitely. A list of the marine algae of South
Africa by Mrs. A. Gepp was published in 1893; a more recent
list is that by Dr. E. M. Delf and Mrs. Levyns (1921). For the
Pteridophyta there is the volume by T. R. Sim entitled The Ferns
of South Africa (1915), now somewhat out of date. For the tropical
species there is no general work.
Vay TE COLOG)
The study of plant ecology, particularly in relation to floristic
change, deserves to be considered in some detail, since it is directly
relevant to many of the problems in the spheres of agriculture and
forestry, which confront Africa to-day. Professor Tansley of
Oxford University has kindly prepared a list, with brief abstracts,
of the more important papers on the subject. The following para-
graphs are based on this list, with additions from other experts
mentioned in the preface. This study is still at a very early stage
of development even in Europe, where intensive work on plant
ecology has been carried out during the past twenty years; in
Africa a great deal of research is required before the relation of
flora to environment can be known even in outline.
Perhaps the most important foundation stone of our knowledge
of African vegetation is the volume by the German scientists,
Engler and Drude (1908-10) on the whole continent, with special
PLATE II
THE EXTREME OF AFRICAN VEGETATION
Above: Tuareg in the Southern Sahara
Below: Primary tropical rain forest in Benin Province, Nigeria. The large
tree is a species of Mahogany, Entandrophragma macrophyllum.
(Photograph by Dr. P. W. Richards)
a
4 oe ae- @ 4
tee aa & Vi
7 ae t Te hae
mie
BOTANY 159
reference to the then German colonies. ‘The later work by Shantz
and Marbut (1923), already referred to in Chapter V, represents an
attempt, in a sense premature, to produce a scheme for the whole
continent as a working basis.
South Africa
In South Africa, after the preliminary work of Marloth (1887),
Bolus (1905) and Weiss (1905) in defining the botanical regions,
J. W. Bews laid the foundations of plant ecology in a long series of
papers written between 1912 and 1925. These deal with the distri-
bution of plants in relation to climate and physiography, plant suc-
cession in different types of vegetation, the thorn veld, grassland,
etc. Among general studies are those of I. B. Pole Evans (1918
onwards), who contributes a chapter on plant geography in the
official handbook of the Union, together with accounts of the pro-
gress made by his botanical survey; and Cannon (1924) deals with
the relation of vegetation to environment in arid regions. E. P.
Phillips (1931) has provided a valuable account of the grasses with
three chapters on their ecology,bringing out the effects of burning,
mowing and grazing; human influence is also stressed by Sim
(1926), who concludes that in no locality is the flora natural. The
results of burning are described and discussed by Michell (1922)
and Levyns (1929a),and J.F. V. Phillips (1930a) analyses the influ-
ence of fire in changing plant successions and animal associations
in both South and East Africa; his general conclusion is that con-
trolled burning has beneficial effects on pasture-land, particularly
in regions where valuable grazing would be lost if never fired; but
local conditions vary so much that generalizations are dangerous.
Important experiments in veld burning have been carried out
recently at the Cedara School of Agriculture. Van Zyl (1926) and
others have stressed the deficiency of phosphorus in both soils
and vegetation. Schonken (1931) points out the results of de-
forestation in causing loss of water in the soil, and these and other
subjects are dealt with by J. F. V. Phillips (1927, 1928a and b,
1931!a), whose work may be mentioned as applying thoroughly
up-to-date principles in plant ecology.
For the Cape Province, Adamson (1927 and 1931) has contri-
buted technical ecological accounts of the vegetation of Table
160 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Mountain; memoirs of the Botanical Survey by Muir (1930) on
the Riversdale area, J. F. V. Phillips (1931b) on the Knysna region,
and R. A. Dyer (1937) on the Albany region are important. Natal
and the Orange Free State are dealt with by Bews (1912, 1913,
1917, 1920, 1921). Aitken and Gale (1921) describe the vegetation
of Natal and Zululand, and Bews and Aitken (1923) give the re-
sults of physiological experiments on the vegetation in relation to
light intensity, etc. For the Transvaal, Engler (1906) wrote an
account of the vegetation, Galpin (1927) has surveyed the Spring-
bok flats, and Mogg (1929) discussed the relationship of flora to
geology in the neighbourhood of Pretoria. Furthermore Obermeyer,
Schweickerdt, and Verdoorn have contributed various papers on
the flora of the N. Transvaal (Annals of Transvaal Museum,
Bothalia, South African Journal of Science, 1933-7). For South-
West Africa there are old German works, notably by Schinz (1893),
Schenk (1889), and more recently by Dinter and Range.
Southern Tropics
For Southern Rhodesia Engler (1906) first described the vegeta-
tion. J. S. Henkel (1928) gave an excellent account of the relation
of vegetation to water-supply, and (1931) described the types of
vegetation in relation to other physical features such as geology,
soils, winds, rainfall and temperature, and in the same publica-
tion produced a reliable vegetation map of the territory. In rela-
tion to this work H. B. Maufe (1915) has described the Rhodesian
soils and their origin, as noted in Chapter V. For the neighbour-
hood of Salisbury, where overgrazing has altered the natural flora
materially, F. Eyles (1927) has contributed ecological notes of
value. In 1930 General Smuts and Dr. J. Hutchinson made an
extensive collection during the dry season from the Limpopo to
Lake Tanganyika, the results of which will appear in the latter’s
account of his tour in South Africa.
In Northern Rhodesia the distribution of vegetation has been
studied locally through the medium of air photographs. R. Bourne
(1928) has provided a list of the vegetational types encountered in
air survey, and found them coincident with soil colour and geologi-
cal formation in certain zones. E. Milne-Redhead in 1930 accom-
panied the ground control party of the aerial survey in Northern
BOTANY 161
Rhodesia and reported to the Colonial Office on the use of air
photographs in botany and forestry (not published). Ecology
from the air has also been exploited by C. R. Robbins (1934);
although an air surveyor himself, he realizes the limitations of the
method, and has produced a valuable contribution. The official
ecologist in Northern Rhodesia, CG. G. Trapnell, has obtained
valuable results working on the ground, and has also used air
photographs to advantage; his results are published as appendices
to the annual reports of the agricultural department for 1933 and
1934, and with J. N. Clothier (1937) he has published a detailed
account of the survey incorporating soil and vegetation maps.
These link up with that for Southern Rhodesia by Henkel. For
Nyasaland, Topham (1930) has considered the effects of agricul-
ture in relation to forests.
Little has been published for Angola or Mozambique beyond
the systematic works referred to on page 155. Gossweiler has given
a short sketch of the botanical regions of Angola; and is also pre-
paring a very complete phyto-geographical map of Angola.
Burtt Davy (1931) has produced a brief account of the forest vege-
tation for the whole of this region.
Central Tropics
There is a considerable amount of literature bearing on the
ecology of Kenya and Uganda, but study has been seriously
hampered by the lack of a flora for the determination of species.
Most of the common weeds can only be determined by workers in
Africa to species which are manifestly composite, or even to genera.
The following work may be mentioned: Snowden (1933) hasstudied
altitudinal zonation on the Bufumbira volcanoes and the adjoin-
ing Kigezi district in Uganda. Burtt (1934) has carried out a
study of the same region, and several other writers have described
the altitudinal zonation of Ruwenzori, Elgon, Kenya, and other
mountains. Mildbraed’s (1922) important account of the German
Central African Expedition of 1907-8 deals mainly with rain
forest, and Dawe (1906) has also studied the forest districts of
Uganda. J. W. Nicholson (1929), in considering the influence of
forests on climate and water-supply in Kenya, concludes that in
certain regions the total rainfall is likely to be affected by changes
162 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
in vegetation-covering; in his view the mountain forests may in-
duce occult precipitation in the form of dew and mist, not measure-
able by the usual methods, up to 25 per cent of the total rainfall,
and wherever meteorological conditions tend to instability, forests
greatly increase the possibility and quantity of rain. Graham
(1931) has given notes on the mangrove swamps of the Kenya
coast.
In general, there has been so much interference with vegetation
by man in East Africa, that in Uganda, for instance, scarcely any
of the original vegetation may be seen below an altitude of 7,000
feet, the grasslands, swamps and forests being nearly all secondary
growths. Hence plant ecology is peculiarly difficult to interpret.
Eggeling (1935) has published a paper on the ecology of swamps,
which are so marked a feature of Uganda.
In Tanganyika the vegetation of Mt. Kilimanjaro has been
described in several German books, notably Meyer (1891) and
Volkens (1897), and more recently by Cotton (1930). Engler
(1894) described the vegetation of Usambara in an early work.
J. F. V. Phillips, when botanist in the department of tsetse re-
search, was perhaps the first to apply modern principles of ecology.
He has described (1930b) the principal vegetation communities
and successional relations in the Central Province of Tanganyika
and (1931!c) has outlined the floral regions. On this P. J. Green-
way (1933) and J. D. Scott (1934) have based detailed studies in
the more accessible parts of the territory.
For the Congo Professor de Wildeman has written extensively
on vegetation, especially in 1912, and in his work of 1926 on the
Congo forests. He holds that fire has been the principal factor in
limiting forest country, a view with which his successor at the
Brussels Botanical Gardens, Dr. Robyns, does not entirely agree.
Robyns (1930) has published a survey of the vegetation of the
Congo with a small map showing distribution. He has also studied
(1932) the revegetation of the lava fields of the volcano Rumoka
(Kivu), and Professor Hauman (19332) has outlined the alpine and
sub-alpine vegetation of Mt. Ruwenzori. In Kivu, extensive re-
searches on the relation of the mountain vegetation to the climate,
and especially water-supply have been made by H. Scaétta (1933).
For the Katanga G, Delevoy (1928) has published an ecological
BOTANY 163
description of the main regions, and discussed the role of forests in
development. Lamy (1933) has studied the forest land of Ruanda-
Urundi. Lebrun (1932) has surveyed the Ubangi district and
(1936) has summarized all the botanical work on the Congo forest
flora up to that date.
North Tropical Africa
The work of the late Dr. T. F. Chipp, when Conservator of
Forests on the Gold Coast and subsequently at Kew, stands out
pre-eminent, especially his analysis of the Gold Coast forests (1927),
an analysis of the tropical forest from the modern successional
point of view. Chipp wrote also two general papers (1930 and
1931) analysing the vegetation over much of north tropical Africa.
Professor P. A. Buxton (1935), when working on tsetse flies in
northern Nigeria, gathered interesting data on the relation of
climate to seasonal changes in vegetation. W. D. MacGregor
(1934) silvicultural research officer in Nigeria, has shown how
closely ecology and silviculture are related in that country, with
especial reference to the mixed deciduous forest.
For the French territories A. Chevalier (1912) has produced a
useful vegetation map of the whole of West Africa on the scale
1:3,000,000, and A. Meunier (1923-33) of the Ministry for Colonies,
Paris, a series of six economic maps of French West Africa on the
same scale. Four of these deal with vegetable resources, one with
wild fauna and one with domesticated animals. Chevalier (1933)
has summarized the botanical regions of all north-west tropical
Africa. L. Lavauden (1927) has recorded much evidence con-
cerning the degeneration of vegetation, which is thought by many
to be the result of progressive desiccation, rather than of human
activities. He considers that though protection may win back
some of the vegetation, the Sahara will continue to advance.
O. Hagerup (1930) has made a useful study in the Timbuctoo
region of the Sahara: the distribution of plants was found to be
remarkably uniform since their general method of dispersal is by
wind. R. Maire (1933 and 1935) has described the flora of the
Central Sahara and Tibesti Mountains in two long papers, the
results being discussed by Hutchinson (1936). For the Cameroons,
J. M. Dalziel (1930) studied the flora of the high mountain region
164 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
and found it to be closely similar to that of the East African moun-
tains, and J. Mildbraed (1930) has given an accurate enumeration
of rain forests, one of the few works of its kind yet published for
Africa. M. Aubréville (1932), chief of the forestry service in
French West Africa, has produced a full account of the different
types of forest, rain—deciduous—mangrove, etc., and their distri-
bution in the Ivory Coast.
For the Abyssinian flora C. L. Collenette (1931) has given a
general physiographic account, and J. Gillett, who accompanied
the Somaliland-Ethiopian Boundary Commission of 1933-4 as
botanist, will be publishing shortly on both British Somaliland
and Abyssinia.
Swamp vegetation and water-supply
It is difficult to select any particular aspect of plant ecology for
special attack, but it may be stressed that the most immediately
useful results can be achieved by the exhaustive survey of restricted
types of plant habitat. Attention may be directed, for instance,
to the vegetation of swamps which has a most important role in
the natural economy in many parts of Africa.
From one point of view swamps seem responsible for great loss
to Africa in that they soak up and evaporate water which might
otherwise be utilized. It is estimated that the sudd areas of the
White Nile together with the papyrus swamps around Lakes Kioga
and Victoria are responsible for the loss by transpiration of some
50 per cent of that river’s water. Hence large-scale engineering
work is proposed to short-cut the sudd area and thus increase the
supply of water from Central Africa to the Sudan and Egypt (see
Chapter IT).
On the other hand, some authorities consider the swamps to be
the most important natural water-reservoirs of Africa. If the swamp
plants are destroyed, the swamps and vleis will disappear and the
streams which rise from them will become intermittent or cease to
exist. From this point of view the preservation of swamp vegetation
is as important as that of forests.
Clearly there is here a problem calling for intensive research on
the exact part played by swamps in hydrology, and the probable
results of draining swamps or cutting the vegetation. It has some-
BOTANY 165
times been suggested that papyrus and other swamp plants could
be used to produce paper or possibly power alcohol. Some years
ago a factory was actually opened in the Sudan with this in view,
but was closed down soon afterwards; and in 1931 the late Dr.
Chipp reported (not published) to the Sudan Government at con-
siderable length on the possibilities of a paper factory. Extensive
investigations were also made in the sudd area in 1929 and 1930
with special reference to the proposals for canalization, by N. D.
Simpson, a botanist seconded from the Egyptian service. He also
has reported (not published) to the Sudan Government. The only
other study on the plant ecology of swamps in Africa appears to be
that by Eggeling (1935) on the Uganda swamps referred to above.
The Cambridge Expedition to the East African Lakes of 1930-1
paid some attention to swamps, and among its reports L. C. Beadle
(1932) has described the bionomics of some swamps, particularly
in relation to physical and chemical conditions. In South Africa
D. Weintroub (1933) has described the aquatic and subaquatic
vegetation of the Witwatersrand.
TOXICOLOGY AND MEDICINE!
A special branch of botanical study is that of plant poisons and
medicinal herbs in use by natives. Accounts of such plants have
been given for South Africa by Professor J. M. Watt (1932) and
Dr. D. G. Steyn (1934). These two books and various papers by
the same authors form the basis for further work of this nature in
Africa. Professor Watt’s volume deals with the medicinal uses,
chemical composition and toxicology of plants in relation to both
man and animals, and includes a survey of all previous work on
these subjects. Dr. Steyn’s book is based on work at the Onderste-
poort veterinary research station, where a team of scientists have
been investigating all aspects ofanimal diseases due to plant poisons
for many years. The book deals critically with the fundamental
as well as the specific aspects of plant poisons, and gives a systema-
tic account of all the known poisonous species which occur in South
Africa. For Uganda, Mettam (1932) has written an account of
plants poisonous to stock.
Of French scientists, R. Dubois (1933) has discussed some of the
1 See also minor forest products, Chap. vil, p. 209.
166 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
medicinal plants of the French Sudan, and G. Ivanoff (1936) has
given an account of those used by the inhabitants of the Ivory
Coast. For the same territory R. Portéres (1935) has described
plants from which poisons are obtained for hunting, fishing, war-
fare and criminal purposes. For the Belgian Congo de Wildeman
(1935) has described all plants known to be used as medicinal
drugs, much of the information being obtained by the staff of the
FOREAMI working in the Congo (see Chapter XV). For Nigeria,
the Gold Coast, and neighbouring territories, Dalziel’s volume
entitled The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa (1937) 1s important
since special attention is given to the medicinal plants. As very
few derivatives from African plants are mentioned in the British
Pharmacopoeia, there would seem to be scope for research of an
interesting nature.
PASTURE RESEARCH
A large part of the African continent is at present of value to
man primarily for raising stock, and is likely to remain so. More-
over, if the tendency to soil exhaustion already noticeable in some
regions becomes further exaggerated, certain areas which are now
regularly cultivated may have to be laid down to pasture in order
to keep a permanent protective cover of vegetation. Hence the
improvement of pastures, both natural and artificial, has become
important. ‘This work can be divided into the study of the con-
stituent species of pastures, whether grasses, clovers, or other kinds
of plant; the suitability of different kinds to the various environ-
ments; the nutritional value of different kinds; and the breeding
of pure strains of grasses and legumes suitable to special conditions.
These branches of pasture research are still mainly in the experi-
mental stage, but in recent years the problems of soil erosion,
nutrition of domestic animals, and drought, havestimulated govern-
ments to employ specialists in several areas. In spite of the contri-
bution that botanical science can make, it must be remembered
that the proper management of natural and artificial pastures is
dependent on adequate facilities for watering stock, and hence atten-
tion must be directed again to the importance of investigations on
water-supplies, a subject discussed in Chapter III.
BOTANY 167
The identification of the species occurring in the grasslands of
tropical Africa is based primarily on systematic research carried
out at Kew. The main results have been published by the late
O. Stapf and later by C. E. Hubbard in volumes nine and ten of
the Flora of Tropical Africa (which deal exclusively with grasses),
and also in papers in the Kew Bulletin. In addition, lists of deter-
minations and notes on individual species are supplied by Kew to
departments of agriculture, agricultural institutions, and agri-
cultural workers, not only in the British territories, but frequently
also to correspondents in non-British countries. ‘Two illustrated
booklets on East Tropical African grasses by C. E. Hubbard
(1926-7) are useful for veterinary and agricultural officers. The
identification of South African grasses, mainly in connection with
pasture research, botanical survey work, etc., is dealt with as far as
possible by the botanists attached to the National Herbarium,
Pretoria, or by the South African laison officer stationed at
Kew.
The Imperial Bureau of Plant Genetics (Herbage Plants) at
Aberystwyth, directed by Professor R. G. Stapledon, is a centre
for the collection and dissemination of information on all questions
relating to grasslands and forage crops. ‘The information is sup-
plied in the two quarterly Journals, Herbage Abstracts and Herbage
Reviews and in bulletins, which are issued as material accumulates.
Centred also at Aberystwyth is the Welsh Plant Breeding Station,
where research workers, led by Professor Stapledon, have developed
the application of genetics to pasture research and have shown how
the nutritive value of practically any natural pasture can be im-
proved to a remarkable degree by planting specially bred strains
of grasses, with suitable subsequent management in the way of
manuring and controlled grazing. ‘The Imperial Bureau and Pro-
fessor Stapledon’s research department work in collaboration with
the Imperial Bureau of Animal Nutrition and the Rowett Institute
at Aberdeen, under Sir John Orr’s directorship, in connection
with the nutritive value of pastures. Deficiency in the mineral con-
tent of pasture plants is known to cause disease of stock, and this
subject is of such importance that in 1925 a sub-committee of the
Committee of Civil Research, which in 1930 became a Committee
of the Economic Advisory Council, was instituted ‘to consider and
168 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
report on the mineral content of natural pastures’. Sir John Orr
visited South Africa and Kenya on behalf of the committee and, on
his recommendation, the Government stock farm at Naivasha in
Kenya was selected for exhaustive experiments. An account of
Sir John Orr’s work in East Africa was published by the Economic
Advisory Council (1931).
In South Africa similar work on the nutritive value of pastures
and deficiency diseases of stock has been carried on at Onderste-
poort for the last thirty years, and much material has been pub-
lished. This work has led directly to the effective control of several
diseases, for example, the discovery by Sir Arnold Theiler and
his collaborators that Jaagsiekte in horses, etc., are all due to
poisonous plants common in natural herbage. Again, Theiler’s
discovery that Lamsiekte in cattle is caused by bacteria of the
Botulinus group, and that infection results from animals chewing
bones in order to make good the phosphorus deficiency in natural
pastures, is now a Classic in veterinary science. Recently work on
pasture improvement has been stimulated by the opinion now
prevalent that ‘breeding must go in at the mouth’.
The history of pastures and pasture studies in South Africa, with
suggestions as to future tendencies, has been written by T. D.
Hall (1934), and an up-to-date summary of results has been pub-
lished by the Imperial Bureau of Plant Genetics (1937). A num-
ber of grasses have been introduced to South Africa from other
parts of the continent and elsewhere; notable among these is
Teff-grass (Eragrostis teff), which was introduced by Dr. Burtt Davy
to the Transvaal as early as 1903. Grown as a hay crop it has
proved of the greatest value in the drier parts of South Africa, as
described by Burtt Davy (1916). Exotic pasture grasses have not
been successfully introduced except for the purposes of winter
feed, so research has been directed to the selection of the most
suitable of the indigenous species. This has been carried out
mainly by the Division of Plant Industry of the Union Department
of Agriculture under Dr. Pole Evans, who has published a sum-
mary of results (1933).
The woolly finger grass, consisting of various species of Digitaria,
is pre-eminent in carrying capacity, and is richer in minerals, pro-
tein and carbohydrates than any other. Possessing stolons and the
BOTANY 169
capacity for rhizomatous spread, it resists drought and heavy graz-
ing better than species with superficial roots. By the end of 1933
one hundred and fifty stoloniferous strains of Digitaria were under
trial; some are showing suitability for general grazing, others for
mowing, others which stand covering by blown sand are suitable
for arresting erosion, still others are peculiarly resistant to drought.
In addition a number of other indigenous grasses, such as elephant
grass (Pennisetum purpureum), which is particularly suitable for fod-
der and ensilage, Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana), Kikuyu grass (Pen-
nisetum clandestinum) and Limpopo grass (Echinochloa pyramidalts)
have been introduced to the Union from the Rhodesias, Kenya,
and other parts of the continent, but as yet the selection and
hybridization of pure strains has been carried out only with
Digitaria.
The headquarters of this work are at Pretoria, where the experi-
mental stations have collections of growing pasture plants repre-
senting numerous genera, species, and strains. In addition the
Universities of Pretoria, the Witwatersrand, Capetown, and South
Africa receive special grants from the Department of Agriculture
for work bearing on veld control, and other special studies are
carried out at the several schools of agriculture; the management
and renovation of veld is being studied by the school of agricul-
ture, Potchefstroom; grass-burning and grazing in natural and
cultivated pasture by the Cedara school of agriculture, Natal;
manuring and grazing in controlled plots and cultivation of fodder
crops, especially lucerne, by the Grootfontein experimental station
C.P.; rotational grazing and regeneration of pasture by the Glen
experimental station, Orange Free State; and the grazing value of
karoo bush and other fodder plants at Fauresmith.
The Botanical Department of the Witwatersrand University is
concentrating on the fundamental ecology of veld; results should
throw light on the balance of the native species of grasses and other
herbs and on their reactions to grazing, fertilization, burning, etc.
A Grassland Research Committee, formed from Pretoria Univer-
sity and African Explosives and Industries, Ltd., has published
(1932) a useful general review of the situation in South Africa,
bringing all research into line. R. Lindsay Robb (1936), Chair-
man of the Committee, has produced a sequel report with the
170 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
principal object of placing the results of experiment at the disposal
of South African farmers.
In Southern Rhodesia the Division of Plant Industry has also been
concentrating on pasture improvement, and a detailed experi-
mental plan has been made out to test indigenous grasses and
leguminous plants. It is described by Graham and Hall (1933).
The systematics of grasses in Southern Rhodesia are fairly well
known through the work of Stapf and later through papers pub-
lished by Miss S. M. Stent and J. M. Rattray (1924 and 1933),
so that the field is now open for ecological and experimental
studies.
In the Northern part of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan studies have
been made on the irrigation of pasture-land, and several species of
grasses, both African and Australian, have been tried without very
satisfactory results. In this connection research in Australia has
indicated that European pasture plants can be maintained in sub-
tropical areas if the system of irrigation is properly adjusted. Con-
touring of the land is necessary, while the frequency of watering
and the facilities for adequate drainage are important. Much of
the southern Sudan is covered with tall rank grasses of little value
for grazing. A short, close-growing pasture capable of keeping
down this natural vegetation would be invaluable.
In the territories under the Colonial Office, little experimental
work has been undertaken, but in several areas the ecological
aspects of grazing, firing, and manuring are being studied. There
are now officers devoted entirely to pasture work in Tanganyika
and Kenya, and attention is being paid to the chemical constitu-
tion of grasses in several of the veterinary laboratories.
In Northern Rhodesia there is no whole-time pasture expert, but
studies on grasslands have been undertaken by the ecologist,
C. G. Trapnell (1932 and 1933), who points out that research is
required on the following subjects: 1, cutting for the purpose of
breaking-in tall grassland; 2, rotational grazing in order to increase
stock yield; 3, sowing grass on maize lands intended for abandon-
ment; 4, harrowing and propagation for reclaiming eroded pas-
tures. Results to date, which are suggestive rather than conclusive,
have been published in order to make a permanent record of the
initial progress. Trapnell refers primarily to problems of manage-
BOTANY Tet
ment in thorn country and sweet bush grasslands, and concludes
that rotational grazing in paddocks and extensive mowing would
improve the veld and prolong the nutritive value of the natural
grass to such an extent that cultivated pasture would be unneces-
sary. H. B. Stent contributes valuable data on seasonal changes
in the chemical composition of pasture grasses.
In Tanganyika the problems have been briefly stated by R. R.
Staples (1934), the pasture officer, and the annual reports of the
Department of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry for
1933, 1934, and 1935, have sections by him on pasture research
and also results of chemical analyses of grasses by M. H. French,
the biochemist. A reference herbarium for the difficult task of
identifying the local grasses is being collected by Capt. Hornby,
Director of the veterinary department, and Mrs. Hornby, with
the co-operation of the botanist at Amani. Introductions have
been made from South Africa, Southern Rhodesia, Australia, and
India, while grazing trials on acre paddocks of various indigenous
African grasses are in progress at Mpwapwa, the headquarters of
the veterinary department.
Staples has recorded the grazing conditions in several districts
during the past few years, in order to gauge as accurately as possible
any vegetation changes in the pasture which may result from in-
creases in stock. Conditions in the Ngorongoro crater on the edge
of the Serengeti plains are of particular interest. ‘Though little
more than one hundred square miles in extent, it is estimated to
carry upwards of eighty thousand head of game, besides some
twenty thousand Masai cattle for six months of the dry season.
All the kinds of game are maintained in excellent condition until
the very end of the dry season. As a pasture area the crater is of
special interest in that grazing seems to be the chief factor in main-
taining the dominance of the grasses. The astonishing carrying
capacity is partly due to fertile soil conditions, but above all to the
annual resting of the pastures when the game migrates in the wet
season, combined with heavy manuring by droppings. It is there-
fore a valuable natural demonstration of the benefits of resting and
manuring pastures. In Tanganyika an inquiry is also going for-
ward regarding the transpiration rates of plants, since local indica-
tions suggest that in the conservation of water-supplies it may be
7 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
more profitable to encourage grass than forest in view of the high
transpiration rate of the latter.
In Kenya a general study of pasture species is in progress. Mr,
Edwards, the officer in charge of grassland improvement, has for
two years past been stationed at Kabete, at the veterinary research
laboratories. He has concentrated on the local indigenous grasses
and legumes, and an ecological survey of the main climatic types
of grassland is being undertaken as facilities permit. The grass-
lands of Kenya (Edwards 1934) fall into three main divisions:
(a) areas of high moisture and low temperature, and 6,500 to
10,000 feet altitude, (b) intermediate areas, and (c) dry areas.
Studies of the first two are in progress at Kabete with extensions
in various parts of the colony, and the nutritional research station
at Naivasha in the rift valley is a centre for the dry areas. At.
Kabete are established pasture-plant nurseries, especially for
Kikuyu grass, plots for seed production, and other plots for raising
mixed pastures, legumes, including Lespedeza from America, and
fodder crops, manure trials, etc. Experiments made include palat-
ability and grazing trials for each strain raised. At Naivasha
drought-resistant species and manures are under trial, and experi-
ments are in progress on the renovation of pasture depleted by
locusts, drought, and overgrazing. Already this work has yielded
information of direct practical application over considerable areas
at the higher altitudes, as shown by Edwards (1935); for the inter-
mediate areas Rhodes grass has proved suitable for sowing down for
pasture and hay, and for the drier areas methods of controlling over-
grazing, based on the natural plant succession, have been suggested.
In Uganda and Nyasaland little pasture work has been started,
since the grasslands have not yet been affected by heavy grazing
to a serious extent. The increase in stock is threatening, however,
to make action necessary.
In British Somaliland Mr. R. A. Farquharson, agriculturalist and
geologist, has devoted considerable sections of his recent reports
(not printed) to the reconditioning and improvement of natural
pastures. It appears that much of the scant vegetation has been
destroyed by overgrazing. Since much of the surface soil contains
deposits of brak, the South African salt-bush, a useful grazing
shrub, is to be introduced for trial.
BOTANY i7a
In Nigerta work on grasses was not started till 1932, since when
data, chiefly on chemical aspects, have been collected and are
summarized by Anderson (1933). Work is being done on possible
fodder crops to tide over the dry season when cattle grow thin as
a result of the reduction in nutritive value of the parched grass-
Jands.
In the non-British territories little work has yet started on the
subject except in a few areas, chiefly because the problem of over-
grazing is not acute. Chevalier (1933-4), however, has published a
preliminary study of the grasslands and grasses of the French terri-
tories. In French West Africa work on pasture plants is carried on
at several stations: at El Oualadji in the Sudan, research is con-
cerned with the feeding of sheep, at Soninkoura the Office du Niger
studies the pasture plants of the irrigated areas, while at Sotuba
the suitability of plants for introduction to the Sudan area has been
tried. Interesting results have been obtained with plants intro-
duced from South Africa, the Belgian Congo, America, and India.
Rogeon (1932) has discussed the forage grasses of the French
Sudan with regard to their agricultural possibilities. In Morocco
grasses from the southern parts of the continent have been intro-
duced with success, particularly Napier, Rhodes, and Kikuyu
grasses.
In the Belgian Congo study of the taxonomy of native grasses is
well advanced as a result of the monograph being prepared by
Dr. Robyns, which will serve as a foundation for research on
pasture improvement in the future. Already erosion from exces-
sive grazing has been noticed in Ruanda-Urundi, and the recent
introduction of five thousand head of cattle from Ruanda to
Katanga will probably necessitate study of the pastures there. In
another publication Robyns (1931) has suggested using indigenous
grasses for the improvement of pasture-lands, and experiments
with this end in view are now being carried out by the veterinary
service of the Congo and by the Comité Spécial du Katanga. The
destruction of forest trees in several places in the Congo, as in
other parts of the continent, has led to the formation of grassland
which is of little value for grazing, consisting in the main of the
grasses Cynodon dactylon and Paspalum dilatum, and frequently over-
run with Panicum. Many farmers have introduced Kikuyu grass
174 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
(Pennisetum clandestinum), but on the Nioka government stock farm
the grass is no longer much cultivated both because it is insufficient
to support a larger head of stock, and because a diet of Kikuyu
grass alone has been found to lead to reduced milk production. At
Kerekere experiments are in progress with many kinds of forage
plants to ascertain which are the most suitable to local soil condi-
tions, and the department has analysed many samples of grass
from every pastoral district in the Congo (Congo Belge 1935).
Some of the results are given in a long paper by H. Scaétta (1936).
The extensive researches carried out in Australia at the Waite
Institute have produced results directly applicable in Africa, and
exchange of grasses between the two continents has been made
during the last few years. The results so far are inconclusive. It is
possible that the methods of research evolved there may also prove
applicable throughout Africa, particularly in connection with
studies of leguminous plants, on which little is at present known
in Africa. Knowledge of these, especially clovers, is a necessary
aspect of pasture research, since the ability of pasture to maintain
soil fertility depends principally on the legumes.
PLANT BREEDING AND PLANT PATHOLOGY
Studies of plant breeding and plant pathology are directed
mainly towards the improvement of agricultural crops, but wild
forest trees have also received some attention from pathologists.
Together they absorb the greater part of the botanical effort which
Africa is able to put forward.
In plant breeding striking results have been achieved in produ-
cing improved varieties of crops both for export and for internal
consumption. The three desiderata of increased yield, better
quality, and resistance to disease have sometimes been combined
successfully. This work will be considered together with agricul-
tural methods in Chapter XII. For truly scientific plant breeding
fundamental studies in genetics and cyto-genetics are necessary.
Little provision for research in these subjects exists so far; there
are as yet only two professorships of genetics in the United King-
dom, and the number of expert geneticists is correspondingly few.
Until this science develops, plant and animal breeding experi-
BOTANY 175
ments for practical purposes must depend largely on methods of
trial and error.
Diseases of plants are caused by insects, nematode worms known
as eel-worms, fungi, moulds, and viruses. In addition, certain
deficiency diseases are known to be caused by lack of nutrients in
the soil. The effects of insects, both as direct agents in causing
disease and as vectors of viruses, etc., are considered in Chapter X;
most of the other diseases are dealt with in Chapter XII, and cer-
tain diseases of trees are mentioned in Chapter VII. A few general
remarks on the botanical side of pathology are suitable here.
Cotton, as one of Africa’s most important cash-crops, has been
subject to more botanical work than any other plant, both with a
view to the improvement of strains, and the control of disease.
The bacterial disease known as black-arm, caused by B. malva-
cearum, has received particularly intensive study. Notable workers
on this subject have been Massey in the Sudan and Hansford in
Uganda.
On virus diseases of plants striking researches have been carried
out by the plant pathologist at Amani, Dr. H. H. Storey, who is
recognized as a leader in this field. On fungus diseases a consider-
able amount of work has been carried out both in tropical and
South Africa, the diseases of the most important crops having,
naturally, received first attention. In South Africa most of the
published work has been by Dr. I. B. Pole Evans, Dr. E. M. Doidge,
and Professor van der Bil. With regard to the tropics, Mr. R. H.
Bunting and Mr. H. A. Dade, who formerly worked as mycolo-
gists in the Gold Coast, have published much, particularly on the
moulds which affect cocoa and other stored products. Moulds are
not well understood, but in the Gold Coast a number of strains
have been isolated and their reaction to artificial conditions has
been investigated. In general, the limiting factor to their growth
seems to be humidity. W. Small and C. O. Farquharson did pio-
neer work in Uganda and Nigeria respectively. A preliminary list
of fungi and plant diseases in Sierra Leone has been produced by
Deighton (1936) and one for Tanganyika has been published by
G. B. Wallace (1932 and 1936); J. C. Hopkins has published a list
of plant diseases in Rhodesia, and other such lists are in prepara-
tion under the auspices of the Imperial Institute of Mycology.
176 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Diseases caused by rust fungi are important. Those which affect
grain have been studied specially in South Africa by Dr. Pole
Evans, and in Kenya, where McDonald’s work is noteworthy.
Some success has already resulted from attempts to breed strains
of wheat resistant to these diseases. The coffee rust fungus,
Hemileia, is under investigation at Amani. For all these studies
the Imperial Institute of Mycology at Kew is now the centralizing
headquarters for information and research.
PRESERVATION OF FLORA
The preservation of the indigenous flora is an aspect of botany
which perhaps deserves more attention than it has received in
connection with the development of national parks and nature
reserves. The vegetation of Africa is changing very rapidly, not so
much in the sparsely populated inland plains, where vast areas are
still unaffected, but in the more densely populated regions, which
are subject to influences such as shifting cultivation,! the introduc-
tion and spread of exotic food-plants, and afforestation with exotic
trees. Even the introduction of foreign plants into gardens may
have unexpected results. This is the case particularly with fast-
growing trees such as wattles and gums which multiply very
rapidly under favourable circumstances, and dispossess the indi-
genous trees and shrubs.
It is necessary also to consider the provision of reserves for the
indigenous flora in addition to forest reserves. Such areas need
not be very large, but if they are to have their full educational
value they should be situated in accessible places. Under suitable
management they could with advantage be made to serve the
purpose of botanical gardens. A resolution urging the maintenance
of representative areas of forest in their primeval condition was
passed at the Empire Forestry Conference in South Africa in 1935.
In parts of South Africa, action has already been taken: nature
reserves have been established by the Department of Agriculture
and Forestry where no planting of trees, no grazing, and no des-
truction by fire will occur. Some of these are areas of macchia-
like vegetation, notable for their beautiful plants, and others are
1 See Chapter vii, p. 187 and Chapter xiii, p. 376.
BOTANY V7]
in regions of virgin forest, such as the Lily Vlei Nature Reserve
in the Gauna Forest near Knysna. In a recent report on forestry
in Tanganyika, Professor R. 8. Troup (1936) has emphasized the
desirability of forming nature reserves of this kind in that territory,
and has suggested definite areas for the purpose. Another botanical
reserve of great value is the Parc National Albert in the Belgian
Congo, which will preserve the mountain forests, as well as the sub-
alpine and alpine flora of the volcanoes in the neighbourhood of
Kivu.
At the recent international conference on the preservation of
African fauna and flora (1934) a list was made of particular
plant species threatened with extermination: one plant only, the
famous Welwitschia, a member of the coniferous group, but show-
ing remarkable affinities with the true flowering plants, was placed
in class A, as warranting complete protection. ‘The wider aspects
of the subject were little discussed, and it was decided that the
reservation of areas where exotic plants would not be allowed was
the only practical step to be taken. It is to be hoped that during
subsequent conferences on the subject more attention will be paid
to the flora. ‘As the primeval forest is destroyed the ancient ver-
dure of the earth is lost for ever. The trees depart in flames and
no mantle descends to clothe our ignorance.’
CHAPTER VII
FORESERY!
INTRODUCTION
HE problems of forestry are linked with those of agriculture,
§ ce any forestry policy must be considered in relation to the
various demands made by man on the produce of the soil; in
African conditions native cultivation over large areas depends
directly on the distinction of forest growth. The subject is so
closely bound up with those of plant ecology and systematic
botany, dealt with in the last chapter, that it 1s most convenient
to discuss it at this stage.
The condition of the forests affects, directly or indirectly, the
water-supplies, the fertility of the soil, fuel and timber supplies for
domestic and industrial use, and the possibilities of agriculture for
subsistence as well as for export. The importance of the forests in
the general economy of Africa has two aspects, that ofthe economic
utilization of forest products, and that of the conservation of water-
supplies and soil, the relative importance of which varies with the
character of the country. In the more arid tracts the forests are
coming to be valued primarily for their role in water conservation,
whereas in the belts of rain-forest, where land once cleared is
rapidly covered by dense vegetation, the productive aspect is
regarded as more important. A hard and fast division, however,
is impossible.
Before the position of forests in relation to rainfall can be fully
understood, much research is necessary in the subjects of meteoro-
1 Professor R. S. Troup, when Director of the Imperial Forestry Institute at
Oxford, and members of his staff, notably Mr. Ray Bourne and Dr. J. Burtt Davy,
kindly prepared a special memorandum for the African Research Survey on Forestry
in Africa, mainly devoted to the British territories. This formed the basis for a first
draft of this chapter, which has been re-written in the light of new information and
after circulation to the experts mentioned in the Preface.
FORESTRY 179
logy and plant physiology, particularly in relation to the tran-
spiration stream of growing trees, and the amount of moisture
added to the atmosphere by a forest area of a given type. Until
such data are available, it appears essential to preserve areas of
forest land at least sufficient to ensure the continuation of present
water-supplies and to avoid soil erosion. This necessity is usually
met by the establishment of areas of reserved forest (which need
not, of course, be closed to commercial exploitation) on high
ground, especially in the neighbourhood of watersheds. The
principal object is to ensure that the streams and rivers are main-
tained as perennial and not reduced to mere intermittent floods,
as would be the case if forest growth were removed and the soil
eroded.
In many parts of Africa, especially where native agriculture is
based on shifting cultivation, the destruction of forests has gone
beyond the safety limit. It has been difficult to enlist the support
of native administrations in the creation of forest reserves, owing to
their failure to appreciate the necessity of measures which may
involve a diminution in immediate revenue.
Another matter in which it appears that stricter control is
desirable is in the grant of concessions to mining companies to cut
forests for timber and fuel. There are conspicuous examples in the
Gold Coast where such concessions, granted forty or fifty years
ago, have led to large-scale destruction of evergreen forest around
mining areas, and there appears to be no organization for replant-
ing. With the rapid development of mining in other parts of
Africa, especially in Northern Rhodesia, Tanganyika and Kenya,
there is danger that this situation may be repeated on a large
scale. Since a supply of timber is essential for mining operations,
it would seem that provision for the replacement of forest destroyed
is desirable.
ORGANIZATION
BRITISH
The central institutions in Great Britain which deserve mention
are as follows:
The Imperial Forestry Institute at Oxford, now under the direction
of Mr. J. N. Oliphant, is the Empire centre for advanced training
180 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
in forestry. It forms part of the Department of Forestry at the
same University, under Professor R. 8. Troup, which is the most
important training centre. Its members visit African territories
from time to time; thus Professor ‘Troup has studied the forests
of Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika; Mr. Oliphant visited South
and West Africa before taking up his appointment; Dr. Burtt
Davy has wide experience in the Transvaal and other parts of
Africa, and is the leading British authority on forest botany, so
that Oxford has become a centre for the identification of Empire
trees and woods. At the Empire Conference of 1935, a resolution
was passed to the effect that the institute could be of still greater
value to Empire forestry if it were more fully staffed and financed
for research. Since few African administrations can employ a staff
of specialist forestry officers sufficient to study all the problems
which arise, it was suggested that with greater financial support
the institute might maintain a staff of research workers who could
undertake short terms of intensive work, as required by the differ-
ent territories.
The Colonial Forest Resources Development Department, with Major
F. M. Oliphant as Forest Economist, was formed in 1936. It is in
close relation with the Forest Products Research Laboratory at Princes
Risborough, a research establishment of the Department of Scien-
tific and Industrial Research, which was enlarged in 1930 as a
result ofa Government grant of £30,000. This station is concerned
with research on wood and wood products, and undertakes the
testing of Empire timbers, determining their properties and bring-
ing them to the notice ofmanufacturers. While the Empire Market-
ing Board existed, testing was done free for the colonies, but now
a charge is made which makes it difficult for the smaller colonies
to make full use of the laboratory. Major F. M. Oliphant has
recently made two visits to the West African colonies and another
to East Africa to study and report on the forestry situation, par-
ticularly with a view to improving the preparation of woods for
export and developing closer co-operation between producers and
manufacturers (Oliphant, F. M. 1934a and b, 1935, 1937).
The Imperial Institute Advisory Committee on Timbers, which is
composed of voluntary members of the wood-using professions and
trades, has done valuable work in advising on the development of
FORESTRY 181
trade in new timbers, examining samples and arranging trade
trials. For the Colonial Office the newly formed Colonial Forest
Resources Development Department has taken over most of this
work, but its members co-operate with the Imperial Institute
Committee.
In Africa itself there are special forestry organizations in the
Union of South Africa, Southern Rhodesia (a division of the
department of agriculture and lands), the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
(a section of the department of agriculture and forests), and
separate forestry departments in the British colonies, protectorates
and mandates, except in Northern Rhodesia where there is a
forestry branch of the agricultural department, and the Gambia.
The staff of each department is shown in the following list:
FORESTRY STAFF
(British Territories)
Total European
Territory Sorestry staff}
Union of South Africa ae oe 3. 272
Southern Rhodesia “ eg Sik
Northern Rhodesia - a ot eee
Nyasaland os se e ue ie
Tanganyika er a a a} chy
Kenya oie os os ee ae 28
Uganda .. ‘ ah PEt
Nigeria (including Bach eee roons) Ra. Pl
Gold Coast (including British ee ae aq. 8
Sierra Leone ; ae 9A
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan es a a. 40
The Union of South Africa has the oldest and largest forestry
organization. The Division of Forestry, under the general direction
of the Secretary for Agriculture and Forestry, consists of four sec-
tions: administrative, forest management, silvicultural research,
and the Forest Products Research Institute. The latter, situated
at Pretoria West, renders the Union independent in experimental
work on the utilization of timbers. The organization is outlined
in full in the statement made to the British Empire Forestry Con-
ference in 1935 (Union of South Africa 1935). In South Africa a
course of higher training in forestry has recently been pete at
2 Compiled from Empire Forestry Handbook (1938).
182 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Stellenbosch University, while there is a training school for sub-
ordinates at Saasveld, George, C.P.
In the Colonial Forest Service in Africa very few officers are en-
gaged solely in research, but in a sense most forest officers are
potentially research workers in that they gather data in stock-
taking and similar duties. Their activities are, however, devoted
largely to administrative work. Nigeria appears to be the only
territory where a permanent research branch of four officers is
maintained. All African departments have recognized the irre-
vocable consequences of the destruction of forest and their atten-
tion is accordingly devoted mainly to the reservation of forest
areas and the collection of revenue.
Some go per cent of forest officers entering the colonial service
as probationers are university graduates who have had a year’s
special training at the Imperial Forestry Institute. As some autho-
rities have maintained that in spite of this training only a small
proportion have the ability and qualifications for fundamental
scientific research, it has been decided that the post-graduate
training should be given to the probationer after, rather than
before, his first tour of a colony, when he has some experience of
the type of problem confronting him. For specialist research, the
organization of workers under the Imperial Forestry Institute, as
suggested above, appears to offer the best prospects, particularly
for the use of the smaller colonies.
In no colonial territory does the forest department regularly
undertake the extraction of timber: this is handed over to private
enterprise, which, as a rule, can carry it out more economically
than a government department. There are a few exceptions to
this rule, but usually only as temporary expedients. Consequently
forest officers are not specially trained for executive work in utiliza-
tion; they are given a sound knowledge of production, including
stocktaking, silviculture and working plans, and enough knowledge
of utilization to enable them to maintain contacts with the timber
industry. There is little doubt however, that forest engineers
specially trained in utilization would, if available, have plenty of
scope in advising and assisting the industry. This idea has been
developed with special reference to West Africa in an article by
J. N. Oliphant (1937).
FORESTRY 163
For the training of African subordinates, there are schools of
forestry at Busoga in Uganda, and Ibadan in Nigeria, and courses
are held in the Gold Coast and elsewhere. The proportion of native
to European staff in the forestry department is higher in Nyasa-
land than in any other colonial territory. ‘The subordinate native
staff forms the link between the forest department and the African
farmer, and therefore, it is essential to have facilities for training
in each territory, so that the guards and rangers can be as far as
possible recruited from the tribes with whom they have to deal.
In most territories the whole forestry estate is directly adminis-
tered by the forest departments. In some, however, native head-
men or native administrations are given certain responsibilities
over those reserves of which the principal function is to supply
timber for building and firewood. Thus in Nyasaland a village
forest scheme, constituted by rules under the forest ordinance, has
led to the establishment of some 3,000 village forests in charge of
local headmen, and the scheme, under adequate supervision by
forest and administrative officers, is working well. These village
forests are not in charge of, or financed by, the native administra-
tions, but the village headmen to whom the areas are allocated
are the sole authority for management and cutting. They usually
carry out simple operations such as weeding and thinning, and
institute measures for fire protection. No payment for produce
from the village forests is demanded by a headman from his own
people. In Nigeria several areas of rain forest, amounting to some
4,600 square miles, of value for commercial exploitation, have
been handed over to native administrations, notably a large area
near Benin. Exploitation is carried out through concessionaires.
Careful supervision by the forestry department is of course neces-
sary, and a European forest officer is seconded to the native
administration for this purpose.
The delegation of authority for forest reserves to the native
administrations is a logical application of the system of indirect
rule, but it involves certain administrative difficulties. A system
under which forest guards are responsible not to the forest officer
but to the native authority depends for its efficacy on a full appre-
ciation by the latter of the aims and methods of forest conservation.
In Tanganyika, though experiments in this direction have been
184 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
made, it is argued that since the native fears and shuns evergreen
forest and takes for granted its destruction for agriculture or
grazing and the thoughtless use of fire, the scattered remnants of
the once extensive forests might well disappear before indirect
methods of control could be made effective. The forest reserves
of this territory are so small that their preservation could not safely
be left to persons who do not realize theirimportance. Afew months
of neglect or afew years of heavy cutting might result in damage
that would take decades to repair.
The Empire Forestry Conferences held from time to time provide
a means of contact between foresters in different territories. Four
of these have been held, the last, in South Africa in 1935, having
particular reference to forestry in that Dominion. The statements
then prepared by the forest authorities in the various British terri-
tories give an excellent picture of the present position. Informal
meetings of forestry officers on leave have been organized by the
Imperial Forestry Institute since 1936. In consequence of a resolu-
tion passed by the Conference of 1920, the Empire Forestry Associa-
tion was founded as a voluntary body, with the objects of fostering
interest in forestry, providing a centre of communication, and
collecting and circulating information. The official organ of the
Association, the Empire Forestry Journal, appears biannually, and
a handbook is also issued. Apart from these conferences it appears
that facilities for the exchange of ideas in forestry are less good
than in many other subjects, and that some means of co-ordina-
tion of work is required, not only between neighbouring terri-
tories, but between those of the East and West African groups.
It has been suggested that this could be achieved by the appoint-
ment of central directors of forestry for the East and West African
territories respectively, and an inspector of forests for the whole
colonial Empire, who would spend his time touring and act as
co-ordinating officer and advisor. The exchange of officers of
midway seniority between different territories would also lead to
the dissemination of experience, and some general forestry publica-
tion for the African colonies, on the lines of the Indian Forester or
the Malayan Forester, would serve useful purposes as a medium for
the exchange of views, and dissemination of results.
FORESTRY 185
FRENCH
In the French colonies the forestry department is a branch of
the economic service, which includes also agriculture, animal
husbandry, and customs. For West Africa the whole forest service
is under the direction of M. Aubréville and each component colony
has a separate department with technical experts. The organiza-
tion for marketing timber is also well developed, particularly for
the Ivory Coast, which contains the principal areas of commercial
forest. ‘The European staff of the forestry service of French West
Africa in 1936 comprised sixteen Inspecteurs and twenty-five Con-
ducteurs.
BELGIAN
In the Belgian Congo forest resources have received considerable
attention; references to some published works on them are given
later. There is a forest advisor for the whole colony, with a staff
of inspectors, while the Katanga has its own service under the
Comité Spécial. Policy up till now has aimed chiefly at the creation
of reserves, organized exploitation being less advanced than in the
British or French territories. The difficulty of communications
and transport of timber from the main forest areas has been respon-
sible for this condition, but development is now taking place in the
more accessible areas.
DESTRUCTION AND CONSERVATION OF FORESTS
(British Territories only)
In view of the alarming rate at which forests in some parts of
Africa are being demolished, the allocation of large areas as
reserves, under either state or native control, has been a prime
object in every territory. A broad classification of these reserves
according to the methods by which they are administered, is as
follows:
(a) Forests under the control of forest departments.
(1) Commercial forests.
(2) Forests maintained for the provision of timber or firewood
for general consumption, or for special industries such as
mines, railways, steamers, etc.
(3) Important protection forests affecting wide areas,
186 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
(6) Forests under the control of native administrations.
(1) Small forests and plantations maintained for supplying
the needs of the local population.
(2) Small protection forests which are only of local impor-
tance.
The table below, compiled by the Imperial Forestry Institute
mainly from data in statements by the several forestry depart-
ments to the British Empire Forestry Conference of 1935, shows
the extent of total forest and existing reserves in the British terri-
tories. It should be noted that some of the figures are not compara-
ble because the nature of forest land differs from territory to terri-
tory. Savannah forest is not included in every case, as indicated
by footnotes.
Forest Reserves IN BritisH TERRITORIES
(Figures in square miles)
Date Area % forest Area of Area of
of under of total Govt. Native
Figures Forest land area reserves (1) reserves
Union of South Africa 1936 16,647 3°5 3,890 —
Southern Rhodesia 1933 88,809 (2) 59°1 88,786 os
Northern Rhodesia 1936 =. 172,000(2) 59°7 455(3) te
Nyasaland 1935 4,440(2) 11-8 2,623(4) 180
Tanganyika 1936 4,432(5) 1°3 4,019 85 (6)
Kenya 1936 5,821(5)(7) 2:6 4,860 371
Uganda 1936 5,000 6-2 1,846 ?
Nigeria 1936 =. 219,050(8) 59°5 6,998 si ed a ce)
Gold Coast 1933 13,900(5) 15:1 53 2908
Sierra Leone 1936 1,500(5) (9g) 55 74. 692
(1) Game reserves and national parks are not included.
(2) Mainly savannah forest.
(3) Government reserves 1934.
(4) Government and native reserves 1936.
(5) Excluding savannah forest, thorn bush and cut areas.
(6) Also non-native private forests, 172 square miles.
(7) Total of existing government reserves and forests awaiting reservation.
(8) Mangrove 7,000, rain forest 37,000, mixed deciduous 14,000, savannah
161,050 approx.
(9g) Reserved forests only.
It is a general opinion among expert foresters that the areas
which have been acquired as reserves are not yet sufficient to
assure future prosperity in any African territory, but the degree
FORESTRY 187
of deficiency varies greatly. In the absence of fundamental know-
ledge regarding the role of forests in conserving water-supplies and
soil, referred to above, it has been necessary to adopt arbitrary
criteria in determining the areas to be reserved, such as a fixed
percentage of the total land area; the separate reserves are care-
fully selected with regard to their distribution over the whole
territory.
The extensive reservation of large blocks of country as conserva-
tion forests is always expensive, so that it is desirable that reserved
areas should be worked to provide some revenue, provided that
(a) there is sufficient demand for timber to warrant exploitation
and (b) any working is on a basis of sustained yield, with regenera-
tion and tending of forest keeping pace with cutting. The clear
felling and replanting of areas, which is a commonplace of forestry
in temperate climates, is rarely adopted in Africa except as a last
resort, because in any tropical or sub-tropical forest only a small
proportion of the trees are commercially valuable, and on account
also of the detrimental effect of tropical sun and rain on a bare
forest soil. The eventual ideal would be for nearly all reserved
forests to be brought under working plans,! so that conservation
can go hand in hand with exploitation and regeneration. Working
plans belong, however, to a late phase in the evolution of forestry:
the immediate needs in Africa are the conservation of the remain-
ing forests and the development of forest uses.
The principal agent in modifying the original forest vegetation
of Africa is the native practice of shifting cultivation, which is often
aided by fire. Apart from the destruction of valuable forest, this
practice has resulted in places in serious erosion and degradation
of the soil. This is particularly noticeable in hilly regions such as
Nyasaland, where A. J. W. Hornby (1923) has described the results.
As the population increases and the available areas of forest de-
crease, the results will be more and more serious, and yet the forest
areas are the only reserves on which agriculture can draw for its
expansion in many parts of the continent, and some experts are of
the opinion that shifting cultivation in a modified form will always
be the mainstay of native agriculture.
1 ‘Working plans’ is an expression used in forestry to imply a detailed programme of
felling and regeneration, including replanting where necessary.
188 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
The agricultural alternatives to shifting cultivation are dis-
cussed in Chapter XIII, but there are certain other measures
which involve action by forestry rather than agricultural depart-
ments. These may be considered here.
In shifting cultivation, soil is reconditioned by the growth of
natural vegetation after being used for varying periods in the
production of agricultural crops. It seems that in the more sparsely
inhabited regions where the natural balance is still maintained the
periods of fallow are sufficiently long to allow good development
of tree growth from suckers, coppice, and seedlings, and old root
stocks are not destroyed to any extent during the intervening
periods of cultivation. Where the areas available for native
cultivation have been restricted, it is necessary to accelerate the
natural regeneration of tree growth by planting. For this pur-
pose the ‘taungya’ system of plantation, introduced in Burma
many years ago, has recently been applied in modified form in
parts of Africa, notably in Nigeria. In Kenya another similar
system has been developed, whereby natives are put on to clear
and farm the soil first, and the forest department plants useful
trees on the same ground as soon as it is vacated by the farmer.
It is of course essential that land so planted should not be subjected
to new cultivation until the trees are ready for market, and natives
are not disposed to submit to the necessary restrictions unless they
have large areas in which to practise shifting cultivation without
let or hindrance.
For this and other reasons the taungya system has its opponents
among expert foresters in Africa. They claim that taungya is con-
trary to all principles of fixed settlement and to planned land
utilization which is essential wherever populations are rapidly
increasing; and that areas of light population, where the practice
of shifting cultivation can be carried on, are usually so far from
markets that the establishment of taungya plantations is impossible
on economic grounds. In many places virgin forest brought under
cultivation is not vacated until the land is reduced practically to
a sterile condition. The problem in such areas is one of planting
trees in land where grass has replaced forest growth and which is
subject to fierce annual firing. It is, therefore, claimed by some
experts that plantation on the taungya principle is no remedy for
FORESTRY 189
agricultural ills, though it may be a palliative in some cases by
postponing the destruction of the soil, and is a useful and cheap
method of artificial regeneration in reserved forests. Clearly its
efficacy is dependent largely on local conditions.
For the purpose of planting up areas vacated by shifting culti-
vators, exotic trees such as Cassia and Dalbergia are generally
favoured. In many situations the indigenous trees could be used,
especially species of Acacia, which, like other leguminous plants,
have the property of fixing free atmospheric nitrogen through the
agency of bacteria to produce nitrates in the soil. In parts of the
Sudan the gum tree (Acacia senegal), which regenerates naturally,
and is sometimes planted on vacated farms, is said to be parti-
cularly effective in reconditioning exhausted soil in dry country,
and is also of great value in the fixation of shifting sand.
In territories bordering on the Sahara region, forest destruction
is said to be partly responsible for the rapid encroachment of dry
conditions from the north, e.g. in the northern parts of Nigeria,
the Gold Coast, and northern Uganda. In such dry areas acacia
trees are frequently cut down to provide fodder for camels, a most
wasteful practice which should be discouraged wherever possible.
H. CG. Sampson (1936) has recorded a similar method for keeping
cattle alive in parts of East Africa where country which was grazing
twenty years ago is now devoid of pasture. The destruction of
forest in one area may cause change to drier conditions elsewhere;
for example in Nigeria and other territories of the Gulf of Guinea
it is probable that the belt of rain forest near the coast has a con-
siderable effect on precipitation in the arid regions farther north.
There is a body of opinion, in fact, which maintains that in order
to avoid the menace of the advancing Sahara, the forest reserves
in the rain-belt near the coast should be enlarged.
There appears to be no general published work on these ques-
tions which deals expressly with Africa, but attention may be
drawn to the discussion on the use and misuse of land by R. M.
Gorrie (1935), in which the place of forestry in relation to the
planning of land utilization is admirably defined. The place of
forestry in land-planning is also considered at some length by
Major F. M. Oliphant (1937) in a report on his tour of the East
African territories. So important are the questions of the relation
190 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
of forestry to native agriculture, and measures taken to ensure the
interests of forest conservation that it is worth discussing the work
done in the different territories in detail, with particular reference
to the British territories under the control of the Colonial Office.
In Northern Rhodesia native systems of agriculture vary consider-
ably, but all are dependent in part on the clearing and cultivation
ofbush. In the north-west and north-east the natives depend almost
entirely on the temporary cultivation of forest land. The ecological
survey officers, Trapnell and Clothier (1937), who have correlated
native systems of agriculture with forest types, conclude that the
extent of a given agricultural system could be defined by the
vegetation type or group of types characterizing the region used.
The time required for soil and forest recuperation between periods
of cultivation is so long that the area of forest available in some of
the reserves is inadequate for the population. Colonel Gore Brown
has pointed out,! for instance, that in Mpika district each house-
hold requires about ten acres of land every two years, and the
same land cannot be used again for twenty-five years. Therefore
the optimum population is one household per 125 acres of suitable
forest, but the actual density is far in excess of this. In addition to
the inroads of cultivation in the forests, the growing mining industry
is beginning to make itself felt, so that reservation of the savannah
forest, for which steps have only recently been taken, is urgently
needed.
In Nyasaland much of the savannah forest has been modified by
shifting cultivation and fire, and in places destroyed, with resultant
soil erosion. This process has been accelerated to a considerable
extent by the traditional mode of cultivation of finger millet
(Lleusine coracana), which makes extravagant demands on the land,
as described by the Conservator of Forests, Mr. Clements (1933).
Wood or grass is burnt by natives to heat the soil before planting
this crop, which peculiarly responds to partial sterilization. In
some regions, where the forests were destroyed long ago, regrowth
is cut on a rotation of two to five years for this purpose, and many
acres of regrowth are used for burning one acre of garden. Under
this system a new garden is required after one or two crops, and soil
impoverishment, followed by crusting, desiccation, and erosion, is
1 Private communication.
FORESTRY QI
common. As population increases, the periods allowed for forest
regeneration are becoming shorter, and destruction is propor-
tionately increasing. The allocation of areas for village forests,
inaugurated in 1926, has been mentioned (Clements 1935).
Tanganyika has also suffered the loss or modification oflarge areas
of forest through shifting cultivation, and much damage has been
wrought by uncontrolled firing. Judging from climatic and soil
conditions, considerable areas of evergreen forest must formerly
have existed in the mountainous country, on the alluvial plains
surrounding the mountains, and over considerable areas of the
coastal plain; but these original forests had been seriously damaged
long before the coming of the white man, and now the primeval
type of virgin forest seems entirely to have disappeared. Dr. E.
O. Teale (1929) has described this process for parts of the territory
in relation to the geological conditions which prevail.
The territory is still, moreover, badly provided with forest
reserves, which represent less than 1-5 per cent of the land area
and include nearly all the remnants of evergreen forest. These
reserves are mostly situated in mountainous country or around the
heads or courses of rivers and streams. Their object is to ensure
a permanent water-supply in stream beds, which is the first essen-
tial of man’s existence in a country like Tanganyika where the dry
season averages six months of the year. There are large areas of
savannah forests which could be reserved and, with no more
elaborate treatment than protection from fire, should play an
important part in the economic life of the country, not only as
sources of fuel and timber, but also as water and soil conservers,
and as nuclei for schemes of soil amelioration. This is stressed by
Professor Troup (1936) in his report on forestry in Tanganyika.
Unless such reserves are taken up soon, the pressure of population
will make their acquisition difficult. Most of the existing reserves.
are primarily protective and not designed for commercial exploita-
tion.
In addition to the gazetted forest reserves, there are small re-
serves under the native authorities set aside for timber and fuel for
the native inhabitants. These are organized on similar lines to the
village forests in Nyasaland. Additional reserves are taken up from
time to time as occasion offers, and considerably more would have
192 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
been demarcated by now ifit were not for the lack of forestry staff.
It remains to be seen whether the native authorities will be capable
of controlling cutting in order to maintain the permanence of
supply in these reserves. On public lands outside forest reserves,
administrative officers may prohibit the destruction of trees on the
upper slopes of mountains and hills, and on the banks of streams.
This important provision is laid down in the forest rules for 1933.
The department has published (Tanganyika 1932) a useful
brochure on forest production and conservation of soil and water,
outlining the measures to be adopted regarding planting trees, etc.
The present situation of the headquarters of the forestry depart-
ment in Tanganyika at Morogoro has certain disadvantages owing
to its distance both from the seat of government and from the areas
where forestry work is most important.
In Kenya, as in Tanganyika, evergreen forest has been destroyed
by shifting cultivation and also by European settlement, and is now
reduced to patches in the mountain areas, but Kenya is, perhaps,
better placed to-day, since reservation began earlier, in 1901. ‘The
relics have been reserved as Crown forests and can no longer be
destroyed, but shifting cultivation is allowed under licence locally
in the regenerated areas. Most of the Crown forests are situated in
the highlands, and only a small portion are contiguous with native
lands. Hence supervision is relatively inexpensive. Excisions from
forest reserves have been made from time to time, among them
that ofan area of 13,500 acres allotted to native tribes in settlement
of claims upheld by the Carter Land Commission. The remaining
forested land, excluding savannah, amounts to only 2 per cent of
the total land area.
In the native reserves large tracts have been seriously denuded
and it is recognized that re-afforestation must be effected in the
worst areas. The native forest areas which have been created are
managed by the forest department and not by native authorities
as in the territories described above. The department has obtained
funds to re-afforest the Machakos reserve, in which no natural
forest survives, but difficulty has been experienced in obtaining
land for the purpose from the native authority. A similar situation
has arisen in the South Kavirondo reserve, where re-afforestation
is badly needed.
FORESTRY 193
The replanting methods of the taungya type, described above,
have been worked with success in parts of Kikuyu, and are said
to be so cheap and effective that it will be possible to deal with any
increase in cutting. In other areas, such as Kiambu district, wattles
have been introduced and a profitable native industry has grown
up. The development of sawmilling by Europeans makes it
unnecessary for the department in Kenya to undertake utilization
work. The value of imports, however, at present exceeds that of
exports in the timber trade.
In Kenya European opinion appreciates the importance of
forests and tree-planting. The Kenya Arbor Society was formed
in 1934 under the Presidency of Lord Francis Scott, with Major
and Mrs. Ward as secretaries. Its objects are to protect existing
forests, to encourage tree-planting, to prevent soil erosion and to
repair past damage from this cause.
Huge forest areas in Uganda have been cleared in the past.
Indeed, some experts assert that there is none of the original flora
left except in a few small areas, such as part of the Budongo forest,
and the vegetation on the high mountains. Even on the slopes of
Mounts Ruwenzori and Elgon, the vegetation is being altered and
the forest is receding as a result of burning and cultivation. To
some extent the annual destruction of forest is offset by planting
under the supervision of administrative officers using funds from
the native administrations and trained staff seconded from the
forestry department. ‘The trees thus planted are mainly exotics
such as black wattle, especially on high land, and Cassia in the lower
areas. Here the aim is less that of conservation than of definite
afforestation with a better class of tree. Native forest reserves like
those of Nyasaland have not been developed but the creation of
communal forests is under consideration. In this, as in other
branches of development in Uganda, the preliminaries for com-
prehensive land planning are started, and here a joint survey of
certain areas by agricultural, geological, forestry, and other officers,
referred to in other chapters, will doubtless be of the greatest im-
portance.
The needs of the local population are at present met mainly
from the savannah forests, but.in these the importance of fire
protection is not fully appreciated by the natives, who burn the
194 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
savannah areas from end to end each year and thus cause much
soil erosion. The proportion of reserved forest to land area is low
(see table), but the department have the increase of reserves to
2,812 square miles as an immediate object, and hope eventually
for 10,000 square miles, being 12-4 per cent of the land area, these
figures to include savannah as well as closed forest.
In Nigeria shifting cultivation along the northern and eastern
borders of the closed forest zone is resulting in a recession of forest
at the estimated rate of 1,000 square miles a year. This destruction
of closed forest is said to have had serious consequences for the
cocoa plantations of the western provinces. ‘T'aungya methods of
regeneration are meeting with some success, but it is very doubtful
whether re-afforestation by this means could ever keep pace with
destruction. The system of taungya in Nigeria is as follows: the
native cultivator is induced to work through an area of forest in
a fixed direction, clearing and cultivating a series of plots. These
are as a rule left to regenerate naturally, under the supervision of
native foresters, who follow behind the cultivator, cutting out
creepers and undergrowth, and leaving only the valuable trees.
The forest experimental station at Sapoba near Benin has been
a site for experiments in natural regeneration as well as silvicul-
tural research, and results show how natural regeneration, when
controlled in this way, can improve the forests to a marked degree.
The forest reserves of the Southern Provinces are devoted pri-
marily to exploitation, while in the north the first object is con-
servation of water-supplies. H. N. Thompson, one of the most
distinguished foresters of West Africa, laid down the principle that
the minimum area of permanent forest in Nigeria should be 25 per
cent of the total land area, and the department is still aiming at
the acquisition of reserves on this scale. The proportions in differ-
ent provinces would range from 5 per cent to 64 per cent the
latter figure applying only to Benin, which 1s the centre of the
valuable timber forests. In certain areas the department’s policy
is to hand over the reserves to be administered by the native
administrations under careful supervision by the forestry depart-
ment.
A special problem in the extreme north of Nigeria is connected
with the alleged encroachment of the Sahara, discussed in Chapter
FORESTRY 195
IV. This danger has been realized by foresters, geologists, and
others for many years, and recently has had special attention
drawn to it by Professor Stebbing (1935 and 1937), after a tour
through the region, and also by two members of the Nigerian
forestry department, F. 8. Collier and J. Dundas (1937). Pro-
posals for a huge international forest-belt to stem the advancing
sands along the southern border of the Sahara, coinciding roughly
with the northern boundary of Nigeria, have been widely discussed
and the whole question has been the subject of joint consideration
by the British and French authorities. Agreement was reached in
1937, with the result that, while the planting of trees may be
impracticable, a great belt of savannah will receive protection
along the Sahara’s southern confines.
The preservation of forests in Northern Nigeria is connected also
with the problem of the tsetse fly. The aim of foresters is to avoid
the heavy burning of savannah country, whereas burning is one
of the methods recognized for the reduction of the fly areas. A
solution to this problem has not yet been reached, though tsetse
investigations by the medical department are working towards
that end (see Chapter X).
The position of the Gold Coast in respect of forests, is perhaps more
serious than that of any other British territory. The northern
border of the evergreen forest is receding, as in Nigeria, while
farther south, extensive areas have been cleared for cultivation of
cacao, and others to supply the mines, several of which possess
more or less unrestricted concessions to cut timber. The area of
forest remaining to-day is less than 14,000 square miles. It is
estimated that about 290 square miles are destroyed each year,
which means that forest will cease to exist in the Gold Coast in less
than fifty years, if the present rate of cutting is not checked. These
conditions have led to concentration on the conserving aspect of
forest reserves, particularly in the southern parts of the territory,
where the cacao industry is situated.
Actually 2,436 square miles are already reserved, and it is hoped
that this area will be raised in the near future to something like
8,000, being about go per cent of the original area of closed forest.
If this is done and the present rate of cutting continues, no more
timber or forest land for cultivation will be available after twenty-
196 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
five years. It is clear that prompt action is required in reducing
the rate of cutting, but quite apart from this, it is probable that a
much larger area of permanent forest than the 8,o00 square miles
anticipated would prove a source of wealth to the country in the
future.
The peculiar physiographical and meteorological conditions of
the Gold Coast lend themselves to a special selection of areas. The
object of the department is to develop reserves in such a way that
(1) all the principal water-sheds will lie in forest reserves; (2) there
will be a belt of permanent forest on the hilly escarpment which
forms the north-eastern limit of closed forest and high rainfall, and
is the water-shed between the Pra to the south and tributaries of
the Volta to the north; (3) there will be a series of shelter belts in
the closed forest region, which is also the region of cacao cultiva-
tion; these will run parallel with each other at right angles to the
direction of the south-west monsoon; (4) small reserves will be -
made near the townships to supply local timber for building and
for firewood. To provide a basis for the selection of areas the Direc-
tor of Forestry, Mr. Marshall, recommends! the establishment of
additional meteorological stations in the closed forest region, and
also in the area of savannah forest north of the escarpment where
rainfall stations are at present very few.
The provision of shelter-belts is especially important in the Gold
Coast in the interest of the cacao industry on which so much of that
country’s prosperity depends. Many cacao plantations have
ceased production as a result of forest destruction in the neigh-
bourhood and the ensuing reduction of humidity around the cacao
trees. The exact effect of this exposure appears to be a problem of
ecology and microclimatology comparable with that of coffee
plantations referred to in Chapter IV. For cacao it is coming to
be recognized that small ‘reticulate’ shelter-belts among the plan-
tations and the raising of shade-trees are likely to be of more imme-
diate benefit than larger shelter-belts at wide intervals. A recent
article by H. W. Moor (1937) is of interest in relation to this and
other problems of forestry in the Gold Coast.
The principle of the shelter-belt in forestry has been developed
especially in America, and some of the conclusions reached there,
2 Private communication.
FORESTRY 197
available in reports such as that on the plains region of the United
States by the United States Forest Service (1935), may have
important applications in parts of Africa.
Sterra Leone has only about 840 square miles of reserved forest,
representing 3 per cent of the total land area. The unreserved
virgin forest is being reduced in area every year, and the secondary
forest is steadily deteriorating. Areas of regrowth of increasing size
are regularly cut and reduced in quality. In the prevailing climate,
soil without forest cover is reduced to sheet laterite which is of very
poor value for cultivation purposes. Regeneration of cleared land
with the use of Gmelina, a very quick-growing tree introduced from
India for timber purposes, is under trial at the agricultural re-
search station of Njala and in some forest reserves. The system
resembles taungya, but the tree in question forms such a dense
canopy that other vegetation cannot grow beneath it, with the
result that soil wash is serious on sloping land.
In the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan the burning of thorn and savannah
forests for shifting cultivation presents a difficult problem, particu-
larly since fire damages the gum-tree (Acacia senegal), from which
large numbers of Arabs obtain their livelihood. The baobab
(Adansonia digitata), which grows to a circumference of forty feet
and over, is invaluable in certain parts of the Central Sudan where
it is used for storing water. Some 30,000 of these trees are filled
with water and form the basis of village life. Together with its
capacity for storing water the baobab provides ideal situations
for the breeding of mosquitoes, and for this reason is regularly
destroyed in parts of Africa.
FOREST BOTANY, ECOLOGY, AND STOCKTAKING
Active steps are being taken by the Imperial Forestry Institute,
in co-operation with local officers, to advance our knowledge of
the component species of the forests, which is at present far from
complete. This is being done by the preparation of check-lists
(Imperial Forestry Institute 1935-7), leading to annotated cata-
Jogues and finally to regional forest floras. It is unlikely that the
final stage will be reached in any country for some time to come,
but considerable progress can be recorded. The first check-list
198 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
(1935) is for Uganda, and the authors, in collaboration with
members of the forestry department, show that 1,146 indigenous
species are represented in that country. The second list (1936)
includes all recorded trees from Nyasaland, a third (1937) includes
the trees and shrubs recorded as recurring in the Gold Coast.
They are engaged in compiling a list for Tanganyika with the
collaboration of Mr. Greenway, botanist to the Agricultural Re-
search Station, Amani, and the late Mr. B. D. Burtt of the tsetse
investigation department. Another for Nigeria, as yet unpub-
lished, contains 1,240 species and varieties, representing a 50 per
cent increase over the first list published in 1914. For Nigeria also,
Mr. J. D. Kennedy, silviculturist in the forestry department,
has collected a very large number of species, and has published
(1936) a useful book on the forest flora of Southern Nigeria, deal-
ing with over 1,000 species, including seventeen new species and
one new genus. There is also an older work on the useful trees of
Northern Nigeria by Lely (1925). The Uganda forest department
has recently (1934) issued a list of the native names of trees and
shrubs in Uganda. Publications dealing specifically with timber
are described below.
The enormous variety of forest trees is responsible to some extent
for the backward state of African forestry. In practice the African
forester distinguishes about a hundred first-class trees, while the
rest are grouped together as second class, of little economic impor-
tance. The check-lists mentioned, which are edited by Dr. Burtt
Davy, are planned to contain keys for the easy determination of
species in the field and will provide a valuable guide in the making
of forest censuses.
In addition to technical treatises, smaller and more popular
books are urgently required to dispel misconceptions with regard to
forest trees. There is a prevalent idea that only some half-dozen
kinds, representing perhaps one in ten thousand of the actual
growing trees, are of any use for timber, and that the rest are of
no value except for firewood. It is true that some African timbers
compare unfavourably with those from northern countries, being
either so hard that they are difficult to work, or so soft that they
have little strength and durability, but many of the less-favoured
kinds have economic uses. The initiative in preparing such hand-
FORESTRY 199
books must rest with individual officers in the departments them-
selves. In most territories knowledge is sufficiently advanced for
the purpose, and one or two handbooks have been produced, for
example a revision by Dale (1936) of E. Battiscombe’s useful book
on the trees of Kenya, and Miss Steedman (1933) on the trees,
shrubs, and lianes of Southern Rhodesia. Lane-Poole (1916) is
a comparable work on Sierra Leone, and Broun and Massey
(1929), give similar information for the Sudan. In each territory
much remains to be done in the ecological study of the forest
vegetation including the relation of forest growth to soil, and in
stocktaking with the object of ascertaining the composition of the
forests and bringing them under systematic working. At present
there is littie reliable information on the amount of timber avail-
able in each forest area, and, to obtain this, more fully trained staff
and a long time will be necessary. Air survey (see Chapter IT) has
opened new possibilities recently, R. Bourne (1928 and 1931), and
others have stressed its importance in forestry.
Recent advances in ecology, including that of forests, have been
summarized in Chapter VI! and the following notes refer mainly
to stocktaking.
In South Africa the determination of all indigenous and intro-
duced forest trees is undertaken by the forest research section in
co-operation with the botanists of the division of plant industry,
and very few, if any, trees remain unidentified. In stocktaking
steady progress is being made by the forest management section.
The history of forest research in the Union has been written
recently by J. J. Kotze,? chief of the forest research section.
For Southern Rhedesia a vegetation map has been prepared, dis-
tinguishing the main physiognomic types. In Northern Rhodesia
vegetation maps based on air photographs taken over considerable
areas are valuable in forest stocktaking. For Nyasaland a general
reconnaissance of forest areas is complete, ecological investigation,
with soil classification as a basis, is in progress, and simple working
plans for village forests are being prepared. In Tanganyika the
vegetation is better known than in any other part of East Africa
2 A number of papers on the subject have appeared in the Empire Forestry Journal
and the Journal of Ecology; some of them are listed in the bibliography.
* Unpublished memorandum.
200 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
as a result of identification of species, general reconnaissance in
connection with the land development survey, and ecological
investigation by the tsetse department. The enumeration of grow-
ing forest stock has been carried out for nearly all the Kilimanjaro
forests and those of Minziro, most of the Shume-Magamba forests
and part of those on Meru; also for considerable areas of forest on
public lands, containing stocks of Chlorophora and Khaya. In Kenya
the identification of species in the forests is practically complete,
but no wide-scale stocktaking has been done. Working plans are
restricted to the forest areas which are being intensively exploited
and to the considerable area of plantations. In Uganda a working
plan has been laid down for the Budongo forest as a result of aerial
photographs which have revealed the extent of growing stock.
This is one of the few cases in Africa where air survey has been
used for this purpose (Uganda 1934, D.R., p. 14).
In Nigeria an extensive enumeration survey of forest reserves is
nearing completion and this will enable stocktaking to be put in
hand over a large area, but at present only a small region is under
working plans. A notable study has been made by W. D. Mac-
Gregor (1935) of the silviculture of mixed deciduous forests. For
the Gold Coast important studies were made many years ago by
H. N. Thompson (1910), and forest ecology has been placed on
a sound basis by T. F. Chipp (1927). The valuable collections by
officers of the Gold Coast forestry department, and in particular
by C. Vigne, have provided a good working basis for enumerations
and stocktaking. The enumeration of trees in selected areas has
been begun and 735 square miles are under administration plans.
Stocktaking and exploitation are in progress in Szerra Leone.
Finally the comparatively small high forests in the Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan along the Blue and White Nile were surveyed in
1928 and 1930, and a scheme for re-afforestation along the Blue
Nile is being put into operation. The extent of Acacia senegal-forest
in the Sudan has been estimated at some 50,000 square miles.
For the French territories there is not much information available
in print. In 1932 Aubréville published an account of the forests and
the reserves of timber in the Ivory Coast, and in 1936 an illustrated
book on the forest flora of that country. The numerous publications
by A. Chevalier (notably 1905-13 and 1920) are also of great
FORESTRY 201
value. For the Gabon region of French Equatorial Africa, there
is a published account (A. E. F. 1931) of the forests and forest
exploration. Professor Stebbing’s book (1937) includes a general
account of all the forests of West Africa.
In the Belgian Congo extensive investigations have been carried
out, and valuable matter has been published, notably by Delevoy
(1928-9 and 1933), de Wildeman (1920 and 1934), Vermoesen
(1923), and Lebrun (i935). Delevoy’s ecological studies in the
Katanga are especially important for British workers, since the
country described is very similar to that of Northern Rhodesia.
THE INTRODUCTION OF EXOTIC TREES
In afforestation there are two primary facts to be held constantly
in mind: (1) a considerable proportion of Africa is, for reasons of
soil and climate, suited only to tree-growing, and (2) a number of
the indigenous timber trees are of little value when compared with
trees which thrive in other continents. Accordingly the desirability
of converting useless African bush land into useful forest by plant-
ing introduced trees where a sale may be found for them, deserves
consideration. In Southern and Northern Rhodesia and parts of
East Africa, the experimental introduction of fast-growing exotic
trees, particularly conifers and eucalyptus, has been an important
part of the work of the forest departments. Much information has
been accumulated, a summary of which has recently been written
by Professor Troup (1932).
In South Africa the reasons for using exotic trees are different.
They are briefly: (1) an economic demand for the soft woods of
commerce, particularly to make fruit boxes, coupled with a pau-
city of indigenous forests, and (2) the inability of the indigenous
high forest trees to thrive away from their native habitats on the
type of land which the division of forestry usually has at its disposal
for afforestation.
The introduction of exotics has created its own problems: some
trees have proved to be unsuited to the soil and climate of their
new environment, others have succumbed to disease caught from
indigenous trees, and still others have brought their own diseases
which have taken the upper hand in their new environment or
202 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
have spread among the indigenous trees. But on the whole intro-
ductions have been successful, and exotic trees will probably be
spread through man’s agency over wide areas, to the exclusion of
many indigenous species.
If it is possible to generalize on this subject, it may be suggested
that the tendency is to push the planting of exotics too far, with
the result that native hardwoods, often of much value, are disap-
pearing from many areas. Exotics are in most cases quick-growing,
very useful when a crop has to be raised speedily owing to scarcity
of fuel or timber and there is difficulty in raising indigenous
species. They are not in general of better commercial value than
many of the indigenous species, and in areas where there is no
object in producing a quick crop, it would very often be preferable
to regenerate the natural bush, and retain the natural balance.
In Nyasaland exhaustive local trials have shown that exotic
trees cannot be grown successfully on the poorer soils; they demand
soils of agricultural value which cannot usually be spared for
forestry. This is also the case with the majority of the more
valuable indigenous trees. In view of the dense population of this
territory, forestry has to be confined mainly to the less valuable
indigenous species. These supply native needs and have a com-
mercial value when situated near markets.
For the conservation of water-supplies and prevention of erosion,
the preservation of the natural bush may be more effective than
the planting of exotics. A committee of the recent Empire Forestry
Conference recommended that this question should be thoroughly
investigated on scientific lines. The exotics, being fast-growing,
appear to have particularly high transpiration rates, and therefore
may suck up soil moisture and soluble salts more quickly than
indigenous forms of vegetation. For this reason farmers and others,
especially in South Africa, are warned against planting such trees
in large numbers near sources of springs, streams, and vleis. It is
clear that the success of large afforestation schemes with exotics
depends on careful investigation of their effects on water-supplies
and soil generally.
It has been suggested from Australia that conifers, particularly
Pinus insignis, are wasters of rainfall, in that their foliage prevents
light showers from reaching the ground, and the absorptive mat
FORESTRY 203
of shed needles below them prevents all but the heaviest and most
continuous rain from penetrating to the deep subsoil. Eucalyptus,
on the contrary, is said to be highly efficient in both these re-
spects. The question of the intervention of different trees between
rainfall and drainage probably depends upon a variety of morpho-
logical, physiological, and ecological characters which could be
revealed by research.
The influence of tree species on soil type is also of great import-
ance. It is well known that in Europe conifers are associated with
podsolic soils, and broad-leaved trees with brown earth and kin-
dred soil. That is to say, in a climate and on a soil on which either
grow, it appears that conifers bring about soil deterioration,
whereas broad-leaved species, maintaining a high base-status in
the surface soil, bring about soil improvement, or at least maintain
the status quo. The recent concentration on the planting of conifers
in Great Britain has been criticized on this account, on grounds
which may be found applicable also in Africa. These questions
are fundamental to the formulation of forest policy and deserve
careful enquiry.
TIMBERS :
The early descriptive work on African timbers suffered from the
fact that the correct identity of the species of which the woods were
described was not always established, hence much of itis unreliable.
Systematic descriptions of the anatomical structure of African
woods have been in progress at the Imperial Forestry Institute for
some years, special care being taken to establish, with the help of
botanical specimens, the correct identity of each species dealt with.
Several hundred authentically-named wood specimens have
been received by the institute and a new series of publications
entitled Forest Trees and Timbers of the British Empire, brought out
by the institute (1932-5), contains information on the taxonomy
and habits of forest trees and anatomical descriptions of their
woods. ‘Three of these are now available, dealing respectively
with some East African Coniferae and Leguminosae, twenty West
African timber trees, and fifteen South African high forest tim-
ber trees. A fourth on fifteen Uganda timber trees will appear
204 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
during 1938. The Nigerian forest department have produced an
account of over sixty species, largely as a result of work by Mr.
W. B. G. Mitchell (1931). In addition to these, publications of the
Imperial Institute at South Kensington (1928 and 1931) describe
some of the African timbers and point out their uses.
The laboratory at Princes Risborough has completed tests on
several woods from Uganda, Tanganyika, Kenya, Nigeria, and
Rhodesia. The Union has had special research officers engaged
for some time on problems of timber seasoning, at the Forest
Products Institution at Pretoria, so that the country is practically
independent and consults the Imperial Forestry Institute and the
Princes Risborough laboratory only in exceptional cases. At the
botanical department of the Witwatersrand University also, work
has been carried out on the treatment of timbers against decay due
to fungus and insect pests.
For export trade, West Africa holds out greater possibilities
than other parts of the continent, owing to its accessibility and to
the abundance of commercial timbers which that region possesses.
There is already a considerable export, which was largely con-
cerned with mahogany until a few years ago, when several other
timbers of quite a different type were launched successfully on the
European market, for example, Obeche, Iroko! and African
walnut. The exports are mostly from Nigeria and French West
Africa to Europe.
The development of the trade in timbers from Nigeria and the
Gold Coast has recently been the subject of special enquiry by
Major F. M. Oliphant (1934a), who pointed out that in the past
forest officers had not been given sufficient training in the com-
mercial aspects of forestry. As a result of recent modifications in
the programme of training, most colonial forest officers are now
equipped from this point of view. By acting to some extent as
liaison officer between commercial firms and forestry departments,
Major F. M. Oliphant hopes to increase the timber trade from
British West Africa. Any such increase depends largely on the
European market accepting more lumber and also accepting a
1 Troko in West Africa is the same as Mvule (Chlorophora excelsa) in East Africa.
It is probably the best known timber in the continent as a whole, and is everywhere
esteemed for its durability and strength.
FORESTRY 205
reduction in the quality of prime logs. It has to be realized that the
very large prime logs, on which trade in the past has largely de-
pended, can no longer be produced after the areas of virgin forest
have been worked over. The maintenance of supply for the future
depends on silvicultural treatment of the forests, which is still in
its early infancy.
From East Africa the only timbers exported in any quantity at
present are pencil cedar to Europe and mangrove poles from the
coast to Arabia and the Persian Gulf. There is a possibility of
export trade in yellow-wood (Podocarpus), mvule and other timbers
to South Africa. Major F. M. Oliphant’s recent tour in East
Africa on behalf of the Colonial Office may lead to an increase in
such trade.
For the Belgian Congo, there is an extensive collection of speci-
mens in the Congo museum at Tervueren, and investigations have
been carried out at the museum’s laboratory. Delevoy (1928-32)
has written an important reference work on the characters and
uses of each kind of wood found in the Katanga.
Little is known regarding the local consumption of timber and
other forest produce in any part of Africa, and data are required
in order to assess the actual value of forests in each territory, and
to forecast future demands. For the non-native population fairly
accurate data on consumption could be obtained without much
difficulty, but to obtain statistics for the natives would be extremely
difficult, if not impossible. Apparently the only figures available
are those of Zon and Sparhawk (1923), who give the consumption
of wood per head of population as ranging from 2 cubic feet per
annum in Egypt and the Sudan up to 73-61in the Rhodesias. These
figures, however, refer presumably to prepared timber, whereas
native consumption is mainly represented by round timbers and
firewood. Every man cuts for himself and consumption depends
on the amount available in each locality. In an area of low popu-
lation where plenty of wood exists, fires are often kept burning
in huts all day and all night, but even this consumption is insignifi-
cant in relation to the quantity destroyed in shifting cultivation.
In some regions, moreover, as in Nyasaland, numbers of trees are
felled to collect caterpillars for food. These illustrations indicate
the extreme difficulty of obtaining estimates of any reliability.
206 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
MINOR FOREST PRODUCTS
In addition to timber there are certain products from natural
or planted forests such as tanstuffs, fibres, flosses, gums, resins,
rubber, and oil-seeds. Most of these materials are now obtained
from plantations rather than from forest sources and are more
suitably discussed in connection with agriculture in Chapter XII,
but some additional notes are given below.
The only important supply of tanstuffs from Africa is obtained
from introduced wattles (see Chapter XII, p. 372). Mangroves
are abundant on several African shores, and offer possibilities for
a minor industry in producing the brown extract known as ‘cutch’
used for tanning fishing nets and sails to increase their durability
in salt water. The cutch industry is centred in the East Indies.
There is, however, an export trade in mangrove bark from Tan-
ganyika, where up to 9,000 tons have been exported in one year.
In Nigeria research is being carried out on mangrove extract, but
trade has not yet been started.
There is no important export of vegetable dyes from Africa,
although certain kinds are in local use. There is quite a large
dyeing industry in West Africa, with centres at Abeokuta in Nigeria
and elsewhere. Indigo, obtained from wild and cultivated plants,
is used to dye imported cotton cloths which are worn by both men
and women. Steps are being taken to prevent the import of aniline
substitutes which threaten the industry and are said to produce
dyed cloths of inferior quality.
Many trees and forest climbers yield rough cordage fibres, but
as a rule these cannot compete with fibres grown as agricultural
crops. Raffia is a tough fibre obtained from the young unopened
leaves of the raffia palm of which several species occur in moist
evergreen and swamp forests, Raphia vinifera and Raphi gaertnerit in
West Africa and Raphia monbuttorum in East tropical Africa. Corr,
prepared from the fibrous husk of the coconut, is used for making
mats and rough ropes, but is a plantation rather than a forest
product. Floss, or silk-cotton, is the silky or cottony down sur-
rounding the seeds of certain trees, notably the cotton-trees
(Bombax spp.), which are widely distributed in the tropics. The
fibre is too weak to spin, but is used for upholstery and stuffing
FORESTRY 207
cushions. The seeds contain 28 per cent of oil, and cattle-cake
can be made from the residue. The best floss, known as kapok, 1s
yielded by Ceiba pentandra, which grows wild in Africa, especially
near the West Coast. This product is receiving attention in Central
Nyasaland and the Tanga Province of Tanganyika, and trials have
been carried out in Kenya.
Gum is a viscous substance which exudes from cracks or wounds
on the bark of many trees. Gum arabic, the most valuable kind, is
completely soluble in water and is used as mucilage. It is the sub-
ject of a book by Blunt (1926). A considerable part of the world’s
supply is obtained from the Sudan, where it is the most important
article of trade after cotton, and exports have had an annual value
in recent years of about £750,000. It is obtained from a number of
trees of which Acacia senegal (verek), the most important, grows
abundantly in the dry Kordofan Province of the Sudan and ex-
tends westward to parts of Northern Nigeria. As a result of the
organization of the gum arabic trade in Nigeria by the forestry
department, the export rose from 285,548 Ib. in 1930 to 1,431,915
lb. in 1933. Gum-bearing trees are common in other dry parts of
Africa, and there is promise of a considerable industry in Tangan-
yika where the gum arabic has been the subject of an inquiry and
report by D. W. Malcolm (1936). There appears to be room for
co-operation in marketing between the Sudan, Tanganyika, and
Nigeria.
Resins are distinguished from gums by being insoluble in water,
but soluble in either alcohol or oil of turpentine. The kinds used
for making varnish are collected in the form of copals exuded from
trees. There is a considerable export of copals from West Africa,
where they are obtained from Copaifera, Trachylobium, and Daniellia
spp. The best quality comes from the Belgian Congo, medium
quality from the Gold Coast and Sierra Leone, and the poorest
from Nigeria. Mertens (1933) has given a full account of recent
researches on the constitution of copal from the Belgian Congo,
with special reference to its uses. In East Africa the chief copal
tree is Trachylobium hornemannianum. Copal of fossil origin, known
as ‘Zanzibar animé’, is found near the East Coast, chiefly in
Tanganyika, but exports are steadily decreasing.
Most commercial oil-seeds are now cultivated as field crops.
208 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Supplies from wild sources are usually of local importance only,
unless they possess some special quality or exist in such abundance
as to enable them to compete commercially.
The Oil Palm (Elaets guineensis) is indigenous to West Africa and
until recently has been the sole source of palm-oil, which is derived
from the pericarps of the fruits of the palm, and palm-kernel-oil
from the kernels of hard-shelled nuts. The oils are used for making
soap, candles, and margarine. Plantation cultivation of the oil-
palm, however, is increasing and will therefore be more fully con-
sidered with other crop plants in Chapter XII.
The Shea nut tree (Butyrospermum parkit) grows in rather dry
country and is a native of West Africa. This too is now being
developed as a plantation crop.
The most important indigenous rubber tree of Africa is the West
African or Lagos rubber (Funtumia elastica), a tall tree of the ever-
green forests from Uganda westwards to the coast. There are also
various rubber vines (Landolphia species), the collection of rubber
from which was once remunerative. At one time the collection of
wild rubber from the African forests was an important industry,
but under present-day conditions no species of rubber tree can
compete with the Para rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) grown extensively
in plantations in Malaya and other countries of the Near East, and
to some extent in tropical Africa (see Chapter XII).
The Kola tree (Cola acuminata) grows wild in West Africa, but
most of the nuts, which are eaten as a stimulant, are obtained from
planted trees (see Chapter XII). Another nut of commercial value
is that of the Dom palm (Ayphaene thebaica) which is composed of
a form of vegetable ivory used for button-making. These nuts
provide quite an important export of the Sudan.
Among potential sources of supply of raw materials for paper
pulp may be mentioned the East African bamboo (Arundinaria
alpina) and certain tall savannah grasses, such as the elephant
grass of Uganda (Pennisetum purpureum), and papyrus. Good paper
has been made experimentally from these sources, but economic
difficulties have yet to be overcome, because the expense of using
celluloine material for this purpose is very heavy. In South Africa
attempts are being made at present to use thinnings from planta-
tions of Pinus patula for paper pulp, and the utilization of some of
FORESTRY 209
the fast-growing softwood trees of tropical Africa may yet become
a possibility, but so far has not yet reached even the experimental
stage.
Since hive bees produce very little wax, commercial beeswax is
mainly collected from wild sources. Of these East Africa is the
chief source for the British Empire, and a certain amount also is
exported from Egypt and the Sudan. Wild honey is collected by
natives throughout the African forests and in many places is an
important constituent of native diet. ‘The collection of honey
and other products is a contributory cause of the degradation
of savannah forests, since it is accompanied by extensive annual
firing carried out so that native collectors can move easily through
areas which are covered annually by tall grass. ‘There can be little
doubt that the damage by regular and thorough burning must in
the long run outweigh by far the temporary economic advantages
derived from these products.
Medicinal Drugs (see also Chapter VI, p. 166) from trees and
vegetation have not yet been found to be of great importance in
Africa, though research might affect this position. A few medicinal
products, such as Strophanthus seeds from Nyasaland, are regularly
exported. Many trees and shrubs are used by natives for medicinal
purposes, and the products of others appear to make good certain
diet deficiencies, for instance, the leaves of the baobab, which are
rich in vitamins (see Chapter XVII, p. 574). To produce local
supplies of well-known drugs, some tree species have been intro-
duced to Africa, notably Cinchona, plantations of which have been
established in several places (see Chapter XII, p. 374). More
recently Hydnocarpus has been introduced from India to Uganda
and elsewhere, in the hope of producing local supplies of chaul-
moogra oil for the treatment of leprosy.
PESTS AND DISEASES OF FORESTS
An analysis of recent literature shows that little study has yet
been made of pests of purely forest importance. It is significant,
however, that the dangers of pests and diseases is greatest in
plantations of exotic trees, and also in plantations of some indi-
genous trees, such as Iroko (Chlorophora excelsa), made under artifi-
H
210 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
cial conditions differing widely from the ecological environment
in which such trees grow in the wild state.
Most of the published work on forest entomology comes from
South Africa and deals with wood-borers, the eucalyptus snout-
beetle, and insects affecting Pinus insignis. ‘The presence of an
entomologist occupied entirely with forest problems, on the staff
of the division of plant industry in the Union, is of note; his fine
work on the eucalyptus snout-beetle, which has led to the control
of this pest, is one of the few successful applications of the principle
of biological control in Africa (see Chapter X, p. 290). Pinus
insignis has proved to be very susceptible to disease in parts of
South Africa, though not in the large winter rainfall area of the
Western Cape Province, where this tree is very much at home. Its
diseases have been studied in the botanical department of the
Witwatersrand University. The botanical department at Stellen-
bosch University also studies diseases of trees in collaboration with
the pathological section of the division of plant industry.
As a special entomological problem, the gall-fly (Phytolyma lata)
of Chlorophora excelsa, an important timber tree of Uganda and
West Africa, has for some years been regarded as a serious pest,
the investigation of which is by no means yet complete.
CHAPTER. Vill
ZOOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
OOLOGY in the wide sense bears the same relationship to animal
DE conidey and fisheries as botany does to arable farming and
forestry. That branch of the subject which relates to fisheries is,
- however, reserved for the next chapter, and insects are considered
in Chapter X. Furthermore, the nutrition, breeding and diseases
of domestic animals are studied in Africa, not by zoologists in the
usual sense but by veterinarians or experts in animal husbandry,
whose work is considered in subsequent chapters, so the only
branch of the subject which remains for consideration here is that
part of the wild fauna which lives on land, and birds.
This fauna consists of the mammals, reptiles, birds, and the
multitudes of lesser forms of life such as worms and snails. Africa
is unique in the variety of its mammals, many of them of great
bulk: some are important to man as sources of food, others as
destroyers of man, his stock, or his crops, and many are concerned
in the spread of disease. Some reptiles are of direct value for skins
or even food, others, such as crocodiles and snakes, because they
are predators. Many birds must also be placed on the list of man’s
enemies on account of the damage they do to crops, to fish sup-
plies, and even to young domestic animals; others provide him
with food, sport, and ornaments, or destroy insect pests.
The numerous smaller forms of life are not sufficiently important
in human affairs to warrant special mention, but it must be remem-
bered that earthworms are among the principal agents in agricul-
ture, and that land-snails are used for food in many parts. There
are regions in Africa where snailing rights play a part in systems of
land tenure. But apart from the significance of particular species
212 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
to mankind, we have to remember that every individual animal
and plant has its place in the highly complicated balance of nature
which can be upset all too easily. All knowledge of the flora and
fauna is relevant to the problem of maintaining this balance
amid the changes introduced by the spread of European civiliza-
tion.
The subject of wild-life conservation and control is one which is
bound to come more and more into prominence as African civiliza-
tion progresses, not only for sentimental and scientific reasons, but
because the natural appeal of wild animals can be turned to pro-
nounced economic and educational account, as such bodies as the
Zoological Society of London and the National Parks in America
and South Africa have made abundantly clear. This aspect of con-
servation, particularly in regard to the larger mammals, is becom-
ing widely appreciated in Africa, but it involves particular econo-
mic problems, since in many regions climatic conditions make it
unlikely that national parks could be developed on a revenue-
producing basis like those of Canada and the United States.
The destruction of game animals in the past provided consider-
able income through the sale of shooting-licences, and still does
so to a less degree. Revenue from such products as ivory, rhino-
ceros horn and hides is diminishing, partly because the animals
themselves are becoming scarce, but also as a result of legislation
preventing the sale and controlling the export of many animal
trophies. Kenya was the first to adopt this system, which is now
in force in most other British territories. But these sources of
revenue, from the sale of shooting-licences and trophies, are small
compared with those which might be expected by attracting num-
bers of visitors to see and photograph large animals in a compara-
tively tame state.
It is noteworthy that, while products from wild mammals are
being reduced, the economic exploitation of the lower orders is
increasing. For example, reptile skins, especially those of croco-
diles, snakes, and lizards, have formed the subject of a recent
inquiry and report by the Imperial Institute (1933), which will
possibly stimulate trade in these articles. Here again, however,
the natural balance has to be remembered: many snakes are
important factors in the control of rodents which damage crops,
ZOOLOGY 213
and there is some evidence that monitor lizards consume crocodile
eggs and rodents, so the unrestricted slaughter of reptiles would
probably have unfortunate results.
Game is at present unpopular with most government depart-.
ments, settlers, and natives alike, though this attitude is tempered
with a sentimental feeling. Settlers and agricultural officers dislike
game because it eats crops, natives for the same reason and because
the large carnivora sometimes eat both them and their stock, veteri-
nary officers and tsetse workers because game carries disease and .
competes for pasture. It is possible, however, to find arguments
of various kinds for its preservation. There are large areas, for
instance, where wild animals provide the only meat available for
native consumption, and there are arid regions which are never
likely to be of value for agriculture, but which may always support
wild mammals, if placed under proper management. In addition
there is the argument, which has already been mentioned, for
their preservation as a national asset.
Conservation and control are the special objects of the game
departments which, though sometimes regarded as luxury depart-
ments, in general more than pay for themselves in the sale of
licences and the recovery of ivory, either illicit or found in the
bush, or obtained from elephants shot in controlling the number
and distribution of herds for the purposes of protecting crops. In
some territories, for example Northern Rhodesia, where a game
department was only established in 1937, following on a survey
of the fauna, the commercialization of game has not been on a
scale to ensure that a department could be financially self-support-
ing. This raises the question whether commercialization is a con-
dition precedent to the formation of game departments or whether
game departments are necessary preliminaries to satisfactory con-
trol of commercial exploitation. Experience in other East African
territories indicates that special departments are necessary in the
interests both of those who wish to enjoy the wild fauna by sport
or study and those who need protection from its ravages. Without
such organization, commercial exploitation may not only proceed
in directions which are harmful to those interests, but sources of
potential revenue are wasted. The revenue-earning capacity of
game departments has led to the suggestion that policy in certain
214 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
territories, especially with regard to elephants, has emphasized
control at the expense of conservation, but such criticism appears
to result largely from a misunderstanding of local conditions. It is
true that in most areas the general damage by grain-eating birds
and rodents throughout the year far surpasses that by elephants,
but one night’s local depredation by elephants may destroy a
year’s labour for a few families and reduce them to a state of
starvation. It is for this reason that game departments are tending
more and more to be occupied with the protection of cultivators
when necessary by direct control measures.
A noteworthy example of a controversy which can only be
settled on the basis of further research, is that arising from the
wholesale destruction of game in Southern Rhodesia as a measure
against cattle trypanosomiasis. This provoked protests from scien-
tific workers in Great Britain and elsewhere, who have pointed out
that not enough is yet known about the relations between game
animals and stock diseases to warrant organized slaughter; that
tsetse flies are known to feed on the numerous small mammals,
some species even on reptiles such as crocodiles and lizards, so that
even the complete extermination of large game animals would not
destroy the sources of disease. On the other hand, arguments can
be found to support the policy of game destruction. According
to Sir David Bruce, for instance, when the cattle in South Africa
were destroyed by rinderpest, the tsetse fly and the consequent
nagana fever also disappeared; when the cattle were re-established,
tsetse fly returned. Itis claimed moreover, by R. W. Jack (1934 and
1935) Government Entomologist in Southern Rhodesia, that the
present campaign against game animals in the Sebungwe district
is really succeeding in its object of driving back the tsetse fly. The
criticism of this policy led to the appointment of an authoritative
local committee of inquiry who upheld the policy on the ground
that other methods of tsetse control, such as ‘late burning’ and
‘densification of vegetation’, which have proved successful in Tan-
ganyika, are impracticable in Southern Rhodesia owing to local
conditions.
The whole question of the interrelation of game, stock, and tsetse
is far too complicated to be surnmarized in a few paragraphs; it is
one on which further research is required as a basis for the formu-
ZOOLOGY 215
lation of policy. Several aspects of this question are considered at
greater length in Chapter X.
ORGANIZATION
Organizations for zoological work as understood here can be
visualized as directed towards two objects, first for scientific work
in the accurate identifying of animals, in animal ecology and kin-
dred subjects, and secondly for conserving and controlling game
animals and vermin. For the first of these purposes museums and
certain universities are the principal centres, and for the second
there are game departments or similar organizations in the several
territories. These two aspects are considered for all the territories.
BRITISH!
In Great Britain, the British Museum (Natural History) in London,
under the direction of Dr. C. Forster Cooper, with Mr. M. A. CG.
Hinton as Keeper of Zoology, is the principal centre for studies
in systematic zoology. Specimens are sent to the museum from
all over the world for identification by the numerous specialists,
some of whom do a good deal of advisory and other work in addi-
tion to pure taxonomy. From time to time expeditions are sent into
the field by the museum or are partly financed by it in order to
enrich the national collections, and the museum undertakes the
publication of many results of research.
The Zoological Society of London, under the Presidency of the Earl
of Onslow and the Secretaryship of Dr. Julian S. Huxley, has the
largest collection in the world of living African animals, and a
considerable amount of research is undertaken, particularly con-
cerning parasites, since every death at the London Zoo is followed
by a full post-mortem examination. The Transactions and Pro-
ceedings of the Society contain many papers on African fauna.
The Society for the Preservation of the Fauna of the Empire, under the
Presidency of Lord Onslow, does valuable work in stressing the
conservation rather than the control of game, and in creating pub-
» Sir Henry Miers and S. F. Markham (1932) produced a report on the museums
and art galleries of British Africa. This has been valuable in compiling part of this
section, but additional information from the territories concerned has been incor-
porated.
216 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
lic feeling against its unnecessary destruction. In particular, the
society organized special missions by Major R. W. G. Hingston to
the East African colonies in 1930, and by Colonel A. H. W. Hay-
wood to the West African colonies in 1932 to investigate the most
suitable methods of ensuring the conservation of the indigenous
fauna. Contributions bearing on these questions are published
quarterly in the society’s journal.
Several of the British Universities have taken some interest in
African zoology, and research expeditions arranged under their
auspices have visited parts of Africa. At Oxford, there is the Bureau
of Animal Population under Mr. Charles Elton, which is one of the
few centres in Europe for the study of this branch of animal
ecology (see page 226).
South Africa has recently seen the development of museums and
universities to such a degree that in some respects it is becoming
independent of central institutions in Great Britain in so far as
systematic zoology is concerned. It is no longer necessary, for
example, to send any vertebrate animal to Europe for identifica-
tion, since there are specialists in each of the component groups of
animals at one or other of the South African museums.
There are four national museums: the South African Museum
at Capetown, the Natal Museum at Pietermaritzburg, which 1s
one of the most important as a centre of zoological research and
which publishes the well-known Annals of the Natal Museum, the
Transvaal Museum at Pretoria, which has likewise made impor-
tant contributions to systematic research, field surveys and applied
zoology, and the National Museum at Bloemfontein, which 1s par-
ticularly rich in paleontological material. There are four provin-
cial museums: the Albany Museum at Grahamstown, the Mc-
Gregor Museum at Kimberley, the Kaffrarian Museum at King
William’s Town, the Port Elizabeth Museum, and a fifth, the
Provincial Museum at East London, was started recently. Of these
the Kaffrarian Museum is notable in containing the largest study
collection of African mammals in the Union, and Captain Short-
ridge, the Director, has recently published (1934) an exhaustive
book on the mammals of South-West Africa; he is extending his
studies to Southern Rhodesia. The McGregor Museum has the
best arranged collection of geological and ethnological material,
ZOOLOGY Bie
and is likewise responsible for many scientific publications. Only
the two last-named have received special grants from the Union
Government for scientific publications. Durban has a Municipal
Museum which contains exhibits of considerable educational
value, but is not a research institution. The zoological depart-
ments of the several universities undertake research in many sub-
jects, and have collections or museums in connection with both
research and teaching.
The National Zoological Gardens of South Africa at Pretoria,
under Dr. R. Bigalke, have a representative collection of living
animals from the Union and elsewhere, and it is hoped to develop
the gardens into a centre of research as funds permit. There are
a number of national parks and sanctuaries for wild animals, the
most important being the Kruger National Park in the Transvaal,
which has its own warden, Colonel Stevenson-Hamilton, and staff.
Research at most of the institutions mentioned above has been
concerned primarily with taxonomic studies, and the accurate
naming of animals. This branch of zoology is now sufficiently
well advanced in South Africa for study of the animals in the living
state to be of real value. Accordingly, in recent years interest in
ecological work has developed. Some of the researches under-
taken by agriculturalists, veterinarians, etc., are concerned with
animal as well as plant ecology. Dr. R. Bigalke (1934), in making
a plea for an organized ecological survey of the Union, points out
that from 1911 to 1933 the provinces spent a total of £607,674 in
connection with fish and game preservation and the destruction
of vermin, and suggests that a biological survey would furnish
scientific information which would lead to more efficient use of such
funds. The survey would be a unit of the department of agricul-
ture, and would devote consideration to pressing economic prob-
lems such as the control of predatory animals, noxious rodents and
rabies transmitters, and the relation of wild birds to agriculture.
He recommends a staff of not less than six biologists with zoology
as their principal subject and botany and geology as subsidiaries.
Southern Rhodesia has two museums, each with good collections
of fauna: the Rhodesian Museum at Bulawayo and the Salisbury
Museum. At the former the senior curator, Mr. Arnold, is a
zoologist who has published many contributions on taxonomics,
218 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
based on study of the collections. The wild animals and game are
in the charge of the chief forest officer of the department of
agriculture, with a game warden.
The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan has a small Government Museum of
Natural History contained in the Gordon College, with a good
collection of Sudan birds. There are also Zoological Gardens at
Khartoum. The valuable periodical, Sudan Notes and Records, has
been published for many years and contains results of zoological
study. A well-administered game department has existed for
many years.
In the Colonies, Protectorates, and Mandates there is not so much
need as in botany for systematists to be available in the individual
African territories, and indeed this would be quite impossible in
view of the wider field to be covered and the specialized nature of
the work. Nevertheless, collections of local fauna in African
museums are highly desirable, and in a few territories steps have
been taken towards this end. Extensive collections of special
groups such as insects are sometimes made by members of techni-
cal departments, and are available for reference at the laboratories
concerned.
The museums are generally organized by natural history societies,
some of which also publish scientific journals. ‘Thus, in Kenya the
excellent Coryndon Memorial Museum at Nairobi has already
extensive collections which are mainly the result of perpetual and
largely voluntary labours by Dr. van Someren. It owes its origin
to the East Africa and Uganda Natural History Society, which
was established in 1909, and which publishes an admirable journal.
There is also the Stoneham Museum at Kitale, started as a private
organization and now managed by a board of trustees. Uganda
has only a very small museum at Kampala. Results of local
studies are published in the Uganda Journal, founded in 1933. A
large and important collection of insects has been accumulated at
the agricultural laboratory, Kampala. Tanganyika has no special
museum in which fauna is collected, but reference collections are
being brought together by the biological workers at Amani (insects
and birds) and by the assistant government entomologist at Moro-
goro (insects and small mammals). Tanganyika Notes and Records,
published half-yearly, was founded in 1936. At Zanzibar there is
ZOOLOGY 219
an excellent museum with sections devoted to natural history and
biology. In Northern Rhodesia there is a small museum at Living-
stone, which it is proposed to expand in the near future.
Turning to West Africa, there is no single museum with fauna
collections, except in Achimota College at Accra, which has a few
zoological specimens in addition to the extensive herbarium men-
tioned in Chapter VI. Material is being accumulated, however,
at some of the Government laboratories. The Nigerian Field, pub-
lished quarterly since 1932, contains valuable articles by local
students. The Gold Coast has a similar journal and Sierra Leone
Notes and Records appears quarterly.
The action taken by the British colonial territories with regard
to the protection of wild fauna since the London Convention of
1900 has been outlined by C. W. Hobley (1933), from whose ac-
count some of the following information is taken.
Game Departments are operating in East Africa in Kenya,
Uganda, and Tanganyika. The Kenya department was the first
to be established, and is now under Captain A. T. A. Ritchie. It
includes, in addition, two officers on game preservation, a fish-
warden, and several officers on the control of game and vermin.
It has, however, been impossible for the existing staff, except to a
very limited degree, to make scientific studies of the wild fauna,
a task which should fall within the department’s province. The post
of senior assistant game warden has been vacant for some time,
and Captain Ritchie is hoping to fill this, as soon as financial con-
ditions in the colony allow, with an officer with full scientific
qualifications, who would spend a part of his time on research
into the problems which the future of game in Kenya presents.
The Uganda department, under Captain C. R. S. Pitman, is ably
conducted and has two European rangers and a considerable
African staff, among whose duties elephant control figures promi-
nently. In the warden’s report for 1935 it is noted, for instance,
that 1,546 elephants were killed by the game department during
the year, out of a total elephant mortality estimated from all
sources at 2,100. The damage done to native agriculture apparently
justifies such wholesale slaughter, and if Pitman’s estimate of the
total number of elephants in Uganda and of their natural rate of
increase are correct, drastic action of this nature will not conflict
220 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
with the policy of elephant conservation. Estimated figures for
elephant population in various African territories and of their rates
of increase are quoted by GC. W. Hobley (1934) in an article on
elephant control. ‘Thus in Uganda the total population number of
elephants was estimated by Captain Pitman to be 18,000. The
annual increase is considered to be about 2,160 on the assumption
that (1) 60 per cent of the elephants are females, (2) the average
life of cows is fifty years, and (3) cows commence breeding at
twenty years and continue at one in each three years until death.
The mortality of elephants in Uganda, including those shot in
control operations, and by sportsmen, and those found dead, was
2,300 in 1936, 2,100 in 1935, and for the ten years to the end of
1934 averaged 1,400 per year (Uganda 1934, D.R., 1935, D.R.,
1936, D.R.). Thus the mortality, though large, seems to be roughly
equal to the estimated increase. In the Uganda department’s
annual reports illuminating notes on the natural history, distribu-
tion, and migration of the larger animals figure prominently. A
body of knowledge is being built up, which will serve good purpose
in future years. The game warden was recently made responsible
also for fisheries.
In Tanganyika, the department, under Mr. S. P. Teare, has a
European staff of five permanent members. The control of ele-
phants and other raiding game has occupied a considerable part
of the department’s resources since 1924 as native agriculture has
increased. There are numerous game reserves and sanctuaries, a
few of which it has been impossible to ward actively. The Seren-
geti complete reserve, together with the adjoining area, which is a
pastoral reserve, carries the most wonderful assemblage of mam-
mals of any area on the globe to-day.
Nyasaland had for a few years a small but efficient department:
this was dissolved in 1931 as a measure of economy. The game
ordinances are now administered by the District Officers. In
Northern Rhodesia there was until recently no commercial interest
in game such as to warrant the creation of a department. In
1931-2, Captain Pitman, warden in Uganda, was seconded to
make a preliminary census of game animals and a general faunistic
survey; his large report (1934) puts a mass of useful data on record,
and as a result of the survey, Mr. T. Vaughan Jones of the admin-
ZOOLOGY 5h |
istrative department has been seconded from 1937 to act as game
warden and to start a department.
In the West African Colonies the game ordinances are adminis-
tered by District Officers. In most parts very little game is left, the
chief agent which has led to their destruction being indiscriminate
slaughter by natives, nearly all of whom possess firearms. In the
Gold Coast for instance, elephants, formerly numerous, are now
according to Colonel Haywood (1932), reduced to about three
hundred. This writer considers that a game warden and staff
should be shared between Nigeria and the Gold Coast. The Gold
Coast has a large game reserve on the Afram Plains, an area far
removed and almost uninhabited, so that supervision of game pro-
tection is difficult. Recent proposals by F. S. Collier for Nigeria
are referred to later. In Sterra Leone, Colonel Haywood suggested
that as the game belongs essentially to the forest country, the
forestry department could undertake its supervision. It appears
that additions to the existing forestry staff would be necessary.
FRENCH
In Paris the Musée National d’ Histoire Naturelle, with numerous
departments under zoological specialists, serves the same purpose
for the French colonies as the British Museum (Natural History)
does for the British. In accordance with the general French policy
in scientific development, of centralizing research experts in
France and seconding experts for short-term work in the colonies,
the museum in Paris has taken an active part in African questions
(see Chapter IX).
A number of game reserves are established in French West and
Equatorial Africa, and are in charge of the agriculture and forests
branch of the Service Economique. Several of the game reserves are
also forest reserves. There is no special staff to deal with wild
animals or to police the reserves, but it is hoped shortly to establish
one in West Africa.
BELGIAN
The Musée Royal @ Histoire Naturelle in Brussels is a headquarters
of Belgian zoological activity. It is under the directorship of Dr.
V. van Straelen, who is also President of the Parcs Nationaux du
222 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Congo Belge, and is in the closest touch with zoological develop-
ments in the Congo. The Musée du Congo Belge at Tervueren near
Brussels has very extensive zoological collections and a staff of
specialists, under Dr. H. Schouteden, who has himself made not-
able contributions, especially on the birds of the Congo.
In the Belgian Congo itself there is no official game organization
apart from that which controls the Parc National Albert and the
Parc National de la Kagera. ‘These two parks are under the super-
vision of the Institut des Parcs Nationaux du Congo Belge, which
is ruled by a commission and a direction committee. The com-
mission consists of twenty-four scientists, chosen from Belgium,
Great Britain, France, Holland, Italy, Sweden, and the United
States. ‘The direction committee in Brussels has eight members
under the presidency of Dr. V. van Straelen.
PORTUGUESE
Both Angola and Mozambique have game reserves, but no
special staff comparable with the game departments of British
colonies.
AMERICAN
In addition to the institutions mentioned above, several of the
museums and universities of America include on their staffs zoolo-
gists who specialize in the study of African fauna. From time to
time, moreover, expeditions have been organized in the United
States on a large scale to investigate zoological problems in Africa
and to make collections of African fauna for their museums.
The American Committee for International Wild Life Protec-
tion, with headquarters at Cambridge, Massachusetts, has been
active on the question of conserving wild life in Africa, and has
published valuable works on the subject, referred to below.
RESULTS
TAXONOMY
In zoology, as in botany, the accurate naming of animals is
essential as a preliminary to all other scientific work. In spite of
the vast literature on systematic zoology, the worker in Africa is at
ZOOLOGY 223
a great disadvantage because there is a serious paucity of general
reference works of the kind that can be used for identifying accur-
ately even the common animals of Africa. No good purpose would
be served by giving an extensive bibliography on this subject, but
some of the most useful works published recently on land animals
and birds are noted below.
On mammals, Captain G. C. Shortridge (1934) has brought to-
gether information for South-West Africa into two volumes which
include general biological accounts of each species, in addition to
taxonomic descriptions. This appears to be the only area of Africa
for which a recent detailed account of the mammalia exists. Dr.
Glover Allen, of the Museum of Comparative Zoology in America,
is compiling a check-list of all described species of African mam-
mals which will be of great assistance to those making a study of
this subject. The recent edition of Rowland Ward’s records of big
game animals (1935) contains much information, and for the
primates a valuable monograph of the African species has been
written by Paul Rode (1937).
On the Reptilia and Amphibia there is no general work incorpora-
ting the results of recent research. Among authors on these groups,
Mr. H. W. Parker of the British Museum (Natural History) and
Dr. A. Loveridge of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Har-
vard, have written numerous papers on collections from special
areas. Dr. Loveridge was formerly resident in Kenya, working at
the Coryndon Memorial Museum, and has recently visited East
Africa again for scientific purposes. Important among his recent
publications are the series of scientific results of an expedition to
rain-forest regions in East Africa (1935-7), and a catalogue of
African reptiles and amphibia in the Field Museum of Natural
History (1936).
Ornithology occupies a peculiar position. Since birds are com-
paratively easy to identify and observe, their study is often taken
up by amateurs, and popular interest is beginning to result in the
publication of local avifaunal works, usually of a good scientific
standard. As a rule they are arranged in systematic order, but
unlike the floras, they contain a mass of information on general
biology. With the multiplication of local studies it is unlikely that
any counterpart of the work on the whole bird fauna of Africa by
224, SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Reichenow (1900-1905) will be attempted. Ornithological taxo-
nomy has moved rapidly since then, and an invaluable summary
of up-to-date nomenclature and distribution has been provided by
Sclater (1924-30). Excellent regional studies, published recently,
are those of Bates (1930) on birds of West Africa, Belcher (1931) on
Nyasaland, and Priest (1933-6) on Southern Rhodesia. Works on
a larger scale in course of publication are by Bannerman (1930-6)
on tropical West Africa, subsidized by the West African govern-
ments, of which four volumes have appeared out of the projected
six, and by Chapin (1932) on birds of the Belgian Congo, remark-
able for its ecological approach. The serious gap in East African
ornithology has been filled by two volumes on the birds of Kenya
and Uganda edited by Sclater (1938), based on Sir Frederick
Jackson’s notes and collections, and there will be a further work by
Grant and Mackworth-Praed to cover the whole of East Africa
from Abyssinia to the Zambesi. For the Sudan there is at present
only a check-list by Bowen (1926). For South Africa a new edition
of Stark and Sclater’s (1900-1906) work would be valuable. An
interesting development, at present in its infancy, is the prepara-
tion of elementary books on birds primarily for the use of Africans.
Winterbottom in Northern Rhodesia and Fairbairn in Nigeria are
the pioneers in this field.
Studies on African ornithology now take an important place in
the British and German scientific journals, and one local society,
the South African Ornithologists’ Union, publishes its own periodi-
cal, The Ostrich. Important papers on African birds have been
appearing in the Revue Koologique et Botanique Africaine, the Journal of
Animal Ecology, and the Journal of the Kenya and Uganda Natural
History Society. ‘To the last-named Dr. van Someren has contributed
a series of papers on the birds of Kenya. The greater part of the
literature on African birds is still confined to taxonomy and geo-
graphical distribution, with a few scattered field notes. ‘The study
of their food relations, phenology, and complete life-histories, is
only now beginning. Notable in this connection are recent investi-
gations by Moreau (1935a and b), who, at Amani, has contributed
data on the climatic and botanical factors of the environment,
with special reference to the birds.
On the whole, the territories under British administration and
ZOOLOGY 22')
the Belgian Congo are best known ornithologically, and are being
most actively explored. Within the British areas knowledge is
inevitably uneven; for example, the birds of Kenya and Uganda
are better known than those of Tanganyika, where a number of
island mountains, of potential interest from the evolutionary point
of view, are still largely or completely unknown to zoological
science. A series of annual grants has been made by the Trustees
of the Godman Exploration Fund, connected with the British
Museum (Natural History), to enable the birds of those areas to
be studied by Mr. Moreau from the research station at Amani.
ANIMAL ECOLOGY
This is a newly developed branch of zoology of which the possi-
bilities are not yet fully realized. It implies the study ofevery aspect
of the dependence of animals on their environment and on each
other. Since all animals are dependent directly or indirectly on
plants for food, the study of animal ecology involves corresponding
studies of vegetation. Such important problems as those created
by the tsetse fly can besolved eventually only by exhaustive ecologi-
cal studies on the tsetse fly itself (autecology), combined with de-
tailed studies of its environment (synecology), such as the distri-
bution of plants and movements of game, stock, and man. Thus the
department of tsetse research in Tanganyika is essentially an
ecological department.
Economic problems to which animal ecology is relevant are
mentioned in nearly every section of this report: diseases of domes-
tic animals and of man, pests of agriculture and forestry, the con-
servation and control of game animals and birds, and fisheries. On
account of this wide scope it 1s the ecological method of approach
rather than ecology as a specialized subject which is important.
Some of the work of game departments in estimating the popu-
lation of different animals and in studying their migrations takes
the form of ecological survey, and is a branch of study which
requires much more intensive work before the place of wild animals
in the economy of African territories is sufficiently known. The
part played by animals in the spread of disease is especially impor-
tant, and therefore game research is included in the work of the
tsetse department of Tanganyika. Many diseases in addition to
226 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
trypanosomiasis are carried by wild animals; as a striking example,
the recent outbreak of rabies in East Africa may be cited. Owing
to lack of knowledge concerning carriers of the disease, the only
course possible was to slaughter all wild carnivora over wide areas.
There is a particular aspect of animal ecology concerned with
the size and fluctuation of animal populations. Mr. Charles
Elton’s work at the Bureau of Animal Population at Oxford has
shown the importance of this subject in the control of diseases and
pests which are directly or indirectly due to fluctuations in wild
animal numbers. Data collected (Elton 1931) show that many
animals undergo variation in numbers with a periodicity, usually
between three and twelve years, which is more or less constant. In
general, a particular species increases in numbers during a succes-
sion of favourable years and then there is a comparatively sudden
reduction, often due to an epizootic disease. Many diseases of wild
animals are transmissible to domestic animals and to man, and
sometimes the wild animals, although unaffected themselves, may
serve as carriers of disease. Therefore the understanding of animal
periodicity may aid the control of epidemics among human beings
as well as epizootics among domestic animals. Little enough is yet
known of this subject even in Europe or America, while in Africa
it has scarcely been touched.
A related problem is the introduction of diseases into regions
where they were previously unknown. For instance, rinderpest,
which is enzootic in Asia, appeared in Egypt in 1844 and 1865, in
Abyssinia in 1890, and by 1900 had spread along the Nile valley
through East Africa to the southern part of the continent and also to
West Africa. To-day there is a constant fear ofits spreading through-
out the Union. During the passage of the disease through these
areas and subsequently at intervals, herds of wild game, especially
buffaloes, became infected, spread the disease among stock and
died in large numbers. The occurrence of this disease in epizootic
form is probably connected with the fluctuation of game popula-
tions, and when these are understood there should be a means of
forecasting epizootics. A similar example, though of a disease
affecting human beings as well as other mammals, is that of the
introduction of plague to South Africa, and its spread through the
agency of indigenous rodents. This subject, which has involved
ZOOLOGY 227
work on the fluctuation in numbers of wild rodents, is discussed
in Chapter XVI, p. 536.
Apart from work on South African rodents, there have been no
other studies on the periodicity of African animals. Isolated obser-
vations, however, suggest that zebra in East Africa suffer periodic
outbreaks of lung-worm. Again, epizootics of unknown cause
among hippopotami have been recorded from the Congo. In
Uganda, also, at the south end of Lake Albert in 1932 and in Lake
George in 1933, similar hippopotamus epizootics occurred, which
started and ended so suddenly that the cause and actual disease
were never discovered. As data slowly accumulate, analyses may
show that the principle of cyclic fluctuations in numbers is widely
applicable, and other important disease relations between wild
animals, stock, and humans will doubtless be found. Clearly it can-
not be assumed that cyclic fluctuations of northern and of tropical
animals are due to similar causes. In this connection the eleven-
year sunspot cycle, which appears to be prominent in tropical
regions, as was pointed out in Chapter IV, may influence animal
and plant periodicity in Africa. Mr. Elton is at present collecting
all data from the African continent bearing on variations in animal
numbers with a view to testing this hypothesis. Another of Mr.
Elton’s activities is to edit the Journal of Animal Ecology, in which
many papers bearing on the ecology of Africa have been published
in recent years.
Animal ecology is of great scientific and economic importance,
but at present there is very little provision for it. The whole future
of the conservation of game animals in Africa depends on it, so an
organization may be envisaged when research officers are attached
to the several game departments and all results are correlated at
some central institution such as Amani, for this is a branch of study
in which correlation over wide areas is a necessity.
CONSERVATION OF WILD ANIMALS
Areas in which wild life is protected may be divided into three
grades: (i) Preserves, in which wild animals are protected for shoot-
ing purposes against all except a strictly limited number of favoured
individuals. Present-day ideals favour the enjoyment of animals by
228 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
all, so preserves are becoming less popular. (11) Reserves, in which no
shooting is allowed, but which afford no particular facilities for
the public and consider only the conservation of the animals.
Reserves exist in virtue of government proclamations, approved
by the Secretary of State in the case of the colonies. During the
past fifteen years, all the East African colonies have seen extensions
or creations of new reserves which far surpass the excisions from
old reserves, but there is no statutory guarantee of their inviol-
ability. The local public generally take a lively interest in game
reserves, but they are nevertheless open to attack from many sides,
and sooner or later some interest which is not compatible with con-
servation of game may gain control of the areas. (11) Natzonal
Parks are established by statute, and thus are legally more secure:
public interest in the preservation of national parks is on the whole
stronger than in the maintenance of game reserves. The type of
legal protection which they enjoy may be illustrated by Articles
2 and 4 of the constitution of the Kruger National Park in the
Union of South Africa:
‘2. The Governor-General may by Proclamation in the Gazette,
constitute any other area of land a national park for the purposes
of this Act, provided that no such proclamation shall be issued
until Parliament by resolution of both Houses has authorized the
constitution of any such area as a national park.
‘4. The boundaries of any area constituted a park shall not be
altered and no portion of such area shall be capable of alienation
except under the authority of an Act of Parliament.’
National parks are usually constituted with two objects in view,
namely (1) the preservation in perpetuity of natural beauty and
interest, including animals, plants, geology, and scenery, and (2)
for the recreation and enjoyment of the public. One or other of
these aims may be stressed according to local conditions; thus in
America the second object takes precedence to the firstinsome areas,
whereas in Africa the interests of wild fauna are preponderant.
Even where a large public takes advantage of a national park for
recreation, the fauna and flora can be safeguarded by reserving
special areas as breeding sanctuaries with limited access, and other
areas as sites for camping and other human activities.
The asset of a local urban public is very desirable for a national
ZOOLOGY 229
park in order to ensure the necessary goodwill and a revenue from
regular visitors. So far in Africa only the Kruger Park has this
advantage, but the Parc National Albert expects a much increased
revenue from visitors in the near future.
According to recent publications of the American Committee
for International Wild Life Protection (1933 and 1935), which
contain the most recent data readily available, all Africa including
the Mediterranean countries and Madagascar, contains about
149 reserves or national parks. The publications cited contain
a classified list of these areas which range from a few thousand
acres for the protection of particular species to the 8,600 square
miles of the Kruger Park and even larger areas in some of the
reserves, though the figures given must inevitably be approxima-
tions only. The value of these areas for the scientific study of the
reaction of animals to their environment, of enzootic diseases and
kindred subjects, is incalculable. At the same time it must be
remembered that national parks and game reserves are likely to
harbour diseases which are subject to fluctuations and may be-
come epizootic among domestic animals in the surrounding
regions, so that caution is necessary in the creation and perpetua-
tion of such areas.
Possible lines of future development have been lucidly discussed
by J. S. Huxley (1931) in a chapter on ‘Wild Life, Sport, and
Sanctuaries’, but a few additional notes on recent developments
may be given.
The Aruger National Park, which has been described by Colonel
Stevenson-Hamilton (1929 and 1937), evolved from the Sabi Game
Reserve, the first wild-life sanctuary ever declared in the continent
(in 1898), and has proved to be an asset of marked value to the
Union. At the beginning of the century animals were scarce and
wild as a result of many years of unrestricted hunting, but a nuc-
leus of most indigenous forms remained, which rapidly increased
in numbers as a result of protection, and spread to areas from
which they had been absent for a long time. Now, after nearly
thirty years of conservation, the tameness of the animals is amaz-
ing; in particular they show no concern at the passing of motor-
cars. Roads and rest-houses have been developed to such a pitch,
as a result of generous grants from the Union Government, that
230 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
even the fastidious traveller can enjoy a motor drive amongst
most of the larger game animals, viewing them at a distance of a
few yards in safety. The park is open to visitors for the dry six
months in each year, May to November. In 1928, when it was
first opened, 200 motors and lorries paid the entrance fee of £1 per
vehicle, this figure rose to 3,000 in 1930 and to 7,936 in 1936. At
present the receipts practically balance the current expenditure.
Public demand for the extension of the system was such that in
1931 the Union Government created the Kalahari Gemsbok
National Park for gemsbok (oryx), with an area of 3,000 square
miles, and allocated two areas of 11,000 acres in the Cape Province
as the Addo Elephant National Park for the preservation of the
South African variety of elephant, of which few survive, and another
1,700 acres as the Bontebok National Park to preserve a herd of
this rare species. The typical or eastern Cape Hartebeest is another
very rare animal, of which only one herd of about fifty remains on
a farm in Natal. This was placed under official protection in
1936. The mountain zebra remains to-day only in Ondtshon
District of the Cape Province and there are believed to be less than
one hundred left. It is hoped that the Union Government will take
over the farms which contain the remnant herd, and will proclaim
a national reserve there similar to that for the bontebok.
In Zululand, the Umfulosi Reserve of some 60,000 acres, which
contains over one hundred specimens of the rare white rhinoceros,
deserves special mention. The future of this and the Hluhluwe and
Mkuzi Reserves, the former also containing a few white rhino, 1s
uncertain at the present, because they are heavily infested with
tsetse flies and are regarded as a danger to neighbouring farms.
The Belgian Congo has also seen a striking development of
national parks in recent years. The Parc National Albert has an
area of more than 400,000 hectares. It is in two sections, including
all the famous Birunga volcanoes, and was extended in 1934 and
again in 1935 so as to include the Shabirimu Mountains, and the
valley of Semliki, and that part of the Ruwenzori range which lies
within the Congo boundaries. Shooting and fishing are strictly
forbidden. It has been conceived on rather different lines from
the Kruger Park, since till recently it has been regarded rather as
a section of Africa saved from the incursions of civilization, to be
ZOOLOGY PLE st
kept as a place for scientific study, than as an economic asset. This
attitude, however, is being modified now that the area is becom-
ing easy of access by road. A comfortable hotel has been erected
on the shore of Lake Kivuclose to the park boundary, and travellers
are realizing the interest of the place. The southern section, with
the exception of the gorilla habitat on the Birunga mountains to
which access is strictly limited, is comparatively uninteresting
bush-covered lava plain with little animal life. In the northern
section immediately south of Lake Edward, where antelopes in
variety abound, lions are plentiful and hippopotami swarm in the
shallow water, only a small rest-camp is maintained by the park
authorities.
Since the creation of the park in 1925, much scientific work has
been carried out. Excellent topographical surveys have been made
under the direction of Lt.-Colonel Hoier. Faunistic surveys are
being undertaken by Dr. G. F. de Witte of the Congo Museum at
Tervueren and by M. H. Damas of the University of Liége. R. P.
Schumacher has completed an ethnographical survey among the
pygmy inhabitants, and M. L. Hermans, of the University of
Liége, is making a magnetic map of the area. Dr. Schouteden
(1932), Director of the Congo Museum, has already published an
extensive work on the birds.
The Parc National de la Kagera is situated in Ruanda-Urundi,
along the Kagera River. It was instituted in November 1934, and
includes as total reserve nearly 190,000 hectares and as partial
reserve nearly 80,000 hectares. In addition the Uélé Reserve
(some 4,000 square miles) and the Réserve Zoologique et Forestiére de
la Région des Lacs in the Katanga have recently been raised to the
status of national parks. Such appropriation of large areas natur-
ally involves difficulties when the land is actually in use. Belgian
policy is to reserve the entire area for wild life. Except for the pig-
mies who are allowed to remain in the national parks, the native
inhabitants are awarded compensation and given land of equal
value elsewhere. Land in European occupation is also expro-
priated. On the other hand, experience in British colonies indi-
cates that a resident native population is not always inimical to
the interests of a national park or game reserve; in certain circum-
stances it may even prove beneficial.
232 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
In 1934, there was created in Brussels an institution called La
Fondation pour favoriser l’ Etude scientifique des Parcs Nationaux du Congo
Belge. This scientific foundation has an annual income of about
250,000 francs, and its object is ‘to promote all colonial scientific
researches, and especially those in the Parc National Albert, or in
other national parks’. Scientists of all nationalities are welcomed,
and to make the possibilities of study more attractive a laboratory
is being built, with library and museum attached, on the Ruchuru
River in the geographic centre of the park.
In British East Africa, the elevation of certain of the existing game
reserves to national park status is often urged, but no government
has yet been willing to allocate to animals for all time large stretches
of territory which might in the future be urgently required for
other purposes. Moreover, there are special problems affecting
certain areas, such as the grazing rights of the Masai tribe over large
tracts of country which are the most suitable for game conserva-
tion. The financial aspect of establishing a national park depends
upon the revenue which may be expected from tourist trafic. The
Kruger Park owes its success to the ever-increasing support of a
local white population. Visitors from overseas do not contribute a
large proportion because climate restricts the open season to
months coinciding with the European summer. In the East
African colonies, with their smaller local white population, sup-
port must depend largely on overseas tourists, and it is unlikely
that they will provide an important source of revenue in the near
future. Major Hingston (1930) has proposed a scheme for the
creation of nine national parks in East Africa: two in Nyasaland,
three in Tanganyika, two in Kenya and two in Uganda. Among
these the Serengeti Plains to the south-east of Lake Victoria, with
a focus to the east in the wonderful Ngorongoro crater, offer the
best opportunities for tourist development on the lines of the
Kruger Park.
Access to this region is becoming easier every year, by air and
by road from Nairobi or Musoma on Lake Victoria, and some
definite policy with regard to its future would seem desirable.
Major Hingston (1930) gave full details on the proposed conver-
sion of this area into a national park, and the question was dis-
cussed after a paper by him to the Royal Geographical Society
ZOOLOGY 22g
(1931). It has been a subject of debate in East Africa during the
past few years.
For the British West African Colonies Colonel Haywood (1932)
advocates considerable modifications in the existing reserved areas.
In Nigeria he proposes to substitute for the existing number of
small reserves, all inadequately guarded, a large national park of
several thousand square miles in one of three possible areas; Borgu
in the north-west, Chafe-Kwiambana in the north, or Muri-Wase
near the eastern border, the best game area, but very inaccessible
and overrun with tsetse fly. For the Gold Coast he suggests
abolishing the existing reserves, because the stock of animals
therein has been nearly annihilated by native hunters, and making
one or two fairly large national parks or permanent sanctuaries.
In Sierra Leone all forest reserves are already game sanctuaries for
elephants, and the Government has expressed itself ready to set
aside two such areas in the east of the Protectorate as general
game reserves. In West Africa there is no control over the use of
firearms by natives to kill animals for food, and game has been
driven farther and farther back, and reduced in numbers to a
point where many species may be incapable of re-establishing
themselves. The Kruger experience shows, however, what results
protection can achieve, and if sufficiently large areas can be found
in West Africa there may yet be time to develop a really excellent
and accessible park.
F. S. Collier, a member of the Nigerian forestry service, in an
admirable series of articles (1935) on the preservation of fauna in
Nigeria, considers the results in that territory of hunting by Afri-
cans with firearms, and concludes that it would be in the interests
of the inhabitants themselves to introduce effective means of con-
servation. He proposes the establishment of hunting-forests in
which hunting is unrestricted for residents in the neighbourhood,
but for which licences are necessary for visiting Africans and Euro-
peans. Adjoining these hunting-areas there should be breeding
refuges or sanctuaries which should bear a fixed relation to the
area of the hunting-grounds served. It would appear that the
desired result could be brought about by declaring certain of the
forest reserves as game sanctuaries, under the protection of the
existing forestry staff. This would render the creation of extra staff
234 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
unnecessary, and would fix the responsibility for policing and
inspection.
International Agreement concerning Game Preservation
The general effect of civilization has been to drive wild fauna
away from foci of development into inaccessible areas which often
lie in the regions of international or interterritorial boundaries.
Game reserves are, therefore, sometimes situated along boundaries,
as a glance at a map of the game reserves of Africa will show. Such
reserves cannot serve their purpose unless they are respected by the
people on both sides of the boundary. Legislation to prevent kill-
ing for commercial purposes by prohibiting the sale and export of
trophies can be made more effective if applied internationally,
since nearly every territory in Africa has such extensive boundaries
that adequate policing is difficult. Another way of controlling the
trade in animal products is by tariff regulations in the country of
import; it is noteworthy in this respect that a part of the Vander-
erift tariff for the United States (1930) has a special section pro-
hibiting the importation of wild mammals and birds in violation
of foreign law.
International agreements for the preservation of game have been
sought since 1900. ‘The convention of that year, signed by most
European powers who control territories in Africa, dealt with the
establishment of game reserves, etc., and proposed a uniform sys-
tem of game ordinances. This convention, though never ratified,
was influential in creating interest in the subject. The Convention
of 1933, which resulted from the International Conference in
London in October of that year and was signed by all states
concerned except Abyssinia, lays down as a principle that it is
desirable to establish in all territories, if possible, national parks
or strict nature reserves. Next, selected lists of animals and plants
are given which require special protection. Article 9 lays down
methods of controlling, through customs regulation, the export
and import of trophies. In Article 10 certain methods of hunting,
in particular by means of motor-cars, aircraft, dazzling lights, and
poisons, are considered to be prohibitable. The text of the con-
ference has been published by the Society for the Preservation of
the Fauna of the Empire and elsewhere, and reprinted by the
ZOOLOGY 235
American Committee for International Wild Life Protection (1935)
with illustrated notes concerning the species requiring special pro-
tection. Those scheduled for complete protection! are the Gorilla,
Aard Wolf, Fossa, Giant Sable Antelope, Nyala, Mountain Nyala,
Okapi, Barbary Stag, Pygmy Hippopotamus, Mountain Zebra,
Wild Ass, White Rhinoceros, Northern Hartebeest, Abyssinian
Ibex, African Elephant (with tusks less than five kilos weight),
Water Chevrotin; three birds, the Whale-headed Stork, Bald-
headed Ibis, White-headed Guinea-fowl; and one plant, the
Welwitschia of Damaraland.
The Convention has been ratified by five powers. Since diffi-
culty was experienced in agreement on some of the articles pro-
posed, a protocol was signed which bound the contracting parties
to call another conference, after there has been time to make
full inquiries into the possibilities of creating national parks,
imposing customs legislation, etc. This took place in May 1938,
and a third conference is to be arranged if possible in 1939, after
which the whole question of fauna and flora preservation should
be much better understood.
1 The list is given in full although a few of the animals, such as the Barbary stag, do
not live in that part of Africa with which this survey is mainly concerned.
CHAPTER IX
FISHERIES
INTRODUCTION
N view of the enormous seaboard of Africa, the extent of its
| pom lakes and rivers, and the exuberance of fish life in tropical
waters, remarkably little has been done for the development of
fisheries. Fish exist wherever there is water in Africa, except in a
few small lakes and high mountain streams in the interior, and
provide the principal subsistence of numerous native tribes. But
the methods of catching and preserving the fish, though employing
local facilities in the most ingenious ways, do not turn the resources
to the best advantage.
An analogy may be drawn between primitive fishing methods
and shifting cultivation. It is pointed out in Chapter XIII that
shifting cultivation, though well suited to the needs of native
peoples when the population is sparse, is inadequate and indeed
extremely harmful, as soon as the population grows beyond a
certain limit. Therefore work is being directed in many places
towards the introduction of improved systems of crop rotation,
manuring and so forth. In the case of fisheries, however, expen-
sive measures for keeping the waters in production are unnecessary.
In order to establish permanent industries the only requirements
are surveys to reveal the resources, the introduction of modern
methods of catching and curing, and the surveillance of fisheries
to ensure that stocks are not reduced to dangerous levels.
Compared with agriculture, fisheries offer relatively cheap oppor-
tunities for development, but undue optimism should be avoided.
An extensive initial survey of resources is desirable, particularly
FISHERIES 237
in connection with maritime areas, and this is a task requiring
expert qualifications. The preservation or treatment of the catch
is the essence of success for a fishery of any size in the tropics, and
the development of an industry would necessitate experiment,
skilled work, and expensive plants. The chief consumer of African
fish, however, at any rate in the tropical regions, is the African
native, and he is likely to obtain the best, most continuous, and
cheapest supplies by the gradual improvement of the existing
indigenous trade, rather than by the introduction of large-scale
industries organized on modern lines.
Recent demonstrations of the value of fish in the dietary of
native peoples give an added reason for the development of exist-
ing resources. It has lately been shown that the normal diet of
most native tribes is deficient in certain constituents, notably pro-
tein, calcium, phosphorus and, to a less extent, iodine.! These
are precisely the constituents provided by fish, and there is little
doubt that, if the fisheries resources which are known to exist were
fully utilized and fish were made available over wide areas, the
general health of natives would be markedly improved. At present
a considerable trade in fish takes place among most of those tribes
which have no actual prejudice against fish-eating; and even those
which have, such as the Kikuyu, are beginning to disregard the
taboo when supplies are available.
Fish are generally marketed among natives in a sun-dried or
partly smoked condition, forming an article of trade which is un-
pleasant to transport, but which goes a long way in flavouring the
usual dish of millet or maize meal. Experience in many parts of
the world shows that natives do not as a rule like what Europeans
consider to be properly cured fish, but even so there is clearly room
for improving methods. In large fisheries a form of powdered fish-
meal would be the most convenient to market, and its manufacture
for native food has been proposed in East and in West Africa. ‘The
opinion is usually expressed that it would involve too drastic a
change in native food habits to be acceptable, and that the initial
! Todine is certainly supplied to a dietary by sea fish, but not much by freshwater
fish. ‘There is reason to suppose that the quantity of iodine in any region is a function
of the distance from the sea, and the amount of sea-spray which is mingled with the
clouds. Hence the interior of Africa probably contains very little iodine and deficiency
may be observable in human beings.
238 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
expense of putting down plants for large-scale production would
be too heavy. It is worth noting, however, that at least one tribe
in Nigeria manufacture and store powdered fish for their own use
(see p. 247) and that a trade in fish-meal for native food already
exists in French Guinea, where the natives have taken to the new
food rapidly.
The development of fisheries presents special economic problems
in territories where the provision for marketing of surplus stock is
regarded as a primary necessity, since the competition of fish with
meat as an article of diet might hamper this policy.
From the scientific point of view development depends on know-
ledge of the fish themselves, both from the taxonomic and eco-
logical aspects. ‘The stocks of exploitable fish depend on the
food supplies available for them, which in general consist of other
animals, whether small fish, members of more lowly orders of the
animal kingdom, such as shell-fish, or the enormous quantity of
minute floating forms of both animals and plants, known collec-
tively as the plankton. These in turn depend on chemical and
physical conditions or what may be termed the productive capacity
of any water region. Knowledge on all of these subjects is neces-
sary for the scientific exploitation of fisheries. A detailed discussion
of all these questions is clearly far outside the scope of this chapter,
but a few notes on some recent work in Africa are given in the
following pages.
ORGANIZATION AND RESULTS
BRITISH
In South Africa the Division of Fisheries under Dr. C. von
Bonde, of the Department of Commerce and Industries of the
Union Government, conducts a fisheries survey of the whole coast
of the Union down to the three hundred fathom line, employing
a modern steam research vessel, the R.S. Africana, which is used
also for part of each year in hydrographic survey for the correction
of charts. Dr. von Bonde is also fisheries adviser to the Cape Pro-
vincial Administration. In Natal there is a separate Provincial
Fisheries Department and a Fisheries Board.
Prior to the establishment of the present division of fisheries,
PLATE III
NATIVE FISHERIES
Above: A river fence with basket traps, built by the Luo of the Kavirondo Gulf,
Lake Victoria
Below: The net fishery of the Guinea Coast, near Lagos, Nigeria
Mo
ti a
7
FISHERIES 239
much work, largely faunistic and taxonomic in character, was done
by Dr. Gilchrist, who for many years conducted a fishery survey
under the department of agriculture. In addition to the regular
official reports, an excellent series of scientific reports entitled
Marine Investigations in South Africa, was published from 1900 on-
wards. A monograph of the marine fishes of South Africa by
Dr. K. H. Barnard (1925-7) includes all species known southwards
of latitude 15°S., and has provided the basis of recent work; but
data on any branch but taxonomy are still so scanty that the regu-
lation of the fishing industry cannot yet be based on a scientific
footing, although the protective legislation enacted by the Cape
and Natal is valuable in the conservation of supplies.
The organization of the division of fisheries is at present under
review by the government, which realizes that centralized control
of all marine fisheries is essential. The example of India, where
each province has its fisheries departments, has shown the dis-
advantages of such a system; the separate provinces cannot main-
tain sufficient staff; there is danger of overlapping and consequent
waste of effort, and unless economic results are forthcoming
quickly, local support is apt to be withdrawn. A new marine bio-
logical laboratory is being constructed in South Africa, which will
train personnel for the division, so that it may be unnecessary in
future to recruit specialists from overseas. It may be suggested,
however, that a few officers from the old-established centres of
research elsewhere could make a valuable contribution to fishery
research in South Africa.
The results of studies by the division of fisheries are published
in annual reports, of which twelve have appeared. On problems
of fishery technology there have also been published five investiga-
tional reports dealing with such subjects as shark fishing and the
canning of the Cape crawfish. Bulletins are also issued from time
to time on non-technical aspects of the industry. A full review of
the scope of the industry is given in a special report (Union of
South Africa 1934).
The fishing-grounds of the Union are rich and extensive. They
are situated along the west coast from Walvis Bay to Cape Point
and along the south and east coasts as far north as Durban. The
Agulhas Bank is a large and rich ground producing a species of
240 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
sole, which is the basis of a large commercial fishery. All these
grounds, with the exception of those off Natal, are suitable for
trawling; while in Natal waters, where the nature of the bottom
precludes trawling, line-fishing is practised. Survey work off the
South-West African coast has revealed a rich ground of large
extent, lying beyond the eighty-fathom line.
Commercial fishing is carried out from the various smaller
centres by line-fishing boats, while modern steam trawlers, belong-
ing to three companies, operate from Capetown, Mossel Bay, Port
Elizabeth, and East London. Thus there are adequate harbour
facilities provided for trawlers, and rail transport of fish to the
inland centres is easy. In the past much fish which would be con-
sidered valuable in Great Britain has been shovelled overboard
dead, and it is possible that some of the grounds have been seriously
depleted. The division has recently completed investigations, how-
ever, into methods of saving immature fish, and the trawlers are
now using a larger mesh in the cod end of the otter trawl, whereby
waste is materially reduced.
Fish is smoked, canned, dried, salted, and frozen by modern
methods, and locally produced products are largely replacing
imports. Smoked and frozen fish have been exported for some
time and the markets are steadily growing. The Cape crawfish
is also the subject of a considerable industry, and there are sixteen
canning factories for it on the west coast. Though hard hit by the
imposition of quotas in France, the industry is now exporting
canned crawfish to Canada and the United States of America, and
has also built up a considerable market for frozen crawfish tails.
Rigorous restrictions are imposed on the catching of undersized
crawfish and females in berry. There are certain proclaimed sanc-
tuaries wherein crawfishing is totally prohibited. Biological work
on the Cape crawfish is undertaken by the division of fisheries,
and papers on its natural history, reproduction, etc., have been
published by von Bonde (1935 and 1936).
Before the war some detailed studies on the marine fauna of
South-West Africa were made by German students, and W. Michael-
sen of Hamburg (1914 onwards) started a special series of publica-
tions which is still continuing. Papers by many experts are devoted
mainly to the taxonomy of invertebrate animals; their scope in-
FISHERIES 241
cludes the whole west coast of Africa from Port Etienne southward,
so they will be invaluable to future surveys of the resources of the
sea along all the French and British coasts.
East Africa
Except in the case of certain sporting fisheries developed through
the introduction of trout and black bass, there is no specialized
organization in any British territory other than South Africa for
investigating the resources of waters, or for the scientific control
of fisheries. The work so far done is the result of a few special inves-
tigations organized by governments, and of scientific expeditions
carried out in short terms of field work.
Interest was taken by the governments of Kenya and Zanzibar
in 1928 as to the fishery possibilities on the East African coast. Dr.
C. von Bonde, Director of Fisheries in South Africa, was seconded
for a few months’ survey in the neighbourhood of Mombasa and
Zanzibar, and his reports (1928 and 1929), though devoted princi-
pally to the improvement of curing methods, contain also some
information about the important fish.
Native fisheries always suffer from being confined to the littoral
waters, and it is doubtful whether real expansion can occur until
the open-water fishing-grounds are available. In this connection
experience in Ceylon is instructive. Here ordinary hydrographic
survey, with the study of fish treated as incidental, was the first
step; the banks had to be discovered and delimited before it was
possible to attempt commercial fishing. The continuation of the
survey into the littoral zones has not yet been finished in Ceylon,
but the results up to date show the value of studies organized in
this order.
The consumption of sea fish by natives is unlikely to extend far
inland in East Africa on account of transport difficulties, but the
Great Lakes, which are within easy reach of vast areas of thickly
populated inland territory, and from time immemorial have pro-
vided the subsistence of many fishing tribes, offer considerable
opportunities for development (plate il, p. 238).
European methods of fishing were first introduced on Lake
Victoria, and since 1905 a considerable fishery for the ngege, or
African carp (Tilapia) has developed from the introduction of
I
249 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
gill-nets. This fish is restricted to the shallower parts of the lake,
and in 1927 the governments concerned, fearing that the ngege
was being over-exploited, organized the Fishing Survey of Lake
Victoria, under Mr. Michael Graham of the Ministry of Agri-
culture and Fisheries. The cost was shared between the govern-
ments of Kenya, Uganda, and ‘Tanganyika. Some six months were
spent on the lake, and the report by Graham (1929) is an exhaus-
tive analysis of the ngege fishery, backed by hydrographic and
ecological data, with accounts of the other resources which might
repay exploitation. As a striking instance of the lack of scientific
knowledge prior to the fishing survey, the ngege of commerce,
which had been eaten every day by Europeans in Nairobi since
the fishery was started, proved to be a species unknown to science.
This work was followed in 1929 by a similar survey of Lakes Albert
and Kioga for the Uganda Government by E. B. Worthington,
the report on which (1929) stressed the value of a fishery for
Albert perch (Lates) and for Citharinus in Lake Albert, and sug-
gested methods which could be applied with advantage in both
lakes. As a result of the Cambridge Expedition of 1930-1, Wor-
thington (1933a) published another economic report on the
Uganda fisheries. In addition to the official reports, the scientific
results of these expeditions have been published in technical
journals, notably the results of the Cambridge Expedition (1933-6)
in a series of nineteen papers. One object of these and similar pub-
lications has been the identification and classification of the num-
erous varieties of fish. The classical work on African freshwater
fish by G. A. Boulenger (1909-16) is somewhat out of date, so the
fish fauna is now treated lake by lake in papers by Dr. C. Tate
Regan and Miss Trewavas on the family Cichlidae and by E. B.
Worthington and Miss Ricardo on the other families. Lakes Vic-
toria, Rudolf, Baringo, Albert, Kioga, Edward, Tanganyika,
Nyasa, Bangweulu and a number of smaller waters have been
dealt with in this way,! and in 1937 Miss Ricardo extended the
investigations by field work on Lake Rukwa, where a commercial
fishery has recently been started. The ecology of lakes in the
Kenya rift valley has been studied by Miss P. M. Jenkin (1936).
1 Many of the publications are not referred to here or in the bibliography but full
information can be obtained by reference to the Freshwater Biological Association
of the British Empire.
FISHERIES 243
As a result of the reports mentioned, the foundation has been
laid for the development of lake fisheries in East Africa; but there
appear to have been certain misconceptions in regarding them as
final statements on the fisheries with which they deal. In reality,
by breaking new ground, the principal object of the writers has
been to point the way for further work, and to stress the importance
of creating a permanent research and administrative organization
concerned with East African fisheries. It seems that such a depart-
ment would be best developed on an interterritorial basis, to in-
clude the control and development of fisheries on Lake Victoria
and all the surrounding group of lakes in Kenya, Uganda, and
Tanganyika, and possibly also the sea fisheries.
At present the freshwater fisheries of East Africa are controlled
by various departments, a system which has considerable disad-
vantages, particularly in view of the common interest of the three
territories in the control of the fishery on Lake Victoria. In Kenya
the fisheries inspector is responsible to the administrative depart-
ment. The game department, however, has a special officer in
charge of fish, especially trout. In Uganda responsibility for the
fisheries has recently been handed over to the game department,
and it is noteworthy that Captain Pitman, the game warden, has
devoted considerable sections of his recent annual reports to
fisheries. Pitman has initiated the work of fish marking in Lake
Victoria in the hope of tracing the growth and movements of the
important economic species. The time, perhaps in the distant
future, may be envisaged when there will be biological stations
and aquaria on Lake Victoria and at Mombasa for the thorough
study of fishery problems.
Modern trends in native policy point to the development of
industry on the basis of existing native fisheries; this involves
attention to the improvement of methods of catching, curing,
marketing, organization, and the control of fishing-grounds.
Meanwhile, however, there appears to be no objection to develop-
ment on a larger scale in certain areas, leaving the initiative to
those who consider the proposition sufficiently attractive to invest
the necessary capital. In recent years several European companies
have begun to exploit the waters of the larger lakes in Uganda,
but so far without much success,
244 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Farther south lie Lake Tanganyika and Lake Nyasa, and a
number of smaller lakes which still await study. In Northern
Rhodesia some preliminary work on the fisheries was done during
the faunal survey referred to in Chapter VIII. The report of the
survey by Pitman (1934) contains accounts of the native fishing
industry, Chapter VII by Pitman, and an appendix by J. Moflat
Thompson. High transport charges have hampered development
of the native fishing industry. It is cheaper to rail trucks of dried
sea fish from Capetown to the copper mines on the Congo border,
than to obtain it from the vast Bangweulu region about one hun-
dred miles distant as the crow flies. It is clear, however, that fresh-
water fisheries take an important place in the life of natives. The
Director of Surveys in Northern Rhodesia, Mr. Fairweather, has
stressed that serious depredation has resulted from increased
activity of local fishermen, in particular through indiscriminate
slaughter of immature fish. All these points suggest the desirability
of a full study of the fisheries of Northern Rhodesia.
In Tanganyika, Lake Rukwa presents a special problem, since
itis highly productive of fish, and lies within easy reach ofthe Lupa
goldfields; a commercial fishery has been established there to
supply the mine workers. Miss Ricardo studied the biological
conditions of Lake Rukwa and other waters in that area during
1937, and a report on the fishery prospects 1s now in preparation.
Lake Tanganyika has been subjected to intensive faunistic studies,
and arrangements are proceeding for a further scientific study by
an expedition under Mr. R. 8S. A. Beauchamp.
The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan has again considerable possibilities,
especially in the marine fisheries of the long Red Sea coastline,
but these have not yet been the object of much study. F. E. Ken-
chington (1934) has studied methods of curing and the develop-
ment of markets. In this territory, however, the prejudice against
eating fish, which is widespread among meat-eating and grain-
eating peoples, presents an obstacle to such a policy. Kenchington
(1933) has also made a study of the Nile perch (Lates nilotica) at
Sennar. This fish, the largest of those living in African freshwaters,
is widely known to sportsmen, but it is also an important food
species in parts of the Nile and in Lakes Albert and Rudolf.
FISHERIES 245
West Africa
In spite of the extensive seaboard of the British West African
colonies, and the undoubted value of the fishing-grounds, only one
small investigation on scientific lines has been attempted. In 1928
Sir Joseph Byrne, then Governor of Sierra Leone, made arrange-
ments for Mr. James Hornell, formerly Director of Fisheries to the
Government of Madras, to report on the Sierra Leone fisheries.
The field work lasted two months and the report by Hornell (1928a)
concludes that: 1. The marine resources are of immense extent
and value. 2. Present methods of fishing are inadequate for the
needs of the people. 3. With improved and new methods of fishing
and curing a large and profitable export trade could be built up.
4. A fish-oil and fertilizer industry might be founded on the Bonga
fishery. 5. Government assistance and supervision are required in
various ways. Iwo attempts have been made to establish a fishery
at Freetown—in 1912 a trawler averaged a catch of three tons a day
for some months, but lack oforganization for the marketing resulted
in failure. In 1929 a further venture failed, as the trawler employed
was not suitable for operating in the deeper waters. It is clear that
fishery surveys of the British waters along the Guinea Coast on a
larger scale would be valuable. All along this coast there is a
native fishery using lines and nets, but there is no doubt that the
resources are not used nearly to capacity. An enlargement of the
fishery here could probably be made to provide the dense popula-
tions of the coastal belt with valuable protein foods of the kind
which are otherwise not available from meat, since the region is
unsuitable for cattle owing to the prevalence of tsetse flies.
An inquiry seems desirable not only into the fish resources
and better methods of fishing, but especially into facilities for
marketing and transport. The fish industry of the Gold Coast and
Nigeria presents some curious features. Supplies of marine fish
are transported for long distances inland by road; these lines of
transport are crossed by freshwater fish captured far to the north
in the Niger, Volta, and other rivers, some of which are actually
marketed in a dried condition among people living on the coast.
Moreover, the greater part of fish consumed in these territories is
‘stock fish’ imported mainly from Norway. Some reorganization
of this industry appears to be desirable, particularly through the
246 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
institution of co-operative schemes for the marketing of supplies
from the local fishery (plate iti, p. 238).
Dr. F.R. Irvine of Achimota College has published two papers on
the fish and fishing industry of the Gold Coast (1930 and 1931). Mr.
A. P. Brown, also attached to Achimota, has studied and reported
(1937) on the industry at Labadi on the Gold Coast, and Miss
Field has submitted a short report on the need for improving
methods of curing. An American ichthyologist, Mr. H. W. Fowler
(1936), has provided an extensive reference work on the marine
fishes and fishlike vertebrates from the west coast of tropical Africa,
based on material collected by the American Museum Congo
Expedition, 1909-15.
In addition to the experience with trawlers in Sierra Leone, it is
worth noting that a company attempted to start a fish industry
at Lagos in Nigeria some years ago, using a trawler. Operations
were discontinued after a short while, partly because the product
was not popular with the native consumers, but such enterprise
might now prove more successful. West Africa seems to offer good
opportunity for a fish-meal and fish-fertilizer industry, with oil as
a by-product.
Freshwater fisheries are of less importance in West than in East
Africa. The Niger, Volta, and other rivers, however, are sources
of fish for internal trade, and Lake Chad, a considerable part of
which borders Nigerian territory, offers extensive resources for
future development. In Nigeria the situation has been studied by
an administrative officer, Mr. J. B. Welman, on whose information
the following notes are based.
It appears that native fishing in the rivers has increased con-
siderably in recent years, and the introduction of European nets
in some regions may lead to serious depletions of the stock. ‘There
is no room, therefore, for large-scale commercial exploitation, but
development should be based on a native fishery, and be preceded
by an effective system of control. A taxonomic study of the fish
has been made, but no ecological work has been attempted, such
as could form a basis for a development policy. There are indica-
tions of seasonal movement of fish up and down the rivers, perhaps
for purposes of breeding. At present unrestricted fishing leads to
the slaughter of immature and breeding fish. In addition to a con-
FISHERIES 247
siderable trade in smoked and dried fish, fresh fish are sent alive
to several of the markets, especially to Kano. At least one tribe,
the Bedde, living beside the River Yo, make and store powdered
fish in sealed pots for their own use and for trade. There is abun-
dant material here for building up well-organized native fisheries,
but there is great danger of over-exploitation unless some control
is enforced.
Looking to the future of African colonial fisheries, it is clearly
impracticable for every colony to support a fishery department.
The control of fisheries is not in itself a matter needing expert
knowledge, provided that policy is based on studies and expert
advice is available. The Colonial Office had until recently an
adviser on fisheries who had not, however, the research staff avail-
able to make the necessary studies. It would appear, therefore, that
the establishment of a bureau and research centre for colonial
fisheries, similar to the department in Paris mentioned below,
might be considered. Such an establishment for the British terri-
tories would have the duty of keeping in touch with all colonial
development and would have a few permanent experts ready to
be despatched for terms of field work. For sea fisheries a basis for
such an organization might be provided by the Marine Biological
Association ofthe United Kingdom, with its laboratory at Plymouth
under the direction of Dr. S. W. Kemp, or by the fisheries research
branch of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries with its
laboratory at Lowestoft. The Freshwater Biological Association
of the British Empire, with its laboratory on Windermere under the
direction of Dr. E. B. Worthington, is already in touch with many
developments in Africa and might be used for a similar organiza-
tion for the fisheries on the lakes and rivers. The East African
group of colonies probably have potential fishery resources large
enough to warrant a permanent establishment in Africa itself.
FRENCH
In the French colonies, the scientific study of fisheries is con-
siderably more advanced than in British territory, thanks largely
to the enthusiasm of Professor Gruvel, who has a special research
and teaching department devoted to the subject at the Museum of
Natural History in Paris. Colonial fisheries receive publicity also
248 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
through the aquarium below the Colonial Museum. During the
last thirty years Professor Gruvel has himself carried out fisheries
research along most of the West African coast, especially at Port
Etienne and Dakar in French West Africa, the Ivory Coast,
Dahomey, parts of the Nigerian coast, Gameroons, Angola, and
Capetown, and the list of his published works on the subject is long.
An account of the fish industry of the West Coast (1913) and a
paper stressing the importance of fishery development (1934) are
included in the bibliography. In addition several of Gruvel’s
students have studied fisheries in French West and Equatorial
Africa, notably Dr. ‘T. Monod, who published in 1928 an exhaus-
tive account of the fish industry in the Cameroons, and the late
J. Thomas (1925 and 1931), who studied the freshwater fisheries
of the Niger and the Chad region. ‘The importance of fish as food
for native races 1s stressed in a paper by Gruvel and Petit (1931).
Port Etienne on the coast of Mauretania is the principal centre
of development of fishery on modern lines. Much attention is
given to the improvement of curing methods and the value of oil
as a by-product. In 1936 a further investigation on a large scale
was undertaken into the biology of the coastal and deep waters off
Senegal. Professor Belloc, of the Sorbonne, is in charge of the
scientific work, and states as a preliminary conclusion that the
fishing-grounds in the neighbourhood of Dakar are as rich as those
of Port Etienne. A research station has recently been established
in the French Cameroons for the development of marine fisheries.
The manufacture of fish-meal as a native food, originally tried
with great success in Indo-China, has recently been introduced to
French West Africa, where it is made at Conakry and finds a ready
sale. The addition of a correct quantity of salt to the fish before
curing is the chief process required, but where salt is difficult to
obtain a small addition of spice to powdered fish is effective in
preserving it from insects, and is highly acceptable to the native
consumer.
In Morocco and Madagascar much attention is devoted to the
commercial possibilities of freshwater fish. In Morocco, at Gruvel’s
suggestion, a station has been opened at Azron in the Middle Atlas,
for the supply of trout eggs to the whole of the Atlas Mountains.
There is also a station for industrial pisciculture in this neighbour-
FISHERIES 249
hood which is beginning to produce results. Garp and salmon have
been developed in Madagascar with results which are interesting
in view of the problems discussed below, caused by the introduction
of new species.
BELGIAN
In the Belgian Congo, with its short seaboard, sea fisheries are
of slight importance, but the inland rivers and lakes are a source of
food for natives. The fisheries have been described by Goffin (1909)
and Wilverth (1911). Most of the river fisheries appear to be still
in their primitive condition, but several of the rift valley lakes lying
between Belgian and British territory have been exploited in order
to provide food for labourers in the mines nearby. On Lake Albert,
which is near the Kilomoto gold-mines, there has been a fishery for
some twelve years, and motor-boats, nets and other gear have
been imported. It is said, however, that overfishing has nearly
exhausted those parts of the lake in Belgian territory which are
easily accessible. This emphasizes the importance of control. A
similar fishery was flourishing at the south end of Lake Edward
until it was closed down, when the area became included in the
Pare National Albert. In connection with the scientific explora-
tion of the parc, mentioned in Chapter VIII, H. Damas (1937),
has made an extensive hydrobiological investigation of Lakes Kivu,
Edward, and Ndalaga. Further work of a similar nature is con-
templated for Lake Tanganyika, and this, coupled with studies on
freshwater fish of the Congo which are proceeding at the Musée du
Congo Belge at Tervueren, will provide an invaluable basis for
fishery developments. A fact of some interest from the economic
point of view is that during the past few years it has been profitable
to transport fish caught on the Red Sea coast of the Sudan half
across Africa, by rail to Khartoum and thence by road and steamer
to Kilomoto, south-west of Lake Albert.
THE INTRODUCTION OF FRESHWATER FISH
The oceans, being all in communication, have acquired a
natural balance of life through the ages, with the result that every
available habitat is already occupied fully by fish best suited to it,
250 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
and northern fish such as herring or cod would stand little chance
of survival ifloosed in African waters. Many freshwaters, however,
are isolated from each other, and since most fish are incapable of
being distributed naturally over land, some productive waters have
remained practically barren of fish life up to the present day. The
introduction of suitable fish to these is therefore important in
several ways: new food supplies can be made available; since many
good waters are within easy reach of towns, recreation can be
afforded to Europeans; the popularity of angling as a rival sport
to hunting may have a beneficial effect in the difficult work of
game conservation; and the sale of fishing licences is a source of
revenue.
In tropical Africa the high mountain streams are almost devoid
of fish, and certain lakes and rivers in the lower lying areas are
similarly barren. In Kenya, for instance, the indigenous fish,
though extremely abundant in the lower reaches of the rivers, are
restricted, with very few exceptions, to waters less than 7,000 feet
above sea-level. In Lake Naivasha again, at 6,000 feet, there was
formerly only a very small fish of no value. The reasons for this
peculiar distribution are to be sought in the recent geological
history of the continent and in past climatic changes, while ecolo-
gical factors such as water temperature and food supply also play
their part.
To the European in Africa, especially in parts of the Union and
in the East African highlands, the lack of fish in the streams very
naturally suggested trout for the purposes of food and sport; so
many introductions of brown and rainbow trout have been made —
since the beginning of the century, with the result that some of the
best trout fishing in the world is now to be had in Africa, especially
in Kenya and Natal. During the last few years trout have been
established in many of the rivers in Tanganyika, at suitable alti-
tudes on Mount Ruwenzori in Uganda, in Nyasaland, and else-
where. Trout have also proved successful in the Union of South
Africa, and in the Cape Province there are well-developed trout
hatcheries at Pirie, King William’s Town, Stellenbosch, and Jon-
kershock.
The management of trout fisheries in the tropics and South
Africa calls for research on a number of problems. When intro-
FISHERIES 251
duced to new water which is seldom fished, trout may breed in
large numbers, eat up their food supply and so become small and
ill-conditioned. Dr. S. F. Bush (1933) of Natal University College
has recently started work on this subject in South Africa, where
also the Cape piscatorial society has been active in ascertaining the
best conditions for sporting fish. Mr. R. E. Dent in Kenya has
collected valuable information which is included in a chapter on
trout in a book by S. and E. B. Worthington (1933), where other
matters relating to East African freshwater fisheries are discussed at
some length. Dent’s studies are being carried further by Mr. H.
Copley, who is devoting attention to the food supply for trout in
Kenya streams.
Since trout need cold water (less than 60° F.) for breeding, they
cannot enter into serious competition with the indigenous warm-
water fish. The altitude down to which they will thrive varies
roughly according to the distance from the equator; in Kenya
the lower limit of breeding is about 7,000 feet, in Tanganyika on
the Western Usambaras 5,500 feet, and in Nyasaland about 4,500
feet. Where fish are required for distribution at lower altitudes, as
in Kenya, an indigenous ‘carp’ ( Tilapia nigra) has been used with re-
markably good results. The most interesting experiment was made in
Lake Naivasha, where this fish was introduced in 1925. In the course
of three years it had multiplied in such numbers that a predator
fish could be introduced to feed on it, and since there is no suitable
indigenous fish, the large-mouthed black bass, a native of America
which has been naturalized in parts of Europe, was taken to Lake
Naivasha. This species has multiplied in its turn so that the lake,
which is within easy reach of the settled parts of Kenya, is much
frequented for sport, and adjoining land has risen markedly in
value. Lake Naivasha lies in an entirely closed drainage system,
separated by ranges of mountains from the major rivers of East
Africa, so that there is no risk of the black bass escaping to any
other water and causing damage to other fish. The introduction
of the same fish to open drainage systems in South Africa and
Southern Rhodesia, however, is an experiment which appears to be
fraught with considerable danger to indigenous species in the
rivers concerned.
Lake Bunyoni in the Kigezi district of Uganda has been the
22 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
scene of introductions made in the interest of the native popula-
tion. Here there were originally only one or two very small fish
of no value, and in 1919 a small cat-fish, known locally as nsonzi,
was introduced and has given rise to an important native trade.
Later, the available feod supply was found to be sufficient for
the further introduction of two kinds of Tilapia to this and the
neighbouring lakes of the Kigezi district. On the finding by Cap-
tain Pitman that the temperature of certain tributaries of Lake
Bunyoni is cool enough for rainbow trout, these also have been
introduced and are likely to establish themselves in the lake.
The Nile perch (Lates niloticus) is a predator which grows to an
enormous size and so might be used to feed on small valueless fish
and make them available in larger form. Its introduction from
Lake Albert to Lake Victoria has therefore been suggested, but this
step could not be taken without great risk to the existing well-
established fishery.
The experimental introductions outlined above have been
criticized by zoological authorities in England, on the grounds that
the results from such interference with the balance of nature are
impossible to predict, and that the introduced fish may escape
from the original sites and invade other waters to the detriment
of the original fauna. The view is taken by these authorities that
where introductions are made with the purpose of increasing the
food supply or for other urgent economic reasons, it may sometimes
be necessary to take the risk of upsetting the natural balance; but
these should never be made simply in the interests of sport. The
‘Trustees of the British Museum, in particular, have expressed their
opinion that such introductions are rarely defensible and that the
introduction of the American black bass was much to be deplored.
Such authoritative opinions emphasize the importance of full
control of fish introductions, and of adequate biological surveys of
the waters for which the introductions are proposed. In the case
of trout there is no reason for alarm in tropical Africa since they
are barred from the lower waters by temperature. Experience has
shown that in some streams the trout have upset the balance of
nature by consuming their own food supply too rapidly, but that
eventually a new balance is struck. Black bass are also safe in Lake
Naivasha since there is no means of escape, but such a predator,
FISHERIES 253
adapted to life in warm water, might cause serious damage if
allowed to spread to the principal drainage basins by such means
as the transference of fry to private waters. Control has now been
instituted in the principal centres of fish introduction: in Natal
there is an Inland Fishery Officer, Mr. Day; in Uganda Captain
Pitman, the Game Warden, is responsible for fisheries, and in
Kenya, the post of Fish Warden, formerly held by Mr. R. E. Dent,
is now occupied by Mr. H. Copley. The value of a central research
organization for the colonial territories has been suggested above.
PRESERVATION OF FISH FOR MARKET
The possibility of improving native measures of preserving fish
has already been discussed. This section is primarily concerned
with the preservation of fishon a largescale for commercial purposes.
The researches in progress at the Torry Research Station at Aber-
deen, one of the laboratories under the Food Investigation Board
of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, will
doubtless have a bearing on African developments.
When large supplies of food fishes are obtainable close to port,
the possibilities of extending the market for fresh fish are clearly
worth careful consideration. This field of development might not
only extend to the inland centres of population which are accessible
by rail transport, but also might include markets overseas. The
necessary conditions for such a development are (1) supplies of very
fresh fish in suitable quantities at the point of distribution, and
(11) the means for preserving quality unimpaired up to the point
of consumption. It is possible that the first of these conditions is
fulfilled by the large quantities of soles which are known to be on
the grounds close to several South African ports, while the second
might be achieved by the process of brine-freezing and cold storage.
In the cold storage of fish for long periods the conclusions from
research are that fish must be frozen rapidly when quite fresh,
must be stored at a low temperature (less than minus 5°F.) and
subsequently must be thawed rapidly. Common salt brine, which
does not reach a solid state until its temperature is below minus
5°F., is highly suitable for freezing fish, which will remain pala-
table and marketable for periods of five, six, or even seven
254 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
months. Brine freezing has disadvantages in that certain changes
are apparent after thawing (some external colour and bloom
are lost, the exposed gills and blood turn brown and the flesh
is very slightly impregnated with salt), but it is the most effective
method yet known for keeping fish for long periods. Brine freezing
involves a series of operations preliminary to cold storage, and a
costly plant, which must be close to the fishing-ground. The
process has been developed only in recent years, but there are
already three factory ships operating from Hull and Grimsby and
two land plants in Norway. In time tropical African fish may figure
as luxuries on European menus.
In various parts of Africa ordinary cold storage is used in the
transport of fresh fish to markets away from the source of supply,
but there are as yet few ice factories outside the Union. Most of
the railways, however, run cold storage vans for the quick trans-
port of food for European consumption. Nairobi, for instance,
receives a daily supply of fresh fish, alternately from Mombasa on
the coast and Kisumu on Lake Victoria. To increase such facilities,
it would seem that the time has come for the development of cold
storage transport by road in many tropical territories.
In South Africa the Fisheries Division is now embarking on
research into the question of refrigeration of fish and facilities have
been granted for this work at the Low Temperature Research
Laboratory of the Department of Agriculture and Forestry. In
connection with brine freezing of fish, an interesting experiment
has been started recently by the National Trawling and Fishing
Company of Capetown. This company has purchased the patent
rights for South Africa of the Soczété Anonyme de Congélation Indus-
trtelle du Poisson, and also a trawler fitted out for their process. By
means of rapid freezing the fish are preserved as they come out of
the sea.
The general practice of South African fishermen is to remove the
head, guts, and blood before placing the fish on ice. ‘This process is
satisfactory for most purposes, as the fishing-grounds are located
sufficiently close to the various trawler bases and the use of the
new method need not necessarily have revolutionary results. The
transportation facilities provided by the South African railways
and harbours are quite adequate, and even during the warm sum-
FISHERIES 255
mer months fish preserved by this method are transported over
long distances to inland centres with very little loss.
During the last few years the export of frozen crawfish tails to
overseas markets has been much increased. The tails are severed
from the bodies and are packed in boxes containing about 3olb.
each and frozen, and they are exported in the refrigerated cham-
bers. Most of the crawfish caught in South African waters are
canned for export, and recently research on canning problems has
been conducted with a view to indicating lines of improvement.
In the report by von Bonde and Marchand (1936) the whole
problem is analysed in detail and certain suggestions and recom-
mendations are made. This report follows on a bulletin prepared
by the same authors (1935) on the natural history and utilization
of the Cape crawfish.
The salt and smoke curing of fish for consumption at points
far removed from ports is a process which is likewise capable
of improvement through research and experiment. The influence
of climatic conditions both on the raw material and on the sub-
sequent keeping qualities of the finished product is an important
subject for study. There is some doubt whether fully cured fish
will be popular in the native market, but the European consumers,
many of whom are situated far from the source of fish supply, are
already interested in well-cured fish. In South Africa, the tech-
nology of smoking, drying, and salting fish is also under investiga-
tion, and during the last decade locally produced smoked fish has
gone far to replace the imported article.
During the fishing survey of Lake Victoria in 1927 experiments
were made with a view to producing ‘kippers’ from the ngege
(Tilapia esculenta) by salting and smoking. The process, which is
described by Graham (1929), gave promising results, but it has not
yet been taken up commercially. In most of Africa, the problems of
fish preservation are to a large extent localized, and depend on
climatic conditions, which vary so enormously from place to
place. In the west, for instance, a lightly cured fish, which would
remain good almost indefinitely in the intensely dry atmosphere
near the Saharan border, would be useless within a few days if
transported a few hundred miles south to the humid regions of the
Guinea Coast. On the eastern seaboard, however, Natal, with its
256 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
subtropical climate, has conditions which resemble those of the east
coast farther north, Portuguese East Africa, Tanganyika, and
Kenya. It would seem, therefore, that close co-operation between
these countries will be of advantage as the expansion of fisheries
proceeds.
CHAPTER X
ENTOMOLOGY!
INTRODUCTION
HE importance of insects for almost every aspect of African
development is too obvious to require much comment. In
this chapter two of the major insect pests, locusts, and tsetse flies,
will be considered first: then such other insects will be considered
as are pests of cultivation, of stored products, and carriers of dis-
eases which affect human beings or domestic animals.
Most people are inclined to regard tsetse flies, Glossina, as the
most important biting insects in Africa, in view of the fact that
they render nearly two-thirds of the tropical regions unproductive
or uninhabitable. But large areas are subject to persistent attack
by other biting insects which keep a large proportion of the popu-
lation at a low ebb or are responsible for heavy mortality. Of these
the most important are malaria mosquitoes, Anopheles, and the
plague fleas, especially Xenopsylla. The problems created by these
insects will, however, be more fully considered with medicine.
Entomology is linked so closely with other subjects that many of its
aspects are necessarily considered elsewhere. The principal refer-
ences are as follows: Chapter IV, on the relation of eco-climates to
insect pests; V, effects of termites on soil; VII, pests of forest trees;
VIII, tsetse flies in relation to game; XII, pests of crop plants;
XIV, pests of domestic animals; and XVI, insects as vectors of
human disease.
Once again it is necessary to stress the importance of taxonomic
studies, for practically no advance is possible without a ready
» The field of entomological research in Africa is so large and so technical that
arrangements were made through Dr. S. A. Neave, of the Imperial Institute of
Entomology, for a special memorandum on insect pests, other than locusts and tsetse
flies, to be prepared by Mr. S. J. E. Southgate, Assistant at the Institute. This memor-
andum has been freely used in drafting the later sections of this chapter,
258 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
means of naming insects. The importance of the British Museum
(Natural History), and similar museums in other countries, as
headquarters of taxonomic zoology has already been mentioned,
but the enormous variety ofinsects, of which some 7,500,000 species
are already known to science, creates difficulties peculiar to this
branch of the study. In Africa the insects of no single area are
well known, and indeed it is not known what insects are more or
less widely distributed. There is, moreover, except with regard to
a few groups of South African insects, such as the moths described
by Janse (1932-5), a serious lack of taxonomic monographs of a
type suitable for local use, so that research work is liable to con-
stant delays for reference to Europe.
The Imperial Institute of Entomology, in collaboration with the
British Museum specialists, is performing an extremely important
function in the identification of insects and as a clearing-house
for information, but if reference works were available, it would be
relieved of much laborious work.
Turning to the major insect pests, there are three principal
species of harmful locusts. These are commonly known as the
Desert locust, mainly in the north and east; the Migratory, mainly in
the west and east; and the Red, in the south-central and south. In
addition, some anxiety has been caused by another kind, the Brown
locust in South Africa. Locusts have probably caused more total
loss to Africa than any other factor, animal, vegetable, or mineral,
in their sudden and overwhelming incursions. The ravages of
locusts are, however, intermittent; when every green thing is eaten,
they have to move on, and even where breeding takes place, the
insects disappear after a time, persisting only in the few permanent
centres of dispersal in a different form and living quite a different
kind of life. The war against locusts consists, therefore, of a series
of intense but comparatively short battles, after which agricultural
activity again springs back into life. The intermittent character of
this pest may militate against the progress ofresearch, since interest
in this work is naturally less when there is no immediate danger
from the insects.
The war against tsetse flies, of which twenty-one kinds are
known in Africa, eight being really important, is of an utterly
different nature. It is a gruelling continuous fight, during which
ENTOMOLOGY 259
the flies may make inroads on inhabited areas along one frontier,
while on another they are themselves beaten back by the applica-
tion of scientific knowledge. ‘The war may occasionally take on
calamitous proportions with outbreaks of sleeping sickness, but in
general the fly is not responsible, as locusts are, for great loss of
ground in the progress of civilization, because land occupied by
fly has never been utilized by man. There are, however, excep-
tions to this generalization. In Southern, and perhaps also in Nor-
thern Rhodesia, the fly retreated from wide areas at the time of the
big rinderpest epizootic in 1902-3 and subsequently recovered a
part of its former ground. Sir David Bruce held that the fly’s
retreat was a direct result of the destruction of game, but not all
authorities now accept his view. In another part of Africa the
work of the Tanganyika Tsetse Department has recovered some
1,200 square miles of territory from the fly without any serious
game destruction, by means which are outlined below.
The field represented by the rest of entomology is so huge that
it is useless to single out instances where progress is held back by
insect pests and where it has taken leaps forward as a result of
pests successfully controlled. There is one aspect of the question
which deserves stressing, however, and that is biological control
by parasites or predacious insects. Many people think of insects
in general as harmful creatures, but examples are growing in num-
ber year by year where pests, whether animal or plant in origin,
have been stamped out or put under control by the use of beneficial
insects, usually in the form of parasites. Biological control of pests
has not found wide application yet in Africa, except in South Africa,
where the eucalyptus snout beetle and other pests have been con-
trolled (see later). Many experiments have been made in other
parts of the continent, notably in relation to the coffee mealy bug
in Kenya, but the application of this method is limited since it is
only likely to be successful with introduced pests. Though not
usually included under the designation of biological control, plants
can often be used with effect in the control of pests; thus dangerous
species of mosquitoes can often be controlled by planting trees to
shade their breeding places.
Another entomological problem, rather different from those con-
nected with pests of plants or vectors of disease, is that of damage
260 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
to buildings by termites. The losses caused by these insects through-
out Africa are great, yet little progress has been made in combating
their ravages by means of efficient wood preservatives, or by
adopting termite-proof methods of construction. The problem is
further complicated by the differences of habit among the various
species.
ORGANIZATION (British only)
The Imperial Institute of Entomology, under the direction of Sir
Guy Marshall, serves as a clearing-house for information concern-
ing applied entomology throughout the Empire. With its head-
quarters at the British Museum (Natural History), itisin close touch
with the taxonomic entomologists on the museum staff. The Review
of Applied Entomology, published monthly by the Institute in two
sections—A. Agricultural, and B. Medical and Veterinary—con-
tains abstracts of all the important papers in economic entomology
published throughout the world. Without the Review it would be
quite impossible for entomologists engaged upon these subjects in
Africa to keep up to date. The Bulletin of Entomological Research,
published quarterly by the Institute, is kept for original contribu-
tions that bear directly upon the subjects covered by the Review.
The Imperial Institute of Entomology, together with the Imperial
Mycological Institute at Kew, which formerly were independently
organized, in 1933 came into line with the eight Imperial Agricul-
tural Bureaux (see Chapter XI). They are now under the control
of the Executive Council of the Imperial Agricultural Bureaux,
so that co-operation between all the central institutes dealing with
Empire agriculture is secured.
Under the general direction of the Institute of Entomology is the
laboratory at Farnham Royal, where researches on living insects
of economic importance are undertaken, and which supplies insects
by the thousand required in the Empire for purposes of biological
control.
South Africa has a considerable number of entomologists in the
Department of Agriculture and also a special organization for
research on locusts, but the colonial territories have only from one
to four entomologists in agricultural and veterinary departments,
ENTOMOLOGY 261
whose normal duties are to study individual pests. Many of the
medical departments also maintain entomologists for special study
ef such insects as mosquitoes, fleas, lice, and other vectors of disease.
A general idea of the equipment of individual British territories
for insect work is provided by the following list:
ENTOMOLOGICAL STAFF
Plant Animal Tsetse
Territory Industry Industry research
Union of South Africa a 19 3
Swaziland ae i. oe I
Southern Rhodesia
_ Northern Rhodesia
Nyasaland
Tanganyika
Kenya = oe - 3 I
Uganda
Nigeria
Gold Coast
picmra leone -2: a
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
Empire Cotton
Growing Corporation A 3
Oo me & N
ps
1)
Co =, Ft on
The difficulty which individual territories have in providing an
adequate staff of technical research officers has been emphasized
in earlier chapters. In connection with forestry it was suggested
that great advantage would be derived from the attachment of
research officers to the Imperial Institute of Forestry ready to
undertake short-term research in Africa. A similar scheme in
regard to the Imperial Institute of Entomology might well receive
consideration.
LOCUSTS
One branch of the Imperial Institute of Entomology, developed
since the recent overwhelming locust invasions in Africa, is con-
cerned with the international locust organization. A sub-com-
mittee on locust control was set up by the Committee of Civil
-Research in April 1929, to consider the desert locust. This became
a committee of the Economic Advisory Council in January 1930,
when the Committee of Civil Research was absorbed into that
body, and in July 1931, its terms of reference were extended to
262 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
cover other tropical African locusts. Scientific knowledge on this
subject is due in a large measure to the researches of Mr. B. P.
Uvarov, who originally worked out in Russia the basic idea of the
‘phase theory”! of locusts. In his capacity as a member of the Com-
mittee on locust control and as senior assistant in the Imperial
Institute of Entomology, Mr. Uvarov has been largely responsible
for the valuable reports of the committee. Uvarov has also sum-
marized the position in a short article (1934), so that only an
outline need be given here.
International conferences on measures against locusts have taken
place in 1931, 1932, 1934, and 1936 (Conference, International
Locust, 1934), and it was agreed in 1931 that the Imperial Insti-
tute of Entomology should be the international centre for anti-locust
research in all Africa. Monthly reports are now sent in from every
affected territory except Abyssinia. These are all analysed and
plotted at the Institute, with the result that the annual surveys
prepared by Uvarov (Economic Advisory Council 1933-7) include
a most illuminating series of maps showing the movements and
incidence of each species. The accumulation of these data 1s
leading to conclusions concerning the location of the all-important
centres of dispersal of the three species. ‘The suspected centres
are in sparsely inhabited and inaccessible areas, and in order to
locate them exactly and to investigate methods of early control,
intensive field investigation by entomologists devoted entirely to the
problem on hand is essential. This has been financed from funds
contributed half from British colonies and half formerly from the
Empire Marketing Board, and later from the Carnegie Corporation,
which enabled the following officers to be maintained in the field:
Mr. H. B. Johnston and Mr. D. R. Buxton in Uganda and neigh-
1 Uvarov proved that locusts in general show a fluctuation between two phases,
solitary and migratory, the latter appearing at intervals and dying down after a period
of intense activity. The solitary locusts live in restricted special environments, and
when they become too concentrated change into the migratory phase. ‘Thus the
all-important task in locust control is to locate the centres where the solitary phase
can change into the migratory one. The locust cycle can be expressed in a diagram :—
Dissociating =
ee \
Migratory Solitary
phase phase
AG eee” 2
ENTOMOLOGY 263
bouring territories working on the migratory locust, Mr. R. C.
Maxwell-Darling in the Sudan and Arabia on the desert locust,
and Mr. A. P.G. Michelmorein Northern Rhodesia and Tanganyika
on the red locust. ‘The Union Government have not contributed
funds to this central organization, but the Union Department of
Agriculture has itself done important work and has contributed to
the general scheme by sending an officer, Mr. Lea, to work on the
red locust in East Africa during 1935-6. The team of workers
mentioned were enabled to study in the field till 1937, when,
however, the funds were exhausted, and only one, Michel-
more, remained for a year to add to fundamental knowledge of
locusts.
It has already been pointed out that interest in the financing of
locust research is apt to diminish as the outbreaks abate. But there
are strong indications that locusts will prove, like other animals,
to have a more or less definite periodicity of population. There is
a possibility that the locust cycle comes round about every eleven
years, and it may be correlated with the eleven-year cycle of sun-
spots, temperature, evaporation, and lake levels which has been
referred to in Chapter IV. In any case it seems certain that the
cycle will come round again, and that as population and cultivated
areas increase, the damage done will be progressively more serious
in each outbreak. The continuation of research in the intermediate
years between the outbreaks is, therefore, of the first importance.
Above all, field work should be continued until the central head-
quarters of the solitary phase of each species are located in detail,
and subsequently a constant watch should be kept on them so that
swarming can be forecast and perhaps nipped in the bud.
In addition to the locust work centred in the Imperial Institute
a number of other independent researches are in progress. In
South Africa, Professor J. C. Faure of Pretoria has been appointed
Director of Locust Research for the Union. With four entomolo-
gists and two assistant entomologists he is engaged in field and
laboratory studies on the bionomics of locusts and in collating data
from all parts of the Union. In an important work by Faure (1935)
the details of the red locust’s life history are established. The
government entomologists in Nigeria, Mr. Golding, Mr. Lean, and
Mr. Gwynn, have made a special study of locusts in the suspected
264 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
outbreak centres near Lake Chad and in the French Sudan
(Golding 1934 and 1935; Lean 1936).
For the French possessions there is a centralizing committee
in Algeria working in close co-operation with the London Institute.
The French organized special missions to investigate the French
African territories with regard to the migratory and desert locusts.
M. Zolotarevsky is in charge and is assisted by another entomolo-
gist and a meteorologist, while another government entomologist
is under his instructions.
The degree of co-operation in locust research between Nigeria
and these French territories is considerable, and while Mr. Lean
was permitted to investigate certain areas in the French Sudan, a
French mission with M. Zolotarevsky at the head has visited the
Chad area together with Mr. Golding.
In the Congo an entomologist, M. Bredu, is at work on the red
and migratory locusts, and he has explored several important areas
in the Eastern province, as well as in the Katanga. In Mozam-
bique laboratory work on the red locust is progressing at Lourengo
Marques, and the Italian Government have throughout shown
great interest in the investigations.
The essential preliminary to contro] measures is a system for
forecasting the movements of swarms, but before this can be estab-
lished the effect of weather on movements must be known. As
suggested at the 1934 locust conference in London, many data
could be collected by recording locust swarms simultaneously with
climatic conditions at all first and second class meteorological
stations, and this is now being carried out in some territories, while
arrangements have been made with the Meteorological Office for
preparation of monthly weather maps for the whole continent of
Africa, which can be then directly compared with the maps of
locust movements prepared at the Imperial Institute of Entomo-
logy.
Parasites of locusts, which could be used for purposes of bio-
logical control, have been sought by many workers. ‘The most
hopeful so far discovered is a fungus (Empusa gryllae). ‘Thisis known
to take heavy toll of swarms in several parts of Africa, but a means
ofincreasing its depredations artificially has not yet been discovered,
and the prospects are not very great.
ENTOMOLOGY 265
In order to study locusts in the laboratory, consignments of the
living insects and their eggs have been brought to this country by
air on several occasions. They breed readily in captivity so that
detailed experiments on their bionomics are possible. Such have
already been made at Pretoria University, by the Imperial Insti-
tute of Entomology in the British Museum (Natural History),
the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, and
Cambridge and Birmingham Universities. In particular, Professor
J. CG. Faure, working at Pretoria in 1932, succeeded in changing
each species from the solitary into the migratory phase under
experimental conditions. If only work such as this could be carried
on in laboratories simultaneously with field work at full strength,
from now until the next wholesale outbreaks occur, knowledge
might be expected to have advanced far enough to have real effect
in control when occasion demands.
A recent development, which promises a certain degree of
success in the defence of crops, is spraying flying swarms with
poison dust from aircraft. Experiments with different poisonous
substances for the purpose have been made on living locusts in
the Sudan and in England, under the Economic Advisory Council,
and the process was tested to some extent during 1934 in Rhodesia
on flying swarms with the aid of Imperial Airways craft fitted for
the purpose. The Union is experimenting by spraying settled
swarms with a more simple apparatus. There are many technical
difficulties with regard to air spraying; arsenical powders, for
example, are dangerous to stock and to man, and cannot at present
be guaranteed not to cake. The present situation with regard to
this aspect of locust destruction is that some degree of success has
been attained with arsenic, but a technique for its safe use in
populated country has not yet been evolved. Ifa substitute which
is non-poisonous to man and beast can be found, dusting from
aeroplanes will have great possibilities. In the meantime, baits
made of bran, or other similar material, moistened with arsenical
solution remain the best method for extermination of locust
swarms.
Up to now measures of direct control have seldom proved
efficacious, except in highly cultivated areas, and it is somewhat
anomalous that the sums of money expended in the wholesale
266 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
slaughter of locusts are out of all proportion to the sums spent on
research. Such measures can never prove really effective since
agricultural country, where locusts can be reached by bands of
natives, adjoins much wider areas where the insects can feed and
breed at peace. In settled territories extensive control operations
have sometimes been organized by governments as a response to
public feeling that something ought to be done rather than in a
belief'in the efficacy of the methods. No more than some measure
of defence for standing crops can be expected from these attempts
to control widespread invasion.
Therefore, the efforts towards a successful solution of the locust
problem are at present concentrated on the discovery of the ‘out-
break centres’, where the transformation of the harmless solitary
locusts into the swarming phase can occur. The results of the
international investigations in this respect are most encouraging.
Indeed, it has been definitely found that the invasions of the
migratory locust can arise only from a single restricted area on
the Middle Niger; that the swarms of the red locust originate
from two or three areas in Tanganyika and Northern Rhodesia
which have been defined; and that the desert locust can trans-
form into the gregarious phase only in certain parts of the Red
Sea coasts. In contrast to the relative inaccessibility of the out-
break centres of the above-named species, the brown locust of
South Africa breeds permanently in the comparatively well-known
region of the Karroo.
. The conditions leading to the transformation of phases in the
field have also been elucidated to a great extent, so that it appears
already possible to embark on the next stage of the problem, viz.
the establishment of permanent organizations for the regular
supervision of all known and suspected outbreak areas, with a view
to suppressing incipient outbreaks as soon as any signs of phase
transformation are observed. There is every reason to think that
in this way it may be possible to prevent the appearance of the
swarming phase and the invasions of wide regions by its swarms.
The costs ofsuch permanent preventive organizations are estimated
at only a small fraction of the expenditure required to combat
swarms when they spread, and they should be regarded as insur-
ance premiums against incalculable losses. The difficulties of
ENTOMOLOGY 267
establishing these organizations, which should be financed and con-
trolled internationally, are obviously very great, but failing this,
African agriculture will continue to pay heavy periodical tribute
to locusts. The matter is urgent, since definite signs of the approach
of a new swarming period of the desert locust have been observed
on the Red Sea coast of the Sudan during the winters of 1936-7
and 1937-8 and local measures to suppress the incipient outbreak
may prove to be insufficient.
TSETSE FLIES
The part of Africa inhabited by tsetse flies includes most of the
tropics, and is a belt of country nearly 2,000 miles wide. The nor-
thern boundary runs very roughly from the mouth of the Senegal
River through Lake Chad and Lake Rudolf to the coast of Italian
Somaliland, and in the south the boundary bisects Angola, runs
southward along the boundary between that territory and Northern
Rhodesia, and then bisects Southern Rhodesia and Mozambique,
west to east. The bulk of the land between the boundaries is in-
fested by one or more of the twenty-one species of Glossina, and
consequently by trypanosomiasis of domestic animals and of man,
diseases which are transferred from host to host by the fly.
In the British territories, trypanosomiasis of cattle, often called
Nagana fever in Eastern Africa, affects a very wide area, particu-
larly in ‘Tanganyika of which two-thirds 1s under fly, the Rhodesias,
Nigeria, and the Gold Coast. In these territories the treatment of
the disease and possibilities of fly control occupy much of the atten-
tion of veterinary departments, and of the special Tsetse Depart-
ment in Tanganyika. Study of this problem has served to show its
great complexity.
Human trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) is due either to
Trypanosoma gambiense or Trypanosoma rhodesiense, and the two forms
of the disease are now known to involve rather different problems.
Gambiense transmission has been shown to be from man to man,
through the agency of tsetse fly; rhodestense is probably disseminated
in the same way, but it is also thought to be capable of transmission
by wild animals which carry it in a dormant state. Hence in the
control of the latter type of sleeping sickness, which is prevalent
268 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
in Tanganyika, it has been considered important to bring natives
out of scattered villages in fly-infested woodland, and to establish
them in large clearings where the fly cannot live.
The organizing centre for research in British Africa is the Tsetse
Fly Committee of the Economic Advisory Council, which, like the
Committee on Locust Control, was created in 1925, as a sub-
committee of the Committee of Civil Research. Its report (1933)
on developments in the treatment of human and animal trypano-
somiasis and in tsetse fly control in the period of 1925-31, repre-
sents a valuable summary of the position. The special problems of
trypanosomiasis and tsetse fly control in Tanganyika, have more
recently been under examination by a sub-committee.
Mr. C. F. M. Swynnerton (1936), late Director of the Tsetse
Research Department in that territory, wrote a monumental
work on every aspect of tsetse flies in East Africa. The bulk of
the volume is devoted to detailed accounts of results of work in
Tanganyika, mainly during 1931 to 1934, but the position in
other East African territories is summarized. Since this can easily
be referred to, only the most important results of work in Tangan-
yika will be mentioned here, and the original publications of
members of the tsetse department are not included in the biblio-
graphy except in a few cases such as the work by Potts (1937)
dealing with the distribution of tsetse flies in Tanganyika, pub-
lished since Swynnerton’s volume. For Southern Rhodesia and
Nigeria where there is no such published account the position is
described more fully.
Methods of control by the reclamation of areas which have
hitherto been overrun with fly, are being developed in three prin-
cipal areas of British Africa: in Tanganyika by the special Tsetse
Department under Mr. C. F. M. Swynnerton!; in Southern Rho-
desia under Mr. R. W. Jack, the Government Entomologist; and
in Nigeria, where there is a Sleeping Sickness Branch of the Medi-
cal Department, with Dr. T. A. M. Nash?, as Entomologist. Results
from each of these areas are reviewed briefly below. Considerable
success has been achieved, but it is important to bear in mind,
1, While this volume was in the press the tragic news was received that Mr.
Swynnerton, together with Mr. Burtt, botanist in the department, were killed in an
aeroplane accident near Shinyanga in May 1938.
* Formerly a member of the tsetse department in Tanganyika.
ANGLO=
EGYPTIAN
YELL
S WES
The distribution of the
TSETSE FLIES
in Africa
English Miles
Vx
ie ee gt ie ri Ca
1 ine ai) halos
a KOSS:
° 500 1000 San SY
CAPE
p é é PROVINCE
YA Area infested with Tsetse ce }
10 West Longitude O East Longitude 10
Map 2. The distribution of the Tsetse Flies in Africa. (After Swynnerton, 1936.)
eto 4S
} a4 a a
f
Se M4 ©. Se
a tens a adit
ENTOMOLOGY 269
in view of the growing importance of soil erosion in Africa, that
unless or until the areas reclaimed from tsetse fly can be protected
from misuse, reclamation may defeat its own ends.
The eradication of the flies may be sought through the destruc-
tion either of their food supply, or of their habitat. Attempts to
starve the flies out of wide areas by wholesale destruction of animals
have been tried in several places, as mentioned in Chapter VIII,
but, except in Southern Rhodesia, such methods have proved
either impossible or undesirable. In Tanganyika experiments and
observations have been initiated on the relations of the flies with
their food-animals, and the conditions under which control of the
latter may be necessary.
Flies can be completely eradicated from any country by clearing
the vegetation with the axe, but this method has serious drawbacks:
among others, its employment on a large scale is prohibitively
expensive. Nevertheless, remarkable results have been achieved,
especially in the Shinyanga district of Tanganyika, where the
natives have been induced to reclaim their land by voluntary
labour. For the past nine years thousands of natives have turned
out annually for a fortnight’s clearing work, with the result that
large areas have been reclaimed. Up to 1933 some 5,000 natives
had been able to return to land in one chieftainship from which
they had previously been driven by an advance on the part of
the flies. Eradication of fly by organized grass fires without
clearing the bush, which has been very effective, has limitations, in
that continuity of the grass cover must be adequate for suc-
cessful burning; but there are said to be many hundreds of
square miles in Tanganyika and Southern Uganda suitable for
this method of control. Fires are permanently effective only if they
can be carried up to and across barriers impassible to fly. Such
barriers have been provided in part of Tanganyika by clearing
broad bands of vegetation, the country being thereby divided into
blocks, in each of which the fly can be attacked with no risk of
reinfestation.
As a subsidiary method of attack, remarkable advances have
been made in the wholesale catching of fly by traps. <A trap
patented by Mr. R. H. Harris has been tried extensively in Zulu-
land and now in parts of the Congo; others, devised on a different
270 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
principle and at lower cost, have been the subject of experiment
by the Tanganyika Tsetse Research Department for some years.
This department has also devised screens on which the flies are
caught by hand, and which, carried about through the concentra-
tion grounds of the flies, are more effective than any trap, and like
the traps attract great numbers of female flies.
It has been surmised from laboratory experiments that the
females are apt to be so pestered by males whenever they appear
that abortion and sterility may result. Hence it has been suggested
that only females should be caught and killed. An experiment to
test this hypothesis was prepared in Tanganyika: females were to
be caught and killed, all males to be liberated, and also large
numbers of males were to be imported. The latest observations,
however, suggest that the hypothesis is unfounded, besides which
the skill of the females in hiding away would probably defeat the
experiment.
Two members of the tsetse department, T. A. M. Nash and
C. H. N. Jackson, have shown that most species of tsetse flies have
permanent or seasonal foci of concentration where environmental
conditions are most suitable for them, and that G. morsztans has
also foci that are merely its feeding-grounds. During the rainy
seasons the flies spread into the surrounding country from these
foci, to which they are driven back by harder conditions in the dry
seasons. Attacks directed against these centres will, therefore, pro-
duce the maximum results. It has been shown that trapping by
itself, however intensively concentrated, can never effect complete
extermination even in the case of G. pallidipes and palpalis.
Another recent discovery of importance is that of the effects of
densification of vegetation. Experiments in Tanganyika have shown
that, if a patch of tsetse-infected bush is protected from fires for
several seasons, the growth becomes so dense as to be highly un-
favourable to certain species of fly. Thus in one block of four
square miles which was protected from fire for three years the
numbers of G. swynnertoni were reduced by nearly 70 per cent.,
although the game in the area increased slightly in the same period.
At the same time in a second block, where grass burning proceeded
normally, the flies increased by over 300 per cent.
The above brief outline of the practical results achieved by the
ENTOMOLOGY O71
tsetse department includes few of the ecological discoveries on
which their methods are based. Fly ecology is being studied inten-
sively by a research staff, consisting of three entomologists, a general
zoologist and a botanist, and includes researches on the species of
principal importance in the territory—Glossina morsitans, G. swyn-
nertoni, G. pallidipes, G. austeni, and G. palpalis. ‘The subjects of
research fall roughly into three categories: 1. Association of tsetse
with physical and biological complexes of the environment: rela-
tions with man, animals, plant communities; the effects of seasonal
change, parasites, predators, and fire. 2. Experimental alteration
of physical and biological environment: by firing grass and bush,
altering plant succession, altering the animal population qualita-
tively and quantitatively. 3. Biological control: nothing of real
value is yet known, though two parasites have been tried, one of
them exhaustively.
In Southern Rhodesia the main tsetse fly problem 1s created
by the tendency of G. morsitans, which disappeared from the vast
tracts of country after the rinderpest epizootic in 1896, to spread
from the small areas where it survived. Portions of the country
from which the fly receded have been occupied by European
agriculturalists and in most of this potential fly area natives have
acquired cattle. Whilst the natives in these areas have mostly
lived in fly country for generations, and suffer the loss of the cattle
they have acquired without exhibiting any desire to leave their
ancestral homes, European settlement is inevitably driven back
before the encroaching fly. Contact between fly and European
settlements was first established in 1918, since when some farms
have been evacuated and a great many more have been threatened
with disaster. To give some idea of the rate of fly encroachment,
at one time it was estimated that the pest was adding about 1,000
square miles to its territory annually.
The country actually infested with tsetse at the present time
lies mostly at low altitudes and includes the Zambesi valley. For
reasons of climate and of its poor fertility, this land is unfitted for
European occupation, and is capable of supporting only a small
and scattered native population. Only small areas are worth
heavy expenditure, and at present there is insufficient pressure of
population, either European or native, to make urgent the recla-
IB 2 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
mation of even the limited fertile tracts. The immediate problem
is therefore one of defence rather than of attack. Itis not the 20,000
square miles of actual fly area with which the agricultural depart-
ment is concerned, so much as the 30,000 square miles of more
valuable country in the northern part of the territory, which the
pest has threatened to overrun. The fly front extends for about
600 miles from the Wankie district in the west to the Darwin
district in the east. Some 150 miles of this front are held to be pro-
tected by physical features, so that about 450 miles remain to be
defended.
In view particularly of the ruin and dislodgment of European
settlers, prompt and effective action, of an extensive rather than
an intensive nature, had become imperative some years ago. The
only measure which seemed likely to achieve the object in view
within a sufficiently short period, and without involving excessive
expenditure, was to drive back the game by organized hunting, in
the hope that the fly would retire from country depleted of its
food. At the present day a cordon, in which the game is kept at a
minimum by controlled hunting, is maintained along practically
the whole of the 450 miles of open fly front.
The experiment has been carried out in the face of criticism
both in Rhodesia and elsewhere, but the results, which are des-
cribed by Jack (1933, 34, 35a) and Chorley (1936) have been satis-
factory. ‘Trypanosomiasis due to G. morsitans has now been practi-
cally eliminated from areas in European occupation; the advance of
the fly has been changed to retreat; over 2,000 square miles of
country have been freed from the pest, or at most are subject near
their limit to the intrusion of an occasional fly from the infested
country beyond; and cattle are now running freely in areas from
which they were eliminated by the encroaching fly comparatively
few years ago.
A smaller problem of a different nature exists along a short
section of the Southern Rhodesian-Portuguese border in the Mel-
setter district. ‘The Rhodesian side of the border has been subject
to incursions of fly, mostly G. paliidipes from Portuguese territory.
Some farms have been evacuated on account of the heavy mor-
tality of cattle. It was decided to try the effect of a forest clearing
along the border, an undertaking which was rendered feasible by
ENTOMOLOGY 2773
the fact that not more than ro per cent of the ground was covered
by continuous forest. The clearing, which varies in width up to
about a mile, was begun in 1932, and by 1934 had been extended
to a length of some thirty-five miles. Indications to date show that
it has been remarkably effective: trypanosomiasis has died down
to near the vanishing point on the Rhodesian side of the border,
and several evacuated farms have been reoccupied with consider-
able numbers of cattle.
Southern Rhodesia has a specific Tsetse Fly Act (1929), which
empowers the Government to control traffic leaving the fly area
and to rid it of any accompanying flies. On routes which carry
wheeled traffic, suitable chambers are erected for the treatment
of motor vehicles with petroleum-pyrethrum sprays. ‘There is a
gauze-covered ante-chamber, in which any flies which leave the
vehicle can be caught. On routes carrying only pedestrian and
cyclist traffic, smaller gauze cages are provided and native guards
are on duty at each station. Fourteen such stations have been
established, but with the gradual retrogression of the fly, three have
already been discontinued, and there is a prospect that six or seven
more will follow at an early date.
Whilst the measures put into operation against the encroach-
ment of G. morsitans in the territory have been conspicuously effec-
tive, the constant destruction of wild life is highly repugnant, and
it is felt in Southern Rhodesia that every effort should be made to
discover alternative measures which can be used gradually to
replace the game cordon, now that the flies’ advance has been
controlled. Field work in the nature of superficial observations,
but including the discovery of the natural breeding sites of G. morst-
tans, has been proceeding in the colony during the past quarter of a
century, whilst more detailed work in reference to the bionomics
of the fly, studying the effect of delayed and controlled grass fires,
seeking measures of biological control, testing the Harris and other
traps and so forth, has also been carried out from time to time.
Funds have now been provided for continuous laboratory research
into the effect of environmental factors, particularly temperature
and humidity, on the vital processes and behaviour of the local
tsetse. Most of the necessary apparatus has now been assembled at
Salisbury, and some progress has already been made. It is hoped
K
274 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
that this laboratory research may point the way to promising lines
of investigation later under field conditions, which may lead to
something practicable in the way of alternative measures of con-
trolling G. morsitans.
In Nigeria the problem of tsetse research is rather different,
being at present connected more with trypanosomiasis of human
beings than of cattle. The medical aspects of the problem are
considered in Chapter XVI. A special Sleeping Sickness Service,
which includes entomological research, is maintained by the Medi-
cal Department. Dr. Lester is in charge of this, with offices at
Kaduna, the capital of the Northern Provinces, and a laboratory is
maintained at Gadau, with a medical officer and an entomologist,
Dr. T. A. M. Nash; a second entomologist has been appointed
from 1938. There are only three species of Glossina in Nigeria of
economic importance: namely G. morsitans, G. tachinoides and G.
palpalis. Of these G. morsitans is the least important because it
only occurs in very thinly populated areas where big game still
survives in large numbers. G. tachinoides and G. palpalis, on the
other hand, thrive in the densely populated areas where man and
reptiles form the primary food supply. Since big game is the
reservoir from which tsetse become infected with the trypanosomes
that affect domestic animals, it is mainly in the thinly populated
areas that the fly are highly infected—areas in which little damage
can be done. Probably the bulk of cattle trypanosomiasis origin-
ates when the Fulani drive herds of cattle along trade routes
through these big game areas. Owing, however, to the dense popu-
lation in most parts of Nigeria, which limits the areas where big
game is abundant, cattle trypanosomiasis presents less serious prob-
lems than elsewhere in Africa.
In the Northern Provinces all three species concentrate in the
dense vegetation bordering streams and rivers, to which they are
driven by the intense heat and desiccating atmosphere of the open
country. Since the wet season in that country is very short, fly
cannot spread far away from the streams before the next dry
season drives them back to the riverine vegetation. The distribu-
tion of Glossina is thus linear, following the streams, and the inter-
vening country is fly-free. The enormous fly belts typical of Eastern
Africa do not occur, solely because the West African dry season is
ENTOMOLOGY 275
so severe that the woodland savannah cannot support the tsetse.
The primary carriers of human trypanosomiasis are G. tachi-
noides in the Northern Provinces and G. palpalis in the Southern,
which can exist and thrive in thickly populated areas. There is
an intermediate zone where both species are of nearly equal impor-
tance. Up to 1931 it was thought that sleeping sickness occurred
in definite belts throughout Nigeria, and that continued campaigns
for medical treatment would reduce it to control. It has since been
found, however, that sleeping sickness is not limited to fixed belts,
and that the proportion of infected people in certain provinces,
notably Zaria, where over a quarter of a million people have been
examined and 20 per cent. were found to have sleeping sickness,
is far too high to be controlled except by a very large organization.
There is evidence, moreover, that the incidence of the disease has
increased considerably in Nigeria under British occupation, since,
under its greater security, the people have left their large villages
and have scattered into small bush-hamlets, thereby coming into
more frequent contact with the fly. Accordingly the Colonial
Development Fund has accepted an application for assistance in
a large sleeping sickness and tsetse campaign, to include an exten-
sion of the present research organization.
It is clear that protective measures, aiming at reducing the man-
fly contact, give the most hopeful lines of attack. The eradication
of fly from native villages by clearing the banks of streams is an
essential measure. Some provision for this has been made in the
new Sleeping Sickness Ordinance (Nigeria 1937), partly based on
the Uganda Ordinance, which has been acted on for many years.
The choice of methods to be employed against the fly depends,
of course, on the results of research into the ecology of the flies.
The original researches at Gadau, carried out by Drs. Lloyd and
Johnson (now Sir Walter Johnson) (1923), provided a general
survey of the problem in Northern Nigeria. The work of Nash
(1930, 33, 34, 35, 37) during the past few years is of special interest
in relation to control measures. His studies of the climates in the
environment of the flies, both in the field and laboratory, show that
the maximum shade temperature which G. morsitans and G. tachi-
noides can withstand is 106°F., and since this temperature is often
exceeded in the woodland in the drier parts of Nigeria, the fly
276 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
must resort to the shade of dense vegetation along streams in
order to survive during a large part of the dry season. Accordingly
conditions are less favourable to the fly in Nigeria than in Tangan-
yika, where it need never leave the woodland.
For these reasons, if the stream-banks were cleared wherever
native villages are situated, those villages would become practically
free from fly; man-fly contact would be decreased, and a few human
carriers would no longer be a menace to the rest of the inhabitants.
But far more efficient and easier to control would be the concentra-
tion of population in each district into a central area where all
streams were cleared. These settled areas would be linked together
by trade routes rendered fly-free by clearings made at all places
where the path crosses streams clothed with riverine vegetation.
The success of such projects will depend to a large extent on 1m-
proved methods of agriculture, which will keep the land in perma-
nent cultivation; these methods which include mixed farming and
ploughing with oxen are under investigation by the agricultural
department in Nigeria; they are considered in Chapter XI.
In the Southern Provinces of Nigeria, where G. palpalis is the
prevalent species, the whole problem is different. Sleeping sickness
seems to have been endemic there for a much longer period, so
that the population as a whole has acquired a measure of resistance.
The possibility of control by modifying vegetation is less in this
region; the rate of growth is so great that it is impossible to keep
any area in the rain forest belt thoroughly clear of vegetation. Yet
the densification of vegetation is also difficult to organize, since
wherever man exists he cuts down the forest growth for purposes of
shifting cultivation. Here, as in the north, efforts to concentrate
the population and to introduce a settled system of agriculture
appear to offer the best hope of controlling the fly.
Another important piece of work was carried out at Gadau by
Professor P. A. Buxton and Mr. D. J. Lewis (1934) of the London
School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, during a few months’
visit. By breeding tsetse in the laboratory under controlled con-
ditions they confirmed the view that humidity is the principal
limiting factor for reproduction. Temperature is also important,
and at certain times of the year under natural conditions the sur-
face temperature of the soil is so nearly lethal to pupae that partial
ENTOMOLOGY 277
bush clearing would probably be sufficient to eradicate fly. This
was demonstrated also by Nash in Tanganyika, by exposing pupae
in the bush at different depths in the soul.
The Nigerian forestry department has also for some years been
studying the relation of forest protection to tsetse control and has
urged that scattered villages in tsetse fly areas should be concen-
trated and the remaining forest land proclaimed Forest (Tsetse)
Reserves, in which experiments in protection by densification of
vegetation and grass-burning should be undertaken.
The fact that tsetse flies have received more attention in Tan-
ganyika, Southern Rhodesia, and Nigeria gives the impression
that the actual problem is more important in these territories than
elsewhere. This is probably not the case, however, though govern-
ments in other territories have not yet come to regard the problem
as one for immediate attack, for various reasons. Thus in Northern
Rhodesia, Captain Pitman (1934) concluded from his faunal survey
that the tsetse problem looms just as large as in the neighbouring
territory of Tanganyika. It seems that no intensive survey of the
position in Northern Rhodesia has been carried out, but it is
generally assumed that fly has made encroachments in two areas
with heavy loss of cattle.
Work in East Africa is referred to and summarized in the pro-
ceedings of the conference on the co-ordination of tsetse and try-
panosomiasis research, published by the Conference of East African
Governors (1936). In Nyasaland the medical entomologist, Mr.
W. A. Lamborn, centred at Fort Johnson, works on fly and sleeping
sickness from many points of view. Among other studies he has
proved, in collaboration with Professor J. G. Thomson of the
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, that trypano-
somes can be transferred accidentally by flies which do not suck
blood (1934). In Kenya several experiments on measures of
control are in progress, involving co-operation between the
division of animal industry, the medical department and the
tsetse fly department of Tanganyika, and the medical entomo-
logist, Mr. C. B. Symes (1935), has summarized the work on G.
palpalis in Kenya. An experiment on the use of traps against
G. palpalis is taking place on an island in Lake Victoria near
Kisumu. The area of the Lambwe River in North Kavirondo,
278 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
which was highly populated prior to 1902 but has since been
entirely depopulated, is also the site of a campaign against G.
pallidipes. The riverine woods are being split into blocks by clear-
ings at fords, and then the flies are eradicated by traps and hand-
catching from each block separately. In this locality the aerial
survey, made in connection with the Kakamega mining area, has
proved invaluable. One of the entomologists from the Tanganyika
department has also been stationed at Kilifi on the Kenya coast
for research work on G. pallidipes.
In Uganda, after the historic epidemics of sleeping sickness at
the beginning of the century, much pioneer work was carried
out on tsetse flies by Bruce and others, and, as a result, the entire
native population was evacuated from large areas bordering the
great lakes and rivers, and including several of the islands in Lake
Victoria, these regions being declared tsetse reserves. In this work
the name of Dr. (now Professor) G. D. Hale Carpenter figures
prominently. Dr. Duke and the staff of his laboratory for research
on trypanosomiasis carried out fundamental investigations up to
1935, when the laboratory was closed down. Present work on fly
by the government officers is restricted mainly to the application
of existing knowledge to local problems. Organized fires, carried
out by the veterinary department over many districts, have proved
their value in reducing the incidence of fly, and a map of the Pro-
tectorate, showing the distribution of G. palpalis on the lake shores
and rivers, G. morsitans in the south-west, west Nile, and part of the
Northern Provinces, G. pallidipes in the south-east of the Eastern
Province and in the Toro district, and G. fuscipleuris in the forests
of the Western Province, has been published (Uganda 1934, D.R.
p- 18). Experiments have been carried out on the use of artificial
shelters for trapping pupae, and also traps for flies. In 1935-7, Dr.
Mellanby has been in Uganda experimenting with G. palpalis. The
results (Mellanby 1936 and 1937) may cause some change in out-
look on the control of this species of fly, in particular with regard
to the size of clearings required at river crossings and watering
places.
In the Gold Coast the conditions appear to be very similar to
those of Nigeria. In the dry Northern Territories the chief problem
seems to be that of G. tachinoides and G. morsitans, while the more
ENTOMOLOGY 270)
densely vegetated Ashanti and the Colony itself provide a suitable
environment for G. longipalpis, which renders the keeping of cattle
out of the question, except for the dwarf breeds which are resistant
to trypanosomiasis. Research here has been carried out by the
veterinary department at Pong-Tamale, under Mr. J. Stewart,
who has produced a report on the work (1937). Studies of tsetse
have been made, and it has been established, as in Nigeria, that
the fly occurs along the rivers except during the rainy seasons
when it migrates into the dry country. An intensive study has
been made also of the trees and other vegetation of the savannah,
known locally as orchard bush, and as a result, a system of clearing
has been worked out on the area of country grazed by the herds of
cattle kept at Pong-Tamale: belts of land half a mile wide are
cleared along the water-courses, and the brushwood is burned
over the stumps of those trees which are most'capable of rapid
regeneration. It is claimed that this clearing along streams can
be carried out at a very low cost. Nearly the whole area of the
Pong-T'amale farm has been rendered free from fly, and losses from
trypanosomiasis among the herds have been reduced to a very
low level (Plate iv, p. 296.)
In those colonies comprising French West Africa, where sleeping
sickness is prevalent, intensive treatment campaigns have been
carried out, as described in Chapter XVI. The distribution of fly
has been ascertained in many areas by special missions sent out
for the purpose, notably those of Mm. Bonet, Roubard, and Jamot
during 1906-16 and 1932-5. A map (Afrique Occidentale francais
1935) has been published, showing the available data for all the
West African territories from Nigeria to Senegal.
Ifit is legitimate to generalize on a subject so complex, it appears
that in West Africa there has been some hesitation in embarking
on the expenditure involved in bush-clearing and similar anti-fly
methods, while research work has been concentrated on the develop-
ment of medical treatment of sleeping sickness. It seems probable,
however, that large-scale anti-fly work such as that of Tanganyika
will eventually become essential, and will call for the organization
of special departments. It is sometimes suggested that the methods
of control discovered in Tanganyika can be applied in other terri-
tories without any special organization. This, however, is only
280 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
partly true, since much of the laborious research work has to be
repeated for each kind of environment and for each association of
tsetse species. In West Africa, therefore, it appears that further
development of research organizations is called for, while in East
Africa the field problems have reached a stage of research when
they can profitably be taken into the laboratory for controlled
experiment, such as has already been described.
INSECT PESTS OF CULTIVATION
A brief review of so wide a subject as this must be limited to
major pests and to the branches of research which are obviously
important. Even within these limits it must aim rather at indicat-
ing the kind of work that is being done than at the evaluation of
achievements. The following paragraphs are therefore illustrative,
rather than critical, and the facts mentioned are intended more as
examples of important lines of research than as an account of all
the valuable work that has been done. It is impossible to do more
than mention, for instance, the necessary routine work of ento-
mologists who succeed, for the most part, in keeping within reason-
able bounds insect pests that cause a fairly regular loss to the major
crops. The time which agricultural entomologists have to spend
in such work limits their research to experiments centred on
routine duties, and to the discovery of ways of controlling sudden
and destructive infestations.
It is obvious that in Africa large distances, poor communica-
tions and often sparse population make field work far more diffi-
cult and irregular than it isin Europe. But what limits research
and the application of experimental results more than anything
else is the ignorance of the native population. Control measures
requiring methodical care and precision, which are confidently
recommended to growers in the United States, for example, can-
not be entrusted to uneducated natives. The fact that even in
such a highly developed country as Egypt all fumigation has to be
carried out by special Government officials illustrates the diffi-
culty of popularizing such control measures. Some idea of the
general nature of such difficulties and of the means adopted to
overcome them may be obtained from the reports of the Conferences
ENTOMOLOGY 281
on veterinary and agricultural research in East Africa (1934a,
1934b).
In the following notes the different crops are treated in the same
order as in Chapter XII, where other aspects of crop research are
considered. Frequent reference is made to the results of researches
which fall into the botanical rather than the entomological field,
particularly to work on virus and other diseases which are trans-
ferred from host to host by insects.
Cereals
The typical native cereals such as millets and guinea corn seem
to have attained a partial balance with the pests of Africa. Insects
cause considerable local loss to such crops, but the fact that they
are grown in small plots renders dispersal difficult for the pests.
The extensive growing of cash-crops, particularly those recently
introduced and having no natural immunity to local pests, such
as maize and wheat, gives opportunities of which Africa’s insects
have not been slow to take advantage. Most of the entomological
work has been concerned with maize which is grown far more
extensively than other introduced cereals.
Several of the polyphagous insects such as Heliothis obsoleta and
Prodenia litura have some importance as pests of maize. But most
of the research on these two moths has been carried out in connec-
tion with cotton (see below).
In South Africa the most persistent pest is the maize stalk-borer
(Busseola fusca Fuller). The control measures usually recommended
are mostly cultural, and include top-dressing with derrisol, the
destruction of crop-refuse during the winter and the avoidance of
early planting. Creolyte, however, has been found to bea powerful
stomach poison and suspensions of it spread on the tops of the
maize have been very effective (Mally 1920, Ripley and Hepburn
1930, 1934). Busseola produces a second generation on sorghum
in South Africa, and trap-crops have been suggested as a possible
control measure.
A virus disease of maize, known as streak disease, is common in
South and East Africa. Experiments at the Amani Research Sta-
tion, directed to the. study of the fundamental nature of virus dis-
ease as exemplified in tropical crops, have shown, incidentally,
282 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
that the Jassid bug, Czcadulina mbila Naudé, and two other species
of Cicadulina are vectors of this disease of maize (Storey 1925).
It is convenient to notice here experiments on the transmission
of mosaic and streak diseases between maize and suger-cane. In
the Transvaal a strain of mosaic was found that would not infect
sugar-cane, though virulent to maize and sorghum (Storey 1929).
In the case of streak diseases there are two distinct viruses, virulent
respectively to sugar-cane and maize, both transmitted by C.
mbila, and both producing permanent infections in the hosts to
which they are specialized. The cane virus produces only a mild
form of the disease in maize, whereas the maize virus produces only
a transitory infection of cane, from which the plant recovers
(Storey and McClean 1930).
In Southern Rhodesia, in addition to the above-mentioned pests,
the young maize plants are subject to attack by Snout Beetles
( Tanymecus destructor Mshl., and Systates exapius Mshl.) (Jack 1935b)
Cutworms, wireworms, crickets, and grasshoppers, most of which
can be poisoned, are also troublesome. More difficult is the prob-
lem presented by the outbreaks of white grub (Hulepida mashona
Arrow), which seems to be specially associated with ground of
which the humus content has been artificially increased, as men-
tioned in the annual report of the Chief Entomologist, Mr. R. W.
Jack (1935b).
Oil-seeds
The polyphagous pests of cotton, Helzothis obsoleta and Prodenia
litura, do a certain amount of damage to groundnuts in various parts
of Africa, but the central problem of entomological research is the
rosette disease. During the last few years many experiments have
been made and at least two insects have been shown to be vectors.
Aphis laburni Kalt. has been found to transmit the virus experi-
mentally (Trochain 1931, Storey and Bottomley 1928), and this
aphid is found in association with the disease in Gambia, Senegal,
South Africa, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, and Uganda. In French
West Africa sprays of kerosene and soap free infected plants from
aphids and allow them to recover at least partially, but observa-
tions elsewhere in West Africa, especially in Sierra Leone, do not
confirm this result (Bouffil 1933). The French investigators have
ENTOMOLOGY 283
also worked on the control of the aphids by predatory insects,
especially the Coccinellid beetle, Cydonza vicina Muls. (Vuillet
1934). There appears to be some doubt as to the possibility of
breeding resistant strains: some investigators have found some
strains more resistant than others, but resistant strains were not
observed in French West Africa during 1933, as noted by Bouffil
(1933). Strains resistant in one environment are not necessarily
resistant in others and thus the prospect of reducing damage by
the disease in this way is limited. Work on such lines must be done
in the territories concerned and probably in various regions. In
addition to Aphis laburni, it is suspected that the whitefly, Bemisza
gossypiperda var. mosaicivectura Ghesq., may also transmit rosette
disease. The virus apparently overwinters in diseased plants that
germinate in late autumn (Storey and Bottomley 1928), and one
of the control measures suggested by these researches is to destroy
all plants between growing seasons. In Nigeria, Uganda, and the
Gambia the close spacing of plants and controlled maintenance of
weed growth between the plants, so as to produce a complete
ground cover, have been proved markedly to reduce the incidence
of rosette disease. Possibly, though the fact is not yet established,
there is control of the insect vector in the damp atmosphere created
by close planting, by means of some entomogenous fungus.
Cotton
Bollworms are almost universally distributed throughout the
cotton-growing area of Africa, and in spite of considerable research
few sure means of control have been found. Attempts at biological
control have at best attained variable success. For instance, a
large percentage, generally higher on maize than on cotton, of
the American bollworm (Heliothis obsoleta F.) is parasitized by
Trichogramma luteum Gir. in Southern Rhodesia, but attempts to
establish this parasite in the Transvaal have failed. Similarly, an
effort to increase the effectiveness of Microbracon kirkpatrickt Wilksn.,
a parasite of the pink bollworm (Platyedra gossypiella Saund.) gave
doubtful results. In Uganda intensive work on possible parasites
and alternative hosts of this pest is in progress. Work with bacteria
against the pink bollworm (Metalnikov 1933) remains in the
experimental stage. Chemical measures are for the most part
284 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
impracticable or useless, although dusts of calcium arsenate were
fairly successful against young larvae of Heliothis in Rhodesia. Cul-
tural measures, intended rather to check than to eradicate the
pest, seem to have given the best results under African conditions.
Outbreaks of the American bollworm are largely determined by
weather, and the presence and condition of its alternative food-
plants. Where no winter crops are grown in irrigated areas, infesta-
tion 1s often comparatively slight. Recent investigations (Empire
Cotton Growing Corporation 1934a and 1934b-38) on its biono-
mics suggest that the moths migrate not only from maize to cotton
as has generally been thought, but from cotton to maize, and that
they might, therefore, be diverted to maize under ordinary con-
ditions. ‘he moths are associated with maize only when it is in
tassel, and planting should therefore be arranged to give overlap-
ping flowering periods. Cotton should be planted early, so that as
many bolls as possible may set before the moths come from the
maize, and during the critical period other farm crops should be in
the stage that attracts the moths. J. S. Taylor (1932) has investi-
gated this pest and its parasites in South Africa. There is some
possibility of breeding strains of cotton resistant to American
bollworm; in this progress has been made in Uganda.
The chief cause of the spread of the pink bollworm is the exten-
sive transport of seed cotton for ginning. The enforcement of a
close season for cotton seems to be of the utmost importance. In
the Sudan (Cowland 1933) regulations providing for a dead sea-
son of several months and for the proper disposal of the crop and
storage of the seed have rendered the bollworm unimportant,
except in areas where it can survive in cotton stored for local spin-
ning and weaving. Disinfecting the seed with hot air has been
successful in Egypt and elsewhere.
Measures against the red bollworm (Diparopsis castanea Hamps.)
seem very unreliable, but in the Sudan irrigation before ploughing
has been found to destroy many of the pupae. It is generally
thought desirable to avoid the late planting of cotton, and traps
of standover cotton may reduce infestation. Smith (1933) has
carried out research on this pest in South Africa. Another bollworm
(arias insulana Boisd.) 1s widely distributed and difficult to con-
trol. In the Sudan attempts have been made to encourage its
ENTOMOLOGY 285
parasite, Microbracon kirkpatrickt, by means of an alternative host.
The cotton worm (Prodenia litura F.), described by Bishara (1934),
is a major pest in Egypt, Tanganyika, French Equatorial Africa,
and Italian Somaliland. It feeds on the leaves and by weakening
the plants renders them more susceptible to bollworms.
It appears from the reports received by the Empire Cotton
Growing Corporation from Experiment Stations (1934b-—38) that
cotton stainers (Dysdercus spp.), bugs which transmit Nematospora
gossypii and WN. coryli, seem to be best controlled through their alter-
native food-plants, the wide range of which allows a long breeding
season. In Rhodesia they migrate from early-flowering Hibiscus
and from Thespesia to cotton in February, and return in May to
late-flowering Hibiscus. In an area free from Thespesia the stainers
appeared on cotton too late to cause much damage. In the Sudan,
spraying baobahs (Adansonia digitata) with kerosene ten days after
burning the cotton gave fairly good control. Some account of
stainers in South Africa is given by Ullyett (1930).
The cotton whitefly (Bemisia gossypiperda Misra and Lamba) is a
serious pest in the Sudan, Tanganyika, Southern Rhodesia, and
the Belgian Congo. It has been thought that it transmits the disease
known as leaf-curl of cotton (Kirkpatrick 1930, 1931), but in
Tanganyika there are indications that the latter is due to a capsid.
In the Sudan whitefly is sometimes checked by natural enemies
after the winter. Since direct control is impracticable, experi-
ments have been made to produce resistant strains of cotton, and
two such strains of Sakel cotton have been bred successfully in
the Sudan, and one Ishan strain has been grown for the last nine
years in Nigeria, where the local vector of leaf-curl was discovered
in 1920.
Capsid bugs of the genus Helopeltis are widely distributed over
the western part of Africa and in Uganda. Attack by Helopeltis
on cotton leaf and stems produces respectively spots and lesions
which are difficult or, when old, impossible to distinguish from
those caused by Bacterium malvacearum, which latter are known
respectively as ‘angular leaf-spot’ and ‘black-arm’ diseaes (Han-
cock 1935 and Steyaert and Vrydagh 1933).
Jassid bugs known as leaf-hoppers (Empoasca fascialis and other
spp.) have been serious pests in many parts of Africa; they may be
286 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
the vectors of a virus disease. The breeding of resistant strains,
however, notably that known as U4, has reduced the importance
of these pests.
Among other important pests, the cotton leaf-roller (Sylepta
derogata F.), for which trap-crops of Hibiscus may be useful, is very
widely distributed. Lygus stmonyt Popp. causes considerable dam-
age in Uganda, and in the Sudan several species of Thysanoptera,
especially Hercothrips spp., retard the growth of the plants.
Root crops
Considerable attention is being given to the pests of root crops
for native food as well as to those of export crops. The work done
in Nigeria, described by O. B. Lean (1928), when the damage to
yams by a Dynastid beetle, Heterolygus claudius Klug, was so severe
during 1925-7 as to cause a famine, may be cited as an example of
such research. More recently a mosaic disease of cassava has been
the cause of serious loss to native food crops both in West, East, and
South Africa. The disease did not make its appearance in West
Africa until 1929 and is thought by some to have been introduced.
The insect vector has been proved in Nigeria, at Amani, and else-
where to be a species of whitefly (Bemisia). The most hopeful line
of control is the breeding of resistant varieties of cassava (see Chap-
ter XII). The cultivation of native food crops usually differs from
that of export crops in that a mixture of crops is planted on one
plot. Mixed cropping may be a defence against serious outbreaks
of pests, so that many remain unnoticed or unimportant until the
system of agriculture is changed.
Coffee
Among the chief pests of coffee in East Africa are Pentatomid
bugs of the genus Antestia, especially lineaticollis Stol. Biological
control, even in Kenya, where the eggs of this bug appear to be
most heavily parasitized, is not sufficient to keep infestation within
bounds. A considerable amount of work on chemical control has
been done in that colony, where pyrethrum-kerosene sprays seem
to have been very effective (Le Pelley 1932). Bait-sprays con-
taining sodium arsenite and sugar are sometimes preferred, but it
is thought by some that their use is likely to lead to heavier infes-
ENTOMOLOGY 287
tation by the coffee leaf-miner (Leucoptera coffeella Guer.) through
the destruction of its parasites. Bait-sprays have given variable
results, a reason suggested is that they destroy the parasites of
Antestia (Le Pelley 1933). There is also a considerable risk of
scorching the foliage, but in Tanganyika it has been found that this
can be avoided by using triple-strength arsenic bait-spray through
an improved fog-sprayer.
The coffee capsid (Lygus stmonyi Reut.), another bug distributed
throughout the coffee-growing areas of East Africa, injures the
flowers so that the fruit does not set. It is satisfactorily controlled
by pyrethrum-kerosene sprays in various forms. ‘These sprays,
however, probably interfere with Coccinellid beetles controlling
Pseudococcus kenyae Le Pelley, a mealy bug which is not susceptible
to the spray and which was formerly recorded under the name
Pseudococcus lilacinus Ckll. P. kenyae is probably the most important
of a number of destructive mealy bugs, the identity of which is still
doubtful. In Kenya banding trees with kresotow and castor oil
against the ants which foster mealy bugs has been found successful
(James 1932). Mealy bugs are almost universally distributed in
coffee-growing districts.
Another widely distributed major pest is the coffee berry-borer
(Stephanoderes hampe Ferr.). In Uganda and the Belgian Congo
a considerable measure of control 1s exercised by parasites, of which
the most effective is the Bethylid, Prorops nasuta Wtstn. Heterospila
coffeicola Schmied. is also of some importance (Sladden 1934).
Attention has been paid to the disinfestation of coffee beans: in
Kenya it has been found that exposing infested beans to heat rids
them of the borer, while in the Belgian Congo experiments have
been made on the fumigation of seed intended for planting. Tur-
pentine has been found to be a successful fumigant (Sladden
1932). In Nyasaland other pests, Anthores leuconotus Pasc. and
Thrips are of importance.
In addition to the work on specific coffee pests, the fundamental
researches of Kirkpatrick (1935) at Amani are most important.
This work, which is mentioned in Chapter IV, is breaking new
ground in demonstrating the dependence of pests on the micro-
climates of their environment.
288 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Cacao
In West Africa, where cacao is the chief export crop, the plants
are infested by a large number of pests, two of which may be
regarded as of major importance.
Thysanoptera of the genus Selenothrips, especially S. rubrocinctus
Giard, are widely distributed and are very destructive. It appears
that attack occurs under bad conditions of culture which can be
correlated with faulty water relations between plant and soil.
Control measures include cultural measures and the use of insecti-
cides containing resins (Kaden 1934). ‘The other pests against
which special work has been necessary in the Guinea Gulf are
capsids of the genus Saflbergella (Cotterell 1930). ‘These bugs are
also destructive in the Belgian Congo. Experimentally, a nicotine
spray was successful in the Guinea Gulf area, but it was found diffi-
cut to get it generally employed, and both nicotine and other
effective sprays are little used commercially. Insect pests of stored
cacao in the Gold Coast and elsewhere are mentioned later, but
one of these, a weevil (Araecerus fasciculatus De G.),is known also to
attack cacao in the pod in Tanganyika. The insect pests of cacao in
French West Africa, especially the Ivory Coast, together with pests
of other crops, are considered ina long paper by Mallamaire (1934).
Miscellaneous
Perhaps the most important of the pests of tobacco is the whitefly
(Bemisia) which is the vector of leaf-curl, a virus disease in South
Africa, Rhodesia, the Belgian Congo, ‘Tanganyika, Nyasaland, and
Nigeria. A similar disease has been recorded from Java, where it is
transmitted by a species of Bemisia, not, however, the same species
as that which experiments at Amani have shown to transmit the
disease. It is thought by H. H. Storey (1932) that the species used
at Amani is the same as that which is a vector in Rhodesia (B.
rhodesiensts Corb.). A species of Bemisia has also been proved by
Golding to transmit leaf-curl in Nigeria. In Rhodesia sprays of
tobacco extract and Bordeaux mixture have been tried as control
measures (Mossop 1932a), but the best control appears to have
been established by legislation which requires all tobacco lands to
be cleaned of plants by August Ist each year, thus leaving no reser-
voirs for the virus.
ENTOMOLOGY 289
The tobacco capsid bug (Engytatus volucer Kirk.) punctures the
leaves, and causes them to contract and crinkle (Roberts 1930). It
is not a vector of the mosaic disease of tobacco, which has recently
been proved to be B. rhodesiensits Corb. A measure recommended
against it in Rhodesia is to plant in December so that the
plants will be well established before the peak of infestation in
April.
The most serious pest of tobacco in Southern Rhodesia and
Nyasaland is probably the root-knot nematode (Heterodera
mariont Goodey), which, although not an insect, falls within the
province of the entomologist. A special investigation of this pest
has recently been undertaken by the Tobacco Research Board.
Other insects which attack tobacco in Rhodesia include cutworms
(chiefly Euxoa segetum Schieff), Tenebrionid beetles, both as adults
and larvae, a large cricket (Brachytrypes membranaceus Dr.), the
stem borer (Phthorimeaa heliopa Lw.), and the splitworm (Phthori-
meaa operculella Zell.). ‘Tenebrionid beetles ean be poisoned in the
adult stage, and a bait consisting of barium fluosilicate and maize
meal has given good results against the large cricket.
A virus disease of tobacco causing stunted growth and malforma-
tion of the leaves has been experimentally transmitted in South
Africa by a thrips of the genus Frankliniella, which is close to F.
insularis Frankl., the vector of wilt-disease of tomato in Australia
(Moore 1933). The larvae were shown to contract infection from
diseased tomato leaves, and the thrips infected several species of
solanaceous plants, which may therefore serve as reservoirs for the
virus.
Where infestation by insects causes a regular and known loss
without provoking danger of the kind caused by virus diseases, it
is enough to discover simple control measures that can be applied
readily by native labour. For this purpose experiments are made
to find suitable local adaptations of measures which are themselves
not new in principle. In connection with the cosmopolitan pests
of Citrus, for example, there is a continual search for satisfactory
sprays, bait, and mechanical means of control. In Algeria there
has been some work done on various oil sprays against Coccids on
Citrus (Balachowsky 1933), and in the Union of South Africa, Dr.
L. B. Ripley’s new sodium fluosilicate bait for fruitfly has been
290 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
successful (Ripley and Hepburn 1935). There also, the codling-
moth is being controlled by spraying, trapping, and hand-picking
(Pettey 1932). In the less civilized parts of Africa, however, even
ordinary simple methods of chemical control are beyond the
resources of the cultivators, and the problem is thus in most cases
rendered far more difficult because cultural methods of control,
which include breeding resistant strains, have to be devised, and
these must at the same time be fitted in with agricultural practice.
For crops recently introduced, closer attention is necessary. As an
example of this, investigations on the pests of tea in Nyasaland may
be mentioned (Smee 1928, Smee and Leach 1932).
In the Union of South Africa parasites have been used in the
biological control of pests as in the case of the eucalyptus snout-
beetle, a parasite of which was brought by Mr. Tooke from Aus-
tralia and has led to complete control. Attempts have been made to
control the citrus mealy bug (Pseudococcus citrt) with the Cryptolaemus
ladybird beetle and the woolly aphid with Aphelinus mali (Smit
1934b). In 1935 Mr. G. A. Hepburn began work on parasites of
the wattle bagworm imported from Madagascar. In South Africa
also work is in progress on the biological control of prickly pear
with Cactoblastis cactorum. This isin charge of Dr. Pettey, who has two
entomologists and several assistants at the stations of Uitenhage and
Graaff Reinet.
Termites
The probable effects of termites on soils, both in improving fer-
tility by aeration and in reducing fertility by destruction of the
grassland cover and in increasing erosion, and even perhaps in
consuming humus, have been discussed in Chapter V. In view of
the enormous numbers of these insects in all parts of Africa south
of the Sahara, their influence on agriculture and the serious
damage which they occasion to buildings, the amount of research
carried out on them seems small. The few works that have been
published come from South Africa. Fuller (1921 and 1922) has
given a valuable account of the species with notes on the localities
in which they are known, their nests, etc. From the same author
(1924) we have an anatomical study of some species, and also an
account of experimental tests on the resistancy timbers. More of
ENTOMOLOGY 291
recently Naudé (1934) has studied these insects in relation to veld
destruction and erosion.
It is commonly accepted that the staple diet of most species
consists of wood, which these insects are able to digest through the
agency of symbiotic Protozoa in their guts. Some kinds, however,
have been known for a long time to store grass and other vegeta-
tion in special granaries partly for food, and partly to grow special
crops of fungi underground. Naudé considers that in South Africa
grass provides much the largest part of their diet. Dividing ter-
mites first into two groups, the harvesters which feed mainly on
grass and the fungus-growers which for the most part grow their
own crops underground, he considers the damage done and the
means of control. He concludes that the harvesters take a severe
toll of the grass veld, particularly in drought conditions, but that
they respond well to baiting, which appears to give relief from
them. The grass-eating capacity of termites can be confirmed by
observations in many parts of the continent; for example in Nor-
thern Nigeria fields of sown grass may be completely consumed by
these insects in the course of a few days. The fungus-growers are
relatively easy to control, but tend to be vainly attacked by farmers
in the mistaken idea that they are responsible for the most serious
veld denudation.
Even if wood is not the principal food, most termites will take to
it whenever occasion offers, and this has led to endless expense in
making buildings termite-proof and in substituting metal for wood
as material for railway sleepers. A problem of growing importance
is the damage done by these insects to landing-grounds for aero-
planes. Some species work rapidly in throwing up their mounds
or termitaria and accordingly heavy expenditure on labour is
necessary to keep aerodromes in condition.
Sericuliure
Though not connected with pests or diseases, the silkworm must
be mentioned in any discussion of Entomology. Sericulture has not
yet attracted much attention in Africa, but there is no doubt that
there is opportunity for a minor industry. In 1929-30, Mr. Norton
Breton, Chairman of the Imperial Institute Advisory Committee
on Silk Production, visited the Union of South Africa, Rhodesia,
292 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
and the East African colonies to investigate the possibility of
sericulture in these territories. Practical results were prevented at
the time by the economic depression, but developments may take
place later.
INSECT PESTS OF STORED PRODUCTS
The problems involved in the storage of products such as cocoa
and tobacco fal! mainly in the provinces of Entomology and Myco-
logy, and to study them a Committee of the Empire Marketing
Board was set up in 1930 as an advisory body. Since then the
headquarters of investigation in Great Britain has been Professor
J. W. Munro’s Department of Zoology and Applied Entomology
at the Imperial College of Science and Technology at South
Kensington, with a subsidiary laboratory at Slough. The work
at these centres includes studies in entomology, mycology, and
chemistry, and has been described recently by Munro (1933). For
long-range research the Empire Marketing Board formerly pro-
vided some £4,000 per annum, and since its dissolution the Car-
negie Corporation has contributed £2,000, and the Dominions
and Colonies £1,600 per annum. For ad hoc industrial work an
additional sum, which fluctuates from £2,000 to £3,000 per
annum, is provided by the industries concerned.
This department has been of particular importance in reporting
to the producing areas in Africa concerning the state in which goods
arrive in England, and in directing attention to those pests which
are most harmful in European warehouses though they may be
relatively unimportant in Africa.
The government entomologists and mycologists in Africa have
also paid much attention to these pests, especially in Southern
Rhodesia, where the tobacco in storage suffers serious loss from
insects, and in the Gold Coast and Nigeria, where stored cocoa is
particularly susceptible.
One of the worst pests is the cocoa-moth Ephestia elutella (also
E. cautella). This has been the subject of special research in the
Gold Coast, where Cotterell (1934) has investigated its life history
and means of control. A weevil (Araecerus fasciculatus), which is dis-
cussed by Cotterell in the same bulletin, has also been the cause
ENTOMOLOGY 203
of serious loss to cocoa in the Gold Coast, but is fortunately incap-
able of withstanding the English climate. In Nigeria Ephestia
appears to be a dangerous pest to cocoa only when the crop is
kept in store for long periods, as in the financial depression of 1931.
Research on the best methods of control is progressing there also.
The same moth attacks other stored products as well, notably
tobacco and groundnuts. In the case of tobacco, the bumper crops
of 1928 and 1929 in Rhodesia led to an overloading of the market
so that large quantities were stored in British warehouses for un-
usually long periods. Great losses due to Ephestia and other insects
led to agitation from city brokers which did much to stimulate
research on its control. More recently attention has been drawn to
this moth in other parts of Africa, owing to severe losses of ground-
nuts. From 1929 to 1933 exhaustive research was carried out in
Professor Munro’s department, and the reports by Munro and
Thomson (1929) and Bovingdon (1933) show that the insect is
particularly susceptible to humidity, so that control of warehouses
may prove comparatively simple. Various large manufacturers of
confectionery, notably Messrs. Gadbury, who obtain a large pro-
portion of their cocoa from the Gold Coast, are now assisting in
work on the control of humidity. The fumigation of warehouses
with hydrocyanic and other gases is also a satisfactory means of
control, but there is prejudice against it in the cocoa industry. It
has been widely used for the control of other storage pests, how-
ever, and a fumigation apparatus is now established in Kenya for
experiments in grain warehouses.
Attacks by Ephestia on groundnuts in store have been most pro-
nounced in Senegal. Preventive methods have been the subject
of study by Sagot and Bouffil (1935), working at the agricultural
station of M’Bambey. They conclude that the pest can be con-
trolled only by insecticides, of which Datura, which materially
checks the multiplication of the insects without damaging the nuts,
is most to be recommended.
In Southern Rhodesia Ephestia is only known on a few tobacco
premises, but the beetle Lastodernia serricorne F. is generally dis-
tributed and causes heavy losses. Both these pests are the subject
of a report by Mossop (1932b). Hygienic conditions on premises
used for handling and storing tobacco are enforced by legislation
204 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
under the Tobacco Pests Suppression Act, 1933, and a whole-
time inspector is employed for this purpose.
In Southern Rhodesia, also, maize is subject to serious attack
by the rice-weevil (Calandra oryzae L.) which appears to find both
the climate of the colony and the flat white type of maize grown
particularly favourable to its development. An entomologist has
been detailed to carry out research of a fundamental type on the
ecology of this pest and its relation to present methods of handling,
storage, and exporting (Jack 1935b).
With reference to quite a different class of products, hides and
skins, when stored in warm climates even for short periods, are very
liable to attack from the skin beetle, Dermestes vulpinus. This pest
was the cause of such loss, particularly in South Africa, that a
special investigation was carried out by Smit (1934a) at Port
Elizabeth into the means of protection. His conclusions show that
salt and arsenite of soda, when properly applied, give complete
protection, so that control of the pest is largely a matter of ade-
quate attention in preparing the skins.
In all control of insects by fumigation and similar means, recent
work on insect diapause (i.e. the period of life history when activity
is temporarily suspended) is of the utmost importance, since
insects are much more resistant to poisons at that time. Apart
from the obvious diapause of pupation in the higher insects, it 1s
now recognized that other less noticeable periods occur at various
stages in the life history for reasons which are often obscure. This
may necessitate much long-range research before control can be
effective.
INSECTS AND TICKS IN RELATION TO DISEASE
The difficulties of medical and agricultural entomologists are
essentially the same in so far as they depend on the circumstances
and the people with which they have to deal. Most of the larger
territories have entomologists attached to the medical depart-
ments, and some have also veterinary entomologists as well, but in
others the same entomologists are responsible for agricultural,
medical, and veterinary work.
The following brief account does not include references to the
fundamental research which has revealed the causes of principal
ENTOMOLOGY 295
diseases and related them to insect or arachnid vectors—such as
the work of Sir Ronald Ross and after him Sir Malcolm Watson
on malaria and mosquitoes, and of Sir Arnold Theiler and Louns-
bury on the diseases of animals. It is restricted to work on the insect
vectors of disease, and is intended to outline the recent advances in
parts of Africa by reference to some of the more striking publica-
tions of the past fifteen years or so. Some questions connected with
routine work on insect pests of man and animals, and the important
surveys of rats and fleas in connection with plague, are mentioned
in Chapters VIII and XVI. Apart from trypanosomiasis, the
diseases which have received most attention in respect of ento-
mological research are malaria, yellow fever, filariasis and relapsing
fever in men, and piroplasmosis (east coast fever) and infestation
by blowflies in animals.
Diseases of Man
By far the most important vectors of malaria are two species of mos-
quitoes, Anopheles funestus Giles and Anopheles gambiae Giles. Both are
widely distributed with varying predominance, although Anopheles
gambiae is mainly responsible for the transmission of malaria in
East Africa and in Lagos. Research in recent years has been
mainly directed to investigations on the incidence of the disease
in various districts and to the control of the vectors themselves.
The mosquitoes are most readily controlled in the larval stage, but
effective control presupposes a fairly thorough knowledge of the
distribution of a given vector in relation to the incidence of the
disease, and of its bionomics, particularly its breeding habits.
Thus, Anopheles gambiae breeds in pools exposed to sunshine and
with little or no vegetation, whereas Anopheles funestus usually
breeds in clear water where there is some degree of shade. In
general, heavy shade makes conditions unsuitable for malaria
carriers (De Meillon 1933). Such information must be supple-
mented by detailed study of the bionomics of the species, with the
effect of local conditions upon them, and by statistical information
on their population, as is pointed out by Davey and Gordon (1933)
and by Anderson (1931). An ecological study of this type was made
by Hancock (1934).
The correct application of suitable methods of sanitation con-
296 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
tributes towards the efficiency of control (Swellengrebel 1931).
Filling up and draining waste land containing breeding-places,
canalization, covering water-supplies, and improved sanitation
have greatly reduced malaria in many places, such as Nigeria,
where it was previously a serious danger. The work on Lagos
Island and adjoining parts of the mainland may be mentioned as
a good example. The expense involved in such operations is, how-
ever, heavy. Where water cannot be covered, it may sometimes
be made unsuitable for breeding by other means. Thus oiling, for
which Paris green has sometimes been found a satisfactory sub-
stitute, destroys larvae and prevents breeding in open water (Symes
1932). As a temporary measure the addition of cut grass or of
vegetable refuse to waters has proved effective in Uganda. The
effectiveness of such measures is increased when they are used in
conjunction with an attack on the malarial organisms in the
human host. This question is discussed in Chapter XVI.
A valuable contribution to the study of mosquitoes is a mono-
graph on those of the Culicines of the Ethiopian region by Hopkins
(1936). Other publications on this subject are numerous, especi-
ally those by medical entomologists in the several territories;
among them the work of C. B. Symes of Kenya may be mentioned.
Much of the research on Aédes aegypti L., the vector of yellow
fever, has naturally been of the same type as that on the vectors of
malaria. Investigations on breeding-places and the influence of
climate and local conditions, piped water-supplies and effective
sanitation have resembled those on Anopheles. ‘The important work
on the endemicity of yellow fever, in relation to the distribution of
Aédes and the possible spread of the disease, is discussed in Chapter
XVI.
Another serious disease transmitted by mosquitoes 1s filariasis, of
which the casual agents are Filaria spp., especially (Wuchereria)
bancrofti. Apparently the relation between insects and the disease
still calls for much research. Dissections of mosquitoes in search
of micro-filariae in them suggest that Anopheles gambiae and A.
funestus are probably the chief vectors in most places (Taylor 1930),
although positive results have also been obtained with A. pharoensts
Theo., A. theilerti Edw., and, in Egypt, Culex pipiens L. (Khalil,
Halawani, and Hilmy 1932).
PLATE IV
PRACTICAL MEASURES AGAINST INSECT PESTS
Above: Aswamp near Lagos, Nigeria, is being filled with sand and earth to destroy
the breeding ground of mosquitoes
Below: A strip of land adjoining a stream has been cleared of vegetation, and
the debris burnt on the stumps, to destroy the breeding ground of
tsetse flies; near Pong-Tamale, Northern Territories of the Gold Coast
a)
ENTOMOLOGY 297
Relapsing fever, which is widely distributed throughout Africa, is
caused by Spirochaeta spp., which find a reservoir in mammalian
hosts, especially rodents, and are frequently transmitted by lice
and ticks. ‘Thus in Morocco, Sfirochaeta duttoni is transmitted to
man by the tick Ornzthodorus erraticus Lucas (Mathis, Durieux, and
Advier 1934), and spirochaetes of the Spirochaeta hispanica group
by lice of the genus Linognathoides. In Tunisia Spirochaeta hispanica
is transmitted by Ornithodorus erraticus, and in Algeria by this tick
and Rhipicephalus sanguineus Latr. (Nicolle, Laigret, and Sicard
1933 and Sergent 1933), while in French West Africa lice of the
genus Pediculus are responsible for the transmission of Spzrochaeta
recurrentis (Mathis 1931). Sprrochaeta duttoni, the causal agent of
African relapsing fever, which occurs over the greater part of the
continent is also regularly transmitted by Ornithodorus moubata
Murr as shown by Martoglio (1931). In Uganda operations
against the tick in temporary buildings have shown that fumiga-
tion is ineffective, but good results are obtained with a special
spray, which can be used also against bed-bugs in permanent build-
ings without the necessity of sealing the rooms.
The biting-fly, Szmulium, renders life unpleasant in parts of
Uganda. In West Africa and almost certainly in Uganda it is
known to carry a pathogenic nematode, Onchocerca (Gibbins 1933
and 1934, Strong 1935).
Diseases of Stock
Of the four major specific diseases of cattle which in the past
have hindered the development of the stock industry in Africa,
two, trypanosomiasis and east coast fever, are transmitted by
Arthropoda.
East Coast fever, which is caused by specific infection with Thei-
leria parva, a member of the piroplasm group, is widely distributed
from Natal to the southern part of Italian Somaliland, and extends
westward into the Belgian Congo, where an outbreak has been
described recently by Schwetz (1932). The main vector of east
coast fever throughout this area is the tick, Rhipicephalus appendi-
culatus Neumann. The life cycle of 7. parva has been studied at
Kabete in Kenya, using R. appendiculatus as vector (Cowdry and
Ham 1932 and Cowdry and Danks 1933). The account of the
298 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
development of the parasite in both intermediary and definitive
hosts is a useful contribution to knowledge of the life cycle of piro-
plasms, a subject which, in recent years, has received a good deal
of attention in various parts of the world. Earlier work in South
Africa by Theiler and Lounsbury has shown that in addition to
R. appendiculatus certain other African species of the genus Rhipice-
phalus are capable of acting as experimental vectors of east coast
fever. At the present time there is in progress at Kabete a systematic
revision of the transmission of this disease. Different species of ticks
are being examined with regard to their ability to transmit pure
infections and the characters of the transmitted disease are being
observed for signs of difference in the disease as transmitted by
different hosts; already a new experimental transmitter has been
discovered in Hyalomma aegyptisum impressum. In 1929, an ento-
mologist was engaged to carry out a tick survey in Kenya in order
to ascertain the exact distribution of R. appendiculatus, and to inves-
tigate the ecological factors responsible for it. Already the distri-
bution of tick species has been plotted (Lewis 1931-4) and climatic
conditions likely to affect this distribution are being studied in
the laboratory. Periodic collections of ticks have been submitted
to Kabete also from Tanganyika and the Gold Coast. It is of
interest to note that although east coast fever is unknown on the
west coast of Africa, R. appendiculatus has appeared in collections of
ticks from Pong-Tamale in the Gold Coast.
Theileria parva, the parasite of east coast fever, does not pass
from adult to larval stage through the egg of the tick; on the other
hand, in the Babesia group, which includes the parasites of red-
water of cattle, biliary fever of horses, and tick fever of dogs,
hereditary transmission is effected. The main vectors of the latter
group of piroplasms belong to the genus Boophilus, all of which are
continuous feeders; that is to say, they do not drop to the ground to
moult from larva to nymph and nymph to adult, as do members
of the genus Rhipicephalus, but remain on the same host during all
three instars; and it is, therefore, necessary that the protozoan
parasite should pass through the egg of the tick in order to ensure
its transference to a fresh host.
Two other Theilerta species, T. annulata and T. dispar, cause
serious diseases of cattle, the former in Asia and the Mediterranean
ENTOMOLOGY 299
basin and the latter in Algeria. YT. dispar is transmitted by Hya-
lomma mauritanicum Senevet, and it is of interest to note that the
survival of infected nymphs, which hibernate during the winter
months, is largely responsible for the carrying-over of the disease
from year to year.
In East Africa, it has been shown by Montgomery (1917) and
Daubney and Hudson (1931a) that Nairobi sheep disease, a highly
fatal virus disease of sheep and goats, is mainly transmitted by R.
appendiculatus, the common vector of east coast fever, but that in
certain areas where R. appendiculatus does not occur, the virus may
also be transmitted by Amblyomma variegatum (Daubney and Hud-
son 193I1a and 1934).
Another disease of cattle, sheep, and goats which can occasion
severe mortality is heart-water. The causal parasite of this disease,
Rickettsia ruminantium, was discovered by Cowdry (1925) working at
Onderstepoort. In South Africa heart-water is transmitted by
Amblyomma hebraeum (Lounsbury 1902a and b), and it is likely that
this tick continues to serve as a vector for heart-water up to the nor-
thern limit of its distribution in East Africa, which is probably
somewhere in the south of Tanganyika. In Kenya it has been
shown that heart-water is naturally transmitted by A. variegatum,
which is widely distributed throughout the Colony (Daubney
1930). It is possible that another mentber of the genus Amblyomma
may, in certain areas, also act as a vector of heart-water.
The only satisfactory means of controlling the tick-borne proto-
zoan diseases is dipping or hand-dressing of stock, coupled with
fencing of pastures to prevent trespass of undipped cattle. The
manner in which these measures affect the ticks is mentioned in
Chapter XIV.
Myiasis or Screw-worm of cattle, sheep, horses, and dogs is
common in many parts of Africa. It is due te infection by blow-
flies, of which Chrysompia bezziania Villen is the commonest in
Rhodesia, and is widely distributed in Kenya, although Luczlia
cuprina Wied. also causes myiasis in sheep in both territories, as
shown by Smit (1931) and Lewis (1933). A good deal of valuable
research has been done on various dressings for large open wounds
and on substances to be applied after larval and egg-masses have
been removed from infected animals. The necessity of ensuring
300 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
that all larvae removed from wounds are effectively destroyed has
been demonstrated, especially in Southern Rhodesia by Lawrence
and Cuthbertson (1934). This is a precaution which is apt to be
neglected, with the result that large numbers of adult flies are bred
unnecessarily, and the mustering pens tend to become centres of
infestation.
There are several important non-contagious virus diseases of
stock in Africa. Blue-tongue of sheep and horse-sickness have much
the same distribution in South Africa and Kenya, the two coun-
tries where they have been investigated. At Onderstepoort exten-
sive observations have been made on the capacity of these two
viruses to survive in mosquitoes. In two out of thirty-five experi-
ments the virus of horse-sickness was shown to have survived in
Aédes caballus and A. lineatopennis, but the results of the whole series
of experiments forced the workers to the conclusion that Aédes
species are very probably not the natural transmitters of horse-
sickness (Nieschulz, Bedford, and du Toit 1934a). In the experi-
ments with blue-tongue virus, A. lineatopennis was twice shown to
have retained virus from fifteen to nineteen days, but the same
workers (1934b) conclude that the problem of natural transmis-
sion has not been solved.
A virus disease of sheep, cattle, and man, which has resemblances
to both dengue and yellow fever, was discovered in 1930 in Kenya
and named rift valley fever by Daubney and Hudson (1931b). Its
existence has recently been suspected in the French West African
territories. It has been shown by Findlay and Daubney (1931)
that rift valley fever is immunologically distinct from yellow fever
and dengue, and that mosquitoes of the genus Mansonia are ex-
perimental vectors (Daubney and Hudson 1933). ‘There is evi-
dence also that one of these species, Mansonia fuscopennata (Theo-
bald), may acquire infection during the course of a natural out-
break.
CHAPTER XI
AGRICULTURE—GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
INCE Africa must always be primarily an agricultural country,
Sine practical value of agricultural science hardly requires com-
ment, but certain introductory remarks are necessary on the
various branches of African agriculture and on the influences
which are impeding progress. The subject is so vast that some
division is necessary as a basis for the discussion of present ten-
dencies in different parts ofthe continent and the results ofresearch.
At first sight the division of plant from animal industry, the latter
to include veterinary studies, would seem practicable, but methods
of cultivation are so often dependent on stock, and mixed farming
is coming to be so widely regarded in many places as the ideal of
agriculture in Africa, that it is almost impossible to separate these
subjects.
More satisfactory is the division into three categories: Firstly,
native subsistence agriculture, including both cultivation of the
soil and animal husbandry, is important all over the continent.
This subject has been relatively less thoroughly studied by scien-
tific research than the other two. Secondly, native agriculture for
export, especially the growing of cash crops such as cocoa, coffee,
cotton, and groundnuts, 1s increasing in importance every year and
will probably continue to do so, especially if the sale of animal pro-
ducts can be developed side by side with that of crops. Thirdly,
the agricultural activities of non-native peoples, especially Euro-
peans, are of importance mainly in the southern and some of the
eastern parts of the continent.
Even the distinction between European and native cash crops
is difficult to maintain, for there is a constant and increasing inva-
302 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
sion by native cultivators of what at first glance appears to be
peculiarly non-native agriculture. Since both native and non-
native are coming to use the same elements in production, the real
division probably lies between those methods which do and do
not involve the investment of capital.
Accordingly it has been found impossible to divide the subject
directly in accordance with the categories mentioned, but an
attempt has been made to treat native and European agriculture
separately. After an account of the organizations for agricultural
administration and research there follows a chapter on crop plants,
which discusses both native and non-native agriculture and sum-
marizes some recent advances in the fields of plant breeding and
methods of cultivation. General questions of plant industry are
treated in two sections of Chapter XIII, devoted respectively to
the practice of native and non-native peoples. Most of the prob-
lems of animal industry and animal disease are reserved for
Chapter XIV, but animal husbandry of necessity enters into a
discussion of mixed farming in Chapter XIII. The problem of
the deterioration and erosion of soils has already been discussed in
general terms in Chapter V, but it is of such great importance to
African agriculture that it is also mentioned here, especially in the
sections devoted to native agricultural practices.
To the native peoples agriculture is an essential part of tribal
life and innovations are resisted through attachment to customary
methods and sometimes also through the influence of religious and
magical belief. In the past the enforcement of radical changes in
native methods has been advocated, but in recent years native
agricultural practice has been regarded as worthy of respect. It is
now coming to be realized that drastic methods rarely achieve
their object, and that improvements are more likely to be attained
by gradual development from existing methods. ‘The first step
is to understand these methods and their reasons, just as has been
done in the study of agricultural science in Europe during the
past fifty years. Native methods are then submitted to scientific
analysis and experiment, and improvements, when discovered,
are encouraged through the medium of demonstration farms and
other forms of education. This procedure may not be applicable
to exotic crops such as cotton, coffee, or cacao, which are new to
AGRICULTURE—GENERAL 303
the native peoples. In such cases, the native has to be taught
methods which are likely to be successful in his hands from the
beginning.
In applying new or improved methods among native agricul-
turists, a major question is whether or not some form of compulsion
is justified or even effective. As a rule, in British territories, every
effort is made to avoid compulsion, but there are certain cases where
it appears to be justified. For example, where a new crop of known
value and suitability is to be introduced in an area, some compul-
sion in the initial stages may be the only way of demonstrating to
the farmers the advantages which they themselves can derive from
its cultivation. Again in the control of certain pests and diseases,
measures may have to be enforced on all farmers, irrespective of
race, in order to protect the careful farmer from his neighbour’s
neglect. Such cases are covered by agricultural pests and diseases
ordinances. In certain colonies, moreover, compulsory measures
against soil erosion, made applicable to natives, may have resulted
in a greater advance in the lay-out of native than of non-native
farms. In the opinion of some authorities the only way to make
real advance in some forms of indigenous agriculture is by com-
pulsion on a large scale, as in the compulsory system employed
with success in the Congo (see later), and the proposed compulsory
culling of stock to reduce over-grazing in East Africa. If it is pos-
sible to generalize about so complicated a question, it may be
claimed that at least in British territories it is the aim to improve
native methods by education and only to employ compulsion where
all else has failed. In some non-British territories direct compulsion
is more often used, with the consequence that results are produced
more rapidly and more cheaply, but perhaps they are not so satis-
factory in the long run.
It is a simple truth, realized by all concerned, that the principal
factor retarding native agricultural improvement is a lack of
balanced knowledge concerning conditions of native life. Modern
anthropology helps to fill this gap, but for the practical advances
in view recent work in this field does not appear always to lay suf-
ficient stress on the material background of man’s environment.
There is general agreement as to the importance of agricultural
advance among Africans, as a basis for general improvements in
304 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
the standard of living; but before native agriculture is improved
we must have a sound knowledge of existing conditions.
Such knowledge comes perhaps into the province of human
geography rather than of either anthropology or agriculture. In-
formation is being obtained from certain areas by special inquiries,
such as the agricultural survey of Nyasaland, the ecological survey
of Northern Rhodesia, the combined agricultural, geological and
other studies in Uganda, and in Tanganyika surveys of areas such
as Ukara Island and Musoma district, and Mr. Gillman’s recent
studies of population and water-supplies, each of which is noticed
in other parts of this volume. In addition, however, a great mass
of valuable data is gathered by individual officers in administra-
tive, agricultural, and other departments in the course of their
routine duties. Much of this information is lost through the absence
of any central organization in which it could be collected and dis-
seminated. It was in the hope of filling this lack that a centralized
body, the Committee of the British Association on the Human
Geography of Intertropical Africa, was formed in 1926 at the
Oxford Meeting of the British Association. The committee has
Professor P. M. Roxby as Chairman and Professor A. G. Ogilvie
as Secretary. A list of questions, together with two model essays
on the relation of African tribes to their environment (those of
P. L. Martrou on the Fang and R. U. Sayce on the Basuto), was
circulated in pamphlet form to the governments of British colonial
Africa.
In Northern Rhodesia the administration invited all officials to
reply to the questionnaire, and thirty reports have been contri-
buted, covering every district except two. Several of these reports
have been edited and published in the pages of Geography, and Pro-
fessor Ogilvie (1934) devoted his presidential address to the Geo-
graphical Section of the British Association to the subject. He
pointed out that in the absence of accurate maps showing topo-
graphy, geology, soils, and vegetation, the results cannot attain
proper significance. Accordingly guesswork must play an impor-
tant part in relating the distribution, habits, and particularly the
agriculture of tribes to the physical environment. The physical
conditions of Northern Rhodesia are similar in many respects to
those of the adjoining region of Katanga, so that the fine series of
AGRICULTURE—GENERAL 305
Katanga maps (mentioned in other chapters) has proved of value
in interpreting the reports. The committee proposes later to com-
bine the reports received in a volume on the human geography of
Northern Rhodesia. This should provide a basis for future work,
and if the procedure can be extended to other parts of Africa and
the results are made available in convenient form, the direction
of native development in agriculture and in other subjects should
be facilitated.
In connection with European farming, scientific advance has
naturally gone further in South Africa than elsewhere. It has been
realized only in recent years by Governments and the farmers
themselves that South Africa is in the main a country for animal
industry rather than for grain. H. D. Leppan, Professor of Agri-
culture at Pretoria University, has developed this opinion in two
recent books (1931 and 1936), pointing out that more than 80 per
cent of the area of South Africa can never be used except for
grazing; that in a country where rains are apt to fail, animals can
be moved under necessity, but crops cannot. He claims that the
export of grain, especially maize, implies that some other country’s
soil is being manured through the medium of domestic animals, a
policy which can hardly be economic in a country, such as South
Africa, where the soil is predominantly poor. On the other hand,
animal industry, if properly controlled, can help to rectify the lack
of soil fertility.
The great problem for an agricultural country is stability in pro-
duction with a surplus for foreign markets. It appears that such
agricultural stability can only be attained in South Africa by
animal husbandry, except in the comparatively limited areas of
steady rainfall! well distributed through the seasons where crops,
especially fruit, are highly suitable, or in areas where irrigation has
been introduced.
This theme has been developed further in many recent publica-
tions from South Africa. For instance at the 1934 meetings of
the South African Association for the Advancement of Science,
Dr. A. L. du Toit, as president of the association, gave a lucid
summary of agriculture and mining in South Africa (1934), much
of it based on the conclusion that ‘as so many authorities have
long pointed out, South Africa is in the main a pastoral and not
E
306 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
an arable country’. T. D. Hall (1934) in his presidential address
(on pastures) to section C of the association, pointed out that more
than thirty years ago several experts who were at work on stock
range investigations, were diverted to arable problems. Dr. Burtt
Davy, for instance, was gathering data on the stock-carrying capa-
city of land and indigenous grasses “when he was told to devote his
time to the maize industry which was considered of greater impor-
tance—a decision that has cost South Africa a great deal’.
In certain settled areas in East Africa the same principle may
apply. The country now devoted to coffee, tea, and sisal is on the
whole unsuited to stock raising, but land now used for maize, and
perhaps the wheat lands also, would probably be more valuable
for mixed farming. The problem is, of course, largely an economic
one, dependent on demands of the moment and the capacity of
each area to produce exports in competition with the world’s
cheapest producers.
In native agriculture the relative merits of land for crops or
stock are equally ifnot moreimportant. Here agricultural develop-
ments are closely bound up with measures for the control of disease.
It is known by the natives themselves that many insect-borne dis-
eases of plants, animals and man may be avoided or reduced by
fairly close settlement, leading even to the verge of soil erosion. It
is not yet known to them, however, that by their own efforts a
reasonable standard of fertility can be maintained together with
close settlement, through the adoption of methods such as mixed
farming.
When attempting to foresee Africa’s future the example of other
countries in warm latitudes may well be of assistance. When land
is available in large blocks the first settlers are generally stock men
like the early Australian farmers, the ranchers of the United States
and the farmers in South Africa. Even the earliest settlers in
Kenya went there in the hope ofits becoming a stock country. Later,
as land values rise, pastoral holdings are broken up and a cultiva-
tion phase sets in, to be succeeded in its turn by mixed farming.
Such asequence ofevents has taken placein many parts of Australia
and America. At the present time in parts of the United States of
America it appears that too much concentration of crops has led to
serious soil exhaustion and erosion, so that the recent commission
AGRICULTURE—GENERAL 307
on national resources has pressed for the laying down to pasture of
large areas in order to retain a permanent cover of vegetation. The
Argentine has had a somewhat different history: grain crops paid
for breaking up the country in the initial stages, and after a time
much of the cultivated land was laid down to pasture and cattle-
raising took the place of wheat-growing.
Generalizations such as these are perhaps rash because there are
so many factors which influence any change in agricultural activity.
Moreover, the traditions of the original immigrants in a country
doubtless have far-reaching effects: Australia, North America, and
South Africa were settled mainly by the Anglo-Saxon races, who
have for centuries had the tradition of stock behind them. In the
case of the Latin races, whose outlook in farming is largely arable,
the tendency is to develop cultivation rather than stock. In the
French colonies of north Africa, for example, the type of agricul-
ture developed by settlers is entirely arable, and the only stock
raised there are those belonging to the indigenous peoples of the
country. In South America also, the initial agricultural develop-
ments due to Latin immigrants were all in the direction of grow-
ing crops and to a considerable extent remain so, for the Argentine
is still the world’s greatest exporter of maize in spite of the develop-
ment of stock referred to above.
In tropical Africa the early hopes of stock raising gave place to
a concentration on agriculture because reservoirs of stock diseases
existed everywhere in native cattle and game animals. Even now
the relationship of game and stock with regard to disease is ex-
tremely obscure, but many of the worst troubles are controllable.
High-yielding races of stock, immune from disease, are being bred,
and game animals are retreating from settled areas into sanctu-
aries.
It may be concluded from these arguments that, as years proceed
and the results of pasture research become generally applicable,
many of the settled areas now under crops may be used for mixed
farming. Pastoral farming alone is unlikely ever to usurp wide areas
in the African highlands, because additional feed will be necessary
for parts of the year, and this cannot be provided unless it is grown
locally.
308 SCIENCE IN AFRICA ©
ORGANIZATION -
BRITISH
There are first to be considered central institutions in Great
Britain which deal with the whole British Empire.
The Imperial Institute at South Kensington has important relations
with the African territories, whether Dominions or Colonies, in
both the intelligence and research sides of its work. The Institute’s
Advisory Council for Plant and Animal Products, under the chair-
manship of Sir F. A. Stockdale, serves in an advisory way as a link
between the producer and industrial firms in this country. The con-
sultative committees on special subjects,under the Council, there-
fore include business men as well as scientists. ‘The subjects dealt
with are overseas timber, sericulture, vegetable fibres, oils and oil-
seeds, essential oils, gums and resins, tanning materials, hides and
skins, and insecticide materials of vegetable origin. Many impor-
tant results of research in these subjects are published in the Bul-
letin of the Imperial Institute.
The organization of the Imperial Agricultural Bureaux is more
recent than that of the Imperial Institute and serves a different
purpose. It resulted from the Imperial Agricultural Research Con-
ference of 1927, when research workers from all over the Empire
pointed out the difficulty of keeping abreast of the literature pub-
lished in their various special branches of agriculture. The
bureaux function as clearing-houses for information, and do not
undertake research work, though each is located at a centre well
known for researches in the branch of agricultural science with
which it deals. The bureaux operate under an Executive Council
consisting of representatives of the British Isles, Dominions,
and Colonies with Sir David Chadwick as Secretary (I.A.B.
1938).
The list of Bureaux in 1937 was as follows:
Deputy Director or
Chief Ojjicer in direct
Imperial Bureau of Director charge of Bureau
SOIL SCIENCE:
Rothamsted Experimental Sir E. J. Russell, F.R.s. G. V. Jacks
Station, Harpenden, Herts.
AGRICULTURE—GENERAL 309
Deputy Director or
Chief Officer in direct
Imperial Bureau of Director charge of Bureau
ANIMAL HEALTH:
Veterinary Research Dr. W. Horner Andrews’ W. A. Pool
Laboratory, Weybridge,
Surrey
ANIMAL NUTRITION:
Rowett Research Institute, Sin). Ort, FiR-S. Dr. P. CC, Kelly
Aberdeen
PLANT GENETICS:
(for crops other than her- Professor F. L. Engledow, Dr. P. S. Hudson
bage) Plant Breeding Insti- C.M.G.
tute, School of Agriculture,
Cambridge
PLANT GENETICS:
(herbage plants) Welsh Professor R.G.Stapledon Dr. R. O. Whyte
Plant Breeding Station,
Agricultural Buildings,
Aberystwyth
FRuIT PRODUCTION:
East Malling Research Dr. R. G. Hatton D. Akenhead
Station, Kent
ANIMAL GENETICS:
Institute of Animal Gene- Professor F. A. E. Crew =‘ Vacant
tics, University of Edin-
burgh
AGRICULTURAL PARASITOLOGY:
Institute of Agricultural Professor R. T. Leiper, A. E. Fountain
Parasitology, St. Albans, F.R.S.
Elerts,
In addition to these, the Imperial Institute of Entomology, under
Sir Guy Marshall, with headquarters at the British Museum of
Natural History, and the Imperial Mycological Institute, under
Mr. S. F. Ashby, at Kew, of which the inception predated that of
the other bureaux, have come under the Executive Council! with
effect from 1934. They differ from the Agricultural Bureaux in
that both undertake works of identification, which entail labora-
tory accommodation for their culture. The Bureau of Hygiene
and Tropical Diseases, also formed prior to 1927, continues under
its own Managing committee (see Chapter XV).
The object of each bureau is to establish and maintain direct
touch with research workers and to be of service to them by bring-
310 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
ing to their notice work done in their subject elsewhere in the
world, by answering inquiries, by supplying translation of papers,
and by placing research workers in touch with each other. This
object is brought about principally through the medium of the
following abstracting journals, which summarize important work
published in every language: Sozls and Fertilizers, The Veterinary
Bulletin, Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews, Plant Breeding Abstracts,
Herbage Abstracts and Herbage Reviews, Horticultural Abstracts, Animal
Breeding Abstracts, Helminthological Abstracts, the Review of Applied
Entomology and the Review of Applied Mycology. In addition to the
abstracting journals, most of the bureaux also publish from time
to time special monographs and memoranda reviewing specific
problems.
The Agricultural Research Council, with its several committees on
special subjects, is responsible for the correlation of results from
many researches in Great Britain, and has funds for annual alloca-
tion to special pieces of work under its own control, or for the exten-
sion of work at other institutions. ‘The report for the period 1931
to 1933, being the first two years of the Council’s activities, issued
in 1934, includes admirable summaries of recent advances in the
several agricultural subjects and describes work which is being
undertaken at research institutes in Great Britain. Although the
Council operates only within the United Kingdom, many of its
conclusions have applications in the African field.
Research on food preservation in Great Britain is carried out by
the Food Investigation Board of the Department of Scientific and
Industrial Research. There are three laboratories financed mainly
by the D.S.I.R., and devoted to the subject: the Low Temperature
Research Station at Cambridge for work on fruit and meat, where
research has been developed by the late Sir William Hardy; the
Ditton Laboratory at East Malling which was opened in 1931 for
work on fruit; and the Torry Research Station at Aberdeen for
work on the preservation of fish. Of these the Cambridge labora-
tory is the oldest and is the only one at present which has directly
studied African problems. In addition, the Department of Ento-
mology at the Imperial College of Science and Technology in
London, under Professor Munro, has been much concerned with
insect pests of stored products (see Chapter X).
AGRICULTURE—GENERAL 311
In the Union of South Africa all Government agricultural activities
are combined under the Department of Agriculture and Forestry.
The agricultural side of the department is divided into three
divisions of Chemistry, of Plant Industry and of Veterinary Ser-
vices. Some of the work of these divisions has been mentioned in
earlier chapters, and the establishment of the Division of Chemistry
is given in Chapter V.
The Division of Plant Industry, under Dr. I. B. Pole-Evans, with
a total staff of a hundred and nine in 1937, Is centred at Pretoria.
Now that South Africa is being recognized to be better suited for
stock raising than agriculture, much stress is being laid on pasture
investigations, and a large experimental farm for this work is estab-
lished at Pretoria. Among stations for crop investigation may be
mentioned the horticultural station at Nelspruit (chiefly for citrus),
Buffelspoort citrus canker station in the Transvaal, the pineapple
station at Bathurst, C.P., and the viticultural station at Paarl, C.P.
Other stations under the Division of Plant Industry are at the
Schools of Agriculture at Grootfontein, Potchefstroom, Glen
(O.F.S.), and Cedara (Natal). Low temperature research and
fruit inspection, which have their headquarters at Capetown,
likewise fall under the direction of the division. The Sugar Associ-
ation has an experimental station at Mount Edgecombe, near
Durban, where research on sugar cane is being done under Mr.
Dodge. Agricultural organization in the winter rainfall area of the
Cape Province is in the hands of the Stellenbosch-Elsenburg Col-
lege of Agriculture of the University of Stellenbosch, which now
belongs to the civil service. Most of the agricultural training and
a good deal of research in South Africa is carried out by the
departments of agriculture in this and other universities.
The Faculty of Agriculture at Pretoria University which main-
tains a large experimental station, is not under the direct control
of the Department of Agriculture and Forestry, as are the above,
but receives financial support from it. The University of the
Witwatersrand has conducted work on veld and pasture inves-
tigations since 1932, and has established a special station for this
purpose at Frankenvald, near Johannesburg, where 1,000 acres
are available for experiments. Research is also carried out by
several companies which have farms and laboratories for the pur-
312 | SCIENCE IN AFRICA
pose: African Explosives and Industries, Ltd. have done much
work on cereals and insecticides in addition to that on pastures
mentioned in Chapter VI, and the research work of the Zebe-
delia Citrus Estates may also be mentioned.
On the side of animal industry, the Division of Veterinary Ser-
vices, under Dr. P. J. du Toit, has its centre at the Onderstepoort
Laboratory near Pretoria, one of the best equipped veterinary
laboratories in the Empire. This was established in 1902 and grew
to its present eminence largely through the work of the late Sir
Arnold Theiler. Recognition of the valuable work done in con-
trolling the numerous stock diseases which spread throughout
South Africa after the Boer War has attracted liberal endowments
to this institution, and at present the annual allocation stands at
over £100,000 a year. The work of the division is now being en-
larged by the addition of a cold storage section which is being built
at Onderstepoort for studies in the preservation of meat, eggs, and
dairy produce. The research and travelling branches of the veteri-
nary service, which were formerly under separate direction, have
been amalgamated for purposes of closer co-operation. The
present staff of the division numbers about two hundred veterinary
workers, of whom some fifty-five are devoted to technical research
at Onderstepoort. The training of veterinarians is also carried out
at the laboratory.
In connexion with the industry of fruit and other perishable foods
the Department of Agriculture and Forestry maintains at Cape-
town a Low Temperature Research Laboratory under Mr. Rees
Davies. ‘This was established in 1926 and has an Entomological
Laboratory attached for the study of insect pests of dried fruit,
beans, grain, etc. It is now being extended by the addition of a.
Food Products Research Laboratory for work on the preservation
of food by canning, desiccation, etc. Refrigeration, though suitable:
for the export trade, cannot be used adequately for retail distribu--
tion to sparsely populated districts, and hence canning and desic-
cation are generally more applicable to the internal markets of
Africa. The low temperature research laboratory provides:
facilities for the fisheries division to investigate the preservation:
and transport of fish. In addition to providing research facilities,,
the department of agriculture and forestry exercises control over
AGRICULTURE—GENERAL 313
factories and cold storages which handle perishable produce, by
a system of inspection and licensing. It also controls all technical
aspects relating to rail transport, pre-cooling, and ocean transport
of perishable produce intended for export.
In addition to the organizations outlined above, the Native
Affairs Department of the Union Government has a large and
well-qualified European staff and approximately two hundred and
fifty native agricultural officers, who have been trained at agricul-
tural institutions such as Fort Cox and Fort Hare University Col-
lege.! Research in the ordinary sense scarcely comes within the
purview of this department, but its extension work among the
native population is of the utmost importance. Basutoland has
some twenty-five of these trained native officers and others operate
in the native territories of the Union.
Among publications on the subject in South Africa, Farming in
South Africa is an official monthly journal published by the depart-
ment of agriculture and forestry. It contains articles and short
reports on research work which is of practical value to farmers,
and the December number each year contains the annual report
of the Secretary for Agriculture on the year’s progress and activities.
Bulletins, both scientific and with practical advice to farmers, are
published as required by the several divisions of the department.
In addition, the division of plant industry publishes Afemozrs of the
Botanical Survey of South Africa, the Bothalia series, and Entomological
Memoirs. The results of work at the Onderstepoort Laboratory
have, since 1933, been published quarterly by the division of
veterinary services in the Onderstepoort Journal. Earlier results are
contained in a series of eighteen reports of the Director.
In Southern Rhodesia, centred in Salisbury, an extensive Depart-
ment of Agriculture, a strongly staffed Veterinary Department,
and a Department of Veterinary Research are embraced within
the Ministerial Division of Agriculture and Lands. The depart-
ment of agriculture, whose work is devoted primarily to the
problems of European farmers and ranchers, is subdivided into
branches specializing on the development of water-supplies, on
water and soil conservation, animal and field husbandry, includ-
ing tobacco and cotton, dairying, poultry, forestry, agricultural
1 See A Survey of Africa, Chapter xviii.
314 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
marketing, entomology, plant pathology, meteorology and
chemistry. The European staff of the three departments num-
bers 257, of whom twenty-five are specialist officers engaged in
administrative or research duties. Research stations are main-
tained as follows: two stations, each of about one hundred acres
in area, in close proximity to Salisbury. On one, known as the
Salisbury Experimental Station, the chemical, entomological, and
plant pathological laboratories of the department are situated.
This station concentrates on experimental work with grain and
legume crops, potatoes, and pasture grasses, and on manurial,
fertilizer, and green manuring experiments, and new crop intro-
ductions. The second, the Hillside Station, is devoted to plant
breeding, mainly with wheat, and to trypanosomiasis research.
Sixty miles north of Salisbury is the Trelawny Tobacco Research
Station of 500 acres, with a research staff of eight, including a plant
breeder, a chemist, a biologist, a plant pathologist, and a physiolo-
gist. Stations concentrating on pasture research are situated at
Matopo, Marandellas, and Rusape, the first-named forming part
of the Rhodes Matopo Estate and Experiment Farm, some twenty-
seven miles from Bulawayo. The experiment farm is mainly con-
cerned with problems of cattle and pig breeding and animal
nutrition, and crop production under Matabeleland conditions.
The British South Africa Company maintains the Mazoe Citrus
Research Station (60 acres), with a staff of six specialists. The
Southern Rhodesia Agricultural Fournal, published monthly, records
the investigational work and other activities of the department
and has, besides that within the colony, a considerable circulation
amongst farmers in adjoining territories. In addition a large num-
ber of departmental bulletins have been published, and the annual
report of the department of agriculture and lands, as presented to
the Legislative Assembly, is published each year in March or April.
The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, though not strictly within the scope
of this study, is important for comparison. Its present large agri-
cultural organization was formerly divided into two: the Depart-
ment of Agriculture and Forests, with headquarters at Khartoum,
and the Agricultural Research Service centred at the Medani
Laboratory. These two branches were combined in 1935. The
research service has two experimental stations: the Gezira re-
AGRICULTURE—GENERAL 815
search farm with laboratories at Medani, where there are some
thirteen scientists, and the Shambat central research farm. Nearly
all work is concentrated on cotton and the crops which are grown
in rotation with it. Other stations in the territory are maintained
by the department of agriculture and forests, and in particular
arrangements are going forward for developing parts of the
Southern Sudan, where it appears that crops can be grown with-
out irrigation.
In all territories under the auspices of the Colonial Office, agricultural
policy is formulated in the territories themselves, but approval is
sought from the Secretary of State in the case of any major change
involved. As an advisory body in England to the Secretary of
State there is the Colonial Advisory Council of Agriculture and Animal
Health, which consists of scientific experts under the chairmanship
of the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State, with Sir F. A.
Stockdale, Agricultural Adviser to the Secretary of State, as vice-
chairman.
The organization of Government departments varies in dif-
ferent territories. In Kenya the Department of Agriculture has a
central directorate at Nairobi, with separate divisions for plant
industry and animal industry. In most of the territories, how-
ever, there are distinct veterinary departments, or departments
of animal health, which have been developed in Africa, owing to
the special problems created by stock disease. In some cases, as in
Tanganyika and the Gold Coast, the veterinary departments are
concerned with questions of animal husbandry, including breed-
ing and feeding, in addition to those of disease. More commonly,
however, the departments of agriculture have taken over much of
the work in animal husbandry, though maintaining liaison with
the veterinarians; this is the case especially in Nigeria, where
mixed farming is being developed and the agricultural depart-
ment has its own stock farm and staff of experts in animal hus-
bandry, and in Uganda. Territories which have no separate
department for veterinary work are Sierra Leone, where animal
husbandry is relatively unimportant, the Gambia and Somaliland,
each of which has a small combined department. The High Com-
mission territories of Basutoland and Bechuanaland likewise have
small agricultural departments which deal with both aspects.
316 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Although the responsibility for research lies entirely with the
departments of agriculture and animal health, the application of
the results of research in improving native agriculture often comes
into the domain of other departments. As a rule field agricultural
officers demonstrate methods of improved cultivation, but they
can do little without full co-operation from administrative officers,
who must often take the lead themselves, so that some knowledge
of agriculture is coming to be of great importance to administrative
officers. In many territories it is realized that the work of putting
results of research into practice among native peoples has grown
too large to be undertaken by the agricultural and administrative
officers, and therefore subordinate staffs of trained African agricul-
turalists are being built up. This question of subordinate staff is
perhaps of more importance in agriculture than in any other sub-
ject: it is discussed in An African Survey, Chapter XIII.
The British staff of the agricultural departments is recruited
from persons who already have university degrees. After selection
they spend a year at the Cambridge School of Agriculture, and
then go to the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture at ‘Trini-
dad for a second year before taking up their appointments. The
Cambridge and Trinidad years have been arranged to constitute
a continuous two years’ course for the various kinds of specialists
and field officers required. Similar arrangements exist in the case
of probationers for the colonial veterinary services. In view of the
heavy expenditure entailed by such training and the fact that
every new agricultural officer absorbed into the departments has
received training to equip him for research, there is a certain
anomaly in the amount of time that they are required to devote to
duties for which such training is scarcely required, and which in
other territories, notably the French colonies, is entrusted to
auxiliary African staff.
The East African Agricultural Research Station at Amant, as one of the
projected chain of central research stations in the tropical Empire,
is designed to serve all the East African colonies in the investiga-
tion of problems which have a general rather than a local applica-
tion. It is devoted entirely to long-term research, but at present its
activities are limited by a lack of funds which is reflected in the
small number of the personnel. In its comparatively short exis-
AGRICULTURE—GENERAL 317
tence Amani has produced work of the first importance which is
mentioned in various parts of this report. Annual reports have
been published since 1928, and results of the research of individual
workers have been published in various scientific journals. Some
of these have been reprinted as Amani Memoirs.
TECHNICAL RESEARCH STAFF (1)
Plant Animal
Industry Industry
Union of South Africa (2) = 119 56
Southern Rhodesia (3)... ie ao I
Northern Rhodesia (4)... a 4 —
Empire Cotton Growing Cor- I
poration.
Nyasaland .. a = - 5 —
Empire Cotton Growing Cor- I
poration.
Tanganyika (5)... is oe 12 5
Kenya - i a ‘3 16 6
Uganda (6) Ms - Ss 10 —
Zanzibar .. << - Tr 6 —
Nigeria (7) ae ma a 44. 5
Gold Coast ie iis - 21 oa
Sierra Leone - is is 4 ca
Gambia... si a es I —
ee
Somaliland a ‘s - I
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (8) 16 —
(1) As listed in I.A.B. handbook (1938).
(2) Plant and Animal Industry, exclusive of Schools of Agriculture.
(3) Includes Trelawny Tobacco Station staff of seven, and officer at
Matopo School.
(4) Includes Ecological Survey.
(5) Excludes Department of Tsetse Research, and Amani.
(6) Includes four entomologists.
(7) Excludes Tsetse Investigation staff of two.
(8) Includes four entomologists, excludes Chemical and Soil Science sections.
In order to give some indication of the equipment of the terri-
tories for agricultural research the above table of staff engaged
in research has been compiled from the list of agricultural research
workers in the British Empire, produced by the Imperial Agricul-
tural Bureaux (1938). It should be realized, however, that it is
impossible to make a strict division into research and administra-
318 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
tion, since every scientifically trained member of an agricultural
department is potentially a research worker: those stationed as
district agricultural officers, among other duties, investigate
native custom and practice, a work which must come under the
designation of research. The table includes only those officers
engaged to investigate some special branch of agricultural science,
such as chemistry, botany, or entomology.
In Northern Rhodesia the central research station of the Depart-
ments of Agriculture and of Animal Health at Mazabuka has con-
centrated during the past few years on pasture work and cover
crops, with maize as another important subject, but recent economy
measures have severely limited this work. Veterinary research at
Mazabuka has also been impeded by lack of funds, so that little
pure research could be undertaken. The veterinary research
officer has, however, continued his studies of helminthology.
Stations at Abercorn for coffee and native crops, and at Fort
Jameson for tobacco and native crops, have recently been opened
by the agricultural department, but their work has similarly been
handicapped, although in 1936 the appointment of an additional
officer made it possible to open another of these stations at Pemba.
The Ecological Survey of Northern Rhodesia with staff of a plant
ecologist and an agricultural officer, which has been referred to in
Chapters V and VI, has done extremely valuable work and is
demonstrating the importance of native agriculture as an ecological
factor. In addition to annual reports, the department published
annual bulletins with articles on the results of research from 1931
to 1933 when they were suspended as a measure of economy.
In Nyasaland the headquarters of the Agricultural and Veterinary
departments are at Zomba, where new laboratories for the agricul-
tural department are just being completed and an experimental
area of about sixty acres is under cultivation. Research on tea
production is a special object of the experimental station at Mlanje,
which is in charge of the plant pathologist. There are experimental
stations for cotton, at Port Herald, and at Makwapala near Zomba,
the latter recently taken over from the Empire Cotton Growing
Corporation, which maintains a station at Domira Bay. Special
attention is given to tobacco, and a Native Tobacco Board, which,
in 1936, employed seventeen Europeans, supervises and distributes
AGRICULTURE—GENERAL 319
seed to native growers on unalienated Crown land, and finances
experimental stations at Zomba and Lilongwe. The agricultural
department has started work on native food plants. Annual re-
ports are issued and since 1932, a series of small bulletins each on
a special branch of agriculture in the territory, has been published.
In Tanganyika the headquarters of the Agricultural Department
are at Morogoro. There are ten principal stations for arable agri-
culture, and about sixty substations, the latter mostly under native
authority. Many of the stations are small with an annual alloca-
tion of a few hundred pounds. A notable experimental station is
at Lyamungu near Moshi, for agronomic and long-range research
on coffee, including breeding, which had been started previously
only at Amani. The Lyamungu station is under the control of a
coffee advisory board consisting of four official and seven unofficial
members. A sisal advisory board has also been established and a
special research station has been set up at Mlingano in the sisal
country of the Tanga plains and an extensive planting programme
has been undertaken. Both these stations work in co-operation
with Amani, where coffee and sisal also receive special attention.
Another innovation is the Lubago Station, opened in 1931 in the
Shinyanga district, with the objects of trying new and improving
existing varieties of crops; also of instructing natives in better
methods of cultivation. Cotton crop stations at Morogoro, Kingol-
wira, Ukiriguru, Lubago, Uzinza and Mpanganya have been re-
organized and their work extended to include various problems
of native agriculture. At Nyakato in Bukoba Province, the centre
of the largest native coffee area in East Africa, there is an entomo-
logical branch station, and a tobacco experimental station is estab-
lished at [heme in Iringa Province. The annual reports describe
results of research in addition to other departmental activities, and
are published, like those of Kenya, in the more conveniently
handled octavo form. In addition, a series of pamphlets is issued
at intervals.
The Tanganyika Veterinary Department, centred at Mpwapwa,
has a laboratory and experimental farm. It is noteworthy that
the inclusion on the staff of a pasture research officer and a bio-
chemist has led to valuable results on stock nutrition. Large
annual reports are issued. The Department of Tsetse Research,
320 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
which necessarily works in close touch with the veterinary and
agricultural departments, has been described in Chapter X.
In Kenya the headquarters of the Agricultural Department are
at Nairobi, as are the Scott Agricultural Laboratories. Maize,
wheat, fodder, vegetables, coffee, groundnuts, sugar-cane, etc. are
studied. Subsidiary to the laboratories are two plant breeding
stations, one at Njoro and one at Mau Summit, of growing impor-
tance, and there are stations devoted principally to native crops
in Kavirondo, Kikuyu and at Kilifi on the coast.
The Veterinary Research Laboratory at Kabete is extremely
well equipped and has been described as the Onderstepoort of
East Africa. A good deal of research work has been published
from Kabete on rinderpest, east coast fever, pleuro-pneumonia,
helminthiasis and the virus diseases of sheep and goats. After the
visit of Sir John Orr to Kenya in 1929, a government stock farm
was established at Naivasha to investigate the feeding and selec-
tion of stock; but during the first five years’ work, research was
hampered by lack of funds and by drought and locust infestations
and was mainly confined to practical feeding and costing observa-
tions. The Colonial Development Fund has, however, renewed
the grant for a period of five years, and under the joint control of
Sir John Orr and the chief veterinary research officer, the cor-
relation of nutritional and reproductive activity will be studied by
Dr. Anderson. The annual reports of the department cover both
plant and animal industries, and many results of research are
published in a series of bulletins.
Uganda has a large central agricultural laboratory at Kampala
with a fifty-acre experimental plot. At Kawanda there is a cotton
seed farm of 400 acres, and at Bukalasa a cotton experimental
station of 300 acres (75 cultivated). At a conference held in 1935
it was decided to enlarge the Kawanda farm to take the place of
Bukalasa and the plots attached to the Kampala laboratories, and
to arrange for the technical officers of the agricultural depart-
ment to carry on their work at the experimental stations rather
than at a central laboratory. This plan took the place of a more
ambitious scheme to concentrate all the agricultural operations at
Kawanda, which is a far more suitable headquarters for work con-
nected with the elephant grass country.
AGRICULTURE—GENERAL 321
To serve the short grass areas of the Eastern Province there is an
experimental station at Serere, which now covers 1,000 acres, the
station having been enlarged to provide an adequate resting period
for the land required for cultivation. The plots have in recent
years been redesigned on the contour plan of cultivation, devised
to arrest soil erosion. At Serere cotton breeding has been the most
important work so far, but all other field crops suited to the area
are also dealt with, and as it 1s situated in a cattle district, cultiva-
tion is carried out with bullocks. The problems of soil deterioration
and erosion and of the utilization of kraal manure occupy a promi-
nent place in the programme. Linked with Serere are asmall num-
ber of demonstration substations of five to thirty acres each, a series
of oné-acre cotton variety trials scattered throughout the Eastern
and Northern Provinces; and also a series of quarter-acre plots. At
Bugusege there is a small arabica coffee experimental station which
serves the Bugishu area, where approximately 1,500 tons of coffee
per annum are now produced by natives. The annual reports are
issued in two parts, of which the second is devoted mainly to work
by the specialist research officers. A series of twenty-one circulars
was published between 1920 and 1927.
The headquarters for administration and research of the Veteri-
nary Department is at Entebbe, where there is a fine new veteri-
nary laboratory. In addition to research activities, serum for
immunization against rinderpest, pleuro-pneumonia, and other
diseases is supplied to the whole protectorate. Government stock
farms are maintained by the department at Koja, Sukulu and
Soroti, and similar institutions at Mbarara and Lira are main-
tained by the native administrations concerned. At each of these
centres a close study is made of the indigenous breeds, and the
animals are kept in conditions similar to, but slightly better than
those prevailing throughout the country, with a view to breeding
out particular weaknesses. Koja, the largest, is in an isolated
position on a peninsula in Lake Victoria which renders it favour-
able for extensive breeding studies. Annual reports are published.
Turning to West Africa, Sir F. A. Stockdale visited Nigeria, the
Gold Coast, and Sierra Leone during 1935-6, and his report (1936)
gives a full account of the organization for different branches of
agriculture in those territories.
322 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
In Nigeria the directorate of the Agricultural Department is at
Ibadan, where also are the central laboratories for chemical,
botanical, and entomological research. In the Northern Provinces
there is an additional centre at Samaru near Zaria with labora-
tories and an experimental farm for crops. Five miles away is the
large government stock farm of Shika, which is devoted entirely to
the improvement of native stock for the dual purpose of draught
and milk production. In addition there are four other experi-
mental farms, varying in size from 100 to 250 acres, devoted
to both arable farming and animal husbandry; numerous smaller
farms, of about 40 acres each, serve partly for experimental work
and partly for demonstrations and there are still more numerous
demonstration farms of ten to twelve acres. Selection work is
carried out in all the local crops; both those grown for export
and for food; but a main object of all these farms is the study of
problems connected with the new system of mixed farming which
is being successfully introduced. These problems include manage-
ment and nutrition, the new field methods necessitated by the
use of cattle-drawn implements, rotations based on the use of
farmyard manure, the production of fodders and the improvement
or creation of pastures.
In the Southern Provinces, in addition to Ibadan, there are four
experimental farms varying from 52 to 500 acres, which deal with
oil-palms, cocoa, citrus fruits, cotton and coffee among export
crops, with kola and with native food crops such as yams, maize,
cassava and beans. In all these crops, selection and breeding work
is carried out by specialist officers and field experiments deal with
rotations and other cultural methods. A special feature of study
has been crop rotation with green manuring in place of shifting
cultivation, which has been submitted to experimental proof over
a number of years. Cocoa is studied at two special isolated farms.
Problems connected with the export of pineapples, the local green-
skin oranges and grapefruit are under investigation, and work has
been started on the improvement of village poultry. Annual
reports are published by the department and a series of annual
bulletins, started in 1922, were discontinued on account of the
economic depression.
The Department of Animal Health has a central laboratory and
AGRICULTURE—GENERAL 323
a large stock farm, where animals are bred for experimental pur-
poses and for the production of serum, at Vom on the plateau in
the Northern Provinces. The bulk of the anti-rinderpest serum
used in the immunization of cattle in the field is manufactured
there, as are all the vaccines used in the immunization of cattle
against blackquarter, pleuro-pneumonia and anthrax, and of dogs
against rabies. At Kano, Sokoto, Katsina, Maiduguri and Yola,
field veterinary laboratories have been erected by the native
administrations mainly for the manufacture of rinderpest spleen-
vaccine for local use. At the Kano laboratory anti-rinderpest serum
is also produced to augment the supply from Vom. All these
laboratory products are used for the large-scale immunization of
cattle against the serious epizootics of the country; it is only by
such means that the diseases which once decimated the Northern
Provinces can be held in check and eventually eradicated. Cattle
owners are now fully aware of the value of these prophylactic
inoculations, which are given free, and are voluntarily bringing
their cattle in large numbers to the immunization camps. The
curative treatment of trypanosomiasis of cattle is also carried out
on a large scale by itinerant native inoculators. These curative
and preventive activities occupy most of the resources of the depart-
ment, but some research into problems of animal disease is con-
ducted at Vom. Hides and skins have also been a subject of study,
particularly with a view to increasing trade in the valuable Sokoto
red goat. For this purpose the department had been in close touch
with the British Leather Manufacturers’ Association in England.
Improved methods in the production of ghee have also resulted
from work at Vom. Annual reports are issued.
In the Gold Coast the Agricultural Department has central
laboratories and a directorate at Accra, and four experimental
stations. ‘That at Tamale in the Northern Territories has an
area of 600 acres (200 cultivated), divided into five-acre blocks.
Experiments are concerned with methods of cultivation and manu-
rial trials in relation to yams, cassava, groundnuts, rice, green
manures and grasses. At Asuansi in the central provinces work is
carried on with citrus-fruits and bananas. The station at Kpeve in
Togoland is for crops typical of the forest country and the savannah
lands, such as cocoa, cassava, cotton, groundnuts, maize, and other
B24. SCIENCE IN AFRICA
native food crops. Cadbury Hall at Kumasi was intended to be
an agricultural college for training Africans for the agricultural
service; activities were much reduced in the depression years and
at present its training functions are limited to courses for foresters.
Some research is in progress there and on the experimental farm
attached. The Hunter Hostel is used for two months training for
African farmers. There is a botanical garden at Aburi near Accra
of about fifty acres on which investigations are carried out with
local crops and ornamental plants. It is planned to begin trials
with tea there also. In addition, three local stations are maintained
for rice, coco-nut, and shea trees respectively.
The organization of co-operative societies in the cocoa industry
is a special function of the agricultural department. In addition
to annual reports, a series of agricultural bulletins has been pub-
lished since 1925, containing results of research and departmental
activities. Included in the bulletins are year books for 1926-30,
each containing many papers on scientific aspects of agriculture,
but since 1930 the publication of year books has had to be sus-
pended. The Gold Coast Farmer, a journal designed to inform the
general public on results of research, has appeared monthly since
May 1932.
The Department of Animal Health has its centre at Pong-
Tamale in the dry Northern Territories, where there is a labora-
tory devoted partly to serum production, the most recent of the
African veterinary laboratories to be established, and a large stock
farm where research is undertaken on animal breeding and nutri-
tion. The tsetse fly problem has also been subject to experiment at
» Pong-Tamale as mentioned in Chapter X. One of the veterinary
officers is stationed in the Accra Plains, a region of low rainfall
near the coast, where opportunities are offered for a considerable
stock industry. Annual reports are the only regular official publi-
cations of the department.
In Sterra Leone the Agricultural Department is centred at the
Njala Laboratories. There are three experimental farms. That at
Njala is for general research work, including the improvement (by
selection) of upland rice, the investigation of maintenance of fer-
tility, the selection and breeding of oil-palms, and other investiga-
tions with citrus, coffee, kola, pepper, etc. At Rokupr there is a
AGRICULTURE—GENERAL 325
farm for the improvement by selection of wet land rices. Deep-
water rices and salt-resisting strains are also being tried in the
Scarcies area under the supervision of the Rokupr farm. The New-
ton Fruit Farm is for the improvement of cultivation, especially
that of bananas and pineapples. In addition there are seven sub-
stations run in connection with the three principal stations for the
purposes of demonstration, seed supply, and young plant nurseries.
There is also a young plantation (about 2,000 acres) of oil-palms
at Masanki. The buildings at Njala were constructed at the cost
of some £34,000 as part of a large scheme for a centre for agricul-
tural training and research. Owing to changes in policy and to
the economic depression no training was ever given there, and a
new scheme; less ambitious, but designed to use the existing build-
ings, is now under consideration.
On the side of animal husbandry and veterinary research there
is no provision at present in Sierra Leone. Cattle are few and are
not used for draught purposes, except for ploughing in a few small
areas under the supervision of the agricultural department.
Nearly the whole of the country is overrun with tsetse, and most
of the stock for slaughter is brought in from neighbouring French
territory. The possibility of breeding a local strain resistant to
trypanosomiasis has been discussed, but development in this direc-
tion awaits the appointment of a stock expert. Up to 1929 the
department issued leaflets and pamphlets, but its only recent
official publications are annual reports.
In the Gambia the Department of Agriculture has its head-
quarters at the experimental station at Yoroberi-Kunda in Mac-
Carthy Island Province, where groundnuts, sorghum, cotton, rice,
leguminous and miscellaneous crops are grown. Breeding work is
carried on at the Wuli experimental station. Annual reports are
published.
Somaliland has no experimental stations, but trials of maize,
barley, sorghum, legumes for green manure, potatoes, ground-
nuts, etc. have been carried out on an experimental plot. Annual
reports are multigraphed, but not printed.
Interterritorial conferences of agriculturalists and veterinarians have
been held from time to time both in East and West Africa. Such
conferences have been more frequent in the east, where they are
326 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
held under the auspices of the Conference of East African Gover-
nors. They include a general agricultural research conference at
Amani in- 1931 (Conference, East Africa, 1931), a conference on
the co-ordination of agricultural research and plant protection in
1934 (Conference, East Africa, 1934a), and another in the same
year on the co-ordination of veterinary research (Conference,
East Africa, 1934b), and in 1936 another general agricultural
conference at Amani on questions relating to the future of research
in East Africa (Conference, East Africa, 1936). Other similar con-
ferences of soil chemists and trypanosomiasis workers are referred
to in Chapters V and X. In West Africa there have been two con-
ferences of Agricultural Officers, the first at Ibadan in Nigeria
during 1927, and the second in the Gold Coast in 1929 (Confer-
ence, West Africa, 1930). A vetinerary conference was held in
Nigeria, at Vom, in 1932, attended by representatives from
Nigeria and the adjacent French colonies of Niger, Chad, and
French Cameroons.
Outside the government organizations, but in close co-operation
with them, the Empire Cotton Growing Corporation maintains eight
experimental farms in Africa and employs several experts at
government laboratories. In Nigeria at Daudawa, on the road
between Zaria and Sokoto, a seed farm of 1,280 acres (not all
cultivated) was founded in 1926, and has a staff of two officers. In
Nyasaland at Domira Bay, Lake Nyasa, a station was founded in
1930: it has 150 acres, and a staff of three research workers. In
Northern Rhodesia a selection expert works for the Corporation
at Mazabuka. In the Sudan a staff of three is maintained at the
Shambat laboratory. In Southern Rhodesia there is Gatooma
Station (340 acres, staff of three), for which Government grants a
subsidy and pays the cost of labour and experiments. The Union
of South Africa has the largest of the stations, at Barberton, Trans-
vaal, with a staff of eight. In addition there are two subsidiary
stations at Magut in Natal (staff of one), and at Bremersdorp in
Swaziland (staff of two). The Corporation has maintained a sup-
ply of trained officers for their scientific and agricultural activities
in Africa by means of a scholarship and training system at Cam-
bridge and Trinidad, similar to that for the colonial agricultural
departments. This was started in 1922.
AGRICULTURE—GENERAL 327
FRENCH
As a central institute in France for colonial questions, the
Institut National d’ Agronomie Coloniale, situated in the Bois de Vin-
cennes, with M. Prudhomme as Director, is the principal centre
for advancing training for the colonial agricultural appointments,
and has admirable facilities for this purpose in the way of study
collections and gardens where nearly all the tropical economic
plants are established. It is hoped that the Institute will even-
tually become a centre for colonial research as well as training.
The periodical publication of the Institute, Agronomie Coloniale, is
designed principally to inform workers in the colonies of recent
advances in their subjects in other parts of the world, but it also
includes results of research, as does the Revue de Botanique Appliquée
et d@ Agriculture Tropicale published by the Laboratoire d’Agronomie
Coloniale in Paris.
In French West Africa agriculture and animal husbandry form
two component parts of the Service Economique, the other sub-
jects under the same service being forestry and customs. The whole
Service Economique is under a Director-General at Dakar respon-
sible to the Governor-General, and each of the component subjects
has an Inspector-General with a staff of Inspectors.
In addition to the inspectorate, each of the colonies comprising
French West Africa has a local service of agriculturalists, veteri-
narians, or foresters, under a Chef-de-service in each case. As
part of this organization a number of experimental stations are
maintained, as mentioned below. But perhaps the most important
centres for research and experiment in French West Africa are
those of the Office du Niger situated in the Sudan in the area
adjoining the Niger which are to be put under intensive cultiva-
tion as a result of irrigation schemes. Ségou is the centre for
research work, and the newly built laboratories there house agri-
cultural chemists, entomologists, plant breeders and plant patho-
logists. Apart from this staff maintained by the Office du Niger,
there are comparatively few specialist officers permanently in
French West Africa, but research work required in any colony
is often carried out by visiting scientists who come from France
for short terms of work. For such purposes the universities in
France co-operate in a large measure.
328 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
In the government agricultural services French West Africa had
the following European staff in 1936: 49 Ingénieurs d’agriculture,
76 Conducteurs des travaux agricoles, 13 Contréleurs de colonisa-
tion, and 10 Surveillants, and in addition, each colony has a
subordinate staff of African Moniteurs. On the veterinary side
there are 37 Vétérinaires Européens, 48 Vétérinaires Auxiliaires
Indigénes and 21 Surveillants au service zootechnique (Europeans).
Most of the European veterinary officers, like the doctors in the
medical service, are drawn from the military services, but some
civil veterinarians are now employed and receive special courses
of instruction in France at the Institut de Médecine Vétérinaire
Exotique at Alfort, which was established in 1920. The African
veterinary staff is trained at Bamako in the French Sudan, where
a flourishing veterinary school provides a full three years’ course
(see Chapter XIV).
For the improvement of cultivation the following experimental
or teaching centres exist. In Senegal there is a large station for
studies on groundnuts at M’Bambey and a farming school at
Louga for improving native cultivation of this crop. There are
also the gardens of Sor and Hann, the latter situated close to
Dakar, and both serving primarily as nurseries for fruit and
ornamental trees. In the Sudan, in addition to the stations of the
Office du Niger mentioned above, there are the farming schools
of M’Pésoba, Zamblara, and Kakoulou which give practical
instruction in the cultivation of cotton and groundnuts, and
distribute seed. At Bamako and Katibougou there are nurseries
for trees combined with horticultural stations. In the Niger Colony
there are the stations of Kolo and Tarma as controlling centres
for colonization schemes and for agricultural instruction. ‘There
is a pasture station at Filingué and another instructional centre at
Kontoukale. In French Guinea the most important station is at
Kindia, where there are laboratories and experimental stations
for bananas. There are also the gardens of GCamayenne for trials
of industrial plants, with nurseries attached, the experimental and
acclimatization station of Kankan in Upper Guinea for cotton,
rice, groundnuts, and tobacco, the farming school of Tolo, and
farms in charge of the Sociétés de Prévoyance at Télimélé and
Macenta. The Jvory Coast has an important experimental station
PLATE V
IRRIGATION WORKS ON THE RIVER NIGER IN FRENCH SUDAN
Above: ‘The barrage at Sotuba, near Bamako. The irrigation canal runs off to
the right from the arches
Below: The great barrage at Markala, under construction (June 1935)
| \ >
AGRICULTURE—GENERAL 329
for oil palms at La Mé, where cultivation trials, selection, and
analyses of the products are carried out. At the agricultural
stations at Bingerville and Gagnoa there are nurseries for bananas,
coffee and cacao. There is an agricultural school at Saria, where
cereals, cotton, and kapok are the principal crops dealt with, a
farm at Poundou for groundnuts, cereals, and cotton, anda nursery
at Basfora for fruit, forest, and ornamental trees. Dahomey has an
important experimental station for oil-palms at Pobé. There are
also a garden at Porto Novo with. nurseries for coco-nut and
coffee in the neighbourhood, a station at Niaouli for educational
work and the study of coffee and fruit trees, and an experimental
farm at Ina for groundnuts, cotton, cereals, and castor-oil.
On the side of animal husbandry the Sudan is the most important
colony, and has a station at Sotuba for cattle, sheep, and small
stock, as well as three stations for merino and karakal sheep and
Angora goats at El-Oualadji, Nioro, and Nara. The goats have
been introduced with success and have been inter-bred with the
local stock. In Senegal the groundnut station at M’Bambey also
carries out work with sheep and donkeys. In French Guinea the
farm at Télimélé deals with cattle. The Ivory Coast has two
stations for cattle and small stock at Bouaké and Koroko. In
Dahomey the station in Ina deals with cattle, and in Mauritania
there is an experimental sheep farm at Méderdre. Research on
animal diseases and the preparation of sera and vaccines is central-
ized at the veterinary laboratory at Bamako in the Sudan. Branch
laboratories, mainly for sera production, exist in all the colonies
except Mauritania, and the Pasteur Institute’s laboratory at Kin-
dia in French Guinea also co-operates in this work.
Unfortunately the French services in agriculture and animal
husbandry do not publish annual reports, and so the results of
research at the stations mentioned above are somewhat scattered.
Among other journals the Bulletin du Comité d’ études historiques et
scientifiques de A.O.F. contains a number of such reports, whilst the
Annales Agricoles de? Afrique Occidental, published at Bingerville, is
a most interesting new venture.
In French Equatorial Africa parts of the country have, like French
West Africa, proved highly suitable for cotton and a considerable
organization exists for the development of this crop. There are
330 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
four stations, established about four years ago, where selection is
carried out. They are managed by the Cotton Association con-
sisting of four operating companies, but assisted also by govern-
ment funds. The cultivation of coffee is also encouraged, and a
small experimental station has been started recently. Interest in
animal husbandry is concentrated in the northern part of the terri-
tory where cattle and sheep abound in the Sudan belt. In Chad
colony there are five European veterinary officers, a sheep expert
to look after imported flocks of merinos, and about one hundred
African subordinate veterinary workers. No livestock breeding
station has been established yet, but diseases, especially rinderpest
and pleuro-pneumonia, are controlled by the use of serum and
vaccine made locally. Sheep have been developed particularly in
the neighbourhood of Chad where the veterinary service is con-
centrated.
BELGIAN
As headquarters for agricultural development in the Congo,
there is a department of the Ministry for Colonies in Brussels under
M. Claessens. In addition to the official services, several Belgian
universities, notably that of Louvain, have taken great interest in
the problems involved and have developed independent organiza-
tions in the Congo itself. The organization of services has been
described in detail by E. Leplae (1932). Up to December 1933,
agricultural development and research in the Congo was organized
by La Régie des Plantations de la Colonie. In that year the Institut
National pour |’Etude Agronomique du Congo Belge (INEAC)
was established by royal decree, and now corresponds roughly
with the official agricultural and veterinary services in the British
colonies. Some account of its work is given below.!
The INEAC in 1936 had nine experimental stations, includ-
ing five large stations in the Stanleyville district, with a total area
of about 2,000 hectares (nearly 5,000 acres), two cotton stations
at Bambesa and Gandajika, a station at Nioka for other crops, and
the botanic gardens at Eala.
The five stations near Stanleyville are as follows: 1. Yangambi,
on the Congo, where research is proceeding on rubber, especially
1 From notes supplied by M. Claessens of the Ministére des Colonies.
AGRICULTURE—GENERAL 331
the substitution of grafting for seed propagation, and experiments
with different types of planting systems in relation to oil-palms
and coffee. 2. Yangambi-Selection (about 100 hectares), where
there are four sections, for oil-palms, rubber, coffee, and native
food crops. The research, to which much importance is attached,
consists mainly of long-range studies under the headings of (a)
selection of pure strains, (b) experiments on germination, trans-
planting, dispersal, soil treatment, rotation of crops, harvesting
methods, grafting, and prolongation oflife, (c) biology and genetics,
especially factors leading to fertility and the evolution of various
characters. 3. Gazi (over 500 hectares) chiefly for rubber and
cacao, with some oil-palms. 4. Lula, where 193 hectares are under
coffee of different kinds, chiefly robusta. Work is proceeding on
selection, seed distribution to planters, growth, reclamation of old
plantations, cover crops and manuring. Wild coffees from the
neighbouring forests are being studied. 5. Barumba, a very old
station on the Congo River, where 560 hectares are under oil-
palms with 354 hectares of cacao trees alternating between the
palms. Work concentrates on growth and selection methods, and
on the improvement of exhausted soil. The cotton station at Bam-
besa has 27 hectares of cotton and 20 of legumes. That at Ganda-
jika has 30 hectares of cotton and 15 of legumes. Research is
proceeding on growth and selection and on the control of pests.
Nioka is the principal livestock research station in the Congo.
It is situated west of Lake Albert, 1,800 metres above sea-level,
and covers some 2,000 hectares. Most of the area is natural pasture,
but there is some improved pasture, some wooded land, and a part
is devoted to food crops and to coffee. The livestock includes
cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, and fowls. The station aims at the intro-
duction of new kinds of stock, improvement by breeding, and the
supply to settlers and natives of the most suitable kinds. The breed-
ing of woolled sheep is promising, but up to now diseases, especi-
ally parasitic worms, have proved difficult to control. Important
work on milk production is in progress, and natives are taught to
train oxen for the plough. The crops studied are wheat, barley,
rye, apples, pears, peaches, and avocado pears.
The botanic gardens at Eala, on the River Ruki, in the province
of Coquilhatville, cover about 150 hectares. Up to now the gar-
332 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
dens have been used as a centre for collecting living specimens of
the indigenous flora and for acclimatization experiments. Some
3,500 species of plants are growing there, of which about half are
indigenous. In addition to work in the gardens, which is to be
reorganized by the INEAC on more scientific principles, experi-
ments are progressing at Eala on the breeding of dwarf cattle from
Dahomey and Guinea, which show resistance to trypanosomiasis.
There are also at Kisantu the famous botanical gardens of Fr.
Gillet. |
The INEAC proposes to reclaim immediately the old high-
altitude station of Mulungu-Tahibinda at Kivu, about 2,000
metres above sea-level, for the purpose of studying arabica coffee,
quinine, tea, and essential oil plants, all of which have been
established there. In the Bas-Congo suitable land is being sought
for development as a station for tropical fruit—bananas, citrus,
pineapples, etc. This may be either at Mayumbe, or between
Matadi and Leopoldville.
For the control of animal diseases there is a corps of European
veterinarians, numbering some thirty-five, who have received a
short course of training at the Institute of Tropical Medicine at
Brussels in addition to having the usual qualifications. A labora-
tory for the production of serum and vaccine is situated at Kisenyi
in Ruanda.
In addition to the INEAC there is an independent organiza-
tion known as the Centres Agronomiques de |’ Université de Lou-
vain au Congo (CADULAC), which aims directly at improv-
ing native agricultural methods and local food resources. Like its
sister body the FOMULAC (see Chapter XV), this originated
in 1931 at the Congress at Louvain of the Academica Unio
Catholica Adjuvans Missiones (AUCAM). Up to now activity
has been concentrated in the region of Kisantu-Lemfu, in the
Madimba territory of the Bas-Congo, where there was already a
flourishing Jesuit mission, so that it was easy to get into direct
touch with the natives.
The principal Belgian technical publication is the Bulletin
agricole du Congo Belge, which contains results of research. In
addition, the Revue d’ Agriculture et d’Elevage, privately published,
is partly subsidized by the agricultural department of the Congo.
AGRICULTURAL—GENERAL 333
PORTUGUESE
In Lisbon a central department of agricultural services at the
Colonial Ministry has charge of all services in the Portuguese
colonies. At present this department includes veterinary services,
but plans are going forward for the organization of a separate
department in Lisbon for animal husbandry.
In Angola and Mozambique there are departments for agricul-
ture and animal husbandry under independent management.
The following note! applies only to the veterinary organization,
since information on agriculture unfortunately is not available.
In Mozambique a central laboratory for veterinary pathology,
to include also the preparation of serum and vaccine, has recently
been established at Lourengo Marques, and a centrai zootechnical
farm, some eighty miles distant, is being enlarged to extend work
in animal husbandry. Subsidiary stock farms exist in regions
where cattle are most concentrated. European veterinary officers
are also at work in the different provinces and apply measures
of sanitary inspection, vaccination, dipping, and regional quaran-
tine.
In Angola a central laboratory is under construction and part
of it is already in working order. Situated in the highlands, it is
intended for pathological research in addition to the production
of serum and vaccine. In the Ganda district there is a zootech-
nical station specially intended for the production of meat. In
the Humpata district, the high plain in the south, there is another
station for the production of wool, milk, and working beasts. The
Cuanhama district has a large establishment which, together with
a native breeding centre, examines the question of the improve-
ment of beef-producing cattle and ofhorses, and likewise of mutton-
producing sheep. In Quilengues, the central coastal region, there
is also a station for the production of beef and mutton. Scattered
throughout the rest of the colony are smaller breeding farms
affiliated to the principal stations, and centres along the coast exist
for the purpose of making an intensive survey of all animal pro-
ducts exported from the territory.
1 From information supplied by Dr. d’Eca, Chief of the Veterinary Services,
Mozambique, .
334 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
INTERNATIONAL
The International Institute of Agriculture at Rome was founded in
1905. With the associated Bureau of Agricultural Science it has
aimed since that time at collecting agricultural statistics and
general information from all over the world and disseminating
them through the medium of periodical and other publications.
The institute is financed by an original endowment and by con-
tributions from numerous countries, and maintains a considerable
staff. Only a small proportion of the work relates directly to Africa,
but certain of the publications are of marked value, particularly
the directory of agricultural experimental institutions in hot coun-
tries, the directory of animal husbandry institutions, and the
annual volumes, mainly on agricultural economics.
For some time there has been a division of opinion among the
contributing countries as to the functions which the institute can
best perform. Since its inception the annual mass of information
has increased beyond measure, particularly in the realm of re-
search. Meanwhile, most of those countries with extensive imperial
interests have developed their own means of disseminating infor-
mation: the Imperial Agricultural Bureaux, for instance, serve this
purpose for the British Empire. The U.S.A. and Great Britain
have been forward in suggesting a reform of the work, and in
March 1935, the permanent committee of the institute decided, on
the advice of a panel of scientists, presided over by Sir John
Russell, that the institute should in future retire from the purely
scientific side of the information service and should concentrate
on the practical and international aspects of agricultural progress.
CHAPTER XII
CROP-PLANTS
INTRODUCTION
HE great majority of natives depend for subsistence on their
ON eo food crops rather than on the production of commodities
for the market. Hence greater knowledge of these food crops is
important. This depends upon research of the following types:
1. Surveys of the numerous strains of each crop, and of their
suitability to different conditions. 2. Improvement in methods of
cultivation. 3. Research on the control of disease. 4. Dietetic
work on the nutritive value of foods. 5. The breeding of food plants
to increase yield, nutritive value and resistance to disease. Several
of these subjects have received special attention in parts of the
continent, and a few examples of the work done are mentioned
below. But on the whole, until within recent years, more effort has
been directed to the improvement of cash crops than to that of
native food crops, possibly owing to the more immediate results
which can be obtained in the form of increased revenues.
It is generally acknowledged that native crops grown in small
plots have a measure of natural protection from disease through
the obstacles to the distribution of causative organisms, created by
native agricultural methods. These obstacles are removed where
large compact areas are farmed under a single crop, as for export
purposes. Native food crops are by no means immune from disease,
however, and the plant pathologist, combined with the breeder,
must be called upon to find the solution. The breeding of resistant
strains is usually more satisfactory than the discovery of direct
methods of controlling disease.
Although little has been published in regard to native food
crops, much information, especially on the economic side, has been
336 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
collected. For example, in Uganda, when the locust invasion came
in 1931, it was possible for the agricultural department to recom-
mend the extensive planting of locust-proof crops such as ground-
nuts, cassava, and sweet potatoes. Owing to co-operation between
field officers of the administrative and agricultural departments
this campaign was so successful that no famine reserves had to be
drawn on throughout the locust invasion.
Passing to cash crops, it would appear possible at first sight to
distinguish those grown by European settlers from those produced
by natives. But recently so many crops established at first by settler
planters have been adopted by native cultivators, that the distinc-
tion can no longer be made, except in so far as the investment of
capital enables the European or Asiatic settler to employ methods
which are not available to the native.
In some cases these economic crop-plants have been introduced
from outside Africa within recent years; in other cases indigenous
plants have been improved, often as a result of interbreeding with
introduced strains of the same species. As examples of recent
introductions, cacao in West Africa, and tea and wheat in the
East, may be cited.
In view of the risk from variations in market or in climatic con-
ditions, which is involved by dependence on a single crop, as
well as the creation of an unbalanced agriculture, it has been felt
desirable to establish alternative crops wherever possible. Develop-
ments in Uganda may be quoted as an example. This territory at
one time concentrated on the cultivation of cotton, of which
approximately 300,000 bales are produced annually by native
cultivators. In Uganda this crop is comparatively safe owing to
climatic conditions and the relative absence of pests. It was real-
ized, however, that a slump in cotton prices would be disastrous,
and also that soil erosion was becoming a serious menace in areas
where this crop was grown in excess of its legitimate acreage.
Efforts have therefore been made to stimulate native production
of coffee, and lately also of tobacco. Difficulties in marketing the
variable quality of native-grown coffee have been overcome by
recent coffee-grading ordinances, and the native production in
Uganda now includes 4,500 tons of coffee and 1,000,000 lb. of
tobacco in addition to the cotton. A similar policy of creating a
CROP-PLANTS 337
more diversified agriculture has been adopted both among Euro-
pean settlers and natives in every territory.
The influence of organizations in England, such as Kew Gar-
dens and the Imperial Institute, has been active in stimulating
interest in subsidiary crops. Through their assistance the cultiva-
tion of tung oil, quinine, essential oils, and insecticides has been
developed in different parts of Africa.
In breeding and selection, three objects have always to be con-
sidered—higher yield, better quality and resistance to disease.
There are many examples from Africa where one or two of these
aims have been achieved with success, but the combination of all
three has yet to be realized, except perhaps in the case of certain
strains of cotton. As mentioned in Chapter VI, diseases can be
divided into those caused by insects, fungi or other plant organisms,
virus diseases and eel-worm diseases. The role of insects not only
in directly bringing about disease, but in transferring the causative
organisms of other troubles, has been discussed in Chapter X.
Another aspect of disease concerns the relationships of crops
to wild plants which may serve as alternative hosts for pests,
etc. The methods of cultivation offer numerous probiems for
each crop individually, some of which are mentioned in the
following pages. In this connection it is important to recognize
the change which has taken place in crop research during recent
years. As pointed out by the recent Secretary of State for the
Colonies (Ormsby-Gore 1934), the old idea of protection from
pests by spraying and similar methods for the destruction of the
organism involved, is giving place to the view that the best defence
is through suitable nutrition resulting from improved agricultural
practice. In this there are three lines of approach: those of the
geneticist or plant breeder, the physiologist, and the nutritionist,
to which may perhaps be added that of the ecologist who studies
the environment and the optimum conditions of climate, soil, etc.
for each crop. He points out that team work is essential for pro-
gress in these subjects and that probably most has been achieved
in the past by research stations concentrating on one crop. Quick
results are impossible even with a large team of workers, and hence
there is need for continuity in research.
There seems to be a paucity of reference works on African crops,
M
338 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
though general information can be found in text-books of tropical
agriculture. ‘The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, has published as
Additional Series XII of the Kew Bulletin a list of the cultivated
crop-plants of the tropics and subtropics grown in the British
Empire and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan which shows their cultural
distribution (Sampson 1936). For West Africa, especially Nigeria,
Faulkner and Mackie (1933) devote several chapters to crops.
Leppan and Bosman (1923) deal with the crops of South Africa.
For French West Africa Perrot (1930) has written a large volume
on vegetable productions, both wild and cultivated. In 1935 the
Ministry for Colonies in Brussels produced a series of small pam-
phlets on the crops of the Belgian Congo, namely cotton, cacao,
rubber, palm-oil, other vegetable oils, copal, and fibres. Most of
these include a useful list of selected publications dealing with the
crops concerned. Reference is made to special publications in
the following pages, after the historical notes on Africa’s crop-
plants.
The order in which the various crop-plants are discussed is
based on a questionnaire used in the preparation by the Royal
Botanic Gardens of the list (Sampson 1936) mentioned above.
ORIGIN OF CROP-PLANTS
The cultivation of crop-plants in Africa dates back to pre-
historic times and the continent has made valuable contributions
to the crop-plants of the Old World tropics. There is little doubt
that the sorghum crop originated in Africa and that it has spread
from there to Asia, where it is grown from Asia Minor to Korea
and is perhaps the most valuable dry-land cereal of the more
tropical parts. To-day most of the races of sorghum with their
numerous varieties are confined to Africa, and it is a matter for
astonishment how these races have been maintained and evolved
in a country where agriculture is based on shifting cultivation and
only primitive methods of grain storage are known.
Similarly the bulrush millets (Pennisetum spp.) have been evolved
in Africa and recent botanical research has shown that more than
one wild species of this genus were involved in their production.
There are numerous races in Africa and the crop is represented in
CROP-PLANTS 339
India where it is second only in importance to sorghum as a dry-
land cereal.
It is uncertain whether the finger millet (leusine coracana) is of
African or Asiatic origin. Africa certainly shows a greater variety
in the number of types which are grown, but the cultivation of
finger millet is largely confined to certain tribes in East and Central
Africa.
West Africa has three other indigenous cereal crops. Two of
these are species of Digitaria, which are known by the name of
‘Hungry rice’ and a cultivated rice (Oryza glaberrima), which is
derived from the wild species O. barthit, and which occurs from the
Gambia to Nigeria in numerous varieties.
At least three species of pulse crops are of African origin. The
principal of these is the cow pea (Vigna unguiculata), which is a
common crop of mixed cultivation throughout Africa and occurs
in numerous varieties representing markedly different characters
in the grain. Voandzeia subterranea, the Bambarra groundnut, is
confined to Africa and Madagascar and occurs throughout the
more tropical parts of the country. It possibly reaches its highest
development in Nigeria, where it 1s a crop of some significance.
Kerstingiella geocarpa is another very similar African crop which is
confined to West Africa. Cajanus cajan is widely distributed through
Africa and is probably of African origin, but ifso it must have been
introduced into India at a very early date, as many specialized
varieties are now grown in that country.
Of oil-seeds, Sesamum orientale is undoubtedly of African origin,
as the allied wild species are only found there. It must have found
its way into Asia at a very early date; for India, Burma, China,
and Japan have all developed many distinct and specialized
varieties. It was introduced to the New World at the time of the
slave trade, and is still grown in the Carribean area for domes-
tic use. The oil-palm, which is always associated with man,
belongs to Africa, and there can be little doubt that man has
played his part in the development of the higher oil-yielding
types.
West Africa has its own indigo industry based on an indigenous
species of Indigofera. The artificial hills, which are such a prominent
feature of the landscape in the neighbourhood of the northern
340 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
cities of Nigeria, where the indigo dyeing vats are situated, indi-
cate the great age of this industry.
Africa possesses several root crops peculiar to the continent. At
least three species of Dioscorea, two of which exist in many varieties
at the present day, are derived from wild African species. This
culture is mainly confined to West Africa where doubtless these
cultigens originated. Besides yams, the Hausa or Madagascar
potato (Coleus dysentericus) is an African crop which is widely dis-
tributed. Plectranthus floribundus, the Kafir potato, belongs to the
same family of plants. In Southern Nigeria there is a leruminous
root crop (Sphenostylis stenocarpa), whose flowers resemble those of
the cow pea.
Of crop-plants received from Asia, the banana, which was being
grown in the extreme west of Africa when Columbus first dis-
covered America, was first introduced from there to the New
World. In Hakluyt’s voyages mention is made of the people of the
Guinea coast bringing presents of bananas and oranges to the
ships which traded there. ‘The greater yam came from Asia, and
there are numerous plants of Asiatic origin which are found near
the east coast of Africa. East Africa also received an important
pulse crop from Asia, Phaseolus aureus, the green gram of India.
This is now widely distributed in East and Central Africa.
There is no doubt that the slave trade greatly contributed to
the variety of crops which are now grown in Africa. It has been
stated that the Portuguese deliberately introduced maize, the
groundnut, the cassava, and the sweet potato from America into
what is now Angola; for they realized that the frequent famines
which occurred in that part of Africa greatly reduced the size and
value of their living cargo. Judging, however, by the numerous
varieties of these three crops which exist in Africa there must have
been numerous introductions to different parts of the slave coasts
and on numerous occasions. In fact the groundnut must have soon
become established, for it was first introduced to Jamaica from the
Guinea coast. The amazing thing about these American introduc-
tions is the rapidity with which they spread throughout the con-
tinent and the way the gels: adapted them to their methods of
cultivation,
CROP-PLANTS 341
RESEARCH ON CROP-PLANTS
CEREALS
A survey of the sorghums (Sorghum vulgare) was inaugurated by
the Economic Botanist at Kew Gardens, Mr. Sampson, in col-
laboration with the British colonial agricultural departments.
The material collected has been critically studied by Mr. J. D.
Snowden (1936). Mr. Burkill, on the basis of Snowden’s work,
has written an historical study of this cereal (1937). The co-
operative study of this crop, which entailed a study on the spot
of the agricultural characters of different varieties, has perhaps
called attention to its importance, and several departments have
carried on the work of improvement, notably in Northern Rho-
desia, Nyasaland, Tanganyika, and Nigeria. The collection of
material at Kew has also made it possible for officers of agricul-
tural departments to make a special study of this crop when on
vacation. In the Union of South Africa selected varieties of sor-
ghum have shown marked resistance to ‘witch weed’ (Striga), a
root parasite which causes great losses to this crop as well as to
maize and certain other cereals.
Material of a large number of bulrush millets (Pennisetum) has
been collected at Kew and has been critically examined and classi-
fied by Hubbard and Stapf. It has been shown that these millets
have been derived from more than one wild African species (FI.
Trop. Africa, 1934). In Tanganyika bulrush millets have been
selected to produce compact heads, and quick-growing varieties
have been bred for dry areas.
In Nigeria the selection of pure strains has been undertaken with
both grain sorghums and pennisetums at the agricultural station
of Samaru in the Northern Provinces. This has resulted in increased
yields up to 30 per cent, but results to date are somewhat erratic,
and yields of 30 per cent over the average in one season have some-
times been followed by yields of 5 or 10 per cent under average
in the following year. In general it can be concluded that strains
of sorghum can be selected which give improved yields in the area
where the selection is actually carried out, but appear to be incap-
able of competing with local varieties elsewhere, even if only fifty
miles away. In the Gold Coast, where the Botanist devotes much
342 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
of his time to native food crops, the selection of grain sorghums and
pennisetums forms part of the work of the agricultural station at
Tamale. Similar studies have been made in the Gambia.
The finger millet (Eleusine coracana) has been discussed by
Clements (1933) and Moffat (1933) in connection with the
chitemene system of agriculture prevalent in Northern Rhodesia.
Selection work is in progress in Kenya, Uganda, Northern Rho-
desia, and Tanganyika, where collections of local varieties have
been made.
The cultivation of maize (Kea mays) has now extended to most
parts of Africa where climatic conditions are suitable. It has been
the subject of research by the department of agriculture in the
Union of South Africa for a number of years. In particular Dr.
J. Burtt Davy, when Botanist to the Transvaal department of
agriculture between 1903 and 1920, devoted a large part of his
work to this crop and his text-book on the subject (1914) deals
with all aspects of its history, cultivation, handling and uses, while
more recently A. R. Saunders (1930) has discussed in detail the
factors affecting the yield of maize in the Union. Studies on maize
have made it possible for farmers to choose the varieties best
suited to their particular area and the fertilizer most likely to
succeed with any given type of soil. The breeding of drought-
resistant varieties is in progress at the Kroonstad experimental
station and at the Potchefstroom School of Agriculture. At Kroon-
stad valuable results have been obtained in the selection of yellow
dent, in fertilizer experiments and in crop-rotation with trials
maize and cow peas. At Potchefstroom a synthetic maize variety
has shown promise, and experiments have been undertaken to
demonstrate the advantages of winter ploughing. In Southern
Rhodesia, at the Hillside station, a strain has been found which
shows considerable resistance to infection by Dzplodia and allied
diseases. It has also been shown (S. Rhodesia 1936, D.A.) that
yield and resistance to rust are increased by applications of lime.
In the colonial territories research on maize is in progress at
several centres. For example, in Northern Rhodesia native varieties
of maize have been collected by the ecological survey and have
been subjected to selection trials, with a view to their suitability
for cultivation at different altitudes. In Kenya selection has done
CROP-PLANTS 343
much to improve the yield of maize in the case both of settler and
native production.
Rice (Oryza sativa and O. glaberrima) is a crop of increasing impor-
tance, particularly in West Africa. In Sierra Leone, for example,
rice forms a staple food of practically all the population, and
although large quantities are produced on the upland rice farms,
an import of 10,000 tons per year was necessary until recently. The
problem has been to increase production without affecting ad-
versely the fertility of the upland rice farms, and the solution
appeared unattainable until about ten years ago, when swamp-
growing rice was developed in the Scarcies area. By 1935 some
30,000 acres of mangrove swamp had been converted into rice-
fields and a small export had actually been started. Varieties have
been introduced from India, Ceylon, British Guiana, and Indo-
China, and strains have been selected suitable for the peculiar
local conditions, as for example, ‘deep-water rice’, and one form
has been acclimatized which will grow in as great a depth as
eight feet. The type known as G.E.B. 24, an introduction from
Madras, tested and multiplied at the experimental station at
Rokupr, has proved most successful. Through examination of the
product brought to the government rice mill, it is possible to ascer-
tain the areas where diseases occur, and where methods of cultiva-
tion require improvement.
In Nigeria the pressure of population in the neighbourhood of
the large native towns of the Southern Provinces has compelled
the agricultural department to consider the development of new
areas where food crops can be grown. Accordingly an investiga-
tion into the possibilities of developing rice-fields in the mangrove
swamps in the neighbourhood of the Niger Delta has been made
recently with encouraging results. Although such cultivation is
rendered difficult by the proximity of salt water, so that only
restricted areas of mangrove swamp can be used, it has the great
advantage that the soil fertility is continually being replenished
by the rise and fall of the water due to tidal action, so that its
productivity is apparently inexhaustible.
In Tanganyika the department of agriculture has investigated
the rice-growing area of the Pare district, where the native methods
of cultivation have been found to be wasteful. Already a good in-
344 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
crease in production has resulted. During 1935 a native adminis-
tration rice multiplication area was established at Mwabogole on
the shore of Lake Victoria, where spacing experiments and strain
trials are made. Selection work is also in progress at the experi-
mental station at Mpanganya, Rufii (Tanganyika 1936, D.R.) and
improved strains ofrice are now in cultivation. In Northern Nyasa-
land a survey of the local rices was made during 1930-2, and the
results are published in a bulletin issued by the department of
agriculture (Barker 1934).
In Kenya the rice production of the Tana River area has been
greatly improved by the elimination of many varieties and the
retention of a limited number sufficient to meet the needs of vary-
ing soil conditions while supplying the type of rice in local demand.
In the French colonies, R. Portéres (1935) has made a study of
native rices and the methods used in their cultivation in the north-
west part of the Ivory Coast. Rice-growing enters into the pro-
gramme ofirrigated agriculture in the neighbourhood of the River
Niger in the French Sudan.
With regard to wheat, the noteworthy breeding work which has
revolutionized the industry in Europe, North America, and
Australia has not yet proved of much value in Africa, since it
appears that strains suitable to African conditions must be locally
produced. Various aspects of wheat cultivation are studied in
South Africa, and the genetic work on disease-resistant strains in
progress at the Stellenbosch-Elsenburg College of Agriculture
deserves special mention. Experiments with rotation, cultivation,
and sowing methods are carried out at the Langgewens cereal
experiment station, and the effect of different fertilizers on quality
has also been investigated. Rotation trials of wheat with fodder
crops are in progress at Jongensklip, and experiments in wheat
cultivation under irrigation have been made at Hartebeestepoort.
Dr. Burton in Kenya has been studying wheat and maize during
the past ten years or so, and has obtained valuable results on
breeding. Several suitable wheats, some of which are resistant to
the two principal rusts prevalent in Kenya, have been evolved and
are already in cultivation.
CROP-PLANTS 845
PULSE CROPS
In addition to the pulses mentioned on page 339, Vigna unguicu-
lata, Woandzeva subterranea, Kerstingiella geocarpa, Cajanus cajan, and
the introduced Phaseolus aureus, certain other crops are important.
Dolichos lablab is confined to East Africa, from the Sudan to
Nyasaland. Many varieties of Phaseolus lunatus,an American species,
are grown in West Africa and it is occasionally seen in East Africa.
Another American species, Phaseolus vulgaris, is cultivated in the
cold season in East Africa in many varieties. Mucuna aterrima and
allied species are grown in the Rhodesias, Nyasaland, and Tan-
ganyika. This crop is regarded mainly as a food for times of
scarcity owing to the poisonous property of its seeds, which entail
boiling in many changes of water. The sword-bean (Canavalia en-
stformis) occurs wild, and to a small extent cultivated, in West
Africa. A study of V. unguiculata, on lines similar to those adopted
in the case of sorghum, has been commenced by Kew in co-opera-
tion with the agricultural departments of the various British
tropical dependencies.
The importance of pulses as an element of native diet, particu-
larly in areas where they are the principal source of proteins, is
now widely recognized, and in those territories where scales of
rations for native labour are prescribed by law it is usual to include
a fixed quantity of pulses. ‘The increasing interest which has
recently been taken in the nutritional problems of colonial peoples
may lead to the further development of research on these impor-
tant crops.
FODDER CROPS
Lucerne (Medicago sativa) is one of the best-known forage crops
and is grown throughout temperate parts of the world. In South
Africa a considerable area, amounting to nearly 100,000 morgen,
is under lucerne, and Professor Leppan (1924) has written an
exhaustive treatise on its cultivation there. More recently the
Union department of agriculture has published a study of this
crop (Tarpin and McKellar 1936). Lucerne has been found to
have high nutritive value as food for human beings as well as for
stock. Fox and Wilson (1935) point out that it is remarkably rich
in vitamin C, in addition to containing a considerable amount of
346 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
mineral matter and protein. They suggest that it could be added
with great advantage to the dietaries of mine labourers in South
Africa.
In Nigeria the use of green manuring is being widely inculcated,
and Mucuna aterrima and Calopogonium mucunoides have been found
most generally suitable for this purpose. The latter also has
proved of great value as a cover crop in plantation agriculture in
Sierra Leone, French West Africa, and the Belgian Congo. In
the Southern Provinces of Nigeria experiments have been made
with various pulses with a view to isolating varieties which will
serve both as covet crops and green manures, but none has so
far been found which will form a really dense cover capable of
preventing soil wash and strangling weeds.
OIL-SEEDS
The groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) is an early introduction from
South America and must soon have become established as an
important addition to the crops of the country, for it is recorded
that this crop was introduced into Jamaica from West Africa at
the time of the slave trade. Many varieties to which names are
given are recognized by the people. As an export crop the ground-
nut is of most importance in the semi-arid regions of West Africa,
where methods of cultivation and the selection of improved strains
have been studied in both French and British dependencies. These
plants are comparatively easy to work with, since, being self-
fertilized, there is no need for precautions in the process of selection.
In northern Nigeria there are two types of groundnuts commonly
cultivated, one with an upright growth and the other spreading.
By the simple expedient of selecting the best plants over a period
of five years the upright kind has produced an increased yield of
25 per cent, and the spreading kind of 16 per cent. As there is
not very much variation in the quality of groundnuts, efforts are
directed mainly to producing greater yields. ‘This is especially
the case in those areas where groundnuts are grown for purposes
of local food supplies rather than for export. ‘Rosette’ disease is a
serious pest in many parts (see Chapter X). The Gambia, lying
as it does in the midst of the groundnut region of Senegal, relies
almost entirely on exports of this crop: improved methods of cul-
CROP-PLANTS 347
tivation are studied at Yoroberi-Kunda, and breeding at the Wuli
experimental station. In Sierra Leone efforts are being made to
increase production, since crops are not sufficient to meet the
requirements of the local food market. In Eastern Africa there are
many areas suitable for groundnuts, and a considerable production
exists mainly for local consumption. In Tanganyika, however,
exports in 1936 amounted to 23,000 tons out of a total of 38,000
tons marketed. Selection work is in progress in all the British
territories.
Senegal has the greatest groundnut export of any country in
Africa, and experience there is significant in view of the increasing
interest in this crop elsewhere. In this territory rainfall diminishes
with latitude north of the equator, from 50 inches per annum south
of the Gambia to 10 inches on the Senegal River. The whole
country can accordingly be divided into three regions for the pur-
pose of cultivation, namely the dry region in the north, the middle
region east of Dakar, and the wet region surrounding the Gambia
River. The dry region in the north was formerly the most produc-
tive, and the Rufisque groundnuts exported from the port of that
name were once all grown there. Now, however, the soil in the
northern region has been seriously impoverished, and the central
belt is at present the most productive. Since continuous cropping
without a rotation would lead there also to infertility, great impor-
tance is attached to experiments with manures. The crop depends
largely on the length of the rainy season, and the limit of production
depending on rainfall seems now to have been reached. In the
extreme north of the territory, along the Senegal River, small
inundation canals have been constructed in a number of places
to control the flood waters for groundnut cultivation, and in other
dry areas it is proposed to construct irrigation wells.
The agricultural experimental station at M’Bambey, not far
from Dakar, has been established for some ten years, and much
work has been done, some results of which have been published
by Rambert (1928) and Sagot (1935 and 1937). In addition to
the selection of local strains, other varieties of groundnut have been
introduced from India, America, and Natal, with the result that
several types of groundnut are now considered to be perfectly
adapted to each of the three principal regions of Senegal. Seed is
3 48 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
selected and distributed through the agency of the Sociétés de
Prévoyance! on the principle that for 100 distributed 125 will be
returned from the resulting crop. With regard to improved
methods of cultivation, farmyard manure has been tried, but has
produced very little improvement. Good results, however, have
been obtained from the application of lime at the rate of three tons
per acre. In 1934 this produced a 35 per cent increase of the crop,
but such an application would be quite impossible with the type
of extensive cultivation prevalent in Senegal. The same is true of
the application of phosphate which the soil also requires. A.
Chevalier (1933-4) has written a monograph on groundnuts and
Trochain (1932) has published a general account of botanical and
agricultural studies in Senegal concerned with the potentialities
of the country for this and other crops.
Most of the groundnuts from Senegal are exported unshelled,
so that the nuts are not damaged. Freight costs make this impos-
sible, however, where the crop is produced at a distance from the
coast, and in the interior regions both of French West Africa and
Nigeria the nuts are decorticated before transport. Consequently
the quality of the oil suffers from fatty acids which are evolved
when the nuts are damaged in shelling or bruised in transport. In
the north of Dahomey groundnuts are grown for local consumption
and a small export trade has been started recently. There is also
an export trade from French Equatorial Africa.
Simsim or sesame (Sesamum orientale) is an important adjunct to
native diet and is commonly used as a flavouring. It is particularly
rich in phosphorus and calcium (McCulloch 1929-30). Hence its
cultivation is widely scattered throughout tropical and subtropical
Africa, though it is usually grown only on small areas for domestic
use. It is exported in considerable quantities from Nigeria, Tan-
ganyika, and Uganda. In Nigeria, where it is usually known as
benniseed, it is important in a few localities. In the Benue province
it is grown extensively by the Munshi tribe, who developed the
industry entirely independently, as pointed out by Faulkner
(1933). Formerly the local product contained seed of a dark
colour owing to a mixture of seed of other nearly related species,
but this has been largely replaced now by a white benniseed free
1 See page 397. .
PLATE VI
PLANT INDUSTRY IN FRENCH WEST AFRICA
In Dahomey—the old method of expressing palm-oil by treading
At Kayes in Senegal—decorticating groundnuts for export
CROP-PLANTS 349
from this mixture, with the result that the crop provides the prin-
ciple source of revenue in Benue province.
Palm-oil and palm-kernels, derived from the oil-palm (Elaeis
guineensis), are the principal export of all the territories bordering
the Gulf of Guinea. The products also provide an important
ingredient of the local diet (see Chapter XVII) of the people of
West and Central Africa. Native rights of ownership are asserted
over all oil-palms and some authorities hold that the palm is never
really wild, but that its presence is an indication that the land has
been farmed at some previous time. The native farmer, however,
until recently, made no efforts to improve production other than
by periodical clearing of surrounding vegetation in order to plant
food crops. In the process fire frequently causes serious damage to
the palm-trees, and it is common in West Africa to see groves of
palms in which every tree shows a pronounced constriction near
the roots, where fires have eaten into the trunk. West Africa has
now to compete with the product of the large plantations of oil-
palms established in Sumatra and Malaya. This has stimulated
considerable research on breeding improved strains and on
methods of cultivation, while efforts are being made through the
agency of agriculture departments and co-operative organizations
to persuade Africans to grow palms in plantations instead of rely-
ing on chance seedling trees.
The oil is obtained from two sources: palm-oil from the fleshy
pericarp of the fruit, and palm-kernel oil from the kernels. The
palm fruits of West Africa are of different types, varying from one
which has a very thick shell, a large kernel, but a thin pericarp,
to one with thin shell, small kernel, but a very thick pericarp. Most
of the palm-oil is obtained from the thin-shelled varieties, and the
kernel-oil from those with thick shells. The thin-shelled varieties
are, as a rule, not such heavy bearers as the others, s> the problem
of selecting improved palms is to combine the merits of both types
to produce a thin-shelled, high-yielding fruit. The breeding of oil-
palms, as of other perennials, is slow, since the young plants cannot
produce offspring for five or six years, and the final yield of the
adult tree cannot be estimated till it is fourteen years old, though
at about ten years, the proportion of oil obtainable from the
nuts can be determined. Thus the selection of oil-palms takes
350 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
on the average about ten times as long as for annual crops.
In Nigeria work on this subject has been done for the past seven
years by two plant breeders at Ibadan (Smith and Toovey 1938);
the period is not, however, long enough to produce conclusive
results. At Calabar large plantations were established in 1906,
and records of their yields through this whole period provide
valuable data. Cultural studies are progressing also in Nigeria
at the agricultural stations of Umuahia, Benin and Onitsha. At
the last-named station plantations have been established with
progeny of the best Calabar trees, self-fertilized. They serve as a
demonstration and as a centre for the distribution of seedlings to
the dense population of the neighbourhood, who rely largely on
the export of palm products for their income. The area of culti-
vated palms is rapidly expanding and the progress in 1936 shows
an increase of 80 per cent. over the area planted between 1928
and 1935.. (Nigeria, Agriculture, 1936, D.R.)
The kernels are merely extracted from the nuts and dried for
export, but the pericarp is always subjected to some form of press,
so that the oil can be collected into drums. Methods of pressing
have been studied and small mechanical presses, made in Europe
for grapes, have been introduced to Nigeria with considerable
success. ‘hese presses sell at from {£11 to £17, afprice wineh
though as a rule beyond the means of the individual, can be raised
by the small co-operative societies such as it is hoped to establish
in the palm-growing areas. These presses extract much more oil
from the pericarps than the old methods of treading, but even so,
only 80 per cent. of the total oil content is made available. Large
presses, which can only be worked on a factory basis, can extract
85 per cent. of the total oil; these are now established in many parts
of the Belgian Congo, but they are not contemplated in Nigeria,
since current policy aims at avoiding, as far as possible, the develop-
ment of large-scale industry. The palm-oil factory is more suitable
to countries where palms are grown in large plantations, a system
which does not exist in Nigeria. In the British Cameroons, how-
ever, there are a few plantations. The United Africa Company
has acquired one of the former German estates, and has planted
some thousands of acres with palms, but the trees are not yet in
bearing.
CROP-PLANTS 351
In the Gold Coast the export industry has declined in impor-
tance, but there is still a large internal trade, and it is suggested
that the small presses used in Nigeria should be tried. In Sierra
Leone most of the palms have the thick-shelled type of fruit, and
nearly all are wild. Moreover, much of the oil is consumed locally
as food, since there is very little meat or fish available for admixture
with the prevailing rice diet. Nevertheless, palm products consist-
ing largely of kernels are the principal agricultural export of the
territory. At the Njala experimental station small plantations
have been established from seed introduced from Nigeria, the
Cameroons, the Congo, and Sumatra, and it is hoped to select
varieties giving a high proportion of oil. The treatment of the
young palms in cultivation is, however, regarded as more impor-
tant than the kind of tree grown. The Masanki Plantation, of
which 2,000 acres have been planted with oil-palms, one-quarter
local types and three-quarters introduced from Nigeria and else-
where, has been established by government to test the cultivation
of palms on a commercial scale. Now that the trees are coming
into bearing, it is planned to hand over the plantation, either to
the United Africa Company or to a settlement scheme organized
by the government (Stockdale 1936, p. 114).
Palm products are of great importance in several colonies of
French West Africa. Three European companies have concessions
for palm plantations in the Ivory Coast, the Union Tropicale de
Plantations having the largest with 10,000 hectares. There are two
centres devoted to the study of palm products, one the station
de la Mé in the Ivory Coast and the other at Pobé in Dahomey
near the Nigerian border, both of which have been established for
some twelve years. Castelli (1928) and Blondeleau (1929) have
reported on work at the former, and Houard (1928) and Rancoule,
(1928) on the latter, while Lavergne (1930) has also contributed
data. Chevalier (1931a) comments on the lack of a botanical col-
lection at la Mé as a basis for selection work. He also points out
that research is necessary to determine whether the growth in
diameter of the trunk—a quality of importance since the nuts are
easier to collect when the trunk is large—depends on the soil or on
a hereditary factor. As in the British territories, a chief object of
experiment is to increase the oil-bearing capacity of the fruit; in
352 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Dahomey, for example, fruits at present consist on the average of
some 30 per cent oil-bearing pericarp, 20 per cent kernel, and
50 per cent shell, and it is hoped to alter the proportions to 60
per cent pericarp, 20 per cent kernel, and 20 per cent shell.
Opinions differ on the relative merits of introduced Deli palms
and selected indigenous varieties. Nearly all the oil is expressed at
present by primitive methods. A few years ago a large mechanical
press was set up in Dahomey by the Compagnie Frangaise, but its
working has closed down because the peasant producers preferred
to express their own oil. There are, however, some thirty machines
for cracking the nuts for the extraction of the kernels now in use
in Dahomey, and in the Ivory Coast mechanical presses, mounted
on lorries which move from village to village, were introduced in
1930.
In the Belgian Congo the largest oil-palm plantations are those
of Unilever, situated in a zone extending from about 5° N. to
5° S. L. Conrotte (1935) has published an account of the funda-
mental technical principles recommended; this deals with methods
of soil selection, the establishment of seed beds and nurseries, cul-
tural methods in the plantations, types of cover crops, the symp-
‘ toms of the most important diseases and appearance of the principal
insect pests. In addition to the creation of new plantations much
work has been done in the improvement of the ‘natural’ palmeries
—which may be abandoned native plantations—by thinning and
replanting. Imported seed has here been found unsatisfactory,
and breeding is based on indigenous varieties. Plantation methods
are being studied with a view to securing the most advantageous
conditions for the growth of the palm, while permitting the exten-
sion of plantation with the minimum of labour. Studies on seed
selection and on other aspects of the biology of the oil-palm have
been published by A. Beirnaert, director of the Yangambi experi-
mental station (1933 and 1935) and the causes of acidification of
the oil have been investigated by R. Wilbaux (1936).
The coconut (Cocos nucifera) is grown in plantations, chiefly near
the sea. The dried kernel of the ripe nut, known as copra, is an
important article of trade; the oil expressed from it is used for
margarine and soap, and the refuse is made into oil-cake for feeding
cattle. In British East Africa, apart from Zanzibar, the industry
CROP PLANTS 353
is of little economic importance, partly owing to the effects of
drought and locusts in Tanganyika in recent years. In West Africa,
especially the Gold Coast, however, this industry has continued
to expand, a large part of the production being consumed within
the Colony (Gold Coast, Agriculture, 1936-7, D.R.). During
1935 a series of experiments with the ‘Chula’ copra drier were
made, as the humidity of the atmosphere necessitates artificial
methods of drying. The copra produced in French Togoland,
where large plantations were developed under the German admin-
istration, 1s better in quality than that from the Gold Coast, because
there is a compulsory system of inspection. Coconut growing is
an important industry in Mozambique. Plantations extend all
along the coast, but are most numerous in the Quelimane District,
where some of the largest plantations in the world are situated.
The industry is said to be capable of still further expansion by
native producers there.
The state in which the product arrives at markets in Europe
has been the subject of an investigation under Professor Munro
at the Imperial College of Science and Technology in London.
Badly preserved copra entails a loss to the producer, owing to the
loss of weight before sale and consequent reduction in the price
paid, though to the manufacturer the higher content of the stereic
acids required for the production of margarine is an advantage.
Much attention has been devoted by the department of agricul-
ture in Zanzibar to improvements in the quality of copra. The
storing of nuts in the heap, so as to allow them to mature fully
before turning them into copra by kiln drying, has been actively
encouraged. The department has also carried out seed selection
work.
Nuts from the wild shea tree (Butyrospermum parkit) yield a solid
fat, the chief use of which is for native food, but which has been
exported from West Africa and, more recently, from Uganda. The
Imperial Institute and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, have
co-operated in regard to variations known to occur in the fruit
obtained from different areas in British West Africa. This industry
may increase in importance with improvements in facilities, since
large unexploited supplies exist in the northern parts of Nigeria
and the Gold Coast. The selection of trees has been started by the
354 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
department of agriculture in Uganda, and trials with the effects
of cultivation on wild trees have been carried out since 1922 by the
agricultural department of the Gold Coast on the Yendi shea
reserve; a marked increase in yield is reported. Here also yield
data of individual trees have been kept and samples of nuts from
different harvests have been investigated by the Imperial Institute
with interesting results. The establishment of these plantations in
French West Africa was recommended by E. Annet (1930), but
the suggestion does not appear to have been taken up.
The soya bean (Glycine max), a plant which has a high nutritive
value in addition to a variety of economic uses, has been subjected
to experiment in a number of territories. Trials in Nyasaland have
proved fairly successful, but those carried out in Tanganyika, the
Gambia and Sierra Leone have led to the conclusion that the
crop is unsuited to those territories (Tanganyika, Agriculture,
1935, D.R., p. 124). In Southern Rhodesia there is a tendency in
the better varieties for the pods to shatter the seed before the crop
is reaped, and efforts are being made to remedy this defect by
selection (Southern Rhodesia 1934, D.R.). The standard work on
the soya bean is by Piper and Morse (1923).
FIBRES
Cotton. ‘There exist in Africa more than one species of wild
cotton and one of these is probably the ancestor of a cotton which
can still be found under cultivation in the extreme north-west of
Nigeria. Apparently any hold which this had among the people
as a cultivated crop was largely lost when the cottons of the New
World were introduced. This must have been at a very early date
after the discovery of America. Gossypium punctatum, considered
by Roberty (1938) to be merely a form of G. hirsutum, 1s still
a common crop grown for local use in the dryer parts of West
Africa from the Gambia to Nigeria and is being utilized in cotton
breeding work at the present time.
Besides this there are in Africa several races of the Viizfolium
eroup of G. barbadense L. These are chiefly found in West Africa,
but they also occur in Northern Rhodesia, Nyasaland, and Portu-
guese East Africa where they sometimes assume almost the charac-
ter of trees, being grown as perennials in the house compounds of
CROP-PLANTS 355
the villages. Only one of this group has been developed as a major
crop. This is the Ishan cotton of Nigeria, which on trial with other
types of cotton was found to be resistant to a leaf-curl disease.
One may say that the whole of the cotton production, with this
exception, has been developed from recently introduced seed of
the Upland American cotton G. hirsutum, as far as British depen-
dencies are concerned. The French have introduced varieties of
G. herbaceum and G. arboreum var. neglectum into the French Sudan,
and claim that these Old-World cottons are more suitable for the
drier regions than are varieties of G. hirsutum.
The chain of experimental stations, some organized by and
others assisted by the Empire Cotton Growing Corporation, are
studying breeding, especially that of disease-resistant strains. The
Reports from Experimental Stations, published annually by the Cor-
poration, give full accounts of progress. Much of the work in Africa
has been directed towards simple selection combined with self-
pollination, but crosses have been sent from the Corporation’s
central research station at Trinidad, where also cytological study
has furnished results of fundamental importance in plant breeding.
The only other crop-plants on which the empirical results of experi-
ment have been checked by cytological studies in Africa appear
to be sisal and coffee, on which fundamental studies are in progress
at Amani.
It has been suggested that some of the work on cotton has failed
because useful types, which have been selected for one set of con-
ditions, have not maintained these characters when transplanted
to different conditions, but on the whole remarkable results are
forthcoming. To consider first the introduced American strains of
cotton, the Empire Cotton Growing Corporation’s station at
Barberton in the Union has shown the extreme value of the newly
developed jassid resistant cotton known as U.4., strains of which
are now in general use in the Union, Southern Rhodesia, and
Nyasaland, and are competing with local selections in parts of
Tanganyika and Uganda. Selection work with the various strains
is still continuing. At Barberton crosses of U.4. with Cambodia have
been made, and early and late strains have been compared. At
Gatooma in Southern Rhodesia the present standard strains are
being selected for jassid resistance; it is thought probable that
356 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
strains from Harland’s Cambodia crosses will ultimately replace the
best of the U.4. derivatives. Harland’s Cambodia has also shown
itself the best of the crosses tried at Domira Bay in Nyasaland. At
Serere in Uganda the original U.4. has been crossed back with the
local variety, and a strain has now been produced that preserves
the hairy leaves and productivity of U.4., but in which the lint is
more silky and much longer and closely resembles the style of lint
for which a market has been developed. Another cotton recently
bred in Uganda from American strains is 8.G. 23/8. In many
areas this appears to fulfil most requirements, but it is sometimes
susceptible to disease. Evans (1938) has discussed the possibilities
of growing Asiatic (short-stapled) cottons where climatic condi-
tions do not favour the American (long-stapled) varieties.
In West Africa cotton has been the subject of botanical investi-
gation in Nigeria, especially at Samaru in the Northern Territories.
The original indigenous native cotton, although still grown in
many parts of the Southern Territories, is practically replaced in
the north by the Allen strain of Upland American. Experimental
breeding from this has produced greatly increased yields, but
strains which are fully resistant to disease, especially jassid and
leaf-curl, have yet to be produced. A strain known as D.31
appears to be the most reliable, but is inferior for spinning.
Farther south Ishan cotton, one of the Vitifolium groups of G.
barbadense, has been improved by selection and distributed; it
grows very tall and therefore is particularly suitable for inter-
planting with other crops, a type of agriculture which is common
in parts of Nigeria and other countries which have only a short
rainy season. In the south of Nigeria an introduced Sea Island
strain is proving satisfactory.
With the long-stapled Egyptian cottons, notable advances have
been made also, especially in the Sudan; for instance, Mr. Lam-
bert, working at Medani, has selected the new Sakel strain 15/30,
which is resistant to leaf-curl, shows recovery from blackarm, and
on poor land in bad seasons has great resistance to climatic con-
ditions, yielding in some cases nearly double that of the original
stock. Similar progress has been made in Egypt with the new
Giza strains.
On the side of agricultural management, great improvement
CROP-PLANTS 357
has been made with rotation of crops, but this is mainly of local
application and the best rotations have to be worked out for each
area. The object of rotation is to enable crops to draw uniformly
on soil constituents, but in some cases it has proved of value in
controlling disease.
This introduces another botanical aspect of cotton research,
concerning the alternative host plants of pests. Thus during 1934
it was shown at the Mazabuka Station in Northern Rhodesia that,
though climate and soil may be quite suitable for cotton cultiva-
tion, this will be successful only in districts where the food sequence
of the cotton stainer is absent. A complete sequence exists in most
of Northern Rhodesia owing to the prevalence of a perennial
host plant, Thespesia rogers. Again in parts of South Africa the
American boll-worm is so much attracted by maize that a suitable
rotation of cotton with maize leads to a reduction of the worm’s
attacks on cotton; and the beetle pest, Sygarus, can be controlled by
a one-yearly rotation. In South Africa, Nyasaland and the
Rhodesias jassid resistant strains have been produced and brought
into general cultivation. Valuable work has been done by the
Empire Cotton Growing Corporation in the study of crops suitable
for rotation with cotton.
The times of planting, uprooting and burning of cotton plants
are of great importance. By such means, not only can the best use
be made of a small rainfall, but contact of the plants with the
major wave of a pest may be avoided. A Belgian worker, Paul E.A.
Jansenns (1932), has gathered a mass of information on cotton in
tropical Africa into a most useful reference work.
Cotton has been a special subject of study in the French Sudan
in connection with the Niger irrigation schemes. Forbes (1928) has
described the studies carried out in early years, and further informa-
tion is to be found in the unpublished reports of the Office du
Niger and in a paper by Roberty.
In the Belgian Congo the two main areas of cotton are along
the northern frontier, mainly in Uélé district, and along the rivers
Sankuru and Kasai on the western border of the Lusambe Pro-
vince. Native production is actively stimulated, marketing being
organized through the Compagnie Cotonniére Congolaise. By 1931,
cotton cultivation occupied over a million hectares, and 900,000
3598 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
kilogrammes of selected seed were produced at the various experi-
ment stations and nurseries. Records of yields in different areas
are collected by agricultural officers and should lead to valuable
conclusions regarding the suitability of different soils. Research
is carried on at stations at Bambesa for the Uélé region and Ganda-
jiha for the Sankuru. The work of these stations includes selection,
multiplication of selected seed, study of cultural methods, control
of degeneration and of plant diseases and experiments in the rota-
tion of food or other crops with cotton. At Bambesa the entomo-
lugists have studied pink boll-worm, Dysdercus, Helopeltis, and jassids
and have established that ‘shedding’ is caused by a capsid bug
(INEAC 1934, A.R.). At Gandajiha the U.4 type has been found
more satisfactory than local varieties. Studies on Helopeltis, the
cause of stem canker, have been published by R. Steyaert and
J. M. Vrydagh in 1933, and by the latter in 1936. Among other
pests of cotton Dysdercus has been discussed by A. Buxhe (1936),
and the pink bollworm by Vrydagh (1932), H. Bredo (1934 and
1936) and Mme. D. Soyer (1932). The two last-named have
considered particularly the effects of disinfection by heating.}
Sisal (Agave sisalana) is a product mainly of Eastern Africa.
Owing to its xerophytic character this plant can be grown in
areas such as the Tanga plains and the floor of the rift valley,
where the rainfall is not sufficient for other perennial crops such
as coffee or tea. In Mozambique, where sisal has recently become
one of the chief exports, production is confined mainly to the
central regions and the area north of the Zambesi.
Sisal has been tried in some parts of West Africa, notably on the
comparatively dry Accra plains of the Gold Coast, where, how-
ever, though successfully grown, it could not be recommended for
native cultivation, owing to the high capital expenditure involved
in the extraction of the fibre. Exports of sisal from French West
Africa have increased in recent years; the principal centres of
production are in the Sudan, but it is grown also in Senegal, the
Ivory Coast, and Guinea. Considerable progress has been made
at Amani in breeding sisal and other species of fibre Agave, and
since the opening in 1934 of the new Sisal experimental station
at Mlingano in Tanganyika, material has been transferred there
1 See also Chapter X, p. 284.
CROP-PLANTS 359
from Amani. A new testing machine was designed and made at
Amani in 1933, and as a result standard methods for sampling
have been adopted. Another centre of sisal research is at Ngomeni
in Tanga Province, where field trials and investigations of the sisal
weevil have been in progress. Blue sisal, A. amaniensis, has been
developed from a plant of unknown origin discovered near Amani
in 1933 (Nowell 1933). This has been propagated, and in 1936
was established on a field scale at Mlingano (Stockdale 1937).
Researches which promise to be of much value in effecting a per-
manent improvement in the condition of the sisal industry in East
Africa have been stimulated by the Imperial Institute. The inclu-
sion of experts from the Admiralty on the Imperial Institute
Committee on Vegetable Fibres has had important and valuable
results, and a series of trials were made on sisal ropes side by side
with hemp and other standard ropes. The results, published in
the bulletin of the Imperial Institute (1931-3), have proved very
satisfactory, and for many purposes sisal ropes are now issued to
the Fleet. The Empire Marketing Board in the last year of its
existence also paid much attention to sisal, and the resulting publi-
cations have improved methods of cultivation and the industry as
a whole (Barker 1933). Research on the utilization of sisal and its
by-products is carried out on behalf of producers in Tanganyika
and Kenya by the Linen Industry research station at Lambeg in
Ireland in co-operation with the East African sisal research
organization.
ROOT CROPS
The root crops indigenous to Africa are Dioscorea rotundata, the
common or white yam of West Africa, of which many varieties are
grown; D. cayennensis, the yellow, negro or Guinea yam, a West
African species of which also many varieties are grown, though
it is less popular than the common yam; D. hispida var dumetorum,
the Esuri yam of West Africa; D. bulbifera, the Akom or Air potato
also found in Asia; Coleus dysentericus, the Hausa or Madagascar
potato, which is grown throughout Africa and Madagascar
wherever conditions are suitable, and extends as far south as
Mashonaland; Plectranthus floribundus, the Kafir potato; and Spheno-
stylis stenocarpa, which is cultivated in Nigeria as a root crop. Early
360 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
introductions from Asia are Dvuoscorea alata, the greater yam, and
Colocasia antiquorum, the eddoe or coco-yam. Early introductions
from America are (1) Manthot utilissima, the cassava or tapioca.
This is scattered throughout Africa wherever conditions are suit-
able for its cultivation, though it may miss areas where its poisonous
properties have prejudiced its use. It occurs in many varieties,
which are recognized and named by the people. (2) [pomaea batatas,
the sweet potato. This occurs throughout tropical and subtropical
Africa in many recognized and named varieties. (3) Xanthosoma
sagittifolium. It is uncertain when this was introduced and its
close resemblance to C. antiquorum may account for this un-
certainty. It is a matter of interest to note how these introduced
root crops have been adopted by the people and treated as their
own, and also how varieties have been recognized and evolved.
Cassava (Manthot utilissima) , the root of which, when ground, gives
the West African food known as garri, is a staple carbohydrate
food almost equal in importance to cereals. Selection work and
observation trials have been carried out in Nyasaland, Tanganyika,
Uganda, and the West African territories. In Nyasaland, for
example, the department of agriculture are distributing a type
which is a heavy yielder and a quick grower. The plants suffer
from a virus disease known as cassava mosaic. In the West this is
thought to have been introduced and to be spreading inland, being
carried by an Aleurodid fly (see Chapter X). Much attention has
been paid to selecting resistant strains, but here, as with the millets
and guinea corns, there are many local varieties, probably both
of the cassava and the disease organism, and strains which are
apparently resistant to mosaic in one area may not be so elsewhere.
Satisfactory resistant types have been produced in Nigeria at
Ibadan, in the Gold Coast at Kumasi, in Sierra Leone at Njala,
where the infestation near the coast is in the neighbourhood of
go per cent, and in Uganda. The progeny of these are being dis-
tributed to local farmers with reasonable success. In Uganda, for
example, the resistant type of cassava is now important as a food
reserve in those areas where famines were a feature of the earlier
years of British administration. It is noteworthy that when resis-
tant strains from Nigeria were tried at Amani, they succumbed to
the East African mosaic disease,
CROP-PLANTS 361
In Nigeria during the last few years experiments have been
made in producing tapioca from cassava by a simple process of
grating and washing. An investigation as to the possibilty of
establishing an export trade in tapioca was carried out by the
department of agriculture in 1935, and it was decided that it
would be more profitable to concentrate on the production of
starch flour. (Nigeria, Agriculture, 1935, D.R.)
The manufacture of tapioca has been introduced in other ter-
ritories also: for example, in French Togoland a factory has been
established and an export developed. Each native farmer and his
family perform every process for themselves, growing the crop,
grinding the roots, washing the pulp through a series of tanks to
float off the cellulose, cooking the pure starch and finally packing
the finished product. It is claimed that an industry thus based on
the family unit can be developed as an integral part of the ordinary
tribal life. The adoption of these processes has been encouraged
with a view to the development of exports; their application to the
preparation of food for native consumption would probably in-
crease the nutritive value of the plant, particularly in the case of
the bitter cassava, in which the cyanogentic glucosides, which have
been shown to produce pellagra, are more pronounced.
Sweet potatoes (Ipomaea batatas), which are widely grown for local
food, exist in very numerous varieties. Variety trials, to test yields
and quality, have been carried out in several territories. Trials
at the Ngetta substation of the agricultural department, T’angan-
yika, showed that the best yielders were not nearly so acceptable
to the native farmer as lower-yielding varieties, which have a
better flavour. The trial of West African varieties has been carried
out at the Samaru station in Northern Nigeria.
The vine of the sweet potato is valuable for forage and is also
used as spinach by natives of West Africa. At the Shika Govern-
ment stock farm near Zaria in Northern Nigeria sweet potatoes
are in fact grown as the principal fodder crop. The vines last
throughout the dry season, and they can be cut twice per annum
at the expense of some development of the tubers. The tubers
themselves form a valuable cattle food, but of course they are still
more useful for feeding human beings. In parts of East Africa,
notably the Kikuyu country, the sweet potato has been replaced
362 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
to a large extent by the Irish potato because the latter fetches a
higher market price locally, especially from Asiatics and Euro-
peans. Leakey (1934) has regarded this as an important factor in
the overstocking problem, especially in relation to sheep and goats
kept on cultivated land, because the vines of the sweet potato were
formerly so valuable as fodder during the dry season.
Yams (Dioscorea spp.) are a staple food in many of the territories
with high rainfall, especially in countries bordering the Gulf of
Guinea. Their cultivation has been studied in detail by the
Nigerian department of agriculture, but little has been done to
improve the varieties. They are grown for distribution of propagat-
ing material, on native administration farms in Nigeria and the
Gold Coast, and at Njala in Sierra Leone. The air potato (Dioscorea
bulbifera) is another food plant which grows wild in West Africa
and is cultivated in some areas, for example in Sierra Leone.
There are a number of minor crops, many of which are grown
only locally. Of these, the coco-yam (Colocasia antiquorum) is impor-
tant as food in some regions of damp climate, as in the cocoa-belt of
the Gold Coast, and the south-east of Nigeria and the Cameroons.
This plant is not related to the Dioscorea yams. It had long been
thought that crystals of Calcium oxalate, always present in the
roots, were injurious to health, but it has recently been shown in
Nigeria that the bulb contains toxic substances which are respon-
sible for this condition.
BEVERAGES
Coffee. All the cultivated species of coffee are African plants.
Coffea arabica from Abyssinia is best suited to high altitudes; C.
robusta and allied species are more tropical in origin and belong
to regions with a higher rainfall; they are indigenous in the southern
Sudan and in Uganda. C. liberica is indigenous to regions of high
rainfall in West Africa. C. stenophylla is indigenous in Sierra Leone
and neighbouring countries, and many of the wild coffees found
in East Africa are closely allied to this last species, if not identical
with it.
In the case of coffee, selection of improved varieties appears to
be the principal requirement, but since there is a latent period of
about five years before bearing, results can only be achieved
CROP-PLANTS 363
slowly. The subject has received some attention in Tanganyika,
Kenya, Uganda, in the Congo, and in French West Africa. Work
has been in progress since 1927 at Amani, which now collaborates
with the new Coffee experimental station at Lyamungu, near
Moshi in Tanganyika. Plants of arabica coffee have been trans-
ferred to Lyamungu, but the breeding is still supervised by the
Amani geneticist. In addition to selection, vegetative propagation
and other experiments are in progress with a view to finding out
what factors influence variability (Tanganyika, Agriculture, 1935,
D.R.). Intensive studies on the root systems of Coffea arabica have
been carried out by Nutman (1934), and climates of coffee planta-
tions have been studied in relation to the insect fauna by Kirk-
patrick (see Chapter X, p. 287). Nutman has also thrown new
light on the question of the value of shade by showing that the
leaf stomata close up in full sunlight thus preventing carbon
accumulation (Nutman 1937).
In Kenya pruning is an important feature of the investigational
work both in the Kiambu-Ruiru area and at the Scott Agricultural
Laboratories. Spraying, propagation, variety trials and diseases
are included in the programme (McDonald 1937). Coffee selec-
tion has been progressing in Uganda for fifteen years, but little
material has yet been published. There are, however, a number
of promising selections under test (Thomas 1935). Mr. T. D.
Maitland, who (1926) wrote an interesting history of Coffea
robusta, produced in Uganda the type known as robusta No. 9,
which is still the variety grown on many European estates, though
during the last five years attention has been focused on the so-
called Nganda types, which show considerable promise. The
Government controls the supply of seed in districts where natives
are encouraged to grow coffee, so that seed from selected trees
only is planted.
In Western Africa robusta coffee is now grown in many parts
of French and Belgian territory, but there does not appear to
be much opportunity for the market to expand. Consequently
coffee has not been a subject of special research in the British
West African colonies; indeed it has been almost purposely post-
poned until work on other perennial crops, such as oil-palms
and cocoa, is fully established. The view is taken that coffee can-
364 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
not be a profitable crop until the local peoples learn to drink it
themselves; there is in fact a growing internal trade in coffee
already established in the Gold Coast, and at the Njala agricul-
tural station in Sierra Leone trials of coffee are now in progress
with the same object in view. Coffee has been studied at the
agricultural station of Bingerville in the Ivory Coast, and R. Por-
téres (1934) has discussed a disease there which involves atrophy
of the flower. It is ascribed to deficiency of fertile elements in the
soil, but the best method of control has not yet been decided.
The botanical studies on coffee carried out by the Dutch authori-
ties in Java, particularly in connection with vegetative propagation
and selection, will doubtless prove of value to Africa.
Tea is a crop of growing importance in East Africa. As yet
there is no special headquarters for research, but it is proposed to
make a study of this crop particularly at the new Mlanje experi-
mental station in Nyasaland. The lines on which work will prob-
ably be carried out are described by Dr. W. Small (1932). Mr.
Hadlow (1934) has written a brief history of tea planting in that
colony. The importance of understanding the relationship be-
tween the plant and the soil is fully realized, and the subject has
been studied locally during the last few years in relation to both
coffee and tea. The alkalinity and acidity at various depths (pH
gradient) is the chief factor: thus coffee in suitable neutral soil
(from volcanic rocks) grows roots to ten feet depth, but in acid soils
only to a few inches. Tea on the other hand prefers acid soils, and
Dr. Harold H. Mann (1933), when reporting to the Tanganyika
Government on the prospects of tea growing, pointed out that a
considerable redistribution of tea and coffee plantations is re-
quired. The acid soil of the Usambara Highlands, for instance,
where coffee has been struggling for the last thirty years, is highly
sulted to tea, but useless for arabica coffee unless grafted on robusta
stocks.
An excellent piece of work by H. H. Storey and R. Leach
(1933), the plant pathologists at Amani and in Nyasaland res-
pectively, concerns the disease known as tea yellow-leaf or tea-
yellows, which has affected the crop in Nyasaland over wide areas,
and is of particular interest from the ecological point of view. The
general appearance of the disease was that of a fungal pest or a
CROP-PLANTS 365
plant virus, but when no disease organism could be discovered,
experiments were made with fertilizers. This resulted in the dis-
covery that the disease is due solely to a deficiency of sulphur in
the soil and can be completely cured by the application of very
small quantities of pure sulphur or sulphur-containing fertilizers.
Sulphur is an element of which only very small quantities are neces-
sary for plant life, and the solution of the tea-yellows problem sug-
gests that deficiency in sulphur or other elements of which small
amounts are required by plants, may be a cause of disease in
other parts of tropical Africa. It is worth noting in this connection
that Miss Sherbatoff, at the Imperial Bureau of Soil Science, is
preparing a special report on all plant diseases which are known
to be caused by specific soil deficiencies, a work which should be
of much value to African scientists.
As a general matter concerning the cultivation of tea in Africa,
it is important that the old-established tea areas of India, Ceylon,
and Java have had to limit their output severely in recent years,
and Russia is apparently increasing her output rapidly. Hence
the chances for Africa in the world market may be relatively
small.
Cacao. ‘The development of cacao (Theobroma cacao) cultivation
is a remarkable example of native enterprise and initiative. The
methods by which this crop has been established and maintained,
have been evolved by the native farmer practically unaided. The
principal centre of cultivation is the Gold Coast, which derives a
large part of its revenue from cacao exports; developments have
recently taken place in Nigeria also, where cacao grows well in
the high rainfall of the south-western areas. In the east, in spite
of adequate rainfall, the poor soil renders cacao cultivation impos-
sible.
The subject of cacao cultivation cannot be separated from that
of forestry (see Chapter VII). Nearly all the cacao is grown on
small farms, an area of forest being felled and burnt before plant-
ing. Sometimes a few large trees are left to provide shade, but the
general effect in replacing a mixed evergreen forest with a single
stand of cacao trees is to remove the two upper layers of forest
cover. ‘The single stand which remains is generally recognized
to be far less efficient in retaining soil and atmospheric moisture
366 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
and avoiding run-off, so that the general effect of cacao plantations
on water-supplies must be considerable. This question has been
discussed by Sir F. A. Stockdale (1935) in a valuable paper on the
relationship between agriculture and forestry. He has also des-
cribed the methods of cultivation of cacao in the Gold Coast
(1936).
It seems that all West African cacao is of much the same quality.
Compared with those of Trinidad, the trees produce a higher yield,
but have a much shorter life of twenty to twenty-five years instead
of eighty to one hundred years, so that rejuvenation of the farms
is necessary at regular intervals. Breeding and selection has been
carried on in Nigeria since 1930, but few results are yet available,
partly owing to the long life-cycle of the plant and partly owing to
losses of young plants during the dry months of February and
March. Selection has not yet been started in the Gold Coast, where
also it appears that research facilities are not adequate to deal with
the problems of rejuvenation. For these reasons, Stockdale advo-
cates the establishment of a central cacao experimental station to
deal with improved methods of cultivation as well as the produc-
tion of high-yielding strains. Collaboration with workers in Trini-
dad and Nigeria is essential.
For the collection of statistics the department of agriculture in
the Gold Coast has a special branch, and since 1927 all data have
been kept and indexed. Study of these records has disproved the
suggestion that the Gold Coast cacao crop was decreasing in size.
The inspection of prepared cacao is another important activity
of the department. Stockdale (1936) has recommended that the
grading of cocoa, in addition to its inspection, should be taken over
entirely by government in order to make the produce more equal
in quality.
FRUITS
Bananas and plantains provide a staple food of natives in several
parts of the continent, notably in the region of the great lakes. In
Uganda twenty-four varieties of plantain are grown for experi-
mental purposes at Bukalasa, and American types have been intro-
duced (Thomas and Scott 1935). The weevil-borer (Cosmopolites
sordidus) has proved troublesome and has been studied by the
CROP-PLANTS 367
entomologists since 1932. In Nyasaland also, selection of bananas
is progressing at the Zomba experimental station. Mozambique
exports bananas to South Africa from the district round Lourengo
Marques.
In West Africa the centre of the banana industry is in the French
Cameroons, from which large quantities are exported to Europe.
The trade is still largely in German hands, and has expanded
rapidly since 1931, owing to improved means of transport. Quan-
tities of bananas are grown there by natives for food, and banana
plantations have also been established by Europeans in French
Guinea. The technique adopted, described by Chevalier (1931),
is based on that in use in the Canaries. Some native plantations,
for example, the Futa-Gallon, produce very fine fruit. In the
Western Province of the Gold Coast efforts are being made to
establish the banana export trade on a sound footing. So far the
bunches produced have been small in size, largely owing to reduced
fertility of the soil, and it has also proved difficult to persuade
peasant farmers to give their plots the necessary amount of cultiva-
tion, in view of the comparatively negligible amount required for
profitable cacao production (Gold Coast, Agriculture, 1935-6,
D.R.). In his report Sir F. A. Stockdale (1936) urged that a survey
of land suitable for banana cultivation should be made without
delay. A fairly comprehensive survey has now been made by the
agricultural department; some of the areas adjoining the Central
Province Railway have been found very suitable, and farther west
new roads are being constructed to tap other promising areas.
Experiments to ascertain the best methods of cultivation are in
progress at Asuansi and it is proposed to establish two or three
demonstration farms. Reports on trial shipments of bananas are
published each month in the Gold Coast Farmer, and methods of
controlling disease are outlined from time to time. In Sierra
Leone improved methods of cultivation are studied at the Newton
experimental farm.
Citrus growing is a very promising industry in South Africa, and
possibly Rhodesia. In the Union research is carried out at Nel-
spruit, Buffelspoort, the University of Pretoria, and by several
commercial companies (Clark Powell 1933a). With a view to
developing the industry in Nyasaland, Professor H. Clark Powell
368 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
(1933b) of Pretoria University visited the Protectorate and reported
that the climate was suitable for citrus production, but that, owing
to the marketing factor, oranges were more likely to be successful
than other fruits. A limited production of grapefruit in time for the
early summer market in the United Kingdom was warranted. As
a result of his visit the department of agriculture have begun
experimental work with citrus trees and an irrigation survey near
areas suitable for cultivation has been started.
In Tanganyika orange-growing is for the most part in native
hands, and little has been done to raise the standard of the produce
but the small citrus station at Muheza has been established to
make good these deficiencies. So far European planters have
shown little interest in the industry, and it seems unlikely that
the Tanganyika orange will be able to compete on the Bombay
market with the South African product (Tanganyika, Agricul-
ture, 1935, D.R.) The establishment of a small export trade in
oranges and grapefruit looks hopeful in Nigeria, however, because
the crop season there does not coincide with that of other countries,
and it was decided in 1935 that the department of agriculture
should encourage the commercial production of these fruits on a
small scale (Nigeria, Agriculture, 1935, D.R.). In the Gold Coast
a new nursery for testing varieties of citrus trees was established
at the Asuansi agricultural station in 1935, the object being to
select one or two varieties of each kind of citrus which are both
suited to the climate and capable of producing good yields.
Experiments in canning grapefruit are being made. There is a
lime-growing industry now established in the Gold Coast and
centred at Abakrampa, but by 1936 overproduction had become
so acute that the agricultural department found it necessary to
issue a warning to farmers not to plant any more trees (Gold
Coast, Agriculture, 1935, D.R.). In Sierra Leone citrus trials
failed at the Newton experimental station, but experiments are
now conducted at Njala. Certain diseases have proved trouble-
some, especially scab disease, caused by a fungus, which curls the
leaves and blemishes the fruit.
In Mozambique the district round Lourengo Marques is the
most favourable for citrus cultivation. In 1931 more grapefruit
than oranges were grown. Studies on grafting, selection, improved
CROP-PLANTS 369
methods of cultivation and control of insect pests by spraying and
fumigation are in progress.
Viticulture is increasing in the Union of South Africa. Grape
variety trials are in progress at the Paarl viticultural station in
the Transvaal and the Oliphants river settlement. Improved
methods of cultivation are studied, and in particular irrigation,
since water is essential to this industry. Brak-resistant varieties
of grapes are studied at the Oudtshoorn experimental station, and
measures for controlling Botrytis rot of grapes are tested at the
Stellenbosch-Elsenburg College of Agriculture. Here also experi-
ments to determine the effect of root-stocks on the keeping quality
of grapes are in progress. The correct export temperatures for
different kinds of grapes are studied at the Capetown low tem-
perature research laboratory.
MISCELLANEOUS
Tobacco (both N. tabacum and WN. rustica) 1s an early introduction
from America to Africa. It was a product of domestic importance
long before Europeans attempted its cultivation outside Africa,
and is still so in West Africa.
The chief producing country in Africa is Southern Rhodesia
which, in 1935-6, produced 22 million Ib., but it is not by any
means confined to that region. Production in the Union amounted
to 18 million lb. in the same period, and in Nyasaland to 17
million Ib. ‘Tobacco requires good drainage, and consequently ter-
raced hill sides or sheltered tops of hills are best for its cultivation.
It is also very liable to diseases caused by virus, eel-worms, and
insects (see Chapter X). Some of these have been controlled by
special legislation, for example, in Southern Rhodesia the Tobacco
Pest Suppression Act was passed in 1933 to enforce the destruction
of all plants left over from the previous season, which might har-
bour insects. The careful choice of rotation crops is another
method of controlling disease, as in South Africa, where Rhodes
grass as a rotation crop has been advocated by African Explosives
and Industries, Ltd. (1935), since it is useful for fodder and is
immune from eel-worm. |
A study of the problems of cultivation in South Africa has been
made by H. W. Taylor (1924). Until recently Rustenburgh has
N
370 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
been the main centre for tobacco research in the Union, but in
1937 the purchase of a new site at Kroondal for a station to be
devoted entirely to tobacco was announced. Selection is made of
plants for air-curing and flue-curing; for the latter Amerillo and
White-Stem Orinoco have been found most promising. Fertilizer
experiments are conducted by the Oudtshoorn station, in co-
operation with farmers.
In Southern Rhodesia tobacco research is financed on the basis
of an annual government grant of £5,000; any additional expendi-
ture is divided between government and the tobacco industry.
The research station at Trelawny has a staff of eight, with the
senior plant pathologist in charge. Nematodes have been the
subject of special investigation; an inquiry recently initiated con-
cerns the possibility of the spread of the root gallworm by river
water. Soil research has been carried out with special reference to
tobacco, and experiments designed to improve the flavour of flue-
cured tobacco have been undertaken by the chief chemist.
The Fort Jameson area of Northern Rhodesia has long been
noted for the high quality of its flue-cured tobacco, and this
industry, which has in recent years been hard hit by low prices,
has now been assisted by a special tobacco station to study its
problems. Here it has been shown that tobacco grown from newly
imported seed does not fully thrive in its first season, but gives a
good crop in the next year, after which there is an increasing ten-
dency to coarseness and late ripening. Accordingly, the station
imports seed annually and supplies growers from selected progeny.
A rotation of two crops of tobacco followed by one of sunnhemp,
which is ploughed in, and one of maize has been found satisfactory:
a modification is now being tried in which the sunnhemp is cut
and composted for application to the maize and the second
tobacco crop. Trials of types suitable for native production were
instituted in 1937 at the Mvuvye River. In Nyasaland studies on
rotations, ridge-terracing and fertilizers have been made at Zomba
and Lilongwe. In Tanganyika fire-cured tobacco is grown by
natives in the Songea and Birharamulo districts, and by Europeans
in the Iringa area. Some trouble with ‘red-rust’ has been experi-
enced at [heme experimental station, where new varieties from the
United States of America were under trial in 1935. In Uganda the
CROP-PLANTS B71
crop is grown mainly by natives, and the plantings are strictly
controlled by the agricultural department (Philpott 1935). Selec-
tion is carried out at Bukalasa and Serere.
In West Africa tobacco cultivation is limited to local needs, but
in the Gold Coast and Nigeria the agricultural departments are
trying to encourage growers to improve their methods of cultiva-
tion, in the hope of producing local tobacco in sufficient quantities
to compete with the imported article. A large increase in the local
consumption is expected as the standard of living of the 20,000,000
Africans in Nigeria improves. In that country the cultivation of
tobacco on up-to-date lines has been started at Ilorin. B. Laufer,
W. D. Hambly, and R. Linton (1932) have provided a general
book on tobacco and its uses in Africa.
Rubber from wild sources has been mentioned in Chapter VII.
The principal centre of Para rubber from plantations of Hevea
brasiliensis is Liberia where the Firestone Company has a large
organization. ‘There are plantations under European manage-
ment in Uganda and the Cameroons, and the African Lakes Cor-
poration has an estate in Nyasaland. There are also some native-
owned plantations in West Africa. Little development has taken
place in recent years in view of overproduction in the Far East.
Ginger (Xangiber officinale) is grown in small quantities in parts
of West Africa for local consumption as a medicine. The export of
ginger from Sierra Leone is an old-established trade. The produc-
tion of peeled and sun-bleached ginger for export is growing
rapidly also in the Northern Provinces of Nigeria, and is providing
a source of revenue for the pagan tribes. Cultivation and selection
trials have been carried out by the agricultural department, and
the sale of improved varieties to the growers has led to a marked
increase in the size of the roots (Nigeria, Agriculture, 1934, D.R.).
A grading system has also brought about the production of a better
quality of ginger (Stockdale 1936). 1,500 tons a year are exported
from that territory, but the methods of planting and preparation
could be improved.
The native indigo industry of West Africa has been mentioned
above (see p. 339).
Sugar-cane (Saccharum spp.) is ofimportance in a belt of land about
235 miles long and 10 to 25 miles broad along the coast of Natal.
372 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
One-third of the crop is produced on large estates and the rest by
some 600 independent planters, of whom many are Indians. Re-
search work is done at the Sugar Association Experiment Station,
Mount Edgecombe, near Durban, of which Mr. Dodds is Director.
Since 1926 the commercial cultivation of varieties other than Uba
has been prohibited owing to their susceptibility to mosaic disease.
Recently, however, improved varieties have been selected which
may replace the Uba cane; the best are POJ 2725 and POJ 2878
from Java and CO 290 from India. Experiments on varieties
resistant to streak disease are in progress at the Natal Herbarium.
Selection work is also being done in Kenya, Uganda, and the
Gold Coast. An account of that in Uganda is given by the mycolo-
gist, Mr. C. G. Hansford (1935a), who has also made a study of
the diseases of sugar-cane (1935b). In the Gold Coast the agri-
cultural department is making a collection of imported types at
Kumasi. Sugar-cane is cultivated in Mozambique in the valleys
of the Zambesi, Limpopo, and Incomati rivers. The area under
cultivation during 1929-30 was 22,500 hectares, and 70,000 tons
of sugar were exported.
Kola nuts, which are chewed as a stimulant, are produced in
West Africa from the trees Cola acuminata and Cola nitida. In Sierra
Leone the kola trade is old-established; the territory has exported
nuts to neighbouring African territories for a number of years,
though latterly the imposition of protection and the development
of local production have closed many of their former markets.
Some trees, which produce inferior nuts, grow wild, but nearly all
the product is obtained from trees grown by individual natives in
their cultivation plots. Since the crop involves very little labour,
production is steadily increasing. In Nigeria kola trees have been
planted with success by the agricultural department on the poor
soils at Benin and in the Eastern districts, where cacao cannot be
grown, and the crop has assumed considerable importance.
The cultivation of wattles (Acacia mollissima and A. decurrens) is
spreading in British Africa. The position with regard to wattle
bark and other tanning materials has been summarized in a bulle-
tin of the Imperial Institute (1927). The trees were first introduced
to South Africa from Australia for use as pit-props, but an export
of bark for tanning was soon established. Natal is the centre of
CROP-PLANTS 373
the wattle industry and cultivation has been so successful that the
value of the products in 1930 was £2,000,000, of which bark for
tanning represents 56 per cent, pit-props 33 per cent, and fire-
wood 11 percent. Improvements have been made mainly through
silviculture, and the success of the wattle has served as a stimulus
to other silvicultural research in South Africa. In recent years
wattles have been established in Kenya, mainly as a native crop.
An important industry has already arisen, and in the central
provinces wattle bark has been the main exportable commodity
(Kenya, Agriculture, 1933, D.R.). In the densely populated
Kikuyu and Kamba reserves the tree has proved valuable for
firewood and building.
Cloves form the main export of Zanzibar and Pemba Islands.
Scientific study on the plantations is an instance where co-opera-
tion between agriculturalists and forestry experts has proved
essential. A silviculturalist has been working recently in Zanzibar,
and results of much importance to the whole clove industry will
be published shortly. The Zanzibar experiment station had to
establish five new nurseries in 1936 in order to meet the demand
for selected seedlings from high-yielding parents. Regeneration
trials indicate that it may be advantageous after clear felling stands
of old cloves to put the land down to food and green manure crops
for a few years before replanting. It has been found that the seed-
lings benefit by shade during the first year of life in the field and
that interplanted cassava is the most suitable form of shade. Nutri-
tional trials indicate that phosphates and possibly potassium are
probably of greater importance than nitrogen to young cloves.
Trials have been made to determine whether the clove is self- or
cross-fertilized; and the means of control of the red ant and the
clove chafer have been investigated. (Zanzibar, Agriculture,
1936, D.R.; Stockdale 1937.)
Tung oil is another tree crop only recently introduced to Africa.
. The trees (Aleurttes fordit and A. montana) are indigenous to China,
but the varnishes made from the oil were found to be so valuable
that the Americans introduced it to Florida in 1905. In 1927 the
Empire Marketing Board provided a grant to Kew to send seed
to suitable Empire centres and to pay a research worker to experi-
ment on the properties of Empire-grown tung oil and residue as
B74 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
cattle-feeding cake, etc. The introduction appears to be yielding
promising results in parts of the Transvaal, Natal, Tanganyika,
and Nyasaland, but it cannot be regarded as an unqualified suc-
cess. A. montana shows much more promise in the more tropical
colonies, but so far the number of established trees is small. The
production of tung oil in the Empire was surveyed in a memoran-
dum by the Imperial Institute, issued by the Empire Marketing
Board (1930).
Experiments have been tried with Cinchona in Africa. Quinine
is still too expensive to be used as widely as would be desirable,
and India is the only country in the British Empire where it is grown
in any quantity. Plantations have been established at Amani for
over thirty years; they have been very successful on a small scale,
and supplied the German forces in East Africa during the war.
Selection work and experimental grafting to extend these plantings
on a larger scale is in progress, and a small industry has been estab-
lished in the Usambara highlandsin Tanganyika (Worsley 1935).
Several orders for seed have been received at Amani from Kenya,
and trials are being made also in Northern Rhodesia and Uganda,
and in the Belgian Congo. The Chaulmoogra tree, which in India
produces the oil so valuable in the treatment of leprosy, has also
been grown experimentally in several parts of Africa.
The production of essential oils from peppermint, geranium,
and lavender promises to become an important subsidiary indus-
try, more particularly in East Africa. A special committee of the
Imperial Institute, in collaboration with the Royal Botanic Gar-
dens, Kew, has rendered valuable assistance in suggesting varieties
and supplying planting material: this liaison between botanists
and chemists has proved most fruitful. Valuable results have been
obtained in Kenya where large geranium farms have been estab-
lished near Nakuru, and research on geranium and other oils was
carried out at the Scott Agricultural Laboratories. Cedar wood
oil is another export. Experiments were being made in 1933 with |
Muhugu oil from the wood of Brachylaena hutchinsit, oil from a wild
grass (Cymbopogon afronardus) and an oleo-resin from the wood of a
small tree believed to be Spirostachys africana. In Tanganyika
bitter-orange oil has been produced on a Seville orange planta-
tion near Tanga, and the oil exported. Small quantities of
CROP-PLANTS 875
petit-grain oil have been marketed and it is hoped to produce
lemongrass oil on a commercial basis in the Eastern Province.
There has already been a small export of the latter oil. Results of
research at Amani are outlined in a paper by the biochemist, Dr.
R. R. Worsley (1934a). Experimental production of certain oils
has also been carried out in Uganda and Nyasaland. In Rhodesia
the production of citrus and other oils is being undertaken. Essen-
tial oils have the advantage of economic transport, since the oil is
prepared on the farm, but production can only be profitable where
labour, fuel and water are abundant. Considerable capital 1s
required for the equipment necessary to deal with the raw material.
During the last five years a thriving industry has been built up
in the Kenya highlands, in the production of dried Pyrethrum
flowers for which there is a good demand in the manufacture of
insecticides. The main producing areas lie between 7,000 and
9,500 feet and in general there is a progressive increase in yield
with altitude between these limits. The average yield of dried
flowers per acre is from 1,000 to 1,500 lb. The yields at lower
altitudes are not considered economic under normal market con-
ditions, but with the present high prices, cultivation is carried out
at 5,000 feet upwards. Pyrethrum requires a fairly low average
temperature and also at least one dry season a year in order to
rest the plants. For these reasons trials at low altitudes in the
tropics have so far proved unsuccessful.
Pyrethrum is grown in Tanganyika, under conditions similar to
those in Kenya. The yield is approximately the same and a small
export trade has now been started.
Derris is another insecticide crop which shows promise, particu-
larly in East Africa. It thrives under humid tropical conditions and
high quality material has been grown on a fairly large experimen-
tal scale at Amani in Tanganyika. Successful experimental work
with derris has also been carried out in Nyasaland and Uganda.
Several other plants, used by the natives as fish poisons and
similar in toxic properties to derris, are fairly widely distributed
throughout the African continent. Among these may be mentioned
Mundulea suberosa, Tephrosia vogeli, and species of Lonchocarpus,
all of which have been investigated, but hitherto have not been
found to compare favourably with high-quality derris.
CHAPTER XIII
PLANT INDUSTRY
SHIFTING CULTIVATION!
HIFTING Cultivation may be defined as any form of agriculture
Sin which a patch of ground is cultivated for a short period of
years until the soil shows signs of exhaustion or the land is overrun
by weeds, after which the land is left to the natural vegetation
while cultivation is carried on elsewhere. In due course the original
site is usually planted again after the natural growth has restored
fertility and checked the weeds of cultivation. This is the method
followed by native tribes throughout the more densely vegetated
parts of Africa. ‘Two main types of shifting cultivation can be
recognized: one in which the population moves to new quarters
at frequent intervals, as new areas of forest are felled and brought
into cultivation, and the other in which the people remain in fixed
villages and open up new land within reach of the old habitations.
The latter is essentially,a rotational method which forms a per-
fectly sound basis for the introduction of improved methods of
cultivation to avoid the dangers of soil deterioration.
After a long period of shifting cultivation the whole character
of the vegetation may be altered beyond recognition. In countries
with an equatorial climate, without a dry season, shifting cultiva-
tion usually changes virgin forest into secondary forest and thence
to a kind of bush vegetation. This can be observed round every
native village in the rain forests of the Congo or the Guinea lands.
In regions with a marked dry season the usual effect is to change
evergreen forest into deciduous forest and thence to a kind of park-
land which resembles savannah, but in special circumstances quite
different conditions may result. In Uganda, for example, there
1 See also chapters V and VII.
PLANT INDUSTRY 377
are reasons for supposing that the elephant grass belt of the terri-
tory verging on the north-western corner of Lake Victoria was
originally a dense monsoon forest, which has been destroyed by
shifting cultivation.
Shifting cultivation is admirably adapted to the needs of primi-
tive peoples, provided there is sufficientland available. The period
needed for regeneration by natural vegetation varies according to
conditions from four to twenty years. Before European occupation
the balance between the number of population and the area of
land was adjusted in most parts of the continent, so that there was
ample time for rejuvenation. This is still the case in many areas:
for example, in Uganda each village is a self-contained unit with
its necessary requirements of reserve land. With the introduction
of cotton as an export crop, however, the balance of nature has
been upset, particularly where the rainfall is badly distributed. It
is hoped that adjustments will be made in time by the movement
of excess population into areas at present unpopulated, since in
_ Uganda there is fortunately no lack of fertile land, which has not
hitherto been required. Evenin Uganda, however, the department
of agriculture has found that the problem of soil deterioration
requires serious study. In the past ten or fifteen years there has
been an enormous increase of cultivation, perhaps amounting to
100 per cent and the problem has become, as elsewhere, one of
inadequate rest periods. Here the main causes are the use of the
plough and the introduction of fixed individual holdings in parts of
the country. The department has instituted an agricultural survey
as a basis for the redistribution of population and is investigating
methods of manuring by composts, mulching with cut grass, and
the planting of abandoned land with suitable grasses.
Since a detailed survey of the whole area is impracticable, the
study referred to is based on a sample method, each agricultural
officer being made responsible for one mutala or ridge, as the hill
slopes in which native cultivation is carried out are called. In the
absence of detailed agricultural statistics these surveys have con-
siderable value, and they have an additional advantage in that
data are obtained on the conditions of native food crops, the size
of holdings, and systems of alternating crops in each of their
areas.
378 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Other parts of the continent are not so well placed, however,
and districts can be selected where there has been a scarcity of
land for a very long time. One or two instances have already been
cited, but another worthy of mention is the Kikuyu reserve,
where, as the Kenya Land Commission pointed out, the native
population have destroyed increasing areas of forest throughout
the few hundred years they have been in Kenya. As an example
from West Africa, the densely inhabited district of Owerri in
Southern Nigeria, where there are upwards of three hundred
people per square mile in some parts, is suffering from pronounced
pressure of population in spite of abundant rainfall well distributed
through the year. In parts of Northern Nigeria, especially in
Sokoto and Katsina Emirates bordering the Sahara, the reserves
upon which over-concentrated populations draw for land can only
be the forest areas which should be the heritage of posterity.
Conditions vary so much from place to place that generaliza-
tions on this subject are difficult, but it is clear that shifting cultiva-
tion is a principal obstacle to the conservation of forests, as stressed
in Chapter VII. Where the choice of an area to be cleared lies
between virgin high forest or regenerated bush forest, the native
will nearly always choose the former because the soil is more fertile
and free from weeds of cultivation. The choice is tempered by the
kind of timber required for domestic purposes; since house-build-
ing requires straight poles, young forests may be preferred to ancient
high forest. Fire is a principal element in clearing operations and
the brushwood is invariably burnt on the spot. The wood ash
adds to the soil fertility and the burning causes a partial steriliza-
tion of the soil, and temporarily checks the growth of weeds, so
that heavy weeding may not be entailed for one or two years. In
shifting cultivation the growth of weeds is often a cause for leaving
the land equal in importance to loss of soil fertility.
The degree of destruction in making clearings varies consider-
ably among different tribes. The stumps of trees and bushes are
usually left in the ground since they do not impede cultivation
with the hoe. This sometimes facilitates regeneration of forest,
when the plot is deserted, but if soil erosion has set in during the
intervening period, regeneration is greatly retarded. Some tribes
appear to realize the necessity of maintaining tree growth on their
PLANT INDUSTRY 379
clearings and merely top the trees and lop the branches, so that the
trees are enabled to recuperate quickly when the area is again
allowed to revert to bush. An extreme case of destruction is that
of the chitemene system employed in the cultivation of finger millet
in Northern Rhodesia and the southern parts of Tanganyika.
This is described by Clements (1933), Trapnell and Clothier
(1937), and Moffat (1933), who has given a detailed account of
the practice in the extreme north-east of Northern Rhodesia, where
its evil effects are most evident. The chitemene (or fitemene) system
consists in the burning of timber and brushwood from a wide
area of land on one small part of it, so that the beneficial results
of wood ash and sterilization of the soil are concentrated. The
ratio of timber-area cut to area of cultivated land may vary up
to 10:1, and the time required for regeneration of the pollarded
trees may be anything from ten to thirty-five years. Sometimes
the whole trees are burnt on the ground after being felled, or
they may be killed by ring-barking and subsequently burnt stand-
ing. Trapnell and Clothier (1937) in describing the agricultural
system of the Northern Plateau, give various forms of a modified
chitemene system, which are employed partly owing to differences
in agricultural traditions and partly to suit the varying local con-
ditions. They conclude that although the practice may be held
to improve poor soils, yet dependence on ash fertilizing causes
gardens to be placed on soils of low fertility, with a view to obtain-
ing suitably sized fuel. Professor Ogilvie (1934) discusses some of
these practices in his communication on the results of inquiries
made by the British Association committee on human geography.
The destruction of forest growth in closed forest areas is un-
doubtedly very serious, but some authorities consider that in open
woodland the results are not so harmful as is sometimes suggested.
The woodland is economically useless for the most part, except
for certain species of trees which should be protected, and as
regards erosion the stumps and roots may regenerate rapidly, so
that the destruction of grass may be more important than that of
trees. In some areas, through long occupation and the consequent
distance of firewood from the villages, the roots are dug up and
burnt, but this only occurs in well-occupied cultivation steppe,
and not in the woodlands.
380 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
It is not intended to suggest that Africa is becoming overpopu-
lated, but simply that the population is becoming too concentrated
in certain areas for the primitive method of shifting cultivation.
In other parts there is danger in the artificial stimulation of native
production for export, which increases the amount of land under
cultivation and so adds to the strain on its fertility. The dangers
of the situation are fully realized by all agricultural departments,
and in some areas efforts are being made to prevent its intensifica-
tion by the two obvious methods of (i) redistribution of population
and (il) improvement in methods of native cultivation.
Some native agricultural systems include methods of protection
against soil erosion. The primitive pagan cultivators of the plateau
in Northern Nigeria pick stones from gently sloping land and
arrange them in rows along the contours, so that soil wash is held
up and the whole area of cultivation becomes terraced automati-
cally. The same result is brought about by different means in
some densely populated parts of Kigezi in Uganda (Thomas and
Scott 1935, p. 117). On the steep cultivated hill-sides terracing is
effected simply by leaving the weeds taken off the land in lines
along contours at suitable distances. Soil wash is arrested by the
weeds, and in course of time solid banks are formed, attaining in
places a height of five feet. Similarly in the Kikuyu country weeds
and crop residues are placed along contour lines. On flatter
country mound cultivation, of which an advanced example is the
mounding for yams, a common practice in many parts of East
and West Africa, serves the same purpose. The extension of such
practices to areas where they are not indigenous is one of the ways
in which erosion may be prevented.
IMPROVEMENT OF NATIVE CULTIVATION
The serious situations which have arisen through native agri-
cultural practice, outlined above and in the paragraphs devoted
to soil erosion and deterioration in Chapter V, are recognized by
agricultural authorities throughout the continent. Much work is
in progress on the prevention of further damage to the soil and
the improvement of native methods generally, but most of such
work is of recent origin and at present there is little published
PLANT INDUSTRY 381
material referring to the results, except scattered references in
annual reports of agricultural departments.
Perhaps the most obvious solution to the problem of erosion is to
transfer populations from mountainous or sloping land to the
plains and river valleys at lower levels, and this has been done
with success in parts of the continent where pressure of population
does not yet exist. This, however, is seldom practicable on a large
scale; accordingly it is also necessary to find means of extending
the period of fertility of cultivated land. The ideal, of course, is to
render soil permanently fertile by instituting methods of manuring
to counterbalance the strain on fertility which results from con-
tinuous cropping. But this ideal is not often to be achieved with-
out a series of intermediate stages by which the period of cropping
in systems of shifting cultivation is increased, and the period of
reversion to natural vegetation is reduced. This, as the central
problem of agriculturalists in many native areas throughout the
continent, deserves discussion in some detail.
Nigeria contains the densest agricultural population in Africa,
especially in the areas surrounding the large cities, and since there
is no European community, agricultural studies have been directed
entirely to the problems of native cultivation. Mr. O. T. Faulkner,
until recently Director of Agriculture, in collaboration with Mr.
J. R. Mackie, who has now succeeded him, has written a valuable
book (1933) describing the agricultural situation in West Africa
with particular reference to Nigeria. The following account 1s
based on that work, together with information provided more
recently by members of the department. For agricultural purposes
the country can be divided into the Northern Provinces, with an
arid climate and one rainy season, where cattle are farmed in
large numbers, and the Southern, with a damper climate, two
rainy seasons and very little stock on account of widespread tsetse
fly. The south, however, must itself be divided into eastern and
western regions, owing to the differences in soil. The east is cov-
ered with acid soils which are generally similar for agricultural
purposes, although, on geological grounds, they are divided into
Benin sands and alluvium. In the west, however, the soils are
much richer and less acid. Hence, though every crop of the east
will grow in the west, the converse is not true. Cocoa and cotton
382 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
are almost useless in the east, where also the yields from food crops,
such as maize and yams, are only about half that in the west. The
oil-palm, which will suffer poor soil but must have a high rainfall,
grows better, however, on the alluvium of the Niger delta than on
the richer soils of the western provinces where rainfall is less.
In the southern provinces generally, the pressure of population
is sometimes so great that permanent cultivation is forced upon the
people. The time actually allowed for fallowing varies from a pro-
portion of about seven years’ rest to one of cultivation where the
population is fairly thin, to one year’s rest to two of cultivation in
the dense areas. In a few places the land has reached such a state
of infertility that woody plants are incapable of regeneration, and
even weeds take a long time to become established. Except in
the densest areas there is not much erosion, but when the vegeta-
tion is removed, considerable loss of fertility results.
GREEN MANURING
To improve the conditions in Southern Nigeria, described
above, the method of approach has been to protect the soil with
cover crops, which, when dug in as green manure, extend the
period of cultivation and reduce the period of lying fallow or rever-
sion to bush. The combination of making mounds and contour
ridges with cover crops and green manuring is generally considered
to be the most practical way of combating loss of fertility. The
process of green manuring is based on the double rainy season in
Southern Nigeria, which enables two crops to be produced during
the year, one of them being green manure. At the central research
station at Ibadan experimental plots have been kept in permanent
fertility with green manures for many years. It is realized that a
new method will not be generally adopted unless its results are
demonstrably more profitable, and do not involve a heavy burden
of additional work, and all experiments are conducted with this
consideration in view. In essence the system worked out at Ibadan
consists of one green manuring with a leguminous crop, usually
Mucuna aterrima or Calopogonium mucunoides, and a deep cultivation
every three years. During the intervening period one or two cover
crops are interspersed between the normal food crops, arranged at
times when the soil is otherwise bare of vegetation. By such
PLANT INDUSTRY 383
methods the proportion of cropping years to fallow years can be
neeueed Irom lr: 7'\to: K:2.
In Southern Nigeria the establishment of Native Administrations
is of more recent date than in the Northern Provinces, and until
about 1930, it was not found possible to enlist their co-operation
in agricultural extension work through the medium of demonstra-
tion plots and schools. As soon as the best technique for maintain-
ing fertility in each area has been established, however, the methods
of extension work now in existence should make it rapidly popular.
In the Northern Provinces of Nigeria the single rainy season
renders the production of two crops during the year impossible,
and therefore any attempt to introduce green manuring would be
doomed to failure. In certain areas, for example in the neighbour-
hood of Kano, an intensive fixed cultivation is already practised
and provides an interesting example of a native system especially
suited to the environment. Permanent cultivation throughout the
Northern Provinces will come eventually through the development
of mixed farming, a subject which is considered later.
ROTATION OF CROPS
Green manuring has been the subject of experiments also in the
Northern Territories of the Gold Coast, where, since 1929, large
increases in crops have resulted from special rotational systems .
which include green manure. Thus a five-year rotation consists
of (1) yams, (2) Bengal bean (Mucuna) as a green manure which
is dug in, (3) cotton, (4) Guinea corn, (5) maize and groundnuts
interplanted. This has given excellent experimental results, as
also has a three-year rotation consisting of (1) yams, (2) Bengal
bean, (3) maize and groundnuts. The usual native cultivation in
this area involves two years’ cropping followed by five or six years’
fallow, but near the villages, where cultivation has been continuous
for long periods, soil fertility has been much reduced. It is con-
sidered that the new rotations may be of value in native farming
in the future, but at present land is so abundant, except close to the
villages, that farmers would regard it as waste of a year’s crops to
plough in the beans.
In the North Mamprusi region very different conditions prevail
from those just described, as shown by a recent survey undertaken
384. SCIENCE IN AFRICA
by the agricultural department (Lynn 1937). In this isolated com-
munity a primitive system of fixed agriculture prevails. The best
soils are around the villages and are manured with cattle manure
and the primitive habits of sanitation; lands farther distant are
recognized as being less fertile and consequently receive less atten-
tion. In the opinion of the agricultural officers, conditions are ripe
for the introduction of a more intensive system of mixed farming;
experiments have been undertaken with rotations, cultivation,
manuring, root crops, and so on, in this locality rather than at
Tamale, where conditions are different.
In Sierra Leone, except for the wetland rice areas (see Chapter
XII, p. 343) the general method of native agriculture consists in
cutting temporary clearings in forest growth, from which crops are
taken for one or sometimes two years. These crops usually consist
of rice with a small proportion of guinea corn and millet. Some-
times a small admixture of perennial cotton 1s sown, and cassava
may also be planted. As the cotton gives no crop in the first season,
and as no cultivation is given except the preparatory hoeing when
seed is sown, it has to compete with weeds and secondary forest
growth (Sampson 1930). The maintenance of fertility by bush
regeneration requires from eight to ten years, but the demand for
land leads to a lessened period of bush fallow and consequently to
decreased fertility, to which erosion, in a country of so heavy and
concentrated a rainfall, also contributes. ‘The problem confronting
the agricultural department is to substitute some other method of
maintaining or increasing fertility. In the absence of animal hus-
bandry some form of green manuring appears to be required.
Experiments at Njala have shown Calopogonium mucunoides to be
best, but in view of the difficulty of inducing natives to grow green
manure crops which provide food for neither man nor beast,
experiments with pigeon peas and Centrosema pubescens are being
made (Sierra Leone 1936, D.R.). Possible crop rotations and
methods of maintaining fertility are discussed by Sampson (1930).
In Eastern Africa similar work is progressing. For example, in
Nyasaland it has been shown at the experimental station at
Zomba that land which is typical of large areas can be kept per-
manently fertile by means of suitable crop rotation combined with
manuring and terracing of sloping land to prevent erosion. Work
PLANT INDUSTRY 385
is also directed towards accelerating the regeneration process while
the land is left fallow. Most of the methods employed fall under
the heading of forestry rather than of agriculture, and have been
mentioned in Chapter VII.
Uganda provides an example where wild grasses can be em-
ployed with benefit to restore fertility. Experiments have been in
progress since 1932 at Bukalasa with planting grasses, particularly
the larger kinds suchas elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) ,assoon
as cultivated land is vacated. The results to date show that the
rest period, which is usually about ten years, can be reduced to
four years by this means. Similar studies have been started at
Serere and Ngetta and are also favourable. The introduction of
green manures and other methods foreign to native practice has
met with little success, but the use of grasses is regarded as a most
promising improvement to a system which already exists and which
has stood the test of time under the local conditions of soil and
climate. The Director has pointed out with some justice that the
natural regenerators of soil throughout the world are either grass
or forest, and that nature herself does not employ legumes for the
purpose, except in a minority compared with other plants. He
considers that the attention attracted to legumes as a result of
scientific work on their nitrogenous properties has led to neglect
of the possibilities of utilizing the ordinary processes of nature.
MIXED CROPPING
Mixed cropping, which consists of growing more than one crop
on the same soil at the same time, is practised by natives in many
places, and has received attention from agriculturalists in several
territories. One advantage of the system is that it may enable an
export crop to be grown without unduly extending the area of
cultivation or increasing the amount of labour involved in tilling.
The Nigerian agricultural department has found that the native
methods of growing Ishan cotton and other cottons of this type
as a mixed crop are more profitable than growing it as a pure crop.
In the yam-growing districts in the Northern Territories of the
Gold Coast, particularly around Tamale, a similar practice is
almost universal. Definite combinations of crops grown in the
same year have been evolved to suit the particular types of soil.
386 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
The native plants his crops at successive intervals, in accordance
with the length of the growing period of each, so that the crops
are not necessarily harvested in the rotation in which they were
planted. Also ripening periods vary, so that the labour of harvest-
ing is well distributed. Trials carried out at Tamale in 1929 showed
that one acre of land under mixed cropping yielded the same quan-
tity of produce as nearly two and a half acres cultivated on the
single crop system. It was therefore concluded provisionally that
mixed cropping was the superior of the two methods, but further
trials were considered necessary. The interplanting of groundnuts
with cotton, tried at Ngetta in Uganda since 1934, gave similar
results, provided the right proportions of groundnuts and seasons
for planting were adhered to (Uganda 1936, D.R.). In the Gam-
bia, however, trial interplantings of groundnuts and bulrush
millet (Pennisetum typhoides) and groundnuts and Guinea corn,
undertaken during 1934 at Wuli, did not give a sufficient yield of
groundnuts to warrant their cultivation by this method (Gambia
1934, D.R.,p. 10). Itis possible, however, that experiments on these
lines may yet prove successful, since in Madras where a short-
season bulrush millet is used, in which groundnuts are under-
planted, little interference is caused, provided the millet is har-
vested before the fruit has covered the ground. Mixed cropping is
usually looked upon as an insurance against adverse seasons; some
parts of the mixture may succeed or fail according to the vagaries
of the season. Difficulties may arise from lack of water when two
crops are competing on the same soil, so research is advisable to
find out to what extent and in what form mixed cropping should
be developed in any area.
COMPOSTING
Owing to climatic conditions, for example in Northern Nigeria,
the turning in of green manures is not always practicable, since
the ground requires to be moist and the crop succulent. If the
crop is too dry it does not decompose and fixed nitrogen in the
soil may be deficient; if too woody, the bacteria which break down
the cellulose exhaust the soil of nitrogen which they need for their
sustenance. For this reason the composting of vegetable waste
materials or even of crops, such as elephant grass, grown for this
PLANT INDUSTRY 387
special purpose, may come to be widely used as a substitute for
green manuring. Composting consists in using fungi and bacteria
to break down suitable mixtures of vegetable and animal wastes. In
the so-called Indore process, by arranging these mixtures in the
proper way, and by watering and turning them, to supply moisture
and air, the waste materials are transformed in about ninety days
into a finely divided humus rich in the foods required by growing
crops. The process can be adapted to climate by manufacture
either in shallow pits or low heaps. No buildings or expensive
plant are required, nor are pure cultures of the organisms concerned
necessary, as they occur everywhere. ‘Compost making by rule
of thumb is as old as agriculture itself.’ (Ministry of Agriculture
1937.) On this basis it has been used for centuries by the Chinese,
who have evolved an intensive system of agriculture to meet a
population density unparalleled in Europe (Hall 1936). Much of
the pioneer work of elucidating the underlying scientific principles
was done at Rothamsted. The application of composting to
African agriculture was directly due to the remarkable success
obtained by Sir Albert Howard at the Institute of Plant Industry,
Indore. Confronted with the problem of obtaining a continuous
and adequate supply of manure for the small Indian cultivator,
in a region where cattle dung is generally used as fuel, he evolved
the so-called Indore method.
Howard and Wad (1931) have described the various processes
in detail in their volume on the waste products of agriculture, and
Howard (1935) has described the applications of the Indore
method to conditions in Africa and in other parts of the world.
The difficulty with the average native cultivator in Africa is that,
so long as shifting cultivation is possible, he will not take the trouble
to carry out the regular watering and turning required in the
Indore process; moreover, in many areas the lack of water renders
the operations difficult or impossible. The method has, therefore,
had to be modified to suit local conditions. Experiments with
modifications of the Indore process were already in progress during
1933 at each of the local Native Council seed farms in Kenya
(Kenya 1933, D.R., p. 109), and the department of agriculture
issued a bulletin on the subject (Beckley 1934b). An interesting
experiment was carried out in 1935 at Embu in Kenya by Mr.
388 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
H. E. Lambert and is described by Howard (1935). The original
technique evolved at Indore was simplified for explanation to the
illiterate African. The materials were not prepared, but were
simply stacked near the pits so that they were ready to hand when
manufacture began. By a simple rotational system every operation
required was repeated on the same day of the week, and the results
were excellent. Campaigns for making village compost now occupy
much of the time of all field officers. In 1936, in the Central
Provinces alone, where cattle for the most part are not kept on
the holding, some 100,000 compost pits had been brought into
use (Kenya 1936, D.R., Pt. I, p. 88). In Nyasaland also methods
of composting, based on the Indore process, have been evolved;
the principal object being in this case to provide a method of
making soil fertile for finger millet and other crops, as an alterna-
tive to the chitemene system. It is claimed that details are now
sufficiently worked out for the composting to be introduced in
native areas, and through the agency of demonstrators progress
has been recorded (Nyasaland 1935, D.R.).
In the West African colonies various trials have been made with
composting, and opinions differ about its efficiency. In Nigeria
results attained by the agricultural department have not been
encouraging, although experiments so far have been on a compara-
tively small scale, mostly at Samaru in the Northern Provinces. It
is claimed that there is no proof yet that the compost makes a
better fertilizing agent than the same amount of animal manure
and ash from the same quantity of plant material when applied
directly to the land. On the other hand, an experiment by the
research branch of the forestry department has been encouraging:
waste material from nursery weedings and grass cleanings was
used, with ammonium sulphate and lime as agents to produce the
‘activator’. Both chemical analysis and nursery tests proved satis-
factory (Nigeria, Agric., 1935,D.R., p.114). Inthe Gold Coast trials
by the department of animal health at Pong-Tamale have led to
the conclusion that the process is not economic, but the agricul-
tural department have a more favourable opinion of its value when
modified for local conditions, and have pointed out its advantages
to farmers (Gold Coast, Agriculture, 1935, pp. 229-30). It appears
however, that none have so far adopted it.
PLANT INDUSTRY 389
MIXED FARMING
In all parts of Africa where cattle can be kept, the use of animal
manure, whether or not combined with vegetable materials into
compost, clearly offers great opportunities for the development
of a balanced agriculture based on problems involved in settled
cultivation. The combination of animal husbandry with cultiva-
tion at the same time opens the way for that revolutionary change,
the replacement of the hoe by the plough drawn by cattle. It
must, however, be borne in mind that the basis of mixed farming
is the use of the manure supplied by cattle to maintain soil fertility.
Thus the area to be farmed ought to be limited by the amount of
manure available, rather than by the area that can be ploughed.
This introduction of mixed farming may be illustrated from ex-
perience in Northern Nigeria.
In this region the whole agricultural system depends on the
short rainy season. Irrigation appears to be impracticable, except
on a small scale, and it has been mentioned that green manure
cannot be used. It is suspected that phosphate deficiency is the
most important cause of infertility. Imported super-phosphates
have caused big increases of crops at experimental stations, but are
far too expensive for general use. Phosphates from local deposits
have been tried with satisfactory results in the Southern Provinces,
but they are not sufficiently soluble to be of much use in the dry
northern climate. All conclusions, therefore, point to the use of
animal manure, and hence the agricultural department has con-
centrated on the development of systems of mixed farming. The
stock farm at Shika near Zaria is devoted largely to producing
animals to serve the dual purposes of draft combined with high
milking capacity; the interesting experiments in breeding carried
out there and elsewhere in West Africa are mentioned later. A
number of suitable animals have been distributed to native farmers,
particularly in the region around Kano, each farmer receiving a
loan of from £5 to £7 from the Native Administration towards the
purchase of oxen and farming implements, such as ploughs and
cultivators. This system was instituted in 1933, since when the
number of mixed farmers has doubled each year. In 1936 there
were 680 working successfully, and it was estimated that in 1937
the number would have increased to at least 1,200, and that in
390 . SCIENCE IN AFRICA
another five years it should be 10,000, provided sufficient suitable
cattle are available. Each man with two bullocks can plough ten to
fourteen acres in the same time that he could cultivate three acres
with the hoe. This extension of cultivation is largely devoted to
the production of cotton, which, it is estimated, will increase by
10,000 bales in the next five years; experiments on suitable cottons
have been conducted by the Empire Cotton Growing Corporation
at their seed farm at Daudawa.
Mixed farming has been made possible only since the veterinary
department has succeeded in controlling rinderpest and other
major cattle diseases by inoculation processes. Trypanosomiasis
still renders stock raising uneconomic in many areas, but, in so far
as the extension of mixed farming results in concentration of popu-
lation in permanent settlements, it will reduce not only the man-
fly contact, but also the cattle-fly contact, as mentioned in Chapter
X. With regard to the efficacy of farmyard manure in increasing
fertility, the work of Hartley and Greenwood (1933), mentioned
in Chapter V, may be referred to once again as showing the re-
markably increased yields in the arid climate of Northern Nigeria,
which result from small applications.
The possibility of mixed farming in the forested southern parts
of Nigeria has not yet been the subject of serious inquiry, but the
presence of herds of shorthorn cattle which, though diminutive
in size, apparently show complete resistance to local strains of
trypanosomiasis, is taken by some people to indicate the possibility
of development along similar lines.
In the Gold Coast experiments with mixed farming in the Nor-
thern Territories are progressing at Tamale, and suitable animals
are being produced by the Government stock farm at Pong-
Tamale in charge of the department of animal health. At
Zuarungu near the French frontier efforts have been made to
persuade native farmers to take up the practice, but so far little
success has been achieved owing to the lack of any organization
for the advance of funds for the purchase of animals and imple-
ments. The large pastoral areas of the Accra plains near the coast,
where a survey of possibilities in animal husbandry has recently
been made by Mr. Fulton of the department of animal health,
also offer opportunities for mixed farming now that animal dis-
PrATE Will
Above: MIXED FARMING
Training oxen to the plough in the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast
Below: VETERINARY WORK
Making anti-rinderpest serum from Zebus bulls at Vom, the veterinary
headquarters of Nigeria
PLANT INDUSTRY 3901
eases are fairly well under control. In the French Sudan mixed
farming has been introduced in a number of districts. Good pro-
gress is also being made in the substitution of the plough for the
hoe; for example, in the cercle of Ségou there were said to be more
than 1,000 ploughs at work in 1936; a figure which compares
very favourably with that for Northern Nigeria. It is claimed
that the native oxen of the Sudan are easily trained for draft
purposes.
In East Africa, similar efforts are being made in Tanganyika.
In the settlements made on land reclaimed from the tsetse fly, the
area allotted to each cultivator is large enough to accommodate
livestock sufficient for its working on the lines indicated by the
agricultural department, and to keep an area of bush land re-
served to counter erosion by rain and wind. This reserve area is
maintained along the contour wherever possible. In densely
settled areas attempts are made to incorporate the plots abandoned
after cultivation with neighbouring plots which are still under cul-
tivation. The object of this is to increase the size of the holdings
and to oblige the young men to venture on to new land at the
margins of the settlements rather than to occupy the vacated land
before there has been time for proper soil regeneration. In Uganda
again, the fact that some 15,000 ox-drawn ploughs were in use
in the Eastern and Northern Provinces by 1933, since when the
number has increased materially, indicates that mixed farming has
come to stay. Likewise in the native protectorates of Southern
Africa the chief change in agriculture has been the substitution of
the plough for the hoe. Sir A. W. Pim (Swaziland 1932) notes that
5,989 ploughs were in use in Swaziland during 1931, since when
the number has greatly increased.
In some parts of Africa native farmers reject animal manure,
when it is obtainable, on the score that weeds and pests result from
its use. In this connection the claim that composting by the Indore
process destroys weed seeds by the heat engendered in the heap
may point to a method of preserving farmyard manure with this
end in view. It is evident that instruction in correct treatment of
farmyard manure will be necessary as it becomes more available.
At present the system of kraaling stock in animal husbandry
wastes practically all the manure, and consequently it is often
392 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
suggested that much could be saved for use on arable land if a
simple form of paddocking could be substituted for kraaling. The
former method is certainly the more satisfactory on European
estates, and is being adopted rapidly, but in native areas the cost
of fencing is a serious obstacle to its introduction. Moreover,
kraaling can conserve manure if suitable methods are employed,
whereas paddocking can waste it in a dry climate, where the valu-
able nitrogen is lost when manure is exposed and the organic
matter is open to attack from termites.
Cultivated land can also be manured directly by tethering or
penning cattle on the fallow fields. This is practised to a small
extent in some parts of Africa, for example in the Gambia, and it
is a common method in India, especially when combined with
folding sheep. In Tanganyika the housing of livestock as a means
of production of high quality manure on the lines of the existing
practices of the Chagga and the Ukara peoples is recommended
by the agricultural department, whose estimate of its value is
supported by their own experiences on stock farms.
Wherever mixed farming is practised it is necessary to decide
what products are to be developed for export. In Eastern Africa
it appears that for a long while to come the plant production will
provide all the export, the cattle being regarded primarily as fer-
tilizing agents. Thus cattle and coffee farming can be combined.
At the same time there may be opportunities for the exporting of
dairy products and in some places the wool industry is no doubt
capable of extension. The export of beef may never be practicable,
but its production for local consumption by the million natives
in East Africa must have possibilities. At present, however, the
experiment at Mwanza, as mentioned in Chapter XIV, seems to
show that there is little local demand.
With the slaughter of stock, blood and bone-meal become avail-
able as fertilizing material. Preliminary experiments with such
material from the Mwanza meat factory have been made on
partly exhausted land in the Lake Province of Tanganyika. The
results were similar to those with farmyard manure and showed
marked increase in yields with very small applications. The agri-
cultural department has, however, advised against the deliberate
production of fertilizers from the desiccated remains of animals
PLANT INDUSTRY 393
slaughtered for the purpose, since it is held that a live animal pro-
ducing manure daily from crop residues is a better fertilizing
agent than the same animal dead, dried, and pulverized. Where
stock must be killed, the cultivator will eat the flesh, and his added
energy will do more for the land than the sacrifice of the ox to a
desiccator.
In recommending any improvements to native agriculturalists
it has to be remembered that every native practice has become
closely adapted to special local conditions. In certain areas,
moreover, the methods which have been employed for many
generations, could scarcely be improved. This is strikingly shown
by the practices of the Chagga of Kilimanjaro and the inhabitants
of Ukara Island situated in the south-east part of Lake Victoria.
The Ukara agriculture has been described by Thornton and
Rounce (1936). The natives have become so concentrated that
there is no opportunity for shifting cultivation, even if the country
was originally suitable for it, but the arable part of the island is
under continual cultivation, and a complicated system of crop
rotation has been evolved, including the growth and digging in
of green manures. The cattle are largely stall-fed on forage
specially grown for the purpose, and are housed in special com-
partments of the natives’ own houses; their manure is transported
to different parts of the cultivated land in turn. When the cattle
are turned out to graze on the grasslands in the interior of the
island, they are muzzled and led through the cultivated fields.
Soil erosion is counteracted by earth ridges and stone walls along
contours, by pit cultivation on the hillsides and even by stands of
trees. Even such intensive methods of farming do not suffice for
the increasing population, and young men are continually emigrat-
ing. When they settle in islands near by or on the mainland where
there is less pressure of population, they discard the practices
to which they were brought up in favour of the easier methods
of their new neighbours. Ukara Island is peculiarly interesting,
since the indigenous methods there differ but little from the im-
proved methods which agricultural and administrative officers are
attempting to impress upon natives in other parts of Tanganyika.
But it must be remembered that the system depends on the inex-
haustible water-supplies. From an anthropological point of view
394 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
it bears witness to the inventive ability ofnatives under the pressure
of environment. The Ukara example is not entirely unique, and as
knowledge of native agriculture improves, no doubt many similar
examples will come to light. Mrs. Gore Brown, for instance, found
on Chilubi Island in Lake Bangweulu a very long cycle of crop
rotation which also appears to be an adaptation to abnormal con-
ditions of close settlement, and the system of settled agriculture
near Kano in Northern Nigeria provides another example.
CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES AND AGRICULTURAL POLICY
An agency which offers great possibilities for the improvement
of native agriculture is the co-operative society. This provides a
medium of education which can be applied as soon as there are
a few educated Africans with organizing capacity scattered
amongst the population. Such societies have been instituted
under guidance from agricultural departments in a number of
British territories, and have assisted especially in the grading and
marketing of produce, transport, and pooling of food resources.
In the future, no doubt, other aspects of agriculture, such as
selection and distribution of seed and the breeding of stock, may
also be undertaken on a co-operative basis, but it is perhaps
premature to apply such ideas until more is known of the scientific
principles to be adopted, and until the breeding of stock or selec-
tion of seed suitable to particular areas can be reduced to a
definite code of rules. Then is the time to broadcast the know-
ledge gained and to extend the use of the best kinds through a
co-operative system.
Mr. C. F. Strickland, after wide experience of the co-operative
movement in India, has been forward in advocating its application
to African peasantry. Quoting from him (The Times, 14th August
1934):
‘Co-operative societies, for breeding of stock or selection of seed,
for marketing of crops and the provision of water, will help the
African towards improvement more than an infinity of argument
with unorganized individuals, and it is fortunate that the African
governments are turning towards co-operative methods.’
Other authorities hold, however, that the co-operative society
PLANT INDUSTRY 395
involves a wider departure from existing native organization than
is supposed by its advocates, and that the authority of native chiefs
is a more effective influence in the introduction of improved agri-
cultural methods.
Whichever method is followed, the Native Administration,
where one exists, is in a position to exert an influence on the culti-
vator, to supervise marketing and generally to see that satisfactory
methods of cultivation are followed. In addition, in some terri-
tories, where non-natives hold land close to areas of native farming,
planters’ associations, designed for mutual assistance and aid can
be helpful to their African neighbours. Such non-native associa-
tions are mentioned in a later section.
To build up an efficient co-operative society from primitive
material is difficult, even where economic conditions are suitable,
The members are called upon, at the outset, to learn new and pos-
sibly incomprehensible principles and regulations. Co-operation,
far from being a method to get rich quickly without extra effort,
consists in the patient application of high standards, both of agri-
cultural and financial efficiency. In spite of these difficulties,
however, marked success has been attained in several territories
as detailed below.
The Gold Coast, where the cocoa industry is well developed and
there are a comparatively large number of educated farmers, has
seen the greatest advances in this direction. The formation of
co-operative societies in the cacao-growing districts has been one
of the chief aims of the agricultural department. The co-opera-
tive movement has been studied in detail by Professor C. Y.
Shephard (1936) and 1s also described by Sir F. A. Stockdale (1936)
in the report on his visit to Nigeria, the Gold Coast, and Sierra
Leone, which gives a complete picture of many agricultural
activities in these territories. In the Gold Coast credit organiza-
tions have not been as extensively developed as in other British
territories and the policy has been ‘to improve methods of prepara-
tion as a means of securing price discrimination’ (Shephard
1936). ‘The Co-operative Societies Ordinance was passed in 1931,
and in spite of initial native apathy and mistrust, in the five years
since then over four hundred societies have been formed with a
total capital of £12,000. In the initial stages the work of secretary
396 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
and treasurer had to be done by agricultural officers, but most of
the societies have now their own African secretaries and treasurers,
who usually work under supervision from European members of
the department of agriculture. Loans are advanced to the societies
by government; for example, in 1935 the total sum advanced
was about £6,000, all of which was repaid without trouble. Pro-
gress has also been made in organizing the producers of rice, coco-
nuts, and cotton. The department claims to have proved that
Africans of the Gold Coast can be persuaded to organize themselves
for the co-operative solution of their problems.
In Nigeria a similar move to institute co-operative societies was
started by the agricultural department, but so far only the market-
ing side of agriculture is included in their activities. For example,
numerous cocoa societies, with membership varying from 20 to
200 have been established, and each maintains a store at its head-
quarters for the deposition of the crop from every member’s
plantation. In the area around Ibadan all the societies belong to
a Marketing Union, which undertakes the sale, and after expenses
have been deducted, proceeds are divided among the members in
proportion to the size of their crops. Thereby the activities of the
middleman, who formerly often bought the crop before harvesting,
at a very low assessment, have been restricted, and the large export-
ing firms such as U.A.C. and John Holt can now obtain the crop
direct from the producer. Each co-operative society is managed
by a committee, of whom the secretary is usually the only literate
member. A Registrar of Societies was appointed in 1933 and an
ordinance for the registration of societies was made in February
1936, so that registration would give each society a legal status
and would qualify it for supervision by the government. So far,
however, there are few societies which are up to a standard suf-
ficient to qualify them for registration. In Northern Nigeria the
development of mixed farming, referred to above, is essentially
dependent on the advance of money for the purchase of cattle,
implements, etc., while the crop is marketed largely through the
agency of the British Cotton Growing Association. The possibility
of substituting a farmers’ co-operative society for this system is
discussed in the report of the co-operative officer for 1935-7
(Nigeria 1938).
PLANT INDUSTRY 397
In Szerra Leone there are good prospects for co-operative societies
in the Scarcies rice area where the need for credit is already felt.
One association of an administrative, rather than a co-operative
type, has been instituted as an experiment, and an ordinance to
establish societies has been proposed. Stockdale (1936) held that
the introduction of a co-operative movement on a large scale
would be premature.
In the palm oil districts of West Africa conditions are much
more difficult for instituting societies, because the crop is obtained
from so many owners of trees and in comparatively small quanti-
ties. The movement is afoot, however, in parts of Nigeria and in
some cases producers have grouped together to purchase palm
presses under common ownership.
In Eastern Africa the tendency has been to use the small political
unit rather than the village as the basis of the co-operative society,
a method which is open to criticism from those who hold that trade
and administration should not be combined. From Tanganyika an
administrative officer was sent to India in 1934 to study co-opera-
tive methods with a view to his appointment as registrar of the
societies. The Kilimanjaro Native Co-operative Union markets
the produce (coffee) of its members in bulk, and it has been pro-
posed to form societies on the same lines as this organization in the
tobacco districts of Songea and Biharamulo.
In the Bugishu district of Uganda measures have been taken to
maintain the quality of coffee exported at a uniform high standard.
Central pulping-stations have been built and each consignment
is sent to a central factory at Bubulu, where it is properly dried,
hulled, and graded. The scheme is controlled by the Native Ad-
ministration with the ultimate object of encouraging the establish-
ment of co-operative societies among the growers themselves. In
Buganda associations have been formed to deal with cotton and
other crops (Thomas and Scott 1935).
In the French territories of West and Equatorial Africa a system
similar in some ways to co-operative societies has been evolved. In
every district headquarters there is a local Société de Prévoyance,
which is organized by the administrative officer in charge of the
district with the assistance of a secretary-treasurer, but has also
a council of natives chosen by the local assembly of chiefs. Sub-
398 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
scription from all the farmers in the district is compulsory, and is,
in effect, an additional tax, the proceeds of which are devoted to
local interests. The societies distribute seed, and organize market-
ing, and expensive machinery for oil presses or cotton ginneries is
purchased with their funds. These societies have undoubtedly led
to a marked improvement in native agriculture, but their compul-
sory character differentiates them from the British co-operatives
where the voluntary nature of membership is regarded as essential.
The policy adopted for the improvement of native agriculture
in the Belgian Congo consists in many areas in making compulsory
the production of export crops such as cotton. In the initial stages
agricultural instructors work among the population and a certain
amount of coercion appears to be necessary to make each native
farmer put a fixed area of his holding under the selected crop, but
as soon as the natives have reaped a return for the produce the
system runs on smoothly enough.
However desirable it may be from the sociological aspect, to
maintain tribal custom in agriculture as in other subjects, it is
impossible to do so unless at the same time the economics of pro-
duction can meet the demands of the world’s markets. An instance
of the conflict of opinion over the plantation as opposed to the
peasant system of agriculture is afforded by Nigeria; it has been
discussed by Buell (1928, Pt. I, pp. 768ff.). In this connection Dr. H.
Martin Leake (1935) looks especially to Corporations or Chartered
Companies to provide the solution. He points out that, to com-
pete in the world market to-day, produce must be of the highest
quality and carefully graded, so that a measure of technical con-
trol is indispensable. He argues that the system of peasant produc-
tion with its small independent units, which is now favoured on
sociological grounds, is ill adapted for the exercise of this control.
In official policy hitherto the sociological view has dominated, but
the pressure of circumstances is forcing the adoption of more and
more control, with the result that colonial governments are being
driven to administer two different and somewhat antagonistic
policies. To meet this dilemma he proposes the creation of cor-
porations having limited jurisdiction over defined areas, and he
suggests that not only would colonial governments be in a better
position to see that the essentials of the social structure were re-
PLANT INDUSTRY 399
tained as far as is compatible with the fundamental laws of pro-
duction, than if they themselves were the authors of the restrictive
measures, but adequate technical control would be provided, since
it would be charged against the industry and not against the com-
munity.
Dr. Leake quotes the two examples of development by corpora-
tions within the Empire in support of his proposals, the Colonial
Sugar Refining Company in Fiji and the Sudan Plantations
Syndicate in the Sudan, and uses these to support his argument
that a competitive product can be raised by corporations with
profit. Both have found it economically profitable to employ a
supervisory staff such as no government could entertain. In the
case of the Sudan Plantations Syndicate one officer is employed
for each 5,000 acres. In addition to these advantages, he considers
that such corporations would produce a source of employment for
the educated native, who, in regions which attempt to maintain
the native social organization, have no future except in the law or
government service.
Not all authorities share these views. There is a strong body of
opinion, that schemes of this nature are not entirely beneficial, and
may even prove disastrous to native life in the regions concerned.
The development of export crops at the expense of native food
crops, which characterizes the company system, can easily lead
to an unbalanced system of agriculture. An alternative method
of obtaining the requisite measure of technical control in agricul-
tural production is a government run on strictly business lines,
but this naturally has its own disadvantages. It is perhaps appro-
priate here to refer to the success of the Dutch in Java, where the
government exercises a substantial control over native activities in
connection with sugar-growing, and also to the great experiment
of the Office du Niger in the French Sudan, an undertaking which
is to be organized on the corporation basis, though the large capital
expenditure involved is drawn mainly from government funds.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION OF AFRICANS
Once the best methods of agriculture in any set of conditions are
proved by research, and suitable crops for each district bred and
400 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
made available for dispersal, all improvement in native agricul-
ture, both for subsistence and for export, must come through the
medium of education, both of children in schools and of adults
through the medium of agricultural departments. The discussion
of African educational systems as a whole, falls outside the scope
of this volume, but a few notes may be given on certain aspects
of agricultural education, namely general education in agri-
culture designed to improve the technique of African farmers,
and special education designed to produce expert native agri-
culturalists.
As a means of promoting the general improvement of farming,
there is a hope that school teaching in agriculture may prove effec-
tive in some areas, but more faith is usually placed in the develop-
ment of demonstration plots in which adult farmers may see the
results, combined with the employment of African demonstrators
as part of the organization of each agricultural department. In
some territories, for example Uganda, it is considered that more
still can be done by personal advice given to chiefs by agricultural
officers. With the majority of African natives the effort required to
break down tradition is enormous. Therefore the agricultural
demonstrator must be quite sure of the value of the methods
which he tries to substitute, since failure in a trial area creates a
widespread prejudice against other innovations.
Demonstration plots are now established as part of the organiza-
tion of agricultural departments in nearly every territory, and in
some there have been big developments in recent years. For
example, in Southern Rhodesia the Department of Native De-
velopment inaugurated in 1927 a scheme for the special training of
native agricultural demonstrators, and already results have been
fruitful, as described by Alvord (1930). A three-year course is
taken at special government institutions, after which the students
are absorbed into the department, and work mostly in the native
reserves. ‘There are now some forty-five of these trained men and a
big increase in the number of demonstration plots has been pos-
sible. The Lake Province of Tanganyika may be mentioned as
the site of an experiment in the so-called ideal native holdings. The
individual native holdings are from ten to twenty-five acres in
extent, and are all supervised by European agricultural assistants.
PLANT INDUSTRY 401
The improvement in crops and the standard of living of the holders
is said to serve as a better example to neighbouring farmers than
the usual demonstration plots attached to government agricul-
tural stations.
In Uganda a special endeavour is made to give an agricultural
bias to the ordinary school curriculum by providing prospective
teachers with a two to three months’ agricultural training before
they take charge of schools. This takes place at the agricultural
stations at Bukalasa and Serere. One month courses are provided
for selected groups of native chiefs in order to further propaganda
work, and the more promising members of the junior native staff
are also given a short training from time to time. Lastly, a small-
holder’s two-year course is on trial at both stations. In this groups
of about six young men of the superior peasant type live and work
on model holdings of about twelve acres under conditions which
they can be expected to maintain for themselves when their train-
ing is finished. When the students return to their own land they
are assisted by the Native Administration to purchase cattle,
ploughs, doors, and windows, to enable them to set up for them-
selves as nearly as possible an exact copy of the holding they
helped to work. Arrangements are made for keeping in touch
with each student after he has left the station. Agricultural train-
ing for prospective school teachers is stressed also in West Africa;
in Nigeria the training schools at Toro in the Plateau Province, at
Ibadan, and elsewhere are important in this respect. In the Gold
Coast, Hunter Hostel, at Kumasi, is used for two months’ training
for native farmers, after which they are expected to return to the
land and employ improved methods.
For the production of native agriculturalists of the type designed
to form auxiliary staff in agricultural departments, several stages
are necessary. First comes the normal native education, and here
it is important to note the introduction of some biological teaching
in recent years. Concerning the higher education which follows,
results are anxiously awaited from the recent ventures in several
territories, in particular Achimota College in the Gold Coast,
Makerere in Uganda, and Yaba College near Lagos in Nigeria.
These centres are reasonably well provided with facilities for train-
ing in scientific subjects and the staff have begun to publish simple
O
402 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
books on native plants, animals, methods of agriculture, arts and
Gratts, ‘etc:
In addition to these centres of higher education which it is hoped
to develop in course of time to a University standard, several
territories have their own agricultural colleges attached to the
agricultural departments for the purpose of providing specialized
training for prospective government service. Thus in Uganda,
after three years at Makerere College, agricultural students are
taken into the department of agriculture for two years’ special
training. Nine such students were absorbed by the department
in 1937 as native agricultural assistants (on probation). For
the special training there is a Superintendent of Agricultural
Education assisted by three full-time agricultural officers, who are
seconded for one or more tours at a time for the purpose. On the
veterinary side there is a small school at the veterinary laboratory,
providing a three-year course for boys who have taken their pre-
science course of two years at Makerere. These are intended solely
as native veterinary assistants in Government service, to replace
the more or less untrained assistants usually employed and Euro-
pean subordinate staff.
In the Southern Provinces of Nigeria there is an agricultural
college at Ibadan to which pupils go after two years at the Higher
College at Yaba. The research staff of the Ibadan laboratories
assist in the teaching. In the Northern Provinces of Nigeria the
subordinate staff of the agricultural department is trained at the
Samaru Farm School, being selected from students passing
out of the Higher College at Katsina. Each pupil has a holding
of four acres, and also has to work on the experimental plots.
The organization for specialized agricultural education in the
Gold Coast is undergoing some changes, since Cadbury Hall
at Kumasi, the former training centre for prospective service
in the agricultural department, was closed down during the
depression years. Meanwhile developments in agriculture at
Achimota College have taken place and arrangements are now
going forward to establish a settlement of highly trained agri-
culturalists after completing their courses at the College. An
estate has been acquired, and it is hoped to develop the research
side of agriculture as well as to demonstrate the value of higher
PLANT INDUSTRY 4.03
education among Africans who will subsequently return to the
land. |
In Sierra Leone the African instructors of the agricultural
department were formerly men with a high degree of education.
After a period of employment of farmers, with little education,
it is proposed to return to the old system. The instructors are to
have a two-year agricultural course at Njala, followed by two
years on an experimental farm before beginning work.
In French West Africa agricultural officers are appointed to
tour given districts, in which they instruct native farmers and
advise the Soctétés de Prévoyance, and they also supervise the demon-
stration farms in the villages. Each school has a small farm at-
tached to it, on which the pupils work. At Bamako in the French
Sudan a system of higher education in veterinary work has been
developed to provide African veterinarians for the stock country
of the Sudan and Guinea. The staff of the veterinary school,
which has been in existence for fifteen years, consists of an African
Chef du Service as director and a veterinary surgeon. In addition,
three medical officers from Bamako, an officer from the agricul-
tural service, a chemist from the medical service and an adminis-
trative officer assist in the teaching. There are fifty students who
take a three-year course, and then obtain a diploma before enter-
ing the Government service. Five or ten students are turned out
each year. The African subordinates for the veterinary service
take a two-month course before beginning field work.
PLANT INDUSTRY OF NON-NATIVES
More than go per cent of European farmers in Africa south ot
the Sahara reside in the Union, Southern Rhodesia, and the
Kenya highlands, and in the last named considerable areas of
land are also owned by Indian immigrants. In these areas the
greater part of the good agricultural and pastoral land is farmed
by non-natives. European settlement has taken place also in
small parts of Northern Rhodesia, Nyasaland, especially the
extreme north and south of the territory, Tanganyika, especially
the southern highlands, and Uganda, where a few European
estates are situated about the foothills of Mt. Ruwenzori. In
404 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Western Africa there is practically no European-owned land in
British territories, except a few plantations in the Cameroons,
most of which passed back into German hands after the war.
French Guinea is the main centre of European agriculture in
French West Africa, and the French Cameroons include some very
large plantations, which were taken up under the German admin-
istration. Large plantations are established also in parts of the
Belgian Congo.
The distinction between native and non-native cultivation does
not depend now on the kind of crops grown, but mainly on the
difference between the large-scale organization of capital produc-
tion, and the small unorganized units of peasant cultivation. In
many parts of Africa, especially where systems of individual land
tenure are replacing the former widespread communal tenure, the
size of some native plantations has increased to a point where con-
ditions approach those on European estates. The larger cacao
plantations of the Gold Coast, the coffee plantations of northern
Tanganyika and parts of the Uganda cotton areas may be in-
stanced as examples.
The alienated areas in Africa are not immune from some of the
troubles resulting from defective methods of cultivation which
have been described in connection with the native areas. Europeans
also have sometimes worked land until crops can no longer be
raised on it, even with the aid of fertilizers, and then abandoned
it to the ravages of soil erosion. In this the European may be even
more destructive than the native since he works on a larger scale
and aims at keeping a cleared area permanently under crops. A
large expanse of ploughed land enables surface run-off to gather
volume and force, and, unless adequate steps are taken to counter-
act this, erosion can be and frequently is very severe. In Nyasa-
land, for example, in former times many of the European tobacco
areas have been reduced from a loam to a sandy loam by the fact
that ridges and furrows for tobacco cultivation have not followed
the contour but frequently were aligned steeply downhill. The
result has been that the finer particles of soil have been washed
away by surface run-off, and the coarser sand has been left behind.
European cultivation also is usually cleaner from weeds than that of
the natives and, therefore, is more liable to wash, as there are only
PLANT INDUSTRY 4.05
the roots of the crop to hold the soil. It is certainly regrettable that
some European-owned land in Africa is worked on a principle
which is not worthy to be designated as farming, but can only be
termed soil exploitation. On the other hand, many estates could
be mentioned which apply the best principles in soil conservation
and fertilization, and which not only act as experimental centres
where new ideas can be put to the test, but serve also as examples
to native cultivators in the surrounding country.
Apart from research on crops, which has been considered above,
the problem of cultivation on European-owned estates is mainly
that of maintaining fertility in spite of continual or frequent crop-
ping. The solution seems to depend on two lines of activity—con-
serving the soil and using fertilizers. The first of these has been
considered in some detail in discussing native cultivation, and
many of the methods mentioned, such as terracing and contour
ridging, establishing suitable plants on ridges along contours to
hold back soil-wash, and maintaining a vegetal cover on the soil
during periods of rain, can be applied even more easily on Euro-
pean estates than on native small holdings. -
The use of fertilizers, however, is more important in connection
with European estates where it is recognized to be essential. The
major problem is to find a fertilizer which the cost of freight
from Europe will not make prohibitive. This is essentially an
economic rather than a scientific question, but the following notes
may indicate the bare outlines of the problem.
At present the local fertilizer supplies are almost negligible:
animal manure is insufficient except in a very small area, and
mineral phosphatic deposits are lacking except in South Africa.
There is a movement to manufacture bone-meal manure and fish
manure as by-products of meat factories and fishing industries,
and if the government meat factories are inaugurated as part
of the campaign against the overgrazing trouble, there should be
no difficulty in disposing of any quantity of fertilizers, if they can
be produced cheaply. Another way of obtaining bone is the wide-
scale collection of wild and domestic animal remains. In India
the organized collection of bones has given rise to a considerable
export trade. In Africa where many of the heavily stocked game
and cattle areas are littered with skeletons, bone-meal factories
406 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
might obtain considerable supplies cheaply for some time to come.
The most hopeful outlook for making manure available on
estates in Eastern Africa, seems to be the utilization of waste pro-
ducts of agriculture by the Indore process (see pp. 386-388). This
has been tried in the tea, coffee, maize, sisal, and other plantation
industries of Kenya and Tanganyika. One drawback is that the
original method was devised for peasant cultivators in India, and
when tried on a large scale, only those who practise mixed farm-
ing are able to obtain sufficient animal waste to be mixed with the
vegetable material. This has been pointed out by Mr. V. A.
Beckley, the Kenya agricultural chemist (1934a and b). Attempts
have been made by Major E. 8S. Grogan at the Kingatori Estate
near Kiambu in Kenya, to work out a cycle which will be indepen-
dent of the animal link by means of using a fungus. The high lime
and phosphate content of the soil and the presence of quick-grow-
ing indigenous legumes in this area will, it is hoped, make such a
method practicable. Another disadvantage is that the arable soils
in many parts of Kenya are definitely acid, whereas at Indore they
are alkaline and carry a fair amount of calcium carbonate. There-
fore in the original process soil was added to neutralize acids pro-
duced in manufacturing the compost, but in Kenya the addition
of some base-supplying mineral such as rock-phosphate seems to
be essential. In spite of these difficulties, a modified process is
being evolved in Kenya, and the results are so far encouraging
(Beckley 1934a).
Another application of the Indore process was made in Kenya
in 1934-5, when a factory owned by the Express Transport Com-
pany was started at Nairobi for converting town wastes such as
bone, horn, and hoof residues, animal manure, cotton seeds, chaff,
wood, and tannery waste into manure. When necessary, the
materials were finely ground before being mechanically mixed,
and then were composted in pits according to the Indore process.
In ninety days a humus was obtained, and produced excellent
results on controlled experimental plots of flowers, vegetables, |‘
maize, grassland, and coffee. The oxygen supply presents diffi-
culties here, and the use of compressed air was suggested by Sir
Albert Howard (1935).
At the Abercorn agricultural station in Northern Rhodesia the
PLANT INDUSTRY 407
original process was adapted to local conditions, and in 1934 had
become part of the normal routine (Northern Rhodesia 1934,
D.R.). ‘Tests on the compost carried out at Amani showed a
deficiency of nitrogen and phosphoric acid, and it was thought
that subsequent analyses might point to a revision of manufac-
turing methods. Since the heat occasioned by the composting
process normally kills the seeds of weeds, the resulting material has
an added advantage over farmyard manure. Experiments have
also been carried out at the Morogoro experimental station in Tan-
ganyika. ‘The materials used included khus-khus grass, maize and
sorghum stover and cotton seed (Tanganyika, Agriculture, 1934,
D.R.). In Uganda, which is geographically situated so far inland
that the cost of importing artificial fertilizers is prohibitive, a
committee is endeavouring to find some practical method of utiliz-
ing the large quantities of cotton seed which hitherto have been
destroyed at ginneries too far from a railhead to make export
profitable. The seeds are so rich in oil that some local use must
be found for the oil if the remainder of the seed is to be turned into
compost, or alternatively it is suggested that the whole cotton seed
would be more use if converted into feed-cake for stock. Mean-
while on European-owned estates in Uganda the maintenance of
fertility seems to have been ensured for annual crops by suitable
rest periods and sensible rotations. For coffee, grass mulch has
solved the problem in areas wheresupplies can be obtained within
reasonable distance, and there is always the possibility of com-
bining cattle raising with coffee culture, as adopted with success
onone estate. In Nyasaland the Tobacco Association has aspecial
fertilizers sub-committee. Compost is already prepared on a
considerable scale at Zomba (Nyasaland 1936, D.R.).
Fertilizers cannot be produced from local materials in sufficient
quantity for use on the scale which the soil requires, and the Euro-
pean farming community in East Africa must continue to depend
on imported fertilizers, especially from the phosphatic deposits of
North Africa.
Before 1926, when Sir John Orr’s report drew attention to the
mineral deficiencies of the soils and pastures of the Kenya high-
lands, the import of fertilizers to Kenya was negligible. From
1927 to 1929 they amounted to the total of 2,000 tons. Almost all
408 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
of this was used for plantations of coffee, the only crop which at
present commandsa price sufficient to cover the cost of the fertilizer.
The insufficiency of these quantities are shown by comparison
with the following figures for two of the Dominions. New Zealand
in 1927-30 imported 269,000 tons annually (94 per cent. phos-
phatic), and South Africa in the same period imported 234,000
tons annually (73 per cent phosphatic) (Speller 1931). In spite
of this considerable import and the presence of local phosphatic
deposits, it is generally agreed that the supplies of fertilizers in
South Africa are in no way equal to her requirements. This is
another argument for the development of stock-raising in parts
of the Union where maize cultivation is reducing fertility of the
soil. ‘This subject has been discussed above on pp. 305 and 306.
Co-operative organizations have become popular among Euro-
pean farmers throughout Africa in recent years, a movement
which has at the same time opened the way for the native co-opera-
tive systems discussed above. The farmers’ associations organized
in all settled areas, have been of great assistance, especially in
marketing and distribution of seed. In certain cases the number
of co-operative associations has grown to so great an extent that
central control has become necessary. ‘Thus in South Africa a
Co-operative Commission, appointed by the Union Government
in July 1933, showed that there were then 388 organizations.
Efforts were being made to establish a central body to control
the societies, but development had been retarded by the lack: of
suitable officials, and opposition to the movement had been shown
by traders. In Southern Rhodesia the report of the Land Bank
for 1935 mentions eight co-operative societies or companies.
In Northern Rhodesia an interesting development of the co-
operative spirit is the locust insurance scheme of the Chisamba
Farmers’ Association. The total losses due to locusts are shared by
the entire district, so that the possibility of the ruin of any indi-
vidual has become remote. During the depression years there can
be no doubt that many farmers were saved by the co-operative
organization; for example, in the same territory a society regularly
handles about 80 per cent of the settlers’ maize crop and in 1933,
exported 70,000 bags of grain at a heavy loss. In Kenya the well-
known Farmers’ Association offers many facilities for the best dis-
PLANT INDUSTRY 409
posal of crops, and this has been taken advantage of by settlers in
the Northern Province of Tanganyika where an association was
formed in 1935 for the purpose; three-quarters of the coffee crop
were, in fact, sold forward in that year on the basis of the previous
year’s samples (Tanganyika, Agriculture, 1935, D.R.). These and
similar activities in all settled areas relate to the economics rather
than the science of non-native farming, and the examples are cited
merely to instance the kind of way in which co-operation can assist
the industry.
CHAPTER XIV
ANIMAL INDUSTRY
INTRODUCTION
T has been pointed out in previous chapters that the plant and
| eae industries cannot be treated separately. Accordingly, the
sections on mixed farming, education, and the fertilizer problem
in the last chapter must be borne in mind when considering animal
industry. The subjects dealt with in this chapter include the
characters of African stock, the possibility of improving the breeds,
the effects of overgrazing, the diseases from which the animals suf-
fer, and subsidiary topics such as hides and skins and the preserva-
tion of meat for market. A few general matters, however, must
first be mentioned before these questions are discussed.
The opinion is sometimes expressed that the future prosperity
of all the drier parts of Africa lies in pastoral farming rather than
in agriculture. This extreme view has few supporters, since trade
statistics show that animal products constitute a small proportion
of the whole exports and in the internal economy crops play far
the greater part. Nevertheless, livestock is the mainstay of exis-
tence of many African tribes to-day, and is likely to remain so
for several generations to come. In the future, moreover, animals
and their products are likely to take a much more important place |
in internal trade as a more commercial attitude is adopted by the
natives towards their stock. Thus there are clearly possibilities
for the development of an animal industry, perhaps in close con-
tact with cultivation in systems of mixed farming. Although the
extension of white settlement to the point where stocks of pedigree
European breeds have ousted native cattle from much of Southern
Africa and the tropical highlands is not impossible, such develop-
ment is very unlikely in the low-lying areas, or in the semi-arid
ANIMAL INDUSTRY All
uplands which appear to be fit only for pastoralists. Hence the
future prosperity of a considerable part of Africa lies in the im-
provement of native stock through the agencies of nutrition and
breeding, together with a fight against disease, overgrazing, and
erosion.
The improvement of stock, even by such simple means as castrat-
ing the unfit males and keeping the numbers down to limits com-
patible with the available pasturage, is rendered particularly
difficult in Eastern and Central Africa by reason of the attitude
of the pastoral native to his domestic animals. Not only is the
man’s status In society gauged by the size of his flocks and herds,
but they are the object of deeply cherished religious beliefs, and
the basis of the marriage custom, known as the payment of bride
price, which is widespread all over pagan Africa. The essence of
this custom is that the validity of the marriage contract depends
on the transfer from the bridgegroom’s family to that of the bride
of a certain number of cattle, goats, or sheep, which are returnable
in whole or in part on the dissolution of the marriage or the death
of the wife. This custom persists in the face of many social changes,
and although there are tribes where cash has largely replaced
cattle for this purpose, there are also many in which it is still held
that only the transfer of cattle can validate a marriage. A striking
instance of the attachment of natives to their stock is shown in the
Bukoba district of Tanganyika where the people have become
comparatively wealthy as a result of the extensive growing of
coffee. As a consequence, they have begun to eat meat in con-
siderable quantities, but although they possess large numbers of
cattle of the long-horned type associated with Ankole, they will
not sell these animals except at an absurdly high price, and indeed
they import large quantities of cattle for slaughter every year from
Mwanza, at the south of Lake Victoria.
Reference must be made again to the all-important question
of water-supply for domestic purposes and stock. It is only where
permanent water exists, in the form of perennial streams, water-
holes, or wells, that stock can be kept all the year round. In the
semi-arid regions which comprise so much of Africa’s pastoral
country, temporary supplies become available during the wet sea-
sons and allow a diffusion of stock over wide areas taking advantage
Are SCIENCE IN AFRICA
of the pasture that springs up after rains, but during the long dry
seasons men and stock collect near permanent water and thereby
cause overgrazing, laying the soil bare to be washed away during
the subsequent rains. Therefore, to counteract the ravages of
overgrazing as well as to increase the carrying capacity of the
land, the provision of additional wells and bore-holes and hydro-
logical surveys is of great importance (see Chapter IT).
: STOCK SURVEYS
Improvement of stock either by breeding or improved feeding
cannot be undertaken on true scientific principles without know-
ledge of the existing breeds, so theoretically the first step should
be to make a survey of the native stock throughout the continent
to ascertain the distribution of each breed, the nutritional require-
ments at different seasons, the rate of growth, the speed of attain-
ing maturity, the breeding frequency, the milking capacity and
quality on different diets, and above all, the resistance to disease.
Though it is not possible in practice to await the full results of
such studies, Sir Arnold Theiler, shortly before his death, empha-
sized the importance of surveying the characters of native stock
before they become further modified under the influence of
changed systems of husbandry or the introduction of breeds from
other parts of the world. While much local knowledge has been
gained by agricultural or veterinary officers little published
material is yet available. Members of the Veterinary Division of
the Union, especially Dr. H. H. Curson and Mr. J. H. R. Bisschop,
have begun a thorough scientific study, and Dr. H. Epstein of
Welverdiend, who is supported by the division and by the Re-
search Grant Board of the Union, has extended his researches in
native stock to the whole of Africa, and has in preparation a book
on the origin of Africa’s indigenous domestic animals. This will
be of value to all those concerned with stock in the continent.
_ It appears that three foundation types of African cattle, the
Hamitic Longhorn, the oldest African bovine, the Brachyceros
or dwarf shorthorn type imported from Asia many years ago,
and the Zebu or humped cattle, imported more recently from
Asia, have given rise to the very numerous races which exist
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 413
to-day (Curson and Epstein 1934; Curson 1937; Stewart 1938).
(1) The Hamitic Longhorn was probably developed from Bos
primigenius hahni, the African urus, and is known to have been
domesticated in Egypt in prehistoric times. The breed has dis-
appeared from Egypt, but, in the opinion of Stewart (1938), is
found almost pure in Liberia, Guinea, and parts of Morocco, being
known in the former places as N’Dama cattle. The interesting
Budama cattle of the islands of Lake Chad are larger editions of
the N’Dama in conformation and points, although they differ in
coloration, being black and white instead of dun; they would
appear to be the nearest living cattle to the old African urus.
Amongst other representatives of the Hamitic Longhorn are the
Scottish West Highland cattle, which are also similar to the
N’Dama in conformation and points, though the colder environ-
ment has produced a long shaggy coat. As the N’Dama are espéci-
ally good for stock improvement, they have been extensively used
by French and British authorities and the natives themselves, and
have now spread over a large part of West Africa. (2) The Brachy-
ceros or true Shorthorn is thought by some authorities to be
descended from a small wild ancestor and by others to be a varia-
tion of the urus due to unfavourable environment, but whatever
its origin, Bos brachyceros is a distinct type. The differences in
osteology and conformation between the three great types have
been discussed at length by Curson and Epstein (1934). The small
Brachyceros cattle reached Egypt at the end of the Neolithic era
and remained the principal breed until the arrival of the Zebu.
According to Stewart the purest modern representatives of the
original Shorthorn are the lagoon cattle of the coastal regions of
West Africa, such as those in the Gold Coast in Appolonia, in the
Brong country to the west of Yeji and along the Black Volta.
They are very small, few being more than three feet high at the
shoulders, and the predominant colour is rusty red-brown. The
so-called West African shorthorns are a mixture of Hamitic Long-
horn and Brachyceros, usually with Zebu blood also. (3) The term
Zebu is broadly applied to humped cattle, but there are Zebu
cattle without humps also. The Zebu is thought to be descended
from Bos namadicus, the Asiatic Zebu, first domesticated in the
steppe country of Central Asia, and its nearest modern representa-
414 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
tive is probably the Afrikander of South Africa. The Shorthorned
Zebu, common to-day in many parts of Africa, originated from a
fusion between the Zebu and Brachyceros cattle. The Sanga,
described by Curson and Epstein, and found in Nigeria around
Lake Chad, is an intermixture of the true Zebu and the indigenous
Hamitic Longhorn. Crosses between these three foundation types
probably gave rise to the majority of indigenous cattle south of
the Sahara.
After this brief sketch mention must be made of a few results
of stock surveys, which have been started in various parts of the
continent, notably in the Union of South Africa, Uganda, Nigeria,
and the Gold Coast. In the Union of South Africa it appears that
since this part of the continent was known to Europeans there have
been four distinct types of native cattle: (1) the Bechuana, inhabit-
ing the arid central plateau (Curson 1934a). ‘This is a large,
strong, long-horned type, possessing the small hump which is
characteristic of South African indigenous cattle. As native breeds
go, the breed produces good quality milk and shows resistance to
the common diseases. (2) The Hottentot or Namaqua, now the
Afrikander, scattered throughout the Union and Southern Rho-
desia (Curson 1934a). (3) The East Coast type, including the
Makalanga which are the dwarfs of South African cattle (Bisschop
and Curson 1933), and the Zulu (Curson 1934a). (4) The Ambo,
which is able to survive on very poor pastures and shows pro-
nounced resistance to disease (Groenewald and Curson 1933,
Bisschop and Curson 1935). Varieties occur amongst these four
types, either through interbreeding amongst the types or with
European breeds, as in the case of the Damarara, or as a result of
environment, as in the case of the Batawama (Curson 19344).
In West Africa the small unhumped cattle, which cover the
Gold Coast, Togoland, Dahomey, French Guinea, Ivory Coast
(southern), Liberia and extend into Senegal, Mauretania, the
Sudan, and Nigeria, are a mixture of the three foundation types.
Stewart has named them West African Shorthorn, from their
resemblance to miniature British Shorthorns; it should be empha-
sized, however, that the name is not intended to be used in any
generic sense, as indicating a homogenous breed, but merely as a
descriptive term. Genetically the West African Shorthorn is
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 415
extremely heterogeneous, a characteristic accentuated by the lack
of any planned breeding (Stewart 1938). In the north, particu-
larly the northern parts of the Northern Territories, the Zebu
admixture is strong; there is increased size and weight, whilst
the rise in the withers, dropped tail-head, more prominent dewlap,
the voice, placing of the ears and shape of the quarters are all
characteristic of the Zebu, and although the hump is absent, not
all Zebus are humped. Along the coast and in remote bush areas
where conditions are bad, the cattle are stunted and Shorthorn
characteristics are more pronounced. The Hamitic Longhorn
blood is usually most marked in the best and hardiest West African
cattle, whether humped or unhumped. Three types of humped
cattle are recognized in West Africa by Curson and Epstein: the
Shorthorned Zebu is a fusion of Zebu and Brachyceros blood; the
Sanga is a fusion of the Zebu and Hamitic Longhorn, and is found
in Nigeria around Lake Chad, where in some regions it is the loca]
indigenous ox; the crosses between humped and unhumped cattle
in the Gold Coast are said by Stewart (1938) closely to resemble
the Sanga; the Lyre-horned Zebu is a cross between Hamitic
Longhorn and the Shorthorn Zebu, and is a very common type
particularly in the Niger bend (Stewart 1938). The Fulani of
Northern Nigeria, the Gold Coast, and neighbouring regions, who
have bred and traded cattle from time immemorial and have per-
haps as sound knowledge as any African tribe of the principles of
breeding, have evolved at least five definite strains of humped
cattle, one of which, used for milking, calves at two-yearly intervals
and has a long lactation period. Neither Zebu nor Sanga has a
high resistance to trypanosomiasis, and their distribution is
limited to lightly infested regions only. The Shorthorn, in general,
whilst its resistance to rinderpest is considerably less than that of
the Zebu, has a higher resistance to trypanosomiasis, a character
which is especially prominent in the dwarf races of the regions
near the Gulf of Guinea. These little animals can survive in
densely vegetated country infested with tsetse, where the larger
animals from the north always die from trypanosomiasis in a few
weeks (Faulkner and Mackie 1933, p. 157). A further factor in
resistance to trypanosomiasis is that while many cattle have a high
degree of resistance to local strains, they have little or none ta
416 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
strains of the same parasite from a different locality. Only the
N’Dama has proved able to withstand different strains, as well as
possessing a high degree of resistance (Stewart 1938). The ds-
tribution of stock in all West Africa has been mapped by the French
authorities (Grandidier 1933): the line of distinction between the
Zebu in the north and the West African shorthorn (petit beuf sans
bosse) in the south cuts Nigeria at the latitude corresponding with
the northern border of Dahomey and runs westward to the Senegal
River. For some distance on either side of this line crosses between
the two breeds predominate, and Mr. J. L. Stewart states (Curson
1934b) that these cross-bred cattle seem to inherit the worst points
of each, perhaps owing to uncontrolled breeding. Curson (1934b)
also gives brief references to the cattle of other territories in West
and North Africa, including French West Africa, the Gameroons,
and Liberia.
In Uganda the cattle types have been the subject of study: there
are two widely divergent breeds, the humped Zebu with short
horns, which predominates in the Eastern and Northern Provinces,
and the long-horned, straight-backed breed of the Western Pro-
vince, usually called Ankole. Cross-bred strains occur with the
two parent types and occupy the greater part of Buganda Province.
It is suggested (Thomas and Scott 1935, p. 195) that the Zebu was
established before the longhorn, which apparently accompanied
the ancestors of the Bahima on their arrival in Uganda perhaps
four or five centuries ago. Data on the numbers and distribution
of cattle in Uganda, collected in 1933-4, have been compiled in
the form of a map published by the Veterinary Department
(Uganda, Veterinary, 1934, D.R.) and similar figures have been
collected during a cattle census in Tanganyika (Tanganyika,
Veterinary, 1935, D.R., p. 28).
Da Costa (1933) has described the native cattle in the Portu-
guese possessions. These include a small humpless race in Portu-
guese Guinea, claimed to be a representative of Bos primigenius and
closely related to the cattle of Morocco and Algeria. It is note-
worthy that da Costa holds a different view on the origin of the
Afrikander from that of Curson and Epstein.
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 417
IMPROVEMENT OF STOCK
CATTLE
The improvement of cattle in Africa by breeding or other means
has in the past been carried out partly in order to produce high-
grade herds for ranches belonging to non-natives, mainly for beef,
but in certain instances for dairy purposes or draught, and partly
for the improvement of native-owned stock. These two objects
need not be treated separately, since the scientific problems in-
volved are essentially similar. Dr. F. Darling (1934), when at the
Imperial Bureau of Animal Genetics, wrote a general account of
animal breeding in the British Empire, which has served as a basis
for the following account, but is supplemented by later information.
The main consideration in all African stock breeding is that the
‘degree of improvement must always be dictated by the plane of
nutrition’; neglect of this has sometimes led to disappointment in
attempts to grade up high-class imported stock.
In the Union of South Africa many of the most productive British
breeds of cattle have been successfully acclimatized; in particular
the Ayrshire and Friesian cattle are equal to the best in the world.
The rapid development of the dairy industry in South Africa,
indicated by the growing exports of cheese and butter, demon-
strates the result of these introductions. The Afrikander breed,
referred to above, is generally, but not universally, regarded as
the most valuable heritage of the cattle industry, and the most
useful beasts possessed by South African farmers have been pro-
duced by suitable crossing with introduced pure breeds. This is
particularly so in relation to the beef industry, which most authori-
ties consider must always be based on the Afrikander, since it is a
superior animal to other native stock and appears to possess unim-
paired those qualities of resistance to disease and ability to forage
under stiff conditions, which are essential in a ranch animal in
subtropical countries. The Afrikander is, however, slow in matur-
ing and one problem has been to speed up its growth without
impairing its adaptability. D. J. Schutte (1935) has reported on
the beef-cattle bred in South Africa and the application of methods
used in America to the Union. He does not favour straight grading
with pure-bred bulls of British breeds, neither does he wholly sub-
418 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
scribe to the common practice in South Africa of crossing (plaiting)
three breeds. He recommends the use of first-cross bulls from Euro-
pean bulls, of which the Sussex give the best results, and Afrikander
cows, on the ground that more bulls can be put into service and
can be kept under wider natural conditions than the pure-bred
sires. The object of crossing is to improve the beef type, speed of
maturity and other desirable characters by grading up the Afri-
kander. For this purpose Schutte advocates extensive supplemen-
tary feeding. In order to bring the improved type into harmony
with the environment, it is important to recognize, however,
‘that the South African environment has already developed the
type of cattle most suited to it, and that it remains for a co-ordi-
nated system of stratification to be developed, using the principles
which Dr. Schutte has so ably explained’ (Darling 1936). This
aspect of the ecology of South African cattle farming has been well
emphasized by A. M. Bosman (1932). The authorities mentioned
here in general agree that the Afrikander has many qualities
superior to those of other native breeds in South Africa, but this
conclusion is not universally accepted, and some experts regard
other native races as being still more valuable for certain purposes.
The opinion is often expressed, moreover, that if more than 50
per cent of European blood is introduced into native stock in the
Union and the Protectorates, retrogression instead of progress will
result when these cattle are bred under natural conditions, on
account of their inability to adapt themselves to difficult environ-
mental conditions.
In Southern Rhodesia also it is widely held that the best type of
beast is the grade animal. The three races of native cattle there
are the Angoni, which is active, small, with a slight hump, the
Mashuma with a straight back, and a huge humped type of Zebu.
Each of these is regularly crossed with imported bulls, particularly
Herefords and Aberdeen Angus; Devons and Shorthorns are also
used for the purpose. The second cross, giving beasts with three-
quarters of the beef'strain and one-quarter native, is claimed to be
the finest ranch animal, being almost indistinguishable from the
pure-bred, but retaining the native capacity to thrive on natural
grazing and to resist diseases. ‘The seven-eighths pure-bred also
does well, but beyond that, further grading is considered to be
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 419
rash, because the native adaptability is practically obliterated.
The rest of Africa south of the Sahara presents rather different
problems in the improvement of cattle. Work in the British terri-
tories has been summarized by Darling (1934) and Professor R. C.
Wood (1934), who reach the general conclusion that results up to
date indicate that the introduction of Bos taurus from Europe,
either to develop pure-bred herds or to grade up the native races
of cattle, does not hold out as great hope in the colonial territories
as it does in South Africa and Southern Rhodesia, though there
are exceptions to this rule in some of the highland areas of Eastern
Africa. That attention should be concentrated on the general
improvement of the enormous herds of native-owned stock is
generally accepted, but opinions differ as to whether this improve-
ment will be best attained by selecting pure strains of individual
breeds, by crossing breeds to produce offspring retaining the good
qualities of each, or in certain cases by introducing foreign blood.
As a first step in improvement, the introduction of Zebu bulls,
particularly the Afrikander of South Africa, has been advocated.
Smith (1937) differs from this opinion and recommends the use of
second-cross bulls from British bulls, in order to introduce some
of the characteristics of the better breed, whilst preserving the
hardiness of the local breed. In general, and contrary to widely
held opinions he opposes the use of grade bulls for fear of possible
atavistic reversions. Where very highly graded stock cannot be
maintained under normal ranching conditions, he recommends
the introduction of selected heifers from less advanced herds,
rather than grade bulls. He also stresses the advantages of main-
taining carefully selected herds of indigenous animals as part of a
general breeding policy.
The possibility of improving native stock at once raises the prob-
lem of overgrazing. The difficulties created by the native atutudes
to cattle, which have been mentioned in connection with soil
erosion (Chapter V), present complex sociological problems. The
most obvious and simple measure of improvement is the castration
of inferior bulls, to ensure increased use of the better animals. This
has been done in Uganda and elsewhere, but as soon as activity
by the veterinary staff is slackened, the native reverts to his old
ways of unselective breeding. Even in the castration of inferior
4.20 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
bulls it is easy to alienate native opinion, since the small bull is
often active, and if only large lazy bulls are left in a herd, many
cows may remain infertile for long periods, a result which, though
desirable for reducing the head of stock, is unsatisfactory from the
native’s point of view. Moreover, before embarking on wide-scale
castration of this kind, it is necessary to decide whether the stock
is to be selected for beef, milk, or draught, since a breed poten-
tially useful for one of these purposes may be spoiled by faulty
selection. Different policies may be desirable in different parts of
a single territory. In the tropical parts of Africa it appears desir-
able to breed local stocks selected for qualities appropriate to
varying economic conditions, and for resistance to different dis-
eases. In some parts of the continent where reduction in numbers
is desired it might even pay to breed for sterility and to aim at
having a certain proportion of sterile animals in every herd. In
order to indicate the scope of the problem and the possible methods
of attack, the work done in some of the territories may be described.
In Northern Rhodesia the cattle industry has been built up under
protection from outside competition as an incidental result of
disease restrictions. The recent development in copper mining has
created a large market, but restrictions, especially in connection
with foot-and-mouth disease, hamper the sale of stock. Consider-
able doubt is expressed, moreover, whether the industry could
hold its own if free imports from Southern Rhodesia and else-
where were permitted. Meanwhile, opportunity is being taken to
improve stock by breeding, partly on the lines described above in
connection with Southern Rhodesia. There is a government herd
organized into subherds for experiments in grading with bulls of
English breeds, the progeny being compared for rate of maturing,
weight increase, milk yield, and resistance to diseases. Surplus
stock either pure-bred or graded is sold to stock-owners.
In Tanganyika the chief problem is the redistribution of native
herds to avoid overgrazing, which is discussed later. Although
breeding naturally enters into this work, the nutritional aspects
have been especially stressed by the Department of Veterinary
Science and Animal Husbandry. Breeding experiments have been
carried out by the department particularly with a view to pro-
ducing a good type of dairy cow primarily for non-natives
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 421
(Tanganyika, Veterinary, 1934, D.R., p. 73). Good types of
native stock have been graded up by the use of sires of proved
European breeds in experiments which were started at Dar-es-
Salaam about 1923. Herds of half-grade Friesian and Ayrshire
cows were eventually obtained, and the latter have been moved
to Mpwapwa. The conclusion reached is that the half-grade
animals give more milk than the native stock, and what is per-
haps more important, they are more tractable and can be induced
to yield milk without the presence of a calf at milking time.
The three-quarter breds are again better and are bigger and
finer beasts, but it is considered that the larger frame and earlier
maturity involve such an increased demand for food that they
may be less valuable to the territory. Native animals have
also been crossed with the Krishna Valley Zebu, but when the
offspring were found to be intractable creatures, although the
parent stock were noticeably docile, the experiment was aban-
doned. The acclimatization of Indian buffaloes has been tried:
they have proved good milkers, but require more food than native
cattle and are susceptible to trypanosomiasis. Attempts, so far
unsuccessful, are being made to see if the Indian buffalo can be
crossed with the African one in the hope of producing a domestic
animal suitable for tropical Africa. This is a particularly interest-
ing experiment when it is considered how few animals have been
domesticated by man and how perfectly the game animals of
Africa are adapted to their environment. It is worth noting in
this connection that in various parts of Africa the Eland, the largest
of the antelopes, has been partly domesticated and kept with herds
of cattle. The government stock farm of 5,000 acres at Njombe at
an altitude of 5,000 to 6,000 feet was instituted in 1929 for the
supply of improved stock to settlers and for general experiment.
Here as elsewhere it has been found that the herbage is deficient
in nutritive quality so that improved stock require extra feed in
the dry season. Large-scale work with sheep has given no results
and only small trials with cattle are being continued. (Tangan-
yika, Veterinary, 1933, 1934, 1935, D.&.)
In Kenya a general improvement of native stock should ensue
from the compulsory culling of ill-conditioned animals in the native
reserves, so strongly recommended in the report of Sir Daniel Hall’s
422 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
(Kenya Commission 1929) and Sir Morris Carter (Kenya 1934).
In the initial stages it appears that ill-feeling among the native
stock owners is bound to be aroused, but it is held that the alterna-
tive of allowing potentially good stock Jand to change into desert
through the ravages of soil erosion must be avoided at all costs.
The concession for a meat factory at Athi River on the edge of the
Masai Reserve obtained in 1936 by Messrs. Liebig, who are
authorized to purchase 30,000 head of cattle per annum from the
Masai, is an important step in this direction.
Many efforts have been made in Kenya by settlers to establish
pure-bred herds of British breeds and to grade up native stock.
Results have by no means always been a success, but many high-
grade herds of dairy cattle are now established in the highlands.
At the Government farm station at Naivasha Dr. Anderson is
studying the correlation of nutritional conditions and reproduc-
tive activity. Attention is being directed on the one hand to a
study of the influence of the plane of nutrition and of actual
specific deficiencies upon the frequency of cestrum and the per-
centage of successful matings; and on the other hand the reproduc-
tive peculiarities of the Zebu are being investigated in order to
find whether they are genetic characters of the species. Another
centre of stock research is Ngong under Mr. J. Anderson, formerly
of the Rowett Research Institute staff. A valuable experiment in
the improvement of native breeds by selection for milk-producing
qualities is in progress. Similar attempts at improvement are
being made with herds of cattle of different native breeds at the
veterinary training centres at Maseno, Baraton, Sangalo and
Mariakani, where results of considerable value have already been
obtained. It may be desirable in the near future to concentrate
these breeding experiments at one centre, with a view to exercising
a closer control of the work. Experiments relating to the improve-
ment of native cattle are at present concerned entirely with the
production of dairy cattle, but it is hoped to examine the poten-
tialities of crossing native stock with a recognized beef-breed, such
as the Hereford, Pollen-Angus, or Dexter-Kerry. For this purpose
it is believed that the technique of artificial insemination, which
has been studied on the Naivasha stock farm, may have important
applications. Among the nutritional studies may be mentioned
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 4.23
a blood-mineral survey in various type districts of the colony. This
was begun in 1936 and includes a complete pasture analysis, both
botanical and chemical. The pasture work in Kenya carried out
by the animal industry division has been mentioned in Chapter
VI. In the East African highlands economic data show that the
dairy industry must include crop production for animal feed in
order to tide over dry seasons. Dairy work cannot be run as a
ranching business, except perhaps by natives, on account of the
poor quality of pasture.
In Uganda general observations on indigenous cattle at the
experimental stock farms have confirmed the opinion that it is
desirable to concentrate on the breeding of draught animals and on
selection for beef production rather than on milk production. For
example, at Serere it is hoped to establish a breeding herd with
the single purpose of producing better draught animals for the
Eastern Province, where the plough has largely superseded the
hoe. It is also thought that breeding will have to be carried out for
each different locality, on account of the prevalence of particular
disease in different areas. Since Uganda offers some particularly
fine native races, such as the famous Ankole longhorn, to serve as
a background for selection, the introduction of European breeds
is coming to be regarded as unnecessary and undesirable. The
activity of the veterinary department in the organized castration
of weakling bulls in the native herds has already been mentioned.
In West Africa, there have been some notable achievements in
Nigeria and the Gold Coast. African conditions with regard to
nutrition and disease must be taken into account in all improve-
ment: in particular, the extent of trypanosomiasis renders any
reduction in resistance a great disadvantage. Stewart (1938)
estimates that all cattle in the Gold Coast are exposed to trypano-
somiasis infection at some time or other; tsetse belts, such as exist
in East Africa, are rare in West Africa, but during the rains and
floods of August and September, the tsetse are driven from their
permanent habitat into the surrounding country, with the result
that infection of cattle is inevitable. This prevalence of infection
makes the addition of blood from European breeds almost useless,
and even the Zebu can only survive in the more lightly infested
northern regions. Sir F. Stockdale (1936) has given a critical
424. SCIENCE IN AFRICA
account of present activities in the British West African colonies.
In Nigeria the cross between the West African shorthorn and the
Zebu, practised by some native cattle-owners, produces an animal
which closely resembles the Sanga and is intermediate between its
parent stocks in size and resistance and probably in milk yield
also. This breed could probably be improved, but it is an open
question whether it would be possible to evolve a breed with suf-
ficient resistance to trypanosomiasis to be valuable except in very
restricted areas. Accordingly, improvement of each of the pure
breeds appears the more promising line of work. On the stock
farm of the agricultural department at Shika, near Zaria, in
charge of Mr. Brown, experiments have been in progress for a
number of years with three of the five most distinct types of native
Zebu: namely the White Fulani, the Godali and the Shuwa. In
addition a small herd of a fourth type, Adar, has been maintained
at the agricultural station at Samaru nearby. The aim of these
experiments is to produce races with heavy milking cows and good
working bullocks, intended primarily to be used for mixed farm-
ing. The present policy in breeding is to keep the White Fulani
and Godali pure, since on the whole they are the best dual purpose
animals, the former being a little superior for work and the latter
for milking (Nigeria, Agriculture, 1935, D.R., p. 32). The Shuwas
are considered to be too small for work, and so it has been decided
to grade half the herd to White Fulani and the other half to Godalli.
The Adar herd similarly are to be graded to Godali. Nutritional
problems likewise receive attention, and marked increase in growth,
breeding frequency, and milk production results at once from im-
proved food supply.
The dwarf races of West African Shorthorn, which show such
high resistance to trypanosomiasis in the southern areas, have not
yet been the subject of intensive study in Nigeria, though several
experts, notably Stockdale (1936) have stressed their possibilities.
A herd of the resistant small races of the Gold Coast was, however,
introduced to Nigeria in 1934 and is proving its worth in spite of
serious losses in transit. These animals, although small, can plough
satisfactorily, so that it is not worth while to try to increase their
size by grading up with the larger beasts of Nigeria. A proposal is
under consideration to establish in Southern Nigeria a government
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 4.25
farm similar to that at Shika, but for work on shorthorn humpless
cattle, chiefly to provide plough oxen (Nigeria, Agriculture, 1934
and 1936 D.R., p. 20, and Anderson 1933).
Work on similar lines has been carried out in the Gold Coast at
the Government livestock farm, opened at Pong-Tamale in 1931-2,
under Mr. J. L. Stewart, the Principal Veterinary Officer, who
has given a most interesting account of it (1938). Now that rinder-
pest has been practically eliminated, and contagious bovine
pleuro-pneumonia is under control, trypanosomiasis is the greatest
obstacle to stock improvement. Experiments with the West African
Shorthorn have confirmed those from Nigeria, and show that these
cattle possess resistance to local strains of trypanosomiasis, whilst
the failure of attempts to grade up native cows with bulls of British
breeds, has shown that imported cattle are not successful and that
improvement must be confined to West African Shorthorn cattle,
or to types of West African Zebu whose progeny can thrive under
Gold Coast conditions. Work with the N’Dama has proved most
successful; crossing with N’Dama has been found both to improve
the inferior breed and also to increase its resistance to the ordinary
bovine diseases of West Africa. The present grading policy 1s,
therefore, to restore a high proportion of the old Hamitic Long-
horn breed to Gold Coast cattle, by means of the N’Dama. The
improved bulls produced at Pong-Tamale are issued to the native
administration farms in the Northern Territories, from which
bulls are distributed to small farms and village herds, the aim being
to improve the native stock by selection within the breed, and by
some crossing with graded sires of related African breeds. The
main Government farm also crosses bulls direct (Gold Coast,
Veterinary, 1931-2, D.R.). In the coastal area the organiza-
tion is somewhat different; a Government farm is under construc-
tion and the farmers’ associations will take the place of the native
administrations in the Northern Provinces (Stewart 1938).
Stockdale (1936, p. 77) questions the improvement which is likely
to be effected by introductions from French Guinea, and con-
cludes that the introduction of strains from outside will only add
to the complications which already exist, and will produce an
even more heterogeneous collection of animals in the Northern
Territories of the Gold Coast. He recommends the selection of
4.26 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
indigenous cattle as likely to have better results in the long run.
In the French and Belgian territories cattle improvement is like-
wise an important part of the work of agricultural and veterinary
departments. Cattle are raised on the experimental farms men-
tioned in Chapter XII and distributed to native farmers, and
breeding and nutrition are the subject of scientific study. French
authorities have concentrated on sheep rather than cattle (see
later), but in French West Africa three French cattle breeds, the
Charollaise, Normande, and Tarentaise, have been introduced
with varying success.
In the Belgian Congo the only stock-raising areas of note are in
the highlands near the eastern frontier, in the districts of Uélé,
Ituri, Kivu, and Katanga. In Uélé the native breed is improved
by crossing with bulls of Shorthorn blood, introduced by the
Mission de Buta. Ituri produces many beef cattle, and both ranch-
ing and kraaling are practised. The most scientific methods of
breeding seem to be practised at Nioka, where the aim is to pro-
duce beasts suitable for both milking and beef. Records are kept
of milk yields quantitatively and qualitatively, of the weight of
cows and calves, and of rate of growth and development, and
artificial feed is used extensively to supplement the poor pasturage
(Congo Belge 1934 onwards). In order to supply beef and milk for
markets in other parts of the Congo, cattle have been introduced to
certain areas in the Bas Congo and elsewhere, and meat is supplied
to markets at Boma, Matadi, Thysville, and Leopoldville, though
at a high price. The chief breed used is that from Angola, which
has been imported for many years. It has been crossed with various
improved types, including the Hereford, Devon and Ayrshire, to
improve milk and beef, and also the Friesland, Afrikander, and
Breton. As in other parts of equatorial Africa, these breeding
experiments have not produced the results hoped for, since the
qualities which have been gained have not compensated for the
loss of the stamina possessed by the native cattle. This danger is
fully recognized, and the selection of native stock is proceeding
side by side with grading up. Most of this work is directed to the
improvement of milking and beef, but draught animals are being
developed at Kisantu and Kitobola. In addition to the Angolan
race, cattle have been introduced from Dahomey and Conakry,
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 4.27
particularly to the densely vegetated province of Coquilhatville.
The milking capacity of these cows is small, and they do not reach
full maturity for four or five years, but it is hoped to bring about
improvement by selection.
On the Portuguese colonies, the following information has been
supplied by Dr. A. d’Eca, chief of the veterinary services, and
Dr. A Monteiro da Costa (1933) has written an account of the
animal industry. The improvement of native cattle, whether
owned by natives or Europeans depends, both in Angola and
Mozambique, on conditions of health and nutrition and on
measures against overstocking and the kraaling system, but here,
as elsewhere, the European owner has greater capital resources.
On the native side it is held that improvements in methods of
animal husbandry can only be introduced by drastic measures
taken by the department of veterinary services in collaboration
with the administrative authorities and missions. Improvements
in breeding are sought in three ways: castration and the selection
of cows is made obligatory wherever possible; native cows are
crossed with bulls of improved stock provided by the administra-
tion at numerous stud farms, and sold at very low prices or even
given to chiefs or stock-owners as rewards; and thirdly native
breeds are selected for improvement without the introduction
of foreign blood. Experiments are now being carried out on the
choice of breeds to be improved by selection, and a comparative
study of the results of crossing and selection is in progress, but results
are not yet decisive. The breeds of cattle imported into Angola for
use on the state farms have been the Dutch Friesian, and its Portu-
guese variant, Turina, for their milk, the Portuguese Mirendeza
for labour, and the Hereford, etc. for beef. In Mozambique in
addition to the Friesland, the state has imported Afrikander,
Shorthorn, and Hereford. It has been necessary to check unlimited
importation by European farmers, because some of the breeds
introduced would be harmful if widely used for breeding purposes
among the native herds. The European is generally a cattle-
dealer rather than a breeder, but in both colonies several investiga-
tions are being carried out by European farmers. In Angola
grants for cattle breeding are made on special terms with the idea of
stimulating the European farmer in the field of animal husbandry.
428 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
SMALL STOCK, ETC.
Sheep, like cattle, exist throughout Africa in a diversity of local
indigenous races. Since sheep and goats have the flocking instinct
well developed compared with cattle, they are preferred by some
African peoples in country where large carnivora are abundant.
Little enough is known about indigenous sheep, but it is important
that very many of them have hair rather than wool, and therefore
most of the industry in either wool or mutton is dependent at
present on introduced European breeds, some of which have been
rendered more suitable to the African environment by an admix-
ture of indigenous blood.
In South Africa merino farming is an old established occupation,
which was stimulated by the collapse of the ostrich industry,
though most of the old ostrich farms are now devoted to cattle.
It appears that the merino was originally imported to Australia
from South Africa, but at intervals Australian sheep have been
brought to South Africa to introduce new blood. The sheep indus-
try has grown to far larger proportions than were ever attained by
the ostrich industry. In 1931 there were 44,000,000 woolled sheep
in the Union; the number fell to 27,000,000 in 1934, chiefly as a
result of the severe drought which prevailed at that time, but, by
1936, it had risen to 30,000,000. Some of the world’s finest wool
is now produced there. The department of agriculture assists the
industry through the work of its sheep and wool officers, who are
in great demand by farmers, and through the inspection services
instituted at the ports. The recent disastrous slump in wool prices
has stimulated interest in mutton production; unless, however,
this is developed separately, cross-breeding will inevitably bring
about deterioration in the quality of the wool (Lewis 1935). The
possibility of the production of fat lambs in many parts of South
Africa is necessarily limited by the water-supply. Experiments
carried out by the sheep and wool department of the University
of Pretoria have given support to the theory that the sulphur
content of merino wool depends primarily on hereditary factors,
but that a deficiency of cystine in the diet of sheep lowers the sul-
phur content of their wool (Bonsma and Joubert 1934). Experi-
ments to determine whether the feeding of cystine to sheep pro-
duces an increase in weight and quantity of wool, are in pro-
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 429
gress at Onderstepoort (Du Toit, Malan, Groenewald and Botha
1935). The results of experiments to determine the effect of nutri-
tion and season on the secretion of wool-fat and suint in merino
sheep are given in a paper by F. N. Bonsma and J. S. Starke
(1934). The results of crossing merino ewes with four English
breeds, the Romney Marsh, Border Leicester, Ryeland, and Dorset
Horn, with a view to obtaining half-bred ewes for fat lamb pro-
duction are outlined by Bonsma (1936). Breeding experiments
and work on the characteristics of wool fibres are also conducted
at Stellenbosch, Grootfontein, Ermolo, Potchefstroom, and Onder-
stepoort. Karakal sheep have proved their value in dry country,
particularly in South-West Africa, where they saved many farmers
during the economic crisis, and in view of the similarity of climate
and conditions in certain parts of Bechuanaland, an attempt is
being made to establish this industry in that Protectorate.
In the Kenya highlands, there are now well over 200,000
woolled sheep, mostly merino, and 9,000 cwt. of wool were ex-
ported in 1929. Although pure breeds can thrive in some parts, it
appears that a proportion of native blood leads to better breeding
and greater profits. It is proposed to experiment on the production
of fat lambs, using a Southdown ram on merino or Romney Marsh
ewes. Here the main question will be that of suitability of different
types of pasture and whether there is need to grow special feed
in order to obtain lambs of the right weight and condition within
five months of birth.
The natives of East Africa are considerable sheep owners: in
particular, the Masai of Tanganyika herd immense flocks on the
higher ground. Many of these sheep are haired, resembling the
Karakal in type; others are of the Persian black-haired type, while
many are nondescript. There can be no doubt of the value of this
indigenous stock in the development of an economic industry in a
country possessing so many areas suitable for small stock. A prob-
lem is, therefore, to produce low-grade woolled sheep suitable for
native pastoral areas. Here the artificial insemination, mentioned
above in the case of cattle, will be valuable, because the technique
has proved particularly easy in the case of sheep. In Tanganyika,
the veterinary department received a grant from the Colonial
Development Fund to investigate the possibility of raising woolled
430 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
sheep at the Njombe farm. Sheep were imported from Kenya, Eng-
land, and South Africa, but the experiment proved a failure, and
research is apparently now at a standstill. Proposals made by
Europeans to try both woolled and haired sheep in the Northern
Provinces are receiving attention. In the southern highlands
sheep farming is impossible owing to a combination of soil poverty
and helminth parasitism. (Tanganyika, Veterinary, 1935 and
1936, D.R.)
In the French territories more attention has been given to sheep
than to cattle or other stock. Australian and South African merinos,
Karakal and several French breeds have been introduced. In
the wool-producing districts half-bred merino rams are distributed
free to native breeders from whose herds ewes have been selected
for crossing, and several government and state-aided companies
are carrying on trials on a large scale. For example, work at the
government animal farm at El-Oualadji in the French Sudan is
confined entirely to the grading up of native breeds of horses,
cattle, and sheep. Merinos have been used here with great suc-
cess. Again, the Diré Company has established a flock of merinos,
now numbering some 2,000 to use the grasslands behind their irri-
gated concession area near Goundam. Merinos have been crossed
with native sheep to produce half, three-quarters and seven-
eighths merino. The half-breeds have proved to be most resistant
to disease.
In the pastoral areas of the Belgian Congo, to the north-east and
south-east of the country, sheep are scattered everywhere, and
certain native races have already attained considerable importance
as a result of selection or crossing with imported breeds. In parts
of Uélé the Sudan type of hornless haired sheep with fat tails have
been developed by certain missions, but the chief efforts in improve-
ment are at the Nioka Government farm in Ituri, where large
flocks of merinos and Romney Marsh are naturalized. Native
mutton is mediocre in quality, but that produced by cross-breed-
ing with sheep from Nioka is much better. The mortality among
sheep at Nioka is very high, and is chiefly due to helminthiasis.
The changeable weather also causes the death of many lambs.
In the western parts of the Belgian Congo, where native sheep
are relatively few, and are scattered among the cattle in small
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 431
flocks, no special efforts have yet been made to improve them.
In the Portuguese territories, according to Da Costa (1933),
native sheep are of two kinds, each with a distinct origin. The
Mondombes variety, which is said to be akin to an Eastern breed,
Ovis aries asiatica, occurs on the coast of Angola, to the south
of Benguela. They have short hair, and the rams, owing to a divi-
sion at the base of each horn, appear to have four instead of two
horns. The majority of native sheep belong to the second group
and are representatives of Ovis aries sudanica; they are generally
without horns and have long hair behind.
In Angola attention is directed to wool and mutton. For wool
Wanganellas and Portuguese merinos were first imported, but
good results have been attained only with the latter, which have
been improved in the colony with the Rambouillet and the early
merino of French origin. Crossing with native stock has been suc-
cessful in the highland districts. For meat production, improve-
ments have been made with the Persian black-headed sheep of
South African origin.
In most native areas of Africa goats are more numerous than any
other domestic animal. By European farmers they are generally
regarded as unprofitable, but to the native they are undoubtedly
valuable as a source of meat and some races are used for milking.
They are also essential for the payment of bride-price, particularly
among the Kikuyu. In many parts of the continent goat skins are
of high value, and are exported in considerable quantities, (see
page 454). In many tsetse areas goats survive in small numbers
where cattle fail to do so. It appears that some local races have
developed a resistance almost amounting to immunity, but more
frequently the occurrence of small flocks of goats in country lightly
infected by fly is explained by the fact that their small size and
their habits render them less liable than cattle to attack by flies.
Also, they breed faster, so that depletion by disease is made good
more quickly. It appears that goats in general are somewhat less
susceptible to infection from Trypanosoma congolense and T. vivax
than cattle, but more susceptible to T. brucez. The capacity ofsome
goats to resist or avoid trypanosomiasis, their alleged immunity to
that growing scourge in Africa—tuberculosis, and their astonish-
ing ability to obtain food in difficult conditions, perhaps renders
432 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
them worthy of more serious consideration than they have re-
ceived. In some territories importations of high-class goats, such
as Alpine and Angora, have led to the improvement of local
strains by grading.
Pig breeding, in common with other branches of the dairy
industry, has received considerable stimulus in recent years. For
a dairy industry that depends on butter and cheese to be fully
remunerative at reasonable price-levels, it is desirable to estab-
lish a pig industry as an adjunct (Stockdale 1937, p. 84).
In South Africa most of the well-recognized British breeds have
been introduced with success; and the same is true for Southern
Rhodesia, where the dairy and pig industries have recently been
the subject of a full economic inquiry (Southern Rhodesia 1936).
In the colonies, pig breeding, following the introduction of pedi-
gree stock from Europe, has made considerable strides, and in
many cases it has been found that pigs are affected less than intro-
duced cattle by local diseases such as trypanosomiasis. Breeding
has received a good deal of attention in the Iringa district of Tan-
ganyika during 1935 after the establishment of the Mtitu bacon
factory at Dabaga (Tanganyika, Veterinary, 1935, D.R., p. 31).
The pig industry promises well in the southern territories of
West Africa. In the Gold Coast crosses between local ‘razor-
backed’ pigs and introduced Large Whites and Middle Whites
produce grade pigs, which are issued or sold to breeders in the
Colony and Ashanti. An interesting result of breeding is the pro-
duction of a new type, the Pong-Tamale White, which is charac-
terized by fatty degeneration: “This type has gone on producing
fatter and fatter progeny until the logical end—conclusion of
lethality from overweight and fatty degeneration—has been
reached and the type fer se cannot be continued. This has been
an interesting experiment from a genetical point of view and has
been useful in quick-grading of the local razor-backed pig.’ (Gold
Coast, Veterinary, 1935-6, D.R., p. 27.) In the French colonies,
the chief pig breeds introduced for grading local races are York-
shire and Berkshire, and in the Belgian Congo, Large Black
and Yorkshire. In the latter territory pig breeding is carried
on successfully in Uélé and elsewhere, and it is found that the pigs
thrive if allowed to run wild and given a little extra food once a
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 4.33
day. At Stanleyville the local African pig has been crossed with
the Large Black. The offspring produced are at first highly suc-
cessful, but seem to degenerate as time goes on.
The distribution of horses is limited by the presence of tsetse
fly, but in some regions horses have marked importance, as in
the Emirates of Northern Nigeria, where saddle horses are exten-
sively used. South Africa, the Kenya highlands and the Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan are perhaps the chief centres of modern horse-
breeding, and in each of these Arab and thoroughbred stallions
have been introduced and distributed for service. In the terri-
tories bordering the desert regions, especially the Sahara, camel-
breeding is an age-old industry. In the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,
the Government has given much attention to the improvement of
transport camels, and interest in the Government studs, especially
in the Red Sea Province, has been aroused so much among the
natives that they are gradually abandoning the promiscuous
breeding methods of the past.
There is a great field for improvement in the poultry of Africa.
Work has hardly begun, except in the Union of South Africa,
Southern Rhodesia and the settled parts of the tropics, where
numerous introductions of pure breeds have been made.
Experiments in the domestication of the African elephant have
been carried out in the Belgian Congo since 1899, but nowhere
else in the continent. The results are given by Huffman (1931).
A station was opened at Api in 1910 with thirty-five elephants,
and another station at Gangala na Bodio was added later. Young
elephants, twelve to fifteen years old, are captured for training,
and are used for heavy work on agricultural stations, military
camps, public works, etc., and the work of each is said to equal
that of fourteen or sixteen oxen. There are forty-five at Gangala
na Bodio, and an equal number at work elsewhere (Congo Belge
1934 onwards). On the whole the experiment may be regarded
as a success, but the fact that African elephants are not now more
widely used, suggests that their training is found to be too costly
by comparison with that of other draught animals.
434 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
OVERSTOCKING
The following discussion applies to those areas where stock have
increased in numbers either generally or locally to a point where
the natural food supply is insufficient. It is intended to be con-
sidered in conjunction with the sections of Chapter V on soil
erosion, Chapter VI on pasture research, and Chapter XIII on
shifting cultivation.
There has been a certain confusion over the meaning of the
term ‘overstocking’, but the definition given by Hornby (1936)
makes it clear: ‘Overstocking is defined as the maintenance of
animals on a piece of land to the detriment of its carrying capacity’ ;
it is not synonymous with soil erosion, which, as pointed out in
Chapter V, may result from several causes, of which overstocking
is one.
In many parts of the continent especially in East and South
Africa, the effects of overgrazing on the vegetation and soils of the
country are more serious than are those of shifting cultivation. It
is generally assumed that the evil is the result of great increases
in stock in recent years, and that the causes have been the cessa-
tion of inter-tribal warfare and the persistence of the lobola or
bride-price custom.
It is important to recognize that the areas where overstocking is
noticeable are not as a rule very large in extent; it is essentially the
result of local congestion. An important contributory factor to
this local congestion is water-supply. All cattle have to remain
within reach of permanent water during the dry seasons, when the
pasture is least capable of withstanding continual grazing and
trampling. Some experts, among them Major McCall (Tangan-
yika, Veterinary, 1929, D.R.), lately Director of the Department
of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry in Tanganyika,
went so far as to suggest that the problems of that territory should
be ascribed entirely to uneconomic distribution, local congestion
and bad husbandry rather than to overstocking in an absolute
sense. Captain Hornby, the present Director of the department,
has surveyed the general situation in Tanganyika in several pub-
lications (Hornby 1934 and 1936). In his view about 40,000
square miles of the territory are stocked to saturation, and of these
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 435
25,000 are overstocked, including what was formerly some of the
best land in the Lake, Central, Northern, and Western Provinces.
He calculates that this land is still capable of carrying upwards of
2,000,000 cattle together with nearly the same number of sheep
and goats, but at present is being asked to sustain half as many
more.
Whether overstocking is relative or absolute, it is certain that
grazing in some areas has produced erosion so extensive that the
time required for recuperation of the soil and pasture has been
lengthened almost to infinity. Several districts in Kenya and Tan-
ganyika have been complete devastated. The Kenya Land Com-
mission’s Report (Kenya 1934, Part 2, paragraphs 955 and 956)
instances cases where there is but one head of cattle to twelve acres,
and yet practically no grass is to be seen. Evidence before that,
commission showed that within the memory of European settlers
in the country the areas which now carry scarcely any stock, were
covered with grass vegetation. By contrast with this state of
affairs, Uganda is not, generally speaking, overstocked. In certain
areas, however, there are now too many cattle and the surveys
in progress are designed to elucidate the facts in order that mea-
sures may be taken in good time. Cattle population returns are
given in the agricultural department reports for Bugwere and
Teso, and show the rate of increase in these densely populated
districts. It is clear that accurate data on this point are quite
essential for progress in native husbandry.
In the great savannah and grassland belt which stretches with-
out interruption from the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan along the sou-
thern border of the Sahara to the coast of Senegal, the results of
overgrazing, though recognized locally, do not seem to be nearly
so serious as in East and South Africa. Even in the densely popu-
lated Emirates of Northern Nigeria there appears to be little
danger of an increase of stock to saturation point. Perhaps this
can be explained by the longer time which the cattle-owning
tribes have had for the development of husbandry in an environ-
ment which has not been markedly disturbed, as have Eastern
and Southern Africa, by the coming of the white man and the
sudden cessation of inter-tribal wars and cattle thieving.
. Measures to prevent the consequences of overgrazing have been
436 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
dealt with more fully in the report of the South African Drought
Commission (1923) than in any other document. Its conclusions,
however, are not always directly applicable to countries outside
South Africa. In that country erosion has been accelerated by the
substitution of stock-raising on farms for the old nomadic method
of herding. The farm is soon intensively overgrazed and eroded,
and the large herd proceeds to attack another small area. A
principal recommendation of the Drought Commission is that the
kraaling of stock should be replaced by paddocking for the follow-
ing reasons: kraaling involves much driving, increased food re-
quirements and trampling; grassland management depends to a
large extent on periods of rest and recuperation for the pasture,
and this is impossible until rotational grazing can be controlled
by paddocking; the much debated use of fire as a stimulant to
young nutritious grass can be controlled adequately only if the
land is divided up into paddocks by fencing. On the whole opinion
is tending to regard firing as generally deleterious since it promotes
erosion as well as the growth of the young grass. The Drought
Commission’s report stresses that the wide areas of veld country,
which can only be kept fit for grazing by annual firing, would be
much better under forest, but there is no proof yet that they would
support forest if planted. These questions depend to a large extent
on the plant ecology and the improvement of pastures, subjects
which have been discussed in Chapter VI.
More recent researches in South Africa tend to show that the
problem of overgrazing is even more complex than was demon-
strated by the Drought Commission, and in particular that the
substitution of paddocking for kraaling, though highly desirable,
is by no means a cure-all, and in many of the areas now seriously
affected is likely to be uneconomic for a long while to come. This
last contention applies still more forcibly to the pastoral areas in
the native territories. Perhaps a system of paddocking and the
cultivation of pastures will be the eventual condition of animal
husbandry in native as in European areas, but obviously the cost
of fencing will remain far too high for the average peasant for
many years to come. An alternative method of enclosing land,
possible in some areas of suitable climate, is to plant thorn fences
and trees. It has been pointed out that this could be done in every
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 437
part of Uganda. It would involve changes in native systems of
land tenure of a type which is thought by many to be the first
logical stage in improving the lot of the native and in preserving
his land for future generations, Meanwhile, other more easily
applicable measures are under trial.
In the native territories of South Africa the position is bad,
Mr. R. W. Thornton, who was transferred from the Department
of Agriculture to the Native Administration in 1929 to make a
survey of the situation, reported in 1933 (unpublished) that all the
native areas were carrying four times as many stock per 1,000
morgen as the European areas, with the result that pastures were
seriously denuded and erosion had set in. For example, in Natal,
except in parts of Zululand, it is said that three-quarters of the
total area is affected by soil erosion; the present reduction of pro-
ductivity is estimated at 10 per cent and, if erosion continues un-
checked, this percentage is likely to rise to forty in twenty years
time. As Director of Native Agriculture in the Union Mr. Thorn-
ton hasdevised a method which has led to reductions in the number
of stock without undue trouble. During some four years he has
succeeded, through the medium of public auction sales, in securing
the disposal of thousands of native-owned cattle for slaughter and
other purposes. Such stock sales are now established in Bechuana-
land, Transvaal, Natal, and Zululand, that at Nongoma in Zulu-
land being the most successful; at one sale there £3,594 was real-
ized. ‘The success of such sales, however, necessarily depends on
the general economic condition of the peoples concerned and the
relative value which they attach to cash and stock. This has been
the initial stage in a programme of which the aims are to reduce
numbers and especially to eliminate thousands of undesirable
bulls (some 47,000 have already been eliminated); to improve
cattle by selection and the use of improved bulls, under what has
become known as the ‘Bull Camp Scheme’; and to introduce a
six-years’ rotational grazing system which, if correctly carried out,
should preserve the pasture for all time. A compulsory fencing
proclamation was made in 1931, and this has been applied to
Msinga, where work has been financed from the Zulu Native
Trust Fund.
In East Africa several recent reports, which suggest measures
438 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
for alleviating overgrazing, aim principally at the establishment of
meat factories to dispose of all poorly conditioned animals. For
East Africa, the reports of the Agricultural Gommission under Sir
Daniel Hall (Kenya 1929), and the Land Commission under Sir
Morris Carter (Kenya 1934) both lay special emphasis on this
matter, and as a means of reducing stock, taxation is suggested,
though neither report makes this a definite recommendation. To
meet the indifference of the native to money and his traditional
attachment to livestock, Sir Daniel Hall (1936) put forward the
suggestion in his Heath Clark lectures, that the purchases of cattle
for meat factories might be met by the issue of a large coin or token
stamped with the image of a bull, of the nominal value of £2, and
of a smaller ros. token for sheep. As he points out, the suggestion
may sound fantastic but the situation it 1s designed to meet is
also fantastic.
In Tanganyika the redistribution of population from the foci
to the peripheries of the grazing areas has been considered by the
animal husbandry, tsetse research and other departments. Until
new permanent sources of water-supply for man and _ beast
are made available, it will be impossible to make such redistribu-
tion permanent, but meanwhile it appears that rotational grazing
could be established in many areas by inducing the pastoralists
to leave their foci for six months each year, during the wet seasons.
The six months’ complete rest which the home pastures would
thereby receive, is considered sufficient to enable them to recuper-
ate enough to withstand grazing during the dry season. Since the
average annual rainfall in the greater part of the territory is
twenty inches, it should be possible, by means of shallow dams, to
conserve sufficient water to maintain stock during the rainy season
on what is now uninhabitable savannah or grassland. Experiments
carried out with the co-operation of the department of tsetse
research during 1933-4 showed that these methods were successful
on a small scale (Staples 1934, D.R.), but difficulties such as the
clearing of fly from infested areas, and the disinclination of owners
to send cattle away when grazing is available in the neighbour-
hood, have yet to be overcome. It has been suggested that a system
of communal ownership controlled by tribal grazing rules might
solve the last-mentioned problem. A large-scale practical attempt
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 439
is now in progress in the Lake Province of Tanganyika to rest the
home pastures for some months each year in the way outlined
above (Hornby 1936, p. 51 and Tanganyika, Veterinary, 1936,
D.R., pp. 31-2). In certain areas it is probable that rotational
grazing of this type will have to be combined with the culling of
weakened stock, perhaps even against the wishes of the cattle-
owners. Hornby points out, however, that the culling of weak-
ened stock would have little effect on overstocking because so few
animals can truly be regarded as less strong than the others. The
struggle for existence in the overgrazed areas is so keen that the
standard of health and vitality is remarkably high, although all
the animals are stunted.
This question is closely bound up with efforts to introduce mixed
farming, discussed in Chapter XIII. Mixed farming would create
a definite use for stock manure, so much of which is now wasted,
while the products of tillage could be used to some extent for stock
feed during the dry seasons. As has been pointed out, the drastic
reduction in stock which mixed farming would involve is a serious
obstacle to its widespread adoption.
Recent experience in many parts of the continent has shown the
value of contour-ridge-terracing as a deterrent to erosion and as
the best means of reclaiming eroded land. This is applicable to
pasture as well as to cultivated land. The object is twofold, to
prevent wash, and to secure an equal distribution of the water
over the land, thereby assuring a maximum absorption in areas of
comparatively low rainfall. The system is easiest to introduce in
areas of white settlement. In South Africa, for example, the value
of the contour furrow is regarded as the most effective of recent
reclamation measures. But it has great possibilities also in thickly
populated native areas; indeed, many native cultivators already
practise it.
Overgrazing by native small stock is becoming almost as serious
as that by cattle. Sheep tend to crop pasture closer than cattle,
and goats, though subsisting chiefly on the foliage of shrubs and
trees, will eat almost anything, including grass. There seems little
doubt that sheep are more apt than cattle to pull grass up by the
roots and thereby reduce the recuperative powers of pasture. The
Same accusation is often made against goats, although on the
440 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
authority of Hornby (1936) goats leave the grass alone so long as
bushes and herbs are available and do little to initiate erosion.
Precise information about the effect of native small stock is lack-
ing, but almost invariably they are described as uneconomic and
unprofitable. Leakey (1934) has discussed the position of small
stock of the Kikuyu reserves in an illuminating paper. He points
out that in parts of the Kikuyu reserve an average family of six
has only 16°2 acres of land on which to produce its own food,
timber and firewood, as well as a surplus for sale, and to provide
grazing for herds of goats, sheep, and sometimes cattle. The great
increase in bride-price (a man is now required to hand over sixty
to one hundred sheep and goats on marriage) has, in Leakey’s
opinion, added very largely to the overstocking problem. He con-
siders that the solution to the trouble in Kikuyu can only be brought
about by (1) reduction in bride-price instigated through the native
councils; (2) improved agricultural methods to obtain greater
return by intensive farming, and (3) making the uneconomic
small stock economic by a slow substitution of hardy wool-bearing
sheep and milking goats. It is hardly necessary to point out that
the last suggestion does not take into full consideration the fact
that milking goats require a much higher plane of nourishment
than the usual native goats, as has been shown by experiments at
Mpwapwa in Tanganyika. On the whole it appears necessary
to solve the local problems of overgrazing before, rather than
after, the introduction of milking goats or even wool-bearing
sheep.
ANIMAL DISEASE
GENERAL
Before outlining some of the great work which has been accom-
plished in Africa in the scientific study of animal diseases, it is
necessary to reach a definite conclusion on the relationship between
the control of disease and that of overstocking. There is no doubt
that the control of many of Africa’s worst diseases has contributed
to the increase of stock to numbers which were formerly impossible,
and in certain cases may even have contributed to the trouble of
overstocking. It has even been suggested that before campaigns
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 441
against diseases such as rinderpest and east coast fever are under-
taken, an outlet for surplus stock must be ensured in every area,
and that veterinary science in Africa has been attempting to cut its
own throat, so to speak, by controlling disease at too early a stage.
That such a non possumus attitude is scientifically untenable seems
proved by the following considerations. It is probably true that
in a state of nature, animal disease to some extent counteracts
overgrazing, but it is only one among many factors, such as starva-
tion and attacks by carnivorous animals, which contribute to keep
down the increase of stock. Moreover, as a means of control,
disease is clumsy and indiscriminate. It does not necessarily kill,
but often only weakens, and efficiency is impossible in a diseased
community where overheads remain the same, while production
is reduced. The native’s preference of quantity to quality 1s prob-
ably a direct consequence of the uncertainty which has in the past
been associated with animal life in Africa, and cannot be altered
by teaching the native to place quality before quantity, until he is
given a sense of security by protection from the risk of decimation
by disease.
It is possible to go still further than this, and claim that disease
is not the natural cure for overgrazing, but is actually an important,
perhaps the most important, cause of the trouble. This is the view
held by Captain Hornby (1936), who points out that the over-
stocking question is acute in Tanganyika because four-fifths of the
stock population are concentrated on one-ninth of the land,
almost entirely owing to the ravages of disease. ‘. . . The native
husbandman is only capable of maintaining large flocks and herds
on land, the vegetation of which is indicative of arid or sub-arid
conditions, since land with persistent vegetation favours ticks, flies,
and worms, against the ravages of which the unaided native is
helpless. ‘Therefore, because overstocking inevitably tends to pro-
duce aridity and to reduce the incidence of parasitic disease,
native stock-owners favour it, preferring seasonal losses from star-
vation, which they can understand, to continual and greater
losses from disease, the nature of which is beyond their compre-
hension’ (Hornby 1936, p. 355). The deduction from this
argument is that the redistribution of population and stock may
be accomplished and hence the problem of overstocking solved
442 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
without great difficulty, after, but not until, the major animal
diseases are under control.
The following paragraphs in which the major diseases are dis-
cussed, are intended to be considered in conjunction with other
parts of this volume in which special studies bearing on the prob-
lems are outlined, namely Chapter VI, section on pasture research,
Chapter VIII, sections on animal ecology and conservation of
wild animals, and Chapter X, sections on tsetse flies, insects and
ticks in relation to diseases of stock.
Only a small part of the vast literature on animal diseases can
be mentioned here as illustrative of the kind of work in progress.
The most complete and up-to-date work for general reference
appears to be the three volumes by G. Curasson (1936) in which
full bibliographies are given for all known ‘exotic’ animal diseases.
In general it may be claimed that many of the principal diseases
are now controllable: horsesickness, blue-tongue, redwater,
gallsickness, anthrax, black quarter, and various other diseases
can be controlled by immunization. Rinderpest is still a major
problem in some parts of Africa, but with the aid of vaccination
it too can be kept in check; the Union of South Africa, and the
Rhodesias, as well as other territories, are entirely free from this
dreaded disease. No satisfactory method of immunization has
been devised against east coast fever, but the disease is controlled
in many parts of Africa by means of dipping to eradicate the tick
vectors, and quarantine. Dipping has brought untold benefits to
stock farmers in the Union of South Africa and other territories,
in many parts of which animal farming would be impossible with-
out it. Even in many native areas dipping is now employed on a
large scale. With the elimination of major diseases, numerous
minor diseases, some peculiar to the tropics, East Africa in particu-
lar, and some common in Europe and other countries, assume a
relatively more important position. The direction of research 1s
consequently changed, and investigations are now being made into
sterility, abortion, catarrh of cattle, respiratory diseases of sheep,
deficiency diseases, etc.
SOUTHERN AFRICA
In the understanding and control of many diseases the work of
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 443
the Onderstepoort laboratory is outstanding, and the reports of
the Director of Veterinary Research, of which eighteen large
volumes appeared between the years 1908 and 1932, contain the
results of researches carried out at the laboratory. Since 1932
these annual reports have been replaced by the Onderstepoort
Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Industry, which is published
quarterly and comprises two volumes per year. The basis of tropi-
cal veterinary medicine was laid by Sir Arnold Theiler and his
co-workers at Onderstepoort, and so important have the results
been to the whole continent in leading to direct measures of con-
trol and in opening up fields for further research, that a few of
them may be outlined.
Many African diseases are transmitted by ticks, and in the case
of several diseases Theiler. was the first to analyse the process.
Mention should also be made of the brilliant research work of
C. P. Lounsbury in the Cape, who determined accurately the
transmission of biliary fever of dogs by ticks (Haemaphysalis leacht)
and of heartwater by Amblyomma hebraeum.
The most important of the tick-borne diseases is east coast fever or
Piroplasmosis of cattle. At the beginning of this century practically
nothing was known about the blood parasites of cattle, and only
Texas fever had been described in America and a similar disease
found in Europe and other countries. Then east coast fever was
recognized as a separate disease, and the parasite, Theileria parva,
was discovered by Theiler in 1904. In 1906 Theiler discovered
another parasite, Thezlerta mutans, very similar to T. parva in the
blood of cattle. This was one of the parasites which was held
responsible for the so-called ‘gallsickness’ of cattle in South Africa,
but in 1910 Theiler found that another parasite, Anaplasma mar-
ginale, was the real cause of this disease. A variety of this parasite,
A. centrale, was found to produce a mild form of the disease and
to be an excellent immunizing agent.
At Onderstepoort also it was discovered by Cowdry that heart-
water was caused by a Rickettsia. Blue-tongue in sheep was found
by Theiler to be due to a filterable virus, which was subsequently
attenuated and a very reliable vaccine placed on the market.
Horsesickness was similarly elucidated and methods of prevention
have recently been adopted by preparing a neurotropic mouse-
444 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
brain vaccine. A further virus disease of horses, ephemeral fever,
was studied and its nature determined.
Pioneer work has been done at Onderstepoort on worm infec-
tions, particularly in sheep, by Theiler, Veglia, Ménnig, le Roux,
Ortlepp and others. The life histories of several important para-
sitic worms were worked out and methods of treatment devised.
The treatment of wireworm infection (Haemonchus contortus) by
means of a mixture of copper sulphate and sodium arsenite was
so effective and became so popular, that the issue of this powder
assumed collossal dimensions; 25,000,000 doses and more have been
issued in one season. Quite recently a further notable success was
achieved when the dreaded nodular worm infection of sheep
Ocsophagostomum columbianum, was successfully treated by Ménnig
with a mixture of copper tartrate and copper arsenate; millions
of doses of this powder are now being issued annually. The role
of Schistosoma in sheep and other domestic animals was also eluci-
dated.
Nutritional problems have figured largely in the research pro-
gramme of Onderstepoort (Theiler, Green, Malan, and others).
The importance of phosphorus deficiency was first determined in
South Africa, and far-reaching results were obtained. Further
study of the minerals in nutrition led to the solution of the lam-
siekte problem which for so many years puzzled scientists in the
Union (see Chapter VI). Botulism in horses, ostriches, and other
animals was also studied and brought under control. In connec-
tion with deficiency diseases, many detailed studies on pathology,
especially of bones, have been made by Theiler.
Poisonous plants have received much attention at Onderste-
poort. The etiology of diseases like gousiekte in sheep (caused by
Vangueria pygme@a), vermeersiekte (vomiting disease, caused by
Geigeria spp.), jaagsiekte in horses (caused by Crotolaria spp.), etc.,
have been worked out, and the peculiar relation between hairless-
ness in goat kids and poisonous plants (Chrysocoma tenuifolia) eaten
by the mother ewes was shown by Steyn.
Among successes in the eradication of diseases in South Africa
may be mentioned the following. Pleuro-pneumonia has been
stamped out completely. Foot-and-mouth disease, which quite
recently threatened the territory, was kept out by a vigorous cam-
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 445
paign. Lymphangitis and glanders have practically disappeared
from South Africa, and scab in sheep has been reduced almost
to vanishing point. The veterinary research which has come from
South Africa, is indeed extensive, but in turning the pages of
the Onderstepoort reports and journal it is difficult to avoid the
conclusion that the results would now be more widely known and,
therefore, of greater use to the world at large, if rather less un-
finished work had been committed to print.
EASTERN AFRICA
In Eastern Africa, many of the results from Onderstepoort have
been capable of direct application, but local investigations have
also been necessary, and every territory has developed its own
laboratories for the preparation of serum and vaccine and for
veterinary research, as outlined in Chapter XI. In 1934 an
important conference on the co-ordination of veterinary research
in all East Africa was held at Kabete (Conference, East Africa,
1934b), and an attempt was made to allot to each laboratory those
branches of research which it was best fitted to carry out. At the
same time the possibility of centralizing research for the East Afri-
can group of British territories at a headquarters laboratory, prob-
ably Kabete, was discussed at some length.
It is only natural that the cure and prevention of animal
disease on European-owned estates was the first to receive serious
attention, but latterly the results have been applied intensively in
many purely native areas. The four most important diseases of
cattle in East Africa are rinderpest, east coast fever, pleuro-pneu-
monia, and trypanosomiasis, but the last-mentioned has never had
the importance in Kenya that it has in Tanganyika and Uganda.
In research, the laboratory of the Kenya division of animal
industry at Kabete has perhaps been foremost, so some of its work
may be considered by way of illustration. On rinderpest (Walker
1929a, Daubney 1929, Kenya 1935, D.R., Pt. 2, p. 138), steady
progress has been made, till it is now as capable of control as
anthrax and black quarter. The double-inoculation or serum-
simultaneous method of immunization was developed especially
by Mr. J. Walker at Kabete, and was for many years the main
method of control. It has been claimed by some that a tick-
446 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
borne disease, redwater, was spread in Kenya through the agency
of the double-inoculation for rinderpest. It is true that certain
catastrophes occurred through animals immune to red-water
being used in the preparation of the serum which was subse-
quently inoculated into animals susceptible to redwater, but it
is definitely concluded now that the disease can have spread no
further than the actual animals inoculated, because redwater ticks,
wherever they occur, are always infected with the disease. After
extensive investigations on the virus of rinderpest, a new method
of vaccination with mactivated spleen tissue was developed in
Kenya and elsewhere between 1926 and 1928. The vaccine is
found in East Africa to give two to two and a half years’ immunity,
and can be used without the elaborate organization of staff neces-
sary for the double-inoculation method. The vaccine is expensive
to manufacture, but in the light of recent discoveries on filterable
viruses, it is probable that rinderpest vaccine can be considerably
improved, and one of the projects upon which work is now being
concentrated at Kabete is to discover a method of producing the
vaccine at not more than 25 cents per dose. Policy in the control
of rinderpest in East and West Africa is framed to suit the individual
needs of the territories concerned, and since there is no uniformity
of conditions there is no need for uniformity in the method of con-
trol. Collaboration exists between veterinary authorities on this
subject, but it seems unfortunate that so much laboratory work has
to be devoted to the preparation of sera and vaccines for rinder-
pest and other diseases. If a means could be devised whereby
these necessary materials could be prepared at some central head-
quarters, the laboratories and staff in each territory would be free
to undertake further research.
The work on east coast fever at Onderstepoort mentioned above,
has been extended in Kenya, where it has been confirmed that a
satisfactory method ofimmunization can probably never be devised
since naturally acquired immunity is built up by successive attacks
in calfhood (Walker and Whitworth 1929). Experiments have led,
however, to an understanding of the value of dipping at short
intervals for the prevention of this and other tick-borne diseases.
This work has been combined with an intensive survey of the
distribution of ticks, as mentioned in Chapter X, and systematic
ANIMAL INDUSTRY | 4.4.7
tests on the common species to ascertain their ability to transmit
the disease. Early work in South Africa, especially that by Walkins
and Pitchford in 1906 suggested that regularly dipped animals
are protected, either against tick bite or against infection with the
protozoan parasites, by a concentration of arsenic in the superficial
layers of the skin. Observations made at Kabete have shown that
this is not the case, but that the effect of dipping is the obvious
one: ticks are collected by cattle and carried to the dipping tank
for immersion; a proportion of the ticks survive to finish their feed.
and even to deposit eggs, but the number and viability of the eggs
laid are considerably reduced (Cowdry and Ham 1932, Cowdry
and Danks 1933, Kenya 1930, D.R.). In this way the numbers
of ticks are reduced to a point at which it becomes extremely
unlikely that an infected animal will transfer its infection to
a sufficient number of clean ticks for the disease to be carried
on. It is evident that a certain density of stock is necessary for
the rapid cleansing of pastures, and that fencing is complementary
to the dipping. It has been demonstrated at Kabete and on a
number of farms that susceptible herds of cattle can be maintained
in health in the centre of highly enzootic east coast fever areas,
but in the preliminary cleansing of pastures it is highly advan-
tageous to stock with immune animals. It is clear that research
on east coast fever and kindred diseases has now reached the stage
when any area of land can be rendered free of ticks, and the veteri-
nary authorities in Kenya and elsewhere are constantly urging in-
tensive campaigns for this purpose.
A diagnostic test for pleuro-pneumonia, devised originally in Ger-
many and later standardized by Walker in Kenya, was in its day
most useful in assisting to clear up certain of the native reserves
and settled areas. ‘The development of culture vaccine against this
disease was another outstanding feature of control, and between
130,000 and 400,000 doses of this vaccine are now issued from
Kabete free each year. There are now extensive areas free from
contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia, and steps are being taken to
eradicate the disease from the remaining enzootic areas (Walker
1929b, Kenya 1935, D.R., Pt. II, p. 147). Meanwhile it is proposed
to carry out a complete reinvestigation of the etiology of the disease.
The study of trypanosomiasis of domestic animals is in large part
448 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
dependent on that of the tsetse flies which have been considered in
Chapter X. Research on the cure of the disease in Tanganyika
and Nigeria has advanced knowledge materially. The drugs used
have mostly been synthesized in Bayer laboratories, and extensive
trials have shown that the treatment of most cases of trypanoso-
miasis may be attempted with a fair hope of success. Prophylactic
injections of domestic animals against infection are not yet prac-
ticable, but a new compound ‘Surfen C’, not antimonial, has given
the most promising results.
Attempts have been made in various parts of Africa to work out
some process of immunization of cattle and human beings. Pro-
gress towards this end has been made particularly by Professor
Claus Schilling, Director of the Robert Koch Institute in Berlin,
who has continued since the war to visit Tanganyika at intervals
for research, receiving facilities at Mpwapwa. Building on the
natural potentiality of young game animals and some breeds of
cattle to establish complete resistance as a result of repeated infec-
tion with trypanosomiasis, he has worked out a process in which
the young susceptible cattle are subjected to repeated and increas-
ing doses of trypanosomes. ‘The process has been patented, but is
offered for use free to the German Government and to Tanganyika.
The results are summarized in English in two papers (Schilling
1934 and 1936b).
In addition to the major diseases, considerable advances have
been made in the etiology of less important troubles such as malig-
nant catarrh, turning sickness, para-typhoid, measles in calves,
sweating sickness, sterility, contagious abortion, anthrax, and
bovine haematuria. ;
A number of sheep diseases formerly acted as limiting factors to
sheep farming in East Africa, and research has been carried out
especially on Nairobi sheep disease (Daubney and Hudson 1gg1a,
1934), rift valley fever (Daubney and Hudson 1931b, 1933),
heartwater, parasitic worms (Daubney 1928, Hudson 1934),
respiratory diseases, streptothricosis and pulpy kidney. Hfrse-
sickness has likewise been investigated (Walker 1931). In pigs
considerable progress has been made with East African swine
fever and swine influenza, and in poultry fowl typhoid, Newcastle
disease, and roup occupy the foreground.
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 449
In Uganda special interest may be attached to recent work on
tuberculosis of cattle and small stock. In Chapter XVI, where
human tuberculosis is discussed, it is pointed out that evidence goes
to prove that this disease is not indigenous to Africa, and that its
effects on African natives are, therefore, often far more serious than
on Europeans. This was thought to be true also of bovine tuber-
culosis. Results from autopsies in Uganda (Uganda, Veterinary,
1935, D.R., pp. 6 and 18) suggest, however, that the disease may
be much more common than was previously supposed. The dis-
ease is seldom diagnosed outside the abattoirs, but in carcases
examined in the Kampala native market, 41 per cent in a lot of
464 Ankole cattle had lesions, against only 1 per cent in 1,334
zebu cattle. Sheep and goats in Ankole were also affected in a
smaller degree. Later on the double intradermal tuberculin test
proved positive in 76-6 per cent in a lot of 205 Ankole cattle, and
only 5-2 per cent in 121 Kigezi cattle. This and other laboratory
work suggest that zebu cattle are more resistant to a local bovine
strain of the tubercle bacillus than are those from Ankole, while
both breeds are equally susceptible to a type bovine culture of
European origin. The bovine type of bacillus has been isolated
from a few cases of human pulmonary tuberculosis, after a history
of keeping cattle in each case. Studies are also continuing in
Uganda on east coast fever, but the lack of an entomologist in the
veterinary department renders this and work on trypanosomiasis
difficult.
WEST AFRICA
In West Africa, although most of the diseases are similar, the
problems of control are in many ways different. In the first place
there are practically no introduced European breeds, and secondly,
as pointed out above, most of the cattle-owning tribes, such as the
Fulani of Northern Nigeria, have a more commercial attitude
towards their stock. They are therefore willing to sell surplus
animals for cash, and consequently there is practically no over-
stocking. Since the main stock markets lie to the south along the
Guinea Gulf, where cattle cannot be kept on account of tsetse fly,
the prevention of losses from disease in transit through the dan-
gerous belts of the country presents a special problem. Formerly
450 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
mortality during transit was estimated to be almost 50 per cent,
and serious situations resulted from the spread of disease along
the routes, but in recent years this high death rate has been reduced
almost to nil by a system of health tickets and by inoculating every
animal before the beginning of the journey, by limiting the use of
cattle tracks to a few which are known to be kept clear of tsetse,
and by a series of inspection centres along each track where any
animals added to the herds in transit are likewise vaccinated.
(Nigeria, Veterinary, 1935 onwards, D.R.)
Rinderpest is the disease which has absorbed most of the energies
of the veterinary departments. The policy, as in East Africa, is to
immunize young animals wholesale while they are still healthy.
At the veterinary laboratory at Vom, in Northern Nigeria, very
large quantities of serum and vaccine are prepared. In 1936 the
figures were sero-virus—382,732, spleen-vaccine—274,157 and
serum alone—5,221. (Nigeria, Veterinary, 1936, D.R.) Theserum
double inoculation method, which gives an immunity amounting
to lifetime when injected into adult animals, is favoured in Nigeria.
The serum cannot be made, however, for less than one shilling
per dose, and its use is always followed by a mortality from other
diseases, mainly trypanosomiasis, as a result of weakness when the
rinderpest symptoms make their appearance. This mortality was
formerly as high as 20 per cent, but has now been reduced to
about 3 per cent. The cattle owners willingly suffer an initial mor-
tality for the sake of the eventual immunity of their herds. Both
the Fulani and Hausa bring their herds without any persuasion to
the immunization camps, of which there were some fifty-seven
operating in 1936, and where the cattle are kept in quarantine for
a month. The laboratory at Vom has been unable to obtain locally
the requisite number of bulls for the preparation of serum and
virus, and hence secondary centres under the Native Administra-
tion have had to be started at Kano, Sokoto, and elsewhere in
the Northern Emirates (plate vii).
The spleen vaccine, which can be made far cheaper than the
serum, has proved to give immunity for only nine months or so,
and hence is not favoured by the cattle owners. It has proved very
valuable, however, in immunizing cattle on their way to the sou-
thern markets, and every animal entering Nigeria from the adjoin-
.
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 451
ing French territories is immunized with spleen vaccine at quaran-
tine stations. Similarly in the Gold Coast, rinderpest is now kept
completely under control by a system whereby all stock entering
the country from the French Sudan is immunized at the frontier.
The serum and vaccine is made at Pong-Tamale.
For black quarter some 430,125, and for contagious pleuro-pneumonia
some 117,543 vaccinations were made in Nigeria in 1936, usually
at the same time as rinderpest. It is still something of a mystery
why east coast fever has never reached West Africa in view of the
cattle movements back and forth through the Sudanese regions.
Presumably some ecological factor serves as a natural control, and
it is often suggested, for instance, that ticks cannot withstand the
long dry season of West Africa, but, as mentioned in Chapter X,
among other ticks collected at Pong-Tamale in the Gold Coast
were specimens of the vector of east coast fever. Regular dipping,
which is so important in East and South Africa, is of much less
consequence in the West, although certain tick-borne diseases
such as redwater make their appearance in epizootic form at
intervals. Mr. Stewart at Pong-Tamale, in investigating the blood
parasites of cattle, has brought to light several forms of Theileria
closely related to 7. parva of east coast fever. One of these is the
cause of a turning sickness similar to that of East Africa (Gold
Coast, Veterinary, 1935-6, D.R.).
Trypanosomiasis is undoubtedly the most important cattle disease
in West Africa. In Nigeria, for example, it has been estimated
that in the Northern Territories 33 to 40 per cent of cattle carry
the disease, although it usually only breaks out when the animals’
vitality is reduced by rinderpest, inoculation or poor feed. In
the Southern Territories right along the Guinea Gulf there is
little doubt that every head of the dwarfimmune cattle mentioned
above carry the trypanosomes. It is certain that many distinct
strains of trypanosomes exist, and that immunity to one does not
involve immunity to another. Thus, herds which are immune in
areas where G. tachinoides is the prevalent tsetse fly have been known
to suffer up to 100 per cent deaths when moved into G. morsitans
areas. Again the herd of shorthorn cattle introduced from the
Gold Coast to Ilorin, although completely immune in their own
home, suffered severely in Nigeria, but in this case factors of other
452 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
diseases may have been contributory in reducing resistance. In
Nigeria the veterinary department has no entomological side,
while the Gold Coast department has paid special attention to
flies and fly control, as mentioned in Chapter X.
In the French territories the two most important cattle diseases
are rinderpest and contagious pleuro-pneumonia. Serum and
vaccine against rinderpest are prepared at several centres, especi-
ally at the central veterinary laboratory at Bamako in the French
Sudan, where researches contributed materially to working out
the original formula for rinderpest vaccine, now used all over
the world. Regarding tuberculosis it is important that, whereas
five years ago the bovine disease was practically unknown in the
French Sudan, now between 3 and 5 per cent of cattle slaughtered
at Bamako show its symptoms. Many contributions to knowledge
of African diseases have been made by this and other laboratories,
especially by M. G. Curasson, now Inspector-general for veteri-
nary services in French West Africa. The research laboratories
of the animal husbandry service of Morocco, at Casablanca, have
likewise assisted materially in the study of diseases which affect
large parts of Africa, especially the external and internal parasites
of sheep; the chemical therapy of piroplasmosis and trypanoso-
miasis has also been advanced there.
In the Belgian Congo the two Government veterinary labora-
tories at Kisenyi in the north of Ruanda and at Gabu in Kabali
Ituri have, like others in Africa, been engaged in preparing anti-
rinderpest and other sera and vaccines. In research the Kisenyi
laboratory has been concerned especially with attempts to dis-
cover a vaccination for trypanosomiasis. As in other parts of Africa,
success cannot yet be recorded, but the Kisenyi laboratory is still
optimistic (Congo Belge 1934 onwards). Helminthiasis in sheep is
another subject which has been specially studied on the Nioka
farm and at the Kisenyi laboratory, and is the subject of a special
report.
In concluding this discussion, it may be stated that certain dis-
eases have yet to be eliminated or much reduced before permanent
improvement in animal husbandry can be brought about, but the
influence of nutrition in resistance to disease is also important.
Many diseases of stock, as of man, are known to be due to deficien-
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 453
cies in diet, and recent work on intestinal worms has shown that
susceptibility is reduced by improved diet, though in some infec-
tions it has to be remembered that modern methods in which well-
fed animals are herded together on improved pasture may increase
the opportunities for the distribution of parasites. Nutrition is also
of great importance in the cases of dormant infection: for example,
the breeds of native cattle which are usually immune to trypano-
somiasis carry trypanosomes in their systems when in infected
areas, and a reduction in the quantity and quality of their food
often leads to the parasites getting the upper hand. For these
reasons the study of African pastures, much of which forms part
of the work of departments of veterinary research or animal hus-
bandry, has been described in some detail in Chapter VI.
HIDES AND SKINS
The trade in hides and skins from various parts of Africa offers
considerable scope for improvement and expansion. Certain
prevalent insect or fungal parasites, though not seriously affecting
the vitality of their host animals, do great damage by penetrating
or affecting the skins and thereby reducing their market value.
For example, bot-flies damage cattle hides by their boring action
on escaping from the tissues below the skin, and the value of goat-
skins is much reduced by the borings of the mite, Demodex folli-
culorum. For the control of the latter special research appears
necessary, since dipping and other established practices have no
effect on the parasites. Opportunity is thereby offered for im-
proving the hide and skin trade by direct control of parasites.
An easier and more far-reaching means of increasing the value
of hides is by improving the methods of flaying and drying. In
many parts of Africa hides are seriously cut in the flaying process
and are subsequently dried in the sun, which means that high-
quality leather can never be produced from them. Accordingly
efforts are being made by many agricultural and veterinary depart-
ments to institute systems of shade-drying and better flaying. In
this the local departments have received help and co-operation
from the hides and skins committee of the Imperial Institute, and
from the British Leather Workers Research Association.
454 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
In some territories the trade in skins is responsible for large
exports; this is so particularly in Nigeria, where a scheme is in
operation throughout the Northern Provinces and more recently
also in parts of the Southern Provinces for the better flaying and
drying of hides and skins, and already a big improvement in
quality, with an increased price, has resulted. The development
of the export trade in goatskins, especially the red Sokoto skin
which has a high reputation on the European market for book-
binding and other high-class leather goods, is of particular impor-
tance to Nigeria. An attempt to improve the Nigerian goats by
imported Alpine stock from Great Britain failed, as the hides
proved inferior and more susceptible to some skin diseases. An
experiment is now being carried out in Sokoto Province designed
eventually to eliminate all goats other than the pure red (Nigeria,
Veterinary, 1935 and 1936, D.R.); male goats of other colours
are being castrated in large numbers and males of the pure
red breed are being issued for stud purposes by the native
administration. There is a difference of at least sixpence between
the price paid for the skin of a pure red goat and that of any other
colour. Approximately 5,000,000 goatskins are exported annually
from Nigeria at prices from two shillings to three shillings and six-
pence per skin, so it is clear that any increase in price even of only
a few pence would produce an appreciable improvement in rev-
enue. It is worth noting that the small thin skins are the most
valuable, so that the breeding of goats for their skins entails a
reduction in their meat and milking capacity. Local tanning may
likewise offer opportunities for development, since the native
method carried out with Acacia bark and pigeon dung appears to
withstand European conditions better than the chemical tanning
methods in general use. The damage to skins in storage by beetle
has been mentioned in Chapter X.
PRESERVATION OF MEAT FOR MARKET
With the extension of animal husbandry in Africa, it has been
necessary to develop means of preservation for storage and trans-
port. The African climate involves special conditions in this res-
pect, so that research on the most suitable methods has proved
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 455
necessary. The preservation of meat is in some ways similar to
that of fish (considered in Chapter IX), and the methods can be
divided into those involving drying and smoking, the use of low
temperatures, and tinning. The drying and smoking of meat into
biltong is easy in most African climates and is a method of preserva-
tion very widely used by African peoples, and formerly by the
Dutch in South Africa, but with the development ofexport markets
it will probably give place to other processes. In Nigeria, where the
principal markets in the south are so far from the cattle-breeding
areas of the north, Captain Henderson, chief veterinary officer,
is trying to establish a market for dried or salted beef, the transit
of which would be so much easier than cattle on the hoof. At
present the Africans do not appreciate dried meat; salted beef has
better prospects, but the process of curing is not yet perfected.
The need for a cheap and simple method of preserving meat is
widely recognized. For example in Uganda, although meat is
smoked in some areas, the method does not preserve it for any
length of time. It has been suggested that a simple piece of re-
search 1s required to demonstrate that the use of a suitable preserva-
tive fluid prior to smoking would keep the meat in a good condition
for some time, and that the large canoe-shaped wooden receptacles,
used for brewing beer, would make admirable tubs for the immer-
sion. ‘The introduction of such a method might stimulate the
slaughter of surplus stock and a greater consumption of meat by
agricultural tribes. In Uganda the number of cattle has in-
creased so much in the Eastern Province that a large supply will
be available in a few years’ time. Perhaps a factory might be
established at some place on the railway, such as Tororo, where
land might be acquired for paddocking and suitable pastures
might be grown to fatten the best beasts for an export trade.
Regarding the use of low temperatures, a considerable amount
of chilled beef is exported from South Africa and Rhodesia, and
now that it is becoming recognized that the future of so much of
these countries lies in animal husbandry rather than in grain pro-
duce, the meat exports are likly to increase yearly. The principal
centre of the industry in the Union is Johannesburg, where an
expert, employed by the municipality, maintains close contact
with the Onderstepoort laboratory. At Onderstepoort a new
4 56 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
branch to deal with cold storage and other questions relating to
the preservation of meat is being developed. A _ building is
being erected (1936) at the probable cost of about £32,000, and
will consist of three sections: (1) an abattoir, containing on a small
scale all the modern equipment for handling and slaughtering
cattle, sheep, and pigs. This will be used to study methods of
killing and handling the carcases so as to determine the best con-
ditions for the preservation of meat; (2) a cold storage section,
which will include chambers equipped both for chilling and freez-
ing, and in which temperature, humidity and aeration will be
controlled. These will be used to study the optimum conditions
under which meat, eggs, and dairy products should be kept, and
provision will exist for studying gas preservation if necessary. A
special section of the cold storage plant will be used for the storage
of vaccines, sera and specimens, and very low temperatures will
be available for the preservation of viruses, etc.; (3) a meat re-
search section, including laboratories for physical, chemical, his-
tological, pathological, and bacteriological examination of meat.
In Southern Rhodesia the centre of the meat industry is at Bula-
wayo, where the Imperial Cold Storage Company has its head-
quarters. Administration and research are centred at the depart-
ment of agriculture, Salisbury. Each of these organizations in
South Africa and Rhodesia maintains contact with the Low
Temperature Research Station at Cambridge, which is the prin-
cipal centre for research on the preservation of meat in England.
The necessity for opening markets for native-grown beef in
many parts of Africa, in connection with the overgrazing problem,
has led several authorities to stress the desirability of meat fac-
tories (Smith 1937). In Tanganyika one such factory was started
at Mwanza (see Chapter XIII), but after a few years it had to be
closed down. In 1937, Messrs. Liebig started a meat factory at
Athi River in Kenya (see page 422). The extension of such activi-
ties will naturally raise fresh problems for research in the best
methods of making and canning meat extracts in tropical coun-
tries.
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 4.57
DAIRY INDUSTRY
In the Union of South Africa dairying 1s a considerable industry.
Cattle can thrive on the natural veld for six or eight months of the
year in districts where the rainfall is good. Fodder crops grown
for dairy cattle include maize, lucerne, oats, teff grass, millet,
mangolds, rye, and cowpeas. The number of European owned
cows and heifers of over two years old was 2,150,471 in the census
of 1936. Many excellent herds of pure-bred cattle are maintained.
Creameries and cheese factories have played a large part in the
development of the dairy industry, and, since the war especially,
their production has rapidly expanded. Butter production by the
creameries, which in 1927 amounted to 14,132,000 lb., had risen
in 1936-7 to approximately 31,800,000 lb.; the factory production
of cheese, which in 1927 was 6,001,000 Ib. reached 11,200,000 Ib.
in 1936-7. Registered creameries now number 58, and cheese
factories 116. Figures for milk production are not available, but
great improvement has recently been made, in both quantity and
quality.
The division of dairying of the department of agriculture and
forestry, maintains officers in each of the four provinces, and their
functions include advice and instruction to farmers. Butter and
cheese for export have been compulsorily graded since 1917;
whilst in 1927 a comprehensive milk recording system was inau-
gurated, milk recording having proved a great stimulus to breed-
ing. Under this scheme a test is made for the solids-not-fat con-
tents of the milk registered cows. Since 1930, in order that supply
and demand may be more equitably adjusted, a dairy board of
control has been instituted, on which, under the chairmanship of
the superintendent of the division of dairying, the various interests
of the industry are represented; the board makes use of a system
of levies and bounties; it also advises concerning registration of
creameries and cheese factories. The board makes grants towards
research and milk recording. A state aided butter and milk
scheme was commenced in 1935, with the object of increasing
internal consumption of these products; it consists in the supply
of milk to school children, or where milk is unobtainable, cheese,
and the supply of butter to certain classes of low wage earners and
458 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
to charitable institutions at special rates. The social value of the
scheme is apparent.
The Dairy Research Institute attached to the University of
Pretoria is maintained jointly by the university and the division
of dairying and besides ordinary routine work research is con-
ducted. Projects under investigation include the processing of
cream by the ‘Murray vacreator’ and the ‘A.P.V. pasteurizer and
degasser’ for manufacturing butter; work on surface taint in butter;
chemical tests for detecting rancidity in butter, the relationship
between mastitis infection of the cow’s udder and the solids-not-
fat content of milk; studies of the metabolism of proleolytic organ-
isms causing bitterness in dairy products; the manufacture of
cheese from pasteurized milk, and studies of the defects, fattiness
and oiliness of South African butter. Dairy research work is also
done at the Potchefstroom, Cedara and Glen schools of agricul-
ture, and at Stellenbosch University. ‘The number of dairy
research workers in the Union was eight in 1937 (Imperial
Agricultural Bureaux 1938).
In the Aigh Commission territories, cream is produced in the
south-western part of Swaziland, for the creamery at Port Relief.
Native dairies are on the increase, and a larger number of milk
collecting stations will be established as the newly constructed
Bremersdorp butter factory comes into operation. In Bechuana-
land two creameries were registered with the Union dairy control
board in 1936.
In Southern Rhodesia the encouragement of the dairy industry as
part of a general policy of establishing mixed farming was recom-
mended by the report of the committee on agriculture (Southern
Rhodesia 1934). The industry has a dairy control board as in
the Union, and some eight registered creameries produce over a
million pounds of butter annually. Efforts to reduce the propor-
tion of lower grade cream are meeting with success. Research is
conducted by the chief dairy officer.
In the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan a certain amount of clarified butter
is produced. In 1936 the veterinary department started the
collection of data from centres with a seasonal surplus of milk,
with a view to establishing creameries and thereby encouraging
the industry; the simple method of preparation direct from cream,
ANIMAL INDUSTRY 459
which has been tried in Tanganyika, was also under investigation
(Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1936, D.R.).
In Kast Africa, dairying has become a distinct branch of the
European cattle industry of Northern Rhodesia; the number of
suppliers of the co-operative creamery at Lusaka rose from 63 in
1935 to 78 in 1936, and the amount of butter manufactured rose
from 146,029 Ib. to 206,052 Ib. in the same period. Native parti-
cipation is still very small; one centre, a mission station, collects
cream from them. The possibilities of establishing a native ghee
industry are receiving attention. In Nyasaland, an interesting
demonstration of the value both of good animal management and
of feeding clean milk to children, is being undertaken by the
veterinary in conjunction with the medical department; milk,
purchased by the government from cattle-owners who comply
with specific instructions for the care of their cattle, is supplied
to a certain number of school children in addition to their ordinary
diet. It is hoped that the results will prove a valuable ocular
demonstration. In Tanganyika a demonstration on somewhat
similar lines consists in the supply of milk to boys of the Mpwapwa
school from the veterinary department’s farm there. As part of
the general policy of increasing the milk supply, experiments with
milking goats have been undertaken, but have so far failed owing
to the increased susceptibility to worm infection which accom-
panied improved milk yield. Clarified butter (ghee) is manufac-
tured under the supervision of the department at ten factories in
the Central and three in the Western Province, which are opened
temporarily during periods when there is a milk surplus; in 1936
the output was 30-4 and 4-2 tons respectively. A flourishing ghee
industry, under private management, has grown up in the Musoma
area of the Lake Province; the quality of the ghee, though below
the uniformly high standard required of factory-made certified
butter, is good, and in 1936 some 700 tons were produced, which
is thought to be practically the limit of production (Tanganyika,
Veterinary, 1936, D.R.). The industry is given help and advice
by the veterinary department; in 1936 a new method of production
by boiling the cream direct to ghee without previous churning, was
introduced; it has been described in a paper by the chemist
(French 1936). In Kenya the ghee industry is also encouraged
460 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
by the veterinary department during the brief periods of abundant
rainfall when milk is plentiful; dairy units are provided at suit-
able centres, and consist of a churn, separator, and accessory
equipment housed in temporary or permanent buildings. The
question of attaining a standard quality is under investigation,
for without the guarantee of such a standard, export is difficult.
In 1936 the total number of dairies established was 772 and their
production of ghee approximately 10,000 cwt. In the European
areas, butter and cheese are produced; in 1936 24,983 cwt. of
butter was exported. (Kenya 1936, D.R.) In Uganda the pro-
duction of ghee is also encouraged by the veterinary department
through a series of posts and demonstrations mainly financed
from Native Administration sources. As in other territories, care
is taken that only surplus milk shall be so utilized. An interesting
scheme is the production of good quality butter at a centre in
Bugishu, first sponsored by the veterinary department and since
taken over by private persons.
In West Africa the veterinary department of Nigeria first en-
couraged the manufacture of ghee in 1932 by establishing buy:ng-
posts, through which central depots for dairying and packing
were supplied. The industry has now been taken over entirely
from the department by the United Africa Company, which has
erected two factories, one at Kano and the other at Jos, where
butter bought from native cattle-owners is rendered down into
fat; the method of manufacture is the same as that at Vom.
Additional butter-buying centres are being opened in seasonal
cattle-grazing areas. In 1936, 547 tons were exported as compared
with 321 tons in 1935, and it is estimated that with the trade
properly organized, exports should soon attain 1,000 tons (Nigeria,
Veterinary, 1936, D.R.), In the Belgian Congo European farmers
produced in 1936 55,458 kilos of butter and 3,943 kilos of cheese.
The Journal of Dairy Research, published triennially in Great
Britain, besides giving original papers, reviews and summarizes
progress in dairy research.
CHAPTER XV
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
ERTAIN general considerations regarding medical policy are
Co ... in order to indicate the close relation cf health and
medicine to other subjects. In Africa, as elsewhere, much of
medical activity in the past has been devoted to the treatment of
disease rather than the promotion of health, and there has been
a tendency to separate work into categories such as curative medi-
cine, preventive medicine, and other social services. To-day,
however, expert opinion appears to be in agreement as to the
close interdependence of all aspects of medicine, though expedi-
ency must sometimes dictate the creation of arbitrary divisions.
From this point of view the medical policy, especially in rural
Africa, must be considered in relation to (1) the causes of disease
and disability (2) the protection of individuals and the community,
from these causes, and (3) the provision of adequate living con-
ditions whereby health may be maintained. Emphasis on any
one of these aspects cannot produce permanent beneficial results
unless proportionate attention is devoted to the others. For
example, an improved standard of living, embracing such desirable
features as adequate and balanced diet, good housing and water-
supply and sound agricultural development, cannot alone protect
the community from disease. On the other hand, the study of the
major tropical diseases has now advanced to a point where nearly
all are curable, so that many authorities now urge that increasing
attention should be devoted to the preventive aspects of medicine,
and the development of social services. Dr. A. R. Paterson (1928b)
in Kenya, Dr. Kauntze (1935) in Uganda and many other authori-
ties have emphasized the great importance of housing and sanitary
conditions.
A462 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
It is apparent that the policy of any medical department should
be closely co-ordinated with other government and mission activi-
ties directed to the development of native society. In particular
it cannot be over-emphasized how great is the importance of a
thorough knowledge of tribal custom and native attitudes. The
improvement of social conditions depends largely on the introduc-
tion of measures in a manner which meets with general approval
and not with passive resistance. Hence the order of introduction of
social measures among different tribes may have to be varied on
account of their different traditions. Divergences of organization
are inevitable even in one territory, and while approval may be
given to a general plan for social amelioration, the detailed mode
of execution must be left to those with intimate local knowledge.
It is therefore imperative that administrative officers, who in the
end are the men responsible for the social welfare of their people,
should have that ability to obtain and maintain the confidence of
the people under their control which comes only from such know-
ledge.
Since proposed measures of hygiene are apt to be viewed with
indifference unless they can be shown also to have economic
advantages, as in the case of the use of manure and domestic
refuse as soil fertilizers, the co-operation of medical and agricul-
tural workers is important, and calls for deliberate organization.
Public works construction, education, forestry, and water-supplies
may also have direct bearing on questions of native health. Indeed
every activity of government is involved.
The necessary co-operation might be attained through social
development committees consisting of the heads of the various
departments concerned, which would secure a co-ordinated expan-
sion of social services. An example of this form of development is
the Nyasaland Native Welfare Committee, set up in 1935, and
including representatives of the administrative, medical, educa-
tion, agriculture, and forestry departments. Another way would
be to follow the system adopted in India and elsewhere of appoint-
ing a secretary to government who would be responsible for all
departments dealing with the social services (see Chapter I).
The importance of health and medicine in all parts of Africa
makes it necessary to devote a large part of this volume to the
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 463
subjects involved. This chapter is concerned primarily with sys-
tems of organization of services, the next with diseases, and Chap-
ter XVII with general questions such as rural hygiene, vital
statistics, and nutrition.
ORGANIZATION
INTERNATIONAL
International work in health and medicine is more fully organ-
ized and more important to Africa than in other scientific subjects,
and must be considered before work in the separate dependencies
is described. The two principal co-ordinating bodies are the Office
International d’Hygiéne Publique in Paris, and the Health Sec-
tion of the League of Nations centred at Geneva.
The Office International d’Hygiéne Publique, created under the
Rome Agreement of 1907, has an official (governmental) perma-
nent committee representing fifty-three nations and including
delegates from a number of African territories, with a secretariat
in Paris. Its total cost has been in the neighbourhood of £22,000
per annum, of which some £9,000 is spent on staff. Its activities
cover a wide field, but are concerned primarily with the preven-
tion of particular infectious diseases by international sanitary con-
ventions. That of 1926 dealt with several formidable epidemic
diseases, and more recently the International Convention for the
Sanitary Control of Aerial Navigation of 1933 is of special sig-
nificance for Africa in view of the danger of diseases such as yellow
fever, which are endemic in one part of the continent, spreading
to other parts.
The Health Section of the League of Nations is more recent in origin.
Article 23 of the Covenant provides that ‘Subject to and in accor-
dance with the provisions of international conventions existing or
hereafter to be agreed upon, the members of the League . . . will
endeavour to take steps in matters of international concern for
the prevention and control of disease.’ Under this power a health
organization was created in 1923 which now consists of a General
Advisory Health Council (which has the same membership as the
Committee of the Office International d’Hygiéne Publique), a
Standing Health Committee, and a Health Section of the League
464. SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Secretariat. The annual budget of this organization amounts to.
almost £63,000, of which some £40,000 is spent on staff. The
work carried out under its auspices on such subjects as sleeping
sickness, tuberculosis, leprosy, and public health services has been
of great value to Africa, and several publications on these subjects
(referred. to later) embody reports of the different international
commissions organized by the League. Though the work of the
Malarial Commission in particular has so far been concerned
primarily with European countries, the conclusions reached will
be applicable throughout the world.
Another valuable organ of the Health Organization is the Per-
manent Commission on Biological Standardization. An inter-
governmental conference on this subject was held at Geneva in
1935 and had, as its main object, the making of the international
standards better known and the encouraging of the various coun-
tries to establish national centres for the distribution of standards.
Already the influence exerted by this conference is resulting in
action; for example, in South Africa a new biological control
laboratory has been established in Capetown for work on the
standardization of vaccines, sera, etc.
International conferences are organized from time to time: the
health conferences of 1932 and 1935 are mentioned below. The
results of such activities are published in the Quarterly Bulletin of
the Health Organization. The three-monthly Lpzdemiological
Reports and the weekly Epidemiological Record include vital statistics
from many countries, and valuable data from some of the African
territories are available in them. Dr. Mackenzie, a member of the
Health Organization, twice visited Liberia to study public health
problems (1932b), and a health survey of the population was
made by Dr. L. Anigstein (1936a, b and c; 1937a and b).
The International Conference of Representatives of the Health Services
of African Territories and British India, held at Capetown in Novem-
ber 1932 under the auspices of the League of Nations and the
Office International, has promoted relations between medical
departments in adjacent territories and improved co-operation in
the several medical subjects. It was attended by representatives of
all the principal British territories, and of Angola and Mozambique,
but unfortunately the French and Belgian colonies were not
£
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 465
represented. The principal subjects discussed were yellow fever,
plague, smallpox, leprosy, rural hygiene, dengue, and the trans-
mission of diseases by aircraft. On nearly all these subjects, not-
ably in the cases of yellow fever, plague and aircraft transmission
of diseases, new developments, calling for action by public health
authorities and having international importance, were deemed
to need attention in the near future. A Pan-African Conference was
held at Johannesburg in November 1935, being attended by repre-
sentatives of the French Colonies and the Belgian Congo in addi-
tion to those mentioned above. Further discussions took place on
hygiene and medical services in rural areas, the provision of
medical services for natives, the training of native medical sub-
ordinate personnel, protective measures against the introduction
of yellow fever, preventive measures against plague, typhus and
other diseases, and research in animal diseases. Reports of these
conferences were published by the League of Nations (1933b and
1936).
The International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation has
been connected with Africa chiefly through its work on yellow
fever. Many of the advances in knowledge of this disease have
come from the Commission of experts which established a labora-
tory at Yaba near Lagos in 1925, and worked there until 1933,
after which the laboratory was taken over and extended by the
research branch of the Nigerian medical department.
Of importance in connection with port health work in the Union
of South Africa and all territories with ports on the east coast 1s the
Epidemic Intelligence Bureau at Singapore. This bureau was estab-
lished after a conference at Singapore in 1925 representing govern-
ments and sanitary organizations in the Far East, held under the
auspices of the League of Nations. The Rockefeller Foundation
contributed approximately £5,000 a year for a period of five years
for the purpose. The bureau receives telegraphic reports regard-
ing epidemic diseases from all countries in the eastern area includ-
ing the east coast of Africa and the Union, and it transmits by
telegraph or wireless from Saigon a weekly summary in code to
all countries concerned.
The International Missionary Council, situated in London, is com-
posed of representatives of a large number of Protestant missionary
Q
466 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
societies. ‘Though medical work is only a small part of missionary
activity, the number and standard of hospitals and health centres
supported by missions make some mention of this body essential
in any survey of international organizations interested in health
questions in Africa.
The control of epidemics calls for a considerable degree of
international co-operation. The danger from air transport, which
is now fully recognized, is discussed in a later section on yellow
fever. Other forms of transport, such as rail and motor, are easy
to control, but the spread of epidemics by travellers on foot presents
more difficult problems. It has been emphasized by some experts
that international organization falls short in this respect and that
the question is of special importance in those parts of Africa
where natives continually cross the numerous frontiers to trade or
seek work. Successful control depends on the immediate notifica-
tion of disease outbreaks from territory to territory, supplemented
by a system of medical passports recognized on both sides of the
boundary. International notification has been in force in West
Africa for about the last twelve years, but has not always worked
satisfactorily. Wireless communication offers opportunities for
advance in this respect, and is already in use, especially at the
chief ports in connection with shipping and port health work.
There seems to be scope for an enlargement of these services on an
international footing, to provide a system of wireless communiqués
which would be picked up by health services and ships along the
coast. A precedent for this already exists in the Singapore epi-
demiological broadcasts mentioned above.
Existing regulations regarding medical passports in Africa do
not as yet achieve their aim in all cases. Along certain frontiers
conveniently situated for administrative control, every native has
to carry a paper concerning the state of his health, but it appears
that these passports are not always recognized in the neighbouring
country, and there are wide stretches of frontier where no such
control yet exists. As an example, a medical passport system has
been established on the border between Uganda and Tanganyika
west of Lake Victoria, in order to prevent the northward spread of
the rhodestense type of sleeping sickness. Here the Kagera River,
which forms the frontier, can only be crossed at four points where
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 467
there are ferries which can be easily controlled. On the other
hand, on the border of Uganda adjoining the Belgian Congo in
the Busongora area, where the Lubilya River is easily crossed at
any point, control is difficult ifnot impossible. The Congo govern-
ment will not permit immigration from Uganda without a certificate
that the immigrant is free from sleeping sickness, but in view of
the fact that people on both sides of the border are members of
one tribe and go constantly to and fro to see friends and relations,
control by this system is probably impossible without a large staff
of inspectors.
BRITISH
Before outlining the systems at work in the dependencies separ-
ately, institutions serving the British Empire as a whole must be
considered.
The London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine is a training-
ground for colonial workers, and a centre of research in entomo-
logy, protozoology, and helminthology, as well as in clinical medi-
cine, while the recent incorporation of the Ross Institute has added
a section for the study of practical measures for the control of
tropical diseases. ‘The teaching staff are enabled to keep in close
touch with field progress by contacts with colonial officers on leave,
and sometimes by visits to the field. For instance, Professor P. A.
Buxton, head of the Department of Medical Entomology, paid a
visit to Nigeria in 1933 for research on tsetse flies (see Chapter X);
the late Professor J. G. ‘Thomson, when head of the Protozoo-
logical Department, spent part of 1934 in Nyasaland; Dr. K. E.
Mellanby and Mr. Leeson went to Uganda in 1935 and 1936
respectively, and Dr. Jameson visited the Sudan and Uganda in
1937-
Attached to the school is the Bureau of Hygiene and Tropical
Diseases under the direction of Dr. Harold H. Scott, which is
maintained by the Colonial Office, and has as its principal func-
tion the collection, from all sources, of information on hygiene and
tropical diseases. It collates, condenses, and, where necessary,
translates the information, and makes it available by means of two
monthly periodicals, the Tropical Diseases Bulletin and the Bulletin
of Hygiene, in which abstracts of all the important technical papers
468 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
are published. From 1931 onwards a valuable Supplement to the
Tropical Diseases Bulletin has been published, consisting of summaries
by Dr. Scott of the medical and sanitary reports from British
colonies, protectorates, and dependencies. The bureau is under
the general control of an honorary managing committee ap-
pointed by and responsible to the Secretary of State for the Colonies.
The other sources of information are the /mpertal Bureau of Agricul-
tural Parasitology (see Chapter XI), which abstracts the literature
on medical parasitology, and the Bureau of Nutrition at the Rowett
Institute, Aberdeen.
The Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine is another important
headquarters of training and research, especially in relation to the
West African colonies. This school has sent many expeditions to
Africa, and it maintains and staffs the Sir Alfred Jones Laboratory
at Freetown, Sierra Leone, an independent institution, the Direc-
tor of which is consulting pathologist to the Government. It has
a European staff of two, occasionally increased to three or four,
who have set out to make a survey of several of the main diseases
and parasites of equatorial West Africa asa whole. Visiting research
workers often use the Sir Alfred Jones Laboratory as an head-
quarters; for example, Mr. Davis, formerly attached to the Bureau
of Animal Populations at Oxford, recently conducted a census in
Freetown of rats and their parasites in relation to plague and
tropical typhus.
The Medical Research Council, with an allocation of government
funds, finances or assists numerous researches in Great Britain.
Among those which have bearing on African development are the
following: the Experimental Malaria Unit under Sir Rickard
Christophers, maintained at the London School of Hygiene and
Tropical Medicine for the study of antimalarial drugs; work of a
similar nature at the Molteno Institute at Cambridge; two research
fellowships 1n tuberculosis have been devoted to work in Eastern
Africa; and an inquiry into the nutritional problems of Nigeria
has been assisted by the Council. As announced in their recent
report for 1935-6 (1937) the Council, finding themselves in a better
position than formerly to fulfil their responsibilities of research
into problems of health and disease in tropical conditions, intend
eventually to establish permanent posts for research into tropical
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 469
medicine, the holders of which will work partly in the tropics and
partly in British institutions to which they will be attached. The
first stage in this programme has been the creation of fellowships
for tropical research, of which two junior and two senior have
already been awarded in 1938. This enlargement of the Council’s
work has followed on the establishment of the Tropical Medical
Research Committee (see below).
The Colonial Office, where Dr. A. J. R. O’Brien is Chief Medical
Adviser, has a great interest in colonial medical developments.
The Colonial Advisory Medical Committee keeps in close touch
with the individual services by the examination of annual medical
reports, by interviewing officers on leave, and in other ways. In
1934 the Colonial Medical Service was constituted as a unified
service, a change which, among other advantages, has rendered the
transfer of officers from one dependency to another easier and more
frequent (Colonial Office 1936a). Special advisory committees on
specific problems are set up by the Colonial Office; for example,
a Colonial Nutrition Committee was appointed in 1936, which
includes representatives of many interested bodies in Great Britain,
and a general inquiry into available information on food supplies
and native diets in the dependencies was set on foot (Colonial
Office 1936b).
The Tropical Medical Research Committee, established in 1936,
was formed as an advisory body, including representatives of
the Medical Research Council, Colonial Office, and the Liver-
pool and London Schools of Tropical Medicine, to institute a
wider programme of research in the tropics. A similar organiza-
tion, the Colonial Medical Research Committee, was established
in 1927, but it proved inconvenient from the administrative point
of view and was dissolved at the end of 1930, and its functions
merged in the Colonial Advisory Medical Committee.
Medical Missions are organized by nearly every branch of the
Christian Church and have contributed greatly to the improve-
ment of the general health in many parts of Africa. There is a
British Advisory Board on medical missions in London. The staff
of these missions are men and women of immense energy, skill, and
resource; some have built up well-equipped hospitals, and others
have concentrated on the preventive and educational side of
470 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
medical work, and have deliberately preferred hospitals of a type
not far removed from native life. To mention a few examples
among many, the well-known C.M.S. hospital at Mengo, Kam-
pala, was built up through the work of Sir Albert and Lady Cook.
It is one of the earliest hospitals in East Africa, dating from 1896,
and is now among the largest, having 163 beds and some 16,000
out-patients annually, but perhaps its most important work is con-
nected with the twenty-four maternity and child-welfare centres
with attached dispensaries which deal with some 150,000 cases
every year. In Tanganyika the maternity hospital and dispensary
of the African Inland Mission at Kalandato near Shinyanga, with
Dr. Maynard in charge, is another striking example of such work.
In West Africa missionary activity in the Southern Provinces of
Nigeria has resulted in the establishment of many medical centres,
among which may be mentioned the C.M.S. maternity hospital
at Iyaenu, near Onitsha, in charge of two lady doctors, where, on
nearly every day of the year, a baby is born under hygienic con-
ditions and some 200 out-patients come for consultation. As
another West African example the work of Dr. A. Schweitzer
in Equatorial Africa is well known through his books (1922 and
1931). In every territory where mission organizations provide
an essential part of the medical facilities, co-operation with the
government is established and the relationship between them is
of the friendliest character. Government medical officers in-
spect and give all possible assistance to mission hospitals
within their districts, and reciprocal visits from medical mission-
aries are welcomed, though the latter are so few in number that
they have little time for visiting places other than their own
institutions.
Private practice in many of the tropical territories 1s already impor-
tant in relation to the health of Europeans. It has developed
mainly in the large cities and some of the more closely settled
agricultural areas in South and East Africa. In addition a con-
siderable number of Asiatic doctors, mostly trained in India, are
now practising in Eastern Africa, and on the West Coast, African
practitioners, trained in Europe, are established in most towns.
While such facilities at present reach only a very small proportion of
Africa’s population, the co-ordination of medical work involves the
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 471
recognition that private practice among native as well as non-
native races will continue to increase.
The health work of commercial and mining companies deserves special
mention. Mining companies employ considerable medical per-
sonnel, maintain their own hospitals and dispensaries, and thus
act as centres for the dissemination of medical knowledge among
their employees. As an agency for native welfare perhaps the
Belgian organizations of this kind are better examples than some
of the British (see below).
Propaganda organizations are beginning to play an important
part in the improvement of public health. The cinematograph 1s a
specially valuable instrument of propaganda and has sometimes
been used as such by government departments in both East and
West Africa. In Nigeria, for instance, a lorry equipped to show
films was obtained for health propaganda through a grant from
the Colonial Development Fund. In 1933 the Department of
Social and Industrial Research of the International Missionary
Council considered the possibility of research into films suitable
for Africans. In 1935 the Bantu Educational Cinema Experiment
was set on foot, aided by a grant from the Carnegie Corporation
of New York and with the co-operation of the British Colonial
Office, the East African Governments, the British Film Institute,
and the International Institute of African Languages and Cul-
tures. A report on the experiment was published in 1937 (Notcutt
and Latham 1937) and contains proposals for future policy.!
For the purposes of the following pages, which sketch the medi-
cal and health organizations in the individual territories, data con-
cerning staff, beds available in hospitals, numbers of patients
treated and so on, have either been obtained directly from the
authorities concerned or extracted from recent publications. Since
these data are not all compiled on the same basis in the different
territories, it would be misleading to show them in tabular form
(except in the case of the Union of South Africa), and they are
therefore included in the text in small type.
Union of South Africa
Medical and health work in the Union is under the general con-
1 See A Survey of Africa, Chapter xvi.
472 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
trol of the Secretary for Public Health of the central government,
Sir Edward Thornton. There is a full account of existing medical
facilities in the Official Year Book (1937), and an interesting article
by Dr. J. A. Mitchell, late Secretary for Public Health, on the
history and development of the health administration in the coun-
try before and after the constitution of the Union, was contributed
to earlier issues. It is difficult to give an adequate summary of the
medical staff because private practice has grown to such a degree
in South Africa that the hospitals, etc., rely, as in Great Britain,
to a large extent on part-time work by practitioners and specialists.
For certain purposes, such as the control of sanitation and out-
breaks of infectious disease, most municipalities and some other
local authorities have health officers and health departments
attached, but the scope of these organizations varies so much, in
the absence of uniform legislation, that it cannot be summarized.
In most districts of the Union medical officers, mostly part-time,
known as district surgeons, are employed by Government. In
June 1936 there were in all 357, of whom 339 were part-time. A
port health officer is appointed by the government as resident
at each port of the Union for the inspection of vessels. In 1935-6
the Union government expenditure on public health, medical
services, lepers, and mental diseases was £1,106,168 out of a
total ordinary expenditure, excluding provincial services, of
£30,135,791; general hospitals are controlled by the Provincial
Administrations, which also administer poor relief.
The introduction of National Health Insurance in the Union
has recently been under consideration by a Committee of Inquiry
appointed by the Minister of Public Health (Union of South
Africa 1936). Its principal recommendations are that compulsory
health insurance should be instituted in urban areas; the number
of district surgeons in rural areas should be increased, using where
possible the services of local residents, and in the native areas,
where medical services are quite inadequate for the needs of the
population, a general extension is required, including a larger
staff of doctors, the inauguration of a native nursing service, and
a staff of health visitors.
Hospitals in the Union are numerous: details are shown in the
following table, and in addition there are eleven institutions for
473
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL
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474 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
the feeble-minded, four for venereal diseases and five leper insti-
tutions.
For research the centre is the South African Institute for Medical
Research at Johannesburg. The subjects investigated here include
plague and its spread by infected wild rodents, the silicosis of gold-
mining, tuberculosis in natives, pneumonia, meningitis, other bac-
terial diseases, and tumour formation and growth. The institute
has also a field research station at Eshowe in Zululand, Natal, for
the study of malaria vectors. The expenditure on the institute for
the year 1935-6 was £70,013. The University of Witwatersrand
Medical School, which works in close association with this insti-
tute, though primarily a teaching centre, has also a research
branch. The Department of Public Health has initiated research
into various matters; for example it arranged for Professor Swellen-
grebel to organize a malaria investigation which was started in
1930 and is being continued by officials of the Union Health
Department which has a research station at T'zaneen in the Trans-
vaal; close co-operation is maintained with the similar research
being done by the South African Institute for Medical Research.
The Research Grant Board of the Union, instituted in 1918,
advises the government on medical and other research and adminis-
ters all government grants in aid. The Carnegie Corporation of
New York provides additional funds and advises on their distribu-
tion. Private practice has reached such a stage in the Union that
many doctors have their own laboratories for the examination of
pathological and other specimens; and recently a South African
Association of Private Laboratories has been inaugurated to pro-
mote co-operation and to encourage such valuable research workas
that of Dr. A. Pijper on the typhus-like diseases in Southern Africa.
In South-West Africa the health service includes the Medical
Officer of the Administration, stationed at Windhoek, one whole-
time and fourteen part-time district surgeons appointed on the
same basis as in the Union of South Africa. There are five state-
aided hospitals entirely for Europeans, three Roman Catholic
mission hospitals for Europeans and natives; hospitals or medical
stations are also maintained by the Finnish, Anglican, and
Rhenish missions. There are also one or two private nursing
homes at Windhoek. Apart from the work of missions and
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 475
the district surgeons, medical services for the natives appear to
be restricted to three state-owned native hospitals, directly con-
trolled by the Administration, situated at Windhoek, Keetman-
shoop and Omaruru.
In 1936 there were 926 European and 1,686 non-European in-
patients, and 203 European and 5,631 non-European out-patients
in government institutions. ‘These have together a total of 103 beds.
Expenditure on public health in 1935-6 amounted to £22,831, out
of a total ordinary expenditure of £731,802. In 1936 the native
population, including coloured, was estimated at 253,090; the pre-
liminary census figures for 1936 give the European population as
30,677.
In Basutoland the first medical work was that of French mission-
aries in 1844. The present system was built up by the work of
Dr. E. CG. Long, who was appointed principal medical officer in
1894 and served for thirty-two years. In 1936 there were eight!
hospitals with twelve European and 148 native beds. ‘That at
Maseru is the largest and is ranked as a Class I hospital by the
Cape Medical Council. The hospital at Qacha’s Nek was in
process of enlargement during 1936, the accommodation being
increased from fourteen to twenty-eight beds, and a theatre
equipped on modern lines was built.
In 1936, for the whole territory, in-patients numbered 3,298 and
out-patients at government dispensaries 82,952, out of a total native
and coloured population of about 561,000 for Basutoland. The staff
consists of a principal medical officer, nine medical officers, an
assistant medical officer, and one district surgeon, disposed in eight
districts. There are fourteen European nurses and a considerable sub-
ordinate staff, whose work is confined at present to the hospitals. An
increase in health services in rural areas has been considered desir-
able. A satisfactory scheme is in existence for training nurses and
dispensers, but little maternity work has been done. There is a leper
settlement near Maseru, started in 1914, with a staff of two European
doctors, a matron, and three nurses and a population of 684 in 1936.
Health and medical expenditure in 1936 was £48,932 out of a total
ordinary expenditure of £294,883. (Basutoland 1935 and 1936,D.R.).
In Bechuanaland the staff for a population of 260,064 included,
in 1936, a principal medical officer stationed at Mafeking and
1 Including the temporary hospital at Mokhotlon.
476 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
eight other government medical officers; there were also four
subsidized medical missionaries and one subsidized doctor. The
hospital system consisted of three government hospitals at Lobatsi,
Serowe, and Francistown, each with some four beds for Europeans
and twenty for natives, and five smaller mission hospitals; whilst a
hospital at Maun was in process of erection by the Seventh Day
Adventists, and a hospital at Sofula was projected by the London
Missionary Society. Both the projects were made possible by
grants from the Colonial Development Fund.
There were in 1936, 1,751 hospital in-patients and 70,933 atten-
dances, of which 27,196 were first attendances at government and
medical mission hospitals and out-stations. Government health
services accounted for an expenditure of £20,126 out ofa total for the
Protectorate of £167,310 (year ending March 1937). Medical mission
work is subsidized to a small extent. The native population was given
as 260,064, Asiatic 66, coloured 3,727, European 1,899.
Sir A. W. Pim (Bechuanaland 1933) commented on the insuf-
ficiency of the service, especially in the west and north of the
territory, where practically no medical assistance existed, and
recommended the extension of dispensaries and the training of
native nurses and other subordinate staff. A sanitary inspector
has since been appointed for work in village conditions. A special
grant from the Chamber of Mines was made for the training of
native nurses and dispensers in 1935, and by 1936 the scheme was
in operation. In order to make medical facilities available in
some of the outlying parts of the protectorate two travelling dis-
pensary units, each consisting of two lorries, a medical officer,
European chauffeur-mechanic, native dispenser-interpreter, and
native driver, were put into commission during 1936; total atten-
dances at them numbered 2,591 (Bechuanaland 1936, D.R.).
In Swaziland little medical work was done before the Nazarine
Mission opened the Raleigh Fitkin Memorial Hospital at Bremers-
dorp in 1926. In the same year the Wesleyan Mission opened a
smaller hospital at Mahamba. This was followed by a small
government hospital at Aliatikulu, and in 1931 the small mixed
government hospital at M’Babane was replaced by a new one,
with three European and twenty-eight native beds (Swaziland
1932). In the view of Sir Alan Pim these facilities were ade-
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL A]
quate for Europeans, but comparatively poor for the natives,
especially in the rural areas where only a few small dispensaries
were functioning. He suggested that the utmost use of the assis-
tance of the missions should be made in advancing hospital facili-
ties, whilst the administration should concentrate on extending
the system of outstations with trained native nurses, and that
small medical outposts manned by trained native orderlies should
be established in the large areas which were without any medical
facilities.
In 1936 the government European staff consisted of three medical
officers, and one subsidized doctor, three hospital assistants, and six
nurses. ‘The native staff included 20 nurses (9g men and 11 women).
The government hospital at Aliatikulu had been extended to accom-
modate 48 beds, so that the Southern districts now have a well-
equipped hospital. The number of medical outposts had been in-
creased to five, with a sixth in process of construction, and their value
was demonstrated during the severe malaria epidemic in the early
months of 1937. A special feature of the Bremersdorp Hospital is
the training of native nurses for service in the territory, which
began in 1935 under the Witwatersrand Chamber of Mines grant for
the betterment of medical services for natives in the High Commission
Territories (Swaziland 1936, D.R.). The latest information gives the
total population as 156,715. In-patients were 2,416 and out-patients
30,591. Government medical expenditure amounted to £14,892 out
of a total of £131,537.
Southern Rhodesia
In Southern Rhodesia medical and health services are included
in the Public Health Department at Salisbury. Private practice
is established and the numbers on the registers at the end of 1936
were as follows, though not all of these are resident in Southern
Rhodesia: 157 medical practitioners, 44 dental surgeons, 86
chemists and druggists, 219 trained nurses, 36 midwives and 5
mental nurses. Many of these private doctors, of course, aid in
the work of the hospitals. The government staff in 1936 consisted
of 32 doctors, 2 dentists, a health officer, 2 schools medical officers,
4 medical superintendents, 2 directors of laboratories, a govern-
ment analyst, 245 general nurses, 20 mental nurses, 87 other
European staff and 414 Asiatics and natives. ‘There are eight
principal hospitals, with accommodation for Europeans and other
478 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
races, at the following centres, in order of size: Salisbury, Bulawayo,
Umtali, Gwelo, Gatooma, Fort Victoria, Sinoia, Enkeldoorn,
Shamva, and Gwanda. The health of natives is further provided
for by six small hospitals erected recently, and two large govern-
ment institutions for the accommodation and treatment of lepers.
The larger mining companies maintain special hospitals for their
employees.
It was pointed out in a recent report (Southern Rhodesia 1934,
D.R.), that 800,000 of the estimated native population of 1,154,500
live in reserves or on unalienated crown land within reach of only
a limited number of medical missions subsidized by the govern-
ment. In the last few years a network of medical dispensaries
has been set up throughout native reserves. The aim is eventually
to have a series of central hospitals each surrounded by a ring of
about eight dispensaries situated at distances varying frum 20 to
140 miles from the base. These dispensaries are staffed by trained
native orderlies and, wherever possible, are under the supervision
of the mission stations operating in the reserve concerned. The
government medical officer is in charge and visits all the dispen-
saries in his area at regular intervals, if possible once a week. In
1936, government issued authority for carrying out a system of
native clinics with all possible speed, so that, by the end of the
year, in addition to the efficient native sections attached to the
government European hospitals, some thirty clinics were either
functioning or in process of erection, and it was hoped that a
further six would be operating by the following year, and in 1936
22,704. out-patients were treated and 11,744 admitted to hospital
(Southern Rhodesia 1936, D.R.).
Routine laboratory services are provided and are extensively
used by the government service and by private practitioners.
The department’s laboratory at Salisbury is the chief centre of
research and among other studies, work on the anemias, as they
exhibit themselves in the European and in the native inhabitants
of the country, has been carried out recently.
The Bulawayo Bacteriological Institute was established in 1930,
mainly for routine examinations, and, though partly a private
undertaking, was subsidized by the government, railways, and the
municipality. In 1936, however, it became an entirely government
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 4.79
institution with the name of the Public Health Laboratory, Bula-
wayo, and it is expected that the scope of its work will be increased
(Southern Rhodesia 1936, D.R.).
In 1937 government hospital accommodation was 580 beds for
Europeans and 1,111 for non-Europeans and there were 8,040 Euro-
pean and 13,704 Asiatic and African in-patients, while out-patients
were 22,685 European and 44,521 Asiatic and African. There were
44. European medical officers and 271 nurses, and 506 African
assistants, Government medical expenditure was £252,573 and total
expenditure £3,456,704. The population was given as 57,080 Euro-
peans and 1,305,635 natives.
Colonies, Protectorates, and Mandates
Each of the British dependencies has its own Government Medical
Department, and the great advances which have been made
recently in the control of disease bear witness to the far-sightedness
and organizing capacity of the directors and other officers in
charge.
For the East African group of dependencies, the Conference of
East African Governors has assisted greatly in maintaining touch
between workers, in medical as in other subjects. Conferences
on the co-ordination of general medical research were held at
Entebbe in November 1933 and at Nairobi in January 1936 (Con-
ference, East Africa, 1934a and 1936a), and two on tsetse flies and
trypanosomiasis at Entebbe in 1933 and 1936 (Conference, East
Africa, 1934b and 1936b). In West Africa such colonial conferences
have not yet become a regular feature of medical activity. One
such conference, on yellow fever was held at Dakar in 1928
(Selwyn-Clarke 1929) and attended by representatives from both
French and British West African colonies.
In addition to these governmental conferences, the part played
by local branches of the British Medical Association, especially
in East Africa, is considerable. Conferences were held at Nairobi
in 1932, at Dar-es-Salaam in 1934, and at Kampala in 1936, and
addresses by prominent medical men are arranged frequently.
The Association has also inaugurated special research studies,
such as an investigation into ulcers in Tanganyika, carried out in
1933.
Most territories have laboratories, each with a staff of patho-
480 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
logists or other specialists who are sometimes able to undertake
original research in addition to the routine work passed on to them
by the hospitals. The principal centres are at Nairobi, Kampala,
Dar-es-Salaam, Lagos, Accra, Freetown, and, until recently, the
Human Trypanosomiasis Institute at Entebbe, now the Yellow
Fever Research Institute. A great difficulty of scientific work in
colonial conditions, mentioned often in this volume, 1s the dissem1-
nation of new knowledge to those to whom it would be valuable.
The Bureau of Hygiene and Tropical Diseases receives some 500
journals, and publishes in the Tropical Diseases Bulletin abstracts
of all articles of interest to Empire workers, and is the principal
source ofinformation. An East African and a West African Medical
Journal are also published locally. It has been suggested, however,
that the service of information could be improved by the creation
of local advisory bureaux, conducted on a small scale. In Kenya
an honorary Library Committee has recently been inaugurated
under the auspices of the British Medical Association. Voluntary
readers study the literature and assist the headquarters library in
circulating useful information (East African Medical Journal
1935).
In Northern Rhodesia the difficulties of making medical services
generally available to the populace are greater than in most terri-
tories on account of the large area, as big as France, and the com-
paratively small population, estimated at a million and a quarter.
The lack of roads and other means of communication add to this
problem. -Accordingly, it is admitted and indeed stressed by
the Director of Medical Services (Northern Rhodesia 1936,
D.R.) that little has been done in regard to the health condi-
tions of natives. The large area for which each medical officer
is responsible makes the supervision of the outlying dispensaries,
etc. difficult. Of the 93 African medical orderlies, about 70 are
employed at stations where a medical officer is placed, and the
rest conduct dispensaries, mostly at the stations of district adminis-
trative officers. The hospital system includes 7 European hospitals,
of which the largest at Lusaka was opened in 1935, 12 native hos-
pitals, and 18 rural dispensaries, some of which rely largely on
supervision by the administrative department.
In addition to the Government Service, the Roan Antelope,
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 481
Mufulira, and Nkana Copper Mining Companies maintain fully
staffed hospitals for European and native employees. Missions
support 27 hospitals and dispensaries in the territory, 3 of which
in 1936 were controlled by qualified medical practitioners and the
rest by trained nurses or other partially trained staff. Government
subsidies to missions total about £3,000 annually.
The hospitals provide 132 beds for Europeans (figures for natives
are not available) and in 1936 there were 1,691 European and 10,700
African in-patients, and 52,151 African out-patients. The rural dis-
pensaries admitted 1,534 Africans and treated 24,160 out-patients.
Government expenditure was £852,417 (total) and £65,091 (medi-
cal). The staff includes 20 European medical officers, 39 nurses and
3 sanitary inspectors, also European, and 93 African orderlies and
7 microscopists.
In Nyasaland, with its relatively small area and dense population,
especially in the southern part, which in 1936 was given as 1,838
Europeans, 1,558 Asiatics, and 1,619,530 Africans, medical ser-
vices can be more easily organized. The staff, under the direction
of Dr. A. D. J. B. Williams is relatively large, and nine Asiatic sub-
assistant surgeons supplement the work of the medical officers, of
whom there were 16 in 1936. There were 10 sisters, 1 matron, and
2 European sanitary inspectors. The African staff of nearly 300
in 1936 included 16 hospital assistants, 177 dispensers, 19 sanitary
inspectors, 40 vaccinators, etc. There are eighteen medical posts
which are designed to have a European medical officer in charge,
but since the strength in the territory is usually only 14, several
have to be filled by sub-assistant surgeons or even by African
hospital assistants. There are 2 European hospitals, at Zomba and
Blantyre, and 15 native hospitals with 93 rural dispensaries, the
distribution of which is shown in a map following the annual
report for 1936 (Nyasaland 1936, D.R.).
The number of beds available in 1936 was 20 for Europeans, 6 for
Asiatics, for whom there is a ward in the Zomba native hospital, and
706 for Africans. Government in-patients were 165 European and
9,757 African and others, out-patients 1,685 European and 435,489
African and others; 301,738 cases were treated at rural dispensaries.
Government medical expenditure was £48,181 and the total expendi-
ture of the protectorate £617,573.
482 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
In 1931, a considerable grant of £43,079 for public health was
made to the territory by the Colonial Development Fund, most
of which has been spent on the erection of hospitals. There are
still many rural areas, especially in the north, which are out of
reach even of the smaller dispensaries. In 1935, an advisory
Native Welfare Committee, representing all departments inter-
ested, was set up. Its main object is to elaborate a co-ordinated
welfare policy, and to see that the sums voted for this purpose are
divided between the departments in the manner which will secure
the best results. A laboratory at Zomba is in charge of a govern-
ment pathologist, but routine duties prevent much time being
given to pure research. The education department has taken
interest in spreading knowledge of hygiene. In particular the
Jeanes School has a special course for chiefs which has apparently
had considerable influence on the type of house erected and even
in the selection of village sites.
In Tanganyika the Medical Department, under the direction of
Dr. R. R. Scott, is divided into branches. In 1936, the medical
branch had 39 medical officers, 2 dentists, a dental mechanic, and
a nursing staff of 30. The health branch had 6 health officers,
6 lady health visitors, and 21 sanitary inspectors. The sleeping
sickness organization had a sleeping sickness officer and 7 agri-
cultural surveyors. The laboratory service is centred at Dar-es-
Salaam, but has a special institute for vaccine lymph at Mpwapwa;
its staff in 1936 consisted of a senior pathologist, 2 medical officers
(seconded), a government analyst, and a laboratory assistant. In
addition to these, three research units are maintained by special
grants from the Colonial Development Fund. One is devoted to
trypanosomiasis research, with a laboratory at Tinde, staffed by
one medical officer and a laboratory assistant; one to malarial
survey, with two medical officers, an engineer and three sanitary
superintendents, and one to tuberculosis research, with one
medical officer. These special units accounted in 1936 for an
expenditure of £8,549 over and above the departmental expendi-
ture of £185,735. The large Asiatic staff of 55 assistant and sub-
assistant surgeons and 24, compounders is a most important part
of the establishment. The African staff, which in 1936 amounted
to about 2,000, included 109 dispensers and 140 sanitary inspec-
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 483
tors. There are 9 hospitals for Europeans. For natives there were,
in 1936, 48 government general hospitals, 2 mental hospitals, 297
tribal dispensaries, and 37 medical department dispensaries. A
map showing medical stations is included in the annual reports.
In addition to the government service, medical branches of the
several missionary societies maintain eighteen hospitals, with a
staff of about 18 qualified doctors, who spend nearly all their time
on native work.
In 1936 government hospitals had 73 beds for Europeans, 118 for
Asiatics and 2,012 for Africans; European in-patients numbered
1,609, and Asiatic and African 36,412; European out-patients were
3,108 and Asiatic and African 594,908. ‘The tribal dispensaries
treated 529,954 cases. The population was stated to be: Europeans
8,228, Asiatic 32,792, natives 5,022,640.
In Kenya the Medical Department, under the direction of Dr.
A. R. Paterson, is arranged in administrative, medical, sanitary,
and laboratory divisions. There are proportionately more Euro-
pean medical officers, nurses, and health visitors, but fewer quali-
fied Asiatics, thanin Tanganyika. The Medical Research Labora-
tory at Nairobi was completed in 1931 and is one of the foremost
centres in the colonial dependencies. It does all the routine work
for Kenya and also serves the neighbouring colonies. ‘The staff
consists of 3 pathologists, 2 entomologists, and a biochemist.
Much research has been directed to entomological problems (see
Chapter X) and interesting results have been obtained from
investigations of the physiology, brain-structure, mental .condi-
tions, and blood morphology and chemistry of Africans (see Chap-
ter XVII). The hospital system makes provision for Europeans
by three principal hospitals at Nairobi, Mombasa, and Kisumu,
and one or two smaller hospitals in townships, as well as a number
of private nursing homes. For Asiatics and Africans there are 6
hospitals in the towns, some 23 in native reserves and 6 small
hospitals in the northern parts of the colony, including Turkana,
the northern frontier province, and Lamu.
In the department’s activities, questions of general welfare have
received considerable attention, and strenuous efforts have been
made to improve the native housing and village sanitation. Much
importance is attached to the provision of sanitary inspectors, who
484. SCIENCE IN AFRICA
are actually general advisers on native betterment under the
medical officers. Health work in the provinces centres, as usual, on
the district hospitals, and the aim of the department is to establish
a ‘health centre’ in each large native district, with a hospital and
out-dispensaries, the staff to include a medical officer and Euro-
pean nursing sister, and a European sanitary inspector (Kenya
1936, D.R.). Some out-dispensaries, staffed by native dressers, are
established in the native reserves, seven being maintained by the
native administrations.
Maternity and child welfare work has made progress in recent
years, and is undertaken by the missionary societies, the municipal
council of Nairobi and the Lady Grigg Welfare League, in addition
to the medical department.
In 1936 the population was given as 18,269 Europeans, 52,277
Asiatics, and 3,186,976 Africans. Government hospitals provided
73 beds for Europeans, 52 for Asiatics, and 1,928 for Africans. Euro-
pean in-patients were 1,817, Asiatic and African 46,632; European
out-patients were 3,609, Asiatic and African 408,788; out-dispensary
first attendances were 640,261. In 1936 there were 54 European
medi¢al officers (including the Laboratory Division and 2 assistant
surgeons), 50 European nurses, 12 sanitary inspectors, and 3 health
visitors; among the Asiatic staff were 2 assistant and 24 sub-assistant
surgeons; the African staff of 1,204 included 30 health workers, 33
hospital and g2 laboratory assistants, 12 compounders and 648
dressers. Departmental expenditure was £197,049 out of a total of
£3,350,381.
In Uganda the Medical Department, under Dr. W. H. Kauntze,
is sub-divided into administrative, executive, and laboratory
divisions. The executive European staff is in general similar to
that of Tanganyika and Kenya, but the policy is to insist that the
medical officer of the district is responsible for both curative and
preventive work. In proportion as qualified African assistants are
available, the European medical officer is able to devote more and
more time to preventive duties. Among the African staff are 30
medical assistants, holding appointments in the African Civil
Service, who have been trained at the Mulago Medical School
(see later). In many places they have replaced Asiatic sub-assistant
surgeons, and some are even in charge of districts. The medical
laboratory is situated in the grounds of the Mulago Hospital near
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 485
Kampala, and has a staff of 3 pathologists, 1 chemist, and 3 Euro-
pean assistants. A medical entomologist is attached to the agri-
cultural laboratory. Nearly all the work of the laboratory division
consists of routine duties. Important research has come, however,
from the Human Trypanosomiasis Institute at Entebbe, under
Dr. Duke, which was closed down on his advice when he retired
in 1935. The hospital system includes a mental hospital, 4 general
hospitals for Europeans, 9 for Asiatics, 36 for Africans, and 80 dis-
pensaries without in-patient accommodation. In several districts
itinerant medical orderlies hold out-patient clinics at fixed places
once a week. A large part of medical effort is devoted to work in
rural areas; this has included the improvement of housing and
sanitation and the protection of water-supplies. The dispensary
system is described later. Among medical missions, the C.M.S.,
with headquarters at the Mengo Hospital (see page 470), has done
particularly important work. Courses are provided at Mengo in
which African men are trained as doctors, nurses and sanitary
inspectors, and girls as nurses and midwives.
In 1937 government hospitals provided 34 beds for Europeans,
56 for Asiatics, and 1,273 for Africans; European in-patients were 517,
Asiatic 1,345, and African 29,215; European out-patients were 3,076,
Asiatic 7,566, and African 368,151. The European staff included
45 medical officers, 35 nurses, and 17 sanitary inspectors; there were
12 Asiatic sub-assistant surgeons, and several nurses; the African
staff included, in addition to 30 trained assistants, 34 health visitors
and a varying number of orderlies, midwives, dispensers, nurses,
clerks,.ctc.
Medical department expenditure, in the Estimates for 1938,
appeared as £190,121, against a total estimated expenditure of
£2,179,659. In 1937 the population was returned as 3,626,549 Afri-
cans (estimated), 2,000 Europeans, and 5,000 Asiatics.
The Medical and Health Organization in Nigeria and the British
Cameroons, under Dr. R. Briercliffe, is divided into medical, health,
laboratory, and sleeping sickness services. In the medical service
the European staff includes the deputy and assistant directors,
85 qualified medical men, 2 lady doctors, 2 dentists, 4 radio-
graphers, and a nursing staff of 62. The African medical staff has
12 medical officers, qualified in Europe and holding appointments
similar to those of Europeans, In addition there are now medical
486 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
assistants in training, in Lagos, where a course was established
recently. ‘The other subordinate African staff of nearly 700 in-
cludes dispensers, nurses, midwives, etc. In the health service
there are 15 qualified medical officers of health, etc., and 37 Euro-
pean sanitary superintendents. The African subordinates include
196 sanitary inspectors and vaccinators. The laboratory service,
under Dr. E. C. Smith, is centred at the African Hospital, Lagos,
and the Research Laboratories at Yaba, including the former
Rockefeller Yellow Fever Laboratory. There are subsidiary centres
at several of the principal hospitals. The European staff consists of
6 pathologists and 7 technical assistants, and there are about 23
African laboratory attendants. The sleeping sickness service has,
besides the director, 9 medical officers, an entomologist, andan Afri-
can subordinate staff of some 14 dispensers, nurses, and attendants.
There are 12 European hospitals, the largest being at Lagos. The
African hospitals in 1936 numbered 24 in the Northern Provinces,
of which 13 were under native administrations, and 33 in the
Southern Provinces, of which 6 are wholly and three partly under
the native administrations. In addition there is an extensive sys-
tem of native administration dispensaries, of which some 300 were
established by 1936, 121 in the Northern and 179 in the Southern
Provinces. The distribution of all these stations is shown in a map
(Nigeria 1936, D.R.). The sleeping sickness service, recently in-
augurated in the Northern Provinces, has a system of inspection and
treatment similar to that in French West Africa and the Cameroons
(see later). The inspection service examines as large a proportion
of the population as possible, though, up to 1937, entirely on a
voluntary basis, and the treatment units which follow set up tem-
porary field dispensaries at which inoculations are given. A big
step forward in the control ofsleeping sickness was made in January
1937 by the enactment of the Nigerian Sleeping Sickness Ordi-
nance (No. 1 of 1937). This applies to the Northern Provinces,
including those parts of the Cameroons administered with them,
and makes provision for the compulsory examination and treat-
ment of persons infected by the disease, and the proclamation of
sleeping sickness areas from time to time. In these areas special
measures must be taken by the occupiers ofland, and the movement
of cattle, people, etc., is under definite control.
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 487
Many of the religious missions, which are particularly active in
the Southern Provinces, have important medical centres. In 1936
they controlled 22 hospitals, 97 dispensaries, 16 leper settlements,
and 116 maternity and infant welfare centres, and treated some
216,500 Cases.
The total population was estimated as 20,224,367. The government
hospitals provide 148 beds for Europeans and 3,503 for Asiatics and
Africans; in-patients numbered 1,116 European, and 60,098 Asiatic
and African; out-patients 7,176 European and 650,209 Asiatic and
African.
Departmental expenditure was £387,600 out ofa total government
expenditure of £6,061,348.
In the Gold Coast and the adjoining mandated area of Togoland
the Medical Department, centred at Accra, under the direction
of Dr. D. Duff, has medical, health, and laboratory branches.
The European staff is relatively large, but most of it is concentrated
in the Colony and Ashanti. In the medical branch there were, in
1936, 4 qualified doctors, a dental surgeon, 2 radiographers, and
a woman medical officer. There are also 8 African medical officers
and a dentist on the senior staff. The health branch has 11
medical officers. The laboratory branch has a centre at Accra
and a staff of 3 pathologists and 2 assistants. Routine duties in
connection with hospital work absorb practically all their time.
European hospitals numbered 6, of which 4 are situated in the
coastal towns and the other 2 are at Kumasi and Tamale. There
is also an infectious diseases hospital at Accra. Among African
hospitals, the Gold Coast Hospital is the foremost; it is palatially
housed, and has a permanent staff of 5 medical officers, radio-
graphers, etc. It is a training centre for nurses, dispensers, and
other subordinates, and to it are sent all cases requiring special
diagnostic methods or treatment from the other hospitals in the
colony. There are in all 32 African general hospitals, each in
charge of a medical officer, 9 hospitals for contagious diseases, 16
village dispensaries, and 2 field hospitals in the extreme north of the
territory, dealing mainly with sleeping sickness. There are also
child welfare centres, of which three are financed by the Gold
Coast branch of the Red Cross. The distribution of these centres is
given in a map (Gold Coast 1936, D.R.).
488 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
It is fair to state, regarding the departmental activities as a
whole, that there has been a pronounced concentration in the
Gold Coast on the hospital system, and many buildings have been
erected in the important towns at great expense. The numbers
above show, however, that the system of dispensaries in rural areas
has not yet been fully developed. It appears that initiative here is
left largely to the African chiefs, and dispensaries are usually
erected only by special request. It is true that transport systems in
the colony and Ashanti are so well-developed that many patients
in rural areas can reach the hospitals for consultation and treat-
ment, but provision of this kind can hardly be expected to reach
the bulk of the population.
In 1937 the population was estimated at 3,703,517. In 1936
government hospitals had 68 beds for Europeans, 995 for Africans
in the general hospitals and 121 in the contagious diseases hospitals.
In the same year European in-patients numbered 931 and African
26,150; out-patients (European) were 2,095 and (African) 282,035.
Government medical expenditure in 1936 was £312,413 (re-
current) and total expenditure £2,337,357 (recurrent).
In Szerra Leone the Medical Department, which is under the
direction of Mr. P. D. Oakley, has separate medical and health
branches. In addition to the European staff of 15 qualified medical
officers, etc., there are 7 qualified African doctors, including a
senior medical officer and a pathologist. There is a central Euro-
pean hospital at Freetown. Of hospitals for Africans, the Con-
naught Hospital at Freetown is by far the largest and dealt with
2,549 in-patients and 18,193 out-patients in 1936. There are 4
other African hospitals at Makeni, Bo, Moyamba, and Port Loko,
the last erected during 1936, a fifth was to be erected in 1937.
Three mission hospitals in the Protectorate and one in the Colony
are subsidized by government, and a dispensary system has 8
centres in the Colony and 14 1n the Protectorate. Each of these is
in charge of a senior dispenser and is inspected frequently by the
district medical officers. As in the Gold Coast there has been a
concentration of medical work in the capital, and the Colony
surrounding it.
In 1935-6 the population was estimated at about 2,000,000 Africans
and Asiatics, and 700 Europeans. In 1936 government hospitals pro-
PLATE, VITI
Above: THE GOLD COAST HOSPITAL, ACCRA
One of the most completely equipped medical centres in tropical Africa
Below: ASHANTI MOTHERS AND CHILDREN
The child most recently born receives most food and attention
(Photograph by Dr. Cicely Williams)
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HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 489
vided 14 beds for Europeans, and 535 for Africans. ‘There were 180
European and 5,270 African in-patients, and 474 European and
110,524. African out-patients. In addition to the staff already men-
tioned there were 7 European nurses and 3 sanitary superintendents,
the African subordinate staff of about 160 included 39 dispensers,
3 health visitors, 42 sanitary inspectors of different grades, nurses,
and midwives.
Estimated government medical expenditure for 1936 was £66,894.
The medical department of the Gamdza is in charge of the Senior
Medical Officer, Dr. A. M. W. Rae, and the staff is concentrated
in Bathurst, there being few medical facilities elsewhere. Of the
African staff totalling about 40, only 11 are posted outside Bathurst.
The Victoria Hospital is the centre of the service, and is probably
the only large hospital in Africa in which patients of all races are
housed under one roof. The only hospitals in the Protectorate
are at Georgetown and Bwiani. There are dispensaries at other
centres, including one organized voluntarily by the wife of one
of the administrative commissioners, Mrs. R. W. Macklin. A
maternity and child welfare clinic has recently been established
in Bathurst.
A special problem, to which much attention has been drawn in
recent years, is the sanitary condition of Bathurst. Plans have been
prepared with the object of raising the level of much of the town,
which at present is scarcely above sea-level and is extensively
submerged during the rainy season. As Dr. Rae points out in his
report for 1935, the greater part of the cost of curative treatment
must be wasted if the patients are to return to living conditions
in which a recurrence of their malady is almost certain to take
place. An outline of the proposals was published by Professor
Warrington Yorke (1937), but the financial position of the colony
has not been held to warrant special expenditure on this work from
the Colonial Development Fund or other sources. The year 1936
showed a considerable development in the work of the medical
department. A hospital at Bwiani, chosen on account of the pre-
valence of sleeping sickness in that area, and a dispensary at Kaiaf
were opened, funds for both having been provided by the Pro-
vincial Emergency and Development Fund. Kaiaf dispensary
had over 3,000 cases in its first seven months, and Bwiani had 7,000
cases and 94 in-patients. A child welfare centre at Sukuta was
490 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
also started in a building loaned by the Methodist Mission, and a
leper camp was started by a progressive chief at Buruko in Mac-
Carthy Island Province. During 1936 also the holder of a senior
research scholarship in tropical medicine from the Medical Re-
search Council was working in the colony. (Gambia 1936, D.R.)
In 1937 there were 3 government hospitals, the Victoria, George-
town, and Bwiani, providing g beds for Europeans, and 98 for Asiatics
and Africans; in-patients numbered 49 Europeans, 25 Asiatics, and
1,619 Africans; out-patients 115 Europeans, 61 Asiatics, and 31,576
Africans. The European staff included 6 medical officers, 4 nurses,
and 2 sanitary inspectors; there were 2 African assistants and about
40 other employees.
Government medical expenditure was £32,110 out of a total of
£343,323. In 1935-6 the population was reported to be nearly
200,000 Africans and others, and just over 200 Europeans.
FRENCH
A full account of the public health services in the French colonies
as they were ten years ago, was published in English by the League
of Nations Health Organization (Abbatucci 1926), and also in
the statements prepared for the International Colonial Exhibition
of 1931 (A.O.F. 1931). Medical policy has not changed materially
since then, but the following account, based on more recent data,
is given for purposes of comparison with the organization in British
and Belgian colonies. |
There is no central institute for research and training in France
quite comparable with the London School of Hygiene and Tropi-
cal Medicine, but the Pasteur Institute in Paris serves similar func-
tions as a centre to which governments may refer for advice, whilst
the prestige of the institute has proved a great inducement to
research work in the colonies. In the French dependencies the
institute has branches which receive direction from Paris, but are
partly supported by the local governments (see later). The Ministry
Sor the Colonies in Paris is the headquarters of the general Inspector-
ate of all the colonial health services.
Each of the colonies of the West African Federation, the city
of Dakar being regarded as a distinct unit for this purpose, has a
Chef du Service de Santé, directly responsible to the Governor, and so
to the Governor-General. These Chefs du Service de Santé, however,
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 491
also report to the Inspector-General of the Health Services centred
at Dakar, who, with his staff of inspectors, is responsible to the
Inspectorate at the Ministry for Colonies in Paris, and advises the
Governor-General at Dakar.
In each colony the Chef du Service de Santé has under him a staff
of European doctors, of whom the majority are military, having
received training in tropical diseases at the Ecole d’ Application at
Marseilles. In addition the trained African auxiliary staff includes
‘auxiliary’ doctors, midwives, and health visitors who have passed
through the medical school at Dakar. The medical staffin French
West Africa includes 180 European medical officers, 68 European
nurses and dispensers, and 30 health visitors; there are 185 African
‘auxiliary’ doctors, 250 health visitors, and 1,733 subordinates.
In the past there has been difficulty in obtaining French civil
doctors, and many foreigners have been engaged as assistants.
This difficulty still exists in some degree, especially in Equatorial
Africa, so that some military doctors are seconded to the civil
branch. All the subordinate staff are trained in the colony where
they serve.
Each colony has its principal hospitals, of which those at Dakar,
St. Louis in Senegal, Bamako in the Sudan and Abidjan in the
Ivory Coast are regarded as first class. That at Dakar consists of
a large building for Europeans, another for Africans with 432
beds, which is used principally for surgical cases and does not deal
with epidemic diseases (see later), and a maternity building for
Africans, which deals with some 800 deliveries per year. The hos-
pital at Bamako, on the other hand, appears to be mainly for
Europeans and has a large staff in proportion to the patients; it is
separate from the dispensary service, which provides mainly for
Africans. Hospitals of the second category are at Conakry in
Guinea, Porto Novo and Cotonou in Dahomey, and the third-
class hospitals, each with a surgeon and radiographer in addition
to clinicians, are at Bobodioulasso and Ouagadougou in the nor-
thern part of the Ivory Coast, and at Niamey in the Niger Colony.
These hospitals naturally absorb a part of the staff mentioned
above, and the rest is now, or will be, distributed according to a
definite scheme as follows: every Cercle or province has one or
sometimes two medical centres which correspond to the provincial
492 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
hospitals of a British colony, each with a European doctor in
charge and some with an African auxiliary doctor as well. Here
urgent surgical cases are dealt with, but the chief object of these
medical centres is to supervise a ring of subsidiary centres (znfir-
mertes) in charge of native auxiliary doctors, each of which, in turn,
is surrounded by dispensaries in charge of infirmiers or nurses.
There are usually two or three medical posts with auxiliary doc-
tors in each cercle, but in some parts of Guinea and the Ivory Coast
there are up to nine in a cercle. In theory the doctor in charge of
the cercle visits each of his out-stations once a week. This system
is nearly complete for Dahomey and the lower regions of Senegal,
and is being extended as native auxiliary doctors and other staff
are being produced at Dakar, but there are large areas still with-
out dispensaries. The French insist on keeping all African staff
under close supervision, and hence do not open more dispensaries
than can be visited by European staff at frequent intervals. This
attitude may be contrasted with that in the British colonies for
example, where, though the African staff is usually less highly
trained, its members are often entrusted with more responsibility.
Another important difference between the French organization
and some British systems is that the hospitals are regarded essen-
tially as the headquarters for a large number of field stations in
rural areas, rather than as centres to which sick people should
come for expert treatment. In appearance, these medical centres
present a striking contrast to British provincial hospitals. At first
sight there appears to be a lack of order and cleanliness. The fami-
lies of patients live in the hospital compound and produce all the
patient’s food themselves. The wards are long low buildings,
divided off into separate chambers, in each of which there may be
several sick people lying on mats and covered only by blankets,
living with their wives and children. Well over 100 in-patients
are so disposed. Out-patients to the number of 350 or more in a
day are examined by the military doctor and his native auxiliary.
Such conditions might drive the staff of a British hospital to resig-
nation, but the enormous number of patients indicates the popu-
larity of the French system. This type of medical attention, though
greater in quantity, is probably inferior in quality compared with
the British. The latter system may be described as seeking to per-
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 493
suade the native to appreciate the high standards of European
medicine; the former as lowering the standard to meet the current
native ideas.
In addition to the native hospital, Dakar itself has a unique
medical centre, the Policlinique, which is run in conjunction with
the medical school. This serves as an out-patient centre for the
whole African population, but its principal object is held to be the
training of native auxiliary doctors, midwives, and dispensers for
work in the rural areas throughout the Federation. In the large
building with its highly developed statistical and recording organiz-
ation, some 380,000 consultations, representing about 63,000 cases
(i.e. more than a thousand consultations per day), take place
annually. The staff consists of five French doctors, some of whom
are specialists resident in Dakar who spend some hours each day
at the clinic, a French trained midwife and three French nurses,
an African auxiliary doctor and a large number of medical students,
including about fifty prospective doctors and twenty midwives.
There are separate departments for infant welfare, maternity, ear
and eye treatment, and a small laboratory is attached. Radiology
is likewise provided for, and every schoolchild in Dakar receives
full medical examination there twice a year.
For sanitary work the French rely on the ordinary medical staff,
except at Dakar and one or two other large centres, where special
gendarmes see that medical orders about mosquitoes are carried out,
and a separate sanitary service for the destruction of rats, etc. is in
operation.
In addition to the systems outlined above, there are special
organizations to deal with certain native diseases such as sleeping
sickness. These, known as équipes de prospection et traitement, num-
bered in 1936 ten in the northern part of the Ivory Coast, two on
the western border of that colony, three in Dahomey, one in Niger
colony, two in the Sudan, one in Senegal, and two in Guinea,
making a total of twenty-one, and twelve others were in formation.
Each équipe consists of a European doctor, accompanied by one
or two native auxiliary doctors and some two dozen infirmers, of
which three-quarters are trained in microscopic work to identify
the trypanosomes or other blood parasites. The équipe is divided
into two parts, the first, consisting of the doctor in charge and the
494 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
microscopists, arrives in a village and examines every individual.
Other diseases as well as sleeping sickness are noted on each per-
son’s card. The second section, in charge of the native auxiliary
doctor, follows, and establishes a temporary treatment centre for
each group of three or four villages. The auxiliary doctor may
establish a dozen or so of these treatment centres and visits them
once a week. All patients suffering from sleeping sickness or other
curable diseases come to the centres for injections at regular inter-
vals until the disease is stamped out of the neighbourhood. By this
means it is proposed to clear up one area after another, and as
each is vacated it is left for the ordinary system of medical centres
and dispensaries to keep observation on sleeping sickness in case
of a further outbreak. The training centre for the native personnel
for this special sleeping sickness work is at Ouagadougou, where
three Europeans, including a bacteriologist and an entomologist,
are permanently resident.
In each colony, moreover, a reserve of personnel, tents, and sani-
tary material is maintained at the chief medical headquarters to
deal with epidemics. The whole forms a complete portable hos-
pital which can be transferred at very short notice to an infected
area. This system is used chiefly for epidemics of plague and yellow
fever, and has been developed since plague was introduced to
Senegal in 1914, and reached its climax with the devastating
epidemic of 1927. Since then a great reduction of the disease has
been effected through the use of these hospital camps.
For research purposes reliance is placed largely on the Pasteur
Institute, which has branches at Tunis, Dakar, at Kindia in Guinea,
Brazzaville in French Equatorial Africa, and Tananarive in Mada-
gascar. These are widely consulted by the colonial medical organiz-
ation, and perform many routine functions such as the preparation
of vaccine for plague, yellow fever and other diseases. The Insti-
tute at Dakar for which a large building was recently completed,
is in charge of General Mattisse, and provides all the yellow fever
vaccine for the French African colonies, made, according to the
Laigret method, from the brains of white mice. In addition, there
is a bacteriological laboratory at Bamako in the Sudan, with a
staff of a French doctor and five African znfirmiers, which produces
vaccines for rabies, smallpox, and tuberculosis, approximating in
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—-GENERAL 495
all to nearly one million doses a year. There are other similar
laboratories for routine work at St. Louis and elsewhere, under the
direct control of the Chef de Santé.
Annual medical reports from the individual colonies are not
published, but general accounts of recent developments and the
results of scientific work by colonial doctors appear frequently in
the Annales de Médecine et de Pharmacie Coloniale, which is an official
publication of the Ministry of Colonies in Paris. Other specialist
journals are the Bulletin de la Société de Pathologie exotique, la Société
de Biologie, la Presse Médicale and les Annales de 0’ Institut Pasteur.
For leprosy a central Institute was established in 1933 a few
kilometres from Bamako. It has laboratories endowed for research,
and provides accommodation in a special village for all the suf-
ferers in French West Africa. By 1936 there were 325 already
living there, mostly from the Sudan and Ivory coast. The staff
consists of two doctors, three nursing sisters, znfirmiers, and African
nurses.
Private organizations and missions do not play so important a
part in French African medical work as they do in the Belgian
Congo, but they have grown considerably in recent years. In
all the colonies there are branches of the Crozx-Rouge frangaise and
of the Berceau Africain, in direct contact with their headquarters
in Paris. These institutions are, for the most part, concerned with
infant welfare.
There were in 1937 in French West Africa 11 government hospitals
and 437 ambulances and dispensaries; beds available for patients are
788 for Europeans and 5,484 for Africans. In-patients were Europeans
19,859, Africans 3,113,819. Total government expenditure amounted
to 615 million francs and expenditure on medical services 38 million
francs. ‘The population is estimated at 15,000,000.
French Equatorial Africa has a similar medical organization to
French West Africa. The four regions of Gabon, Congo, Ouban-
gui-Chari, and Chad have each a Chef du Service de Santé, and
an inspectorate with an Inspecteur-Général in charge is situated
at the capital at Brazzaville. The number of staff is not so great as
in French West Africa, but the same policy of keeping hospitals
mainly for surgical cases and concentrating on outside work is
followed. Equipes de prospection et traitement for sleeping sickness like-
496 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
wise function, though on a smaller scale, and in 1936 dealt with
12,567 new cases; field work of this kind and village treatment is
difficult in view of the four months’ rainy season. There is a leper
village at Fort Lamy, and sleeping sickness villages are established
by the éguipe system for the treatment of serious cases who are
compulsorily segregated. Medical missions are also active.
The population in 1936 was about three and a half million. In 1936
there were 5 hospitals, 52 dispensaries, some of which were mobile
units, and 46 health centres; 66,736 cases were admitted to hospital
and 2,751,103 consultations given. The staff included 80 doctors,
5 chemists, 9 hygzénistes, 6 midwives, and 46 European and 644 native
(male) nurses. The medical budget was about 20 million francs for
1936.
In the Cameroons and Togoland the French medical services are
more extensive than in French Equatorial or parts of French West
Africa, though similarly organized (Cameroons (French) 1936;
Togoland (French) 1936). In the Cameroons in 1936 the staff
of the official Service de Santé included 74 Europeans, of whom
45 were qualified doctors and the rest chemists, dispensers, and
sanitary agents. The trained auxiliary African staff, mostly
infirmiers, numbered 667. Good hospitals are established in each
regional headquarters, with centres médicaux in the district head-
quarters, and dispensaries in charge of infirmiers in the sub-
divisions. The numbers in 1936 were as follows: 1 European
and 4 native hospitals, 3 centres médicaux for Europeans and 18
for natives, and 38 dispensaries, of which 11 are provided with
beds. The total number of beds at these institutions is 54 for
Europeans and 2,064 for natives. Maternity and child welfare
has been a special feature of the work; in 1936 there were 15
maternity centres and 19 dispensaries for infant welfare, with a
total together of 792 beds. In addition, in 1936, there were special
establishments under the department including 26 leper colonies,
13 centres for contagious diseases, and 10 sleeping sickness centres.
Sleeping sickness, which is regarded as the most important
disease in the territory, is dealt with by équipes de prospection, similar
to those described for French West Africa. In 1936 there were six
équipes permanently at work followed by 12 detachments for treat-
ment. ‘The staff of these is additional to the figures given above.
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 497
By a compulsory system of attendance and full recording systems,
a medical census has been made in much of the area. Furthermore,
the movements of natives in all sleeping sickness districts are under
full control by a system of medical tickets, obtained at hospitals
after examination. Without one of these it is impossible for a native
to buy a railway ticket or to make use of other regular forms of
transport.
Among medical missions the American and French missions
figure prominently. Together they have a staff of 11 qualified
doctors, 46 European fathers, some of whom hold medical diplo-
mas, and a trained African staff of 174 infirmers. In 1936 the
missions maintained 8 hospitals with two more in course of con-
struction; hospital beds numbered 752 and dispensaries 37.
The Laboratory Service is centred at the Institut d Hygiene at
Douala, which comprises laboratories for bacteriology, serum
work, entomology, parasitology and chemistry.
In 1936 hospital in-patients numbered 220 Europeans and 15,728
Africans; out-patients 3,834 Europeans and 453,270 Africans; the
dispensaries treated 356,276 Africans, the centres médicaux 9,601 in-
patients and 134,316 out-patients, and the mobile units a total of
596,555. At the end of 1936 the European population was returned
as 2,324 and the native as 2,377,125. In 1935 the total ordinary
expenditure was 57,798,926 francs, and that of the Service de Sante,
8,978,269 francs.
In Togoland the medical staff in 1936 included 13 Europeans,
10 being qualified doctors. The African staff included 6 auxiliary
doctors trained at Dakar, 12 midwives, and 185 other assistants
such as aides médecins, infirmiers, etc. There is one central European
hospital, at Lomé, with 10 beds, and there are g African hospitals
with 318 beds, 5 centres médicaux, 21 dispensaries, of which 7 have
some 25 beds each for African patients, and 5 maternity centres.
Sleeping sickness was dealt with in 1936, as usual, by one équzpe
de prospection, followed by 7 treatment detachments, which dealt
with over 15,000 new cases. A special sanitary service has been
established in Lomé to reduce the incidence of plague by a cam-
paign against rats, of rabies by destroying stray dogs, and of
malaria and yellow fever by mosquito control measures. <A
laboratory attached to the Lomé hospital is entirely for routine
R
498 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
purposes. The chief research carried on is the collection of
demographic data by the équipe de prospection.
In 1936 the population was reported as 735,606 Africans, 50
mixed races and 400 Europeans. In 1936 there were 62 European and
4,255 African in-patients, and 933 European and 544,515 African
out-patients.
Government expenditure in 1935 amounted to 25,748,748 francs,
and that of the services sanitaires 3,863,897 francs.
BELGIAN
The Institute of Tropical Medicine at Antwerp, under the director-
ship of Professor J. Rodhain, corresponds to the London School of
Hygiene and Tropical Medicine as a headquarters. Collaboration
exists between this institute and the state laboratories in the
Congo, so that many of the problems which occur in Africa are
referred to the institute, and most of the results of research appear
in the Annales de la Société Belge de Médecine Tropicale, published
since 1920.
Of the services working in the Congo there is first the State
Medical Service, which has a headquarters in Brussels at the Minis-
try for Colonies under Dr. A. N. Duren. This has charge of health
in the whole colony. Under the state service the railway provides
a special medical organization for its employees. In Katanga the
medical service is also dependent on the central state service, and
receives assistance from the railway and industrial medical services;
it publishes the Bulletin Médical du Katanga, which gives a full account
of the work at the hospitals, clinics and research centres in Katanga.
On the research side there is a state laboratory at Leopoldville,
with a large research staff, and others at Coquilhatville, Stanley-
ville, Elisabethville and Katega, each with one research officer.
The European staff of the service included in 1937 74 doctors,
6 médecins hygiénistes, 243 nurses and 16 health visitors, while
there were 1,920 Africans such as nurses, aides-infirmiers, medical
assistants, and 31 gardes sanitaires. The mandated territory of
Ruanda-Urundi had 15 doctors, 1 dispenser, and 12 sanitary
agents, and the native staff of 295 included 12 medical assistants,
12 qualified nurses, 105 aides-infirmiers, and sanitary workers.
Although the government service is responsible for medical
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 499
work in every district, there has been a greater development of
unofficial organizations than in the British or French colonies, a
situation comparable with that in Belgium, where preventive
services are largely in the hands of voluntary associations. These
work in well-defined areas under Government control, which exists
by legal agreements in the case of mining companies, by reason of
conventions or in return for subsidies in the case of benevolent
societies and missions.
Belgian policy has concentrated to a marked degree on the
extension of facilities to rural districts. For medical purposes
each administrative district is sub-divided into a number of ter-
ritories. These are allotted to the official organizations known
as the Service de [Assistance Médicale aux Indigenes (SAMI), and
the unofficial bodies known as the Service Auxiliaire de I’ Assistance -
Medicale aux Indigenes (SADAMI). The SAMI includes the state
service mentioned above, and a subsidiary organization especi-
ally endowed, the Fondation Reine Elisabeth pour V Assistance Médicale
aux Indigénes (FOREAMI); while the SADAMI includes the
numerous medical missions and religious infirmaries, which are
doing remarkably fine work, and also two important organizations
—the Croix-Rouge du Congo and the Fondation Médicale de I’ Université
de Louvain au Congo (FOMULAC).
The FOREAMI, established in 1930, has large financial
resources and has done remarkable work. A capital sum of
150,000,000 francs was provided as a permanent endowment,
100,000,000 from the Congo Government, 50,000,000 from the
Belgian Government, and an additional gift of 288,853 from
Queen Elisabeth. The annual expenditure has risen from 2} mil-
lion francs in 1931 to nearly 11 million in 1934. Dr. Trolli, formerly
Chief Medical Officer of the Congo Free State Service, is director
of the organization, and some 27 Belgian doctors and 20 sanitary
agents, together with a large number of African assistants are
maintained permanently in the field. —The FOREAMI has com-
plete charge of the medical work in a huge, but well-defined zone,
in which a more thorough medical service for the natives than that
in the rest of the colony has been organized. The FOREAMI
subsidizes the private medical organizations in its area, especially
the missions, which collaborate in its policy. The method adopted,
500 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
is to concentrate on one area for a few years, to eradicate as far as
possible preventable disease, build hospitals, dispensaries, doctors’
houses and roads, and then to hand the cleaned area over to the
state service, which should be able to maintain the work with a
comparatively small staff. Meanwhile the FOREAMI moves on
to the next sector to continue the process.
Since the organization came into existence its principal area of
activity has been in the Bas Congo among the Bakongo tribe. The
centre of attack is now being moved to the adjoining sector of
Kwango, and the work of building roads, houses, and dispensaries
in the new area is already well advanced. The demographic
work done in the Bas Congo is considered later. There is a secon-
dary centre for sleeping sickness work in the Ruzizi-Tanganyika
region, where this disease is rife (FOREAMI 1931-5).
Passing to the SADAMI services, among the mission centres
those belonging to the Roman Catholic faith are the most numerous
and receive considerable government grants. Doctors belonging
to the Missions Nationales numbered 12. Protestant missions have
a considerable organization in the Lower Congo, on the Upper
Congo River and in Kasai. A number of denominations are repre-
sented; altogether they maintained, in 1934, 29 European doctors
with a number of hospitals and dispensaries.
The Crotx-Rouge du Congo, with Madame Dardenne as director,
started in 1925 and was the first unofficial medical organization
in Africa apart from missions. It has been the aim throughout to
achieve results in a limited area rather than to diffuse activities to
an extent which would be too large to maintain, if at any time
funds were curtailed. Accordingly the main work has been con-
centrated on a small area in the Uélé region, where a staff of four
doctors and eight sanitary agents is established. The three prin-
cipal objects which have been accomplished are the establishment
of rural dispensaries, maternity work, and the construction of a
leper village, where the inhabitants make their own houses, grow
their own crops and are practically self-supporting.
The Crotx-Rouge has established a few other centres organized
by local committees. At Leopoldville, where the native town has
a population of 25,000 men and 10,000 women, venereal disease
clinics have been opened; at Coquilhatville a maternity centre
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 50!
has been started, and village dispensaries are being established in
the neighbourhood of Elisabethville. No fees are charged and
natives flock to the dispensaries and clinics, Short reports are
published annually in Brussels.
The FOMULAG, like the GADULAC, which is concerned
with native agricultural improvement, originated from the
colonial enthusiasm of the University of Louvain. Its objects
and methods of bringing medical assistance direct to native villages
are similar to those of the Croix-Rouge. ‘Iwo important centres
have been established at Kisantu and Katana, and a smaller
post at Yasa. Four doctors are maintained in Africa by the
organization and short reports are published annually in
Louvain.
The mining and other companies, of which the principal are
the Union Miniére du Haut-Katanga, the Société des Mines da’ Or de
Kilo-moto, the Forminiere and the Huileries du Congo Belge, all have
efficient medical services with the object of maintaining health
among the employees. In all some fifty doctors are supported in
Africa by the companies. All concessions carry the condition that
hospitals and schools must be provided for the natives, but several
of the companies have done far more in these directions than they
were bound to do. Since the importance, even from an economic
point of view, of improving the standard of living and the general
hygiene among the families of their employees is fully realized,
the influence of these services has extended considerably beyond
the immediate vicinity of the industrial centre. For example the
Huileries du Congo Belge support maternity hospitals and training
schools for native midwives. The free treatment given at general
hospitals and dispensaries is not restricted to the company’s own
employees and their families. Five boarding schools to take 1,500
children have been established, where everything, including food
and clothing, is provided free. A separate brick house and a
garden is given to each married employee, and by 1931 some
8,000 houses had been erected. There is a natives’ savings bank
which pays 5 per cent on deposits, and a sum for the bride-price
is advanced to employees wishing to take wives. Extra accommoda-
tion is provided for families with children, and a blanket is given
for every child born. The upkeep of these social services costs the
502 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
company some £50,000 annually, and up to 1931 £165,000 had
been expended on buildings.
The activities of the other large companies are proportionate;
thus the Union Miniere has a maternity centre and feeding consul-
tant at each of its branches; consultations and free meals are pro-
vided for children up to five years, and subsequently schools with
free meals up to fifteen years. This organization is specially
developed in Jadotville, where it is assisted by two mission medical
centres (van Nitsen 1933). The Société de Kilo-moto has two
maternity homes, two orphanages and several schools, and gives
about 95,000 free consultations on diet every year. The Forminiere
has established the Berceau de Kasai at Tshikapa with the object
of reducing infant mortality.
In 1937 the population of the Congo was given as 20,103 Euro-
peans and 11,000,000 Africans. The government maintained 25
hospitals for Europeans, 2 for Asiatics, and 70 for Africans, with bed
accommodation of 317 (Europeans), 17 (Asiatics), and 6,420 (Afri-
cans); 2,913 European and 85,279 African in-patients were treated
and 14,584 European and 836,322 African out-patients. The Mis-
sions Etrangéres treated 836,322 cases, and the Assistance Médicale
Bénévole aux Indigénes 560,896. Le Budget Ordinaire for the Bel-
gian Congo for 1937 was 665,487,207 francs and that of the medical
service 62,375,218 francs.
In Ruanda-Urundi in 1936 4 hospitals were maintained, and
treated 54 European and 4,720 African in-patients; a further 1,679
were admitted to other medical centres; 665 European patients were
treated and a total of 995,894 Africans by Government and subsi-
dized mission services. In 1936 the budget provided for an expendi-
ture of 4,833,825 francs on the service de [’hygiéne out of a total of
31,279,468 francs.
PORTUGUESE
Little information is available on recent medical developments
in Angola and Mozambique. In Portugal the Lisbon School of
Tropical Medicine is an important headquarters, and for Mozam-
bique there are central laboratories for medical research at Lou-
renco Marques, where sleeping sickness is the principal disease
studied. In 1934 there were 13 hospitals with 75 doctors and a
considerable staff of European and native assistants. Since the
First Congress of Tropical Medicine of West Africa at Loanda in
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 503
1923 the advance in medical work in Angola has been notable,
and a hospital and dispensary system is now established. In 1935
there were 15 hospitals, with 65 doctors and some European assis-
tants. Special courses of training are held for native nurses and
other subordinate staff. In Angola the Baptist Missionary Society
(London) and several American missions support about eight hos-
pitals, each with a doctor and most with a nurse in addition.
The Baptist centre at San Salvador trains native medical assistants
and nurses.
PAYMENT FOR MEDICAL SERVICES
Throughout Africa, as in other parts of the world, certain
government servants receive free medical attention; non-officials
are expected to pay for it when they can afford it, and private
practitioners charge fees according to the usual system. ‘The
question whether government doctors should be entitled to under-
take private practice has accordingly arisen. This is allowed in
many areas but it is the policy of the Colonial Office eventually
to prohibit it.
Practice as regards charging fees to African patients varies in
different territories. In the French colonies payment is asked only
in exceptional cases where patients can obviously afford it, al-
though in Togo under French Mandate there is a scale of charges
for treatment. It must be remembered, however, that under the
French system the food and clothing are not provided for hospital
patients. In the Belgian Congo under the State Medical Service
free treatment is given except for accidents and most surgical
cases, when some payment is expected from patients who can
afford it, as a contribution towards the cost of the materials used
for their treatment. No fees to doctors are paid by natives. Where-
ever possible the relatives of hospital patients are expected to con-
tribute food for their support.
In most of the British colonies the majority of natives receive
attention free. In some, small charges are made for supplying
medicines, etc. This policy has been adopted especially in Uganda,
except in the cases of notifiable infectious disease or of indigent
persons and expectant mothers who are always treated free, and
504. SCIENCE IN AFRICA
some revenue is obtained by this means, particularly for salvarsan
injections. For these, payment is charged on three scales in accor-
dance with the average wealth of different areas, and patients
are encouraged to take a full course of treatment by a reduction
in the fee per injection. In hospitals and dispensaries there is a
charge of up to two shillings a week for in-patients in a general
ward, subject to ability to pay, and seven shillings a day for a
private ward.
In Basutoland the out-patient departments of each of the six
hospitals charge one shilling for each attendance from native
patients, but in-patients pay nothing.
It has been urged that all medical treatment of Africans should
be free, on the grounds that the services are largely financed from
native taxation, and that the provision of free treatment might
encourage further resort to it. On the other hand many authorities
hold the opposite view, that Africans in rural areas are likely to
appreciate treatment more if the service is not taken entirely for
granted. Experience in many parts of the continent shows that
Africans, like Europeans, are apt to think that the benefit they
receive from treatment is in direct proportion to the amount they
pay. In Kenya Africans have been found to believe that an injec-
tion which costs ten shillings is ten times better than one costing
one shilling, and practical difficulties ensue, since they will save
up for expensive single injections and imagine that they need not
take courses. There might seem to be advantages in a simple
co-operative system whereby small fees were charged on a regular
basis and responsibility for payment rested with the village head-
men.
Some authorities regard as preferable the provision of free
treatment, a certain proportion of the poll-tax being considered as
a contribution on the lines of health insurance in some European
countries, the balance of the cost of medical services being met by
a grant from the state and a tax on the employer of labour. The
definite allocation of a percentage of the poll-tax would tend to
stabilize expenditure on medical services even in periods of finan-.
cial depression, and limit reduction of service to specific benefits.
rather than allow a general reduction of medical work just at a
period when the need for it is greatest. A special aspect of this
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 505
problem arises in areas, such as Uganda, where salvarsan has come
to be regarded as the cure for all ills. It is unfortunately a frequent
practice for certain African medical attendants to make illegal
profits by the sale of salvarsan which is either stolen or collected
by giving doses less than those ordered. A system of supervision
close enough to prevent these defalcations is practicable, but if free
treatment were recognized as a right acquired by the payment of
poll-tax, the African himself would probably insist on his rights;
the danger would then more probably come from demands for
salvarsan for every ailment.
The development of health insurance in England based on the
part-time employment of private practitioners has not proved
satisfactory from every point of view, and the arguments against
it apply more forcibly to African conditions. Therefore, the pro-
vision of free treatment by a state service might well prove a more
satisfactory line of development for Africa.
MEDICAL EDUCATION OF AFRICANS
The improvement and maintenance of health in Africa depends
largely on the provision of trained African assistants who can un-
dertake routine work at hospitals, and can take medical aid direct
to the rural areas while working under the supervision of European
medical officers (see Chapter XVII). The training of dispensers,
nurses, dressers, and midwives has been established for some years
in most African territories, but recently the lack of a more highly
trained auxiliary staff capable of efficient diagnosis and treatment
has been seriously felt. ‘he medical service, as other services, can
be envisaged in the form of a pyramid, in which the base is formed
by a large number of nurses, dispensers, etc., the apex by the Euro-
pean medical officers, and the central part by auxiliary doctors
or medical aids. ‘This intermediate class exists in East Africa in
the form of Asiatic assistant and sub-assistant surgeons and in
Uganda of African medical assistants, but in West Africa, although
there is beginning to be a supply of African auxiliaries, and African
doctors qualified in Europe already fill some senior posts, nearly
all the work of routine diagnosis and treatment has to be done by
Europeans.
506 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
There are thus two aims in medical education in Africa: first
to produce auxiliary doctors to form the middle of the pyramid,
for which the system of training must be based on that well-proved
in European countries; second to produce the dispensers, nurses,
dressers, and other subordinates at the base of the pyramid. For
the first type it is obvious that special medical schools are essential,
but for the second, training facilities can be made available at
hospitals, though special schools are of value for the higher grades
such as dispensers, midwives, and sanitary inspectors. The train-
ing of auxiliary doctors should of course have in view the eventual
appointment of the ablest to senior posts. There must, however,
be an intermediate stage in which partially, as opposed to com-
pletely, trained men serve in positions where considerable super-
vision by superior officers is exercised. This partial training is
often opposed by the medical profession, but it is coming into
prominence in several parts of the world. In Central Europe the
Felcher System is already under trial: partly trained doctors are
returned to peasant villages where they usually marry and some-
times combine a small practice with some other occupation. A
similar system is being developed in India, and is contemplated in
China and Japan.
The systems of training in Africa have been surveyed by Buell
(1928), and more recently Dr. C. C. Chesterman (1932) has out-
lined the practice of Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast, Nigeria, the
Sudan, Uganda, Tanganyika, Nyasaland and the Belgian Congo.
He advocates many small schools, since these have the advantage
of personal contact between teacher and student. The most recent
survey of facilities for medical training in East Africa is given in
the report of the Commission on Higher Education in East Africa
published in September 1937.
AUXILIARY DOCTORS
The centres where auxiliary doctors are now trained number
five; the medical schools at Dakar, which provides médecins auxt-
liaires for all French West Africa, at Yaba near Lagos in Nigeria,
the Mulago Medical School at Kampala in Uganda, the Native
College at Fort Hare in South Africa and the Kitchener School of
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 507
Medicine at Khartoum. ‘The last-named lies outside the scope of
the present study.
The training at Dakar was started immediately after the Great
War, and may be described first as the earliest established and
largest school for auxiliary doctors in Africa. The prospective
medical student spends two years on secondary education at the
Ecole William Ponty on the Island of Gorée. Then follow four
years of intensive training at the Medical School, for which only
the better students are chosen. The first two of these years are
devoted to a grounding in the usual subjects such as physiology,
anatomy, pathology, and hygiene, but during the last two years
the students divide their time between the Medical School proper
and the Policlinique and African hospitals, where a large part of
the routine diagnosis and treatment is carried out by them under
European supervision. The actual work is much the same as in a
British medical school, but there is no ‘long vacation’, and the
students have more working hours during the four years at Dakar
than during the five or six years in a British medical school.
There are rather more than one hundred medical students at the
school, and during the past few years between twenty-two and
twenty-six have passed out each year. After examination there
follow two years in a hospital under European supervision before
the qualified médecin auxiliaire is ready to work alone at an out-
station. Most of them return to Dakar at intervals for refresher
courses, and after ten years’ service they return for further exami-
nations.
The regulations of the service are framed in such a way as to
make private practice by médecins auxiliaires almost impossible,
unless they subsequently go to France to take a full medical degree.
Individuals who have attained to a specially high standard may
be given permits to practice, but such a case has not yet occurred.
In comparing this intensive training with that given in other
parts of Africa, it has to be borne in mind that the Dakar students
include a large number of Moors and half-castes, and, on the aver-
age, start their training at a higher educational level than those of
Nigeria or Uganda, for example. Moreover, the climate of Dakar
is more conducive to intensive study than that of more tropical
regions. For the other French dependencies a medical school is
508 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
established at Tananarive in Madagascar on the same lines as that
at Dakar, and another is starting at Ayos in the Cameroons,
where a full four-years’ course will follow a year’s specializing at
the Ecole Supérieure at Yaonde. In French Equatorial Africa a
medical school is proposed in connection with the hospital at
Brazzaville, to consist of a training school for médecins auxiliaires
and a maternity school.
In British West Africa the question of establishing a training
centre for medical practitioners in the Gold Coast and an auxiliary
service of medical assistants was considered some years ago by a
Committee appointed by the Secretary of State for the Colonies
(Gold Coast 1928). Numerous difficulties were raised, particularly
from the financial point of view, and the idea has been relegated
to the background for the time being. In Nigeria a medical school
was opened at Yaba in 1930. A system of training based on that
of Great Britain, was legalized in 1934 (Nigeria 1935). The first
two years are devoted to the usual pre-medical subjects at the
Higher College, Yaba, and the third to fifth years are spent at
the medical school itself, and the African hospital, dispensary,
and health department in Lagos. The examinations, held after a
five years’ course, qualify for registration as a medical assistant,
which gives the right to practice medicine, surgery, and mid-
wifery in the government medical service. A medical assistant
who has been registered for at least three years, one of which has
been spent in an approved course of special study, and who has
passed a further examination, can be granted a Diploma of Licen-
tiate of the School of Medicine, Nigeria, to become registered as
a medical practitioner in that territory. The training staff consists
of a superintendent of the medical school and a teacher of phar-
macy, but a prominent part is taken also by the staff of the African
hospital in Lagos, and the medical research laboratories at Yaba.
In fact, the time devoted to teaching by the government patholo-
gists is a serious drain on their activities in research.
In Uganda the Mulago Medical School is the only centre of its
kind in East Africa, and is likely to remain so for some time to
come. Pupils are sent there from neighbouring territories, and
already students from Zanzibar and Tanganyika have returned
to the medical departments in these dependencies. In 1936, some
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 509
students from Kenya entered the school, which in Uganda is
regarded as one of the most important organs of the department
in its endeavour to improve the health of Africans. The training
of medical attendants started at Mulago Hospital in 1913, and
during the Great War the best of them formed the nucleus of the
African Medical Corps. All training was suspended during the
war, but in 1919 the institution of a government medical school
was first suggested, when it was recognized that there was need
for two classes of personnel: first those with medical qualifications
who would eventually replace the Indian sub-assistant surgeons,
and secondly attendants for purely nursing duties. Meanwhile,
Makerere College was inaugurated in 1920, and advanced medical
training began in 1923 with the appointment of Dr. H. B. Owen
as medical tutor. The original course was of four years’ duration,
but in 1927 was extended to five years, and in 1936 to six. The
syllabus approximates to that of London University, but naturally
at present the standard of knowledge required, is not as high as
that in a British university. In 1928 the medical school building
was completed, and eight lecturers from the medical officers at
Mulago were appointed. Students reside at Makerere for the first
three years and then move to Mulago. Each year four or five stu-
dents qualify, and the total number amounted to twenty-nine by
the end of 1935. After qualification the medical assistants work in
Mulago Hospital for a year, during which they act as house physi-
cians or house surgeons, before proceeding to other parts of the
Protectorate where they are slowly replacing the Asiatic sub-assis-
tant surgeons. A system of registration was started in 1931.
In South Africa there are medical schools at the universities for
training European doctors, but until very recently there were no
training facilities for natives, with the result that the medical
services in native areas have left much to be desired. The report of
the Committee to inquire into the training of natives in medicine
and public health (Union of South Africa 1928) made a number of
important recommendations; among others, that facilities should
be provided at the University of Witwatersrand, in a non-European
branch of the existing medical school, for natives who should re-
ceive exactly the same training as Europeans, a pre-medical year
to be spent at the South African Native College; native students
Bro SCIENCE IN AFRICA
should be admitted from outside the Union, and loans should be
provided from native funds to assist them to take the full course.
It was recommended also that provision for training of health
assistants and nurse-midwives should be made immediately, in
addition to that of doctors. Although these recommendations have
not been put into effect as they stand, a start was made in 1935
with the training of medical aids at the South African Native
College at Fort Hare. This consists of a three-year course pre-
ceded by a preparatory year’s training in science, and followed
by a year’s practical hospital and public health training in Durban.
Although the courses bear some resemblance to those at Mulago
and Yaba medical schools, it is emphasized that they are in no way
comparable with those of the non-native medical students. The
medical aid in South Africa is not designed to replace existing
doctors, but to supplement the work of district surgeons in the
outlying native areas, where the services of the ordinary medical
man are seldom available. It is, in fact, believed that the employ-
ment of medical aids will tend to increase rather than decrease
the work of the ordinary practitioner. The training is devised
with a view to certain definite duties, which include preventive
work, first-aid treatment of illnesses and injuries and the prepara-
tion of smears for the diagnosis of such diseases as malaria, leprosy,
and tuberculosis. The training for the preparatory year was started
in 1935 and the first batch of medical aids should come into
service in 1940.
In the Belgian Congo, the advanced training of Africans as
medical assistants or auxiliary doctors similar to those produced
at Dakar, Yaba, and Mulago, is recognized as a necessity, and
accordingly, a medical school was founded at Leopoldville in
1936. ‘The course consists of four years’ practical and theoretical
work, followed by two years’ qualifying at a hospital under full
supervision. It is considered that, although a good education is
necessary before entrance to this school, it is more important to
give the future medical assistant a good moral grounding.
NURSES AND OTHER SUBORDINATE STAFF
For the training of African personnel of lower standard than
auxiliary doctors, each territory has adopted its own system to
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL Aid
meet special requirements. It has been pointed out that the needs,
especially in native areas, are common to nearly all the continent,
and that there should be opportunity for co-operation between
adjacent territories in providing training facilities. This perhaps
has special application to Eastern Africa, where Northern Rho-
desia and Nyasaland, for example, are at present unable to
establish adequate centres individually. A medical and sanitary
training centre, supported by two or three adjacent territories,
would provide the most economical and effective way of ensuring
a permanent supply of staff. The following notes concerning
existing systems for the training of subordinate staff are arranged
territory by territory in the usual order.
In the South African Protectorates training has been started with
the aid of a grant of £10,000, which the gold mining industry
made to the three territories in May 1934. In Bechuanaland, a
scheme for the training of a few natives of both sexes each year
as nurse-aids and dispensers is in operation at Serowe and Lobatsi
Hospitals. ‘Two of the women pass on every year for maternity
and welfare training at Serowe, while the others proceed to out-
lying dispensaries, where their work is supervised by visiting medi-
cal officers. ‘The idea is that they should give simple medical
treatment and instruction on hygiene in the neighbouring
villages.
In Southern Rhodesia the training of native medical orderlies at
schools attached to the Salisbury and Bulawayo hospitals has been
developed in recent years in connection with the extension of the
medical services to rural areas. ‘These orderlies are posted to the
native medical units, where they take charge of the sub-hospitals
or dispensaries. Schemes for the training of native women have
been prepared, including the establishment of a training school
for midwives in connection with the Bulawayo hospital.
In Northern Rhodesia the training of African personnel is hampered
by lack of financial resources. In 1936, however, proposals were
made for the opening of a temporary training school, and the
initiation of systematic training for native sanitary inspectors. The
principles of hygiene are taught in all schools, the Jeanes Schools
being a centre for such teaching.
In Nyasaland hospital assistants receive a three-year training
512 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
at the Blantyre Mission Hospital (Church of Scotland Mission).
During 1935 progress was made with the training of dispensers
or dressers. The educational standard of the dresser has been
raised and no boys under standard IV are accepted. The first
part of the training consists of full-time work in nursing and
ward duties under a nursing sister, who has to sign the proba-
tioners’ cards of proficiency before they can qualify for promotion.
They proceed to simple dispensing, the recognition and treatment
of diseases and simple clerical work. ‘Trained African sanitary
inspectors are also much required, but it is held that little advance
can be made without special facilities in the form of additional
European sanitary superintendents, because the existing men have
so little time to devote to training (Nyasaland 1935, D.R.).
The training of English-speaking African dispensers began in
Tanganyika in 1927, a nine-months’ course of theoretical work fol-
lowed by nine months’ practical hospital instruction being given.
This has been extended, so that the medical apprentices now pass
through a three-year course at Dar-es-Salaam. Revision courses
have been held for some years, and small text-books on the various
subjects in the syllabus, including elementary chemistry and
physics, anatomy, physiology, medicine, surgery, hygiene, etc. are
published. In future, candidates for this training will be required
to have completed one year’s secondary education, including
elementary science and English. ‘This course does not aim at the
high standard of Mulago, since it is held that the territory’s most
pressing need ‘is a large number of adequately trained natives
capable of diagnosing and treating ordinary minor ailments and
of recognizing serious cases which require to be sent to the larger
hospitals for treatment. They may also be required to supervise
the tribal dressers who work under the Native Authorities’. Several
have been given scholarships to Mulago, and have gone to Uganda
for this purpose. ‘Training courses were instituted at Dar-es-
Salaam in 1921 for urban sanitary inspectors, the teaching being
given in English; vernacular courses were added in 1925 (Tan-
ganyika 1927, D.R.). An experiment designed to produce a
subordinate staff with knowledge both of preventive and curative
work, has been recently set on foot in the Lake Province, where
sanitary inspectors are instructed in medical work at the Mwanza
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL Hrs
native hospital, and tribal dressers are taught rural sanitation
methods at the health office.
The tribal dressers, who in Tanganyika provide the staff for
the numerous dispensaries under the native administrations, were
formerly trained at a number of centres, but the teaching is now
being improved by centralization both in the Western and Lake
Provinces, the latter having a special school for tribal dressers at
Mwanza. At the same time an effort is being made to increase the
numbers to 1 per 10,000 of the population. The object is to have one-
third more dressers than are actually required at the dispensaries,
so that every tribal dresser is free from duty for one year in every
four in order to attend refresher courses. The training lasts eighteen
months and includes clinical work in the hospital, full instruction in
the use of the microscope and in preparing slides for diagnosis, but
not much theoretical study. Although literate, the tribal dressers
do not ail speak English; their duties are to treat minor ailments,
administer first-aid in the larger village communities, to recognize
cases of illness which are beyond their power to treat and to see
that these attend a dispensary or hospital. (Tanganyika 1935,
De)
In Kenya many of the dressers who staff dispensaries in native
areas at present receive their training at district hospitals, but
plans are being made for a three- or four-year course at the African
Hospital, Nairobi, and in 1936 there were twenty-one learners in
training at the medical training depot. Dispensary health workers
are to receive practical training under European sanitary inspectors.
In Uganda, junior nursing orderlies receive one year’s training
at Mulago, followed by a year under a European nursing sister
either there or at one of the district hospitals. After passing an
examination the student may take the senior course, which in-
volves another twelve months’ work. This training is open to both
boys and girls. The numbers are limited to twelve in the junior
class and six in the senior; this is less than in former years, when
forty nursing orderlies were produced per annum, but the standard
of training is higher.
Two schools for the training of midwives are in existence, one
at the Lady Coryndon Maternity Training School controlled by
the Church Missionary Society, and one at the Nsambya Maternity
514 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Training School controlled by the Mill Hill Catholic Mission.
Both have attached to them a large number of rural maternity
centres staffed by African girl midwives trained at the schools.
The course given covers two years’ theoretical and practical train-
ing. A special course for the training of African sanitary inspectors
was begun at Mulago in 1936, and has attracted a very good type
of student. A course of training for African artisans in simple well
construction and the protection of water-supplies was inaugurated
in 1935.
In Nigeria, special courses are arranged for nurses, dispensers,
and other subordinate African staff, as laid down in a special
publication (Nigeria 1930). For nurses, who can be trained at
several of the African general hospitals, the complete training takes
three years, before promotion as second-class nurses. To begin
with, a six-months’ series of elementary lectures and demonstra-
tions is provided, after which most of the instruction is in the wards
and out-patient departments. For midwives the length of train-
ing is two and a half years, including the same six months’ pre-
liminary course in general nursing. Infant welfare work is associ-
ated with that in midwifery. Dispensers are mostly trained at the
School of Pharmacy, Lagos, and a three-year course is followed
by the students, who are posted at a training hospital for a course
of account keeping, etc. Laboratory attendants similarly have a
three-years’ course, with a fourth year, where possible. The train-
ing of sanitary inspectors has been especially developed in Nigeria,
and a centre at Ibadan was completed in 1932, largely through a
grant from the Colonial Development Fund. The course is two
years in length, and up to 1936 some twenty-five Africans had been
through the school, which also serves as a demonstration centre of
hygienic methods of living for the local community.
In the Gold Coast a cadre of eighty nurse-dispensers for village
dispensaries is being established, through the special training
facilities at the Gold Coast Hospital. Midwives are trained at Accra
Maternity Hospital. Four nurse-dispensers complete their train-
ing every year, and it is hoped that, with the help of members of
the Gold Coast Red Cross, they will make possible the formation
of health units in all outlying areas, the nurse-dispenser giving
first aid and simple treatment, the local teacher or catechist being
HEALTH AND MEDICINE—GENERAL 515
trained in hygiene and sanitation, and his wife in maternity and
child welfare. It is expected, however, that an expansion of the
qualified medical staff will be necessary to provide sufficient super-
vision for these health units. A school for sanitary inspectors was
reopened at Accra in 1934, and the training of village overseers
was started in 1935 by health officers in Kumasi and Tamale, for
sanitary work in rural areas.
In Sterra Leone the Connaught Hospital at Freetown is the train-
ing centre for nurses, midwives, and dispensers throughout the
territory. Some of the trained men and women engage in private
practice, but the majority remain in government service. Train-
ing courses for sanitary inspectors are also given in Freetown, and
recently a system of refresher courses has been introduced; a
maternity training centre will be included in the new maternity
hospital at Freetown, when it is completed (Sierra Leone 1936,
MOR.)
In French West Africa, the Medical School at Dakar, in addition
to training the médecins auxiliatres (p. 507), provides special three-
year courses for dispensers and midwives, and a two-year course
for infirmiers, in all of which students spend a large part of their
time in practical duties at the Policlinique and native hospitals.
In the Belgian Congo the principal hospitals serve as training
grounds for nurses, dispensers, etc., as in the British and French
territories, and in addition the missions and auxiliary services have
important functions in extending medical work to the villages
through the medium of trained or partly trained native men and
women. For example the Crotx-Rouge du Congo, in its work in Uélé,
specializes in the training of nurses and midwives, usually the
daughters of chiefs.
HEALTH PROPAGANDA
Health propaganda is carried out through many agencies, of
which medical departments must necessarily be the principal. The
subordinate African personnel, and particularly the health demon-
strators trained at the Jeanes Schools, are also expected to spread
knowledge of hygienic principles. Another means to this end is
the organization of exhibits and health weeks, in which the Nigerian
516 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
medical department has been conspicuous. As soon as a sufficient
proportion of the population has received some instruction, it is
possible to utilize literature.
Posters are already widely used, particularly in Tanganyika.
Literature is strikingly represented by The Book of Civilization
arranged by Dr. A. R. Paterson (1936 and 1938). ‘This is in two
parts, the first on cleanliness, health, and the care of children,
and the second on forests, land, cattle, and improved methods of
farming. The cinematograph and broadcasting likewise play an
important part in health propaganda, but this subject can hardly
be drawn within the scope of the present volume, and is considered
more fully in Chapter XVII of A Survey of Africa.
CHAPTER XVI
HUMAN DISEASES
INTRODUCTION
His chapter does not pretend to be in any way exhaustive.
ER full account of human diseases in Africa could be prepared
only by a body of experts, and would be unsuitable for the present
purpose, which is to indicate briefly the ways in which the study
of human disease relates to other branches of science.
While the African is subject to most diseases which are known
in temperate regions, he is particularly a sufferer from others
which are unknown or have disappeared wholly or partially from
Europe, and are now looked upon as ‘tropical diseases’. These
have been classified most commonly according to their methods
of transmission, but for the purposes of this survey and to empha-
size as strongly as possible the methods by which they can be
controlled, a better grouping would be as follows:
A. Those diseases which are primarily due to the conditions of life
of primitive agricultural peoples, and which may be expected
to disappear with the introduction of improved social conditions
and communal organization. Such diseases are malaria, black-
water fever, the jungle type of yellow fever, sleeping sickness.
B. Those diseases which are primarily due to the existence of
insanitary conditions, and which may be expected to disappear
with the introduction of improved housing, water-supplies,
conservancy, etc. Such diseases are plague, relapsing fever,
typhus, tuberculosis, leprosy, helminthiasis, typhoid, dysentery,
pneumonia, and yaws.
C. Those diseases, the spread of which is largely due to ignorance.
Among such the most important are the venereal diseases.
D. Those diseases which are, or are suspected to be, due to mal-
518 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
nutrition, and may be expected to disappear with an improved
standard of living. Such diseases are tropical ulcer, scurvy,
pellagra, beri-beri, xerophthalmia, and a number of other con-
ditions.
In the following pages the above order has been adhered to as
closely as possible, but in certain cases, as in yaws and syphilis,
the symptoms of, and research on the diseases are so similar that
they have had to be considered under one heading. Diseases which
result from malnutrition are considered not here but in the section
of Chapter XVII on food and nutrition.
RESEARCH AND CONTROL
MALARIA
It is often stated that malaria is holding back the advance of
both black and white in Africa more than any other single factor
—that it ought to be eradicated, controlled or at least mitigated;
but for the purposes of this account the aspects of the problem
which are implied by the word ‘control’ cannot be considered
satisfactorily because conditions, and, therefore, means of control,
vary greatly from place to place. It is possible only to consider the
general relations of malaria to human progress by stating the views
of some experts purely objectively and by referring to a few
important publications. Expert opinion can be quoted in support
of two policies; that which seeks to eradicate the mosquito by
drainage or by oiling waters, and that which concentrates on
killing the parasites in the sick person by quinine or other drugs. It
is not always recognized, especially among the general public, that
different workers write about different places, and that what is
right for one place is quite wrong for another. The League of
Nations malaria reports (see later) emphasize that each locality
must ‘work out its own salvation’ in the choice of anti-malarial
measures, and the necessity for local variations of method is now
recognized.
Sir Ronald Ross, after his discovery in 1897 that part of the
malaria parasite’s life cycle is passed in Anopheles, pointed out that
this knowledge provided an entirely new method of prevention
through the destruction of the mosquito. The Ross Institute,
HUMAN DISEASES 519
which is now under the direction of Sir Malcolm Watson and has
recently been incorporated with the London School of Hygiene
and Tropical Medicine, has been the centre for developments
which have arisen from the initial discovery, and has collaborated
with entomologists and medical men throughout the world. Some
conclusions now reached are as follows. To eliminate the disease
in any area it is not necessary to destroy all Anopheles, even of the
dangerous species. Drainage and agriculture are the old and
proved methods, but research since Ross’s discovery has shown
that these may lead in some conditions to increase rather than
decrease of mosquitoes and malaria; for example in many places
drainage by open ditches is dangerous, since the environment
thereby produced is made more favourable for the malaria mos-
quitoes than some kinds of swamp and most wet forests. Other
examples are the selection of non-malarial sites for new houses,
and the removal of old houses to new and healthy sites; the use of
anti-malarial oils or paris-green to destroy mosquito larvae; the
preservation or destruction of forest or bush, as may be appropriate
to the locality; changing the chemical composition of water, as in
flooding dangerous coastal swamps with salt water, or converting
brackish water areas into fresh water, as practised with success in
Holland.
Sir Malcolm Watson (1930), who has studied malarial conditions
in many parts of the world, including Africa, has summarized the
malaria policy of the Ross Institute and (1935) in his Finlayson
Memorial Lecture at Glasgow has described the great progress
achieved in the control of malaria since Ross’s discovery. There
are, however, many parts of the world, formerly infected with
malaria, where the disease has practically ceased to exist as a result
of normal agricultural development without special anti-mosquito
campaigns; in many areas Anopheles have remained common after
the disease has disappeared. Europe provides such examples,
which were discussed at length by Dr. L. W. Hackett in his Heath
Clark Lectures of 1934 (published 1937).
With regard to Africa as a whole, the upholders of treatment as
the chief method of attack have stressed that since it is impossible
to eradicate Anopheles everywhere, its eradication from limited
areas might do more harm than good. The majority of Africans
520 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
contract malaria within their first few years, and, if they survive,
obtain a certain degree of immunity which lasts throughout life,
but this immunity is to one local strain of the disease rather than
to malaria as a whole. If the disease is eradicated from an area
and children grow up without attaining partial immunity, and
subsequently move into an infected area, they are liable to con-
tract the disease in a more serious form. According to this view,
if it is conceded that the disease cannot be stamped out completely,
the great aim must be to develop immunity to all forms of the
disease by a better standard of living, together with improved
therapeutic methods. The report on Principles and Methods of
Anti-malarial Measures in Europe (League of Nations 1932<),
prepared by a number of eminent malariologists and originally
drafted by Colonel James, stresses the improvement of the stan-
dard of living. This report was prepared expressly with regard to
European countries, but it clearly has applications in other parts
of the world. The same principles have been adopted whole-
heartedly as applicable to tropical conditions by some African
officers, notably by Dr. A. R. Paterson (1928a) in Kenya.
Turning to therapeutics, the effects of quinine and new synthetic
drugs, mostly prepared in Germany, have been intensively studied
during recent years. Many of these, which seemed at first to be of
supreme importance, are losing favour after trial, but a steady
flow of new drugs is being produced. The Report on Therapeutics
of Malaria (League of Nations 1933a) points out ‘that the thera-
peutics of malaria, like every other aspect of the disease, is much
more a local and individual problem than has hitherto been
thought’.
In general, anti-malarial work in Africa is hampered by ignor-
ance of what are the real effects of malaria. It is well known that
over vast areas of the country practically the entire African popu-
lation above one year of age harbour malaria parasites in their
blood continuously, but as yet little knowledge is available as to
the effects of this condition at different age-periods in terms of
sickness, mortality, general well-being, and working capacity.
Inquiry is urgently needed with the object of ascertaining to what
degree this parasitic infestation is harmful, and to discover at what
age-period of life curative or preventive action would be most’
HUMAN DISEASES Fyoat
helpful. The importance of such work was stressed by Colonel
James (1929) who visited East Africa in 1928 to advise on anti-
malarial measures. He concluded that at least a million, and
probably many more, people in Kenya are constantly suffering
from malaria and not more than one in 60,000 is within reach of a
medical practitioner. In the native reserves of Kenya the disease
is endemic in from go per cent to 80 per cent of the people; in
the Eastern Province of Uganda the percentage of children with
parasites in their blood was found to reach 80 per cent and of
those with enlarged spleens 96 per cent. He concluded that the
only way to improve the situation is by education and by raising
the standard of living. The same method of attack applies to
practically all diseases, and malaria cannot be tackled separately
except in isolated areas, such as townships like Kampala, where
mosquito control measures are possible. The special malaria
research unit in Tanganyika has published important informa-
tion in its two reports (R. Mackay 1935, and D. B. Wilson 1936),
while other studies on malaria in African populations have been
carried out by Barber and Ollinger (1931) in Southern Nigeria,
and ‘Thomson (1935) in Nyasaland.
Another important work on malaria, concerned particularly
with the white farming community in South Africa, is that by
Professor Swellengrebel (1931). Prophylactic use of quinine and
screening from mosquitoes were found definitely to reduce the
incidence of malaria: thus the spleen rate among children was
88 per cent in unscreened farms and 44 per cent in screened ones,
even though the measures were far from perfect. Swellengrebel’s
recommendations include the formation of an administrative
control unit and a research field station, the instruction of school
teachers and future farmers’ wives in the principles of hygiene
and anti-malarial measures, and a system of medical examination
of recruited labour before acceptance, so that malaria carriers
may be detected and excluded. The prophylactic use of quinine
and other drugs has special bearing on the health of non-native
races in malarious districts and has been in dispute for many years.
Evidence in favour of or against this practice produced by medical
officers and others throughout Africa, seems to justify a definite
investigation as to its advisability.
Ger. SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Anti-malarial work in French Africa, as in the British territories,
is based on many kinds of policy, but, as mentioned above, con-
ditions vary so much from place to place that in the present state
of knowledge the problem is best attacked from many aspects.
Professor Marchoux, the authority on malaria at the Pasteur
Institute in Paris, considers that in most regions the best approach
is to cure the sick and improve the standard of living, and con-
siderable advances on these lines have been made in recent years.
Meanwhile direct attacks against the mosquito vectors have been
made in certain areas, mainly through the agency of the Rocke-
feller Foundation.
For the Belgian Congo some information on the incidence of
malaria has been collected during the past five years. J. Schwetz,
with the collaboration of Baumann, Peel, Droeshaut and Bel-
hommet (1933, 1934), has published a long series of papers on
the subject and among other authors may be mentioned P.
Reyntjens, M. Sambon (1931-2), and R. van Nitsen (1933). In
general it may be said that modern views of malaria control hold
that in townships anti-mosquito measures offer the greatest hope
of eradicating malaria, and these may also be justified in rural
areas where special conditions such as concentrated agricultural
development exist. In the greater part of Africa, however, malaria
control must be limited for financial reasons to concentration on
general methods for raising the standard of living combined with
treatment of the sick where necessary, emphasis being laid on the
fact that no statistical evidence of value has yet been brought for-
ward to justify many of the unsupported statements made as to the
important part played by malaria in increasing African morbidity
and mortality, especially in childhood.
BLACKWATER FEVER
Little is yet known about the cause and cure of blackwater fever,
beyond the facts that it is closely associated with malaria, and that
where malaria prophylaxis is carefully carried out, blackwater
rarely occurs. This disease has been associated mainly with non-
native races, but more cases may occur among Africans than are
recorded. Many suggestions have been made as to its nature and
causes, but few have so far been put to experimental proof. Some
HUMAN DISEASES 523
authorities maintain that the disease results from persistent serious
attacks of malaria, some from excessive dosage with quinine, and
others that it is due to a bacterium, while at one time it was
thought that a specific protozoal infection might be involved.
Blackwater is now regarded as a concomitant of malaria, though
persons who were known never to have had malaria or taken
quinine have suffered from it. Professor J. Gordon Thomson
(1923 and 1924) studied the disease in Southern Rhodesia and
summarized the knowledge then existing, and this work was con-
tinued during 1925 to 1929 by G. R. Ross (1932). A marked
advance in the treatment of the disease was made by the introduc-
tion of blood transfusion, and further work on these lines has been
done in Southern Rhodesia during the last few years. In particular
the reticulocyte response to this method of treatment has been
worked out at the public health laboratory at Salisbury. A
society of blood-donors has been formed for this purpose. Black-
water fever is found chiefly amongst prospectors or others whose
occupation exposes them to mass infection by malaria-carrying
mosquitoes in circumstances where the living conditions are un-
satisfactory. ‘The number of fatal cases in Southern Rhodesia from
1930 to 1935 ranged from twelve to seventeen annually. In the
Belgian Congo it has been proved that the majority of cases
occur among Europeans who live in malarial districts, but who
do not take quinine as a prophylactic. Professor J. W. W.
Stephens, aided by a grant from the Leverhulme trustees, is to
prepare a treatise on the disease in its historical and other
aspects.
YELLOW FEVER
Yellow fever, also a mosquito-borne disease, is to some extent
capable of similar methods of investigation and control. Its
history and epidemiology are described at length by H. R. Carter
(1931) and the many problems raised by the disease in Africa are
discussed by Ricardo Jorge (1934). It has been conclusively
proved, in South America, that Aédes is not the only vector, since
outbreaks have occurred in localities where it is absent. In such
cases the vector appears to be some other mosquito, perhaps Ano-
pheles. Yellow fever is therefore now divided into two classes:
524 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
(1) Urban, which is carried by Aédes, is generally recognizable
clinically, is normally a house infection, 1s often epidemic and has |
a high mortality; (2) Rural or jungle, which may or may not be
carried by Aédes, is often not recognized clinically, is associated
with forest occupations and not with houses, is sporadic and has
a low mortality.
Study of its geographical distribution have been largely carried
out by the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foun-
dation, which maintained until 1934 a yellow fever laboratory at
Yaba near Lagos. This laboratory has been taken over as part of
the Medical Research Institute of the Nigerian Government,
which maintains, with the assistance of a grant from the Rocke-
feller Foundation, a yellow fever unit under Dr. Merrett. The
chief method in studying distribution consists in examining speci-
mens of blood from persons selected at random in order to ascer-
tain what proportion of them have been infected with the virus.
Persons who have had yellow fever, or who have been infected
with the virus without having the disease, become immune. Their
blood, when injected into white mice, protects these animals
against a dose of virus which is ordinarily fatal. This is called the
‘mouse protection test’. The survey work already completed has
resulted in maps and descriptions indicating the endemic distribu-
tion of the disease. Roughly this covers a wedge-shaped area
extending on the west from Nigeria, the Gold Coast, Sierra
Leone, the Gambia, Liberia, and French West Africa, through
French Equatorial Africa, the northern and central part of the
Belgian Congo to the south-western part of the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan, and Uganda. Many of the areas where the mouse protec-
tion test has proved positive, but no clinical cases have been
found, are termed ‘silent’. They are possibly infected with the
rural type of yellow fever mentioned above. Recent work in South
America has shown, however, that cases of yellow fever do occur
in such silent areas, so these areas may be sources of infection
spreading to towns and villages where the disease appears in its
dangerous urban form. Accordingly much importance has been
attached to fuller investigation of the affected areas, especially
in Uganda, where the dense population presents the greatest
dangers, and to this end the Rockefeller Foundation in 1937
HUMAN DISEASES 525
assigned three members of its yellow fever staff to Uganda, to
occupy the Human Trypanosomiasis Laboratory at Entebbe,
recently vacated by Dr. Duke (see page 485). It is important to
recognize that the mouse protection test does not prove the pre-
sence of the virus, but only indicates that the individual has at
some time had yellow fever, which may subsequently have died
out from the area. It serves to define the extent and concentration
of immunity in various age-groups of a population, but gives no
indication of the state of affairs at the moment. Hence the finding
of actual cases is important.
Intensive research is being conducted for actual clinical cases of
yellow fever in the silent areas where the mouse protection test
indicates the existence of the virus, but from which, up to the
present, the disease itself has not been recorded. One of the enigmas
of yellow fever arises from the fact that during epidemics many
people are infected and become immune without apparently show-
ing clinical symptoms. Therefore, attempts are being made, not-
ably in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, to isolate the virus from sus-
picious cases in order that its characters may be fully studied.
Apart from detection of the virus, the existence of the disease may
be proved by microscopical post mortem examination of the liver,
and for this purpose a special technique has been applied with
marked success in South America. A special instrument, the vis-
cerotome (Morgan 1935) enables the layman to remove specimens
for dispatch to pathological laboratories without the necessity of
handling the corpse or tissues, and with the minimum mutilation
of the body. In South America the viscerotome service has proved
the existence of yellow fever in many places, and enables action
to be taken to prevent emanation of the virus from known infected
points. It has shown, moreover, that the silent areas are silent,
not because fatal cases do not occur, but because symptoms are
not typical. The information can be obtained by the viscerotome
without posting trained medical staff in every locality where the
disease is suspected. A viscerotome service has been inaugurated
in the larger centres of population in the Gold Coast (League of
Nations 1936, p. 76), and in West Africa it is hoped that valuable
data may be obtained and the services be extended. The chief
difficulties are (1) the objection of Moslems to interfering with
526 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
corpses, (2) the absence of registration of deaths, and (3) the lack
of staff for field work.
The introduction of air travel has created the danger that the
disease may spread from endemic centres, especially in West
Africa, where a large proportion of the population seems to possess
some immunity owing to the prevalence of the disease, to East and
South Africa, and even to Asia, where the mosquito vectors are
abundant, and disastrous epidemics might occur among popula-
tions having no immunity. The spread of infected mosquitos can
be prevented by fumigation, but the principal danger comes from
passengers embarking during the incubation period of about six
days. The special commission on yellow fever of the Paris Inter-
national Office, under the Chairmanship of Colonel James, has
stressed this danger, and it has been discussed extensively at the
Pan-African Health Conferences in South Africa (League of
Nations 1933b and 1936).
The disease is particularly prevalent in Liberia, which forms
a permanent reservoir for its spread to adjoining territories. Work
in Liberia by the Rockefeller officers shows that the majority of
children contract the disease, but among them the mortality rate
is only 5 per cent and complete immunity results. Among white
men in West Africa, however, who contract yellow fever as adults,
the mortality is more than go per cent. Hence there is a danger of
the disease being erroneously regarded as one chiefly affecting the
non-native population.
The International Sanitary Convention for Aerial Navigation
of 1933 has been ratified by a considerable number of states. ‘This
convention, to which all governments in Africa have agreed to
adhere, was prepared by the permanent committee of the Office
International d’ Hygiene Publique in Paris, and is designed especially
to prevent the risk of yellow fever spreading from its present
endemic centres. The fact that some governments are not prepared
to accept positive results obtained by the mouse protection test as
proof that yellow fever is present in the silent areas, adds emphasis
to the need for proving clinical cases.
In towns and other localities where the disease has occurred,
continuous and, whenever possible, permanent measures are taken
for reducing the prevalence of the mosquito vector. These have
HUMAN DISEASES 527
been successful, particularly where it has been possible to intro-
duce a piped water-supply. Freetown, for instance, which used
to be a hot-bed of yellow fever, has had very few cases since the
introduction of a piped water-supply more than twelve years ago.
Again in the Belgian Congo, at the ports on the lower river,
especially Matadi, a special department in charge of water-sup-
plies and anti-mosquito work was established after the last epi-
demic of yellow fever in 1927-8, with the result that Aédes and
yellow fever now rarely occur. Other measures, such as the British
plan of separating the European from the native quarters of towns,
have had their effect. But there have been some calamities also,
notably the yellow fever epidemic in Bathurst in 1934, when four
Europeans, including the Colonial Secretary, died from the disease.
In this outbreak it was manifest that the infective zone was in the
European residential area, and subsequent investigations by Dr.
Findlay showed that the reported cases were only a fraction of those
which must have occurred.
Preventive vaccination against yellow fever was introduced in
America by Sawyer and his collaborators. Two methods of vacci-
nation are now being applied extensively, that of Sawyer, Kitchen,
and Lloyd (1931) with modification by Pettit and Stefanopoulo
(1933), and that of Laigret (1934). Dr. Findlay (1935) of the Well-
come Research Institute in London, who was sent to New York
by the Colonial Office to study the Sawyer technique, has vacci-
nated by the first method more than goo persons proceeding to
West Africa. In French Senegal, Dr. Laigret has vaccinated more
than 3,000 Europeans by the second method, using vaccine pre-
pared from mouse brains at the Pasteur Institute in Dakar. The
results from either method are not always satisfactory, since the
reactions of individuals to yellow fever differ so markedly, but
yellow fever vaccination has undoubtedly produced results which
warrant its extended use among Europeans.
SLEEPING SICKNESS
The severe epidemic of sleeping sickness in the four years 1go01-
1905, when some 300,000 people died of the disease in the imme-
diate neighbourhood of the Victoria Nyanza, has stimulated
much research and many experiments in control, but knowledge
528 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
is still far from complete. The main problems and results of re-
search have already been outlined from the entomological point
of view in Chapter X, and the following remarks refer principally
to the medical aspect. The fundamental work on sleeping sick-
ness was carried out by Sir David Bruce and his colleagues during
the Royal Society Sleeping Sickness Commissions at the beginning
of this century, and the conclusion that the disease is caused by a
trypanosome and conveyed by a species of tsetse fly was first
announced by Bruce in April 1903. Since those early days impor-
tant work, carried out under the auspices of the League of Nations
International Commission on Human Trypanosomiasis (League
of Nations 1924, 1925, 1927, 1928a and b, 1930a) has laid the foun-
dations for the numerous studies now in progress. Other publica-
tions of'a general nature, dealing especially with British territories,
are the report of the East African Commission (1925), which paid
particular attention to sleeping sickness and demanded a scientific
survey in all the East African dependencies, a report by Dr. (now
Sir Walter) Johnson (1929) on the organization and methods of
trypanosomiasis control, and by the Tsetse Fly Committee of the
Economic Advisory Council (1933 and 1935), which has devoted
attention to the treatment of human trypanosomiasis and sum-
marized recent developments. The question of co-ordination of
research in the East African territories has been discussed at meet-
ings arranged by the Conference of East African Governors (1934b
and 1936b).
For purposes of research there have been three important centres
in the British dependencies devoted especially to sleeping sickness:
(1) the Human Trypanosomiasis Institute at Entebbe, Uganda,
was established in 1927 under Dr. Duke at the conclusion of the
Sleeping Sickness Commission. It was financed by the three East
African Governments, and was closed down finally in 1935 on
Dr. Duke’s retirement; (2) The Sleeping Sickness Branch of the
Nigerian Medical Department has a laboratory at Gadau in the
Northern Provinces with a research staff of a medical officer, an
entomologist, etc.; (3) The Sleeping Sickness Research Unit in
Tanganyika has a laboratory at Tinde in Shinyanga district, under
Dr. Corson; this is now financed by a special grant from the
Colonial Development Fund.
HUMAN DISEASES 529
The work in Uganda and Nigeria has been concerned primarily
with the form of sleeping sickness caused by Trypanosoma gambiense
and conveyed by the tsetse fly, Glossina palpalis, to which must be
added G. tachinoides in Nigeria. In Tanganyika the other variety
of the disease, caused by T. rhodesiense and conveyed by G. swyn-
nertont and G. morsitans is the major problem; the area of infection
is enormous and huge tracts of country are rendered uninhabit-
able. Studies in that territory have, of course, been closely associ-
ated with the tsetse department under the late Mr. Swynnerton
(1936). A summary of work at these three centres may serve to
supplement the account of research on tsetse flies in Chapter X
and of animal trypanosomiasis in Chapter XIV.
The results from Uganda have been published in annual reports
(Uganda 1933-4, A.R.) and in numerous scientific papers, and
the following salient conclusions have been reached. Regarding
the transmission of the disease, infection by trypanosomes exerts
no apparent effect on the longevity of G. palpalis, and there is no
difference in the susceptibility of the two sexes of this fly to man’s
trypanosomes. A mass of evidence has been produced to show
that there occur in man in Uganda and elsewhere strains of T.
gambiense which, from their first isolation, are non-iransmissible by
Glossina. G. morsitans has been shown to be a better transmitter
of the trypanoscmes of man than G. palpalis. Repeated cyclical
passage through Glossina does not necessarily increase the trans-
missibility of a strain of trypanosomes. Old laboratory strains of
man’s trypanosomes have been found to be non-transmissible by
tsetse; a strain of T. gambiense, maintained for fifteen years in
laboratory rodents, was tested on man and found to be readily
pathogenic. Y. rhodestense has been transmitted readily from host
to host by the direct method, by Stomoxys and also by feeding
infected prey to carnivorous animals.
The part played by domestic and wild animals in serving as
reservoirs for human trypanosomes has likewise been examined,
with the following results: natural immunity against 7. gambiense
in sheep and goats varies from complete immunity to a degree of
susceptibility in which the trypanosomes may be a contributory,
or even the direct cause of death. Between these extremes there
usually exists partial immunity, which prevents the transmission
S
530 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
of the trypanosome by tsetse, after a period of a year or fifteen
months. Immunity may also be acquired by sheep and goats
against 7. gambiense. Results similar to these have followed experi-
ments with T. rhodesiense, which loses its power of infecting man
still more readily than J. gambiense, when maintained for long
periods in animals. Maintenance in guinea pigs is especially prone
to produce this change. Regarding wild animals, 7. gambiense in
its East African form is difficult to introduce into antelopes, and
once introduced tends to die rapidly. T. rhodesiense, however, is
less susceptible; it has practically no effect on bushbuck and reed-
buck, but is pathogenic to oribi and situtunga; it has been shown
to survive in transmissible form in bushbuck for two and a half
years and in a hyena for twenty-two months. The domestic fowl
has been eliminated as a danger in the spread of human trypano-
somes.
Experiments by Dr. Duke on the prophylactic use of drugs
have led to the conclusion that an injection of one gram of Bayer
205 will protect against T. gambiense or rhodesiense for at least three
months. Between seventy and eighty native volunteers have been
used in these experiments in the past few years; there has been no
mishap and the results have opened up new possibilities in the
control of sleeping sickness (see later). Although the trypanoso-
miasis institute at Entebbe no longer exists, work on kindred prob-
lems has continued in Uganda. In particular Dr. Mellanby has
been studying the bionomics of G. palpalis, with a grant from the
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (see Chapter
From the above it appears that two important conclusions
have resulted from Dr. Duke’s work. (1) Game animals can,
under certain circumstances, serve as reservoirs of human try-
panosomiasis, but so long as the human reservoirs can be kept
separate there is no need to exterminate the game. (2) Bayer 205
is a valuable prophylactic. For the rest, in this area, sleeping sick-
ness 1s now limited to certain foci and is certainly not of the same
importance as it is in the French and Belgian territories. There-
fore, as Dr. Duke has pointed out, work on sleeping sickness should
not obscure that on other diseases.
At the Tinde laboratory in Tanganyika Dr. Corson has carried
HUMAN DISEASES 531
out numerous experiments, mainly on the transmissibility of
human trypanosomes by animals. These have confirmed and
extended Dr. Duke’s work, especially in regard to the part played
by animals as a reservoir for T. rhodesiense. In addition, the sleeping
sickness branch of the medical department has carried out exten-
sive surveys, and has established means of ensuring that very few
cases escape being reporied.
In Nigeria, since the establishment of the sleeping sickness
branch of the medical department, the wide distribution of the
disease has been demonstrated, and evidence has been brought
forward that it has increased in recent years. It is presumed that
much of the population, especially in the Southern Provinces, has
acquired some immunity to the local strains of trypanosomes, but
that the recent increase in motives or facilities for travel has led to
contacts with new strains which have often caused virulent epi-
demics. There have been examples of this in the middle belt,
where gold mining has stimulated migration, and also near Port
Harcourt in the south. Although 7. gambiense is probably the only
causative organism, three types of the disease can be recognized,
which seem to depend on the degree of immunity which has been
attained by the people concerned. First there is a type showing
general weakness, but nota high death rate; the patients may suffer
for many years and their resistance to other diseases is lowered,
so that when death occurs it usually appears to result from other
causes. Secondly there is a toxic type in which death, when it
occurs, follows acute high temperature; and thirdly there is the
classic disease characterized by sleeping and mental trouble, symp-
toms which are absent in the first two types. It has been estimated
that there must be nearly a million cases in the Northern Provinces
of Nigeria alone, and although curative treatment has been suc-
cessful, it is recognized that treatment of this number every year
would be impossible. Hence, protective measures involving a
reduction of the man-fly contact by methods of communal clear-
ing, and movement and concentration of population, provide the
most hopeful line of attack. Research, centred at the Gadau
laboratory has been concerned chiefly with tsetse flies, and is out-
lined in Chapter X. Application was made in 1936 for a much
increased grant from the Colonial Development Fund to expand
532 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
sleeping sickness control, partly by improving the existing treat-
ment service and partly by a protective campaign of communal
clearing, movement, and concentration of population. The cost
of this second part of the scheme is to be defrayed by a five years’
free grant from the Colonial Development Fund, whilst the cost
of improved treatment is to be defrayed by the Nigerian govern-
ment (Nigeria 1936, D.R.). There is a trypanosomiasis bureau
in Southern Rhodesia which not only correlates the work of all
government departments on this subject, but has a special
laboratory, in charge of Mr. Bevan, a Beit Fellow. As in East
Africa the disease is by no means so common now as in past years.
In 1935 a survey, involving careful examination of natives, was
made in the Sebungwe area to the west of Goheve. Although the
disease was formerly known to be present, no cases of sleeping
sickness were found.
With regard to control, the East African sub-committee of the
Economic Advisory Council (1935) described three types of
possible measures: (1) administrative methods, such as the evacu-
ation of population from an infected area, the control of move-
ments of population (in search of work, etc.), the clearing of water
places, and the concentration of settlement; (2) the control of
tsetse flies; and (3) control by chemotherapy, that is to say,
treatment by means of various drugs.
The first of these methods is followed in Uganda, the Congo, and
Nigeria. As mentioned above, the usual infection of T. gambiense
is conveyed by G. falpalis, and in the drier areas of Northern
Nigeria by G. tachinoides, both of which species must have damp
and shade for breeding. Hence the most effective way of control,
which has been widely employed in Uganda and the Congo, is
to remove natives from infected banks of rivers or lakes, and to
allow them to make watering and washing places only in specially
cleared strips. Wide stretches of shore along the great lakes and
rivers are thus closed to native occupation. The fly does not die
out in the absence of human beings, since it can obtain abundant
food from wild mammals and reptiles, but in the absence of the
human reservoir the sleeping sickness infection is lost after some
time. Thus in Uganda population has recently been returned,
under close control, to many of its former holdings along the lake
HUMAN DISEASES 533
shores, and fresh cases of sleeping sickness have not occurred. In
such areas, however, there is always the potential danger that
some immigrant person with sleeping sickness may reinfect the
fly, thereby causing a new epidemic. It is important, therefore,
that the population should be separated from fly as much as
possible, and the usual policy is to allow reoccupation of lake shores
and other tsetse-infected areas only when the population 1s suf
ficiently dense to maintain proper clearings. Food crops likely to
shelter fly in close proximity to tsetse-infected bush are prohibited.
The bearing of such means of sleeping sickness control on the
improvement of agriculture is stressed by the measures which are
being introduced in Northern Nigeria to concentrate the popula-
tion, and introduce mixed farming (see Chapter XIII). Again, in
Tanganyika the control of infection by T. rhodesiense is coming to
depend mainly on settlement and reclamation schemes which have
been advocated especially by Maclean (1930) and the Conference
of East African Governors (1934b).
The second method of control, involving efforts to reduce the
incidence of fly by clearings, traps, etc., has been discussed at
length in Chapter X. In chemotherapy, great progress has been
made recently in the use of the two drugs Germanin (Bayer 205)
and Tryparsamide, an arsenical preparation. Although the effects
vary with different species and strains of trypanosomes, in general
germanin is effective in the initial stages of the disease and trypar-
samide in the later, and for general application in stricken areas a
combined method of treatment has been applied with much suc-
cess.
Curative methods have been especially developed in the French
and Belgian colonies, for which the system of équipes de prospection
et traitement has been described in Chapter XV. For the Gameroons,
where sleeping sickness has increased steadily during the past ten
years, some results have been given by Jamot (1930) and Millous
(1935). During the year from October 1933 to 1934, 546,000
natives were examined, of whom 61,800 had the disease, but only
3,300 of these remained carriers of trypanosomes after treatment.
The sleeping sickness work is combined with an attack on other
diseases and the collection of valuable demographic statistics. In
the Belgian Congo the state service has concentrated on sleeping
534 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
sickness, and until 1919 this disease absorbed most of its attention;
since that date endemic complaints such as yaws, syphilis and
dysentery have been combined with the sleeping sickness cam-
paigns. The intensity of this work is indicated by the fact that
more than 3,000,000 people are examined annually, all positive
cases being recorded and persuaded to attend regularly at the
numerous treatment centres. For the period 1930-4 the result has
been a decrease of new cases to about 50 per cent, the actual
figures being as follows:
Percentage of new
Natives examined New Cases cases to natives
| examined
1930 2,779,448 35502 1-2
1934 | 3,824,097 | 24,010 0-63
The FOREAMI represents a unique organization for anti-
sleeping sickness work, through which the population in the Bas
Congo has been examined regularly since 1931, all cases being
treated. In 1934 more than 38,000 lumbar injections were given
through this agency and the endemicity of the disease appears to
have been reduced from 2-45 per cent in 1931 to 0-97 per cent
in 1934. Dr. Trolli considers that the natives in the Congo have
now as much faith in the curing of sleeping sickness as they have
in that of yaws, which renders treatment comparatively easy.
In Nigeria a system of inspection and treatment has been partly
adopted from the French and Belgian territories. ‘The campaigners
are divided into (1) a survey party, which makes a census of the
area In question, examines the glands of every individual, makes
blood slides of suspected cases, and marks all individuals giving a
positive result, and (2) a treatment party, which follows after and
injects with germanin or tryparsamide in every positive case. One
medical officer has with him a native nurse and about twenty
microscope boys, who are said to prepare and examine blood slides
more efficiently than Europeans. In Nigeria some 32,000 patients
were treated in 1933, 52,000 in 1934, 84,000 in 1935, and 62,021
HUMAN DISEASES 535
in 1936. Similar methods have been applied in the recent outbreak
of sleeping sickness in the West Nile District of Uganda.
Though it is convenient to divide the methods of control into
categories as above, in practice more than one method is usually
employed. Thus, in controlling the epidemic just mentioned
blocks of bush have been isolated by large clearings on the river-
side and flies are being eradicated from each by hand-catching
and trapping. This method gave excellent results when applied
by Symes to the tributaries of the Kiya River in Kenya (Symes
1936). In the French territories again, although efforts have been
concentrated mainly on cure by drugs, clearings of river banks,
etc. are made in suitable conditions. In the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan, also, the Government has organized sleeping sickness cam-
paigns in recent years, whereby the disease is claimed to have been
practically eradicated from the Mongalla and Bahr-el-Ghazal
provinces. The measures adopted have consisted of cutting bush
along roads and streams, concentrating the population on the
cleared roadsides, long quarantine for suspected cases, and the
establishment of sleeping sickness settlements for treatment.
PLAGUE
Plague is firmly established in parts of Africa and may spread
to unaffected areas, with very serious results, unless strict precau-
tions are taken. The main centres are in South Africa, where it
appeared first in 1899 through infected rats escaping from ships,
East Africa, especially Uganda, where it was probably endemic
for a long period before European occupation, and West Africa,
where several importations have been made at the harbours. For-
tunately African conditions do not favour the contagious pneu-
monic form of the disease, but there are certain instances on record
where pneumonic plague has occurred and has not been recog-
nized until the contagion has spread, with fatal results. ‘The mor-
tality rate of bubonic plague amongst Africans has varied between
25 per cent and 75 per cent of cases in various epidemics.
The fullest recent description of plague in Africa is by Ricardo
Jorge (19352), who has also summarized the ancient and modern
epidemics (1933) and given an account of the disease in Angola
(1935b). The whole problem received attention at the Pan-
536 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
African Health Conference in 1935 (League of Nations 1936).
It appeared that much of the extension of the veld epizootic, pre-
saged at the previous Conference, had taken place. In the Union
and countries on its northern and western borders the incidence
of human plague is determined by epizootics among wild rodents,
infection being for the most part direct from them, and to a
less extent from domestic rats infected by fleas from wild rodents.
In the more northern territories, such as Kenya, Uganda, and
Tanganyika, the increased importance of domestic rats is apparent,
but it is certain in some cases that wild rodents have also been
infected. The fact that, in several countries, epizootics have
occurred among wild rodents for considerable periods before their
discovery, points to the necessity for systematic observation and
also for co-ordination between adjoining countries.
The history of plague in South Africa, as summarized by Sir
Edward Thornton (League of Nations 1936, p. 100) is as follows:
‘From 1892 to 1905, plague was introduced at the ports and caused
extensive outbreaks amongst domestic rodents and a considerable
number of human cases in urban areas. From 1903 to 1905 striped
mice (Rhabdomys pumilio) in the bush surrounding one or more of
the ports became infected, and the infection spread slowly through
the bush until it reached, in 1914, sandy country inland, where
gerbilles were plentiful, when rapid spread all over the inland
parts of the Union, with isolated human cases, occurred. During
the period 1914-33, human cases were almost entirely infected
from veld rodents, and domestic rodents were found infected in
exceptional cases only. During 1934-5, with the breeding up of
veld rodents owing to favourable seasons, numerous waves of infec-
tion occurred, resulting in an increased number of human cases.
Further, domestic rodents became infected in a number of
places.’
The fact that epidemics of plague are nearly always associated
with increases in the population of rats or wild rodents opens up
an important problem in the realm of animal ecology (see Chapter
VIII). It is becoming recognized that these animal populations
are subject to periodic fluctuations in numbers, first increasing to
such a degree that there is food shortage and weakening of stamina,
followed by disease epizootics. Meanwhile the flea population
HUMAN DISEASES Oe.
increases accordingly, and on the death of the rodent hosts, the
infected fleas transfer themselves to man or other animals.
In South Africa the recent work of Harvey Pirie and Murray
at the Institute for Medical Research has shown that among at
least some of these wild rodents this periodicity exists; therefore it
seems probable that the small South African rodents fluctuate in
numbers like the voles and lemmings in the northern hemisphere;
that they normally die off every few years from diseases harmless
to man; and that bubonic plague has spread among them and in
some instances replaced these natural diseases, though in other
instances the latter have reasserted their importance. Although
human plague has not so far become very serious or widespread in
Southern Africa, except in Angola, the area in which rodents have
become endemically infected has steadily increased since 1921,
which gives a sinister aspect to the situation.
In South Africa the Witwatersrand plague committee was estab-
lished early in 1935. An assistant health officer and a senior
rodent inspector were detailed to carry out inspection of the reef
area, in wnich an epizootic had been notified. Their findings are
published in the report of the department of public health (South
Africa-1936, D.R.).
The possibility that plague in other parts of the continent has a
periodicity, dependent on fiuctuations in numbers of rodents and
their fleas, has been considered by C. B. Symes (1930), who re-
viewed the outbreaks in East and West Africa, and concluded that
there is at least an indication of periodicity, the main epidemics
having been in 1912-13, 1916-17, 1920-1, and 1923-4.
In East Africa the centre of plague infection is Lake Victoria,
where its spread since the establishment of shipping in the lake
ports has paralleled the medieval epidemic which spread around
the Mediterranean. In Uganda the seriousness of the disease can
be judged from the fact that in the twenty years up to 1932 some
52,000 deaths are estimated to have taken place from plague, the
climax being in 1929 during which year there were over 5,000
deaths. In 1930 Sir Edward Thornton visited the Protectorate to
advise on control measures, and since 1932 there has been a con-
siderable decrease, followed by a slight rise in 1935. It 1s feared
that the decrease after 1932 may have been due not so much to the
5 38 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
anti-rat campaigns, the use of cyano-gas in huts and other sanitary
measures, as to a natural decline in the epidemic wave. Probably
associated with the plague area in Uganda is a small centre in the
Belgian Congo around the south end of Lake Albert. This has been
under investigation for some years, and does not seem to be either
spreading or decreasing (Congo Belge 1928, A.R., p. 77). Various
endemic centres occur elsewhere in East Africa, notably in Tan-
ganyika, for which an account of plague has been published
(Tanganyika 1931).
Various parts of West Africa have had occasional outbreaks of
plague, but the disease has not yet attained a strong foothold
except, perhaps, in Angola and Senegal. In Angola the first
outbreak was in 1921 at Loanda, to which the disease was prob-
ably introduced from Lisbon. The epidemic rapidly reached a
climax and has steadily decreased, perhaps as a result of inten-
sive campaigns in burning native huts to destroy rats. Up to
now there has been no plague on the coast. Since 1932, the
South African plague carried by wild rodents has reached Angola,
but so far there have been comparatively few cases. It is hoped
that the desert conditions in Southern Angola are so unfavourable
to rodents that the disease will be kept out of most of the territory
(Ribeiro 1936).
Several ports on the Guinea coast have been centres of minor
outbreaks, which have occurred in French Guinea, the Ivory
Coast, the Gold Coast, and Southern Nigeria; the last being in
Nigeria, where, however, there has been no case since 1933. The
infection of Senegal from Dakar and Rufisque has been far more
severe, but fortunately has kept to a belt of country some 100
km. long by 25 km. wide. The climax was reached in 1924, when
some 1,400 people died from plague, but since then the epidemics
have been reduced to quite small proportions.
Every port is a potential source of danger, and in this connection
special research on rats and their parasites, carried out at the Sir
Alfred Jones Laboratory at Freetown, is important. Mr. Davis of
the Wellcome Research Institute has been financed by the Royal
Society of Medicine to make a census of rats and their fleas in
Freetown and the neighbourhood, where the rat-flea index was
previously known to be higher than in either Lagos or Accra,
HUMAN DISEASES 539
This work has special medical interest, since rats and their fleas
are probably responsible for spreading at least two tropical dis-
eases in addition to plague, namely Weil’s disease and typhus
fever. Of the latter, two cases have recently been diagnosed
authoritatively in Freetown, probably its first official occurrence
in West Africa.
The flea factor in the spread of plague is a subject which
requires investigation. There is evidence to show that the rat-flea
population is different in town and country, and this may explain
what seems to be low infectivity in certain outbreaks. Dr. Hopkins,
Medical Entomologist in Uganda, has published (Symes and
Hopkins 1932) preliminary notes on this question.
With regard to preventive and control measures, anti-rat cam-
paigns are carried out in nearly all infected centres, and sometimes
have proved successful in small local outbreaks, but they are useful
only where every building can be cleared completely. This calls
for complete supervision of the type that can be applied in towns,
but not in rural areas. The typical native thatched hut provides
a favourable home for rats and their fleas, so improved housing
in areas of dense population is a primary consideration. The use
of poison gas, especially cyano-gas, in native huts has proved
effective, and can usually be relied on to kill 75 per cent of the
rats; it has the great advantage over the old method of removing
the thatch of huts in that it is far less unpopular. Its introduction
has therefore led to more complete notification of plague cases.
Rat-proofing of granaries and food stores is another important
measure; an extensive anti-rat campaign along these lines
proved very successful in Kenya in 1936 (Kenya 1936, D.R.).
Motor-buses give every facility for host distribution. Plague, there-
fore, like so many other diseases, will succumb eventually only to
all-round improvement in hygiene.
Prophylactic vaccination has been made compulsory in some
parts of Africa and research on it has been conducted especially
by Dr. J. H. Harvey Pirie at the South African Institute for
Medical Research. There is still some difference of opinion as to
whether vaccines should be made from living or dead cultures.
At the Pan-African Conference of 1935 it was concluded that
detailed methods of plague control cannot be standardized, especi-
540 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
ally in the case of rural areas, where circumstances must determine
whether the attack should be primarily against all rodents, domes-
tic or wild, or whether it should involve prophylactic vaccination
of humans.
RELAPSING FEVER
This disease may be transmitted by ticks or lice, and is charac-
terized by high fever at regular intervals of about a week. The vec-
tors have been mentioned previously in Chapter X, where references
are given to literature. The East African relapsing fever, known
also as tick fever, is transmitted by a tick, Ornzthodorus sp., which
frequents native huts and camping sites. It is endemic in certain
areas, especially along trade routes, and has sometimes reached
epidemic proportions. For example, in Uganda, in prisons in
Ankole District, infestation has occurred to such an extent that
for a while every non-immune prisoner inevitably acquired the
disease. Methods of control depend on eradicating the tick (see
page 297).
The best known variety of relapsing fever is that of which the
vector is the body louse. This disease (League of Nations 1930b)
was endemic in French Guinea in 1921, and during the following
years spread across equatorial Africa to the Sudan, having a very
high case mortality rate among Africans of about 18 per cent,
compared with 1 per cent to 5 per cent in Europe. Cases are not
now reported, so that the serious views that were taken at one
time are to-day not justified.
TYPHUS FEVER
Related to relapsing fever but probably distinct, are the several
diseases in the typhus group which cause considerable morbidity
and mortality among the Bantu population of South Africa.
Much research on these has come from Dr. A. Pijper’s private
laboratory and a detailed account of the position has been given
by Dr. E. H. Cluver (1934). Clinical and pathological investiga-
tion over a number of years has shown that there are three distinct
typhus-like diseases in South Africa, which are transmitted by
ticks, rat-fleas, and lice. Tick-bite fever occurs chiefly in the low-
lying region of the Transvaal, but cases are known as far north and
HUMAN DISEASES 541
south as Southern Rhodesia and the Cape. Rat-flea typhus,
though relatively uncommon among human beings, appears to be
enzootic among rats over an extensive area. The reason for this
is that, unlike plague infection, the virus of typhus does not kill
the rats and hence the rat-fleas do not often overflow on to man.
Louse-typhus is much the commonest type, and although milder
in South Africa than the classical old-world typhus, some 35,000
cases have been reported during the past thirteen years, resulting
in about 4,660 deaths. These figures give a case mortality of 13 per
cent, though the actual mortality is certainly much lower, since in
a primitive community fatal cases come to the notice of authorities
much more frequently than mild ones. Among Europeans in the
same period there have been 686 cases with 32 deaths, a case
mortality of 4-7 per cent. Louse-typhus has probably been preva-
lent in South Africa for a very long time, but did not come into
prominence until about 1919. From then until 1923 reported
cases averaged over 8,000 annually, the worst year being 1920,
with 11,000. After 1924 the number fell below 2,000 until 1933,
since when it had increased to nearly 7,000 in 1935. The endemic
area is now roughly triangular in shape, embracing about one
half of the Union, including the Transkei, Ciskei, and the Orange
Free State. The recent increase in the disease is in some measure
due to its spread in the interior in a north-westerly direction, but
the economic distress of recent years has probably been still more
important in that the standard of living has been reduced and the
body louse has become more prevalent. Typhus will eventually
disappear from South Africa, as it has done in Europe, with advan-
cing civilization and an increased standard of living, but mean-
while direct preventive measures against lice succeed in arresting,
but not eradicating the disease. The detailed work of Pijper and
Dau summarized (1935) the immunological relationship of the
three typhus-like diseases as follows: the rat-flea virus immunizes
against tick-bite fever, but not against louse-typhus; tick-bite fever
does not immunize against rat-flea typhus, but louse-typhus 1m-
munizes against rat-flea typhus.
The possibility of typhus fever being present elsewhere in Africa
to a greater extent than supposed is a matter for examination.
This is suggested particularly by the evidence of ‘Tonking (1932)
542 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
in Kenya, and Hennessey (1934) in Uganda, where a definite
outbreak of louse-borne typhus occurred in Kigezi. In that district,
the inhabitants wear sheep or goat skins with the wool or hair
turned towards the body. The incidence of tick-borne typhus in
Kenya has been gradually increasing since it was first recognized
in 1924. The severity of the disease also seems to be increasing.
Two cases of the tick-borne type have been reported from Uganda,
but the louse-borne disease has almost died out as a result of the
new disinfestor introduced for village use by Mr. Carnie. It is
probable that the louse-borne type exists in the Belgian Congo,
as it was from there that the disease first reached Uganda.
TUBERCULOSIS
Africa appears to have been free from tuberculosis before the
coming of the white man, but the disease is now distributed over
much of the continent and seems to be increasing its range.
Among Africans, especially those who have not been in contact
with the disease before, it takes on a much more virulent form than
among Europeans, and the mortality is high. This was first shown
in a striking way during the War. Senegalese troops taken to
France came from an isolated community which had never been
in contact with the disease. In France they were soon infected
and the disease passed rapidly through its various stages. Only
after the early stages were systematically tracked by frequent
examinations was some check put on the waste of life. There is
little doubt that the survivors who returned to Africa spread the
disease amongst the indigenous population, but it is significant
that centres of infection do not seem to have been set up in rural
areas, since the known centres to-day are always in towns, where
the European element in the population is strongest and the living
conditions of natives are particularly bad.
There are now many foci of tuberculosis all over the continent,
the mining areas being the most important. Natives migrate into
the infective areas for work and return to spread the disease among
their own tribes, but in spite of these apparently favourable con-
ditions for dissemination, tuberculosis has not yet become one of
the major diseases. Some workers have attributed this to the for-
tunate lack of bovine infection, but, though this must militate
HUMAN DISEASES 543
against the spread of non-pulmonary tuberculosis, it cannot affect
more serious forms of the disease. Moreover, as mentioned in
Chapter XIV, veterinary research in recent years has demon-
strated that tuberculosis is present in certain types of cattle,
especially in Uganda and the French Sudan. Professor S. Lyle
Cummins, the leading authority in this country on the subject,
holds the view that conditions among rural Africans are not really
favourable for the disease. Infected cases arriving from elsewhere
tend to die soon and cease to be infective foci. In most parts of
Central Africa where timber is plentiful, huts are burnt and
rebuilt after the death of an inhabitant. The sun too, plays a
valuable part as disinfector, and the comparatively easy life,
away from the stress of industrial civilization, allows early infection
to slumber without progressing to activity, just as it does in Europe
between the ages of three and ten.
Where much contact with Europeans has taken place, however,
and especially where industrial life and mining development have
been introduced, conditions are very different. Soon after the
War the problem became sericus and a committee of experts was
appointed by the Health Section of the League of Nations to
ascertain the position of tuberculosis, together with that of sleeping
sickness, in all tropical Africa. The two reports (League of Nations
1924 and 1925) summarize the situation up to 1925 and refer to
all published literature.
In South Africa the disease among mine labourers soon attained
serious proportions, and in 1925 a tuberculosis research com-
mittee was formed. ‘The committee, under the chairmanship of
Sir Spencer Lister, Director of the South African Institute for
Medical Research, included a number of the leading medical
men in South Africa and had as adviser and consultant Professor
Lyle Cummins, who made an extensive tour in South Africa,
working with the committee, and was responsible for a large part
of the report (South African Institute for Medical Research 1932),
a most valuable volume running to over 400 pages. Since tuber-
culosis is one of those diseases which must be tackled by education
in hygiene, large sections of the report are devoted to the conditions
of life in the native territories as well as on the mines, to native
custom in relation to disease, and the health services available. It
544 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
is pointed out that many hygienic native customs, which are most
valuable in preventing the spread of disease, are disintegrating
under the spread of civilization. Hut tax, for instance, tends to
reduce the number of huts occupied by a family, and hence affects
the isolated mode of life mentioned above. It also reduces the
practice adopted by many tribes of erecting a separate hut for the
isolation of a sick person. The scarcity of timber in many areas is
assisting this same effect, and huts in which a death has taken
place are now often reinhabited instead of being burnt.
Tuberculosis has also been investigated recently in Tanganyika,
the Sudan, and Zanzibar. Dr. C. Wilcocks (Lyle Cummins 1935),
a member of the Tanganyika medical service, is conducting
research into the disease by survey work in that territory under
the auspices of the Colonial Development Fund. Captain S. M.
Burrows and Dr. R. J. Matthews, as Dorothy Temple Cross Medi-
cal Fellows, have prepared reports on the Sudan and Zanzibar
respectively (Lyle Cummins 1935). Professor Lyle Cummins com-
pares their conclusions with those of the South African work, which
they bear outandenlarge in aremarkable way. Hepointsout thatthe
actual distribution of tuberculosis has now been worked out by means
of intradermal tuberculin tests,among a number ofdifferent peoples,
including coastal and inland natives in South Africa, inhabitants
of Zanzibar, inland natives of Tanganyika (near Moshi), and a
section of the isolated Dinka tribe of the Bahr-el-Ghazal. The per-
centage of positive cases in each community varies from 81 in parts
of South Africa to 32-7 in the Dinka. It is clear that while tuber-
culosis infection is already widely distributed in Africa, its intensity
varies directly with the opportunities of outside contact and in-
versely with tribal isolation. On the whole, the results support the
contention that tuberculosis must have been very rare among the
African races under their primitive conditions of life, and that it is
tending to become widely diffused under the new conditions im-
posed by the penetration of European civilization and industry
into native communities. In East Africa, the penetration of Eastern
civilization also plays its part, as pointed out by Spearman (1933),
and in this connection, Dr. B. O. Wilkins is at present studying the
incidence of tuberculosis among the Asiatic inhabitants of Dar-es-
“Salaam.
HUMAN DISEASES 545
The question arises whether the spread of infection may be
expected to be followed by its own antidote in the form ofa gradual
increase of resistance against the disease. ‘There is some hope that
this resistance may be developed, but the general conclusion is
that the African appears to be relatively deficient in the power
to develop against our European tubercle bacillus the localizing
barriers of cellular tissue and fibrosis which work for spontaneous
cure in persons of European stock (Lyle Cummins 1935). The
excessive incidence and death rate among the negro population of
the United States, as compared with the whites, may also suggest a
biological dissimilarity in the average response to infection between
the black and white races. Against this, however, it may be pointed
out that the Red Indians of North America do take on, after a
certain number of years, the same reaction to infection as white
people, and there are now, in Canada, tribes enjoying almost the
same resistance as the whites. It is possible that the negroes of
the United States of America and even of Africa would similarly
develop resistance if they came to have the same living conditions
as the white races. This latter view is supported by experience in
the Belgian Congo, where the Government has made efforts to
stop the spread of tuberculosis by methods of isolation. By a law
on the roth October 1931, it was ruled that every non-native
person suffering from tuberculosis of either kind must leave the
country, and that every native patient must be isolated in a hos-
pital. Experience, especially of the FOREAMI doctors, is that the
latter measure has had most beneficial effects and that individual
resistance is increasing.
Research on tuberculosis among the native population in Uganda
carried out by Dr. Carmichael, the assistant veterinary patholo-
gist, has shown that most infections are with the human and not
with the bovine type of bacillus (Uganda 1935, D.R.).
Since 1913 valuable work has proceeded in Algeria and Morocco,
the Cameroons, Senegal, and the Congo. In particular, inquiries
into tuberculin sensitivity, etc., initiated in the French African
colonies in 1912 by Professor Calmette, constitute a great body of
knowledge which has continued to bear fruit ever since. In spite
of these researches, however, tuberculosis in the towns of French
West Africa is said to be increasing. Prophylactic treatment,
546 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
organized by hospital visitors in the homes of Africans, has proved
ineffective in view of the insanitary mode of life. Accordingly,
it has been concluded that the isolation of patients is indispensable
and special tuberculosis hospitals are being established.
Hospital records provide another source of information, and
sometimes significant results can be deduced from them; for
example, in the Gold Coast there is some evidence that tubercu-
losis has increased recently, and that nearly every case which
enters hospital proves fatal. The case-mortality rate of tubercu-
losis is, in fact, very high throughout Africa, because patients do
not come for treatment until the disease has reached an advanced
stage, a fact which emphasizes the need for health visiting in towns.
LEPROSY
In contrast to the tubercle bacillus which has found a home
among Africans only during the last thirty years or so, the leprosy
bacillus (Mycobacterium leprae) has been with them since time im-
memorial, and some maintain that the real home of leprosy was
Africa, whence it has been transported all over the world.
W. H. Hoffman (1932) points out that the northern belt of
Central Africa, from Nigeria to Abyssinia, is the most affected
portion of the globe. From the Ivory Coast the disease has been
reported in from 5 per cent to 6 per cent of the population, and
from limited parts of the Belgian Congo even in 12 per cent. About
half a million cases of leprosy are already known in Africa, so the
real number cannot be less than a million. Leprosy is a house-to-
house disease, and the infection of whole families by everyday con-
tact is not by any means rare. There is evidence from good obser-
vers that there has been an increase of leprosy in some places in
recent years. Hoffman considers that the segregation of sufferers
from the disease in isolated colonies cannot attack seriously its
endemicity in Africa, because it is easily propagated by sufferers
who do not show visible signs, and frequently the most infective
cases cannot be selected for segregation.
Until the last thirty years leprosy has been regarded as an incur-
able disease, but research has shown that the majority of cases in
early stages can be arrested and even cured, given adequate treat-
ment; advanced cases, though they may be improved, are usually
HUMAN DISEASES 547
intractable. Chaulmoogra oil, which has been used in India from
the earliest times, and its derivatives, are the principal drugs; ethyl
esters have been used, especially in South Africa with beneficial
results, and gold preparations are valuable in leprous affections
of the eyes, so that the dreaded blindness of leprosy can in many
cases be prevented or alleviated by treatment in the early stages.
All authorities are agreed, however, that the improvement of
hygiene is the essential method for the eradication of this disease.
It has even been found that cases in a settlement have been
arrested spontaneously without any treatment whatsoever as a
result of the better conditions of life.
The British Empire Leprosy Relief Association has established
centres for treatment throughout the Empire. This body exists to
undertake and assist research, to assist treatment work, and carry
out propaganda. Its funds are largely derived from private sources,
and are distributed to most of the British territories in Africa,
particularly Uganda and Nigeria. The association deprecates the
compulsory segregation of lepers except in special circumstances,
but encourages by means of propaganda and grants the voluntary
segregation of infected cases and emphasizes the necessity of
active measures against childhood infection. It is found that limited
funds produce best results when devoted to special investigation
and to adequately organized treatment and preventive work
among the general population. Dr. Cochrane, formerly medical
secretary of the association, has carried out an extensive survey
of the disease in Ceylon, and considers that similar work is
urgently needed in Africa. It is, however, beset with great difh-
culties, since the type of infection rather than the severity of lesions
is important.
Another recent development is due to the Rev. P. B. Clayton.
A Committee of the British Empire Leprosy Relief Association
and Toc H has been set up, and sufficient funds gathered to train
and support for five years in Africa a number of volunteers. Five
men, later increased to seven, have been working in Nigeria since
1935 in close association with the medical department (Nigeria
1935, D.R.).
The value of segregating infectious cases is obvious, and organi-
zation to this end has been the principal measure taken against
548 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
leprosy up till now. There are examples in various parts of the
world where the disease has been completely eradicated from
endemic centres by this means. In Africa legislation regarding
leprosy varies from territory to territory; compulsory isolation is
not universal. It is obvious that compulsory isolation may defeat
its own ends if it has the effect of making natives hide cases which
may be infectious.
In South Africa there are five principal institutions for leprosy,
containing a total in 1937 of 2,270 persons, of whom 98 were
Europeans, 97 coloured, 6 Asiatic, and the rest natives. In addition
there were 4,176 certified cases remaining in their own homes
(Union of South Africa 1936-7, D.R.). Southern Rhodesia has
two Government leprosy hospitals at N’gomahuru and Mtoko,
and there is a leprosy section attached to the Mnene Medical Mis-
sion, which is subsidized by the Government. The patients live
a practically normal life on large estates, and it is encouraging
to note that more and more cases are seeking admission; the total
increased from 508 in 1929 to 1,315 in 1936. The work has been
furthered by grants from the British Empire Leprosy Relief Associ-
ation (Southern Rhodesia 1936, D.R.).
In British East Africa numerous well-organized leper villages
exist, mostly under the direction of missions, and aiming at main-
taining the patients under conditions as natural as possible. In
addition, treatment centres are becoming established in many
areas, thus in Nyasaland there are twelve clinics all administered
by missions, and receiving grants from Government in proportion
to the number of cases treated. The Tanganyika Government
controls settlements at Dar-es-Salaam, Moshi, and Mkalama, and
treatment centres at the medical stations, together with numerous
settlements throughout the country. Assistance is given to mission
settlements, among which those of the Benedictine Mission at
Ndanda and Peramiho in the Southern Provinces are prominent.
The number of segregated cases in 1936 was about 3,400 (Tan-
ganyika 1936, D.R.).
In Uganda a survey was carried out in 1930-1 to determine the
extent of the disease. ‘The incidence was found to range from
0-05 per cent of the population in Entebbe district to 1-26 per
cent in Lango district, so leprosy in that country could hardly be
HUMAN DISEASES 549
regarded as a disease of great importance. Since then there is no
reason to believe that any marked change in the incidence has
come about. There are three old-established colonies run by
missions, on an island in Lake Bunyoni in Kigezi district, at Nyenga
in Mengo, and at Kumi in Teso. A new colony was started at
Buluba by the Mill Hill Mission in 1934, run in association with
that at Nyenga. Recently the Native Administration has taken
over the control of the settlement, and the mission activities are
restricted to treatment at the dispensary. At each centre the
patients, who come voluntarily, are supported by maintenance
grants for the first year until they have established their own farms
and become self-supporting. In conjunction with the colonies,
homes have been established for uninfected children who are segre-
gated from their parents as early as possible. In Nigeria and the
Gold Coast, where leprosy 1s said to be particularly virulent, special
government organizations are established and much work is being
carried out by medical missions assisted by grants from the central
Government, the Native Administrations, and the Leprosy Relief
Association. In Sierra Leone a survey of cases recently completed
shows a total of 3,675, representing about 1 per cent of the popu-
lation.
In the French colonies a prophylactic campaign against leprosy
was started a few years ago, and is run in conjunction with the
large leprosy hospital, settlement, and laboratories near Bamako
(see Ghapter XV). Emphasis has been placed on research, and a
notable discovery is that certain plants, Caloncobas, growing especi-
ally in the Ivory Coast and the Cameroons, yield extracts which
have effects on leprosy similar to the products of chaulmoogra.
In the Belgian Congo the legislation of 1931 provides for leper
segregation. In some areas the disease is particularly common,
especially in Uélé-Nepoko, where Professor Dubois (1932) made
a survey in 1930 and found in some parts as much as 12 per cent
of the population suffering. His report stimulated the Croix
Rouge du Congo to start a campaign with financial assistance
from the FOREAMI, the Institut de Médecine Tropicale and the
Ministry for Colonies. A model village was built at Pawa, and
sufferers from the disease were persuaded, with plenty of food and
good housing, to live there. There are now three such villages in
550 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Uélé, where the inhabitants grow their own food and are practi-
cally self-supporting. A laboratory has been erected at Pawa for
leprosy research and was opened in 1934 with Professor Dubois as
director. In the Bas Congo, where leprosy is relatively rare, the
FOREAMI have adopted voluntary segregation. Some 500
patients, representing about 20 per cent of the total cases, now
live in fourteen settlements, and the rest are treated regularly in
their homes.
With regard to drugs, chaulmoogra oil forms the basis of nearly
all treatment drugs; it is derived mainly from the seeds of two
species of the Hydnocarpus tree growing wild in Western India and
Siam. The oil is very cheap in India, so the cost in Africa 1s largely
that of transport. With a view to producing supplies locally,
Hydnocarpus trees are being tried with varying success in a number
of African territories.
HELMINT HIASIS
In this category come infestations by a multitude of parasitic
worms, which are very prevalent in Africa. ‘The commonest are
the Nematode worms, Ancylostoma (hookworm), Strongyloides,
Trichinella, various kinds of Filaria and Ascaris, the Trematode
Schistosoma (Bilharzia), and several tapeworms in the Cestode
group. Helminthiasis as a whole is regarded as of very great
importance in many African territories; in East Africa it has been
estimated that over go per cent of the population are infected
with one or more kinds of helminth, and frequently as many as
six kinds have been found in the same individual.
Fundamental research has revealed the life histories and some
of the pathological effects of the different helminths, a work in
which Professor R. T. Leiper’s Department at the London School
of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine has been prominent. Some
cause definite disease showing specific effects: for example hook-
worm produces anaemia and general lowering of vitality; schisto-
somiasis produces impairment of the functions of the liver and other
organs, and in serious cases death from toxaemia and complications
caused by the damaged organs; the cysticercus stage of certain
tapeworms, situated in the brain, is undoubtedly the cause of a
kind of epilepsy; and there is some evidence that helminth toxins
HUMAN DISEASES yl
may produce cirrhosis of the liver, a certain degree of which is
common amongst natives in East and Central Africa. With these
and a few other exceptions, the results of mass infestation by hel-
minths are little known, but there can be no doubt that the general
physical and mental activity of heavily infected persons must be
impaired.
The relation of helminthiasis to nutrition is a question calling
for examination. It is clear from experience in many parts of the
world that certain parasitic worms flourish chiefly in subjects who
are weakened in other ways, perhaps by insufficient or unbalanced
diet (see pages 563 and 576). But in the African population heavy
infestation may be a cause of malnutrition rather than an effect.
There are several important worm infestations which are definitely
known to be uninfluenced by the malnutrition of their hosts. In
certain cases feeding habits may have direct effect in causing
infection, particularly in the case of peoples who eat raw meat and
those who enrich their supply of mineral salts by eating earths, etc.,
from special areas (see page 578).
To indicate the severity of infection in different territories the
following notes have been taken from recent medical reports. In
Southern Rhodesia schistosomiasis is the most important helminth
disease, with hookworm taking a second place. Schistosomiasis
surveys have been carried out in this territory as well as in the
Union of South Africa and indicate that the incidence varies
widely in different districts. Among the native population it
reaches 50 per cent in certain areas and even for European chil-
dren, figures as high as 36 per cent have been recorded in Southern
Rhodesia. In the Union propaganda led to the sanitary protection
of bathing places, and treatment campaigns have been organized
by the Transvaal Bilharzia committee in co-operation with school
medical officers. In Northern Rhodesia it has been found that
31 per cent of workmen recruited by the Rhokana Corporation
are infected with hookworm. Helminth diseases are common in
Nyasaland, 140 out of 1,494 cases at the Zomba Native Hospital
were admitted on account of hookworm, and 47-2 per cent of all
other cases were infected with these helminths. In one village in
Kuweraza district 100 per cent of the people examined gave posi-
tive reactions. That drainage may play an important part in
552 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
determining the incidence is proved by the returns from moun-
tainous and well-drained places such as Mlanje and Zomba,
which show 22-2 per cent to 28-3 per cent of hookworm infesta-
tion compared with 53 per cent and 64 per cent in Port Herald
and Karonga, which are both low lying and poorly drained.
In Northern Nyasaland a heavy child mortality was traced to
intestinal infection by worms resulting in cirrhosis of the liver.
In Tanganyika helminths account for 19 per cent of all diseases
and 34 per cent of all deaths at Government institutions. In
Kenya perhaps the most complete data on hookworm infestation
ever recorded among a backward people were obtained during
the campaign in the Digo District in 1927-8. Preliminary exami-
nation indicated that every individual was parasitized, so treat-
ment with anti-helminthic drugs, carbon tetrachloride and oil
of chenopodium, was applied indiscriminately. As a proof of
the wholesale parasitization one village was selected, being appa-
rently healthier than most, and was subjected to detailed study at
a time of year, at the end of the dry season, when infection should
have been at its lowest. H. D. Tonking (1935) records the results:
every individual was infected and the average number of hook-
worm eggs was 466 per cubic centimetre of faeces.
The remedial measures against helminthiasis, especially hook-
worm, depend largely on improved sanitation and general stan-
dards of living, and above all the establishment of latrines in every
village. It is clear that extensive treatment campaigns can be of
little permanent value until steps are taken against reinfestation.
Accordingly, a two-stage policy is generally adopted in most terri-
tories, consisting firstly of propaganda for the establishment of
latrines and secondly of efforts to reduce infection by treatment.
Practically the whole of rural Africa is still in the first stage.
LYPHOID FEVER
Typhoid, para-typhoid, and the associated diseases are un-
doubtedly prevalent in most parts of Africa. According to hospital
returns, Africans do not appear to suffer from them to the same
extent as Europeans, but authorities in the Belgian Congo do not
subscribe to this opinion, since severe epidemics of typhoid have
been known, especially in Katanga and the Bas Congo. Diagnosis
HUMAN DISEASES 553
is by no means satisfactory on account of irregular symptoms, so the
incidence is almost certainly higher than is popularly supposed.
Inoculation against these diseases has reduced much of the risk to
Europeans living in unhealthy areas; for example, the adoption
of general inoculation of Europeans in the Belgian Congo has
reduced the cases from 38 in 1928 to only 3 in 1934. Experience
in temperate countries indicates that it is unlikely that the typical
group of diseases will disappear from the tropics until the standard
of sanitation has been raised to that which now exists in the large
towns in civilized Europe.
YAWS AND VENEREAL DISEASES
The difficulty of distinguishing between infections from yaws
and syphilis in native patients causes trouble in estimating the
prevalence of these diseases, but throughout Africa there is no
doubt that the spirochaetal diseases must be regarded as of far
greater importance than the more obvious diseases already dis-
cussed, with the exception perhaps of malaria and sleeping sick-
ness. Practically all estimates ofincidence are based on attendances
at hospitals and clinics, and therefore give a poor idea of these
diseases in rural areas. A few general estimates, however, have
been put forward; thus in East Africa the incidence of yaws and
syphilis together was put, until quite recently, at some 60 per cent
of the population, but the treatment campaign of recent years
has probably reduced this considerably. In Tanganyika the pro-
portion of yaws and syphilis together to other parasitic diseases
was 57 per cent in 1929, but had dropped to 37 per cent in 1933.
In 1936, the cases treated at Government institutions were syphilis,
23,484; yaws, 70,682, and gonorrhoea, 9,619. Compared with
these, in Uganda the figures were syphilis, 63,695; yaws, 62,240;
gonorrhoea, 14,101. The history of venereal diseases in East
Africa is somewhat obscure, but it is fairly clear that syphilis has
been established there much the longest, since it probably arrived
with the Arabs and was prevalent long before the European occu-
pation.
In West Africa, where in general gonorrhoea is the more impor-
tant in southern territories and syphilis and yaws in the northern
areas, rough estimates of incidence range from 50 per cent to go
554 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
per cent of the population. In Nigeria steady advance has been
made in the treatment of yaws and although usually this cannot
be sufficiently prolonged to produce cure, the incidence of florid
yaws has decreased greatly. Little progress has been made in the
elimination of syphilis, which is rampant. Cases treated during
1936 were:
Government hospitals Native Administration
and dispensaries dispensaries
Yews | 10588 | gg
Syphilis...) 18,42 | a6 pes,
Grice Goce |
The symptoms of yaws are generally quickly removed by a few
injections. This fact is of much value to the medical worker in
gaining the confidence of natives, but it complicates the treatment
of other diseases, since natives demand the needle for the cure of
every complaint and are disappointed when it is refused. On the
other hand they consider a cure is effected when obvious sym-
toms disappear, hence for the venereal diseases they seldom come
for treatment long enough to obtain a complete cure.
An answer to the question whether yaws and syphilis are in fact
one or two diseases is urgently required. At present, there is no
simple laboratory test to differentiate the two, since all known
reactions for syphilis are the same as for yaws. J. A. Carman
(1935), Hewer (1934), and G. Mattlet (1933) have discussed this
question at some length. Doubt also exists whether yaws can pro-
duce lesions of the brain and spinal cord as does syphilis, a subject
discussed by H. L. Gordon (1934aand b). Furthermore, it has been
suggested that yaws and syphilis are so closely related that one
may confer immunity against the other, and hence it may be
inadvisable to complete the cure for yaws in that the patient may
thereby become susceptible to syphilis. This is discussed by P. D.
Connolly (1931). There can, however, be no dispute that treat-
ment which clears up cutaneous lesions does in fact lead to a
reduction of incidence in the disease in the next generation,
HUMAN DISEASES 55D
although treatment may not be continued long enough to effect
a complete cure of the infected of this generation.
Gonorrhoea has proved particularly difficult to combat owing
to the need for long courses of treatment. Native women are very
unwilling to submit themselves to treatment, and many complica-
tions are due to neglect. Short-wave diathermy may prove useful
in reducing the time necessary for effective treatment. Much good
work has been done in townships by venereal disease clinics, but
ignorance of the distribution of the several diseases involved is
such that the whole question calls for serious study. Perhaps the
most complete system for treatment has been adopted in parts of
the French colonies. At Fort Lamy, for example, where the
incidence of syphilis is put at 80 per cent of the population, every
patient is given a numbered metal disc which is presented at each
attendance, so that his past record can be looked up without diffi-
culty. Statistical data are thus slowly accumulating.
In the Belgian Congo persons suffering from syphilis or yaws are
obliged to present themselves at clinics at regular intervals so long
as any sign of the infection remains. Records are also kept of the
medical history of women believed, or suspected, to be syphilitic.
OTHER DISEASES
A number of other diseases, some recently introduced, remain
to be mentioned. Of these, pneumonia is one of the most frequent
killing diseases, as shown by clinical records at hospitals. It is
especially prevalent where there is a strong contrast in the seasons,
as in the Guinea lands where the onset of the cold harmattan is
regularly followed by a flood of hospital cases. Moreover, in areas
where development of labour has taken place, particularly on
mines, pneumonia is becoming of increasing importance. Recent
work in South Africa (Lister and Ordman 1935) and in Kenya
has thrown much light on the epidemiology and type incidence,
and the report of the South African Institute of Medical Research
for 1935 also records that the use of a mixed vaccine for the
prevention of pneumonia among native miners on the Rand is
giving encouraging results.
Efforts are being made to control smallpox by vaccination, and
it is reported that native opposition is tending to decrease. Injflu-
550 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
enza frequently makes its appearance in epidemic form, affecting
Europeans and Africans alike. Measles, which has probably been
introduced recently, sometimes produces very serious symptoms
among the African population, who seem to have less immunity
than Europeans. ‘Thus epidemics in South Africa and the mining
areas of Rhodesia have been a cause of alarm in recent years.
Dysentery, both amoebic and bacterial, is still a cause of consider-
able mortality. Malignant diseases exist, but it is impossible to draw
any conclusions as to their prevalence from the cases reported in
statistical returns; indeed, as native confidence in European
surgery increases, it is even possible that cases treated may actually
increase, but in this connexion, as with other diseases, actual
prevalence among the African population cannot be estimated.
The study of these diseases has been advanced in a series of
publications by the pathologists of Nigeria, particularly by E. C.
Smith and B. G. T. Elmes (1934).
CHAPTER XVII
HEALTH AND POPULATION
INTRODUCTION
HE first section of this chapter is devoted to asketchofsome of the
Fe cork in collecting vital records which gives a real foundation
for knowledge of the state of health of the population. This leads
on to a discussion of ways in which health may be improved in
the rural areas as opposed to the towns, where in most cases
adequate hospitals exist. Finally considerable space is devoted
to the food and nutrition of Africans in view of the increasing
interest in the probability that malnutrition may be a cause of
widespread ill-health.
VITAL STATISTICS AND DEMOGRAPHY
It is perhaps unnecessary to emphasize the extreme importance
of demographic data. P. G. Edge (1932) compares the collection
and accurate recording of vital statistics with commercial book-
keeping, without which no enterprise can hope to succeed. The
same author (1932 and 1937), and every one else who has been
connected with the collection of demographic data from African
populations, stress the difficulty attached to such work among
people who do not yet understand and may still be prejudiced
against the methods of the white man.
Chapter IV of An African Survey has outlined and discussed
the existing agencies for collecting population records in Africa,
and Dr. Kuczynski (1936) has considered these from the point of
view of population trends, so it is only necessary here to summarize
such data as bear directly on medicine and health. These data
consist firstly of general censuses of the population which have
558 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
usually been carried out in British territories at ten-year intervals,
and in French every five years. Secondly there are the systems
established in certain localities, of registering vital events such as
births, deaths, and marriages. Thirdly, certain special studies have
been made for defined areas giving much fuller data on the preva-
lence of diseases and general health conditions of samples of the
population.
In the Union of South Africa the first simultaneous census of all
the provinces took place in 1904, and subsequently in 1911, 1921,
and 1931. On the last occasion financial stringency reduced its
scope to a census of Europeans only, with little more than estimates
for other categories of the population, but in May 1936 an addi-
tional complete census was made. This showed a material increase
for all categories of the population from 1921 to 1936, but it was
not considered that all the figures could be accepted with confi-
dence. Censuses for the South African protectorates were made in
IQII, 1921, 1931, and 1936. In Southern Rhodesia censuses,
started in 1901, have taken place more frequently, in 1904, 1907,
IQII, 1921, 1926, 1931, and 1936, the last mentioned being simul-
taneous with that in the Union. Figures for native population are
only estimated, being based on the number of tax-payers multi-
plied by a selected figure, usually 3} or 4.
In most of the colonial territories a regular decennial census has
been made. In Northern Rhodesia, in 1911, 1921, and 1931, the
European, Asiatic, and coloured races were actually counted,
while the Africans were estimated in a similar way to that used
in Southern Rhodesia. In both the Rhodesias special returns
were made from the employers of labour on mines. In Nyasaland,
censuses have been more comprehensive and more accurate than
in many other territories. In that of 1911 all non-natives were
enumerated, but the estimate of native population was based on
the number of hut taxes paid, multiplied by 2-8, a figure reached
by counts in selected villages. The more recent censuses of 1921,
1926, and 1931 involved a considerable staff of enumerators, and
the records on the day of census were preceded by three wecks of
work by the enumerators to serve as a check on the final figures.
This is a system used in India and elsewhere (sce P. G. Edge 1932,
p- 19). In 1931 the population figures were supplemented by
athe
or
a!
ae
.
=
ra
t
My nae bss ‘
HEALTH AND POPULATION 559
data on literacy and infirmities, the latter being divided into
blindness, deaf-mutism, and total infirmity. In Tanganyika a
census was made by the German administration in 1913 and by
the British in 1921, 1928, and 1931. The responsibility for these
lay mainly with the native administrations, but the figures were
checked by enumerations of selected villages carried out by the
district officers. A division was made into children and adults,
the line being drawn at puberty rather than at a definite age.
In the results it was assumed that a high proportion of children
is a sign of a growing population and suggests a correlation with
satisfactory health conditions, particularly diet, since the highest
percentage was found among tribes practising both agriculture and
animal husbandry. In Kenya no complete census has yet been
made of native races. Except for Europeans, the only areas where
all races were actually enumerated in 1931 were Nairobiand Mom-
basa, the figures being supplemented by returns of natives resident
on European farms. The native population of nearly 3,000,000 is
estimated annually by the chief native commissioner on the basis
of counts made for hut and poll-tax: married men, single men,
women, and children are shown separately, but the counts of
men, old women, and children are said to be definitely inaccurate,
the last being sometimes estimated as a percentage, say 37 per
cent of the total population. The Kenya Land Commission
(Kenya 1934) concluded that the native population as a whole
is increasing rapidly and will do so during the next twenty years.
The censuses of Uganda were made in 1911, 1921, and 1931. For
that of 1931 the whole protectorate was divided into the smallest
recognized administrative units, and information for each member
was asked on tribe, sex, age, civil condition, occupation, and
infirmities. There were five age-classes recognized, under one year,
one to seven, seven to eighteen, poll-tax payers, and aged persons.
There is little doubt that the data are more correct than for most
other territories, but it seems that the demand on the native
enumerators was so great that many inaccuracies crept in.
In Nigeria a decennial census has been made in Lagos since
1871 and for the whole country in 1911, consisting of a rough
enumeration, in 1921, when population figures were accom-
panied by data on native customs, and in 1931. In that of 1931
560 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
a general census was carried out in the Northern Provinces with
an intensive census in six districts of Katsina Emirate and a num-
ber of selected villages elsewhere. For the general census data
were given for age, sex, occupation, and religion, while the inten-
sive census included also birthplace, infirmities, fertility, numbers
of livestock, amount of cultivated or uncultivated land, and yield
of crops. In the Southern Provinces unsettled political conditions
made a complete census impossible and the figures were based
only on compiled estimates. ‘The degree of accuracy of these
various censuses was estimated as follows: the probable error was
found to range from 2 per cent in the intensive census of the
Northern Provinces to 10 per cent in most of the Colony and
Southern Provinces, while in the provinces of Onitsha, Owerri,
and Calabar the error was up to 15 or 20 per cent. The Gold
Coast has had a decennial census since 1891 though the first two
were confined to the Colony. It was not till 1931 that educated
enumerators were used throughout. In the rural areas data
include tribe, colony of origin, infirmity, standard of education
(below or above Standard IV), and age in three groups, under
fifteen years, fifteen to forty-five, and over forty-five. For the
large towns occupation was added to these data and age was
further divided into less than one year, one to five, and five to
fifteen. The results have been fully analysed by A. W. Cardinall
(1932). Sierra Leone has had a decennial census in the Colony
since 1881 and in the Protectorate since 1901. In 1931 a complete
enumeration was made for non-natives, but Africans were still
being estimated by the administrative officers after detailed counts
in selected villages.
In the French colonies a five-yearly census has been made
throughout the present century, in which French citizens repre-
senting about 2 per cent of the total population are enumerated.
For the rest. estimates have been based on tax registers and
accuracy is not claimed (A.O.F. 1935). There are no data on
age-classes, etc. In 1933 a scheme was put forward for French
West Africa by the Governor-General for an enlargement of staff
to obtain a proper census within five or six years, but no such
steps have been taken in French Equatorial Africa. French
Togoland and Cameroons have similar five-yearly censuses, but
HEALTH AND POPULATION 561
for the latter there seems to have been serious disparity between
censuses made in 1924 (2,771,132 persons), 1926 (1,877,113), and
1931 (2,223,802). In parts of the Cameroons a card index record
of every individual, similar to that of the Belgian Congo, has been
started.
In the Belgian Congo the anxiety felt in recent years as to the
alleged decline of the African population has given a stimulus
to much census work. The system adopted has been to establish
a register in the form of a card index at the headquarters of each
administrative division, with a card for every individual. The
cards are checked during annual visits, and by 1935 the system
was said to cover gi per cent of the adult males in the Congo.
The Governor-General, Monsieur Ryckmans (1933) points out
that it has not been possible yet to cover every district in the
Congo or to maintain the records up to date, so a check has been
introduced in the form of accurate counts each year in sample
areas. By 1936 it was estimated that about one-sixteenth of the
total population was covered in this way.
Systems of registration of vital events are at present reasonably
complete for Europeans, and in most countries for other non-
native races. For Africans, however, data are available only for
a small proportion of the population living mainly in urban areas.
In South Africa the registration of births and deaths has been
compulsory for all races in urban areas since 1923 and for Euro-
peans, Asiatics, and coloured races in the rural areas. Even in
the urban areas, however, accuracy is very doubtful in regard to
Africans in view of the large proportion of temporary residents.
In Southern Rhodesia it is stated that reliable vital statistics of
Africans are quite unobtainable at present. Northern Rhodesia
has instituted a registration of births, deaths, and marriages in
some 411 villages with 43,000 inhabitants, representing about 3
per cent of the total population; the efficiency of the system is
said, however, to be doubtful. Similarly in Nyasaland there is
compulsory registration in Fort Manning District with 35,000
inhabitants, or 2 per cent of the population. In Tanganyika all
registration of races other than Europeans is optional, while in
Kenya there is no such system at all, even in Nairobi and Mombasa.
Uganda has introduced voluntary registration for all provinces.
T
562 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
In the West African dependencies registration is established in
many towns: thus in Nigeria it is compulsory in Lagos, Calabar,
Kano, and Port Harcourt, covering in all about 1 per cent of the
total population. The Gold Coast is better provided with com-
pulsory registration in thirty-five towns, one of which is in British
Togoland. This covers about 8 per cent of the total population,
and in the case of all deaths either a certificate or a post mortem
examination is required. In Sierra Leone registration is effected
in all the colony, covering some 6 per cent of the total population,
but is said to be complete only in Freetown, while the Gambia
has registration in Bathurst, containing 7 per cent of the popula-
tion, but the data for births are said to be incomplete. In the
French colonies registration is compulsory only for French citizens,
but a voluntary system is in existence elsewhere. In the Belgian
colonies there is compulsory registration for Europeans, but for
natives the only records appear to be by Christian missions, who
record baptisms, marriages, and burials.
Data from the systems of vital registration in force are published
in annual reports of the medical departments. Each year all
such reports are summarized and the data on vital statistics have
been arranged in comparative tables by H. H. Scott (1931-5)
and P. G. Edge (1936), and in that form published in Supplements
to the Tropical Diseases Bulletin. ‘The data selected-refer particu-
larly to the birth, death, and infant mortality rates. So many
of the figures are based on unreliable and incomplete data, how-
ever, that errors are necessarily included as the authors point out,
and many sections of the tables have to be left blank.
Special data have been obtained, in limited areas, in connection
with medical campaigns, accompanied by the examination of
large numbers of persons and complete registration of vital events
over a short period. In Tanganyika, for example, such an investi-
gation was carried out by Dr. A. R. Lester in the Kahama area.
Its objects were fully set out in the medical and sanitary report
for 1927 (Tanganyika 1927, D.R.), and may be summarized as
an attempt to obtain reliable information and statistics from a
typical unit of the native community. The investigation lasted
from 1927 to 1931 and dealt with an area of over 7,000 square
miles and a population of 76,000 divided among four native
HEALTH AND POPULATION 563
authorities, each with a separate clinic. Unfortunately an unfore-
seen factor, the spread of sleeping sickness into the district, altered
drastically the normal life of the population; during the period
of observation many people died of or suffered from the disease,
and others were removed from their homes into fly-free areas.
Although the value of the investigation was much reduced by
this epidemic, the results are of great interest for the study of
methods to be employed in such work. They illustrate the limited
value of observations made over a short period in view of the high
degree to which African population figures are affected by emigra-
tion and immigration. To mention a few of the results, during
the four years of the study more males were born than females,
but the mortality among male children was higher; the average
period of married life in the area was 11-9 years before dissolution
by separation or death; the average number of living children per
woman was I-5, but there was a high percentage of miscarriages
and abortion owing to syphilis; the percentage of women with a
syphilitic history was 59-2, but including other venereal diseases
and yaws it was 89-3. In addition to these general data, a specific
medical survey was made of four villages with a population of
1,910 persons, and Dr. Lester’s report contains cultural studies
which illustrate the possibilities of this kind of survey.
During the same period another intensive investigation, under
Dr. CG. R. Phillips, was made in the Digo District of Kenya in
connection with the campaign against helminthiasis in that area
(see page 552). Although the period was too short to produce
vital records of real value, many suggestive data have been re-
corded in the medical department reports (Kenya 1932, D.R.,
Pp. 13-25; 1933, D.#., pp. 17-25, and Phillips 1932). In Kenya
also for six months during 1930 and 1931 a rather similar study
was made of the Masai to produce data on a typical pastoral
tribe. By comparison with the Digo, the Masai showed little
malaria and only a small degree of infection with hookworm;
but on the other hand the incidence of tapeworm, roundworm,
pyorrheea, and eye affections was high. The mortality of infants
and children bordered on 500 per thousand births compared with
about 100 or so among the Digo, while some 34 per cent of the
Masai women appeared to be sterile owing to gonorrheea. This
564 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
investigation has important bearings on the findings of Sir John
Orr and Dr. Gilks concerning the nutrition of Kenya natives,
referred to later.
In Nyasaland Dr. T. A. Austin, in 1935, made an intensive
study of the isolated population of Chilwa Island in the lake of
that name about twenty miles from Zomba. The total population
of the island numbers about 700 and very little European influence
has been felt. About 30 per cent of this population was subjected
to an intensive medical examination, including estimates of urines,
stools, the examination of blood films, spleen, and general diseases.
The results showed a very high infestation by parasites and diseases
somewhat similar to that found in Kenya and Uganda.
In Nigeria a special medical census was carried out in 1931 in
connection with the general census, and the reports by Dr. R. C.
Jones (1932) of the Northern Provinces and by Dr. J. G. S. Turner
(1932) for the Southern Provinces are publications of great impor-
tance. For each area special villages or towns were selected in
different climatic zones, and in each a thousand or so of the
people were examined in full detail on a standardized scheme.
In all 9,491 persons were examined in four villages of the Northern
Provinces; these villages were approximately on the same line of
longitude, but in distinct climatic zones with an annual rainfall
ranging from 25 to 40 inches. In the Southern Provinces 11,023
persons were examined in Abeokuta, representing rural conditions,
the Cameroons, forest and hill country, and Arogbo, providing
swampy conditions in the creek area. The difficulty experienced
in obtaining information was considerable, as it has been in all
other parts of Africa, but satisfactory returns were obtained for
tribe, sex, age, birthplace, occupation, nutrition, stature, general
diseases, ulcers, vaccination, etc. Additional information from
females over ten years of age included numbers of children alive
and dead, still and premature births, pregnancies, miscarriages,
multiple births, etc.; and for children under twelve years of age
the size of spleen and liver were measured roughly by finger
breadths.
In the Belgian Congo, several special sets of data have been
collected, but the most important records are those of the large
FOREAMI organization (see page 499) which has been able
HEALTH AND POPULATION 565
to compare the health conditions of a considerable population
in the Bas Congo from year to year since 1931. The results
(FOREAMI 1931-5, A.R., Trolli 1934, Trolli and Dupuy 1934)
provide what is probably the most detailed piece of demographic
work yet undertaken in Africa. The twenty-five doctors em-
ployed make medical examinations of some 350,000 individual
natives, men, women, and children, every six months. By this
means the prevalence and spread or regression of the principal
diseases have been established, and full data on such subjects as
infant and maternal mortality have been collected. Perhaps the
most striking results concern the sex-ratio. In European countries
the births of boys exceed those of girls in the proportion of 105 or
106 to 100. Among the Bakongo, however, the ratio is apparently
reversed, since there were 93-7 boys to 100 girls born in 1932,
99:1 in 1933, and 99-4 in 1934. This apparent reversal of the
biological law that more males are born than females, is attributed
by Trolli (1934) to the matriarchal society of the Bakongo, which
leads to girls being more sought after than boys. This factor must
clearly affect the survival rate of boys, but it is difficult to see how
it can affect the birth rate. In the same paper Trolli advances
another explanation that the mortality of males is greater before
birth and the first few weeks of life. M. P. Ryckmans (1933) now
Governor-General of the Congo, suggested that there may have
been errors in collecting the data sufficient to account for the
abnormality, but Trolli points out that the data were obtained
each year by seven censuses by different members of the staff
working in separate districts.
During the period from birth to 3 years the female sex still
predominates over the male among the Bakongo, but the domi-
nance becomes progressively less until from 3 to 15 years the
proportion is reversed and there are more boys than girls, perhaps
a result of an emigration of girls. A second reversal of sex-ratio
occurs among adults, there being more adult women than men,
a result of higher death rate and emigration of men. This differ-
ence is exaggerated among old people of 45 years and more,
among whom the low figure of about two men to three women
is the average. Figures and graphs showing the remarkable change
in sex-ratio are published separately for the seven districts of the
566 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
area studied, and all bring out the essential facts mentioned above.
With the detailed figures collected, the birth, death, and infant
mortality rates have been worked out for the several districts
under the FOREAMI, in a way which shows clearly where health
work is most required.
These observations have now been carried out over a period
of several years which makes it possible to estimate changes in
the population. The general opinion has been that the native
population of the Congo is decreasing and that steps taken by the
Government are not sufficient to arrest it; but the figures for the
Bas Congo in FOREAMI records show a successive increase as
follows: in 1932 the increase was 17-3 per cent, In 1933 21-4 per
cent, and in 1934 19-8 per cent, the lower figure for 1934 being
due to an epidemic of bacillary dysentery. The conclusion reached
is that the population is increasing quite rapidly, largely as a
result of medical aid.
In the mandated area of Ruanda-Urundi the Belgian authorities
have also undertaken a medical census, particularly with a view
to determining infant mortality. By 1935 in Ruanda 1,279,096
people out of a total estimated population of 1,685,283 had been
individually registered, and in Urundi 219,856 out of an estimated
total of 1,700,300. For the purposes of reckoning infant mortality
the areas studied were divided into three groups according to the
degree of European influence; these were agriculturists, persons
in close proximity to missions or plantations, and Christians. In
the most primitive regions the infant mortality rate was calculated
to be 100 per thousand, which compares very favourably with
many other parts of Africa. ‘The systems of sleeping sickness
inspection in the Belgian Congo have also produced useful infor-
mation, since every individual examined is recorded in regard to
sex, age, profession, and medical details.
For the French territories some of the results published in the
annual reports on the Gameroons and Togoland to the Mandates
Commission fall into the category of special medical studies. For
the Cameroons a series of maps and graphs shows the relative
importance of principal diseases in different parts of the territory.
There are data also for the sex-ratio, which show results rather
different from the Belgian work mentioned above. Thus there is
HEALTH AND POPULATION 507
a preponderance of girls from birth to 14 years; this ratio is
exaggerated among adults between 14 and 45 years, but is
reversed among older people, so that from 45 years upwards
there are more men than women. The rate of infant mortality
for children up to 3 years is rather high, between 200 and 250
‘per 1,000. The Togoland annual report for 1934, contains maps
indicating sex-ratio and the proportion of children less than 14
years to adults in different parts of the territory. These suggest
that the population of about one-quarter of the territory is
stationary or regressive, while in the rest it is on the increase.
In Togoland also sample surveys have been made by medical
officers which give more valuable figures than the general censuses.
Population maps have been constructed for various parts of
Africa. Thus S. J. K. Baker (1936) has compiled such a map for
British East Africa and Ruanda-Urundi, and concludes that East
Africa as a whole has not yet attained its optimum population,
though the density of population in some areas is far above the
optimum level in relation to the economy and technical knowledge
of the tribal groups. For Tanganyika a much more detailed study
has been made by C. Gillman (1936), who has produced what is
probably the best population map for any part of British Africa.
He showed that 62 per cent of the area is practically uninhabited,
mainly owing to the absence of water, and that two-thirds of the
population is concentrated on a very small proportion of the
territory, about one-tenth of the total area, where permanent
water exists. This uneven distribution has naturally led to serious
exhaustion and erosion of the soil in certain areas, a state of
affairs which can only be remedied by redistribution of the
population after water-supplies have been made available by
tapping underground sources (see Chapter III). Another study
of population in relation to water-supply was made some years
earlier for Nyasaland by F. Dixey (1928).
Regarding changes in Africa’s population as a whole, Professor
A. M. Carr-Saunders (1936) and Dr. R. Kuczynski (1936) both
stress the inadequacy of existing material as a basis for conclusions
as to population trends.
568 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
RURAL HYGIENE
The relative claims of towns and rural areas for special attention
by medical departments and missions have been discussed in
Chapter XV, pages 462, etc, and the existing organizations
devoted to improving health in rural areas are outlined in pages
471-503. In this section examples are selected to show how far
some of the major problems of rural medicine and hygiene are
provided for by these agencies. The need for further health services
for rural areas in the British colonial territories was emphasized
in a series of papers relating to the health and progress of native
populations published by the Colonial Office (1931).
The desirable minimum medical and sanitary service for a large
rural district has often been discussed, and the definition by
Dr. A. R. Paterson (1928b), which has been adopted as the
official scheme for the development of services in Kenya, may
be given. Paterson considers that there should be at least one
district medical officer, one medical officer of health, one dispen-
sary medical officer, two European nursing sisters, one European
sanitary inspector to train natives how to make permanent sanitary
dwellings, perhaps a European hospital assistant and storekeeper,
an adequately trained and disciplined native subordinate staff,
a hospital with accommodation for about 100 patients, and from
six to twelve out-dispensaries; and, as an essential part of the
service, good housing for the staff. This outline represents only
a skeleton staff compared with that which will be required to
destroy disease and maintain health in a quarter of a million
people. Accordingly it is recognized in every territory in Africa
that adequate provision depends on the employment of trained
African personnel, a question discussed in Chapter XV.
The Pan-African Health Conferences of 1932 and 1935 (League
of Nations 1933b and 1936) gave special attention to the question
of hygiene and medical services in rural Africa. From the several
reports and resolutions adopted at these conferences, the following
general principles emerge:
1. In countries with a large backward population the preven-
tive and curative functions cannot be separated in field personnel.
In urbanized areas and some well-advanced rural areas, where
HEALTH AND POPULATION 569
natives appreciate the value of doctors, it is possible to separate
the two functions and thereby achieve greater efficiency in each,
but in backward areas the full confidence of the population must
be won by curing disease before any attempt is made to improve
sanitary conditions. ‘Thus a disease such as yaws, which can
_usually be cured by a short series of injections, is often a godsend
to the sanitary worker. For friendly instruction in elementary
hygiene when confidence has been obtained, a knowledge of the
vernacular is essential.
2. Health officers, however zealous, can achieve little without
full co-operation from other departments such as administrative,
agricultural, veterinary, education, and police. There is no doubt
that the importance of sanitary improvement would be better
appreciated by officers in other departments if they had the oppor-
tunity of attending courses on the subject in home countries.
3. In an under-nourished population, especially if it is subjected
to periods of famine or semi-famine, the mere treatment of
disease is insufficient. The first need is a continuous supply of
sufficient and well balanced food for the native, and the next,
improvement in housing. Both aspects depend on the economic
status of the community.
4. The teaching of hygiene, sanitation, and food values should
be given a prominent place in school curricula and should be
essentially practical, provided it is remembered that in hygiene
‘parrot’ rules are of little value without some background of
biological understanding. The education of adults at hospitals,
village gatherings, and other meeting-places can be furthered
greatly by the use of lantern slides and cinema films.
5. Progress in preventive and curative medicine depends largely
on the efficiency of African subordinate staff, and training at the
principal hospitals and in special schools requires continued
emphasis, particularly the training of native women in midwifery
and child welfare work. Unfortunately women with the requisite
elementary education are still rare in many territories.
6. The growth of air transport in Africa has now reached a
stage when aeroplanes could be more widely used for transporting
patients and medical and sanitary personnel with advantage to
efficiency and economy.
570 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
7. Knowledge of African food supplies, and the possibility of
improving them, is still very inadequate.
The provision of facilities outlined above appears to be more
advanced in those territories under indirect rule. In Uganda
a system of sub-dispensaries is already established; it has been
described authoritatively by W. L. Webb (1934) and will serve
as an example. Each sub-dispensary is a unit situated amongst
a rural population in charge of a trained native attendant and
supervised at regular intervals by a medical officer. Curative
measures are first introduced, then preventive measures such as
vaccination and inoculation; and when native interest is well
aroused health propaganda is undertaken.
Infant mortality in most parts of Africa is very high; recent
published estimates range from 100 to 500 per 1,000 live births.
This has made the development of maternity and child welfare
clinics a question of great importance. The great decrease in
infant mortality in England was due to the improvement of general
hygiene, and the establishment of infant consultation clinics. This
increase, however, has been counterbalanced by artificial birth
control. The adoption of contraceptive methods by Africans is
unlikely to become general in the near future, so that pressure of
population in congested areas is a development which must be
reckoned with as infant mortality is reduced.
Mrs. McD. Hendrie has pointed out, on the basis of experience
in the Gambia and Gold Coast, that the common belief that
native women have little trouble during pregnancy and parturi-
tion is entirely unfounded. Numerous complications occur, most
of which are caused or accentuated by disease, especially malaria,
intestinal worms, and venereal diseases, and some by the im-
patience of native midwives. During the ante-natal period women
are very ready to attend clinics and dispensaries, but as soon as
labour commences they prefer to be among their own people, so
that the provision of medical assistance becomes more difficult.
The period of nursing, which among many African people extends
to two or three years, is again a time when advice is readily taken
by mothers, and is a time moreover when deficiencies in diet
come into particular prominence. Many tribes attempt to make
good these deficiencies by eating such materials as salt-containing
HEALTH AND POPULATION 571
earths, but such additions to diet could be provided in more
effective and hygienic forms by the nearest dispensary.
The work of Sir Albert and Lady Cook in Uganda has done
much to improve female education by providing an outlet for
trained girls in nursing and midwifery. The importance of the
_co-operation of all departments in measures to improve the
general standard of life, which has been frequently emphasized
in this volume, is now widely recognized. One might quote in
illustration of this point a paragraph by Dr. Williams, Director
of Medical and Sanitary Services in his annual report for 1933
(p. 17): ‘It is interesting to note that in the report of the recent
survey undertaken by the Agricultural Department the impor-
tance of co-operation between that department and the Medical
Department is emphasized and there is no doubt that the measures
to be adopted in endeavouring to secure a diminution in the
incidence of disease are those measures which are directed towards
raising the standard of living and to the improvement of the
methods of agriculture and stock raising. Such measures to be
effective require the co-operation and co-ordination of four depart-
ments in particular, viz. the Agricultural, the Medical, the
Educational, and Veterinary. Much may be accomplished with-
out any great expenditure of funds by these departments working
in harmony and unison under the egis of a keen and capable
administration.’
In another part of the report (pp. 29-31) Dr. Williams outlines
a scheme for co-operation between the departments to promote
prosperity among rural natives. It includes improvement in
agricultural methods, stock, water-supplies, communications,
afforestation (the action of the Nyasaland forest department in
establishing village forests has been mentioned in Chapter VII),
the provision of schools for girls and women, public health and
medical work, and propaganda by native teachers, dispensers,
and sanitary staff.
FOOD AND NUTRITION
The conclusion that the improvement of health in Africa is
largely a question of better food supplies reflects the general
572 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
tendency of medical science during the past few years. This
movement has led to the publication of many general works on
diet, which have value for Africa as for all other parts of the
world; for example the League of Nations’ publication on nutri-
tion and public health by Burnet and Aykroyd (1935) and the
volume on dietetics in warm climates by Leitch (1930). The
Pan-African Health Conferences in South Africa in 1932 and
1935 paid particular attention to nutritional problems, as men-
tioned in the last of the general principles of rural health and
hygiene (p. 570). For some years a committee of the International
Institute of African Languages and Cultures, consisting of anthro-
pologists and other scientists, has been elaborating plans for
research on African native diets. A special number of the Insti-
tute’s journal, Africa (April 1936), was devoted to the subject,
and a separate publication by the Institute (1937) contains a
full bibliography together with tables showing the composition
of African foods compiled by the Imperial Bureau of Animal
Nutrition. In 1936 a dispatch from the Secretary of State (Colonial
Office 1936b) to all the colonies and dependencies, invited
particular attention to these problems, and a special committee
of the Economic Advisory Council was formed to survey the
present state of knowledge in the Colonial Empire and advise on
measures to promote the discovery and application of knowledge
in this field.
A Dietetics Committee of the Economic Advisory Council had
already inaugurated extensive researches in Kenya. The work
was made possible by grants from the Empire Marketing Board
to enable research officers from the Rowett Institute at Aberdeen
to work in East Africa in collaboration with the Kenya medical
department. From 1927 until 1931 a series of technical papers
by Kelly, Henderson, Foster, and Harvey were published and
have been summarized in special reports of the Dietetics Com-
mittee. In 1931, Sir John Orr, Director of the Rowett Institute,
and Dr. J. L. Gilks, late Director of Medical and Sanitary Services
in Kenya, who had collaborated in the field, published a report
(1931) on the nutrition of the Kikuyu and Masai, in which were
embodied all the principal results by other workers.
The two tribes selected represent the two.ends of the nutritional
HEALTH AND POPULATION 573
scale, the Masai subsisting on little else but meat, blood, and milk,
and therefore having a diet high in protein, fats, vitamins A, B,
iron and calcium; while the Kikuyu diet, being chiefly vegetable,
is high in carbohydrates and low in protein, vitamin A, iron, and
calcium. Since the physical development of the Masai is on the
average much better than that of the Kikuyu, and the diseases
from which they suffer are different, the question is raised of the
relation of physical development and resistance to disease to food
and nutrition. Much attention was paid to the mineral con-
stituents of diet, especially calcium; it was ascertained for instance,
that the Kikuyu have considerably less blood calcium than
Europeans, and that the routine diets in hospitals and prisons
contained only one-third of the assessed calcium requirements.
A proper correlation between disease prevalence and diet defici-
ency has not yet been reached, but certain diseases seem definitely
to show a dependence on unbalanced diet associated with normal
blood chemistry. Tropical ulcer, for instance, is invariably
associated with an abnormally high inorganic phosphorus content
in the blood, although vitamin deficiency is almost certainly an
additional cause of the disease. A further point is that the women
on the whole have a more varied and better balanced diet than
the men. The report stresses throughout that the results achieved
are only pointers to the directions in which fuller research should
proceed.
Studies of a somewhat similar nature were made at the same
time in Nigeria, particularly by Dr. W. E. McCulloch, formerly
dietetics expert in the medical department, working at the Katsina
laboratory. His technical papers and notes in the annual reports
of medical and health services (especially that for 1932) are
highly illuminating. As regards tropical ulcer, McCulloch (1928)
suggests that ‘dietetic ulcer’ would be a better name, since in his
view they result from a chronic semi-starvation which facilitates
the entrance of any mildly pathogenic organisms. This largely
corresponds with the views of Connell and Buchanan (1933)
based on an investigation in Tanganyika. McCulloch’s treatise
on the Hausa and town Fulani (1929-30) provides full data on
the different foods eaten. Although a large variety of foodstuffs
are grown, nearly all the population lives on millet porridge,
574 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
adulterated sour milk and a soup made from leaves of the baobab
(kuka) tree, which analysis shows to have a peculiarly high calcium
content. Groundnut oil and meat are daily additions for rich
people, but are rarely eaten by the general population. He con-
siders that the failure of a dietary in quality rather than quantity
may easily be overlooked because of the erroneous idea that
specific deficiency in diet must be observable in the form of special
diseases. In actual fact the majority of specific deficiencies result
in a general lowering of vitality and resistance to disease, as origin-
ally pointed out by Sir Robert McCarrison (1921).
Among the Hausa of Nigeria the low birth rate is attributed to
infertility among the women. This suggested a general deficiency
in vitamin E, and in order to put it to proof, exhaustive experi-
ments have been made at the Katsina laboratory by feeding rats
with typical native foods: almost invariably a reduction in fertility
has resulted, but it seems that these results on fertility are not
conclusive, since changes in diet, other than those resulting in
deficiency, may effect the fertility of captive rats. McCulloch
attaches importance to calcium deficiency in relation to fertility,
and points out that certain villages which are well known among
natives for their fertile women are those where the kuka trees
grow in profusion. The poor quality milk is likewise attributed
to calcium deficiency, and it is suggested that the long period
(two or three years) of lactation is an adaptation to give the child
a certain modicum of this element. It is interesting to note that
McCulloch’s figures for growth-rate show an abrupt arrest after
puberty, and in this respect are similar to the figures recently
collected by Dr. Gordon in Kenya (see pages 584-6). In general
the West African tribes considered may be said to suffer diet
deficiencies in vitamin B, vitamin E, calcium, iron, iodine, and
protein.
Since the publication of these results, biochemists have been
added to the scientific staff of medical departments in order to
carry out among other duties, the analysis of local food materials.
Among investigations, the results of which are published, may be
mentioned that carried out in Zanzibar by Harden Smith (1935)
and a nutritional review of the natives of Zanzibar (1937), which
is one of the first fruits of the Colonial Office circular mentioned
HEALTH AND POPULATION 575
above. In Sierra Leone Dr. E. J. Wright (1930 and 1936) has
given special attention to avitaminosis among the local peoples.
From the Sudan there comes a striking instance of what appears
to be a direct deficiency disease among a people whose staple food
is millet, as recorded by N. L. Corkill (1934). Some medical
authorities have expressed the opinion that it is incorrect to call
the disease in question pellagra, but it must certainly result from
malnutrition. In Tanganyika an administrative officer, R. C.
Jerrard (1936), has put together some data on customary foods
in a pamphlet on the tribes of the territory.
In the Union of South Africa the nutrition of native races
is also arousing interest, and F. W. Fox (1934 and 1936), of
Johannesburg University, has already discussed some aspects of
the question and has amassed a large collection of native food
materials, many of which have been analysed. Such work is, of
course, an essential preliminary to detailed diet surveys, and Fox
(1934) has laid down a scheme for a general nutritional survey of
the Union.
In the Belgian Congo it appears that little direct work on the
food and nutrition of natives in rural areas has yet been attempted,
but in mining regions the subject has been studied in some detail
with a view to preparing the most suitable dietaries for labourers.
Much research on the different food materials in use through-
out the Congo has been done through the agency of laboratories
at Tervueren near Brussels, attached to the Congo Museum, and
some of the results are displayed in the public galleries of that
museum. In the French African colonies nutritional work is
somewhat dispersed and special research has not yet been
attempted in the field. A general protein deficiency in the
diet of non-pastoral peoples is fully recognized, however, and
a movement is afoot to produce dried meat and fish as articles
of internal trade in order to make good this lack. A valuable
book on the food of native races in all the French colonial
dependencies has been written by a group of scientists, includ-
ing Professor Labouret and Dr. Sorel (Hardy and Richet
1933).
It is perhaps a little surprising that the better-known deficiency
diseases, such as beri-beri and rickets, are not very serious in
576 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
tropical Africa. ‘They can, of course, be cured by nutritional
methods where medical aid is available, as a result of fundamental
research carried out in Europe and in the East during the last
twenty years. There may, however, be a number of local deficiency
diseases whose presence is masked by the numerous better-known
diseases from which natives suffer. To mention one example, in
Nigeria a disease involving blindness has been evident among
people who feed largely on cassava. It has been noticed particu-
larly in school children among whom the disease has been cured
by feeding with cod-liver oil. Similar complaints have been ob-
served in other parts of Africa and the value of vitamin A as a
protection from infection has been stressed by Fox (1933). The
blindness in Nigeria may be a disease known in European coun-
tries to be a direct result of vitamin A deficiency, but opinion is
divided and some authorities consider it to result from some toxin
in the food. Dr. Clarke investigated this question in Nigeria
during 1935 and 1936 under a grant made by the Medical Re-
search Council and Colonial Medical Fund, and his conclusions
give weight to the view that poisonous substances occur in appreci-
able quantities in cassava and coco yam. Thus the avitaminosis is
probably caused by food toxins which do not allow the vitamins
to be used properly by the body.
The relation between nutrition and resistance to disease was the
subject of an important discussion by the British Association in
1935. The opinion is often expressed that susceptibility to parasitic
worms is enhanced by malnutrition. There is, in fact, some experi-
mental evidence in animals in support of this view, discussed by
Miss P. A. Clapham (1933). Nearly every native has worms of one
kind or another, and a recent work on the zoological content of
male and female natives’ intestines, though at present based on
small numbers, indicates that women have considerably fewer
worms than men. It has been suggested that this is due to the
more varied diet of women, but it is also possible that infestation
by helminths depends on the facilities which the parasites have for
distribution from host to host rather than on the food of their
hosts. If susceptibility to worm parasites is partly a result of mal-
nutrition it is important to remember that the converse is probably
true, that infestation with intestinal parasites favours the develop-
HEALTH AND POPULATION 577
ment of malnutrition and food deficiency by interfering with
digestion and absorption.
The dependence of teeth on diet is another question of striking
interest. Sir Edward and Lady Mellanby have pointed out that
dental caries among Kikuyu natives in East Africa is more preva-
lent in towns and mission stations, where natives wear clothes, than
among untouched members of the same tribe living a rural life.
They attribute this partly to the deficiency of calctum and vitamin
D in the diet, but also to lack of sunshine directly on the body, and
to the shortened period of breast-feeding which results from town
life. This conclusion was confirmed by Oranje, Noriskin, and
Osborn (1935) for the South African Bantu. “The percentage of
Bantu having carious teeth’, they state, ‘and the average number
of caries per individual are lower in relatively primitive Bantu
than in those who have had a closer contact with Europeans by
working on farms, in mines, or in towns.’ Dr. Osborn is continu-
ing this study on a larger scale in the native territories of South
Africa and the Johannesburg mine compounds. On the other
hand, there is reason to suppose in some areas that natives in the
reserves have bad teeth as a result of food deficiency, but in towns
the varied diet results in improvement. The deficiencies which are
involved in causing dental decay, either singly or in various com-
binations, are those of calcium, phosphorus, vitamins A, D, and C,
and lack of oral hygiene likewise plays its part. A study of these
factors among both urban and rural natives offers a great oppor-
tunity for research.
The monotony of native diet has been found to be of great
importance, since it means that deprivation of any constituent, even
if normally taken in very small quantities, may result in the com-
plete absence of some essential substance. This monotony is
perhaps most strongly marked among pastoral peoples such as the
Masai. It is less obvious in agricultural tribes whose diet changes
during the year, and who use an astonishing variety of relishes.
The diet of cultivators, however, though varied, is seldom well
balanced, and it seems probable that a series of deficiencies occurs
throughout the year as the food changes from month to month. In
labour camps and prisons, the effects of monotony in diet have
sometimes been very serious. The high mortality of prisoners in
578 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Uganda, for instance, has been very considerably reduced by the
institution of a varied dietary particularly rich in vitamin A, as
pointed out by Owen and Mitchell (1931). Again, the Médecin-
en-Chef of the Belgian Congo, discussing cases of beri-beri and
rickets in his annual report for 1931, notes that ‘les avitaminoses
sont essentiellement des maladies des camps des travailleurs et des
prisons’. Now that the source of the trouble is recognized, the
position has been much improved, as shown by Dr. Trolli (1936)
for the Belgian Congo and Dr. A. J. Orenstein (1936) for the Wit-
watersrand gold mines.
Deficiency of certain minerals, especially those containing cal-
cium and phosphorus, is common all over the continent and natives
go to great pains to make good the lack. Everywhere salt, par-
ticularly natural salt, which contains a variety of constituents in
addition to sodium chloride, is a most valued article of trade,
and natives sometimes travel great distances to obtain supplies for
themselves and their stock, or drive their stock periodically to salt
licks. In many places earth from special areas rich in salts is regu-
larly eaten and in some cases, especially among nursing mothers,
young children, and people suffering from intense infestation by
parasitic worms, the desire for special earths as food develops into
pica, or a depraved craving, as described by J. W. Foster (1927)
for East African natives. Often Africans obtain meagre supplies
of mineral salts, especially calcium, from the tissues of plants; thus
in parts of Rhodesia, Kenya, and Uganda reeds are burnt and
salt obtained from the ashes by a process of solution and reprecipi-
tation. In Nigeria the leaves of the baobab tree, which chemical
analysis shows to have a peculiarly high calcium content, are
crushed and eaten in soups. The latter case provides a striking
illustration of the dietetic value of a customary native practice.
Precautions are always taken to avoid direct sun on the leaves
during the drying process, a practice for which a very sound reason
has been elucidated by laboratory analysis and experiment: it has
been shown that sun-drying as opposed to shade-drying destroys
the vitamin content of the leaves.
Examples such as this show the importance of full understanding
of traditional native attitudes towards different articles ofnative diet
and their preparation, as a preliminary to measures of improve-
HEALTH AND POPULATION 579
ment. Nevertheless, the diet could in some respects be altered for
the better without much difficulty, as pointed out by many
writers, in particular Sir Daniel Hall (1936), who discusses the
food of Africans together with the related subjects of agriculture
and animal husbandry. In Nigeria groundnuts, which are widely
grown for export, would help to make good the protein deficiency
if developed as an article of consumption. Leguminous crops as
an addition to native diet are being tried in parts of the continent.
Soya beans, particularly, contain proteins of high nutritive value.
The lack of calcium could perhaps be reduced by a more extended
use of sweet potatoes, which are said to contain a higher propor-
tion of this element than other native foodstuffs in West Africa,
though this result is not confirmed in Kenya, where the lowest
limit of calcium for sweet potatoes was found to be lower than that
for European potatoes.
‘Red palm oil, which is produced in large quantities in West
Africa, offers another opportunity for extended use as native food.
A recent study of this oil at Singapore by Rosedale and Oliveiro
(1934) shows that ‘in addition to the ordinary energy-giving
quality of an oil, red palm oil is the only oil possessing vitamin A,
which could at the same time become available as food for the
population’. As a further point in its favour the vitamin content
of red palm oil appears to be less quickly activated into vitamin D
than that of coconut and other oils. Vitamin D is probably nearly
always sufficient in tropical diets, but too much of it works as a
calcium activator, which means that the usual deficiency of cal-
cium in native diets is increased by too rapid utilization. An
investigation on the value of palm oil in prison diets and of the
vitamin content of local oil is proceeding in Tanganyika.
The problems involved in efforts to increase the consumption
of dried meat as a source of proteins have been. discussed in
Chapters XIII and XIV. Again a fuller use of the continent’s
fishery resources, both marine and freshwater, discussed in Chap-
ter IX, offers special opportunities for the improvement of diet,
since fish food provides not only protein, but calcium, iodine, etc.,
in the most easily assimilated form. As a further source of animal
protein, insects are used as food in most parts of Africa: certain
stages in the life-history of termites are regarded as a luxury, a
580 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
nutritious cake is made from the compressed bodies of lake flies
near the great lakes, and some tribes are fond of locusts. Here
again there may be opportunity for expansion.
Preliminary investigation should be directed to studies of the
metabolism of natives, and standard analyses showing the dietetic
value of the normal food materials. The former of these subjects
is discussed on page 584; some remarks on analyses may be made
here. Food analyses are more easily made in the well-equipped
laboratories of Europe and America than in Africa itself, but
facilities are now developing in Africa, especially in the Union.
The analysis of foodstuffs in Africa itself is a less formidable task
than it sounds, especially now that most of the important vita-
mins can be analysed by chemical and physical methods. In this
connection results from the League of Nations Permanent Com-
mission on Biological Standardization will be of value, particularly
in international co-operation; for instance, the commission has
set up official units and standards by means of which the vitamin
contents of food and the amounts required for maintaining health
can be estimated. In addition, the work done at Washington,
D.C., in analysing typical food materials, should be applicable in
other parts of the world, but would need to be supplemented by
work on African foods. At the Conference of the Co-ordination of
General Medical Research in East Africa (Conference, East Africa,
1934a) it was decided that all analyses of local foodstuffs should be
carried out by the biochemist at the Nairobi laboratory. The
studies which have already been completed at Nairobi and else-
where in Africa (International Institute of African Languages and
Cultures 1937) stress the importance of local variation, so that
general standardization of each food material is not sufficient.
The nutritive value of different food crops must vary, not only with
different strains, but with conditions of soil, climate, use of manure,
and irrigation. Some local products can be sent to distant labora-
tories for analysis, but this is unsatisfactory, particularly for deter-
minations of vitamins A and QC, because alteration of these is
rapid, consequent on oxidation, storage, etc. The existence of
local variations does not, of course, detract from the importance
of general standardization.
When the value of each foodstuff is known, diet charts can be
HEALTH AND POPULATION 581
made out and the knowledge distributed by propaganda methods,
as in Europe and America. In some tropical countries outside
Africa this is already being done. In Malaya, for example, sheets
are published showing dietetic values of all the principal foodstuffs,
and a tropical diet chart illustrates a number of minimum diet-
aries. Professor Rosedale of the biochemical laboratory at Singa-
pore has been active in spreading knowledge in Malaya by such
means. Some of the results are applicable in parts of Africa, and
the Malayan sheets are exhibited in the food section of the museum
at Zanzibar.
Further studies may be divided into two stages: (1) the survey
stage, consisting of general studies of existing conditions, combined
with surveys of the distribution of diseases, and (ii) the experimental
stage, consisting of detailed work on individual villages where ex-
periments can be made by changing the dietary.
The contribution of the social anthropologist to dietetic studies
has been elaborated in detail by Raymond Firth (1934), and the
results of anthropological work on diets in Northern Rhodesia have
been published by Dr. Audrey Richards and Miss Widdowson
(1936), and in the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast by M.
and S.L. Fortes (1936). There have also been several local studies
by Government officers, sometimes of medical and agricultural
departments in co-operation; for example, in Uganda two agri-
cultural officers and a medical officer recently made a joint
nutritional study in the Teso district; in Tanganyika similar
surveys are in progress. Expert medical investigation seems to be
essential in such survéys, since many variations in the incidence of
disease are associated with differences in diet. To take the
most obvious case, a meat-eating pastoral tribe is likely to suffer
from lack of carbohydrates, while a neighbouring grain-eating
tribe requires animal protein. Africa, at the moment, may be
compared with a nutritional laboratory in which innumerable
experiments on controlled diet have been progressing for a hun-
dred years or so. Much may be learned by simply collecting the
results of these experiments, but this knowledge will be far more
difficult to attain in a few years time when local food customs have
broken down with the disintegration of tribal organization. In
some parts of the continent, moreover, there are living isolated
582 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
tribes which appear to be dying out as a result of peculiar nutri-
tional diseases. There is a striking instance of this in one of the
least-known parts of East Africa, at the south-east corner of Lake
Rudolf where there lives a dwindling tribe, the Elmolo, studied by
the Cambridge Lake Rudolf Expedition of 1934. Brief reference
to them is made by V. E. Fuchs (1935), who points out that among
the remaining members of this tribe, numbering about eighty-
four, there is an almost universal deformity of the shin bones. The
Elmolo live entirely on fish, crocodiles, and turtles that are caught
in the lake, and drink the lake water which has a very high soda,
and an almost negligible calcium content. The results of this very
peculiar dietary are seen in the prevalence of scurvy, pyorrheea,
dental decay, and arthritis in addition to their malformations of
bone. This example is mentioned as a case where a small and
comparatively inexpensive investigation could obtain results of
remarkable value. It is practically certain that the condition of
the Elmolo results from mineral deficiency combined with insuf-
ficient intake of certain vitamins. A medical and dietetic survey
would give results which, apart from their own intrinsic interest,
might indicate the cause of similar physical complaints among
people who normally enjoy a more varied diet.
The nutritional significance of vegetable relishes used by agricul-
tural tribes involves botanical as well as dietetic inquiry, as does
the variety of local strains of staple food materials. Mr. H. C.
Sampson, Economic Botanist at Kew, has already large collections
of millets and other food grains from several parts of Africa and is
in active co-operation with the local agriculturists and other
officers. In South Africa the Division of Plant Industry of the
Union Government has a number of botanists ready to identify
and study important plants, while F. W. Fox and his collaborators
at the South African Institute for Medical Research, have already
examined a large number of wild plants used as food, particularly
those which become important in times of acute shortage (Levy,
Weintroub, and Fox 1936).
Experimental work in the modification of the dietaries of selected
villages or families should not be very difficult to arrange. With
the knowledge gained from survey studies, small additions might
be made to test the results on the prevalence of particular diseases.
HEALTH AND POPULATION 583
In Europe, Dr. Aykroyd, when a member of the League of
Nations Health Section, started experiments of this kind on certain
families in Roumania, in connexion with the prevalence of pellagra.
The greater uniformity of African diets should make controlled
methods in such research easier than in Europe.
Such experiments call for specialist knowledge from a number
of different fields. It seems that results could be achieved best by
a special team of workers sent out from Europe—say a doctor,
a biochemist, a social anthropologist, and an agriculturalist. Given
twelve months in an area carefully defined to present a few major
problems, results should be expected which would be of the first
importance to Africa, and indeed to the world as a whole. Apart
from such special work, however, it would be desirable that the
training of medical officers for work in the tropics, should include
nutrition as an important subject.
In several British colonies dietetics committees have been set
up in which medical, agricultural, forestry, veterinary, and geo-
logical departments co-operate. It is worth noting also that, in
spite of the prevalence of diseases in Africa, for which malnutrition
is partly responsible, a high level of physique and health is often
attained by individual members of African tribes on diets of
extreme simplicity. In this respect Europeans may have something
to learn, as well as to teach.
PHYSIOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICANS
The necessity for fundamental research on the physiology of Afri-
can races was stressed in strong terms by the Pan-African Health
Conference of 1935. The subject had already been discussed at
the conference of 1933 on the Co-ordination of General Medical
Research in the East African territories (Conference, East Africa,
19344), when it was decided that such work should be inaugurated
at the medical research laboratories at Nairobi, the necessary
apparatus being purchased by contributions from the several ter-
ritories. Until some standards of normality have been established
for the metabolism of natives, any appreciation of deviations from
the normal and any steps taken to correct them, must remain
largely a matter for conjecture. Normal figures for the basal meta-
584. SCIENCE IN AFRICA
bolism of natives, though of considerable academic interest, are
not perhaps immediately required, because carbohydrate food to
give calories is always the least expensive part of a diet, and this
is particularly so with the type of food usually available for native
races. An inquiry into the general metabolism of natives is, how-
ever, of the greatest importance in elucidating how the African
differs from the known standards of Europeans. Research on these
lines would require accurate biological, biochemical, and bio-
physical estimations, involving work both in the laboratory and
the field, with the clinician and the pathologist assisting with the
provision of normal and pathological material. Such work has
been started at the medical research laboratories both in Kenya
and Tanganyika, but results have not yet reached the stage of
publication.
The subject of the African’s development has recently come
before the public notice after the publication of Dr. H. L. Gordon’s
and Dr. F. W. Vint’s preliminary results in Kenya, and of the
former’s appeal for funds to extend the work.
It has been recognized for many years by physical anthropo-
logists that the average size of the brain, like that of any other
measurable characteristic, varies among different population
groups. Dr. Gordon’s work includes the further attempt to com-
pare the rate of brain growth among natives and Europeans. His
data, which are admittedly of a preliminary nature, show that at
ten years old the average native brain is much smaller than the
European, and that it grows at about half speed until at twenty
years it is about the size of the European brain at ten years. A
secondary point of more importance is that growth of the native
brain is arrested at the time of puberty and continues afterwards
at reduced rate, while in Europeans growth is accelerated after
the onset of puberty.
The direct correlation between size of brain and intelligence
cannot be presumed, and indeed there are many experts who
would deny any correlation whatever, but some preliminary his-
tological work gives Gordon’s results greater significance. The
work on brain measurements on living natives was coupled with
macroscopical and microscopical examinations by Dr. Vint (1934),
pathologist to the Kenya Government, who claims to have shown
HEALTH AND POPULATION 585
(hat the brain cortex (grey matter) of the native is qualitatively
deficient compared with the European’s: the individual pyramidal
cells of the cortex are smaller, less well-formed, with a preponder-
ance of undifferentiated cells. These results are not, however, at
present accepted as conclusive by experts. In another part of the
world, the extensive investigations made by Professor Shellshear
(1937) on the brains of Australian aborigines and of Chinese have
shown that the two groups are characterized by differences in
structure; but it should be noticed that he expressly refrains
from basing on these results any conclusions with regard to dif-
ferences in mental capacity, while pointing out that so far as bio-
logical evolution is concerned, the retention of primitive charac-
ters in the so-called ‘lower’ races may provide the possibility of
greater evolutionary advance.
Dr. Gordon published a summary of his conclusions on the
brain in a letter to The Times of 8th December 1933, which called
forth an abundance of criticism, particularly against his methods
of calculating brain capacity from the measurements of the living
head, and in the presentation of results as absolute brain size
rather than relative brain size, taking into account the size of the
body. Dr. J. S. Huxley, in a letter on the subject dated 18th
December 1933, pointed out that the only true criterion is relative
brain size based on Lapicque’s formula for different types of mam-
mals: the brain varies as the body weight raised to the power 0-56.
There was also some doubt whether the natives examined repre-
sented a true sample of the populations concerned. Most people
are agreed, as Drs. Gordon and Vint themselves maintain, that
the results to date are merely pointers, but that the subject is one
on which exhaustive work is required.
Apart from the study of brains, which naturally attracted public
attention, Gordon (1934) recorded a number of other suggestive
facts relating to physical development. In characters such as sit-
ting and standing height, weight, hand grip, and vital capacity,
the native at the age of ten is better developed than the European,
but is overtaken at about fifteen years, after which the native’s
development falls off, while the European’s leaps ahead. When
speaking of the ‘native’ it is important to realize that Gordon’s
results are based mainly on the Kikuyu mixed with some Nilotic
586 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Jaluo and a few individuals from other tribes. The East African
tribes present such striking physical differences that further inquiry
will be of great interest for purposes of comparison. As mentioned
in the previous section, Dr. McCulloch has collected data from
the Hausa of West Africa, which show similar arrest of physical
development at puberty.
Since the publication of results by Gordon and Vint the medical
and lay press has made constant reference to the possibility of
a large-scale inquiry, and the combined meeting of the East
African branches of the British Medical Association at Dar-es-
Salaam in January 1934 passed a resolution calling upon the
governments to take up the investigation without delay. The
inquiry is estimated to cost about £50,000 and, with the annual -
medical grant in Kenya at about £200,000, it is clear that such
a sum could not come from local budgets. Sir Ernest Graham-
Little, M.P., has put the arguments in favour of making such a
sum available in The Times of 28th August 1934.
It should be urged that knowledge of mental and physical
development, though of great academic interest, is not sufficient
as a guide in formulating policy. It should be combined with a
survey of diseases, of nutrition, of agricultural and animal hus-
bandry methods, and even botany, zoology, soils, etc. In fact, the
ecological outlook would be all-important in such an inquiry in
order to understand the several factors working on native develop-
ment, and to appreciate which of them are susceptible to control.
Since so much intensive work is necessary, it seems that the best
results would accrue if a team of workers were to concentrate in
the first place on one tribe, or perhaps one small section of a tribe.
A deep insight into the question of natural development would
thereby be attained, and standards would be set up; these could
subsequently be applied with comparatively little extra work to
other tribes living in different environments.
HEALTH OF EUROPEANS
Compared with African natives, Europeans are comparatively
well-provided with medical facilities, as pointed out in Chapter
XV. Civil servants receive free attention from the government
HEALTH AND POPULATION 587
medical services, and there are not many stations now which do
not either have a resident medical officer or receive frequent visits
from one, while private practice and nursing homes are well
established in all urbanized, industrial, and closely settled agri-
cultural areas. In the principal towns, where white population
is large, hospitals reserved for Europeans are as good, or nearly
as good, as anywhere in the tropics, and subsidiary European
hospitals are established in nearly every township in the settled
areas.
On the much-debated question of deterioration in health under
tropical conditions, a few figures may be quoted from H. E. Rayne
(1930), showing the enormous improvement which has come about
during the last forty years. The most accurate data are for civil
servants in the Gold Coast and Nigeria: in 1881-97 the annual
death rate per 1,000 was 75-8 in the Gold Coast, and 53-6 in Lagos.
Since then there has been a steady and rapid decline, only inter-
rupted during the war years as a result of overwork and lengthened
tours. In 1925-8 the death rate was 6-5/1,000 per year at the age
of 25, 12-1 at the age of 45, and 9-3 at ages over 50 (the last figure
is perhaps misleading since many officers retire before 50 years of
age). Similar figures could be quoted for other tropical depen-
dencies, but the improvement 1s not so striking because the initial
mortality rate in East and Central Africa was not so high as on
the West Coast. Of course all classes of the European community
do not enjoy the same health; for example, missionaries as a group
have a comparatively high mortality and invalid rate. This is
sometimes interpreted as the result of a low standard of comfort,
but may equally well be due to the greater risk of infection
for persons in close contact with the native population. Figures
show that in recent years the mortality rate for retired officials
is not appreciably higher than the normal for Great Britain for
similar age periods. Mortality rates in the Belgian Congo remain
somewhat higher than in British Africa. This must be partly,
perhaps wholly, a result of the larger proportion of European
children in the Belgian territory, since children in the tropics have
always a higher mortality than adults.
The great improvement of health in Africa among Euro ean
has clearly resulted from an all round improvement in the stan-
588 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
dard of living and general amenities of life. The quality of food,
in particular, has improved markedly; more fresh food is available
for purchase locally, the quality of meat has risen, and in quite
recent years the advent of small house refrigerators has enabled
many Europeans to preserve food adequately and to render it
more palatable and more easily digestible. New methods of house
building with metallic foil-covered asbestos as insulating material,
tiles instead of corrugated iron, etc., have made living conditions
more comfortable. The general conclusion may be stated that for
Europeans to maintain health in unhealthy African districts a high
standard of living is essential. Many amenities of life which are
regarded as luxuries in England are necessities in the tropics, and
if this is realized there appears to be little, if any, deterioration in
health.
The problems of European health in the Union of South Africa
are in some ways different from those in other parts of the con-
tinent, the climate on the whole being considerably more favour-
able and the European population more numerous. The health
of the white man in the Union was considered at some length
during the Medical Congress held at Grahamstown in September
1935, and the papers presented are published in the South
African Medical Journal. The general problems of the ‘poor
whites’ who represent about 15 per cent of the European popula-
tion, at a very low standard of living, were the subject of an inquiry
carried out in 1931 with the help of the Carnegie Commission.
The resultant report (1932) contains valuable information on diet,
as well as other questions.
There is still, however, room for the investigation of some under-
lying scientific problems. Our limited knowledge of African
physiology has already been mentioned. With regard to white
races, a mass of research has been carried out on physiology in
temperate conditions, but ignorance is still profound on the effects
on the functioning of the body and brain caused by life in tropical
climates. It is not yet known, for example, how such factors as
tropical sunshine and humidity affect the system.
Another factor, which must influence the future of some settled
areas, is the effect on Europeans of life at high altitudes. Full
results cannot be expected until Europeans have lived in their new
HEALTH AND POPULATION 589
environment for at least two or three generations, but already
there are indications that the rate of physical and mental develop-
ment, the onset of puberty, etc. are different in the Kenya High-
lands from England, and it has been suggested that these differ-
ences are associated with blood pressure. Some other effects of
climate on health are mentioned in Chapter IV.
Turning to a subject of more immediate practical importance,
research is required on tropical housing and clothing for the
white man. What we do at present is more conventional than
reasonable. The new non-tarnishing metallic foils, in particular,
are bound to be valuable as heat insulators; they are already being
used in roofs and hats. The conditioning of air in houses, offices,
and trains, and perhaps even motor-cars, is another application of
science which may well revolutionize European life in some parts
of tropical Africa. In this subject America has given the lead to
the world; all over the Eastern States public offices, theatres, and
trains are now kept at a constant optimum temperature by thermo-
static devices. In most tropical countries, as mentioned in Chap-
ter IV, humidity is perhaps a more potent influence in health than
is temperature, but research has already shown how humidity in
buildings can be controlled. It seems that some of the devices for
air conditioning, now employed in America and Europe, could be
applied with little modification in many tropical townships and
railways, and lead to great improvement in European health and
efficiency.
CHAPTER XVIII
ANTHROPOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
HE methods of life of the African native have been found to be
relevant to the subject of each of the foregoing chapters, with
the exception of those on Surveys and Geology, and even these
two subjects bear on African life in the light which they throw on
the physical environment. Hence this study of science in the
African continent necessarily involves some reference to anthro-
pology.
Modern anthropological studies are largely directed to an
analysis of those institutions, economic, political, and legal, on
which the everyday life of the native is based, and the changes
which these are undergoing in response to the various agencies of
European contact. The policy of Indirect Rule seeks the develop-
ment of native political institutions to meet the needs of modern
times, and it is generally recognized that the study of social
anthropology may assist this form of relation, between controlling
power and subject race, to be efficient.
It is sometimes argued that the administrative officer, whose
duty it is to apply this political system, is best qualified to under-
take the research involved, and there are many instances of valu-
able studies carried out by officials. But the necessary time is sel-
dom at the command of the official, and, moreover, the very fact
that it is he who has to apply the necessary changes may bias in
some degree his view of the existing systems of native life. The work
required involves time and special technique which are seldom at
the disposal of the administrative official.
Anthropology is included amongst the subjects in the training
course for probationers in the British colonial administrations, and
ANTHROPOLOGY 591
it is reasonable to foresee that there will be a steady and increasing
flow of studies on individual tribes from the pens of administrative
officers themselves; but men and women with a more intensive
training in the methods of anthropological research must also find
an important place in the African field. The part that is being and
could be played by anthropology in relation to administrative
_ departments is explained in the chapter on ‘Studies in social life’
in An African Survey, but in relation to other parts of this scientific
volume, it can be demonstrated similarly how anthropology enters
the sphere of the technical departments in any African territory.
Many problems, connected with administration, but coming
within the purview of agriculture, are those resulting from econo-
mic changes. The traditional social and economic order of native
society is being changed by world economic conditions, which are
quite beyond the control of Africa itself. Thus the cultivation of
new crops for the world’s markets and the demands for labour for
European enterprises have profound and far-reaching effects on
the family, the tribal organization, religious beliefs and sanctions,
traditional morality and other branches of social structure. ‘The
effect of these changes may be disastrous unless there is an under-
standing of the native social and economic systems, and unless an
attempt is made on the basis of adequate knowledge to replace
them, where they are breaking down, by new incentives to labour,
new values and new economic wants.
The developments in methods of production by Africans for
their own subsistence also raise many anthropological problems.
Detailed knowledge of native methods of cultivation is clearly
necessary, since important practices may be overlooked by agri-
cultural officers in their necessarily rapid surveys. ‘Thus in one
area a complicated five- or seven-year rotation of crops was dis-
covered by a sociological research worker, whereas it had pre-
viously been presumed that the people in question had a hap-
hazard system with no rotation. In another instance the question
had to be decided by Government whether the food shortage
during certain months of the year was acute enough to make it
worth while to undertake the effort of introducing a new crop for
native consumption. The only means by which this information
could be obtained was by careful records of the nature and quan-
592 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
tity of the food supply from season to season, of the amount of food
stored each year by the average householder, and of the quantity
and type of food consumed during different months of the year
by representative families.
Similar questions arise in connection with the overstocking of
native reserves, which is one of the most pressing economic prob-
lems of Eastern and Southern Africa. Attempts to compel Africans
to reduce their stock are bound to rouse determined opposition
unless account is taken of the part played by cattle in the social
organization of the tribe, of the religious beliefs and social values
attaching to them, of their importance in the marriage contract
and of their many other connections with the whole economy of
native life. Only the scientific study of the interconnection of these
social facts will make it possible for Europeans to understand the
African’s refusal to make what seems the obvious adjustment, and
will provide the knowledge on the basis of which the problem may
be attacked with some hope of success.
The subject of native food and nutrition has been considered in
Chapter XVII. Once again, however, anthropology has an
important part to play in obtaining the initial information about
diets, and in explaining the part played by traditional economic
organization and social structure in the production and distribu-
tion of food. The same may be said of all health work throughout
rural Africa.
The development of co-operative societies (Chapter XIII) is a
question of the first importance for the whole of Africa. Not only
may the establishment of such societies contribute in important
ways to economic development, but they may prove both a valuable
actor in promoting social cohesion and also a substitute for native
institutions which are no longer adequate to meet the changed
conditions of life. Trained scientific workers can probably best
discover how these new forms of social co-operation can be grafted
on to existing African institutions and how the living forces and
customary loyalties of native society can most effectively be de-
veloped and utilized for the achievement of new social purposes.
A field in which the need for further scientific investigation has
become increasingly evident is the adaptation of education to the
conditions and needs of African life. The principle of such adapta-
ees Hottentot
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ioe Hammesc.
= Bantu.
Pe Nilotic Negro
mes Semitic.
Tn ne ene ee 6 ee oR a er re
Li Matayo- Polynesian. 5 English Miles
500 1000
Map 4. Principal Language Groups. (After Fitzgerald, 1934.)
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ANTHROPOLOGY 593
tion is now widely accepted, but in actual fact educational
programmes directly related to the realities of native life are com-
paratively few. Some attempts have been made to base the
educational syllabus on the improvement of the crafts already
practised in native villages and to relate agricultural education
to traditional methods of agriculture, which are by no means as
inefficient as is sometimes assumed. But in most territories much
still remains to be done in this direction. New problems also arise
and call for sociological investigation in connection with the
absorption of the younger generation into trade, industry and the
service of the Government. None of the educational problems to
which reference has been made can be dealt with successfully with-
out a much more thorough study of education both in relation to
traditional native society and to the new requirements of western
civilization. Probably the best popular account of the present
position and future prospects in these subjects is that by Professor
Westermann (1934).
In the remainder of this chapter a sketch is given first of the
existing agencies for anthropological research in Africa. ‘This is
followed by summaries of recent work in several branches of the
subject, in the compilation of which the survey by Dr. Edwin
Smith (1935) has been of great assistance. Some of the subjects
discussed are considered at greater length in connection with
administrative work in An African Survey; in particular the science
of linguistics has been omitted altogether from this chapter, apart
from occasional reference, since it has little direct bearing on the
other scientific subjects with which the volume is concerned.
ORGANIZATION
Anthropology was moulded into a science by workers in the
far East, especially in Polynesia and Melanesia, and there are still
comparatively few workers who have chosen Africa as their field
of study. Consequently, in summarizing the present organizations
for research, it is necessary to mention a number of individuals by
name, a practice which is different from that adopted in the cor-
responding sections of other chapters. Anthropologists have come
to the subject from many directions; some have approached it
U
594 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
through universities from biology, medicine, psychology, modern
languages or classics; others have reached it through the channels
of administration or missionary work in which everyday contact
with native races has stimulated the desire to find out about the
people and their ways of life. Consequently there are various
methods of viewing the subject, some concerned primarily with
the historical or archaeological aspects, some with native languages
or with material culture, some with sociology and the changes due
to culture contact. These different aspects are considered in later
sections of this chapter.
In the sphere of research organized or partly sponsored by govern-
ments, Professor C. G. Seligman was the first anthropologist to be
commissioned by an African Government to investigate for ad-
ministrative purposes, and his work with Mrs. Seligman in the
Sudan, which began in 1911, has done much to establish the
science in Africa. Throughout several expeditions he served in
an advisory capacity to the Government, though his work was
financed to a considerable extent by scientific institutions in Eng-
land. From 1926 onwards Professor Seligman’s work in the Sudan
was followed up by Dr. Evans-Pritchard, who has made special
studies of the Azande, Nuer, and Annak tribes from the modern
sociological standpoint (see below). He was likewise financed in
a proportion of two to one by scientific bodies in England and the
Sudan Government. Concerning purely government research, the
late Captain R. S. Rattray was official anthropologist in the Gold
Coast for a period of years, while Nigeria similarly supported Dr.
C. K. Meek; both of these had spent many years as administrative
officers before being seconded for research purposes. On the
retirement of these officers there was no government anthropolo-
gist in British colonial territories until in 1937 the Rhodes-Living-
stone Memorial Institute was established at Livingstone in Nor-
thern Rhodesia and Mr. G. Wilson was appointed to the post of
anthropologist there. In the same year Dr. S. F. Nadel was ap-
pointed by the government of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan to carry
out a special survey of the Nuba hills.
Research undertaken by Government officers might be expected
to be directly concerned with specific administrative problems, but,
as in any other science, it has often proved that the work which is
ANTHROPOLOGY 595
most useful in the long run was undertaken with the rather dif-
ferent object of increasing the sum total of knowledge concerning
tribal organization and culture, even down to the smallest details.
Captain Rattray’s books (see below), for example, do not profess
to show how the Ashanti should be administered, but they are,
nevertheless, referred to by every administrative officer concerned
with the region. As a contrast, some publications by C. K. Meek,
when anthropological officer in Northern Nigeria, provide examples
of special administrative problems of the moment; but likewise,
when gathered together, they serve as valuable reference works. A
number of unpublished reports on native political institutions have
resulted from studies made by individual officers in connection
with the extension of indirect rule.
Among other Government officials who have contributed
materially to the science, the following are prominent: in Kenya,
C. R. Dundas and C. W. Hobley; in both Kenya and Tanganyika,
Major Orde Browne; in Nigeria, J. R. Wilson-Haffenden; in
Northern Rhodesia, A. M. Dale, who published two volumes
jointly with Dr. Edwin Smith and F. H. Melland, who has con-
tributed especially to knowledge on witchcraft; and finally, J. H.
Driberg, who did much of his original field work when serving in
the administrative departments of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and
Uganda, and has since developed the teaching side of African
anthropology at Cambridge.
Those anthropologists who have been missionaries and some of
whom, therefore, have approached the subject from a rather dif-
ferent angle, should be headed by Dr. Edwin Smith, whose joint
study with A. M. Dale, of the Ila-speaking peoples, has just been
mentioned. Subsequently his more popular work, The Golden Stool,
brought anthropology into closer touch with missionary, adminis-
trative, and other activities, and in 1934-5 he was elected Presi-
dent of the Royal Anthropological Institute, and of the International
Anthropological Congress held in London in 1934. His presiden-
tial address to the Royal Anthropological Institute (1935) is par-
ticularly notable in drawing together the threads of anthropology
into a general view, including some reference also to scientific work
in other fields. In Eastern Africa, Canon Roscoe has done valuable
work, Notable studies by missionaries on Southern African
596 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
tribes, are those by Dudley Kidd, Willoughby, and Dora Earthy.
German missionary work in this field is prominently represented
by A. W. Spieth in Togoland, B. Gutmann in Tanganyika, and
Father Siebert in the Belgian Congo. An important contribution
by a Swiss missionary on Portuguese East Africa is H. Junod’s Life
of a South African Tribe.
Among universities as centres for research and training in anthro-
pology,the three mostimportantin England are Oxford, Cambridge,
and London. In South Africa, the leading university centres are
Capetown and the Witwatersrand. The Oxford and Cambridge an-
thropological departments provide the training for all the colonial
administrative probationers. Dr. R. R. Marett at Oxford, now
succeeded by Professor A. R. Radcliffe-Brown, inspired several of
the best known anthropologists of to-day to turn to the subject; at
Cambridge the African teaching is mainly in the hands of J. H.
Driberg. The London School of Economics is one of the leading
headquarters to-day for training specialists for research in the field,
and the outstanding teachers concerned have been Professor Selig-
man, whose monumental work in the Sudan has already been
mentioned, and in more recent years, Professor B. Malinowski,
whose emphasis on the functional as opposed to the structural
aspect of the science has had a profound influence on the present
generation of research workers and the relation between anthro-
pology and administration. Malinowski’s own contributions to
research have been concerned with peoples outside Africa, but his
views on the place that should be taken by anthropology in the
African field are set down in several articles, especially those in
Africa (1929 and 1930). The anthropological department at
Capetown is under Professor I. Schapera, who has studied the
Southern Bantu; at the University of the Witwatersrand, the
department is in charge of Dr. Audrey Richards, who has worked
extensively in Northern Rhodesia and who, in 1937, succeeded
Mrs. Hoernlé, well known for her researches on the Hottentots.
The International Institute of African Languages and Cultures
in London, working in conjunction with the London School of
Economics as a training centre, has been developed largely by
means of a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation, and since 1931
has been able to carry out a considerable programme of anthro-
ANTHROPOLOGY 597
pological and linguistic research. ‘The journal, Africa, published
quarterly by the institute, is devoted mainly to a better under-
standing of those aspects: of native society making for social co-
hesion, the economics of communal life, the ways in which African
society 1s being affected by the invasion of western ideas and
economic forces, and the resulting changes in African institutions
and behaviour. From 1931 to 1936 the institute has awarded
thirteen full-time fellowships for research in Africa and a number
of grants to enable workers to complete research already begun;
under this scheme studies have been made in Sierra Leone, the
Gold Coast, Nigeria, Ruanda-Urundi, Bechuanaland, Swaziland,
Pondoland, the Transvaal, Northern Rhodesia, Tanganyika,
Kenya, Uganda, the Sudan, and Algeria, and as a result thir-
teen volumes on African subjects have been published. As a
secondary means of achieving its aim, the institute has awarded a
number of studentships to administrative officers, educationalists
and missionaries, who had already experience in Africa, to study
anthropology in London. The Rockefeller Foundation has also
materially assisted African anthropology by the grant of fellowships
for field work. Similar assistance to the science has been rendered
by the Leverhulme Trust.
In recent years a number of geographers, headed by Professor
Roxby and Professor Ogilvie, have stressed the importance of the
material background or environment in the study of anthropology,
and have pointed out that many published anthropological studies
of the past do not take full cognizance of this background. Seeing
that Africa offered a unique field for an inquiry into this subject,
and that many officials and other residents in the colonial depen-
dencies were already familiar with the data required, a committee
of the British Association was formed to study the human geo-
graphy of intertropical Africa. Its work has been discussed in
Chapter XI, p. 304.
The study of material culture as a branch of anthropology has
tended to attract less attention in recent years. Nevertheless,
anthropological studies cannot afford to neglect material cul-
ture, since in any improvements which are to be imposed on the
African’s material position in the world, an understanding of his
relationship to a particular environment is all important; and this
598 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
relationship is often expressed in artifacts, particularly those which
the African uses for obtaining food. Moreover, the study of such
artifacts, when their functional aspect is stressed, can often lead
to conclusions regarding the adaptive or inventive ability of a
given people. For the study of material culture and also for that
of archaeology, museums are essential, so a few of the most impor-
tant ethnographical collections may be mentioned. In Great
Britain the British Museum is in a leading position for purposes of
archaeology, but for systematized material culture the Pitt-Rivers
Museum at Oxford has been placed in an eminent position by the
activities of Professor Henry Balfour. ‘The Museum of Archaeology
and Ethnology at Cambridge, formerly under the curatorship of
Dr. Louis Clarke, who has carried out studies in the field on
several occasions, particularly in Abyssinia, is likewise important,
and the ethnological collections under Mr. R. U. Sayce at Man-
chester are of high value. The Musée du Congo Belge at Tervueren
has unique collections of African material culture, with a large
staff of workers devoted to their arrangement, sorting, and analysis.
Dr. Lindblom and his assistants at the Stockholm Museum are at
present producing a series of studies on special artifacts, such as
fish hooks, fish baskets, game traps, etc., with the object of show-
ing their origin, distribution, and evolution in the whole continent
of Africa.
It is certain that one or two whole-time anthropologists attached
to the administrations of each of the larger colonies would be of
great value, but the exact form which such an organization should
take for the greatest efficiency is a matter for debate. Special
pieces of ad hoc research, on such subjects as the effects on particu-
lar native societies of new legislation, are continually being
required by administrative departments, so that official anthro-
pologists as government servants would have no lack of occupa-
tion. On the other hand, in anthropology even more than in other
sciences, the research worker should be enabled to direct his own
activities, and since native life itself is his material, it is desirable
that he should be free from association with the administrative
activities, the effect of which forms part of his field of study. For
these reasons it may be undesirable that anthropologists should be
absorbed directly into the colonial or dominions services. The
| ANTHROPOLOGY 599
ideal organization for anthropology in Africa might be envisaged
as a central institute in Great Britain, much on the lines of the
existing International Institute of African Languages and Cul-
tures, but supported largely by Government funds and maintain-
ing anthropologists permanently in the African territories. These
officers could be called upon by local governments in any special
circumstances, but, for most of their time, would be left to build up
a foundation of fact and theory for permanent reference by the
administrative and technical departments.
PRE-HISTORY
Africa may have been the cradle of the human species, a view
advanced a long time ago by Charles Darwin and others, and given
strong support by the discovery of the Taungs skull (Australopithe-
cus) in the Transvaal in 1924 by Professor R. Dart. Sir G. E. Smith
pointed out that this skull, though that of an ape, more nearly
resembles man than does any other ape. Dr. R. Broom (1936) has
thrown further light on the subject by the discovery near Krugers-
dorp of an advanced type of ape, which appears to be nearly
related to that from Taungs.
That some sort of man inhabited Africa very early in pleisto-
cene times is proved by the stone implements discovered in many
parts of the continent. These have been correlated with tools
found in Europe, but the correlations have not always stood the
test of time. As a generalization it may be claimed that, with cer-
tain regional modifications, the sequence of cultures in Africa
appears to resemble the sequence in Europe, but this does not
imply contemporaneity of cultures, nor the racial identity of the
peoples associated with them. In interpreting these results, which
are involved with questions of past climates and geological change,
Burkitt (1928) for South Africa, Wayland (1934) for Uganda,
Leakey (1931 and 1934) for Kenya, and Miss Caton-Thompson
(1934) for the Fayum have been the chief workers. In West
Africa P. Laforgue (1931) has given a preliminary account of the
Stone Age. During the pleistocene, Old Stone Age tools were
shaped only by chipping. At the end of the pleistocene the New
Stone Age saw the grinding and polishing of tools and also the
600 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
practice of agriculture, domestication of animals and manufacture
of pottery. Remains have been found over the greater part of the
continent.
Passing to human remains, some of which have been found
associated with Stone Age cultures, Rhodesian man, Homo
rhodestensis (Elliot Smith 1927), from Broken Hill is perhaps the
most primitive of the human family, which includes the lower
genera Pithecanthropus and Eoanthropus. The Kanam man, Homo
kanamensis, represented by part of a jaw from the Kavirondo Gulf,
Lake Victoria, was described by Leakey (1935) and claimed to be
the most ancient fragment of true Homo found anywhere in the
world. Kanjera man, from the same region, is somewhat later, and
better represented by pieces of skull, etc. Leakey holds that the two
demonstrate the existence of Homo sapiens long before the time
when the Neanderthal people spread over Europe. Professor
Boswell and others, however, cannot agree that the dates of either
the Kanam or Kanjera men are yet proved. Oldoway man, found
by Dr. Hans Rech in Tanganyika in 1913, has also been the sub-
ject of much controversy, but is now generally held to have been
buried and therefore its true date can never be proved.
Later remains of the Neolithic include those found in 1927 at
Elmenteita in Kenya Colony by Leakey, on the Springbok Flats
in the Transvaal by Broom in 1929, and near Asselar in the French
Sahara in 1927, proving that man lived in this region when it was
not desert. Other remains discovered in South Africa can be
divided into three classes: Boskop, Fish Hoek, and Australoid man.
None of these remains show the characteristics associated with the
pure negro type (Smith 1935), but it has to be remembered that
the existence of a negro stock, from which such types are presumed
to be developed, is itself an hypothesis; these remains may point
to a revision of assumptions now generally made with regard to
the migrations of peoples of various types through Africa, but they
might equally lead to a revision of existing theories on the subject
of racial stocks.
RACIAL TYPES
Leading on from the fossil remains of man it is necessary to
refer to some recent work on the existing races of Africa before
ANTHROPOLOGY 601
proceeding to the aspect of cultural anthropology which has more
direct bearing on other sciences. Dr. A. C. Haddon (1924) divides
Africans into those with woolly hair (Ulotrichi) and those with
wavy hair (Cymotrichi), and subdivides these two groups accord-
ing to stature, colour of skin, shape of head, and again, according
to shape of nose. The more usual, but less technical, grouping is
that of Professor Seligman (1930) into
Hamites
White race ‘ ;
Semites
\ of common origin
True negroes
Mixed negro-hamitic
Negro race 1
Negritos
Khoisan \ aes
Hottentots (predominantly bushman-hamitic)
The first two of these major races, the white or Europid (Caucasian)
and the Negro, have numerous subdivisions and have suffered
continued interactions. By comparison, the Negritos, Bushmen
and Hottentots, though of great academic interest, have played
but a minor part in the history of the continent.
Recent work on cranial measurements and blood-groups sug-
gests that the true classification is by no means so simple as the
scheme given above. Moreover, there has been confusion, owing
to different opinions by experts, as to what is meant by the con-
cept of a race; sometimes a linguistic group, such as the Bantu,
has been referred to as a racial type, but the criteria for distinguish-
ing races should really be physical, not cultural. In the words of
Professor Seligman: ‘It seems obvious that the question of race
should be determined by the study of physical characters, yet in
no part of Africa is there in existence anything approaching an
anthropological survey (based on such characters), nor can it be
said that for any considerable area more than the first rough sur-
vey work has been done.’
Although physical data are available from many parts of the
continent, most have been collected by amateurs who have used
different standards, so that the value of their work lies chiefly in
602 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
its indication of the complexity of the problem which has to be
solved. Data on the cephalic index are probably the easiest to
collect, since measurements can be made on the living head; some
data for central Africa were obtained by Struck (1922) and illus-
trated by ‘contour lines’ on a map which, however, is somewhat
misleading, as the areas where no observations were made, form
the larger proportion of the total shown. While it may be possible
to determine some degrees of relationship from a study of the living,
direct evidence of this type bearing on racial genealogies can only
be collected from skeletons. Skulls are more easily procurable in
large numbers than other bones, and have, therefore, received
most attention from the anthropological point of view. For
example, Miss Elisabeth Kitson (1931) has compared the measure-
ments of one hundred and twenty skulls found by Dr. Leakey in
the Teita region of Kenya with the measurements of six hundred
skulls published by other workers. No sharp distinction can be
drawn between the negro races of Western, Eastern and Southern
Africa. The Teita skulls are more closely related to those of the
Neguni and Hottentots than to those of their neighbours in Tan-
ganyika, while the latter resemble the Galla and Somali, and the
early negroid skulls from Egypt. A clear differentiation between
Bushmen, Hottentots, and Kaffirs was observed. These observa-
tions serve once again to emphasize the complex ancestry of the
present African peoples.
The discovery of differences between the blood of various peoples
and the recognition of blood-groups, made in 1919 by L. and H.
Hirszfeld, provides a new method of approach in classifying races.
It depends on the principle that the transfusion of serum from one
person’s blood to that of another may cause the red corpuscles to
agelutinate. Research has led to the classification of all humans
into four groups or seriological races, but opinion is divided as to
whether this division came about as a result of inheritance from
anthropoid ancestors or from the evolution of man himself. Edwin
Smith (1935) has collected published results on about 8,500 Afri-
cans in a table showing the percentage of each of the four groups
in the tribes studied. The principal conclusions are that Bushmen
belong predominantly to the blood-group which is regarded as the
most primitive, and that the Bantu exhibit marked variation, indi-
ANTHROPOLOGY 603
cating a mixture of races. R. Elsdon-Dew concludes from his
studies in South Africa (1934a, 1934b, 1935) that the Hottentot
may be a mixture of Hamite and Negro, with a variable propor-
tion of Bushman blood. His latest results on the Bantu are pub-
lished in a recent book (1937) in which he makes suggestions, based
on this line of research, regarding the early racial history of African
peoples as a whole. Blood-groups and their significance were dis-
cussed at the international anthropological congress in London
(Congrés 1934), when it was concluded that results, to represent
a criterion in racial classification, must be correlated with other
physical characters which are equally valid.
HISTORY AND MATERIAL CULTURE
Interaction of races and cultures must have begun in Africa
during the Neolithic Age, say 3,000 B.c., but until the opening
of the modern epoch in African history in the seventeenth century,
when the Dutch occupied Table Bay and various European
nations established trading posts along the Guinea coast, written
records concerning Africa south of the Sahara were confined to
occasional references in Arabic literature. Accordingly deductions
as to the past five thousand years can, for the most part, be made
only from Africa as we see it to-day, from ascertained facts about
languages, racial types, domestic animals, cultivated plants, arti-
facts, ruins and native traditions. As in the case of the pre-history
of the continent, different interpretations have been put on the
discoveries made, and in most cases knowledge rests on hypothesis
rather than certainty.
Taking these categories of evidence in the order set down
above, similarities of language have been used extensively in
piecing together historical events; as an example, the close resem-
blance between the different Bantu tongues and their relation-
ship to Sudanic is taken as an indication of a migration of peoples
from the north of the Bantu line. Thus a name for the domestic
fowl, Kuku, shared by many tribes, led Sir H. H. Johnston (1919)
to think that this migration followed the introduction of the bird
into Egypt from Persia in 525 B.c. Attempts have been made to
construct the original Bantu language on the assumption that the
604. SCIENCE IN AFRICA
modern variations are derived from one original tongue. Infer-
ences from an examination of the ur-Bantu roots are that, prior
to their separation, the people kept cattle, not sheep, cultivated
the soil, used canoes, that they had the idea of taboo and believed
in ghosts.
The common possession of such cultural traits has often been
quoted as evidence of a common racial origin, a method of reason-
ing criticized by Edwin Smith, who suggests that there has been
a tendency to exaggerate the importance of ‘Hamitic blood’.
C. G. Seligman (1930) holds that, apart from Semitic influence,
African history is a record of the Hamites and their mingling with
the more primitive Negroes and Bushmen. Others, including
Torday (1930), think that Bantu civilization cannot be due to the
ancestors of such primitive pastoral Hamites as the Hadendoa and
Beja, ignorant, as they must have been, of agriculture, arts, and
crafts. The existence of the two racial stocks, Hamite and Negro,
is itself an inference from superficial traits and from the present
distribution of the people. It is thought that the brown Hamites
spread over North Africa, intermingling with Negroes, and thus
formed a series of hybrid peoples. J. H. Driberg (1930) has put
forward a reconstruction of this movement. The unrest and war-
fare which must have occurred about the beginning of the six-
teenth century, when the Portuguese were attempting to gain con-
trol in Ethiopia, involved various peoples, including the Galla.
These disturbances started the Shilluk warriors and pastoralists
on their wanderings north and south, till they invaded the fertile
plains to the west of Lake Victoria. There they dominated the
Bantu agriculturalists and established the kingdom of Kitara in
Ruanda-Urundi, and Ankole, from whence it spread to Buganda
and Bunyoro. They set themselves up as an aristocracy over the
conquered peoples, with a king and a royal family. Gradually
separate kingdoms were created, and the resultant cultures varied
according to the number of the invaders in the different regions.
Thus in Ankole, the two peoples have kept distinct to the present
day, whereas in Buganda there was a blending of cultures.
The date of the entry of the Semites, the other branch of the
white or brown race, into Africa is unknown, but the migration
of Arabs into Ethiopia was probably at its height between 1500
ANTHROPOLOGY 605
and 300 B.c. In later centuries these migrations brought Islam
with them, thereby exerting a profound influence on the continent.
Another important influence on African culture has been the exis-
tence of trade routes between the Mediterranean littoral and the
Sudan lands via the Sahara; these routes and their effects are dis-
cussed at length by E. W. Bovill (1933). The origin of the Tuareg
of the Sahara, with their camels and their unique script, is another
unsolved problem in the history of Africa; it has been considered
by Sir H. R. Palmer (1932) and F. R. Rodd (1926).
The deductions made from a study of domestic animals in rela-
tion to the history of Africa are surveyed by Sir H. H. Johnston
(1911). It is noteworthy how few of the domestic animals are
indigenous. For example, the horse, humped Zebu cattle, sheep,
goat, and two-humped camel were first tamed in Asia and sub-
sequently introduced to Afiica. The horse, associated chiefly with
the Islamic invasion, did not spread to the same extent as goats
and oxen because the forest-belts served as a barrier. Edible plants
have likewise been introduced to the continent from abroad, many
from America in modern times, others from the East, probably
brought by Arabs and Portuguese (see Chapter XII). Edwin
Smith concludes that the presence of certain animals and plants in
different regions does not prove that any considerable migrations
took place, but that they were introduced by trade or by conquer-
ing peoples in tribal warfare. The fact that so few native animals
have been domesticated and so few indigenous plants cultivated
suggests that the early inhabitants of the continent had little
interest in agriculture.
_ Turning to hand-made objects and ruins, many discoveries have
been made and many conjectures have been based on them.
From museums have emanated maps showing the distribution
of many artifacts, such as the Atlas Africanus by Leo Frobenius
and Ritter von Wilm (1921 onwards). Better perhaps are those
pamphlets, which indicate the actual places where objects have
been found, issued by the Riksmuseet, Stockholm, mostly by K. G.
Lindblom, showing the distribution of fighting-bracelets, fish-
hooks and other fishing gear, the spiked wheel-trap, the use of
oxen as pack and riding animals, and of the hammock. Similar
maps for the Belgian Congo have been published by the Musée du
606 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Congo Belge at Tervueren. Theories with regard to earlier contacts
are based mainly on evidence of this kind; thus in relation to the
influence of ancient Egypt, Sir G. Elliott Smith and others have
traced similarities in artifacts between Egypt and parts of East
Africa. Professor Seligman (1934) concludes that the cultural
similarities between ancient Egypt and Negro Africa are the
result of a wide diffusion of old Hamitic ideas, rather than of
direct borrowing. He cites the harps and a long-necked lute from
West Africa which are identical in certain details with examples
from ancient Egypt. He has also traced the Egyptian rite of
killing the Divine King to Uganda, the northern Transvaal and
West Africa. Another line of external influences has been traced
from Indonesia via Madagascar to the East African coast and
inland even as far as the great lakes. The existence of cultural
similarities between different peoples, however, may be alterna-
tively explained as a result of independent invention. The view
characteristic of early writers on material culture was that certain
peoples have been incapable of invention, so that similarities are
prima facie evidence of external contacts in the past. To take an
example, a unique type of canoe made by the Baganda of Lake
Victoria has in the past been held by various authors as evidence
of ancient Egyptian influence on the one hand and Indonesian
influence on the other. A detailed study of all the canoes on
this lake (Worthington 1933 and Fosbrooke 1934) demonstrated,
however, that the Baganda canoe is really the climax of a series
leading up from the simple dug-out, each member of the series
showing progressively better adaptation to the peculiar conditions
obtaining on that lake. In this case there seems to be evidence of
the ingenuity and adaptability of the local craftsman, and similar
examples could be given for many tribes.
On the other hand, there are many instances in which contact
between more than one race, emigration, or direct borrowing, have
been proved to account for similar objects or customs. For instance,
the beads resembling those of South India dating to the eighth or
ninth century A.D., discovered at Zimbabwe in Northern Rho-
desia by Miss Caton-Thompson (1931), can be attributed to the
Arabs who settled on the coast of East Africa in the seventh cen-
tury and probably traded with India. Dr. Lindblom, in the Riks-
ANTHROPOLOGY 607
museet pamphlets mentioned above, has given several examples of
diffusion, and Hornbostel (1933) has studied sound instruments
with the same object.
Finally, evidence derived from native tradition is usually un-
reliable, unless such information can be checked by comparison
with known historical facts or astronomical data. For example,
Torday was told that during the reign of one of the Bushongo
chiefs the sun went out at noon. He was able to fix the date when
he found that the only visible eclipse in this region during the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries occurred exactly over Bus-
hongo country at two minutes before noon on 30th March, 1680.
In conclusion it may be said that the evidence from all these
sources indicates movement among the peoples of Africa during
the four thousand years under consideration, resulting in the trans-
mission of ideas and cultures.and the growth of new languages,
with probably long intervening periods of comparative stagnation.
SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY
The study of African social life and of the changes which are
taking place as a result of culture contact, bears the closest relation
to the other scientific subjects, since it looks at the present and
future of native races rather than at their past. Consequently, in
attempting to estimate the resources in anthropology which can
be directed to Africa’s future, the emphasis will here be laid upon
those workers who stress the functional and dynamic rather than
the structural and static aspects of the subject. Professor Malinow-
ski has aptly compared the old type and the new type of anthro-
pology with anatomy and physiology. We might go a stage further
and point out that anthropology is still so large and diffuse that,
by comparison with other sciences, many years must pass before
it will find its way through the preliminary observational stage to
the experimental stage, now reached by many physical and bio-
logical sciences, when individual problems can be formulated
with precision and can be driven to a logical conclusion by experi-
ment under controlled conditions. The first stage in the slow
evolution of the science is the establishment of definite methods of
research, and in recent years anthropologists have made great
608 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
advances in this direction, so that already many of the results are
set out in a form which offers itself for application to other fields.
The following paragraphs consist of little more than a sketch of
some of the significant literature produced to date, following the
classification of tribes given in Torday’s (1930) large and valuable
compilation of the cultural data concerning the indigenous tribes
of Africa. The summary is taken mainly from Smith (1935) with
some additions.
For the Southern Bantu a sub-committee of the Inter-University
Commission for African Studies, with Professor I. Schapera as
editor, has produced a volume (1934) of essays by various experts
in South Africa on the effects of Western civilization on the South
African Bantu, and there is another important joint volume under
the same editorship (1937). Schapera’s own book (1930) provides
an account of the Bushmen and Hottentots, and he has also pub-
lished a full bibliography of all available literature on South
African tribes (1931 onwards). Vedder’s monograph on the Berg-
dama (1923) is another valuable ethnographical study. A further
important study of a South African tribe, primarily concerned
with the effects of contact, is on the Pondo by Monica Hunter,
now Mrs. G. Wilson (1936), whose work was made possible by a
Fellowship from Cambridge University. Miss Hilda Beemer made
a study of the Swazi with the assistance of a Fellowship from the
International Institute of African Languages and Cultures. H.
Junod, a Swiss missionary in Natal and Portuguese East Africa,
produced in his accounts of the Thonga (1924 and 1927) one of
the most important existing studies of a Bantu people. Callaway’s
book on the religious system of the Zulu (1868-70) and Stayt’s
work on the Bavenda (1931) are outstanding. J. H. Soga (1930
and 1931) has written monographs on the Southern Nguni. Fuller
accounts of the Zulu, Sotho, Ambo and Herero are still required,
though E. J. Krige (1937), a trained anthropologist, has collected
existing material relating to the Zulus. Bullock’s book on the
Shona tribes of Southern Rhodesia (1928) needs to be supple-
mented. Smith (1935) stressed the necessity for monographs on
the connection between Shona culture and the Zimbabwe ruins,
and between the Rozwi of Mashonaland and the Rotse of the
Upper Zambesi. Dudley Kidd (1906), working among the Bantu
ANTHROPOLOGY 609
of Southern Africa, is one of the few who have studied native chil-
dren. In a different type of community, which has grown up under
white influence, Mrs. Hellman (1934) has given some interesting
data on a native urban group, and Mrs. Krige (1936) has also
investigated the urban native communities of South Africa. Lastly,
Schapera emphasizes that, though there is much information on
cultures themselves, studies of the Africans as individual human
beings are for the most part lacking. In this connection, Miss
Perham’s (1936) collection of autobiographies by ten Africans is
valuable.
For the Central Bantu, who inhabit Northern Rhodesia and the
Belgian Congo, CG. M. Doke (1931) has contributed a monograph
on the Lamba, Melland (1923) has written on the Kaonde, and
Smith and Dale (1920) have produced two volumes on the Ila-
speaking peoples. Gouldsbury and Sheane have made a slight
sketch of the Awemba (1911). More recently Dr. Audrey Richards
(1932) published a general study of the place of food production
and distribution in the culture of the Southern Bantu, and has
made extensive field studies, during two periods of work in 1930-1
and 1933-4, of the Bemba and Bisa, the full results of which have not
yet appeared: Dr. Richards has published a number of preliminary
articles in Africa and the Journal of the African Society, dealing
among other subjects with native diet and chieftainship under
indirect rule (see Chapter XVII). Godfrey Wilson (1936), for-
merly a student of the International Institute of African Languages
and Cultures, and later a Rockefeller Fellow, has also worked in
this region on the Nyasaland-Tanganyika border. From 1907 to
1913 a series of books was published, under the direction of van
Overbergh, dealing with the Congo tribes. These are of unequal
‘merit, the best being that by Colle on the Luba (1913). Accounts
of some sections of this tribe have been given by Torday and Joyce
(1910 and 1922), and the former has also described the Bushongo
(1910). Other books include those by Weeks (1913 and 1914) on
the Bangala and the Kongo, van Wing (1921) on the Kongo, and
Hambly (1934) on the Mbundu of Angola.
Early surveys of the Eastern Bantu of Nyasaland were made by
Sir H. H. Johnston (1897) and Dr. Alice Werner (1906). An even
earlier work by Macdonald (1882) provides a useful account of
610 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
the Yao before they came much in contact with European civiliza-
tion. T. Cullen Young (1931) published a valuable volume on the
Tumbuka—Kamanga peoples. Mackenzie (1925) has made a
slight sketch of the Konde in Tanganyika, and Bruno Gutmann
(1928 and 1932) has studied the social structure and laws of the
Chagga, with special reference to education. His work is supple-
mented by that of Dundas (1924) and Schanz (1913). Among
other German authorities may be mentioned Blohm (1931 and
1933) on the Nyamwezo, Dempwolff (1916) on the Sandawe,
Claus (1911) on the Gogo, and Karasek (1911-24) on the Sham-
bala. A recent work by A. T. and G. M. Culwick (1935) on the
Bena is notable. Hobley (1910) and Lindblom (1920) have des-
cribed the Kamba in Kenya; the former has also discussed the
Kikuyu magical beliefs. Major G. St. J. Orde Browne (1925) has
given a general account of some minor tribes of the colony.
G. Gordon Brown held a Rockefeller Fellowship for work among
the Hehe of Tanganyika, and, in collaboration with Mr. Hutt, an
administrative officer, has concentrated on the relationship be-
tween anthropology and administration; their joint book (1935)
provides an admirable picture of this subject. Two Fellows of the
Institute of African Languages and Cultures have recently been
at work in the same general cultural area: Dr. Wagner, among the
Maragoli, a tribe of the Bantu in Kenya, and Dr. Oberg among
the Nkole.
The tribes living in the lake region of Uganda and Ruanda were
included with the Bushongo in Torday’s division ‘Bantu under
Alien Rulers’. Ganon J. Roscoe collected a mass of data on the
material culture and political organization of several of these
tribes. His most important work is that on the Baganda (1911).
Dr. Lucy Mair (1934) has stressed particularly the changes among
the Baganda resulting from European influences.
The tribes inhabiting the area from the Upper Nile to Tangan-
yika, classified by Torday as Nilo-Hamites, have been dealt with
by Seligman (1932), who described the northern members, and by
A. C. Hollis, who wrote on the Masai (1905) and the Nandi (1909).
A German work on the Masai is that by M. Merker (1910). An
account of the Suk was given by Mervyn Beech (1911). More infor-
mation is available on the Nilotic tribes in works by Hofmayr
ANTHROPOLOGY 611
(1925), Westermann (1912) and Huffman (1931), while Driberg
(1923) made a valuable study of the Lango.
The ‘Equatorial hybrid tribes’ include the Negroes inhabiting
that part of the continent bounded by the Nile-Congo watershed
on the east and the Gulf of Guinea on the west. Dr. Evans-Prit-
chard’s work on magic among the Azande (1937) is an exhaustive
study of an aspect of native culture which is important in all areas.
This people has also been described by Calonne-Beaufaict (1921).
Little is known of the Gabon and Cameroon tribes; the most com-
prehensive work yet published is that on the Fang by Tessmann
(1913) and he has also given an account of the Baja (1934).
Included in Torday’s Central Sudanic section are the tribes of
Nigeria and part of French West Africa. For the Southern Pro-
vinces ‘T'albot’s survey (1926), made at the time of the 1921 census,
is important, while C. K. Meek has performed a similar service for
the Northern Provinces (1925). In addition, he has published an
ethnographical survey of the Jukun-speaking peoples of Nigeria
(1931a) and a series of reports on more than fifty non-Moslem
tribes (1931b), which illustrate some of the special administrative
problems which have to be faced. R. CGC. Abraham (1933) and
R. M. Downes (1933) published work based on reorganization
inquiries among the Tiv people. Dr. Nadel (1935a, 1935b, and
1937), holding a Feliowship from the International Institute of
African Languages and Cultures, studied the Nupe tribe in the
Northern Territories of Nigeria during 1935 and 1936. He was
concerned specially with systems of chieftainship and has been
able to assist the administration with regard to changes in indirect
rule. His results are not yet fully published. Miss M. M. Green
and Mrs. S. Leith-Ross, both working as Leverhulme Trust Fel-
lows during 1934-5 and 1936-7 among the Ibo people of south-
east Nigeria, made respectively intensive and extensive studies.
The former’s results are not yet published; the latter’s have been
shown in Africa and in a volume on Ibo woman (1939). It should
be added that Miss M. F. Perham’s studies in various parts of
Africa on native administration and in particular her detailed
work on Nigeria (1937) have done much to illustrate the place of
social anthropology in administration.
Turning to the western Sudanic peoples, Captain Rattray’s
612 SCIENCE IN AFRICA
books (1923, 1927, and 1929) on Ashanti customs, religions, and
laws are notable examples of the work of a Government officer.
He also (1932) produced two volumes on the tribes of the Nor-
thern Territories of the Gold Coast. Spieth (1911) has written
on the Ewe of West Africa. Dr. M. Fortes, a Fellow of the Inter-
national Institute of African Languages and Cultures, has worked
among the Tallense in the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast,
and has published papers on food (with Mrs. Fortes), fishing
activities, marriage customs, and the main lines of internal change
(see Chapter XVII). Edwin Smith, following Labouret, suggests
that more work on the whole culture of the peoples of this part of
the continent is needed. Hitherto there has been a tendency to
concentrate on folk-lore to the exclusion of more important aspects
of the problem. This criticism does not apply to Labouret’s books
on the Lobi and the Mandingo (1931 and 1934). For the Ivory
Coast there are publications by Tauxier (1921, 1924 and 1932),
while surveys of Dahomey and the French Niger Colony have been
produced by A. Le Hérissé (1911) and Maurice Abadie (1927),
and preliminary work by M. J. Herskovits (1933 and 1937). The
late Maurice Delafosse worked for many years in French West and
Equatorial Africa and his volumes, especially Haut Sénégal-Niger
(1912), are classical books; his more popular works, designed to
interest the general public in Africa, are admirable of their kind;
a particularly useful one is Les Civilisations Négro-Africaines (1925).
L. Geismar (1933), a senior administrative officer in French West
Africa, published the first completed study of the customary law
of a colony. For the peoples of Liberia there is a general survey
by Sir H. H. Johnston (1906) and a monograph on the Kpelle by
Westermann (1921). Sierra Leone has been cursorily dealt with in
a travel book by F. W. H. Migeod (1926). Dr. Hofstra (1933 and
1937), working in Sierra Leone as a Fellow of the International
Institute of African Languages and Cultures, has made detailed
sociological studies.
The Fulani are classified by Torday as a separate group, and
many brief accounts of their history and customs exist, that by
Wilson-Haffenden (1930) being perhaps the most important.
Another separate group is formed by the Bambuti or pygmies, for
which Schebesta’s work (1933) is the most complete. |
ANTHROPOLOGY 613
Among books on special subjects may be mentioned those on
modern sculpture by Georges Hardy (1927) and a general work
on art in West Africa by Sir Michael Sadler (1935). Music has
been studied by E. M. von Hornbostel (1933), while Bantu folk-
lore has been described by Dr. Alice Werner (1933) and the legends
of other peoples have been included in many of the books already
cited. Willoughby (1928) and Sir James Frazer in his Gifford
Lectures (1926) have written on religion, and Driberg (1935) has
studied the African conception of law. In addition to the works
mentioned above there are, of course, many valuable articles on
social anthropology scattered through the pages of scientific and
other journals, notably the 7. R. anthrop. Inst., Man, Africa, the
J. Afr. Soc., Lond., Sudan Notes and Records, the Uganda 7. and the
Bull. Com. A.O.F.
This review of the existing literature serves to show how much
work remains to be done. Edwin Smith suggests that the most
pressing requirements are: (1) A handbook of tribes for the whole
continent, which would presumably be somewhat on the lines of
Torday’s work (1930), but on a less ambitious scale. ‘Che Inter-
national Institute of African Languages and Cultures undertook to
prepare such a book, but the enterprise was given up. (2) A series
of synthetic and critical studies on a regional basis, collecting all
available information and supplementing the handbook. These
would include the material stored up in the books of Government
officers as well as that in various periodicals. An example of such a
volume is Schapera’s Khoisan peoples of South Africa (1930). (3)
Additional comprehensive studies on individual tribes, including
ethnographical accounts of family life, education and agriculture
(4) Further research on African cultures as they are to-day, in a
state of transition, taking full account of the degree of disintegra-
tion or reintegration of culture, economic and ethical systems, agri-
culture, etc., which has resulted from European influence. Of
these desiderata, perhaps most emphasis may be laid on the last.
LIST OF AUTHORITIES
WHO HAVE ASSISTED BY PROVIDING INFORMATION
OR COMMENTING ON THE DRAFTS
AKENHEAD .D.
ALLEN, Dr. E. J., ¥.R-s.
ARCHIBALD, Dr. E. S.
Aston, B. C., F.1.c.
AusTEN, Major E. E., D.s.o.
Aykroyp, Dr. W. R.
BAGSHAWE, SIR ARTHUR, C.M.G.
BEBIANO, J. BACELLAR
BIFFEN, SIR ROWLAND, F.R.S.
BIGALKE, Dr. R.
BLACKLock, Dr. M. G.
BLONDEL, Monsieur F.
Bonacina, L. W. C.
BoORLEY, J. O.
Bourne, R.
Boyrt, MonsiEuR LE MEDECIN
GENERAL INSPECTEUR
BRACKETT, Miss D. G.
I.
INDIVIDUALS
Chief Officer, Imperial Bureau of
Fruit Production, East Malling,
Kent
Formerly Director, Marine Bio-
logical Association, Plymouth
Director, Department of Agricul-
ture Central Experimental Farm,
Ottawa, Canada
Chief Agricultural Chemist, Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Wellington,
New Zealand
Formerly Keeper of Entomology,
British Museum (Natural History)
Director, Nutrition Research, In-
dian Research Fund Association.
Formerly of the League of Nations,
Health Section
Formerly Director, Bureau of
Hygiene and Tropical Diseases
Lisbon
Director, Imperial Bureau of Plant
Genetics (non-Herbage), Cam-
bridge
Director, National Zoological Gar-
dens of South Africa, Pretoria
Liverpool School of Tropical Medi-
cine
Director of Bureau d’Etudes Géo-
logiques et Miniéres Coloniales,
Paris
Royal Geographical Society
Formerly adviser on Fisheries to the
Secretary of State for the Colonies
Imperial Forestry Institute, Oxford
Paris
Secretary, International Institute
of African Languages and Cul-
tures
Chapters
XI-XII
IX
XI-XIV
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IV
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VII
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616
BRIERLEY, PROFESSOR W. B.
Brooks, Dr. C. E. P., F.R.s.
Brooks, PROFESSOR F. T., F.R.S.
Broom, PROFESSOR R., F.R.S.
BROUGHTON EpGE, A. B.
BUCHANAN-SMITH, A. D.
BULLARD, Dr. E. C.
Burtt Davy, Dr. J.. F.R.S.
BuxTON, PROFEssoR P. A.
Catan, Dr. W. T., F.R.S.
CARPENTER, PROFESSOR G.
D. HALE
CAZENOVE, Dr.
CHADWICK, SIR DAVID, K.C.M.G.,
GSA. 'C-B:E.
CHANDLER, Dr. S. E.
CHAPMAN, PROFESSOR S.
CHEVALIER, PROFESSOR AUG.
Cuickx, Dr. H.,c.B.E.
CLAESSENS, MONSIEUR
CocHRANE, Dr.
Coo.ipcE, H. J.
Corner, E. J. H.
Crew, PRoFEssor F. A. E.
CuUNYNGHAM Brown, Dr. R.
Curasson, Monsieur G.
Cotron, A. D., 0.B.£.
DARDENNE, MADAME
SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Department of Agricultural Botany,
The University, Reading
Meteorological Office, Air Ministry
Botany School, Cambridge
Curator for Palaeontology and
Physical Anthropology, Transvaal
Museum, Pretoria
Formerly Director of the Imperial
Geophysical Survey
Institute of Animal Genetics, Edin-
burgh
School of Geodesy, Cambridge
Chapters
>
IV
Vi-ViE
XI-XIII
III
III
XIV
IL 418
Imperial Forestry Institute, Oxford VI, VII, XII
Professor of Entomology, London
School of Hygiene and Tropical
Medicine
Department of Zoology, British
Museum (Natural History)
Hope Department of Entomology,
Oxford
Medical Adviser to Ministére des
Colonies, Bruxelles
Secretary,
Bureaux
Principal, Plant and Animal Pro-
ducts Department, Imperial Insti-
tute, London
Imperial Agricultural
Imperial College of Science and
Technology
xvi
Vii Ex
Vill, x
XV-XVII
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XTE
1 1k
Musée National d’Histoire Natu- VI, XI, XIII
relle, Paris
Lister Institute of Preventive Medi-
cine
Directeur-Général,
Colonies, Bruxelles
Ministére des
Formerly Medical Secretary, British
Empire Leprosy Relief Association
Museum of Comparative Zoology,
Harvard
Assistant Director, Botanic Gardens,
Singapore
Director, Institute of Animal Gene-
tics, Edinburgh
c/o The Colonial Office, London
Inspecteur-Général Vétérinaire des
Colonies, Dakar
Keeper of the Herbarium, Royal
Botanical Gardens, Kew
Croix Rouge du Congo
XVII
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LIST OF AUTHORITIES
Daruinc, Dr. FRASER
Davey, Dr. T. H.
Davies, WILLIAM
Davis, Dr. W. H. 8S.
DEBENHAM, PROFESSOR F.
D’Eca, Dr. D’ALMEIDA
DE JONGHE, PROFESSOR
De tr, Dr. E. M.
DELHAYE, Monsieur F.
DE SEQUEIRA, PRoFEssor L. A. F.
DIRECTOR AND STAFF
Driserc, J. H.
Duren, Dr. A.
pu Tort, Dr. P. J.
ELTON, CHARLES
ENGLEDOW, PRoFEssorR F. L.,
C.M.G.
Fortes, Dr. M.
Box, Dri Fk: W.
GARDINER, PROFESSOR J. S., F.R.S.
Girxs; Dr. J. L., 'C.M.c.
GILLoan, C., c.M.G.
Gorpon, Dr. H. L.
Gore Brown, Lr.-Cot. S., D.s.0.
GRANDIDIER, MonsIEuR G.
Grecory, Sir. RICHARD, BT.,
F.R.S.
Formerly Deputy Director,. Im-
perial Bureau of Animal Genetics,
Edinburgh
Sir Alfred Lewis Jones Research
Laboratory, Freetown, Sierra
Leone
Formerly Empire Grassland Inves-
tigator, Aberystwyth
Wellcome Bureau of Scientific Re-
search, London
Department of Geography, Cam-
bridge
Chief of Veterinary Services,
Mocambique
Institut Royal Colonial Belge
Westfield College, University of
London
Consultant Geologist to Crédit
Général du Congo
Ecole de Médecine Tropicale, Lis-
bon
Department of Scientific and Indus-
trial Research (Food Investigation)
Department of Anthropology, Cam-
bridge
Directeur-chef de Service de
Hygiene, Ministére des Colonies,
Bruxelles
Director of Veterinary Services,
Onderstepoort Laboratory, Pre-
toria
Director, Bureau of Animal Popu-
lation, Oxford
School of Agriculture, Cambridge
International Institute of African
Languages and Cultures
Biochemistry Department, South
African Institute for Medical
Research, Johannesburg
Department of Zoology, Cambridge
Formerly Director of Medical and
Sanitary Services, Kenya
Chief Engineer, Tanganyika Rail-
ways
Formerly in Dept. of Medical and
Sanitary Services, Kenya
Shiwa, Northern Rhodesia
Secrétaire-Général de la Société de
Géographie, Paris
Editor of Nature
617
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XVI
II
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it; 10
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V, VI, XIV
VIII, XIV
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sod Bo.
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XVII
WVIIT, IX
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Groves, Dr. A. W.
GRUVEL, PROFESSOR A.
HarLey, THE Rt. Hon. Lorp,
G.6:5:1),°G.G.1.E.
HA tL, Sir DANIEL, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Hancock, G. L. R.
HARLAND, S. C.
Hemminoe, A. F., c.B.E.
HeEmMInNG, H.
Hiney, W. E.
Hint, Str ARTHUR, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
(AND STAFF)
Hincston, Major R. W. G.
Hinks, A. R., C.B.E., F.R.S.
Hinton, M. A. C.,, F.R.s.
Hostey, C. W., c.M.c.
HOLLAND, SiR THOMAS, K.C.S.I.,
KeG.1:E-, FERS:
Hortine, Major M.
Howarbp, Sir ALBERT, C.1.E.
Husert, Monsieur H.
HUuMBERT, PROFESSOR
Hurst, Dr. H. E., c..c.
Hux .ey, Dr. J. S., F.R.s.
Imus, Dr. A. D., F.R.s.
IrvinE, Dr. F. R.
Jack, R. W.
Jacks, Dr. G, V.
SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Mineral Resources Branch, Imperial
Institute
Musée National d’Histoire Natu-
relle, Paris
Director, African Research Survey
Director, John Innes Horticultural
Institute
Makerere College, Uganda
Formerly of Cotton Research Sta-
tion, Empire Cotton Growing Cor-
poration, Trinidad
Formerly Secretary, Economic
Advisory Council, London
Of H. Hemming and Partners
Manager, Woodlands Department,
Dartington Hall, Totnes
Director, Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew
Society for the Preservation of the
Fauna of the Empire
Secretary, Royal Geographical
Society, London
Keeper of Zoology, British Museum
(Natural History)
Formerly Secretary, Society for the
Preservation of the Fauna of the
Empire
Principal, Edinburgh University
Ordnance Survey
Formerly Director of the Institute
of Plant Industry, Indore
Service Central de la Météorologie
Coloniale, Paris. Formerly Direc-
tor of Geological Survey, French
West Africa
Director, Jardin des Plantes, Paris
Director-General, Physical Depart-
ment, Ministry of Public Works,
Cairo
Secretary, Zoological Society of
London
Reader in Entomology, Cambridge
Achimota College, Accra
Chief Entomologist, Department of
Agriculture, Southern Rhodesia
Deputy Director, Imperial Bureau
of Soil Science, Rothamsted Ex-
perimental Station
Chapters
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VII
VeViL
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VIII
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x
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LIST
JAMEs, COLONEL S. PRICE,
CEM.G:; F.R:S:
Jounston, Dr. H. B.
JONEs, PRoFEssorR O. T., F.R.S.
JORGE, PROFEssOR RICARDO
KEEN, Dr. B. A., F.R.s.
KEL Ly, Dr. F. C.
Kemp, Dr. S. W., F.R.S.
Kitson, Sir ALBERT, C.M.G., C.B.E.
LAWRENCE, A. J. L.
LEAKE, Dr. H. MARTIN
LECLAINCHE, MonsIEvuR E.
LEIPER, PROFEssOoR R. T., F.R.S.
LENNOX-CONYNGHAM, COLONEL
Sir GERALD, F.R.S.
LEPPAN, PRoFEssoR H. D.
LEVER BROTHERS AND UNILEVER
LIMITED
LINDSAY, SIR HARRY, K.C.LE.,
C.B.E.
LuGarp, THE Rt. Hon. THE LorD
Mair, Dr. Lucy
MALINOWSKI, PROFESSOR B.
MARCHOUX, PROFESSOR
Marcg, PROFESSOR J.
MARSHALL, SIR GUY, C.M.G., F.R.S.
Marston, H. R.
MATHESON, Miss HILDA
Maury, COMMANDANT
MELLANBY, SiR E., F.R.S.
MICHELMORE, A. P. G.
Varn, Drv rR.
OF AUTHORITIES
Formerly of the Ministry of Health
Senior Investigator, Locust Inves-
tigation, Imperial Institute of Ento-
mology
Department
bridge
of Geology, Cam-
Institute of Hygiene, Lisbon
Assistant Director, Rothamsted Ex-
perimental Station
Deputy Director, Imperial Bureau
of Animal Nutrition, Aberdeen
Director, Marine Biological Associa-
tion, Plymouth
Late Director, Geological Survey,
Gold Coast
Imperial Bureau of Soil Science,
Rothamsted Experimental Station
Formerly Principal, Imperial Col-
lege of Agriculture, Trinidad
Office International des Epizootics,
Paris
Director, Imperial Bureau of Agri-
cultural Parasitology
Reader in Geodesy, Cambridge
University of Pretoria
Unilever House, London
Director, Imperial Institute
London School of Economics
London School of Economics
Institut Pasteur, Paris
\
Institut Agronomique de l’Etat a
Gembloux
Director, Imperial Institute of En-
tomology
Chief of the Division of Animal
Nutrition, University of Adelaide
Secretary, African Research Survey
Ministére des Colonies, Bruxelles
Secretary, Medical Research
Council
Locust Investigator, Committee on
Locust Control
c/o Royal Geographical Society _
619
Chapters
XVI
VI, VIII,
x
II-IV
XVI
V, Vici
XIV
j ®.<
Ti. Ty
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(Biblio-
graphy)
PG a
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MITCHELL, SIR PETER CHALMERS,
G.B:E.,/F.R.S:
MonTEIRO DA CosTA, Dr. A.
Morera, E.
Morison, C. G. T.
Mur, Dr. E., G.1.£.
Munro, PRoressor J. W., F.R.S,
Morray, G. W.
MAcBRIDE, PROFEssOR E. W.,
F.R.S,
McCarrison, MAJOR-GENERAL
Sir ROBERT, C.1.E.
McCuttocu, Dr. W. E.
MackeEnzIE, Dr. M. D.
MacLeop, BRIGADIER MALCOLM,
D.S.0:, M.-C.
MacMILtan, PRoFEssor W. M.
NEAVE, Dr. S. A.
Norman, J. R.
Occ. Dew. G:
OcILVIE, PROFEssorR A. G.
O.pHaM, Dr. J. H.
OLIPHANT, Major F. M.
OLIPHANT, J. N.
Orr, SIR JOHN, D.S.O., M.C., F.R.S.
(AND STAFF)
PHILLIPs, PROFEssOR J. F. V.
Prain, Lt.-Coi. Sir Davin,
C.M.G., F.R.S.
PRUDHOMME, MonsiEuR E.
SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Chapters
Formerly Secretary of the Zoologi- VIII
cal Society of London
Escola Superior de Medicina Veter- XIV
inaria, Lisbon
Angola XI-XVII
Reader in Soil Science, Oxford Vi Vi, XE
Medical Secretary, British Empire XVI
Leprosy Relief Association
Imperial College of Science and VITL Xx
Technology
Director, Desert Surveys, Physical II
Department, Cairo
Formerly of the Imperial College of VIII, xX
Science and Technology .
Formerly Director, Nutrition Re- XV-XVII
search, Indian Research Fund
Formerly of the Medical Depart- XVII
ment, Nigeria
League of Nations Health Section IV, XV-
XVII
Director-General, Ordnance Sur- II
vey
Formerly of the University of the XI-XVII
Witwatersrand
Assistant Director, Imperial Insti- xX
tute of Entomology
Assistant Keeper, Department of IX
Zoology (Fish), British Museum
(Natural History)
Director, Macaulay Institute for Vv
Soil Research
Department of Geography, Edin- II-XIV
burgh
Director, International Institute of Whole
African Languages and Cultures,
and Secretary, International Mis-
sionary Council
Forest Economist, Colonial Forest VII
Resources Development Depart-
ment
Director, Imperial Forestry Insti- VII
tute, Oxford
Director, Imperial Bureau of Animal XI-XVII
Nutrition, Rowett Research Insti-
tute
Department of Botany, University. IV-VII,
of the Witwatersrand XI-XIV
Formerly Imperial Institute Vi, io
Director, Institut National Agro- V, XI XIII
nomie Coloniale, Nogent-sur-
Marne, France
LIST OF AUTHORITIES 621
Chapters
RAmMSBOTTOM, DR. J., O.B.E. Keeper of Botany, British Museum VI
(Natural History)
RENDLE, Dr. A. B., F.R.S. Formerly Keeper of Botany, British VI
Museum (Natural History)
RicHarps, Dr. AupRrey I. University of the Witwatersrand XVIII
RicHArps, F. S. Survey of Egypt 1
RicHARDs, Dr. P. W. Botany School, Cambridge V-VII
RiGoTARD, Monsieur M. Algeria ae
RILEy,, Dr: N. D. Keeper of Entomology, British VIII, X
Museum (Natural History)
RoBERT, MonsiEuR M. Comité Spécial du Katanga, II-IV
Bruxelles
ROBERTS, AUSTIN Senior Assistant, Transvaal Museum, VIII
Pretoria
Rosyns, Dr. W. Directeur, Jardin Botanique de VI, VIE,
l’Etat, Bruxelles XI-XIII
RODHAIN, PROFESSOR J. Directeur de l'Institut de Médecine XV-XVII
Tropicale Prince Leopold
RUSSELL, SiR E. JOHN, F.R.S. Director, Rothamsted Experimen- V, XI-XIV
tal Station
RussELL, Dr. E. S., 0.B.£. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries IX
SALISBURY, PROFEsSOR E. J., F.R.s. University College, London V, VI
Sampson, Dr. H. C., c.1.£. Economic Botanist, Royal Botanic V-VII,
Gardens, Kew XI-XIV
SANDFORD, Dr. K. S. School of Geography, Oxford 1 ie
SCHOUTEDEN, Dr. H. Directeur, Musée du Congo Belge, VIII
‘Tervueren
Scott, Dr. H. H. Director, Bureau of Hygiene and XV-XVII
Tropical Diseases
SELIGMAN, PROFEssoR C. G. Formerly of the London School of XVIII
Economics
SEQUEIRA, Dr. J. H. Kenya XV-XVII
SHEEHY, E. J. Animal Nuirition Department, XIV
Albert Agricultural College, Glas-
nevin, Dublin
SHORTRIDGE, Capt. G. C. Director, Kaffrarian Museum, King VIII
William’s Town, South Africa
SIMPSON, SIR GEORGE, K.C.B., Formerly Director, Meteorological IV
C.B.E., F.R.S; Office
SmitH, THE Rev. Epwin Royal Anthropological Institute XVIII
SOREL, MONSIEUR Médecin Inspecteur-Général du XV-XVII
Service de Santé Publique des
Colonies, Paris
Stamp, ProFeEssor L. D. London School of Economics II-V
STANTON, Sir A. THOMAS, K.c.M.G. Formerly Chief Medical Adviser to XV-XVII
the Secretary of State for the Colonies
STAPLEDON, PRoFEssoR R. G., Director, Welsh Plant Breeding Sta- VI
G.B.E.,) £:RS, tion, Aberystwyth
STOCKDALE, SIR FRANK, C.M.G., Agricultural Adviser to the Secre- V-VI,
C.B.E. tary of State for the Colonies XI-XIV
622
TANSLEY, PROFESSOR A. G., F.R.S.
Taussic, Dr. S.
THEILER, SIR ARNOLD, K.C.M.G.
THODAY, PROFEssoR D.
TosBACK, Dr.
TRADE COMMISSIONER
TROLL, PROFEssOR C.
TROLLuI, Dr. G.
Troup, PRoFEssor R. S., G.M.G.,
G.1E., ERS:
Uvarov, B. P.
VAN CAMPENHOUT, Dr. E.
VAN DER Exst, Monsieur O. J.
VAN STRAELEN, Dr. V.
VE.Lu, Dr. H.
WALKER, SiR GILBERT, F.R.S.
Warp, Mrs. E. H.
Watson, SiR MALCOLM
WuvytE, Dr. R. O.
WINTERBOTHAM, BRIGADIER H. St.
See GB. G-M.G.5'D).S:O.
WopeEHousE, Dr. R. E., 0.B.£.
Il. GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS
UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA
Department of Lands
Department of Mines
Department of Irrigation
Department of Agriculture and Forestry
Division of Chemical Services
Division of Plant Industry
SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Formerly of the School of Botany,
Oxford
International Institute of Agricul-
ture, Rome
Late Director of Veterinary Ser-
vices, South Africa
Department of Botany, University
College of North Wales, Bangor
Ministére des Colonies, Bruxelles
South Africa House, London
Institut fur Meereskunde, Berlin
Directeur, FOREAMI
School of Forestry, Oxford
Imperial Institute of Entomology
Ministére des Colonies, Bruxelles
Inspecteur Vétérinaire Principal,
Leopoldville
Directeur, Musée d’Histoire Natu-
relle, Bruxelles
Chef du Laboratoire du Service de
l’Elevage du Maroc
Royal Meteorological Society
Kenya Arbor Society
Director, Ross Institute of Tropical
Hygiene
Chief Officer, Imperial Bureau of
Plant Genetics (Herbage Plants),
Aberystwyth
Formerly Director-General, Ord-
nance Survey
Deputy Minister of Health, Ottawa,
Canada
IN AFRICA
Mr. W. Whittingdale (Director,
Trigonometrical Survey)
Mr. L. Ham (Secretary for Mines)
Director, Meteorological Office
Mr. W. van Zyl (for Chief of Divi-
sion)
Dr. I. B. Pole Evans, c.m.c. (Chief
of Division), Dr. E. P. Phillips,
(Principal Botanist)
Dr. B. Smit (Senior Entomologist)
and Mr. C. du Plessis (for Director
of Locust Research)
Chapters
VI
XIV
XIV
VI, XII
XIV
XII-XIV
IV, XVit
XV-XVII
VII
X
XV-XVII
XIV
VIll
XIV
IV
VII
XVI
VI
II
XV
IV-VI,
XI-XIII
x
LIST
Division of Forestry
Division of Veterinary Services and
Animal Industry
Low Temperature Laboratory
(Capetown)
Department of Commerce and Industries
Department of Public Health
SOUTHERN RHODESIA
Meteorological Service
Department of Agriculture
Department of Forestry
Department of Entomology
Department of Veterinary Research
Public Health Department
NORTHERN RHODESIA
Survey Department
British South Africa Company
Game Department
Department of Agriculture
Medical Services
NyYASALAND
Department of Lands
Geological Survey
Department of Agriculture
Forestry Department
Veterinary Department
Medical Department
TANGANYIKA TERRITORY
Department of Lands and Mines
OF AUTHORITIES 623
Chapters
Mr. J. D. Keet (Director) Vil
Dr. P: Jv.dw Toit (Director) XIV
Mr. Rees Davies (Officerin Charge) XII, XIV
Dr. C. von Bonde (Director, Fish- IX
eries Survey)
Sir Edward Thornton, k.B.£. XV-XVII
(Secretary for Public Health)
The Chief Meteorologist IV
The Director XI-XITI
The Director VII
Mr. R. W. Jack (Chief Entomologist) xX
The Director XIV
The Director XV-XVII
Mr. W. G. Fairweather (Director) II, 1X
and Mr. K. W. Hartland (Acting
Director)
Mr. J. Austen Bancroft (Consulting III
Geologist)
Mr. T. Vaughan Jones (Game VIII
Warden)
Mr. C. J. Lewin, m.c. (Director) XI-XIV
and Mr. C. G. Trapnell (Ecological V-VI
Survey)
Dr. J. F. C. Haslam, m.c. (Director) XV-XVII
Mr. J. C. Alexander (Lands Officer) if
Dr. F. Dixey, 0.B.E. (Director) III
Dr. W. Small, m.3.£. (Director) IV, .V> VIE
X-XIII
Mr. J. B. Clements (Conservator of Vil
Forests)
XIV
Dr. H. H. B. Follit (Senior Health XV-XVII
Officer)
Mr. H. P. Rowe (Acting Chief II
Surveyor)
Mr. F. B. Wade (Government Geo- III
logist) :
624
Tsetse Research Department
Forest Department
Game Department
Department of Agriculture
Department of Veterinary Science and
Animal Husbandry
Medical Department
KENYA
Department of Lands and Mines
British East African Meteorological
Service
Forest Department
Game Department
Department of Agriculture
Medical Departmen
UGANDA
Land and Survey Department
Geological Survey
Department of Agriculture
Game Department
Forest Department
Veterinary Department
Medical Department
SCIENCE IN AFRICA
Chapters
The late Mr. C. F. M. Swynnerton, IV V1,
c.M.G. (Director) VITEEX,
XIII
Mr. W. F. Baldock (Acting Con- VII
servator of Forests)
Mr. S. P. Teare (Game Warden) VIII
Mr. E. Harrison, c.m.c. (Director) XI-XITI
Mr. H. E. Hornby, o.B.£. (Director) XIV
Mr. R. R. Scott, M.c. (Director) XV-XVII
and Dr. Burke Gaffney (Senior
Pathologist)
Mr. C. O. Gilbert (Surveyor-General) II
Mr. E. B. Hosking (Commissioner of IIT
Mines)
Mr. W. A. Grinsted IV
Mr. H. M. Gardner (Conservator of VII
Forests)
Capt. A. T. A. Ritchie (Game War- VII
den)
Mr. R. E. Dent (formerly Assistant IX
Game Warden)
Mr. V. Liversage (Director)
Mr. H. Wolfe, (Deputy Director
Plant Industry Division)
Mr. R. Daubney (Chief Veterinary
Research Officer, Animal Industry
bs -XIV
Division)
Dr. A. R. Paterson (Director of
Medical Services)
Dr. F. W. Vint (Pathologist) X,. XV=
Mr. C. B. Symes (Medical Entomo- XVII
logist)
Mr. D. Harvey (Biochemist)
Mr. H. B. Thomas (Acting Director) II
Dr. E. J. Wayland (Director) III
Dr. J. D. Tothill (Director) VI, XI-
XIII
Dr. G. Griffith (Assistant Agricul- V
tural Chemist) ;
Mr. H. Hargreaves (Entomologist) xX
Captain C. R. S. Pitman (Game VITI-X
Warden)
Mr. N. P. Brasnett (Conservator of Vit
Forests) .
Mr. R. L. L. Hart (Senior Veterinary XIV
Officer)
Dr. W. H. Kauntze, c.m.c. (Director) XV-XVII
LIST OF AUTHORITIES 625
NIGERIA
Land and Survey Department
Geological Survey Department
Agricultural Department
Forestry Department
Veterinary Department
Medical and Health Services
Administrative Service
Gop Coast
Survey Department
Geological Survey Department
Department of Agriculture
Forestry Department
Department of Animal Health
Medical Department
SIERRA LEONE
Survey Department
Geological and Mines Department
Department of Agriculture
Forestry Department
Medical Department
THE GAMBIA
Medical Department
BRITISH SOMALILAND
Agricultural Department
Chapters
Captain J. Calder Wood, m.c. (Com- Ty
missioner of Lands and Surveyor-
General)
Dr. R. C. Wilson (Director) III
Mr. O. T. Faulkner, c.m.c. (Director) XI-XIV
Mr. H. C. Doyne (Chemist) V
Mr. F. D. Golding (Entomologist) xX
Mr. J. R. Ainslie (ChiefConservator IV-VIII,
of Forests) and staff xX
Captain W. W. Henderson (Chief XIV
Veterinary Officer)
Sir Walter B. Johnston, c.M.c.
(Director)
Dr. E. C. Smith, Dr. W. E. S. Mer-
rett (Pathologists) xX, XV-
Dr, HM. QO; Lester (S. 5: Service) XVII
Dr. T. A. M. Nash (Entomologist),
etc.
Mr. J. B. Welman IX
Captain S. C. Saward (Director) II
Dr. N. R. Junner, m.c. (Director) III
and Dr. W. G. G. Cooper
Mr. G. G. Auchinleck (Director) IV-VI,
X-XITI
Captain R. C. Marshall (Director) VII
Captain J. L. Stewart, m.c. (Director) XIV
Dr. P.S. Selwyn-Clarke, m.c. (Acting XV-XVII
Director)
II
III
Viv
VIII-XIV
VII
XV-XVII
Dr. F. J. Martin (Director)
Dr. W. Rae (Senior Medical Officer) XV-XVII
Ii, TV;
XI-XIV
Mr. R. A. Farquharson (Director of
Agriculture and Geologist)
East AFRICAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH STATION, AMANI
Dr. W. Nowell, c.M.c., c.B.£. (Formerly Director)
V-VII, XI-XIII
Mr. T. W. Kirkpatrick (Entomologist) PV
Mr. G. Milne (Soil Chemist) V, XI-XIV
Mr. R. E. Moreau (Secretary and Librarian) Vile VELL
xX
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EXPLANATORY NOTE
By fe bibliography is arranged under Chapter headings II to
XVIII, except that references in Chapters XI to XIV (Agri-
culture) and XV to XVII (Health and Medicine) are grouped
together. Details of the reference system are in accordance with
the suggestions made by a Committee of the Royal Society in 1936,
but with certain modifications. Under each heading the names of
authors or territories are arranged alphabetically and followed by
the year of publication, except in the case of annual reports, either
general or departmental, which are referred to by the year to which
the report has application, and distinguished by the letters A.R.
(general annual report) or D.R. (annual departmental report)
placed after them. In cases where several papers published by one
author in the same year are cited, small letters, a, b, c, d, etc., are
placed after the date to indicate which paper is being referred to.
Titles of papers and of books are in roman type. As far as possible
the short titles of periodicals, printed in italics, are those given in
the World List of Scientific Periodicals (1934): volume numbers are
printed in bold-faced type, and the beginning and end pages of
papers are given in most cases.
CHAPTER II.
AIR SURVEY COMMITTEE
BAHN
CONFERENCE OF EMPIRE
SURVEY OFFICERS
ConGREss, INTERNATIONAL
GEOGRAPHICAL,
East AFRICA
FITZGERALD, W.
FLETCHER, R. A.
GILL, Str Davin
GoLp COoAstT
GRANDIDIER, G.
GrRoBLER, THE Hon. P.
G. W.
Hemminc, H.
Hotine, Major M.
Hurst, H. E. and
Puiuurs, P.
KATANGA
Kemp, R. C., LEwss, C. G.,
peor) 7G. W., . and
Rossins, C. R.
Mac.eop, BRIGADIER
M.N.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1035
ae es
1932
1931
E937
1034
1928
#905
1059
1933
1927
1933
1934
1931
SURVEYS AND MAPS
Report No. 2. H.M.S.0., London.
The geodetic survey of South Africa. A critical
discussion in A History and Description of the
Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, edited
by Sir David Gill.
Rep. Emp. Conf. Surv. Offrs. (1931), 124-41.
C.R. Int. geogr. Congr., 1, 247 onwards.
Higher Education in East Africa. Report of the
Commission appointed by the Secretary of State
for the Colonies. Colonial, No. 142. H.M.S.O.,
London, pp. 136; 1 map.
Africa. A social, economic and political geo-
graphy of its major regions. Methuen @ Co., Ltd.,
London, pp. xv + 462; 90 maps.
The trigonometrical survey of Southern Rhodesia.
S. Afr. Surv. F., 3, 79-84.
Introduction to report on the geodetic survey of
part of Southern Rhodesia. Rep. geod. Surv. S.
Afr., 3, i-xiv.
Atlas of the Gold Coast. Gold Cst. Surv. Dep.,
Accra, pp. 20.
Atlas des Colonies frangaises ; Afrique equatoriale
francaise et Cameroun. Société d’Editions, Géo-
graphiques, Maritimes et Coloniales. Paris. 39 sheets.
The land survey system of South Africa. S. Afr.
Surv. F., 2, 265-67.
Aircraft in relation to petroleum technology:
use for survey and transport. Reprint from
J. R. aero. Soc., 37, 274, pp. 36.
The use of air photography for surveying and
economic development. Reprint from Photogr. 7.,
74, PP. 13.
Surveying from air photographs. Constable,
London, pp. xii + 250.
1931-33 The Nile Basin. Phys. Dep. Pap., Cairo, 26,
28, 29, 30.
1929 onwards. Atlas du Katanga. Comité Spécial du
1925
1936
Katanga, Brussels.
Aero-photo survey and mapping of the Irra-
waddy Delta. Burma For. Bull., 11. Government
Printer, Maymyo. pp. 42.
Co-ordination of African Surveys. Rep. Emp.
Conf. Surv. Offrs. (1935), 139-49.
628 BIBLIOGRAPHY
MarTONNE, E. DE 1928 Le service géographique de l’Afrique Occidentale
Francaise: son fonctionnement ses résultats
(1922-27). Bull. Com. A.O.F., 11, 321-51.
1935 Cartographie coloniale. Librairie Larose, Paris,
Pp lo 17. .
Maury, J. 1930 ‘Triangulation du Katanga. Mem. Inst. Roy. Col.
Belge, 4, 1, pp. 139.
1934. ‘Triangulation du Congo oriental. M. Hayez,
Brussels.
NIGERIA 1933. Handbook of Nigeria. Lagos, pp. 409.
ORDNANCE SURVEY 1933 Further notes on the geodosy of the British Isles,
including geodetic surveys of the Crown Colonies.
Prof. Pap. Ordn. Surv. Lond., 1§, 31-40.
1937 The International 1 : 1,000,000 Map. Report for
1936. Central Bureau, Ordnance Survey Office,
Southampton, pp. 27.
PORTUGUESE COLONIES 1909 Atlas Colonial Portugués. Lisbon.
1930 Projecto de carta organica do Imperio Colonial
Portugués. Lisbon, pp. 52.
SOUTHERN RHODESIA 1938 Institute of Land Surveyors of Southern Rhodesia.
Annual Meeting. S. Afr. Surv. F., §, 77-82.
TANGANYIKA 1933, D.R. Rep. geol. Surv. Tanganyika, 7-8.
UNION oF SouTH AFRICA 1878 Report of the Commission on Land Surveys.
Capetown.
1880 Correspondence, etc., relative to the trigono-
metrical survey of Cape Colony and adjacent
territories. Capetown, pp. 7.
1921 Report of the Survey Commission. U.G., 39.
WHITTINGDALE, W. 1936 The triangulation and computation systems of
the Union of South Africa. Rep. Emp. Conf. Surv.
Offrs. (1935), 326-31.
WINTERBOTHAM, BRIGADIER 1933 Report on Colonial Survey Departments. Not
1s ees el IP published.
1936 Mapping of the Colonial Empire. Rep. Brit. Ass.,
IOI-16.
CHAPTER III. GEOLOGY
AFRICAN GEOLOGICAL SuR- 193! Proceedings Ist meeting of South Equatorial
VEYORS Section, Kigoma. Inst. Géol. de l’Université de
Louvain.
ABYSSINIA 1926 See KRENKEL, E.
BALL.) 1927 and 1933 Problems of the Libyan Desert. Geogr.
J. 70, 21-38, 105-128, 209-224; 86, 289-314.
BEEBY THOMPSON, A. AND 1929 See KENYA.
PARTNERS
1933 See NIGERIA.
BELIME, E. 1928 Note sur les études effectueés de 1922-26 dans la
vallée moyenne du Niger. Bull. Com. A.O.F.,
II, 116-37.
BLANCKENHORN, M. 1921 Aegypten. Handb. der regionalen Geologie, VII, 9.
Heidelberg, pp. 44.
British SOMALILAND 1924. See FARQuARSON, R. A.
1933 See Macrapyen, W, A,
Broom, R.
BrouGHTon Epce, A.
BROUGHTON EpcE, A., and
Lasy,- i. H.
BrucksHAW, J. M., and
Dixey, F.
BuLLARD, E. C.
BuREAU D’ETUDES GEOLO-
GIQUES ET MiIAINIERES
COLONIALES
Cuampion, A. M.
CHEESEMAN, R. E.
CHRONIQUE DES MINEs CoL-
ONIALES
Compe, A. D., and GRovEs,
A. W.
Compe, A. D. and Srumons,
W. C.
Concress, INTERNATIONAL
GEOLOGICAL,
Cooper, W. G. C.
DENAEYER, M. E.
Drxey, F.
III. GEOLOGY 629
1935 [The mesozoic paleontology of British Somali-
land, by various authors. Part II of “The
geology and paleontology of British Somali-
land.” Crown Agents for the Colonies, London,
pp. 228, pls. i—xxv.
1932 The mammal-like reptiles of South Africa.
H. F. & G. Witherby, London, pp. xvi + 376.
1932 Geophysical methods of prospecting. vines Soc.
Arts., 80, 553-79.
1931 The ‘principles and practice of peopi ace pros-
pecting. Cambridge, pp. xili + 372.
1934 Ground water investigations by geophysical
methods. Reprint from Min. Mag., Lond., pp.
5 @
1935 Gravity measurements in East Africa. Bull. geol.
Surv. Uganda, 2, 28-9.
1936 Gravity measurements in East Africa. Philos.
Trans. (Series A), 235, 445-531.
1932 La géologie et les mines de la France d’outre-mer.
Société d’Editions Géographiques, Maritimes et
Coloniales, Paris, pp. viil + 604.
1933-34 Les ressources minérales de la France
d’outre-mer. 1. Le charbon. 2. Le fer, le
manganese, le chrome.... Société d’ Editions
Géographiques, Maritimes et Coloniales, Paris, pp.
ili + 245; 111 + 436.
1934. Introduction aux études miniéres coloniales.
Société d’ Editions Géographiques, Maritimes et
Coloniales, Paris, pp. vili + 349.
1935 Les ressources minérales de la France d’outre-mer.
3. Le zinc, le plomb,... 4. Le phosphate.
Société d? Editions Géographiques, Maritimes et
Coloniales, Paris, pp. 1i + 3943; 11 + 207.
1935 Teleki’s Volcano and the lava fields at the
southern end of Lake Rudolf. Geogr. 7., 85,
BERD
1935 Lake Tana and its islands. Geogr. 7., 85,
489.
1933 onwards. Bureau d’Etudes Géologiques et Miniéres
Coloniales, Paris.
1932 The geology of South-west Ankole and adjacent
territories with special reference to the tin
deposits. Mem. geol. Surv. Uganda, 11, pp. 236.
1933 The geology of the volcanic area of Bufumbira,
South-west Uganda. Mem. geol. Surv. Uganda,
3, 118-20.
1930 1. C.R. Int. geol. Congr., 1929. 2. Scientific
ee ns pp. 314; 688. Wallach’s Ltd.,
Pretoria.
1927 Report on a rapid geological survey of the
Gambia. British West Africa. Bull. geol. Surv.
Gold Cst., 3, pp. 36.
1933a Bibliographie géologique de Afrique équatori-
ale francaise, du Cameroun et des _ pays
limitrophes. Acad. Sci. col. (Paris), §.
1933b Atlas des Colonies frangaises; Afrique équatori-
ale francaise et Cameroun. Paris, 7 and map 22.
1926 Geology and mineral resources of Nyasaland.
Min. Mag., Lon., 34, 201-12.
1928 The distribution of population in Nyasaland.
Geogr. Rev., 18. 2, 274-90.
Du: Torr, AYE.
FARQUARSON, R. A.
Fucus, V. E.
GILLMAN, C.
GoLp Coast
GraBHaM, G. W.
GRABHAM, G. W., and
BLACK LR. P:
GRANDIDIER, G.
Grecory, J. W.
Groves, A. W.
Bars AG ft.
Harris, D. G., and SAmp-
sone EL. 1G.
Ho.Lianpb, Sir THOMAs
Homes, A., and
Harwoop, H. F.
HorsFiELbD, W., and
BuLLARD, E. C.
Hume, W. F.
Elurst, H. E., and
Puitups, P.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1929 Weirs, dams and reservoirs for estate purposes.
Water Supply Paper, 3, 12. Geol. Surv. Nyasald.
1931 A practical handbook of water supply. Thomas
Murby @ Co., London, pp. 57%.
1932 Outline of the physiography, geology and
mineral resources of Nyasaland. Nyasaland
Handbook, pp. 34.
1926 The geology of South Africa. Oliver G Boyd,
Edinburgh, pp. 445.
1929 The volcanic belt of the Lebombo. Trans. roy.
Soc. S. Afr., 18, 189.
1924 Geology and mineral resources of British Somali-
land. Crown Agents for the Colonies, London, pp.
D3
1934. The geological work of the Cambridge Expedi-
tion to the East African Lakes, 1930-31. Geol.
Mag., Lond., 71, 97-112; 145-66.
1935 The Lake Rudolf rift valley Expedition, 1934.
Geogr. F., 86, 114-42.
1936 Extinct pleistocene mollusca from Lake Edward,
Uganda, and their bearing on the Tanganyika
problem. 7. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), 40, 93-106.
1936 A population map of Tanganyika Territory.
Geogr. Rev., 26, 353-75.
1913 onwards. Annual reports, six bulletins, four
memoirs. Geol. Surv. Gold Cst.
1935 See Brstiocrapny, chapter II.
1935 Water supplies in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
Bull. Sudan geol. Surv., 2.
1925 Report of the Mission to Lake Tana, 1920-21.
Ministry of Public Works, Egypt, pp. 207.
1933. See BrsLioGRApnHy, chapter II.
1919 The geological history of the Rift Valley.
j. E. Afr. Ug. nat. Hist. Soc., 15, 429-40.
1921 The rift valleys and geology of East Africa.
Seeley, Service & Co. Ltd., London, pp. 479.
1932 Petrology and the western rift of Central Africa.
Geol. Mag., Lond., 69, 497-510.
1934 Mineral wealth in the outside districts of the
Transvaal. Trans. geol. Soc. S. Afr., 37, 171-204.
1935 See KENYA.
1934 Essential features of a geological survey. Presi-
dential address to the Geological Society of
London, 1934. Quart. F. geol. Soc., Lond., 90,
Ixxi-xcv. ;
1932 Petrology of the volcanic fields east and south-
east of Ruwenzori, Uganda. Quart. 7. geol. Soc.
Lond., 88, 370.
1937 The volcanic area of Bufumbira. Part 2. The
petrology of the volcanic field of Bufumbira,
South-west Uganda and other parts of the
Birunga Field. Mem. geo!]. Surv. Uganda 3 (1936),
pp. Xlv + 300.
1937 Gravity measurements in Tanganyika Territory.
Mon. Not. R. astr. Soc. geophys. Supp., 4, 94-113.
1925-37 The geology of Egypt. Vols. I, II. 1, Il. 2,
II. 3. Survey Dept., Cairo.
1931-33 See Brstiocrapny, chapter II,
INTERNATIONALER GEOLO-
GEN und MINERALOGEN
KALENDER
KATCHEvsky, A.
KENYA
Kitson, Str ALBERT
KRENKEL, E.
LEMOINE, P,
MaAcFADYEN, W. A.
MARTONNE, E. DE
Minot, A.
Monsey, D. F., and
BULLARD, E. C.
NEWBOLD, D., and
SHAw, W. B. K.
NIGERIA
PARKINSON, J.
RAEBURN, C., and
JONES, B.
SANDFORD, K. S.
SHAW, 9S. H.
Ill. GEOLOGY 631
1937
1933
1929
1935
1929
192 5%
1926
IQII
IgIgZ
1933
1928
1934
1937
1928
1930
1933
1935
1937
1920
1934
1933
1935a
1935b
1937
TO54
Ferdinand Enke. Stuttgart. In progress.
Carte géologique de l’Afrique. Rév. Géogr. phys.
Kenya water problems (A. Beeby Thompson and
Partners). London, pp. 72.
Report of the Tana River expedition, 1934
(D. G. Harris and H. C. Sampson). Government
Printer, Nairobi, pp. 69.
Geological surveys and development. Presi-
dential address to the Geological Section of the
British Association, South Africa. Nature, 124,
374-77:
28 Geologie der Erde: Die Geologie Afrikas.
2 vols. Borntraeger, Berlin, pp. 1,000.
Abessomalien. Handb. der regionalen Geologie,
VII. 8a., Heidelberg, pp. 119.
Madagascar. Handb. der regionalen Geologie, VII.
4., Heidelberg, pp. 44.
Afrique Occidentale. Handb. der regionalen
Geologie, 7. Heidelberg.
Geology of British Somaliland. (1). Crown
Agents for the Colonies, London, pp. 87.
Quelques mots sur Phydrographie de la Haute-
Gambia. Bull. Com. A.O.F., 11, 422-31.
Contribution a l’étude du fleuve Sénégal. Bull.
Com. A.O.F., 17, 385-416.
Gravity measurements in the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan. Mon. Not. R. astr. Soc. geophys. Suppl.,
4, 114-21.
An exploration in the South Libyan Desert.
Sudan Notes, 11, 103.
onwards. Annual reports, sixteen bulletins, six
occasional papers, one pamphlet. Geol. Surv.
Nigeria.
The water problem of Nigeria (A. Beeby
Thompson and Partners). Government Printer,
Lagos, pp. vil + 48.
The Nigerian goldfield (Dr. W. Russ). Sessional
Paper No. 17. Government Printer, Lagos.
Nigeria Handbook for 1936. Minerals and Geo-
logy. London.
Report on the geology and geography of the
northern part of the East Africa Protectorate.
Colon. Rep., misc. Ser., Lond., 91, pp. 29,
The Chad Basin: geology and water supply.
Crown Agents for the Colonies, London. Bull. geol.
Surv. Nigeria, 16.
Geology and geomorphology of the southern
Libyan Desert. Geogr. 7., 82, 213.
Sources of water in the north-western Sudan.
Geogr. F., 85, 412-13.
Geological observations on the north-west
frontiers of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and
adjoining parts of the southern Libyan Desert.
Quart. F. geol. Soc., Lond., 91, 323-81.
Observations on the geology of Northern Central
Africa. [Contains a very useful Bibliography].
Quart. F. geol. Soc., Lond., 93, 534-80.
Geophysical prospecting—a study of the re-
sistivity method in connexion with the investiga-
632
Sixes, H_ L.
Stumons, W. C.
STOCKLEY. Gis avis, Cox
L. R., and HaucurTon,
S/o.
"TANGANYIKA
TEALE, E. O.
TEALE, E. O., and
GILLMAN, C.
UGANDA
UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA
VEATCH, A. C.
WapE, F. B.
WAYLAND, E. J.
Wiis, E. BAILEY
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tion of underground water supplies in the Natal
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1939
CHAPTER IV. METEOROLOGY
AFRIQUE OCCIDENTALE
FRANGAISE
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Brunt, D.
CHaAMneY, N. P.
ConsTANTIN, LE FRERE
Coo.iwce, H. J.
Cox, CG. W.
Drxey, F.
ECKARDT, W. R.
EGypt
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IV.
1922
1921
IQIgZ
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The Harmattan wind of the Guinea Coast.
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1920a The distribution of temperature over Nigeria.
Quart. F.R. met. Soc., 46, 204-14.
1920b The distribution of relative humidity over
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1923
1924
1931
1932
1929
1932
1937
1928
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1934
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1924.
1927
1917
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A study of atmospheric circulation over tropical
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The climatology of the Gold Coast. Bull. Dep.
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Observatoire de St. Louis du Sénégal. Observa-
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634
EvELyYn, F. W. D’
FALCONER, J. D.
FANTOLI, A.
FANTOLI, M.
Forssy, A., and others
FRANG, J.
Fucus, V. E.
GarneTT, A.
GastuHuys, P.
GAUTIER, E. F.
GEIGER, R., and Zrert, H.
GEILINGER, W.
GILLMAN, C.
GREEN, F. H. W.
Hornpy, A. J. W.
Howarp, A. C.
HuBERT, H.
Husert, H. (Editor)
Eursr; HE:
Hurst, H. E., and
Puituips, P.
KANTHACK, F. E.
KIRKPATRICK, T. W.
Knox, A.
Kopren, W. P., and
GEIGER, R,
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1904
IQII
1937
1930
1932
1955
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1936
Climatology of lowlands and watershed terraces
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1930
1939
IQII
1927
Alleged desiccation of South Africa. Geogr. 7.,
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Dorno, C.
LEAKEY, LoS. B.
Lewis, A. D.
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SHREVE, F.
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MANGEOT, GENERAL
MARQUARDSEN, H.
NIGERIA
Nitsson, E.
Osst, B. E.
Osporn, T. W. B. and
RArrery, J. D.
Paap, W.
Peres, M.
PETERS, 5S. P.
Puiries, |.; Scorr,. |. Ds
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PLumMER, F. E.
PLuMMER, F. E. and
LEppaNn, H. D.
Poisson, C. S. 3J.
PorTERES, R.
PRAr,. Hi:
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1931
1935
1927
1921
1QI7
1932
IQ17
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1934
1929
METEOROLOGY 635
Assuan. Einemeteorologis ch-physikalisch-phy-
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RAEBURN, C.
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Some notes on water
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SOIL SCIENCE 637
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CHAPTER V. SOIL SCIENCE
BECKLEY, V. A.
BEHREND, F., and
UTEscHER, K.
Cuampion, A. M.
CONFERENCE, EAst AFRICA,
CONFERENCE, WEsT AFRICA,
ConcREss, INTERNATIONAL
SOcIETY OF SOIL SCIENCE
Corset, S.
Doclomr,A. L.
GracieE, D. S.
(SU gg ae De
1935
1932
1933
1932
1935
1930
e153
£935
eles
1930
1934
Soil erosion. Bull. Dep. Agric. Kenya, 1, pp. 76.
Some soil types from different climatic regions of
South Africa. (Translation of title.) <. Pfl-
Ernahr. Diing., 26A, 175-203.
Soil erosion in Africa. Geogr. F., 82, 130-39.
Proc. Conf. E. Afr. Soil Chemists, Nairobi, pp. 25.
Proc. Conf. E. Afr. Soil Chemists, Nairobi, pp. 63.
Proc. Conf. W. Afr. agric. Off. Bull. Dep. Agric.,
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Trans. Int. Congr. Soil Sci. Thomas Murby @ Co.,
London, 3 vols., pp. 428, 194, 270.
Biological processes in tropical soils. Heffer,
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Some considerations upon agriculture and mining
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A preliminary survey of some of the soils in
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South African pastures: retrospective and pros-
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638
Hart ey, K. T., and
GREENWOOD, M.
Hostey, C. W.
Hornsy, A. J. W.
Hornsy, A. J. W., and
MaxwELL, W. A.
IMPERIAL BUREAU OF SOIL
SCIENCE
KAMERMAN, P., and
Kuintworty, H.
KATANGA
KENYA
Martin, F. J., and
Doyne, H. C.
Maure, H. B.
Ming, G. and others
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Marsut, C. F.
SOUTHERN RHODESIA
Sturpy, D., Catton, W.E.,
and MILNE, G.
TEALE, E. O., and
GILLMAN, C.
TRAPNELL, C. G., and
CLOTHIER, J. N.
UNION oF SouTH AFRICA
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Wituiams, C. O.
VI. BOTANY 639
1932-33 Die Boden des Nil und Gash VIII and IX.
Verlag Chemie, Berlin, pp. 108.
Note.—The complete set of papers appeared as
follows: <. Pfl-Erndhr. Diing; 241A, 47-57, 323-
46; 22A, 21-51, 191-267; 23A, 149-207, 208-
339; 24A, 50-90, 179-242.
1933 An introduction to tropical soils. Translated by
H. Green. Macmillan & Co., London, pp. 232.
1935 Laterites and lateritic red earths in the Union of
South Africa. Morphology of the South African
black clays. Grey ferruginous lateritic soils.
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1932 Soil fertility problems in Natal. Sez. Bull. Dep.
Agric. S. Afr., 110, pp. 39.
CHAPTER VI. BOTANY
ADAMSON, R. 58.
Apamson, R. S., Compton,
R. H., and Others
AINSLIE, J. R.
AITKEN, R. D., and
GaLe, G. W.
ANDERSON, A. W. (fore-
word by FAULKNER,
OA.)
AsHBy, M.
AUBREVILLE, A.
Baker, E. G. and Others
Baker, E. G., Moore, S.
LE M., and RENDLE, A. B,
1927 Plant communities of Table Mountain: Pre-
liminary account. 7. Ecol., 15, 278-309.
1931 Plant communities of Table Mountain. 2. Life-
form dominance and succession. JF. Ecol., 19,
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1935 A revision of the South African species of Juncus.
Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.), 1, 1-38.
1929 The botanical features of the South Western
Cape Province. Wynberg, pp. 127.
1926 The physiography of Southern Nigeria and its
effect on the forest flora of the country. Oxf. For.
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1921 Botanical Survey of Natal and Zululand. A
reconnaissance trip through North-eastern Zulu-
land. Mem. bot. Surv. S. Afr., 2, pp. 20.
1933 Problems of animal nutrition and animal hus-
bandry in Northern Nigeria. Tech. Commun. Bur.
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1935 The genus Hemizygia Briquet. 7. Bot., Lond., 73,
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1936 The genus Endostemon N.E. Br. J. Bot., Lond., 74,
121-32.
1938 The African species of the genus Orthosiphon
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1932 La forét de la Cote d’Ivoire—essai géobotanique
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1936 La flore foresti¢re de la Cote d’Ivoire. 3 vols.
Librairie Larose, Paris.
Vol. 1, viii, 309 pp., incl. 123 plates.
» 2, — 297 pp., incl. plates 124-243.
» 3, — 286 pp., incl. plates 244-951.
1914 Plants from the Eket District, S. Nigeria. 7. Bot.,
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1926-30 The Leguminosae of tropical Africa. Parts
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1905 The Botany of the Anglo-German Uganda
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37, 116-227.
640
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BA.rFrour, I. B.
BarTOon, E. S.
BATTISCOMBE, E.
BEADLE, L. C.
BEELI, M.
Bews, J. W.
Bews, J. W., and
AITKEN, R. D.
Bouus, H.
Bo.us, H., and
Wot.ey-Dop, A. H,.
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Buscen, M.
VI. BOTANY 641
1928 Aerial survey in relation to the economic develop-
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1931 Regional survey and its relation to stocktaking of
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1934 A monograph of the genus Pavetta L. Fedde,
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1935a The origin of the flora of the Central Kalahari.
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1935b Views of the vegetation of the Central Kalahari.
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1935 Sertum Kalahariense, a list of plants collected.
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1896-1901 Catalogue of the African plants collected
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1913 Catalogue of the plants collected by Mr. and
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1929 Flora of the Sudan. Published by consent of the
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1909 List of plants collected in Ngamiland and the
northern part of the Kalahari Desert. Kew Bull.,
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1915 Sansevieria. A monograph of all the known
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1920 New and old species of Mesembryanthemum.
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1925-32 Mesembryanthemum and_ allied genera.
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1931 Mesembryanthema. Ashford, Kent, pp. 323.
1934 The giant lobelias of East Africa. Kew Bull., 2,
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1925 Gold Coast plant diseases. Waterlow & Sons,
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1934 A botanical reconnaissance in the Virunga
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1916 ‘Teff-grass (Eragrostis abyssinica). A valuable hay
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1926-32 A manual of the flowering plants and ferns
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Parts 1 and 2. Longmans, Green & Co., Litd.,
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193! The forest vegetation of South Central tropical
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1932-37 New trees and shrubs from tropical Africa,
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1935a See IMPERIAL Forestry INSTITUTE.
1935b A sketch of the forest vegetation and flora of
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1910 Der Kameruner kustenwald. Z. Forst-u. Jagdw.,
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642
Buxton, P. A.
Cannon, W. A.
Carrisso, L. W.
CHERMEZON, H.
CHEVALIER, A.
CHIOVENDA, E.
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1935 Seasonal changes in vegetation of Northern
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1924 General and physiological features of the more
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1935 Raccolte botaniche fatte dai Missionari della
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1913 A list of trees, shrubs and climbers of the Gold
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1914 A list of the herbaceous plants and under-
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Dare, IR.
DauziEL, J. M.
Danpy, J. E.
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DeicuTon, F. C.
DeELEvoy, G.
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Diets, L.
Dorpce, E. M.
Doince, E. M., and
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Duranp, Tu., and H.
VI. BOTANY 643
1934. onwards. Rapp. Serv. Vet. (pour 1934—multi-
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1930 A visit to Kilimanjaro. Kew Bull., 3, 97-121.
1936 Trees and shrubs of Kenya Colony. Revision
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1937 The genus Potamogeton L. in tropical Africa.
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1935 Preliminary list of fungi and diseases of plants in
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FLORA CAPENSIS
FLorRA OF TROPICAL AFRICA.
Fiora oF West TROPICAL
AFRICA
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1933. Herb. Rev., 2, 102-03.
1924 South African Gramineae. Grasses of the Transvaal
‘as represented in the National Herbarium.
Bothalia, 1, 222-303.
1933 The grasses of Southern Rhodesia. Proc. Rhod.
$6: ASS... 32.
1934. The toxicology of plants in South Africa, together
with a consideration of poisonous foodstuffs and
fungi. S. Afr. Agric. Ser., 13, pp. 631.
1927-1937 African orchids, I-IX. Kew Bull.
1937 A review of the genus Rhipidoglossum Schltr,
Blumea. Suppl. 1, 78-86.
1912-1935 Beschreibungen neuer _ stidafrikanischer
Pilze: 1-6. Ann. Myc., 10-33.
1914 Plants from the Eket District, South Nigeria,
collected by Mr. and Mrs. P. A. Talbot. 7. Bot.,
Lond., §2, 1-19.
1926 Aims and methods in the study of vegetation.
British Empire Vegetation Committee, London.
1932-1936 Notes on Labiatae, I-III. 7. Bot., Lond., 70,
73, 74-
1910 Report on the forests of the Gold Coast. Colon.
Rep. misc. Ser., Lond., 66, pp. 238.
1915 The flowering plants of Africa. Engl. Edit.,
London, pp. 647.
1930 Man and the forest in Northern Nyasaland.
Emp. For. F., 9, 213-20.
1932 ‘The grassland types of the central pastoral region
of Northern Rhodesia. Bull. Dep. Agric. N. Rhod.,
2, 5-16.
1933 Aims of pasture management in Northern Rho-
desia. Bull. Dep. Agric. N. Rhod., 3, 1-13.
1937 See BrstiocrRapny, chapter V.
1936 Report on forestry in Tanganyika Territory.
Dar-es-Salaam, pp. 32.
1920 West African forests and forestry. London-
PP. 527-
1922 A contribution to our knowledge of the Poly-
poreae of South Africa. S. Afr. F. Set., 18, 246—
93-
1926 Phosphorus deficiency in South African soils and
vegetation. S. Afr. 7. Sci., 23, 244-52.
1926 Revision of the African Toddalieae. Kew Bull., 9,
389-416.
1897 Der Kilimandscharo. Dietrich Reimer, Berlin,
pp. 388.
WAKEFIELD, E. M.
WAKEFIELD, E. M., and
MAITLAND, T. D.
WALLACE, G. B.
Watt, J. M., and
BREYER-BRANDW]JK,
M. G.
WEIMARCK, H.
WEINTROUB, D.
Wersss, F. E.
WEsT, G. S.
Waite, A., and
SLOANE, B. L.
WiuiaMs, F. N.
Woop, J. M.
Wricurt, C. H.
AFRIQUE EQUATORIALE
FRANGAISE
AINSLIE, J. R.
AUBREVILLE, A.
BATTIsCcOMBE, E.
Biunt, H. S.
Bourne, R.
Broun, A. F. and
Massey, R. E,
VII. FORESTRY 653
1912-1917 Nigerian fungi. Kew Bull.
1927 The genus Cystopus in South Africa. Bothalia, 2,
242-46.
1917-1920 Notes on Uganda fungi, I. Microfungi, II.
Kew Bull.
1932 Preliminary list of fungi or diseases of economic
plants in Tanganyika Territory. Aew Bull., 1,
28-40.
1936 Second list of fungi and diseases of economic
plants in Tanganyika Territory. Kew Bull., 3,
234-40.
1932 ‘The medicinal and poisonous plants of Southern
Africa. E. & S. Livingstone, Edinburgh, pp. xx +
314.
1934. Monograph of the genus Cliffortia. Lund, pp. 229.
1933 A preliminary account of the aquatic and
subaquatic vegetation and flora of the Wit-
watersrand. 7. Ecol., 21, 44-57.
1905 Sketches of vegetation at home and abroad.
2. Some aspects of the vegetation of South Africa.
(1) Flora of the Cape Peninsula. New Phytol., 4,
223-32, (2) Natal and the Transvaal. New
Phytol., 5, 1-9.
1907 Report on the freshwater algae, etc., of the Third
Tanganyika Expedition. 7. Linn. Soc. (Bot.),
38, 81-197.
1937 ‘The Stapelieae. 3 vols. Pasadena.
1907 Florula Gambica. Bull. Herb. Boissier., Ser. 2, 7,
81-96, 193-208, 369-86.
1898-1912 Natal plants. 6 vols. Durban.
1907 Handbook to the flora of Natal. Durban, pp. 202.
1908 Revised list of the flora of Natal. Trans. S. Afr.
phil. Soc., 18, 121-80.
1910 Revised list of the flora of Natal. Supplement.
Trans. roy. Soc. S. Afr., 1, 453-72-
1902 List of plants occurring in the Uganda Protec-
torate, in H. Johnston, The Uganda Protector-
ate, I, 329-51.
CHAPTER VII. FORESTRY
1931 L’exploitation forestiére au Gabon. Paris, pp. 18.
1934. Forestry and tsetse control in Northern Nigeria.
Emp. For. F., 13, 39-44:
1932 See BIBLIOGRAPHY, CHAPTER VI.
1936 See BrBLioGRAPHy, chapter VI.
1936 See BrstiocrapnHy, chapter VI.
1926 Gum arabic with special reference to its produc-
tion in the Sudan. Oxford, pp. 47.
1928 See BrstiocrRapny, chapter VI.
1931 See BrstioGRApnHy, chapter VI.
1934 Some ecological conceptions. Emp. For. 7., 13,
15-30.
1929 See BrptiocRApHy, chapter VI,
654
Burtt Davy, J.
CHALK, L., Burtt Davy,
J-, and Descu, H. E.
CHALK, L., BurtT Davy,
J., Descu, H. E., and
Hoy te, A. C.
CHALK, L., CHATTAWAY,
M. M., Burtr Davy, J.,
LaucuTon, F. S., and
Scott, M. M.
CHEVALIER, A.
Cuipp, T. F.
CLEMENTs, J. B.
Co.uirErR, F. S., and
Dunpas, J.
CONFERENCE, BRITISH
EMPIRE FORESTRY
WALES T.R:
DELEVoy, G.
Dre WILpDEmaN, E.
GoLp Coast
Gorrie, R. M.
Grant, D. K. S.
Hornsy, A. J. W.
IMPERIAL FORESTRY
INSTITUTE
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE
(Sour KENsINGTon)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1935a See BrsLioGRAPHy, chapter VI.
1935b A sketch of the forest vegetation and flora of
tropical Africa. Emp. For. 7., 14, 191-201.
1932 Forest trees and timbers of the British Empire.
1. Some East African Coniferae and Leguminosae.
Oxford, pp. 68.
1933 Forest trees and timbers of the British Empire.
2. Twenty West African timber trees. Oxford,
pp. 108.
1935 Forest trees and timbers of the British Empire.
Fifteen South African high forest timber trees.
Oxford, pp. 103.
1905-1913 See BrBLioGRAPHY, chapter VI.
1920 See BisLioGRAPHY, chapter VI.
1927 See BrBLioGRAPHY, chapter VI.
1933 The cultivation of finger millet (Eleusine coracana)
and its relation to shifting cultivation in Nyasa-
land. Emp. For. 7., 12, 16—20.
1935 A communal forest scheme in Nyasaland. British
Empire Forestry Conference (South Africa). Zomba,
pp. 13.
1937 The arid regions of Northern Nigeria and the
French Niger Colony. Emp. For. 7., 16, 184-94.
1936 Proc. Brit. Emp. For. Conf. (South Africa, 1935),
pp- 363.
1936 See BrsLioGRApny, chapter VI.
1923 Laconservation des foréts coloniales. Bull. Soc. for
Belg., 26, 465-78, 525-42.
1928-29 La question foresti¢re au Katanga. 3 volumes.
Publication du Comité Spécial du Katanga, Brussels.
1928-32 Etudes systématiques des bois du Katanga.
Fasc. 1 to 7. Publication du Comité Spécial du
Katanga, Brussels.
Contribution a l’étude de la végétation forestiére
de la vallée de la Lukuga. Mém. Inst. R. Col.
Belge, 1, pp. 124.
Mission forestiere et agricole du Comte Jacques
de Briey au Mayumbe (Congo Belge). Ministére
des Colonies, Brussels, pp. 468.
Remarques a propos de la forét équatoriale
congolaise. Mém. Inst. R. Col. Belge, 2, pp. 120.
1933 Statement presented to the Empire Forestry
Conference in 1933. Accra, pp. 20.
1934 onwards, D.R. Rep. For. Dep. Gold Cst.
1935 ‘The use and misuse of land. Oxf. For. Mem., 19,
pp. 8o.
See TANGANYIKA.
Erosion of arable land in Nyasaland and its
prevention. Bull. Dep. Agric. Nyasald., 1.
See BrstioGRapnHy, chapter V.
Eleventh annual report 1934-35, and prospectus.
Oxford.
1932-38 Forest trees and timbers of the British Empire,
Nos. 1-3, see CHALK, L., etc. No. 4, Fifteen
Uganda timber trees, forthcoming, 1938.
1935-37 See BIBLIOGRAPHY, chapter VI.
1928 Descriptive list of some Empire timbers. London,
ee timbers for decorative and building work.
Rep. imp. Inst., Lond., 29, pp. 22.
1933
1920
1934
1932
1923
1034
1935
1931
KENNEDY, J. D.
KENYA
LANE-POOLE, C. E.
LAVAUDEN, L.
LEBRUN, J.
1B iveal s Be
MacGrecor, W. D.
Matcouty, D. W.
MarsHALL, R. C.
MERTENS, E.
MIcHELMORE, A. P. G.
MirTcHELL, W. G. B.
Moor, H. W.
NATURE
NicHOLson, J. W.
NIGERIA
NyASALAND
OLIPHANT, F. M.
OLIPHANT, J. N.
REA, R.J. A.
Rosertson, W. A.
(edited by)
VII. FORESTRY 655
1935 The group method of natural regeneration in the
rain forest of Sapoba, Southern Nigeria. Empire
For. F 2, £45. 19-24.
1936 See BrstiocrapHy, chapter VI.
1934 onwards, D.R. Rep. For. Dep. Kenya.
1935 The forests and timber resources of Kenya
Colony. Statement prepared for the 4th British
Empire Forestry Conference. Nairobi, pp. 20.
1916 See BrstiocRAPHy, chapter VI.
1927 See BrstriocrapnHy, chapter VI.
1937 See Brstiocrapny, chapter VI.
1935 Les essences foresti¢res des régions montagneuses
du Congo oriental. No. 2 of Les essences
foresti¢éres du Congo Belge. JINEAC, Brussels,
pp. 264.
1925 See Brstiocrapny, chapter VI.
1935 See BistiocRAPHY, chapter VI.
1937 Forest types and succession in Nigeria. Emp.
For. 7.5 16, 234-42.
1936 Report on gum and gum-arabic. Government
Printer, Dar-es-Salaam, pp. 59.
1937 Principles governing the selection of forest
reserves. Emp. For. F., 16, 228-33.
1933. Recherches sur le copal du Congo. Bull. Inst. R.
Col. Belge, 4, pp. 23.
1934 See BrstiocrapnHy, chapter VI.
1931 See NIGERIA.
1937 Vegetation and climate. Empire For. 7., 16,
200-14.
1931 Forests, climate, erosion, and _ inundations.
Nature, 127, 524-25.
1929 The future of forestry in Uganda. Entebbe, pp. 27.
1928 Record of forest research in 1928. Bull. For. Dep.
Nigeria, I, pp. 42.
1935, D.R. Report on the forest administration of Nigeria
for the year 1934. Rep. For. Dep. Nigeria, pp. 37.
1931 Identification of timbers available in the moist
deciduous to savannah forests in Lagos Colony,
Abeokuta, Ondo and Oyo Provinces [by W. G. B.
Mitchell]. Government Printer, Lagos, pp. 10.
1934 onwards, D.R. Rep. For. Dep. Nyasald.
1934a Report on the commercial possibilities and
development of the forests of the Gold Coast.
Accra, pp. 13.
1934b Report on the commercial possibilities and
development of the forests of Nigeria. Sessional
Paper, No. 7 (1934). Government Printer, Lagos.
1935 A further report on the commercial possibilities
and development of the forests of Nigeria.
Sessional Paper, No. 7 (1934). Government Printer,
Lagos.
1937 The commercial possibilities and development
of forests in British East Africa. Colonial Forest
Resources Development Department, Colonial
Office. Government Printer, Dar-es-Salaam, pp. 52.
1937 The development of more intensive use of un-
mixed tropical forest. Emp. For. F., 16, 29-39.
1935 The forest types of vegetation in Tanganyika
Territory. Emp. For. F., 14, 202-08.
1933 The Empire forestry handbook. The Empire
Forestry Association, London, pp. 167.
656
RosEAVAR, D. R.
Sr. CLair THOMPSON,
G. W.
Sampson, H. C.
SIERRA LEONE
sim, I. R.
STEBBING, E. P.
STEEDMAN, E. C.
STOCKDALE, F. A.
TANGANYIKA
TEALE, E. O.
THompson, H. N.
TopHAM, P., and
TOWNSEND, R. G. R.
TRAPNELL, C. G., and
CLoruieER, J. N.
Troup, R. 8.
UGANDA
UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA
UNITED STATES FOREST
SERVICE
VERMOESEN, C.
VIGNgE, C.
Wrieusy, S. H.
Zon, R., and
SPARHAWK, W. N.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1937
1936
1936
Forest conditions of the Gambia.
16, 217-26.
Forest conditions in the Gold Coast. Institute
paper 1, Imperial Forestry Institute, Oxford.
Soil erosion in tropical Africa and problems
connected with it. Emp. Cott. Gr. Rev., 13, 20-5.
Emp. For. 7.,
1934 onwards, D.R. Rep. For. Dep. S. Leone.
ea |
1939
1937
1933
1935
1932
1934, D.R. Rep. For. Dep. Tanganyika.
1929
IQIO
19037
1937
1932
1936
OSA:
See BrBLiI0oGRAPHY, chapter VI.
See BisptioGRapnHy, chapter IV.
The forests of West Africa and the Sahara; a
study in modern conditions. W. R. Chambers,
London and Edinburgh.
Some trees, shrubs and lianes of Southern
Rhodesia. Published by the author. Bulawayo,
pp. Xxi + I9QI.
Forestry in relation to agriculture under tropical
conditions. (Empire Forestry Conference), pp. 8.
Forest protection, soil and water conservation in
Tanganyika Territory. By D. K. S. Grant.
Pamphl. For. Dep. Tanganyika, pp. 24.
(Appendix 1 on
Native Authority operations.)
The soil and agricultural development in relation
to the geology of portions of the Northern Kigoma
and Southern Bukoba Provinces. Short Pap. geol.
Surv. Tanganyika, 4.
See BisLioGRAPHY, chapter VI.
Forestry in Nyasaland. Institute paper 5.
Imperial Forestry Institute, Oxford.
See BrsLioGRApPHyY, chapter V.
Oxford,
Exotic forest trees in the British Empire.
PP. 259.
See BrsLtioGRApHy, chapter VI.
Native names of trees and shrubs of Uganda.
(Preliminary list.) Bull. For. Dep. Uganda, 2,
pp. I
4.
1934 onwards, D.R. Rep. For. Dep. Uganda.
3 15)
1939
1035
1923
1936
1034
1923
Forestry in Uganda. Statement prepared by the
Forest Authority for the 4th Empire Forestry
Conference (South Africa). Entebbe, pp. 21.
Statement relating to the Union of South Africa
prepared by the Division of Forest Management,
Department of Agriculture and Forestry. Pretoria,
pp. 22.
Possibilities of shelterbelt planting in the plains
region. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
pp. 201.
Manuel des essences forestiéres de la région
équatoriale et du Mayombe. No. 1 of Les
essences foresti¢res du Congo Belge. INEAC,
Brussels, pp. 282.
Forests of the northern territories of the Gold
Coast. Emp. For. 7., 1§, 210-13.
Natural succession in the pencil-cedar forests of
Kenya Colony. Emp. For. 7., 16, 49-53-
Forest resources of the world. MeCrtae Fill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 2 vols., pp. 997-
VI. ZOOLOGY 657
CHAPTER VIII. ZOOLOGY
AMERICAN COMMITTEE FOR
INTERNATIONAL WILD
LirE PROTECTION
BANNERMAN, D. A.
Bates, G. L.
BELCHER, C. F.
BIGALKE, R.
Bowen, W. W.
Brouwer, G. A.
Cuapin, J. P.
Co.uEr, F. S.
DoLiman, G.
DRAKE-BROCKMAN, R. E.
ELuioT, E.
E.Ton, C.
Haywoop, A. H. W.
Hincston, R. W. G.
Hostey, C. W.
rosa
19359
1938
1930
1930
1931
1953
1934
1926
1938
1932
1935
1921
1932
1936
IgIO
LOIS
1931
1932—
1930
1931
1929
1933
African game protection.... Spec. Publ., 3,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
The London Convention for the protection of
African fauna and flora with map and notes on
existing African parks and reserves. Spec. Publ., 6,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
The organisation of nature protection in the
various countries. By G. A. Brouwer. Spec.
Publ., 9, Cambridge, Massachusetts, pp. 112.
-6 Birds of tropical West Africa. Crown Agents for
the Colonies, London. Vol. 1, Ixxvi + 451; Vol. 2,
x1 + 457; Vol. 3, xxxvi + 488; Vol. 4, xl + 459.
Handbook of the birds of West Africa. John Bale,
Sons & Danielsson, Lid., London, pp. xxii + 572.
The birds of Nyasaland, being a classified list of
the species recorded...up to 1930. Crosby
Lockwood & Son, London, pp. xii + 356.
Directory of Museums and Art Galleries in British
Africa, Malta, Cyprus and Gibraltar. London,
PP. 00.
A biological survey of the Union. S. Afr. F. Sci.,
31, 396-404.
Check list of the birds of the Sudan. Parts
1 and 2. Publ. Sudan Government Museum (Natural
Aistory), 1 and 2, pp. 120 and 163.
See AMERICAN COMMITTEE, etc.
The birds of the Belgian Congo (Part I). Bull.
Amer. Mus. nat. Hist., 65, pp. 756.
Notes on the preservation of the fauna of Nigeria.
Nigerian Field, 4, 51-62; 101-13.
Catalogue of the Selous collection. British Museum
(Nat. Hist.), London, pp. vii + 112.
Guide to the great game animals of the British
Empire. British Museum (Nat. Hist.), London.
African antelopes. Suppl. to J. Afr. Soc., Lond.,
pp. 28.
Mammals of Somaliland. Hurst & Blackett, Lid.,
London, pp. 201.
A review of the primates. Bull. Amer. Mus. nat.
ist. 15 pp. XXXVill -- 387; 2, Xxvi -- 362;
3, cxvili + 262.
The study of epidemic diseases among wild
animals. 7. Hyg., Camb., 31, 435-56.
33 Reports of Special Makion to West Africa to
inquire into the preservation of wild life, 1931—2.
J. Soc. Pres. Fauna Emp., 17, 27-48; 18, 32-45;
19, 21-37; 37-90. .
Report on a mission to East Africa for the purpose
of investigating the most suitable methods of
ensuring preservation of its indigenous fauna.
F. Soc. Pres. Fauna Emp., 1§, 21-57.
Proposed British national parks for Africa.
Geogr. F., 77, 401-28.
Game and its relation to mankind. 7. Afr. Soc.,
Lond., 29, 139-48.
The London Convention of 1900. 7. Soc. Pres.
Fauna Emp., 20, 33-49.
658
Huxtey, J. S.
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE
(SouTH KENSINGTON)
INTERNATIONAL CONFER-
ENCE FOR THE PROTEC-
TION OF THE FAUNA AND
FLORA OF AFRICA
JACKH RW:
LEPLAE, E.
LONNBERG, E.
LOVERIDGE, A.
LYDEKKER, R.
LyYDEKKER, R., and
DoxitMan, G.
Miers, Sir Henry, and
MARKHAM, S. F.
Moreau, R. E.
Pitman, C. R. S.
PrigsT, C. D.
REICHENOW, A.
RoBeErts, A.
Rope, P:
ROOSEVELT, T., and
HELuiER, E.
SCHOUTEDEN, H.
SCLATER, W. L.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1934 Elephant control. 7. Soc. Pres. Fauna Emp., 21,
51-7.
1931 Africa view. Chatto & Windus, London, pp. 455.
1933 The collection of reptile skins for commercial
purposes. Report by the Advisory Committee on
Hides and Skins. London, pp. 33.
1934 See BiBpLIoGRAPHY, chapter V1.
1934 ‘Tsetse fly and game. Reprinted from Rhod. agric.
f., Bull., 915, pp. 36.
1935 ‘The control of tsetse fly in Southern Rhodesia.
Rhod. agric. F., Bull., 950, pp. 25.
1933 Les grands animaux de chasse du Congo belge.
(Extrait du Bull. agric. Congo belge), pp. 144.
1929 The development and distribution of the African
fauna in connection with and depending upon
climatic changes. Ark. Zool. 21A, pp. 33.
1935-37 Scientific results of an expedition to rain forest
regions in Eastern Africa, I-IX. Bull. Mus. comp.
Kool. Harv., 79, 541.
1936 African reptiles and amphibia in Field Museum of
Natural History. Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Zool.,
Series 22, pp. 111.
1915 Catalogue of the ungulate mammals. British
Museum (Nat. Hist.), Vols. 1-5.
1926 Game Animals of Africa. Rowland Ward, Lid.,
London, pp. 483.
1932 A report on the museums and art galleries of
British Africa. Edinburgh, pp. 63.
1933 Pleistocene climatic changes and the distribution
of life in East Africa. 7. Ecol., 21, 415-35.
1935a A critical analysis of the distribution of birds in a
tropical African area. 7. Anim. Ecol., 4, 167-91.
1935b Some eco-climatic data for closed evergreen forest
in tropical Africa. 7. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), 39, 285-93.
1935c A synecological study of the Usambara Moun-
tains, Tanganyika ‘Territory, with particular
reference to the birds. 7. Ecol. 23, 1-43.
1934. Areport on a faunal survey of Northern Rhodesia.
Government Printer, Livingstone, pp. 500, with maps.
1933-36 The birds of Southern Rhodesia. Wialliam
Clowes @ Sons, Ltd., London, 4 vols., pp. 486; 561;
3643 424; 40 pl.
1900-1905 Die Vogel Afrikas. 3 vols. and atlas.
J. Neumann, Neudamm, pp. 810; 768; 905.
1935 Higher vertebrate zoology and their relationships
to human affairs. Carnegie Visitors’ Grants Com-
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1937 Les primates de l’Afrique. Publ. Com. hist. sci.
A.O:F.,. Bi 2, pp. 223.
1915 Life histories of African game animals. 2 vols.
John Murray, London, pp. 798.
1932 Mes récoltes ornithologiques au Parc Albert
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1900 Mammals of South Africa. 2 vols. R. H. Porter,
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1924-1930 Systema avium Aethiopicarum. 2 vols.
Taylor & Francis, London, pp. 922.
(edited by)
SHORTRIDGE, G. C.
Stark, A. C., and
SCLATER, W. L.
STEVENSON-HAMILTON, J.
UGANDA
Warp, ROWLAND
IX. FISHERIES 659
1938 The birds of Kenya Colony and the Uganda
Protectorate. By Sir F. J. Jackson. 3 vols. Edin-
burgh and London.
1934. The mammals of South-West Africa. 2 vols.
Heinemann, Ltd., London, pp. xxv + 4373 ix + 439.
1900-1906 ‘The birds of South Africa. 4 vols. R. H.
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1929 The low veld: its wild life and its people. Cassell
& Co., London, pp. 288.
1937 South African Eden: from Sabi Game Reserve
to Kruger National Park. Cassell & Co., Lid.,
London, pp. 311.
1934 onwards, D.R. Rep. Game Dep. Uganda.
1935 Records of big game. African and Asiatic
sections. Tenth edition. Rowland Ward, Lid.,
London, pp. 408.
CHAPTER IX. FISHERIES
BARNARD, K. H.
BouLENGER, G. A.
Brown, A. P.
Busu, S. F.
CacHEux, E.
CAMBRIDGE EXPEDITION TO
THE East AFRICAN LAKES
Cop.Ley, H.
Damas, H.
Darsovux, G., STEPHAN, P.,
Cotte, J., and Gaver,
F. VAN
EHRENBAUM, E.
Fow.er, H. W.
GorrFin, A.
GraHaM, M.
1925-27 A monograph of the marine fishes of South
Airica. Ann. S. Afr. Mus., 21, 1-1065; pls. 1-37;
32 text-figs.
1909-16 Catalogue of the fresh-water fishes of Africa
in the British Museum (Natural History). 4 vols.
London, pp. 1, x1 + 373, 270 text-figs., 1909;
2, Xli + 529, 270 text-figs., 1910; 3, xii + 526,
351 text-figs., 1915; 4, XXvii + 392, 195 text-figs.,
Ig16.
1937 The fishing industry at Labadi (Gold Coast).
Teacher’s F., 8, 3.
1933 Establishment and well-being of trout in Natal
waters: an ecological problem. S. Afr. 7. Sci.,
30, 366-87.
1903 Etudes sur les poissons et la péche dans les
colonies frangaises. Congr. int. Péch Pisic., St. Petersb.,
6, pt. 1, 227-36.
1933-36 Scientific results. 7. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), 38-40.
1933 The economic sea-fishes of our coast. 7.E. Afr.,
Ug. nat. Hist. Soc., 49-50, 192-196, 1 pl.
1937 Recherches hydrobiologiques dans les Lacs Kivu,
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1907 L’industrie des péches aux colonies frangaises.
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1915 Ueber Kistenfische von Westafrika, besonders
von Kamerun. Hamburg, pp. 85, figs.
1936 The marine fishes of West Africa. Bull. Amer.
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1909 Les pécheries et les poissons du Congo Belge.
Brussels.
1929 The Victoria Nyanza and its fisheries. Crown
Agents for the Colonies, London, pp. 255, 64 figs.
GRuvEL, A.
GrRuvVEL, A., and
Bouyart, A.
GrRuvEL, A., and PETIT, G.
Harrison, A. C.
HorneELL, J.
IrvinE, F. R.
JENKIN, P. M.
KENCHINGTON, F. E.
MarcHAND, J. M.
MicHAELSEN, W. (Edited by)
Monon, T.
Pirman, C.R.S.
REGELSPERGER, G.
SCHULTZE, L. S.
Tuomas, J. M.
UGANDA
UNION oF SouTH AFRICA
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CHAPTER KX. ENTOMOLOGY
AFRIQUE OCCIDENTALE
FRANGAISE
ANDERSON, D.
BALACHOwSKY, A.
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CONFERENCE, INTER-
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IMPERIAL INSTITUTE OF
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James, H. C.
JansE, A. J. T.
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IMPERIAL BUREAU OF ANI-
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IMPERIAL BuREAU OF FRUIT
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IMPERIAL BUREAU OF PLANT
GENETICS (ABERYSTWYTH)
IMPERIAL BUREAU OF SOIL
SCIENCE
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE OF
ENTOMOLOGY
IMPERIAL MycoLocGIcAL
INSTITUTE
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE
OF AGRICULTURE
Instirut NATIONAL D’Ac-
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1937 See BrpLioGRAPHy, chapter X.
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NADEL, S. F. 1935a Nupe state and community. Africa, 8, 257-303.
1935b Witchcraft and anti-witchcraft in Nupe society.
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1937 Gunnu; a fertility cult of the Nupe. 7.R. anthrop.
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PALMER, Sir H. R. 1932 The Tuareg of the Sahara. 7. Afr. Soc., Lond., 31,
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PERHAM, M. F. 1937 Native administration in Nigeria. Oxford, pp.
xli + 404.
(edited by) 1936 Ten Africans. London. pp. 356
Rattray, R. S. 1923 Ashanti. Oxford, pp. 348.
1927 Religion and art in Ashanti. Oxford, pp. xviii +
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1929 Ashanti law and constitution. Oxford, pp. xix +
420.
1932 ‘The tribes of the Ashanti hinterland. 2 vols.
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Ricuarps, A. I. 1932 Hunger and work in a savage tribe. Routledge,
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1936 ‘Tribal government in transition. Suppl. 7. Afr.
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Ropp, F. R. 1926 People of the veil. Macmillan, London, pp. xv + 504.
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1931 Some recent South African publications. Africa,
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1932— South African publications relating to native
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690
ScHEBESTA, P.
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>
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INDEX
A.P.V. Pasteurizer, 458
Abadie, Maurice, 612
Abakrampa, 368
Abbassia, 102
Abbatucci, S., 490
Abeokuta, 206, 564
Abercorn, 318, 406
Aberdare Mountains, 156
Aberdeen Angus Cattle, 418
Abidjan, 491
Abortion of Stock, 442, 448
Abraham, R. C., 611
Abruzzi, Duke of, 103
Aburi Botanical Garden, 150, 324
Abyssinia, 226, 334, 362, 546; Anthro-
pology, 596; Birds, 224; Boundary
surveys, 157, 164; Climate, 103, I11;
Coffee cultivation, 362; Flora, 157,
164; Geodetic surveying, 41, 45; Maps,
2, 53; Meteorological stations, 101,
103; Scientific missions, 103
Acacia Trees, 189, 454, see also Gum-
trees and Kola
Academica Unio Catholica Adjuvans Mis-
stones, see AUCAM
Acclimatization Stations,
328, 332
Accra, 91, 324; Achimota College, 149,
157, 246; Agricultural training, 401,
402; Herbarium, 150, 219; Zoological
specimens, 219; Agricultural Labora-
tories, 323; Hospitals, 487, 514;
Medical Laboratory, 480, 487; Meteor-
ological Station, 108, 109; Plains,
324, 358, 390, 391; Rat-flea index,
538; Sanitary inspectors trained, 515;
Seisomograph, 85
Achimota College, see under Accra
Acidity of Soils, 124, 134, 135, 381, 406
Adamson, Prof. R. S., 14.7, 154, 159
Adar Cattle, 424
Addis Ababa, 92
Addo Elephant National Park, 230
Admiralty, 56, 359; Hydrographic De-
partment, 32
Advier, M., 297
Aedes, 296, 300, 523, 524, 527
Aeolian Sandy Soils, 130
Aeromaritime Service, 91, 92
149, 150, 152,
Afram Plains Game Reserve, 221
Africa, 572, 596, 597, 609, 611, 613
African Air Surveying Co. (Pty.) Ltd., 57
African Civil Service, 484.
African Explosives & Industries, Ltd.:
Grassland Research Committee, 169,
312 hoe on cereals, 312; insec-
ticides, ; tobacco, 369
African eee Corporation, 71
African Medical Corps, 509
African Research Survey, 47
African Subordinate Staff: Agriculture,
313, 316, 324, 401, 402; Forestry, 183;
Game control, 219; Geology, 68;
Medical services, 475-8, 480-5, 487,
489-94, 496-9, 505-15, 568, 569, 5713
Need for, 21; Surveying, 33, 39, 403
Veterinary services, 328, 330, 403
African Survey, An, 15, 316, 516, 557, 5915
593
Afrikander Cattle, 414, 416-19, 426, 427
Afrique Occidentale frangais, 279
Agafanoff, M., 128
Agave, 358, 359, and see Sisal
Agricultural Research Council, 310
Agriculture: Administration, 312-34;
African subordinate staff, 313, 316,
324, 401, 402; Chemistry, 129-36, 314;
Conferences on, 133, 280, 308, 325,
326, 445; Co-operative Societies in,
394-9; Demonstration farms, 302, 400;
Education of Natives, 130, 149, 159,
169, 302, 303, 31T, 313, 399-403, 458,
593; European estates—see under Euro-
peans in Africa; Experimental stations
—see under separate crops; Improvement
of, 303, 304, 332, 380-99; Native, 8,
301-306, 379, 380-94, 400; and see
Shifting cultivation; Pastoral, 305-
307, 410; Research organization, 7,
312-34; Surveys, 16, 304; Tradition
in, 302, 306, 307, 5933 see also Animal
Industry; Chitemene cultivation; Con-
tour cultivation; Crop-rotation; Fixed
cultivation; Mixed cropping; Mixed
farming; Mound cultivation; Shifting
cultivation; and under separate crops
Agronomie Coloniale, 327
Agulhas Bank Fishery, 239
694
A’ir, 106
Air Afrique Services, 91
Air Communications, 15, 265, 569; Com-
panies operating in Africa, 91, 92;
Danger of infection through, 15, 463,
465, 466, 526; Meteorological services
used by, 88, 89, 93, 95, 99, 101-103,
107, 108
Air-conditioning, 589
Air France: West African Service, 91
Air Ministry, 56
Air Survey Committee, 56
Air Survey Company, 58
Air Surveying: Companies operating,
57-93 Cost of, 54, 56, 59, 60; In Botany,
56, 155, 160, 161: Ecology, 161:
Forestry, 55, 161, 199, 200: Tsetse
control, 278; Methods, 54-6; Time
required, 54, 55, 57; Utility of, 53
Aircraft see Air Communications
Aircraft Operating Company of Africa,
Ltd., 57
Aircraft Operating Company, Ltd., 57
Aitken, R. D., 160
Akenhead, D., 309
Ala Littoria Air Service, 92
Albany, 160
AJbany Museum,
Grahamstown
Albert, Lake, 42, 76, 86, 227, 331; Bar-
rage, 58, 76; Fish, 244, 252; Fishing,
249: Survey, 242; Level of, variations
in, 113, 114; Plague, endemic centre
of, 538
Albert Perch (Lates), 242
Albertine Depression, 86
Aleurites, 373, 374
Aleurodid Fly, 360
Alexandria, 76
Alfort, 328
Algae, 158
Algeria, 416; Anthropological research,
597; Citrus pests, 289; Locust research,
264; Maps, 51; Meteorological ser-
vices, 103, 104; Population, proposed
transplanting, 5; Tick-borne diseases,
297, 299; Tuberculosis research,
545
Algiers, 91, 103
Aliatikulu, 476, 477
Alkali in Soil, 124, 125, 129, 134
Allen, Dr. Glover, 223
Alluvial Soils, 381, 382
Alston, A. G. H., 146
Altitudinal Zonation, 161
Alvord, E. D., 400
Amani, 132, 136, 326—and see East
African Agricultural Research Station
Amani Memoirs, 317
Amblyomma, 299, 443
Ambo Cattle, 414
Grahamstown, | see
INDEX
Ambo Tribe, 608
America, 234, 251, 334, 373, 417; 443,
527, 580, 581, 589; Crops and plants
imported from, 172, 173, 340, 347;
354-6, 360, 366, 369, 370, 605; Farm-
ing in, 306, 307; National Parks, 212,
228; North —, 545; Soil erosion in, 306;
South —, 55, 92, 346: Yellow Fever in,
523-5; United States of —, 65, 240,
280, 344, 545: Forestry Service, 197:
Geological Survey, 61
American Committee for International
Wild Life Protection, 222, 229, 235
American Museum Congo Expedition
(1909-15), 246
Amphibia, 223
Anaemia, 550
Anaplasma, 443
Ancylostoma, see Hookworm
Anderson, A. W., 173, 425
Anderson, D., 295
Anderson, J., 422
Andrews, Dr. W. Horner, 309
Anglican missions, 474
Anglo-Ethiopian Boundary Survey, 157
Angola, 13, 92, 267; Agriculture, De-
partment of, 333; Animal Husbandry
Department, 333; Animal Industry,
333, 426, 427, 431; Botany, 146, 152,
155, 161; Boundaries, 41-3; Disease,
Human, 535, 536, 538; Fisheries, 248;
Flora, 146, 152, 155; Game reserves,
222; Geodetic survey, 43; Geological
Department, 70, 75; Maps, 34, 533
Medical service, 464, 502, 503; Mete-
orological service, 98; Phyto-geo-
graphical map, 161; Public Works
Department, 34; Root crops, 340;
Surveying, 34; Tribes, 609; Veterinary
Laboratory, 333; Zootechnical farm,
B35
Angoni Cattle, 418
Angora Goats, 329, 432
‘Angular leaf-spot’ cotton disease, 285
Anigstein, Dr. L., 464
Animal Breeding Abstracts, 310
Animal Industry: Dependent on water-
supply, 411, 412, 428, 434; Ecology of,
418; Research for—see Veterinary Ser-
vices—see also cattle; goats; pigs; sheep;
stock; and mixed farming; overgrazing;
overstocking
Animals: Breeding, 175, 315, 324; Dis-
eases—see under Disease; Domestic, 163,
211: history of, 603, 605; Ecology, 216,
917, \225=7, 536; Game—see under
Game Animals; Nutrition—see under
Nutrition; Periodicity of population,
226, 227, 536, 537; Taxonomy, 217,
222, 223, 258; see also Game Animals;
Stock; and separate species
INDEX
Ankole, 449, 540; Cattle, 411, 416, 423,
449; South-West —, geological survey,
74; Tin-fields, geological map, 72; Two
races in, 604
Annak Tribe, 594
Annales Agricoles de I Afrique Occidental,
329
Annales de l’ Institut Pasteur, 495
Annales de la Société Belge de Médecine
Tropicale, 498
Annales de Médecine et de Pharmacie Coloniale,
495
Annales de Physique du Globe de la France
d’ Outre Mer, 105
Annals of the Natal Museum, 216
Annet, E., 354
Anopheles, see Malaria Mosquitoes
Antelopes, 231, 412, 530; Giant sable —,
235
Antestia, see Pentatomid Bugs
Anthores, 287
Anthrax in Animals, 442,
vaccine for, 323
Anthropology: Agriculture, value to, 303,
591; Cultures, sequence of, 599, 600;
International Congress on, 595, 603;
Material culture, research on, 597,
598, 603-607; Organization, 593-9;
Practical utility of 591-3; Prehistoric,
599, 600; Races, 600-603; Surveys,
608-13
Aoulef, gt
Aphelinus, 290
Aphids, 282, 283, 290
Aphis, 282
Api, 433
Apples, 331
Appolonia, 413
Aquelhock, 106
Arabia, 205, 263
Arabs, 553, 603, 604, 606
Arachis, see Groundnuts
Araecerus, see Weevils
Arboreta, 147, 149, 150
Arc of goth Meridian Survey, 26, 30, 41,
43-5,
Argentine, 307
Army Council, 56
Arogbo, 564
Art, 613
Arthritis, 582
Arthropoda, 297
Artifacts, 598, 603; Collection of, 598;
Distribution of, 605; Influence of
Ancient Egypt on, 606
Ascaris, 550
Ash as Fertilizer, 378, 379, 388
Ashanti, 58, 67, 488: Escarpment, 108;
Medical services, 487; Pig-breeding,
432: Tribe, 595, 612; Tsetse in, 279
Ashby, S. F., 146, 309
445, 448;
695
Asia, 226, 298, 338, 339, 413, 526; Cattl
imported from, 412, 605; Crop plants
imported from, 340, 355, 356, 359, 360
Asmara, 92
Assab, 92
Asselar, Neolithic Remains, 600
Assistance Médicale Bénévole aux Indigénes,
502
Association Colonies-Sciences, Paris, 23
Asuansi, 323, 367, 368
Aswan, 50
Athi River, 422, 456
Atlas Africanus, 605
Atlas des Colonies Frangaises, 51
Atlas du Katanga, 52, 136
Atlas Range, 104, 248
Atmospheric Circulation, 5, 103, 110, 111
Aubréville, A., 164, 185, 200
AUCAM, 332
Auchinleck, G. G., 108
Austin, Dr. T. A., 564
Austr alia, 280, 290, 344, 584; Air survey-
ing, 57; Farming in, 306, 307; Geo-
physical prospecting, 82, 83; Grasses
exchanged with, 170, 171, 174; Kola
imported from, 428, 430; Pasture
research, 170; Sheep imported from,
428, 430
Australoid Man, 600
Australopithecus, 599
Autecology, 225
Avitaminosis, 575, 576, 578
Awemba Tribe, 609
Axim, 108
Aykroyd, W. R., 572, 583
Ayos Medical School, 508
Ayrshire Cattle, 417, 421, 426
Azande Tribe, 594, 611
Azizia, 103
Azron, 248
Babesia, 298
Bacterium malvacearum, 175, 285
Baeyens, Professor L., 136
Baganda Tribe, 606, 610
Baghdad, 92
Bahima, 416
Bahr-el-Ghazal, 76, 535, 544
Bahr-el-Jebel, 59 & n.
Baja Tribe, 611
Baker, E. G., 146, 156
Baker, 9.,J. Ks, 507
Bakongo Tribe, 500, 565
Balachowsky, A., 289
Balfour, Professor Henry, 598
Ball, Dr. J., 6!
Bamako, 495, 549; Bacteriological La-
boratory, 494, 549; Horticultural
Station, 328; Hospital, 491; Veterinary
Laboratory, 329, 452: Training, 328,
403
696
Bambesa, 330, 331, 359
Bamboo, 208
Bambuti, 612
Banana, 101
Bananas, 135, 340, 366, 367; Experi-
mental Stations, 323, 325, 328, 329,
332
Bancroft, J. Austin, 67 n.
Bangala Tribe, 609
Bangui, gt
Bangweulu, Lake, 55, 242, 244, 394
Bannerman, D. A., 224
Banque de Bruxelles, 70
Bantu, 603, 610; Blood-group, variations
in, 602; Central —, 609; Civilization
of, 604; Dental caries among, 577;
Eastern —, 609; Educational Cinema
Experiment, 471; Folklore, 613; Lan-
guage, 601, 603, 604; Southern —,
anthropological studies of, 596: effect
of Western civilization on, 608: food
production, 609; ‘Typhus among, 540
Baobab Tree, 197, 209, 285, 574, 578
Baptist Missionary Society, 503
Baraton, 422
Barber, M, A., 521
Barberton Cotton Experimental Station,
326, 355
Baringo, Lake, 242
Barker, F., 344
Barker, S. G., 359
Barley, 325, 331
Barnard, Dr. K. H., 239
Barumba, 331
Bas-Congo, see Congo, Belgian, Lower
Basakoto, 92
Basement Complex, 125, 126
Basfora Experimental Farm, 329
Basuto Tribe, 304
Basutoland: Agricultural Department,
315: Organization, 313; Climate, 96;
Maps, 47; Medical Services, 475, 5043
Missions in, 475; Population, 475;
Rainfall Stations, 95
Batawama Cattle, 414
Bates, G. L., 224
Bathurst, 92; Maternity Clinic, 489;
Pineapple Station, 311; Rainfall Sta-
tion, 109; Registration of births and
deaths, 562; Sanitation of, 489; Vic-
toria Hospital, 489, 490; Yellow Fever
in, 527
Battiscombe, E., 156, 199
Bauchi Plateau, 8
Baumann, H., 522
Bavenda Tribe, 608
‘Bayer 205’, 530, 533
Bayer Laboratories, 448
Beadle, L. C., 165
Beans, 322
Beauchamp, R. S. A., 244
INDEX
Bechuana Cattle, 414
Bechuanaland: Agricultural Department,
315; Anthropological Research, 597;
Dairy industry, 458; Medical Services,
475, 476: Africans trained for, 511;
Missions in, 476; Population, 475, 476;
Rainfall Stations, 95; Sheep farming,
429; Stock sales, 437
Beckley, V. A., 132, 141, 387, 406
Bedde Tribe, 247
Bedford, G. A. H., 300
Beech, Mervyn, 610
Beef: Cattle bred for, 333, 417, 4.18, 420,
423, 426, 427; Chilled, 455; Potential
local consumption, 392, 456; Salted, 455
Beeli, M., 158
Beemer, Miss Hilda, 608
Beeswax, 209
Behrend, F., 130
Beira, 91, 98
Beirnaert, A., 352
Beit Railway Trust, 58
Beja, 604
Belcher, C. F., 224
Belgian Territories in Africa, see under
Congo, Belgian
Bélime, E., 80
Belloc, Professor, 248
Bemba Tribe, 609
Bemisia, 283
Bena Tribe, 610
Benedictine Mission, 548
Bengal Beans, 345, 346, 382, 383
Benghazi, 52, 92
Benguela, 431; Current, 97
Benguela-Mossamedes Plateau, 34
Benin, 183, 194, 350, 372: Sands, 381
Benniseed, see Simsim
Benue Province, see under Nigeria
Benue, River, 116
Berbera, 102
Berceau Africain, 495
Berceau de Kasai, 502
Bergdama ‘Tribe, 608
Beri-beri, 518, 575, 578
Berlin: Botanic Gardens, 145; Botanical
Musem, 155
Bernard, A., 104
Bethylid, 287
Bews, Prof. J. W:, 14:7, 159;qh60
Bigalke, Dr. R., 217
Biharamulo, 370, 397
Biliary Fever, 298, 443
Billigers, 80
Bingerville, 329, 364
Bioclimatology, 118-20
Biological Control Laboratory, see Cape-
town
Biological Control of Pests, 259; Boll-
worms, 283; Insects, 259, 260, 286,
290; Locusts, 264; Tsetse, 271, 273
INDEX
Biological Standardization, League of
Nations Permanent Commission on,
see under League of Nations
Bionomics: Bollworms, 284; Locusts, 263,
265; Mosquitoes, 295; Swamps, 165;
Tsetse, 273, 530
Birds. ,21t, O14, S17. Oto.) 299,05.
Distribution of, 224, 225, 231; Ecology
224; Scheduled for Protection, 235;
Taxonomy, 224
Birmingham University, 265
Birunga Mountains, 230, 231
Bisa Tribe, 609
Bishara, I., 285
Bisschop; J. H. R.,.412, 414
Biting-fly, 297
Bitter-orange Oil, 374
Black Bass, 251, 252
Black Volta River, 413
Black-arm Cotton Disease, 175, 285, 356
Blackquarter Cattle Disease, 323, 442,
445, 451
Blackwater Fever, 517, 522, 523
Blantyre, 91, 481, 512
Blindness, 547, 559, 576
Bloemfontein, 91, 14.7; National Museum,
216
Blohm, W., 610
Blondel, M., 69, 71
Blondeleau, M., 351
Blood-groups among Africans, 601-603
Blood morphology of Africans, 483
Blowflies, 295, 299
Blue Nile, 76, 200; Upper —, 76
Blue-tongue Disease, 300, 442, 443
Blunt, H. S., 207
Bo, 488
Bobodioulasso, 491
Boer War, 312
Bollworms: American —, 283, 284, 3573
Biological control of, 283; Bionomics
of, 284; In cotton, 281-5, 357, 358:
maize, 281, 357: oil seeds, 282; Para-
sites of, 283-5; Pink —, 283, 358;
Red —, 284
Bolus, H., 154, 159
Bolus, Mrs. L. 154
Bolus Herbarium, see under Capetown
Boma, 92, 426
Bombax, see Cotton-trees
Bombay, 368
Bonacina, L. C. W., 88 n.
Bone-mea! Fertilizers, 392, 393, 405
Bonga, 245
Bonsma, F. N., 428, 429
Bontebok National Park, 230
Book of Civilization, 516
Boophilus, 298
Border Leicester Sheep, 429
Borgu, 233
Bornu, 79
697
Bor brachyceros, see Shorthorn Cattle
Bos namadicus, see Zebu
Bos primigenius, see Hamitic Longhorn
Bos taurus, 419
Boskop Man, 600
Bosman, A. M., 338, 418
Boswell, Professor, 600
Botanical Gardens, 136, 145-7, 149,
150, 152, 153, 162, 176, 324, 328,
330-2
Botany, 586; Conferences on, 1513
Organization for, 145-52; Relation to
other sciences, 8, 9, 143, 144, 149, 151,
158; Surveys, 147, 148, 154, 159, 160,
167, 313: Air, 56, 160, 161; Systematics
of, 145-8, 151-8, 167—see also Flora,
Forests, Plants, Vegetation
Bot-flies, 453
Botha, M. L., 429
Bothalia Series, 313
Botrytis Rot of Grapes, 369
Bottomley, A. M., 282, 283
Botulinus Bacteria, 168
Botulism in Animals, 444
Bouaké, 329
Bouffil, F., 282, 283, 293
Boulenger, G. A., 242
Boundaries: International, 41-5,
Property, 25 7., 27-9, 32, 38
Boundary Commission, 1908, 44.
Bourne, Ray, 160, 178 n., 199
Bovill, E. W., 116, 605
Bovingdon, H. H.S., 293
Bowen, W. W., 224
Braby, H. W., 106
Brachylaena, 374
Brachytrypes, see Crickets
Brain: growth of, 584; structure, 483,
585—and see Cephalic Index
Brak in Soil, 125, 138 n., 369; Reclama-
tions from, 129, 172
Brazzaville, 91, 92, 4953; Medical School,
508; Pasteur Institute, branch of, 494;
Services des Mines, 75
Bredo, H., 358
Bredu, M., 264
Bremekamp, C. E. B., 154
Bremersdorp: Butter factory, 458; Cotton
Station, 326; Hospital, 477; Raleigh
Fitkin Memorial Hospital, 476
Breton, Norton, 291!
Breton Cattle, 426
Breyer-Brandwijk, M. G., 154
Bride-price, 411, 431, 434, 501, 592
Briercliffe, Dr. R., 485
British Advisory Board on Medical
Missions, 469
British Association, 576; Geographical
Section, 26, 304; Committee on
Human Geography, 304, 379, 597
British Ecological Society, 151
58;
608
British Empire Leprosy Relief Associa-
tion, 547-9
British Empire Vegetation Committee,
I5I
Britsh Film Institute, 471
British Land Utilization Survey, 27
British Leather Manufacturers’ Associa-
tion, 323
British Leather Workers’ Research Asso-
ciation, 453
British Medical Association: Confer-
ences, 479; East African branches,
meeting of, 479, 586; Local African
branches, 479, 480; Ulcers, research
on, 479 }
British Museum (Natural History), 87,
145, 252, 309; Archaeology, 598;
Botany Department, 146, 152, 155,
158: Collecting expeditions in Africa,
146, 156: herbarium, 146; Entomology,
260, 265; Ornithology, 225; Taxo-
nomy—insect, 258; plant, 145, 153;
Zoology, 215, 221, 223, 258
British South Africa Company, 67, 68,
I
British territories in Africa: Agricultural
administration and research organiza-
tion, 308-26; Agricultural education
of Africans, 399-403; Air services, 91;
Air surveying, 53-9; Animal industry,
410-25, 428-33; Anthropology, 594-
600, 603-13; Botanical research, 145-
151, 153, 154, 165; Cattle breeding,
412-25; Co-operative Societies, 394-
397, 408; Crops, research on, 335-75;
Dairy farming, 457-60; Diseases,
human, 295-7, 517-56; Europeans in,
403-409, 587-9; Fisheries, 238-47;
249-56; ‘Floras’, 153-8; Forestry ser-
vices, 179-205; Geological surveying,
62-8, 71, 72; Insect pests of crops,
280-94; Insect vectors of diseases of
animals and man, 295-300; Locust
control, 261-7; Mapping, 38, 45-50;
Medical services, 467-90, 503-506,
508-16; Meteorological services, 89,
93-100, 102, 107, 108; Mineral re-
sources, 67, 68; Mixed farming, 389-
394; Nutrition of natives, 571-83;
Ornithology, 223-5; Overgrazing and
overstocking, 434-40; Pasture research,
166-73; Pig breeding, 432, 433; Plant
industry, 376-88; Population censuses,
558-60; Research organization, 19,
20, 23; Sheep-farming, 428-30; Soil
science, organization for, 127-35; Sur-
veying, 26-33, 37-43; Tsetse control,
267-80; Veterinary administration and
research organization, 315-26; Water-
supply, 76-80; Zoology, organization
for, 215-21
.
INDEX
Broken Hill, 91; Rhodesian Man dis-
covered, 600; Meteorological Station,
a9
Brong Country, 413
Brooks, Dr. C. E. P., 90, 99, 100, 106,
107, 109-14, 121
Broom, Dr. R., 87, 599, 600
Broun, A. F., 157, 199
Brown, A. P., 246
Brown, G. Gordon, 610
Browne, Major G. St. J. Orde, 595, 610
Bruce, Sir David, 214, 259, 278, 528
Bruce, Miss E. A., 156
Brickner Cycles, 6, 113
Bruckshaw, J. M., 82
Brunt, A. J., 113
Brussels, 501; Fondation pour Parcs Nation-
aux, 232; Musée Royal d’Histoire Natur-
elle, 221; State Botanic Gardens, 145,
152, 153, 162
Bubulu, 397
Buchanan, J. C. R., 573
Budama Cattle, 413
Budungo Forest, 193, 200
Buell, R. L., 398, 505
Buffalo, 12, 226
Buffelspoort, 311, 367
Bufumbira volcanic region, 72, 74, 161
Buganda, 397, 416, 604
Bugishu, 397; Butter production, 460;
Coffee cultivation, 321
Bugoi Mountain, 1o1
Bugusege, 321
Bugwere, 435
Bukalasa, 320, 366, 371, 385, 401
Bukoba Province, 319, 411
Bulawayo, 91, 314; Africans trained as
maternity workers, 511: medical order-
lies, 511; Bacteriological Institute, 478;
Hospital, 478, 511; Imperial Cold
Storage Company, 456; Meat Indus-
try, 456; Observatory, 97; Public
Health Laboratory, 479; Rhodesian
Museum, 217
‘Bull Camp Scheme’, 437
Bullard, Dr. E. C., 86
Bulletin agricole du Congo Belge, 332
Bulletin de la Société de Biologie, 495
Bulletin de la Société de Pathologie exotique,
495
Bulletin du Comité d’Etudes historiques et
scientifiques de l A.O.F., 329
Bulletin Médical du Katanga, 498
Bulletin of Entomological Research, 260
Bulletin of Hygiene, 467
Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, 146
Bullock, C., 608
Bulrush Millet, see under Millet
Buluba Leper Colony, 549
Bunting, R. H., 175
Bunyoni, Lake, 251, 252, 549
INDEX
Bunyoro, 604.
Bureau d’ Etudes Géologiques et Miniéres pour
les Colonies Frangaises, 69
Bureau of Agricultural Science, 334
Bureau of Animal Population, see Oxford
University
Bureau of Hygiene and Tropical Dis-
eases, 22, 309, 467, 468, 480
Bureau of Nutrition, Rowett Institute,
see under Rowett Institute
Burkitt, M. C., 599
Burma, 188, 339
Burnet, E., 572
Burning of Vegetation: Ecology of, 170;
Effect on vegetation, 159, 162; Forest,
8, 125, 137, 139, 162, 183, 187, 188,
190, 191, 193-5, 197, 378, 3793 Grass-
land, 8, 125, 137, 139, 159, 169, 188,
379, 435, 436: for tsetse control, 214,
269, 270, 277-9; Pastures, 12, 159;
Soil-erosion caused by, 125, 137, 139,
188, 378, 379, 436; Veld, 159
Burrows, Captain S. M., 544
Burton, Dr., 344
Burtt, B. D., 156, 161, 198, 268 n.
Burtt Davy, Dr. J., 146, 154-6, 161, 168,
178 n., 180, 198, 306
Buruko Leper Camp, 490
Bush, Dr. S. F., 251
Bushbuck, 530
Bushman Racial Group, 601-604
Bushman-Hamitic Racial Group, 601
Bushmen, 602, 608
Bushongo Tribe, 607, 609, 610
Busoga, 126, 183
Busongora area, 467
Busseola, see Maize stalk-borer
Butter, 417, 457, 458, 460
Butyrospermum, see Shea Tree
Buxhe, A., 358
Buxton, D. R., 263
Buxton, Prof. P. A., 163, 276, 467
Buzezu Mountain, 101
Bwiani, 489, 490
Byrne, Sir Joseph, 245
Cacao, 338, 367, 404; Breeding, 366; Ex-
perimental Stations, 329, 331; Native
cultivation of, 336, 365; Pests of, 288;
Research on, 365, 366; Shelter belts
for, 196, 197, 365; Water-supply, rela-
tion to, 365, 366
Cactoblastis, 290
Cadastral Maps, 25 7., 47
Cadastral Surveying, 25 n., 27, 28, 39,
40, 46; Districts surveyed, 28, 30-3
Cadbury, Messrs., 293
Cadbury Hall, Kumasi, see under Kumasi
CADULAG, 332, 501
Cairo, 44, 85, 86, 91, 92; Physical De-
partment, 58, 101, 102, 114
699
Cajanus cajan, 339, 345
Calabar, 350, 562: Province—see under
Nigeria
Calandra, see Rice-weevil
Calcium, 348: arsenate, 284; Deficiency
in native diet, 237, 572, 574, 577-9»
582: soil, 125: oxalate, 362
Callaway, H., 608
Calmette, Professor, 545
Caloncobas, 549
Calonne-Beaufaict, A. de, 611
Calopogonium, 346, 382, 384
Calton, W. E., 133
Camayenne, 152, 328
Cambodia, 355, 356
Cambridge Expedition to East African
Lakes, 165, 242
Cambridge Lake Rudolph Expedition,
582
Cambridge University, 20, 86, 87, 326;
Agriculture, School of, 316; Anthropo-
logical studies, 595, 596, 608; Bio-
nomics, study of, 265; Geophysics
Department, 84; Low temperature
Research Station, 310, 456; Molteno
Institute, 468; Museum of Archaeology,
598; Plant Breeding Institute, 309
Camel Corps, 33
Camels, 189, 433, 605
Cameroon, Mount, 106
Cameroons: Cattle, 416; Crops, 351, 362,
371; Geodetic triangulation, 41; Tribes,
611; Winds, 111—see also Cameroons,
British, and Cameroons, French
Cameroons, British: Botanic Gardens,
150; Europeans in, 404; Forestry, 181;
Medical census, 564: services, 485, 486;
Oil-palm cultivation, 350; Rainfall,
134
Cameroons, French: Botanical research,
163; Demographic data, 566: map,
566; Diseases, human, 533, 545, 5493
Europeans in, 404; Fisheries, 248; Fruit
cultivation, 367; Geological surveying,
69; Maps, 51; Medical services, 486,
496, 497, 508; Meteorological service,
104, 106; Population, 497: census, 560,
561; Rainfall, 106; Veterinary service,
326
Campos Rodrigues Observatory, see
under Lourenco Marques
Canada, 65, 127, 212, 240, 545
Canaries, 367
Canavalia, see Sword-bean
Canning Industry, 239, 240, 255, 312,
455, 456
Cannon, W. A., 159
Cape, The, 86, 230, 541; Agriculture,
311; Crawfish—see Crawfish; Fisher-
ies, 238, 239, 250; Flora, 154; Geo-
logical Commission, 62; Maps, 47;
700
Cape—(cont.)
Plant ecology, 159; Survey Commis-
sion, 28, 29: Department, 30; Survey-
ing, 28, 43
Cape Medical Council, 475
Cape Piscatorial Society, 251
Cape Point, 239
Cape Verde, 105
Capetown, 91, 93, 254; Biological Con-
trol Laboratory, 463; Bolus Herbarium,
147, 154; Broadcast weather forecasts,
93; Fisheries: commercial, 240, 244:
research on, 248; International Health
Conference at, 464; Low Temperature
Research Station, 254, 311, 312, 360:
Entomological Laboratory, 312: Food
Products Research, 312; Rainfall, 96;
Seismograph, 85; South African Mu-
seum, 147, 216; University, 147, 154,
169, 596
Capsid bugs, 286; In cacao, 288: coffee,
287: cotton, 285, 358: tobacco, 289
Carbohydrates: In diet, 573, 581: In
grasses, 168
Carbon Cycle in Soils, 130
Carbon tetrachloride, 552
Cardinall, A. W., 560
Carman, J. A., 554
Carmichael, Dr., 545
Carnegie Commission, 588
Carnegie Corporation of New York, 471,
47
eee Institution of Washington, 99,
262, 292
Carp: Indigenous, 241, 251: Introduced,
249—see also Ngege
Carr-Saunders, Professor A. M., 567
Carribean Area, 339
Carrisso, L. W., 146
Carte du Monde, 47
Carter, H. R., 523
Carter, Sir Morris, 422, 438
Carter Land Commission, 78, 192, 438
Casablanca, 91, 452
Cassava, 373, 384; As food, 336, 360, 361,
570; Bitter —, 361; Crop- plant im-
ported, 340, 360; Mosaic disease of, 13,
14, 286, 360; Research on, 322, 323,
359, 360; Selection, 360; Starch-flour
produced from 361; tapioca produced
from, 361
Cassia Trees, 189, 193
Castelli, M., 351
Castor-oil, 329
Cat-fish (Nsonzi), 252
Catarrh in Animals, 442, 448
Caton-Thompson, Miss, 599, 606
Cattle: As brideprice, 411, 431; Breeding,
314, 320, 321, 331, 389, 411-14, 418-
425: for beef, 333, 417, 418, 420, 423,
426, 427: for draught, 12, 322, 380,
INDEX
417, 420, 423, 426, 427: for milk, 12,
322, 331, 333, 389, 417, 420, 424, 426,
427; Census of, 416, 457; Diseases—see
under Disease; Kraaling, 391, 392, 426,
427, 436; Native, 307, 410, 412-14,
430: surveys of, 414; Nutrition, 319,
320, 322, 411, 423, 427, 452, 4533
Varieties, 411-27—see also Animal
Industry, and Stock
Caucasian Racial Group, see Europid
Racial Group
Cedar wood Oil, 374
Cedara School of Agriculture, 130, 159,
169, 311, 458
Ceiba pentandra, 207
Centres Agronomiques de l Université de Lou-
vain, see CADULAC
Centrosema, 384.
Cephalic index of Africans, 602
Cereals: Diseases of, 281-3; Experimental
Stations, 314, 320, 322-5, 328, 320,
331, 341-4; Research on, 312, 318, 341
—and see separate varieties
Cestode worms, 550
Ceylon, 241, 343, 365, 547
Chad Colony, 116, 326, 330, 495
Chad, Lake, 112, 116, 134, 267: Basin,
80; alleged desiccation of, 115; Cattle,
413-15; Dwindling of, 115; Fishery
resources, 246, 248; Suspected area of
locust outbreak, 264.
Chadwick, Sir David, 308
Chafe-Kwiambana, 233
Chagga Tribe, 392, 393, 610
Chamber of Mines, see under Witwaters-
rand
Chamney, N. P., 108
Champion, A. M., 137
Chapin, J. P., 224
Charollaise Cattle, 426
Chaulmoogra, 209, 374 547 549; 550
Cheese, 457, 458, 460
Chemistry, 314, 497; Agricultural, 129-
136, 314; of Africans, 483
Chenopodium, Oil of, 552
Chesterman, Dr. C. Gs 506
Chevalier, Dr. A., 151, 157,/a@83"2 73>
200, 348, 351, 367
Child-Welfare Services, 470, 484, 487,
489, 496, 515, 569, 570
Children, native, 609
Chilubi Island, 394
Chilwa Island, 564
China, 339, 373+ 387, 506, 595
Chiovenda, E., 156, B57
Chipp, De. EF. F. oe 157, 163, 165, 200
Chisamba Farmers’ Association, 408
Chitemene Agricultural System, 379, 388
Chlorophora, 200, ae
Chorley, J. K., 27
Christophers, Sir Rickard, 468
INDEX
Chronique des Mines Coloniales, 75
Chrysocoma, 444.
Chrysomyia, 299
Church Missionary Society, 4.70, 485, 513
Church of Scotland Mission, 512
Cicadulina, 282
Cichlidae, 242
Cinchona Tree, 209, 374
Cinematograph, 471, 516, 569
Cirenaica, 52
Cirrhosis of the liver, 551, 552
Ciskei, 541
Citharinus, 242
Citrus, 141, 367; Experimental Stations,
3IT, 314, 322-4, 332, 367, 368; oil, 375;
Pests of, 289, 290, 369
Civilisations Négro-Africaines, 612
Claessens, M., 330
Clapham, Miss P. A., 576
Clarified Butter, see Ghee
Clark Powell, Prof. H., 367
Clarke, Dr., 576
Clarke, Dr. Louis, 598
Claus, H., 610
Clay soils, 124; Black, 130, 132; Grey,
132; Mottled, 132
Clayton, Rev. P. B., 547
Clements, J. B., 190, 191, 342, 379
Climate: Changes in, 6, 7, 112, 113:
cyclical, 6, 7; 75, 105, 119-15, 117;
Food supply, relation to, 580; Health,
effect on, 7, 121; of continent, asym-
metrical, 110; Soil science, importance
in, 123, 124, 132; Tsetse incidence,
relation to, 275, 276
Climatological Stations, 103
Clothier, J. N., 133, 161, 190, 379
Clovers, 166, 174
Cloves, 373: chafer, 373
Cluver, Dr. E. H., 540
Coal, 73
Cobalt Deposits, 68
Coccids, 289
Coccinellid beetles, 283, 287
Cochrane, Dr., 547
Cocoa: Co-operative Societies, 324, 395,
396; Cultivation, 194, 301, 381; Ex-
perimental Stations, 322, 323: Moth,
292, 293; Moulds affecting, 175; Pests
of, 292, 293: Weevil, 293
Coconut, 206, 324, 329, 352, 353: oil, 579
Codling-moth, 290
Coffee: Arabica —, 321, 332, 362, 364;
berry borer,” 287; “Breeding, “919;
capsid bug, 287; Cultivation, 133, 142,
301, 306, 392, 404, 409, 411; Cytological
study of, 355; Deficiency disease, 364;
Experimental Stations, 131, 318-22,
324, 328, 329, 331, 332, 363, 364;
Fertilizers for, 142, 406, 408; Indigen-
ous, 362; leaf miner, 287; Liberica,
701
362; mealy bug, 259, 287; Nganda,
363; Pests, 259, 286-8, 363; Robusta,
331, 362-4; Rust fungus, 179, Selec-
tion, 362, 363; Stenophylla, 362; Wild,
331, 362
Coimbra University, Portugal, 145, 146,
152, 155
Coir, 206
Cola, see Kola
Coleus, see Potatoes, Hansa
Colle, Le R. P., 609
Collenette, C. L., 164
Collier, F. S., 195, 221, 233
Colloid Physics, 124
Colocasia, see Yams
Colonial Advisory Council of Agriculture
& Animal Health, 315
Colonial Advisory Medical Committee,
469 _
Colonial Development Fund: Assistance
to Health services, 471, 476, 482, 489,
514, 544; Sheep breeding, 429; Sur-
veying, 42, 43; Tsetse research, 275,
528, 531, 532; Water boring, 78
Colonial Forest Resources Development
Department, 180, 181
Colonial Medical Fund, 576
Colonial Medical Research Committee,
469
Colonial Medical Service, 469
Colonial Nutrition Committee, 469
Colonial Office, British, 36, 74, 171, 181,
190, 205, 247, 315, 467, 471, 503, 508,
568, 572, 574
Colonial Sugar Refining Company, Fiji,
599 ;
Colonial Survey Committee, 32, 33
Colorado School of Mines, 84
Combe, A. D., 72, 74
Combretaceae, 146
Comité Spécial du Katanga, see Katanga
Commission of Scientific Research (Por-
tuguese), 2
Commission on Higher Education in
East Africa, 506
Committee of Civil Research, see under
Economic Advisory Council
Committee on Human Geography, see
under British Association
Compagnie Aérienne Frangaise, 59
Compagnie Cotonniére Congolaise, 357
Compagnie Francaise, 352
Compagnie Miniére des Grand Lacs, 70
Composting, 11, 370, 377; Indore pro-
cess, 386-8, 391, 4.06, 407
Compton, Prof. R. H., 147, 154
Conakry, 248, 426, 491
Conferences: British Medical Association,
479, 586; East Africa: Co-ordination
of medical research, 580, 583; Gover-
nors, 18, 277, 326, 479, 528, 533; Health
702
Conferences—(cont.)
services, 479; Soil science, 132, 140,
326; Tsetse, 277, 326, 479; Veterinary
& Agricultural, 280, 325, 326, 445;
Empire: Forestry, 176, 180, 181, 184,
186, 202; Surveyors, 30, 32, 33, 36,
46, 54; Imperial: Agricultural, 308;
Botanic, 151; International: Fauna &
Flora, 177; Game preservation, 234;
Health services, 464; Locust control,
262, 264; Pan-African health, 18, 526,
536, 539, 568-70, 572, 583; Soil scien-
tists, 128, 132; West Africa: Agricul-
tural officers, 133, 326; Veterinary,
326; Yellow Fever, 479, 526
Congo, 162, 244, 269, 609
Congo, Belgian, 99, 207; Agriculture,
288, 331, 338, 346, 374: native, Hee
376, 398: research organization, 330-2
Air services, 91, 92, 101; Air survey, 59:
Animal Industry, 331, 332, 426, 427,
430-3; Anthropological research, 596,
Go5,, 609; Birds, 222.7993" 0095, 291;
Botanical Gardens, 152, 330-2; Botani-
cal Research, 152, 162, 163; Boundaries,
41, 42; Climate, 101; Coffee cultiva-
tion, 287, 363; Cotton Cultivation, 285,
357, 358, 398; Dairy industry, 460;
Demographic data, 564-6; Diseases,
animal, 227: control of, 332, 452;
Diseases, human, 522, 524, 527, 534,
538, 542, 545; 546, 549, 552, 553> 555,
565—and see trypanosomiasis; Diseases,
stock, 297; Elephants, domesticated,
433; Europeans in, 404, 587; Fisheries,
249; Flora, 152, 153, 163, 332:
preservation of, 177; FOREAMI in,
166; Forestry service, 185; Forests, 201:
destruction of, 173, 376; Fungi, 158;
Geodetic survey, 42, 43; Geological
map, 70, 73; Geological surveying, 70,
75; Hospitals, 500-502; Insect pests,
285, 287, 288; Lakes, 249; Locust re-
search, 264; Lor wer —, 152, 522; Air
survey, 59; Cattle, 426; Demography,
500; FOREAML in, 500, 534, 550, 565,
566; Fruit cultivation, 332; Geodetic
survey, 42; Map, 52; Missions, 500;
Mapping Commission, 70; Maps, 45,5
52; Medical passports, 467; Medical
services, 498-503: training Africans for,
506, 510, 515; Meteorological service,
100, 101; Meteorological Stations, 101:
needed, 111; Mining, 70, 575; Missions,
IOI, 430, 495, 499, 500, 512, 562;
Museum—see Tervueren; National
Parks, 177, 221, 222, 229-92,. 249;
Nutrition in, 571, 575, 578; Oil-palm
cultivation, 350-2; Pasture research,
173, 174; Plants, 166, 173; Population,
502: African, decline in, 561, 566:
INDEX
card-index records, 561; Rainfall
Stations, 101; Research organization,
19, 23; Rift Valley, 101; Shifting cul-
tivation, 376; Soil survey, 136; Survey-
ing, 33, 34, 42, 43; Timber, 185, 205;
Trypanosomiasis, Human, in, 500,
532-4, 566; Upper —, map of, 45;
Vegetation, 152: map, 162: survey, 162;
Veterinary services, 173, 3381, 3323
Vital events, registration of, 562;
Zoology in, 221, 222
Congo, French, 495
Congo Forest, 45
Congo, River, 42, 116, 331, 611; Lower
—, 116; Upper —, 500
Congo-Angola Boundary, 41
Congo-Uganda Boundary, 41
Congress of Tropical Medicine of West
Africa, 502
Congresses: International Anthropo-
logical, 595, 603: Geological, 71, 72,
75: Soil, 128, 129, 132; Medical, 1935,
588; Tropical Medicine West Africa,
502
Conifers, 201-203
Connell, W. K., 573
Connolly, P. D., 554
Conrotte, L., 352
Conspectus Florae Angolensis, 155
Constantin, Le Frére, 105
Contour Cultivation, 8, 321, 380, 382,
384, 393, 439
Cook, Sir Albert and Lady, 470, 571
Coolidge, H. J., 109
Cooper, Dr. C. Forster, 215
Cooper, W. G. C., 63, 80
Co-operative Societies, 592; Cocoa in-
dustry, 324, 395, 396; European
farmers’, 408, 409; Native, 394-9, 4593
Ordinance, 395; Palm-oil industry,
5503 S97
Copaifera, 207
Copal, 207, 338
Copley, H., 251, 253
Copper-mining, 68, 81, 244
Copra, 352, 353
Coquilhatville, 91, 92, 152, 331; Cattle
in, 427; Croix-Rouge du Congo in, 500;
State laboratory, 498
Corbet, S., 128
Corkill, N. L., 575
Cornet Falls (Lufira River), 81
Corson, Dr., 528, 530
Coryndon Memorial Museum, see under
Nairobi
Cosmopolites, see Weevil-borer
Cotonou, 491
Cotterell, G. S., 288, 292
Cotton: American, 354, 355, 3593
Asiatic, 355, 350; Bollworm in, 281-5,
358, 375: strains resistant to, 284, 3573
INDEX
Cotton—(cont.)
Breeding, 148, 175, 321, 355, 356;
Cultivation, 21, 102, 377, 381, 390,
398, 404: as mixed crop, 384, 385, 386;
D.31, 356; Diseases of, 175, 285, 355-8:
strains resistant to, 284, 357; Egyptian,
356; Experimental stations, 285, 315,
318-23, 325, 326, 328-31, 355-8, 390;
Fertilizers for, 134; Giza, 356; Indi-
genous, 354, 355, 356; Ishan, 285,
355» 356, 385: leaf curl, 285, 355, 356:
leaf roller, 286; Pests of, 282-6, 357,
358; Research on, 313, 338; Rotation
crops, 315, 357, 358, 383; S.G.23/8,
356; Sakel, 285, 356; Sea Island, 356;
Seed, 407; Selection, 330, 358: Stainer,
285, 357, 358; U.4, 355, 356, 358;
pland American, 355: Allen strain
of, 356; Whitefly, 285; Wild, 354;
worm, 285
Cotton Association, 330
Cotton, A. D., 145, 156, 162
Cotton-trees (Bombax), 206
Cow pea, 339, 340, 342, 345, 457
Cowdry, E. V., 297, 299, 443, 447
Cowland, J. W., 284
Cox, G. W., 90, 93, 97, 110
Craib, J., 95
Cranial measurements of natives, 601
Crawfish, 239, 240, 254; canning, 239,
240, 255
Creameries, 457, 458
Crédit Général du Congo, 70
Creolyte, 281
Crew, Dr. F. A. E., 309
Crickets, 282, 289
Crocodiles, 211-14, 582
Croix-Rouge du Congo, 499-501, 515, 549
Croix-Rouge francaise, 4.95
Crop-rotation, 11, 236, 331, 384, 407;
Cotton, 315, 357, 358, 383; Cow peas,
342; Five-year system, 383; Fodder
crops, 344; Green manuring, 322, 382-
384; Groundnuts, 383; Maize, 342,
357, 370, 383; Native methods, 393,
394, 591; Rhodes grass, 369; Three-
year system, 383; Tobacco, 369, 370;
Wheat, 344
Crops, see Cereals; Fibres; Fodder crops;
Fruit; Legumes; Oil-seeds; Pulse crops;
Root crops—and under separate crops, as
Cotton
Crotolaria, 444
Cryptograms, 157
Cryptolaemus beetle, 290
Cuanhama District, 333
Culicines, 296
Cultivation, see Agriculture; Chitemene
cultivation; Contour cultivation; Fixed
cultivation; Mixed cropping; Mound
cultivation; Shifting cultivation
(eee.
Cultural Influences, Sequence of, 599, 600
Culwick, A. T. and G. M., 610
Curasson, G., 442, 452
Curson, Dr. H. H., 412-16
Cutch, 206
Cuthbertson, A., 300
Cutworms, 282, 289
Cyano-gas, 538, 539
Cydonia, see Coccinellid Beetle
Cymbopogon, 374
Cymotrichi Racial Group, 601
Cynodon dactylon, 173
Cystine, 428
Cyto-genetics, 174
Cytological studies, 355
D.E.T.A. Air Service, 92
Da Costa, Dr. A. M., 416, 427, 431
Dabaga, 432
Wade; FH. A., 175
Dahomey, 41, 92, 152; Agriculture, 5:
research, 329; Anthropological survey,
612; Cattle, 329, 332, 414, 416, 426;
Fishery, 248; Groundnuts cultivation,
348; Medical services, 491, 492, 493;
Oil-palm cultivation, 351, 352; Rain-
fall, 5; Southern —, maps of, 51
Dairy Farming, 313, 389, 417, 420, 422-
424, 457-60—see also Pigs
Dairy products: Preservation of, 312,
456; Research on, 458—and see Butter,
Cheese, Ghee, Milk
Dakar, 11, 91, 136, 152, 328, 347, 479;
Fishery, 248; Geological laboratories,
69; Hospital, 105, 491; Medical School,
491, 492, 497, 506-508, 510, 5153
Medical services, 490, 491; Meteoro-
logical office, 105; Pasteur Institute,
494, 527; Plague in, 538; Policlinique,
493, 507, 515; Rainfall, 105, 114, 117;
Sanitary services, 493; Seismograph,
85; Service Géographique de l’ Afrique, 33,
51; Service Economique, 327
Dakhla Meteorological Station, 102
Dalbergia ‘Trees, 189
Dale, A. M., 595, 609
Dale, I. R., 199
Dalziel, J. M., 156, 163, 166
Damaraland, 235
Damarara Cattle, 414
Damas, H., 231, 249
Dandy, J. E., 146
Daniella, 207
Danish Survey, 27
Danks, W. B. C., 297, 447
Dar-es-Salaam, 91, 4.79, 544, 586; Africans
trained for medical and sanitary ser-
vices, 512; Cattle breeding, 421; Lands
& Mines Department, 64; Leprosy
settlement, 548; Medical laboratory,
480, 482
794
Dardenne, Mme., 500
Darling, Dr. F. Fraser, 417-19
Dart, Professor R., 87, 599
Darwin, Charles, 599
Darwin District, 272
Datura, 293
Dau, He 5 4t
Daubney, R., 299, 300, 445, 448
Daudawa, 326, 390
Davey, L./E., 295
Dawe, M. T., 161
de Margerie, M. Emmanuel, 71
de Meillon, B., 295
de Wildeman, Professor, 152, 162,
201
de Witte, Dr Gf 23%
Deaf-mutism, 559
Debundja, 106, 107
Gg) Bea, Or. AC. 9837. Al 7
Deciduous Forests, sce under Forests
Deficiency Diseases, see under Disease
Deforestation, see Forests, Destruction of
Deighton, F. C., 175
Delafosse, Maurice, 612
Delevoy, G., 162, 201, 205
Delf, Dr. E. M., 158
Deli palms, 352
Demodex folliculorum, 453
Demography, 16, 500, 533, 557; Maps,
566, 567; Surveys, 562-8
Dempwolff, O., 610
Dengue, 300, 465
Dent, R. E., 251, 253
Dental caries in natives, 577, 582
Department of Scientific & Industrial
Research, 56, 180; Food Investigation
Board, 253, 310
Dermestes, 294.
Derris, 375
Derrisol, 281
Desert Soils, 130, 132
Desiccation, 6, 96, 107, 112, 115-19, 138,
163, 189
Devon Cattle, 418, 426
Dexter-Kerry Cattle, 422
Diamonds, 67
Diet Charts, 581
Dietary, native, 461, 551, 559, 569-71,
592; “Analysis “of, 5745 575; 580; Experi-
mental, 581, 502; Local variations,
580; Mineral constituents, 237, 570,
573, 574, 578; 579s 581, 582; Mono-
tony, 14, 577; Phosphorous content,
237, 5775 5783 Possible additions, 579,
500; ease in, 573-5, 5793 Relation
to disease, 14, "461, 573, 574-8, 581,
582; Research on, 469, 572-83; Vita-
min constituents, 573, 574, 576-g—see
also Foodstuffs, native
Digitaria, 168, 169, 339
Digo District, 552, 563
166,
INDEX
Dinka Tribe, 544
Dioscorea, see Potatoes, Air, and Yams
Diparopsis, see Bollworm
Diplodia, 342
Dipping, 299, 333, 442, 446, 447, 451,
453
Diré Company, 430
Dire Dawa, 92
Direcgéo dos Servigos de Agrimensura, 53
Disease: Animal, 16, 295, 323, 329, 332:
due to plant poisons, 165: ‘exotic’, 442
—and see under separate animals and dis-
eases; Cattle, 168, 297-300, 323, 425,
440-53; control of, 390, 411, 425, 441-
443: resistance to, 279, 325, 332, 414-
417, 424, 425; Crops—see under separate
crops and diseases; Deficiency, of man,
573-6: of plants, 175, 364: of stock,
168, 442, 452; Dogs—see under Dogs;
Domestic Animals, 10, 225, 226—and
see under separate animals and diseases;
Enzootic, 226, 229; Epizootic, 226,
227, 259, 536: forecasting of, 226;
Goats—see under Goats; Horses—see
under Horses; Human, 295-7, 517-56:
Infections, 472, 494, 496, 503: “Tropi-
cal’, 517—and see under separate dis-
eases; Plants—see Plants, pathology of
—and under separate plants and diseases;
Sheep, 299, 300, 320, 331, 442, 443,
449: resistance to, 430, 448—and see
under separate diseases; Spread by air-
transport, 15, 463, 465, 466, 526;
Stock, 214, 226, 297-300, 315, 440-3,
control of, 12, 312, 323, 445-53—and
S€E Veterinary services; mineral defi-
ciency causing, 129, 167: Research on,
165, 168, 299, 300, 312, 315, 316, 318,
320, 321, 323, 324, 329-33, 390, 443-
446—and see Veterinary services; Trans-
mission by animals—see Game Animals
by insects, 294-300—and see under
separate insects and diseases: by plants, 13,
444: by rats—see Rats—see also for
‘reatment of, and research on human diseases
Medical services—and for diseases of
cattle, sheep and stock see Veterinary
services
Dispensaries, 470, 471, 476-8, 480, 481,
483-9, 491, 492, 494-7, 500-504, 511,
570
Dispensers, Africans trained as, 476, 480,
487, 493, 505, 506, 511-15, 571
Ditton Laboratory, East Malling, 310
Dixey, Dr. Frank, 63, 77, 82, 113, 567
Doctors: Africans trained as, 470, 471,
485, 493; 494, 497; 505-10; Asiatic,
470, 481; Private practice, 470-3, 478,
597, 515
Dodoma, 91, 99
Dogs, Diseases of, 298-300, 323, 443, 497
INDEX
Doidge, Dr. E. M., 157, 175
Doke, C. M., 609
Dolichos, 345
Dom palm, 208
Domira Bay Cotton Station, 318, 326,
356
Donkeys, 329
Dorno, C., 102
Dorothy Temple Cross Medical Fellow-
ships, 544
Dorset Horn Sheep, 429
Douala, 497
Downes, R. M., 611
Doyne, H. C., 133, 135 & n.
Drainage, 518, 519, 55!
Drakensberg Scarp, 96, 110
Draught Cattle, breeding of, 332, 389,
417, 420, 423, 426, 427
Driberg, J. H., 595, 596, 604, 611, 613
Drought Investigation Commission (S.
Africa), 117, 436
Drude, O., 158
duvloit Wr. A. L.,. 73; 142, 305
du Toit, Dr. P. J., 120, 3125429
du Toit, R. M., 300
Dubois, Professor A., 549, 550
Dubois, R., 165
Dui, Dri, D.,. 487
Duke, Dr., 278, 485, 525, 528, 530, 531
Dundas, C. R., 595, 610
Dundas, J., 195
Dupuy, L., 565
Durban, 91, 239, 311, 372; Broadcast
weather forecasts, 93; Hospital train-
ing, 510; Municipal Museum, 217;
Natal Government Herbarium, 147,
372; Winds, 110
Duren, Dr. A. N., 498
Durieux, C., 297
Dutch Air Service, 92
Duthie, Miss A. V., 154
Dyeing, 206
Dyer, R. A., 154, 160
Dynastid Beetle, 286
Dysdercus, see Cotton stainers
Dysentery, 517, 534, 556, 566
Eala: Botanical Garden, 152,
Meteorological Station, 1o1
Earias, see Bollworm
Earth, eaten as food, 551, 570, 578
Earthquakes, 85, 86
Earthworms, 211
Earthy, Dora, 596
East Africa, 86, 112, 206, 207, 200, 223,
237, 292; Agricultural Commission,
438; Agriculture, 281, 306, 336, 340,
352, 358, 359, 3753; Air services, 88;
Animal industry, 411, 429: potential,
306; Anthropological research, 595;
330-2;
Atmospheric circulation, 111; Birds,
795
224; Botanical research, 149, 150;
Coffee cultivation, 362: pests of: 286,
287; Commission on Higher Educa-
tion in, 506; Conferences—see under
Conferences; Co-operative Societies,
397; Dairy farming, 459, 460; Diseases,
animal, 226: crops, 14: human, 295,
521, 526, 535, 536, 548, 550, 551, 553:
stock, 226, 299, 442, 445-51; Essential
oils, production of, 374; Fisheries, 241-
244; Forestry, 184, 189; Forests, 180;
Game control, 219, 220: reserves, 228,
232; Geology, 64-6; Grasses, 167;
Groundnuts, cultivation of, 347; Insect
pests, 281; Irrigation, 5; Lakes, Cam-
bridge Expedition to, 165, 242; and see
Great Lakes; Land-planning, 189;
Locust research, 263; Maps, 47; Medi-
cal services, 18, 4.70, 471, 479, 506, 511;
Meteorological services, 99-101; Mis-
sions in, 548; Mixed farming, 11, 306,
391, 392; Mountains, British Museum
Expedition to, 156: vegetation, 164;
National Parks proposed, 233; Nutri-
tion of natives in, 582; Overgrazing,
303; Overstocking, 137; Pasture re-
search, 168; Population, 137: maps,
567; Rain forest, 223; Rainfall, 100:
stations, 99; Research organization, 20,
21; Rift valleys, 138; Soil deterioration,
137; Soil erosion, 137, 140; Soil map,
132; Soil science, 131, 132; Soil surveys,
131, 132; Solar radiation in, 113, 121;
Surveying, 39, 40; Timber, 205; Trees,
201; Trypanosomiasis, 530, 532; Tsetse
research, 268, 277; Vegetation, 162,
199; Veterinary research, 444-9;
Weather, 99; Zebras in, 227; and see
under separate territories of East Africa
East Africa, Portuguese, see Mozambique
East African Agricultural Fournal, 141
East African Agricultural Research
Station, 142, 145, 198, 227, 316, 317;
Acclimatization Station, 149; Biologi-
cal research, 218; Botanical research,
148, 149, 171; Cassava, research, 359,
360; Cinchona plantations, 374; Cli-
matic conditions of vegetation, research
on, 7, 119; Coffee research, 319, 363;
Composting, research, 407; Cytologi-
cal research, 355; Derris cultivation,
375; Entomological research, 286-8;
Essential oils, research on, 375; Her-
barium, 149; Ornithological research,
224, 225; Plant diseases, research on,
175, 176, 281; Seed trials, 145; Sisal
breeding, 319, 358, 359; Soil surveys,
16, 131; Tea, research on, 364
East Africa and Uganda Natural History
Society, 218
East African Commission, 1925, 528
706
East African Medical Journal, 480
East African Sisal Research Organiza-
tion, 359
East African Swine Fever, 448
East Coast Cattle, 414; Ports, 465
East Coast Fever, 10, 139, 295, 441, 4453
Chemical therapy of, 452; Control of,
12, 442, 446, 447; Incidence, 297, 451;
Parasites of, 297, 298, 443; Research
on, 320, 446, 447, 449; Vaccine for,
447; Vectors of, 297, 298, 451
East Greenland, 55 n.
East Indies, 206
East London, 240; Provincial Museum,
216
East Malling Research Station, Kent, 309
Eckardt, W. R., 90
Ecoclimates, 7, 117-19, 257, 275-8
Ecole d’ Application, Marseilles, 4.91
Ecole William Ponty, 507
Ecology: Air surveying for, 161; Animal,
216, 217, 225-7, 536; Birds, 224;
Burning of vegetation, 170; Cattle
farming, 418; Fish, 238, 242, 246;
Forest, 143, 161-3, 199-201; Grasses,
159, 172; Insects, 120, 294; Lakes, 242,
250; Locusts, 13; Malaria mosquitoes,
295; Manuring, 170; Pastures, 119;
Plants, 143, 147, 149, 150, 152, 158-65,
201, 318, 436; Rift valleys, 242; Sur-
veys of, 16, 131 n., 127, 133, 144, 148,
15], 159-61, 172, 190, 200, 225, 304,
317, 318, 342; Swamps, 162, 165; Ticks,
908, 451; Usetse, 119,.225) 271, 273;
Veld, 119, 159, 169
Economic Advisory Council: Committee
of Civil Research, 167, 168; Sub-
committee on locust control, 261, 262,
265, 268; Tsetse fly committee, 268,
528; Dietetics Committee, 572; East
African sub-committee, 532
Economic Maps, 51, 163
Edge, A. Broughton, 82
Edge, P. G., 557, 558, 562
Edinburgh University, Institute of Ani-
mal Genetics, 309
Edward, Lake, 231; Fish, classification
of, 242; Fishery, 249; Hydrobiological
investigation, 249
Edwards, D. C., 172
Eel-worm Diseases, 175, 337, 369
Eggeling, W. J., 162, 165
Egypt, 46, 95, 98, 164, 205, 209, 280, 296;
Air Services, 88; Cattle, 413; Cotton,
356; Cotton worm, 285; Early negroid
skulls from, 602; Geodetic surveying,
44; Maps, 50; Meteorological atlas,
102; Meteorological service, 99, 101,
102; Physical Department, see under
Cairo; Rainfall, 99; Rinderpest in,
226
INDEX
Egypt, Ancient, cultural influence of,
603-606
Egypt, Lower, Map of, 50
Egyptian Desert Survey, 81
E] Golea, 91
El-Oualadji, 173, 329, 430
Elaeis, see Oil-Palm
Eland, 421
Elders Colonial Airways, 91
Electric Meteorological Data, 99
Electrical Prospecting, 82-4
Elephant grass, 8, 168, 208, 320, 377; As
fertilizer, 385-7
Elephants: Addo National Park, 230;
Conservation, 220, 235; Control of
numbers, 213, 214, 219; Distribution,
221,233; Domesticated, 433; Mortality,
220
Eleusine, see Millet, finger
Elgon, Mount: Altitudinal zonation, 161;
Flora, 156; Vegetation, changes in, 193
Elisabethville, 91, 101, 498, 501
Elliot Smith, Sir G., 600, 606
Elmenteita, 600
Elmes, B. G. T., 556
Elmolo Tribe, 582
Elsdon-Dew, R., 603
Elton, Charles, 216, 226, 227
Embu, 387
Emirates, see under Nigeria, Northern
Empire Cotton Growing Association,
396; Botany, research on, 148; Cotton
pests and diseases, research on, 3573
Entomological research, 261, 284, 285;
Experimental Stations, 285, 318, 326,
355-7, 390; Journal, 141; Research
staff, 317
Empire Forestry Association, 184
Empire Forestry Conferences, 176, 180,
181, 184, 186, 202
Empire Forestry Journal, 184, 199 n.
Empire Marketing Board, 82, 145, 180,
262, 293, 359, 373, 374, 572
Empoasca, see Jassid Bugs
Empusa gryllae, 264
Engledow, Professor F. L., 309
Engler, Professor A., 155, 156, 158, 160,
162
Engytatus, see Capsid bug
Enkeldoorn, 478
Entebbe, 76, 82, 479, 548; Botanic Gar-
den, 149; Forest Department, 150;
Human Trypanosomiasis Laboratory,
525, 528, 530; Seismometers, 85, 86;
Veterinary Research Station, 321;
Yellow Fever Institute, 480, 485
Entomological Memoirs, 313
Entomology: Field work, 273, 262-6,
280; Laboratory research, 260, 263-5,
270, 273, 274, 280, 483, 497; Relation
to other sciences, 18, 257; Staffs for,
INDEX
Entomology—(cont.)
261, 294; Taxonomy, 257, 258, 260;
and see Diseases, Insects, Locusts,
Ticks, Tsetse, etc.
Eoanthropus, 600
Ephemeral fever disease of horses, 444
Ephestia, 292, 293
Epidemic Intelligence Bureau, see under
Singapore
Epidemics, see under Disease
Epidemiological Records, 464.
Epidemiological Reports, 464
Epilepsy, 550
Epizootics, 226, 227, 259, 536; Fore-
casting, 226; Relation to animal pop-
ulation, 226, 227—and see Disease,
Animal
Epstein, Dr. H., 412-16
Equatorial Africa, French: Anthropology,
612; Boundaries, 41; Cotton cultivation,
329: diseases, 285; Diseases, human,
495, 496, 524; Fisheries, 248; Forests,
201; flora, 157; Game reserves, 221;
Geology, 69, 75, 136; Groundnuts ex-
ported, 348; Hospitals, 495, 496;
Hydrographic survey, 80; Maps, 51;
Medical missions, 470, 496; Medical
services, 470, 491, 494-6, 508; Meteoro-
logical service, 104, 105; Population,
496: census, 460; Société de Prevoyance,
397, 398; Stock farming, 330
Equatorial Africa, Southern, 72
Equipes de prospection, 493, 495-7, 533
Eredia, F., 102, 103
Eritrea, 52, 103, 157
Ermolo, 429
Eshowe, 474.
Essential oils, 308, 332, 337, 374, 375
Ethiopia, 604
Ethnology, 216, 231
Ethyl esters, 547
Eucalyptus Snout Beetle, 210, 259, 290
Eucalyptus Trees, 201, 203
Eulepida, see White Grub
Euoxa, see Cutworms
Europeans in Africa: Areas occupied by,
403, 404; Banana cultivation, 367;
Cattle farming, 457; Censuses of, 558,
559; Coffee cultivation, 363; Co-opera-
tive Societies among, 408, 409; Dairy
farming, 460; Estates of, 40, 301, 302,
395; 313, 318, 336, 337, 407; Fertilizers
used by, 404-406; Health of, 470, 552,
553, 586-9; Rubber cultivation, 371;
Soil erosion on estates, 140, 404, 405;
Tobacco cultivation, 370, 404; Veter-
inary work on estates, 445
Europid (Caucasian) Racial Group, 601
Evans, Sir G., 356
Evans, Dr. J. W., 71
Evans-Pritchard, Dr., 594, 611
797
Evaporation, 78, 113, 119: Indices, 119,
120
Evelyn, F. W. D’, 95
Evergreen Forests, see under Forests
Ewe Tribe, 612
Exell, A. W., 146, 155
Exell, L: G., 155
Experimental Malaria Unit, 468
Express Transport Company, 406
Eye affections, 563
Eyles, F., 155, 160
Fairweather, W. G., 244
Falconer, J. D., 112
False Bay, 96
Fang Tribe, 304, 611
Fantoli, A., 103
Farming in South Africa, 313
Farms, see Agriculture
Farnham Royal Laboratory, 260
Farquharson, C. O., 175
Farquharson, R. A., 172
Faulkner, O. T., 338, 348, 381, 415
Fauna: Collections of, 217, 218; Fertility,
effect on, 141; Lake —, 242, 244;
Marine —, 240, 244, 252; Preservation
of, 177, 217; Surveys of, 213, 231, 244,
277—see also Game Animals
Faure, Professor J. C., 263, 265
Fauresmith, 169
Fayum, 599
. Felcher System, 505
Fernando Po, 109
Ferns, 154, 158
Ferns of South Africa, 158
Ferruginous Lateritic Soils, 130
Fertility, 4, 11, 306, 380-5; Effect of bac-
teria, 141: flora and fauna, 141:
humus, 124, 125, 129, 194,140:
legumes, intermediate crop of, 141:
mineral salts, 129, 134, 141, 168, 365:
moulds and fungi, 141, 406: mycor-
rhiza, 141: nitrogen, 129, 130, 134, 141,
373, 386: protozoa, 142: termitaria,
290; Research on, 324, 331, 382, 384—
see also Composting; Manuring
Fertilizers, 407, 408; Ash, 378, 379, 388;
Bone-meal, 392, 393, 405; European
estates, use of, 404-406; Fish, 245, 246,
405; Grasses, 142, 173, 377; 385-75
Lime, 134, 348; Phosphate, 348, 373,
389; Research on, 129, 314; Sulphur,
365—and see under separate crops
Fibres, Vegetable, 206, 308, 338, 359—
and see Cotton; Sisal; Wool
Field, Miss, 246
Field Museum of Natural History, 223
Filaria, 296, 550
Filariasis, 295, 296
Filingué Pasture Station, 328
Findlay, Dr. G. M., 300, 527
708
Finger Millet, see under Millet
Finlayson Memorial Lecture, 519
Finnish Missions, 474
Firestone Company, 371
Firth, Raymond, 581
Fish: Canned, 239, 240, 255; Curing,
236, 240, 241, 244-6, 248; Ecology,
238, 242, 246; Freshwater, 241-7, 249—
252:introduced, 10, 249-53; Marketing
of, 237, 238, 240, 243-5, 253-53
Marine, 239-41, 244-9; Native food,
237, 241, 244, 248, 255, 575, 579, 582:
prejudice against, 237, 244; Preserva-
tion of, 217, 237, 240-6, 248, 256, 455;
Research on, 247, 248; Taxonomy,
238-40, 246-8
Fish Hoek Man, 600
Fish-fertilizer, 245, 246, 405
Fish-meal, 237, 238, 246, 248
Fish-oil, 245, 246
Fisheries: Commercial, 240, 241, 244,246,
254; Control of, 242, 243, 246, 247,
249, 252, 253; Lake a9 241-6, 248,
249, 251, 252; Marine —, 239-41,
244-9; Native —, 241, 243, 247, 252;
River —, 244-50; Sporting, 241, 249-
253; Surveys of, 236, 238, 240-2, 245,
255
Fixed Cultivation, 11, 377, 383, 384,
394
Fleas, 261; Plague —, 257, 539: census of,
538: periodicity among, 536, 537: sur-
vey of, 295
Fletcher, R. A., 30
Flora, 1, 141, 151-4, 159, 160, 332;
Alpine, 162, 177; Aquatic, 165; Forest,
155-7, 163, 180, 193, 197, 198, 200;
Mountain, 146, 156, 159, 177; Preser-
vation of, 144, 176, 177; Reference
collections, 144-7, 149, 150, 155; Sub-
alpine, 162, 177; Swamp, 164, 165;
Tropical, 155-8—see also Plants and
Vegetation
Flora Capensis, 145, 153
Flora della Colonia Eritrea, 157
Flora of Mount Elgon, 156
Flora of Tropical Africa, 145, 153, 167
Flora of West Tropical Africa, 145, 153,
156
Florida, 373
Floss, 206, 207
Fodder Crops, 143, 361, 362, 393, 4575
Experimental Stations, 169, 172, 174,
320, 322; Research on, 167, 173, 345,
346; Rotation of, 344—and see under
separate crops
Fog, 97, 102: moisture, 104.
Foissy, A., 105
FOMULAG, 332, 499, 501 -
Fondation pour Parcs Nationaux, see under
Brussels
INDEX
Fondation Médicale de l’ Université de Louvain
au Congo, se FOMULAC
Fondation Reine Elisabeth pour I’ Assistance
Médicale aux Indigénes, see FOREAMI
Food Crops, see under separate crops
Food Investigation Board, see under De-
partment of Scientific & Industrial
Research
Food Preservation: Dairy Produce, 312,
456; Fish, 217, 237, 240-6, 248, 256,
455; Fruit, 310, 312, 369; Meat, 310,
312, 333, 454-6
Food Products Research Laboratory, see
under Capetown, Low ‘Temperature
Research
Food Supply, 570, 571; Variations in, 9,
10, 14, 580
Foodstuffs, Native: Animals, wild, 10,
213, 233; Bananas, 366, 367; Blood,
573; Baobab leaves, 209, 574, 578;
Cassava, 336, 360, 361, 576; Earth,
551, 570, 578; Fish, 237, 241, 244, 248,
2553 575, 579, 582; Fish-meal, 237> 238,
246, 248; Groundnuts, 346, 574, 5793
Honey, 209; Insects, 579, 580; Kola,
208, Land-snails, 211; Lucerne, 345;
Maize-meal, 237; Meat, 392, 411, 455,
551, 573-5) 579, 581; Milk, 459, 573;
574; Millet, 237, 573, 575, 582; Palm-
oil, 349, 351; Potatoes, 362, 579; Pulse-
crops, 345; Rice, 343, 351; Shea nuts,
353; Simsim, 348; Vegetable relishes,
577, 582; Yams, 362—see also Dietary,
Native
Foot and Mouth Disease, 420, 4.44.
Forage Crops, see Fodder Crops
Porbes, Rh. Es 957
FOREAMI, 166, 499, 500, 534, 545;
549, 550; Demographic records, 564-
566
Forest Products Research Institute, see
Pretoria West
Forest Products Research Laboratory,
Princes Risborough, 180, 204
Forest Trees and Timbers of the British
Empire, 203
Forestry: African subordinate staff, 183;
Air surveys for, 55, 161, 199, 200;
Conferences on, 176, 180, 181, 184,
186, 202; Forest utilization, 182; Inter-
national co-operation in, 195; Organi-
zation for, 179-85; Relation to other
sciences, 3, 9,17, 178, 179; Stocktaking,
182, 199, 200; Value in land utiliza-
tion, 188, 189, 200; Working plans,
182, 187 & n., 199, 200
Forests: Botany, 197-9; Burning of, 8,
162, 183, 187, 190, 191, 193, 194, 195,
197, 378, 379: causing soil erosion, 125,
137, 139, 188; Deciduous —, 163, 164,
186, 200, 376; Destruction of, 117, 182,
INDEX
Forests—(cont.)
193-5: effect on soil, 137, 159, 187-91,
194: effect on water-supply, 6, 9, 118,
140, 159, 179, 197: for shifting cultiva-
tion, 179, 187, 190-2, 194, 197, 205,
376-80; Ecology, 143, 161-3, 199-201;
Entomology, 201; Evergreen, 179, 184,
IQI, 192, 195, 206, 208, 365, 376; Flora,
155-7, 163, 180, 193, 197, 198, 200;
Hydrology, relation to, 8, 117, 140,
159, 178; Mangrove —, 164, 186;
Mountain —, 162, 177; Plantation of
—, 9, 187-94, 197; Products, 206-209;
Rain —, 143, 164, 178, 183, 186, 189,
223, 370, 371; Rainfall, effect on, 9,
go}. 106% 117; 118, 160, 162, 178, 189:
Recession of, 189, 194, 195; Reserves,
9, 176, 179, 182, 187, 190-2, 195-7,
200: administration of, 183-6, 192,
194: British, listed, 186; Types of —,
185, 186, 196; Savannah —, 139, 186,
192, 195, 196, 209: burning of, 139,
190, 193, 194, 197: reservation of, 186,
190, 191;—Shelter-belts, 117, 195-7,
365, 366; Soil, conservation of, 178, 179,
187-9, 191-3, 199, 202, 313; Swamp—,
206; Tropical —, 187; Village —, 183,
IQI, 199, 571; Water, conservation of,
8, 9, 178, 187, 191, 192, 194, 196, 197,
20254209
Forminiére (Société internationale forestiére
et miniére du Congo), 70, 501, 502
Fort Archambault, 91
Fort Cox Agricultural College, 313
Fort Hall Earthquake (1928), 86
Fort Hare Native College, 313, 506,
509, 510
Fort Jameson, 318, 370
Fort Johnson, 277
Fort Lamy, 91, 496, 555
Fort Manning, 561
Fort Victoria, 478
Fortes, M. & igs L., 581, 612
Fosbrooke, H. A., 606
Fossil Reptiles, 87
Foster, J. W., 572, 578
Fountain, A. E., 309
Fourmarier, Dr., 70
Fowl typhoid, 448
Fowler, H. W., 246
Fowls, domestic, 448, 530, 603
Fox, F. W., 345, 575, 576, 582
Franc, J., 104
France, 240
Francistown, 476
Frankenvald, 311
Frankliniella, see Thrips
Frazer, Sir James, 613
Freetown: Connaught Hospital, 488, 515;
Fishery, 245; Medical Laboratory, 480;
Rainfall Station, 109; Rats, census of,
799
468, 538; Registration of births and
deaths, 562; Sanitary Inspectors
trained, 515; Sir Alfred Jones Labora-
tory, 468, 538; Typhus in, 539; Yellow
Fever in, 527
French, M. H., 171, 459
French Equatorial Africa Guinea, etc.,
see under Equatorial Africa, French
Guinea, French, etc.
French Territories in Africa, 41; Agri-
cultural administration and research
organization, 307, 327-30; Air services,
gI, 92; Air surveying, 59; Animal
industry, 426, 430, 432, 4333 Anthropo-
logy, 608-13; Botanical researeh, 151,
152, 157; Cattle breeding, 426; Dis-
eases, human, 297, 494, 495, 522, 524,
543-5; Fisheries, 247-9; Forestry ser-
vices, 164, 185, 200, 201; Geological
surveying, 69, 70, 73; Locust control,
264; Mapping, 45, 51, 73; Medical
services, 490-8, 503, 506-508, 515;
Meteorological services, 103-106; Min-
eral resources, 69; Nutrition of natives,
572; Pasture research, 173; Pig breed-
ing, 432, 433; Population censuses,
560, 561; Research organization, 19,
20, 23; Sanitary services, 493; Soil
science, 135, 136; Surveying, 33, 34;
Trypanosomiasis, cattle, 279; —, hu-
man, 493-5, 533, 5343 Veterinary ad-
ministration and research organization,
327-30; Water-supply, So, Sr; : Zoology,
organization for, 221
Freshwater Biological Association, 242 7.,
247
Fries, R. E., 155, 156
Fries, Th. C. E., 155, 156
Friesian Cattle, 417, 421, 426, 427
Fritsch, F. E., 158
Frobenius, Leo, 605
Fruit, 135, 305, 340; Diseases of —, 289,
290, 366, 368, 369; Experimental
Stations, 311, 314, 322-5, 328, ee
331, 332, 366-9; Preservation of —
310, 312, 369
Fruitfly, 289
Fuad I., King of Egypt, 102
Fuchs, V. E., 112, 582
Fulani Cattle, 12, 415, 449, 450
Fulani Tribe, 449, 573, 612
Fuller, C., 290
Fumigation of Insects, 280, 287, 293, 294,
297
Fungus, 150, 387, 406: Diseases of plants,
148, 175, 337, 364, 368; Effect on soil,
141; Grown by termites, 291; Parasitic,
13, 158, 204, 264, 283, 453: of locusts,
264; Research on, 146, 157, 158;
Rust —, 176, 178
Futa-Gallon, 367
710
Gabon, 201, 495: Tribe, 611
Gabu Serum Laboratory, 452
Gadau Tsetse Research Laboratory, 274-
276, 528, 531
Gagnoa Agricultural Station, 329
Gale, G. W., 160
Gall-fly, 210
Galla Tribe, 602, 604
Gallsickness, 442, 443
Galpin, E. E., 160
Gambaga, 41
Gambia, The, 92, 181; Agriculture, 317,
325, 386, 392; Agricultural Depart-
ment of, 315, 325; Cereals, cultivation
of, 339, 342; Cotton, cultivation of,
354; Diseases, human, 524; Geological
Survey, 63; Groundnuts exported, 346;
Hospitals, 489, 490; Insect Pests, 282,
283; Land’s Department, 50; Mac-
Carthy Island Province, 325, 490;
Maps, of, 50; Medicalservices, 489, 490,
570; Meteorological service, 109; Popu-
lation, 490; Registration of births and
deaths, 562; Sanitation, 489, 490; Soya
bean cultivation, 354; Trypanosomi-
asis in, 489; Upper —., irrigation of, 80
Gambia. River, 11, 347; Upper —, 80
Game Animals: As food, 10, 213, 2333
Conservation, 212, 213, 216, 217, 219,
224, 228-93: Destruction of, 212, 213,
234: for tsetse control, 10, 214, 259,
269, 272, 273; Diseases carried by, 10,
211, 213, 214, 225-7, 272, 273, 307:
Ordinance, 10, 211; Periodicity of
population, 226, 227, 536, 537; Pre-
serves, 227, 228; Reserves, 221, 222,
228-33; Species scheduled for pro-
tection, 235; Survey of, 220; Trophies,
212, 234; Trypanosomiasis carried by,
226, 267, 529, 530—see also Fauna
Game Departments: African subordinate
staff, 219; Ecological surveys by, 225;
Functions of, 213; Licences, 212, 213,
233; Self-supporting, 213
Ganda, 333
Gandajika, 330, 331, 358
Gangala na Bodio, 433
Gao, 91, 106
Garnett, Miss A., 122
Garri, 360
Gasthuys, P., 100 7., 101
Gatooma: Cotton research station, 236,
3553; Hospital, 478
Gauna Forest, 177
Gautier, E. F., 106
Gazi, 331
Geiger, R., go, 98
Geigeria, 444
Geismar, L., 612
Gemsbok National
Kalahari
Park, see under
INDEX
General Advisory Health Council, see
under League of Nations
Genetics, 149, 167, 174, 331, 337
Geodesy, 32
Geodetic Surveying, 25 & n., 29, 373
Districts surveyed, 28-30, 36, 41, 42
Geodetic Triangulation, 25 7n., 28, 29,
32-6, 39, 41-5, 543 Fundamental im-
portance, 26-9; Major, 26, 34; Need
for co-ordination, 40-2; Primary, 26,
27, 41
Geography, 304
Geological Air Surveys, Ltd., 57
Geological Maps, 51, 52, 61, 63, 66, 68-
74, 136; International —, 69, 71, 72,
128
Geological Surveying, 16, 61, 130, 136;
African subordinate staff, 68; Banks,
activities of, 70; International co-opera-
tion, 71, 75; Mineral resources dis-
covered by, 61, 66-8; Mining compan-
ies, activities of, 63, 66-8, 70; Organiza-
tion for 62-71, 74, 75, 83
Geophysical prospecting, 82-4
George, Lake, 227
Georgetown, 109, 489, 490
Gepp, Mrs. A., 158
Geranium, Essential oil of, 374.
German Central African Expedition
(1907-8), 161
German Seaplane Service, 92
Germanin, 533, 534
Germiston, 93
Gezira, 4, 131, 148, 314
Ghee, 323, 458-60
Gibbins, E. G., 297
Gifford Lectures, 613
Gilchrist, Dr., 239
Gilks, Dr. J. L., 564, 572
Gill, Sir David, 28-31, 43, 44
Gillet, Fr., 152, 332
Gillett, J., 157, 164
Gillman, C., 77, 113, 131 7.,
Ginger, 371
Glanders, 445
Glen (O.F.S.) School of Agriculture, 311;
Dairy Research, 458; Experimental
Station, 169; Pasture Research, 169
Glossina, see Tsetse fly
Glycine, see Soya bean
Gmelina, 197
Goats, 428, 605; Alpine, 432, 4543
Angora, 329, 432; As bride-price, 431;
Diseases of, 299, 320, 431, 449; Meat,
431; Milking, 440; Overgrazing by,
439, 440; Skins, 453: breeding for, 454:
exported, 431, 454; Sokoto red, 323,
454; Trypanosomiasis in, 431, 529, 530
Godali Cattle, 424
Godman Exploration Fund, 225
Goffin, A., 249
140, 304, 567
INDEX
Gogo Tribe, 610
Goheve, 532
Gold, Distribution of, 67, 68, 73: Medi-
cinal preparations of, 547; Mining, 511,
53!
Gold Coast, 67, 91, 207, 326; Agriculture,
353, 358, 371, 372, 388; Agriculture,
eee 108, 150, 323, 354, 367,
371, 372, 384: research, 133, 134, 149,
S17, veer Agricultural training of
Africans, 401, 402; Air surveying, 40,
50, 59; “Animal Health Department,
324, 388, 390; Anthropology, 594, 5973
Billigers, 80; Botanical Gardens, 150;
Botany, 148, 150, 157, 166; Cacao, 196,
365-7, 404: pests of, 288; Cadastral
surveying, 39; Cattle in, 413-15, 423,
425, 426; Central Provinces, 323;
Cereals, cultivation of, 341, 342;
Climate, 5, 108; Cocoa, cultivation of,
395, 396: pests of, 292, 293; Coffee,
internal trade in, 364; Co-operative
Societies, 395, 396: Ordinance, 395;
Elephants in, 221; Entomology, staff
for, 261; Europeans, health of, in, 587;
Diamonds exported, 67; Diseases,
human, 524, 525, 538, 546, 549:
stock, 425, 451—and see trypanosomiasis;
Fisheries, 945, 246; Flora; 157;
Forestry Department, 181, 200; For-
estry training, 183; Forests, 157, 163,
179, 200: reduction of, 9, 189, 195:
reserves, 186, 195, 196; Fruit cultiva-
tion, 367, 368; Game reserves, 221,
233; Geodetic surveying, 39, 41, 42;
Geological Department, 64, 65, 67, 74,
84; Geological map, 72: surveying, 63;
Geophysical prospecting, 84; Herbar-
ium, 150; Hospital, 487; Hospitals,
487, 488; Hydrology, 80; Maps, 41,
49, 50, 50; Medical Department, 487;
Medical services, 487, 488, 570: train-
ing Africans for, 487, 506, 508, 514,
515; Meteorology, 108, 109, 196;
Mineral resources, 67; Mining, 179;
Mycology, 175; National Park pro-
posed,.23927 Northern “Territories:
Agriculture, 323, 383-6: Anthropology,
581, 612: Cattle in, 425: Farmers’
Associations, 425: Mixed farming, 390:
Sahara encroachment, 189: Topo-
graphy, 50; Trypanosomiasis, cattle, in,
278: Tsetse in, 278, 279: Veterinary
research, 324: Water-supply, 80; Oil-
palm cultivation, 351; Oil-seeds culti-
vation, 353, 3543 Pig industry, 432;
Population, So, 488: census, 560; Rain-
fall, 5, 108: map, 108: stations, 108,
196; Red Cross, branch of, 487, 514;
Root crops, 360, 362; Savannah, 279;
Seismology, 85; Soils, 134; Stock sur-
7A
vey, 414; Survey Department, 39, 41,
49, 50, 108, 109; Surveying, 39, 49, 50;
Ticks in, 298; Timber, 195, 196, 204;
Topography, 26, 39, 50; Trees, 198;
Trypanosomiasis, cattle, in, 267, 423,
425, 452: human, in, 487; Veterinary
Department, 80, 279, 315; Vital events,
registration of, 562; Water-supply, 196;
Winds, 108, 109; Zoology, 219
Gold Coast Allas, 50, 72, 135
Gold Coast Farmer, 324, 367
Golden Stool, The, 595
Golding, F. D. , 263,
Gondokoro, 139
Gonorrhoea, 553-5, 503
Good, R. D’O., 155
Gordon, Dr. H. L., 554, 574, 584-6
Gordon, R. M., 295
Gordon College, 218
Gore, Brown, Col., 190
Gore Brown, Mrs., 394.
Gorée, Island of, 507
Gorillas, 231, 235
Gorrie, R. M., 189
Gossweiler, John, 152, 155, 161
Gossypium, see Cotton
Gouldsbury, C., 609
Goundam, 430
Gousiekte, 444
Graaff Reinet, 290
Grabham, G. W., 63, 81
Gracie, D. S., 132
Graham, Marquis of, 170
Graham, Michael, 242, 255
Graham, R. M., 162
Graham-Little, Sir Ernest, M.P., 586
Grahamstown, 588; Albany Museum,
216: herbarium, 147
Grain: Diseases, 176; Export, 305;
Storage, 338—and see under separate crops
Grandidier, G., 51, 73, 416
Grapefruit, 332, 368
Grapes, 369
Grasses, 148, 154, 159, 166, 169, 170, 306;
American, Lz Analysis Of aA:
Australian, 170, L715) 74s Breeding,
167; Chemistry of, 168, 170, 1715,1733
Cultivation, experiments in, 168-73,
321, 323, 385; Ecology, 159, 1723
Exotic, 168; Fertilizers, used as, 142,
173, 377, 385-73 Indian, 173; Taxo-
nomy, 143, 167, 173—and see separate
varieties
Grasshoppers, 282
Grassland: Burning of, 8, 125, 137, 139,
159, 169, 188, 379, 435, 436: for tsetse
control, 214, 269, 270, 277-9; Eco-
logical surveys, 159, 172; Replacing
forest, 173, 188, 377—see also Pastures
and Veld
Grassland Research Committee, 169, 170
264, 288
712
Gravity, Variation in, 86
Grazing, see under Animal Industry;
Mixed Farming; Overgrazing; Pasture;
Rotational Grazing
Great Lakes, 87, 336, 580, 606; Evapora-
tion rates, 120; Fisheries, 241-4;
Hydrology, 78; Meteorology, 100, 102;
Rainfall, 113, 114—and see Lakes, and
Victoria, Lake, etc.
Green, Miss, M. M., 611
Green Gram, 340, 345
Greenway, P. J., 149, 162, 198
Greenwich Time, 27
Greenwood, M., 134, 390
Gregory, Professor J. W., 63, 73
Griffith, Dr., 132
Grimsby, 254
Grobler, The Hon. P. G. W., 30
Groenewald, J. W., 414, 429
Grogan, Major E. S., 406
Grootfontein, 169, 311, 429
Groundnuts: Bambarra —, 339, 3453
Crop plant, imported, 340, 346, 347;
Cultivation, 301, 325, 328, 336, 346-8:
as mixed crop, 386; Diseases of, 282,
293, 346; Experimental Stations, 135,
293, 325, 328, 329, 347; Exported, 346,
347, 348; Fertilizer for, 348; Local
food, 346, 574, 579; Research, 320,
323, 346-8; Rotation crop, 383;
Rufisque —, 347; Selection, 347, 348
Groves, A. W., 72, 74, 87
Gruvel, Professor A., 247, 248
Guiana, British, 343
Guinea, French, 238; Agriculture, 152,
328, 358; Bananas, cultivation of, 135,
328, 367; Cattle, 329, 332, 414, 425;
Diseases, human, 538, 540; Europeans
in, 404; Geodetic triangulation, 33, 41;
Maps, 51; Medical services, 491-4;
Meteorology, 106; Veterinary services,
403
Guinea, Portuguese, 109; Cattle, 416;
Geodetic surveying, 43; Geological
missions, 71; Maps, 53
Guinea, Spanish, 53
Guinea Coast, 91, 110, III, 245, 255,
340, 538, 603
Guinea Corn, 134, 281, 360, 383, 384, 386
Guinea Gulf, 92, 189, 451, 611; Botany,
146; Cattle, 415, 449; Pest-diseases, 14,
288; Winds, 108, 110, III
Guinea Lands, 5, 362, 413; Oil Palm
Plantations, 349; Pneumonia _inci-
dence, 555; Rainfall, 9; Rain forest,
189, 376; Shifting cultivation, 376
Guinea pigs, 530
Gum, 139, 207, 308: Arabic, 207: Tree
(Acacia senegal), 176, 189, 197, 200,
207
Gutmann, Bruno, 596, 610
INDEX
Gwanda, 478
Gwelo, 478
Hackett, Dr. L. W., 519
Haddon, Dr., A. C., 601
Hadejira Emirates, 79
Hadendoa, 604
Hadlow, G. G. S. J., 364
Haemaphysalis, 443
Haematuria, bovine, 448
Haemonchus, 444
Hagerup, O., 163
Hakluyt, 340
Halawani, A., 296
Hale Carpenter, Prof. G. D., 278
Halfa, 44
Hall, Sir Daniel, 387, 421, 438, 579
Hail, T. D., 139, 168; 170, 306
Ham, A. W., 297, 447
Hambly, W. D., 371, 609
Hamite Racial Group, 601, 603, 604
Hamitic Longhorn Cattle, 413-15, 425
Hancock, G. L. R., 285, 295
Handbook of Nigeria, 49
Handbuch der Klimatologie, 90
Hann: Botanic Gardens,
Laboratory, 136
Hansford, C. G., 158, 175, 372
Hardy, G., 575
Hardy, Georges, 613
Hardy, Sir William, 310
Harland’s Cambodia, 356
Harmattan Wind, 106, 107, 110, 111, 555
Harris; DG, '78
Harris, R. H., 260, 273
Hartebeest: Cape —, 230; Northern —,
2
PE beeseeoor 344
Hartley; K: ‘T., 19453390
Harvard, Museum of Comparative Zoo-
logy, 223
Harvey, Pirie, Dr. J. H., 537, 539
Hatton, Dr. R. G., 309
Hauman, Professor L., 156, 162
Hausa Tribe, 450, 573, 574, 586
Haut Sénégal-Niger, 612
Hawaii, 106
Haywood, Col. A. H. W., 216, 221, 233
Health Section of League of Nations, see
under League of Nations
Health Services, see under Medical Services
Heart-water disease, 299, 443, 448
Heath Clark Lectures, 438, 519
Hehe Tribe, 610
Heliothis obsoleta, see Bollworm
Hellman, Mrs., 609
Helminthiasis, 517, 576; Effects, 550,
551; Incidence, 430, 551, 552, 5633
Remedies, 551, 552; Research on, 320,
Tes go8s
452, 551
Helminthological Abstracts, 310
INDEX
Helminthology, 318, 467
Helopeltis, 285, 358
Helwan, 102
Hemileia, 176
Hemming, H., 55, 57
Hemming, Messrs. H. and Partners, Ltd.,
57
Henderson, Captain, 455
Hendrie, Mrs. McD., 570
Henkel, J. S., 154, 160, 161
Hennessey, R. S. F., 542
Henrici, Dr. Marguerite, 154
Hepburn, G. A., 281, 290
Herbage Abstracts, 167, 310
Herbage Reviews, 167, 310
Herbaria: African, 147, 149, 150, 154,
155, 167, 219, 372; European, 144-6,
r71
Herbs, 157, 165, 169
Hercothrips, 286
Hereford Cattle, 418, 422, 426, 427
Herero Tribe, 608
lermans, 1., 291
Herskovits, M. J., 612
Heterodera, see Root-knot nematode
Heterolygus, see Dynastid Beetle
Heterospila, 287
Hevea, see Rubber, Para—
Hewer, T. F., 554
Hibiscus, 285, 286
Hides: Exported, 454; Decreasing revenue
from, 212; Flaying and drying, im-
provements in, 453; Parasites of, 294,
453; Research on, 308, 323; Stored,
pests infecting, 294
Hill, A. H., Glend, 149
Hill, Sir Arthur, 145, 146
Hillside Agricultural Research Station,
314, 342
Hilmy, I. S., 296
Hingston, Major, R. W. G., 216, 232
Hinton, M. A. C., 215
Hippopotami, 231;
Pygmy —, 235
Hirszfeld, L. and H., 602
Hluhluwe Reserve, 230
Hobley, C. W., 137, 219, 220, 595, 610
Hochgebirgsflora des tropischen Afrika, 156
Hoernlé, Mrs., 596
Hoffman, W. H., 546
Hofmayr, W., 610
Hofstra, Dr., 612
Hoier, Lt.-Colonel, 231
Holland, J. H., 157
Holland, Sir Thomas, 61, 65, 66
Hollis, A. C., 610
Holt, John, 397
Honey, 8, 139, 209
Hookworm, 550-2, 563
Hopkins, Dr. G. H. E., 296, 539
Hopkins, J. C., 175
Epizootics, 227;
713
Hornbostel, E. M. von, 607, 613
Hornby, A. J. W., 100, 133, 187
Hornby, Captain H. E., 171, 434, 439-41
Hornby, Capt. and Mrs., 171
Hornell, James, 245
Horse-sickness, 300, 442, 448; Vaccine,
443, 444
Horses, 605; Breeds, 333, 430, 433; Dis-
eases of, 168, 298-300, 442, 444;
Thoroughbreds introduced, 433; Tse-
tse, limitation by, 433
Horticultural Abstracts, 310
Horticultural Stations, 311, 328
Hospitals: Europeans’, 474, 480, 481,
483, 485-8, 491, 497, 502, 5873
Infectious diseases, 473, 487, 488;
Maternity, 473, 491-3, 500-502, 513-
5153 Mental, 483, 485; Mining com-
panies’, 471, 473, 478, 481, 501, 502;
Missionary, 466, 469, 470, 474, 476,
481, 483, 487, 488, 492, 497, 498, 500,
503, 5125 Nees 475, 476, 480, 481,
483, 485, 486, 488, 491, 492, 4973
503, 508; Private, 473, 474, 483
Hotine, Major M., 43, 44, 55
Hottentot Cattle, see Afrikander Cattle
Hottentots: Anthropological research on,
596, 608; Cephalic index, 602; Racial
grouping, 601-603
Houard, A., 351
Housing, 588, 589; Improvement as
factor in disease control, 461, 483, 485,
501, 517, 569
Howard, A. C., 95
Howard, Sir Albert, 387, 388, 406
Hoyle, A. C., 155
Hubbard, C. E., 167, 341
Hubert, H., 69, 104, 105, 115, 116
Hudson, J. R., 299, 300, 4.48
Hudson, Dr. P. S., 309
Huffman, C., 433
Huffman, R., 611
Huileries du Congo Belge, 501
Hull, 254
Human Geography, 305; British Associa-
tion Committee on, 304, 379, 597
Humbert, Professor, 151, 156
Humidity, 93, 104, 106, 107, 120, 196;
Effect on health, 588, 589: insects, 120,
293: moulds, 175; Tropical, 106, 121,
I
earaigas 92, 333
Humus: Artificial increase, 282; Effect
of termitaria on, 142, 290; Fertility,
effect on, 124,. 125, 120, 134, 141;
Insufficiency of, 129, 135
Hunter, Monica, see Wilson, Mrs. G.
Hunter Hostel, see under Kumasi
Elurst, H. E.,.59,.76; 100, 101.124
Hut tax, 544, 558
Hutchinson, Dr. J., 145, 156, 160, 163
714
Hutt, A. McD. Bruce, 610
Huxley, Dr. Julian S., 215, 229, 585
Hyaena, 530
Hyalomma, 298
Hydnocarpus, 209, 550
Hydro-electric Power, 81, 82, 88, 116
Hydro-geological surveying, 77
Hydrographic Surveys, 80, 238, 241, 242,
248, 249
Hydrographical Maps, 52
Hydrological Surveys, 412
Hydrology, see Water and Water-Supply
Hygiene, 462, 501, 539, 547, 570; Educa-
tion in, 482, 511, 515, 516, 521, 543,
544, 568, 569
Ibadan, 326, 514; Agricultural College,
401, 402: Dept., 322; Cassava selection,
360; Fertility, research on, 382; Forest
Dept., 150, 183; Marketing Union, 396;
Moor Plantation Labs., 150, 402: Soil
survey, 133; Oil-Palm breeding, 350;
School of Forestry, 183
Ibo People, 611
Ifui, 53
Iheme, 319, 370
Ijaw,
Ila-speaking Peoples, 595, 609
Ilorin, 371, 451
Immature Mountain Soils, 130
Imperial Agricultural Bureaux, 20, 22,
127, 147, 260, 308, 309, 334
Imperial Agricultural Research Confer-
ence (1927), 308
Imperial Airways: Meteorological Sta-
tions used by, 93, 99, 101, 107; Poison-
spraying of locusts by, 265; Routes
Ole 58, 91-3, 99, 107
Imperial Botanical Conference (1924), 151
Imperial Bureau of Agricultural Parasi-
tology, 309, 468
Imperial Bureau of Animal Genetics, 309,
417
Imperial Bureau of Animal Health, 309
Imperial Bureau of Animal Nutrition,
309, 572
Imperial Bureau of Fruit Production, 309
Imperial Bureau of Plant Genetics, 167,
168, 309
Imperial Bureau of Soil Science, 127, 128,
130, 308, 365; Reports on soil erosion,
137
Imperial Cold Storage Company, 456
Imperial College of Science & Tech-
nology, 84, 265, 292, 310, 353
Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture,
see Trinidad
Imperial Forestry Institute, see Oxford
University
Imperial Institute: Advisory Committees,
Essential oils, 374: Hides and skins,
INDEX
212, 453; Plant and animal products,
308: Silk production, 291 : Timbers, 180,
181: Vegetable fibres, 359; Agricul-
tural research, 308, 337, 353, 354, 3593
Forestry research, 204; Mineral Re-
sources Department, 68, 128; Petro-
logical analysis, 65; Surveying by, 62;
Tung-oil production, report on, 374;
Wattle tanning, report on, 372
Imperial Institute of Entomology, 257 Ney
258, 260-5, 309
Imperial Institute of Mycology, 146, 147,
175, 176, 260, 309
Ina, 329
Incomati, River, 372
India, 339, 365, 374, 392, 405, 406, 462,
470, 505, 547, 550, 558, 606; Co-
operative Societies, 394, 3975 Fisheries,
239; Grasses, imported from, 171;
Land planning, 17; Maps, 27; Medical
research, 19; Plants imported from,
173, 197, 340, 343, 347, 3723 Seed
trials, 145; Surveying, 26, 54, 55; Trees
imported from 209; Water-table sur-
veys, 75
Indian buffaloes, 421
Indian Forester, 184
Indian Immigrants, 40, 403, 470
Indian Medical Research Fund, 19
Indian Ocean, 110
Indigo, 206, 339, 340, 371
Indigofera, 339
Indo-China, 135, 248, 343
Indonesia, 606
Indore, 406: Composting Process, 387
INEAG, 152, 330, 332, 358
Infant mortality, 14, 502
Infant Welfare Centres, 497, 493, 495,
496, 514
Infection carried by aircraft, 463, 465,
466, 526
Influenza, 556
Inhambane, 98
Insecticides, 293; Cultivation of plants
for, 286, 287, 337, 375; Research on,
30G. 0312
Insects: As food, 579, 580; Biological
control, 259, 260, 286, 290; Ecocli-
mates, 118, 119, 257,275,276; Ecology,
120, 294; Fumigation of, 280, 287, 293,
294, 297; Parasites of, 283, "287, 2903
Pests of crops, 259, 281-94, 337, 3575
358, 360, 363, 369, 370—and see under
separate crops: of fruit, 289, 290, 369: of
stored products, 288, 292-4; Reference
collections, 218; Taxonomy, 257, 258,
260; Variety, 258; Vectors of disease,
18, 175, 294, 295> 306: human, 295-
297: plant, 281-90: stock, 281-go—
and see under separate diseases: See also under
separate species
INDEX
Institut de Médecine Vétérinaire Exotique, 328
Institut de Météorologie et de Physique du
Globe, 103
Institut des Parcs Nationaux du Congo Belge,
222
Institut National d’ Agronomie Coloniale, 136,
327
Institut National d’ Agronomie du Congo Belge,
see INEAC
Institut Royal Colonial Belge, Brussels, 23,
100
Institute of Animal Parasitology, St.
Albans, 309
Institute of Plant Industry, Indore, see
under Indore
Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp,
498
Institute of Tropical Medicine, Brussels,
332, 549
Instituto Geografico Militare, 52, 53
Inter-University Commission for African
Studies, 608
International Anthropological Congress,
1934, 595,603 ae:
International Colonial Exhibition, 1931,
490
International Conference of Representa-
tives of Health Services of African
Territories and British India, 464
International Conference on African
Fauna & Flora (1934), 177
International Convention for Sanitary
Control of Aerial Navigation, 463
International Geological Congresses, 71,
72, 75
International Health Division, see under
Rockefeller Foundation
International Institute of African Lan-
guages and Cultures, 23, 471, 572, 580,
596, 597, 599, 608-13
International Institute of Agriculture,
Rome, 334
International Missionary Council 465;
Department of Social and Industrial
Research, 471
International Soil Congresses, 128, 129,
132
Internationaler Geologen und Mineralogen
Kalender, 71
Invertebrates, 240
Inyanga, Swedish Expedition to, 155
Iodine, 237 & 7., 574, 579
Ipomaea, see Potatoes, Sweet
Iringa Province, 319, 370, 432
Iroko, 204 & n., 209
Iron, 573,574,
Iron ore, Distribution of, 67
Irrawaddy, Delta, 57
Irrigation, 4, 5, 76, 77, 89, 368, 580;
Gezira scheme, 4; Niger River, 135,
327, 344, 357: Middle Niger, 575, 580;
715
Nile River, 75, 102; Pastures, 170, 173;
Senegal River, 75, 80; Soil surveys for,
78, 130, 135; Soils, effect on, 129, 130;
Tana River, 5, 78
Irvine, Dr. F. R., 157, 246
Islam, 605
Italian territory in Africa, see Benghazi;
Eritrea, Somaliland (Italian), Tripoli
Ituri, 426, 430, 452
Ivanoff, G., 166
Ivory, 212, 213; Vegetable —, 208
Ivory Coast: Agriculture, 135, 329, 344,
358, 364; Cattle, 329, 411; Diseases,
human, 495, 538, 546, 549; Fishery
research, 248; Forests, 164, 185; Maps,
51; Medical services, 491-3; Oil-
palm cultivation, 135, 329, 351, 3523
Pests, 288; Social Anthropology, 612;
Timber, 185, 200
Iyaenu, 470
Jaagsiekte, 168, 444
Jack, R. W., 214, 268, 272, 282, 294
Jacks, G. V., 308
Jackson, C. H. N., 270
Jackson, Sir Frederick, 224
Jadotville, 502
Jaluo (Nilotic Kavirondo) Tribe, 139
Jamaica, 346
James, Colonel, 520, 521, 526
James, H. C., 287
Jameson, Dr., 467
Jamot, E., 355
Janse, A. J. T., 258
Jansenns, Paul E. A., 357
Japan, 339, 505
Jassid bugs, 282, 285, 286, 358; cotton
strains resistant to, 355, 357
Java, 288, 364, 365, 372, 399
Jeanes Schools, 480, 511, 515
Jena University, 121
Jenkin, Miss P. M., 242
Jerrard, R. C., 575
Jesuit Missions, 152, 332
Jibuti, 92
Jinja, 82
Johannesburg, 57 7., 92, 311, 455, 5773
Herbarium, 147; Medical Research
Institute, 474; Seismograph, 85; Union
Observatory, 95; University, 575
Johnson, Sir Walter, 275, 528
Johnston, H. B., 263
Johnston, Sir, H. H., 156, 603, 605, 609,
612
Jones, Brynmor, 80
Jones, Gethin, 140
Jones, Dr. R. C., 564
Jongensklip, 344
Jonkershock, 250
Jorge, Ricardo, 523, 535
Jos, 66, 460
716
Joubert, P. J., 428
Journal of Animal Ecology, 224, 227
Journal of Botany, 155
Journal of Dairy Research, 460
Journal of Ecology, 151, 199 n.
Journal of the African Society, 609, 613
Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute,
613
Joyce, T. A., 609
Juba Coast, Lower, 52
Jukun-speaking Peoples, 611
Junner, Dr. N. R., 63
Junod, H., 596, 608
Kabali, 452
Kabete, 91, 172, 445; Veterinary Re-
search Laboratories, 172, 297, 298,
320, 445-7
Kabinda, 92
Kaden, O. F., 288
Kaduna, 66, 274
Kaffirs, 602
Kaffrarian Museum, see King William’s
Town
Kagera National Park, see under Ruanda-
Urundi
Kagera River, 231, 466
Kahama, 562
Kahuzi Mountain, 101
Kaiaf, 489
Kakamega Goldfields, 49, 63, 82, 278
Kakoulou, 328
Kalahari, 115; Artificial lake, scheme
for, 116; Flora, 154; Gemsbok National
Park, 230; Soil, 130
Kalandato, 470
Kamba: Reserve, 373; Tribe, 139, 610
Kamerman, P., 130
Kampala, 82, 91, 136, 479, 480, 485;
Agricultural Department Herbarium,
149; Agricultural laboratory, 218, 320;
Hospital, 470; Meteorological Station,
99; Mulago Medical School, 484, 506,
508-10, 512; Native Market, 449
Kanam Man (Homo kanamensis), 600
Kanjera Man, 600
Kankan, 328
Kano, g1, 107, 394; Agriculture, 134,
383, 389, 394; Field Veterinary
Laboratory, 323, 450; Fish Market,
247; Ghee Factory, 460; Registration
of births and deaths, 562
Kanthack, F. E., go
Kaonde Tribe, 609
Kapok, 207, 329
Karakal Sheep, 329, 429, 430
Karamoja, 77
Karissimbi Mountain, 101
Karonga, 552
Karoo Bush, 169
Karroo, 71, 87, 147, 266
INDEX
Kasai, 500: River, 357
Katana, 501
Katanga, 426; Air surveying, 58, 59;
Comité Special du —: forestry service,
185: geological surveys, 70: mapping,
136, 304, 305; pasture research, 173:
surveying, 34, 43,52: Geodetic triangu-
lation, 34, 43: Locust research, 264;
Maps, 34, 52, 73, 136; Medical service,
498; Meteorological service, 101;
National Parks, 231; Plant ecology,
162, 163, 201; Soil map, 136; Typhoid,
552; Water-power Stations, 81, 82;
Woods, production of, 205
Katega, 498
Katibougou, 328
Katsina: College, 402; Dietary research,
573, 574; Electrical prospecting for
water, 84; Emirate, population of, 378,
560; Field veterinary laboratory, 323
Kauntze, Dr. W. H., 461, 484
Kavirondo Gulf, Lake Victoria, 139, 600;
Agricultural Station, 320; Air survey-
ing, 58; North —, Tsetse control in,
277: Geological survey, 63 7.; South —,
Reserve, 192
Kawanda, 320
Keeling, B. E. F., 102
Keetmanshoop, 475
Kelly, Dr. F. C., 309
Kemp, RR. Gi, 57
Kemp, Dr. S. W., 247
Kenchington, F. E., 244
Kennedy, J. D., 157, 198
Kenya, 86, 176, 509, 561; Agriculture,
192, 193, 342, 344, 372-5, 378, 387,
388, 406: Commission, 137: Depart-
ment of, 131, 150, 315, 320: research
on, 131, 207, 317, 320, 359; Air survey-
ing, 598; Animal industry, 421-3;
Animal Industry Division, 227, 423;
Anthropology, 595, 597, 599, 600, 602,
610; Arbor Society, 193; Arboretum,
150; Birds, 224, 225; Botanical re-
search, 146, 148, 150, 156, 161, 162;
British Medical Association in, 480;
Cattle-breeding, 421-3; Cereals, cul-
tivation of, 342, 344; Climate, 112, 256,
589; Coffee industry, 133, 259, 286,
287, 363; Composting, 387, 388, 406;
Dairy farming, 422, 423; Demographic
data, 563, 564; Diseases, human, 520,
521, 536, 539, 542, 552, 5553 Diseases,
stock, 297-300, 320, 445-7; Ecology,
161; Entomological research, 261, 296,
Essential oils produced, 374; Europeans
in, 403, 559, 589; Farmers’ Associa-
tions, 408, 409; Fauna, 219; Fertilizers
imported, 407, 408; Fish, 219, 250,
253; Fisheries, freshwater, 242, 243,
250, 251; marine, 241; Forestry De-
INDEX
Kenya—(cont.)
partment, 181; Forests, 161, 180, 188,
192, 193, 200: destruction of, 378:
replanting, 188, 193: reserves, 186,
192; Game animals, 212, 219: Depart-
ment, 219, 243; Geodetic surveying,
36, 43; Geology & Mines Department,
63, 64; Geranium farms, 374; Ghee
industry, 459, 460; Herbarium, 150;
Horses in, 433; Hospitals, 483, 484;
Housing, 483; Hydrology, 78; Insect
pests in, 259, 286, 287, 293; Irrigation,
78; Land Commission (1934), 137, 378,
435, 559; Locusts in, 172; Mangrove
swamps, 162; Maps, 48, 49, 72; Meat
industry, 456; Medical Department,
277, 483, 563, 572, 586: research, 461,
483, 584: services, 483, 484, 504, 568:
training Africans for, 513; Meteoro-
logical service, 100: Stations, 99;
Mineral resources, 78; Mining, 179;
Mixed farming, 306; Museums, 218;
National parks proposed, 232; Nutri-
tion of natives in, 564, 572, 574, 578,
579; Overgrazing in, 172, 435; Pasture
Research, . TAG, 166, 170, 172, 429;
Population, European, census of, 484,
599: native, census of, 484; Property
surveys, 28, 36; Railways, 26; Rainfall,
161: Stations, 99; Rift valleys, 86, 172,
242; Sanitation, 483, 484, 568; Sheep
farming, 429; Shifting cultivation, 192,
378; Soil, 406-408: erosion, 137-41,
193, 422, 435: surveys of, 140: map,
132; Soil survey, 78, 140; Survey
Department, 49; Surveying, 40, 48,
49, 78; Tick survey, 298; Timber, 193,
204; Trees, 199, 200; Trigonometrical
survey, 49; Tsetse in, 277, 278, 535;
Turkana Province, 78, 483; Veterin-
ary Department, 460: research, 297,
320: training, 422; Water-supply, 78,
161; Wattle cultivation, 193, 373; Wool
exported, 429; Zoological research,
218, 219, 223
Kenya, Mount, 156, 161
Kenya & Uganda Natural History
Society, 224
Kerekere, 174
Kerosene, 282, 285
Kerstingiella, 339, 345
Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens, 150, 152,
153, 309, 336, 582; Botanical research,
145, 146, 157, 158, 167; Crop research,
338, 341, 345, 353; Essential oils,
assistance to African Industry, 374;
Herbarium, 145; Tung oil research,
S13
Kew Bulletin, 156, 167, 338
Khalil, M., 296
Kharga, 102
717
Khartoum, 44, 76, 91, 92, 249; Agricul-
tural research, 131, 314; Kitchener
School of Medicine, 506, 507; Meteoro-
logy, 102; Zoological Gardens, 218
Khasi Hills, Assam, 106
Khaya, 200
Khoisan Peoples of South Africa, 613
Khus-Khus Grass, 407
Kiambu, 406: District, 193
Kiambu-Ruiru Area, 363
Kidd, Dudley, 596, 608
Kigezi, 251, 252; Altitudinal zonation,
161; Cattle tuberculosis, 449; Leper
colony, 549; Louse-typhus, 542; Soil
erosion, 380
Kikuyu: Agricultural Station, 320; Grass,
169, 172, 173: Cause of decreased milk
‘production, 174; Re-afforestation, 193;
Reserve, 373: Contour cultivation,
380: Irish potatoes cultivated, 361,
362: Land scarcity, 378, 440: over-
stocking, 440; Tribe, 586: Dental caries
among, 577: Fish-eating prejudice,
237: Goats as bride-price, 431: Magi-
cal beliefs, 610: Nutrition of, 572,
ath:
Kilifi, 278, 320
Kilimanjaro, Mount, 393; Botanical
exploration, 156; Native co-operative
union, 397; Vegetation, 162, 200
Kilomoto Gold-mines, 249
Kimberley, 91, 93; McGregor Museum,
147, 216
Kindia, 328, 329, 494
Kindt, Mount, 152
King William’s Town, 250; Kaffrarian
Museum, 216
Kingatori Estate, 406
Kingolwira, 319
King’s African Rifles, 40
Kioga, Lake, 164, 242
Kirkpatrick, T. W., 119, 285, 287, 363
Kirstenbosch, National Botanic Gardens,
147
Kisantu, 152, 332, 426, 501
Kisantu-lemfu, 332
Kisenyi, 332, 452
Kisumu, 91, 254, 277, 483
Kitale, Stoneham Museum, 218
Kitara, Kingdom of, 604
Kitchen, S. F., 527
Kitchener School
Khartoum
Kitobola, 426
Kitson, Sir Albert, 61, 63
Kitson, Miss Elisabeth, 602
Kivu, 332, 426: Lake, 231, 249; Meteoro-
logy, 101; Vegetation, 162, 177
Kiya River, 535
Klintworth, H., 130
Knox, A., 90
of Medicine, — see
718
Knysna, 160, 177; Forest Research Sta-
tion, 119
Koja, 321
Kola nuts, 208, 372; Research, 322, 324:
Trees, 208, 372
Kolo, 328
Konakry, see Conakry
Konde Tribe, 610
Kongo Tribe, 609
Kontoukale, 328
K6éppen, W., 90, 98
Kordofan Province, 207
Korea, 338
Korle Bu, 514
Koroko, 329
Kotze, J. J., 199
Kpelle Tribe, 612
Kpeve, 323
Krenkel, E., 73
Krige, E. J., 608
Krige, Mrs., 609
Krishna Valley Zebu, 421
Kroondal, 370
Kroonstad Experimental Station, 342
Kruger Nationa] Park, Transvaal, 217,
228-30, 232, 233
Krugersdorp, 599
Kuczynski, Dr., 557, 567
Kuka Tree see Baobab
Kumasi, 26, 515; Cadbury Hall, 324,
402; Crop Research, 360, 372; Her-
barium, 150; Hospital, 487; Hunter
Hostel, 324, 401
Kumi, 549
Kunene River, 116
Kuweraza, 551
Kwango, 500
La Mé, 329, 351
Labadi, 246
Laboratoire d’ Agronomie Coloniale, Paris, 327
Labouret, Professor H., 575, 612
Lady Coryndon Maternity ‘Training
School, 513
Lady Grigg Welfare League, 484
Laeken Colonial Garden, 152
Laforgue, P., 599
Lagos, 79, 91, 401, 465, 506, 524; African
hospital, 486, 508; European mortality
in, 587; Fishery, attempt to establish,
246; Malaria in, 295, 296; Medical
laboratory, 480: training, 486, 508;
Population census, 559; Rat-flea index,
538; Registration of births and deaths,
562; School of Pharmacy, 514
Lagos Rubber, 208
Lahmeyer, F., 102
Laigret, Dr. J., 297, 494, 527
Lake Plateau Basin, 76
Lake Province, see under Tanganyika
Lakes: Algae, 158; Artificial, proposed,
INDEX
116; Ecology, 242, 250; Fauna, 242,
244; Fisheries, 241-6, 248, 249, 251,
252; Hydrobiological investigation,
249; Hydrology, 78; Levels, change in,
6, 100, 105, 113, 114—see also Great
Lakes 5
Lamba Tribe, 609
Lambert, H. E., 388
Lamborn, W. A., 277
Lambwe River, 277
Lamsiekte, 168, 444
Lamu, 483
Lamy, A., 163
Land Surveying, see Surveying
Land Titles, 27-30
Land Utilization, 377; Data, 15, 16;
Forestry, service, 15, 188, 189, 200;
Need for co-ordination, 17; Pests,
effect on, 13; Surveys for, 16, 193, 199
Land-snails, 211
Lane-Poole, C. E., 157, 199
Lang, R., 120
Langgewens, 344
Lango District, 548
Lango Tribes, 611
Languages, 593, 594, 601, 603, 604, 607
Lapicque’s formula for brain size, 585
Lasiodernia, 293
Laterite soils, 130, 135 & n.
Lateritic soils, 127, 130, 135 & n.
Lates, see Albert Perch
Latham, G. C., 471
Laufer, B., 371
Lavauden, L., 163
Lavender, Essential Oil of, 374
Lavergne, M., 351
Lawrence, D. A., 300
Le Hérissé, A., 612
Le Pelley, R. H., 286; 267
Leach, R., 290, 364
League of Nations, Health Section, 464-
466, 490, 583; General Advisory Health
Council, 463; Health Section of Secre-
tariat, 463; International Commis-
sions: Human trypanosomiasis, 528,
543: Malaria, 464: Tuberculosis, 543;
Permanent Commission on Biological
Standardization, 464, 580; Reports:
Malaria, 518, 520; Nutrition, 572;
Tuberculosis, 543; Standing Health
Committee, 463, 464
Leake, Dr. H. Martin, 398, 399
Leakey, Dr. L.'S. B87; 112, 362;c440;
599, 600, 602
Lean, O. B., 263, 264, 286
Lebrun, J., 152, 163, 201
Legumes, 143, 146, 166, 170, 172, 174,
203, 406, 579; Experimental stations,
314, 325, 331; For Manure, 325, 382,
385; Nitrogenous Properties, 141, 189,
385
INDEX
Leiper, Professor R. T., 309, 550
Leitch, J., 572
Leith-Ross, Mrs. S., 611
Lely, H. V., 157, 198
emoine, P.; 73
Lemongrass Oil, 375
Leopoldville, 92, 332, 426; Croix-Rouge du
Congo in, 500; Medical School, 510;
Native population, 500; State labora-
tory, 498
Leplae, E., 330
Leppan, Professor H. D., 95, 305, 338, 345
Leprosy, 464, 465, 4.72, 517; Settlements,
475, 487, 490, 495, 496, 500, 548-50;
Survey, 548; Treatment of, 209, 374,
495, 510, 546-50
Lespedeza, 1'72
Eester, Dr. A. R., 274, 562, 563
Leucoptera, see Coffee Leaf-miner
Levelling, 4, 42, 59, 75, 76
Leverhulme Trustees, 523, 597
Levy, L. F., 582
Levyns, Mrs. M. R., 154, 158, 159
Lewis, A. D., 95, 428
Lewis, C. G., 57
iewis. D. J., 276
Lewis, E. A., 298, 299
Lianes, 199
Liberia, 464; Anthropological survey,
612; Cattle, 413, 414, 416; Climate,
109; Diseases, human, 524, 526; Maps
of, 53; Rubber plantations, 371
Libya, 52, 92, 102
Libyan Desert, 81, 102
Lice, 261, 297, 540
Liebig, Messrs., 422, 456
Liege, University of, 231
Life of a South African Tribe, 596
Light Intensity, 121, 160
Lilongwe, 319, 370
Lily Vlei Nature Reserve, 177
Lime: Deficiency in soils, 135; Fertilizer,
134, 348
Limes, cultivation of, 368
Limestone, 134
Limpopo: Grass, 169: River, 160, 372:
Lindblom, Dr. K. G., 598, 605, 606,
610
Linen Industry Research Station, Lam-
beg, Ireland, 359
Linognathoides, 297
Linton, R., 371
Lira, 321
Lisala, 92
Lisbon, 538
Lister, Sir Spencer, 543, 555
Lithological Soils, 132
Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine,
468, 469
Livingston, B. E., 120
Livingstone, 81, 594; Museum, 219
719
Lizards, 212-14
Lloyd, Dr., Ll., 275
Lloyd, W., 527
Loanda, 92, 98, 502, 533
Lobatsi, 476, 511
Lobelias, Columnar, 156
Lobi Tribe, 612
Locusts, 172, 580; Bionomics of, 263, 265;
Brown —, 258, 266; Control, 262, 268:
biological, 264: conferences on, 262,
264: international co-operation in,
266; organization for, 261, 262: per-
manent organizations for, 266: poison
spraying, 265; Damage by, 258, 263;
Desert —, 261, 263, 264, 266, 267;
Ecology, 13; Field investigation, 262-
266; Intermittancy, 13, 258, 2627.; Lab-
oratory research, 260, 263-5; Maps of
movements and incidence, 262, 264;
Migratory —, 258, 263-5; Movements,
forecasting, 264; Outbreak areas,
262-4, 266; Parasites of, 264; Periodicity
of population, 6, 7, 114, 263; ‘Phase’
theory, 262 n., Red —, 258, 263, 264,
266; Species, 258; Weather, effect of,
264
Logone River, 115
Lombard, J., 75
Lomé, 85, 497
Lonchocarpus, 375
London Convention, 219, 234
London Missionary Society, 4.76
London School of Economics, Anthropo-
logical Department, 20, 596
London School of Hygiene and Tropical
Medicine, 467-9, 490, 497, 518, 550;
Tsetse research, 276, 277, 530
London University, 509, 596
Long, Dr. E. C., 475
Long-horned Cattle, 411, 414
Lorrain Smith, Miss, 158
Louga, 328
Lounsbury, C. P., 295, 298, 299, 443
Lourencgo Marques, 53, 91, 92; Campos
Rodrigues Observatory, 98; Fruit
cultivation, 367, 368; Locust research,
264; Medical research labs., 502;
Veterinary Pathology laboratory, 333;
Weather forecasts, 93
Louse-typhus, see T'yphus
Louvain University, 330; Centres Agrono-
miques au Congo, 332; Fondation Médicale
au Congo, see FOMULAQC; Pedological
Institute, 136
Loveridge, Dr. A., 223
Low Temperature Research Stations, see
Cambridge and Capetown
Lualaba River, 34
Luapula River, 42
Luba Tribe, 609
Lubago, 319
720
Lubilya River, 467
Lucerne, 169, 345, 457
Lucilia, 299
Lufira River, 82
Lula, 331
Luluaborg, 92
Lunar Influences on Weather, 98
Lung-worm, 227
Lupa Goldfields, 244
Lusaka, go, 91, 459, 480
Lusambe, 92: Province, 357
Lutjeharms, Prof. W. J., 147
Lyamungu, 319, 363
Lygus, see Capsid bugs
Lyle Cummins, Professor S., 543-5
Lymphangitis, 445
Lynn, C. W., 384
Lyons, Captain H. G. (Sir Henry Lyons),
44, 90, 100, 110
Macaulay Institute for Soil Research,
Aberdeen, 128
MacCarthy Island Province,
Gambia
MacClean, A. P. D., 282
Macdonald, D., 609
Macenta, 328
MacGregor, W. D., 163, 200
Machakos Reserve, 192
Macina, 80
Mackay, R., 521
Mackenzie, D. R., 610
Mackenzie, Dr. M. D., 464
Mackie, J. R., 338, 381, 415
Maclean, G., 533
Macklin, Mrs. R. W., 489
Macleod, Brigadier M. N., 32, 46, 47 7.,
6
see under
5
Madagascar, 69, 151, 229, 290, 606;
Crops, 339; Fisheries, 248, 249; Gov-
ernment Air Service, 91; Maps of, 51;
Medical services, 494, 507; Meteoro-
logical service, 93, 97, 98: Potato, see
under Potato; Soil studies, 135
Madimba, 332
Madras, 245, 343, 386
Madrid Geographical Society, 53
Mafeking, 475
Magic, 611
Magnetic Meteorological Data, 98, 99
Magnetic prospecting, 82, 83
Magut, 326
Mahamba, 476
Mahogany, 204
Maiduguri, 323
Mair, Dr. Lucy, 610
Maire, R., 163
Maitland, T. D., 363
Maize, 170, 305, 306, 340, 407, 408, 457;
Diseases of, 281, 282, 342; Experimen-
tal Stations, 320, 322, 323, 342; Fer-
INDEX
tilizer, 134, 342, 406; Insect pests of,
281-4, 294, 341, 357: Meal, 237;
Research on, 318, 325, 343, 344; Rota-
tion crops, 342, 357, 370, 383; Syn-
thetic, 342: Stalk-borer, 281
Makalanga cattle, 414
Maken, 488
Makerere College, 149; Agricultural
training, 149, 401, 402; Medical train-
ing, 509; Surveying, training in, 39
Makwapala, 318
Malakal, 59 2., 76, 91
Malan, A. | 429
Malaria, 482, 510, 517, 553; Control, 14,
518, 519: by agricultural development,
519: by eradicating mosquitoes, 295,
296, 497, 518, 519, 522: by sanitation,
295, 296, 518, 519; Effects, 520; Inci-
dence, 295, 296, 521, 563; League of
Nations reports on, 518, 520; Local
variations in, 518; Research on, 468,
474, 521; Therapeutics, 518, 520, 521;
Transmission, 521; Vectors—see Mala-
ria Mosquitoes
Malaria Mosquitoes, 257,
mics, 295; Control of,
22s Ecology, 295
Malarial Commission, League of Nations,
see under League of Nations
Malaya, 208, 349, 581
Malayan Forester, 184
Malcolm, D. W., 207
Malignant diseases, 556
Malinowski, Professor B., 596, 607
Mallamaire, A., 288
Mally, C., 281
Malnutrition, 518, 551, 557, 569-71,
575-7, 583; see also Nutrition and Dis-
eases, Deficiency
Mammals, 211, 216, 223; conservation
of, 212, 220
Mamprusi, North, 383
Man, 613
Manchester, ethnological collections at,
523; Biono-
295; 296, 518-
598
Mandingo Tribe, 612
Manganese, Distribution of, 67, 68
Mangeot, Général, 116
Mangolds, 457
Mangrove: Forests, 164, 186; Products
from, 205, 206; Swamp, 162: utilized
for rice growing, 343, 344
Manihot, see Cassava
Mann, Dr. Harold H., 364
Mansonia, 300
Manuring, 125, 377, 381, 384, 462, 586;
ecology of, 170; Experiments in, 130,
133, 134, 142, 172, 323; Farmyard, 133,
134, 171, 322, 348, 384, 388-94, 405;
Green —, II, 134, 373, 385, 386, 393:
Experiments in, 314, 323, 325, 346:
INDEX
Manuring—(cont.)
Rotation crop, 322, 382, 384; Kraal,
—, 321; Pasture, 167, 169; Research,
129, 314, 33!
Maps: Air surveying for, 53-9; Artifacts,
distribution of, 605; Cadastral, 25 n.,
47; Cost of, 37; Demographic data,
566, 567; Economic, 51, 163; Geologi-
cal, 51, 52, 61, 63, 66, 68-74, 128, 136;
Hydrographical, 52; Importance of, 4,
5; Inaccuracy of, 26, 45, 46, 304, 305;
Locust movements, 262, 264; Main-
tenance, 35, 38; Orographical, 51, 523
Phyto-geographical, 161; Political, 51,
52; Population, 567; Production of, 35,
38; Projection of, 46; Publication of
45-7; Rainfall, 51, 100, 108; Soil, 52,
128, 129 & n., 132, 133, 136, 161; Soil-
vegetation, 133; Topographical, 25 n.,
27, 31-34, 375 39) 41; 45, 47-53, 55, 51,
8, 136; and see under separate districts;
Tsetse distribution, 278; Unit of mea-
surement, 46, 47; Vegetation, 52, 136,
160-3, 199; War Office, 31, 45, 47-50,
52; Weather, 97, 105, 108: of continent,
264
Maragoli, 610
Marandellas, 314.
Marbut, C. F., go, 128, 159
Marchand, J. M., 255
Marchoux, Professor, 522
Marett, Dr. R. R., 596
Mariakani, 422
Marienthal, 97
Marine Biological Association, Plymouth,
247
Marine Fauna, 240, 244, 252
Marine Investigation in South Africa, 239
Markhan,, S. F., 215 7.
Marloth, R., 154, 159
Marquardsen, H., 98
Marshall, Sir Guy, 260, 309
Marshall, R. C., 196
Martin, Dr. F. J., 132) 133, 195 & n.
Martoglio, F., 297
Martonne, E. de, 33, 80, 120
Martrou, P. L., 304
Masai cattle, 171
Masai Reserve, 422
Masai Tribe, 429, 610; Demographic
data, 563; Grazing rights, 233; Nutri-
tion of, 572, 573, 577
Masanki, 325, 351
Maseno, 422
Maseru, 475
Mashonaland, 359, 608
Mashuma Cattle, 418
Massee, G., 158
Massey, R. E., 157, 175, 199
Mastitis infection, 458
Matabeleland, 314
2A
721
Matadi, 92, 332, 426, 527
Maternity Services, 484; Africans trained
for, 511, 515; and see Midwives; Centres,
470, 487, 489, 496, 497; Hospitals, 473,
491-3, 500-2, 513-15; Need for, 475
Matgesfontein, 147
Mathis, C., 297
Matopo, 314
Matroosberg, 93
Matthews, Dr. R. J., 544
Mattisse, General, 494
Mattlet, G., 554
Mau Summit, 320
Maufe, Dr. H. B., 63, 130, 160
Maun, 476
Mauritania, 33, 51, 69, 248, 329, 414
Maury, Commandant J., 42, 43, 46
Maxwell-Darling, R. C., 263
Maynard, Dr., 470
Mayumbe, 332
Mazabuka, 318, 326, 357
Mazoe Citrus Research Station, 314
M’Babane, 476
M’Bambey, 329; Experimental station
for groundnuts, 135, 293, 328, 329,
347
Mbarara, 321
Mbega, gI
Mbeya, 99
Mbundu Tribe of Angola, 609
McCall, Major, 434
McCarrison, Sir Robert, 574
McCulloch, Dr. W. E., 348, 573, 574, 586
McDonald, J., 176, 363
McGregor Museum, Kimberley, see Kim-
berley
Mealy bug, 259, 287, 290
Measles, 556; In calves, 448
Meat: Dried, 455, 575, 579; Eaten by
natives, 392, 411, 455, 551, 573-5; 579
581; Expor ted, 455; Factories, 392,
455, 459; Goat’s, 4315 Preservation of,
STO, = 3E2: research on, 333, 454-6;
Quality, 558; Salted, 455; Smoked, 455;
Tinned, 455; see also Beef and Mutton
Medani, 314, 315, 356
Méderdre, 329
Medicago, see Lucerne
Medical Congress, 1935, Grahamstown,
88
Medical orderlies, African, 511
Medical passports, 466, 467
Medical Research Council, 468, 469, 576
Medical schools for Africans, 474, 484,
491, 492, 497, 506-12, 515
Medical Services: African’ subordinate
staff—see Dispensers, Doctors, Mater-
nity Services, Nursing Services, etc.;
British Empire organization, 467-70;
Co-operation of administrative depart-
ments needed, 462, 569; International
7292
Medical Services—(cont.)
organization, 467-70; Missionary—see
under Missions; Mining Companies—
see under Mining; Organization in
Africa, 467-503; Payment for, 503-5;
Preventative, 461, 469, 484, 499, 568-
570; Propaganda for, 466, 471, 515, 516,
551, 552, 570, 571, 581; Research for,
474, 478-80; Rural, 465, 569-71
Medical Surveys, 562-4, 567
Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of South
Africa, 154
Medicinal Drugs, Vegetable, 165, 166,
209
Meek, Dr. C. K., 594, 595, 611
Melanesia, 593
Melita, 92
Mellanby, Sir Edward and Lady, 577
Mellanby, Dr. K. E., 278, 467, 530
Melland, F. H., 595, 609
Melsetter District, 272
Memoirs of the Botanical Survey of South
Africa, 313
Mendonga, F. A., 155
Mengo, 470, 485, 549
Meningitis, 474
Mental diseases, 472, 474, 483, 485
Merino sheep, 329, 330, 428-31
Merino wool, 428
Merker, M., 610
Merrett, Dr., 524
Mertens, E., 207
Meru, 200
Metabolism of natives, 580, 583, 584
Metalnikoy, S., 283
Meteorological Office, 264
Meteorology: Air transport services, 88,
89, 93; 95, 99, 101-3, 107, 108; Inter-
national co-operation in, 88, 90; Or-
ganization, 89, 90, 92-I1I, 314;
Records, 88-go, 96; Relation to other
Sciences, 3, 9, 88, 89, 99, 115-22, 196;
Stations, 89, 93, 97-9, IOI, 102, 106-9,
111, 196; Use in locust control, 264
Methodist Mission, 490
Metric System, 46
Mettam, R. W. M., 165
Meunier, A., 163
Meyer, A., 120
Meyer, H., 162
Michaelsen, W., 240
Michell, M. R., 159
Michelmors, A. P. G., 263
Microbracon, 283, 285
Midwives, Africans trained as, 485, 486,
489, 491, 493, 497, 501, 505, 506, 511,
513-15, 569-71
Miers, Sir Henry, 215 n.
Migeod, F. W. H., 612
Mildbraed, J., 156, 161, 164
Milk, 174, 414, 457; Breeding for—see
INDEX
under Cattle breeding; Goat’s, 440; In
native diet, 573, 574; Pasteurized, 458;
Supplied to children, 459
Mill Hill Catholic Mission, 514, 549
Millet, 8, 360, 384, 457, 582; Bulrush —,
338, 341, 386; Finger —, 19, 190, 339,
342, 379, 388; Insect pestsiof, 281;
Native food, 237, 573, 575
Millous, Dr. le, 533
Milne, G., 131-3
Milne-Redhead, E., 155, 160
Mineral Resources, 5, 30; Air surveying
for, 57; Geological surveying for, 61,
63 & n., 64, 66-8; Geophysical pros-
pecting for, 83, 84; Reference collec-
tions, 66; and see Mining
Mineral Salts: Deficiency in animal diet,
129, 167, 175: in native diet, 237, 570,
573, 574, 578, 579, 581, 582: in soil,
407, 408; Effect on fertility, 129, 134,
141, 168, 365 and see separate minerals
Mining, 3, 30, 68, 69, 72, 73, 81, 179, 190,
244, 249, 305, 558: Areas, 542, 543,
556, 575; Companies: Air surveys by,
59: Geological surveys by, 63, 66-8, 70:
Medical services of, 471, 473, 478, 481,
499, 501, 502; Concessions, 58, 179,
195; Copper, 68, 81, 244; Gold, 474,
511, 531; Licences, (64; Righisii67;5
Timber used in, 179, 195
Ministerio das Colonias, see Ministry of
Colonies, Portuguese
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries,
242, 247
Ministry of Colonies (Belgian), 34, 42, 52,
330, 338, 498, 549
Ministry of Colonies (French), 51, 68,
104, 163, 490, 491
Ministry of Colonies (Italian), 52
Ministry of Colonies (Portuguese), Lis-
bon, 34, 53, 333.
Minot, A., 80
Minziro, 200
Mirendeza Cattle, 427
Mirrlees, 8. T. A., 90, 106, 110,112
Mission de Buta, 426
Missionaries, 587, 594, 595
Missions Etrangéres, 502
Missions, Medical, 462, 466, 469-70,
474-8, 481, 483, 485, 487, 488, 492,
496-8, 500-3, 512, 549, 568. See also
Hospitals; and under separate missionary
societies
Missions Nationales, 500
Mitchell, Dr. J. A., 472
Mitchell, J. P., 578
Mitchell, W. B. G., 204
Mixed Cropping, 11, 286, 385, 386
Mixed farming, II, 12, 301, 306, 322,
410, 424; Basis of, 389; Dependent
upon control of disease, 390; Experi-
INDEX
Mixed farming—(cont.)
mental, 383; Extension of, 315, 383,
384, 389-92, 439; Tsetse control by,
276, 533
Mkalama, 548
Mkuzi Reserve, 230
Mlanje, 318, 364, 552
Mlingano, 319, 358, 359
Mnene Medical Mission, 548
Moffat, U. J., 342, 379
Mogadishu, 52, 92
Mogg, A. O. D., 160
Moggridge, J. Y., 121
Mokhotlon, 475 7.
Molteno Institute, Cambridge, 468
Mombasa, 91, 561; Fish marketing, 254;
Fishery survey, 241, 243; Hospital, 483;
Population, 558
Mondombes sheep, 431
Mongalla, 59 7., 535
Monod, Dr. T., 248
Monrovia, 53, 92
Monsoons, 9, 103, 105, 377; South-east,
100; South-west, 106, 110, 111, 196
Montgomery, E., 299
Moor, H. W., 196
Moor Plantation Laboratory, Ibadan, see
Ibadan
Moore, E. S., 289
Moors in Africa, 507
Moreau, R. E., 224, 225
Morgan, M. T., 525
Morison, C. G. T., 126, 128, 131
Morocco, 104, 297, 413, 418, 545
Morocco, French, 51, 103, 173, 248, 452
Morocco, Spanish, 53, 103
Morogoro, 192, 218, 319, 407
Morris, Sir William, R. E., 31
Mortality: Child, 522, 552, 563, 587;
Europeans, 587; Infant, 522, 563, 565-
567, 570; Maternal, 565; Prisoners in
Uganda, 577
Mosaic disease: Cassava, 13, 14, 286, 360;
Maize, 282; Sugar-cane, 282, 372;
Tobacco, 289; Transmission of, 282
Moshi, 91, 544, 548; Coffee experimental
station, 131, 319, 363
Moslems, 525
Mosquitoes, 197, 261, 295, 526; Control
of, 259, 493, 497; Disease transmitted
by, 295-300; Vectors of, 526, and see
Malaria Mosquitoes
Moss, C. E., 154
Moss, Mrs., 154.
Mossel Bay, 240
Mossop, M. C., 288, 293
Moths, 258, 281, 284, 292, 293
Moulds, 141, 175
Mound Cultivation, 8, 380, 382
Mount Edgecombe, 311, 372
Mountains; flora, 146, 156,
159, 177:
723
forests, 162, 177: vegetation, 164
Moyamba, 488
Mozambique, 91, 161, 256, 464; Agricul-
tural Department, 333; Agriculture,
353, 354, 358, 372; Air services, 92;
Animal Husbandry Department, 333;
Anthropological research, 596, 608;
Botany, 152; Cattle breeding, 427:
Company, 34, 71, 98; Fruit research,
367, 368; Game reserves, 222; Geo-
logical department, 70; Locust re-
search, 264; Maps, 34, 53; Medical
SEIVICES, 502; Meteorology, 93, 97, 98;
Surveying, 34, 43; Tsetse in, 13, 267;
Veterinary services, 333
Mpanganya, 319, 344
M’Pésoba, 328
Mpika, 91, 99, 190
Mpwapwa, 421, 448, 459; Veterinary
Department Laboratory, 171, 319,
440, 482
Msinga, 437
Mtitu Bacon Factory, Dabaga, 432
Mtoko, 548
Mucuna, see Bengal Beans
Mufulira Company, 481
Mufumbiro Volcanoes, see Mufumbira
Muheza, 368
Muhugu oil, 374
Muir, J., 160
Mulago Medical School, see under Kam-
pala
Mulches, 142, 407
Mulungu-Tahibinda, 332
Mundulea, 375
Munro, Professor J. W., 292, 293, 310, 353
Munshi Tribe, 348
Murchison Falls, 76
Murdjadjo Range, 104
Murray vacreator, 458
Musée du Congo Belge, Tervueren, see
Tervueren, Congo Museum
Musée National d’ Histoire Naturelle,
see Paris
Musée Royal d’ Histoire Naturelle, see under
Brussels
Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology,
Cambridge, see Cambridge
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Har-
vard, 223
Museums: African, 87, 147, 148 n., 150,
215 n., 216-19, 223; American, 222,
229; European, 145, '47; 1505 052%
205, 221, 222, 231, 247-9, 598, 605, see
also British Museum
Music, 613
Musoma District, 232, 304, 459
Mutton, 333, 428, 430, 431
Mvule, 204 n., 205
Mvuvye River, 370
Mwabogole, 344
Paris,
724. INDEX
Mwanza, 139, 392, 411, 456, 513
Mweru, Lake, 55
Mweru, Mount, 132
Mycobacterium, 546
Mycology, 146-8, 175, 176, 260, 292, 309
Mycorrhiza, 141
Myiasis, 299, 300
Nadel, Dr. S. T., 594, 611
Nagana fever, see Trypanosomiasis
Nairobi, g1, 136, 232, 479, 480, 561;
Africans trained for medical services,
513; Agricultural Department, 315,
320; Arboretum, 150; Coryndon Mem-
orial Museum, 148 n., 149, 150, 218,
223; Fish supply, 483; Hospitals, 483;
Manure manufacture, 406; Medical
laboratory, 483, 580, 583; Meteoro-
logical Office, 99; Population census,
559; Scott Agricultural Laboratories,
150, 320, 363, 3743; Sheep Disease, 299,
8
44
Naivasha, 168, 172, 320, 422
Naivasha, Lake, 250, 251, 252
Nakuru, 374
Namaqua caitle, see Afrikander Cattle
Nandi Tribe, 610
Napier Grass, 173
Nara, 329
Nash, Dr. T. A. M., 268 & n., 270, 274,
275, 277
Natal, 110, 230, 347, 474, 608; Agricul-
ture, 169, 311, 326, 371-4, 437; Botani-
cal research, 147, 154, 160; East coast
fever, 297; Fisheries, 240, 250, 255:
Department, 238, 239, 253; Geological
survey, 62; Government herbarium—
see under Durban; Maps, 48; Museum,
SCE Pietermaritzburg; Soil erosion, 437;
Survey Department, 30; University
College, 147, 251
National Committee for Geodesy and
Geophysics, 32
National Health Insurance, 472, 504, 505
National Herbarium, Pretoria, see under
Pretoria
National Parks, 177, 217, 221, 249; Con-
servation of game in, 212, 222, 228-
233, 235
National Trawling and Fishing Com-
pany of Capetown, 254
National Zoological Gardens of South
Africa, see under Pretoria
Native Medical Units, 511
Native Tobacco Board, 318
Nature, 81, 146
Naudé, Dr. T. J., 142, 291
Nazarine Mission, 476
Ndalaga, Lake, 249
N’Dama Cattle, 413, 416, 425
Ndanda, 548
Neanderthal People, 600
Neave, Dr. S. A., 257 n.
Negritos, 601
Negro Racial Group, 601, 603, 604, 611
Negro-hamitic Racial Group, 601
Nelspruit, 311, 367
Nematode Worms, 175, 370, 550
Nematospora, 285
Neolithic Remains, 600
New Zealand, 408 ;
Newcastle disease of poultry, 448
Newton Fruit Farm, 325, 367, 368
Ngami, Lake, 115
Ngege, 241, 242, 255
Ngetta, 361, 385, 386
N’gomahuru, 5438
Ngomeni, 359
Ngong, 422
Ngorongoro Crater, 171, 232
Nguni Tribe, 602; Southern —, 608
Niamey, 91, 92, 491
Niaouli, 329
Nicholson, J. W., 161
Nicolle, C., 297
Nieschulz, L. O., 300
Niger Colony: Agriculture, 328; Anthro-
pology, 612; Medical services, 491,
493; Topographical mapping, 33, 51;
Water-supply, 70, 80
Niger River, 80, 112, 115, 415; Delta,
343; 383; Fishing, 245; 246, 248; Irri-
gation, 135, 327, 344, 357; Middle —,
266: Irrigation, 5, 75, 80
Nigeria, 149, 206, 207, 224, 279, 556;
Agriculture, 194, 326, 338, 339, 341,
343, 346, 354-6, 359-62, 365, 366,
372, 378, 381, 382, 385, 390: Depart-
ment of, 150, 276, 315, 322, 361, 362,
368, 371, 381, 385, 388, 389, 396:
native, 8, 398, 399: research, 133, 317,
222, 322: training of Africans in, 401,
402; Animal Health Department, 322-
324; Animal Industry, 322, 323, 414-16,
424, 425; Anthropological research,
594, 597, 611; Benue Province, 348,
349; Botanical Gardens, 150: research,
148, 150; Cacao, cultivation of, 365,
366; Calabar Province, 560; Cattle in,
414-16, 424; Cereals, cultivation of,
339, 341, 343, 382; Cocoa, cultivation
of, 194, 381: pests of, 292, 293: Societies,
396; Co-operative Societies, 395-7;
Cotton cultivation; 326, 354-6, 381,
390; Dairy farming, 424; Desiccation
alleged, 107, 116, 1875)089tscases:
human, 487, 524, 546, 547, 549, 576:
stock, 390, 450, 451; Entomology, staff
for, 261; Europeans in, health of, 587;
Fisheries, 245, 248; Fodder crops, cul-
tivation of, 346; Forestry Department,
181, 183, 195, 198, 204, 207, 277, 3385
INDEX
Nigeria—(cont.)
Forests, 163, 182, 183, 194, 200: des-
truction of, 194, 195: reserves, 183,
186, 194, 195, 200; Fruit, cultivation
of, 368; Game animals in, 221, 274:
reserves, 233; Geodetic surveying, 41,
42; Geological Department, 64-6, 73,
79, 116: surveying, 63, 65; Gold-
mining, 531; Grasses, 173; Gum arabic
cultivation, 207; Hospitals, 486, 487;
Hydrology, 79, 80; Indigo dyeing,
340; Insect pests in, 282, 283, 285,
286; Kola cultivation, 372; Leper
settlements, 487; Locust research, 263,
264; Maps, 41, 48, 49; Medical census,
564; Medical Department, 465, 547,
573; Medical Research Institute, 524:
services, 471, 485-7, 515, 516: training
of Africans for, 506-8, 514; Meteoro-
logical service, 107, 108; Mineral re-
sources, 67, 531; Minerals, reference
collections of, 66; Missions, 487; Mixed
farming, 276, 315, 322, 424; Moulds in,
175; National park proposed, 233;
Native customs, 559; Northern Terri-
tories: Agriculture, 5, 371, 380, 386,
387, 394: Animal industry, 381, 415:
Anthropology, 595, 611: Climate, 112:
Diseases, stock, 449-51: Emirates, 435,
450: horses used in, 433: water-supply,
7, 64: Hospitals 486: Medical services,
564: Meteorological. services, 107:
Mixed farming, 322, 383, 389-91, 396:
Population census, 560: Rainfall, 5:
Sahara, encroachment of, 116, 189,
194, 195: Sleeping Sickness Service,
486: Surveying, 42: Termites in, 291:
Trees, 157, 198: Trypanosomiasis,
human, in, 275, 531-3: Tsetse in, 163,
274: control of, 195, 532, 533: Vegeta-
tion, 163: Water-supply, 79, 80, 194;
Nutrition of natives in, 468, 573, 574,
578; Oil-palm cultivation, 350, 351,
382; Oilseeds, cultivation of, 348, 3533
Onitsha Province, 560; Owerri Pro-
vince, agriculture in, 378: population
census, 560: pressure on land, 79, 378:
water-supply, 79, 84; Pasture research,
173, 322; Plants, 157, 166; Polar Year
Observations, 108; Population, 274,
478: census, 559, 564, 611: pressure on
land, 343, 378, 381; Poultry farming,
322; Rain forests, 189; Rainfall, 107,
134: map, 108; Root crops, cultivation
of, 359-62, 382; Sanitary Service, 486;
Shifting cultivation in, 194, 378; Skins,
export of, 454; Sleeping Sickness Ordin-
ance, 275, 486; Sleeping Sickness Ser-
vice, "268, 274, 485, 486, 528, 531; Soil,
134, 141: deterioration of, 381, 382:
survey, 133; Southern Provinces, agri-
725
culture in, 322, 340, 343, 346, 382, 383,
389: Animal industry, 390, 454: Dis-
eases, human, 521, 528: Forest flora,
157, 198: Medical census, 564: Mis-
sions, 470, 487: Population census, 560:
pressure on land, 11, 382: Rainfall,
107, 108: Soil, 381, 382: Tribes, 611:
Trypanosomiasis, human, 531: Tsetse
control, 38, 275, 276, 451: water-sup-
ply, 79; Standard of living, native, 371;
Stock survey, 414; Survey Department,
49; Surveying, 39; Tapioca manufac-
ture, 361; Taungya plantation, 188,
194; Timber, 194, 204; Tobacco in,
285, 371; Trees, 190; Tribes, 61151 r=
panosomiasis, cattle, 267, 424, 448:
human, 15, 275, 529, 532, 534; Tsetse
control, 195, 275-7, 467; Tsetse inves-
tigation, 268, 274, 279, 319; Veterin-
ary Department, 390, 452, 460: re-
search, 323; Water-supply, 67, 79, 80,
107, 194: surveys, 116; Wells, 64, 66,
67, 79; Wind maps, 108; Yellow Fever
Unit, 524
Nigerian Field, 219
Nile Perch, 244, 252
Nile River, 91, 114, 244, 278, 611: Basin,
100: levelling, 76: meteorology, 99,
IOI, 102; Fisheries, 244, 248; Floods,
111; Irrigation, 75, 102; Maps, 50;
Upper —, 610; Valley, 226; Water
table surveys, 76
Nilo-Hamites, 610
Nilotic Jaluo, 586
Nilotic Tribes, 610
Nilsson, E., 112
Nioka, Crop research, 330; Govern-
ment stock farm, 174, 331, 426, 430,
452
Nioro, 329
Nitrogen: Atmospheric, fixed by legumes,
141, 189, 385: Cycle, 130, 141; In Soil,
IZ, 141, 373: deficiency of,. 129, 134,
386
Njala Agricultural Research Station:
Acclimatization station, 150; Agricul-
tural training, 403; Cereals, research
on, 324, 325; Citrus, research on, 324,
368; Coffee, research on, 324, 364;
Fertility, research on, 384; Forestry
research, 197; Herbarium, 150; Oil-
palm research, 324, 351; Root crops,
research on, 360, 362
Njombe, 421, 430
Njoro, 320
Nkana Copper Mining Company, 481
Nkole Tribe, 610
Nodular Worm Infection, 444
Nongoma, 437
Noriskin, J. N., 577
Normande Cattle, 426
726
Northern Rhodesia: Agricultural Depart-
ment, 161, 318; Agriculture, 318, 341,
342, 361, 370, 374, 379, 406, 407, 408:
native, 190, 379: research on, 131, 317,
318; Air surveying, 59, 155, 160, 161,
199; Animal Health Department, 318:
Animal industry, 318, 420, 459; An-
thropological research, 581, 594-7,
606, 609; Arc of goth Meridian survey,
43; Birds, 224; Botanical research, 148,
160, 161; Cattle in, 420; Cereals, cul-
tivation of, 318, 341, 342, 379, 408;
Chitemene agriculture, 379; Cobalt -
deposits, 68; Coffee cultivation, 318;
Co-operative societies, 408; Copper
mining, 68, 81; Cotton cultivation,
326, 354, 357; Crop research, 318;
Dairy industry, 459; Diseases, human,
551; Ecological survey, 131 7., 133,
148, 151, 160, 161, 190, 304, 317, 318,
425 Entomology, ‘staff for, 261; Euro-
peans in, 403, 558; Faunistic survey,
213, 244, 277; Fisheries, 244; Forestry
Branch, 181; Forests, 199: reserves,
186, 190; Game animals, census of,
220; Game Department, 213; Geo-
logical map, 68; Geological surveying,
63, 66-8; Gold production, 68; Hos-
pitals, 480, 481; Human geography,
304, 305; Hydro-electric power, 81;
Hydrology, 77, Jeanes Schools, 480,
511; Land utilization, 16; Locust, red,
breeding ground, 266: research, 263;
Manganese deposits, 68; Medical ser-
vices, 480, 481: training Africans for,
511; Meteorological stations, gg; Min-
eral resources, 68; Mineral rights, 67,
68; Mining, 68, 81, 179, 190, 558: com-
panies, 63, 66-8; Missions, 481;
Museums, 219; Oil-seeds, cultivation
of, 346; Pasture research, 170, 171, 318;
Population, 190, 480: censuses, 558;
Rainfall stations, 99; Root crops, cul-
tivation of, 361; Savannah, 1go; Soil,
131 n.: map, 161: vegetation map, 133;
Survey Department, 40, 44; Swedish
Expedition to, 155; Tobacco cultiva-
tion, 318, 370; Topographical map,
68; Trees, exotic, 201; Tsetse, areas re-
claimed from, 259: encroachment of,
277; Vegetation, 160: maps, 161, 199;
Veterinary research, 318; Vital events,
registration of, 561; Water-boring, 77;
Water-supply, 77; Weather reports, 97;
Zoology, 200, 219
Norway, 245, 254
INDEX
Nupe Tribe, 611
Nursing Service, 479, 490, 491, 493, 498,
503; Africans in, 477, 480, 489, 495,
496: training of, 472, 475, 476, 485,
487, 505, 506, 510, 511, 514, 515, 571
Nutman, F. J., 363
Nutrition: Animal, 133, 143, 314, 315,
324, 429; Cattle, 319, 320, 322, 411,
423, 427, 452, 453; Crops, 337; Human,
551, 557, 586: Relation to disease, 14,
461, 573-8, 581, 582: Research on,
468, 469, 564, 571-83, 586: Reviews
of, 574, 575; Plants, 129, 337; Sheep,
173, 428, 4209; Stock, 1297 106,9920;
440, 444, see also Dietary; Diseases,
Deficiency and Malnutrition
Nutrition Abstracts and Reviews, 310
Nyakato, 319
Nyamwezo Tribe, 610
Nyasa, Lake, 113, 133, 244, 326
Nyasaland, Agricultural Department,
131, 317-19; Agriculture, 190, 191,
290, 318, 319, 341, 345, 354, 360, 364,
374, 375, 384, 388, 407; Agriculture,
research on, 317-19: survey, 16, 133,
304; Anthropology, 609; Birds, 2243
Botanical research, 148; Cereals, cul-
tivation of, 190, 341; Climate, 100;
Cotton cultivation, 318, 326, 355-7:
indigenous, 354; Crop-research, 318,
319; Demographic data, 564; Diseases,
human, 521, 548, 551, 552; Entomo-
logy, staff for, 261; Essential oils, pro-
duction of, 375; Europeans in, 403;
Fisheries, 250, 251; Forestry Depart-
ment, 150, 181, 183; Forests, 161, 190,
191, 199: destruction of, 187, 190, 191:
reserves, 186: village, 183, 191, 199,
571; Fossil reptiles in, 87; Fruit culti-
vation, 367; Game Department, 220;
Geological Department, 63, 64, 66,
84; Hydrology, 77; Lands Office, 48;
Maps, 48; Medical Department, 459:
services, 481, 482: training Africans
for, 506, 511, 512; Meteorological
service, 100; National parks proposed,
232; Native Welfare Committee, 462,
482; Oil-seeds, cultivation of, 354; Pas-
ture research, 172; Population, 567:
census, 558: density, 191, 202, 481:
pressure on land, 187, 191; Pulse
crops, cultivation of, 345; Rainfall
map, 100; Root-crops, cultivation of,
360; Rubber plantations, 371; Savan-
nah forest, 190; Shifting cultivation,
190, 191; Shrubs, 198; Soil erosion,
Notcutt, L. A., 471
Nsamby. a Maternity Training School, 513
Nsonzi, see Cat-fish
Nuba Hills, 594
Nuer Tribe, 594
190, 191: map, 133; Stock, increase of,
172; Tea, cultivation of, 290, 318, 364;
Trees, 198, 202; Usetse mm, 277;
bacco Association, 407; Tobacco cul-
tivation, 288, 289, 369, 370, 404; Try-
NDEX
Nyasaland—(cont.)
panosomiasis in, 277; Tung-oil produc-
tion, 374; Veterinary Department, 318,
459; Vital events, registration of, 561;
Water-supply, 77
Nyenga, 549
Oakley, P. D., 488
Oats, 457
Obeche, 204
Oberg, Dr., 6i0
Obermeyer, Miss A. A., 154, 160
©7Brien, Dr. A. J. R., 469
Observatories, 95, 97, 98
Oesophagostomum, see Nodular Worm In-
fection
Office du Niger, 80, 135, 173, 327, 328, 357;
599
Office International d’ Hygiéne Publique, Paris,
463, 464, 526
Office Météorologique Internationale, Regional
Commission No. 1, go
Ogilvie, Professor A. G., 304, 379, 597
Oil, 308
Oil-Palm, 382; Breeding, 324, 325, 349-
352; Deli —, 352; Diseases of, 352; Ex-
perimental stations, 322, 324, 325, 329,
331, 350-2; Indigenous, 208, 339, 349;
Research on, 135; see also Palm Oil
Oil-seeds, 206-8, 339; cultivation of, 208,
301, 325, 328, 336, 345-8; Experimen-
tal stavioms, 195, 203, 322; 324, 925;
328, 329, 331, 347, 350-2, 3543 Pests of,
282, 283, 293; Research on, 308, 320,
323, 348, 349, 353; Selection, 324,
325, 346, 347, 349-54, and see Ground-
nuts, Oil-Palm, etc.
Okavango, 116
Oldoway Man, 600
Oleo-resin, 374
Oliphant, Major F. M., 180, 189, 204,
205
Oliphant, J. N., 179, 180, 182
Oliphants River Settlement, 369
Oliveiro, C. J., 579
Ollinger, M. T., 521
Omaruru, 475
Onchocerca, 297
Onderstepoort Journal, 313, 443, 445
Onderstepoort Laboratory: Animal dis-
eases, research on, 165, 168, 299, 300,
312, 443-6; Animal nutrition, research
on, 129, 429, 444; Cold storage sec-
tion, 312, 455, 456; Pasture research,
168; Plant toxicology, research on,
444; Veterinary Research Station, 313;
Veterinary Services Division, 129, 312;
Wool fibres, research on, 429
Ondtshon District, 230
Onitsha, 350, 470: Province—see under
Nigeria
72]
Onslow, Earl of, 215
Oran, gI
Orange Free State: Louse-typhus en-
demic area, 541; Maps, 47; Plant
ecology, 160; Rainfall, 96; Survey
Department, 30; Topographical Sur-
VEY 035
Oranges, 368; Bitter —, essential oil of,
374; Green-skin —, 322
Oranje, P., 577
Ordman, D., 555
Ordnance Survey, 26, 38, 43, 47, 56
Orenstein, Dr. A. J., 578
Oribi, 530
Ormsby-Gore, Rt. Hon. W. C. A., 337
Ornithodorus, 297, 540
Ornithology, 223-5, see also Birds
Orographical Maps, 51, 52
Orr, Sir John, 167, 168, 309, 320, 407,
564, 572
Oryza, see Rice
Osborn, ‘T. W--B.; 121; 577
Ostrich, The, 224
Ostriches, 444: farms, 428
Otta, 79
Ouagadougou, 491, 494
Oubangui-Chari, 495
Oudtshoorn Experimental Station, 369,
EAS)
Overgrazing, 160, 172, 303, 411, 456;
By native small stock, 439-40; Causing
soil erosion, 12, 125, 136, 137, 140, 169,
173, 434-6; Control of, 172, 419, 420,
434, 437-40; Effect on vegetation, 6,
12, 140, 434-6; Relation to disease,
441
Overstocking, 427; Control of, 437-40;
Disease control, relation to, 440, 441;
Soil erosion caused by, 7, 137-9, 434,
435-40; Water-supply, relation to, 434
Owen, Dr. H. B., 509, 578
Owen Fails, 82
Owerri Province, see under Nigeria
Oxen, 389, 391, 415, 605
Oxford University, 126, 158; Anthropo-
logical Department, 596; Bureau of
Animal Population, 216, 226, 227, 468;
Imperial Forestry Institute, 20, 146,
154, 178 n., 179, 180, 182, 184, 186,
197, 203, 204, 261: Forest Botany Sec-
tion, 146; Soil Department, 128, 131
Paap, W., 100
Paarl, 311, 369
Palzontology, 65, 69, 85-7, 216
Palm-Kernels, 208, 349-51
Palm-Oil, 208, 338; As native food, 349,
351; Co-operative societies, 350, 3973
Methods of production, 350-2; Red —,
317) ane
Palmer, Sir H. R., 605
728
Pan-African Health Conferences, 18, 465,
526, 536, 539, 568-70, 572, 583
Pangani Falls, 81
Panicum, 173
Paper, Proposed Manufacture of, 164,
165, 208, 209
Paper pulp, Raw materials for, 208, 209
Papyrus, 164, 165, 208
Para Rubber, 208
Para-typhoid, 448, 552
Parallel of 10° North, Triangulation of, 41
Parasites, 13, 259, 453; Fungus —, 13,
158, 204, 264, 283, 453; of Bollworms,
283-5: East coast fever, 297, 298, 443:
Hides and skins, 294, 453: Insects, 283,
287, 290: Locusts, 264: of Rats, 468,
538—and see Fleas: Sheep, 452: Tsetse,
271; see also Biological Control and In-
sects
Parasitic worms, 331, 448, 550, 551, 576,
578
Parc National Alberi, Belgian Congo, 177,
222, 2290-32, 249
Parc National de la Kagera, Belgian Congo,
222.5237
Parcs Nationaux du Congo Belge, 221
Pare District, 343
Paris, Natural History Museum, 145, 151,
221, 247, 248
Barker, i. W., 224
Paspalum dilatum, 173
Pasteur Institute, African branches of,
329, 490, 494, 527; Paris, 490, 522
Pastures: Burning of, 12, 159; Ecology,
119; Irrigation, 170, 173; Manuring,
167, 169; Mineral content, 141, 167,
168; Regeneration, 169, 170, 172;
Research on improvement, 144, 148,
166-74, 311, 312, 314, 318, 322, 328,
423, 436, 453
Paterson, Dr. A. R., 461, 483, 515, 520,
568
Pawa, 549, 550
Peaches, 391
Pears, 331
Pediculus, 297
Pedology, see Soil Science
Pellagra, 361, 518, 575, 583
Pemba (N. Rhodesia), 318
Pemba Island, 48, 132, 373
Pencil Cedar, 205
Pennisetum, see Millet, Bulrush
Pentatomid bugs, 286, 287
Pepper, 324
Peppermint, Essential Oil of, 374
Peramiho, 548
Peres, M., 98
Perham, Miss, M. F., 609, 611
Permanent Commission on Biological
Standardization, see under League of
Nations
INDEX
Perrot, E., 338
Persia, 603
Persian Gulf, 111, 205
Persian Sheep, 429, 431
Peters): b.102
Peut,'G.. 248
Petit-grain Oil, 375
Petroleum Surveys, 63 7., 86
Petrology, 64, 65, 69
Pettey; Dr: E. W.;/200
Pettit, A., 527
Phaseolus, see Green Gram
Phillips, Dr. C. R., 563
Phillips, Dr. E. P.,/154, 159
Phillips, Prof. J. F. V.,.119;, 125, xayeien,
159, 160, 162
Phillips, Dr. P., 59,76, 100, TOT
Bhilpott, Galera
Phosphate Fertilizer, 348, 373, 389
Phosphorus, 573; In native diet, 237,
577, 578; In soil, 125, 129, 134, 135,
159; In vegetation, 348: deficiency,
159, 168, 444
Phthorimeaa, see Splitworms and Tobacco
stem borer
Physiology of African natives, 483, 583-
586, 588
Phyto-geographical Map, 161
Phytolyma lata, see Gall-fly
Pica, 578
Pietermaritzburg, Natal Museum, 216
Pietersburg, 93
Pigeon Peas, 384
Pigs: Breeding, 314, 432, 433; Diseases
of, 432, 448; Varieties, 432, 433
Pijper, Dr. A., 474, 540
Pillans, N. S., 154
Pilot Balloon Observations, 89, 93, 97;
99, 104, 109, ITI
Pim, Sir A. W., 391, 476
Pineapples, 311, 322, 325, 332
Pinus, 208, 210
Pirie, 250
Pirie, Harvey, 537, 539
Piroplasmosis, see East Coast Fever
Piroplasms, 297, 298
Pirotta, S. BE. R157
Pithecanthropus, 600
Pitman, Captain C. R. S., 219, 220, 243,
244, 252, 253, 277
Pitt-Rivers Museum, Oxford, 598
Plague, 465, 468, 474, 517; Endemic
centres, 535, 537, 538; Epidemics,
494, 536, 538: periodicity of, 536, 537:
Fleas, 257, 295; Incidence, 226, 497,
535; Pneumonic —, 538; Prevention
and control, 497, 537, 539, 540; Pro-
phylactic vaccination, 539, 540: Rats,
295; Vaccine for, 494; Vectors—see
Fleas, Rats, Rodents
Plains Soils, 132
INDEX
Plane-table surveys, 46, 54, 56
Plant Breeding Abstracts, 310
Plantains, 366
Plants: Breeding, 144, 148, 152, 168, 169,
174, 314, 320, 335; Ecology, 143, 147,
149, 150, 152, 158-65, 201, 318, 436;
Edible, 3; 605; Exotic, 176, 177;
Genetics, 337; Insect control by, 259;
Medicinal, 165, 166; Nutrients, 129,
337; Pathology, 14, 144, 147-9, 174-
176, 314, 335; Periodicity in growth,
114, 227; Physiology, 150; Systematics,
145-8, 151-38; Taxonomy, 143-5,
152-8; Toxicology, 144, 149, 154, 158,
165, 166; Transpiration rates, 171, 172;
Vectors of disease, 13; and see Botany;
Flora; Vegetation
Plateau Province, 401
Plateau Soils, 132
Platinum, Distribution of, 67
Platyedra, see Bollworm, Pink
Plectranthus, see Potato, Kafir
Pleistocene, 134, 599
Pleuro-pneumonia, 445, 452; control of,
425, 444; Etiology, 447; Research on,
320; Serum for immunization, 321,
323, 330; Vaccine for, 451
Plummer, Prof. F. E., 95, 96
Pluvial epoch, 104, 111, 112
Pneumonia, 474, 517, 555
Pobé, 329, 351
Podostemaceae, 1 46
Podsolic Soils, 130, 203
Podsolised Soils, 132
Pointe Noire, 91
Poisson, CG. S. J.; 98
Polar Year Observations, 108
Pole Evans, Dr. I. B., 119, 129, 147, 154,
159, 175, 176, 311
Policlinique, see under Dakar
Poll-tax, 504, 559
Pollen-Angus Cattle, 422
Polynesia, 593
Pondo Tribe, 608
Pondoland, 597
Pong-Tamale, 80, 298; Composting
experiments, 388; Rinderpest research,
451; Stock farm, 390, 425; Tsetse
research, 279, 324: White pig, 432
Pool, W. A., 309
Poor Relief, 472
Population: Card-index records, 561;
Censuses, 475, 484, 557-61, 564, 599,
611; Maps, 567; Movements, 6, 117;
Over-concentration, 378, 380, 567;
Pressure on land, “rr, 70, 037; 139,
187, IOI, 343, 379; 380-2, 567, 5793
Redistribution advocated, 5, 377, 380,
381, 438, 441, 567; Trends, 557, 567;
Water-supply, relation to, 77, 304,
567
729
sat mea QI, 93, 240, 294; Museum,
QI
Port Etienne, 241, 248
Port Franqui, 92
Port Harcourt, 530, 562
Port Health services, 465, 472
Port Herald, 318, 552
Port Loko, 488
Port Relief, 458
Portéres, R., 120, 166, 344, 364
Porto Novo, 152, 329, 491
Portuguese Territory in Africa, see under
Angola; Guinea, Portuguese; and
Mozambique
Potamogeton, 146
Potassium, 373; Deficiency in soil, 135
Potatoes: Air (Akom), 359, 362; Hausa
(Madagascar) —, 340, 359; Irish —,
361, 362; Kafir —> 349, 359; Research
on, 314, 325; Sweet —, 336, 340, 360,
361, 579
Potchefstroom School of Agriculture, 169,
311, 342, 429, 458
Potts, W. H., 268
Poultry: Diseases, 448; Farming, 313,
322, 331, 4333
Poundou, 329
Power Alcohol, 165
Pra River, 196
Prat, f.,. 104
Prehistoric Anthropology, 599, 600
Presse Médicale, 495
Pressure, 93, 97, 104, 107, 109, 1113 Sub-
tropical, 110
Pretoria, 75, 263; 312; Flora,‘\160;
National Herbarium, 147, 167; Na-
tional Zoological Gardens, 217; Pas-
ture Experimental Station, 169, 311;
Plant Industry Division, 129, 147, 154,
158, 311; Transvaal Museum, 87, 147,
216; University: Agricultural Depart-
ment, 128, 129, 169, 305, 311, 368;
Bionomics of locusts, research on, 265;
Citrus research, 367, 368; Dairy Re-
search Institute, 458; Geography, 95;
Sheep and Wool Department, 428
Pretoria West, Food Products Research
Institute, 181, 204
Prickly Pear, 290
Priest, C. D., 224
Primates, 223
Princes Risborough, see Forest Products
Research Laboratory
Principles and Methods of Anti-Malarial
Measures, Report on, 520
Prodenia litura, 281, 282, 285
Propaganda for health services, 466, 471,
515, 516, 551, 552, 570, 571, 581
Property: Boundaries, 38: surveys of,
25 n., 27-9, 32: Surveys, 28-30, 32, 36,
49, and see Cadastral surveying
qa?
Prorops, see Bethylid
Protein: In grasses, 168; In native diet,
573» 574, 575s 579s 581
Protestant Missions, 500
Protozoa, 142, 447
Protozoology, 467
Provincial Emergency and Development
Fund, 489
Prudhomme, M., 327
Pseudococcus, see Mealy bug
Pteridophyta, 156
Public Health Services, see Medical
Services and Sanitary Services
Pulpy kidney disease, 448
Pulse Crops, 339, 345, 346
Pygmies, 231, 612
Pyorrhoea, 563, 582
Pyrethrum, 286, 287, 375
Qacha’s Nek, 475
Quarterly Bulletin (Health Organization),
464
Queen Victoria Memorial Museum, see
Salisbury
Quelimane, 91, 98, 353
Quilengues, 333
Quinine, 374, Cultivation, 332, 337; In
malaria treatment, 518, 520, 521
Rabies, 217, 226, 323, 497; vaccine for
—> 323, 494
Racial types, 600-3
Radcliffe-Brown, Professor A. R., 596
Rae; Dr. A.M. W., 489
Raeburn, Dr. C., 80, 116
Rafha, 206
Raftery). D121
Railways, 4, 26, 35, 76
Rain forests, see under Forests
Rainfall, 2, 5-8, 88, 95, 104, 106, 1og-
III, 114, 134, 210; Changes in, 6, 96,
117; Factors controlling, 5, 100, 103,
107, 117, 118; Forests, effect on, 9, 90,
FOOs/ 119.) c1G,) 1Or,, TOD. 0735, 130;
Maps, 51, 100, 108; Periodicity in,
105, 106; Research data, 8g, 90, 96:
time-unit for, 89; Stations, 80, GO, 95,
97-9, IOI, 102, 105, 108, 109, 196
Raleigh Fitkin Memorial Hospital, see
under Bremersdcrp
Rambert, M., 347
Rambouillet Sheep, 431
Ramsbottom, J., 146, 158
Rancoule, M., 351
Rand, The, gr, 555
Range, P., 97, 102
Rat-flea typhus, see Typhus
Rats, 493, 497, 535, 5393 Census of, 468,
592: Parasites of, 468, 538 and see Fleas;
Periodicity among, 536, 537; Research
INDEX
on, 538; Surveys of, 295; Typhus, en-
zootic, 541
Rattray, J. M., 170
Rattray, Captain R. S., 594, 595, 611
Raymond, Dr. L., 132
Rayne, H. E., 587
Rech, Dr. Hans, 600
Red Ant, 373
Red Cross, British, 487, 514
Red Earths, 130, 132
‘Red Rust’, 370
Red Sea, 88, 110: Coast, 50, 103, 266,
267; Fisheries, 244, 249; Province,
433
Redwater Cattle Disease, 298, 442, 446,
451
Reedbuck, 530
Reenen, R. J. van, 96
Rees Davies, M., 312
Regan, 91
Regan, Dr. C. Tate, 242
Régie des Plantations de la Colonie, 330
Registration of vital events, see under Vital
Statistics
Reichenow, A., 224
Relapsing Fever, 295; Incidence, 540;
Mortality rate, 540; Transmission,
297, 540; Vectors of, 297, 540
Rendle, A. B., 1
Reports from Experimental Stations, 355
Reptiles, 221-4; Skins, 211, 212
Research: Agencies for, 19; Conferences
on—see under Conferences; Co-ordina-
tion needed, 17, 18, 21; Data unavail-
able, 22; Finance of, 18-20; Inade-
quate contribution of, 23, 24; Trained
subordinate staff needed, 21; Univer-
sities, co-operation of, 19, 20, 38, 39,
95, 147, 149, 152, QiO sei, Sri goa.
330, 501, 575, 596, and see under separate
sciences and subjects
Réserve Zoologique et Forestiére de la Région
des Lacs, Katanga, 231
Resins, 207, 308
Respiratory Diseases of Sheep, 442, 448
Review of Applied Entomology, 260, 310
Review of Applied Mycology, 310
Revue d’ Agriculture et d’ Elevage, 332
Revue de Botanique Appliquée et d’ Agriculture
Tropicale, 327
Revue Zoologique et Botanique Africaine, 224
Reyntjens, P., 522
Rhabdomys, 536
Rhenish Missions, 4.74
Rhinoceros, 212; White —, reserves, 230;
scheduled for protection, 235
Rhipicephalus, 297-9
Rhodes Grass, 169, 172,
crop, 369
Rhodes-Livingstone Memorial Institute,
994
173; Rotation
INDEX
Rhodes Matopo Estate and Experimental
Farm, 314
Rhodesia, 99, 155, 169, 205, 291, 442,
455, 578; Air surveying, 58; Cotton
pests, 357; Essential Oils, 375; Fruit
cultivation, 367; Geological organi-
zation, 66; Insect pests, 285, 288;
Locust control, 265; Measles epi-
demics, 556; Plant diseases, 175; Pulse
crops, cultivation of, 345; Railways,
26; Timber, 204; Tobacco diseases,
288, 289, 293; Triangulation, 43;
Tsetse in, 267; and see Northern Rho-
desia; Southern Rhodesia
Rhodesia Agricultural Journal, 141
Rhodesian and Nyasaland Airways, 91
Rhodesian Man (Homo rhodesiensis), 600
Rhodesian Museum, see under Bulawayo
Rhokana Corporation, 551
Ribeiro, L., 538
Ricardo, Miss, 242, 244
Rice, 384; Deep-water, 325, 343; Experi-
mental stations, 328, 343, 344; ‘G.E.B.,
24’, 343; “Hungry’, 339; Improved
varieties, 343; Research, 323, 325;
Selection, 343, 344; Staple-food, 343,
351; Swamp-growing, 343; Upland,
324: Weevil, 294
Rich, Miss M. F., 158
Richards, Dr. Audrey, 581, 596, 609
Richards, F. S., 44
Richet, C. H., fils, 575
Rickets, 575, 578
Rickettsta, 299, 443
Riemerschmid, Fraulein, 121
Rift Valley Fever, 300, 448
Rift Valleys, 4, 71, 73, 85, 86, 100, 138,
172; Ecology, 242; Lakes, 249; Re-
search, 448; Sisal cultivation, 358
Riksmuseet, Stockholm, see Stockholm
Museum
Rinderpest, 214, 259, 271, 441, 445; Buf-
faloes, 12, 226; Control, 12, 390, 425,
445, 450, 451; Inoculation, 445, 446;
Introduction into Africa, 12, 226; Re-
search on, 320; Serum for —, 321, 323,
330, 450; Spleen vaccine, 446, 450;
Vaccination for, 12, 442, 445, 450, 4523
Virus of, 446
Rio de Oro, 53, 72, 109
Rio Muni, 109
Ripley; DroL. B.; 281, 269, 290
Ripon Falls, 82
Ritchie, Captain A. T. A., 219
River Capture, 115, 116
Rivers: Fisheries, 244-50; Irrigation, 5,
75, 78, 80, 102, 135, 327, 344 357» 575:
580; Physiology, 4, and see under separate
YWDETS
Riversdale, 160
Roads, 4, 26, 35, 62, 480, 500
731
Roan Antelope Company, 480
Robb, R. Lindsay, 169
Robbins, C. R., 57 @ n., 161
Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, 448
Roberts, \}..1.,:289
Robertson, C. L., 97, 98
Roberty, G., 354, 357
Robyns, Professor W., 152, 162, 173
Rockefeller Foundation, 522, 526, 596,
597; International Health Division,
465, 524
Rockefeller Yellow Fever Laboratory,
486
Rodd, F. R., 106, 605
Rode, Paul, 223
Rodents, wild, carriers of plague, 226,
474, 536; Periodicity of, 227, 536, 5373
Reservoir of Spirochaeta, 297
Rodhain, Professor J., 498
Rodwell Jones, Ll., 100
Rogeon, J., 173
Rokupr, 324, 325, 343
Roman Catholic Missions, 474, 500
Rome, 23, 92
Rome Agreement, 1907, 463
Romney Marsh Sheep, 429, 430
Root Crops, 384; Imported, 360, 362;
Indigenous 340, 359; Pests of, 286, 360;
Research on, 314, 322, 325, 360-2;
and see Cassava, Potatoes, Yams,
Sphenostylis
Root Gall-worm, 370
Root-knot Nematode, 289
Roque, A. B., 98
Roscoe, Canon, 595, 610
Rosedale, J. L., 579, 581
Roseires, 76
Rosette Disease, 282, 283, 346
Ross, G. R., 523
Ross, Sir Ronald, 295, 518, 519
Ross Institute, 467, 518, 519
Rotational Grazing, 169-71, 439
Rothamsted Experimental Station, 127,
308, 387
Rotse Tribe, 608
Roumania, 583
Rounce; N. V:,393
Roundworm, 563
Roup, 448
Rousseau, R., 105
Route surveys, 27, 33
Rowett Research Institute, Aberdeen,
167, 309, 422, 468, 572; Bureau, Nutri-
tion, 468
Roxby, Professor P. M., 304, 597
Royal African Society, 23
Royal Anthropological Institute, 595
Royal Engineers, 38, 48
Royal Geographical Society, 83 n., 232
Royal Society, 32; Sleeping sickness com-
missions, 528
732
Royal Society of South Africa, 23
Rozwi Tribe, 608
Ruanda, 45, 332, 452, 610; Population,
566
Ruanda-Urundi, 604; Arc of goth Meri-
dian survey, 43, 44; Anthropology, 597;
Cattle, 173; Ecological study of, 163;
Kagera National Park, 222, 231;
Maps, 52; Medical census, 566; Medi-
cal services, 498, 502; Meteorology,
100; Overgrazing, 173; Population,
566: Map, 567; Sanitary services, 498;
Soil erosion, 173; Triangulation, 42
Rubber: cultivation, 338, 371; Lagos —,
208; Para —, 208, 371; Research, 330,
331: Vines, 208
Ruchuru, River, 232
Rudolf, Lake, 242, 244, 267, 582; Cam-
bridge Expedition to, 582
Rufiji, 344
Rufisque, 538
Ruki, River, 152, 331
Rukwa, Lake, 242, 244
Rumoka Volcano (Kivu), 162
Rural Hygiene, 465, 568-72; and see
Hygiene and Medical Services
Rusape, 314
Russell, Sir E. John, 127, 308, 334
Russia, 262, 365
Russian School of Pedologists, 124
Russo, P., 104
Rust fungi, 176, 178
Rustenburgh, 369
Ruwenzori Mountains, 85, 86, 161, 230,
250, 403; Botany, 146, 156; Vegetation,
162, 193
Ruzizi- Tanganyika, 500
Ryckmans, M. P., 561, 565
Rye, 331, 457
Ryeland Sheep, 429
Saasveld, @. P., 162
Sabena Air Service, 91, 92
Sabi Game Reserve, 229
SADAMI, 499, 100
Sadler, Sir Michael, 613
Sagot, R., 293, 347
Sahara, 5, 6, 9, 27, 47, 51, 69, 80, 81, 104,
112, 255, 378; Air routes across, QI, 92,
103; Camel breeding, 433; Central,
flora of, 163; French —, 600; Humidity,
106; Meteorological data, 106; South-
ward extension, 6, 79, 116, 117, 163,
189; check on, 194, 195, and see Desi-
ccation; Temperature, 106; ‘Topo-
graphical survey of, 33
Sahlbergella, see Thysanoptera
Saigon, 465
St. Louis, 105, 106, 491, 495
St, Lome) 71
Saline Soils, 132
INDEX
Salisbury, 91; African medical orderlies
trained, 511; Agriculture Department,
456; Agriculture, experimental station,
314; Hospitals, 478, 511; Observatory,
97; Plant ecology, 160; Public Health
Department, 477; Laboratory, 478,
523; Queen Victoria Memorial Mu-
seum, 147, 217; Tsetse research labora-
tory, 273
Salmon, 249
Salt, 248, 578
Salvarsan, 504, 505
Samaru: Agricultural research, 341, 356,
361, 388; Chemical laboratory, 133;
Experimental farm, 322, 424; Farm
School for natives, 402
Sambon, M., 522
SAMI, 499
Sampson, H. C., 78, 145, 189, 338, 341,
384, 582
San Salvador, 503
Sandawe Tribe, 610
Sandford, K., 81
Sanga Cattle, 414, 415, 424
Sangalo, 422
Sanitary Inspection, 333, 476, 481, 483,
484, 489, 490, 496, 498-500; Africans
trained in, 485, 498, 505, 511-15
Sanitation, need for improvement in, 295,
296, 461, 472, 483, 517, 552, 568, 569
Sankuru River, 357, 358
Sapoba Forest Experimental Station, 194
Saria, 329
Saunders, A. R., 342
Savannah, 279; Grasses, 208; Forest—
see under Forests
Sawmilling, 193
Sawyer, W. A., 527
Sayce, R. U., 304, 598
Scab disease, 445
Scaetta, H., 1o1, 162, 174
Scarcies Area, 343, 397
Schanz, J., 610
Schapera, Professor I., 596, 608, 609, 613
Schebesta, P., 612
Schenk, A., 160
Schilling, Professor Claus, 448
Schinz, H., 160
Schistosoma, see Trematode
Schistosomiasis, 550, 551
Schonken, J. D., 159
Schonland, B. J. F., 95
Schonland, S., 154
School of Tropical Medicine, Lisbon, 502
Schouteden, Dr. H., 222, 231
Schumacher, R. P., 231
Schumann, T. E. W., 95, 96, 114, 117
Schutte, Dr: D. J... 417, aus
Schwarz, Prof. E. Hi. eames
Schweickerdt, H. G. W. J., 154, 160
Schweitzer, Dr. A., 470
INDEX
Schwetz, J., 297, 522
sclater, W. L., 224
Scott, C. W., 57
Scott, Lord Francis, 193
Scott, Dr. Harold H., 467, 468, 562
Scott, J. D., 121, 162
Scott, R., 366, 380, 397, 416
scott, Dr. R. R.,.482
Scott Agricultural Laboratories, see under
Nairobi
Scottish West Highland Cattle, 413
Screw-worm, see Myiasis
Sculpture, 613
Scurvy, 518, 582
Sebungwe, 214, 532
Ségou, 391; Office du Niger laboratories,
135, 327
Seismographs, 85, 86
Seismology, 85, 86
Seismometers, 85, 86
Sekondi, 26
Selaginella, 146
Selenothrips, see Thysanoptera
Seligman, Mrs., 594
Seligman, Professor C. G., 594, 596, 601,
604, 606
Sellick, N. P., 97, 98
Selwyn-Clarke, P. S., 479
Semite Racial Group, 601, 604
Semliki, Valley of, 230
Semmelhack, W., 106
Senecios, Giant, 156
Senegal, 115, 135, 152, 279; Agriculture,
328, 358; Cattle, 329, 414; Diseases,
human, 494, 527, 538, 545; Ground-
nuts, cultivation of, 11, 293, 346-8;
Hydrobiological investigation, 248;
Insect pests, 282, 293; Maps, 51; Medi-
cal services, 491-3; Overgrazing, 435;
Population, southern migration of, 11;
Rainfall, 11, 105, 347
Senegal River, 13, 266, 347, 416; Irriga-
tion of, 75, 80
Senegalese troops, 542
Sennar, 244
Serengeti, 220: Plains, 171, 232
Serere Agricultural Station: cotton-
breeding, 321, 356; Draught cattle
breeding, 423; Grasses, experiments
in, 385; Tobacco selection, 371; Train-
ing of school teachers, 401
Sergent, A., 297
Sericulture, 291, 292, 308
Seriological Race Grouping, 603
Serowe, 476, 511
Service Auxiliare de l’ Assistance Médicale aux
Indigénes, see SADAMI
Service de l’ Assistance Médicale aux Indigénes,
see SAMI
Service Economique, 221, 327
Service Géographique de l’ Afrique Occidentale,
733
Frangaise, 33, 51
Service Géographique de l’ Armée, 33, 45, 51
Service Géographique du Maroc, 51
Service Géographique et Géologique, 43
Sesame, see Simsim
Sesamum, see Simsim
Seventh Day Adventists, 476
Sex-ratio, 565-7
Shabirimu Mountains, 230
Shambala Tribe, 610
Shambat, 315, 326
Shamva, 478
Shantz, H. L., go, 128, 159
Shari River, 116
Shark-fishing, 239
Shaw, Sir Napier, 121
Shaw, S. H., 83, 84
Shea nut, 208, 353, 354
Shea trees, 353, 354
Sheane, H., 609
Sheep, 421, 426, 605; Breeding for mut-
ton, 333, 428, 430, 431: for wool, 333,
428, 429, 431; Breeds introduced,
428-30; Diseases of—see under Disease;
Haired varieties, 429-31; Indigenous,
428-31; Nutrition of—see under Nutri-
tion; Trypanosomiasis in, 529, 5303
Woolled varieties, 331, 333, 428, 429,
431; and see under separate breeds
Shellshear, Professor, 585
Shephard, Professor C. Y., 395
Sherbatoff, Miss, 365
Shifting Cultivation, 3, 176, 236; Alter-
natives to, 188, 387; Forest destruction
for, 179, 187, 190-2, 194, 195, 197, 205,
376-80; Methods of, 10, 376; Soil
erosion caused by, 8, 12, 122, 139, 188,
189, 378, 434
hika Government Stock Farm, 322, 361,
389, 424, 425
Shilluk Tribe, 604
Shiré River, 113
Shona Tribes, 608
Shortridge, Captain G. C., 216, 223
Shreve, F., 120
Shrubs, 198, 199, 209
Shume-Magamba, 200
Shuwa Cattle, 424
Siam, 550
Sicard, M., 297
Siebert, Father, 596
Sierra Leone, 207, 313; Agriculture, 343,
346, 347, 351, 354, 360, 362, 371, 372;
384: Department, 109, 135, 150, 324:
native, 384: research on, 317, 321, 324,
325: training of Africans, 403; Animal
industry, 325; Anthropology, 597, 612;
Botany, 148, 150, 157, 175; Cereals,
343, 384; Climate, 109; Coffee culti-
vation, 362, 364; Co-operative societies,
395, 397; Diamonds exported, 67; Dis-
734
Sierra Leone—(cont.)
eases, human, 524, 549, 575; Ento-
mology, staff for, 261; Fisheries, 245,
246; Forestry Department, 181, 221;
Forests, 157, 197, 200: reserves, 186,
197; Fruit cultivation, 367, 368; Fun-
gus, 175; Game animals, 221, Geo-
detic survey, 41; Geology and Mines
Department, 63-5; Gold exported, 67;
Herbarium, 150; Hospitals, 448, 449;
Insect pests in, 282; Maps, 39, 41, 50;
Medical services, 488, 489: training
Africans for, 506, 515; Meteorological
service, 109; Mineral resources, 67;
Missions, 488; Nutrition of natives in,
575; Population, 488: census, 560;
Rainfall stations, 109; Root crops,
360-2; Soil Science, 133; Soil survey,
135 & n.; Topography, 35 7., 39; Trees,
199; Vital events, registration of, 562
Sierra Leone Notes and Records, 219
Sikes; E4578
Silicosis of gold mining, 474
Silkworm, 291
Silviculture, see Forestry
Sim, J. M., 95
Sim, T. R., 158, 159
Simmons, W. C., 74, 86, 114
Simpson, N. D., 165
Simsim, 339, 348, 349
Simulium, see Biting-fly
Sinai, Peninsula of, 50
Sinclair, Dr. St. C. O., 129
Singapore: Biochemical Laboratory, 579,
561; Epidemic Intelligence Bureau,
465, 466
Sinoia, 478
Sir Alfred Jones Laboratory, see under
Freetown
Sisal, 306, 406; Blue —, 359; Experimen-
tal stations, 319, 358, 359: Weevil, 359
Situtunga, 530
Siwa, 102
Skin beetle, 294, 454
Skins: Animal, 308; exported, 211, 212,
431, 454; goat’s, 431, 453, 454; Para-
sites of, 294, 453; Reptile, 211, 212;
Research on, 323; and see Hides
Sladden, G. E., 287
Slave trade, 340
Sleeping Sickness, see Trypanosomiasis
Sleeping Sickness Commissions, see under
League of Nations and Royal Society
Small, Dr. W., 175, 364
Smallpox, 465, 5553 Vaccine, 494, 555
Smee, C., 290
Smit, B., 290, 294, 299
Smith, A. J., 284
Smith, Dr. E. C., 486, 556
Smith, Dr. Edwin W., 593, 595, 600, 602,
604, 605, 608, 609, 612, 613
INDEX
Smith, Sir G. E., 599
Smith, T., 419, 456
Smith, W. Harden, 574
Smuts, General, 160
Snakes, 211, 212
Snout Beetles, 282, and see Eucalyptus
Snout Beetle
Snowden, J. D., 161, 341
Soa, 152
Sobat, River, 59, 76
Société Anonyme de Congélation Industrielle
du Poisson, 254
Sociétés de Pr évayance, 328, 34.7, 397, 398, 403
Société des Mines d’ Or de Kilo-Moto, 70, 501,
502
Société Internationale Forestiére et Miniére de
Congo, see Forminiére
Society for the Preservation of Fauna of
the Empire, 215, 234
Soda, 133, 582
Sodium chloride, 578
Sodium Salts, 125
Soergel, H., 116
Sofula, 476
Soga, J. H., 608
Soil: Acidity in, 124, 134, 135, 381, 406;
Alkali in, 125, 129, 134; Biology, 128,
120, 141, 142; Brak jee, 125° oreo.
138 n., 172, 369; Changes in, 16; Con-
servation, by fertilizers, 405: by
forests, 178, 179, 187-9, 191-3, 199,
202, 313; Deforestation, effect of, 137,
159, 187-91, 194; Deterioration of, 8;
136, 137, 139, 302, 381, 382; Factors
determining, 1, 7; Irrigation, relation
to, 130; Reconditioning by tree plant-
ing, 189; Sedentary, 61
Soil erosion, 3, 4, 127, 129, 131 n., 137—
141, 166, 269, 302, 411, 422; Causes:
Brak deposits, 125, 138 n.: Burning of
vegetation, 125, 137, 139, 188, 378,
379, 436: Cultivation methods, 8, 12,
122, 139, 188-92, 376-80, 434: De-
forestation, 137, 187-91, 194; Desicca-
tion 138; European influences, 139,
140: Overgrazing, 12, 125, 136, 137,
140, 169, 173, 434-6: Overstocking, 7,
137-9, 434-40: Population pressure,
138, 139, 378, 380, 567: Termites, 142,
190: Water, 137, 391: Wind, 138, 391;
Methods of control, 140, 142, 151, 169,
303, 306: Conservation of forest, 178,
179, 187-9, 191-3, 199, 202, 313; Con-
tour cultivation, 321, 380, 382, 384,
393, 439: Irrigation, 129, 130: Manur-
ing, 321, 377, 381-5: Native methods,
8, 380: Population transfer, 438; On
European estates, 140, 404, 405; Sur-
veys of, 16, 140
Soil-maps, 52, 128, 129 & n., 132, 133,
136, 161
INDEX 735
Soil moisture, 124, 129
Soils and Fertilizers, 127, 310
Soil Science: Conferences on, 128, 129,
132, 140, 326: Organization for, 127-
136: Relation to other sciences, 3, 16,
123, 126: Russian school, 124.
Soil Surveys, 16, 126, 127, 129, 131 & z.,
132,199, 195. 196: For Irrigation, 78,
130, 135
Soil-vegetation, 7, 123, 126, 128, 131,
135; As basis for ecology, 144; Maps,
I
Bao, 326, 454; Field Veterinary
Laboratory, 323, 450; Geology, 79;
Population, pressure on land, 378: Red
goat—see under Goats; Water-supply, 79
Solar Radiation Data, 99, 113, 121
Sole fishery, 239, 240
Solonchak Soils, 130
Solonetz Soils, 130
Somali Tribe, 602
Somaliland, British, 131, 164; Agricul-
tural Dept., 315, 317; Geodetic triangu-
lation, 41; Hydrology, 78, 79; Maps,
45, 50; Meteorology, 102; Mineral re-
sources, 63 & n.; Pastures, 172
Somaliland—Ethiopian Boundary Com-
mission (1933-4), 164
Somaliland, French, 51, 136, 157
Somaliland, Italian, 13, 267, 285; East
coast fever in, 297; Geodetic triangula-
tion, 41; Maps, 52; Meteorological
data, 103; Rainfall, 103, 111
Songea, 370, 397
Soninkoura, 173
Sor, 328
Sorbonne, The, 248
Sorel, Dr., 575
Sorghum, 338, 341, 342; Diseases of, 281,
282; Experimental stations, 325, 342,
407
Soroti, 321
Sotho Tribe, 608
Sotuba, 80, 173, 329
South Africa, 43, 146, 180, 205, 291, 367;
Agriculture, 305, 306, 311, 338, 341,
342, 345, 346, 372, 391, 408: Depart-
ment of, 147, 168, 169, 176, 254, 260,
263, 311, 312, 345, 457: research on,
311-13, 317, 355, 3573 Alr survey, 57,
58; Animal Industry, 136, 137, 305,
306, 312, 313, 408, 410, 414, 417, 418,
428, 429, 457; Anthropology, 596, 599,
600, 603, 608; Arboreta, 147; Beef
industry, 417; Birds, 224; Botanical
Gardens, 147: research, 147, 148, 153,
154, 159, 160, 167: survey, 147, 154,
159, 160, 167; ‘Bullcampscheme’, 437;
Cattle breeding, 417, 418; Cattle,
census of, 457: European introduced,
410, 417: Native, 414; Cereals, cultiva-
tion of, 341, 342, 408: pests of, 281;
Chemical Services Division, 128-30,
141, 311; Commerce and Industries
Department, 238; Co-operative Com-
mission, 408; Cotton, cultivation of,
355: research on, 355, 357; Crop re-
search, 311; Dairy Board of Control,
457, 458; Dairy Industry, 417, 457,
-458; Dairying, Division of, 457; Des-
iccation, alleged, 96, 115, 117; Diseases,
human, 226, 208, 474, 509, 510, 521,
526, 535-8, 540, 541, 543, 544, 547,
548, 551, 555, 559: stock, 168, 214, 298-
300, 312, 442-5, 447; Ecological survey,
147; Elephants in, 230; Entomological
service, 260, 261; Europeans in, 403,
558, 588; Evaporation data, 119; Fer-
tilizers improved, 408; Fish, freshwater
introduced, 250, 251; Fish, marine,
239, 240; Fish, preparation for market,
254, 255; Fisheries, 238-40: commer-
cial, 239, 240: Division of, 238, 239,
254, 312: research, 239: survey of, 238;
Flora, preservation of, 176, 177; Fodder
crops, 345, 346; Forest Products Re-
search Institute—see Pretoria West;
Forestry, Division of, 181, 199, 2o1:
training for, 181-3; Forests, 9, 184:
reserves, 186: stocktaking, 199; Fruit
farming, 305, 312, 367, 368; Fungi,
157, 175, 176; Geodetic surveying,
28-31, 35 n.; Geological Department,
72: Maps, 72: surveying, 62, 63, 83;
Geophysical prospecting, 83; Grasses,
154, 159, 167-9, 306; Herbaria, 1475
Horses used in, 433; Hospitals, 472, 4733
Hydrographic survey, 238; Hydrology,
77; Insect pests of crops, 210, 259, 260,
281, 282, 285, 286, 289, 290, 294; Irri-
gation, 130: Department of, 37, 76, 93,
130; Land Survey Act, 30, 31; Locusts
in, 258, 266: control of, 265: research
on, 263; Marine algae, 158: Biological
Laboratory, 239; Meat exported, 455;
Meat industry, 456; Medical research,
474: services, 471-7: committee on
training Africans for, 509; Medicine,
private practice of, 470-2; Meteoro-
logical Office, 93, 95: services, 93-7;
Mineral resources, 5, 30, 63: marketing
of, 63, 68; Mines, Department of, 62;
Mining, 30, 305, 543; Missions, 596;
Moths, 258; Museums, 216, 217; and
see under Capetown; National Health
Insurance proposed, 472; National
Parks, 212, 217, 229, 230; National
Zoological Gardens, 217; Native Affairs
Department, 313; Nutrition of natives,
575, 5773; Official Year Book, 471;
Overgrazing in, 140, 436, 437; Over-
stocking, 437; Pasture research, 119,
736
South Africa—(cont.)
167-70, 311; Pig industry, 432; Plant
Industry, Division of, 129, 147, 154,
157, 168, 199, 210, 311, 352; Plants,
165, 173: ecology of, 159, 160: taxo-
nomy, 145, 153, 1543 Poor Relief, 472;
Population census, 558; Port Health
Officers, 465, 472; Poultry farming,
433; Property surveys, 28, 30; Public
Health Department, 472, 474; Rail-
way Department, 37; Rainfall, 95, 96,
II14, 117: stations, 95; Reconnaissance
Survey, 37; Research Grant Board,
412, 474; Sheep breeding, 428, 429;
Soil, 129, 130, 305; Soil Biological
Section, 141; Soil erosion, 137-9, 436:
Committee on, 129, 439; Soil map, 129
& n.: science in, 129, 130: survey, 129,
130; Solar radiation in, 121; Stock
bearing capacity reduced, 136, 137,
306: survey, 414; Survey Board, 31, 38:
Commission, 29; Surveying, 26, 28, 31,
32, 37, 38; Termites in, 142, 290; Tim-
ber, 181, 203, 204; Tobacco cultiva-
tion of, 285, 369, 370; Topographical
maps, 31, 46-8: surveying, 31, 35 7.;
Wrees, 199, 201, 202: Uribes; “Gog;
Trigonometrical surveying, 30, 31, 36;
Trout introduced, 250, 251; Tuber-
culosis Research Committee, 543;
Union Trigonometrical Survey, 30, 31;
Universities in, 23, 509, 596; Univer-
sity of, 169; Vegetation, 140, 165;
Veld control, 169; Veterinary research,
312, 442-5: Services Division of, 129,
311, 312, 411; Vital events, registration
of, 561; Viticulture, 311, 369; Water-
supply, 77; Wattles, cultivation of, 372;
Weather, 93, 94: forecasts, 93, 97;
Wells, 77; Zoological Studies in, 216;
217; And see under separate territories
South African Airways, 91
South African Association for Advance-
ment of Science, 23, 305
South African Association of Private
Laboratories, 474
South African Commission (1921), 37
South African Drought Investigation
Commission (1923), 90, 117, 137, 436
South African Institute for Medical Re-
search, 474, 537, 539, 543, 555, 582
South African Medical Journal, 588
South African Museum, see under Cape-
town
South African Native College, see Fort
Hare, Native College
South African Ornithologists’ Union, 224
South African Salt-bush, 172
South African War, 31
South America, see under America
South-West Africa: Fisheries, surveys of,
INDEX
241; Health services, 474; Mammals,
216, 223; Maps, 48; Marine fauna, 240;
Meteorology, 96, 97; Piant ecology,
160; Population, 475; Weather fore-
casts, 93
Southdown Sheep, 429
Southern Rhodesia, 146, 216, 267; Agri-
culture, 289, 292, 203, $13, 31eary7,
342, 354, 369: Department of, 31, 130,
147, 313, 314: Inquiry into Economic
Condition of, 137: research on, 313,
314, 326, 355, 370; Animal industry,
313, 314, 418-20; Arc of 30th Meri-
dian survey, 30, 43; Birds, 224; Botani-
cal research, 147, 148, 160; Cadastral
survey, 30, 32; Cattle, native, in, 414;
Cereals, cultivation of, 342: pests of,
282, 294; Chemistry, research on, 314;
Climate, 98; Co-operative societies in,
408; Cotton cultivation, 313, 326, 355;
Crops, research on, 314; Dairy farm-
ing, 313, 458; Dairy Farming Control
Board, 458; Disease, human, 523, 541,
548, 551: stock, 271, 299, 300; Ento-
mology, staff for, 314; Europeans in,
403; Fisheries, 251; Forestry Division,
147, 181; Forests, «9992 reserves, waco,
Game animals, 13, 214, 218; Geological
Department, 48, 63: surveying, 63, 130;
Geophysical prospecting, 83, 84;
Grasses, 170, 171; Herbarium, 147;
Hospital, 477-9; Hydrology, 77; In-
sect pests, 282-4; Irrigation, 77:
Department, 76, 84, 94; Land Bank,
408; Land titles, 30; Meat preservation
research, 456; Medical services, 477,
478: training Africans for, 511; Meteor-
ological service, 97, 98, 314; Mining,
558; Missions, 478; Museums, 2173
Native Development Department, 400;
Oil-seeds, cultivation of, 354; Pasture
research, 170; Pig industry, 432; Pilot
balloon observations, 97; Plant Indus-
try Division, 170; Plants, 155, 314; Pop-
ulation, 478: censuses, 558; Poultry
farming, 313, 433; Public Health
Department, 477; Rainfall, 97; Savan-
nah forest, 186; Shrubs, 199; Soil,
63, 130, 160: conservation) sang:
Survey Department, 48; Surveying,
31, 32; Swedish expedition to, 155;
Temperature, 97; Tobacco, cultivation
of, 289, 292, 293, 313, 369, 370: Pests
Suppression Act, 294, 369; Topogra-
phical map, 48; Trees, 199-201; Tribes,
608; Trigonometrical surveying, 30,
31, 35; Trypanosomiasis in, 214, 272,
273: Bureau, 532; Tsetse in, 268, 271,
272: areas reclaimed from, 259, 268,
271, 272; Tsetse control, 10, 13, 26,
271-4; Tsetse Fly Act, 273; Vegetatio.”
INDEX
Southern Rhodesia—(cont.)
160: map, 160, 161, 199; Veterinary
Department, 313; Vital events, regis-
tration of, 561; Water-supply, 77, 83,
84, 313; Weather forecasts, 93, 97;
Weather maps, 97; Zoology in, 217, 218
Southern Rhodesia Agricultural Journal, 314
Southgate, S. J. E., 257 n.
Soya bean, 354, 579
Soyer, Mme. D., 358
Sparhawk, W. N., 205
Spath, W., 102
Spearman, B., 544
Speller, C. A., 408
Spencer, H. A., 95
Sphenostylis, 340, 359
Spieth, A. W., 596, 612
Spirochaeta, 297
Spirochaetal diseases, 553
Spirostachys, 374
Splitworm, 289
Springbok Flats, 160, 600
Standard of living, European, in Africa,
588; Native, 371: agricultural basis of,
303, 304, 401: improvement as factor
in disease control, 461, 489, 517-22,
541, 552 :
Standing Health Committee, see under
League of Nations
Staner, P., 156
Stanleyville, 91, 92,
laboratory, 498
Stapf, O., 167, 170, 341
Stapledon, Professor R. S., 167, 309
Staples, R. R., 131 7., 171, 438
Starch flour, 361
Stark, A. C., 224
Starke, J. S., 429
State Medical Service, Brussels, 498, 503
Stayt, H. A., 608
Stebbing, Prof. E. P., 116, 195
Steedman, Miss E. C., 199
Stefanopoulo, G. J., 527
Stellenbosch, 250, 429: University, 158;
Agricultural Faculty, 129, 311, 344,
369: Soil research, 129; Botanical
Department, 154, 210: Gardens, 147;
Dairy research, 458; Forestry training,
162
Stent, bi b-. 171
Stent, Miss S. M., 170
Stephanoderes, see Coffee berry-borer
Stephens, Professor J. W. W., 523
Sterility of Stock, 442, 448
Stevenson-Hamilton, Col., 217, 229
Stewart, J. L., 279, 413, 414-16, 423, 425,
152, 330; State
451
Steyaert, R. L., 285, 358
Steyn, Dr. D. G., 165
Stock: Breeding, 174, 320-2, 325, 331,
333; Disease—see under Disease; Native
7ay
attitude to, 410, 411, 441, 449, 5923
Nutrition—see under Nutrition; Re-
search—see Veterinary Services; Sales,
437; Surveys, 412-16; See also Cattle;
Goats; Pigs; Sheep; and Animal In-
dustry; Mixed Farming; Overgrazing;
Overstocking
Stockdale, Sir F. A., 308, 315, 321, 351,
359, 366, 367, 371, 373; 395, 3975 423-55
431
Stockholm: Botanic Gardens, 145; Mu-
seum, 598, 605
Stomoxys, 529
Stone tools, 87, 599
Stoneham Museum, Kitale, see Kitale
Stored products, pests of, 288, 292-4
Storey, Dr. H. H., 175, 282, 283, 288, 364
Streak Disease, 281, 282, 372
Streptothricosis, 448
Strickland, C. F., 394
Striga see Witch Weed
strong, Ru B., 297
Strongyloides, 550
Strophanthus seeds, 209
Struck, B., 602
Sturdy, D., 132
Sub-tropical soils, 130
Sudan, 205, 249, 467; Anthropology, 597;
Cattle in, 414; Central —, 197; Coffee
cultivation, 362; Diseases, human, 15,
540, 544, 574; Insect pests in, 284-6;
Locust research, 263, 265, 267; Medical
services, training Africans for, 506;
Nutrition of natives in, 575; Pulse
crops, cultivation of, 345; Surveying, 44,
45; Trees, 199; Water-supply, 81, 164;
see also Sudan, Anglo-Egyptian and
Sudan, French
Sudan, Anglo-Egyptian: Agriculture,
197, 208, 209, 314, 315, 338: Depart-
ment of, 314: research on, 131, 175,
284, 314, 315, 317, 326, 356; Air sur-
veying, 58; Anthropology, 594-6;
Birds, 218; Botanical research, 146,
148; Boundaries, 41, 45; Camel Breed-
ing, 433; Chemistry service, 317; Cot-
ton research, 131, 175, 284, 315, 326,
356; Diseases, human, 524, 525; Ento-
mological service, 261; Fisheries, 244;
Forestry Department, 181; Forests, 197:
survey, 200; Game Department, 218;
Geological Department, 63: surveying,
63, 81; Ghee production, 458; Grasses,
170; Gum tree plantations, 189, 197,
200, 207; Horses used in, 433; Irriga-
tion Department, 76; Maps, 50;
Meteorological service, 99-103: sta-
tions, 102; Museums, 218; Northern
—,, irrigation in, 170: pasture research,
170; Overgrazing, 435; Rainfall sta-
tions, 102; Shifting cultivation, 197;
738
Sudan—(cont.)
Soil Science Section, 317; Soil surveys,
131; Southern —, land utilizations in,
16: soil-vegetation in, 131; Survey
Department, 50; Trypanosomiasis, con-
trol of, 535; Zoology in, 218
Sudan, French: Agriculture, 5, 173, 344,
355» 357, 358: research on, 135, 327,
328; Animal industry, 173, 329, 451,
452; Cereals, cultivation of, 344; Cot-
ton, cultivation of, 355, 357; Diseases,
human, 495, 543:stock, 451, 452; Flora,
157, 166; Geodetic triangulation, 41;
Locusts in, 264; Medical services, 491,
493, 494; Mixed farming, 391; Office du
Niger, 399; Pasture research, 173; Rain-
fall, 5; Topographical maps, 33, 513
Veterinary school, 328, 403; Water-
supply, 80
Sudan Notes and Records, 218, 613
Sudan Plantations, Syndicate, 399
Sudanic, 603
Sudd, 164, 165
Sugar Association, 311, 372
Sugar-cane, 371; Diseases, 282, 372;
Research, 311, 320, 372; Varieties, 372
Suk Tribe, 610
Sukulu, 321
Sukuma Tribe, 139
Sukuta, 489
Sulphur, 365, 428
Sumatra, 349, 351
Sunnhemp, 370
Sunspot cycle: Relation to climate, 6,
105, 113, 114: migration of population,
6: periodicity of animal population,
227: of locust outbreaks, 6, 7, 114, 263:
of plant growth, 114, 227: variation of
lake levels, 6, 113, 114
Sunstroke, 121
‘Surfen C.’, 448
Survey Records Office, 28
Surveying, 26-30; African stafi for, 33,
39, 40; Conferences on, 30, 32, 33, 30,
46, 54; Finance of, 25, 26, 34-7; Organ-
ization, 30-7; Primary importance, 25,
35; Training for, 37, 38; see also Air,
Geodetic, Geological, ‘Topographical,
Cte.
Sussex Cattle, 418
Sutton, J. R., 95
Sutton Lap. 1O2, 17
Swamps: Bionomics, 165; Ecology, 162,
165; Flora, 164, 165; Forests, 206; Man-
grove, 162, 343, 344; Papyrus, 164, 165;
Vegetation, 164; Water-supply, rela-
tion to, 6, 164, 165
Swazi Tribe, 608
Swaziland: Anthropology, 597; Dairy
industry, 458; Entomology, 261; Medi-
cal services, 476, 477; Missions, 476,
INDEX
477; Mixed farming, 391; Population,
477; Rainfall stations, 95
Sweating sickness, 448
Swedish Expeditions: Inyanga, 1930, 1553
Northern Rhodesia, 1911-12, —, 155
Swellengrebel, Professor N. H., 296, 474,
521
Swine Influenza, 448
Swordbean, 345
Swynnerton, C. F. M., 268 & n., 529
Sygarus, 357
Sylepta, see Cotton Leaf-roller
Symes, C. B., 277, 296, 534, 537 539
Synecology, 225
Syphilis, 534, 553-5, 563
Systates, see Snout Beetle
Table Bay, 603
Table Mountain, 159
‘Tabora, 99
Takoradi, 91, 109
Talbot, P. A., 146) 6x2
Tallense Tribe, 612
Tamale, 384, 487; Agricultural research,
323, 342, 385, 386, 390; Sanitary over-
seers trained, 515
Tamanrasset, 106
Tana, Lake, 103
Tana River, 5,
(1935), 78 ;
Tananarive: Agricultural chemistry
laboratory, 135; Medical school, 508;
Meteorological laboratory, 98; Pasteur
Institute, branch of, 494
Tanga, 91, 374: Plains, 319, 358: Prov-
ince, 207, 359
Tanganyika, 206, 207, 256, 304, 374, 508;
Agriculture, 207, 319, 341-3, 345, 358-
361, 362, 364, 370, 374, 375, 379, 404,
406, 407, 409, 411: Department of,
148, 319, 320, 343, 361, 391, 392;
Agriculture, native, I91, 379, 303:
research on, 131, 148, 317; 319, $20;
355: survey of, 16; Air Survey Section,
54, 57; Anima! Industry, 171, 315, 391,
Ali, 416, 420, 421, 429; Anthropology
in, 595-7, 600, 602, 610; Arc of 30th
Meridian Survey, 44, 45; Birds, 225;
Boundaries 43; Cattle breeding, 420,
421: census, 416: native, 175, EE
Central Provinces, 459; Cereals, cul-
tivation of, 341-3, 379; Chitemene
agriculture, 379; Coffee cultivation,
319, 363, 404, 409, 411; Composting,
406, 407; Co-operative Societies in,
397, 409; Cotton, diseases of, 285:
research, 319, 355; Crop research, 319;
Dairy industry, 459; Demographic
data, 562, 563; Diseases, human, 521,
536, 538, 544, 548, 552, 553: stock,
299, 445, 448; Elephants in, 220;
78, 344: Expedition
INDEX
Tanganyika—(cont.)
Entomological research, 261, 316;
Essential oils, production of, 374;
Europeans in, 403; Evaporation,
method of assessing, 119; Fauna, 218;
Fisheries, 242: freshwater, 243, 244,
250; Forestry Department, 181, 182;
Borests, 17'75.- 180,> 184; 191° 192:
KESErves; (1G3, 104, 186,' 191, 192:
Rules, 192; Fossil reptiles, 87; Fruit,
cultivation of, 368; Fungi, 175; Game
animals, 171: Department, 220; Geo-
detic surveying, 42, 43; Geological
Department, 48, 64, 66, 67, 72, 74, 77;
84: maps, 72: surveying, 48, 63;
Ghee production, 459; Grasses, 171;
Gum arabic production, 207; Her-
baria...140,°171; Hospitals; 470, 402;
Hydro-electric power, 81; Hydrology,
77; Insect pests, 287, 286; Lake
Province, 392, 459, 512, 513: ‘Ideal’
native holdings in, 400: overstocking
in, 435, 439; Land Development Sur-
vey, 199; Lands & Mines Department,
39, 64; Locusts, red, breeding ground
in, 266: research on, 263; Malaria
Research Unit, 521; Maps, 48; Meat
industry, 456: native consumption of,
411; Medical Department, 482: pass-
ports, 466: research, 482, 584: services,
479, 516: training Africans for, 506,
512, 513; Meteorological service, 100:
stations, 99; Mining, 179, 24.4; Missions,
470, 483: Mixed farming, 391, 439;
National Parks proposed, 232; Nor-
thern Province, water-supply in, 77;
Nutrition of natives in, 575, 579, 581;
Oil-seeds, cultivation of, 348, 353, 3543
Overgrazing in, 420, 434, 435, 438,
439; Overstocking in, 139, 441; Pas-
ture research, 148, 170, 171; Petrology,
64; Pig industry, 432; Plants in, 171:
diseases of, 175; Population, 304:
census, 559: map, 567: pressure on
land, 191: redistribution advocated,
438; Pulse crops, 345; Pyrethrum cul-
tivation, 375; Root crops, cultivation
of, 360, 361; Sheep farming, 429;
Shifting cultivation in, 191; Sisal, cul-
tivation of, 319, 358, 3593 Sleeping
Sickness Organization, 531: Research
Unit, 482, 528; Soil, 131 & n.; Soil
erosion, 131 7., 139, 191, 435: ‘map,
ine eas Southern Provinces, 548; Survey
Department, 42, 44, 48; Surveying, on;
Tea-growing potentialities, 364; Ticks
in, 298; Timber, 191, 204; ‘Tobacco
cultivation, 319, 370; Topographical
survey, 48; Trees, 198; Trypanosomi-
asis, animal, in, 268, 448: human in,
529, 530, 532, 563; Tsetse, areas re-
739
claimed from, 7, 13, 259, 268, 269, 391,
533: distribution of, 267, 268, 276:
methods of control, 268-70, 533:
Research Department, 198, 267, 268,
277, 2798, 317; 919; 436: Areas «re-
claimed by, 7, 259; 268, 269: Botanical
survey by, 148: Ecoclimates, study of,
119, 277: Ecological functions of, 162,
20, 290: survey by, 16; 051," 200.
Experiments in tsetse control, 269, 270:
Game research by, 225: Herbarium,
149; Tung oil production, 374; Vegeta-
tionin, 162,171,191: relation to water-
supply, 140, 191; Veterinary Depart-
ment, 131 n., 146,171, 915, $10, 920:
420, 434, 459; Veterinary research,
319, 320; Vital events, registration of,
561; Water, boring for, 66, 77: chem-
istry of, 192: supply, 140, 171, TOR
304, 438: surveys, 77; Western Pro-
vince, 459, 513; Zoology in, 218,
220
Tanganyika, Lake, 115, 160; Faunistic
survey, 244; Fishery, 242, 244; Hydro-
biclogical survey proposed, 249; Level
of, 113
Tanganyika Notes and Records, 218
Tanning Industry, 308, 372, 373, 454
Tansley, Professor A. G., 151, 158
Tanstuffs, 206
Tanymecus, see Snout Beetle
Tapeworms, 550, 563
Tapioca, 360, 361
Tarentaise Cattle, 426
Tarma, 328
Tatham, Dr., 84.
Taungs Skull (Australopithecus), 599
“Taungya’ System, 188, 193, 194, 197
Taumer, L619
Taxonomy: Animals, 217, 222, 223, 258;
Birds, 224; Fish, 238-40, 246-248;
Grasses,143, 167; 173; Insects, 257.
258, 260; Invertebrates, 240; Mam-
mals, 223; Plants, 143-5, 152-8; Trees,
203
Taylor, A. W., 296
Taylor, E., 146
Taylor, G., 146
Taylor, H. W., 369
Taylor, J. S., 28
Tea, 306, 336; Diseases of, 364; Experi-
mental Stations, 318, 332, 364; Fer-
tilizers, 365, 406; Pests of, 2900; Re-
search on, 324, 365; Soil, relation to,
364, 365: Yellow leaf, 364, 365
Weale; Dry by OOS) 774g art
Teare, 8S. P., 220
Teff-grass, 168, 457
Teita Region, 602
Télimélé, 328, 329
Tell Plateau, 104
740
Temperature: Equatorial, at sunspot
minimum, 113; Health, effect on, 589;
Maximum shade recorded, 103; Obser-
vations, 89, 93, 97, 99, 101-104, 107,
120; Sahara, 106; Tsetse control, rela-
tion to, 275-7
Tenebrionid Beetles, 289
Tephrosia, 375
Termites, 142, 190, 260, 269, 290, 291,
eh,
Tecan Congo Museum, 152, 205, 222,
231, 249, 598, 606; Food research, 575
Teso district, 140, 435, 549, 581
Tessmann, G., 611
Tete District, 34, 43, 71
Texas Fever of Cattle, 443
Theiler, Sir Arnold, 168, 295, 298, 312,
412, 443, 444
Theileria, 297-9, 443, 451
Theobroma, see Cacao
Therapeutics, 520
Therapeutics of Malaria, Report on, 520
Thespesia, 285, 357
Thomas, A. S., 363
Thomas, H. B., 366, 380, 397, 416
Thomas, J., 248
Thompson, A. Beeby, 78, 79
Thompson, H. N., 107, 194, 200
Thompson, J. Moffat, 244.
Thompson, W. R., 95, 96, 114, 117
Thomson, Professor J. G., 277, 467, 521,
523
Thomson, W. S., 293
Thonga Tribe, 608
Thornton, D., 393
Thornton, Sir Edward, 472, 536, 537
Thornton, R. W., 437
Thrips, 287, 289
Thysanoptera, 286, 288
Thysville, 426
Tibesti Mountains, 163
Tick-bite fever, see Typhus
Tick-Fever, 540; of Dogs, 298
Ticks: Control of, 446, 447; Diseases
transmitted by to domestic animals,
297-300, 443, 446, 447, 451, 4533
Diseases transmitted by to man, 12,
139, 297, 540; Ecology, 298, 451;
Surveys, 298, 446: Typhus, see under
Typhus
Tides, Observations of, 31, 109
Tilapia, see Carp
Tilho, Col. J., 80, 115
Timber, 182, 193, 194, 198, 204, 290;
Amount available, 178, 187, 199, 200;
Concessions, 179, 195; Imperial Insti-
tute Committee on, 180, 181; Market-
ing, 180, 185, 204; Native consumption
of, 9, 123, 183, 191, 196, 205; Quality,
198; Research, 180, 181, 198, 199, 204,
308; Trees, 198,.203-205, 210
INDEX
Timbuctoo, 163
Times, The, 585, 586
Tin: Alluvial, 87; Mining, 72, 73
Tinde, 528, 530
Tir Tribe, 677
Tobacco, 313, 336, 404; Amerillo —, 370:
Capsid bug, 289; Experimental Sta-
tions, 314, 317-19, 328, 369, 370, 371;
Fertilizers, 370; Mosaic disease, 289:
Pest Suppression Act, 294, 369; Pests
of, 288, 289, 292-4, 369, 370: stored,
292, 293; Rotation crops, 369, 370:
Stem-borer, 289; White-stem Orinoco
=o oO
Tobacco Research Board, 289
Tobruk, 92
Toc H, 547
Togoland, 41, 323, 414, 596
Togoland, British, 181, 487, 562
Togoland, French: Copra production,
353; Demographic data, 566; Maps,
51; Medical services, 496-8, 563;
Medical surveys, 567; Population, 498:
census, 560: map, 567; Sanitary ser-
vices, 497; Tapioca manufacture, 361
Tolo, 328
Tomato wilt-disease, 289
Tonking, H. D., 541, 552
Topham, P., 161
Topographical Maps, 25 n., 27, 31-4, 37,
39> 41, 45; 47-53> 55> 61, 68, 136; and
see under separate districts
Topographical Surveying, 25 & n., 31,
35 & n., 37, 40, 99, 231; Basis for land
utilization, 16, 35; Data for, 26, 2
Torday, E., 604, 607-13
Toro, 401: District, 278
Tororo, 455
Torry Research Station, Aberdeen, 253,
310
Town-planning, 32, 54, 57
Toxaemia, 550
Toxicology of Plants, see under Plants
Trachylobium, 207
Trade routes, 605
Trade Winds, 96, 110, III
Transkei, 541
Transvaal, 110, 181, 311, 600; Agricul-
tural Department, 342; Anthropology,
597, 606; Arc of goth Meridian survey,
43: Bilharzia Committee, 551; Cotton
research, 326; Diseases, human, 540;
Fruit cultivation, 369; Geological sur-
vey, 62; Insect pests, 282, 283; Maps,
47; Museum—see under Pretoria; Na-
tional Park—see Kruger National Park;
North —, flora of, 160; Rainfall, 96;
Stock sales, 437; Survey Department,
30; Teff-grass introduced, 168; Tung
oil production, 374; Vegetation,
160
INDEX
drapnells C. G., 1355 n. 133, 161, 170,
BIOSIS
Trees: Exotic, diseases of, 201, 202, 209,
210: effect on water-supplies, 202, 203:
experimental planting, 189, 193, 201-
203: problems created by introduction,
176, 201, 202: transpiration rates, 9,
202; Forest, 198, 199: diseases of, 174:
taxonomy, 203: transpiration rates,
172, 179; Medicinal, 209; Timber, 198,
203-205
Trelawny Tobacco Research Station,
314, 317, 370
Trematode, 444, 550
Trewavas, Miss, 242
Trichinella, 550
Trichogramma, 283
Trigonometric Surveys, 30, 31, 35, 36
Trinidad: Agricultural research station,
145; Empire Cotton Growing Corpora-
tion station, 355; Imperial College of
Tropical Agriculture, 20, 316, 326
Tripoli, 52, 92, 102
Tripolitania, 52
Trochain, G., 282, 348
Troll, Dr., 499, 534, 565; 57
Tropical Diseases Bulletin, 467, 468, 480,
562
Tropical Medical Research Committee,
469
Tropics: Agriculture, 306; Flora, 155-8;
Fungus diseases, 175; Humidity, 106,
121, 134; Light-intensity, 121; Rain-
fall) rir; Soil, 124, 125,127, 128, 1343
Sun-spot cycles in, 6; Trees, 187, 209
iroup.Protessor, R. S., 177, 1'78 n., 180,
IQI, 201
Trout, 243, 248; introduction of, 250-2
Trypanosomiasis, 14, 15, 259, 273, 278,
295; Animal carriers ot, 226, 267, 529,
530; Research organization, 18, 277,
314, 482; Transmission, 277
Trypanosomiasis, Animal: Cattle, 267,
297; 421, 423, 445, 447-51, 453: con-
trol of, 214, 272-4, 390, 447, 448, 450-
452—and see Tsetse control: curative
treatment for, 323, 448: resistance to,
279, 390, 415, 416, 424, 425, 448, 4533
Goats, 431, 529, 5303 Pigs, 432; Sheep,
529, 530
Trypanosomiasis, Human: 267, 463, 489,
553; Animal carriers, 267, 529, 530;
Control, 448, 466, 467, 486, 530-2—
and see I'setse control; Epidemics, 527,
531, 533, 5353 Gambiense, 267, 529-32;
Incidence, 529, 531; League of Nations
Commission on, 528, 543; Research on,
525, 528-31; Rhodesiense, 267, 529-31;
Surveys of, 531, 532, 534; [reatment,
268, 279, 493-7, 500, 530, 532-5
Tryparsamide, 533, 534
741
Tsetse Fly, 257, 449-51, 528, 529; Areas
inhabited by, 13, 267, 381; Areas
reclaimed from, 7, 13, 259, 268, 269,
271, 272, 201, 532,-5935 DIonomiues oF
273,530; Gontrol; 19,260; °459. 53%:
assistance of air survey to, 278: Bio-
logical 271, 273: By clearing vegeta-
tion, 195, 269, 272, 273, 275, 276, 278,
279, 532, 533, 535: By densification of
vegetation, 214, 270, 276, 277: By
game destruction, 10, 214, 259, 269,
272, 299: By grass fires, 214,/260)270-
277-9: By killing females, 270: By
trapping, 269, 270, 273, 277, 278, 533;
535; Ecoclimates of, 117-19, 275-8;
Ecology of, 119, 225, 271, 273; Foci of
concentration, 270, 273; In game re-
serves, 230; Parasites of, 271; Confer-
ences on, 277, 326, 479; Economic
Advisory Council: Tsetse Fly Com-
mittee, 268, 528; Field work, 273, 467:
Laboratory, 270, 273-6, 279, 280, 324,
528, 531, 532; London School of
Hygiene, 276, 277, 530; Species, 258,
267; Temperature, effect of, 275-—7—s¢ee
also Tanganyika, Tsetse Research De-
partment—and ‘Trypanosomiasis
Tsetse Fly Committee, see under Economic
Advisory Council
Tshibinda, 101
Tshikapa, 502
Tuareg Tribe, 605
Tuberculosis: Native, 449, 517: case
mortality, 542, 543, 546: in mining
areas, 542, 543; incidence of infection,
543, 544; introduced by white settlers,
542, 544: League of Nations report on,
543: potential increase of resistance,
545: research on 464, 468, 474, 482,
543-5: treatment, 510, 545, 546:
vaccine, 494; Stock, 431, 449, 452, 542
Tumbuka-Kamanga Peoples, 610
Tumor formation and growth, 474
Tung Oil, 337, 373,374.
Tunis, 92, 103; Pasteur Institute, branch
of, 4.94
Tunisia, 51, 103, 104, 297
Turina Cattle, 427
Turkana Province see under Kenya
Turner, Dr. J. G.S., 564:
Turning sickness, 448, 451
Typhoid, 62, 517, 552, 553
Typhus, 517; Investigation, 474, 540;
Louse —, 540-2; Rat-flea —, 468, 540,
541; Tick-bite —, incidence of, 540,
542
Tzaneen, 474
U.A.C., 396, 460
Uba sugar-cane, 372
Ubangi District, 163, 357, 358
742
Uéle: Cattle, 426; Cotton cultivation,
357; Croix-rouge du Congo in, 500, 515;
Leprosy settlements, 550; Pig breeding,
432; Reserve, 231; Sheep, 403
Uélé-Nepoko, 549
Uganda, 85-7, 149, 208, 209, 251, 297,
315, 437, 467; Agriculture, 21, 142,
335, 342, 348, 353, 362, 371, 372, 374,
375-7, 386, 391, 404, 407: Department
of, 131, 149, 320, 325, 354, 371; 377;
571; Agriculture, research on, 131, 175,
317, 320, 321, 355, 356, 363: survey of,
16, 58, 193, 304, 377, 435: training
Africans in, 400-402; Animal industry,
321, 414, 416, 419, 423; Anthropology
IN, 595, 597, 599, 606, 610; Birds in,
224, 225; Botanical Gardens, 149:
research, 148, 161, 162; Boundaries,
41; Cattle in, 416: breeding, 419, 423;
Cereals, cultivation of, 432; Cinchona,
cultivation of, 374; Climate, 112;
Coffee, cultivation of, 142, 362: dis-
eases of, 287: research on, 321, 363;
Co-operative Societies in, 397; Cotton
cultivation in, 21, 355, 377, 404: dis-
eases of, 286: research on, 175, 355; 3593
Crop research, 320, 321; Demographic
data, 16; Desiccation, 78; Disease,
human, 15, 296, 421, 449, 524, 525;
535-40, 542, 543, 545, 547-9) 553-64:
stock, 227, 321, 445, 449; Eastern
Province, 321, 421, 455; Education,
Department of, 571; Elephant grass
in, 8, 208, 377, 385; Elephants in,
219; Entomological research, 261;
Essential oils, production of, 375;
Europeans in, 403, 407; Fisheries, 220,
242, 251-3: freshwater, 243, 250; Flora,
158, 198; Food shortage, periodic, in,
7, 114, 115; Forestry Department, 181,
198: training in, 183; Forests, 161, 180,
193, 194, 200: destruction of, 193, 376,
377: reserves, 186, 193, 194; Fruit,
cultivation of, 366; Game Department,
219, 243; Geodetic surveying, 43;
Geological Department, 64, 72, 74, 77;
86; Geological maps, 72: surveying, 63,
67, 74, 193; Grasses, 385; Herbarium,
149; Housing, native, 485; Hydro-
electric power, 82; Hydro-geological
survey, 77; Hydrology, 77, 78; Insect
pests in, 282-6; Land Utilization Sur-
vey, 16, 193; Locust research, 263, 335;
Maps, 48, 49; Meat, native consump-
tion of, 455; Medical Department, 484,
485, 571; Medical passports, 466, 467:
services, 461, 503-505, 570: training
Africans for, 506-509, 513, 514;
Meteorological service, 100: stations,
99; Mineral resources, 67; Missions,
485; Mixed farming, 391; Moulds in,
INDEX
175; Museum, 218, Mycology, 148;
National Parks proposed, 232; Nor-
thern —, 44; Nutrition of natives in,
578, 581; Oil-seeds, cultivation of, 353,
354; Pasture research, 172; Petrology,
64; Plants, 165: ecology of, 161, 162;
Population, 435, 485: census, 559:
increase in, 77: redistribution advo-
cated, 377; Property surveys, 49; Rail-
ways, 26; Rainfall, 377: stations, 99;
Rift valleys, 86; Root crops, cultivation
of, 360; Rubber plantations, 371;
Sahara, encroachment of, 189; Sani-
tary services, 485, 571; Shifting cultiva-
tion, 376, 377; Shrubs, 198; Sleeping
Sickness Ordinance, 275; Soil, 126:
erosion, 140, 194, 321, 336, 377:
prevention of, 380: map, 132; Stock,
increase in, 172: survey, 414; Sugar-
cane cultivation, 372; Surveying, 39,
40; Swamps, ecology of, 165; Timber,
203, 210; Tobacco, cultivation of, 336,
370, 371; Topographical surveying, 49;
Trees, 193, 198; Trypanosomiasis,
cattle, in, 530: human, in, 278, 529,
532, 535: laboratory research, 528, 530;
Tsetse control, 269, 278: map of distri-
bution, 278; Vegetation, 162; Veterin-
ary Department, 278, 416, 423, 460,
571; Veterinary research, 321; Vital
events, registration of, 561; Water-
supply, 77, 78: surveys,ol, 16,s 77,
Wells, 77, 78; West Nile District, 535;
Zoological research in, 218-20
Uganda Journal, 218, 613
Uitenhage, 290
Ukara Island, 11, 304, 393, 394
Ukiriguru, 319
Ulcers, 564; Research on by B.M.A.,
479; Tropical —, 518, 573
Ullyett, GiG7 2s,
Ulotrichi Racial Group, 601
Umfulosi Reserve, 230
Umtali, 478
Umuahia, 350
U
U
nilever, 352
Jnion Airways, 97
Union Miniére du Haut-Katanga, 70, 501,
502
Union of South Africa, see South Africa
Union Tropicale de Plantations, 351
United Africa Company, 350, 351
United States of America, see under
America
Universities, Research work by, see under
Research and separate Universities
Unleached soils, 130
Urus, African, see Hamitic Longhorn
Usambara, 162, 364, 374
Usambaras, Western, 251
Useful Plants of Nigeria, 157
INDEX
Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa, 166
Uitescher,;, K., 130
Uvarov, B. P., 262 & n.
Uzinza, 319
Vageler, Professor P., 128, 131, 142
van der Bijl, Professor, P. A. 154, 158, 175
van der Merwe, C. R., 129
van Nitsen, R., 502, 522
van Overbergh, 609
van Someren, Dr., 218, 224
van Straelen, Dr. V., 221, 222
van Wing, J., 609
van Zyl, J. P., 159
Vandergrift Tariff for U.S.A., 234
Vangueria, 444
Vaughan Jones, T., 220
Vedder, H., 608
Vegetable Dyes, 205
Vegetable Oils, 338
Vegetables, 320
Vegetation: Burning—see Burning of
Vegetation; Changes in, 3, 8, 16, 143,
144, 163, 171, 176, 193; Maps, 52, 136,
160-3, 199; Tsetse control, clearing
for, 195, 269, 272, 273, 275, 276, 278,
279, 532, 533, 535: densification for,
SiO, 270, 277; Water-supply,
relation to, 8, 140, 160-5, 191, 366
Veld: Burning, 159; Control, research
on, 169, 311; Ecology, 119, 159, 169;
Renovation, 171—see also Grassland
and Pasture
Venereal Disease, 474, 517, 553-5, 563,
570: clinics, 500, 553, 555
Verdoorn, I. C., 154, 160
Vermeersiekte, 444
Vermin, destruction of, 215, 217
Vermoesen, C., 201
Vertebrates, 216
Veterinary Bulletin, 310
Veterinary Research Laboratory, Wey-
bridge, 309
Veterinary Services: African subordinate
staff, 328, 330, 403; Breeding, research
on—see under Cattle; Goats, Pigs; Sheep;
Stock; Conferences on, 280, 326, 445;
Disease, research on—see under Disease,
and also under separate diseases; Nutrition,
research on-——see Nuirition; and Pasture
Research; Organization for administra-
tion and research, 312, 313, 315-25,
329-33, 443-53—and see Veterinary
Department under separate territories
Victoria Botanic Garden, 150
Victoria Falls, 81, 116
Victoria, Lake, 11, 76, 91, 115, 164, 232
254, 277, 321, 344, 377, 393, 411, 466
Heo. 004,006; Fish, 24%, 242) 252;
Fishery, 241-3: survey, 242, 255;
Hydrographic survey, 242; Level of,
743
6, 113, 114; Plague, endemic centre,
5373; Sleeping sickness epidemic, 278
Victoria Nyanza, the, 527
Victoria West, 93
Vigna, see Cow Pea
Vigne, C., 200
Village Forests, see undzr Forests
Vint, Dr. F. W., 584-6
Virunga Mountains, 156
Virus Diseases, see under Disease, and also
separate diseases
Viscerotome Service, 525
Visibility, observations of, 89, 93
Vital Statistics, 464, 557; Registration of
events for, 526, 561, 562
Vitamins, 573, 574, 576-80
Viticulture, 311, 369
Vitifolium, see Cotton
Voandzeia, see Groundnut, Bambarra
Volcanic Rocks, 126, 133
Volcanic Soils, 126, 364
Volcanoes, Flora of, 156, 177
Volkens, G., 162
Volta, River, 196, 245, 246
Vom, 323, 450
von Bonde, Dr. C., 238, 240, 241, 255
von Rosen, Graf, 155
von Wilm, Ritter, 605
Vrydagh, J. M., 285, 358
Vuillet, J., 283
Wa, AI
Wad; ¥.1):,.887
Wadi Halfa, 76
Wagner, Dr., 610
Waite Institute, 174
Wakefield, Miss E. M., 158
Walker, Sir Gilbert, 97, 98
Walker, J., 445-8
Wallace, G.B.,175
Walnut, African, 204
Walvis Bay, 97, 239
Wanganella Sheep, 431
Wankie District, 272
War Office, 43, 56; Maps, 31, 45, 47-50,
52; Surveys, 31, 32, 45
Ward, Major and Mrs., 193
Ward, Rowland, 223
Washington, D. C., 580
Water: Depth, 81: Divining, 84, 85;
Drilling, 7, 61, 64, 66, 67, 69, 76-80,
83-5: by power, 78, 79; Prospecting
for, 76, 77, 83, 84; Sub-artesian, 79;
Underground, 7, 61, 69, 78, 79—and
see Water-supply and Wells
Water Table Surveys, 75, 76
Water-power, see Hydro-electric power
Water-supply, 1, 5-7, 61, 75-80, 166, 313,
461; Animal industry dependent on,
411, 412, 428, 434; Conservation by
forests, 8, 9, 178, 187, 191, 192, 194,
744
Water-supply—(cont.)
196, 197, 202, 203; Deforestation,
effect of, 6, 9, 118, 140, 159, 179, 1975
Forests, relation to, 8, 117, 140, 159,
178; Swamps, relation to, 6, 164, 165;
Vegetation, relation to, 8, 140, 160-5,
191, 366
Watson, Sir Malcolm, 295, 518
Watt, Professor J. M., 154, 165
Wattier, Capt., 104
Wattle Bagworm, 2g0
Wattles, 176, 193, 206, 372, 373; Black —,
193
Wayland, E.. J.,(69, 73, 66; 87,172; '119,
599
Weather, 75; Effect on insects, 264, 284;
Forecasts, 88, 90, 98, 110: broadcast,
90, 93, 97, 105: daily, 88, 90, 93: Sir
G. Walker’s method, 97, 98; Local
variations, 110; Maps, 97, 105, 108, 264
Webb, W. L., 570
Weeks, J. H., 609
Weevil-borer, 366
Weevils, 288, 292, 203
Weil’s disease, 539
Weintroub, D., 165, 582
Weiss, Professor F. E., 159
Wellcome Research Institute, London,
527, 538
Wells, sinking of, 7, 61, 64, 66, 67, 66,
76-80, 83-5
Welman, J. B., 246
Welsh Plant Breeding Station, 167, 309
Wielter: Es) 104, 105,114, 117
Welverdiend, 412
Welwitsch, Dr. F., 146, 155
Welwitschia, 177, 235
Werner, Dr. Alice, 609, 613
Wesleyan Mission, 476
West, G. S., 158
West Africa, 180, 206, 237, 297; Agricul-
ture, 207, 208, 321-6, 338, 339, 345,
346, 349, 353, 358-60, 362, 378, 381,
388: training Africans for, 401;
Animal industry, 413-16, 423-7; Birds,
224; Botanical Gardens, 150; Cacao
cultivation, 336: pests of, 288; Cattle
in, 413, 415: native, 414; Cereals,
cultivation of, 339; Coffee cultivation,
362, 363; Conferences—see under Con-
ferences, West Africa; Co-operative
Societies, 397; Copals, production of,
207; Cotton cultivation, 356: indigen-
ous, 354; Desiccation of, 115; Diseases,
human, 466, 525-7, 535, 536, 539, 553;
Diseases, plant, 14; Diseases, stock, 226,
425, 446, 449-53; Fauna, 216, 219;
Fisheries, 245-7; Forestry, 182, 184;
Forests, 180, 201: destruction of, 9, 137;
Game animals, 10:. reserves, 233;
Geological surveying, 65, 66; Ghee
INDEX
production, 460; Herbaria, 150; In-
digo, production of, 339, 371; Insect
pests in, 286, 288; Kola production,
372; Medical services, 471; Medical
services, training Africans for, 508, 509;
Meteorology, 107, 109; Missions, 470;
Mixed farming, 11; National Parks,
233; Nutrition of natives in, 574-9;
Oil-palm cultivation, 208, 349; Oil-
seeds, cultivation of, 346, 349, 353;
Pig industry, 432; Population, pres-
sure on land, 137: Pulse crops, cultiva-
tion of, 339, 345; Rainfall, 6, 108;
Root crops, cultivation of, 359-62;
Rubber plantations, 371; Shifting cul-
tivation in, 378; Soil, deterioration of,
197: science in, 133; Stock,amuageor
distribution, 416; Surveying, 39; Tim-
ber, 203, 204, 210; Tobacco, cultiva-
tion of, 371; Vital events, registration
of, 562
West Africa, French: Agricultural chem-
istry, 135; Agriculture, 135, 327, 328,
338, 346, 348, 351, 354, 358: research
on, 327, 328, 363; Air surveying, 59;
Animal industry, 163, 416, 426;
Anthropology, 612; Botanical research,
157, 163, 164; Catilesin, 4rG,e72o,
Coffee, research on, 363; Customary
law in, 612; Desiccation, 163; Disease,
human, 297, 494, 495, 524, 545:
stock, 300, 452; Economic map, 163;
Evaporation index, 120; Fauna, 163;
Fisheries, 248; ‘Floras’, 157; Fodder
crops, 346; Forestry service, 164, 185;
Forests, 164; Game reserves, 227;
Geological maps, 69; Geological sur-
veys, 69; Geology & Mines Depart-
ment, 69, 74, 75; Groundnuts cultiva-
tion, 348; Hospitals, 491-3, 4953
Hydrology, 80, 81; Insect pests in, 282,
283; Irrigation, 80; Mapping, 51, 73;
Medical services, 491-5: training of
Africans for, 506, 515; Meteorological
service, 104, 105; Missions, 495; Ouil-
palm cultivation, 351; Oiul-seeds cul-
tivation, 348, 354; Paleontology, 69;
Pasture research, 173; Petrology, 69;
Plants introduced, 173; Population,
495: census, 560; Population move-
ments, 1575" ‘Rainfall, “Seria
stations, 105; Route surveys, 27;
Sleeping Sickness Service, 486; Société
de Prévoyance, 397, 398, 403; Surveying,
33; Timber, 204; Topographical maps,
27; Tribes, 611; Trypanosomiasis,
cattle, 279: human, 493-5; Tsetse
control, 279, 280; Service Economique,
327; Vegetation map, 163; Veterinary
Service, 328;Water-supply, 80; Weather
forecasting, 105: map, 105
INDEX
West African Medical Journal, 480
West Coast of Africa, 207, 470; Fishery,
241, 248; Lagoon cattle, 413; Maps,
38; Yellow Fever endemic centre of, 15
Westermann, D. H., 593, 611, 612
Wheat, 306, 336; Breeding, 176, 314, 344;
Experimental Stations, 314, 331, 3443
Pests of, 281; Research, 320; Rotation
trials, 344
White ants, see Termites
White Fulani Cattle, 424
White grub (Eulepida) 282
White Nile, 44, 55, 59 ., 76, 164, 200
Whitefly (Bemisia) 283, 285, 286, 288
Whittingdale, W., 30
Whitworth, S. H., 446
Whyte, Dr. R. O., 309
Widdowson, Miss, 581
Wilbaux, R., 352
Wilcocks, Dr. C., 544
Wilkins, Dr. B. O., 544
Williams, Dr., Ditrector
Medical Service, 571
Willams Dr. A. D. J. B., 481
Williams, C. O., 130
Willis, E. Bailey, 86
Willoughby, W. C., 596, 613
Wilson, C., 345
Wilson, D. B., 521
Wilson, Mrs. G., 608
Wilson, Godfrey, 594, 609
Wilson, Dr. R. C., 63
Wilson Airways, 91
Wilson-Haffenden, J. R., 595, 612
Wilverth, E., 249
Windhoek, 48, 91, 474, 475
Winds: Harmattan, 106, 107, I10, III,
555: Maps, 108; Monsoon, 9, 103, 105,
377: south-east, 100: south-west, 106,
110, 111, 196: observations, 89, 93, 97,
98, 102, 104, 108, 109; Seeds distri-
buted by, 163; Soil erosion by, 138,
391; Trade —, 110: south-east, 96, 110,
EL!
Winterbotham, Brigadier H. S. L., 26,
40, 45, 49 ;
Wireless: Health services, use in, 466,
516; Weather reports, 90, 93, 97, 105
Wireworms, in plants, 282: infection in
animals, 444.
“Witch weed’, 341
Witchcraft, 595
Witwatersrand: Air survey of reef, 57;
Chamber of Mines, 477; Plague Com-
mittee, 537; University, 154, 578:
Anthropological research, 596: Botani-
cal Department, 119, 147, 169, 204,
210: herbarium, 147: Medical School,
474, 509: Pasture research, 169, 311;
Vegetation, 165
Wood, Medley, 154
of Uganda
745
Wood, Professor R. C., 419
Wood-borers, 210
Wool, 331, 428, 429; Breeding for, 333,
428, 429, 431: fibres, research on, 429
Worms: Intestinal, 453, 570: Parasitic,
4-i+
Worsley, R. R. de G., 374, 375
Worthington, E. B., 112, 242, 247, 251,
606
Worthington, S., 112, 251
Wright, Dr. E. J., 575
Wuli Experimental Station, 325, 347, 386
Xanthosoma, 360
Aenopsylla, see Plague Fleas
Xerophthalmia, 518
Yaba, Higher College, 65, 149, 401, 402,
508; Medical School, 506, 508, 510;
Research Laboratory, 486, 508; Yellow
Fever Laboratory, 465, 524
Yams, 340, 383, 385; Common (White) —,
3593; Eddoe (Coco-) —, 360, 362, 576;
Esuri —, 359; Greater —, 340, 360;
Mounding for, 380; Research on, 322,
362; Yellow (Guinea) —, 359
Yangambi: Experimental Station, 330,
352; INEAC, 152
Yangambi-Selection, 331
Yao Tribe, 610
Yaonde, 508
Yasa, 501
Yaws, 517, 534, 553-5, 563, 569
Yeji, 413
Yellow Earths, 130
Yellow Fever, 300, 463, 465, 466; Con-
ferences on, 479, 526; Control, 296,
497, 524-7; Endemicity, 296; Epi-
demiology, 494; Incidence, 14, 15;
Preventative vaccination, 527; Re-
search on, 465, 480, 485, 524; Rural
or Jungle —, 517, 524; ‘Silent areas’,
524-6; Transmission through air travel,
526; Urban —, 524, 526; Vaccine, 494,
527; Vectors, 295, 296; Viscerotome
service, 525
Yellow-wood (Podocarpus), 205
Yendi, 354
Yo, River, 247
Yola, 323
Yorke, Professor Warrington, 489
Yoroberi-Kunda, 325, 347
Young, T. Cullen, 610
Zambesi River, 42, 224, 358; Dam pro-
posed, 116; Upper —, 157, 608:
Valley, 271, 372
Zamblara, 328
Zanzibar, 39, 91, 352, 508; Agricultural
Department, 131, 317, 353; Cloves,
production of, 373; Copra, production
746
Zanzibar—(cont.)
of, 353; Fishery survey, 241; Meteoro-
logy, 99; Museum, 218, 581; Nutrition
of natives, 574; Public works depart-
ment, 48; Soil map, draft, 132;
Topographical mapping, 48; Tuber-
culosis in, 544
‘Zanzibar animé’, 207
Zaria, 134, 275, 322, 326, 361, 424
Zebedelia Citrus Estates, 312
Zebra, 227; Mountain —, 230; scheduled
for protection, 235
Zebu Cattle, 412-16, 418, 419, 422-4,
449, 605; Asiatic —, 413; Krishna
Valley —, 421; Lyre horned —, 415;
Shorthorn —, 414, 415; West African
—, 425
Zier. Go
Zimbabwe, 606, 608
Zinder, g1
Zolotarevsky, M., 264
INDEX
Zomba, 552, 564; Acclimatization Sta-
tion, 150; Agricultural experimental
Station, 142, 318, 319, 367, 370, 384,
407; Hospital, 481, 551; Laboratory,
482
Zon, R., 205
Zoological Society, London, 212, 215
Zoology: American study of, 222;
Applied —, 216; Field surveys, 216;
Organization for, 215-22; Relation to
other sciences, 211; Systematic, 215-
218; Taxonomy, 217—see also Game
Animals
Zuarungu, 390
Zulu Cattle, 414
Zulu Native Trust Fund, 437
Zulu Tribe, 608
Zululand, 474; Botanical research, 154;
Game reserves, 230; Stock sales, 4375
Tsetse in, 269; Vegetation, 160
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