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<p) > MEMOIRS OF THE CHALLENGER SOCIETY. No. 1.
SCIENTIFIC AND BIOLOGICAL
RESEARCHES IN THE NORTH
ATLANTIC.
CONDUCTED BY THE AUTHOR ON HIS YACHTS
PWiele, WWMENNON|? UND) SASS SINDNASIN: IRIS, 2
BY R. NORRIS WOLFENDEN
B.A.; M.D. Cantab. ; Builbn af fic Linnean Soctety ;
Fellow of the Zoological Society ; Fellow of the Challenger
Society ; Late Member of Council of the British Marine
Biological Association, Sc.; and Member of the Royal
Temple Yacht Club
LONDON : REBMAN LIMITED
129 SHAFTESBURY AVENUE. MCMIX
[ALL RIGHTS RESERVED]
FOREWORD
In the work which is recorded in the following pages, I owe a deep
debt of gratitude to several scientific friends, notably Dr. H. N.
Dickson, of Oxford and Reading, and to Mr. E., W. L. Holt (and
Mr. Byrne) and his associates of the Irish Fishery Board, and to
Professor Pettersson, of Stockholm, for their assistance in working
up some of the results of the observations made over a number
of years on my yachts. I fully recognize the fact that there is
much material brought home from these cruises, which it has been
impossible yet to overlook, in the midst of many occupations. I
am painfully aware of the fact, that if I wait any longer for the
completion of the study of these biological collections, I may have
to defer the publication of such results as have been arrived at
until a time too remote to contemplate. This would be unjust to
my friends who have assisted me, and I must therefore give these
observations to the world in a less complete form than I had originally
contemplated, and hope for the opportunity to extend them at a
future time. Many of them have been contributed to the meetings
of the Challenger Society, which, however, does not publish Trans-
actions. I can only trust that they may prove of interest to
others who, like myself, have been fascinated by the study of things
oceanographical. With all modesty I put this little volume out,
not without the hope that it may stimulate others to assist science,
as I have endeavoured to do, by observations at sea, seriously
undertaken, and accurately recorded.
CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTORY — - = - = : : = E : 1
EXTRACTS FROM THE LOGS OF THE CRUISES IN THE FARROE CHANNEL, 1899-1902 13
THE CRUISE OF 1903 FROM VALENTIA TO THE FazEROE BANKS AND ORKNEY - 18
EXTRACTS FROM THE LOG OF THE 1904 CRUISE - : - - ee)
THE Log OF THE CRUISE OF 1905-1906 - : : : > a9
Notre oF THE 1907 CRUISE E = S 2 E 4
OBSERVATIONS CONDUCTED ON SAILING-SHIPS — - = = - > BS
HYDROGRAPHICAL OBSERVATIONS :
I. THE FAEROE-SHETLAND CHANNEL - = i 5 = Ae
Il. FROM IRELAND TO THE AZORES, MADEIRA, AND GIBRALTAR - = OF
Ill. FROM USHANT TO GIBRALTAR - = - - - - 107
IV. THE NORTH OF SHETLAND TO NORWAY - - < - - 130
SECTIONS OF TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY - - : 4 5 Sy
BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS :
I. FISHES - : - 5 z ‘ = OR
¢ IL. AMPHIPODA AND ISOPODA é és : ; i - 9210
Ill. PYROSOMA : : E u : i i _ 990
CRUISE OF THE ‘SILVER BELLE’ IN JULY AND AUGUST, 1907 - - - 225
Vil
INTRODUCTORY.
Ig J une, 1899, I made a cruise round the Shetland Islands, starting
from Stromness, in Orkney, and returning to the same place, and at
four stations, north, south, east, and west, | took careful temperature
observations, and made collections of plankton with silk nets. This
region and that of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel promising to yield
results of great scientific interest, both from a hydrographical and
faunistic point of view, and, moreover, having been hitherto but im-
perfectly examined, I determined to institute periodic cruises. At that
time this area had not been taken over by the International Comiittee,
the first cruise of the North Sea Fisheries Investigation Committee,
indeed, not being undertaken until 1902 (August 25 to September 1,
which was followed by a second cruise in December of that year),
since which period this area has been under systematic investigation
by the Scotch Fishery Board. The work which I had done in this
region was preliminary to the more extended observations of this
official body, and directly antecedent to it, and is therefore of interest
as giving a picture of the hydrographical conditions of the Faeroe
Shetland Channel for two years and a half previously to the observa-
tions of the Scotch Fishery Board. As the plan of operations of the
latter body did not extend beyond the Faeroe Channel in a westward
direction, I made observations in 1903 from Valentia to the Faeroe
Banks, along the deep-water trough of the Atlantic, not only for the
purpose of making certain observations upon the plankton fauna, but
also with the object, by hydrographical observations, of adding to the
official work, by obtaining physical data of an area which did not come
' ¢Report on Fishery and Hydrographical Investigations in the North Sea and
Adjacent Waters,’ Fishery Board for Scotland, 1902-1903.
2 Introductory
within their scope, though adjacent to the ‘ official ° area. During the
year 1904 my yacht Silver Belle made an extended cruise from
Valentia (Ireland) to the Azores, thence to Madeira and Gibraltar,
and back to England across the Bay of Biscay to Plymouth.
The cruise of 1905, which at the time of writing was being
undertaken, covered much of the same ground, certain stations of the
1904 cruise being revisited, to again examine the conditions of a large
amount of Mediterranean water in the Atlantic, which formed so
striking a feature of the hydrographical results of 1904. Professor
Pettersson having kindly forwarded me one of his current meters, an
attempt was made to use this on all occasions possible, and the
faunistic work was largely devoted to trawling observations.
A private worker cannot hope to be equipped with the same costly
appliances in the shape of steam vessels, etc., which a body expending
Government funds may employ. Possessed only of small sailing-
ships—first, in the Faeroe Channel, of a small cutter yacht of less than
40 tons, subsequently of a ketch yacht of 130 tons—all the work
accomplished has been with comparatively small means. But I have
taken care to have my ships equipped with apparatus of the most
perfect and modern description, and the rest depends only upon
accuracy of observation, and the power and patience to work under
conditions often difficult, and to a landsman even appalling, but
which to a seaman are but everyday incidents. I would with
becoming modesty like to instance the amount of work accomplished
by my yacht, as an example of what may be done by sailing-vessels of
small tonnage, and to suggest that a great deal of very valuable
scientific work might be accomplished by similar vessels, especially in
areas which the International Council does not include within its plan
of operations—work which would greatly contribute to that extended
knowledge of the hydrography and conditions of life in the sea which
it is now the endeavour of combined nations to acquire. I cannot but
think that there are many yachtsmen who would willingly give their
assistance if they were only initiated into the work, and only realized
of what great importance scientific observations of this kind may be
Introductory 3
in helping to solve many problems of oceanography. This, though
a comparatively new science, practically dating only from the
memorable voyage of the Challenger in 1876, has to-day assumed
immense importance.
The scheme of work of international investigations has been well
set out by Mr. D’Arcy Thompson as of three parts—viz., hydro-
graphical researches, biological observations and experiments, and
statistical inquiries. The latter, of course, is not possible for the
independent worker, but the scope of the two former is well described
by Mr. Thompson in the following words: ‘It is laid down as
necessary that we should extend our very scanty knowledge as to the
phenomena of the sea itself, the distribution of its currents, the com-
position of its waters, and the changes that these factors undergo from
season to season, and from one year to another.... It is not merely
matter of surmise, but there is already evidence at hand to prove that
the normal distribution and regular movements of many fishes are
linked with these physical phenomena, and to indicate that hydrography
holds the clue to the wanderings of the shoals. Together with these
hydrographical problems goes the kindred study of the plankton—a
multitudinous floating life that is variously associated with particular
waters, and that serve as food for a variety of fish.’
The scientific yachtsman may contribute much valuable informa-
tion in this and many other directions which it is not necessary to
indicate here, and it is earnestly to be hoped that such may be induced
before long to enter practically into this great scheme of the study of
the sea.t
The great expeditions, such as those of the Challenger, National,
Valdivia, and many others, which have resulted in immense additions to
1 Professor O. Pettersson, Vice-President of the International Council for the
Investigation of the Sea, has suggested to me that an association of yacht-owners,
willing to devote part of their time to assistance in making observations at sea,
might be formed. Such an association should not be impossible, and I should be
willing to give the benefit of my experience to any who should be moved by
scientific enthusiasm to join in the work.
|—2
4 Introductory
our knowledge of oceanography and zoology, have been conducted
over large areas of space. There yet remain problems of vast interest
which ean best be solved by smaller expeditions working over smaller
areas and working continuously. Observations, for instance, which
can be taken month by month over a small selected area must yield
results of very great importance.
On these voyages the objects have been: (1) To take hydro-
graphical observations—i.e., records of the temperature of the water
from the surface to 1,000 fathoms (sometimes to 1,500 and 1,800
fathoms), along with collection of samples of water in a suitable
‘water-bottle’ from these depths. These are at once bottled (in glass
bottles) on board the ship, and at the termination of the cruise the
water is analyzed to determine the salinity. These analyses have
been carried out under the supervision of Dr. H. N. Dickson at
Oxford, and his reports are given below. During 1904, also, a great
many vacuum tubes were filled with water from various depths for
the subsequent analysis of the proportions of oxygen and carbonic
acid. These analyses, which have been made by Professor Pettersson
at Stockholm, have yielded results of great interest and importance.
(2) The collection of the plankton, or minute life of the sea, in fine
silk nets, which gives important results, besides assisting hydro-
graphy in determining the vertical and horizontal distribution of the
smaller animals and of plants, which, though in many cases actively
swimming, are in all cases more or less, and in some entirely, at the
mercy of oceanic currents, and which also results in the discovery of
many new species.
The circulation of the oceanic waters of the North Atlantic Ocean
and the causes of the same, which has been ascribed variously to
physical causes—viz., the heating of surface waters of the tropical
regions, and cooling of water in the Polar regions ; to the influence of
prevailing winds ; shortly and vigorously by Pettersson to the melting
of ice from the Polar regions
are matters for subsequent discussion.
It is thought better for the present merely to record in the pages
following the scientific observations which I have made from the
Introductory 5
Faeroe Islands to Madeira, the Azores, and the Straits of Gibraltar, the
bearing of which upon modern theories of the circulation of Atlantic
waters will be better dealt with later on.
For the purpose of scientific investigations of this kind, a brief
description of the appliances necessary may be given.
1. Water-bottles for the collection of samples of sea-water at
different depths. It matters little what form of bottle is used, pro-
vided only that the apparatus can be guaranteed to collect the sample
of water from a given area without admixture of water from any layer
above or below. On board the Challenger the apparatus im use was
the bottle devised by Buchanan, and which, notwithstanding ‘ improved °
forms of apparatus, is still quite sufficiently accurate for the purpose.
This is the form of ‘bottle’ which has been constantly used on board
the Silver Belle. When the work was first undertaken in the Faeroe
Channel, Mills’ water-bottle was used, and this is sufficiently useful
for moderate depths. Buchanan’s bottle, which is a larger apparatus,
carries a reversing thermometer on a frame attached to the cylinder.
It is lowered and raised on a wire reeled off a drum which carries
2,000 fathoms, and the hauling on board the drum, which is fixed on
a specially-made winch, is actuated by steam, as hand-hauling at such
depths would not be practicable. The water-bottles of Pettersson-
Nansen are much more elaborate, consisting of concentric tubes, with
the thermometer inside the tubes. In a new pattern, the outside
frame carries a reversing thermometer, ‘which may be used instead
of the deep-sea thermometer, or as a check on the results obtained
thereby. That the use of thermometers inside the lid of the water-
bottle is not considered absolutely essential by the International
Council is indicated by the remarks of Helland Hansen in the same
report :7 ‘On account of faults in the manufacture three of them’—
i.e., Nansen-Richter thermometers —‘ were broken during the August
cruise, so that at some stations we were obliged to use good ordinary
thermometers (with milk-glass scale), which were put into the water-
bottle after it had come up ondeck. As the temperature of the air
! Robertson, ‘ North Sea Investigations, p. 54. 2 Ibid., p. 3.
6 Introductory
did not differ very much from that of the water, we may neglect the
errors caused by this method.’
On hoard the Silver Belle we have always employed Miller-Casella
thermometers or Knudsen’s bulbs, and we have been very fortunate in
escaping accidents by breakages. The reversing thermometer is one
suppled by Negretti and Zambra, and this and the Miller-Casella
were found to vary only two or three tenths of a degree. The air
and surface-water temperatures were taken by a thermometer supplied
from the Plymouth Laboratory, made by Miller, Orme and Co., rising
from 9° C. to 36° C., and divided in tenths (compared with thermo-
meter 303 Richter, and verified at Charlottenburg). All our instruments
have been similarly verified. The depth is recorded by a wheelmeter
reading fathoms.
2. For the collection of plankton silk nets (of bolting silk 100 to
170 mesh) were employed, and as the desire was to collect the plankton
at definite depths, closing-nets have been always employed when
working below 100 fathoms. Closing-nets may be made to work
vertically, as in Fowler’s net,! or horizontally, as in Garstang’s and
the author’s nets. Opinions may be divided as to the relative
advantages of these two methods of fishing for plankton, but the
objection that a horizontally-towing net, which has to be towed at a
very gentle pace (with just sufficient way on the ship to keep her
barely moving), is never at the depth imagined loses force when it is
realized that a vertically-hauled net is so raised through a hundred or
more fathoms at each haul between the opening and closing. Besides
which it is probably of little importance in working in deep water
whether the net is, say, at 1,000 or 900 fathoms, and, moreover, the
accuracy of the observations is checked by appending to the net-frame
one or more thermometers. A reversing Negretti thermometer is
invariably attached to our nets when plankton-fishing, and as the
temperatures in the Atlantic at known depths are fairly constant, the
1 Dr. Fowler's net is described in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society. He
was kind enough to superintend the making of one for me, which we used very much
in the Faeroe Channel in 1903.
Introductory 7
reading of the thermometer gives a pretty accurate indication of the
precise depth at which the net has been. The net remains down
usually for fifteen minutes after the opening messenger has been sent
down, and is then closed and hauled up.
There are advantages about the use of a horizontally-towing net as
compared with one vertically actuated, in that the supposed depth is
more accurately located to within a few fathoms ; and again, that as
marine organisms usually move in shoals, a horizontal net is more
likely to capture them than a vertical net, which may pass by a
moving shoal, although it may capture a large amount of material by
passing through a large vertical excursus.
The chief object of these researches is to determine generally
what species are mesoplanktonic and epiplanktonic throughout a
portion or the whole of their existence, and to determine as far as
is possible the horizontal and vertical distribution of various species,
as far as regards their relation to bathymetrical and climatic con-
ditions.
The desideratum of a good and effectively opening and closing net
for deep-water work being great, the author and his skipper, Buchan
Henry, set to work to devise an apparatus of the kind which should
be effective in deep water; and the instrument which is described
briefly has been found to meet all requirements.
The inability to determine with absolute accuracy the depth at
which any net, either of vertical or horizontal pattern is working, of
course renders all real experimental work only approximate in its
results ; but I think it must be conceded that all open nets—i.e., nets
which are not designed to open and close by messengers or other
effective device at the supposed depth—can only be regarded as
inefficient in any problems of vertical distribution.'
1 Professor O. Pettersson attaches a small net to his current meter, so that water
samples, temperature, the velocity of the current, and a sample of the plankton of
the area can be taken at one and the same time. ‘Though very useful, Professor
Pettersson’s statement that this is the only accurate test yet devised for taking
reliable samples of plankton cannot be supported, the net being an open one with
no mechanism for closing.
8 Introductory
The worst of all nets of this kind is that the amount of plankton
captured is often very small, and it is only the smaller animals
which cannot escape, while larger beasts, endowed with great activity,
can avoid the snare ; but as Copepoda form the great bulk of the
plankton in deep water, and their distribution in relation to ocean
currents is perhaps the most important, these little crustacea are
captured in sufficient quantity by the horizontally-towed net.
As it may be of interest to some to describe how these operations
are conducted on a small sailing-vessel, I give a short description of
the disposal of apparatus and method of working on board ship.
A steam boiler is fixed under deck, and supplies motive power to
a capstan amidships, of the type generally employed on the larger
fishing vessels.
In series with this is a strongly-made winch, specially designed for
the purpose by Messrs. Bullivant and Co., which carries two drums,
one for 2,000 fathoms of wire for the closing-net and water-bottle,
ete., the other a smaller reel containing fine sounding-wire. The winch
is fitted with clutch and brake.
Thewire usedis of seven strands, galvanized, 17 gauge, 056” diameter,
each taking 520 pounds of strain, so that the total breaking strain is
about 2,800 pounds. There is a good deal of difference in wire, which
requires to be of the very best manufacture. Ina wire of less perfect
make, which we once had from Birmingham, the strands overrode
the central core, so that the wire was from the first useless, the
messenger refusing to descend beyond the obstruction caused by the
overriding of the wire.
In 1904 we used a wire of 16 gauge, also of seven strands, 2,000
fathoms, weighing 7 ewt., and with a diameter of -064”, and breaking
strain of nearly 4,000 pounds ; but although on one occasion in very
deep water we nearly lost the heavy closing-net through the breaking
of all the strands except one, caused by the riding up and down in an
exceptionally heavy sea, the lighter wire is sufficiently strong for
ordinary purposes. The fact is that heavy closing-nets should not be
used in a heavy sea-way. The risk is great, and the results obtained
Introductory 9
are usually very small; the violent jerking of the wire and net pre-
vents it turning and fishing properly, and throws a terrific strain upon
the whole, which is likely to lead to breaking away. On one occasion
in the Faeroe Channel we thus lost 120 fathoms of fine piano wire,
Garstang’s net, and two thermometers, a sudden strain causing the
wire to snap close to the surface.
All wire made by Messrs. Bullivant and Co. can be guaranteed to
be as near perfection as possible, and to stand any strain to which
such wire ought reasonably to be submitted.
From the winch the wire is led over a gun-metal wheel, to which
is attached an indicator which marks in fathoms the amount of wire
let out. From this wheel the wire is led over a running wheel at the
upper end of a stout spar, which is fixed at the bottom by a hook on
to the mainmast, and by a length of good manilla rope at the upper
end over a pulley again attached to the mast, and so arranged that the
spar can be readily swung out at the desired angle over the bulwarks
of the port or starboard side.
In comparatively shallow water—i.e., down to 500 fathoms—a
sounding is made with ordinary hand-line and sounding-lead, and a
sample of the bottom brought up and preserved ; in deep water the
hand-line is never used, the depth to which the water-bottle or heavy
closing-net is lowered being read off on the fathom-indicating wheel, a
preliminary sounding being generally made with the fine sounding-wire.
While it is impossible to work closing-nets with satisfaction in
rough sea-way, we have never found this an obstacle to the use of the
water-bottle, or temperature observations, and these observations were
therefore made when at sea with regularity daily, and throughout the
cruise from Valentia to the Azores, at distances of about fifty miles
apart.
Description or New Tow-Ner ror Derr Warerr.
During the 1903 and 1904 cruises we have used almost exclusively
the net figured below. With it considerably over 400 hauls were then
made from 50 to 2,000 fathoms, and it only failed to open or shut
at the right time on very few occasions, and then only when used in
2
10 Description of a New Tow-Net
conditions of sea and weather when no tow-net could be guaranteed
to act with satisfaction. On one occasion, at the end of a long cruise
(in 1903), one of the side-springs broke, but this was easily replaced
on board, and once, in 1904, when the net unfortunately had been
bumping against the floor of the sea, the central piston became bent,
and the weakening thus caused led to its breakage shortly afterwards.
This, however, was quickly repaired on board. The net is designed
to tow horizontally. As will be seen from the figure, it consists of
four detachable pieces: (1) The main cylinder, with arrangement at
the bottom for attaching weight, if necessary, and thermometers.
(2) Sliding down it a central piston which runs freely through the top
piece, enlarged at the bottom end that it may, when fully withdrawn,
catch upon the side-springs inserted inside the upper portion of the
main cylinder ; these springs are then pushed through the lateral slots,
and are designed to catch the arms of the net-frame and hold the
lower pair in position when the net is closed ready for lowering. The
upper portion of the central cylinder (detachable with the piston) has
strong lateral steel springs (we have found steel preferable to any
other metal for this purpose, and with proper attention it does not
rust), four in number. (3) A funnel-shaped top piece put on over the
top springs, and which receives the impact of the large closing
messenger. (4) The four arms of the net-frame, attached to short
metal tubes which slide freely over the main cylinder.
When the net is about to be used, the wire is run through the
piston and main cylinder and bent on to the device at the bottom (this
is cast In one piece with the main cylinder); the top piece is screwed
home on the main cylinder, the funnel pushed shghtly down, the arms
raised, and the piston drawn up, so that the lower pair of arms catch
on the smaller pair of side-springs in the main cylinder, which is
insured by raising the piston. By pushing down the funnel the upper
arms are caught on the four strong springs of the top piece, and they
are made secure by withdrawing the funnel a little. The net is then
ready, securely closed, for lowering. To open it under water, a small
messenger is sent down which strikes the top of the piston, drives it
down the cylinder, the lateral springs of which recede inside, and the
6 OLY
12 Description of a New Tow-Net
lower arms are released, fallmg to the bottom of the cylinder. To.
close it, a large messenger, the diameter of the funnel, strikes the
latter, drives it down, and, compressing the upper springs, the upper
arms are also released and fall to the bottom, and the net is securely
closed.
The three positions of the net—(1) ready closed for lowering,
(2) open as in towing, (3) closed ready for raismg—are shown in the
figures on p. 11.
The whole net-frame, from the top of the funnel to the bottom of
the cylinder, is 3 feet 4 inches long when the net is opened, and 3 feet
2 inches when the net has been shut. The outside diameter of the
main cylinder is 2 inches, and its length 2 feet 9$ inches ; the length
of the piston 20 inches ; the top of the funnel 4% inches diameter, and
the lower end, which fits over the main cylinder, 2% inches.
The fine silk (bolting silk) net is 5 feet 6 inches long, stitched on
to a leather border of 52 inches length, which is attached to the frame.
Conical in shape, at the end it is only 6 inches diameter, and in order
to prevent maceration of the captured specimens, which occurs in the
ascent of the net by the friction of the sides falling together, I have
for long used a cane hoop sewn into the net a little way before the
end, which serves to keep the end of the net open, and has proved to
be markedly advantageous to the preservation of the specimens. As
silk nets are apt to get torn, and not unfrequently have burst under
the pressure, we have also for long now used the protective covering
of a duck-bag, inside which the silk net is freely suspended. This has
effected a great saving in silk nets.
This net-frame was made for me by the eminent engineers
Messrs. Bullivant and Co., of London, who expended much time and
experiment in the construction of the models, and produced a net-
frame of perfect workmanship. The simplicity of the apparatus, and
its accuracy in opening and shutting under water, leave nothing to be
desired. I have endeayoured to give a description of the net without
overloading it with technical details, but a more accurate (from an
engineer's point of view) description can be readily obtained from the
specification drawn up by Messrs. Bullivant and Co.
EXTRACTS FROM THE LOGS OF THE CRUISES IN THE
FAEROEK CHANNEL, 1899—1902.
Tur Walwin is a little cutter of thirty-six tons, originally built at
Saleombe, and was first devoted by. me to scientific work in 1899.
Manned by a crew of Shetlanders, than whom there are no finer
seamen in the world, she cruised round Shetland from October, 1899,
to June, 1900, visiting four stations, referred to afterwards as L., II.,
IT., IV., once a month, taking temperatures, collecting water samples
(part of the time), and dredging and collecting plankton. From the
first Buchan Henry has been in charge of the apparatus used on
board the Walwin and on the Si/ver Belle, in the later more extended
cruises ; and probably there are few who have acquired a more
intimate knowledge of the conduct of such observations on board a
sailing-ship than he. In July, 1900, the little Wahvin made her first
trip to Faeroe, revisiting some of the stations in August of that year.
In 1901 she made other cruises to Faeroe, in May and June, and revisited
some stations in the Faeroe Channel in July. In 1902 she crossed the
Faeroe Channel in May, June, and July, and revisited some stations in
August. It would be tedious to reproduce the ship’s log of these
passages ; but all who know this region will admit that pitching about
the Faeroe Channel in a little 56-ton boat is not the pleasantest of
experiences, and it needs determination as well as scientific enthusiasm
to conduct observations under these conditions. The work was
especially arduous, because there was no room for steam to assist
haulage in such a small vessel ; consequently everything had to be
done by willing hands. As an example of the kind of weather some-
times met with round Shetland in the winter-time, the following brief
extract from the log may be taken :
13 2—2
14 The Cruises in the Faeroe Channel, 1899—1902
January 6, 1900.—Strong gale.
January 9.—A storm from the north-west, and very heavy sea, the
steamer from Aberdeen to Scalloway being twenty-four hours overdue.
January 27.—Squalls, with rain and snow.
February 3.—The ship kept several hours in Blue Mull Sound by
snowstorm.
February 5.—Strong gale; both anchors down all night in Culi Voe.
Thermometer 26° F.
February 8.—Snowstorm with frost.
February 11.—Strong breeze and snowstorm ; two anchors down.
February 16.—A storm, with snow, began at 12 last night (the
ship at anchor in Scalloway Bay); at 2 a.m. a hurricane, the ship
dragging both anchors; at 6 a.m. she ceased to drag any farther, but
at 8 a.m. there was a full hurricane, nearly every ship in the harbour
dragging anchors, and three ships ashore ; impossible to see twenty
yards for blinding snow ; force of hurricane increased till 10 a.m., the
small boat towing astern having her bows completely smashed in.
February 17.—6 am. some improvement, but still a whole gale
with snow. The steamer St. Giles, from Aberdeen, came into Sceallo-
way with her deck badly smashed, the bridge and all boats gone.
February 18.—A strong gale.
February 21.—Strong gale from north-east, with snow showers.
March 1.—Snow.
March 2.—A gale from north-north-east.
March 9.—A gale from north-west.
March 19.—A gale from north.
March 25.—Whole gale north-east to north, with snow.
April 6.—Strong gale from south-east.
April 30.—Whole gale from south-west, with sleet.
July 5.—Left for Faeroe, but had to put back again.
July 10,—Double-reefed mainsail and storm-jib.
July 12.—-Split mainsail in two places.
July 14.—Thick mist and almost calm; had to tow the ship to
within one mile of Thorshaven. From 15th to 18th lying at Thorshaven
with thick mist all the time.
The Cruises in the Faeroe Channel, 1899—1902 15
July 20.—Left Thorshaven with light wind and calm sea.
July 21.—Fresh breeze which increased, at night necessitating
double reef in mainsail, and small jib.
July 22.—Wind less and reefs shaken out ; heavy rain.
July 23.—Early on fresh breeze, increasing, so that at 8 p.m. it
was necessary to reef the mainsail.
July 24.—Double reefs.
On August 16 Mr. Hodgson, who had been appointed biologist to
the Antarctic ship Discovery, left Orkney on board the Walwin to
visit some stations in the Faeroe Channel and gain some experience
before leaving for his long Antarctic cruise. After leaving Scalloway
on August 21, the ship was twice put back to Hillswick, but August 24
opened absolutely calm. However, by 2 p.m. the wind was rising, and
at 10 p.m. the mainsail was double-reefed and storm-jib set. For
twenty-four hours the bad weather continued, and the ship was put
back to Hillswick for the third time. The 27th and 28th August
were fine, and station A2 was reached, after which the ship returned
to Scalloway.
During the cruises of 1901, the month of June was marked by
several strong gales, so that from the 18th to the 21st the mainsail
was continuously double-reefed.
In 1901, the Walwin left Scalloway on May 13 for Faeroe; on
May 14 was compelled to return to Snaraness by stress of weather.
Leaving onthe 20th, and for two days under double-reefed mainsail, she
arrived at Thorshaven on May 22. Thenfrom May 23 to 27 was calm
weather, with fog of varying thickness, bright sunshine, and calm
on the 28th. Having left Thorshaven on the 29th, on the 30th double
reefs were required again, and it was necessary to run back for shelter
to Trangasvaag. May 31, strong gales; June 1, terrific squalls, riding
with both anchors out ; June 2, strong gales, at noon the wind dying
away, to a light breeze at 6.30 p.m.; on the 4th and Sth reefed sails
and strong gales, anchoring the same day in Scalloway.
On June 18, again leaving Scalloway, for two days with haze and
strong breeze ; on the 21st was the first day of anything like summer
16 The Cruises in the Faeroe Channel, 1899—1902
weather, and the first time for three days the reefs could be shaken
out of the sails. By evening double reefs were required again! On
the 22nd, while working in a beavy swell, the wire snapped, and the
Garstang closing-net, 2 thermometers and 120 fathoms of wire, went
to the bottom of the Faeroe Channel. There was nothing to do,
therefore, but to return to Scalloway.
Leaving Scalloway on July 3 with a new net, the 4th and 5th were
calm ; the 7th, under reefed sails, Thorshaven was reached in a whole
gale. From the Sth to the 11th with rain, fog and gales, anchored in
Thorshaven. Leaving on the 13th in a light breeze, double reefs were
not shaken out again until entering Scalloway on the 18th.
These brief extracts from the log of the Walwin for 1900 and 1901
show what sort of weather is to be expected in this region even in
summer, and the painfully difficult conditions under which work has
to be conducted. I therefore replaced the little Walwin by a larger
ship, the Silver Belle (130 tons), which, having been built on North
Sea fishing-ketch lines, I refitted as a yacht, putting on board a steam
‘apstan to perform the haulage.
The Silver Belle left Scalloway on May 15 for Thorshaven, the
weather being very much the same as the Walwin experienced the
previous years—viz., strong gales, requiring sails reefed Lying in
Thorshaven Harbour from the 24th, no communication was possible
with the shore for three whole days.
May 27, after leaving Thorshaven, sails had to be reefed again,
and the ship run back for Trangasvaag for shelter, and next day one
trawler, four smacks, and H.M.S. Bellona had sought the same refuge.
On the 29th the whole land was covered with snow. Leaving this
anchorage on May 30, with course set for the Butt of Lewis, double
reefs were required next day. On June 1, sounding on 400 fathoms,
a sharp swell and the riding of the ship caused the line to break, and
400 fathoms and the 28-pound lead were lost. On June 3 the ship
was brought to anchor in Stornoway, for two days previously all sails
close-reeted.
The Cruises in the Faeroe Channel, 1899—1902 17
The second cruise from Scalloway to Faeroe was started on June 18
after a week of continuous gales. For three days after leaving sails
were double-reefed, and it required forty-eight hours of dodging round
Station A2 before it was safe to venture any apparatus out. Faeroe
was reached on June 22, and Scalloway again on the 50th, after three
days at Thorshaven. The third cruise was commenced on July 8,
double reefs again necessary, and on the 10th running back to
St. Magnus Bay for shelter. Thorshaven was reached on the 17th,
and Scalloway again on the 23rd.
The ‘summer’ weather of 1902 was but a repetition of that of
1901. The hydrographical observations made on these cruises are
dealt with later on by Dr. H. N. Dickson.
Station
El.
Station
2.
Station
3.
THE CRUISE OF 1903 FROM VALENTIA TO THE FAEROE
BANKS AND ORKNEY.
On June 10, 1903, the Silver Belle left Valentia with a light breeze
from north-east, overcast sky, and falling barometer, and a swell at
sea growing bigger, with increasing wind. On reaching the station
in Lat. 51° 56’ N., Long. 11° 21’ W., the weather was really too bad for
work. A sounding gave 120 fathoms, with a bottom temperature of
10:2° C. Bad weather continued through the night, but improved
at daylight next day, and settled down into a fine, warm day, and,
sounding in 130 fathoms, the closing-net was put down to 125 and
then 60 fathoms, getting a lot of stuff at each haul. Water samples
were also taken.
Sailing and drifting about thirty-three miles west by north during
the night, as daylight came the wind and sea grew worse. At 4 a.m.,
sounding with wire and a 56-pound lead, bottom was struck at 560
fathoms, the line ‘plumb’ straight, the position being Lat. 51° 467,
Long. 12° 15’. The closing-net was put down, which, with wire
and 56-pound weight attached to the bottom of the frame, weighed
over 2 ewt.; the line stood quite straight, and hauls were made
from 550, 400, 500, 200, and 100 fathoms, and water samples at
every 100 fathoms from 500. The weather completely breaking,
and sea and wind growing gradually worse, work in deep water was
almost out of the question. The ship was therefore put back to
Valentia to wait for an improvement. There she remained until
June 18, when a start was again made for deep water. Twenty
miles west of the Skelligs it came on to blow hard, with a falling
barometer, and this continued all the next day (Friday), but Saturday
fell quite calm, and the consequence of this was that the ship never
18
Cruise of 1903 from Valentia to the Faeroe Banks and Orkney 19
got beyond the 100-fathom line until Sunday, June 21, when the
position Lat. 51° 34’ N., Long. 12° 30’ W., was reached. All day the
wind blew hard from the south, and the vacht dodged all day and
night with sails reefed. At 4 a.m. on Monday, the weather having
considerably moderated, a sounding gave 725 fathoms. The closing-
net was used at 700 fathoms and each 100 fathoms above it. For
the next thirty-six hours the weather was very dirty, but on June 24
the ship was hove to, the wind having dropped, in Lat. 51° 00’ N.,
Long. 11° 32’ W., and a sounding gave 375 fathoms. The closing-net
was used down to 300 fathoms.
After a course of 20 miles west-north-west, the ship was hove to all
night, and at 5 a.m. on June 24 a sounding was taken in Lat. 51° 00,
Long. 12° 00’, giving 980 fathoms. With such a heavy sea the
closing-net, put down to 900 fathoms, though with a perfectly ‘ plumb’
line, captured nothing, and only water samples were taken from
900 fathoms to the surface. Two of the thermometers to-day were
rendered useless, one having the end broken off and the other coming
up with the mereury above the dex. The glass falling, and every-
thing looking as unpromising as possible for work, the ship was put
back to Valentia.
On July 5 another useless attempt was made to work a deep-water 7%
station ; after dodging round for three days with strong gales and
heavy sea, a sounding gave 1,030 fathoms and a bottom temperature
of 4-4° the position, Lat. 50° 56’ N., Long. 12° 6’ W. With a double-
reefed mainsail, storm-jib and reefed foresail and double-reefed mizzen,
the ship pitched about all might with a very heavy swell from the north.
Next morning, July 6, the wind dropped, and in the same position the
closing-net was put down to 1,000 fathoms, bringing up quite a decent
haul, then to 700, 500, 300, 200, and 100, all very successful. The
triangle net, put down with 120 fathoms of rope in front of the net, a
16-pound lead, and 1,000 fathoms of wire, brought up about 2 ewt.
of chalky ooze from the bottom, with nothing in it but a few shells.
The closing-net brought up in the 500-fathom haul a lovely specimen
of Acanthopyra sica (vel Agassizi).
Station
E4.
Station
E5.
Station
oy
Station
Station
E8.
Station
9, 10,
1].
Station
E12.
Station
E13.
20 Cruise of 1903 from Valentia to the Faeroe Banks and Orkney
Running thirty-four miles during the night with a south-south-
west wind, at 4 a.m., July 7, the ship was hove-to in Lat. 51° 30’ N.,
Long. 12° 00’ W. A sounding gave 616 fathoms, bottom stones and
sand; the closing-net was used at 600, 500, 300, 200, and 100 fathoms,
and water samples taken from 600, 300, ete., fathoms.
On July 8, the position being Lat. 52° 00’ N., Long. 12° 00° W.,
depth 255 fathoms, with a bottom of fine grey sand, the closing-net
and water-bottle were used.
On July 9, Lat. 53° 30’ N., Long. 12° 00° W., a sounding
gave 150 fathoms. Stations 10 and 11 were in shallow water
respecting Lat. 53° 00’ N., Long. 11° 56’ W., depth 100 fathoms,
and Lat. 53° 30’ N., Long. 12° 00’ W., depth 150 fathoms. Both
were worked with closing-net and water-bottle, and on the same
day in Lat. 54° 00’ N., Long. 12° 00’ W., a depth of 205 fathoms.
At both stations the closingnet and water-bottle were used as
usual.
At midnight of July 9 the position Lat. 54° 30’ N., Long. 12° 00°
W., was reached, and, double reefing the sails, although the wind was
light, so as to make as little leeway as possible, a sounding gave 1,608
fathoms, with a bottom of grey ooze. A thick fog, with light breeze
from west-south-west, turned to heavy rain. The net was put down
to 1,600 fathoms, and brought some stuff in it, though not very much,
and also at 1,000 fathoms, and at 800 and 600 fathoms good hauls.
At 400 fathoms it contained a very fine specimen of Phronomopsis
sedentaria. The hauls at 300, 200, and 100 fathoms were good. In
all these hauls, the weather being favourable, the sounding- wire was
perfectly ‘plumb,’ and the heavy wire and closing-net almost entirely
so. Water samples were taken at 1,500 fathoms and upwards.
Having drifted somewhat eastwards, the water-bottle struck bottom
at 1,500 fathoms, and in the subsequent haul at 1,300 fathoms it again
struck bottom, bringing up mud and ooze along with the water.
Evidently there was here a very steep bank. During this time the
ship was drifting a quarter of a mile per hour. At 1,100 fathoms
there was no bottom.
Cruise of 1903 from Valentia to the Faeroe Banks and Orkney 21
ee : ‘ : - Stati
A light north-west wind carried the ship to the next station ai
at 8 p.m. on July 11, and at daylight, July 12, the position was Lat.
54° 50° N., Long. 12°00’ W. On this and some subsequent occasions a
Massey’s sounding-machine was used, and compared with the fathom-
counter. The former struck bottom and registered 1,737 fathoms,
the latter only 1,577 fathoms. Massey’s machine was evidently not
reliable in deep water. The closing-net put down to 1,000 fathoms
brought up a small quantity of stuff, and at 700 and 500 fathoms
about the same. From 400 fathoms the net was used at each
100 fathoms to the surface. Towards evening the ship had drifted
about a dozen miles, consequently the night was spent in beating to
windward to get back to the position, and at 4.30 a.m. on July 13 the
ship was hove to, and water samples were taken from 1,500 fathoms
upwards. The work at this station occupied two full days.
Before the next station was reached, on July 16, four days had {tion
been spent with very dirty weather and very bad sea with a heavy
cross swell, impossible to work satisfactorily. The position was
Lat. 55° 17’ N., Long. 12° 28" W., and bottom was struck at 1,561
fathoms. Massey’s machine gave 1,645 fathoms, and the probable
explanation of this discrepancy is that after Massey’s machine touches
the bottom, the ship rolling heavily, and the winch not being quick
enough to stop the lead from sinking a little with every roll, the
machine keeps registering, and the more the number of rolls and the
greater the length of time before the machine is hauled on board, the
greater the amount registered. A very simple device would cause the
machine to lock directly it struck bottom, and then it would be useful
and reliable. The water-bottle was put down to 1,500, 1,300, 1,100, and
every 100 fathoms to the surface. The work occupied fifteen hours.
During the night the ship had sailed about seven miles east-south-east
to make up for the driftage of the day and get back to the position,
and at 6 am. on July 17 she was hove to, and with a very fine
morning, and very light breeze from north-east, and a long, gentle
swell, the closing-net was put down to 1,000 fathoms and towed for
twenty minutes, and brought up a good haul, chiefly Copepoda. The
Station
HIG.
Station
17.
Station
E18.
Station
KL.
Station
2
Station
F3.
Station
4,
Station
BS.
22. Cruise of 1903 from Valentia to the Faeroe Banks and Orkney
hauls at 800, G00, £400, 800, 200, and 100 fathoms were all good. The
day was very favourable for tow-netting, the line standing almost
straight.
On July 19 the position was Lat. 55° 47” N., Long. 10° 12’ W.,
and depth by sounding 1,525 fathoms. Heaving to, the closing-net
was sent down to 1,000, 700, 500, 400, 800, and 100 fathoms, and water
samples were taken.
Sailing all night to north and east with leht wind, the position on
July 20 was Lat, 56° 11’ N., Long. 9° 50’ W., and depth by sounding
875 fathoms. The closing-net was put down to 820, 700, and 600
fathoms. At the latter haul was obtained a fine specimen of Gnatho-
phausia zowa, who with his strong spines had torn the net ito shreds
for about 6 inches in fighting to escape. Hauls were also taken at
500, 400, 800, 200, and 100 fathoms.
On July 21, at 6 am., after a dirty might of wind and rain
from the south, the ship was hove to in position Lat. 56° 37’ N.,
Long. 9° 48’ W., in 912 fathoms by sounding, but there was too
much sea for successful tow-netting though the attempt was made at
800, 600, 500, and 400 fathoms, so a course was set for Stornoway, in
the Hebrides.
On August 4, in Lat. 58° 24° N., Long. 8° 30’ W., the depth was
110 fathoms, and after a vertical haul with the silk net, the vessel
proceeded to the next station, Lat. 58° 45° N., Long. 8° 35’ W., depth
342 fathoms, and the closimg-net and water-bottle were used at 300,
200, and 100 fathoms.
On August 6, in position Lat. 59° 18’ N., Long. 8° 30’ W., the
depth 841 fathoms, closing-net and water-bottle were used from
800 fathoms up, and with afresh wind from north-west, way was made
for the next station, reached at 2 a.m. on August 7, Lat. 59° 54’ N.,
Long. 8° 42’ W., depth 720 fathoms, and closing-net and water-bottle
were used from 700 fathoms upwards.
On August 8, Lat. 60° 29’ N., Long. 8° 30’ W., and depth
194 fathoms, after using closing-net and water-bottle the wind began
to rise very fast, and a dirty sky and rapidly falling barometer
Crise of 1903 from Valentia to the Faeroe Banks and Orkney 23
presaging a ‘duster’ from the east, way was made for the next station,
which was reached at 4a.m. on August 9, The situation was on the
‘aeroe Bank, Lat. 60° 41’ N., Long, 8° 50’ W., depth 75 fathoms, and
while using the water-bottle one of the crew amused himself by
‘atchine two yery laree cod with hand-line, The weather still
stormy and sea very bad, with low barometer, it was thought better to
run into Thorshaven, especially as a few ‘odds and ends’ were required.
This port was reached at 10 p.m. on Aueust 10, leaving the Bank at
4am. the same day,
Leaving Thorshaven on August 12 with a fine and calm day,
which prevented rapid progress, on the 13th, at 8 a.m, the Munk Rocks
were passed, and at 4 p.m. the position Lat. 61° 1’ N,, Long, 7° 42’ W,,
gave a depth by sounding of 475 fathoms, the depth being surprising,
as much shallower water was expected here. However, it proved not
to be a hole, but to continue for at least 6 miles in a northerly direc-
tion, and may have extended farther, but was not explored, ‘The
bottom temperatures showed it to be in the cold area (—0°5° at 460
fathoms, 00° at 420, 2°4° at 300, 66° at 200, 8:1° at 100, 10°7° at
surface ; air temperature 11:0°).
On August 14, in Lat. 60° 30’ N., Long, 7° 47’ W., the depth
547 fathoms, and still in the cold area (bottom temperature —0'8 ; at
400 fathoms 1:0°; 300, 53°; 200, 81°; 100, 86°; surface 11:4°,
air 11°), the closing-net and water-hottle were used as usual, With a
falling barometer, reefed mainsail and mizzen at 10 p.m. it was
blowing a gale and raining in torrents, necessitating double reefs in
mainsail and mizzen and a reef in the foresail, Hove to, the ship
rode it out, lying to, as the skipper expressed it, ‘like a duck.’
Next day, August 17, was fine, though the sea was heavy, and in
Lat, 60° 17 N. and Long. 6° 4’ W., depth 580 fathoms, the temperature
of the bottom was only —1:0° ; at 500 fathoms—0°5° ; at 400,—0°)° ;
Ae00 4 3 at 200, s'3° # at 100, X42 5 Ine AAO)
Hauls were also made with the closing-net, and sail was then made
* surface 11°6°
for Orkney, and on August 20 the ship was brought to her
anchorage in Swanhbister Bay, thus terminating the cruise of 1903.
Station
KG,
Station
V7,
Station
V8,
Station
9,
24 Cruise of 1903 from Valentia to the Faeroe Banks and Orkney
Although the closing-net was used many times, and numerous
water samples were taken on this cruise, the weather could not be
said to have been favourable for work, being frequently very stormy,
and with but few fine days. This, though interfering with work
with the closing-net, did not hinder the collection of a continuous
series of temperature observations or the collection of water samples
from deep water.
EXTRACTS FROM THE LOG OF THE 1904 CRUISE.
Tne first station visited in 1904, on June 20, was situated in Lat. Station 1.
50° 57’ N. and Long. 11° 41’ W., within a few miles of Station K6
of 1903. After leaving Newhaven (Sussex) on June 10, three very
fine and calm days were experienced, and on the fourth day the Lizard
was passed, with a fine breeze from the south-west. When nearing Cape
Clear, on June 14, a very severe storm sprang up, accompanied with
a very heavy sea; at 6 oclock it was necessary to take in a single
reef, and at 9 a double reef, and heave to. On June 16 the sea was
so bad as to necessitate running into Bantry Bay for shelter. This
weather lasted until the 17th. Moderating on the 18th, but with the
wind still fresh, the ship proceeded to sea again at 9 p.m., and after
running by the patent log 133 miles, an attempt was made to work the
station. A sounding gave 858 fathoms, with a bottom of globigerina
ooze. As soon as it was possible to do any work, the closing-net was
put down to 800 fathoms, and a very fair haul was made, followed by
hauls at 600, 400, 200, 100, and 50 fathoms, a fair amount of stuff being
obtamed at each haul, and temperature observations at the same
depth. Leaving this station at 6 p.m., Station 2, Lat. 50° 25’ N., Station 2.
Long. 12° 38’ W., was reached at 4 a.m.on June 21, and the wind and
sea having moderated, though leaving a strong swell, the closing-net
was put down to 1,200 fathoms, 1,000, 700, 300, and 100 fathoms, and
fair hauls obtained. Temperatures were also taken, and samples for
gas analysis.
Here it was found that the new engine, put on board at consider-
able trouble and delay, failed. When 500 fathoms of wire were out,
an experimental trial was made to raise the closing-net. Failure
necessitated hauling on board by hand with such help as could be got
25 4
Station 3.
Station 4.
26 Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruase
from the steam-winch. This took four hours to accomplish. Hence-
forth the old steam capstan and winch were therefore employed, and
the net lowered to 1,200 fathoms. The raising on board by this
means only occupied forty minutes. For the rest of the cruise being
compelled to use the old tackle, limited the depth at which it could be
employed to 1,600 fathoms. This was very annoying, as it was con-
fidently hoped before starting that we should be able to make tow-net
observations down to 2,000 fathoms; but it would have delayed the
cruise too long to return to land for repairs and new appliances.
Water and gas samples were also taken at this station.
On June 23, 1904, in position Lat. 49° 50’ N., Long. 13° 31’ W., the
tow-net was used down to 600 fathoms, the lowest depth at which it was
possible to work the net satisfactorily. A fresh breeze having sprung
up, with a falling barometer and a westerly wind, it was a case of beating
to windward all night, and at 4 a.m., on June 24, the next station, in
Lat, 49° 0’ N. and Long. 14° 36’ W., was reached, and the net lowered to
1,000 fathoms. While it was down the wind shifted to south-west, and
the ship rolling hadly in the trough of the sea, the net came up again with
a kink in the wire at 35 fathoms above the frame. This had evidently
occurred after the opening messenger had gone down, as the net was
open, and the closmg messenger was stopped by the kink in the wire.
Taking out the kink, the net was again lowered to 1,000 fathoms, and
this time came up with a kink in the same place, and both messengers
arrested in it. The net had therefore never opened, and it was
necessary to cut off the 35 fathoms below the kink. Incidentally it
furnished evidence of the perfection of the opening and closing
arrangements. From 4 a.m. to 10 a.m. was, therefore, so much
wasted time, but a third attempt to use the net at 1,000 fathoms was
rewarded by success. As there was a good deal of swell in the sea,
not much came up in the net. Put down again to 800 fathoms, this
time on raising it the cod end of the silk net was split, and all the
contents had escaped. After repairing, it was sent down to the same
depth, and this time the haul was successful. Hauls at 600, 400, and
200 fathoms were all that could now be done in deep water, the wind
i)
~~
Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruise
having backed to south and freshening, along with rain, which came
down very heavily at last.
After a dirty night of rain and a heavy sea, at 6 a.m. the next Station 5.
station was reached in Lat. 48° 27’ N., Long. 15° 38’ W. It was 8 a.m.
before the wind and sea had moderated enough to allow of work com-
mencing. Then the water-bottle was lowered to 1,570 fathoms, and
seven water samples and fourteen samples for gas analysis were
taken, and the closing-net was put down to 1,400 fathoms. It took
fifty minutes to haul it up again, and it had opened and shut quite
satisfactorily.
Continuing the course through the night, Station 6,in Lat. 48° 12’ N_, Station 6.
Long. 16° 26’ W., was reached, and the ship laid to at 8 a.m., only
30 miles from the last station, and with the sea rather rough and a
long, heavy swell from the west, the closing-net was lowered to
1,500 fathoms. Hauling up occupied an hour, and though the net
appeared to have worked quite properly, there was very little in it. A
second attempt at the same depth was no more successful, the entire
contents being a few Copepoda and a small Medusa. It was then
lowered to 1,200 fathoms and towed for fifteen minutes, with no better
result. At 900 fathoms there was a little more, and at 700 fathoms
a similar result; at 500 fathoms the haul was much better, and at
400 fathoms it was very successful. The unsuccessful results of the
hauls from 500. to 1,500 fathoms were probably due to the heavy
swell, which, causing the net to ride up and down, is unfavourable for
tow-netting. That the net had been at the proper depths was indicated
by the temperatures of the thermometers attached to the frame, viz.,
FO 0prathomensolOn ml 000 moron oO 0NA42 aCe 700 6:42 CO:
HOO, Sra CL 2 ak00), Sezk2 OL 8 OO), Mew Ce LOO, Ope Cae 0, ee (6)
On June 28, 1904, Station 7 was reached at Lat. 47° 28’ N., Long. Station 7.
17° 07’ W., after a long beat to windward, with thick fog and a very
heavy westerly swell ; and after waiting hove-to for some hours in hopes
that wind and sea would go down, an attempt was made to use the
tow-net. After having lowered to 1,500 fathoms, and commencing to
heave up, the flange on the winch, which keeps the wire on the drum,
4.— 2,
Station 8.
Station 9.
28 Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruise
suddenly gave way. In danger of losing the whole tackle, the device
was hit upon by Buchan Henry of winding a length of stout rope on
the drum of the winch and driving some long spikes through the rope
into the drum. This saved the situation, which for a few minutes was
serious, the loss of 1,500 fathoms of wire, the heavy closing-net, and a
couple of thermometers being too dreadful to contemplate. However,
the device succeeded admirably, and the net, when hauled up, was
found to contain a good haul ; at 1,000 fathoms the haul was similarly
successful. At 700 fathoms there was not much taken in the net, and
the temperature at this depth was 1° C. colder than at any of the
stations of corresponding depth previously worked; at 500 and
400 fathoms the hauls were very poor—scarcely anything in the net—
and the temperature was also below normal; and at 200 and
100 fathoms the hauls were of no value. This station is 360 miles
and all the time the wind was
from the starting-place—viz., Ireland
right ahead, except for one day. On June 29, after a long beat to
windward, at noon, the position was found to be Lat. 46° 40’ N., Long.
LOS Wis
much too bad for work with the closing-net, but water samples were
collected from 1,200 fathoms upwards. The water-bottle can be used
far enough to the south, but not to the west. The sea was
when it would be fruitless or folly to attempt work with the closing-
nets. The thermometer showed that at this station the cold wedge of
water previously referred to had been left behind, the temperature at
1,200 fathoms being 3°8°C.; at 900, 5:0° C. ; at 600, 9:0° C. ; at 200,
OB? Cy 3 exe OO, lo) Cr
Just after finishing the last station a gale sprang up from west-north-
west, which lasted for three days, and the ship lay close-reefed until
on July 2, in Lat. 45° 6’ N., Long. 18° 14” W., at 4 a.m. the sea had
moderated sufficiently to permit the resumption of work. The closing-
net was therefore put down to 1,500 fathoms, but when hauled up
contained nothing ; at 1,200 fathoms there was a good haul, and at
1,000 fathoms a smaller haul than the last. At $00 fathoms the haul was
very good, although the temperature was very low, over 1° C. less than
at the corresponding depth at any previous station. At 600 fathoms
Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruse 29
the haul was good, the temperature being about 2° C. below normal.
At 500 fathoms the temperature had risen 1°5° C. in 100 fathoms.
Before noon rain commenced to fall in torrents, but at noon an
observation showed the ship to be just 100 miles south-west of the
last station (June 29). At 400 and 200 fathoms the hauls were
unsuccessful ; at the former depth the net was found to have turned
inside out.
At 4 a.m. on July 3 Station 10 was reached in Lat. 44° 41’ N.,
Long. 19° 08’ W., after a dirty night of wind and rain, necessitating
reduction of canvas. From 4 a.m. to 8 a.m. it was impossible to do
any work, the ship being simply hove to, but at 8 am., with the
weather a little better, the water-bottle was lowered to 1,500 fathoms,
and samples were taken at that depth, also 1,300, 1,100, 900, 700, 500,
300, and 100 fathoms. Work with the closing-net was impossible.
With the exception of one fine day at Station 2, the sea had
been unfavourable since the commencement of the cruise for tow-
netting.
With a light, fair wind during the night, and the sea gradually
subsiding, a passage of fifty miles was made, and Station 11, in
Lat. 44° 13’ N., Long. 20° 05’ W., was reached, and work commenced
by lowering the closing-net to 1,500 fathoms at 8 a.m. With the most
favourable conditions the net did not capture much plankton at this
depth, nor at 1,200 fathoms, but the haul at 1,000 fathoms was good,
also at 800, 600, 400, 200, and 100 fathoms. The weather on this day
was perfect, a light northerly breeze and gentle swell. With a very light
westerly breeze throughout the night, progress was slow, and at noon
on July 5 the position was only thirty-four miles from the last station.
The weather still being all that could be desired, it was decided to take
serial temperatures down to 2,000 fathoms, and consequently the ship
Station
10.
Station
1
was hove to (Station 12) in Lat. 44° 5’ N., Long. 20° 34’ W. The Seton
observations were as follows:
Station
1G}
Station
14.
30 Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruise
Temperature of air=17°6° C,
Temperature at— | Temperature at
Op kathona eee Os Oa @e 900 fathoms MIE
PR) NINOS san IO" CG. | WAOOO 4, 39°C
50) ng tne <A 2a tie WTO) gy Ae ee one:
Ti eo GO, | LD, os | BES,
OO S ee. | Lao 36° C
20) io MOE COC, | 1400 ee eG
2000 Bae ees Seana HOO ee oleae
400, ce ROEC, | GOO», ee SOO:
20,0 eee UOMO smal MOO) a peau)
GOO 95 saa, MOREE OG | ES 00s odo iy BO? Ch
HOO» yo BLOC | 2 1900) oo BOG.
a0 oe) SEC. {200 Poe
The distance from Fayal was now 500 miles. The evening ended in
almost dead calm, the little breeze there was being from south-west,
and the barometer high, 30-2, and steady.
At noon on July 6 the position was Lat. 43° 42’ N., Long. 21° 18’ W.,
just forty-six miles from the last station, the sea dead calm, and every-
thing most favourable for work with the closing-net, and it was with
deep annoyance that it was discovered that the opening piston of the net
was broken. Two hours’ delay was occasioned while this was repaired
by screwing both pieces together, and the net was lowered to
1,500 fathoms. It was with considerable surprise when the net came
up that it was seen to have been trailing over the bottom, and the
contents of the net were only a little fine, white sand and a small jet-
black stone. The chart gives no soundings hereabouts, but at the last
-station, only forty-six miles away, 2,000 fathoms of wire was lowered
without finding bottom, so that striking bottom here at 1,500 fathoms
was quite unexpected. Plankton hauls at 1,000 and at 600 fathoms were
successful. There was fog all day, with occasional drizzle, and a sight
of the sun only for a few minutes at noon.
A fresh breeze springing up from the north-east, Station 14 was
reached at 8 a.m., in Lat. 43° 11’ N., Long. 22° 27’ W., and sound-
ing at 1,600 fathoms, no bottom was reached. Evidently the compara-
tively shallower water of the last station had been left behind. Other
Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruise 81
soundings in this locality would be of interest to determine the area
of this comparatively shallow water, but unfortunately the Silver Belle
had so much work to accomplish that it was impossible to delay for
the purpose of investigating this matter. The sea getting rougher as
the day went on, and the swell increasing, made it quite unfavourable
for tow-net work, consequently the hauls at 1,500 and 1,200 fathoms
were very poor. At 900 and 700 fathoms, however, a lot of stuff was
obtained, and a still greater quantity at 200 fathoms. This day the
ship was Just about 400 miles from Horta, over 700 from Bantry Bay,
and since July 2 a station had been done every day. A strong breeze
from north-north-east put the ship at Station 15 in Lat. 42° 37° N., Seton
and Long. 23° 35’ W. At 6 am. on July 8 the swell was too great
for the closing-net, consequently only water samples were taken from
1,500 fathoms upwards.
The wind lasted all night, from the same quarter, and Station 16, Station
in Lat. 41° 58’ N., Long. 24° 44’ W., was reached at 6 a.m. next =
day, July 9. The sea was, however, running rather high, and not
very favourable for tow-netting, but the net was put down to 1,500
and 1,200 fathoms, with pretty good success at the latter, also at 700
and 500, 400, and 300 fathoms. With a light breeze during the night,
a course of fifty-three miles was run by 6 a.m. on July 10, and Station 17 Station
reached in Lat. 41° 13’ N., Long. 25° 18’ W. Being a perfect day a
for work with closing-nets, a light breeze and gentle swell from the
north-east, the line was ‘ plumb’ straight with the net at 1,500 fathoms,
and the haul at that depth very good, also at 1,300, 1,000, 900,
700, 500, 300, and 100 fathoms. All these hauls were successful. In
conditions favourable for tow-netting, there is not the slightest doubt
that a considerable amount of animal plankton can be nearly always
obtained in the tow-nets to at least 1,500 fathoms’ depth, refuting
Agassiz’s contention of an azoic zone in the ocean, which, however,
has been sufficiently disproved already.
During the night, with very light wind, the ship ran between thirty and Station
forty miles, and at 6 a.m. Station 18, Lat. 40° 35’ N., Long. 25° 54’ W.,
was reached. It was not intended to make a station here, but as the
Station
i),
Station
20.
Station
21,
32 Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruise
barometer was falling, and there was every evidence of a ‘blow’
coming on, it was thought better to take advantage of the opportunity
for work before the weather prevented it. The closing-net was
therefore put down to 1,500 fathoms and a fairly good haul obtained,
and a pretty good one at 1,000 fathoms, though the wind was rising
all the time; and when the net was put down next to 600 fathoms, the
sea was very choppy, and so increasingly bad did it become that when
the net was next put down to 300 fathoms it came up torn about
8 inches across.
The night turned out very ‘dirty, with rain in torrents and a
strong gale commencing from the north-west and blowing ‘ great guns’
finally from the north. At 2 a.m. the eringle in the clew of the main-
sail burst, but fortunately nothing was lost. Arriving at Station 19,
July 12, in Lat. 39° 53’ N., Long. 26° 32’ W., a sounding unexpectedly
gave only 488 fathoms, with a bottom of hard rock. Putting down
the triangle-net, a mixed collection of sand shells, zoophytes, sponges,
and echinoderms were brought up, but on the second descent of this
net the frame was firmly jammed in the rocky bottom, and it, together
with 100 fathoms of hemp-rope, were lost. Drifting all the time in a
south-east direction, about three miles farther on gave a sounding of
600 fathoms. The bank which gave the sounding 488 fathoms is
uncharted. Towards the south-east it deepens rapidly, and is possibly
shallower water to the north-west.
During the night there was a light breeze from the north-north- west,
and at daylight on July 13, Terceira hove in sight, bearing south-west
by south, and about eighteen miles distant. Heaving to, a sounding gave
870 fathoms, and at 800 fathoms a good haul was made with the closing-
net. A fresh breeze was now blowing with a bright sun, and Terceira lay
about sixteen miles to windward, a white cloud of mist hanging over the
highest hill. At 600 fathoms there was a good haul with the closing-
net, but at 400 and 200 fathoms very little was obtained. Sounding
in Lat. 38° 42’ N., Long, 28° 27’ W., gave a depth of 770 fathoms, with
a bottom of fine voleanic mud, and the ship then put in and anchored
in Horta Harbour, thus completing the first portion of her cruise, and
Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruise 33
here she remained for one week, while various overhauls were made
and stores renewed, ete.
On July 22, 1904, Horta was left behind after a week’s stay, during Station
which time the gear was thoroughly overhauled. In Lat. 38° 15’ N. a
and Long. 28° 32’ W., a sounding gave 472 fathoms, with a bottom
of voleanic mud and sand. The closing-net was also used from
450 fathoms upwards. A very light breeze, lasting throughout the
night, was against good sailing, but when at daylight on the next day
forty miles had been run from the last station, a sounding was made in Seton
Lat. 87° 42’ N., Long. 27° 37’ W., and 1,000 fathoms of wire run out ~
without reaching bottom. At this depth, and at 800, 600, 400, 200
and 100 fathoms, hauls were made with the closing-net. A bri &
wind sprang up from the north-west, and on July 24 at 7 a.m. the ship
was hove to in Lat. 37° 15’ N. and Long. 26° 14’ W., where a sounding pation
gave 1,400 fathoms. The closing-net was put Toe to 1,400 fathoms, a
but with the drifting of the ship the water had become shallower, the
net had been trailing on the bottom, kinks had got in the wire, and,
worse than all, the piston of the net had become bent. Consequently
the net had never opened, the messenger having stuck on the kinks.
The best part of the day was spent in repairs to the piston, therefore
the day was devoted to the collection of water samples from
1,200 fathoms upwards. A nice breeze from the north, lasting all Station
night, put the ship in Lat. 36° 54’ N. and Long. 24° 56’ W. early on we
July 25, and a sounding gave 865 fathoms, with bottom . mud and
sand. Hauls with the closing-net were made at 600, 500, 400, 200,
and 100 fathoms. At 7.30 next morning Station 26 was ea Station
in Lat. 36° 18’ N., Long. 23° 53’ W., and the closing-net was put a
down to 1,600, 1,400, 1,000, 700, 500, 300, and 100 fathoms ; at
night the hot, calm day was succeeded by a strong westerly breeze, station
QroO 27.
necessitating shortening sail ; at 8 a.m. on July 27 Lat. 35° 48’ N.,
Long. 22° 35’ W., was reached, and the closing-net was put down to
1,600 fathoms, and afterwards to 1,200, 900, 600, 400, 200, and
100 fathoms. All the time the wind was rising and the swell pretty
sharp, so that the results of the day’s work were disappointing.
5
Station
28,
Station
29.
Station
30.
Station
Sl.
Station
20
Dae
Station
ar
33.
34 Evtracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruise
A fresh wind lasted throughout the night, and early on July 28
Station 28 was reached in Lat. 25° 04’ N., Long. 21° 18’ W., and
water samples were taken at every 200 fathoms from 1,400 fathoms
upwards. A strong southerly current ran here, so strong that, although
with a fresh to strong west-south-west breeze, the wire stood right under
the ship’s bottom. Withafresh breeze lasting all night, Lat. 84° 22’N.,
Long. 20° 06’ W., was reached at 7 a.m., and the closing-net was put
down to 1,000, S00, and successively every 100 fathoms to the
surface. Coming along at a fine pace throughout the night with
a good north-east breeze, at 5 a.m. the ship was at Lat. 83° 37’ N. and
Long. 19° 00’ W., and the closing-net was put down to 800 and each
100 fathoms to surface. Two turtles kept round the yacht all day,
and one of the crew harpooned one of them through the neck and had
it fast for some time, when it broke away and disappeared. On
July 31, in Lat. 32° 55’ N. and Long. 17° 48’ W., with Madeir
bearing south-east twenty-nine miles away, a sounding at 1,400 fathoms
gave no bottom, though the temperature was 3° C. Probably not very
far from bottom, the closing-net was put down to 1,200, 1,000, 700,
500, and then each 100 fathoms to surface. Then way was made for
Funchal.
Here five days was occupied cleaning up and overhauling tackle, a
new chain-wheel haying to be cast for the winch. After leaving and
lying becalmed outside Funchal for several hours until dark, a fresh
head breeze sprang up, and at 5 a.m. the station in Lat. 32° 41’ N,,
Long. 16° 36° W., was reached on August 7, and in 60 fathoms an
attempt was made to dredge, but, the bottom being very rocky, the
hauls were not very successful, chiefly shells and coral, most of the
latter in the tangles.
Beating to windward all night, at 8 am. on August 8 the ship was
brought to in Lat. 82° 57’ N., Long. 15° 23’ W., for the purpose of
tow-netting, but though the day was bright and clear, there was too
great a swell to lower the net to great depths. However, from
600 fathoms to surface, at intervals of 100 fathoms, the hauls of the
closing-net were pretty successful. At 6 a.m. the next day (August 9)
Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruise 35
the next station was reached in Lat. 33° 18’ and Long. 14° 10’ Wesson
A fine bright day, with fresh breeze from the N., and a heavy swell,
too great for successful working of the closing-net ; water samples
and temperatures only were taken, down to 1,600 fathoms.
Making for the next station, in Lat. 33° 45’ N., Long. 13° 03° W.,
good progress was made until midnight, when a heavy squall from
north-north-east compelled a shortening of sail. The station was Beer
reached at 8 a.m., and with a very heavy swell from the north-east,
the attempts to use the closing-net at 1,000 and at 800 fathoms were
not very successful, though the net evidently had worked perfectly.
At 500 fathoms, and successive hauls to the surface, there was more
stuff, but on the whole the hauls were comparatively poor.
On August 11, at 8 am., the next station was reached in piatign
Lat. 34° 16’ and Long. 11° 57’ W., with a nice little breeze all night
from the north. At this station the temperatures were remarkable,
being at 600 fathoms 10°8°, and from 500 to 300 fathoms identical—
Wa. JIM
250 fathoms... at sigs te Oise
300. ety dee eens
BR) es Pawn g eens okt al ire”
AQ), gee. Re ma ee eee
500 15 i Seps TAeS
fo)
Being usually about 2° of difference at each of these depths, it
was thought that possibly the thermometer had not been down long
enough, but on being lowered a second time and kept in situ for ten
minutes, the result was exactly the same. The occurrence of this
wedge of warm water was peculiar.
On August 12, after a very light wind, this station, Lat. 34° 12’ N., Bora
Long. 11° 05’ W., forty-four miles from the last, was reached, and
tow-nettings made with the closing-net at every 100 fathoms upwards
from 500, and temperature observations from 1,200 fathoms. The
temperature at 500 fathoms is here seen to be nearly a degree lower
than at the last station, the wedge of warm water evidently less thick.
o/ Station
On August 13 this station was reached, in Lat. 34° 43’ N., Long. 5.
5—2
Station
39.
Station
40.
Station
41.
Station
42,
Station
43.
36 Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruise
9° 38’ W., at 10 a.m., and the water-bottle was put down to 1,600
fathoms, and samples taken from there to the surface at every
200 fathoms. Here a current was found to be going east, and the ship
was eleven miles farther east than was expected. The temperatures
from 100 to 1,200 fathoms were higher than they were at the last
station, except at 400 fathoms, where it was 10°7°, as compared with
11°1° at the last station.
August 14 was one of the most unsatisfactory days of the cruise, a
strong breeze from the north-north-east all night having rendered the sea
quite unsatisfactory for tow-netting, the ship rolling almost scuppers
under ; and though the closing-net was lowered to 500 fathoms, and
afterwards to 300, 200, and 100, the attempt to do work might as well
never have been made. The position of the station was Lat, 35° 16’ N,,
Long, 8° 47’ W. Temperature observations were taken to a depth of
500 fathoms.
After a rough sea all night, wind and sea, however, going down
gradually, at 6 a.m. it was sufficiently improved to commence work
at this station, in Lat. 35° 55’ N., Long. 7° 33’W. A sounding gave
770 fathoms, and the closing-net was put down to 700 fathoms, and
worked with success at successive depths of 100 fathoms to the
surface. After a fine night and light fair wind, the next station was
reached in Lat. 35° 55’ N., Long. 6° 35’ W., at 6 a.m. on August 16,
and a sounding gave 337 fathoms, and water samples were taken as
usual, and the closing-net put down to 300, 200, and 100 fathoms, with
successful results.
Before making for Gibraltar, on August 17, Lat. 35° 55’ N.,
Long. 5° 54’ W., a sounding was made in 172 fathoms, and water
samples taken at 100, 50, and 25 fathoms, and the closing-net lowered
to 170 fathoms. Unfortunately, half of the closing messenger became
detached and lost, and further work was relinquished, and way made
for Gibraltar.
After five days’ stay at Gibraltar, work was recommenced on
August 21 at station Lat. 36° 00’ N. and Long. 5° 21’ W., where a
sounding gave 500 fathoms. While hauling on board the wire
Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruise 37
snapped about 12 fathoms from the surface, and away went not only
the sounding-lead, but one of our best thermometers. Samples of
water were taken at every 100 fathoms, and tubes filled for analysis.
The strong current and wind, both in one direction, took the ship
rapidly eastwards. The closing-net was put down, and good hauls
made from 360, 300, 200, and 100 fathoms.
On August 22, with a nice light breeze from west, and strong current
going south-south-east, the ship was hove to in Lat. 35° 45’ N., Long.
3° 41’ W., and a sounding made in 840 fathoms grey ooze ; and water
and gas samples were taken from 800 fathoms. Then it was necessary
to crowd on all sail to sail down the current, which was taking the ship
fast to the south-east. The water-bottle sent down to 700 fathoms
just touched bottom, but the sail enabled the ship to keep her ground
better, so that it was possible to take water and gas samples from
600 fathoms at successive hundreds to the surface. Tow-nettings
were also made at 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, and 100 fathoms, all with
excellent results. Leaving this station on August 22, and after
beating to windward against wind and current all night and next day,
at 8 p.m, only ahead of Gibraltar, the anchor was dropped at 8 a.m.
next morning at Tarifa for three hours, the wind having entirely
dropped. A nice breeze from the west springing up, the ship lay over
to leeward of Tangiers, which was reached at 3 p.m., when again it
fell calm, and, dodging close to the rocks to keep out of the tide for
fear of getting carried back through the straits, at 6 p.m. a breeze
sprang up. Dodging about under Cape Spartel until daylight, at
6 a.m., a sounding gave 250 fathoms, Lat. 35° 53’ N., Long. 5° 52’ W.;
gas and water samples were taken here. The notes recorded here
give an idea of the difficulty of navigating the straits in a sailing-ship.
The day the Silver belle left Gibraltar three barques were passed
dodging to the east of Gibraltar, waiting for wind to get to the west-
ward, and when the yacht returned three days after they were
still there !
Lying most of August 25 becalmed, sometimes gaining, sometimes
losmg ground, a smart breeze from the east at last carried the ship
Station
44.
Station
45.
Station
46.
Station
47.
Station
48.
Station
49,
Station
50.
38 Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruise
along to the next station, and on August 26, at noon, the position was
Lat. 36° 13’ N., Long. 7° 47’ W., a sounding giving 601 fathoms, with
bottom of fine grey sand. After the closing-net had been used at
600 fathoms, the rising wind and sea hindered successful work at
higher depths. Up to midnight a nice sailing breeze had assisted,
when it dropped to a light air from the south-east. At & a.m. the
position Lat. 36° 17’ N. and Long. 9° 01’ W. was reached, when good
hauls were made with the closing-net from 1,000, 800, 600, 400, 300,
200, and 100 fathoms.
Beating to windward all day after the finish of work, with light wind
from north-north-west, without making much headway, at 6 a.m. on
August 29 the position Lat. 36° 37’ N., Long. 10° 05’ W., was reached,
and a good haul of stuff made with the closing-net at 1,600 fathoms ;
also at 1,300, 1,000, 700, 500, and each 100 fathoms to surface.
The day was perfect for the work, and just sufficient of a light breeze
to keep sufficient tow on the net. The temperatures at this station
are puzzling—a difference of 8$° between 50 fathoms and the surface,
only $° between 200 and 700, and 54° between 700 and 1,000 fathoms.
This day two butterflies were captured (fifty miles from land), and a
erasshopper floating on a bit of seaweed.
With a dead beat to windward all night and forenoon, the next
station was reached on August 30, in Lat. 37° 14’ N., Long. 10° 37’ W.,
and the closing-net was put down to 1,000, 800, 600, 400, 200, and
100 fathoms.
Close-hauled, with a fine fresh breeze from north-north-east all night
and morning, at noon on August 31 the position was Lat. 37° 58’ N.,
Long. 11° 58’ W., and the closing-net was put down to 1,100 fathoms,
then to 900, 700, 500, 300, and 100, with good results, though the sea
was rather choppy. On completion of this work a course north and
west was taken. A few fine showers of rain to-day were the first rain
fortwo months. Close-hauled on the starboard tack all night and next
morning, with a strong breeze from north-north-east and very choppy
sea, the ship was at noon in position Lat. 38° 53’ N., Long. 13° 12’ W.
The net was lowered to 500 fathoms, but there was quite sufficient
Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruise 39
angle on the wire, and the net received too many jerks to work with
satisfaction. However, hauls, though only small, were made at
400, 300, 200, and 100 fathoms. All night was a continual beat to; pletion
windward, with a strong gale of wind from the north-north-east, and at
10 a.m. on September 3 the position was Lat. 39° 42’ N., Long.
10° 53° W. Notwithstanding the sea the net was lowered to 1,000,
800, 600, 400, and 200 fathoms, and at the latter depth the severe
Jerking of the net resulted in tearing the silk net, which prevented
further work.
Over a week of gales and head-winds prevented great progress, but
did not prevent the regular taking of temperatures or the lowering of
the closing-net.
Towards midnight the wind lessened, but kept in the same quarter, peon
viz., north-north-east, and at 7 a.m. on September 4 it fell to calm, He
position being Lat. 40° 03’ N., Long. 12° 13’ W. Water samples
were taken from 1,600, 1,400, 1,200, 1,000, 800, 600, 400, 200, and 100
fathoms, and the necessity of replacing the silk net with a new one
prevented the use of the closing-net at this station.
Lying on the starboard tack all night, the wind dropped at mid-‘ peeec
night, but stayed continually in the north-north-east. At 7 a.m. ee
was almost calm, and the position being Lat. 40° 03/ N., Long.
12° 13’ W., the water-bottle was put down to 1,600, 1,400, 1,200,
1,000, 800, 600, 400, 200, and 100 fathoms. Towards afternoon fine
showers of rain fell, with very light wind, still in the north-north-east.
Becalmed until 10 p.m., a light breeze then sprang up from south- Seon
west, and for the first time in nine days was the ship enabled to keep
acourse. At 2 p.m. the position was Lat. 41° 10’ N., Long. 11° 46’ W.,
and it was intended to work with the closing-net, but just as the ship
was hove-to a sudden squall came on from the north-north-west,
accompanied with a very sharp swell. The closing-net was therefore
only put down to 500 fathoms, then to 400 and 300 fathoms, the sea
getting worse all the time; the vessel rolling very heavily, it was
unsafe to use the closing-net any further. Probably a heavy storm
out westward caused all this sea.
Station
55.
Station
56.
Station
57.
Station
58.
40 Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruise
Beating to windward, with a light breeze, north by east, and an extra-
ordinarily heavy swell from west-north-west, at 7 a.m. the next position,
Lat. 43° 27’ N., Long. 10° 19’ W., was reached. Thesea had somewhat
lessened, and laying the ship’s head into it, she was hove to, and the
closing-net was lowered to 1,500, 1,200, 1,000, 800, 600, 400, 200, and
100 fathoms with very good results. Shortly after leaving this station
the wind backed to north-north-east, and a very heavy swell continued
from the north-west. On the port tack all night, about east-north-east,
at noon next day the position was Lat. 42° 01’ N., Long. 10° 48’ W.
About as bad a day as could well be for such work, the net was lowered
to 1,000 fathoms, and while it was down the ship made two or three
fearful rolls, with the result that a kink got into the wire 164 fathoms
from the net, and several strands of the wire were broken. It was
really not fit to attempt work with closing-nets in deep water. This
portion had to be cut off, and the net was then lowered to 800, 600,
400, 200, and 100 fathoms, the results being quite successful.
Making for the next position with a nice breeze from the west-north-
west, Lat. 44° 35’ N., Long. 9° 52’ W., just when the net was being
lowered the wind shifted to north-north-east, blowing a strong breeze.
However, the closing-net was successfully lowered to 1,500, 1,200, and
1,000 fathoms. Meanwhile the wind was continually rising and the
ship rolling very heavily, and presently a dense fog came on. At
600 fathoms there was a good haul, also at 400, 200, and 100 fathoms.
The afternoon closed down ‘dirty,’ blowing hard right ahead north-
north-east, with fine drizzle. The impression derived from the hauls
at this locality is that there is much more life in deep water than
farther out westwards, as, on the outward trip to the Azores, with
better weather and everything in favour of good working of the net,
the hauls from the deeper water were much smaller.
With a strong breeze from north-north-east to east-north-east
all night, at noon next day the position was Lat. 45° 19’ N., Long.
10° 20’ W. The sea being very disturbed, the closing-net could only
with safety be lowered to 500 fathoms, subsequently to 400, 800, 200,
and 100, and here the half of the closing messenger was lost.
Extracts from the Log of the 1904 Cruise 41
A ‘dirty’ night followed this day with a good deal of wind and
rain, but at 7 a.m. the position Lat. 47° 02’ N., Long. 9° 10’ W., was
reached, and, heaving to, the net was put down to 1,000 fathoms, and
at this depth and at 800 fathoms good hauls were obtained. While
the net was down at 600 fathoms, the wind hauled round and put the
ship in the trough of the sea, rolling her dreadfully for a short time,
with the result that the closing messenger would not go down, owing to
a kink in the wire, which had four strands completely broken, and the
heavy net was held by only thin strands. Another 54 fathoms of wire
had to be cut off. Further hauls were taken at 400, 200, and 100
fathoms.
A strong wind and rising sea, ending four hours later in a strong gale,
west-north-west, with high sea and very heavy squalls, prevented any
further work. The bad weather continued throughout September 13,
at 9.30 p.m. of which day the Lizard light was abeam. Plymouth was
reached on Wednesday, September 14, when the ship was brought
to anchor, and the voyage concluded so far as scientific work was
concerned.
On this cruise, lasting from June 20 (the first station) to
September 12 (the day the ship was anchored in Plymouth Sound),
300 hauls were made with the closing-net, over 650 temperature
observations and 150 water samples were collected, besides many
hauls of plankton taken with surface-nets and midwater net, and
vacuum tubes were filled with sea-water for subsequent analysis.
Except when in port in the Azores, at Madeira, and Gibraltar, not a
single day passed without some scientific work being accomplished.
Sixty hauls of plankton were made with the closing-net at or
below a depth of 1,000 fathoms, and seventy-six hauls between 500
and 1,000 fathoms. If open vertical nets had been employed, probably
greater hauls of stuff would have been obtained ; but the object was
not to obtain a large amount of material so much as data for deter-
mining the vertical distribution of plankton.
Station
59.
Station
60.
THE LOG OF THE CRUISE OF 1905—1906.
Ir was intended to start in September, 1905, to make a cruise from the
Trish Channel to Madeira. However, one delay after another occurred
in fitting out the ship, and it was not until November 1| that the Silver
Belle was able to sail out of Dublin Bay. The object of this cruise
was to visit some of the deep-water stations upon which work was
done in the previous year, to take water samples at these temperatures,
and samples of water for gas analysis, to compare with the results of
the previous year, which had shown some rather extraordinary pheno-
mena (referred to in Dr. H. N. Dickson’s report), and to determine
whether these were constant and repeated in the year 1905, or merely
accidental. On this occasion it was not intended to use the tow-net
to collect plankton (indeed, my own special tow-net was in use by
Mr. Stanley Gardiner in the Indian Ocean), but trawling gear was
included in the outfit, with the intention of making trawling observa-
tions where circumstances permitted. In the equipment of trawl I was
fortunate in obtaining a good deal of excellent advice from my friend
Mr. Holt, of the Irish Fishery Board.
In addition, opportunity was taken, when it occurred, to use the
current meter, which was kindly sent to me by Professor Pettersson
from Stockholm, and I really hoped to be able to make some interesting
observations with this instrument. However, the weather throughout
the cruise was so very unfavourable that it was impossible to employ
the current meter, except on very few occasions, and these will be
referred to later on. Probably it is rare to experience such weather,
even in the Bay of Biscay, as predominated at the close of the year
1905, a succession of violent storms impeding work throughout the
42
The Log of the Cruise of 1905—1906 43
whole of the outward cruise to Madeira ; and the early months of 1906
were extremely stormy for the Mediterranean.
At the mouth of the English Channel a station was selected twenty
miles south-west of Parson’s Bank, which would joi up these observa-
tions to those made by the International Fisheries investigations.
Here the sounding gave 90 fathoms, and water and gas samples were Nov. §;
1905.
taken. Here the temperature was found to be a little colder at the Zo miles
surface and at the bottom than at 10 fathoms, the lower temperature Fae
at the surface probably being due to the cold north-west wind which
had prevailed for several days.
With a light breeze from north-west by west, close hauled, a
course was made for the next station, 130 miles distant, which was not
reached until November 14. After leaving the Parson’s Bank station
the fine weather disappeared, and very rough weather set in. The old
Station 59 was reached on Thursday, November 9, but it was far too
rough to do any work. The ship dodged round this station for two
days, waiting for an opportunity to do work ; but on the Saturday the
storm broke very severely, necessitating double reefs, and on Sunday
morning it was necessary to take in three reefs and stow the foresail.
All night it blew a whole gale, but the ship lay to like a duck, but on
Monday morning the fourth reef had to be taken in, and storm-Jib set,
and at noon the port gangway was lost. At 4 a.m. on the Tuesday Nov. 1,
the sea was fearful, and the mainsail burst. However, the storm bt. 4°
Bi! Nog
subsequently began to subside, and by ten o'clock it was possible to pong. 5°
take water samples from 1,000 fathoms upwards, the sea gradually
going down.
On Wednesday, November 17, the ship was near the old Station 56, Nov. 1%
05.
in Lat. 43° 32’ N., Long. 10° 48” W., but as soon as arriving at this It’
locality had to heave to with a strong gale blowing from north-east for fons, 1°
forty hours, with a very heavy sea, before wind and sea abated enough
to allow of any work. Water samples were taken from 1,200 fathoms
upwards. The surface temperature was this day 12° warmer than
at the last station. The wind then began to rise again, and it was
necessary to run with double-reefed mainsail, reefed foresail, and
small jib. Gulls
Nov. 20,
1905.
Lat. 40°
30'N.,
Long. 12°
10’ W.
HOuINiE
Long. 13°
6° W.
-1906
44 The Log of the Cruise of 1905
After leaving this station a fresh breeze from north-east gradually
grew in strength. and at midnight reached the force of a severe gale,
which increased all night, and in the morning every reef in the storm-
jib had to be tied in. The sea was fearful, but the yacht lay to very
well without shipping any water. It was impossible to see 100 yards
for spindrift, and a big steamer passing very slowly towards the north-
east could only be seen at occasional moments. The gale blew with
great force all day, but at midnight the wind began to ease, and the
next day it was possible to shake out all reefs. On November 20, as
the wind had fallen to nearly calm, and the locality was only twenty-five
miles from the station intended, it was decided to take the opportunity
offered to work. Heaving to, water samples were taken from
1,400 fathoms upwards.
On November 23 the ship was about fifty miles eastward of the
old Station 61, strong westerly winds having put her off her intended
course, and to general dismay it was found that the ship was making
a considerable amount of water since the terrible gales of the 18th and
19th, and the two Downton pumps on board were unworkable. That
the ship should have sprung a leak in this manner could only be
accounted for on the supposition that she had received serious damage
underneath from being laid upon the rocks in Orkney in August. I
shipped a scratch crew to take the vessel from Hull to Orkney, and
the certificated genius in charge of her managed to put her on the
sharp rocks of Houton Cove, where she had to lie for a whole tide.
No doubt, as was subsequently proved in dry dock at Gibraltar, she
received serious damage then, though, owing to the absence of a slip
large enough to take her in Orkney, it was not possible at the time to
examine her bottom. The severe gales of the 18th and 19th in the
Bay of Biscay no doubt strained her and opened a leak. However, it
was decided to continue the cruise to Madeira. Consequently, on
November 23, in Lat. 36° 56’ N., Long. 13° 6’ W., water samples were
taken from 1,000 fathoms upwards.
Fortunately, fine weather now set in, but with light south-west
winds, which necessitated very slow progress, it was not until
The Log of the Cruise of 1905—1906 45
November 27 that the next station was reached. This was in Nene a
Lat. 33° 31’ N., Long. 16° 57’ W., where for 1,200 fathoms upwards 3**,?8
Long. 16”
water samples were taken. Each and every day now baling out with 77\
relays and buckets was regular—about 1,200 gallons of water in the
twenty-four hours.
However, Madeira was now visible, when it was hoped that some
sort of repairs could be effected. On November 28 the ship wa GOR
brought to anchor in Funchal Bay. As there were no facilities in Bunche
Madeira for repairs, the only thing that could be done was to put
in a pulsometer pump, and with this the water was kept under during
the passage from Funchal to Gibraltar. Several days were wasted
here in executing the necessary repairs ; however, on December 14, i!
. . . * 240
work was recommenced at thirty miles’ distance south-west from the 13"y"
old Station 38. Here water samples were taken from 1,400 fathoms. fo7¢. 1°
After proceeding forty-nine miles with a fair wind it dropped to calm,
and the 16th and 17th were perfectly calm. However, on December 18 Dec. 18
the position was reached of Lat. 35° 53’ N., Long. 7° 35’ W., and a Bt?
sounding gave 654 fathoms with a bottom of grey ooze. The water- }2r% 7
bottle was put down to 600 fathoms. Gannets were seen flying about,
reminiscent of more northerly climates.
Next day, after very light variable breezes, mostly dead ahead, the Deer d2s
9) 5) ‘J 5 1905.
station Lat. 35° 50’ N., Long. 6° 41’ W., was reached, when a sounding 59)"
Long. 6°
gave 284 fathoms, ap a very rocky bottom, the sounding-lead being 4 W.
deeply scored. Water samples were taken from 280 fathoms upwards.
Cape Spartell was plainly visible during the day. On December 20,
in Lat. 35° 55’ N., Long. 5° 53’ W., a sounding gave 164 fathoms, and
water samples were taken, after which the course was Gibraltar, which
Dee. 20,
1905.
From this date until February 3, 1906, was occupied at Gibraltar, Gibralter.
where, after long delay, the yacht was put on to the slip for examina-
tion of the bottom. The surmise as to the cause of the leak was
confirmed, and after stripping a considerable length of copper, injury
was discovered, which could only have been caused by putting the
vessel on the rocks in Orkney. All repairs having been effected, the
was reached about 5 p.m. on December 20.
Feb. 7,
1906.
Off Cape
Baba.
Malaga.
Feb. 14,
1906.
Off
Malaga.
Feb. 15,
1906.
Lat. 85°
50’ N.,
Long. 4°
20’ W.
46 The Log of the Cruise of 1905—1906
ship got away on February 3, and immediately experienced extra-
ordinary weather, mostly lying to off Cape Baba, Morocco, close-
reefed, the land of Morocco all covered with snow and a wind blowing
‘oreat guns.’ A sounding on February 6 gave adepth of 500 fathoms,
but the sounding was not reliable. Next morning, February 7, the
wind eased, and the yacht was some miles nearer the land, when a
sounding gave a depth of 300 fathoms, with a bottom of mud. The
trawl was lowered with two bag-nets attached to the trawl heads
and 600 fathoms of warp, and towed for an hour, when the wind
strengthened, and the trawl had to be hauled up again, coming up
with the beam broken, the net containing only two little fishes (a
Stomias boa and Scopelus, sp.), the bag-nets containing a lot of shells,
crustaceans, etc.
On February 9, the Straits having been crossed, the ship was lying
off Malaga with a strong gale from north-west, and on the evening of
the 9th the wind moderated enough to allow of the trawl being put
down in 130 fathoms, and dragged towards the shore to 80 fathoms.
A great quantity of crustacea, holothuria, shells, sand, and mud, was
the result, but no fish. On the 10th the weather became better, and
being well up under the land in 40 fathoms deep, the trawl was put
over and towed for an hour, when several species of fish were captured
(Gobius niger, Callionymus maculatus, Capros aper, Citharus unguatula,
Arnoglossus latema), besides a number of crustacea, including a large
Aristeomorpha.
On Sunday night, February 12, it blew ‘great guns,’ and being
close to Malaga, the yacht was put in there for shelter.
For the next two days it was very stormy, with snow throughout
the day, but on the 14th it became better, and getting out of Malaga
the trawl was put down in 300 fathoms, and many fish were captured,
notably Pristiurus melanostomus, Raia oxyrhynchus, Hoplostethus medi-
terraneus, Capros aper, Macrurus celorynchus, Lophius sp., Squatina
aculeata.
Intending to visit the old Station 44 of the 1905 cruise on
February 15, in Lat. 35° 50’ N., Long. 4° 20’ W., water samples
The Log of the Cruise of 1905—1906 AT
were taken from 700 fathoms upwards. Here it was desired to use rep. 16,
: 1906.
Pettersson’s machine, but the water was too deep to anchor the of Mar-
: » bella,
ship. On February 16, off Marbella, the trawl was put down in ” *
500 fathoms, and in the bag-net on the trawl-head was a Stomias boa,
and in the trawl some Scopelus and Gonostoma, and some Germodus rev. 17,
1906.
parvus. Off Mar-
: a . bella.
On February 17, still off Marbella, but nearer to land, in
276 fathoms, the trawl was put down again, but with very unsuccessful
results, both bag-nets on the trawl-heads gone, having broken away y,), 2;
1906.
Gibraltar
Bay.
with the weight of mud contained in them.
Getting away from Gibraltar on February 21 with a strong blow
from the west, while waiting the opportunity to get off to the Gettys-
burg Bank, the trawl was put down in Gibraltar Bay, and a few fishes
captured, amongst which were Hoplostethus mediterraneus, Gadus
argenteus, Macrurus celorynchus. At night it came on to blow so
very strongly that the ship was brought to anchor in Algeciras Bay,
where she lay until Sunday, the 26th, a gale from the west to north-
west lasting all the time. It moderated sufficiently on the Sunday to
get out as far as Tarifa, when, falling quite calm, the tide took
the ship right back to Gibraltar. Next day a light wind was blowing
from the west, which freshened considerably as the day wore on, and
a whole day was spent in getting as far as Trafalgar Bay; and
from then, until March 2, the whole period was occupied endeavouring
a 2 \ 2 You a + y ra o
under double reefs to get to the Gettysburg. On this day a sounding yy... 9
1906.
Gettys-
burg
Bank.
on the west side of the bank gave 164 fathoms, and continuing a
little farther, 230 fathoms, with a bottom of fine white sand and
shells. Then east-north-east, three miles away, bottom was reached
at 80 fathoms, and putting down the trawl and towing over 80 to
40 fathoms, it got fast ina rock and came up with the beam broken
and without a single fish in it, but plenty of dead shells and a few
crustacea. A water-breaker, with a heavy piece of iron attached,
allowing a flagstaff to stand vertically in the water, on which could be
fixed the anchor light, was then put out and anchored, so that as the
ship dodged about all night it could be seen, and the position kept for
March 5,
1906.
Gettys-
burg
Bank,
The
current
meter.
48 The Log of the Cruise of 1905—1906
work in the morning. Most of the next day was spent in repairing
the trawl, but about 6 p.m. it was put out in 60 fathoms on the south
side of the bank; but the wind dying away completely, the trawl
failed to capture any fish, but a quantity of shells, coral, and sponges
were brought up. Leaving the buoy in position, the yacht dodged
round the light all night, which was found again next morning,
Sunday, March 4, when the trawl was put over again in 100 fathoms
on the east side of the bank. Suddenly passing into deep water, the
trawl would not keep the bottom ; consequently, amongst the mass of
stuff brought up, there was only one small fish in the sprat-net.
Centriscus scolopantime and Serramus catrilla were taken with a hand-
le, Later on in the day the trawl was put down in 80 fathoms,
when, getting fast in the bottom, it was impossible to move it, and
finally broke away altogether along with 50 fathoms of wire. Though
having spare beam and net on board, there were no spare trawl-heads,
and nothing remained but to go back to Gibraltar to get new ones
made.
March 5 was at last a suitable day to work the current meter.
All
bad
It requires the caimest of weather for satisfactory results,
On this
particular day the sea was quite smooth, with a light breeze from the
previous efforts to use it were frustrated by the prevailing
weather.
and is in any case a very troublesome apparatus to use.
south—such a condition of things as but rarely occurs at this time of
year, even in these latitudes.
The results of this experiment are as follows:
Rape Depth in | Direction of | Number of _ Velocity Tempera-
Position. Fathoms Current Turns'a | Increase In ture
el "| Minute. Seconds. >
: els tae ee ard | Sil Se aie
Gettysburg Bank... ( 2 | W.N.W. 30 WES) TSSOP
Wei BO? BIN, oon 4 30 W.S.W. 34 12:2 144°
Long. 11°55’ W.... |) 50 S.W. 48:2 | 15-4 143°
The surface current over the Gettysburg Bank appears to work
round a circle, running longer south-west and north-east than it does
in any other course.
The Log of the Cruise of 1905—1906 49
Bottom at this spot was at 55 fathoms depth, and rocky. The
Gettysburg Bank is unsuitable for trawling; everywhere under
100 fathoms rocks occur, in which a trawl is certain sooner or later to
be lost. Outside 100 fathoms the water deepens very fast.
March 10,
1906.
Straits of
Gibraltar.
After leaving the Bank, a fine breeze from south-west soon brought
the ship off Cape St. Vincent ; then, veering round to east, a gale
sprang up, lasting that night and all the next day, necessitating three
reefs in the mainsail. Making for the old Station 42 in the mouth of
the Straits, the anchor was dropped in 170 fathoms on March 10, the
day being fine and sea quite smooth ; but the current was altogether
too strong for the current meter, the wire standing away aft, as if the
ship were going before a fair breeze of wind. At 2 fathoms depth,
the time allowed between opening and shutting was six minutes, and
the number of turns 825 per minute, giving a result far beyond any-
thing in Professor Pettersson’s tables. At depths below 2 fathoms
the apparatus could not be made to work at all, and it is evident that
in a current like that passing through the Straits of Gibraltar no good
result can be got out of it as at present devised. It was quite hard
work getting the anchor in again, especially as it had taken a very
strong hold on the bottom.
Leaving Gibraltar on March 17 with a fair wind, by evening it was
blowing very strong, and three reefs were necessary. On the 19th, March 1%
1906.
when off Cape St. Vincent (south-east, twenty miles), the trawl was gi [?°
put down in 300 fathoms, when the wind dropped almost to calm ; con- “"™*
sequently the haul was very poor, containing, however, one perfect
specimen of Chauliodus Sloanii, comparatively rare. Next day,
March 20, the trawl was put out in 280 fathoms, twenty miles south
by east from Cape St. Vincent. The sea was very rough, and, after
towing for an hour, it had to be hauled up in consequence of the strong
wind and sea. The chief captures were Macrurus celorynchus and
M. levis, and a couple of Nephrops norwegicus. March 21 and 22 M2eh?t.
were very stormy, twenty-two miles south-south-east of Lagos Bay, O'S"
but on the 23rd it was possible to put the trawl out again in 400
fathoms, when, after trawling for an hour, the wind freshened so con-
7
50 The Log of the Cruase of 1905—1906
siderably that the trawl had to be hauled up as quickly as possible ; and
with three reefs in the mainsail, double-reefed foresail, and storm-jib,
the ship was put towards land to seek shelter for the night. The fish
captured were Phycis blennioides and Zeugopterus Boscir, along with
two flat fish of the megrim kind.
March 23, On March 23, west-south-west of Cape St. Mary, a sounding gave
1906,
W.S.W.of 7] fathoms where the chart marks 320, evidently a new bank, the
daneistl
ap extent of which, however, must be small, as, after sailing a few miles
to the eastward, the depth was 360 fathoms. The new bank was
situated with Cape St. Mary bearing by compass N. 72 E., distance
twenty-one miles. The trawling result in 400 fathoms included
Pagellus centrodontus, Scorpena dactyloptera, and Macrurus celo-
rynchus, among many other things—crustacea, sponges, and anemones—
one of which was growing on a lump of coal, of which several pieces
came up in the trawl, probably dropped at some time from a passing
steamer.
On March 26, when south-east half south from Cape St. Mary,
Portugal, the trawl was shot in 350 fathoms, when several fish were
captured, including Scorpena dactyloptera, Macrurus levis, Gadus
argenteus, and Lophius budegassa, along with a miscellaneous collee-
tion of crustacea, anemones, and cup-coral. The day, though
satisfactory for trawling, was very unpleasant—squally, with much
rain, hail, and sleet.
On March 28, when twenty-six miles south-east by south from Cape
St. Mary, the trawl was shot in 308 fathoms, and when hauied on
board contained a great shark, Hehinorhinus spinosus, 7 feet 2 inches
long, the skin covered with sharp spies curved at the point, the whole
weighing about 300 pounds. Too big to preserve, it was with difheulty
heaved back into the sea, having first been ripped open to ascertain
if there was anything in the stomach. This, however, contained only
some well-digested food. In the same haul were several Chimera
monstrosa, Spinas niger, Scorpena dactyloptera, Zeugopterus Boscii,
Macrurus levis, Aphoristia sp., Gadus argenteus, Lophius budegassa,
a fine hake, and several crustaceans, cup-coral, ete. On March 29,
The Log of the Cruise of 1905—1906 51
trawling all day in 90 to 200 fathoms produced very poor results,
' beyond capture of long-spined urchins, big holothuria, and three skate
and one small megrim ; and on the 30th, coming out into deeper water
(Cape St. Mary bearing north-west by north eighteen miles), and
trawling in 310 fathoms, again there was little but echinoderms. On
such a bottom it is rare to get fish, but amongst other things, such as
Homola barbata, Pagurus striatus, and coral, was one small sole (Solea
profundicola) and a very small skate.
From March 30 to April 4 was a continuous gale from south-east Aprils
when the ship was lying to, with storm trysail and storm-jib ; but on Sa
April 4, the weather moderating, a sounding was made in 417 fathoms,
forty-six miles west from Cape Spartel. A good number of fishes
were captured, including Mora mediterranea, Scorpena dactyloptera,
Hoplostethus mediterraneus, Conger vulgaris, Pomatomus telescopinus
and three species of Macrurus, along with a large and fine Polycheles
typhiops, echinoderms, and sponges.
On April 5, thirty-one miles west-south-west of Cape Spartel, the
trawl was shot in 187 fathoms, and a number of fish, including
Torpedo nobiliana, Scorpana scrofa, Dentex macropthalmus, Rhombus
Bosc, Merlucius vulgaris, Gadus argenteus, Pristiurus melanostomus,
Scorpena dactyloptera, Macrurus levis, and a number of large and
small crustacea, were taken.
This was the last trawl of the cruise, the ship returning to
Gibraltar, where, after provisioning and a few necessary renewals, she
set sail to England, having completed a fairly successful cruise, con-
sidering the obstacles in the way, such as almost continuous bad
weather, and as regards the trawling outfit, rather unsuitable ap-
paratus. A much heavier trawl-beam, with the trawl-heads made of
broad flat iron, would prevent the trawl sinking so heavily in the mud,
would allow the trawl to move faster and capture more fish. The
depth of the present trawl-heads is only about 20 inches, and when it
sinks in mud it does not allow sufficient room, and probably a depth of
3 feet would not be too much. All the bottom of the net ought to be
double-meshed to prevent the inevitable tearing which results over
7—2
SZ The Log of the Cruise of 1905—1906
some of this ground, which is covered with great branched coral which
would tear anything to pieces.
T am sorry that more use could not be made of Professor
Pettersson’s current meter. Probably in the still water of a Norwegian
fjord it works with satisfaction, but in the locality where the Silver
Belle worked during this cruise it was quite impossible to do much
with the instrument ; and, indeed, as the brief notes recorded show,
the weather was far too stormy for the use of such a. delicate
instrument.
Trawling in a sailing-vessel in deep water is a difficult undertaking.
Whereas with steam a ship can move in calm weather, a sailing-vessel
is obliged to work im sufficient wind, and with a light trawl, directly
there is any way on the trawl rises from the bottom and is lable to
turn upside down. In shallow water, with a great length of wire out,
it appears to keep the bottom well enough. But under the most
favourable conditions for work—namely, calm weather
a sailer will,
of course, scarcely move the trawl ; and, again, when it becomes fast,
as it will sometimes do in rocky bottoms, the sailer is at a considerable
disadvantage, and is liable to lose trawl and everything, for the ship
cannot readily be backed as could be done under steam.
Then, again, from Lisbon to the coast of Morocco the bottom is
really very unsuitable for trawling. Even where the sounding-lead
indicates mud there are great masses of coral and rock sticking up at
short intervals, and even in a steam trawler a hand has to be kept on
the engine telegraph all the time the trawl is down, ready to back
astern at the first indication of bemg caught in the bottom.
Amongst the fishes brought home from this cruise perhaps the
most remarkable was the specimen of LHimantolophus Rheinhardt,
which, strangely enough, was not taken in the trawl at all. Coming
ashore at Gibraltar one morning, Buchan Henry found a great commo-
tion amongst the local fishermen over a strange fish which one of
them had captured among the rocks on the east side of Gibraltar.
Such a fish had never been seen there before ; and, indeed, of the
only two examples ever recorded, both had been captured off the coast
The Log of the Cruise of 1905—1906 53
of Greenland and Iceland. It was still alive when bought by Henry
for ten shillings, about 16 inches long, and jet black, all except the tips
of the tentacular appendage, which were pure white, and about as
repulsive-looking an object as could well be imagined. That this fish
should be taken in Gibraltar Bay, and at a depth of only about
20 fathoms, is extraordinary, as other congeneric angler fish are sup-
posed to be deep-sea habitants. The specimen is such « prize that it is
now in the Natural History Museum of South Kensington.
NOTE OF THE 1907 CRUISE.
Tue intention was to go from Scalloway to the south end of the
Faeroe banks, thence southward to the Butt of Lewis, and from there
out into the deeper water along the shelf of the Atlantic slope, and
continue as far southwards as time and opportunity would permit,
chiefly trawling and dredging. But the weather was anything but
good for this kind of work, and we got no farther south than
St. Kilda. A fair number of fishes and a large number of Crustacea,
and, amongst other things, a very complete collection of Pycnogonide
were obtained ; but as these collections have not yet been reported
on, I defer the discussion of the results. I had the advantage of the
assistance of Mr. Opie, of Cambridge, who remained on board
throughout the greater part of the cruise, and who ably and
energetically gave his attention to the preservation of the specimens
collected.
The latter part of the cruise was continued by a passage from
Shetland to Norway, which I made in response to a request from
Dr. O. Pettersson, who asked me to work hydrographically across a
line which he marked out, and which would connect up the observa-
tions of the Scottish, German, and Scandinavian expeditions. Dr. O.
Pettersson kindly undertook to have the water samples and plankton
examined in the Swedish Laboratory, and these observations are
published here. The full discussion of them is not possible until
the German and Scotch observations are ready for publication. As
Dr. Pettersson remarks, there was an unusual flow of Atlantic water
during September, 1907, into the eastern part of the North Sea,
characterized by southerly plankton forms. Professor dArcy
Thompson has very kindly made some remarks, and provided me
54
Note of the 1907 Cruise
Or
Or
with information of the observations made by the Goldseeker at the
two stations Sec. 6a and Sec. 8, and these are embodied here. The
Stations 7 and 8 of the Goldseeker correspond closely with our
Stations 2 and 3, and, while the Scottish observations were made in
August, 1907, ours were made about three weeks later.
Leaving Sealloway on Tuesday, September 17, rough weather
towards night necessitated shelter in Lerwick Harbour, and for two
days there was a very strong blow from south-west to west. The ship
did not get away until the 20th, and the first station marked by
Professor Pettersson was reached on Saturday, the 21st, This was
Lat. 60° 58’ N., Long. 0° 47’ E., and the depth 80 fathoms, with a
continually rising wind and heavy swell from the north ; by the time
the observations were finished it was really too rough to work any
longer. At 2 p.m. the same day the next station (2),in Lat. 60° 5’ N,,
Long. 2° 0’ E., was reached, the wind still blowing strong from the
north and the barometer very high. The temperature at 50 fathoms
was so extraordinary that it was thought that the observation must be
wrong, but two more observations at this depth proved it to be correct.
The wind was very high and the swell strong, and as night was fast
approaching and further work became impossible, it was decided to run
past the next two stations (3 and 4), and make straight for the Nor-
wegian shore, a distance of sixty-seven miles, so as not to lose the fine
fair wind, and on the return passage to work the stations omitted.
Consequently Station 5 was reached on September 22, the land being
fifteen miles away east, three-quarters south, and covered with snow.
The sounding gave 193 fathoms. Starting work at 5 a.m., it took five
hours to take all the observations and to complete by the use of the
closing-net at 190, 60, and 20 fathoms. During this time the barometer
commenced to fall rapidly, and the wind backed to west-north-west, a
head-wind for the return passage. Station 4, Lat. 61° 32° N. and
Long. 3° 44’ E., was reached in the afternoon, the wind strong and
west by north, and the weather looking very bad. Rain began to fall,
and the rough sea compelled the taking in of two reefs in the mainsail,
and bonneting off the foresail and storm-jib. The barometer having
Or
(op)
Note of the 1907 Cruise
dropped an inch since morning, it gave promise of a very dirty night.
At this station the extraordinary temperature at 60 fathoms suggested
something wrong with the observation, but the thermometer was in
perfect order. The next station (3) was about thirty miles to wind-
ward. The night of September 22 was very stormy, with a wind
backing from west to south-west, and the rain falling in torrents. At
4 a.m. it veered to north, then north-east, and finally dropped very
light, and at 1.30 p.m. the ship was a few miles north-east of the
position intended ; but, considering the weather and the early approach
of darkness, it was decided to work at this spot. The sounding marked
260 fathoms, and when work was finished at 6 p.m. it was getting dark,
and the rain was descending in torrents. With a light wind a course
was set for Flugga (Shetland), 124 miles distant west half south.
While working this station a very large dead whale drifted past the
ship. It was quite fresh, and probably had broken away froma whaler
during the night. The very light wind and heavy swell made progress
slow, and it was not until 11 p.m. on September 25 that Flugga leght
was nade out through a dense fog about one mile south-east during a
momentary lift.
Complete discussion of these results is not at the moment possible,
but I may publish along with them the following letter from Professor
@Arey Thompson, who has been kind enough to provide me with
information as to the observations made by the Goldseeker :
‘Dunver, May 4, 1908.
‘My DEAR WOLFENDEN,
‘The observations you have sent to me seem to be of very
great interest, but it is impossible for me to go into them in detail at
the moment—not only for want of time, but also because our own
observations for last summer are not yet fully worked up. . . .
‘Your section from Shetland to Norway is a very beautiful one,
and shows, in the first place, that we miss much by not running our
own line farther towards the Norwegian coast. The other section
(Section II.) is taken from the Go/dseeker observations for 1906.
‘We did our two Stations 7 and 8, which correspond closely with
Note of the 1907 Cruse 57
your 2 and 3, at the very end of August, 1907, while you did them
rather more than three weeks later. We found a large superficial
body of fresh water at both stations, and especially at Station 8 ;
while this had entirely disappeared from Station 7, and very nearly so
from Station 8, three weeks later.
‘At these stations the alternate pulse of comparatively fresh and
of oceanic water is a well-marked feature, and, on the whole, the flood
of fresh water occurs in summer, and is replaced by the salter water
in winter. But the dates vary very much, and one of the diagrams
which I send you shows the conditions at or about the month of
September in 1905, 1906, and 1907, all at Station 8. You will see that
the fresh water was lacking in 1905, but abundant, according to our
observations, in 1907, and still more so in 1906. Your observations in
1907 correspond very closely with ours in 1905.
‘.... What we have in that region is a very rapid change of
conditions from place to place within a short distance, and you have
got into a body of water more similar to that which we found at
Station 9 to the westward than what we found nearer to your position,
three weeks earlier. I send you a note of our results at Station 9,
and a diagram of the salinities and temperatures found by us at
Stations 8 and 9 and by you in the neighbourhood of the former
station. You will see that your results are, on the whole, intermediate.
Accordingly, if the Silver Belle was a little farther to the west, or
the Goldsecker a little farther to the east of the given positions, or if,
on the other hand, the body of water, especially the surface water, had
moved a very few miles eastward during the three weeks, in either
ease the apparent discrepancies would be very nearly explained, and
the results would not be so very far from correspondence.
‘It would seem, therefore, that while we, no doubt, want more
frequent observations in this region, so we also want more closely
contiguous stations.
‘ Yours very faithfully,
‘D’Arcy THompson.’
8
OBSERVATIONS CONDUCTED ON SAILING-SHIPS.
As the making of scientific observations on board a sailing-ship
requires some appliances and methods which differ from those on
board a steam-vessel, I think it may not be out of place to briefly
describe the most suitable ways and means of conducting these
observations. A steam-vessel must have many advantages over a
sailing-ship ; but to be put against these is cost, both initial and of
upkeep, and for work a long way from land and in deep water, such
as the Atlantic, a steam-vessel of comparatively large size and stout
build is essential, if any degree of comfort and safety is to be looked
for. There is no doubt that a stoutly-built sailing-ship of anything
over 100 tons (y.m.) is a much more comfortable and safe vessel to
ride out a severe gale than a steam-vessel of much greater tonnage
and size. The great disadvantages of a sailing-ship are the loss of
time taken in completing a lengthy cruise, and the days that are wasted
in beating around a ‘station’ and lying to very often, while waiting
for a favourable opportunity to commence and complete the work
involved in the use of towing-nets, etc., in deep water. For the rest,
the same difficulties beset the observer in either steam or sailing
vessel, such as devices to counteract the heavy strain thrown upon
several hundred fathoms of wire with the weight of a heavy towing-
net at the lower end, etc., when the ship is rising and falling or labour-
ing more or less heavily in a strong swell. Where the steam-ship has
the greatest advantage over the sailing-ship is in the ability to go
ahead or astern at will, and to keep over or up to the towing-net or
trawl lowered into deep water, and when dredge or trawl gets caught
in rock at the bottom, which is not of infrequent occurrence, and
occurs often when least expected, in the ability to back quickly
58
Observations Conducted on Sailing--Ships 59
and release the imprisoned apparatus. A sailing-ship is, in fact,
absolutely at the mercy of wind and wave, while a steam-ship has at
least some control over adverse elements.
Having said so much, however, it is necessary to state that a
sailing-vessel of the size of a Grimsby or Brixham trawler can really
do all the work at sea comprised in the ordinary hydrographical and
scientific work of fishery investigation that a much more expensive
and elaborate steamship can do, and at very much less cost. It is
nearly entirely a matter of good seamanship and handling the vessel
in an intelligent manner. My own experience, extending over some
years now, teaches me that the average cost of a three months’ cruise
in a ship of about 130 tons (y.m.) does not amount to more than
£300, whereas in a steam-ship this figure must be doubled. Conse-
quently, for investigations such as those which have for a long time
been undertaken by the International Council and by the various
Fishery Boards, I have always been at a loss to understand why use
was not made of sailing-ships, which in comparatively shallow waters
such as the North Sea and English Channel, and for a distance of
70 to 100 miles round our British and European coasts, could do
most, if not all, of the work of tishery and hydrographic observations
quite as effectively, if not always so rapidly, as steam-vessels, and at
very much less cost. There seems to be a mistaken impression that
steam is essential, which I do not believe to be at all correct. Indeed,
if this were so, the lengthy hydrographic and other observations
recorded in this book would have no value ; and I hope I do not over-
state the case when I say these observations prove not only what a
sailing-ship can do, but that they may have considerable scientific
value. I hope that they may encourage many others to follow on the
same lines, and contribute, according to their ability, to the scientific
study of the sea.
I have frequently, during the last few years, heard of yachtsmen
who have expressed desires to do some work of this kind, but did not
know how to set about it. There is really nothing mysterious about
the handling of deep-sea apparatus ; the only thing necessary is to
4
60 Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships
conform to the requirements of scientific accuracy, without which
hydrographical observations would, of course, be absolutely useless.
Dredging and trawling may be carried on by anyone, and information
of the most important character obtained as regards fishes and the
distribution of species of marine fauna (and flora). The tedium of
many a weary hour at sea might be relieved by the excitement of
putting out a tow-net or dredge, the contents of which may very
often reveal some prize. Of course, to the ordinary individual, not a
zoologist, the chief difficulty is that he does not know what he has
got ; but a very short practical experience is all that is necessary to
enable him to recognize what is common, and therefore usually of
little value to the scientist, and what is a rare or uncommon, and
therefore worth preserving. Scientists are always willing enough to
assist in the investigation of the marine fauna, and many a museum
might be thus greatly enriched with rare or uncommon specimens.
I cannot but think that to those fond of cruising away from land
a new and profitable delight might be added by undertaking observa-
tions of this kind.
Still, desultory observations of this nature, however gratifying to
the amateur, are of no value to the scientist unless they are carried
out on a definite and continuous plan. For instance, when a yachts-
man is contemplating a cruise, say to the Mediterranean, to the
Azores, or across the Atlantic, or northerly to Iceland or the Faeroes,
etc., observations on hydrography, or tow-nets used at regular intervals
during the cruise, cannot fail to record facts of interest and of great
assistance to marine scientists, especially if the observations are
conducted upon a plan and under the advice of someone who can
acquaint the imtending observer with the essentials for successful
and useful work.
teturning after this digression to the subject-matter of this
chapter—namely, the apparatus and methods suitable for a sailing-
ship—we may first briefly discuss the matter of what such a vessel
may do and the means of accomplishing it.
A sailing-ship may quite well undertake soundings, the use of
Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships 61
deep-sea tow-nets, the taking of temperatures, the collection of water
samples (for subsequent analysis), dredging, and trawling.
In comparatively shallow waters, such as the North Seas, extended
voyages may be made and effective scientific results recorded with
quite small craft. My small yacht, the Walwin, of only 30 tons
(y.m.), has made frequent cruises from Shetland to the Faeroe Islands,
some of the results of which are recorded in this volume. But as
there is no room on such a vessel for steam apparatus, everything
has to be hauled by hand. Where the depth is not over 100 to
200 fathoms, this is not difficult in willing hands ; but when the depth
reaches 500 fathoms and over, it is too great a tax upon human
endurance, even as exemplified in the Shetland sailorman. Conse-
quently, a larger vessel is desirable, in which is placed a steam
capstan.
The Silver Belle is a ship of 120 to 130 tons (y.m.), sufficiently
large and comfortable to make extended cruises in any direction.
Into this ship I fitted a steam capstan of the type commonly employed
on the fishing-boats of the North of Scotland. The boiler is placed
below deck, rather forward of the middle, between the forecastle and
the chart-room, and steam is led from it to the capstan, which is
placed on deck on the port side, at a distance behind the mainmast
sufficient to permit of the big drum (on which is wound the wire)
being placed forward of it and clear of the boom.
There is nothing about the drums which carry the wire which
any ordinary engineer cannot devise suitably to the vessel for which
they are intended. The ordinary reels used on board ship to carry
short lengths of wire cable are, however, scarcely suitable for deep-
water work, because the strain upon them is too great, and they sooner
or later give way. The user is then lucky if he escapes without the
loss of several hundred fathoms of wire and the apparatus. Some-
thing stronger than these ordinary reels is therefore required. On
board the Silver Belle I have a special winch, made for me by Messrs.
Bullivant and Co., consisting of two stout upright iron plates, bolted
together by cross-pieces, and enclosing a large drum divided into two
meer
62 Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships
sections—the one to carry several hundred to 2,000 fathoms of wire
(according to size), the other section to carry the fine wire used for
sounding. This winch also carries a clutch and brake, by which the
speed of revolution may be controlled, and externally on the axis of
the revolving drums is affixed a cogged wheel, which, with a similar
one upon the steam capstan, carries a chain band (with movable links,
so that it can be shortened or lengthened). In practice the wire is
reeled off rapidly by its own weight, controlled by the foot-brake,
which allows of immediate arrest of the process. In hauling in, the
capstan through the chain band actuates the drums, revolving them
and coiling up the wire as it comes on board. ‘The ascent can be con-
trolled as easily as the descent.
In order to check effectively the amount of wire paid out and to
ascertain the depth to which the apparatus is lowered, the wire, after
leaving the drum, is led through a pulley, the revolutions of which
are registered on a counter, each revolution marking | fathom of wire
paid out. From this counter the wire is led forward to a pulley, the
method of which differs according as the work to be accomplished is
trawling or tow-netting,
In tow-netting the wire used is necessarily of smaller diameter
than in trawling ; consequently, at considerable depths there is much
more strain upon it ; and if the ship is in a heavy swell, as is frequent
in the open ocean even upon the finest days, she rides up and down
considerably, and sudden jerks are thrown upon the wire, which may
break the strands, or even snap it completely. On one occasion we
were unlucky enough in this way to lose several hundred fathoms of
wire and a closing tow-net attached, along with a couple of deep-sea
thermometers.
To avoid accidents of this kind an ‘accumulator’ is necessary.
Such an apparatus is constructed as follows: Two wooden dises are
prepared—one with a hook which can be attached to the mast; the
other with a hook also, which can be attached to the spar, as seen in
the diagram. Between the two dises are extended six or more
lengths of stout, solid rubber bands (obtainable from any of the
Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships 63
wholesale rubber manufacturers). The size of the discs and length of
the rubber are matters as to which it is impossible to lay down any
general rule.
The wire used for tow-netting is usually a stranded wire, and one
which we have used successfully was supplied to me by Bullivant
and Co.—a strand of seven wires (21 gauge), + inch diameter, with a
breaking strain of 10 ewt. Five hundred fathoms of this wire weigh
about 60 pounds. Wires of this description vary very considerably,
Mie, 2h,
A, Steam capstan; B, large reel divided so as to carry thick wire and sounding wire; C, counter
marking in fathoms paid out; D, block attached to movable spar /’; EH, wheel over which
wire runs; H, accumulator attached to mainmast at G; K, coil of rope attached to spar.
and some that we have obtained elsewhere have proved quite worthless,
the strands overriding, and thus preventing the descent of messengers.
A ‘soft’ wire should never be selected, for this reason.
A sudden strain is by the accumulator greatly relieved, and though
sometimes extended to a dangerous degree, we have never lost a
tow-net or instrument since using it, now for some years.
The general plan is exhibited in the diagram.
From the steam capstan A the chain passes over the cogged wheel of
the winch B. The wire from this drum is led to the counter C,, thence
over the pulley D, and from that over the pulley H, and carries either
the sounding-lead or the tow-net. To the bottom of the mainmast is
64 Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships
fixed the spar F, and at a convenient height upon the mainmast is
fixed a hook, G, on to which can be hooked the accumulator, H, which
again is affixed to the spar / by a hook, 7. The spar can thus move
freely in all directions and give full play to the accumulator ; and in
order that it cannot by any accident to the latter break away, a length
of manilla rope, A, is attached to the accumulator and coiled round the
bottom of the mainmast, and at the other end to the spar at J.
This arrangement is suitable for work in deep water—i.e., over
500 fathoms; but the spar can be dispensed with, along with the
accumulator, in shallower water, the wire being led from the counter
over a pulley-wheel affixed to the deck, and thence carried over a
pulley attached to the end of a davit.
With such means we have found no difficulty in using the tow-net
at depths of over 1,000 fathoms, and sounding to 2,000 fathoms. The
depth to which a heavy tow-net may be lowered and raised again must
be regulated by the capacity of the winch to haul it on board. The
haulage must necessarily be slow, for if performed too quickly the
condition of the animals in the bag of the net will be woeful, if they
are not all mashed into pulp.
As an example of the time occupied in such operations in deep
water, I may quote the following data from the log-book of the Si/ver
Belle :
June 26,1904, in Lat. 48°12’ N., Long. 16° 26’ W.
long, heavy swell from the west, with a west wind.
a fine day, with
The ship on the port tack, and the net first put down to 1,500
fathoms, and hauled up again. The result being unsatisfactory, the
net was lowered a second time. This occupied altogether one hour,
the net being towed for fifteen minutes ; then put down successively
to 1,200, 900, 700, 500, 400, and 200 fathoms. On each occasion this
meant, after the net had been received on board, that its contents had
to be carefully removed and washed out, and the net itself carefully
cleaned with fresh water before lowering again. Some considerable
time was thus expended in manipulations on deck, and the whole time
occupied from start to finish was twelve hours.
Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships 65
On a second occasion—in Lat. 48° 27’, Long. 15° 38’ W.—the
work of collecting samples of water, and filling from the water-bottle
tubes of water for subsequent gas analysis, from depths 1,570, 1,400,
1,000, 700, 500, 300, and 100 fathoms respectively, occupied eight and
a half hours.
On another occasion the time occupied in using the closing-net at
1,400 1,600, 1,000, 700, 500, 500, 100, 50, and 25 fathoms occupied
twelve hours.
These, of course, are operations with the closing-net, which has to
be lowered tightly closed, opened under water by the messenger sent
down the line, and closed again under water by another messenger
before hauling up ; and these successive operations occupy much more
time than would be required for the mere manipulation of nets which
it was not so particularly desired to open and close at specified
depths.
There may be a difference of opinion as to the advantages of
horizontally towing-nets, such as the author’s large closing-net, or
Garstang’s smaller apparatus, or of vertically actuated closing-nets,
such as Fowler’s; but I believe the results are practically the same
with horizontally towed nets.
The drift of the ship of not more than a mile an hour is quite
sufficient, and though the tow-net does not remain long at the depth to
which it is primarily lowered, because by the drift of the vessel it is
constantly rising, it does not rise greatly in the space of fifteen
minutes and, moreover, practice proves that if there is much angle on
the wire, the messengers for opening and closing cannot descend, and
therefore the result is negative. In vertically acting nets the apparatus
is raised through so many fathoms, and the result is the collection of the
fauna between, for example, 500 and 400, or 400 and 300 fathoms, and
soon. The actual quantity captured by either vertically or horizontally
actuated nets is probably very little different. Unfortunately, as we
cannot see what is going on at any considerable depth, we can only
say that the capture has been made approximately at the depth stated.
While the use of closing-nets gives very interesting and sometimes
9
66 Observations Conducted on Saling-Ships
important results as to the character of certain fauna at certain depths,
and the life-history of certain species, it is rendered much more
valuable by the use at the same time of the water-bottle, whereby
samples of water can be taken from the same depth and the salinity
be subsequently determined, and by the simultaneous use of the
thermometer attached to the tow-net. The temperature of the water
at successive depths in the open ocean (e.g., the Atlantic) exhibits
such a fairly regular graduated scale, that the temperature taken by a
thermometer attached to a tow-net at the time of opening and closing
is a pretty accurate guide to the actual depth at which the net has
really been. It has been our habit to attach to the tow-net when
lowered two thermometers—generally a Negretti and Zambra revers-
ing thermometer and a maximum or minimum thermometer.
Sometimes it is desirable to collect samples of sea-water from
various depths for analysis of the contained gases. Such examinations
are of great scientific interest taken in conjunction with the salinity
observations, and were of especial interest in our 1904 cruise in
elucidating the extent of water of Mediterranean origin then occupy-
‘ing patches in the Bay of Biscay.
For the method of preservation of these samples very little extra
apparatus is requisite. When the water-bottle is raised on board,
a sample of its contents is introduced into a glass bulb, which has been
partially exhausted, so as to obtain a partial vacuum; the long, thin
capillary neck being introduced into the nozzle of the water-bottle is
then fractured by a special pair of ‘scissors. The sea-water fills the
bulb, which, with its long neck, is then removed, and sealed by bending
the end in the flame of a spirit-lamp. Put away in special boxes made
so that the bulb and its two prolonged necks can lie in slots specially
made to receive them, the flasks may safely be packed and carried on
board, awaiting transmission to the laboratory for analysis.
As to the apparatus required in ¢rawling in a sailing-vessel,
experience must be the best teacher. This experience may be more
quickly and profitably obtained by having on board, in charge of this
apparatus, a professional trawler. The adventures of a trawl in inex-
Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships 67
perienced hands are too numerous and exciting to be pleasant, and the
commonest is that, after painstaking manipulations occupying a long
period of time, the trawl is found to have been upside down and the
net empty.
Perhaps the simplest form of trawl and the one least likely to go
wrong is the ‘ Agassiz’ trawl. Its iron frame may bend, but is not
2
5 3 5 aay
& s aE :
A B G
3
Fic. 5.
1. Trawl with muslin net, A, and sprat net, B, attached.
2. Method of placing the nets on the trawl.
3. Dimensions of the sprat net: A, top; B, bottom; C, sides.
easy to break, whereas wooden ‘ beam’ trawls on unsuitable ground
and deep water possess this unfortunate propensity. The ‘ Agassiz’
trawl has the further advantage that it does not matter which side up
it fishes. It is a splendid instrument for the capture of interesting
Crustacea, though it takes a goodly number of fishes too.! Trawlers
1 In one haul with this net we obtained seventeen fish of five different species,
besides a great quantity of Crustacea, starfish, Mollusca, etc.
9—2
68 Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships
use the ‘beam’ or ‘ otter’ trawl for this purpose. A 25-foot beam
trawl is a very useful appliance. As suggested to me by Mr. Holt, of
the Irish Fishery Board, we have used this trawl, with two additional
nets affixed to the trawl-net.
A being a muslin net; B a net made of sprat mesh, one of
convenient size having dimensions as shown in the accompanying
diagram.
It is laced to the trawl, to fit the meshes of the latter when open.
In order to insure that small fishes do not escape the trawl, the cod-end
is lined with the same netting for the last third of its length.
The position of the net on the trawl is as shown in the diagram.
A beam trawl has the great disadvantage of frequent breakages,
and many is the occasion on board the St/ver Belle, when the beam has
come up broken from dragging over rocky ground. In every expedi-
tion into deep water a spare trawl should be taken.
I believe that the otter trawl is the most useful apparatus for
general use, and the Danes have a form of eel-mesh otter-trawl
(Aaledrevvaad), which appears to be the latest thing devised in otter
trawls, the size of the boards for which is 48 inches long, 29 inches
wide, and having a weight of 110 pounds each. Glass floats are used
instead of corks.
Another device of theirs is the ‘ Yngel’ trawl, a big pelagic canvas
otter-net, with boards 36 inches by 20 inches and a weight each of
40 pounds. Though we ordered these in plenty of time for the 1907
cruise, they were not delivered until the cruise was finished ; therefore
I am unable to state anything as to their practicability.
Besides trawls and tow-nets, dredges of the Plymouth Laboratory
pattern, 3 feet 6 mches wide, should be included in the outfit.
If the object of the cruise be trawling and dredging and the collec-
tion of the larger animals (such as fish, etc.), the equipment should
include a supply of 4 to 6 gallon wide-mouthed jars, with iron screw
clamps and rubber rings ; also air-tight preserving jars ; and for smaller
animals bottles and vials with good tapering corks ; copper labels,
such as gardeners use, which can be written upon with a pencil and
Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships 69
tied on to the fish by copper wire ; butter muslin to wrap fish, etc., in
when to be stored in a tank or jar ; a supply of cotton-barked netting
of 1-inch mesh, which is used to make bags for the top of the trawl
and to line the cod-end of the same ; and a supply of mosquito netting
to make bags to be attached to the trawl. These, however, are often
filled with such a weight of mud as to be carried away completely.
A tin-lined tank, made like a large box, with lid which can be
closed and fastened down, may be usefully affixed to some corner of
the deck, and in this may be stored fish, etc.
The preservatives in use are methylated spirit and formalin, of
which a plentiful supply should be carried.
Of open tow-nets nothing much need be said. There is no
particular virtue in any kind of net, but a number of such nets may
be clamped at intervals upon the warp, and they are, perhaps, all the
better if they are supplied with tin or aluminium vessels at the bottom,
with a tap. On removing the nets from the water the contents of the
silk net gravitate towards the tin cup, and the inside of the net can be
washed into the cup, and the collection made into bottles through
the tap.
Larger nets, bent on to a framework of wood or ordinary gas-
piping, may be employed to trail behind the ship at the surface or
some distance below, and catch an amazing quantity of plankton ;
and a very useful form of net with a triangular frame of heavy wood
may be usefully employed to drag along the bottom, and many bottom
species which seldom or never leave the mud are collected in this
manner.
Of course open tow-nets give no accurate information as to the
precise locality or depth in which species are captured, and if the
latter be the object of inquiry some form of ‘closing’-net must be
employed.
Very nearly the same disposition of apparatus on deck as was
mentioned for deep-water tow-netting is applicable to trawling. Stout
wire warp is preferable to rope (the wire for closing-nets will not
do), and this is reeled off a drum and taken round the steam capstan,
70 Observations Conducted on Saling-Ships
from which it is led forwards to a pulley, and thence to a lead aftixed
to the bulwark. In this case the ‘ counter’ and the spar or davit are
dispensed with.
The warp after leaving the lead may be brought up aft and secured
by a stopper, as is generally done in sailing-trawlers ; and it is a good
thing to leave the winch free, so that if the trawl catches in a rock the
stopper will break and the warp can run free, instead of being brought
up short, with the loss of apparatus in consequence. It is scarcely
necessary to say that the gear is always shot to windward.
The manipulation of a ship for trawling and tow-netting is not a
thing which can be taught by anything but experience, and experience
only can teach whether the trawl is sliding nicely over the bottom, the
right speed to go, how much sail to carry, and all the details which
make up good seamanship and mean all the difference between success
and failure.
The collecting of water samples we find we can manage even in
bad weather and a heavy sea. Trawling also can be done in weather
when tow-netting is impossible ; but the latter, especially if closing-nets
be used, and the object is to determine the plankton fauna in different
strata, really requires the calmest weather, or light breezes. In bad
weather and a heavy swell the ship rides up and down so greatly as to
throw very heavy strain upon the wire, and it means risking the total
loss of the net, and frequently the silk net comes up torn and all its
contents gone.
We prefer to tow-net under a light breeze, lowering the peak of the
mainsail and swinging out the boom with a ‘tackle’ attached, and
keeping the jib and mizzen standing. By keeping the ship well up to
the wind we can regulate the speed of drift very nicely, and this must
be very little in tow-netting. In trawling or dredging, a little more
sail is required, and the course may be a little off the wind, so as to
keep sufficient way on to move the trawl. The ship can, by careful
handling, be kept fairly stationary for tow-netting, and a false anchor
may even be employed. A very good substitute for this is to put out
aft the big mid-water net, which may be allowed to drift with a good
Observations Conducted on Sailing-Ships
~“
—
length of warp. It soon fills and forms quite an efficient false
anchor.
I purposely here do not go into great detail about the apparatus
necessary on shipboard, or the methods of preserving different animals,
as all this will be fully dealt with in the forthcoming handbook of the
‘Challenger’ Society. The foregoing remarks are little more than hints
of the methods adopted on a sailing-ship, in which the various manipu-
lations cannot be controlled so easily as when steam is available, and
refer, of course, more particularly to our own methods, which we have
had to learn for ourselves.
HYDROGRAPHICAL OBSERVATIONS.
I.—THE FAEROE-SHETLAND CHANNEL.
II.—FROM IRELAND TO THE AZORES, MADEIRA, AND GIBRALTAR.
IlI.—FROM USHANT TO GIBRALTAR.
IV._THE NORTH OF SHETLAND TO NORWAY.
10
I—THE HYDROGRAPHY OF THE FAEROE-SHETLAND
CHANNEL.
By H. N. Dicxson, M.A., D.Sc.
(Reprinted from the ‘ Geographical Journal’ for April, 1903.)
Durine the summer months of 1900, 1901, and 1902, the cutter-yacht
Walwin, belonging to Dr. R. Norris Wolfenden, was engaged in
scientific research, under the owner’s direction, in the channel between
the Shetland and Faeroe Islands. The physical investigations consisted
in (1) observations of temperature, for which Negretti and Zambra’s
reversing thermometers, Knudsen’s modified form of the same, and
the ordinary Miller-Casella instrument, were employed, sometimes
separately, usually together for purposes of control; and (2) the
collection of samples of water by means of Mill’s slip water-bottle.
Dr. Wolfenden has been good enough to entrust the working out of
the observations to me, and I may be permitted at the outset to express
the opinion that the way in which they have been made, in a region
where work of the kind is always difficult and arduous, and under
conditions in many ways unfavourable, reflects the greatest credit on
Captain Buchan Henry and his crew. The labours of the Walwin
have provided a unique series of pictures of the conditions occurring
in the Channel, representing successive stages in the march of exceed-
ingly complex phenomena with sufficient accuracy, and none of the
modern expensive apparatus has been employed in the work, which
was carried on from a small cutter of only 36 tons.!
1 Some of the 1902 observations were made on the owner’s second boat, the S%lver
Belle, a yawl of 130 tons. Dr. Wolfenden states that for all practical purposes the
work is as easy to accomplish from the smaller boat. The larger the tonnage the
greater the amount of wind required to sail the ship, and a good ‘ sailing breeze’ is
often too strong for satisfactory working of the instruments.
15 10—2
76 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
Table I. gives the characteristic numbers and the positions of the
stations at which observations were made.
Table II. gives the temperatures observed. Where the observations
were made with more than one instrument, the mean result is given ;
the differences rarely amounted to more than a few tenths of a degree
Fahrenheit. The original readings were made according to the
Walwin Sta? @Al fh
Jackal " /893 &J\6.°
» "19020 HI6
Darbishire & Stanford, Ltd
Fic. 6.—Mar suowrne Posrrions oF Srations anp Line or SEction.
Fahrenheit scale, and their consistency tested in the usual way by
plotting curves. It has been thought best to convert them to the
Centigrade scale, in which all the observations in the region already
published are given, and which is being employed in the International
investigations.
Table III. gives the salinities of the samples collected. The
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel UG
chlorine titrations were carried out for me by Mr. J. J. Manley,
Magdalen College Laboratory, Oxford, and my best thanks are due to
him for his assistance. The salinities were originally obtained from
the chlorines by the use of the table which I published in the ‘ Report
of the Fishery Board for Scotland’ (No. 12, 1893, p. 381). They have
since been compared with Knudsen’s authoritative tables, issued
recently ; the differences were insignificant.1. I am indebted to my |
friend, Mr. O. J. R. Howarth, for assistance in reducing, tabulating,
and plotting the results.
In arranging the material for discussion and comparison with other
observations, the first pot to be noted was that the most important
series (and the only ones dealt with here) consist of nearly parallel
double lines of soundings, one line starting from near the north end of
the Shetlands, and another from near the south end, and both extending
to the Faeroes. An examination of all the Walwin’s observations, of
the observations made by the Jacka/ in the cruise of 1893, and again by
the Jackal in 1902 (see Helland-Hansen in Nature, vol. Ixvi., p. 654),
indicated that these lines were so close together that they could for
all practical purposes be regarded as one and the same. Two points,
in positions (approximately) Lat. 59° 56’ N., Long. 1° 24’ W., and
Lat. 61° 45’ N., Long. 6° 48’ W., were accordingly selected, and joined
on the chart by a straight line to which perpendiculars were drawn
1 Tn his paper on hydrographical investigations in the Faeroe-Shetland Channel,
etc., in the year 1902 (Report Cd. 2612, 1905), Helland-Hansen says: ‘ Dickson’s
calculations of the salinities are partially based upon Pettersson’s tables. I have
found that these give the salinities higher by almost 0-08 per cent. than Knudsen’s
tables.’ I am unable to understand this, a comparison of my table with Knudsen’s
giving the following results :
SALINITY.
Cl. Knudsen. Dickson. Difference.
175 31°62 31°65 +0:03
18:0 32°52 32°54 +0:02
18°5 33°42 33°44 +0:02
19-0 34-33 34°33 0:00
19°5 35:23 35°23 0:00
20°0 36:13 36°12 - 0:01
20°5 37:03 37°01 — 0:02
78 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
from the stations (Fig. 6). All the observations were then plotted
upon vertical sections along that line. The method is no doubt open
to criticism, but the errors introduced cannot exceed the errors incidental
to the observations, and it makes the most of the available material.
In the result, we have from the Walwin’s observations sections for
the following dates :
July, 1900.
May and June, 1901.
June and July, 1901.
May, 1902.
June, 1902.
July, 1902 (temperature only).
To these may be added, completing the existing record :
Jackal, August, 1893.
» (preliminary report only), August, 1902,
making eight more or less complete pictures in all (Figs. 7 to 19).!
In the Faeroe-Shetland Channel we have to deal with the opposing
movements of water from the south and from the north. The
northward-moyving currents are of two kinds, (a) drift currents,
produced at the surface by the winds in the locality ; and (4) a stream
current, which I have (Phil. Trans. A., vol. exevi., p. 113) proposed
to call the Norwegian branch of the European stream. This branch
forms part of a stream-current relieving the water banked up against
the Continental mass by the westerly winds; it varies in strength
from year to year and from season to season, and its salinity also
varies slightly, a high salinity probably indicating a large proportion
of culf-stream water, and a low salinity a large proportion of water
from the Labrador current and the northern area of the Atlantic.
Direct observations in the depth are still wanting, but the range of
salinity may be estimated at from 35-4 per mille to 3577 per mille.
The southward-moving currents are also of two kinds, (c) water from
1 Tn these sections the Shetland end of the line is on the right, the Faeroe end
on the left.
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel 79
the central and western parts of the Norwegian sea, most of which has
probably originated in the area east and north-east of Newfoundland
and been carried across as a drift, mixing with the ‘ Irminger’ and
‘Greenland’ branches of the European stream. If the European
stream is below its normal strength, it seems likely that this body of
water will attain unusual volume, and part of it will try to make its
way southward. The comparatively cold salt water observed by the
Jackal in 1893 (Station VIII.), and again by Helland-Hansen in the
Jackal in 1902 (Nature, loc. cit.),in the north-western part of the North
Sea, is probably to be identified with it, as Helland-Hansen suggests,
and it seems likely that the importance of this factor has been under-
estimated by the earlier investigators, especially, perhaps, m my report
on the work of the Jackal in 1893. The second body of southward-
moving water (d) is that derived from the melting of ice in the Arctic
regions. This water is probably spread over the surface in summer
and autumn, and makes its way southward to the east of Iceland and
the Faeroe Islands. So far as the region under discussion is concerned,
it may probably be assumed that the water from the centre of the
Norwegian sea (¢) has a salinity of 35 per mille to 35°3 per mille, and
that a salinity of less than 35 per mille indicates a large admixture of
water of Arctic origin (d).
The difficulty of interpreting the sections across the Faeroe-Shetland
Channel in the light of the above is immensely increased by the fact
that the line of section lies just in the region where the waters from
the sources mentioned meet and mix, and that we have no simultaneous
observations in the regions of origin. The difticulty is specially
apparent im studying the distribution of temperature, for, unlike
salmity, temperature may change without movement or mixture of
the waters. ‘The most important point is evidently to note that when
the circulation is active, isothermals and isohalines are crowded
together, showing strong gradients of temperature and saltness, while
weak gradients are an indication of weak circulation, the waters moving
slowly and being very completely mixed.
The general conditions controlling the movement and mixture of
80 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
waters are: (1) the Norwegian stream ()) is cut off below by the
Wyville-Thomson ridge at a depth of about 300 fathoms—north of
the ridge its waters are mixed with ice-cold water of slightly lower
salinity drawn up by the ‘undertow’ to an amount depending partly
on the velocity of the stream, and increasing with it (see ‘ Twelfth
Report of the Fishery Board for Scotland, p. 351); (2) the drift
current (a) and the European stream are independent of one another,
but where the former exists—i.e., as a northward-moving current—the
waters of (a) and (4) are likely to be indistinguishable by means of
either temperature or salinity observations ; (3) the southward-moving
waters (c) and (d) may be independent, and they may or may not be
fully mixed before entering the Faeroe-Shetland Channel ; (4) when the
northward-moving currents are strong, they will tend to be surface
currents, because of the relatively high temperature of the waters.
When they are weak, their waters will be cooled by contact and
mixture with the cold underlying waters. The southward-moving
waters will tend to be under-currents because of their low temperature,
and will only rise to the surface when they are exceptionally strong
relatively to the northward-moving currents, or when they contain an
unusually large proportion of, on the one hand, warm Norwegian sea-
water, or, on the other, fresh Arctic water.
Taking now the sections in order, the first is that for August,
1893, based on the Jackal observations. In the report on these
observations I expressed the opinion (p. 352) that the conditions were
there ‘favourable to an increase of the Atlantic current, but at the
same time it was noted (p. 337) that during the observations the
navigating lieutenant of the ship found ‘a southerly drift amounting
to approximately 10 miles in twenty-four hours.’ With the informa-
tion available at the time as to the sources from which the waters
were derived, it was impossible to identify clearly all the factors
involved, or to give a complete explanation of the movements going
on. I had to content myself with an attempt to discuss the mechanism
of the process of mixture of the northward and southward moving
waters, on the assumption that the former (a and /) were one, and the
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel 81
latter (c and d) one. The difficulties which arose led me to undertake
an investigation of the movements of surface waters in the North
Atlantic, and, as a result, to separate the stream current (4) from the
surface drift (a) ; the resolution of the southward-moving waters into
(c) and (d) is chiefly the result of the observations of the /ngolf
expedition (1896) and of Professor Pettersson’s discussions. In the
light of these more recent conclusions, it appears from the section
Fathoms qe 353353 aso Metres
JACKAL.
AUGUST. 1893.
Vic. 7.—Farror-Surrianp Cuannet. TEMPERATURE AND Satiniry, Aucust, 1893.
H.M.S. ‘ Jaca.’
(Fig. 7) that m August, 1893, the Norwegian stream was running
strongly northward, its main centre lying on the eastern side of the
channel at a depth of about 80 fathoms, while its waters extended
nearly to the Faeroe Islands. The cold bottom water, which shows no
marked tendency to rise towards the surface, was entirely cut off from
a thin layer of relatively fresh surface water (salinity below 35:3),
which covered the whole surface of the channel to a depth of ‘a few
fathoms, and near the Shetlands extended to the bottom. This layer
was probably, as Helland-Hansen has suggested, water from the
il
82 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
Norwegian sea (c), rather than a mixture of it with water which had
come from the south through the Faeroe-Shetland Channel, as I supposed
at the time. Its southward movement would account for its appearance
at Station VIII. in the north-west of the North Sea, referred to above,
and for the southerly drift of the Jackal during the observations.
The section for July, 1900 (Fig. 8), shows a state of affairs so
remarkable that if it were possible to doubt the accuracy of the
Metres
fathoms "
6
< Under 354°
are WALWIN.
ace0 JULY 1900.
Fic. 8.— Farror-Sueriranp Cuannet. TEMPERATURE AND Sawiniry, Jury, 1900.
Yacur *‘ Watwin.
observations, one would be almost inclined to take refuge in doing so,
but the complete consistency of four sets of soundings makes the
supposition unreasonable. Salinity is at all depths remarkably high,
scarcely falling anywhere below 35-4. Ata depth of 400 fathoms—z.e.,
100 fathoms below the Wyville-Thomson ridge, is a maximum of
salinity of 35:6, in water having a temperature of melting ice. Above
this is a mass of water of salinity about 35:4, the minimum occurring
with low temperature near the middle of the channel in about
250 fathoms. Above this, again, the saltest (35°6) and warmest water
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel 83
lies on the east side of the channel, although close to the Shetlands
salinity falls again near the surface. This extraordinary distribution
seems to indicate that at an earlier date than that of the section,
probably in the previous winter, there had been a strong movement of
very salt water from the Norwegian stream and surface drift (a and J),
which from some external cause afterwards failed. Below 300 fathoms
the water, protected by the Wyville-Thomson ridge, remained
Fathoms 356 Metres
4 WALWIN
Cee = — =
Fic. 9.—Farror-SHerLanp Cuannev. TEmprrarureE aNp Saniniry, May anp
June, 1901. Yacur ‘ Wanwi.’
stationary, and was gradually cooled down to 0° C. by contact and
slight mixture with the water lying under it. Above 300 fathoms a
southward movement probably set in, lowering both temperature and
salinity, and this was followed, probably just before the date of the
section, by a re-establishment of the Norwegian stream (4) in full
force, the water being somewhat salter, but the stream in almost the
same position as in 1893 (Fig. 7).
The season 1901 is represented by two sections (Figs. 9 and 10) ;
the observations forming the first were made between May 14 and
11—2
34. The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
June 4; those forming the second between July 4 and July 16. Thus
the middle dates are May 24 and July 10, and a comparison is of
particular interest, because these are the first sets of observations which
have been made in this area at dates close enough to admit of direct
comparison, or to give any idea of the rate at which changes occur.
In both sections nearly the whole channel is filled with water of
Or
30°) salinity or over, and in the depth temperature is low. The
Fathoms 356 356 356 Métres
WALWIN.
JUNE & JULY 1901
Fie. 10.
Farror-SHerinanp CHannet. TrmMperaTure AND Sauinrry, JuNE
AND Jury, 1901. Yacur ‘ Watwin.’
Or
freshest water (35°3) appears on the east side of the channel at a depth
of 380 fathoms, apparently indicating an intrusion of deep water from
the Norwegian sea into a mass of Atlantic water, which had been
cooled down in the same way as in the previous years. It is to be
observed that this centre of low salinity is also one of low temperature,
the readings at 300 and 400 fathoms rising from east to west. All the
western side of the channel is occupied by water of 35:5 salinity. In
the strata nearer the surface we find the first indication of the features
so strongly marked in 1902, in which the saltest and warmest waters
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel 85
appear as two branches, one a little to the west of mid-channel, and
another on the east side, close to the land. In the interval between
May 24 and July 10 the distribution in the depth seems to have
become more uniform. In the depth the centre of low temperature
and salinity on the east side has disappeared, and apparently the whole
breadth of the channel is occupied by water of about 35:4 salinity. In
the upper layers the two branches of warm salt water are farther apart
fathoms 7 Métres
WALWIN. sso
MAY 1902.
Fic. 11.—Farror-SHerianp Cuannet. TemPerature AND Sanity, May,
1902. Yacur ‘ Watwine
at the surface, the western member is more strongly marked, while at
intermediate depths (100 to 300 fathoms) salinity has increased slightly
on the east side, and diminished on the west. The differences point
in effect to a strengthening of both the northward and southward
moving streams above 300 fathoms, the latter keeping to the west,
while the former keeps to the east, but sends a narrow branch, 50 to
60 fathoms deep, along the western side. It is noteworthy that there
is no indication of a southward movement of fresher water towards
the Shetlands.
86 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
For the year 1902 we have four sections (Figs. 11 to 14), the middle
dates bemg May 24, June 24, J uly 21, and August 29. Some are, of
course, incomplete, and salinity observations are wanting for the
July section, but it seems possible to follow the course of events with
considerable certainty.
In the May section the first point to be noticed is the remarkably
low temperature and salinity in the depth. Up to within 200 fathoms
of the surface the salinity is about 35:2, slightly higher on the east
Fathoms 8: 9° Metres
200 g EP
. 400
350
250, 35 20 4
500
°
00 550
600
SO 1° 60
700
400
750
800
450
WALWIN . Ben
F JUNE 1902. 900
500
950
Bye
ae er
Fic. 12.—Farror-SHETLAND CHANNEL. TEMPERATURE AND SALINiry, JUNE,
1902. Yacur ‘ Watwin.’
side and lower on the west, while at that depth the temperature is
only 2°. Nearer the surface the northward flow of water is apparent,
the salinity rising above 35°6 in warm water on the east side, and
scarcely fallmg helow 35°5 on the west. In June it appears that the
northward movement had ceased altogether, and that a southward set
at all depths has begun, except on the west side of the channel, within
about 100 fathoms of the surface, where the conditions remain
practically unchanged. The surface salinity is now almost uniformly
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel 87
35°4, and in the depth the isohalines of 35:2 and 35:1 appear to have
moved eastwards. Temperature has fallen at the surface, become
more uniform down to the 100-fathom line, and fallen at 400 and
500 fathoms. The June observations reveal for the first time,
observations being wanting for May, a steep gradient of temperature
on the east side between 100 and 200 fathoms. The 2° reading at
Station A3 at 200 fathoms m May makes it likely that a similar
distribution existed during that month.
Fathomsjg> 9° 10° Metres
8° é
Z 150
72) (o° 200
6° 6° oe :
7
350
2° 4° 400
: fp
0°
5
500
300 550
600
S30 650
700
400
750
° 800
450 U
WALWIN.
\ JULY 1902.
a iS
3 iS
5°
200
2
Fic. 13.
FAEROE-SHETLAND CHANNEL, ‘TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY, JULY,
1902. Yacur ‘ Watwin.’
In the July section the form of the isotherms shows a further
advance of cold water in the depth. Temperature has fallen generally,
and a wedge of cold water near Station AS rises almost to the surface.
On either side of this, warm water, possibly parts of northward-
moving streams, extends down to something like 150 fathoms. In
the August section, drawn from the observations of H.M.S. Jackal
published in Nature, the cold wedge shows still further advance, and
its summit has shifted more into the centre of the channel. The low
88 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
salinity at all depths is quite the most remarkable feature of the
section, indicating an unusually large proportion of water of Arctic
origin in the Norwegian sea. This water appears to be moving south-
wards in mid-channel, both at the surface and in the depth, a slight
weakening being apparent between 50 and 100 fathoms, where the
salinity rises above 35:1. On the western side the increase of salinity
is so slight as to make it doubtful if any northward movement is
Fathoms 9° 9° 380351 ; Metres
9 mngs'3mn
Ta SREoeoanaresen ENG ~ oe _ 354
ne
JACKAL.
AUGUST 1902.
Fic. 14.—Farror-SHettanp CHannet. TEMPERATURE AND Sarintry, AucusT,
1902. H.M.S. ‘Jackat.’
taking place ; it seems more likely that the 35°4 water observed there
in June is merely undergoing mixture with the fresher water, a view
supported to some extent by its steady temperature. A northward
movement is, however, apparent on the eastern side, where the
temperature is relatively high, and the salinity rises above 35:4.
We may summarize these results as follows :—
1893.—Both northward and southward moying streams strong.
The Norwegian stream cecupied most of the channel in the inter-
mediate depths ; below it water was moving southwards, and on the
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel 89
surface a thin layer also moved southward ; this layer became thicker
on both sides, and near the Shetlands extended to the bottom.
1900.—The whole channel is occupied by water from the south,
northward movement having apparently been strong earlier in the
season. At the date of the observations (July) little movement was
in progress, but there are indications of intrusion of water from the
north at a depth of about 300 fathoms, and at the surface on the east
side.
1901.—There are indications of feeble southward movement in the
depth, but most of the channel is occupied by water which has come
from the south. A weak northerly movement is apparent near the
surface, with some tendency to split into two branches, one west of
mid-channel, the other near the east side.
1902.—Unusually cold fresh water filled the channel, at all depths
below 150 fathoms, throughout the season. In May the surface
waters were of southern origin, and were moving northward, but as
the season progressed, southward movement increased both at the
surface and in the depth, especially in mid-channel, the waters mixing
with and driving out those of southern origin on each side. That this
movement extended far to the southward is shown by the fact that an
ice-floe was met with during July off the Treshinish Islands, on the
west side of Mull. The summer of 1902 was one of the worst on
record in the Faeroe-Shetland Channel, and hydrographical work was
exceedingly difficult.
A comparison of the 1902 sections with the admirable charts of
surface temperature published as insets in the British ‘ Pilot Chart of
the North Atlantic ’ shows in the clearest manner the relation between
the surface movements in the open ocean and the currents in the
channel. In May the surface temperature was normal, or shehtly
below it, between the west coast of the British Isles and about Lone.
15° W. Farther west, and to the north-west, there was a narrow band
of water above the normal temperature, obviously supplying the water
which was going northward on the east side of the channel. In June
temperature was apparently below the normal over the whole of the
12
90 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
surface of the eastern Atlantic, and in the subsequent months the area
of low temperature gradually narrowed, until in October it had entirely
disappeared.
I hope to obtain data with regard to atmospheric pressure similar
to those embodied in the Pilot Chart for October, for the earlier
months, and to discuss their relation to the observations in the Faeroe-
Shetland Channel in a later paper. The Pilot Charts in their present
form will be an invaluable help in interpreting the observations to be
made under the international scheme, and, as Dr. Wolfenden informs
me that he intends to make simultaneous observations at depths down ~
to 1,000 fathoms to the west of Ireland, the mechanism of the currents
flowing from the central region should be completely and_ finally
determined.
The conclusions arrived at up to the present may be stated thus :
1. Northward movement of water originating as a drift current is
strongest in the Faeroe-Shetland Channel during winter.
2. Northward movement of water originating as a stream current
is strongest in summer, being probably due to the extension of the
‘ Atlantic anticyclone.’
3. The northward movement 2 is the more uncertain, and varies
most in different years.
4, In the transition stages between 1 and 2, or when 2 is abnor-
mally weak, the water in the Faeroe-Shetland Channel may remain
practically motionless for extended periods. If the channel is filled
with water from the south, this water will gradually cool down and
sink, being cooled by, and mixing with, the cold underlying waters.
5. To the north of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel the waters of the
Norwegian sea consist of a mixture of waters of Arctic origin with
those of Atlantic origin, the latter very similar to 1. The mixture is
in most cases fairly complete, but during summer water of Arctic
origin, set free by the melting of ice, may form a surface layer of
considerable thickness.
6. The waters of the Norwegian sea make their way southward,
under favourable conditions, into the Faeroe-Shetland Channel and
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel 91
the North Sea. The entrance to the North Sea is probably effected
every year, as there is no opposing northerly current on the western
side. In the Faeroe-Shetland Channel the southward movement is
normally prevented by the northerly currents 1 and 2, except at
depths below 300 fathoms, where the northward currents are cut
off by the Wyville-Thomson ridge, and at the surface, where there
may be a southerly drift current. In exceptional cases, as in 1902,
the northerly movement may be in abeyance, and water may move
southward at all depths. It seems likely that the presence of this
water in the North Sea has a special bearing on biological and fishery
questions.
7. The movements of the surface waters of the sea and the tem-
perature of the air near the British Isles do not stand in any direct
relation of cause and effect. Northerly winds bring cold weather, and
by drifting and ‘ banking’ cold water from higher latitudes, bring cold
surface water with them. Southerly winds bring warm weather, and
bring warm water from low latitudes in the same way. ‘The tempera-
ture of the surface water in the open sea influences the distribution of
atmospheric pressure, as Pettersson has shown, and it will therefore
affect the direction of the prevailing winds, but motion has nothing to
do with this influence.
TABLE I}
List oF ‘ WALWIN’ STATIONS.
Station. | Lat. N. | Long. W. Station. | Lat. N. Long. W.
y o 7 onnae | G4 o F
Ai. 60 40 2 50 A10 60 17 35
A2 60 54 3 40 All 60 27 3 50
A3 61 16 4 41 Bl 60 51 6 22
A34 61 28 4 50 B2 60 17 6 22
A4 61 32 5 20 B38 59 46 6 20
Abd 61 45 6 02 B4 60 00 | 5 20
A6 61 34 6 20 III. Off Fitful Head.
AT 61 14 6 08 INV West of Yell sound.
A8 61 00. | 5 80 We | Off Plugsa L. H.
AQ 60 45 | 4 50 Wit | East of Bressay.
1 For numbers and positions of the Jackal stations in 1893 and 1902, see ‘Twelfth Report
of the Fishery Board for Scotland,’ p. 364, and Natwre, vol. lxvi., p. 654.
12.2
a a
92 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
TABLE IL.
TEMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS.
| Depth | a Depth
Date. | Position. ama aue| £0 Date. Position.
Fath.) M | a Fath
1899. | | | 1900. |
July 1 |Smilesoff Hoy Hd.) 0 0 | 10°6 | Mar. 1 | Station IV. 0
5 i a RO NBS MOON, Nh os 58 |
5 N. of Westray ...| 0 | 0 | 10°6 » 9& |Station V. 0
Es hates 5 esl 20) 8/1068 |) oy (ame 53
on |S. W. of Sumbureh | | » 4 |Station VI. 0
| Hd. 0) | Oi) Cer 39 #5 59
op Ih es " 65 | 119 | 8-9 » §6 | Station IIT. 0
» 38 |N.W. of Yell sound @ | © | aaa af | 55 70
3 i EY 50| 91/108] ,, 28 | Station IV. 0
” |N.H.ofLambaNess| 0| 0 | 11-7 3 ay 55
beer % 55 | 101 | 9-4 », 24 |Station V. 0
» 4 |B. of Bressay 0; oO | TQM || op e AT
3 (Pere ers 55|101| 81] ., 27 |Station VI. 0
op |E. of Fair Isle 0 0 | 10:0 PA 35 50
i ‘ a ...| 60/110] 86] ,, 30 |Station ITT. 0
E. of Copinshay ... 0; 0O;,10:6) ,, % 64
oF Ae 0 ..| 48 | 79 | 89] Apr. 21 | Station IV. 0
Oct. 14 |8 miles off Hoy Hd. 0 0 | 10°6 5 Aa 53
i i f 40) 73/111 | |, 22 |Station V. 0
», 21 |Station IV. 0 0| 9:4 + a 54
2 if | 59/ 108/106] ,, 24 | Station VI. 0
5, 23 | Station V. 0 0) 97 i Me 65
Pe a | 55 101 10:3 » 2 | Station IIL. 0
» 27 |Station VI. oso) O 0; 94 a 5 65
3 h ..-| 52, 95 | 11:1 | May 24 | Station V. 0
Nov. 10 | Station III. ONT LOM ie2 ny on 54
90 | oD 55 | 101 | 81 », 25 |Station LV. 0
» 25 |Station IV. OQ) ©) GY ot | a 64
0 35 60 | 110 | 9:4 » 26 |Station IIT. 0
» 27 | Station V. 0 0| 83 90 | op soo|| 18)
a 52 | 95 | 9:2] June 9 |17 miles W.N.W.
Dec. 3 | Station VI. 0 0) 72 | of Flugga L. H. )
” ” 50 91} 89 ” | ” ” 66
Oo Station LE 0 0} 67 a '6 miles off Yell
‘ i 55 | 101 | 8-9 sound 0
» 15 |Station IV. 0 0| 69 rs oe 5 5d
96) %0 40 | 73] 86 », 12 |Station LV. 0
, 18 |Station V. 0 QO} 72 ) a soal| 023
56 a 56 | 102) 8:6 », 13/10 miles S.S.W. of
1900. IV. a 0
Jan. 1 | Station VI. 0 0 | 7:2 5 - 45 60
A vs 52) 95) 78 96 | Station ITT. obs 0
BS Station ITT. On ON NES * | a 500 |)
*) ” 59 | 108 | 81] July 11 | Station Al a 0
5, 80 |Station IV. @ | ©} 45 Pr a ...| 900
” ” 53 97 81 90 90 odo 100
Feb. 9 |Station V. Ol} O} G2 ||» 3 ...| 150
» 5 BN 9) |) || on Station AQ soo) 0
. 14 |Station VI. ON NOn Gul - soo || | 10)
o*) 40 46 84 | 6:9 a a ...| LOO
5 Station IIT. ON ON D:8 , 12 |Station A38 es 0
oH | . BL) aa 6-7 99 | 90 ooo |) G0)
DD DRAWDIDAADXAAADAD NMS AAD ADD DP PP DPD DAN
Le ROMONKROORRATRADRDOR MEE EE EE REDO
—
BIS HOWH
aoonre
Hee
a
an
DeAWHOOrWA
EE DOE ROH MOAAON
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel 93
Taste [].—TEMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS (continwed).
Depth. 3 Depth. 6
Date. Position. 8 C Date. Position. EIS)
Fath.| M. | © Fath.| M. | ©
1900. 1901.
July 13 | Station A4 es 0 0 | 10:3 | May 15 | Station A2 ... | 800 | 549 | 0-1
” ” 50 gl 79 ” ” ... | 400 | 782 | -0°6
a 3 sool| OB BIO] WN a si ...| 500 | 914 | -1:0
“ Station A5 ae @) || © }) ails » 21 |Station A8 Sa 0 0/ 89
” ” 50 | 91 79 ” ” 45 82 Wits)
” 2 soa? O44 | LBS | WO ” 09 100 | 183} 6:8
” 91 | Station A6 sol Ol} OOS ||, i} 200 | 366} 4:7
5 “ ...| 100 | 188 | 81] ,, 5 300 | 549 | 1:2
fh: Station A7 so O |) ©} LOG)! 55 . ... | 400 | 732 | -0-2
s x soo] 60) |) GL] Sal || Station A4 ah O 0; 8-9
» 22 | Station AS soo] ©} _ Oj ates | 5p 00 |] 2153 |) SR | es
” ” 100 183 78 ” ” 200 | 115 210 6:7
» 9 350 | 640) 06] ,, . ...| 120 | 220) 67
» 23 | Station A9 (0) O | 11:7 FA Station A5 ae 0 0| 89g
mp D ...| 100 | 183} 8-9] ,, i ei 90) LG5a\) 6:7
Aug. 28 |10 miles N.E.3 N. » 29 |Station A6 oan 0 O| 92
from Station Al| 0 ) |) WO) Ga 5 45 | 82] 7:5
» » 50| 91) 94) ,, i 100 | 183 | 68
99 op 100 | 183 | 92) ,, i 145 | 265 | 6-7
Pr 5 200 | 366 8:4 a 99 son || a 5x0) 274 67
5 ie ...| 280 | 512 | 7:8 A Station A7 A 0 0| 92
B 20 miles N.N.E. of bp 9p soo || 25 || SB Wes}
Station AL...) ©) O/}122) ,, 2 ...| 80] 146] 6-7
” ” ” 80 146 9-1 ” ” 00 135 247 6-7
Ss on 150 | 274 | 84] June 38 |Station A8 es 0 0 | 10-4
” ” ” 250 457 61 ” ” 45 82 81
” ” ” 350 | 640 | -06 ” ” 100 | 183 6:7
5, 29 |Station A2 soo] © O;ir4] ,, ‘ 200 | 866 | 5:7
.. es soo|| 0) |) Gl | tees i Hi 255 | 467 | 4:2
m i 100 | 183 | 7:4 . Station A9 0 0 | 10°8
” ” 200 366 5:3 ” ” 45 82 75
” . 300 | 549 | 10] ,, 0p 100 | 183 | 6-4
” ” 400 | 732 0:0 99 99 200 | 866 4:7
- a ...| 500 | 914 | -0°7 a 0 300 | 549 | 0:8
Oct. 4 | Station IIT. ae 0 0| 94 . rn ...| 400 | 732 | -0°3
5% $5 ...| 70 | 128 | 10-0 » 4 |Station All a 0 0 | 10°6
», 10 | Station IV. ella. RO 0/100] ,, % a DON enol G39
7) Dp ...| 75 | 104 | 10°6 “ae - ..,| 00 | 183 | 8:4
», 16) Station V. ABR 0 @) HY) oO 30 ... | 200 | 866 | 8-4
if i | 75 | 187/100] |, 19 |Station A1 | Ol Ol Sy
», 19 |Station VI. awa 0) 0 | 10-0 90 oa soo || GO); Gil | Oxo
2) 0p 57 | 104 | 100] _,, 9p ...| 100 | 183 | 8-4
1901. 5p 90 ...| 110} 201 | 84
Jaa. 12 | Station IV. He 0 0; 78 », 20 | Station A2 ae 0 0 | 10-0
8 F soni} 3 Y AGISS || A3}|| 5, - 45 | 82] 9-1
5, 19 |Station V. ae 0 O| 72 30 S 100 | 183 |} 8:5
4 x call GH | OIL |) WHO) 5 a 200 | 366} 4:4
Feb. 2 |Station VI. =. 0 0} 61 x % 300 | 549 | O-1
Es a 60 | 110| 72] ,, pe 400 | 732 | -0:3
a Station III. Bee 0} OO} 56 " i ...| 500 | 914 | -0:7
H Be _..| 62 | 118 | 6:7 | July 27 | Station Al one 0 0) 235
May 14 | Station Al ts 0) @) |) Pe 0 55 ..| 45] 82) 9-4
Fel is ol) Te || SO) HB * | 80] 146 | 89
;, 15 | Station A2 Ss 0 @ | Ow I " ...| 180 | 238 | 8:6
i 2 45| 82| 7-4] ,, Station A2 col ©} Ol aD
5 5 100 | 185 | 61 5 5 pao) oD 82] 9:2
sf a 200 | 366 | 3-0] ,, a | 100 | 183 | 7-8
94 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
TasLe I],—TmMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS (continued).
| Depth. 2 Depth. a
Date Position. 5 S Date. Position. aS
Ene mu. | & Fath.| M. | &
—$$—$———— = _—
1901. | | 1902.
ae. a Station A2 500 914 | -0'7 | June 29 |BetweenAlandA10) 120 | 220 | 8:9
2. July 9 |6 miles inside Al... 0 0 | 10-0
May 17 Station Al 0 0 | 10-8 oe a er 80 | 146 | 8-4
” ca 100 183 |} 61 », 15 |Station A2 (0) 0 | 10:0
» 18 Station A2 0 O|) WS)! ¢5 = 50) 91} 78
: : 500 | 914 |-06] 2 200 | 366 | 8
i i 608 [1112 |-1-1| ” Station A3 0| 0| 94
», 20 | Station A8 0; oO| 84] ,, 4 50 | 91 | 7:8
5 S 50 | 91| 7-2) ,, e 100 | 183 | 6:7
5p i 100 | 188 | 61] ,, & 200 | 366 | 3:9
” a 200 366 | 1:9 », 16 |Station A4 (0) 0 9-4
” | mn 300 | 549 | 06 5 ” 120 | 220 78
” BS 400 | 7382 | 0:2 » 17 |Station Ad 0 0} 84
», 21 | Station A4 0 O}) P21 op ms 75 | 187 | 78
a (ferns 50 | 91| 6-7] ,, 20|Station A6 0| 0 | 106
. i 108 | 198| 6-7] ,, i 120 | 220 | 7:8
June 1 | Station B3 @ | O11) GG) 5. Station A7 0 0) 89
a Ne (a 50 | 91| 8-4] ,, a3 ... | 120 | 220 | 69
Ps | 100 | 183 | 7:2 », 21 |8 miles E. of AS ... 0 0 9-7
» 19 | Station Al |) OO} G2) os = * 50} 91) 7:2
i : 110 | 201 | 7:8] ,, 100 | 188 | 5-0
» 21 | Station A2 Ol Ol G4) y o + 200 | 366 | 1:9
” | a 200 | 866 | 3:9 5 260 | 476 V1
», 22) Station A3 Olle Oy ace |iae Station A9 0| 0 | 100
” | Station A4 0 OF ed) aa D 50 91 9°4
‘ 4 110 | 201 | 72] 2 : 200 | 366 | 22
2/3 ” | 7:2 90 9:
. Station A5 O| @| Bul. i 400 | 732 | 1-1
” | op Ys) | ONL We ; ‘ ...| 500 | 914 | -0°6
», 26 | Station A6 0| 0| 86| 5, 22|11milesS.of All| 0| 0/106
is if see || abla) |) ROL | 7) || as i 2 80 | 146 | 8-9
» 27 |BetweenA7andA8| 0 On S:95 iss Station A10 0 0) 94
» “s 155 | 284) 6:7 | *., _ ...| 80] 146 | 8-6
» 28 BetweenA2andA9| 0 0 | 94 | Aug. 1 |17 miles off Foula | 75 | 137 | 8-4
- ‘ = 50 | 91| 78] ,, Station Al O | @ |i5e4
“ i ¢ 100 | 183 | 7-2] ,, yp ..| 110 | 201 | 8-9
” sp 200 | 866 | 2:8 » 3 |10 milesS. of A2... 0 0.| 10°6
% is 300 | 549| 0-6 | ,, a + | 100 | 183 | 6-7
AA f . 400 | 732 |-0°3 | ,, és a 200 | 366 | 3-9
Uo 2 ’ 500 | 914 | —1-1 ” ” ” 300 549 03
” Station A2 o Be ae 5 33 am Ee aoe
” 2) | PS ” ? oO tt
es = 100 |188| 67] . 5 |10milesS. of A9 0! 01|10-7
is YA: 200 | 366) 44], is me 200 | 366 | 8:4
ir Nin ees 300 | 549| 1:4] ,, if - 400 | 732 | 0-0
” | ” 400 | 732 | -0°6 as ; 500 | 914 | -0°6
eS Mi de 500 | 914 |-0-7 | ,, Station B4 ” 0| 0 {117
| 5 ...| 600 |1097 leet - ¥ 150 | 274 | 9:2
» 29 |BetweenAlandAl0) 0 |) GR || a5 5 260 | 476 | 84
|
The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
95
TABLE III.
SALINITY OBSERVATIONS.
45 | Depth. | pS 0
38 Date. | Position. | Cl. EE cy
Ag | F'th.| M. Ag | 2
1900. |
1 |May 24| Vv. 0|- 0 19:59| 35:40] 53
5 OB ING, 0} 0 19°67|35:54) 54
B | 4) 23!) ToL, 0| 0) 19:66) 35:52| 55
4 |June 3 J0Uf, 0| 0/19-63/35-47] 56
4, TA In 0| 0/19°66| 25°52] 57
BL IB) war, 0| 0) 19°77| 35-72] 58
7 |July 11) Al 0| 0) 19:58] 35-38] 59
Sul ee » |100]/183/ 19-74| 35-66] 60
Onli » | 150/274) 19-67 | 35°54] 61
10 5 A2 | 400|732 19°70/ 35-59] 62
Tile oe ». | 500/914 19-67 | 35:54] 63
12) 4, 1D) AQ 0} 0/19°65|35:50] 64
1B Pg » | 100/183 19-65/35°50] 65
|| > | 200/366 | 19°68) 35°56] 66
165) 55 », |800/549| 19 61/ 35-43] 67
nha ae A3 0| 0) 19°65) 35:50] 68
ial oe » | 100/183 | 19-65 | 35-50
| ;, | 200/366 | 19-63|35-47| 99
1@) | » | 800/549 | 19°58| 35°38
S0iles se e131) Ae 0| 0/19°61| 35-43] 7°
TN epee ec 50| 91|19°63|35:47| 71
| ie 90/165 19°61 | 35-43] 72
OB || A5 | 0] 0|19°61|/35-43| 73
Oa | iS 50| 91/ 19°61|35-43| 74
Oa ees ss 80/146 19°60| 35-41] 75
| 5, BO) Ay 0| 0)|19°67|35-54| 76
Mf || 3, Sil ANG 0| 0) 19°61| 35-43] 77
23| ,, | AT |100/183/ 19-65/35-50] 78
29 | 5, | 4, |150/274| 19:61, 35-431 79
30 | ,, 22] As 0| 0. 19:°65|35:50] so
31| 4, | 4, -|100/183| 19:65 |35-50) 81
32} ,, | 4, |150/274|19:65135-50) 82
83 | 4, | 4, |250)457|19-60| 35-41] 93
3 » | 9». |850|640| 19-61 | 35-431 84
Bball os » |450| 823 | 19-67 | 35-54] 85 |-
36 | ,, 23| AQ 0 0/1967 | 35:54] 86
ST »» | 100 183 19-65 | 35°50}
B34) 4 » {250/457 | 19:58 | 35-38] 87
0h » |850|640| 19:72| 35-63
Ag || 5 5, |440/805 | 19°75 | 35-68] 88
41 |Oct. 4) IIT. | 35| 64|19-65|35:50] 89
2} | s 70/128 19:59| 35-40] 90
AD alert 0} 0/19°67)/ 35-54] 91
44) 5, 10) IV. | 30! 55|19-67/35-54| 92
AB oe rs 57 | 104 | 19-73 | 35-64] 93
Gy een iG . | 70/128) 19-76 | 35-70] 94
Aimee eal oe 35| 64/|19-61| 35-43] 95
48 | ,, 19| VI. | 30| 55|19-60/35-41] 96
AOR Soe lii 57/104 | 19-39| 35-03] 97
0 | fy 20) any, 0| 0| 19-65 | 35-50
1901. we)
51 |Jan. 12| Iv. 0} 0 1959) 35-40] 99
52 | 5, | ,, |115/210/ 19-71) 35:61] 100
Cl.
Salinity
per Mille.
ip le
sp P| A383
» 30
5
June 3
”
(60° 43’ N.)
| 8°22 W. J
| (60° 35''N.)
| 2°25) W. f
”
| (61°37! N.)
| \6° 18’ W.J
| (61°30'N.)
| \6° 37! W.f |
A8
AQ
(60° 56’ N.)
\ 5°18" W.J |
AGiriNa|
100
200
255
0
. 100
200
| 300
400
0
0
”
100
0 | 19°51
205 19°61
0 | 19°63
238 | 19°59
0 | 19°60
19°65
0 19°71
104 | 19°72
209 | 19°67
0 | 19°74
0 19°70
183 19°65
366 | 19°65
549 19°65
7382 19°53
914 19°61
0 | 19°69
0 19°76
0 | 19°69
| 183 | 19°67
366 | 19°65
549 | 19°65
| 7382 | 19°65
0 | 19°66
| 146 | 19°65
210 | 19°63
0 | 19°65
1146 | 19°65
0 | 19°63
183 | 19°65
274 | 19°65
0 | 19°65
146 | 19°65
238 | 19°65
0 | 19°70
0 | 19°81
0 | 19°69
183 19°69
366 | 19°66
| 19°65
0 | 19°67
183 | 19°63
366 | 19°65
549 | 19°61
732 | 19°65
0 | 19°65
0 19°72
183 | 19°78
35°25
eo
SK
aS
i)
35:47
35°40
35:41
35°50
35°61
35°63
35°54
35°66
35°59
35°50
35:50
35°50
35-28
35°43
35°58
35°70
35°58
35°54
35°50
35°50
35°50
35°52
35°50
35°47
35°50
35°50
35°47
35°50
30°50
35°50
35°50
35°50
35°59
35°79
35°58
35°58
35°52
35°50
35°54
BOAT
35°50
35°43
35°50
35°50
35°63
35°73
96 The Hydrography of the Faeroe-Shetland Channel
Taste I1L.—Sanmiry OpsERvaAtions (continued).
oa Depth. ed 9 | Depth. bs
oF Date. Positions |= (Cla) ESI $e Date. | Position. SSO le as
Ag F'th. M. ae Ag | F'th| M cry
| | | |
1901. | 1902. |
101 |June 4| All ZOO Seo see 35°56]133|May 17) Al 0| 0/| 19:74) 35:66
(60° 37’ N.) a een (ayumi 50) 91/ 19°72 | 35-62
102) » \eoaot| OC) OPC eee ies) 5, ” | 100 | 188 | 19°65 | 35°50
103 | ,, 19 Al 0) 0/|19°68|35:56]136| ,, 20| A3 0| 0) 19°69 | 35:57
104} ,, es 50| 91|19:71|85°61)187| 4, | » 100 | 183 | 19°61 | 35-43
105 | _,, ie 100/183 | 19°71) 35°61} 138| _,, 200 | 366 | 19°43 | 35°10
106 |July 4 4 0) 0/19:70|35°59]139| _,, a 300 | 549 19°50 | 35°23
nO? |) ¥ 80 146 | 19-71| 85:61] 140) _,, 400 | 732 19:48 | 35-19
108 | ,, 115 | 210| 19°69|35:58]141) ,, 21) A4 0| 0 19°63 | 35:46
10) | BS AQ Ol) MO) 9:67) 85154] 142) 7s ele 100/188 | 19°60 | 35-41
Tn@ |) 4 ie 100| 183 | 19°67|35°54]143| ,, 80) A6 0) 0 19°63 | 35:46
mit | 5, ‘e 200 | 366 | 19°66 | 35°52] 144 __,, 4 100 | 183 | 19°59 | 35°39
1D |) 5, on 300 549/19°65/35°50]145| ,, 31) BI 0| 0 | 19:65 | 85°50
UGB) |} gp 6p 400 | 732|19°63|35°47|146|\June 1, B2 0! 0) 19°72) 35°62
iE | “ 500 | 914|19-65|35:50|147) ,, | Bs 0) 0) 19°79 | 35°75
mG |} . & AB3z 0 0 /19°65 35:50] 148), 19| Al 0| 0| 19-62) 35:44
116 | ,, ss 100 | 188 | 19°63 |85:47} 149) _,, i 100 | 183 | 19°59 | 35°39
ily | rs 990 | 403|19:66/35°52]150| ,, 21| A2 0| 0/| 19°60) 35:41
Tal) || A4 0| 0[19°67/85:54|151| ,, 22) As 0| 0) 19°60) 35-41
iG) || a 80 146 | 19°65 35°50] 152), ‘ 100| 183 | 19°57 | 35°35
120 6 @ 110 201 19°65 35°50}153),, is 200 | 866 19°59 35°39
1 || 4 Y AD 0| 0/|19°65| 35°50] 154) _,, A4 0| 0 19°61 | 35-43
19) || 3, id! AG 0| 0/19:70)3559)155) ,, | » 100| 188 19°60 | 35-41
198 || - 45| 82\19:65|35°50}156| ,, | Ad 0| 0/|19°63| 35 46
124] ,, 3 100/183|19:68|35:56]157| ,, 26) <A6 0| 0/ 19°60) 35:41
125 | _, AT O| 0|19:72/85°63)158|) ,, | » 100 | 183 | 19°59 | 35°39
10s || a 50) 91 /19°71|35°61]159| ,, 27| Between
TOY || - 120 | 220 | 19°63 35-47 Avand AS 0| 0/1960 35:41
128 | ,, 15 A8 0| 0(|19:66|35:521160| ,, | 4, 155 | 284 | 19°59 | 35°39
129 |, | a | 100/188 19:65/35°50]161| ,, 28 Between
TED |) a i | 200 | 866) 19°70 | 35°59 |A2. and A9| 200/ 366 | 19 48 | 35:19
TBH || 5p | os 266 | 487 | 19°61/35-43]162| ,, 400 | 732 | 19°42 | 35-08
133) |, 116 A9 400 | 732 | 19°63 | 85°47
| | |
IJ.—HY DROGRAPHICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE IN THE
NORTH ATLANTIC DURING 1903 AND 1904 ON
BOARD DR. WOLFENDEN’S YACHT ‘SILVER BELLE’
By H. N. Dickson, M.A, D.Sc.
Ix the summer of 1903 the Si/ver Belle made two cruises. One,
to the west of Ireland, durmg June and July, gave a valuable
section along the meridian of Long. 12° W. from Lat. 51° N. to
Lat. 54° 45’, besides other stations. A second, in August, gave two
lines across the entrance to the Faeroe-Shetland Channel, one south
of the Wyville-Thomson ridge, and one a little to the north of it,
as well as a longitudinal section from the south of the ridge north-
wards so as to connect with the observations of the International
Council, which were made almost at the same time. The total
number of soundings made was twenty-two, and at each station
temperature observations were made and samples collected.
During 1904 the Stlver Belle made a still more extended voyage.
Starting from the south-west of Ireland on June 20, a line of twenty
soundings at depths down to 2,000 fathoms was run to the Azores.
Temperature observations were made at all the stations, and samples
were collected at six.
The next line was from the Azores to Madeira, and thence to
Gibraltar, through the Straits and eastward in the Mediterranean as
far as Long. 3° 41’ W. This line includes soundings at twenty-two
stations ; samples were collected at eight.
The third and last line runs westwards from Gibraltar to about
Long. 10° W., then northwards to the mouth of the English Channel,
connecting with the line of the International Council. On this line
97 13
98 Hydrographical Observations, North Atlantic, 1903 and 1904
there are fifteen stations, at all of which temperatures were observed ;
samples were collected at two.
The samples brought home numbered 139 in 1903, and, by an odd
coincidence, 139 m 1904. The chlorines of all these samples have
been determined by Mr. J. J. Manley in the laboratory at Magdalen
College, Oxford, the methods employed being the same as in previous
years. With regard to these determinations, it should be noted that
a comparison of the values at the International Station Sc. 194 and
Silver Belle station F9 shows perfect agreement. While analyzing
the samples brought home by the Discovery expedition, Mr. Manley
received a sample of the standard sea-water issued by the Inter-
national Council. Chlorine determined differed from chlorme given
by 1 part in 3,500. The Discovery samples were treated in precisely
the same way as those of the St/ver Belle, and there can, therefore, be
no doubt that the values are strictly comparable with those of the
International investigations. At my request Professor Pettersson also
had the chlorines of some of the gas samples sent to him (see below)
determined. A comparison of these values with those of Mr. Manley
show somewhat serious differences :
Sauiniry Per Mine.
ae Pettersson. Manley. Difference.
7 . - 35°51 35°70 —0:19
17 - - 35°61 35°82 —0°21
18 - - 3523 35°41 —0:18
89 = - 36:13 36°62 — 0:49
103 - - 8644 36°58 —0:14
Wale . - 88°35 38°62 — 0:27
124 - - 86:20 35°90 —0°30
The complete agreement which exists between the values as plotted
and those of the International sections, and in the determinations with
standard water, makes it very difficult to account for these discrepancies.
Table I. gives the positions of the stations for 1903 and their
characteristic numbers.
Table IL. gives the observations for 1903, with the chlorme values
(Cl), salinities (P), and specific gravities in sitw (o,), of the samples.
Hydrographical Observations, North Atlantic, 1903 and 1904 99
Table III. gives the data for the 1904 cruise. The positions of
the sounding stations are given on the charts (Plates I. and II.).
A number of samples for gas analysis were collected durmg the
1904 cruise. The tubes were sent to Professor Pettersson, in Stock-
holm, and the analyses carried out by Miss A. Palmquist in the
Hogskolas Laboratorium. The results are given in Table IV.
Column 1 gives the number of the station, as in Table III. ; columns 2
and 3 the depths from which the samples were obtained; column 4 the
amount of nitrogen (N,), measured in e.c. at 0° C., 760 mm.
pressure, absorbed in | litre of the sample; column 5 the amount
of oxygen (O,), measured at the same temperature and pressure,
absorbed in 1 litre of the sample; column 6 gives the amount
of oxygen expressed in per cent. of the whole gas absorbed—z.e.,
100 O. ; ; :
2; column 7 the amount of carbonic acid (CO,) measured
N, +0,’
in 1 litre under the same conditions. This carbonic acid is partly
absorbed, partly in chemical combination.
With reference to these analyses, Miss Palmquist writes :
‘Several tubes were so thinly drawn out that it looked as if they
were melted together, though they really were open. If a tube is
open, the nitrogen and oxygen can, of course, not be analyzed, and
usually I do not either determine the carbonic acid, as the result often
becomes too high. But as the opening of these tubes was so very
capillary, I thought it better to analyze them; the results are
marked ‘ ?”
‘The point of the tube from Station 41, 150 fathoms, was quite
broken, and the result is obviously too high.
‘Both of the samples from Station 8, 1,200 fathoms, were not
melted together. The air bubble in one of these tubes being rather
small, and the thin tube being quite filled up with water, I thought it
Just possible that the nitrogen and oxygen might be correctly deter-
mined. Although the result was too high, and some air must have
come into the tube, something might be got out of the analysis. The
deep water at the Stations 2 and 8 seems to be about the same, and the
13—2
100 Hydrographical Observations, North Atlantic, 1903 and 1904
nitrogen in this sample might be supposed to be about 14-40 ¢.c. per
litre. The nitrogen that has come into the tube from the atmosphere
then amounts to 19°79 — 14:40 = 5°39 cc. per litre, and the oxygen
may be calculated at 1°43 c.c. per litre (air = 79 per cent. N,, 21 per
cent. O,). The water sample should have 14°40 c.c. N,, 5:94 ¢.c. O,,
29°17 per cent. O,.’
Column 8 of the table gives the temperature im situ of the sample
(Table IIT.), and column 9 the temperature of saturation calculated
from the amount of nitrogen by a graphical extension of Hamberg’s
table. These values of T, which do not profess to be more than
approximations, are of great interest, but their number is too small to
justify full discussion.
Two points arise out of these analyses. The large amount of
carbonic acid in the deeper Mediterranean waters is very remarkable,
for, as Professor Pettersson has pointed out to me, in the Scandinavian
fjords the amount of CO, per litre never exceeds 50 to 51 ¢.c. even if
the oxygen has been reduced by the action of animal life to 4 or 5 per
cent. of the normal. Yet it is suggested that these Mediterranean
waters are of Atlantic origin. The second point is the occurrence of
a minimum of oxygen in the Atlantic at a depth of 500 to 600 fathoms.
This confirms the results of the temperature and salinity observations,
and suggests that in this particular case at least the method of gas
analysis is the most sensitive. It seems well to defer further dis-
cussion until the observations of Dr. Wolfenden’s 1905 cruises are
available.
As has been stated, the soundings may be conveniently grouped in
a series of sections. The stations in each section are as follows:
1903.
Section lays Soo uO) Ia. INS) Sie, IBA, Se, aA.
Bs hea ae Bs 4b JG) Ses IGA, Se. WHA.
oi ey Leas Ne op hos OEE Mesa, NIL.
eo ay SW uae thy 18S, 18),
V7 _ mils, ne,
phone ds, WL, 1S, NY, 8M,
B10, E9, E8, E7, E5.
Hydrographical Observations, North Atlantic, 1903 and 1904 101
1904.
Section I. ... ... stations 1 to 20.
es ee vee » 22 to 31, 33 to 44.
a) sD ea Es >» 4k 10) DIL, OS) WO OB),
Bee Veer ae , 15 and 53, salinity only.
as Vitae ae 5 Os Bl aXe is
Of the 1903 sections, Section I. forms a line running north-eastward
nearly along the centre of the}Faeroe-Shetland Channel. It is extended
northwards by the use of two of the International stations, the data
being extracted from the Bulletin. The dates of the observations are :
Station F3 Seat =a eee AUS UStmEO
' OM eee aut (Paes ie a=
oy | Co IBA Pe 2)
mS CHtOvAte a ak a Sel atts
So that they may be regarded as fully comparable.
Section II. is the same as Section I., except that it begins at
Station F4, more to the westward.
Section III. extends practically from the Faeroe Bank to oft the
Flannan Isles, right across the southern entrance of the channel.
Section IV. is roughly parallel to Section IIL, but farther north,
beyond the Wyville-Thomson ridge. It begins on the Faeroe Bank,
but ends at Station F9, in mid-channel.
Sections V. and VI. are off the west coast of Ireland. The two
Stations, E15 and E16, are nearly east and west of one another ; hence
Section V. gives some idea of the changes of distribution from the sea
towards the land. Section VI. runs due north and south across the
shallow bank to the West of Ireland. The middle of the section almost
touches the 100-fathom line, and there is deep water at both ends.
The Sections [., II., and III. for 1904 follow the three lines already
described. Section I. extends from the South-West of Ireland to the
Azores, Section II. from the Azores through the Straits of Gibraltar
into the Mediterranean, and Section III. from a point (Station 38)
south of Cape St. Vincent to opposite the mouth of the English
Channel, in line with the International Station E4, Sections IV. and
102. Hydrographical Observations, North Atlantic, 1903 and 1904
V. connect up points on the other lines with Station 53, the chief
station on Section IIT. at which samples were taken.
Perhaps the most striking result of the minute study of special
parts of the sea which has been made during recent years is the recog-
nition of the wide range of variation in the movements of waters from
season to season and from year to year. It has been shown that not
only in enclosed areas like the North Sea, where varying land influences
are Important, but in the open ocean itself, the currents are constantly
changing in direction and speed of movement, and the same parts of
the ocean are occupied at different times by water derived from widely
different sources.
An immediate consequence of this discovery is that the problems
of oceanography are vastly more difficult of complete solution than
was supposed. It is now practically impossible to draw general
conclusions as to the circulation in a given area from one set of
observations, however complete; the records must extend over a
number of years, and include different seasons of the year precisely as
in meteorology.
Under these circumstances it seems useless to attempt a general
discussion of Dr. Wolfenden’s observations. They form a very
valuable contribution, probably the most valuable ever made by a
private individual, at least in this country, to the steadily increasing
amount of material ; but the discussion of the 1903 observations really
involves the whole question which it is one of the main objects of the
International Council to elucidate, and the 1904 observations refer to
an area about which we have not as yet anything like as much
information as we have about the Faeroe-Shetland Channel. It is
permissible, however, to state shortly the main features of the dis-
tributions shown by the sections, and to compare them where possible
with those of other years.
1903.—The sections enumerated above, and the sections ‘ Faeroe-
Shetland, I. and II., for the same period, published by the Inter-
national Council, suggest that the events of 1902 are being repeated,
but at a much later date, and with less intensity. A wedge of water
of salinity over 35°5 lies with its axis passing almost directly through
Stations F4 and F9, and the same axis of maximum salinity passes
through Stations Sc. 194 and Se. 15a, although the actual values are
lower. A quantity of water of salinity over 35:5 also appears at the
bottom at Station F2, Section HI.; and at Station E16, Section V.,
there is a maximum of salinity (over 35°5) at a depth of about
120 fathoms. If we compare the May and August observations at the
International Stations Se. 194 and Se. 15a, we find that while salinity
is higher at the former station in August than in May, at the latter
station it is lower.
Again, in Section VI., water of salinity less than 35°5 appears at
the surface (Stations E12 and E13) to the north of the shallow area
which extends westwards to the Porcupine Bank.
The general situation would seem to be that after the month of
May there was a decided movement of salt water—salinity about
35°6 per mille—towards the west coasts of Ireland and Scotland, and
that this water banked itself up and flowed partly downwards (note the
isohalines of 35°3 and 35-2 in Section VI.) and partly northwards into
the Faeroe-Shetland Channel. At the date of the observations the
northward movement had almost ceased, and water from the Nor-
wegian sea was making its way southward along the eastern side of
the Faeroe-Shetland Channel. It can be traced from north to south
as follows :
International Faeroe-Shetland, Section IL., Stations Sc. 144 and Se. 13a.
a : Section I., Station Se. 19s.
Silver Belle, Section III., Stations F1 and F2.
5 <4 V., Station E16.
A » VI., Stations E12 and E13.
Some importance may be attached to the increased steepness of
the gradients of temperature and of salinity off the Continental shelf
at a depth of about 700 to 800 fathoms. If we compare the salinities
at Station E5, 1903, with Stations 2 and 5, 1904, it is noticeable that
104 Hydrographical Observations, North Atlantic, 1903 and 1904
a similar feature occurs, although less well marked. A salinity of
35°3 per mille occurs in both cases at a depth of about 850 fathoms,
and this would seem to indicate the limit in depth of the surface
system of movements. The point is well worth further observation.
At depths greater than about 900 fathoms salinity seems to change
very little with depth—at least, down to 2,000 fathoms ; the lowest
salinity in the 1904 Section I. was 35°21 in 1,600 fathoms. But north
of the Poreupine Bank (Section VI., 1903) the salinity falls suddenly
to 35°2 at about 800 fathoms, and then slowly to 35:08 in 1,500 fathoms.
The observations of the Silver Belle in 1903 afford definite infor-
mation about the extension southward of water coming from the
Norwegian sea over the Wyville-Thomson ridge. The occurrence of
these southward movements may now be regarded as proved, and it
seems that they take place pretty frequently, if not every year. The
question of the cause of these changes is one that can best be dis-
cussed after the observations of the International Council have been
kept up for some time longer, but the work of the Silver Belle in
depths beyond 700 fathoms seems to support the hypothesis that we
are here dealing with stream currents set up by the banking of drift
water against a mass of land, in the same way as the Equatorial
currents give rise to the Gulf Stream.
1904.—The outstanding features of Section I.—Ireland to the
Azores—are easily described. Temperature and salinity increase at
the surface from north to south ; vertically they diminish together till
the isothermal of 4° and the isohaline of 35°3 are reached at depths
varying from 850 to 1,000 fathoms. At these values the lines are
practically horizontal, and beyond 1,000 fathoms the fall of tempera-
ture and salinity is extremely slow. Whether the view that these
iso-surfaces represent the lower boundary of the surface circulation
be accepted or not, it is, I think, evident that they indicate a critical
level of some kind, and that they are practically horizontal along the
line under consideration.
The distribution of temperature shows few irregularities, the chief
being a ‘hump’ of relatively cold water at Stations 6 and 7 between
Hydrographical Observations, North Atlantic, 1908 and 1904 105
300 and 800 fathoms. Salinities show a remarkably large volume of
water between 35°6 and 35°8 per mille down to 500 fathoms from the
Irish coast to Station 8. It would seem that the increased surface
salinity as the Azores are approached is due to increased evaporation,
and the general impression conveyed by the temperature and salinity
sections together is that the line is nearly perpendicular to the direc-
tion in which the water is moving, if it is moving at all.
The main question raised by the remaining sections is that of the
effect of the extremely saline water flowing out of the Mediterranean
through the Straits of Gibraltar. The effective width of the strait
may be taken as about 74 miles, and depth about 200 fathoms.
Below the level of the ‘ sill’ the temperature on the Mediterranean
side (Stations 43 and 44) is uniformly 12°5°, and the salinity 38-6.
The plane of separation of the inflowing and outflowing waters lies at
a depth of between 50 and 100 fathoms at Station 44, and in the strait
itself (Stations 42 and 45) between 100 and 150 fathoms, apparently
nearer the first figure. Thus we have an outflowing stream some
70 fathoms thick and 7 miles across, consisting of water which at this
season is of practically the same temperature as the water outside in
the Atlantic, and 2 to 3 per mille salter than it.
It is clear that the outflowing water at first streams over the ridge
and falls down, mixing rapidly with the fresher waters, until it begins
to reach the layers of equal density in the lower temperatures below.
This apparently happens at a depth of about 600 fathoms, and from
this level the horizontal movements are more extensive than the
vertical. At the time these observations were made it would seem
that the influence of Mediterranean water was inappreciable west of
about Long. 22° W. and below 1,300 fathoms. Northwards the effect
is still apparent at Station 53, where there is a remarkable stratum of
water, salter and heavier than the water above and below it, between
1,000 and 1,200 fathoms. This is the only ‘inversion’ of specitic
gravity which occurs in these observations, and it does not seem easy
to account for it. It is certainly a temporary phenomenon. Its
occurrence so far north, and so close to the land, is rather unexpected,
14
106 Hydrographical Observations, North Atlantic, 1903 and 1904
and suggests that periodic and irregular variations of wide extent
probably occur in this coastal belt.
TABLE I.
POSITIONS OF STATIONS, 1903.
INE W. N. W.
Station El ...| 51°56’ 11° 24" | Station EI5 ...| 55°47" | 19° 98)
BE cas |), (SO AG! 12° 16’ LNG aes) EO BY 10° 12"
a DD ee | SIE OF 12° 00! IR ey || RRS OP 8° 30!
beef. BO SOY 12° 00’ see I nail jee As 8° 35!
» . 18 son | BAP OY 12° 00’ 5 OS) = ons | EPI. | BE Br
5 WO eco.) BHP SOF 12° 00' oy OE an) SE OY 8° 49)
wy JO || BBP CO? 11° 57’ » Boos | COD DEP || =? BO
BY = one | BBE SOY 12° 00" a Gs bon COR AI ||. BO OY
De || BO OY 12° 00’ po Le joo) CO OW | ag
5 NS ca | GOS 12° 00" Ne teas | COLSON. | 1 a?
1) en |) BOP OW |) GP Ow
al a8 54° 45’ | 12° 00’
I1l.—HYDROGRAPHICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE IN 1905.
Tur observations made to the west of Gibraltar during 1904 having
established the fact that a regular survey of the region in connection
with the international observations was of the first importance,
Dr. Wolfenden sent the Si/ver Belle over part of the area at the end
of 1905. Soundings were made at eleven stations, beginning near
Station E4 of the international series, off Ushant, on November 8, and
ending in the Strait of Gibraltar on December 20. The line closely
follows Section III. of 1904 as far south as Station 51, and then runs
south-westward to Madeira, repeating the line of Section II., 1904, to
the Strait. From the remarks in Captain Henry’s log, it appears that
the work was carried out under great difficulties, and its successful
achievement is a remarkable example of endurance and skill.
The total number of temperatures and samples obtained was
seventy-six. The chlormes have been determined by Mr. Manley,
and all the observations treated in precisely the same way as in the
previous vears. The results will be found in Table V.
Sections I. and II., 1905, show the distribution of temperature and
salinity disclosed. Section I. is, in its northern part, comparable with
Section III. of 1904, as has already been stated, and we have now the
advantage of a section showing salinity as well as temperature.
Section II. is, of course, comparable with the Section II. of 1904.
The general type of distribution is the same in both years, and
there seems little reason to suppose that the type is not constant, with
a wide range of variations. There is, therefore, little to be gained by
further detailed discussion of the two years’ observations, as they do
not supply sufficient material to enable us to ascertain the full extent
of the variations, and how far they are periodic or irregular.
A few points may, however, be noticed.
In 1905, notwithstanding a much lower surface temperature (prob-
ably chiefly due to difference of season), a larger body of relatively
warm water occurred at intermediate depths off the Bay of Biscay than
107 14—2
108 Observations made in 1905
in 1904 (compare Stations 2 and 3, 1905, with Stations 56 and 58,
1904). Again, the salimity of Section I. indicates that the Mediterranean
water, represented by the layer of maximum salinity at a depth of
about 600 fathoms, had moved mostly northwards, forming a stratum
of over 36 per mille about 500 fathoms thick at Station 5, and over
400 fathoms thick at Station 3, but thinning to about 100 fathoms at
Station 4, off the coast of Spain. The thinning at Station 4 may be
due to downward movement from the surface of water drifted against
the land.
The supposition that the movement of Mediterranean water was
more northerly during or Just before the second series of observations
than in the first, is confirmed by a comparison of the sections east-
ward from Madeira to Gibraltar. Taking the isohaline of 36 per
mille again, we find its western extension at Station 34 in 1904 and
Station 6 in 1905, a difference of about 140 miles ; the layer of water
over 56 is thinner, and the layer under 36 being correspondingly
thicker.
We may, therefore, conclude that at different dates the extension
of water from the Mediterranean varies very considerably northwards
and westwards, and possibly also southwards, though as to this we are
as yet without information. Whether the variations are periodic or
irregular, or (as seems likely) both, we do not know. The causes of
these variations must necessarily be extremely complex, as they are
probably due partly to far-reaching changes in the movements of the
Atlantic waters, and partly also, though in a less degree, to fluctuations
in the volume and salinity of the water pouring out of the Mediter-
ranean. It seems certain that the northward movement of the
Mediterranean water may extend at least as far as the entrance to the
English Channel, and it is obviously of the first importance to
determine how often, and under what conditions, this takes place.
The conditions which give rise to the formation of Rennell’s Current
may induce something of the nature of upwelling of waters west and
south-west of Ushant, and such upwelling might bring Mediterranean
water to the surface and into the Channel.
Hydrographical Observations, North Atlantic, 1908 and 1904 109
TABLE II.
OBSERVATIONS, 1903.
Depth
a ae ; Date. | Position. SSS feu: Cl | 12, | CO;
| Fath. | Metres. | |
1 | June 1l/| Station El ... 0| ©] 15:0 | 1973 || 35-64 | 26-48
2 i i 60 | 110 | 10:5 | 19-70 | 35:59 | 27-34
3 a s 130 | 238) | 10-2) |) 19-71 35-61 27-41
4 , 12) Station E2 ... 0| Oj] 12:8 | 19:73 | 35:64 | 26-95
5 2 ; HOO | 188) NOs |) Mea | 8568 | Bex
6 i us 200 | 366 | 10-4 | 19:68 | 35:55 | 27-33
7 a 3 300 | 549 | 10:2 | 19:69 | 35:57 | 27-38
8 fe ; AQ) | 732 |) NOD | Ue || Bel |) ged
9 ms “ 500 | 914 | 84 | 19°73 | 35:64 | 27-74
10 | ,, 25) Station E5 0| O| 14:5 | 19:73 | 35:64 | 26:60
ll is ef 100 | 183 | 10:8 | 19-73 | 35:64 | 27-33
12 és . 200 | 366 | 10:6 | 19-71 | 35-61 | 27-34
13 ee ‘ 300 | 549 | 10:3 | 19-72 35°62 | 27-41
14 e i, ..| 400 | 732! 10:0 | 19-72 | 35-62 | 27-46
15 - % | 500 | 914] 9-4 | 19:74 | 3566 | 27-59
16 - x GOON EOS: Scone NL978e 35: 788 eeieTs
17 a i 700 |1,280| 76 | 19-70 | 35:59 | 27-82
18 4 f 800 11,463 | 5:8 | 19:56 | 35:34 | 27-87
1G) | 3 i. ...| 900 |1,646 | 4:8 | 19:49 | 35:21 | 27-89
20 | July 7| Station E7 ... 0 | 14-3 | 19°67 | 35°53 | 26-57
Dilan y 300 | 549} 10:0 | 19-68 | 35:55 | 27-40
22 ss ‘ |) 6009) 1,097 | 98:0) |) 19:68) | 35:55) | 27-73
23 » 8|Station E8 ... 0|} O| 145 | 19:74 | 35°66 | 26-61
24 2 | Re 150 | 274 | 10-5 | 19°69 | 35:57 | 27-33
25 cp | i. 250 | 457 | 10:3 | 19°69 | 35:57 | 27-37
26 5 Station EO ... 0| ©] 14:9 | 19:73 | 35:64 | 26-51
27 is | & oi) GO|) TO |) TOG | 12 |) BHD | Basis
oan ee i ...| 120 | 220] 10-4 | 19-70 | 35:59 | 27-36
DOs | Station E10 ... 0 0| 146 | 19°73 | 35:64 | 26-57
30 ye | 5 50 91 | 10:6 | 19°73 | 35:64 | 27-36
Sint a ees ..| 95! 174] 10:0 | 19°69 | 35:57 | 27-42
BO | | | Station Ell ...| 0 0| 14:0 | 19°70 | 35:59 | 26-66
33 “ if so | O | 12S) 102 |) ISO |) sa) — | Brey
Seal | a Ps ne G ual O:Olnn em rile |S sGileun menial
35 > 9)| Station B12) 22.) | 0 0 | 13:5 | 19°63 | 35-46 | 26-67
36 é | i Pa aLOOM SSP hakO-6 alenlO;GQum mSacboM mona
ye ie ee | i e200) 366) 29:4 |) 19:66) || 35:52) | 27-47
38 | ,, 11] Station E13 ... O| Of} 13S | 1OGe | shes | aay
39 = is ...| 100) 183 | 9:8 | 19°68 | 35:55 | 27-43
40 * 4 200 | 366 | 9:5 | 19:62 | 35-44 | 27-40
41 5 i 300 | 549] 9:3 | 19°61 | 35:43 | 27-42
49 ‘, = 400 | 732| 9:0 | 19-61 35-43 | 27-47
43 = 500 | 914 | 82 | 19:63 | 35:46 | 27-63
44 % s GOO LLOMT | TH | GB | Se | eral
AD lit ass 55 700 |1,280 | 60 | 19°63 | 35:46 | 27-94
AB on v 800 | 1,443 | 5:3 as =e ee
110 Hydrographical Observations, North Atlantic, 1903 and 1904
TABLE IJ.—OBSERVATIONS, 1903 (continued).
| Depth.
ef Wee, || esiiiton, = Temp. Cl. P. Oy
ample. b
| Fath. | Metres.
47 July 11 | Station E13 ...| 900 | 1,646 4:3 19°52 35°26 | 27:99
48 2 - ...| 1,000 |1,829 | 3:7 | 19-43 | 35:10 | 27-94
49 am | 5 ... | 1,100) | 25012 36 —_ — —
50 2 - ...| 1,300 |2,377 | 3:1 | 19-43 | 35:10 | 27-98
51 ef os son || Lfsx0K0) |) 2.7/4) all 19°42 35:08 27:96
52 » 13} Station E14 ... 0 Oi sx0) 19°67 35:53 26°83
53 i * so5 |) LAKOK0) 183 — 19°64 35°48 —
54 ss 5 poo || ZA0K0) 1) aka 9-4 19:63 35°46 27:43
55 - s so0|| aX0K0) 549 9°2 19°64 35:48 27:48
56 Re Pe so || 200) 732 8-7 19-64 35:48 28:57
57 1 " 50 |) X00) 914 8:2 19°63 35:46 27°63
58 - i ...| 600 |1,097 | 7:0 | 19°64 | 35:48 | 27-81
59 ” » nes 700 | 1,280 56 19°58 35°37 27:92
60 - 45 || 800) ) 1463: 5:0 19°48 35:19 27-85
61 a | i ...| 900 /1,646) 41 | 19:46 | 35:16 | 27-92
62 - 5 ...| 1,000 | 1,829 BB). Se — —
635 5 a ...| 1,100 | 2,012 3°6 19°45 35:14 27:96
64 A | ML: s03 {SOO | DBI BQ | = _
65 5 3 ... | 1,500 | 2,748 3:0): | 19:46 35:16 28:03
30 95 -.- | L577 | 25884 2°8 — — —
66 » 16) Station E15
(chalky ooze) 0 0 | 137 | 19°66 | 35:52 | 26-66
67 55 it cp ooo || — Lo) 183 9°5 19°66 35°52 27-46
68 A | ae 200 | 366 | 9:3 | 19:63 | 35-46 | 27-46
69 ms ‘ fe 300 549 86 19°63 35:46 27:56
70 . pat tii 400 | 732] 81 | 19:62 | 35:44 | 27-63
Wl eS e 3 500 914 78 19°58 35°37 27-63
2) Bs a 3 600 | 1,097 7:0 19°56 35°34 27-71
73 a ee tae? 700 |1,280 | 60 | 19:50 | 35:26 | 27-78
74 hes a - | 800 | 1,463 5:0 19°44 35°12 27°79
75 55 . Me 900 | 1,646 4:2 19°44 35:12 27-88
76 Ps us i" 1,000 | 1,829 38 19°43 35:10 27°91
77 x 5) eco LTO |RO | SB |) WO || Sas || BOI!
78 F Rel Wan 1,300 | 2,377 | 3:2 | 19-42 | 35:08 | 27-95
19 A 55 1,500 | 2,743 3:0 19°42 35:08 27-97
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80 » 19] Station E16
(chalky ooze
bottom) ae 0 0 | 13°5 19°60 35:41 26°63
81 * Sm ol OO) ES | OS |) OGG | BaD | D706
82 = reek 200 | 366| 9:3 | 19°64 | 35-48 | 27-46
83 i a LN? 300 | 549 | 86 | 19:62 | 35-44 | 27-54
84 a ae « 400 732 Sell | IS) xail 35:43 27°61
85 y PAs 500 | 914 | 72 | 19°57 | 35:35 | 27-68
86 5 ps) COON | GH | Mae | e534 | 220
87 a5 a i | 700 | 1,280 56 19°46 35:16 Bei 5)
88 i oe we 800 |1,463 | 5:0 | 19-44 | 35-12 | 27-79
89 3 os yo | 900 | 1,646 4:2 19:43 35°10 27-87
90 a > 57 eee | 1,000 11,829 | 3:6 | 19-41 | 35:07 | 27:90
Hydrographical Observations, North Atlantic, 1903 and 1904 111
TABLE IJ.—OBSERVATIONS, 1903 (continued).
Depth.
a a Date. Position. _ Tene: Cl. Ie, Gye
Fath. | Metres.
| |
91 | July 19 | Station E16 ...|1,100 |2,012 | 34 | 19°41 | 35:07 27-92
92 is » vce | L800 1287 | BO || 190 | Boxes | Bros
93 | Aug. 4/| Station FI. ... 0 @) ) Je333 1959 35:39 26°65
94 S M sco] OO | 1833 | 9-2 19°60 35-41 27-43
3 | 5, 8 Saatiom TF 101... 0} o| 13:3 | 19:60 | 35:41 | 26:67
OG lea mes ms 100 | 183 | 9-4 19°66 35°52 27-47
97 a ‘i XO | 838.| 92 | IGS | SHE | Areil
98 ‘3 < | 300) 549 | 8-6 19°66 35°52 27-61
99 » 6 Station F IIT. O| ©) 19 | Noes | see | eee
100 M 38 100 | 183 | 9:2 | 19°63 35:46 | 27-47
OIE ers " 200 | 366 | 86 | 19°63 | 35-46 | 27-57
102 “ ef 300 | 549 | 84 | 19°63 | 35-46 | 27-60
103 . 400 39 | 82 | 19:63 | 35:46 | 27-63
104 ‘ a 500 | 914] 80 19°63 35-46 27°66
105 x s 600 | 1,097 70 | 19°63 | 35-46 | 27-80
106 : f 700 |1,280 | 5:8 | 19:59 | 35°39. || 27-91
107 . % eo l1463 | 4:4 | 19:58. || 35:37 | 28:07
108 | ,, 7| Station FIV 0 | 12°7 | 19°66 | 35:52 | 26:87
109 . - te | 1183.) 9:0 || 19:66 | 35:52) | 27-54
110 Hs 3 200 | 366 | 86 | 19°63 | 35:46 | 27°57
111 is i 300 | 549 | 84 | 19°63 | 35:46 | 27-60
11D, |) s 400 | 732 | 8:2! | 19°63 | 35:46 | 27:63
113 95 3 500 | 914] 79 | 19°63 | 35-46 | 27-67
114 91 a 600 |1,097 | 68 | 1963 | 35:46 | 27°83
115 aA = sco 00 | 1-280 | HB |) 183 || Selo | Bey
116 | Savion We son = 0| 11:0 | 19:65 | 35:50 | 27:18
117 - . 100 | 183) 83 | 19:64 | 35:48 | 27-62
118 « i Se Say 8390) 8 SO) | 19:60) sb 27-62
119 » 9 | Station F VI. 0 0| 10:0 | 19°63 35:46 | 27°33
120 i = 35 64 | 96 | 19:63 | 35-46 | 27-40
121 A i ao! GS || Tl® | OO | WGBR | BERS | aro
122 | 18) Staion WHOL © 0 | 10-7 | 19:60 | 35-41 | 27-16
TDS ah ee a soll GO|) 1B |! Beil | WOO 35-41 | 27-61
1M | - sol) QOO.| B30 | BG | AIGH8O 35-41 | 27-82
195) i ESO S490 ok 948s | S519) | 28-12
126 15 ; 450 | 823 0 19-45 | 35:14 | 28-24
127. | ,, 14] Station F VIII 0 0 | 11-4 | 19:63 | 35:46 | 27-07
128 = e | 100 | 183) 86 | 19:63 35:46 | 27-56
129 s = soo 2OO |} S86) Bal | 1966 | BRA | Byes
130 “ 3 F800) a5 49ee 53e 19-58) 35:28) || 27-88
131 _ 2 | 200} 7D I 1 | Gain 1) Sexo) BEA
132 fe a ma 500 | 914] 0:8 | 19:39 | 35:03 | 28-19
133 » ly | Sietion IDX, | ©} Oj WB | We] | Be | Byaly
134 s i 100 | 183 | 9:4 | 19:66 | 35:52 | 27-47
135 ‘ 3 200 | 366 | 88 | 19:66 | 35:52 | 27:57
136 . * 300 | 549 | 4:3 | 19:63 | 35:46 | 28-15
137 a . 400-| 732 | 05 | 19-41 | 35:07 | 28:20
138 if e 500 | 914] O05 19-41 | 35:07 | 28:20
1D | ss Fa 599 11,079 | 1:0 19-40 35:05 | 28-21
Hydrographical Observations, North Atlantic, 1903 and 1904
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Hydrographical Observations, North Atlantic, 1903 and 1904 12
7
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41
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TABLE LY.
ANALYSES OF GAS SAMPLES, 1904.
Depth in Oy per Cent. |
No c.c. Oo e.¢. 10005 COs c.c. Temp. Temp.
Fathoms. Metres. > No+0" t T
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
2G, 2 Gf,
1,200 2,195 14:25 5:39 27°47 50°48 35 ICY
100 | 183 12°53 572 | 31°34 47-93 (?)| 11:0 78
500. 914 12°91 4°35 |) 2oxl9 49°53 9:2 64
700 | 1,280 13°37 4:95 | 27-01 49°57 6:7 49
1,000 | 1,829 14:09 5:95 | 29°69 49°21 4:0 2:3
1,400 2,560 14:48 5°84 | 28°76 50°38 3°3 11
1,570 2,871 14:43 5°76 28°52 50°36 3-0 13
100 183 12°41 5°56 30°94 48:11 11:0 84
200 366 12°24 5°54 31:17 48°58 10°6 91
400 732 12°40 4:45 26°40 48:98 | 10:2 84
600 1,097 12°94 4:29 24:92, — 9:0 62
900 1,646 — | — — 49°64 5:0 —
1,200 1,829 [19-79] | [7-87] [27-14] 50°77 (2)| 3°6 ==
10 18 10°38 4:94 32°23 — 21:4 18°7
100 183 11°46 | 4:94 | 30°12 | 47:95 14-4 12°5
150 274 1176 | 478 | 98:91 | 51:95 (2)| 18:5 11-0
200 | 366 12-07 | 4°52 27°26 48:99 | 12:6 9:77
PAX0) | 457 11:87 4:46 27°30 49:96 | 126 10°5
300 | 549 11:84 =| 431 26°70 50:97 12°6 10°6
336 615 11°84 | 4:01 25°29 52°09 12°5 10°4
25 46 — — —_ 49°10 15°3 —
50 91 12:06 | 4-57 27°50 49:94 13°8 9°5
100 183 PEI} 4°86 28°59 52:44 | 13°0 8:9
200 366 Walsyy/ 4:00 25°35 51-23 (?)| 12°5 10°4
300 549 | 11°89 4:10 25°64 53°60 (?)) 12:5 9:9
400 o2) i all 3°45 22°71 53°68 (?)) 12°5 10°4
500 914 — — — 54:05 (2), 12°5 —
10 18 | 1064 4:92 31°62 47-93 Dilley 17:0
50 91 — — = 48°54 15:0 | —
100 183 11-75 4-64 28:28 — T1332 || TO}
200 366 11°82 418 26°10 53°65 (?)) 12°68 | 10:2
300 549 11°86 3:99 25°16 53°73 125 | LOA
400 732 11°85 3°54 22°98 53°10 12°55 | 101
600 1,097 11°82 4-72 28°52 53°38 1195) || 10)
700 1,280 12°17 3°85 24:04 _ 125} | 86
800 10463 |e | = = 53°29 19:5) ==
10 18 11°35 Dalle 33°49 47°33 162 2:9
50 Gal 3) aS) 4:94 29°28 48:96 (?) 14:2 | 106
100 183 | = = — 52°16 (?)) 13:2 \ =
150 274 11:78 4-21 26°34 52°94 13:0 | 10°3
200 366 11°80 4:06 25°59 52°90 POs) 10:4
250 Adt | 1:69 517 30°67 53°32 U2 ie LOS
tlantic, 1905
Hydrographical Observations, North
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‘COG ‘SNOILVANESAO—' A WIAVL
129
Hydrographical Observations, North Atlantic, 1905
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17
IV.—HYDROGRAPHICAL OBSERVATIONS, SHETLAND
LORNOR WANES 07
Sratron Sc. 6a.—September 1, 1907 (Goldseeker).
Lat. 60° 4’ N., Long. 0° 33’ E. Depth of the station, 120 metres.
Metres. te S Too | oC, | Remarks.
| |
115 7:03 35°35 27-72 | Time, 1.15 to 2 p.m. Strong wind,
100 707 35 27-71 | N.W.; force, 5. Air temperature :
80 BY 35°30 27-62 dry bulb, 7:0° C.; wet bulb, 6°9° C.
60 7:58 - 27-59 Hail at 11.30 a.m. Corrected baro-
40 8°32 3 27°48 meter, 767°1.
30 10:98 35°01 26°81
20 Ae 34:97 26°78
10 fe 34°96 26°76
0 10°85 35°03 26°85
t='TTemperature in C.
S°/o) =Salinity in °/¢.
o,= Density tn situ referred to pure water of + 4° C.
Sration Sc. 7.—August 28, 1907 (Goldseeker).
Lat. 61° 06’ N., Long. 2° Ol’ E. Depth of the station, 131 metres.
Metres. | t° | Sp o,. Remarks.
125 | 719 | 35:30 | 27:65 | Time, 5.25 to 6.55p.m. WindS.S.W.;
100 Tite: 35:28 | 27:55 force, 2. Air temperature : dry
80 8:00 Q7°51 bulb, 11:2° C.; wet bulb, 9:7° ¢.
60 8:40 Q7-45 Barometer (corrected), 768°9.
40 | 9:22 | 35:26 | 27°31
30 | 10°91 | 3488 | 26-72
20 | 11:34 | 3458 | 26-41
10 | 11:50 | 3449 | 26:30
0 | 11:65 | 3438 | 2617
130
Aydrographical Observations, Shetland to Norway, 1907 131
Lat. 61° 30’ N, Long. 3° 03’ E.
Srarion Se. 8.—August 28, 1907 (Goldseeker).
Depth of the station, 375 metres.
Metres. t Sn | Cn Remarks.
| | 2
370 | 5:92 S52) 20-67 | Slight swell. Sunshine. Time, 7.50 a.m.
300 5°86 3 2768 to 12 noon. Wind S.W.; force, 1.
250 5°84 35:03 27-61 Air temperature: dry bulb, 120° C. ;
200 5°98 a 27°60 wet bulb, 11°4° C. Barometer
150 #3 Pa $5 (corrected), 768°8.
100 | 782 35:23* | 27:50 |
SORE manuals 35:03 27°43
60 | 6:58 34°85 Qe
40 717 34°65 Q7-14
30 8:02 34-43 26°85
20 | 9:60 33°95 26°22
10 11:12 33°44 25°56
0 | 11:25 | 33:40 | 25:50
125 6:02 35:05* | 27-60
* 'These salinities were redetermined.
Srarion 1.—September 21, 1907 (Stlver Belle).
Lat. 60° 59’ N., Long. 0:47’ E.
Fathoms. | te SU | Co, Remarks.
5 10:0 35°28 | 27-19 Thermometer used: J. Hicks, No.
15 10:0 | 35:28 | 2719 | 909,128. Wind N., strong breeze;
25 10:0 39°28 | 27-19 heavy swell; weather showery and
30 | 9:9 35°32 Q7-24 very squally. Time, 7 a.m. to 8.30
40 98 35°30 | 27:24 a.m,
50 9:2 35°21 27:28
15 8:2 35°28 27-48
—
~
|
i)
132. Hydrographical Observations, Shetland to Norway, 1907
Sration 6.—September 21, 1907 (St/ver Belle).
Lat. 61° 5’ N., Long. 2° 0’ E.
Fathoms. | tim | S Too Co, Remarks.
———————— | — | = =
0) 8:8) 35:21 27-34 Strony breeze N., heavy swell from
5 9°6 35°21 QQ N.N.W.; weather — squally
10 96 | 35°21 27-21 showery. Time, afternoon, 2 p.m.
20 9-6 35°21 27-21 Air temperature, 6:0° C.
30 | 9-6 35°21 27-21 At 50 fathoms the observation
40 | 96 35°21 Q7°21 repeated three times, always with the
i) || 8B Cee | OPA same result.
70 | 90 JOM 20629
| |
Srarion 3.—September 23, 1907 (Silver Belle).
Lat. 61° 31’ N., Long. 3° 4° E. Depth of the station, 210 fathoms.
Fathoms. im Shin Co, | Remarks.
0 9° 34°87 26°99 | Wind variable. Weather, drizzle.
5 Bre 35-01 | 27-12 _ Sea very choppy. Nature of bottom,
10 9-0 35-01 27°15 | fine sand. Number of thermometer,
20 9-1 35°30 27°35 106,206. Time, afternoon.
30 9-6 35°41 27°36 temperature, 8°0° C.
40 9-1 35°30 Qisda) |
60 9-1 35°37 Q7-41
80 86 35°30 Q7-45
100 8:2 35°28 27-48
120 8-2 — —
140 8:2 35°28 27°48
160 ee 35°10 Q7-49
180 68 35:03 27°49
200 57 | 35°03 27°64
Hydrographical Observations, Shetland to Norway, 1907 138
Sration 4,.—September 22, 1907 (St/ver Belle).
Lat. 61° 32’ N., Long. 3° 44’ E.
Fathoms. tie SO oC, Remarks.
0 11:0 32°38 24-75 | Weather showery and cold, blowing
5 10:9 32°38 24°77 strong and backing N.W. to W.;
10 10°9 32°38 24-77 variable, rain later. ‘Time, after-
20 10:8 33°69 25°81 noon. Air temperature, 7:0° C.
30 10°3 34°60 26°61
40 9-2 35°03 27:13
60 eg 34°88 27-32
80 Wes |) BarlG QT 44
100 76 35:19 27°50
120 7:0 35:14 27°55
140 7:0 35°14 Q7°55
Srarion 5,—September 22, 1907 (Silver Belle).
Lat. 61° 15’ N., Long. 4° 9’ E.
Fathoms. te Se a, Remarks.
0 10:9 32°25 24°68
5 ett 3225 2463 | Wind N.N.W.; light, long swell.
10 ile 32:25 24°63 Time, morning, 5 a.m. Air tem-
20 11:7 32°47 24°70 perature, 675° C,
30 10:0 33°86 26:08
40 10:0 34°87 26°87
60 9-0 35:12 27-23
80 8:2 35°12 27°36
100 G9 35:23 Q7-48
120 6°7 35°01 Q7°49
140 66 35°01 27°51
160 6°9 35:10 27°53
180 6:2 35°05 27°56
PLANKTON, ‘SILVER BELLE, SEPTEMBER, 1907, SHETLAND TO NORWAY.
Crostnc-NEtr.
SraTion IT. Sravion III. Station LV. Sravion V.
ARTEN.
70 Faden
50 radon
200 Faden.
150 Faden.
100 Faden.
50 Faden.
20 Faden.
100 Faden.
50 Faden.
20 Faden.
| 190 Faden.
100 Faden,
60 Faden.
20 Faden,
Radiolaria.
1. Hexacontium entacanthium (Jér-
gensen) a5 00 30 990
. Protoeystis xiphodon (Haeckel) ...)| — —
- Rhizoplegma boreale (Jorgensen) ...| — —|—]| x | — | — |} —} — =
x
x
x
|
Cob
Bryozou.
4. Cyphonautes ... 000 286 300 —- | — Ere mp ll oe
Celenterata.
eAclanthagdigitalisy(Osphes Miller) ) ieee n |e [ieee tees |e |e Le
. Arachnactis albida (M. Sars) ea |e a |e tls ee ete eek I pe eed (eee | ee |
Diphyes truncata (M. Sars) .. So a | eee ee seal Pape aaa eats ane ty 2
. Pleurobrachia pileus (Flem) ... ae 2
BATS? Or
Vermes (sens. gener. ).
9. Annelida larva we ae soo | |} a fas oe | eS oe ee a oe ee |
10. Sagitta bipunctata (Quoy and Gaim) | » | — | —]—]r]pr}]—]r]r]x2r]—/]—]ri oe
11. Tomopteris helgolandica (Greef) ... r pie
Copepoda.
12. Acartia clausi (Giesbr) ao acy | =
ais ean, longiremis (Lillieb) ... 500 oe r
14. Aetideus armatus (Boeck) ... 00 z
15. Calanus finmarchicus (Gunn) sop) cps ll aa (fede
WG, 5p hyperboreus (Kroyer) onto ear |p yl
17. Centropages typicus (Kroyer) sais ae = rler
18. Kuchaeta norvegica (Boeck) ... 900. |) =
19. Gaidius brevispinus (G. O. Sars)... | — | —
20. 5, _ tenuispinus (G. O. Sars) pi se
21. Metridia longa (Lubbock)... 00 eae
225. ee lucens (Boeck) oe
+ [Hn
ze
i
el et
ac
e
| |
23. Microcalanus pusillus (G. O. Sars)... ¥
24. Microsetella norvegica (Boeck) Be ee
25. Oithona plumifera (Baird) ... po | hears fweti
sep
YT
r
ic}
ie}
(x)
+ |
a
:
:
265s similis (Claus)
27. Oncea mediterranea (Claus)
28. Pseudocalanus elongatus (Boeck)
29. Rhincalanus nasutus (Giesbr) ac
30. Scolecithrix minor (Brady)... pon =
31. Temora longicornis(O. F. Muller) ...| — | —|—J|—] yr
Crustacea (citer. ).
32. Conchoecia sp.... 30 nce
33. Evadne Normani (Lillieborg) 5
34. Nyctiphanes norvegica (Sars) eh he a e lin
35. Pagurus (Zoéa) 600 agp
36. Parathemisto oblivia (Kroyer) Ee i
37. Thysanoessa longicaudata (Kroyer)... 2 cuiog | es | | ea
38. an neglecta (Kroyer)
Mollusca,
39. Gasteropoda larva... noo Pee ea en | |e
40. Lamellibranchiata larva sat 5
41. Limacina retroversa (Flem.)... feat zat ole
fe
|
fap
H
4
|
+
Prochordata.
42. Doliolum tritonis
43, Oikopleura sp....
—-|/—}—|]—}—|]r}r}]—|]+]r]/—j]rj—j—
Planktonet viser en avgjort sydlig karakter, kun ide dypeste prover fra Station III. & Station V., tyder
forekomsten avy Calanus hyperboreus & Metridia longa paa en tilblanding ay koldt vand (arktisk tilblanding 2).
Former som Rhincalanus nasutus & Arachnactis albida tyder paa vand ay en héure temperatur, likesom fore-
komsten av Oncaea mediterranea Doliolum tritonis paa Station III. & Station IL., viser i retning mot, at der
her er en tilblanding av neget utpraget, varmere atlantisk plankton.
Liggende kryds (x) betegner at arten forekom, uten at man kan démme om dens hyppighet paa grund ay
netdukens for grovmaskete konstruktion.
134
Observations, Shetland to Norway, 1907
ANMAIKNINGAR.
Snirr. No. 1.
1. Djupen pa stationerna I., II., IV. 6 V. uttagna ur Nordsjékortet.
2. Skalan enl. Bulletinen, men fordubblad (i enlighet med hoad jag. fick géra
pa Centralbigran i K.).
3. Afstanden mellan stationerna :
I. and II. 36
Nive ele 41’
1006 gy. JAN 19’
Vere OVE ON’
V. till land 19’
4. Forefaller egendomligt all observationerna pa stationerna II. 6 IV. iiro
verkstillda samma dag, bigge pa eftermiddagen, Afstandet mellan dessa bada
stationer ai i det niiimaste 60’.
Snrrr. No. 2.
2» —
. Djupen Sc. 6., Sc. 7 6 Se. 8 enligt Nordsjokortet.
. Samma skala som No. 1.
. Afstanden mellan stationerna :
Sc. 6 and Se. 7 54!
SCale SCS: 38’
4. Enligt uppgiften skulle S. Foo i ytan pa Sc. 8 vara 31°35. Della iii viil
felskrifning for 34°35.
oo
137
TEMPERATURE. 1903. SECTION I.
F3 12° FQ Sc IQA ie ScI54
a = 10°
We
10°
go
500)
Fathoms 8°
Thomson
Ridge
SALINITY, 1903. SECTION 1.
F3 35°5 356 F9356 355 35-4 Scl9A 35:3SclI54
500
Fathoms
35:4
18
TEMPERATURE, 1903. SECTION IL.
F4 12° FQ Sc 194 ne Scl54
Wyville-
fo
Fath oe gee 4 Thomson
° Ridge
SALINITY, 1903. SECTION TZ.
F4 35°6 FS) 656 S36 354 ScI9A 35:3 ScI54
35:3
35°5 35:2
35+
35-0
334
- 2
Wyville-~351
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35°0
35°46
18—2
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TEMPERATURE ,1903. SECTION IV.
SALINITY,1903. SECTION IV.
F7 F8 35°5 356 FQ
19
147
TEMPERATURE.1903. SECTION V.
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SALINITY, 1903. SECTION V.
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163
TEMPERATURE, 1904. SECTION IL.
Stations 59 58 57 56 55 54 oo 53 5I 50 49 48
12° I
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167
SALINITY,1904. SECTION V.
Stations 53 38
36°0
36°0
36-0 36°0
500-- -—
36°0
36:0
36°0
g00--—
36:0
BS}
35°3
1500
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35°26
35°28
169
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173
TEMPERATURE, 1905. SECON TE:
Station 6 7 8 9 io fh
19° /8° 17
1 16
Ye : 15°
15° 4°
14) a
13°
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13°
W
V4?
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@
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0°
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7
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500
fathoms
SALINITY, 1905. SECTION I.
Station 6 7 8 9 10 I
36°85 36:69 36:74 36°55 3682 33656
365) 37-0
37'S
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181
TEMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS
Station 2 “Silver Belle” 21.9.07 61° 5’°N. 2° O'E.
Station 7. “Goldseeker” 28:8.07 61° 6'N. 2° IE.
FP a .
o Metres
20
SALINITIES AT STATION 7
Station 2. “Silver Belle” 21.9.02 61° 5'N. 2 OVE.
Station 7. “Goldseeker” 28.8. 07. 6 ON 2° IE.
36%
Metres of o Metres
20 20
40 40
6c 60
80 oe
100 100
150 150
183
TEMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS
Station 3. “Silver Belle” 23.9.07. 61° 3IN. 3° 4'E.
Station 8 “Goldseeker” 28.8.07 61°30N 3° 3’E.
5 SEG ‘Gis a ap oe 10° US ep
Metreso T = T —y T T *"o Metres
20) 420
40F Wee
60 460
80; | 80
100 +100
150 4150
200} ise
250 4250
300 7300
3505 + 350
; Re)
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185
Station:3. “Silver Belle” 23.9 07 61° 3I'N. 3° 4¥E.
Station 9. “Goldseeker” 28.8.07 61° 34N 2° 4'E.
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Métres o ar T a areney o Métres
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20F ‘ 420
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60b 460
80 780
100 +100
150 4150
200 7200
250 4250
300 ; 4300
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187
Station 3. “Silver Belle” 23.9.07 61° 31'N 3° 4’E.
Station 8 “Goldseeker” 28.8.07 61° 30'N. 3° 3'E.
Station 9. “Goldseeker” 28.8.07. 6/° 34/N. 2° 4#E.
34.6 of 8
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1oob 100
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8 NOILVLS LV SHILLINIIVS
BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.
I.—FISHES.
By E. W. L. Horr anp L. W. Byrne.
II.—_AMPHIPODA AND ISOPODA.
By W. M. TatrERsatu.
IIT.—PYROSOMA.
By G. P. Farran.
I.— FISHES.
By E. W. L. Horr anp L. W. Byrne.
1. Himanrotopuus Rurruarptt, Liitken.
Plates I. and II.
Tue genus Himantolophus, Rheinhardt, may he characterized as
follows :
Ceratiide of stout and somewhat compressed form, with relatively
enormous heads and minute eyes. Spinous dorsal represented by a
single stout, club-like tentacle, folding backwards into a groove, and
bearing at its tip two short digitiform processes and numerous simple
or branching thong-like appendages. Soft dorsal and anal fins, short,
only separated by a short interval from the caudal. Epidermis thick
and rugose, with scattered bony plates, each with a roughly circular
base and short central spine; similar but smaller plates thickly
scattered over the dorsal tentacle.
This genus was originally founded by Rheinhardt (1837) for the
reception of a fish nearly 2 feet in length, found in 1833, cast up
upon the coast of Greenland after a heavy storm. This specimen had
been partially eaten by gulls and crows, and was half decomposed
before it came into the hands of Rheinhardt, who described it as
Himantolophus grenlandicus. Only the club-like tentacle of this
specimen appears to have been preserved.
A second specimen, 40 centimetres long, was picked up dead,
floating at the surface of the sea off the south coast of Greenland at
the end of 1876, and exhaustively described by Liitken (1878) as the
type of a new species, H. Rheinhardti. This species appeared to ditter
195 25—2
196 Fishes
from that described by Rheinhardt (1837) in having a comparatively
deeper body, fewer thong-like appendages to the tentacle, and five rays
in the soft dorsal, and seventeen in the pectoral fin, as against nine and
twelve mentioned by Rheinhardt.
Gill (1878), on the strength of these differences, proposed to refer
Liitken’s species to a separate genus, Corynolophus, but his proposal
has never found any favour outside the United States.
A third specimen, 20-7 centimetres long, was captured off the coast
of the Westman Isles, near Iceland, in 1886, and examined by Liitken
(1887), who identified it as a young example of H. Rheinhardti.
A fourth specimen, 41 centimetres long, was captured alive in a
trawl in 80 to 90 fathoms of water, fourteen miles from Nazareth on
the west coast of Portugal (a short distance north of the Burlings) in
1892, and was examined and described by Girard (1893). This fish
had lost its tentacle (cut off by the captors) before it came into
Girard’s hands, but was otherwise in good condition, and appears to
have very closely resembled Liitken’s larger example and that next
described. Girard suggested that H. grenlandicus and H. Rheinhardti
might well be synonyms for the same species, a question to which we
will revert later.
The fifth known example of this remarkable genus was captured
by the Silver Belle in March, 1906, while trawling in 20 to 25 fathoms
of water close to the east of Gibraltar. This specimen is smaller
than Liitken’s first specimen or Girard’s, but agrees with them in all
essential particulars. It is unfortunately somewhat distorted from
beig preserved in too small a receptacle.
The history of the genus may be completed by adding that Liitken
tentatively referred to it some very young specimens taken at the
surface of the South Atlantic; but the generic identity of these
specimens is open to so much doubt that we leave them out of con-
sideration in discussing the probable habits and habitat of these fishes.
A brief description of the specimen taken by the Silver Belle
follows :
Form stout and somewhat compressed ; greatest depth of body
Fishes 197
some way in front of pectorals, and (including the loose skin of the
belly, the original contour of which cannot now be ascertained) about
three-quarters of total length, exclusive of mandible and caudal fin ;
depth of caudal peduncle about one-fifth of greatest depth of body.
Head very large and stout ; its length (measured from end of
premaxilla to branchial opening) about five-eighths of total length
(measured as above), and equal to its depth at parietal spines. Eye
minute, about twenty-four times in head, and five times in preorbital
length. Greatest width of head between extremities of jaws, some-
what more than half its length, and about one and a half times the
distance between the parietal spines. Distance between eyes about
one and a half times preorbital length.
Tentacle club-shaped ; length of its stem equal to length of its
longest filament, and about twice distance between parietal spines ;
digitiform processes less than one-fifth of length of stem. Thong-
like filaments, nine in number.
Soft dorsal fin with five rays, originating about four-fifths of the
distance from end of premaxilla to origin of caudal. Anal with
four rays originating six-sevenths of the distance from end of pre-
maxilla to origin of caudal. Pectoral with fourteen rays.
Teeth hinged and of varying size, in two to four regular rows.
Colour uniform black ; membranes of unpaired fins dead white.
Tentacle black, paler at its tip and on basal parts of digitiform pro-
cesses. Upper parts of digitiform processes and thong-like filaments
black, with white tips.
Extreme length, 365 millimetres.
The principal measurements of this specimen are as follows :
Millimetres.
Extreme length (including mandible and caudal fin) ... 3865
Length (excluding mandible, but including caudal fin) 347
» (excluding mandible and caudal fin)... ado PASS)
Front of snout to branchial opening... ae sco LGD)
. e. origin of dorsal fin... ie sco | | DDR
” ” ” anal fin aD 4 te sa DRE
198 Fishes
Millimetres.
Greatest depth of body (including loose skin of belly)* 219
Depth of head at parietal ee (exclusive of loose skin
of belly) == ae fe ee Be LGW)
Depth of caudal peduretel sia ses Sue ea ite)
Length of snout to front of eye ... ah ae sae IO
itanetandtinal diameter of eye Be se 7
Width of head at mouth (outside jaws)... a8 pao a
5s ,, between parietal spines ... on Bs Oe
5 » between nostrils... iS xs eesti l
Length of stem of tentacle ae ae es wa, LDA
3 digitiform processes ... Aas ee Bae ey
s thong-like appendages bat ee ie ZA
The present occurrence serves to materially extend the recorded
horizontal range of H. Rheinhardti, but, unfortunately, adds nothing to
our knowledge of its normal habitat.
The species is only known from isolated specimens taken in coastal
waters or cast up upon the shore at widely scattered localities im the
North-East Atlantic. It is inconceivable that our records could be so
scanty were a fish of so striking and singular an appearance a normal
denizen of shallow water in the East Atlantic.
The well-defined Pediculate family of Ceratiide, to which Himan-
tolophus belongs, and of which it appears to comprise by far the
largest species at present known, had until lately, by the general con-
sensus of ichthyologists, been regarded, at any rate when adult, as
confined to very deep water, and its members have been termed by
Giinther and other authors following him ‘ Bathybial sea-devils.’
As already stated, Liitken obtained very small specimens of some
Ceratiids from the surface of the South Atlantic, and more recently
Dr. Brauer (1902) has stated that the Valdivia expedition ‘ has shown
with certainty in the case of all Ceratiide taken that they do not live
on the bottom of the sea, as was hitherto almost generally assumed,
1 These measurements will be found not to correspond with the dimensions
shown in the figure, in which the loose skin is represented in the moderately
distended condition apparently normal in life.
Fishes 199
but are pelagic. The exact records of captures of Ceratiids by the
Valdivia are given by Dr. Brauer (1906), and although these records
do not include Himantolophus, we regard his statement as probably
referable to that genus also on account of the anatomical peculiarities
below noted, which Himantolophus shares with most Ceratiids, and
as being perfectly consistent with all that is certainly known of
the members of this obscure genus. Accordingly, with the greatest
respect for many earlier authors, we are unable to regard Himantolo-
phus as a bathybial form, and prefer to consider it as a pelagic fish
normally living, perhaps not actually at the surface, but at any rate in
the upper strata of the ocean.
Our reasons for advancing this view are briefly as follows :
1. The apparently healthy condition of Dr. Wolfenden’s specimen
when taken in shallow water.
2. The somewhat compressed form, normally - formed pectorals,
and absence of ventrals, which contrast strongly with the depressed
form and geniculated pectorals of the allied but bottom-living
Lophiide. The loose skin of the abdomen strongly suggests a cor-
relation with a belly capable of being distended with air and acting
as a float, as in some pelagic Antennaride.
3. The known records, which are perfectly consistent with the
view that we have to deal with a pelagic Atlantic fish occasionally
carried shorewards by the easterly and northerly Atlantic drift.
Such an eastward or northward wandering of a pelagic species of the
Western Atlantic may be paralleled by the record from the Norwegian
coast of a specimen of Antennarius histrio, and by the arrival, on at
least two occasions, of shoals of Lirus perciformis following drifting
timber or wreckage on the Irish coast.
The impossibility of preserving Rheinhardt’s original specimen
makes the task of discussing the question of its specific identity
with the subsequently described specimens difficult. Girard (1893)
seems to have regarded all recorded specimens as referable to the
same species, and there is much to be said in favour of this
view.
200 Eshes
The differences stated to exist between H. grenlandicus and
Fi. Rheinhardti are briefly as follows :
1. The considerably deeper body in the latter species. To this
we can attach but little importance, as the degree of distension of the
loose skin of the belly is a very material factor, and Rheinhardt’s
specimen was half decomposed.
2. The dorsal fin rays, stated by Rheinhardt to have been nine, and
five in all other examples. Girard points out that the four posterior
bifid rays might well have been reckoned as two each by Rheinhardt in
a damaged specimen.
3. The pectoral rays, stated by Rheinhardt to have been twelve in
his example, and by Liitken and Girard to be seventeen in theirs ; in
Dr. Wolfenden’s specimen the number is thirteen. Even apart from
this recorded range and the bad state of Rheinhardt’s specimen, we are
not inclined to attach much importance to this difference.
4. The number of tentacular appendages—eleven in Rheinhardt’s
specimen, and eight and seven respectively in Liitken’s. Girard’s
example had lost its tentacle ; Dr. Wolfenden’s has nine such appen-
dages. It seems to us that the exact number of these appendages
cannot under the circumstances be regarded as a specific character.
It must be remembered that the reference of all known specimens
to a single species, however probably correct, rests upon inference
alone; and it seems better to us to retain Liitken’s name for the
specimens with five rays in the soft dorsal, and with a body whose
depth is contained one and a half times or less in its length (with-
out caudal fin or mandible), while confining Rheinhardt’s HZ. gren-
landicus to specimens (should any be found) with nine rays in the soft
dorsal, and with a body whose depth is contained more than twice in
its length.
REFERENCES.
Brauer (1902), Zool. Anzeig., xxv., No. 668.
Brauer (1906), ‘ Valdivia Deep-Sea Fishes.’
Gill (1878), Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1878, 219.
Girard (1893), Boulet. Socied. Geogr. Lisboa, Ser. 11, No. 9.
Liitken (1878), XK. D. Vid. Selsk. Shr., 5th Ser., xi. 320.
Liitken (1887), A. D. Vid. Selsk. Skr., 6th Ser., iv. 325.
Rheinhardt (1837), A. D. Vid. Selsk. Afhand., 74.
Fishes 201
2. Seuatina AcuLEata, Cuvier.
Plate III.
S. aculeata* (E. Dumeril, MSS., 1804), Cuvier, ‘ Le Regne Animal,’
2nd edit., 11. 394 (1829).
S. fimbriata,' Miiller and Henle, ‘ Plagiostomen,’ 101 and 192 (1839).
Rhina aculeata,* Aug. Dumeril ‘ Ichth. Générale,’ 1, 465 (1865).
Our friend Mr. C. T. Regan has suggested to us that a figure
and description of the specimen taken by the Silver Belle might
prove useful, as the species appears to be little known and constantly
confused with the common S. angelus or with Bonaparte’s S. oculata,
and we are unaware of any extant figure beyond the sketch of the
front part of the head given by Miiller and Henle (oc. cit., sub. nom.
S. fimbriata).
In this specimen, which is 36°5 centimetres long (excluding lobes
of caudal fin), the greatest breadth across pectorals is contained Just
over two and a half times, the greatest breadth across ventrals rather
more than three and a half times, and the length to the anus a little
over twice in the total length. Depth of body at origin of ventrals
four-fifths of its breadth, and at origin of its dorsal five-sixths of its
breadth.
The length of the head to the first gill opening is contained three
times in the length to anus, and about one and a half times in its own
greatest breadth. The snout is very blunt, and the distance from its
anterior point to the level of the spiracles is equal to the distance
between the spiracles or to the interorbital width. The longitudinal
diameter of the eyes is a little greater than their distance from the
level of the anterior point of the snout, and more than one-third of
the interorbital width.
The anterior narial flaps are each divided into two fringed processes,
with a third small and inconspicuous distal process, and the posterior
1 These descriptions appear to refer to the present species only. We can find
no other description in which this species is not confused with either S. angelus or
the S. oculata of Bonaparte.
26
202 Fishes
narial flaps are divided into a larger proximal and smaller distal
fringed process. From the nostrils a skinny flap extends along the
sides of the head, and is broadened opposite the corners of the mouth
into two rounded processes.
The pectoral and ventral fins have slightly convex anterior margins
very slightly concave outer margins, and are pointed posteriorly. The
claspers are very small. The dorsal fins are subequal in size, and the
lower lobe of the caudal fin is the longer.
The spines on the head are small but sharp; they form orbital
series of five, the first and last spines of each series being respectively
in front and behind the orbit: two spines occur on each side of the
snout internal to the nostrils. There is a vertebral series of compara-
tively large and sharp backwardly directed spines—twenty-six between
the pectoral girdle and the first dorsal fin, three and two small lateral
spines between the dorsal fins, and three small spines behind the
second dorsal fin. The dermal covering as a whole is rough, but
without any very conspicuous asperities.
Colour impossible to ascertain, but apparently greenish-grey in
life, with small faint darker spots on the fins and sides of the head and
tail dorsally, and dead white ventrally.
Length, 36°5 centimetres’ (including lower lobe of caudal, 38 centi-
metres). Probably attains a far larger size.
Locality, Mediterranean, off Malaga, 300 fathoms. Previously
recorded from the Mediterranean.
It is probable that the characters of S. aculeata undergo some
change with growth; but the specimen described above is easily
distinguished from S. angelus of comparable size by the difference in
the dermal armature. The general dorsal surface is much rougher
in S. angelus by reason of the larger size of the asperities, which are
pointed and closely set, while the spines of the head and back are not
very much larger than the surrounding asperities at any period of life.
In a S. angelus of 240 millimetres, presumably new-born, the spines of
1 The specimen is somewhat distorted by careless preservation, and may in life
have been a few millimetres longer or shorter.
Fishes 2038
the middle line in front of the first dorsal are more conspicuous than in
older specimens. They are about thirty-six in number, and relatively a
good deal smaller than in S. aculeata of 365 millimetres. In S. angelus
of 375 millimetres these spines are relatively smaller than in the younger
stage, hardly conspicuous, and very much smaller than in our S. aculeata,
which is of practically the same length. Head spines can be detected
in S. angelus of 240 and 365 millimetres, but grade insensibly into the
surrounding asperities. The nasal flaps are probably variable in both
species, and form no safe guide for distinction. Normally they seem to
be tucked away out of sight. S. angelus, at 365 millimetres, is somewhat
more massive in appearance than S. aculeata, and differs a little in
some of its proportions. The width across the pectorals is contained
less than twice, across the ventrals about three and a half times in the
total length ; the length of the head is less by about one-third than
its greatest width, and occupies about one-third of the distance between
snout and anus. The eye is smaller than in S. acu/eata,! its length
being equal to distances separating it from the spiracle and from the
anterior margin of the head directly in front of it, and is only about
one-fourth of the interorbital width. The latter is equal to the distance
from the snout to a line joining the spiracles, but is a little less than
the distance between the spiracles. The hind margins of the pectorals
are broadly rounded in S. angelus, not more or less pointed, as in
S. aculeata.
We are not acqnainted with larger specimens of S. aculeata.
1 We are not in a position to affirm or deny the specific distinction of
Bonaparte’s S. oculata from S. angelus. The former species is said by him to have
the eye larger than in his S. angelus, from which it does not otherwise appear to
differ in any important respect of which the author took note. It appears to have
lacked both the vertebral spinulation and pointed pectorals of 8. aculeata.
26—2
204 Fishes
3. List or Fisaes taken By Dr. R. N. Wonrenpen in Derr WATER
IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF THE STRAITS OF GIBRALTAR.
We have already discussed the most interesting outcome, ichthyo-
logically, of Dr. R. N. Wolfenden’s early spring cruise in the Si/ver
Bell in the neighbourhood of the Straits of Gibraltar. The few other
fishes captured in shallow water are of no particular interest, but it
seems worth while to put on record those taken in deeper water, as
such a list may be of interest to future workers in the same region.
We have added a few notes on some of the more interesting species,
and for the purposes of this paper have treated the hauls made in the
Atlantic and Mediterranean separately.
A. MEDITERRANEAN.
Four deep-water hauls were made on the Mediterranean side of the
Straits of Gibraltar, as follows :
1. February 7, 1906. Off Cape Baba, Morocco - - 300 fathoms
Q, - gx Off Malaga = - = BO ,,
3. a wall OF Mies Off Malaga : - 280-300 _,,
4, pe (oye Off Marbella : : = KOO 5.
The following species were captured :
ScYLLIID”®.
bo
Pristiurus melanostomus, Raf. - Station
SQUATINID &.
Squatina aculeata, Cuvier - - Station 2.
Ravp»#.
Raia oryrhynchus, L. Bonaparte Station 2.
STOMIATID A.
Stomias boa, Risso - - - - Stations 1 and 4.
Gonostoma microdon (2), Gthr.. - - Station 4.
The specimen is too damaged for certain identification.
ScoPELip»®.
Scopelus glacialis, Rheinhardt. - - Station 4.
Fishes 205
The capture of examples of this species, 29 to 39 millimetres long
(without caudal fin), considerably extends its known horizontal range,
which did not previously include the Mediterranean. Although full
records of the temperatures of the strata in which this species has
occurred are not available, its range with regard to latitude appears
to be worthy of remark, and is nearly, if not quite, as wide as that of
the pelagic Schizopod Meganyctiphanes norvegica. ‘The specimens
are damaged, but there seems no doubt of their specific identity.
Fragments of a smaller Scope/us from Station 4 and a badly damaged
specimen from Station 1 are not improbably referable to the same
species.
Macrusip&.
Macrurus celorhynchus, Risso Stations 2 and 3.
GADID®.
Molva elongata, Risso — - - - Station 3.
Phycis blennioides, Briinn Station 3.
CaPROID&.
Capros aper, L. - - - - Stations 3 and 4.
Also taken in shallow water off Malaga, where its vertical range
appears to extend at least from 40 to 300 fathoms. Probably, as
in the English Channel and in the Mediterranean off Marseilles, it
also ranges into soundings of considerably less than 40 fathoms.
TRIGLID&.
Peristedion cataphractum, Li. - - Station 3.
The two specimens taken appear to be male and female, the former
having the longest filament of the spinous dorsal extending nearly to
the end of the base of the second dorsal, while in the latter it only
reaches the origin of the fifth ray of that fin. The greater conver-
gence of the rostral spatule in the male appears to be an individual
rather than a sexual character.
LopuHtiIp”®.
Lophius budegassa, Spinola — - - Station 2.
206 Fishes
B. ATLANTIC.
Ten hauls were made in deep water, eight of them off the south
coast of Portugal, and two of them to the west of Cape Spartel :
1. March 19, 1906. Off Cape St. Vincent - - 300 fathoms
Q). eA As Twenty miles south by east of Care St.
Vincent - - - - 266-280 __,,
OR a Bate Os ei ‘Twenty-two miles south-south-east of
Lagos Bay - : = 3879 =
4, Ns pee eOsee 953 West- coh west of Cape St. Mee - 321-360 ,,
5. Atte 2 Osea Eighteen miles south-east half south of
Cape St. Mary - - 350,
6. 5 eS aa Twenty-six miles south-east (or aie east
by south) of Cape St. Mary - = 308s,
Piss piece eee tod South-east of Cape St. Mary = 2 200. —_,,
8. ue Bosca South-south-east of Cape St. Mary - 310). 5
9, April 4, Forty-six miles west of Cape Spartel E A 3
NO oes Dees Thirty-one miles west-south-west of Cape
Spartel - - - - 187-200 __,,
The following species were captured :
SQUALID ®.
Spinax niger, L. - : - Station 6.
Ramps.
Raia clavata, L. : - : - Station 7.
Raia, sp. - - - - - Station 8.
This is a very small ray, measuring 35 millimetres across the disk,
and 74 millimetres in total length. The umbilical sac, however, has com-
pletely disappeared. The disk is broadly rounded at its lateral edges
and in front. The tip of the rostrum appears as a minute papilla in a
slight resilient depression of the anterior contour. There is a slight
incurvature of the margins opposite the eyes, separating anterior and
lateral prominences of the general outline. The shape of the disk,
therefore, approaches that of Bonaparte’s figure of R. radu/a,! but the
latter has the anterior margin more truncate and the lateral margins
less rounded. =
1 ¢Teon. Fauna Ital., iii., Pesce.
Pishes 207
The eyes are relatively large, about as long as the width of the
interorbital space, and about two and a half in the preoral length.
There is a spine in front of, and a group of three spines behind, each
eye. On the shoulder region are two spines in the middle line and
one on either side. A median row of spines extends from behind the
shoulder to the first dorsal fin. The whole of the dorsal surface of
disk and tail is set with small asperities. The ventral surface is smooth.
The dorsal surface is brown, speckled with larger and smaller
black spots. On the tail such larger spots form several more or less
definite transverse bands. There is a pale spot on each side, just
external to the branchial region and opposite to the anterior spine of
the shoulder region.
The teeth are relatively large, few in number, and obtuse.
‘The specimen appears from its small size, and from the absence of
any trace of the umbilical sac, to belong to a very small species. Its
characters, however, are too juvenile to be of much good for specific
determination without comparison with a series of older stages.
NARCOBATID&.
Torpedo nobiliana, Bonaparte - - Station 10.
CHIMARIDA.
Chimera monstrosa, lL. - - - Station 6.
STOMIATID&.
Chauliodus Sloani, Bl. and Sch. - ¢ Station 1.
An almost perfect specimen, 116 millimetres in length, u nfortunately
distorted by careless bottling. There is a thin, colourless epidermis,
similar to that of Stomias, more or less stripped off as a continuous
membrane ; the underlying scales have an opalescent lustre, while the
body pigment is dark brown or black. The dorsal filament extends
nearly to the adipose fin.
ANGUILLID®.
Conger vulgaris, Cuvier - 8 as Station 9.
This record, 417 fathoms, is the deepest of which we are aware
for an adult of this species.
208 Fishes
Macrurip 2.
Macrurus celorhynchus, Risso - Stations 2,4 and 9.
M. levis, Lowe - - - Stations 5 and 6.
M. equalis, Gthr. - : - Stations 2 and 9.
GADID&.
Station 10.
Station 3.
Merluccius vulgaris, Cuvier
Phycis blennioides, Briinn
Mora mediterranea, Risso - Station 9.
Gadus argenteus, Guich - - Stations 5, 6, and 10.
BERYCID&.
Station 9.
Trachichthys mediterraneus, C. and V.
ACROPOMATID &.
Station 9.
Epigonus ( Pomatomus) telescopus, Risso
SPARID”.
Dentex macrophthalmus, Bloch - - Station 10.
Pagellus centrodontus, Delaroche — - - Station 4.
This observation extends the known vertical range of the common
sea-bream to at least 320 fathoms.
PLEURONECTID&.
Zeugopterus Bosci, Risso = Stations 3, 6, and 10.
fo) } b) p) p)
The Zeugopteri taken by the Silver Belle do not all possess the
black spots on the dorsal and anal fins usually found in this species,
but have the shape of Z. Bosci rather than of Z. megastoma. Specimens
from the Bay of Biscay, regarded by one of us as Z. megastoma, had the
shape of shallow-water representatives of that species. In the Irish
deep-water collections the unspotted examples are shaped similarly to
shallow-water Z. megastoma, and the spotted examples show some
distinction in shape from South European Z. Bosci. If the two
species are really distinct, their definition requires more care than has
been hitherto bestowed upon it.
Solea profundicola, Vaill Station 8.
GM Woodward del
Himantolophus
By
7
einhardti ax
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ih
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GM.Woodward del ‘i 3 |
Himantoloy
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pe
1s Reinhardati.
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Fishes 209
ScorP#NID A.
Scorpena dactyloptera, Delaroche - Stations 4, 5, 6, and 9.
SS SCR, Si. = - - - - Station 10.
The larger of the two specimens, 260 millimetres in length, belongs
to Lowe’s var. obesa.
Lori”.
Lophius budegassa, Spinola - ‘Stations 5 and 6.
The species is, therefore, not actually confined to the Mediter-
ranean.
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
Prare I.
Himantolophus Rhemhardti.
Lateral view - - = 5 x ae
Prater II.
Himantolophus Rheinhardti.
Anterior view : 5 = : a Bourse
Tentacle = = = - slightly magnified.
Prare III.
Squatina Aculeata - : : - = >
nw
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Vhs ao
Il. AMPHIPODA AND ISOPODA, WITH DESCRIPTIONS
OF TWO NEW SPECIES.
By W. M. Tarrersatt, M.Sc.
Durie the examination of a small collection of Amphipoda and
Isopoda made by Dr. Wolfenden in the course of various cruises in
the eastern part of the Atlantic, between the Faeroe Islands and the
Azores, the two new species here described were met with. They
are both deep-water forms of great interest, the Amphipod of true
bottom-haunting habits, the Isopod more probably belonging to the
bathypelagic fauna of the ocean.
In addition to these new forms, several interesting species, which,
however, do not call for more than brief notice here, were found in
the collection. Among the Amphipoda may be mentioned a remark-
ably fine specimen of Mimonectes Loveni,! Bovallius ; two examples of
Lyceopsis Lindbergi,? Bovyallius, a species not taken again since its
description by Bovallius in 1889° ; Aatius obesus,t Chevreux, recently
described® from the collections of the Prince of Monaco, and since
rediscovered in deep water off the west coast of Ireland®; and a
magnificent specimen of C£diceros saginatus,’ Kroyer, measuring
26 millimetres, a length 6 millimetres in excess of that given for the
species by G. O. Sars in his work on the ‘Amphipoda of Norway.’
Among the more noteworthy of the Isopoda may be noticed Arcturella
1 Lat. 43° 57’ N., Long. 10° 19’ W., September 8, 1904, open net, 4 fathoms.
2 Lat. 45° 6 N., Long. 18° 14’ W., July 29, 1904, open net, 5 fathoms.
3 Bih. K. Svensk. Vet. Akad. Hand., Bd. 11, No. 16, Stockholm, 1887.
4 Lat. 44° 5’ N., Long. 20° 34° W., 1904, surface.
Bull. Mus. Océan. Monaco, No. 35, 1905.
Tattersall, ‘ Fisheries, Ireland, Sci. Invest.,’ 1905, iv. (1906).
Lat. 59° 18’ N., Long. 8° 30’ W., 1903, 460 fathoms, closing-net.
210
To Oo
Amphipoda and Isopoda 211
dilatata G. O. Sars ; Cirolana Hanseni,? Bonnier (both recent additions
to the British and Ivish fauna).; MJetamunna typica,? Tattersall, a
recently described* form from the west coast of Ireland; and
Hurycope latiuostris,> G. O. Sars, from two new British localities.
Tam greatly indebted to Dr. Wolfenden for entrusting this collec-
tion to my charge, and have much pleasure in associating his name
with one of the new species here described.
AMPHIPODA.
Family, Lystanassipm. Genus, Anonyx, Kroyer.
ANonyx WOLFENDENI, sp. nov. (Plate IV., Figs. 1-17.)
Locality.—at. 39° 53’ N., Long. 26° 32’ W., 1904. Dredge,
600-700 fathoms.
Body moderately slender and slightly compressed laterally ; com-
bined length of the metasome and urosome slightly greater than that
of the cephalon and mesosome.
Cephalon shorter than the first segment of the mesosome ; rostrum
almost obsolete ; lateral lobes not prominent, the margin of the head
between the bases of the superior and inferior antenne being, in fact,
practically straight.
First segment of the mesosome longer than any of the remainder ;
third, fourth, and fifth segments, subequal in length, slightly shorter
than the second, and a little longer than the subequal sixth and seventh
segments ; coxal plates more or less closely resembling those of the
other species of the genus.
* Twenty-five miles north-north-west of Butt of Lewis, August 16, 1902, 80
fathoms.
* Lat. 39° 53’ N., Long. 26° 32’ W., 1904, 600-700 fathoms, dredge.
* Twenty - five and forty-five miles north-north-west of Butt of Lewis,
August 16, 1902, 80 and 110 fathoms.
+ «Visheries, Ireland, Sci. Invest.,’ 1904, ii. (1905).
> Twenty-seven miles north-north-west of Rona, August 15, 1902, 120 fathoms ;
twenty-five miles north-north-west of Butt of Lewis, August 16, 1902, 80 fathoms.
27—2
212 Amphipoda and Isopoda
Third segment of the metasome (Plate IV., Fig. 1), with the
posterior lateral angle obtusely rounded.
Eyes apparently quite absent.
Superior antenna (Plate VI., Fig. 3) about equal in length to the
head and the first two segments of the mesosome combined ; peduncle
rather stout, equal in length to the head, first jot longer than the
remaining two taken together ; flagellum nearly three times as long as
the peduncle, composed of thirteen joints—the first joint equal in
length to two-sevenths of the whole flagellum, and bearing two rows
of sensory sete ; accessory flagellum about half the length of the
main flagellum, composed of six joints, the first of which is slightly
longer than one-third of the whole accessory flagellum. There is a
single rather prominent and strong seta at the lower distal corner of
the first joint of the main flagellum.
Inferior antenna (Plate IV., Fig. 4) extending to about the level
of the tip of the superior, and, therefore, as a whole, somewhat longer
than the latter ; rather slender; peduncle armed with a few scattered
sete, and having the fifth joint longer than the fourth ; flagellum
equal in length to the peduncle, composed of seventeen joints.
Epistome (Plate IV., Fig. 2) remarkably prominent, projecting
almost entirely in front of the head (Plate IV., Fig. 2), as a large
compressed, linguiform, rounded lobe, overhanging the anterior lip in
front.
Mandibles (Plate IV., Figs. 5 and 6) robust ; cutting edge with a
single small spine at the internal extremity, and a small tooth at the
other end, otherwise smooth ; molar process well developed ; between
the latter and the cutting edge there is a row of setx, among which are
to be found three or four strong simple spines ; palp elongate and
slender, arismg at about the same level as the molar tubercle ; third
joint only half the length of the second, and bearmg about fourteen
long simple sets, while the second joint has about eleven sete on the
distal part of its inner margin ; the left mandible bears, in addition,
near to the cutting edge, a short, stout, blunt, and slightly recurved
cylindrical spine.
Amphipoda and Isopoda 213
First maville (Plate 1V., Fig. 7) with the imner plate much shorter
than the outer, and armed at its apex with two plumose sete, the outer
of which is remarkably stout and very densely hirsute ; outer plate
armed at the apex with eleven strong spines, seven of which are longer
and stouter than the rest, and bear numerous small spinules, the remain-
ing four expanding somewhat towards the tip, which bears few rather
coarse teeth ; palp, two-jointed, extending slightly beyond the apex of
the outer plate, the second joint expanding somewhat towards the
extremity, which is armed with eight short, stout, distinctly articulated
spines, in addition to a small tooth at the inner distal corner, its inner
margin, at some distance from the apex, bearing two slender teeth.
Second maville (Plate EV., Fig. 8) with both plates rather broad,
the inner rather shorter than the outer, their apices armed with a row
of strong plumose sete and numerous fine hairs.
Mawillipedes (Plate IV., Fig. 9) with the inner lobe very well
developed, quadrangular in shape, its inner margin armed with six long
sete, a single small spine and a few short sete present on its inner
corner ; outer lobe large and expanded, reaching to the distal end of
the second joint of the palp, its inner border finely crenulated through-
out ; palp well developed and rather stout, four-jointed, with numerous
setze on its inner edge.
First gnathopods (Plate IV., Fig. 10) moderately robust and distinctly
subchelate ; basal jot about as long as the remainder of the limb, and
armed with numerous setz on its anterior border ; carpus longer than
the propodus, and somewhat expanded, armed with numerous lone
set on its inner edge; propodus quadrangular in shape, narrowing
very slightly towards the nail, the palmar edge slightly and finely
serrated and bearing two long prominent spines on the corner, as well
as a few long setx ; nail longer than the palmar edge, with a small
secondary spine on its inner margin.
Second gnathopods (Plate IV., Fig. 11) longer than the first, very
slender ; carpus longer than the propodus ; the latter, with the nail,
forms a minute chelate extremity to the limb; both propodus and
carpus with the usual fringe of fine hairs on both margins, and numerous
214. Amphipoda and Isopoda
long sete on the inner edge only, and also at the extremity of the
propodus.
Third and fourth pairs of legs (Plate IV., Fig. 12) of similar
structure, rather slender; basal joint about equal in length to the
two succeeding joints combined ; merus longer than either the carpus
or propodus ; latter longer than the carpus ; nail rather more than one
quarter of the length of the propodus ; the whole limbs armed with
numerous long and short sete on their posterior margins, but no
spines.
Seventh pair of legs (Plate IV., Fig. 13) long and slender ; basal
joint greatly expanded, longer than wide, with a row of short slender
spines on its anterior border ; carpus about one and a half times as
long as the merus ; propodus equal in length to, but narrower than,
the carpus ; nail rather more than one-quarter of the length of the
propodus ; the last three joints with a row of slender, short spines,
and numerous sete on their anterior border.
First pair of uropods (Plate LV., Fig. 14) with the peduncle longer
than the subequal rami, and bearing a raised ridge, armed with short
spines.
Second pair of uropods (Plate IV., Fig. 15) having the rami sub-
equal in length to each other and to the peduncle ; the inner ramus
with a marked constriction near the tip.
Third pair of uropods (Plate IV., Fig. 16) with the peduncle shorter
than either ramus ; inner ramus very slightly shorter than the outer,
both edges minutely pectinate, the inner edge with six spies and the
outer edge with four ; outer ramus with a small terminal joint, the
inner edge minutely pectinate, and bearing a row of very short spines,
the outer edge with a single spine at the extremity of the basal joint,
and one about halfway along its length.
Telson (Plate IV., Fig. 17) about one and a half times as long as
broad, deeply cleft for one-half of its length ; the apices of the lobes
of the cleft bear a small spine and two short setz ; there is a single
spine on the dorsal surface of each lobe about the centre of the whole
length of the telson.
Amphipoda and Isopoda 215
Length of the single specimen, a female with incubatory lamelle,
and therefore presumably sexually mature, 9°5 millimetres from the
anterior border of the head to the tip of the telson.
The generic position of this species is at present a matter of some
doubt. Iam unable to speak with certainty as to the structure of the
branchial vesicles, and failing precision on this point, the species is
provisionally referred to the genus Anonyx, to which it, at any rate,
seems most closely allied. It differs from all the other species of the
genus in its less compact and more slender form, in the absence of
eyes, in the want of distinctly forwardly projecting lateral lobes to the
head, in the very prominent and projecting epistomal plate, and in the
rounded epimera of the third segment of the metasome. The form of
the head closely resembles that seen in the genus Cyclocaris, but the
structure of the first gnathopods is quite sufficient to exclude it from
that genus. The latter character would also seem to separate it from
the genus Tmetonyx} (= Hoplonyx, G. O. Sars), to which, however, its
mouth parts more closely approximate than they do to those of
Anonyx, though the differences from either genus are at most slight.
It would be hazardous to define a new genus for its reception in the
absence of definite information on the structure of the branchial
vesicles. In the meantime it appears to be distinct, specifically, from
all known species of either of the three genera, dnony.x, Tmetonyx,
or Cyclocaris. The species is named in honour of its discoverer.
Tsopopa.
Family, Jace.
Genus, XENURDGA, 720v.
The mouth parts in the single specimen of this new genus available
were not dissected, and, in the absence of information on this point,
the new genus may be defined as follows :
Body depressed, with the cephalon very small, and the metasome
distinctly narrower than the mesosome.
1 See Stebbing, ‘ Das Tierreich,’ 21 Lief., Amphipoda, i., Gammaridea, 1906, p. 73.
216 Amphipoda and LIsopoda
Eyes absent.
Superior antenne with a three-jointed peduncle.
Inferior antenne with a fine-jointed peduncle, flagellum greatly
elongated and many-jointed.
First three pairs of legs with the propodus smooth, cylindrical, not
expanded ; dactylus extremely strong, hooked, sharply curved in the
centre, and terminating in a darkened, very sharp point.
Last four pairs of legs moderately slender, successively increasing
in length, ischium provided with a posterior lobe ; dactylus hook-
shaped.
Pleopods consisting throughout of a pair of broad lamellee, provided
with sete all round.
Telson very small, leaving the pleopods quite uncovered, lingui-
form in shape, unarmed.
Uropods wniramous, consisting of short basal joint articulated
ventrally to the telson, and a terminal very long, stout spinous seta,
provided with numerous fine plumose sete.
This remarkable new genus anteriorly resembles the genus
Syscenus, Harger ; but the form of the telson, the uncovered pleopods,
and the unique and rather anomalous form of the uropods at once
separates it from all other known members, not only of the family
MHeide, but of the whole tribe Flabellifera.
XENUREGA PTILOCERA, gen. et sp. nov.
Locality.—Lat. 36° 18’ N., Long. 23° 53’ W., June, 1904. Closing-
net, 400 fathoms.
Body (Plate V., Fig. 1) rather slender and slightly depressed,
about four times as long as the greatest width of the mesosome ;
cephalon very small and triangular in shape, much narrower than the
first segment of the mesosome ; metasome rather more than one-third
of the total length of the body, much narrower than the mesosome,
the segments successively narrowing towards the posterior end.
Mesosome (Plate V., Fig. 1) with the first segment larger than
any of the succeeding ones, the remaining ones more or less subequal
WM. Taitlersall del.
o>
Tell, JOY
Lith. AnstvEAFurke,L ewpzig.
ndeni, sp.nov.
W.M. Tattersall del.
—— Seas oe = =
Nn
= = =<
rae
=
ee
Xenuraeqa ptilocera, qen et.sp.nov.
ee SJ i
PAR We
Lith. Anstv£AFunke, Leipzig.
Amphipoda and Isopoda 217
in length, but the posterior two narrower than any of the preceding ;
coxal plates well developed on all segments, those of the first segment
apparently fused to the segment anteriorly, but free posteriorly.
Metasome (Plate V., Fig. 1) with the epimeral plates well
developed, slightly produced posteriorly, with their hinder margins
broadly emarginate.
Hyes absent.
Superior antenne (Plate V., Figs. 1 and 2) not longer than the
cephalon plus the first segment of the mesosome ; peduncle three-
Jointed, the last joint the longest ; flagellum slightly longer than the
peduncle, and composed of eight joints.
Inferior antenne (Plate V., Figs. 1 and 2) about 22 millimetres in
length, longer than the body and yery slender ; peduncle five- Jointed,
the last joint the longest ; flagellum composed of more than seventy
Joints ; last two joints of the peduncle and the proximal half of the
flagellum ornamented profusely with numerous very long, delicate
plumose setze.
Mouth parts not examined, but judging from other characters of
the species, probably closely resembling those of the genus Syscenus.
First three pairs of legs (Plate V., Fig. 4) comparatively short
and very strong and stout, unarmed ; carpus quite small ; propodus
cylindrical, not expanded ; dactylus remarkably strong, hooked,
sharply curved at the centre, tip very sharp and darkened in
colour,
Fourth pair of legs (Plate V., Fig. 5) moderately slender ; ischium
with its outer distal corner produced into a lobe extending almost to
the centre of the merus and armed with four stout spines, a similar
spine on its inner distal corner ; merus longer and stouter than the
carpus, with two and one spines on its outer and imner distal corners
respectively ; carpus with two small spines on its inner edge and two
larger spines on its inner distal corner ; propodus long and narrow,
equal in length to the carpus and merus combined, armed with four
small spines on its inner edge ; dactylus moderately stout and slightly
curved ; a few long, fine plumose setz on the inner edges of the
28
218 Amphipoda and Isopoda
ischium, merus, and carpus, similar to those on the inferior
antenne,
Fifth to seventh pairs of legs similar in structure to the fourth, but
successively longer, so that the seventh pair of legs extend consider-
ably beyond the telson and up to about the level of the posterior
margin of the pleopods ; fifth pair of legs with the propodus slightly
less than the merus and carpus combined, and the latter longer than
the merus ; sixth pair of legs with the carpus one and a half times as
long as the merus, and only one-seventh less than the propodus ;
seventh pair of legs with the carpus but very little less than the
propodus, and still one and a half times as long as the merus.
Pleopods wholly uncovered by the telson, with the lamelle of all
five pairs narrowly oval in shape, and all setose on both margins,
including the inner lamellze of the first pair.
Telson (Plate V., Fig. 1) quite small, little more than twice as
long as the last segment of the metasome, and about as broad at its
base as long, linguiform in shape, truncate at the apex, its margins
suddenly narrowing at about one-third of the length of the whole
telson, unarmed.
Uropods (Plate V., Fig. 1) uniramous, consisting of a single
basal joint articulated ventrally to the telson, and about two-thirds as
long as the latter, and a terminal very stout and very long stiff
spinous seta, 11 millimetres in length, and ornamented along the
posterior three-quarters of its length with numerous long fine plumose
sete.
Length of the single specimen, 18 millimetres from the head to
the tip of the telson, 29 millimetres from the head to the tip of the
uropods ; inferior antenn, 22 millimetres long.
IT am unable to determine the sex of the type specimen. No
incubatory lamellz could be detected, nor, on the other hand, could
any trace of appendage be found on the inner lamelle of the second
pleopod.
The structure of the telson and uropods, and the exceedingly long
inferior antennz, with its beautiful decoration of delicate plumose sete,
Amphipoda and Isopoda 219
at once distinguish this species from all other Isopoda. The specimen
was caught in a closing-net lowered to 400 fathoms, at a depth of
over 1,000 fathoms, and the species is therefore presumably bathy-
pelagic in habitat.
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
Prare IY.
Anonyx Wolfendeni, sp. nov.
Fig. 1.—Posterior lateral angle of the third segment of the metasome.
» 2.—KEpistomal plate, with outline of the head to show amount of
projection.
» 3.—Superior antenna.
5, 4.—Inferior antenna.
55 9.—Oblique inside view of right mandible.
»» 6.—Mandibular palp.
> %.—First maxilla.
> 8.—Second maxilla.
» 9.—Maxillipede.
», 10.—First gnathopod.
», 11.—Second gnathopod.
», 12.—Fourth leg.
5, 13.—Seventh leg.
5,5 14,—First uropod.
»» 15.—Second uropod.
5, 16.—Third uropod.
» 17.—Telson.
Pirate V.
Xenurega ptilocera, gen. et sp. nov.
Fig. 1.—Dorsal view of whole animal.
»»5 2.—Peduncle of superior antenna.
> 3.—Peduncle of inferior antenna.
» 4.—First leg.
», 5.—Fourth leg.
ho
28—%
EERE BI 1 TT (90
I1].—PYROSOMA SPINOSUM, HERDMAN.
By Gerorcr P. Farran, B.A.
Turoucu the kindness of Dr. Wolfenden, I have had an opportunity
of examining two specimens of Pyrosoma, which had been taken by
his yacht, the Silver Belle, in February, 1906, off Cape St. Mary,
Portugal, at a depth of 200 fathoms.
Both of these apparently belong to Pyrosoma spinosum, which was
described by Herdman in 1888, from fragments of specimens taken by
the Challenger in the South Atlantic.
These specimens, like those taken by the Challenger, were captured
in the trawl, though possibly durmg the ascent of the net, and lead
one to suspect that the species lives at or near the bottom in deep
water, a fact which would account for the comparatively few records
—viz., two from the Challenger (Herdman, 1888), one from the
Talisman (Perrier, 1886), and one—a very young colony—from the
Helga (Farran, 1906). The two colonies were approximately equal in
size ; they were preserved in formalin, and were in excellent condition.
The one figured, from which the measurements were taken, measured
85 centimetres in length by 19 centimetres in circumference, but was
capable of a considerable amount of extension without rupture. The
walls were 6 millimetres in thickness throughout the greater part of
their length, but thickened considerably at the closed ventral end, and
thinning away round the common cloacal aperture. The whole colony
was tapered gradually to the closed end, which was rounded off bluntly.
The open end had an irregular aperture of almost the full width of
the colony. Its edges did not show any trace of lips or diaphragm,
220
Pyrosoma Spinosum, Herdman 221
but were thinned away and slightly contracted, the zooids being
continued to the extreme margin. The substance of the test is
gelatinous and rather firm to the touch, but easily torn. It is almost
colourless, but the whole colony has a reddish tinge, due mainly to the
colour in the stomach and intestine of the zooids.
The outer surface of the colony is covered with short, sharp spines,
each spine being situated ventrally to the oral aperture of an ascidio-
zooid, and sloping towards it. The spines are keeled ventrally and
laterally, and are about 1 millimetre in height. The imner surface
of the colony, as mentioned by Herdman, is smooth and glistening.
The ascidiozooids are scattered closely through the test in no
apparent order, the old and young being irregularly mixed together.
They are very readily detached from the test, a considerable number
falling out, through the internal aperture, every time the specimen
was handled.
The general appearance of the individual ascidiozooid is best
explained in the accompanying figure, drawn from a_ full-sized
individual. The prebranchial space is very small, but varies with the
amount of contraction. The cloacal space is small in full-grown
individuals, but in young zooids is considerably elongate, forming
almost one-third of the total length.
The oral aperture is usually very much contracted, and sometimes
apparently completely closed. It is fringed by a circle of tentacles,
about sixteen in number, irregular both in shape and size, and a single
long ventral tentacle rising from a cushion-like base. The ventral
tentacle is usually held vertically, projecting slightly from the mouth
opening, and is excluded when the mouth is completely closed. The
other tentacles are folded inwards.
The atrial opening is not circular, as is usual in Pyrosoma, but
pear-shaped, rounded above, and with the sides of the opening approxi-
mating for some distance below before they unite. This peculiar
arrangement seems to be due to the absence of muscle-fibres on
the ventral side of the opening, which allows the atriopore to split
o)
ventrally. The pear-shaped opening was, however, found in zooids
222 Pyrosoma Spinosum, Herdman
of only 2 millimetres in length, which had not penetrated the inner
wall of the test.
The musculature of the oral opening consists of a well-developed
sphincter, outside which run several more or less completely circular
muscle fibres. The atrial opening is not closed by a sphincter, but by
a horseshoe-shaped band of muscle, thinning away at each end.
The atrial muscle is placed much farther forward than is usual,
lying across the centre of the branchial sac. It consists on either side
of a hollow fusiform band, split externally for the greater part of its
length. It is much longer and more slender proportionately in the
young than in the old ascidiozooids. It lies in the thickness of the
body-wall. There are also two transverse muscle bands situated in
front of the branchial sac. The most anterior is situated between the
endostyle and the mouth opening, and consists of a broad transverse
ventral band of muscle, whose ends break up into fine branches in the
lateral body-wall. The other band is similar and similarly branched,
and lies slightly anterior to the dorsal ganglion.
The luminous organs are present as a patch of large circular
refractive cells, lying on either side of the body across the ciliated
band. There is a similar but smaller patch of cells on either side of
the atrial opening, which probably has a similar function.
The dorsal ganglion has been figured by Herdman. It gives rise,
with others, to two pair of easily-observed nerves, the posterior of
which run to the upper ends of the two atrial muscles, and the anterior
pair to the anal muscle, giving rise to branches on the way which
could not be traced.
The number of stigmata in a large ascidiozooid average about
forty, and the number of transverse bars about thirty. The relative
position of the stigmata and bars with reference to the oral aperture
and the cesophagus is rather unusual, as a line joing the two last
cuts across both stigmata and bars diagonally, while in the other species
of Pyrosoma such a line would be approximately parallel to the bars
and at right angles to the stigmata. This apparent distortion is due
to the wide distance which intervenes between the first of the dorsal
Pyrosoma Spinosum, Herdman 223
languets, which marks the point of attachment to the dorsal stolon in
young zooids, and the dorsal nucleus. In other species of Pyrosoma
the languets and the dorsal nucleus are closely approximated. The
number of languets is about twelve, of the usual form. The endostyle
is bent at an angle of about 140 degrees at its anterior third. The
stomach and gut are of a greenish-brown colour, the cesophagus being
bright red. They lie in the horizontal plane, the gut beimg folded
back laterally along the left side of the stomach.
The ovary was only observed in a few zooids. It contained a
single ovum; a testis was not found in any instance. The presence of
filaments running through the test, and putting into communication
the atrial muscles of separate zooids, has been noted by several
observers (Huxley, 1860; Seeliger, etc.). Similar fibres could be
seen in P. spinosum, and numerous acicular and fusiform cells, similar
to those composing the filaments, were evident, scattered irregularly
through the test and, much more densely, in the body-walls of the
zooids themselves.
It will be seen from the above remarks that P. spinosum differs
very markedly from all other members of the genus. The principal
differences may be summed up as follows :
Test processes situated ventral to the oral openings of the zooids.
Atriopore with the sphincter incomplete.
Anterior position of the atrial muscle.
Wide separation of dorsal ganglion and dorsal languets.
Lisr or AvrHoritiEs QUOTED.
Farran (1906), ‘On the Distribution of the Thaliacea and Pyrosoma in Irish
Waters, ‘ Fisheries, Ireland, Sci. Invest.,’ 1906, 7. [1906].
Herdman (1888), ‘Report on the Tunicata, Pt. iii.; Challenger Reports, Zool.,
vol. xxvii.
Huxley (1860), ‘On the Anatomy and Development of Pyrosoma,’ J'rans. Linn.
Soc. vol. xxiii., 1860.
Perrier (1886), ‘ Les Explorations Sous-marins’ (Talisman Expedition).
Seeliger (1895), ‘ Die Pyrosomen der Plankton Expedition,’ Bd. ii., E. b.
224 Pyrosoma Spinosum, Herdman
EXPLANATION OF PLATES
Prare I.
Pyrosoma spinosum. X2. From a photograph.
Ky
a.m., atrial muscle.
an., anus.
a.s., anal sphincter.
d.g., dorsal ganglion.
en., endostyle.
dan., languets.
dw., laminous organ.
g. 1.— Pyrosoma spinosum :
Fig. 2.— Pyrosoma spinosum :
Prate II.
lateral view of zooid.
oral aperture of zooid, from within.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
m., oral aperture.
0.8., oral sphincter.
ov., ovary.
st., stolon.
§., stomach.
t.m., transverse muscle.
v.t., ventral tentacle.
ERRATA.
On page 224, for Plate I read Plate VI.
for Plate II read Plate VII.
Pl. VI.
—
hd
Pyrosoma spinosum.
A. Funke, Leipzig.
Anstalt v. E.
Lith.
Pl, VII.
//} S35 5 Dif
Fig. 2.
Pyrosoma spinosum,
Lith. Anst. vy. E. A. Funke, Leipzig.
CRUISE OF THE ‘SILVER BELLE’ IN JULY AND
AUGUST, 1907.
FIsHes.
By E. W. L. Horr axnp L. W. Byrne.
Tue cruise is divisible into two sections. In the last half of July the
ship ran from Scealloway about north-west to the 100-fathom line,
and thence proceeded on a zigzag course in a general south-westerly
direction, fishing and taking physical observations at sixteen stations,
at soundings ranging from 107 to 550 fathoms, until she came north
of the Butt of Lewis.
The next section of the cruise occupied the first seventeen days
of August, and comprised six stations (17 to 22), at soundings of
144 to 385 fathoms, between 58° and 59° N. and 8° and 9° W., thus
continuing the first section to the south-west, at an interval of about
a degree of longitude, and on the farther side of the Wyville-
Thomson ridge. <A single station (25) was taken in shallow water
(72 fathoms), west of the Butt of Lewis, in the last week of August.
Dr. Wolfenden’s original design was to link up the numerous faunistic
observations which have been made in and about the Faeroe Channel
with those of the Irish coast, where the Atlantic slope has been pretty
thoroughly explored, down to 500 fathoms, from about 55° N. south-
wards. Incidentally it was intended to make a thorough exploration
of the grounds on which the Michael Sars in 1902 made a few hauls
with most interesting results. The weather appears to have been
about as bad as possible, and to have interfered greatly with the
efficiency of such operations as were possible, with the result that fish
were taken at only seven of the twenty-three stations.
225 29
226 Fishes of 1907 Cruise
We are indebted to Mr. Opie, who acted as naturalist during the
first section of the cruise, for very careful notes on the specimens
which came under his observation. During the rest of the cruise the
material was dealt with by Captain Buchan Henry.
So far as the fishes are concerned, the main interest lies in the
additional evidence afforded of the difference between the fauna of
the comparatively cold-water area lying to the north and east of the
Wyville-Thomson ridge and that of the warmer water which extends
southwards and westwards from that ridge.
The absence of any hauls from the immediate neighbourhood of
the actual ridge makes it impossible to say whether the species of fish
ordinarily found on either side of it are ever to be found in company
in its immediate neighbourhood, or whether the comparatively sudden
change of temperature forms a barrier which is not passed by fishes
which elsewhere have a range including both extremes. Among the
species taken by the Silver Belle, Sebastes marinus alone among
bottom-living forms was captured on both sides of the ridge, in
positive temperatures of 9°6° C. and 1°8° C. It is perhaps worthy of
remark that, while in the neighbourhood now under consideration
Cottunculus Thomsoni is found only in the warmer regions, in tem-
peratures of about 7° to 8° C., and C. microps only im the colder
region, in temperatures of about 0° to -2° C., yet both species have
been taken between Iceland and Greenland in temperatures of about
3°5° C. (Liitken, 1898) and between 3:9° C. and 7:7° C. in the Western
Atlantic by the Albatross.
The main interest, so far as the fishes are concerned, lies in the
fact that some hauls were made in the cold-water area lying to the
north and east of the Wyville-Thomson ridge, and others in the warm-
water area to the south and west of that ridge. The extraordinary
difference of the fish fauna of these two adjacent areas shows
most clearly the great influence of temperature—or, perhaps, more
accurately speaking, of a sudden change of temperature—upon the
distribution of even such active animals as fishes.
Of the fifteen species of fish taken by the Si/ver Belle in the warm
Fishes of 1907 Cruise 227
area, all but one (Sebastes marinus) occur at similar depths off the
west and south-west of Ireland; while of the six species (excluding
the pelagic Scopelus glacialis) taken in the cold area, not one is
known to occur off the Irish coast. The only species common to both
areas 1s Sebastes marinus.
Further, of all the fishes recorded from the cold area, not a single
bottom-living species, with the solitary exception above mentioned,
has been found south or west of the Wyville-Thomson ridge ; while
the numerous species which have been taken immediately to the
south or west of the ridge (again excepting Sebastes marinus) are all
known from the deep water of the Irish Atlantic slope or from the
Lusitanian region. |
Among the genera and species typical of the two regions, we may
mention: in the cold area, Lycodes, Lycodonus, Liparis Rheinhardti,
and Motella Rheinhardti; and in the warm area, Centrophorus,
Macrurus, Alepocephalus Criardi, Haloporphyrus eques, Synapho-
branchus pinnatus, and Epigonus telescopium.
Cases are even to be found of closely allied species each confined
to one area. Thus Cottunculus Thomsoni is found in the warm area
at a bottom temperature of about 7° to 8° C., and ranges south from
its northern boundary to the north-west coast of Africa; while
C’. microps oceurs in the cold area at a bottom temperature of about
0° to -2° C., and ranges northwards to the neighbourhood of Spitz-
bergen. Yet both these species have been taken at temperatures of
3°5° C. between Iceland and Greenland (Liitken, 1898), and at tem-
peratures between 3°9° C. and 7:7° C. by the Albatross in the Western
Atlantic, It is, therefore, quite probable that the difference in the
faunas of the two regions is in part rather due to the sudden change
in temperature than to the absolute difference. Some, however, of
the species of the cold area—e.g., Lycodes endipleurostictus and Lyco-
donus flagellicauda—are only known to occur at very low tempera-
tures ; while other species found in the warm area—for example,
Alepocephalus Criardi and Epigonus telescopium—are distinctly
warm-water fishes.
29—2
228 Fishes of 1907 Cruise
ScyLuip#.
Pristiurus melanostomus (Raf.).
Station 21. 58°19’N., 8° 51’ W. 191fathoms. Sand. Bottom
temperature, 9°6° C. One, 565 millimetres.
Raip#z.
Raia circularis (Couch—sensu_ stricto).
Station 19. 58° 28’ N., 8° 29’ W. 180 fathoms. Sand. One,
165 millimetres. (A .second skate, of about the same size, not
preserved, was probably of the same species. )
Station 21. 58°19’ N., 8°51’ W. 191 fathoms. Sand. Bottom
temperature, 9°6° C. One, young.
Raia nevus’ (Miiller and Henle).
R. miraletus (Couch, nec L.).
Station 23. 58° 49’ N., 6° 35’ W. 72 fathoms. Shells and sand.
One, 73 millimetres across disc, with well-marked ocelli.
The depth at which this specimen was taken is worthy of note, as
R. nevus is, in our experience, usually a littoral species not commonly
ranging beyond about the 40-fathom line.
ScoPELID ®.
Scopelus glacialis (Rheinhardt).
Station 8. 60° 18’ N., 4° 43’ W. 330 fathoms. Gravel and shells,
Two, 67 and 55 millimetres (without caudal fins), were brought up by
the dredge ; there was nothing to show at what depth they entered
the net.
MacrurIp&.
Macrurus levis (Lowe).
Station 19. 58° 28’ N., 8°29’ W. 180 fathoms. Sand. Two,
325 millimetres and 235 millimetres.
1 This is the only name which seems to us to have been jist applied to the
familiar cuckoo ray.
Fishes of 1907 Cruise 229
Station 21, .58> 197 N.. 8° ol W. 119i fathoms, Sand. Bottom
temperature, 9°6° C. One, 515 millimetres.
[Station 22. 58° 5’ N., 8° 46° W. 144 fathoms. Sand. Bottom
temperature, 9°5° C. Four Macrurus (not preserved) were probably
of this species. |
This widely-ranging species is apparently absent from the cold-
water area of the North Atlantic, as it was not met with either by the
Norwegian North Atlantic Expedition (Collett, 1880), Ingolf (Liitken,
1898), or Michael Sars (Collett, 1905), although abundant off the
southern part of the west coast of Ireland. With the exception of
two specimens found dead on the coasts of Norway and Denmark, the
above are the most northerly records known to us.
GADID®.
Gadus argenteus (Guichenot).
Station 21. 58° 197 N., 8°51’ W. 191 fathoms. Sand. Bottom
temperature, 9°6° C. One, 125 millimetres long.
Brosmius brosme (Miiller).
Stanionwe lees oce 20m INE SeZOn NV 1180) fathoms.) Sands One:
480 millimetres.
Station 21. 58° 19° N., 8° 51’ W.: 191 fathoms. - Sand. Bottom
temperature, 9°6° C. One, 610 millimetres, ca. (teste Buchan Henry).
Phycis blennioides (Briinnich).
Station 19. 58° 28’ N., 8° 29’ W. 180 fathoms. Sand. One,
315 millimetres, cw. (damaged).
Station 21. 58°19’ N., 8° 51° W. 191 fathoms. Sand. Bottom
temperature, 9°6° C. One, 430 millimetres, ca.
Station 22. 58° 5’ N., 8°46’ W. 144 fathoms. Sand. Bottom
temperature, 9°5° C. One (¢este Buchan Henry).
Motella Rheinhardti (Kroyer).
Station 9. 60° 4’ N., 5°47’ W. 495 fathoms. Bottom tempera-
ture, —0°8° C. One, 145 millimetres long.
1 We are indebted to Mr. C. I’. Ryan for kindly identifying this species.
230 Fishes of 1907 Cruise
Station 10. 60° 3’ N., 6° 24" W. 496 fathoms. Gravel, sand,
mud, shells, and stones. Bottom temperature, —0°1° C. Two, 115
and 135 millimetres long.
Mr. Opie notes the colours shortly after capture as pinkish-brown
or light brown, slightly darker dorsally, belly between anus and ventral
fins very dark ; pectoral, anal, and caudal fins pink, dorsal fin darker.
PLEURONECTIDA.,
Hippoglossoides platessoides (Fabricius).
Station 19. 58° 28’ N., 8° 29° W. 180 fathoms. Sand. One,
175 millimetres (perhaps others, which were not preserved).
Pleuronectes microcephalus (Donovan).
Station 23. 58° 49’ N., 6° 35’ W. 72 fathoms. Shells and sand.
Two, 115 and 103 millimetres.
Pleuronectes cynoglossus (L.).
Station 21. 58°19’ N., 8° 51’ W. 191 fathoms. Sand. Bottom
temperature, 9°6° C. Two, 235 and 230 millimetres.
Zeugopterus megastoma (Donovan).
Station 19. 58° 28’ N., 8° 29° W. 180 fathoms. Sand. One,
315 millimetres (perhaps others, which were not preserved).
Station 21. 58° 19’N.,8° 51” W. 191 fathoms. Sand. Bottom
temperature, 9°6° C. One, 225 millimetres, and (¢este Buchan Henry)
seven others up to 300 millimetres, ca.
Station 22. 58° 15’ N., 8°46’ W. 144 fathoms. Sand. Bottom
temperature, 9°5° C. Five (teste Buchan Henry).
Station 23. 58° 49’ N., 6° 35’ W. 72 fathoms. Shells and sand.
One, 150 millimetres.
The specimen from Station 23 was speckled with black more or
less all over the ocular side of the body and fins, and had a few larger
blotches on the body.
GoBriip”®.
Gobius Jeffreysii (Giinther).
Station 23. 58° 49’ N., 6° 35’ W. 72 fathoms. Shells and sand.
One, 50 millimetres.
Fishes of 1907 Cruise 231
SCORPANID A.
Scorpena dactyloptera (Delaroche).
Stationsliom no Om los Ne oslo Vel s20etathoms. “Greys sand:
Bottom temperature, 8:7° C. One, 285 millimetres.
Sebastes marinus (L.).
Station 8. 60°18’ N., 4° 43’ W. 330 fathoms. Gravel and shells.
Bottom temperature, 1°8° C. Two, 280 and 245 millimetres.
Station 21. 58°19’ N., 8° 51’ W. 191 fathoms. Sand. Bottom
temperature, 9°6° C. One, 240 millimetres.
Corrip®.
Cottunculus microps (Collett).
Station 10. 60° 3’ N., 6° 24’ W. 496 fathoms. Gravel, sand, mud,
shells and stones. Bottom temperature, —0-1°C. Ten specimens,
148 to 245 millimetres long.
One of the smallest specimens, 148 millimetres long, was a female
containing ripe ova, which were 4 millimetres in diameter. Collett
(1905) observed ova 4:5 millimetres in diameter in a female 195 milli-
metres long. The ova are evidently demersal, like those of Coétus, and,
in all probability, are similarly deposited in masses. Mr. Opie made
the following note of the colours of these specimens when freshly
caught : ‘The tail was light-coloured ; anterior to this was a brown
band, and in front of this another light band, including the dorsal and
anal fins ; then another brown band, followed by another light band, and
then a brown band extending to the operculum. In front of this
another light band extended nearly to the eye. The face was spotted
more distinctly in some specimens than in others ; the tip of the nose
was light in most cases, but not in all; there was a dark patch under
the eye. The belly was a bluish-white ; the under side of the pectoral
fin was very dark. The eye was bright bluish-green, with a bright
margin.’
The specimens show considerable variation in the occipital spines
or tubercles, which may be practically simple or bicornate or tri-
cornate.
232 Fishes of 1907 Cruise
C. microps occurs on muddy, sandy, gravelly, and stony ground, at
depths of from about 100 to 680 fathoms. It appears to be a distinctly
cold-water species, the highest temperature record being 7:7° C.
(Albatross), and the lowest —0°21° C. (Collett, 1905). On the eastern
side of the Atlantic it ranges as far north as the open sea south and
west of Spitzbergen, up to 80° N. (Collett, 1880), and as far south as
the cold area of the Faeroe Channel, where it has been taken by the
Knight Errant in 307 to 608 fathoms (Giinther, 1887), and by the Silver
Belle. It was not found by the Michael Sars in hauls south-west of
Faeroe and north-west of the Hebrides, where the bottom temperature
was about 8° C. (Collett, 1905), and has never occurred in the area
west of Ireland fished by the He/ga.
On the American side of the Atlantic the recorded range of
C’. microps extends as far north as Davis Strait (Liitken, 1895) and as
far south as 31° N. (Goode and Bean, 1895), the recorded temperatures
varying from 77° C. to 3°2° C.; the former temperature is consider-
ably higher than any at which the species is known to occur in the
Eastern Atlantic, where, however, it has been taken at 5°8° C. between
Teeland and Greenland.
Liparis Rheinhardti (Kroyer).
Station 10. 60° 3’ N., 6° 24’W. 496 fathoms. Gravel, sand, mud,
shells, and stones. Bottom temperature, —0:1° C. Three—62, 55, and
52 millimetres long.
When newly captured these fish were (este Mr. Opie) pink in
colour, with shiny bluish-white abdomens.
CALLIONYMID&.
Callionymus, sp.
Station 23. 58° 49’ N., 6° 35’ W. 72 fathoms. Shells and sand.
One very small specimen, 21 millimetres long.
Lycodes endipleurostictus (Jensen).
Station 10. 60°3’ N., 6° 24’ W. 496 fathoms. Gravel, sand, mud,
shells, and stones. Bottom temperature, —0:1° C. One, 115 milli-
metres long.
Fishes of 1907 Cruise 233
Mr. Opie noted the colour soon after capture as light brown, with
white vertical bands ; the fins darker in colour than the body ; abdomen
brilliant blue.
Lycodonus flagellicauda (Jensen).
Station 10. 60°3’N., 6° 24’ W. 496 fathoms. Gravel, sand, mud,
shells, and stones. Bottom temperature, —0:1°C. One, 234 milli-
metres long.
Mr. Opie noted the colour soon after capture as follows : ‘ Behind
the abdomen the body was a very pale French grey ; the abdomen
was a shiny brilliant blue.’
A widely distributed species, ranging from near Spitzbergen and
north of Iceland to the Faeroe Channel, at depths of from 460 to 1,000
fathoms—always in cold water, the recorded temperatures all lying
between —0-03° C. and —1-5° C. (see Jensen, 1904, and Collett, 1905).
STATIONS OF THE ‘SILVER BELLE, 1907.
Srarion 1,—July 12: 60° 44’ N., 2° 50’ W. 153 fathoms. Trawl. Nearly one
hour.
Sration 2.—July 12: 60° 47 N., 2° 55’ W. 280 to 300 fathoms. Bottom
temperature, 8° C. ‘Trawl, two hours, on its back.
Srarion 2 (continued).—Same locality. 300 fathoms. Trawl, one hour.
Sration 3.—July 13: 60° 46° N., 3° 36° W. ‘Temperature, —0-4° C. 451
fathoms. ‘Trawl, not on bottom.
Sration 3 (continued).—507 fathoms. Shingle. Bottom temperature, 0:4° C€.
Trawl.
Srarion 4,—July 14: ‘507 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 0:4° C. This entry
is probably wrong. The depth at station 4 appears from chart of cruise to
have been 550 fathoms. ‘'Trawl did not reach bottom, so any bottom animals
labelled station 4 must belong to station 3.
Sration 5.—July 14: 60° 15’ N., 4° 25’ W. 265 fathoms. Shingle. Bottom
temperature, 7° C. Trawl.
Srarion 5 (continued).—July 15: 60° 26 N., 4° 8’ W. 352 fathoms. Rough
ground. Bottom temperature, 1°8° C. Agassiz trawl.
Srarion 6.—July 16: 59° 55’ N., 4° 88° W. 97 fathoms. Rocks and stones.
Surface temperature, 11°4° C. Bottom temperature, 95° C. Dredge.
Sravion 7.—July 17: 60° 7 N., 4° 52’ W. 216 fathoms. Gravel and large
stones. Bottom temperature, 7° C. Dredge.
30
234 Stations of the «Silver Belle, 1907
Srarion 8.—July 17: 60° 18’ N., 4° 43° W. 330 fathoms. Gravel and shells.
Surface temperature, 10° C.; bottom temperature, 1°8° C. Dredge and trawl.
Sratron 9.—July 18: 60° 4 N., 5° 47° W. 495 fathoms. Surface temperature,
11° C.; bottom temperature, 08° C. Trawl.
Sratron 10.—July 19: 60° 3’ N., 6° 24 W. 496 fathoms. Gravel, sand, mud,
shells, and stones. Bottom temperature, 0:1° C. Agassiz trawl.
Sration 11.—July 20: 60° 4’ N., 6° 23’ W. 160 fathoms. Beam trawl.
Sration 12.—July 27: 60° 37’ N., 8° 10° W. 220 fathoms. Rocks and shingle.
Surface temperature, 10°6° C.; bottom temperature, 8° C. Otter trawl.
Srarion 13.—July 27: 60° 32’ N., 8° 8’ W. 357 fathoms. Rocks and shingle.
Surface temperature, 10°6° C. Otter trawl, when hauled, found to be broken.
Srarion 14.—July 28: 60° 13’ N., 8° 40° W. 760 fathoms. Mud. Plankton
net. Plankton was taken at the following depths :
Temperature.
Surface ... ee ee eas E32 @:
100 fathoms ac sas 6 88° C.
200 ,, = oe pi 8:3° C.
300, be es st 7-9° C.
400 ,, ae a ae 76° C.
HNO) gp aoe an sar 6°8° C.
600 sy Wh ate “es 6:2° C.
OOwesss ds ae ae 4°0° C,
Sration 15.—July 29: 60° 15° N., 8° 1’ W. 320 fathoms. Grey sand. Surface
temperature, 12°3° C.; bottom temperature, 8°7° C. Otter trawl.
Srarion 15 (continued).—Same locality. Agassiz trawl.
Sration 16.—July 31: 59° 17’ N., 7° 52’ W. 383 fathoms. Shingle. Surface
temperature, 11:4° C. ; bottom temperature, 88° C. Otter trawl.
Sration 17.—August 1: 58° 58’ N., 8° 14° W. 385 fathoms. Shingle. Surface
temperature, 11°6° C. Agassiz trawl.
Sration 18,—August 1: 58° 54’ N., 8° 30’ W. Gravel. Surface temperature,
12°C. Otter trawl.
Srarion 18 (continued).—Same locality. Dredge.
Sration 19.—August 2: 58° 28’ N., 8° 29° W. 180 fathoms. Sand. Otter
trawl.
Sration 20.—August 3: 58° 32’ N., 8° 28° W. 216 fathoms. Sand. Bottom
temperature, 9°4° C. Otter trawl. *
Srarion 20 (continued).—Same locality. Agassiz trawl.
Sration 21.—August 4: 58° 19’ N.,8° 51° W. 191 fathoms. Sandy. Bottom
temperature, 9°6° C. Otter trawl.
Srarion 22.—August 17: 58° 15° N., 8° 46° W. 144 fathoms. Sand. Bottom
temperature, 9°5° C. Otter trawl.
Station 23.—August 8: 58° 49’ N., 6° 35° W. 72 fathoms. Shells and sand
Agassiz trawl.
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