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THE SEA SHORE
THE OUT-DOOR WORLD SERIES.
THE OUT-DOOE WORLD ; or, the Young Collec-
tor's Handbook. By W. S. FURNEATJX. With 18 Plates
(16 of which are Coloured), and 549 Illustrations in the
Text. Crown 8vo, 6s. 6d. net.
FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS.
By "W. S. FCRNEAUX. With 8 Plates in Colour, and
numerous other Illustrations by PATTEN WILSON, and
from Photographs. Crown 8vo, 6s. 6d. net
BRITISH BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.
By W. S. FURNEAUX. With 12 Coloured Plates and 241
Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo, 6s. 6d. net.
LIFE IN PONDS AND STREAMS.
By W. S. FURNEAUX. With 8 Coloured Plates and 331
Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo, 6s. 6d. net.
THE SEA SHORE. By W. S. FCRNEAUX.
With 8 Coloured Plates and over 300 Illustrations in
the Text. Crown 8vo, 6s. 6d. net.
BRITISH BIRDS. By W. H. HUDSON.
With a Chapter on Structure and Classification by
FRANK E. BEDDARD, F.E.S. With 16 Plates (8 of
which are Coloured), and 103 Illustrations in the Text.
Crown 8vo, 6s. 6d. net.
LONGMANS, GREEN & CO., 39 Paternoster Eow, London, B.C.*
New York, Toronto, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras.
T 9S
THE SEA SHORE
BY
W. S. FURNEAUX
AUTHOR OF
' THE OUTDOOR WORLD ' ' BRITISH BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS '
' LIFE IN PONDS AND STREAMS ' ETC.
WJTU EIGHT PLATES Tit COLOUR
A.\D OVER THREE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS M THE TEXT
NEW IMPRESSION
LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO.
39 PATEENOSTEE EOW, LONDON, E.G. 4
NEW YOKK, TORONTO
BOMBAY, CALCUTTA AND MADRAS
1922
All rights reserved
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.
First published in September, 1903.
Re-issue at Cheaper Price, July, 1911.
New Impression, November, 1922.
in Great Britain
PBEFACE
To sea-side naturalists it must be a matter of great surprise
that of the inhabitants of our coast towns and villages, and of
the pleasure- seekers that swarm on various parts of the coast
during the holiday season, so few take a real interest in the
natural history of the shore. The tide flows and ebbs and the
restless waves incessantly roll on the beach without arousing
a thought as to the nature and cause of their movements.
The beach itself teems with peculiar forms of life that are
scarcely noticed except when they disturb the peace of the
resting visitor. The charming vegetation of the tranquil rock-
pool receives but a passing glance, and the little world of busy
creatures that people it are scarcely observed ; while the
wonderful forms of life that inhabit the sheltered nooks of
the rugged rocks between the tide-marks are almost entirely
unknown except to the comparatively few students of Nature.
So general is this apparent lack of interest in the things of the
shore that he who delights in the study of littoral life and
scenes but seldom meets with a kindred spirit while following
his pursuits, even though the crowded beach of a popular
resort be situated in the immediate neighbourhood of his
hunting ground. The sea-side cottager is too accustomed to
the shore to suppose that he has anything to learn concerning
it, and this familiarity leads, if not to contempt, most
certainly to a disinclination to observe clcsely ; and the visitor
from town often considers himself to be too much in need of
vi PREFACE
his hard-earned rest to undertake anything that may seem to
require energy of either mind or body.
Let both, however, cast aside any predisposition to look
upon the naturalist's employment as arduous and toilsome,
and make up their minds to look enquiringly into the living
world around them, and they will soon find that they are led
onward from the study of one object to another, the employ-
ment becoming more and more fascinating as they proceed.
Our aim in writing the following pages is to encourage the
observation of the nature and life of the sea shore ; to give
such assistance to the beginner as will show him where the
most interesting objects are to be found, and how he should
set to work to obtain them. Practical hints are also furnished
to enable the reader to successfully establish and maintain a
salt-water aquarium for the observation of marine life at home,
and to preserve various marine objects for the purpose of
forming a study-collection of the common objects of the
shore.
To have given a detailed description of all such objects
would have been impossible in a work of this size, but a large
number have been described and figured, and the broad
principles of the classification of marine animals and plants
have been given such prominence that, it is hoped, even the
younger readers will find but little difficulty in determining the
approximate positions, in the scale of life, of the various
living things that come within their reach.
Of the many illustrations, which must necessarily greatly
assist the reader in understanding the structure of the selected
types and in the identification of the different species, a large
number have been prepared especially for this work.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SEA SHORE . . 1
H. THE SEA-SIDE NATURALIST . . . . 21
in. SEA ANGLING . . . . . . .34
IV. THE MARINE AQUARIUM . . . . 51
V. THE PRESERVATION OP MARINE OBJECTS . . .71
VI. EXAMINATION OF MARINE OBJECTS DISSECTION . 91
VH. THE PROTOZOA OF THE SEA SHORE .... 102
VIII. BRITISH SPONGES . . . . . . 115
IX. THE COZLENTERATES — JELLY-FISHES, ANEMONES, AND THEIR
ALLIES ....... 127
X. STARFISHES, SEA URCHINS, ETC. . . . . 157
XI. MARINE WORMS ....... 172
XH. MARINE MOLLUSCS . . . . . . 190
Xm. MARINE ARTHROPODS ...... 256
XIV. MARINE VERTEBRATES . . . . . . 306
XV. SEA WEEDS ....... 343
XVI. THE FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE SEA-SIDE . . . 391
INDEX ......... 425
LIST OF COLOURED PLATES
Drawn by MR. EGBERT LILLIE and reproduced by
MESSES. ANDRE & SLEIGH, LTD., Busliey.
PLATE I— A ROCK-POOL
Frontispiece
PLATE II— SEA ANEMONES . To face p. 142
1, 2, 3. Actinia mesembryanthe-
mum.
4. Caryophyllia Smithii.
5. Tealia crassicornis.
6. Sagartia bcllis.
7. Balancphyllia regia.
8. Actinoloba dianthus.
PLATE III— SEA ANEMONES . To face p. 150
1. Sagartia troglodytes.
2. ,, venusta.
3. Actinia glauca.
4. chiococca.
5. Bunodes Ballii.
6. „ gemmacea.
7. Anthea cereus.
8. Sagartia rosea.
PLATE 1V—ECHINODERMS
To face p. 168
1. Asterias rubens.
2. Goniaster equestris.
3. Ophiothrix fragilis.
4. Echinocardium cor datum.
5. Echinus miliaris.
6. esculentus.
LIST OF COLOURED PLATES
PLATE V— MOLLUSCS
1. Solen ensis.
2. Trivia europaa.
3. Trochus umbilicatus.
4. „ magnus.
5. Littorina littorea.
6. „ rudis.
7. Haminea (Bulla) hydatis.
8. Tellina.
.To face p. 222
9. Capulus (Pileopsis) hun-
garicus.
10. Chrysodomus (Fusus) anti-
quus.
11. Buccinum undatum.
12. 13. Scalaria communis.
14. Pecten opercularis.
15. „ varius.
16. „ maximus.
1. Gonoplax angulata.
2. Xantho florida.
3. Portunus puber.
PLATE VI— CRUSTACEA . .To face p. 290
4. Polybius Henslowii.
o. Porcellana platycheles.
PLATE VII— SEAWEEDS
. To face p. 354
1. Fucus nodosus.
2. Nitophyllum laceratum.
3. Codium tomentosum.
4. Padina pavonia.
5. Porphyra laciniata (vulgaris).
PLATE VIII— S.EM WEEDS . .To face p. 384
1. Chorda filum.
2. Fucus vesiculosus.
3. „ canaliculatus.
4. Delesseria (Maugeria)
sanguinea.
5. Rhodymenia palmata.
6. Chondrus crispus.
7. D7va Zociwca.
O.THEB ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
1. CHALK CLIFF ........ 8
2. WHITECLIFF (CHALK), DOBSET . . . . 4
3. PENLEE POINT, COBNWALL ...... 5
4. BALANUS SHELLS . . . . . . 6
5. A CLUSTEB OF MUSSELS . . . . . .7
6. BBEAKEBS . . . . . . . 8
7. ILLUSTBATING THE TIDE-PBODUCING INFLUENCE OF THE MOON . 10
8. ILLUSTBATING THE TIDES . . . . . 11
9. SPRING TIDES AT PULL MOON . . . . . .12
10. SPBING TIDES AT NEW MOON . . . . 12
11. NEAF TIDES ........ 18
12. CHABT SHOWING THE BELATIVE TIMES OF HIGH TIDE ON DIFFEBENT
PABTS OF THE BBITISH COAST . . . . 16
13. THE VASCULUM ........ 22
14. WIBE RING FOB NET . . . . . 24
15. NET FRAME WITH CUBVED POINT . . . . .24
16. RHOMBOIDAL PBAME FOB NET . . . . 24
17. RHOMBOIDAL NET . . . . . . .25
18. SEMICIBCULAB NET . . . . . . 25
19. THE DBEDGE . . . . . . . .25
20. THE CBAB-POT . . . . . . 26
21. AN OLD BIBD-CAGE USED AS A CBAB-POT . . . .27
22. A YOUNG NATUBALIST AT WOBK . . . . 82
23. A GOOD HUNTING-GBOUND ON THE CoBNISH COAST . . .88
24. ROUND BEND HOOK WITH FLATTENED END . . 87
25. LIMEBICK HOOK, EYED . . . . . . .37
26. METHOD OF ATTACHING SNOOD TO FLATTENED HOOK . 38
27. METHOD OF ATTACHING SNOOD TO EYED HOOK . . .88
28. THE LUGWOBM ..... 39
29. THE RAGWOBM ...... .40
80. DIGGING FOB BAIT . . . . . 41
31. METHOD OF OPENING A MUSSEL ... .42
82. FISHING FBOM THE ROCKS . .... 46
33 THE PATERNOSTER . .... 48
xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
84. SECTION OF AN AQUARIUM CONSTRUCTED WITH A MIXTURE OF
CEMENT AND SAND . . . . . 54
35. CEMENT AQUARIUM WITH A GLASS PLATE IN FRONT . . 55
36. AQUARIUM OF WOOD WITH GLASS FRONT . . 56
87. HEXAGONAL AQUARIUM CONSTRUCTED OF ANGLE ZINC, WITH
GLASS SIDES ........ 57
38. METHOD OF AERATING THE WATER OP AN AQUARIUM . 65
39. AQUARIUM FITTED WITH APPARATUS FOR PERIODIC OUTFLOW . 67
40. JARS FOR PRESERVING ANATOMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SPECIMENS . 76
41. SHOWING THE DIFFERENT STAGES IN THE MAKING OF A SMALL
SPECIMEN TUBE ....... 77
42. SMALL SPECIMEN TUBE MOUNTED ON A CARD . . . . 78
43. SMALL CRAB MOUNTED ON A CARD . . . . .82
44. SPRING FOR HOLDING TOGETHER SMALL BIVALVE SHELLS . . 84
45. THE TRIPLET MAGNIFIER . . . . . .92
46. A SMALL DISSECTING TROUGH . . . . . . 93
47. CELL FOR SMALL LIVING OBJECTS . . . . .95
48. SHEET OF CORK ON THIN SHEET LEAD . . . . . 99
49. WEIGHTED CORK FOR DISSECTING TROUGH . . . .99
50. THE AM(EBA, HIGHLY MAGNIFIED . . . . . . 102
51. „ „ SHOWING CHANGES OF FOBM .... 103
52. „ „ FEEDING . . . . . . 103
53. „ „ DIVIDING ....... 104
54. A GROUP OF FORAMINIFERS, MAGNIFIED . . . . 105
55. A SPIRAL FORAMINIFER SHELL ..... 106
56. A FORAMINIFER OUT OF ITS SHELL . . . . 106
57. THE SAME FORAMINIFER (FIG. 56) AS SEEN WHEN ALIVE . . 107
58. SECTION OF THE SHELL OF A COMPOUND FOHAMINIFER . . 107
59. SECTION OF A NUMMULITE SHELL ..... 108
60. Globigerina bulloides, AS SEEN WHEN ALIVE, MAGNIFIED . . 108
61. SECTION OF A PIECE OF NUMMULITIC LIMESTONE . , . 109
62. A GROUP OF RADIOLARIAN SHELLS, MAGNIFIED . . . . in
63. THREE INFUSORIANS, MAGNIFIED . . . . .113
64. A PHOSPHORESCENT MARINE INFUSORIAN (Noctiluca), MAGNIFIED . 114
65. SECTION OF A SIMPLE SPONGE ...... 116
66. DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION OF A PORTION OF A COMPLEX SPONGE . 117
67. HORNY NETWORK OF A SPONGE, MAGNIFIED .... 118
68. Grantia compressa . . • • . . 120
69. SPICULES OF Grantia, MAGNIFIED ..... 120
70. Sycon ciliatum ... .... 121
71. Leucosolenin botryoides, WITH PORTION MAGNIFIED . . . 121
72. Ohalina oculata ... . . 122
73. Halichondria panicea . . . . . . . 123
74. SPICULES OF Halichondria, MAGNIFIED . ... 124
75. AN OYSTER SHELL, BORED BY Cliona .... 124
76. SPICULES OF Cliona ....... 125
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii
FIG. PAGE
77. THREAD CELLS OP A CCELENTEBATE, MAGNIFIED . . . 127
78. THE SQUIBBEL'S-TAIL SEA FIB (Sertularia argentea), WITH A POR-
TION ENLARGED ........ 128
79. Sertularia filicula . . . . . . . 129
80. „ cupressina . . . . , . . 130
81. THE HERRING-BONE POLYPE (Halecium halecinum) . . 131
82. Tubularia indivisa . . . . . . 132
83. THE BOTTLE BRUSH (Thuiaria thuja) . . . ,132
84. Antennularia antennia . . . . . . 133
85. Aurelia aurita ........ 135
86. THE EARLY STAGES OF Aurelia . . . . . . 136
87. Bhizostoma .... ... 136
88. Chrysaora . . . , . , . , 136
89. Cydippe pileus ........ 137
90. SECTION OF AN ANEMONE . . . . . . 139
91. STINGING CELLS OF ANEMONE, HIGHLY MAGNIFIED . . . 140
92. DIAGRAMMATIC TBANSVEBSE SECTION OF AN ANEMONE . . . 140
93. LARVA OF ANEMONE ....... 140
94. THE TRUMPET ANEMONE (Aiptasia Couchii), CORNWALL ; DEEP
WATER ......... 144
95. Peachia hastata, S. DEVON ...... 145
96. Sagartia pallida, DEVON AND CORNWALL . . . 146
97. Sagartia nivea, DEVON AND CORNWALL . 147
98. Oorynactus viridis, DEVON AND CORNWALL . . . . 148
99. Bunodes thallia, WEST COAST ..... 150
100. Bunodes gemmacea, WITH TENTACLES RETRACTED . . . 151
101. Caryophyllia cyathus ....... 152
102. Sagartia parasitica . . . . . . . 153
103. THE CLOAK ANEMONE (Adamsia palliata) ON A WHELK SHELL,
WITH HERMIT CRAB ....... 154
104. LARVA OF THE BRITTLE STABFISH . . . . . 158
105. LABVA OF THE FEATHEB STAR ..... 160
106. THE ROSY FEATHER STAB . . . . . . 160
107. THE COMMON BRITTLE STAB ...... 162
108. SECTION OF THE SPINE OF A SEA UBCHIN . . . . 165
109. SEA UBCHIN WITH SPINES REMOVED ON ONE SIDE . . 166
110. APEX OF SHELL OF SEA UBCHIN . . . . 166
111. SHELL OF SEA UBCHIN WITH TEETH PBOTBUDING . . . 167
112. INTEBIOB OF SHELL OF SEA UBCHIN . . . . 167
113. MASTICATORY APPABATUS OF SEA UBCHIN .... 167
114. SEA UBCHIN DISSECTED, SHOWING THE DIGESTIVE TUBE . . 168
115. THE SEA CUCUMBEB ....... 170
116. A TURBELLABIAN, MAGNIFIED . . . . . . 175
117. Arenicola piscatorum . ...... 178
118. THE SEA MOUSE . . . . . . . . 179
119. TUBE-BUILDING WOBMS: Terebella, Serpula, Sabella . . 182
xiv LIST OF ILLUSTBATIONS
FIG. PAGE
120. Terebella REMOVED FROM ITS TUBE . . , . 183
121. A TUBE OF Serpula ATTACHED TO A SHELL . . . 185
122. Serpula REMOVED FROM ITS TUBE . ... 186
123. THE SEA MAT (Flustra) . . . . . .187
124. Flustra IN ITS CELL, MAGNIFIED . . . . 188
125. SEA SQUIRT ........ 189
126. LAHVE OF MOLLUSCS . . . . . . 191
127. SHELL OF THE PRICKLY COCKLE (Cardium aculeatum) SHOWING
UMBO AND HINGE ; ALSO THE INTERIOR SHOWING THE TEETH 192
128. INTERIOR OF BIVALVE SHELL, SHOWING MUSCULAR SCARS AND
PALLIAL LINE . . . . . . . 193
129. DIAGRAM OF THE ANATOMY OF A LAMELLIBHANCH . . . 194
130. Mytilus edulis, WITH BYSSUS . . . . . 195
131. A BIVALVE SHELL (Tapes virgineana) .... 196
132. Pholas dactylus ........ 199
133. „ „ INTERIOR OF VALVE; AND Pholadidea WITH
ANIMAL ........ 201
134. THE SHIP WORM ........ 202
135. 1. Teredo navalis. 2. Teredo norvegica .... 202
136. Gastrochcena modiolina , . . . . . 203
137. 1. Thracia phaseolina. 2. Thracia pubescens, SHOWING PALLIAL
LINE ......... 204
138. 1. Mi/a truncata. 2. INTERIOR OF SHELL. 8. Mya arenaria.
4. Corbula nucleus . , . . . . 205
139. Solen siliqua ........ 206
140. 1. Solen ensis. 2. Cerati-solen legumen. 3. Solecurtus candidus 207
141. Tellinidce ......... 208
142. 1. Lutraria elliptica. 2. PART OF THE HINGE OF Lutraria,
SHOWING THE CARTILAGE PIT. 3. Macra stultorum. 4. IN-
TERIOR OF SAME SHOWING PALLIAL LlNE . . . 210
143. Veneridce ......... 211
144. Cyprinidte ........ 213
145. Galeomma Turtoni . . . . . . 214
146. 1. Cardium pygmceum. 2. Cardium fasciatum. 3. Cardium
rusticum ........ 215
147. Cardium aculeatum . . . . . . . 215
148. Pectunculus glycimeris, WITH PORTION OF VALVE SHOWING TEETH,
AND Area tetragona ...... 216
149. Mytilus edulis . . . . . . . . 217
150. 1. Modiola modiolus. 2. Modiola tulipa. S. Crenella discors . 218
151. Dreissena polymorpha ....... 219
152. Avicula, AND Pinna pectinata . . . . . 220
153. 1. Anomia epJiippium. 2. Pecten tigris. 3. Pecten, ANIMAL IN
SHELL ........ 222
154. Terebratulina. THE UPPER FIGURE REPRESENTS THE INTERIOR
OF THE DORSAL VALVE , . 224
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XT
FIO PAGE
155. UNDEB SIDE OP THE SHELL op Natica catena, SHOWING THE
UMBILICUS ; AND OUTLINE OP THE SHELL, SHOWING THE
EIGHT-HANDED SPIRAL ...... 225
156. SECTION OP THE SHELL OP THE WHELK, SHOWING THE COLUMELLA 226
157. DlAGBAM OF THE ANATOMY OP THE WHELK, THE SHELL BEING
BEHOVED ........ 228
158. A POBTION OP THE LlNGUAL RlBBON OF THE WHELK, MAGNIFIED J
AND A SINGLE BOW OF TEETH ON A MUCH LABGEB SCALE . . 229
159. EGG CASES OF THE WHELK ...... 230
160. PTEBOPODS . . . . . . . . 231
161. NUDIBBANCHS ..... . 234
162. „ .... ... 235
163. SHELLS OF TECTIBBANCHS ...... 236
164. CHITON SHELLS ........ 238
165. SHELLS OF Dentalium ...... 238
166. Patellidas . . . . . . . . . 239
167. Calyptrcea sinensis ....... 241
168. Fissurellidce . . . . . . . . 241
169. Haliotis ......... 242
170. lanthina fragilis . . . . . . . 242
171. Trochus zizyphinut. 2. UNDEB SIDE op SHELL. 3. Trochus »
magnus. 4. Adeorbis subcarinatus .... 244
172. Missoa labiosa AND Lacuna pallidula . . . 244
173. SECTION OF SHELL OP Turritella ..... 245
174. Turritella communis AND Ccecu/m trachea . . . . 245
175. Cerithium reticulatum AND Aporrhais pes-pelicani . , 245
176. Aporrhais pes-pelicani, SHOWING BOTH SHELL AND ANIMAL . . 246
177. 1. Odostomia plicata. 2. Eulima polita. 8. Aclis tupranitiJa- 246
178. Cypreea (Trivia) europcea . . . . . . 247
179. 1. Ovulum patulum. 2. Erato Itzvis .... 248
180. Mangelia septangularis AND Mangelia turricula . . . 248
181. 1. Purpura lapillus. 2. EGG CASES OF Purpnra. 3. Nassa
reticulata ........ 249
182. Murex erinacens ....... 249
183. OCTOPUS ......... 251
184. Loligo vulgaris AND ITS PEN . . . . . 252
185. Sepiola atlantica . ..... 252
186. Sepia ojficinalis AND ITS ' BONE ' . . . . . 253
187 EGGS OF Sepia ........ 254
188. THE NEBVE-CHAIN OF AN ABTHBOPOD (LOBSTKB) . . . 257
189. SECTION THBOUGH THE COMPOUND EYE OP AN ABTHROPOD . 260
190. FOUB STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THK COMMON SHOBE
CBAB ...... . . 261
191. THE BABNACLE ........ 261
192. FOUB STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ACORN BABNACLK . 262
193. A CLUSTEB OF ACOBN SHELLS ... . . 263
xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. rAGE
194. SHELL OF ACORN BARNACLE (Balanus) . . . . 263
195. THE ACORN BARNACLE (Balanus porcatus) WITH APPENDAGES
PROTRUDED ...... • 264
196. A GROUP OP MARINE COPEPODS, MAGNIFIED . . . 265
197. A GROUP OF OSTHACODE SHELLS ..... 265
198. Evadne . ... . . . . . . 266
199. MARINE ISOPODS ... . 267
200. MARINE AMPHIPODS . . . . . . 268
201. THE MANTIS SHRIMP (Squilla Mantis) . . . .270
202. THE OPOSSUM SHRIMP (Mysis chamceleon) . . . 271
203. PARTS OF LOBSTER'S SHELL, SEPARATED, AND VIEWED FROM
ABOVE ......... 272
204. A SEGMENT OF THE ABDOMEN OF A LOBSTER . . . 272
205. APPENDAGES OF A LOBSTER . . ... 273
206. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE LOBSTER . . . . 274
207. THE SPINY LOBSTER (Palinurus vulgaris) .... 275
208. THE NORWAY LOBSTER (Nephrops norvegicus) . . . 276
209. 1. THE MUD-BORER (Gebia siellata). 2. THE MUD-BCJRROWER
(Callianassa. subterranea) ..... 277
210. THE COMMON SHRIMP (Crangon vulgaris) . . . . 278
211. THE PRAWN (Palcemon serratus) ..... 279
212. Dromia vulgaris . . . . . . . . 282
213. THE HERMIT CRAB IN A WHELK SHELL .... 282
214. THE LONG-ARMED CRAB (Corystes Cassivelaunus) . . . 287
215. SPIDER CRABS AT HOME . . . . . .288
216. THE THORNBACK CRAB (Maia Squinado) . . . . 290
217. THE PEA CRAB (Pinnotheres pisum) .... 290
218. THE COMMON SHORE CRAB (Carcinus mcenas) . . . . 291
219. THE SHORE SPIDER . . .... 294
220. THE LEG OF AN INSECT . . . . . . . 295
221. TRACHEA OF AN INSECT, MAGNIFIED . . . . .296
222. SEA-SHORE INSECTS . . . . . . 298
223. MARINE BEETLES OF THE GENUS Bembidium . . . 802
224. MARINE BEETLES ........ 803
225. TRANSVERSE SECTION THROUGH THE BONY FRAMEWORK OF A
TYPICAL VERTEBRATE ANIMAL ..... 806
226. THE SEA LAMPREY . . . . . . 809
227. THE PILCHARD . . . . . . . .810
228. THE SKELETON OF A FISH (PERCH) . . . . 315
229. THE INTERNAL ORGANS OF THE HERRING .... 316
230. THE EGG-CASE OF THE DOGFISH . . . . . 319
231. THE SMOOTH HOUND . . . . . . .320
232. THE COMMON EEL . . . . . . . . 823
233. THE LESSER SAND EEL ...... 826
234. THE THREE-BEARDED EOCKLING . . . . . 827
235. THE SNAKE PIPE-FISH . . 828
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii
Fit;. PAGE
'236. THE RAINBOW WBASS (Labrus julis) . . . , . 880
237. THE CORNISH SUCKER ....... 380
238. THE FIFTEEN-SPIKED STICKLEBACK AND NEST . . . 381
'239. THE SMOOTH BLENNY . . . . . . .333
240. THE BUTTERFISH . . . . . . . . 384
241. THE BLACK GOBY . . . . . . .335
242. THE FATHER LASHBB . . . . . . . 335
243. THE LESSER WEAVER ... ... 837
244. THE COMMON PORPOISE . . . . . 841
245. Callithamnion roseum ...... 359
246. Callithamnion tetricum . . . . . . . 359
247. Griffithsia corallina ....... 361
248. Halurus equiaetifolius . . . . . . 861
249. Pilota plumosa ....... 861
250. Ceramium diaphanum ... ... 868
251. Plocamium . . . . . . . . 866
252. Delesseria alata ........ 868
253. Delesseria hypoglossum . . . . . . 868
254. Laurencia pinnatifida . . . . . . . 371
255. Laurencia obtusa ....... 871
256. Polysiphonia fastigiata . . . . . . . 373
257. Polysiphonia parasitica , .... 374
258. Polysiphonia Brodicei . . . . . . . 374
259. Polysiphonia nigrescens .... . 374
260. Ectocarpus granulosus . . . . . . 373
261. Ectocarpus siliculosus ...... 878
262. Ectocarpus Mertensii . . . . , . . 378
268. Sphacelaria cirrhosa ....... 879
264. Sphacelaria plumosa . . . . . . 879
265. Sphacelaria radicana ....... 880
266. Cladostephus spongiosus . . . . . . . 380
267. Ghordaria flagelliformis ...... 880
268. Laminaria bulbosa . . . . . . . 334
269. Laminaria saccharina ...... 884
270. Alaria esculenta ........ 385
271. Sporochnus pedunculatus ..... 335
272. Desmarestia ligulata .... . 390
273. Himanthalia lorea •.-.... 387
274. Cystoseira ericoides . . . . . . 333
275. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE STEM OF A MONOCOTYLEDON . 391
276. LEAF OF A MONOCOTYLEDON . . . . . 392
277. EXPANDED SPIKELET OF THE OAT . 393
278. THE SEA LYME GRASS . .... 895
279. Knappia agrostidea . . ... 397
280. THE DOG'S-TOOTH GRASS . , . . . . 397
281. THE REED CANARY GRASS .... . 397
xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGK
282. MALE AND FEMALE FLOWEBS OF Carex, MAGNIFIED . . . 899
283. THE SEA SEDGE .... .400
284. THE CUBVED SEDGE .... • 400
285. THE GBEAT SEA RUSH . .400
286. THE BROAD-LEAVED GBASS WBACK . . • 401
287. THE SEA-SIDE ABBOW GBASS ... • 401
288. THE COMMON ASPABAGUS ... • 401
289. THE SEA SPUBGE ..... .403
290. THE PUBPLE SPUBGE . . . . . • • *0*
291. THE SEA BUCKTHOBN ..... .404
292. Chenopodium botryoides . , . . . • • 405
293. THE FROSTED SEA OBACHE .... • 406
294. THE PBICKLY SALT WOBT . . . . . 406
295. THE CBEEPING GLASS WOBT ...... 407
296. THE SEA-SIDE PLANTAIN . . . . . • 408
297. THE SEA LAVENDER ..... .408
298. THE DWABF CENTAUBY , . . . . . 410
299. THE SEA SAMPHIBE .... • 412
800. THE SEA-SIDE EVEBLASTING PEA . . . . 413
301. THE SEA STOBK'S-BILL ...... 414
802. THE SEA CAMPION . . . . . . . . 416
80b. THE SEA PEARL WORT . . . . . .417
304. THE SHRUBBY MIGNONETTE . . . . . 417
805. THE WILD CABBAGE ....... 418
806. THE ISLE OF MAN CABBAGE . . . . • 418
307. THE GREAT SEA STOCK . . . . • • 419
808. THE HOARY SHRUBBY STOCK , . . . . 419
309. THE SCUBVY GEASS . . . . . . .419
810. THE SEA RADISH . . . . . . . . 419
811. THE SEA ROCKET . . . . . . .420
812. THE SEA KALE . , ... 421
813 THE HOBNED POPPY .... 422
THE SEA SHORE
CHAPTEK I
THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SEA SHORE
WHAT are the attractions which so often entice us to the sea shore,
which give such charm to a ramble along the cliffs or the beach,
and which will so frequently constrain the most active wanderer
to rest and admire the scene before him ? The chief of these
attractions is undoubtedly the incessant motion of the water and
the constant change of scene presented to his view. As we ramble
along a beaten track at the edge of the cliff, new and varied
features of the coast are constantly opening up before us. Each
little headland passed reveals a sheltered picturesque cove or a
gentle bay with its line of yellow sands backed by the cliffs and
washed by the foaming waves ; while now and again our path
slopes down to a peaceful valley with its cluster of pretty cottages,
and the rippling stream winding its way towards the sea. On the
one hand is the blue sea, full of life and motion as far as the eye
can reach, and on the other the cultivated fields or the wild and
rugged downs.
The variety of these scenes is further increased by the frequent
changes in the character of the cliff's themselves. Where they are
composed of soft material we find the coast-line washed into gentle
curves, and the beach formed of a continuous stretch of fine sand ;
but where harder rocks exist the scenery is wild and varied, and
the beach usually strewn with irregular masses of all sizes.
Then, when we approach the water's edge, we find a delight
in watching the approaching waves as they roll over the sandy or
pebbly beach, or embrace an outlying rock, gently raising its olive
covering of dangling weeds,
B
2 THE SEA SHORE
Such attractions will allure the ordinary lover of Nature — the
mere seeker after the picturesque — but to the true naturalist there
are many others. The latter loves to read in the cliffs their past
history, to observe to what extent the general scenery of the coast
is due to the nature of the rocks, and to learn the action of the
waves from the character of the cliffs and beach, and from the
changes which are known to have taken place in the contour of
the land in past years. He also delights to study those plants and
flowers which are peculiar to the coast, and to observe how the
influences of the sea have produced interesting modifications in
certain of our flowering plants, as may be seen by comparing them
with the same species from inland districts. The sea birds, too,
differing so much as they do from our other feathered friends in
structure and habit, provide a new field for study ; while the
remarkably varied character of the forms of life met with on the
beach and in the shallow waters fringing the land is in itself
sufficient to supply the most active naturalist with material for
prolonged and constant work.
Let us first observe some of the general features of the coast
itself, and see how far we can account for the great diversity of
character presented to us, and for the continual changes and
incessant motions that add such a charm to the sea-side ramble.
Here we stand on the top of a cliff composed of a soft calcareous
rock — on the exposed edge of a bed of chalk that extends far
inland. All the country round is gently undulating, and devoid of
any of the features that make up a wild and romantic scene. The
coast-line, too, is wrought into a series of gentle bays, separated by
inconspicuous promontories where the rock, being slightly harder,
has better withstood the eroding action of the sea ; or where a cur-
rent, washing the neighbouring shore, has been by some force
deflected seaward. The cliff, though not high, rises almost per-
pendicularly from the beach, and presents to the sea a face which
is but little broken, and which in itself shows no strong evidence of
the action of raging, tempestuous seas ; its chief diversity being its
gradual rise and fall with each successive undulation of the land.
The same soft and gentle nature characterises the beach below.
Beyond a few small blocks of freshly-loosened chalk, with here and
there a liberated nodule of flint, we find nothing but a continuous,
fine, siliceous sand, the surface of which is but seldom broken by
the protrusion of masses from below. Such cliffs and beaches do
not in themselves suggest any violent action on the part of the sea,
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
3
and yet it is here that the ocean is enabled to make its destructive
efforts with the greatest effect. The soft rock is gradually but
surely reduced, partly by the mechanical action of the waves and
partly by the chemical action of the sea-water. The rock being
almost uniformly soft, it is uniformly worn away, thus presenting
a comparatively unbroken face. Its material is gradually dissolved
in the sea ; and the calcareous matter being thus removed, we have
a beach composed of the remains of the flints which have been
pulverised by the action of the waves. Thus slowly but surely the
FIG. 1. — CHALK CLIFF
sea gains upon the land. Thus it is that many a famous land-
mark, once hundreds of yards from the coast, now stands so near
the edge of the cliff as to be threatened by every storm ; or some
ancient castle, once miles from the shore, lies entirely buried by
the encroaching sea.
The coast we have described is most certainly not the one with
the fullest attractions for the naturalist, for the cliffs lack those
nooks that provide so much shelter for bird and beast, and the
rugged coves and rock pools in which we find such a wonderful
variety of marine life are nowhere to be seen. But, although it
THE SEA SHOEE
represents a typical shore for a chalky district, yet we may find
others of a very different nature even where the same rock exists.
Thus, at Flamborough in Yorkshire, and St. Alban's Head in
Dorset, we find the hardened, exposed edge of the chalk formation
terminating in bold and majestic promontories, while the inner
edge surrounding the Weald gives rise to the famous cliffs of
Dover and the dizzy heights of Beachy Head. The hard chalk of
the Isle of Wight, too, which has so well withstood the repeated
attacks of the Atlantic waves, presents a bold barrier to the sea on
FIG. 2. — WHiTECLnr (CHALK), DORSET
the south and east coasts, and terminates in the west with the
majestic stacks of the Needles.
Where this harder chalk exists the coast is rugged and irregular.
Sea birds find a home in the sheltered ledges and in the protected
nooks of its serrated edge ; and the countless wave-resisting blocks
of weathered chalk that have been hurled from the heights above,
together with the many remnants of former cliffs that have at last
succumbed to the attacks of the boisterous sea, all form abundant
shelter for a variety of marine plants and animals.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 5
But it is in the west and south-west of our island that we find
both the most furious waves and the rocks that are best able to
resist their attacks. Here we are exposed to the full force of the
frontal attacks of the Atlantic, and it is here that the dashing
breakers seek out the weaker portions of the upturned and contorted
strata, eating out deep inlets, and often loosening enormous
blocks of the hardest material, hurling them on the rugged beach,
where they are eventually to be reduced to small fragments by the
continual clashing and grinding action of the smaller masses as
Fra. 3. — PENLEE POINT, CORNWALL
they are thrown up by the angry sea. Here it is that we find the
most rugged and precipitous cliffs, bordering a more or less wild
and desolate country, now broken by a deep and narrow chasm
where the resonant roar of the sea ascends to the dizzy heights
above, and anon stretching seaward into a rocky headland, whose
former greatness is marked by a continuation of fantastic outliers
and smaller wave-worn masses of the harder strata. Here, too, we
find that the unyielding rocks give a permanent attachment to the
red and olive weeds which clothe them, and which provide a hooie
6
for so many inhabitants of our shallow waters. It is here, also,
that we see those picturesque rock pools of all sizes, formed by the
removal of the softer material of the rocks, and converted into so
many miniature seas by the receding of the tide.
A more lovely sight than the typical rock pool of the West coast
one can hardly imagine. Around lies the rugged but sea-worn
rock, partly hidden by dense patches of the conical shells of the
Balanus, with here and there a snug cluster of young mussels held
together by their intertwining silken byssi. The surface is further
relieved by the clinging limpet, the beautifully banded shells of the
variable dog-periwinkle, the pretty top shells, and a variety of other
FIG. 4. — BALANUS SHELLS
common but interesting molluscs. Clusters of the common bladdery
weeds are also suspended from the dry rock, and hang gracefully
into the still water below, where the mantled cowry may be seen
slowly gliding over the olive fronds. Submerged in the peaceful
pool are beautiful tufts of white and pink corallines, among which
a number of small and slender starfishes may climb unnoticed by
the casual observer ; while the scene is brightened by the numerous
patches of slender green and red algae, the thread-like fronds of
which are occasionally disturbed as the lively little blenny darts
among them to evade the intruder's glance. Dotted here and there
are the beautiful anemones — the variously-hued animal flowers of
the sea, with expanded tentacles gently and gracefully swaying.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 7
ready to grasp and paralyse any small living being that may wander
within their reach. Here, under a projecting ledge of the rock,
partly hidden by pale green threads, are the glaring eyes of the
voracious bullhead, eager to pounce on almost any moving object ;
while above it the five -fingered starfish slowly climbs among the
dangling weeds by means of its innumerable suckers. In yonder
shady corner, where the overhanging rock cuts off all direct rays of
the sun from the deeper water of the pool, are the pink and yellow
incrustations of little sponges, some of the latter colour resembling a
group of miniature inverted volcanic cones, while on the sandy floor
of the pool itself may be seen the transparent phantom-like prawn,
with its rapidly moving spinnerets and gently-waving antennae,
Fro. 5. — A CLUSTER OF MUSSELS
suddenly darting backward when disturbed by the incautious
approach of the observer ; and the spotted sand-crab, entirely buried
with the exception of its upper surface, and so closely imitating its
surroundings as to be quite invisible except on the closest inspection.
Finally, the scene is greatly enlivened by the active movements of
the hermit-crab, that appropriates to its own use the shell which
once covered the body of a mollusc, and by the erratic excursions of
its cousin crabs as they climb over the weedy banks of the pool in
search of food.
Thus we may find much to admire and study on the sea shore
at all times, but there are attractions of quite another nature that
call for notice on a stormy day, especially on the wilder and more
8
THE SEA SHORE
desolate western coasts. At such times we delight to watch the
distant waves as they approach the shore, to see how they become
gradually converted into the foaming breakers that dash against the
standing rocks and wash the rattling pebbles high on the beach.
The powerful effects of the sea in wearing away the cliffs are now
apparent, and we can well understand that even the most obdurate
of rocks must sooner or later break away beneath its mighty waves.
The extreme mobility of the sea is displayed not only by the
storm waves, and by the soft ripples of the calm day, but is seen
FIG. 6 — BREAKERS
in the gentle currents that almost imperceptibly wash our shores,
and more manifestly in the perpetual motions of the tides.
This last-named phenomenon is one of extreme interest to the
sea-side rambler, and also one of such great importance to the
naturalist that we cannot do better than spend a few moments in
trying to understand how the swaying of the waters of the ocean
is brought about, and to see what determines the period and
intensity of its pulsations, as well as some of the variations in
the daily motions which are to be observed on our own shores.
In doing this we shall, of course, not enter fully into the tech-
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 9
nical theories of the tides, for which the reader should refer to
authoritative works on the subject, but merely endeavour to briefly
explain the observed oscillations of the sea and the general laws
which govern them.
The most casual observer must have noticed the close connec-
tion between the movements of the ocean and the position of the
moon, while those who have given closer attention to the subject
will have seen that the relative heights of the tides vary regularly
with the relative positions of the sun, moon, and earth.
In the first place, then, we notice that the time of high tide in
any given place is always the same at the same period of the cycle
of the moon ; that is, it is always the same at the time of new
moon, full moon, &c. Hence it becomes evident that the moon is
the prime mover in the formation of tides. Now, it is a fact that
the sun, though about ninety-three millions of miles from the
earth, has a much greater attractive influence on the earth and its
oceans than the moon has, although the distance of the latter is
only about a quarter of a million miles : but this is due to the
vastly superior mass of the sun, which is about twenty-six million
times the mass of the moon. How is it, then, that we find the
tides apparently regulated by the moon rather than by the sun ?
The reason is that the tide-producing influence is due not to
the actual attractive force exerted on the earth as a whole, but to
the difference between the attraction for one side of the globe and
that for the opposite side. Now, it will be seen that the diameter
of the earth— about eight thousand miles— is an appreciable frac-
tion of the moon's distance, and thus the attractive influence of the
moon for the side of the earth nearest to it will be appreciably
greater than that for the opposite side ; while in the case of the
sun, the earth's diameter is such a small fraction of the distance
from the sun that the difference in the attractive force for the two
opposite sides of the earth is comparatively small.
Omitting, then, for the present the minor tide-producing influ-
ence of the sun, let us see how the incessant rising and falling of
the water of the ocean are brought about ; and, to simplify our
explanation, we will imagine the earth to be a globe entirely
covered with water of uniform depth.
The moon attracts the water on the side nearest to it with a
greater force than that exerted on the earth itself ; hence the water
is caused to bulge out slightly on that side. Again, since the
attractive force of the moon for the earth as a whole is greater
10
THE SEA SHORE
than that for the water on the opposite side, the earth is pulled
away, as it were, from the water on that side, causing it to bulge
out there also. Hence high tides are produced on two opposite
sides of the earth at the same time, while the level of the water is
correspondingly reduced at two other parts at right angles with
these sides.
This being the case, how are we to account for the observed
changes in the level of the sea that occur every day on our shores ?
Let us first see the exact nature of these changes : — At a certain
time we find the water high on the beach ; and, soon after reach-
ing its highest limit, a gradual descent takes place, generally
extending over a period of a little more than six hours. This is
then followed by another rise, occupying about the same time, and
FIG. 7. — ILLUSTRATING THE TIDE-PBODUCING INFLUENCE OF THE MOON
the oscillations are repeated indefinitely with remarkable regularity
as to time.
Now, from what has been previously said with regard to the
tidal influence of the moon, we see that the tide must necessarily
be high under the moon, as well as on the side of the earth directly
opposite this body, and that the high tides must follow the moon
in its regular motion. But we must not forget that the earth itself
is continually turning on its axis, making a complete rotation in
about twenty-four hours ; while the moon, which revolves round
the earth in about twenty-eight days, describes only a small portion
of its orbit in the same time ; thus, while the tidal wave slowly fol-
lows the moon as it travels in its orbit, the earth slips round, as it
were, under the tidal wave, causing four changes of tide in approxi-
mately the period of one rotation. Suppose, for example, the earth
to be performing its daily rotation in the direction indicated by the
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
11
arrow (fig. 8), and the tide high at the place marked A1, just under
the inoon, then, in about six hours, this place will have been carried
round to A2, where the tide is low ; and, after similar intervals, to
A3 and A4 successively, where the tide is high and low respectively.
Hence the daily changes are to a great extent determined by the
rotation of the earth.
But we have already observed that each change of tide occupies
a little more than six hours, the average time being nearly six
hours and a quarter, and so we find that the high and low tides
occur nearly an hour later every day. This is due to the fact that,
owing to the revolution of the moon round the earth in the same
direction as that of the rotation of the earth itself, the day as
FIG. 8. — ILLUSTRATING THE TIDES
measured by the moon is nearly an hour longer than the average
solar day as given by the clock.
There is yet another point worth noting with regard to the
relation between the moon and the tidal movements of the water,
which is that the high tides are never exactly under the moon, but
always occur some time after the moon has passed the meridian.
This is due to the inertia of the ocean, and to the resistance offered
by the land to its movements.
Now, in addition to these diurnal changes of the tide, there are
others, extending over longer periods, and which must be more or
less familiar to everyone who has spent some time on the coast.
On a certain day, for instance, we observe that the high tide flows
very far up the beach, and that this is followed, a few hours later,
by an unusually low ebb, exposing rocks or sand-banks that are
12
TEE SEA SHOEE
not frequently visible. Careful observations of the motions of tho
water for some days after will show that this great difference
between the levels of high and low- water gradually decreases until,
about a week later, it is considerably reduced, the high tide not
flowing so far inland and the low-water mark not extending so far
seaward. Then, from this time, the difference increases again, till,
after about two weeks from the commencement of our observations,
we find it at the maximum again.
FIG. 9. — SPUING TIDES AT FULL MOON
Here again we find that the changes exactly coincide with
changes' in the position of the moon with regard to the sun and
the earth. Thus, the spring tides — those which rise very high
and fall very low — always occur when the moon is full or new ;
while the less vigorous neap tides occur when the moon is in her
quarters and presents only one-half of her illuminated disc to the -
FIG. 10. — SPRING TIDES AT NEW Moon
earth. And, as the moon passes through a complete cycle of
changes from new to first-quarter, full, last- quarter, and then to
new again in about twenty-nine days, so the tides run through four
changes from spring to neap, spring, neap, and then to spring again
in the same period.
The reason for this is not far to seek, for we have already seen
that both sun and moon exert a tide-producing influence on the
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
13
earth, though that of the moon is considerably greater than that
of the sun ; hence, if the sun, earth, and moon are in a straight
line, as they are when the moon is full, at which tune she and the
sun are on opposite sides of the earth, and also when new, at which
time she is between the earth and sun, the sun's tide is added to
the moon's tide, thus producing the well-marked spring tides ;
while, when the moon is in her quarters, occupying a position at
right angles from the sun as viewed from the earth, the two bodies
tend to produce high tides on different parts of the earth at the
same time, and thus we have the moon's greater tides reduced by
FIG. 11.— NEAP TIDES
the amount of the lesser tides of the sun, with the result that the
difference between high and low tides is much lessened.
Again, the difference between high and low water marks is not
always exactly the same for the same kind of tide — the spring tide
for a certain period, for example, not having the same limits as the
same tide of another time. This is due to the fact that the moon
revolves round the sun in an elliptical orbit, while the earth, at the
same time, revolves round the sun in a similar path, so that the
distances of both moon and sun from the earth vary at different
times, And, since the tide-producing influences of both these
14 THE SEA SHORE
bodies must increase as their distance from the earth diminishes,
it follows that there must be occasional appreciable variations
in the vigour of the tidal movements of the ocean.
As the earth rotates on its axis, while at the same time the
tidal wave must necessarily keep its position under the moon, this
wave appears to sweep round the earth with considerable velocity.
The differences in the level of the ocean thus produced would
hardly be appreciable if the earth were entirely covered with
water ; but, owing to the very irregular distribution of the land,
the movements of the tidal wave become exceedingly complex ;
and, when it breaks an entrance into a gradually narrowing
channel, the water is compressed laterally, and correspondingly
increased in height. It is thus that we find a much greater
difference- between the levels of high and low tides in continental
seas than are to be observed on the shores of oceanic islands.
We have occupied so much of our time and space in ex-
planation of the movements of the tides not only because we
think it desirable that all who delight in sea-side rambles should
understand something of the varied motions which help to give
such a charm to the sea, but also because, as we shall observe later,
these motions are a matter of great importance to those who are
interested in the observation and study of marine life. And, seeing
that we are writing more particularly for the young naturalists
of our own island, we must devote a little space to the study
of the movements of the tidal wave round Great Britain, in order
that we may understand the great diversity in the time of high
tide on any one day on different parts of the coast, and see how
the time of high tide for one part may be calculated from that
of any other locality.
Were it not for the inertia of the ocean and the resistance
offered by the irregular continents, high tide would always exist
exactly under the moon, and we should have high water at any
place just at the time when the moon is in the south and crossing
the meridian of that place. But while the inertia of the water
tends to make all tides late, the irregular distribution of the land
breaks up the tidal wave into so many wave-crests and greatly
retards their progress.
Thus, the tidal wave entering the Atlantic round the Cape of
Good Hope mingles with another wave that flows round Cape
Horn, and the combined wave travels northward at the rate of
several hundred miles an hour. On reaching the British Isles
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 15
it is broken up, one wave-crest travelling up the English Channel,
while another flows round Scotland and then southwards into the
North Sea.
The former branch, taking the shorter course, determines the
time of high tide along the Channel coast. Passing the Land's
End, it reaches Plymouth in about an hour, Torquay in about an
hour and a half, the Isle of Portland in two hours and a half,
Brighton in about seven hours, and London in about nine hours
and a half. The other branch, taking a much longer course, makes
its arrival in the southern part of the North Sea about twelve
hours later, thus mingling at that point with the Channel wave
of the next tide. It takes about twenty hours to travel from the
south-west coast of Ireland, round Scotland, and then to the mouth
of the Thames. Where the two waves meet, the height of the
tides is considerably increased ; and it will be understood that, at
certain points, where the rising of one tide coincides with the falling
of another, the two may partially or entirely neutralise each other.
Further, the flow and the ebb of the tide are subject to numerous
variations and complications in places where two distinct tidal
wave-crests arrive at different times. Thus, the ebbing of the tide
may be retarded by the approach of a second crest a few hours
after the first, so that the ebb and the flow do not occupy equal times.
At Eastbourne, for example, the water flows for about five hours,
and ebbs for about seven and a half. Or, the approach of the
second wave may even arrest the ebbing waters, and produce
a second high tide during the course of six hours, as is the case
at some places along the Hampshire and Dorset coasts.
Those who visit various places on our own coasts will probably
be interested in tracing the course of the tidal crests by the aid of
the accompanying map of the British Isles, on which the time of
high tide at several ports for the same time of day is marked. It
will be' seen from this that the main tidal wave from the Atlantic
approaches our islands from the south-west, and divides into lesser
waves, one of which passes up the Channel, and another round
Scotland and into the North Sea, as previously mentioned, while
minor wave-crests flow northward into the Irish Sea and the
Bristol Channel. The chart thus supplies the data by means of
which we can calculate the approximate time of high tide for any
one port from that of another.
Although the time of high water varies so greatly on the same
day over such a small area of country, yet that time for any one
16
THE SEA SHORE
George Philip <S Son.
The London Gev<jrv?hicoJ Institute,
FIG. 12. — CHART SHOWING THE RELATIVE TIMES OF HIGH TIDE
ON DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE BRITISH C/OAST
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 17
place is always approximately the same during the same relative
positions of the sun, earth, and moon ; that is, for the same ' age '
of the moon ; so that it is possible to determine the time of high
water at any port from the moon's age.
The time of high tide is generally given for the current year in
the local calendars of our principal seaports, and many guide-books
supply a table from which the time may be calculated from the age
of the moon.
At every port the observed high water follows the meridional
passage of the moon by a fixed interval of time, which, as we have
seen, varies considerably in places within a small area of the globe.
This interval is known as the establishment of the port, and pro-
vides a means by which the time of high water may be calculated.
Before closing this short chapter on the general characteristics
of the sea shore we ought to make a few observations on the
nature of the water of the sea. Almost everyone is acquainted
with the saltness of this water as revealed by its decided taste,
while many bathers have noticed the superior buoyancy of salt
water as compared with the fresh water of our rivers and lakes. The
dissolved salts contained in sea water give it a greater density than
that of pure water ; and, since all floating bodies displace their own
weight of the liquid in which they float, it is clear that they will
not sink so far in the denser water of the sea as they would in
fresh water.
If we evaporate a known weight of sea water to dryness and
weigh the solid residue of sea salt that remains, we find that this
residue forms about three and a half per cent, of the original
weight. Then, supposing that the evaporation has been conducted
very slowly, the residue is crystalline in structure, and a careful
examination with the aid of a lens will reveal crystals of various
shapes, but by far the larger number of them cubical in form.
These cubical crystals consist of common salt (sodium chloride),
which constitutes about three -fourths of the entire residue, while
the remainder of the three and a half per cent, consists principally
of various salts of magnesium, calcium, and sodium.
Sea salt may be obtained ready prepared in any quantity, as it
is manufactured for the convenience of those who desire a sea bath
at home ; and it will be seen from what has been said that the
artificial seawater may be prepared, to correspond almost exactly
with that of the sea, by the addition of three and a half pounds of
sea salt to about ninety-six and a half pounds of water.
c
18 THE SEA SHORE
This is often a matter of no little importance to the sea-side
naturalist, who may require to keep marine animals alive for some
time at considerable distance from the sea shore, while their growth
and habits are observed. Hence we shall refer to this subject again
when dealing with the management of the salt-water aquarium.
The attractions of the sea coast are undoubtedly greater by day
than at night, especially in the summer season, when the excessive
heat of the land is tempered by the cool sea breezes, and when
life, both on the cliffs and among the rocks, is at its maximum.
But the sea is grand at night, when its gentle ripples flicker in the
silvery light of the full moon. No phenomenon of the sea, however,
is more interesting than the beautiful phosphorescence to be
observed on a dark summer's night. At times the breaking ripples
flash with a soft bluish light, and the water in the wake of a boat
is illuminated by what appears to be liquid fire. The advancing
ripples, as they embrace a standing rock, surround it with a ring of
flame ; while streaks and flashes alternately appear and disappear
in the open water where there is apparently no disturbance of any
kind.
• These effects are all produced by the agency of certain marine
animals, some of which display a phosphorescent light over the
whole surface of their bodies, while in others the light-giving
power is restricted to certain organs or to certain well-defined areas
of the body ; and in some cases it even appears as if the creatures
concerned have the power of ejecting from their bodies a phos-
phorescent fluid.
It was once supposed that the phosphorescence of the sea was
produced by only a few of the lower forms of life, but it is well
known now that quite a large number of animals, belonging to
widely different classes, play a part in this phenomenon. Many of
these are minute creatures, hardly to be seen without the aid of
some magnifying power, while others are of considerable size.
Among the peculiar features of the phosphorescence of the sea
are the suddenness with which it sometimes appears and disappears,
and its very irregular variations both at different seasons and at
different hours of the same night. On certain nights the sea is
apparently full of living fire when, almost suddenly the light
vanishes and hardly a trace of phosphorescence remains ; while, on
other occasions, the phenomenon is observed only on certain patches
of water, the areas of which are so well defined that one passes
suddenly from or iiito a luininoxis sea.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 19
The actual nature of the light and the manner in which it is
produced are but ill understood, but the variations and fitfulness of
its appearances can be to a certain extent conjectured from our
knowledge of some of the animals that produce it.
In our own seas the luminosity is undoubtedly caused princi-
pally by the presence of myriads of minute floating or free-
swimming organisms that inhabit the surface waters. Of these
each one has its own season, in which it appears in vast numbers.
Some appear to live entirely at or near the surface, but others
apparently remain near the surface only during the night, or only
while certain conditions favourable to their mode of life prevail.
And further, it is possible that these minute creatures, produced
as they generally are in vast numbers at about the same time, and
being more or less local, are greatly influenced by changes of
temperature, changes in the nature of the wind, and the periodic
changes in the tides ; and it is probable that we are to look to these
circumstances for the explanations of the sudden changes so fre-
quently observed.
In warmer seas the phenomenon of phosphorescence is much
more striking than in our own, the brilliancy of the light being
much stronger, and also produced by a greater variety of living
beings, some of which are of great size, and embrace species
belonging to the vertebrates and the higher invertebrate animals.
Those interested in the investigation of this subject should make
it a rule to collect the forms of life that inhabit the water at a
time when the sea is unusually luminous. A sample of the water
may be taken away for the purpose of examination, and this
should be viewed in a good light, both with and without a magni-
fying lens. It is probable, too, that a very productive haul may be
obtained by drawing a fine muslin net very slowly through the
water. After some time the net should be emptied and gently
washed in a small quantity of sea water to remove the smaller
forms of life contained, and the water then examined at leisure.
Of course it must not be assumed that all the species so obtained
are concerned in any way with the phosphorescence of the sea, but
any one form turning up in abundance when collected under
the conditions named will probably have some connection with
the phenomenon.
One may well ask ' What is the use of this light-emitting power
to the animals who possess it ? ' but this question is not easily
answered. The light produced by the glow-worm and other
20 THE SEA SHORE
luminous insects is evidently a signal by means of which they
call their mates, and this may be the case with many of the marine
luminous animals, but it is evidently not so with those which
live in such immense numbers that they are simply crowded
together ; nor can it be so with the many luminous creatures that
are hermaphrodite. It is a fact, however, that numbers of deep-
sea species possess the power of emitting light to a striking extent ;
and the use of this power is in such cases obvious, for since the rays
of the sun do not penetrate to great depths in the ocean, these
luminous species are enabled to illuminate their own surroundings
while in search of food, and, in many cases at least, to quench their
lights suddenly at such times as they themselves are in danger.
CHAPTER II
THE SEA-SIDE NATURALIST
OUTDOOR WORK
ASSUMING that the reader is one who desires to become intimately
acquainted with the wonderful and varied forms of life to be met
with on the sea shore, or, hoping that he may be lured into the
interesting and profitable pastimes of the sea-side naturalist, we
shall now devote a chapter to the consideration of the appliances
required for the collection and examination of marine life, and to
general instructions as to the methods by which we may best
search out the principal and most interesting objects of the shore.
First, then, we shall describe the equipment of an enthusiastic
and all-round admirer of Nature — he who is interested in plant
forms from the flowering species down to the ' meanest weed that
grows,' and is always ready to learn something of any member of
the animal world that may happen to come within his reach. And
this, not because we hope, or even desire, that every reader may
develop into an all-round naturalist, but so that each may be able
to select from the various appliances named just those which
would be useful for the collection and observation of the objects
which are to form his pet study.
The most generally useful of all these appliances is undoubtedly
some kind of case of the ' hold-all ' type, a case into which specimens
in general may be placed for transmission from the hunting-ground
in order that they may be studied at leisure, and we know of nothing
more satisfactory than the botanist's 'vasculum.' This is an
oblong box of japanned tin, fitted with a hinged front, and having
both handle and strap, so that it can be either carried in the hand
or slung over the shoulder. Of course almost any kind of non-
collapsible box or basket will answer the purpose, but we know of
22
THE SEA
no utensils so convenient as the one we have named. It is per-
fectly satisfactory for the temporary storage of the wild flowers
gathered on the cliffs, as it will keep them moist and fresh for
some considerable time ; and for the reception of sea weeds of all
kinds it is all that could be desired, for it will preserve them in
splendid condition, and is so constructed that there is no possibility
of the inconvenience arising from the dripping of salt water on the
lower garments. Then, as regards marine animal-life in general —
starfishes, urchins, anemones, molluscs, crustaceans, fishes, &c. —
these may be conveyed away in it with a liberal packing of moist
weeds not only without injury, but in such a satisfactory condition
that nearly all may be turned out alive at the end of a day's work ;
and this must be looked upon as a very important matter to him
FIG. 13. — THE VASCULUM
who amis at becoming a naturalist rather than a mere collector,
for while the latter is content with a museum of empty shells and
dried specimens, the former will endeavour to keep many of the
creatures alive for a time in some kind of artificial rock pool in
order that he may have the opportunity of studying their develop-
ment and their habits at times when he has not the chance of
visiting the sea shore for the purpose.
But although the vasculum is so generally useful for the tem-
porary storage and the transmission of the objects collected, yet it
is not in itself sufficient for all purposes. There are many marine
animals so small — but none the less interesting because they are
small — that they would probably be lost in a case containing
a mass of sea weeds with various larger creatures. These should
THE SEA-SIDE NATURALIST 23
be placed in small well-corked bottles, and temporarily preserved
in a little sea-water, or, preferably, a tuft of one of the delicate
weeds so common in our rock pools. Others, again, though they
may be larger, are of so fragile a nature that they should be
isolated from the general stock on that account alone. Instead of
bottles or tubes, small tin boxes may be used, and these have the
advantage of being unbreakable, though, of course, they will not
hold water. This, however, is of no consequence, as most marine
animals may be kept alive for some time in moist sea-weed quite
as well as in water.
"When small animals are required for structural examination
only, they may be put into methylated spirit as they are taken, and
when stored in this way a much larger number may be put into
the same receptacle ; hence the collector will often find it con-
venient to have a small supply of this liquid while at his work.
A strong pocket-knife is essential for sea-side work. It serves
to remove those molluscs that adhere firmly to the rocks by
suction, and also others that fix themselves by means of a byssus
of silken fibres, as is the case with mussels. It will also be
employed in the removal of acorn barnacles, anemones, and small
tufts of algae, and may be useful in cutting through the stouter
weeds. Small sponges and other low forms of life often form
incrustations on the solid rock, and may be peeled off with the aid
of a knife. In the case of the last-named, however, as well as with
the anemones and other fixed animals, it is often far more satis-
factory to remove a small portion of the rock itself with the
animal attached, and for this purpose a small hammer will be of
great service.
A strong net of some kind is necessary in searching the rock
pools, and as suitable nets are, we believe, not to be obtained of
the dealers in naturalists' appliances, it devolves on one to manu-
facture a net according to his requirements.
The simplest form of net may be made by bending a piece of
stout galvanised iron wire into the form here shown (fig. 14), and
firmly wedging the two straight ends in a short piece of strong
metal tube which will also serve as a ferrule for the attachment of
a tough handle. Such a circular frame although satisfactory for a
net to be used in fresh-water ponds and streams, is not nearly so
suitable for the irregular rocky pools to be met with on the sea
coast, for it will not enable one to search the numerous corners and
crevices into which many marine creatures will retire on being
'24
THE SEA SHORE
disturbed, but it may be greatly improved by bending the side
opposite the ferrule into a moderately sharp angle and then turn-
ing the angle slightly upward, as shown in fig. 15.
FIG. 14. — WIRE KING FOB NET
Another very convenient net frame may be made by bending
the wire into a rhomboidal form (fig. 16), the ferrule being
attached by means of two short, straight ends at one of the angles.
The opposite angle will serve the purpose of searching into the
FIG. 15. — NET FRAME WITH CURVED POINT
crannies of the rocks, while the straight sides will prove very use-
ful in removing the objects that lie on the sandy bottoms so
commonly seen in rock pools. The semicircular net shown in
fig. 18 will also prove useful for working on sands or for scraping
the flatter surfaces of weed-covered rocks.
FIG. 16. — EHOMBOIDAL FKAME FOB NET
The material of the net should be some kind of strong gauze,
«r a loosely- woven canvas. Leno answers very well, but is some-
what easily torn, and will have to be frequently renewed. This,
however, may be avoided to a great extent if, instead of sewing the
THE SEA-SIDE NATURALIST
25
gauze directly round the wire, a strip of strong calico be first
attached to the frame, and the gauze then sewn to the calico ; for
it will be understood that any fragile material placed round the
FIG. 17. — RHOIIBOIDAL NET
wire will soon be worn through by friction against the rugged sur-
faces of the rocks and stones. The net itself should not be very
deep, and should have no corners ; and as to the length of the
handle, that will be determined by the fancy of the collector, or by
FIG. 18.— SEMICIRCULAR NET
the character of the ponds to be searched, but a tough walking-
stick with a crook handle will generally answer all purposes, the
crook being itself frequently useful for removing the larger weeds
and other obstructions.
FIG. 19. — THE DREDGE
Although the net, as above described, will answer the require-
ments of nearly all young collectors, yet there may be some, who,
not satisfied with the exploration of the rocks and pools exposed
26
THE SEA S30BE
when the tide is out, desire to know something of the creatures
that live entirely heyond low-water mark, where the water is
generally too deep for work with a hand net. To such we recom-
mend a small dredge that may be lowered from a boat and then
drawn along the bottom. A good form of dredge is shown in
fig. 19, and a little skill and ingenuity will enable anyone to con-
struct one with the help of our illustration; but, seeing that the
best work is to be done on rough bottoms, it is absolutely necessary
that both frame and net should be made of the stoutest materials
that can be conveniently employed.
FIG. 20. — THE CRAB-POT
Those who have ever accompanied a fisherman while taking a
pull round to examine the contents of his crab or lobster pots will
probably have noticed what strange creatures, in addition to the
edible crabs and lobsters, sometimes find their way into the trap.
These creatures are often of great interest to a young naturalist, and
it will repay him to take an occasional trip with a fisherman in
order to obtain them ; or, still better, to have a crab-pot of his own.
The writer has obtained many good specimens by means of an
inexpensive trap, on the same principle as the ordinary crab-pot,
made from an old metal bird-cage of rather small size. The bottom
was removed, and a very shallow bag of thick canvas fixed in its
place ; and some of the wires were cut, and bent inwards so as to
THE SEA-SIDE NAfUEALIST
allow the easy entrance of moderately large crustaceans and other
creatures, while at the same time they served as a barrier to their
escape. Such a trap, baited with pieces of fish, and let down to a
rocky bottom, will enable the young naturalist to secure specimens
that are seldom seen between the tide-marks ; and the animals
thus obtained will include not only those larger ones for which the
opening was made, but also a variety of smaller creatures that may
enter between the* wires of the cage. Some of the latter may, of
course, escape by the same way as the trap is being hauled up for
examination, but this is not so likely
to occur if the canvas bottom is of a
material so loosely woven that water
can pass through it very freely. It
will, of course, occur to the reader that
the insertion of a stone or other weight
will assist in sinking the trap ; also
that the ordinary door of the cage
forms a ready means by which the
captives may be removed.
One thing more : make it a rule
never to go out collecting natural ob-
jects of any kind without a note-book
and pencil. This, to the beginner who
is anxious to get to his work, with the
idea only too prevalent with the ama-
teur that the success of his labours is to
be measured only by the number of
specimens obtained, may seem quite
an unnecessary part of the equipment.
But it must be remembered that there
is much to observe as well as much to
collect on a well-selected coast ; and
that without the aid of the book and pencil a great many of the obser-
vations made will be forgotten, and thus much interest that would
otherwise be attached to the objects permanently preserved will
be lacking.
The above appliances include the only necessary equipment
of the sea-side naturalist, with the exception of a few required
for occasional use in connection with the species of a somewhat
restricted habitat, and the outfit of the sea angler. The former will
be dealt with in the chapters where the species concerned are
FIG. 21. — AN OLD BIBD-CAGE
USED AS A CEAB-POT
28 THE SEA SHORE
described, while the subject of sea angling is of such general interest
that we propose to devote a short chapter exclusively to it.
It may seem hardly necessary to discourse on the nature of the
attire most suitable for sea- side work, since the majority will readily
form their own opinions on this matter, but perhaps a few words of
advice to the inexperienced may not be altogether out of place.
First, then, make it a rule to wear no clothing of any value. The
work will lead the enthusiast over slippery weeds, on treacherous
boulders, over rocks covered with sharp acorn shells, and among
slimy and muddy stones, and many a slip may occur in the course of
a day's work. Large pockets specially but simply made by sewing
square pieces of lining on the inside of an old jacket are a great
convenience ; a cap rather than a brimmed hat should be worn un-
less the latter be considered essential for protection from a burning
summer's sun ; and a pair of old shoes, preferably with rubber soles,
are just the thing for both rough and slippery rocks, as well as for
wading through shallow waters. Other details we can safely leave
to the fancy of the reader himself.
Now comes the most important question ' Where shall we go ? '
Fortunately we are favoured with a great extent of coast-line con-
sidering the area of our country, but the character of the coast is
so diversified, both with regard to its scenery and its life, that the
naturalist will do well to carefully select his locality according to
the objects he desires to study. The east coast of England is not
generally noted either for variety or abundance of marine life, and
the same is true both of the south-east and a large portion of the
south coast. In some places the beach is formed of an unbroken
stretch of sand on which one may walk for miles without seeing
any sign of life, with the exception of an occasional empty shell
and a few fragments of dried sea- weed washed in by the breakers
during a recent storm ; while at the same time the cliffs, if such
exist at all, are not very generous in their production of the fauna
and flora that are characteristic of the shore. But even on the
coasts referred to there are, here and there, isolated spots where the
uplands jut into the sea, giving rise to bold promontories, at the foot
of which are the fallen masses of rock that afford protection to a
moderate variety of truly marine life, while the rough bottoms
beyond yield numerous interesting forms that may be secured by
means of the dredge or suitable traps. Such spots are to be found
where the chalk hills abut on the sea, as at Flamborough and Beachy
Head, but it is in the neighbourhood of "Weymouth that the English
THE SEA-SIDE NATURALIST 29
coast really begins to be of great interest to the naturalist. From
here to the Land's End almost every part of the shore will yield a
great variety of life in abundance, and the same is true of the rocky
coasts of the west, and also of the more rugged shores of the Isle
of Wight. As an ideal hunting-ground one cannot do better than
to select one of the small fishing towns or villages on the rocky
coasts of Devon and Cornwall. With such a spot as his head-
quarters the most enthusiastic sea-side naturalist will find ample
employment. The exposed rocks and rock pools yield abundance
of life ; and if these be searched when the tide is out, there will
remain plenty of sea angling and other employments to occupy him
at other times.
We will now describe the actual work of the sea-side naturalist,
giving the necessary instructions for the observation and collection
of the various living things he will meet with.
First, then, with regard to work on the cliffs, a very few words
will suffice ; for, seeing that the objects of interest to be met with
here will consist principally of the various flowers that are peculiar
to or characteristic of the sea shore, and certain insects and other
creatures more or less partial to a life on the cliffs, we may regard
these as coming within the range of the general work of the
botanist, entomologist, &c. ; and since instructions for the collection
and preservation of such objects have already been given in former
works of this series, we may pass them over at once in order to
deal with those objects which are essentially marine.
It has already been hinted that the right time for collecting on
the shore is when the tide is at its lowest ; and in order that the
best work may be done the collector should consult the local tide-
tables, or calculate, if necessary, the time of high tide from the
establishment of the port ; and, of course, the period of spring tides
should be selected if possible. The time during which work should
continue must be regulated according to the enthusiasm of the
collector or the time at his disposal, but, as a rule, it is advisable
to be on the scene of action about three hours before the time
of low tide, with a determination to work continuously until the
lowest ebb of the water.
On reaching the beach it is always advisable to start by
examining the line of miscellaneous material at high-water mark,
along which may be found quite a variety of objects, more or less
interesting, which have been washed in by the breakers, especially
just after a storm, together with numerous scavengers of the shore
30 THE SEA SHORE
that perform a most useful work in devouring the decomposing
organic matter that would otherwise tend to pollute the air.
Here we may find many useful and interesting objects of both
the animal and vegetable worlds. Among the former are the
empty shells of both univalve and bivalve molluscs, some of which
are more or less worn by the action of the waves, while others are
in splendid condition for examination and study. Here, too, are
various species of sea firs and the skeletons of sponges ; the
shell of the cuttle-fish, and occasionally a cluster of the eggs of this
creature — the sea-grapes of the fishermen ; also the egg-cases of
the skate and the dog-fish — usually empty, but sometimes enclosing
the young animal still alive ; and, lastly, we frequently meet with
portions of the skeletons of fishes in a perfect state of preservation,
the animal matter having been cleared away by the combined
action of the scavengers previously referred to. Then, as regards
the vegetable world, we often find beautiful specimens of sea-weeds
along the high-water mark, some of which are rarely met with
in the rock pools, since they are species that have been detached
from beyond the line of low water, and washed up by the breakers.
On turning over the debris thus thrown on the beach we intrude
on the privacy of numerous living creatures which immediately
scamper away to find a new hiding-place. These consist principally
of sand-hoppers, but occasionally we find members of the insect
world engaged in the same useful work in addition to the numerous
flies that perform their office of scavengers in the bright sunshine
on the top of the matter that supplies them with food.
It will be interesting to capture a few of these scavengers, and
to compare them with others of the same order obtained from
different localities. Thus, the flies may be compared with the
more familiar house fly, and the sand-hoppers of high-water mark
with similar crustaceans to be afterwards obtained lower on the
beach.
Attention should now be given to the rocks left exposed by the
retreating tide, and it is here that the real work begins. Examine
each rock pool as soon as possible after it is no longer disturbed
by the waves. Remove any tufts of corallines or other weeds
required for study or preservation, and simply place them, pro tern.,
in the vasculum or other receptacle provided for the purpose.
These will form a useful protective packing for other objects that
are to be carried away, so that it will be advisable to secure a
moderate amount rather early, even though they may not be
THE SEA-SIDE NATURALIST 31
required for any other purpose. Live molluscs, crabs, small fishes,
&c., may all be put in the receptacle with this weed, and all will
probably be still alive after the collecting and the homeward
journey have been completed. Probe the corners of the pool with
the point of the net, and also sweep the net upward among the
weeds to remove any creatures that seek shelter among the fronds.
Tufts of corallines and other weeds should be searched for the
small and delicate starfishes that live among them, and any stones
that may cover the bottom of the pool should be lifted. Anemones
may be removed from the rocks by means of a rather blunt knife ;
but, if possible, it will be better to chip off a small piece of the rock
with the anemone attached to it, and wrap it lightly round with
a tuft of soft weed previous to placing it in the collecting case.
A number of rock pools should be searched in this manner, but
those chosen should vary as much as possible in general character.
All very small and delicate objects should be isolated from the
general stock, and placed, with the usual packing material, either in
tin boxes or small wide-mouthed bottles ; and if any animals taken
are not required alive, but only for preservation, they should be
preferably killed at once and then stored in a separate case. Some
creatures are easily killed by simply dropping them into a bottle
of fresh water, but others should be covered with methylated spirit.
It should be mentioned, however, that the natural appearance
of some of the crustaceans is quite destroyed by strong spirit,
which soon makes them look as if they had been boiled. Some
species are changed in this way much more readily than others ;
and, until sufficient experience has been gained to enable the young
collector to distinguish between them, it will be advisable to kill
and temporarily preserve crustaceans in spirit that has been
considerably diluted with water — about two parts of water to one
of spirit, for example. Further, there are certain fragile starfishes
that have a way of breaking themselves into pieces when dropped
into spirit, or even when suddenly disturbed in almost any other
manner. These must always be handled gently, and if it is required
to kill them for preservation, the best way will be to put them in
a little salt water, and then gradually add fresh water until the
desired result is obtained.
Perhaps the most productive of all sea- shore work is the
turning over of the stones of various sizes near the low-tide mark,
and the examination of the chinks and sheltered hollows of the
rocks that are left uncovered for but a short period. This work
32
THE SEA SHORE
should be carried on as near the water's edge as possible, closely
following the receding tide ; and the collector must now be
prepared with a number of small bottles or tins for the isolation
of small and delicate specimens. He must also be on the alert for
numerous examples of protective resemblance, in which the
animals concerned so closely resemble their surroundings in
colour and general character of surface that they are detected only
by careful observation, while the difficulty of identification is still
FIG. 22.— A YOUNG NATUBALIST AT WOBK
further increased in instances where the creatures remain perfectly
still even when disturbed.
Under the stones all manner of animals — fishes, crustaceans,
worms, molluscs, starfishes, anemones, &c. — will be hiding until
covered by the next tide. Some of these will be found on the
ground beneath the stones, and others attached to the under
surfaces of the stones themselves ; therefore both should be care-
fully examined, attention being given at first to the more active
species that hurry away with all speed towards a new shelter as
soon as they find themselves exposed to the light ; the less active
creatures may then be secured at leisure.
THE SEA- SIDE NATURALIST
83
The tide will not allow the collector a great deal of time in
which to turn over the most productive stones— those close to the
low- water mark, so there is but little opportunity of observing the
movements and other interesting habits of many of the animals
found; hence it is advisable to secure a good vaiiety of living
specimens, especially of the less familiar species, in order that they
may be placed in some kind of aquarium, temporary or otherwise,
for observation at home.
FIG. 23. — A GOOD HUNTING-GROUND ON THE CORNISH COAST
One thing more remains to be done while the tide is well out,
and that is to examine the weed-covered rocks near the water's
edge. Lift the dangling weeds and carefully search the rocks for
those low forms of animal life that form incrustations on the
surface, as well as for new species of anemones, sea firs, &c.
Lastly, look well into the dark and narrow chinks of the rocks, for
here several species of lowly animals that are hardly met with
elsewhere may be found, and also certain crustaceans that delight
to squeeze their bodies into the remotest corner of a sheltered
niche.
CHAPTER III
SEA ANGLING
WE do not propose dealing with this subject from the point of view
of the angler, but rather that of the naturalist. The former is
actuated principally, if not entirely, by the mere love of sport ; or,
it may be, to a great extent by the desire to obtain a supply of fish
for food ; and he generally estimates the success of his expeditions
not by the number of species captured, but by the total weight of
his catch, no regard being paid, as a rule, to the inedible specimens.
The naturalist, however, does not desire weight, or sweetness of
flesh. He works the greatest possible variety of habitats, with the
object of determining the number of species inhabiting the locality
and of learning as much as possible of their general form, habits,
and adaptations of structure to habits. His success is measured
by the number and variety of species caught, and he pays but
little attention to superiority of size or weight, or to the estimated
market value of his haul. The element of sport may enter more
or less largely into the pleasure of his occupation, but the main
end in view is to learn as much as possible of all the species
obtainable.
Further, our remarks will not include the subject of the
different kinds of fishing usually resorted to by sea anglers,
but will be confined almost exclusively to the simple means of
catching the common species that frequent the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the shore.
If the reader will follow the general instructions given in
Chapter II. on the outdoor work of the marine naturalist, he will
undoubtedly make the acquaintance of a considerable variety of
interesting species which may be captured in the rock pools,
found under stones at low tide, or obtained by means of a small
dredge ; but his knowledge of our littoral fishes may be appreciably
SEA ANGLING 35
extended by the occasional employment of rod and line from
rocks and piers, or from a small boat in close proximity to the
shore.
The appliances required are of a very simple nature, and not at
all costly. The long, heavy rod and strong tackle of the sea angler
and professional fisherman are not at all essential to our purpose,
for our work will be confined almost exclusively to shallow water,
and the fish to be caught will be chiefly of small size. True it is
that one may occasionally find his light tackle snapped and carried
away by the unexpected run of a large fish, for cod and other large
species often approach close to the shore, and bite at baits intended
for the smaller fish that make their home among the partly
submerged rocks of the coast ; but such surprises will not frequently
occur, and the young naturalist may learn all he wants to know of
the fishes of our shallow waters with the aid of a light rod of about
nine or ten feet and one or two light lines of no great length.
It must not be understood, however, that we assume the
reader's disinclination to know anything of the inhabitants of deep
water, but rather that we consider the whole subject of deep-sea
fishing quite beyond the scope of this work. It is a fact that quite a
large number of species, the forms and habits of which are extremely
interesting, live exclusively on deep bottoms. These should
undoubtedly be studied by all who are interested in the various
phases of marine life ; but unless the reader is prepared to
practise sea fishing in all its branches — to put his trust in the
restless sea, supplied with all the necessary heavy gear, and to
risk those internal qualms that arise from the incessant swaying of
the boat on open waters, he should make arrangements with the
professional deep-sea fisher — preferably a trawler — for the supply of
those disreputable species that invariably form part of the haul,
while the better-known food fishes can always be obtained from
dealers for purposes of study.
On one occasion we had a rather unique and very successful inter-
view with a friendly trawler. She was sailing slowly towards her
station in a south-western fishing port, while two of her crew were
clearing her nets, and throwing all refuse into the sea. We rowed be-
hind her in order to see the nature of the rejected portion of the haul,
and finding that it included specimens of interesting fishes of ill re-
pute, dead but perfectly fresh, we followed her track, and collected a
few for future examination. Presently our movements were watched
from aboard, and we were invited to pull up to larboard, where a short
36 THE SEA SHOEE
explanation as to our wants led to the acquisition of quite a variety
of deep-sea life, including several species of fishes not often seen
on land, crabs, shelled and shell-less molluscs, worms, star-fishes,
and various lowly organised beings, many alive and in good condi-
tion, together with several good food fishes thrown in by way of
sympathy. There is no doubt that a naturalist can obtain much
more deep-sea life with the aid of a friendly trawler than by any
amount of ' fishing ' with ordinary tackle from a boat ; and this
without the necessity of going to sea at all, if he will only take the
opportunity of examining the nets as the boats are stranded on their
return.
But now to return to our angling : — We have to provide a light
rod, about ten feet long, with a winch, and a line of twisted silk or
other thin but strong material ; also a light hand line, and a
supply of gut, leads, shot, and hooks, together with one or two
small floats, and a few bait boxes.
We do not, as a rule, recommend the amateur angler to use
both rod and hand line at the same time, for the attempt to do
this leads to the neglect of both. In the end it is not likely to lead
to any gain, so many fish being lost through the inability to strike
at the moment a bite is given, and so much time having to be
devoted to the baiting of hooks rather than to the direct
management of the lines. In most cases the rod is much more
convenient than the hand line. The young collector will meet with
the greatest variety of species in rocky and weedy places, where
abundant shelter exists for those fishes that prefer to keep well
under cover, and any attempt with a hand line in such spots will
certainly lead to frequent loss of hooks, and often of lead, line, and
temper. Such a line must be reserved for fishing on sandy
bottoms, while the ten-foot rod recommended will enable the angler
to do good work in the rockiest parts without much danger of
fouling ; and, in fact, to fish anywhere along the coast.
The arrangement of hooks and lead must necessarily depend
on the character of the place to be worked, but in all cases we
strongly recommend no such multiplicity of hooks as is made
use of by fishermen and others who fish for food. In their case
the use of so many hooks often pays them well ; but, as we have
previously hinted, the naturalist does not desire quantity of fish
so much as variety of species. Further, there is no necessity
to make his work heavy and arduous. His desire is not to spend
an undue proportion of his time in baiting hooks, but to have his
SEA ANGLING
J
FIG. 24.— ROUND
BEND HOOK WITH
FLATTENED END
line so under control that he is ready to strike at any moment,
and to be able to alter the conditions of his work as often as his
ideas or the conditions change.
In rugged and weedy places the hooks must be kept free from
rocks and weeds. This may be done by letting down the rod line
with a lead at the bottom, and one or two hooks
fastened to gut at such a level as to keep quite
clear of weeds. A much better arrangement,
and one which we ourselves almost invariably
employ, consists of a light lead, as a rule not
exceeding an ounce in weight, fastened at the
end of the line, and below it a few feet of gut
terminating in a single hook. With such tackle
it is of course necessary to determine previously
the depth of the water, in order to adjust the
line to such a length that the hook keeps clear
of rocks and weeds, and a float may be used if
desired.
We do not recommend a float for the general work of the
marine collector, for it is a decided advantage to be prepared to
bring the bait to any level from bottom to surface, especially when
the water is so clear that the fish may be seen swimming, in which
case one is often impressed with the desire to
capture a specimen in order to establish its
identity, and for such work as this a float is
superfluous. If, however, a float is used, it
should be a sliding one, so that it may be
adapted to the rising and falling of the tide.
Of hooks there is a great variety to choose
from, differing in the form both of the curve
and of the end of the shank. As to the curve,
those with a decided twist are best adapted to
our purpose, chiefly on account of the fact that
sea fishes generally have larger moi-ths than
fresh-water species of the same size, and are pIG 25. LIMERICK
consequently better held with a twisted hook. HOOK, EYED
The shanks of sea hooks are either flattened or
eyed, and each is as good as the other providing the snood is
firmly attached ; but some amateurs find a greater difficulty in
attaching the snood to the former than to the latter.
Gut snoods are recommended for our purpose, and fig. 26 shows
88
one method by which they may be fastened to a flattened shank,
while fig. 27 illustrates the figure-of-eight knot by means of which
the eyed shank may be firmly secured. The gut should be soaked
for some hours in cold water previous to tying, and it may be kept
soft for some considerable time by giving it a few hours' immersion
in a solution of glycerine — about one part of
glycerine to four or five parts of water.
Small hooks will be most suitable for our
purpose; and if the reader finds any diffi-
culty in attaching the snood firmly, he may
purchase suitable hooks ready mounted on
gut, though, of course,
these are more expen-
sive than the flattened
or eyed hooks gener-
ally used for sea-fish-
ing. Such small and
fragile hooks may be
occasionally snapped
off by the run of a
vigorous fish of mode-
rate size, therefore it
is advisable to have a
supply of larger hooks,
ready fixed on strong
snoods, to be used when
it is found that the
shore is frequented by larger fishes than
those generally caught close to land.
When fishing with a rod and line from
rocks, or from piers, the foundations of which
are covered with large weeds, the bait will
frequently be carried by currents among the
weeds and snapped off when endeavours are
made to release the hook. This will especially be the case when
the hook is a few feet below the lead, as we have already suggested
it should be. To reduce the frequency of such mishaps, it will
be a good plan to weight the gut below the lead by means of a
few split shot. In fact, in sheltered places, where the water is not
disturbed, these shot may take the place of the lead, but little
weight being necessary for rod fishing in such localities.
FIG. 27. — METHOD OF
ATTACHING SNOOD TO
EYED HOOK
FIG. 26. — METHOD OF
ATTACHING SNOOD TO
FLATTENED HOOK
SEA ANGLING 39
The amateur sea angler is often in great doubt as to the best
bait to use ; and, believing that a certain kind of bait is absolutely
necessary for his work in some particular spot, is often at a loss
to obtain it. This bait difficulty is evidently a prevailing one
among amateur sea fishers, if one may judge from the frequent
questions asked as to the best or proper bait to use, and from
the very common ' Can you oblige me with a little bait ? '
This latter question, we believe, is frequently the outcome of
carelessness or laziness on the part of the asker. He has not the
forethought, born of enthusiasm, that would lead him to procure
a suitable bait, at a convenient time, previous to starting off on his
angling expedition, but rather depends on the possibility of being
able to beg or otherwise secure sufficient for his purpose at the
time ; yet there are so many good baits that are easily secured
at the proper time and place that the enthusiastic angler need never
be at a loss. Some of these may be collected by himself at low
FIG. 28. — THE LUGWOBM
tide, others may be obtained from local fishermen, or from the
tradesmen of the town or village.
Some anglers seldom collect their own bait, either purchasing
it or employing some one to collect it for them ; but we are of
opinion that the pleasure of a day's fishing begins here, and
especially so when the angler is of the naturalist type, for he
will frequently learn more of the nature and habits of living
creatures during one hour's bait-collecting than during three or
four hours' angling. It is true that the work in question is often
a bit laborious, particularly on a warm day, and that it may be
frequently described as dirty and odorous ; but what is that to
one who is interested in his employment, and who derives pleasure
in doing his own work?
Fishermen often use lugworms for bait, and although these
constitute one of the best baits for their own fishing, they are
40 THE SEA SHORE
not so suitable for the purposes of the amateur angler, fishing
with small hooks close to shore. They may be dug out of the
sand when the tide is out, and are most abundant where the sand
is mixed with mud. A spade should be used, and this should be
thrust deep into the sand, selecting those spots where the holes
or burrows of the worms most abound. Lngworms should be
used whole ; and being of large size, are suitable for baiting large
hooks only. They may be kept alive in wet sand or sea- weed,
preferably the latter for convenience, and stored till required in
a wooden box.
Eagworms also afford good bait, and are particularly adapted
for shore angling with small hooks. Almost all the fishes that
frequent our shores take them readily, but they are not to be
found in all localities. They are to be taken, though not usually
in large numbers, on rocky shores where numerous stones lie
among the somewhat muddy deposits of the more sheltered nooks,
where they may be seen on turning over the stones. The best
FIG. 23 __ THE RAGWOBM
situation for ragworms, however, is the more or less odoriferous
mud so frequently deposited in the estuaries of rivers and in land-
locked harbours. Here they maybe dug out in enormous numbers
with a spade, attention being directed to those spots where their
burrows are most numerous. They are best stored with a little
of the mud in a shallow wooden box provided with a sliding,
perforated lid.
Failing a supply of the marine worms just mentioned, the
common earthworm may be used as a substitute, but it is
decidedly less attractive to the fishes ; and the same may be
said of gentles — the larvae or grubs of flies. The latter may be
bred in large numbers by simply placing a piece of liver in the
soil with only a small portion exposed. If this is done in the
summer time, hundreds of eggs will soon be deposited on it, and
in about a week or so it will be found to be a living mass of fat
white grubs, perhaps more useful to the fresh-water angler than
to his marine counterpart.
SEA ANGLING
41
Among the so-called shell fish of the class mollusca, mussels,
limpets, cockles, and whelks are all largely used for bait. The
last of these are too large for our purpose, but form a splendid
bait for deep-sea fishing, while the other three, and especially the
mussels, are well suited for shore work. Mussels, in fact, pro-
vide one of the best possible baits for almost all kinds of shore
fishing, the only drawback being the excessive softness of their
FIG. 30.— DIGGING FOR BAIT
bodies, which enables them to be easily torn from the hook.
When small hooks are used, mussels of a small size may be used
whole, or the larger ones may be divided into portions of suitable
size ; and in any case it will be found a good plan to tie the
bait to the hook with a short piece of cotton thread.
Mussels are not easily opened without injury, and consequently
some anglers give them a short immersion in hot water, to kill
42 THE SEA SHORE
the animal and thus cause the shell to gape. As far as our own
experience goes, the value of the bait is not deteriorated by this
treatment, though some are of opinion that it is not so attractive
after scalding. Mussels are opened, when alive, much in the
same way as oysters, but the valves of the shell fit together so
closely that it seems at first almost impossible to insert a knife
between them. This, however, can be done with ease if one
valve is first made to slide a little way over the other by pressing
it with the thumb. This being accomplished, the two valves
should not be separated by the mere force of the knife, for this
would tear the animal within, and render it more or less unfit for
FIG. 31. — METHOD OF OPENING A MUSSEL
its purpose ; but first direct the edge of the knife towards the
adductor muscle, by means of which the animal pulls its valves
so firmly together, and then cut through this close to the inner
surface of the upper valve. This valve can then be lifted without
injury to the soft parts, and the whole animal removed from the
other valve by cutting through the same muscle close to it.
Between the two lobes of the mantle — the soft covering on both
sides of the animal that previously lined the shell — will be seen
a brown, fleshy, tongue-like body. This is the ' foot ' of the mussel.
The point of the hook should first be run through this, and then
from side to side through the mantle, and finally through the
SEA ANGLING 43
adductor muscle previously described. If this is carefully done,
there will be little fear of the bait becoming detached unless it
is subjected to rough usage, and still less if it is tied round the
shank of the hook by means of a short piece of cotton thread.
It is probably superfluous to mention to the reader the fact that
mussels are to be found on almost every rocky coast, where they
may be seen attached to the rocks by means of a bunch of silky
fibres called the byssus ; and that, failing this, they are to be
obtained from almost every fisherman and fish-dealer ; if, however,
these molluscs are not to be obtained, cockles may be used as
a substitute, though it will probably be found that they are
appreciably inferior, except when fishing for dabs and plaice on
sandy shores, in which case they are highly satisfactory. Cockles
abound on most sandy coasts, where they live a little below the
surface ; and are usually obtained by means of an ordinary garden
rake. Sometimes we meet with them in large numbers in the
estuaries of rivers, where they He buried in the banks of mixed
sand and mud that are left exposed at low tide.
Limpets are extensively used for bait in some places, especially
by amateur anglers ; and often with good results. They should
always be removed from the rocks without injury, and this is no
easy matter to those who do not know how to deal with them. If
taken completely by surprise, one sharp, but light tap on the side
of the conical shell will successfully detach them from their hold ;
or they may be raised by means of the blade of a strong pocket-
knife that has been thrust beneath the cone.
For our work small limpets will prove far more satisfactory than
large ones, and these may be used whole ; but if the limpets are too
large for the hooks employed, the soft, upper part of the body only
need be used.
It is not an easy matter to remove fresh limpets from their
shells without destroying this soft portion of the animal, but if
placed for a minute or so in hot water they come out quite easily,
and are apparently none the less attractive as bait. Some fishermen
on the Cornish coast always collect the largest limpets for bait,
remove them from their shells by means of hot water, and arrange
them on the rocks to become partly dry. When required for bait,
the soft parts only are used, but these, having been more or less
hardened by the drying process, hold much better on the hook than
when fresh.
And now, after mentioning the fact that land snails are
44 THE SEA SHORE
occasionally used, though, we believe, with no very considerable
success, for sea fishing, we will note a few baits derived from the
higher head-footed molluscs — the squid, cuttle-fish, &c. There are
several species of these peculiar molluscs, but the common squid
and the common cuttle of our seas, and especially the former, is
highly prized as bait. It may Ke obtained from fishermen, who
frequently haul it in their nets ; but if supplied alive and fresh
from the sea it must be handled very cautiously, otherwise it may
discharge the contents of its ink-bag over one with the most
unpleasant results. It is certainly best used while fresh, though
some suspend it until dry, and then store it for future use, in which
case it will require soaking in water when required. The thin
tentacles or arms are very convenient for baiting small hooks,
though other parts of the body, cut into narrow strips, will serve
the purpose of the angler equally well.
Of the crustaceans, shrimps and prawns, and various species
of crabs are used as bait. Shrimps and prawns are used whole
for catching flat-fish, but small pieces are better when fishing for
smelt and other small species of fish that swim close to shore.
Little pieces of the flesh of the crab are also well adapted for baiting
hooks of small size, and will prove very attractive to almost all
kinds of fish. Small crabs, however, may be used whole, but are
of little use except when soft — that is, just after the shedding of
their shells, and before the new skin has had time to harden. Such
crabs may be found under stones and in other hiding-places at
low tide, for at such times they keep well' secluded from their
numerous enemies by whom they are greedily devoured while in this
helpless and unprotected condition.
The hermit-crab, which selects the empty shell of a whelk or
winkle for its home, is probably well known to our readers. The
protection afforded by such a home is absolutely necessary to its
existence, since its abdomen has no other covering than a soft,
membranous skin. This soft abdomen is frequently used as a bait
with great success, as well as the flesh of the larger claws.
If the shell from which the hermit-crab is taken be broken,
a worm, something of the nature of the common rag worm, will
almost always be found, and this also is very serviceable as bait.
In addition to all the baits previously named there are several
other good ones, many of which are to be obtained almost every-
where. Among these may be mentioned strips cut from the
mackerel, herring, or pilchard, preferably with a portion of the
SEA ANGLING 45
silvery skin attached ; also thin strips of tripe. Sand-eels, which
may be dug out of the sand near the water's edge, are very useful,
and may be cut into pieces for baiting small hooks. Further, a
large number of artificial baits are employed in various kinds of
sea fishing, but as these are not essential for the work we have in
hand we do not propose describing them in detail.
Now let us suppose that we are about to try .our luck at sea
angling, on some rocky coast, such as that of Devon and Cornwall,
our object- being to determine, as far as possible, what species of
fishes frequent the immediate neighbourhood of the shore. And
this is not all ; for, when fishing with rod and line on such a coast,
it frequently happens that we land some species of crab that has
been attracted to our bait. The ordinary angler would regard such
crab as an intruder, and, we are sorry to say, would often consider
it his duty to crush the unfortunate crustacean beneath his foot.
But it is far different with the naturalist. He favourably regards
all creatures from which something may be learnt, and is as anxious,
as a rule, to gather information concerning the habitats of one class
as of another. In fact, we may go still further, and combine crab
fishing with ordinary angling, both in one and the same expedition,
by letting a small crab-pot down into deep water among the rocks,
and allowing it to remain while the angling is proceeding.
We select a spot where there are several feet of water close to
a perpendicular rock, varied and broken by numerous holes and
crevices, in which various species of fishes and crustaceans habitually
hide.
Such a situation is an ideal one for a young naturalist, for not
only does he obtain the greatest variety of species here, but the
takings will surely include some of those remarkably interesting
rock-dwelling fishes that differ from our ordinary food fishes in so
many points of structure, all of which, however, display some inter-
esting adaptation to the habits and habitats of the species concerned.
Our apparatus consists of nothing more than rod and line, one
or two small leads, a supply of hooks on gut snoods, a box of bait,
and a waterproof bag in which to pack the specimens we desire to
preserve.
We first determine the depth of the water by means of a lead
on the end of the line, and then tie the hook on the end with
a small lead a few feet above it, and fish in such a manner that the
hook is just on the bottom, or, if the bottom is covered with weeds,
the hook should be kept just clear of fouling them.
46
THE SEA SHORE
The peculiar rock fishes so common on such a coast as this
on which we are engaged need special treatment at the hands
of the angler. They hide in their holes, watching for the unwary
creatures on which they feed, and, pouncing upon them suddenly,
rush back to their snug little nooks in which they can secure
themselves firmly by means of the sharp, hard spines with which
FIG. 32. — FISHING FKOM THE ROCKS
their bodies are furnished. When these fishes seize the bait offered
them — and they are not at all fastidious in the choice of their
viands — they should be hooked and pulled up with one vigorous
sweep of the rod, or they will dart into their homes, from which
it is almost impossible to dislodge them.
In addition to these, there will be various other species that
SEA ANGLING 47
require gentler treatment, and may be hooked and landed much
in the same manner as fresh-water fithes, since they are free
swimmers, usually keeping well clear of the rocks and weeds.
If the day is calm, and the water clear, the sea angler will often
be able to watch various fishes as they swim, and to bring the bait
gently within their reach ; and here we find the advantage of the
rod as compared with the hand line. Sometimes quite a shoal
of small fishes may be seen sporting near the surface, and, as
a rule, there will be no difficulty in obtaining one for identification
and study. These are generally best secured by means of small
hooks, with but very little bait, and will often bite freely at the
tiniest fragment of worm on an almost naked hook.
After the water has been searched at all depths, it will be well
to allow the bait to rest quite on the bottom, even at the risk
of losing a hook or two in the weeds and rocks. This may enable
one to take some fresh species of fish or to secure a crustacean or
other creature that is not often found between the tide-marks.
Care should be always taken, however, to keep the hook well clear
of the weeds that grow on the sides of the rock, and sway to and
fro with every movement of the restless waters.
Angling from piers may be pursued much in the same manner
as described above in those places where the bottom is rocky, but
since the chances of hooking large fish are greater here than close
to shore, it is necessary to be provided with stronger tackle and
larger hooks. If, however, the bottom is sandy, the rod tackle may
be modified by placing the lead at the bottom, and arranging two
or three hooks above it, about one or two feet apart, the lowest one
being near the lead. With such an arrangement the line may be
cast some distance out, but for angling close to the pier itself there
is, perhaps, nothing better than the single-hook arrangement
suggested above, for with this one may fish on the bottom and
at all depths without any alteration in the tackle being necessary.
If, however, the rod line is to be cast as suggested above, or
if a hand Line is to be similarly used, the following hints may be
useful as regards the arrangement of hooks and lead.
The line itself may be of twisted silk or hemp, terminated with
about a yard of strong gut. The lead, preferably of a conical or
pear-shaped form, should be placed at the extreme end, and its
weight regulated according to the necessities of the occasion. A
few ounces of lead are quite sufficient where there are no strong
currents, but it is well to be supplied with larger sizes, to be
THE SEA SHORE
substituted if circumstances require it.
Two hooks will be ample. One of these
should be only a few inches from the lead,
and the other about eighteen or twenty
inches higher. The whole arrangement,
known as a Paternoster, is represented in
fig. 33, in which the method of fixing the
lead and the hook links is also illustrated.
It will be seen that a swivel has been
introduced in connection with the bottom
hook, the object being to show the manner
in which this useful piece of tackle is
fitted. It must not be supposed, however,
that swivels are always necessary. It is
often useful to insert a swivel on the line
itself, above the Paternoster, when it is
of twisted material, in order to prevent
it from kinking ; but its use is more fre-
quently serviceable on the hook links,
especially when fishing where the currents
are strong. When the bait used is one
that presents two flat surfaces to the
water, as would be the case with a strip
of mackerel, a strong current will set it
SEA ANGLING 49
spinning round and round, thus causing the hook link to kink if it ,
has not been fitted with a swivel, and the same effect is often
produced by the spinning of a fish on the hook.
The employment of a suitable ground bait will often make a
wonderful difference in the angler's haul. It frequently attracts
large numbers, keeping them near at hand for some considerable
time, and apparently sharpens their appetite. It may be often
observed, too, that a fish will bite freely at the angler's bait when
in the neighbourhood of the ground bait, while the former is viewed
with suspicion in the absence of the latter.
When fishing on the bottom only, the ground bait should be
weighted if it is of such a nature that it does not sink readily or if
it is liable to be carried away by currents ; but it will often be
found more convenient to secure it on the end of a string, tied up
in a muslin bag if necessary, so that it may be adjusted to any
desired depth.
Among the attractive viands suitable for this purpose we may
mention mussels, crushed crabs, pounded liver, the guts of any oily
fish, and the offal of almost any animal.
Along the east coast, and in some of the sandy bays of Devon
and Cornwall, fishing from the beach is practised, but we can
hardly recommend this as of much value to the amateur whose
object is to obtain as great a variety as possible of fishes for study.
Some good food fishes are often caught by this means, but the
methods employed are often very primitive, and would lack all
interest to those who love good sport.
On the east coast a long line, fitted with many hooks, is slung
out as far as possible by means of a pole, and the home end either
held in the hand of the fisher or fastened to the top of a flexible
stick driven into the sand. The latter plan becomes necessary
when more than one line is owned by the same individual, and he
is made aware of the bite of a large fish — and a large fish only,
since the hooks are placed beyond a heavy lead — by the bending of
the stick.
The naturalist, however, is as much interested in the small fish
as the large ones, and, even for beach fishing, a rod and line,
fitted with one or two hooks only, and a lead no heavier than is
absolutely essential, will be preferable. A little practice will of
course be necessary in order that one may become expert in the
casting of the rod line, but with large rings on the rod, and a reel
without a check, or a check that can be thrown off when desired,
E
50 THE SEA SHOBE
the necessary proficiency in casting ought to be acquired without
much difficulty.
In some of the sandy bays of the south-west, long lines with a
heavy lead at both ends and baited hooks at short intervals
throughout the whole length, are placed on the sand at low tide
close to the water's edge, and left unwatched until the next tide is
out. As far as our observations go this primitive mode of fishing
is usually anything but successful, the receding of the tide generally
revealing a long row of clean hooks, with, perhaps, one or two
dead or half-dead fish ; and it is probable that most of the bait is
devoured by crabs and other crustaceans before the water becomes
sufficiently deep to allow the desired fishes to reach it.
There is one other method of fishing on which we may make a
few remarks, although it hardly comes under the heading of
shore fishing. We refer to a method of catching surface fishes
from a moving boat, which method is known as whiffing. The line
is weighted with a lead which must be regulated according to the
speed of the boat. If the boat is an ordinary rowing-boat, kept
going at only a moderate speed, a few ounces of lead will be
sufficient, but a whiffing line trailing behind a sailing boat
travelling in a good breeze will require a pound or two of lead to
keep the bait only a little below the surface.
Beyond the lead we have three or four yards of gimp or strong
gut, at the end of which is a single hook fitted with a spinner, or
baited with some attractive natural or artificial bait. Whatever be
the bait used, there will certainly be more or less spinning caused
by the resistance offered by the water, hence it will be necessary to
have a swivel beyond the lead.
When whiffing near the shore, care must be taken to avoid
outlying rocks that approach the surface of the water, or a sudden
snapping of the line will give you an unwelcome warning of their
existence. Further, we should note that the fishes which are to be
caught when whiffing do not always swim at the same depth, thus
it will be advisable to fish at different distances from the surface
by varying either the weight of the lead or the speed of the boat.
CHAPTER IV
THE MARINE AQUARIUM
WE have already advised our readers to take home their specimens
alive for the purpose of studying their growth and habits. Now,
although there may be some difficulties in the way of keeping
marine animals and plants alive for any considerable time, yet
we are in jlined to emphasise the importance of this matter, know-
ing that the pleasure and instruction that may be obtained from
even a moderately successful attempt to carry this out will far
more than compensate for the amount of trouble entailed. There
are very many marine objects that are exceedingly pretty and
also very instructive, even when studied apart from the life with
which they were associated in the sea. Thus, a well-preserved
sea-weed may retain much of its original beauty of form and
colour, the shells of numerous molluscs and crustaceans exhibit
a most interesting variety of features well worthy of study, and a
number of the soft-bodied animals may be preserved in such
a manner as to closely resemble their living forms. This being
the case, we can hardly say anything to discourage those who
gather sea-side objects merely for the purpose of making a
collection of pretty and interesting things to be observed and
admired. Such objects must necessarily afford much pleasure and
instruction, and the time spent in the collection and preparation
will certainly cause the collector to stray to the haunts of the
living things, where he is certain to acquire, though it may be to
a great extent unconsciously, a certain amount of knowledge
concerning their habits and mode of life. Moreover, sea-side
collecting is one of the most healthy and invigorating of all
out-door occupations, and for this reason alone should be
encouraged.
Yet it must be observed that he whose sea-side occupation is
52 THE SEA SHORE
merely that of a collector, aud whose work at home is simply the
mounting and arranging of the objects obtained, can hardly be
considered a naturalist. Natural history is a living study, and its
devotee is one who delights in observing the growth and develop-
ment of living things, watching their habits, and noting their
wonderful adaptation to their environments ; and it is to encourage
such observation that we so strongly recommend the young
collector to keep his creatures alive as far as it is possible to
do so.
The first thing to settle, then, is the nature of the vessel
or vessels that are to serve the purpose of aquaria for the work
of the young naturalist.
As long as the outdoor work is in progress temporary aquaria
will be very useful as a means by which the objects collected may
be sorted and stored until a final selection is made for the
permanent tank. These temporary aquaria may consist of jars
or earthenware pans of any kind, each containing a few small
tufts of weed, preferably attached to pieces of rock, and a layer of
sand or gravel from the Leach.
As such temporary aquaria will, as a rule, be within a con-
venient distance from the sea-side where the collecting is being
done, there will be, we presume, no great difficulty in the way
of obtaining the frequent changes of water necessary to keep the
animals and plants in a healthy condition, so that we need do no
more now than urge the importance of avoiding overcrowding, and
of renewing the water frequently for the purpose of supplying
the air required for the respiration of the inmates.
When it is desired to isolate small species in such a manner
that their movements may be conveniently observed, glass jars
answer well ; but whatever be the form or size of the vessels used,
care must be taken to avoid excess of both light and heat. They
should be kept in a cool place, quite out of the way of direct
sunshine, and the glass vessels used should be provided with a
movable casing of brown paper to exclude all light except that
which penetrates from above.
Even temporary aquaria, used merely for the purpose suggested
above, should be carefully watched, for a single day's neglect will
sometimes result in the loss of several valuable captives. A dead
animal should be removed as soon as it is discovered to avoid the
unpleasant results arising from the putrefaction of its body. The
appearance of a scum or film on the surface of the water should
THE MAEINE AQUARIUM 53
always be regarded with suspicion. Such a scum should be
removed with the aid of absorbent paper, since it tends to prevent
the absorption of oxygen from the air ; and, should the water be
tainted in the slightest degree, it should be changed at once, or, if
this is not practicable, air should be driven into it for some time
by means of a syringe with a very fine nozzle. Such precautions,
however, are not so urgently needed when the aquarium contains
crustaceans only, for the majority of these creatures suffer less
than others in the tainted sea water, some even being apparently
quite as comfortable in this as in a supply fresh from the sea.
Sea-weeds exhibiting the slightest tendency to decay must be
removed at once ; and, as regards the feeding of the animals, one
must be careful to introduce only as much food as is required for
immediate use, so that there be no excess of dead organic matter
left to putrefy. Some of the marine animals obtained from our
shores feed entirely on the minute and invisible organisms that
are always present in the sea water, and others subsist principally
on certain of the weeds. Many, however, of a more predaceous
disposition, capture and devour living prey, while some, and more
especially the crustaceans, are partial to carrion. If, therefore,
the observer desires to study the ways in which the various
creatures secure and devour their food, he should introduce into
his aquaria live marine worms and other small animals, and also
small pieces of fish or flesh.
We will now pass on to the more serious undertaking of the
construction and management of a permanent salt-water aquarium.
The first point to decide is, perhaps, the size of the proposed
vessel, and this will in many cases be determined partly by a
consideration of the space at one's disposal, and of the apartment
it is intended to occupy. If it is to be placed in a drawing-room
or other ordinary apartment of a dwelling-house, preference should
be given to a window facing the north in order to avoid the direct
rays of the sun, but perhaps no situation is more suitable than
a cool conservatory in the shady part of a garden ; and in either
case a strong table or other support should be provided, of a form
and size adapted to those of the aquarium to be constructed.
Various materials may be used in the construction of such an
indoor aquarium, and we shall deal with two or three different
types, so that the reader may make his selection according to his
fancy, or to his mechanical ability, if he intends that it shall
be of his own construction.
54 THE SEA SHORE
We will begin with an aquarium constructed entirely of a
mixture of cement and fine sand, this being the most inexpensive
and certainly the easiest to make ; and although it may not be
regarded as the most ornamental — but opinions will differ on this
point — yet it has the decided advantage of being the nearest
approach to the natural rock pool. Though somewhat heavy and
cumbersome, even when empty, the amount of material used in its
construction may be varied according to the taste and convenience
of the maker. Further, this form of aquarium is one that will
readily admit of structural alterations at any future period. It
may be deepened at any time ; lateral additions or extensions may
be made, or a portion may at any time be shut off for the purpose
of isolating certain of the animals procured.
The first thing to do is to prepare a flat, strong slab of hard
wood or stone, the exact shape and size of the desired artificial
FIG. 34. — SECTION or AN AQUARIUM CONSTRUCTED WITH A MTXTUKE
OF CEMENT AND SAND
pool, and then cover this, if of wood, with a mixture of fine sand
and cement, mixed to a convenient consistency with water, to the
depth of about one inch. The banks or walls of the pool must then
be built up on all sides, and this is best done by the gradual
addition of soft pellets of cement, applied in such a manner as to
produce an irregular surface. Unless the walls of the aquarium
be very thick and massive the cement will soon show a tendency
to fall from its place as the height increases, but this may .be
avoided by doing the work in instalments, allowing each portion to
set before further additions are made to the structure.
Since some marine animals like to occupy snug and shady
niches in deep water while others prefer full exposure to the light
in shallows, arrangements should be made for all by varying the
depth of the bed, and providing several little tunnels and caverns.
This may be accomplished either by working the cement itself into
suitable form, or by means of piled stones obtained from the sea
56
beach ; and if the latter plan is adopted, the stones should not be
obtained until the aquarium is quite ready for its living contents ;
for then a selection of stones and rock fragments with weeds,
anemones, sponges, and other fixed forms of life attached to them,
may be made. The natural appearance of a rock pool is thus more
nearly approached, and in a shorter time than if the sedentary life
were required to develop on an artificial ground.
Objection may be raised to the form of aquarium just described
on the ground that no life within it is visible except when viewed
from above. But is not this also the case with a rock pool on the
sea shore ? And has any admirer of nature ever been heard to
complain of the beauties of such a pool because he was unable
to look at them through the sides ? Further, it may be urged that
the inmates of our aquarium will be living under more natural
conditions than those of the more popular glass-sided aquaria,
because they receive light from above only.
FIG. 35. — CEMENT AQUARIUM WITH A GLASS PLATE IN FRONT
However, should the reader require a glass front to his cement
tank, the matter is easily accomplished. Three sides are built up
as before described. A sheet of thick glass — plate glass by preference
— is then cut to the size and shape of the remaining space, and this
is fixed by means of cement pressed well against its edges, both
inside and outside.
Water should not be put into the tank until it is quite dry ; and,
if one side is made of glass, not until the cement surrounding the
edge of the glass has been liberally painted with marine glue, hot
pitch, or some other suitable waterproof material.
If any pipes are required in connection with the water supply
of the aquarium, according to either of the suggestions in a later
portion of this chapter, such pipes may be fixed in their proper
places as the cement sides are being built up.
The next type of aquarium we have to describe is of low cost
56
THE SEA SHORE
as far as the materials are concerned, and one that may be made
by any one who has had a little experience in woodwork ; and
although the tank itself is of a simple rectangular form, yet it may
be made to look very pretty with a suitable adjustment of rocks
and weeds.
It consists of a rectangular box, the bottom, ends, and back of
which are of hard wood, firmly dovetailed together, and the front
of plate glass let into grooves in the bottom and ends. All the
joints and grooves are caulked with marine glue, but no paint
should be used in the interior.
This form of tank may be vastly improved by the substitution
of slabs of slate for the wood, though, of course, this change entails
a much greater expenditure of both time and cash ; but supposing
the work to be well done, the result is everything that could be
desired as far as strength and durability are concerned.
FIG. 36. — AQUABIUM OF WOOD WITH GLASS FRONT
In either of the rectangular tanks just described glass may be
used for two sides instead of one only ; and since this is not a matter
of very great importance, the choice may well be left to the fancy
of the one who constructs it.
Some prefer an aquarium with glass on all sides, and where
this is the case the framework may be made of angle zinc with
all the joints strongly soldered. Such an aquarium may be made
in the form of any regular polygon, for it is no more difficult to
construct one of six or eight sides than of four. It is more
difficult, however, to make such an aquarium perfectly watertight,
for the glass, instead of being in grooves, has to be securely
fastened to the metal frame by means of a cement on one side
only, and this cement has to serve the double purpose of holding
the glass and keeping in the water.
THE MAEINE AQUABIUM 57
Various mixtures have been suggested for this purpose, and
among them the following are perfectly satisfactory : —
1. Litharge 2 parts
Fine sand 2 „
Plaster of Paris . . . . . 2 ,,
Powdered resin 1 part
Mix into a very thick paste with boiled linseed oil and a little
driers.
2. Bed lead 3 parts
Fine sand 3 „
Powdered resin . . . . .1 part
Mix with boiled linseed oil as above.
Both these cements should be applied very liberally, and the
aquarium then allowed to remain quite undisturbed for at least two
weeks before any water is introduced.
FIG. 37. — HEXAGONAL AQUARIUM CONSTRUCTED OP ANGLE
ZINC, WITH GLASS SIDES
When ready for the water, the bottom of the aquarium should
be covered with a moderately thick layer of fine sand from the
sea shore, and stones then piled in such a manner as to form little
tunnels and caves to serve as hiding-places for those creatures that
prefer to be under cover. As to the selection of stones, we have
already suggested that some may have weeds rooted to them, and
that pieces of rock with anemones, sponges, and other forms of life
attached may be chipped off. Further, on many of our rocky
coasts we may find, near low-water mark, a number of stones
covered with a layer of vegetable growth, amongst which many
small animals live, often more or less concealed by their protective
58 THE SEA SHORE
colouring. Some of these stones placed on the bed of the salt-
water aquarium would add greatly to the natural appearance, as
well as give greater variety to the living objects. Shells bearing
the calcareous, snakelike tubes of the common serpula (p. 121),
preferably with the living animals enclosed, will also enhance the
general appearance and interest of the aquarium.
In making preparations previous to the introduction of animal
life, due regard should be paid to the peculiar requirements of the
creatures it is intended to obtain. We have already referred to the
advisability of arranging the bed of the tank in such a manner
that the water may vary considerably in depth, so that both deep
and shallow water may be found by the animals as required, and
to the provision of dark holes for crustaceans and other creatures
that shun the light. Very fine sand should be provided for
shrimps, prawns, and other animals that like to lie on it ; and this
sand must be deep in places if it is intended to introduce any of the
burrowing molluscs and marine worms.
The water used may be taken from the sea or be artificially
prepared. The former is certainly to be preferred whenever it can
be conveniently obtained, and at the present time few will find
much difficulty in securing a supply, for not only are we favoured
with the means of obtaining any desired quantity by rail at a cheap
rate from almost any seaport, but there are companies in various
ports who undertake the supply of sea water to any part of the
kingdom. If the water is to be conveyed from the coast without
the aid of the regular dealers in this commodity, great care must
be taken to see that the barrel or other receptacle used for the pur-
pose is perfectly clean. Nothing is more convenient than an
ordinary beer or wine barrel, but it should be previously cleansed
by filling it several times with water — not necessarily sea water
— and allowing each refill to remain in it some time before
emptying. This must be repeated as long as the water shows
the slightest colouration after standing for some time in the
barrel.
Should any difficulty arise in the way of getting the salt
water direct from the sea, it may be made artificially by dis-
solving ' sea salt ' in the proper proportion of fresh water, or even
by purchasing the different salts contained in the sea sepa-
rately, and then adding them to fresh water in proportionate
quantities.
THE MARINE AQUARIUM 59
The composition of sea water is as follows : —
Water 96'47 per cent.
Sodium chloride . . . 2-70 „
Magnesium chloride ... '36 „
Magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts) . "23 „
Calcium sulphate .... -14 „
Potassium chloride . . . . "07 „
Traces of other substances '03
100-00
and it will be seen from this table that artificial sea water may be
made by adding about three and a half pounds of sea salt, obtained
from the sea by the simple process of evaporation, to every ninety-
six and a half pounds of fresh water used. In making it there may
be some difficulty in determining the weight of the large volume of
water required to fill an aquarium of moderate dimensions, but
this will probably disappear if it be remembered that one gallon of
water weighs just ten pounds, and, therefore, one pint weighs
twenty ounces.
If the sea salt cannot be readily obtained, the following
mixture may be made, the different salts being purchased
separately : —
Water 96£ Ibs.
Sodium chloride (common salt) . . 43£ ozs.
Magnesium chloride 5 J „
Epsom salts 3f ,,
Powdered gypsum (calcium sulphate) . 2£ „
Although in this mixture the substances contained in the sea in
very small quantities have been entirely omitted, yet it will answer
its purpose apparently as well as the artificial sea water prepared
from the true sea salt, and may therefore be used whenever neither
sea salt nor the natural sea water is procurable.
Assuming, now, that the aquarium has been filled with sea water,
it remains to introduce the animal and vegetable life for which
it is intended ; and here it will be necessary to say something
with regard to the amount of life that may be safely installed, and
the main conditions that determine the proportion in which the
animal and vegetable life should be present in order to insure the
greatest success.
GO THE SEA SHORE
Concerning the first of these we must caution the reader against
the common error of overcrowding the aquarium with animals. It
must be remembered that almost all marine animals obtain the
oxygen gas required for purposes of respiration from the air dissolved
in the water. Now, atmospheric air is only very slightly soluble in
water, and hence we can never have an abundant supply in the
water of an aquarium at any one time. If a number of animals be
placed in any ordinary indoor aquarium, they very soon use up
the dissolved oxygen ; and, if no means have been taken to replace
the loss, the animals die, and their dead bodies soon begin to
putrefy and saturate the water with the poisonous products of
decomposition.
It is probably well known to the reader that a large proportion
of the oxygen absorbed by the respiratory organs of animals is
converted by combination of carbon into carbonic acid gas within
their bodies, and that this gas is given back into the water where
it dissolves, thus taking the place of the oxygen used in its forma-
tion.
If, then, an aquarium of any kind is to be a success, some
means must be taken to keep the water constantly supplied with
fresh oxygen quite as rapidly as it is consumed, and this can be
done satisfactorily by the introduction of a proportionate quantity
of suitable living weeds, providing there is not too much animal
life present.
The majority of living plants require carbonic acid gas as a food,
and, under the influence of light, decompose this gas, liberating the
oxygen it contained. This is true of many of our common sea-
weeds, and thus it is possible to establish in a salt-water aquarium
such a balance of animal and vegetable life that the water is main-
tained in its normal condition, the carbonic acid gas being absorbed
by the plants as fast as it is excreted by animals, and oxygen
supplied by the plants as rapidly as it is consumed by the animals.
This condition, however, is more difficult to obtain in a salt-water
aquarium than in one containing fresh-water life, partly because,
generally speaking, the sea-weeds do not supply oxygen to the water
as rapidly as do the plants of our ponds and streams, and partly
because of the difficulties attending the successful growth of sea-
weeds in artificial aquaria Thus it is usually necessary to adopt
some means of mechanically aerating the water; but, for the
present, we shall consider the sea-weeds only, leaving the mechani-
cal methods of aerating the water for a later portion of this chapter.
THE MAEINE AQUARIUM 61
In the first place, let us advise the amateur to confine his atten-
tion to the smaller species of weeds that are commonly found in
small and shallow rock pools, for the successful growth of the larger
purple and olive weeds will probably be beyond his power, even
though his tank be one of considerable capacity. The best plan is
that we have already suggested — namely, to chip off small pieces of
rock with tufts of weed attached, and to fix them amongst the
rockery of the aquarium, being careful to place those that grew in
shallow water with full exposure to the light, and those which
occupied sheltered and shady places in the rock pool, respectively,
in similar situations in the artificial pool.
For the purposes of aeration we have to rely principally on the
bright green weeds, and preference should be given to any of these
that exhibit, in their natural habitat, a multitude of minute air-
bubbles on the surface of their fronds, for the bubbles consist princi-
pally of oxygen that is being liberated by the plant, and denote
that the species in question are those that are most valuable for
maintaining the desired condition of the water in an aquarium.
Any small sea-weed may be tried at first, but experience will
soon show that some are much more easily kept alive than others.
In this experimental stage, however, a constant watch should be
maintained for the purpose of detecting signs of decay in the
marine garden. A plant should always be removed as soon as it
presents any change from the natural colour, or exhibits the smallest
amount of slimy growths on the surface, for decomposing plants, as
well as decaying animals, will soon convert an aquarium into a
vessel of putrid and poisonous water.
It seems almost unnecessary to name a selection of sea-weeds
for small aquaria, seeing that our rock pools produce so many
extremely beautiful species, most of which may be successfully kept
alive in a well-managed tank; but the common Sea Grass (Entero-
morpha compressd), and the Sea Lettuce (Ulva latissima), also
known locally as the Green Laver or Sloke, are particularly useful
for the aeration of the water ; while the Common Coralline (Coral-
Una officinalis), the Dulse (Schizymenia edulis), the Peacock's tail
(Padinapavonia), the Irish or Carrageen M.oss(Chortdruscrispus),
Callithamnion, Griffi thsia setacea, Plocamium plumosium, Rhody-
menia palmata, Rliodophyllis bifida, and Ceramium rubrum are
all beautiful plants that ought to give no trouble to the aquarium-
keeper.
It is not advisable to introduce animal life into the aquarium
62 THE SEA SHORE
immediately it is filled, on account of the possibility of the water
being contaminated by contact with the cement that has been used
to make it water-tight. It is safer to allow the first water to stand
for a few weeks, the weeds and all other objects being in situ, and
the necessary means employed for perfect aeration during this
interval, and then, immediately before the animals are placed in
their new home, to syphon off the whole of the water, and refill with
a fresh supply.
In the selection of animals due regard should be paid to
two important points — first, the danger of overcrowding, and,
secondly, the destructive habits of some of the more predaceous
species.
No more than two or three animals should, as a rule, be reckoned
for each gallon of water ; and the proportion of animals should be
even less than this when any of them are of considerable size.
As regards the destructive species, these are intended to include
both those that are voracious vegetable feeders and also those
whose habit it is to kill and prey on other creatures.
It must be understood that the weeds are to serve two distinct
purposes : — They are to supply at least some of the oxygen required
for the respiration of the animal inmates, and also to serve as food
for them. Some marine fishes and molluscs feed on the fronds of
the weeds, and among these the common periwinkle may be
mentioned as one of the most voracious. If many such animals
are housed in the aquarium, it will be necessary to replace at
intervals those species of weeds that suffer most from their ravages.
The zoospores thrown off by the weeds, particularly in the
autumn, are also valuable as food for some of the animals.
Notwithstanding the destructive character of the periwinkle
just referred to, it has one redeeming feature, for it is certainly
useful in the aquarium as a scavenger, as it greedily devours the
low forms of vegetable life that cover the glass and rocks, thus
helping to keep them clean ; and the same is true of the common
limpet and other creeping molluscs. Some of these are even more
to be valued on account of their partiality for decaying vegetable
matter, by devouring which they reduce the amount of the products
of decomposition passing into the water.
Other details concerning the selection of animal and vegetable
life for the indoor aquarium must be left to the discretion and
experience of the keeper, for it is impossible by written instructions
and advice to cover all the various sources of loss and trouble that
THE MARINE AQUARIUM 63
may from time to time arise. If, however, the general hints for
the management of the marine aquarium here given be faithfully
followed, there ought to be no further losses than must accrue
from the injudicious selection of animal species, and these will
decrease as experience has been acquired respecting the habits of
the creatures introduced.
We must now pass on to matters pertaining to the mainte-
nance of the healthy condition of an aquarium which, we will sup-
pose, has been established with due regard to scientific principles.
Under this head we shall consider, (1) the aeration of the water,
(2) the repair of loss due to evaporation, and (3) the regulation of
light and temperature.
It has already been shown that the marine aquarium can hardly
be maintained in a satisfactory condition as regards its air supply
by leaving the aeration of the water entirely to the action of plant
life ; and herein this form of aquarium differs from that employed
for the animal and vegetable life derived from ponds and streams.
Fresh-water weeds develop and multiply with such rapidity, and
are such ready generators of oxygen gas that it is a very easy
matter to establish a fresh-water aquarium that will remain in
good condition for years with but little attention ; it is therefore
important that we should point out the difference in treatment
ueeessary to those of our readers who are already acquainted with
the comparative ease with which the fresh- water aquarium may be
kept in good order, lest they expect the same self-aerating condi-
tion in the marine tank.
It is never a good plan to leave the renovation of the water of
the aquarium until there are visible signs within that something is
going wrong. It is true that an unsatisfactory condition of the
water, revealed by a slight taint in the odour, or a general turbidity,
or the formation of a slight scum on the surface, may sometimes
be rectified by the prompt application of some method of artificial
aeration, but the aim of the aquarium-keeper should be not the
rectification of unsatisfactory conditions, but the establishment of
such a method of aeration that the unsatisfactory condition be-
comes an impossibility. "We do not wish to discourage anyone
who has the slightest desire to start a marine aquarium. Our aim
is to point out any difficulties that lie in the way in order that the
aquarium may be a success; and thus, having stated that the
difficulties attending it are somewhat greater than those connected
with the management of a fresh-water aquarium, we should like to
64 THE SEA SHOBE
add that these practically disappear when one is prepared to devote
a short time at regular intervals in order to see that the process of
aeration is properly carried out.
Some recommend the occasional injection of air by a syringe
as one means of aerating the water ; but, although this may be all
very well as a temporary purifier of the slightly tainted aquarium,
it is hardly suitable as a means of maintaining a good, healthy
condition. It must be remembered that oxygen gas — the gas of
the atmosphere so essential to animal life — is only very slightly
soluble in water. By this we mean not only that water dissolves
oxygen very slowly, but also that it can never hold a large supply
of the gas at any one time. This being the case, it is clear that
the use of a syringe for a short time, though it discharges an
enormous total volume of air into the water, will result in the
actual solution of onty a small quantity. No method of aeration is
perfect that allows the admission of air for a short time only at com-
paratively long intervals ; the most perfect system is that in which
air is slowly but continuously passed into solution.
Since air is slightly soluble in water, it is clear that it must be
continuously passing into any body of water that has its surface
freely exposed to it ; hence a wide and shallow aquarium is much
more likely to keep in good order than one that is narrower and
deeper. But, with marine aquaria, the simple absorption from the
air at the surface is not in itself sufficient, as a rule, to maintain a
healthy condition. Yet it will be advisable to remember this matter
when constructing a tank for marine life.
One of the prettiest, and certainly one of the most effectual,
methods of supplying air to an aquarium is by means of a small
fountain with a very fine spray. The water need seldom be
changed, but the fountain may be fed by water from the aquarium,
and as the fine spray passes through the air it will absorb oxygen
and carry it in solution to the tank.
The accompanying diagram illustrates the manner in which
this can be accomplished. The aquarium (A) is supplied with an
outlet (o) about an inch from the top by means of which the water
is prevented from overflowing, and the outlet pipe leads to a vessel
(v) of considerable capacity which, for the sake of convenience and
appearance, may be concealed beneath the table on which the
aquarium stands. Some feet above the level of the aquarium is
another vessel (c), supported on a shelf, having about the same
capacity as v, and supplied with a small compo pipe that passes
THE MAEINE AQUARIUM
65
down into the aquarium, and then, hidden as much as possible by
the rockery, terminates in a very fine jet just above the level of
the water in the centre. The upper vessel should also be provided
at the top with a .loose covering of muslin to serve as a strainer,
and this should be replaced at intervals as it becomes clogged with
sedimentary matter.
In order that this arrangement may give perfect satisfaction
the two vessels (c and v) must each be of at least half the capacity
Fio. 38. — METHOD OF AERATING THE WATER OF AN AQUARIUM
A, aquarium with fountain ; c, cistern to supply the fountain ; o, pipe for
overflow ; V, vessel for overflow
of the aquarium itself, and the total quantity of salt water sufficient
to fill the aquarium together with one of them It should also be
remembered that since the pressure of water depends not on its
quantity, but on its height measured perpendicularly, it follows
that the height to which the fountain will play is determined by
the height of the vessel c above the level of the jet.
Let us now suppose that the aquarium and the upper vessel
66 THE SEA SHORE
have both been filled with sea water. The fine jet from the pipe
plays into the air and returns with a supply of oxygen to the
aquarium, while the excess above the level of o passes into the
concealed vessel below the table. If the two vessels are as large
as we recommend, and the jet a very fine one, the fountain may
continue to play for hours before c is empty, the animals of the
tank being favoured all this time with a continuous supply of air.
And when the supply from above is exhausted, the contents of the
bottom vessel are transferred to the top one, and at the same time
so effectually strained by the layer of muslin that no sedimentary
matter passes down to choke the fine jet of the fountain. One
great advantage this method possesses is that the living creatures
derive the benefit of a much larger quantity of water than the
aquarium alone could contain ; and thus, apart from the aerating
effects of the fountain, the result is the same as if a much larger
tank were employed.
In our next illustration (fig. 39) we give a modified arrangement
based on the same principle which may commend itself by preference
to some of our readers. Here the supply pipe to the fountain
passes through a hole in the bottom of the aquarium instead of
into the top, and the outlet pipe is bent downward within so as to
form a syphon.
Those who are acquainted with the principle of the syphon will
understand at once the working of such an arrangement as this.
Let us suppose the vessel c to be full of water, and the fountain
started, while the water in the aquarium stands no higher than the
level I. The water slowly rises until the level h of the bend of the
outlet tube has been reached, and during the whole of this time
no water escapes through the exit. As soon, however, as the latter
level has been attained, the water flows away into the lower vessel,
into which it continues to run until the lower level is reached, and
then the outflow ceases, not to commence again until the fountain
causes the water to rise to the upper level.
From what has been said the reader will see that the total
quantity of water required in this instance need not exceed the
capacity of the aquarium ; also that each of the vessels connected
with water supply and waste should have a capacity equivalent to
the volume of water contained in the aquarium between the two
levels h and Z.
The alternate rising and falling of the water produced in the
manner just described represents in miniature the flow and ebb
THE MARINE AQUARIUM
67
of the tides, but perhaps this is in itself of no great advantage in
the aquarium except from the fact that it allows those creatures
that prefer to be occasionally out of the water for a time a better
opportunity of indulging in such a habit. And further, with regard
to both the arrangements for aeration above described, it should
be noted that earthenware vessels are much to be preferred to those
made of metal for the holding of sea water, since the dissolved
salts corrode metallic substances rather rapidly, and often produce,
FIG. 39. — AQUABIUH FITTED WITH APPARATUS FOB PERIODIC OUTFLOW
by their chemical action, soluble products that render the water
more or less poisonous.
Other methods of aerating the water of aquaria are practised,
but these, as a rule, are only practicable in the case of the large
tanks of public aquaria and biological laboratories, as the mechanical
appliances necessary to carry them out successfully are beyond the
means of an ordinary amateur.
In such large tanks as those referred to it is common to force
a fine jet of air into the water by machinery. Sometimes this air
68 THE SEA SHORE
is driven downward from a jet just below the surface, and with
such force that a multitude of minute bubbles penetrate to a
considerable depth before they commence to rise, but in others the
air is made to enter at the bottom and must therefore pass right
through the water.
Of course the amateur aquarium-keeper may carry out this
method of aeration with every hope of success providing he has
some self-acting apparatus for the purpose, or can depend on being
able himself to attend to a non-automatic arrangement at fairly
regular intervals, always remembering that a single day's neglect,
especially in the case of a small tank with a proportionately large
amount of animal life, may lead to a loss of valuable specimens.
We have already mentioned the use of a syringe as a means by
which an aquarium may be temporarily restored to a satisfactory
condition providing it has not been neglected too long, and some
recommend forcing air, or, still better, pure oxygen gas, from an
india-rubber bag into the water. We have used, for the same
purpose, a stream of oxygen from a steel cylinder of the compressed
gas with very satisfactory results ; and since oxygen may be now
obtained, ready compressed, at a very low price —about twopence
a cubic foot — there is much to be said in favour of this method as
an auxiliary in the hands of the owner of a small tank, though we
hardly recommend it as a prime means of aeration to take the
place of the fountain.
In any case, where a stream of air or oxygen is employed, an
exceedingly fine jet should be used, in order that the expelled gas
may take the form of a stream of minute bubbles ; for, as previously
stated, the water can absorb the gas only very slowly, so that there
must necessarily be a considerable waste when the gas issues
rapidly. Further, the smaller the bubbles passing through the
water, the greater is the total surface of gas in contact with the
liquid, the volume of the supply being the same, and hence the
more effectually will the solution of the gas proceed. Again,
another advantage of the fine stream of minute bubbles lies in the
fact that the smaller these bubbles are the more slowly they rise to
the surface of the water, and thus the longer is the time in which
the gas may be absorbed during its ascent.
A fine jet, well suited to the purpose here defined, may be made
very easily by holding the middle of a piece of glass tubing in a
gas flame until it is very soft, and then, immediately on removing
it, pulling it out rather quickly. A slight cut made with a small
THE MAEINE AQUARIUM 63
triangular file will then enable the operator to sever the tube at
any desired point.
Yet another method of maintaining the air supply of aquaria is
adopted in the case of some of the large tanks of public aquaria
and biological laboratories situated close to the sea, and this
consists in renewing the water at every high tide by means of
pumps.
It must not be supposed that an indoor aquarium, even when
well established, and supplied with the best possible system of
aeration, requires no further care and attention. In the first place
there is a continual loss of water by evaporation, especially in
warm and dry weather, and this must be rectified occasionally.
Now, when water containing salts in solution evaporates, the
water passing away into the air is perfectly free from the saline
matter, and thus the percentage of salt in the residue becomes
higher than before. It is evident, therefore, that the loss by
evaporation in a marine aquarium must be replaced by the
addition of fresh water, which should either be distilled, or from
the domestic supply, providing it is soft and moderately free from
dissolved material.
But the question may be asked, ' Do not the marine animals
and plants utilise a certain amount of the saline matter contained
in the salt water ? ' The answer to this is certainly in the
affirmative, for all sea-weeds require and abstract small proportions
of certain salts, the nature of which varies considerably in the
case of different species ; and, further, all the shelled crustaceans
and molluscs require the salts of lime for the development of their
external coverings, and fishes for the growth of their bony
skeletons. Hence the above suggestion as to the replenishment
of loss by evaporation with pure water is not perfectly satisfactory.
It will answer quite satisfactorily, however, providing the sea
water is occasionally changed for an entirely new supply. Again,
since carbonate of lime is removed from sea water more than any
other salt, being such an essential constituent of both the external
and internal skeletons of so many marine animals, as well as of
the calcareous framework of the coralline weeds, we suggest that
the aquarium may always contain a clean piece of some variety of
carbonate of lime, such as chalk, limestone, or marble, which will
slowly dissolve and replace that which has been absorbed.
Water is rendered denser, and consequently more buoyant, by
the presence of dissolved salts; and, since the density increases
70
with the proportion of dissolved material, we are enabled to deter-
mine the degree of salinity by finding the density of the solution.
We can apply this principle to the aquarium, as a means of
determining whether the water contains the correct amount of sea
salt, also for testing any artificial salt water that has been prepared
for the aquarium.
Probably some of our readers are acquainted with some form
of hydrometer— an instrument used for finding the density of
any liquid ; but we will describe a simple substitute that may be of
use to the owner of a marine aquarium, especially if the salt water
for the same is artificially prepared. Melt a little bees-wax, and mix
it with fine, clean sand. Then, remembering that the wax is lighter
than water, and consequently floats, while sand is considerably
heavier, and sinks, adjust the above mixture until a solid ball of
it is just heavy enough to sink very slowly in sea water. Now
make two such balls, and then cover one of them with a light
coating of pure wax. "We have now two balls, one of which will
float in sea water, and the other sink, and these may be used at
any time to test the density of the water in, or prepared for, the
aquarium. If the water is only a little too salt, both balls will
float ; while, if not sufficiently rich in saline matter, both will sink.
We must conclude this chapter by making a few remarks on
the important matter of the regulation of light and temperature.
Direct sunlight should always be avoided, except for short and
occasional intervals, not only because it is liable to raise the
temperature to a higher degree than is suitable for the inmates of
the aquarium, but also because an excess of light and heat tends
to produce a rapid decomposition of organic matter, and a con-
sequent putrid condition of the water, and this dangerous state is
most likely to occur when both light and temperature are high at
the same time.
The water should always be cold ; and as it is not always easy to
estimate the temperature, even approximately, by the sensation
produced on immersing the fingers, it is a good plan to have a
small thermometer always at hand, or placed permanently in the
aquarium. In the summer time the water should be kept down to
fifty-five degrees or lower, and in winter should never be allowed
to cool much below forty. There may be some difficulty in main-
taining a temperature sufficiently low in summer, but a small piece
of ice thrown in occasionally to replace the loss due to evaporation,
especially on very hot days, will help to keep it down.
CHAPTEK V
THE PRESERVATION OF MARINE OBJECTS
THE sea-side naturalist, in the course of his ramblings and search-
ings on the coast, will certainly come across many objects, dead
or alive, that he will desire to set aside for future study or
identification in his leisure moments at home. Some of these
will be required for temporary purposes only, while, most probably,
a large proportion will be retained permanently for the establish-
ment of a private museum, that shall serve not only as a pleasant
reminder of the many enjoyable hours spent on the shore, but
also as a means of reference for the study of the classification of
natural objects and of their distribution and habitats.
We will first deal with those specimens that are required for
temporary purposes only — those of which the collector desires to
study the general characters, as well as, perhaps, something of the
internal structure ; but before doing so we cannot refrain from
impressing on the reader the advisability of learning as much as
possible of the external features and mode of growth of the
different living creatures while still alive, for it must be remembered
that it is impossible to preserve many of them without more or
less destruction of their natural colouring and distortion of their
characteristic forms.
In those cases where it is possible to keep the creatures alive
for a short time only, it is a good plan to make notes of their
movements and all observed changes in form, and their methods
of feeding, and also to illustrate these notes by sketches drawn
from life. This may seem quite an unnecessary procedure to
many beginners in the study of natural objects, and may even, as
far as the sketches are concerned, present difficulties that at first
appear to be insurmountable ; but the power to sketch from nature
will surely be acquired to a greater or less degree by constant
72 THE SEA SHORE
practice, and illustrated notes prepared for the purpose we suggest
will undoubtedly be of great value to the student. Further,
though it may often be necessary to set specimens aside in a
preservative fluid until one has the leisure to examine their
structure, it should always be remembered that they never im-
prove by keeping, also that they are rarely in such good condition
for dissection after saturation with the preservative as when
perfectly fresh.
One of the most convenient preservatives for general use is
undoubtedly methylated spirit. This is alcohol that has been
adulterated in order to render it undrinkable, so that it may be
sold free from duty for use in the various arts and manufactures
without any danger of its being employed for the concoction of
beverages. It may be used just as purchased — that is, in its
strongest condition — for many purposes, but in this state it has
a powerful affinity for water, and will rapidly abstract water from
animal and vegetable objects, causing the softer ones to become
hard, shrunken, and shrivelled, often to such an extent that they
are almost beyond recognition.
By diluting the spirit, however, we satisfy to a great extent its
affinity for water, and thus prevent, or, at least, reduce the action
just mentioned. A mixture of equal quantities of spirit and water
is quite strong enough. Unfortunately the common methylated
spirit of the shops produces a fine white precipitate, that gives
the whole mass a milky appearance, when it is diluted. This is
due to the presence of mineral naphtha, which is added in a
certain fixed proportion in accordance with the Government
regulations. But it is possible, by special application, to obtain
the ' non-mineralised ' or ' ordinary ' methylated spirit of former
years, though not in small quantities, and this liquid dissolves in
water without the formation of a precipitate. It should be noted,
however, that the use of the spirit as a preservative is in no way
interfered with by the presence of the mineral naphtha, the only
disadvantage of this impurity lying in the fact that the milkiness
consequent on dilution prevents the objects in a specimen jar from
being observed without removal.
We have just referred to the hardening action of strong spirit
as a disadvantage, and so it is when it is required to preserve soft
structures with as little as possible of change in general form and
appearance ; but there are times when it becomes necessary to
harden these soft structures in order that sections may be made
THE PRESERVATION OF MARINE OBJECTS 73
for the purpose of examining internal structure with or without the
aid of the microscope, and for such purposes strong spirit is one of
the best hardening agents that can be employed.
Formaldehyde is another very good preservative. It is a colour-
less liquid, and should be considerably diluted for use, a two per cent,
solution being quite strong enough for all ordinary purposes. It
possesses some distinct advantages as compared with spirit. In
the first place, it does not destroy the natural colours of objects
to the extent that spirit does ; and, although a hardening agent as
well as a preservative, it does not harden soft structures by the
extraction of the water they contain, and therefore does not cause
them to become shrivelled or otherwise distorted. It will also
occur to the reader that, since a small bulk of formaline represents
a large volume of the diluted preservative, it is very conveniently
stored, and a very small bottle of it taken for outdoor work may, on
dilution with water, be made to yield all that is required for the
preservation of the takings of a successful day, or even of a longer
period. Formaldehyde is usually sold in solution of about forty per
cent, strength, and for the preparation of a two per cent, solution it
will be found convenient to provide a glass measure graduated either
into cubic centimetres or fluid ounces and drams. One hundred
volumes of the original solution contain forty of pure formaldehyde,
and if water be added to make this up to two thousand volumes, a
two per cent, solution is obtained. Thus, one hundred cubic centi-
metres of the original solution is sufficient to prepare two litres
(three and a half pints) of suitable preservative.
A very good preservative liquid may be made by dissolving two
ounces of common salt, one ounce of alum, and two or three grains
of corrosive sublimate (a deadly poison) in one quart of water, and
then, after allowing all sedimentary matter to settle to the bottom,
decanting off the clear solution. This mixture is known as Goadby's
fluid, and is well adapted for the preservation of both animal and
vegetable structures. It does not cause any undue contraction of
soft tissues, and, as a rule, does not destroy the natural colours of
the objects kept in it.
Glycerine is valuable as a preservative for both animal and
vegetable objects, and especially for the soft-bodied marine animals
that form such a large percentage of the fauna of our shores. It
maintains the tissues in a soft condition, and preserves the natural
tints as well as any liquid.
An inexpensive preservative may also be made by dissolving
74 THE SEA SBO&E
chloride of zinc — about one ounce to the pint of water. This is
considered by some to be one of the best fluids for keeping animal
structures in good condition.
Now, although the different fluids here mentioned are described
in connection with the temporary preservation of natural objects,
it must be remembered that they are equally adapted for the per-
manent preservation of the animals and plants that are to figure in
the museum of the sea- side naturalist ; and, although some marine
objects may be preserved in a dry state in a manner to be hereafter
described, yet there are many species of animals, and also some
plants, that can be satisfactorily preserved only by immersion in a
suitable fluid.
This method may be applied to all soft-bodied animals, such as
anemones, jelly-fishes, marine worms, shell-less molluscs (sea slugs,
cephalopods, &c.), the soft parts of shelled molluscs, fishes, &c. ;
and most sponges retain their natural appearance much better in a
preservative fluid than in a dry condition. Many sea-weeds also,
which are practically destroyed by the most careful drying process,
are most perfectly preserved in fluid.
But the puzzled amateur will probably be inclined to ask :
' Which is the best preservative liquid for this or that specimen ? '
No satisfactory general rule can be given in answer to such a
question, and a great deal will have to be determined by his own
experiments and observations. Whenever he has two or three
specimens of the same object, as many different fluids should be
employed, and the results compared and noted. In this way a very
great deal of useful information will be obtained and by the best
possible means. However, it may be mentioned that all the fluids
alluded to above may be safely used for almost every animal or vege-
table specimen with the following reservations : strong spirit should
not be employed for any very soft animal, nor should it be used for
delicate green plants, since it will dissolve out the green colouring
matter (chlorophyll), leaving them white or almost colourless.
Further, the greatest care should be exercised in dealing with sea
anemones and jelly-fishes. If spirit is used for preserving these
creatures, it should be very dilute, at least at first, but may with
advantage be increased in strength afterwards, though this should
be done gradually.
Whatever be the preservative used, it is sure to be more or less
charged with sedimentary and coloured matter extracted from the
object immersed in it ; hence, if the specimen concerned is to form
THE PRESERVATION OF MARINE OBJECTS 75
part of a museum collection, it will be necessary to transfer it to a
fresh solution after a time, and a second, and even further changes
may be necessary before the object ceases to discolour the fluid or
render it turbid.
Considerable difficulty will sometimes be found in the attempts
to preserve a soft-bodied animal in its natural attitude. Thus,
when a sea anemone is removed from its native element, it
generally withdraws its tentacles, and, contracting the upper part
of its cylindrical body, entirely conceals these appendages, together
with the mouth they surround ; and a mollusc similarly treated
will generally pull itself together within its shell, leaving little or
no trace of the li ving body inhabiting the lifeless case. Then, if
these animals are transferred to any fluid other than sea water, or
placed anywhere under unnatural conditions, they usually remain
in their closed or unexpanded form. Thus, almost every attempt
to kill them for preservation deprives them of just the characteristics
they should retain as museum specimens.
Some such animals may be dealt with satisfactorily as follows :
Transfer them to a vessel of fresh sea water, and leave them
perfectly undisturbed until they assume the desired form or
attitude. Then add a solution of corrosive sublimate very gradu-
ally—a drop or two at intervals of some minutes. In this way the
bodies of anemones may be obtained ready for preservation with
expanded tentacles, tube-secreting worms with their heads and
slender processes protruding from their limy or sandy cases,
molluscs with their ' feet ' or their mantles and gills protruding
from their shells, and barnacles with their plume-like appendages
projecting beyond the opening of their conical shells.
The specimens thus prepared may be placed at first in very
dilute spirit, and then, after a time, finally stored in a stronger
solution of spirit in water ; or they may be transferred to one of
the other preservative solutions previously mentioned.
All specimens permanently preserved in fluid for a museum
should be placed in jars, bottles, or tubes of suitable size, each vessel
containing, as a rule, only one. Where expense is no object, stop-
pered jars made expressly for biological and anatomical specimens
may be used for all but the smallest objects ; or, failing this, ordinary
wide-mouthed bottles of white glass, fitted with good corks or glass
stoppers.
For very small specimens nothing is more suitable than glass
tubes, but it must be remembered that wherever corks are used,
76
THE SEA SHORE
even if they are of the best quality procurable, it will be necessary
to look over the specimens occasionally to see if the preserving fluid
has disappeared to any extent either by leakage or evaporation ; for
such loss is always liable to occur, although it may be very slow,
and especially when methylated spirit is the liquid employed.
The writer has preserved many hundreds of small marine and
other objects in glass tubes of dilute spirit that have been hermeti-
cally sealed, thus rendering the slightest loss absolutely impossible,
while the perfect exclusion of air prevents the development of
fungoid growths that sometimes make their appearance in imper-
fectly preserved specimens. The making and closing of such tubes,
FIG. 40. — JARS FOB PRESERVING ANATOMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SPECIMENS
though a more or less difficult operation at first to those who have
had no previous experience in glass- working, become exceedingly
simple after a little practice ; and believing it probable that many
of our readers would like to try their hand at this most perfect
method of preserving and protecting small objects, we will give a
description of the manner in which it is done.
The apparatus and materials required for this work are : —
Lengths of ' soft ' glass tubing, varying from about one quarter to a
little over half an inch in internal diameter; a supply of diluted
spirit— about half spirit and half water ; a Herapath blowpipe,
preferably with foot-bellows ; and a small triangular file.
THE PRESERVATION OF MARINE OBJECTS 77
The glass tubing may be cut into convenient lengths by giving
a single sharp stroke with the file, and then pulling it apart with,
at the same time, a slight bending from the cut made.
Cut a piece of tubing about eight or nine inches long, heat it
in the blowpipe flame, turning it round and round all the time,
until it is quite soft, then remove it from the flame and
immediately pull it out sloivly until the diameter in the middle
is reduced to about a sixteenth of an inch (fig. 41, 2). Make a
Fio. 41. — SHOWING THE DIFFERENT STAGES IN THE MAKING OP A SHALL
SPECIMEN TUBE
slight scratch with the file at the narrowest part, and divide the tube
at this point (fig. 41, 3). Now heat one of these pieces of tubing as
before just at the point where the diameter of the drawn part begins
to decrease ; and, when very soft, pull it out rather quickly while
it is still vn the flame. The part pulled now becomes completely
separated, and the tube is closed, but pointed. Continue to heat
the closed end, directing the flame to the point rather than to the
sides, until the melted glass forms a rather thick and flattened end;
and then, immediately on removing it from the flame, blow gently
78
THE SEA SHORE
into the open end until the melted glass is nicely rounded like the
bottom of a test-tube (fig. 41, 4). "When the tube is cold, the
specimen that it is to contain, and which has already been stored
for a time in dilute spirit, is dropped into it. The tube is now
heated about an inch above the top of the specimen, drawn out as
shown in fig. 41, 5, and again allowed to cool. When cold, the fresh
spirit is poured into the open end of the tube, but the middle part
is so narrow that the spirit will not run down freely. If, however,
suction be applied to the open end, air from the bottom will bubble
through the spirit, and then, on the cessation of the suction, the
spirit will pass down to take the place of the air that was with-
drawn. This may be repeated if necessary to entirely cover the
specimen with the fluid. Any excess of spirit is
then thrown from the upper part of the tube,
and the latter cut off. Nothing is now left but
to close the tube hermetically. This is done by
heating the lower part of the narrow neck, and
then drawing it out in the flame, taking great
care that the tube is withdrawn from the flame
the moment it is closed. The tube must also be
kept in an upright position until it has cooled.
The appearance of the finished tube is shown
in fig. 41, 6.
All preserved specimens should have a label
attached on which is written the name of the
specimen, the class and order to which it belongs,
the locality in which it was found, together with
any brief remarks that the owner desires to re-
member concerning its habits &c.
The bottles or tubes that are too small to have a label attached
to them in the ordinary way may be mounted on a card, as repre-
sented in fig. 42, and the desired particulars then written on the
card.
When soft or delicate specimens are preserved in a bottle of
fluid they frequently require some kind of support to keep them in
proper form and to display them better for observation. Perhaps
the best way to support them is to fasten them to a very thin plate
of mica of suitable size by means of a needle and very fine thread.
The mica is so transparent that it is invisible in the fluid, and the
few stitches are also hardly perceptible, thus making it appear as if
the specimen floats freely in the fluid.
FIG. 42. — SMALL
SPECIMEN TUBE
MOUNTED ON A
CAKD
THE PBESERVATION OF MAEINE OBJECTS 79
We will now pass on to consider those objects of the shore that
are usually preserved in a dry condition, commencing with
STARFISHES AND SEA URCHINS
Starfishes are commonly preserved by simply allowing them to
dry in an airy place, with or without direct exposure to the sun's rays,
and this method is fairly satisfactory when the drying proceeds
rapidly ; but care should be taken to maintain the natural roughness
of the exterior as well as to have the numerous suckers of the under
surface as prominent as possible. If the starfish is simply laid out
on some surface to dry, the side on which it rests is often more
or less flattened by the weight of the specimen itself, which there-
fore becomes adapted for the future examination of one surface only ;
but a better result, as regards both the rapidity of drying and the
after appearance of the specimen, may be obtained by suspending it
on a piece of fine net or by threads. A still better plan is to put
the dead starfish into strong spirit, which will rapidly extract the
greater part of the moisture that its body contained. After allowing
it to remain in this for a day or two to harden it, put it oat to dry
as before mentioned. The spirit, being very volatile, will soon
evaporate, so that the specimen will shortly be ready for storing
away.
It is most important to observe that dried specimens — not star-
fishes only, but all animal and vegetable objects — should never be
placed in the cabinet or other store-case until perfectly dry, for a
very small amount of moisture left in them will often encourage the
development of moulds, not only on themselves, but on other speci-
mens stored with them.
Very small and delicate starfishes, when preserved in a dry con-
dition, may be protected from injury by fastening them on a card
by means of a little gum, or by keeping them permanently stored
on cotton wool in glass-topped boxes.
Sea urchins, or sea eggs, as they are commonly called, may be
preserved exactly in the same way as starfishes, though it is more
essential in the case of these to soak them in strong spirit previous
to drying, otherwise the soft animal matter within the shell will
decompose before the drying is complete. Here, however, it is
possible to remove the whole interior with the aid of a piece of
bent wire, and to thoroughly clean the inner surface of the shell
before drying it.
80 THE SEA SHORE
Some of the shells should be preserved with the spines all
intact, and others with these removed in order to show the
arrangement of the plates which compose the shell, as well as the
perforations, and the rounded processes to which the spines are
articulated.
The majority of sea urchins are provided with a most com-
plicated and beautiful arrangement of teeth which are well
worthy of study. These should be removed from a moderately
large specimen, the soft surrounding structures carefully dissected
away, and then cleaned by means of an old tooth-brush without
disarranging them.
It will be found that dried sea urchins will require care when
preserved with spines attached, for these appendages are usually
very brittle and are easily dislocated at their bases where they are
united to the shell by ball-and-socket joints.
It may be mentioned here that corrosive sublimate is very
valuable for preventing the development of mould on the surfaces
of starfishes, sea urchins, and museum specimens generally. It is
best supplied in the form of an alcoholic solution made by dissolving
a few grains in about half a pint of methylated spirit ; the advantage
of this over an aqueous solution being the rapidity with which it dries.
In most cases it is simply necessary to apply the solution to the
object by means of a soft brush, but, as regards starfishes and
urchins it is far better to dissolve a few grains of the corrosive sub-
limate in the spirit in which the objects are placed previous to
drying.
CRUSTACEANS
The preservation of crustaceans by the dry method often requires
some care and demands a certain amount of time ; but the process
is never really difficult, and the satisfaction of having produced
a good specimen for a permanent collection well repays one for
the trouble taken and time spent.
Some of our crustaceans are only partially protected by a firm
outer covering, and almost every attempt to preserve these as dry
objects results in such a shrivelling of the soft tissues that the
natural appearance is quite destroyed. This is the case with some
of the barnacles, and the abdominal portion of the bodies of hermit
crabs, which are, therefore, far better preserved in fluid. Dilute
spirit is quite satisfactory for most of these as far as the preservation
of the soft structures is concerned, but it has the disadvantage that
THE PRESERVATION OF MARINE OBJECTS 81
it turns the shells of some crustaceans red, making them appear as
if they had been boiled.
Other crustaceans are so small, or are hardened externally to
such a slight extent, that they also are not adapted for the dry
method of preservation. Speaking generally, such crustaceans as
shrimps and sand-hoppers are best preserved in fluid, while the
different species of crabs and lobsters are more conveniently pre-
served dry unless it is desired to study any of their soft structures.
It is quite impossible to remove the soft parts from small crabs
and lobsters previous to drying them, hence the drying should be
conducted as rapidly as possible, so that no decomposition may
set in. Where the process goes on very slowly, as is the case when
the air is damp, or when the specimens are not set out in an airy
spot, a decay of the soft structures soon proceeds, and the products
of this decay will generally saturate the whole specimen, giving rise
to most objectionable odours, and destroying the natural colour of
the shell.
If it has been found that the species in question are not reddened
by the action of methylated spirit, they should be allowed to remain
in this fluid, with a few grains of dissolved corrosive sublimate, for
at least a few hours, and then they will dry rapidly without any
signs of putrefaction; and even those species that are reddened
by spirit may be treated to a shorter immersion in this fluid with
advantage.
The specimens should always be set out in some natural attitude
to dry, unless it is desired to spread out the various appendages in
some manner that is more convenient for the study of their structure.
A sheet of blotting-paper may be placed on cork or soft wood, the
specimens placed on this, and the appendages kept in the desired
positions when necessary by means of pins placed beside, but not
thrust through them. When more than one specimen of the same
species has been collected, one should be set in such a manner
as to exhibit the under side ; and, further, in instances where the
male and female of the same crustacean differ in structure, as is
commonly the case, two of each should be preserved, one displaying
the upper, and the other the under surface.
When perfectly dry, all small crustaceans should be mounted
on cards with the aid of a little gum, and the name and other
particulars to be remembered then written on the card.
The question may well be asked : ' Which is the best gum to
use ? ' In answer to this we may say that gum tragacanth is
o
82
THE SEA SHORE
certainly as good as any. It holds well, and leaves no visible stain
on a white card. A small quantity of the solid gum should be put
into a bottle with water in which a grain or so of corrosive sublimate
has been dissolved. It absorbs much water, becoming a very soft,
jelly-like mass. Any excess of water may be poured off, and the
gum is then ready for use.
The larger crabs and lobsters contain such an amount of soft
tissue within that it becomes absolutely necessary to clear them in
order to avoid the unpleasant and
destructive effects of decomposi-
tion.
In the case of lobsters the ab-
domen should be removed from
the large cephalo-thorax by cutting
through the connecting membrane
with a sharp knife. The soft por-
tions of both halves of the body
are then raked out by means of a
piece of wire flattened and bent at
one end, and the interior cleaned
with the aid of a rather stiff bottle-
brush. The large claws are then
removed by cutting through the
membrane that unites them with
the legs, and these are cleared in
a similar manner. The different
parts are next laid out to dry on
blotting-paper, with the various
appendages attached to the body arranged just as in life; and,
finally, when all parts are quite dry, both within and without, the
separated parts are reattached by means of some kind of cement.
For this purpose a solution of gelatine in acetic acid is much
better than gum tragacanth, as it has a far greater holding power,
and this is necessary when we require to unite rather large struc-
tures with but small surfaces in contact.
Large crabs are to be dealt with much in the same manner,
but, instead of removing the abdomen only, which, in the crab, is
usually very small and doubled under the thorax, the whole
carapace — the large shell that covers the entire upper surface of
the body — should be lifted off, and replaced again after the speci-
men has been cleaned and dried.
Fio. 43. — SMALL CRAB MOUNTED
ON A CARD
THE PRESERVATION OF MARINE OBJECTS 83
MABINE SHELLS &c.
We have previously dealt with the preservation of the shell-less
molluscs, and the soft bodies of the shelled species when such are
required, so we will now see what should be done with the
shells.
Numerous shells are often to be found on the sea beach — shells
that have been washed in by the breakers, and from which the
animal contents have disappeared, either by the natural process of
decay, aided by the action of the waves, or by the ravages of the
voracious or carrion-eating denizens of the sea ; and although these
shells are rarely perfect, having been tossed about among the
other material of the beach, yet we occasionally find here the
most perfect specimens of both univalve and bivalve shells in such
a condition that they are ready for the cabinet, and these often
include species that are seldom found between the tide-marks, or
that are otherwise difficult to obtain.
However, the shell-collector must not rely on such specimens
as these for the purpose of making up his stock, but must search
out the living molluscs in their habitats and prepare the shells as
required.
The molluscs collected for this purpose are immersed in boiling
water for a short time, and the animal then removed from the
shell. In the case of bivalves it will generally be found that the
hot water has caused the muscles of the animal to separate from
the valves to which they were attached, or, if not, they have been
so far softened that they are easily detached, while it does not
destroy the ligament by means of which the valves are held
together at the hinge ; but the univalve molluscs must be removed
from their shells by means of a bent pin or wire. In the latter
instance care must be taken to extract the whole of the body of the
animal, otherwise the remaining portion will decompose within the
shell, giving rise to the noxious products of natural decay.
The univalves have now simply to be placed mouth downwards
on blotting-paper to drain and dry, when they are ready for the
cabinet. If, however, they include those species, like the peri-
winkles and whelks, that close their shells by means of a horny lid
(operculum) when they draw in their bodies, these lids should
be removed from the animal and attached to their proper places in
the mouth of the shell. The best way to accomplish this is to
84 THE SEA 8HOEE
pack the dry shells with cotton wool, and then fasten the opercula
to the wool by means of a little gum tragacanth or acetic glue.
Bivalve shells should, as a rule, be closed while the ligament is
still supple, and kept closed until it is quite dry, when the valves
will remain together just in the position they assume when pulled
together by the living animal. The shells of the larger species
may be conveniently kept closed during the drying of the ligament
by means of thread tied round them, but the very small ones are
best held together by means of a delicate spring made by bending
fine brass wire into the form shown in fig. 44.
There are many features connected with the internal structure
and surface of the shells of molluscs that are quite as interesting
and instructive as those exhibited externally ; hence a collection of
the shells intended for future study should display internal as well
as external characteristics. Thus, some of the spiral univalve
' shells may be ground down on
an ordinary grindstone in order
to display the central pillar (the
columella) and the winding
FIG. 44.— SPBING FOB HOLDING cavity that surrounds it, while
TOGETHER SMALL BIVALVE SHELLS others, such as the cowries, may
be ground transversely to show
the widely different character of the interior. Bivalve shells, too,
may be arranged with the valves wide open for the study of the
pearly layer, the lines of growth, the scars which mark the posi-
tions of the muscles that were attached to the shell, and the teeth
which are so wonderfully formed in some species.
Some collectors make it a rule to thoroughly clean all the shells
in their collection, but this, we think, is a great mistake ; for when
this is done many of the specimens display an aspect that is but
seldom observed in nature. Many shells, and especially those
usually obtained in deep water, are almost always covered with
various forms of both animal and vegetable growth, and it is
advisable to display these in a collection, not only because they
determine the general natural appearance, but also because these
growths are in themselves very interesting objects. Further, it is
a most interesting study to inquire into the possible advantages of
these external growths to the inhabitants of the shells, and vice
versa —a study to which we shall refer again in certain chapters
devoted to the description of the animals concerned.
But there is no reason whatever why some of the duplicate
THE PRESERVATION OF MARINE OBJECTS 85
specimens should not be cleaned by means of a suitable brush,
with or without the use of dilute hydrochloric acid (spirits of salt),
or even polished, in some few cases, to show the beautiful colours
so often exhibited when the surface layer has been removed. This,
however, should be done somewhat sparingly, thus giving the
greater prominence to the exhibition of those appearances most
commonly displayed by the shells as we find them on the beach or
dredge them from the sea.
Very small and delicate shells may be mounted on cards, as
suggested for other objects ; but, as a rule, the specimens are best
displayed by simply placing them on a layer of cotton wool in
shallow boxes of convenient size.
The number of insects that may be described as truly marine is
so small that their preservation is not likely to form an important
part of the work of the sea-side naturalist ; and even though a
considerable number of species exhibit a decided partiality for the
coast, living either on the beach or the cliffs, the study of these is
more generally the work of the entomologist. For this reason, and
partly because we have already given full instructions for the
setting and mounting of insects in a former work of this series, we
consider a repetition inadmissible here.
The subject of the preservation of fishes, also, will require but
few words. There is no satisfactory method of preserving these in
a dry state, though we often meet with certain thin-bodied species,
such as the pipe-fish, that have been preserved by simply drying
them in the sun. Fishes should be placed in dilute spirit, or in one
of the other liquids recommended, but a change of fluid will always
be necessary after a time, and also frequently the gentle applica-
tion of a brush to remove coagulated slime from the surface of the
scales.
The great drawbacks in the way of preserving a collection of
fishes are the expense of the specimen jars, and the large amount
of space required for storing the specimens. Of course the former
difficulty can be overcome by substituting ordinary wide-mouthed
bottles in the place of the anatomical jars, while the latter can be
avoided to a considerable extent by limiting the collection to small
species, and to "small specimens of the larger species. If this is
done, it is surprising what a large number of fishes can be satis-
factorily stored in bottles of only a few ounces' capacity.
86
FLOWERS AND SEA WEEDS
The apparatus required for the preservation of the wild flowers
of our cliffs, and the sea weeds, consists of a quantity of blotting
paper or other thick absorbent paper cut to a convenient size, a few
thin boards and a few pieces of calico of the same size, some heavy
weights, and several sheets of drawing paper.
The wild flowers are arranged on the sheets of absorbent paper
while still fresh, care being taken to display the principal parts to
the best advantage. They are then placed in a single pile, with a few
extra sheets of absorbent paper between each two specimens to
facilitate the drying, boards at the bottom and top as well as at
equal distances in the midst of the pile, and the weights on the top
of the whole.
The natural colours of leaves and flowers are not very often
preserved satisfactorily, but the best results are obtained when the
drying process proceeds most rapidly. Hence, if the press contains
any specimens of a succulent or sappy nature, they should be
taken out after the first day or two, and then replaced with a fresh
supply of dry paper.
The flowers must be left in the press until quite dry, and they
may then be mounted on sheets of drawing paper, by fixing them
with a little gum tragacanth, or by narrow strips of gummed paper
passing over their stems.
Some collectors prefer simply placing their botanical specimens
inside double sheets of drawing paper, not fastening them at all,
and there is much to be said in favour of this, especially as it
allows the specimens to be examined on both sides ; and even
when they are fastened to the paper double sheets are much to be
preferred, for the specimens are not then so liable to be damaged
by friction when being turned over, especially when the names are
written on the outside of each sheet.
The larger sea-weeds may be dried in the same manner, though
it is a good plan to absorb the greater part of the moisture they
contain by pressing them between pieces of calico previous to
placing them in the ordinary press. It should be observed, however,
that many sea- weeds exude a certain amount of glutinous substance
that makes them adhere to the paper between which they are
dried, while they do not so freely adhere to calico. These should
THE PRESERVATION OF MARINE OBJECTS 87
be partially dried in the calico press, and then laid on the paper on
which they are to be finally mounted, and re-pressed with a piece
of dry calico on the top of each specimen.
Many of the smaller weeds may be treated in the manner just
described, but the more delicate species require to be dealt with
as follows : — Place each in a large, shallow vessel of water, and
move it about, if necessary, to cause its delicate fronds to assume
that graceful form so characteristic of the algae of our rock pools.
Then immerse the sheet of paper on which the weed is to be
finally mounted, and slowly raise the specimen out of the water,
on the paper, without disturbing the arrangement of the fronds.
If it is found necessary to rearrange any of the fronds, it may be
done by means of a wet camel-hair brush. Now lay the specimen
on calico or absorbent paper, placed on a sloping board, to dram ;
and, after the greater part of the moisture has disappeared by
draining and evaporation, transfer the specimen to the press with
a piece of dry calico immediately over it. All are dealt with in
turn in the manner described, and allowed to remain in the press
until perfectly dry, when it will be found that the majority of them
have become firmly attached to the mount, and require nothing
but the label to fit them for the herbarium.
Sea-weed collectors often make the great mistake of pressing
tufts that are far too dense to admit of the structural characters
being satisfactorily examined. To avoid this fault, it will often be
necessary to divide the clusters collected so that the forms of their
fronds may be more readily observed.
The calcareous corallines may be pressed in the same way as
the other algae, but very pretty tufts of these, having much the
appearance of the living plant, may be obtained by simply
suspending them until thoroughly dry ; though, of course, speci-
mens so prepared must not be submitted to pressure after they are
dry, being then so brittle that they are easily broken to pieces.
The hard framework of these interesting corallines is composed
principally of carbonate of lime, a mineral substance that dissolves
freely in hydrochloric acid (spirits of salt). Thus, if we place a
tuft of coralline in this acid, which should be considerably diluted
with water, the calcareous skeleton immediately begins to dissolve,
with the evolution of minute bubbles of carbonic acid gas; and
after a short time, the end of which is denoted by the absence of
any further bubbling, nothing remains but the vegetable matter,
now rendered soft and pliant. A decalcified specimen of coralline
88 THE SEA SHORE
may be pressed and dried, and then mounted beside the plant in
its natural condition for comparison ; and the true appearance
of the vegetable structure may also be retained, and in a far more
satisfactory manner, by preserving a portion of the specimen in
dilute spirit.
Finally, it may be observed that many sea-weeds, like wild
flowers, do not retain their natural forms and colours when
preserved dry. They are spoilt by the pressure applied, or become
so shrivelled and discoloured in the drying as to be but sorry
representatives of the beautifully tinted and graceful clothing of
the rocks of the coast. But many of those that suffer most in
appearance when dried may be made to retain all their natural
beauty by preserving them in a fluid; and it is most important
that this should be remembered by all who desire to study the
weeds at home, and particularly by those who possess a micro-
scope, and wish to search into the minute structure of marine
algae. Our own plan is to keep not only the dried specimens for
the purpose of studying the general characters and classification
of the algae, but also to keep a few large bottles — stock bottles —
filled with weeds of all kinds in a preservative fluid. These latter
are exceedingly useful at times, and are frequently brought into
requisition for close inspection, with or without the microscope.
Small pieces may be detached for microscopic examination when
required, and sections may be cut either for temporary or
permanent mounting just as well as from living specimens, such
sections showing all the details of structure exhibited by the living
plant.
THE MUSEUM
One of the greatest difficulties besetting the young collector
lies in the choice and construction of the cabinet or other store-
house for the accommodation of the specimens that accumulate as
time advances.
Of course, when expense is a matter of no great consideration,
a visit to the nearest public or private museum to see the manner
in which the specimens are housed, followed by an order to a
cabinet-maker, will set the matter right in a short time ; but
it is probable that the majority of our readers are unable to fit up
their museum in this luxurious style, and will either have to
construct their own cabinets and store-boxes or to purchase cheap
substitutes for them.
THE PRESERVATION OF MARINE OBJECTS 89
Where one has the mechanical ability, and the time to spare,
the construction of a cabinet with the required number of drawers
may be undertaken, and there is no better form of store than this.
The whole should be made of well-seasoned wood, and the drawers
should vary in depth according to the size of the specimens they
are to contain. Some of these drawers may be lined with sheet
cork, and the cork covered with white paper or a thin layer of
cotton wool. This will enable some of the specimens to be fixed
in their places by means of pins. As a rule, however, no pins will
be required, and the specimens will be most conveniently arranged
in shallow cardboard boxes, placed in rows in the drawer, a little
cotton wool covering the bottom of each.
Failing the usual cabinet, the specimens may be stored in
shallow trays or boxes, or even in the little cardboard cabinets so
often sold for storing stationery &c. The best and cheapest things
of this kind we have ever met with are the little cabinets, each con-
taining either six or twelve drawers, made by Macdonald & Co.,
of Temple Eow, Birmingham. By the use of such as these the
specimens may be neatly stored away, and additions to match may
always be made as the collection increases in magnitude.
The specimens should all be classified according to their
positions in the animal or vegetable world, and accompanied by
labels giving the name of species and genus, together with localities,
habitats, &c. The outlines of classification may be studied from
the later chapters of this work, in which the common objects of the
sea shore are described in their scientific order, beginning with the
lowest sub-kingdoms and classes ; and further, it will be observed
that the sub-kingdoms are divided into classes, the classes into
orders, orders into families, families into genera, and that the
genera contain a smaller or larger number of closely allied species.
The collection must be kept in a perfectly dry place, otherwise
many of the specimens will be liable to develop moulds, and this
will, of course, quite spoil their appearance. It is almost sure to
be attacked by mites and other animal pests unless some means
be taken to prevent their intrusion.
As regards the latter, it is well to know that it is far easier to
prevent the intrusion of small animal pests than it is to exterminate
them after they have once found an entrance; and so, from the
very commencement of the formation of the collection, all drawers
and boxes should be charged with some substance that is objec-
tionable, if not fatal, to them. Small lumps of naphthaline
90 TEE SEA SHOBE
(albo-carbon) put into the various compartments, and renewed
occasionally as they disappear by evaporation, will generally suffice
to prevent the entrance of all pests, but this substance is not
effectual as an insecticide for the purpose of killing them after
they are in.
Perhaps the best of all insecticides is the corrosive sublimate
already mentioned, and this may be applied to any animal or
vegetable object that is capable of providing food for museum pests,
and it is difficult to find such an object on which they will not feed.
Many of the specimens that find a place in a museum have
been temporarily preserved in spirit previous to being dried, and
if a little corrosive sublimate was dissolved in this spirit, the speci-
mens will have been rendered perfectly free from all attacks of
marauders, since the spirit will have saturated the whole object,
carrying with it the dissolved poison.
Most of the specimens that have not been treated by the above
method would not suffer from a short immersion in spirit containing
the corrosive sublimate; but in cases where it is considered in-
expedient to do this, the same liquid may be applied to them by
means of a soft brush. In this way even the dried botanical
specimens may be rendered perfectly secure from attacks.
CHAPTER VI
EXAMINATION OF MARINE OBJECTS— DISSECTION
AN enthusiastic observer of nature will learn much concerning the
structure of natural objects with the unaided eye, but there are
times when he will desire some kind of magnifier to reveal more
perfectly the structure of minute parts, or to enable him to observe
the small creatures that are invisible to the naked eye. Further,
one may learn many interesting and instructive facts relating to
animal arid plant life by cutting sections for close examination, or
by making such simple dissections as will enable one to observe
the more salient features of internal structure ; we therefore
propose in the present chapter to make a few remarks and
suggestions regarding work of this kind.
A pocket magnifier is of great value to the young naturalist,
both for the inspection of natural objects while engaged in out-
door work, and for the subsequent examination of the specimens
collected for study. It is often necessary to enable one to identify
and classify small animals and plants, and will be in constant
demand for the purpose of studying the less conspicuous external
features. Such an instrument should be regarded as an essential
companion of the naturalist, and should accompany him on every
ramble.
There are several different forms of pocket lenses, but for
general work there is, perhaps, nothing more convenient and service-
able than the ' triplet ' magnifier. It is a combination of three
lenses, enclosed in a pocket case, and so arranged that they may
be used separately or in combination, thus supplying a variety
of powers. The three lenses of the triplet are themselves of
different magnifying powers, and these powers may be increased
by combining two or all of them.
For work at home a ' dissecting microscope ' is very useful.
92
IHE SEA SHORE
This consists of a magnifying lens, mounted on a support over a
surface on which small objects may be examined and dissected,
the height of the lens being, of course, adjusted according to its
focal distance. Lenses ready mounted on adjustable stands may
be purchased for this purpose, but no one ought to experience
much difficulty in designing and constructing some simple stand
that will give every satisfaction.
The arrangement just described is, of course, suitable for the
dissection of only small objects, and these are placed on a material
adapted to the nature of the
work to be done. Thus it
is sometimes convenient to
place the object to be ex-
amined on a small sheet of
cork, in order that it may be
secured by means of pins
while the dissection proceeds,
while at other times it is
essential that it be laid on a
hard and unyielding surface,
such as that of a slip of glass.
But whatever be the nature
of the substance on which the
dissection is made, its colour
may be regulated according
to that of the object. If, for
example, we are dissecting a
small white flower on a piece
of cork, we should naturally
blacken the cork, or cover it
with a piece of dead black paper ; or, if we are to dissect a small,
light-coloured object on a glass surface, we lay the glass on black
paper.
The advantage of dissecting objects under water does not seem
to be generally appreciated by beginners, who often allow their
specimens to become dry and shrivelled, almost beyond recognition,
during the progress of their examination. This mode of dissection
is certainly not necessary with all objects, but may be generally
recommended for soft and succulent vegetable structures, as well
as for almost all animal dissections.
This being the case, arrangements should certainly be made to
FIG. 45. — THE TRIPLET MAGNIFIEB
EXAMINATION OF MARINE OBJECTS 93
provide a miniature dissecting trough as an accessory to the dissecting
microscope, and the following instructions will enable the reader to
construct a highly satisfactory and inexpensive one : —
Procure the flat lid of a cylindrical tin box, or the lid of a glass
or porcelain pomade pot, such lid to be about two inches in
diameter and about half an inch in depth. Cement the flat side of
this lid to a small slab of hard wood, or to a square piece of sheet
lead, by means of acetic glue — ordinary glue or gelatine dissolved
in glacial acetic acid — to give it the necessary steadiness during
the dissection. When the cement is quite hard, pour into the lid
some melted paraffin (paraffin wax) which has been blackened by
the admixture of a small quantity of lamp-black in the form of a
fine powder. The paraffin should be melted by putting it into a
beaker or wide-mouthed bottle, and standing it in hot water, and
FIG. 46. — A SMALL DISSECTING THOUGH
the lamp-black should be added, with stirring, as soon as it is
entirely liquefied. The quantity of the mixture used must be
sufficient to half fill the lid, thus leaving a space to contain water
to the depth of about a quarter of an inch. The blackened wax
provides a good background on which to work, and provides a
hold for pins when these are necessary in order to fix the object
under examination.
The complete trough is represented in fig. 46 ; and will be
found to answer its purpose admirably, except that it occasionally
displays one fault, but one that is easily remedied. The wax
contracts on cooling, and may, therefore, detach itself from the
trough ; and, being lighter than water, will float instead of re-
maining submerged. This may be prevented by securing the disc
of wax in its place by means of a ring of brass wire, or by weighting
94 THE SEA SHORE
the wax with two or three small pieces of lead pushed down into
it while it is yet soft.
With such a dissecting microscope and trough as we have
described one may do a great deal of exceedingly useful work,
both hands being quite free to manipulate the object under
examination.
The dissection may be conducted with the aid of a small scalpel
or other very sharp knife, the parts being arranged or adjusted by
means of a needle, mounted in a handle, and held in the left hand.
Sometimes, however, the object to be dissected is so minute that
even a small scalpel is too large for the purpose, and in such cases
nothing is better than little dissecting instruments made by mount-
ing large sewing needles in suitable handles, and then grinding
down the points of the needles on two opposite sides, on a hone, so
as to produce little pointed, two-edged blades. Bent needles are
often useful, too, and these may be prepared by heating the points
to redness in a gas-flame, bending them as desired while hot, and
then hardening them by suddenly thrusting them, 'at a red heat,
into cold water.
The compound microscope will often prove useful for the
examination of very minute objects, as well as for the study of the
structure of the principal tissues of the larger species ; but since
detailed instructions for the management of the microscope, and
for the preparation of objects for microscopic examination would
occupy much more space than we can spare, we shall content our-
selves with nothing more than a few general hints on this portion
of the young naturalist's work, dealing more particularly with those
points which commonly present difficulties to the amateur.
If it is desired to examine some minute living object, such as a
protozoon, place the object in a drop of the water in which it lived
just in the middle of a clean glass slip, and cover it with a cover-
glass. The quantity of water should be just sufficient to fill the
space between the two glasses. If less than this has been used, a
little more applied to the edge of the cover by means of a glass rod
will immediately ran in between the glasses ; while if an excessive
amount was employed, the surplus may be removed by the applica-
tion of a strip of blotting paper. Place the glass slip on the stage
of the microscope, and reflect light through it from the mirror
below.
Examine it first with a low power ; and, after having observed
as much as possible of the creature's movements and structure with
EXAMINATION OF MARINE OBJECTS 95
this aid, repeat with a higher power. This rule applies not only
to such small objects as we have now under consideration, but to
all objects, and parts of them, in which minute details are. to be
observed.
Beginners with the microscope often find prolonged examination
very tiring to the eyes, but this, we believe, would seldom be the
case if right methods were followed. Both eyes should always be
open, and the microscopist should train himself to use both eyes
equally for the actual observation.
The higher the magnifying power used, the nearer must the
objective (the lower combination of lenses) be brought to the object
itself, and it is no uncommon thing for the amateur, in his attempts
to focus his object, to lower the body of the microscope beyond its
proper position, causing the objective to crush the object, break the
thin cover-glass, and become wetted with the liquid, if any, in
which the object was being examined. All this may be avoided by
FIG. 47. — CELL FOR SMALL LIVING OBJECTS
lowering the body of the microscope until it nearly touches the
cover-glass before attempting to view the object through it, and
then, with the eye above the object-glass, to gradually raise the
body until the object is in focus.
The top of the cover-glass should always be perfectly dry; and
if by any chance the objective becomes wet it should be wiped
perfectly dry with a piece of old silk or with chamois leather.
Also, if permanent mounting is attempted, and the preservative
liquid is allowed to come in contact with the objective, such liquid
must, of course, be washed off with some suitable solvent before
any attempt is made to wipe the lens dry.
If the object under examination is of such dimensions that the
cover-glass has a tendency to rock on it, or if it is a living object
of such a size that it is unable to move freely in the exceedingly
thin film of water between the cover and the slip, it should be
placed in a cell. The cell may be made by cementing a ring of
glass or vulcanite to the middle of a slip, or it may be a little
96 ' TEE SEA SHORE
circular cavity prepared in the slip itself. In either case the cell
must be quite full of water before the cover-glass is applied, so that
no air-bubbles are included.
Hitherto we have spoken only of mounting small objects in
water, and this is advisable when the object is moist, whether
it be animal or vegetable, alive or dead. But dry objects may be
examined in the dry state, in which case they need not be covered-
If they are composed of transparent material they are to be dealt
with in the manner recommended before, as far as the management
of the light is considered ; that is, a moderately strong light is
sent through them by the reflector below the stage ; but opaque
objects are best examined on a dead black ground, the light being
directed on to them by means of a condensing lens placed between
them and the source of light.
A collector who has done only a few days' work on the sea shore
will probably find himself the possessor of a host of interesting
objects that will afford much pleasure and instruction when placed
under the microscope — objects, many of which have been somewhat
hastily deposited in a bottle of spirit or other preservative for
study in his future leisure moments. These objects, if small, may
be examined as above described, simply placing them under &
cover-glass, or in a cell, with a clear drop of the same liquid in
which they have been kept.
The general characters of the larger objects may also be observed
by means of some kind of hand lens, but even these are generally
best examined under water or other suitable liquid.
A great deal may be learnt of natural objects by preparing very
thin sections for microscopic examination ; and although special
works should be consulted if one desires to become proficient in
the different methods of cutting and preparing such sections, yet
a great amount of good work may be done with the aid of a sharp
razor, manipulated with nothing more than ordinary skill.
Some objects, especially certain of those of the vegetable world,
are of such a nature that suitable sections may be cut, either from
the fresh or preserved specimen, without any preliminary prepara-
tion. All that is required is to hold the object firmly between the
finger and thumb of the left hand, previously securing it in some
kind of holder if necessary, and pare off the thinnest possible slices
with a horizontal movement of the razor, both razor and object
being kept very wet during the process. As the sections are cut
they may be allowed to drop into a shallow vessel of water ; and,
EXAMINATION OF MARINE OBJECTS 97
the thinnest then selected for examination in water as previously
described.
Other objects are so soft that the cutting of sections becomes
impossible without previously hardening them. Methylated spirit
is a good hardening reagent, and many of the soft structures that
have been preserved in this fluid, especially if it has been used
undiluted, will be found sufficiently hard for cutting thin sections.
Among the other hardening reagents used by microscopists may
be mentioned a solution of chromic acid — one part by weight of the
solid acid dissolved in from one hundred to two hundred parts
of water, and a solution of bichromate of potash — one part of
the bichromate to about forty parts of water. In either case the
hardening of the object takes place slowly, and it should be
examined from day to day until the necessary consistence has been
obtained.
The structures of many soft animals can never be satisfactorily
hardened for section-cutting by either of the above reagents, and
thus it becomes necessary either to freeze or to imbed them. In the
former case the object is first soaked in gum water — a thin solution
of gum arabic — and then frozen by an ether spray or by a mixture
of ice and salt. The sections should be cut with a razor just as the
object is beginning to thaw, and they may then be examined under
a cover-glass, in a drop of the gum water.
The other method is conducted as follows: — The soft -object
is first soaked in absolute alcohol to extract all the water it contains,
and is then transferred to paraffin that has been heated just to its
melting-point by standing it in warm water. After the object is
thoroughly permeated with the paraffin, the whole is cooled quickly
by immersion in cold water. Sections are now cut, the paraffin
being sliced away with the substance it contains. These sections
are placed in warm turpentine, where they are allowed to remain
until the whole of the wax has dissolved, and they may then be
mounted in a drop of turpentine, and covered with a cover-glass.
We have given brief instructions for temporary mounting only,
but most amateur microscopists would undoubtedly prefer mounting
their objects permanently, so that they may be set aside for study
at any future period. Hence we append a few directions to this
end, advising the reader, however, to consult a work dealing
especially with this subject if he desires to become proficient in the
preparation of microscopic slides.
Moist objects, including those which have been preserved in
H
98 TEE SEA SHORE
dilute spirit, may be soaked in water, then transferred direct to the
glass slip, and covered with a drop of glycerine. Any excess of the
glycerine should then be absorbed from around the cover-glass by
means of a strip of blotting-paper, and the edge of the cover cemented
by gold size applied with a small camel-hair brush.
Glycerine jelly is also a valuable mountant for permanent work.
When this is used the object should first be soaked in glycerine,
and then in the melted jelly. It is then transferred to a drop of
melted jelly which has been placed on a warm slide, and covered
as before. The jelly soon solidifies, so that a ring of cement is not
absolutely necessary, though it is advisable, as a rule, to cement
the cover-glass all round with gold size or black varnish.
Sections cut while frozen are best mounted in glycerine, to
which they may be transferred direct.
Canada balsam is one of the best media for permanent mounting ;
and, as it becomes very hard after a time, it serves the purposes of
both preservative and cement. When this is used the object must
be entirely freed from water by soaking it in absolute alcohol. It
is then put into turpentine for a minute or two, transferred to a
wann slide, and covered with a drop of the prepared balsam.
Sections that have been imbedded in paraffin may be mounted
in this way, the turpentine acting as a solvent for the paraffin in
which it was cut.
Although the compound microscope is absolutely necessary for
the study of the minutest forms of life and of the minute structure
of the various tissues of larger beings, yet the young naturalist will
find that a vast amount of good work may be done without its aid.
Thus the general structure of the larger species may be made out
by means of simple dissections requiring no extraordinary skill on
the part of the worker, and with appliances that may be obtained
at a low cost. Certain of the marine animals, however, require
special treatment that can hardly be described in a short chapter
devoted to general instructions only, but hints with regards to these
will be given in future chapters in which the animals referred to
are described.
The appliances referred to above include nothing more than a
simple form of dissecting trough, a few dissecting instruments, and
one or two minor accessories that may always be found at hand as
required.
The dissection of animals is always best performed under water,
for by this method the object examined may not only be kept clean
EXAMINATION OF MARINE OBJECTS 99
as the work proceeds, but the parts, having a tendency to float,
readily separate from one another and therefore become more
distinctly visible when submerged.
A very convenient form of trough may be made by taking any
kind of rectangular, flat-bottomed dish, one made of zinc being,
FIG. 48. — SHEET OF CORK ox THIN SHEET LEAD
perhaps, the best of all, and covering the bottom with a slab of
good cork carpet which has been weighted with sufficient lead to
prevent it from floating. Or, instead of cork carpet, a sheet of
cork may be used. In either case, a piece of thin sheet lead, a
little larger than the slab, should be cut, the corners of which are
FIG. 49. — WEIGHTED CORK FOB DISSECTING TROUGH
then snipped off as shown in fig. 48, and the edges finally turned
over as represented in the next illustration. The size of the
trough must be regulated according to the nature of the work to
be done, but one measuring ten inches long, seven wide, and two
inches deep will answer most purposes.
100 THE SEA SHORE
The object to be dissected is placed in the trough, secured in
position by means of a few ordinary pins, and then completely
covered with water.
We need hardly impress upon the reader the great importance
of thoroughly examining all external characters — all those structures
that are visible without actual dissection — before attempting to
remove anything ; and we have already insisted on the importance
of carefully examining all creatures while alive before anything
else is done. The value of this latter stipulation can hardly be
overestimated, for in many instances it is almost impossible to
detect the use of an organ unless it has been observed in action ;
and the enthusiastic student will go even further than this, for he
will make it an invariable rule to sketch everything he sees, and to
make full notes on all his observations.
When pins are used to fix the object under examination — and it
is generally essential that the object be fixed — their heads should
be turned outwards ; for then the object will not slip from its
position, nor will the pins tend to get in the way of the work.
Some objects are of such a nature that they are not easily
secured by means of pins, and yet require to be fixed in some way
or other. Thus, one may desire to examine the structure and
appendages of a prawn or small crab, or to investigate the nature
of a chiton. In such instances as these it is a good plan to make a
cake of paraffin wax of suitable size by pouring the melted substance
into a mould, then secure the object in proper position in the wax
while still fluid, and pin the latter to the cork of the dissecting trough.
It is often necessary to trace the courses of internal passages
that open on the surface of the body, or of tubes that are revealed
during the progress of dissection, and this may be done by means
of a little instrument called a seeker. It is simply a blunted needle,
bent into a large angle, and mounted in a handle ; or, it may
consist of nothing but a moderately long and stiff bristle, rendered
blunt at one end by tipping it with melted sealing wax. This is
not always sufficient, however, for it frequently happens that
certain tubes and passages in animal forms are disposed in such a
complicated manner that it is impossible to send even the most
flexible seeker through them. For instance, suppose one desires
to trace the course of the digestive tube of some large bivalve
mollusc with its many reflections, the seeker is useless except that
it will penetrate to the first sharp bend. The arrangement of such
a tube must be traced by dissecting along its course, but this may
EXAMINATION OF MARINE OBJECTS 101
be aided considerably by first filling it with some coloured substance
to enable its direction to be more easily followed. In fact, the
injection of some brightly coloured fluid, forced through the tube
by means of a fine-nozzled glass syringe will often enable the course
of such a tube to be seen without any dissection at all, the colour
of the fluid used being detected through the semi-transparent
tissues surrounding it. A mixture of Berlin blue and water, or a
mixture of plaster of Paris and water coloured with carmine is well
adapted to this purpose ; and if the latter is employed it may be
allowed to set, and thus produce a permanent cast from the tube
that is being dissected. Perhaps it should be mentioned that if
either of the injection mixtures be used for this purpose it must be
previously strained through muslin, and that, in the case of the
plaster, the mixing and straining should occupy as little time as
possible, or it may begin to set before the injection has been
completed.
A very considerable insight into the structure of animals may
be frequently obtained by cutting sections through the body with
all its organs in situ, but, generally speaking, they are too soft to
allow of this without danger of the displacement of those very
parts, the relations of which we desire to determine. To avoid
this the body should be previously hardened by a somewhat
prolonged soaking in methylated spirit, or in a solution of chromic
acid prepared as before directed. Then, with the aid of a good
razor, very interesting sections may be prepared with the greatest
of ease, and the true relations of the various organs throughout
the body may be exactly determined by cutting a succession of
slices, not necessarily very thin, from end to end, or, transversely,
from side to side.
Even those crustaceans that are protected by a hard, calcareous
exo-skeleton, and the molluscs that cannot be removed from their
stony shells without injury to their soft structures, may be studied
in the manner just described, and this may be done by first
soaking them in dilute hydrochloric acid, renewed as often as may
be necessary, until all the mineral matter has been dissolved
completely, and then hardening the softer tissues in one of the
reagents mentioned above. Hydrochloric acid may also be used
to dissolve the calcareous shells of foraminifers, the vegetable
corallines, and other small forms of life, previous to microscopic
examination of the soft parts.
CHAPTER VII
THE PROTOZOA OF TEE SEA SHOEE
WE shall now study the principal forms of animal life to be found
on the sea shore ; and, in order that the reader may thoroughly
understand the broader principles of classification, so as to be able
to locate each creature observed in its approximate position in the
scale of life, we shall consider each group in its zoological order,
commencing with the lowest forms, and noting, as we proceed,
the distinguishing characteristics of each division.
The present chapter will be devoted to the Protozoa — the
sub -kingdom that includes the simplest of all animal beings.
Each animal in this division consists of a minute mass of a
jelly-like substance called protoplasm, exhibiting little or no
differentiation in structure. There is no true body-cavity, no
special organs for the performance of distinct functions, and no
nervous system.
Perhaps we can best understand the nature of a protozoon by
selecting and examining a typical example :
Remove a small quantity of the green thread-like algous weed
so commonly seen attached to the banks of both fresh and salt
water pools, or surrounding floating
objects, and place it in a glass with
a little of the water in which it
grew. This weed probably shelters
numerous protozoons, among which
we are almost sure to find some
amoebce if we examine a drop of
the water* under the high power of
a microscope.
The amoeba is observed to be a minute mass of protoplasm
with an average diameter of about one-hundredth of an inch,
endowed with a power of motion and locomotion. Its body is not
FIG. 50. — THE AMCEBA, HIGHLY
MAGNIFIED
THE PROTOZOA OF THE SEA SHOEE 103
uniformly clear, for the interior portion is seen to contain a
number of minute granules, representing the undigested portions
of the animal's food. There is a small mass of denser protoplasm
near the centre, termed the nucleus, and also a clear space filled
with fluid. This latter is called the vacuole, and is probably
connected with the processes of respiration and excretion, for it
may be seen to contract at irregular intervals, and occasionally to
collapse and expel its contents.
As we watch the amosba we see that it is continually changing
its shape, sending out temporary prolongations (pseudopodia) of
its gelatinous substance from any part, and sometimes using these
extended portions for the purpose of dragging itself along.
Its method of feeding is as remarkable as it is simple. On
coming in contact with any desired morsel, it sends out two
pseudopods, one on each side of the food. These two pseudopods
gradually extend round the food, till, at last, they meet and coalesce
FIG. 51. — THE AMOSBA, SHOWING
CHANGES OF FORM
Fio. 52.— THE AUCEBA,
FEEDING
on the opposite side of it, thus completely enclosing it within the
body. Any part of the body of the amoeba may thus be converted
into a temporary mouth ; and, there being no special cavity to
serve the purpose of a stomach, the process of digestion will
proceed equally well in any part of the body except in the
superficial layer, where the protoplasm is of a slightly firmer
consistence than that of the interior. Further, the process of
digestion being over, any portion of the superficial layer may be
converted into a temporary opening to admit of the discharge of
indigestible matter.
The amceba is an omnivorous feeder, but subsists mainly on
vegetable organisms, especially on diatoms and other minute
algae ; and the siliceous skeletons of the former may often be seen
within the body of the animal, under the high power of a micro-
scope.
The multiplication of the amoaba is brought about by a process
of fission or division. At first the nucleus divides into two, and
104 THE SEA SHORE
then the softer protoplasm contracts in the middle, and finally
divides into two portions, each of which contains one of the nuclei.
The two distinct animals thus produced both grow until they
reach the dimensions of their common progenitor.
All the protozoons resemble the
amoeba in general structure and
function ; but while some are even
simpler in organisation, others are
more highly specialised. Some,
like the amoeba, are unicellular
FIG. 53.— THE AM<EBA, DIVIDING animals ; that is, they consist of a
single, simple speck of protoplasm ;
but others live in colonies, each newly formed cell remaining
attached to its parent cell, until at last a comparatively large com-
pound protozoon is formed.
The sub-kingdom is divided into several classes, the principal of
which, together with their leading characteristics, are shown in the
following table : —
1. Rhizopods : — Body uniform in consistence.
Pseudopods protruded from any point.
2. Protoplasta: — Outer protoplasm slightly firmer in consis-
tence.
Pseudopods protruded from any point.
(Often grouped with the Wiizopods.)
3 Eadiolaria : — Possessing a central membranous capsule.
Usually supported by a flinty skeleton.
4. Infusoria : — Outer protoplasm firmer and denser ; therefore
of more definite shape.
Possess permanent threadlike extensions of protoplasm
instead of pseudopods.
We shall now observe the principal marine members of the
protozoa, commencing with the lowest forms, and dealing with
each in its proper zoological order as expressed in the above table.
MARINE RHIZOPODS
When we stand on a beach of fine sand on a very calm day
watching the progress of the ripples over the sand as the tide recedes
we frequently observe whitish lines marking the limits reached by
the successive ripples as they advance toward the shore. If, now,
THE PROTOZOA OF THE SEA SHORE
105
we scrape up a little of the surface sand, following the exact course
of one of these whitish streaks, and examine the material obtained
by the aid of a good lens, we shall in all probability discover a
number of minute shells among the grains of sand.
These shells are of various shapes — little spheres, discs, rods,
spirals, &c. ; but all resemble each other in that they are perforated
with a number of minute holes QIC foramina. They are the skeletons
FIG. 54. — A GROUP OF FORAMINIFERS, MAGNIFIED
of protozoons, belonging to the class Rhizopoda, and they exist in
enormous quantities on the beds of certain seas.
We will first examine the shells, and then study the nature of
the little animals that inhabit them.
The shells vary very much in general appearance as well as in
shape. Some are of an opaque, dead white, the surface somewhat
resembling that of a piece of unglazed porcelain ; others more
nearly resemble glazed porcelain, while some present quite a vitreous
appearance, much after the nature of opal. In all cases, however,
the material is the same, all the shells consisting of carbonate of
106 THE SEA SHORE
lime, having thus the same chemical composition as chalk, lime-
stones, and marble.
If hydrochloric acid be added to some of these shells, they are
immediately attacked by the acid and are dissolved in a very short
time, the solution being accompanied by an effervescence due to the
escape of carbonic acid gas.
The shells vary in size from about one-twelfth to one
three-hundredth of an inch, and consist either of a single chamber,
or of many chambers separated from each other by perforated
partitions of the same material. Sometimes these chambers are
arranged in a straight line, but more frequently in the form of a
single or double spiral. In some cases, however, the arrangement
of chambers is very complex.
We have already referred to the fact that the shells present a
number of perforations on the exterior, in addition to those which
FIG. 55. — A SPIRAL FORAMINIFER FIG. 56. — A FORAMINIFER our OF
SHELL ITS SHELL
pierce the partitions within, and it is this characteristic which has
led to the application of the name Foraminifera (hole -bearing) to
the little beings we are considering.
The animal inhabiting the shell is exceedingly simple in struc-
ture, even more so than the amoeba. It is merely a speck of proto-
plasm, exhibiting hardly any differentiation — nothing, in fact, save
a contractile cavity (the vacuole), and numerous granules that
probably represent the indigestible fragments of its food.
The protoplasm fills the shell, and also forms a complete gela-
tinous covering on the outside, when the animal is alive ; and the
vacuole and granules circulate somewhat freely within the semi-
solid mass. Further, the protoplasm itself is highly contractile,
as may be proved by witnessing the rapidity with which the animal
can change its form.
When the foraminifer is alive, it floats freely in the sea, with a
comparatively long and slender thread of its substance protruded
THE PROTOZOA OF THE SEA SHOES
107
through each hole in the shell. These threads correspond exactly
in function with the blunt pseudopodia of the amoeba. Should
they come in contact with a particle of suitable food-material, they
immediately surround it, and rapidly retracting, draw the particle
to the surface of the body. The threads then completely envelop
the food, coalescing as soon as they touch, thus bringing it
within the animal.
The foraminif er multiplies by fission, or by a process of budding.
In some species the division of the protoplasm is complete, as in
the case of amoebae, so that each animal has its own shell which
encloses a single chamber,
but in most cases the ' bud '
remains attached to a parent
cell, and develops a shell
that is also fixed to the
Fro. 57. — THE SAME FOHAMINIFEB
(FlO. 56) AS SEEN WHEN ALIYE
FIG. 58. — SECTION OF THE SHELL
OF A COMPOUND FORAMINPFER
shell of its progenitor. The
younger animal thus pro-
duced from the bud gives
rise to another, which de-
velops in the same manner ;
and this process continues, the new bud being always produced on
the newest end, till, at last, a kind of colony of protozoons is formed,
their shells remaining attached to one another, thus producing a
compound shell, composed of several chambers, arranged in the
form of a line or spiral, and communicating by means of their per-
forated partitions. It will now be seen that each ' cell ' of the
compound protozoon feeds not only for itself, but for all the members
of its colony, since the nourishment imbibed by any one is capable
of diffusion into the surrounding chambers, the protoplasm of the
108
THE SEA SHOEE
FIG. 59. — SECTION OF A NUMMULITE
SHELL
whole forming one continuous mass by means of the perforated
partitions of the complex skeleton.
Some of the simplest fora-
minifers possess only one hole
in the shell, and, consequently,
are enabled to throw off
pseudopods from one side of
the body only. In others, of
a much more complex nature,
the new chambers form a
spiral in such a manner that
they overlap and entirely con-
ceal those previously built ;
and the development may
proceed until a comparatively
large discoid shell is the result.
This is the case with Num-
mulites, so called on account
of the fancied resemblance to coins. Further, some species of
foraminifera produce a skeleton that is horny in character,
instead of being calcareous, while others are protected merely by
grains of sand or par-
ticles of other solid
matter that adhere to
the surface of their
glutinous bodies.
We have spoken of
foraminifera as floating
freely about in the sea
water, but while it is
certain that many of
them live at or near
the surface, some are
known to thrive at con-
siderable depths ; and
those who desire to
FIG. 6Q.—Globigerina bulloides, study the various forms
AS SEEN WHEN ALIVE, MAGNIFIED of these interesting
creatures should search
among dredgings whenever an opportunity occurs. Living
specimens, whenever obtained, should be examined in sea
THE PROTOZOA OF THE SEA SHORE
109
water, in order that the motions of their pseudopods may be
seen.
If we brush off fragments from the surface of a freshly broken
piece of chalk, and allow them to fall into a vessel of water, and
then examine the sediment under the microscope, we shall observe
that this sediment consists of minute shells, and fragments of
shells, of foraminifers. In fact, our chalk beds, as well as the
beds of certain limestones, consist mainly of vast deposits of the
FIG. 61. — SECTION OP A PIECE OF NUMMULITIC LIMESTONE
shells of extinct foraminifera that at one time covered the floor of
the sea. Such deposits are still being formed, notably that which
now covers a vast area of the bed of the Atlantic Ocean at a
depth varying from about 300 to 3,000 fathoms. This deposit
consists mainly of the shells of a foraminifer called Globigerina
bulloides, a figure of which is given on the opposite page.
The structure of chalk may be beautifully revealed by soaking
a small piece of the rock for some time in a solution of Canada
balsam, allowing it to become thoroughly dry, and then grinding
110 THE SEA SHORE
it down till a very thin section is obtained. Such a section, when
viewed under the low power of a compound microscope, will be
seen to consist very largely of minute shells ; though, of course, the
shells themselves will be seen in section only.
The extensive beds of numniulitic limestones found in various
parts of South Europe and North Africa are also composed largely
of foraminifer shells, the most conspicuous of which are those
already referred to as nurnmulites — disc-shaped shells of a spiral
form, in which the older chambers overlap and hide those that
enclose the earlier portion of the colony.
Before concluding our brief account of these interesting marine
protozoons, it may be well to point out that, although the forami-
nifera belong to the lowest class of the lowest sub-kingdom of
animals, yet there are some rhizopods — the Monera, which are
even simpler in structure. These are mere specks of undif-
ferentiated protoplasm, not protected by any shell, and not even
possessing a nucleus, and are the simplest of all animal beings.
The second division of the Protozoa — the class Protoplasta —
has already received a small share of attention, inasmuch as the
amoeba, which was briefly described as a type of the whole sub-
kingdom, belongs to it.
The study of the amoeba is usually pursued by means of speci-
mens obtained from fresh-water pools, and reference has been
made to it in a former work dealing particularly with the life of
ponds and streams ; but it should be observed that the amoeba
inhabits salt water also, and will be frequently met with by those
who search for the microscopic life of the sea, especially when
the water examined has been taken from those sheltered nooks of
a rocky coast that are protected from the direct action of the
waves, or from the little pools that are so far from the reach of the
tides as to be only occasionally disturbed. Here the amoeba may
be seen creeping slowly over the slender green threads of the con-
fervae that surround the margin of the pool.
The third class — Radiolaria — is of great interest to the student
of marine life, on account of the great beauty of the shells ; but,
as with the other members of this sub-kingdom, a compound micro-
scope is necessary for the study of them.
The animals of this group resemble the foraminifers in that
they throw out fine thread-like pseudopods, but they are dis-
tinguished from them by the possession of a membranous capsule
in the centre of the body, surrounding the nucleus, and perforated
THE PROTOZOA OF THE SEA SHORE
111
in order to preserve the continuity of the deeper with the surround-
ing protoplasm. They have often a central contractile cavity, and
further show their claim to a higher position in the animal scale
than the preceding classes by the possession of little masses of cells
and a certain amount of fatty and colouring matter.
Some of the radiolarians live at or near the surface of the
ocean, while others thrive only at the bottom. The former, in
some cases, appear to avoid the light, rising to the surface after
FIG. 62. — A GROUP OF RADIOLAHIAN SHELLS, MAGNIFIED
sunset ; and it is supposed that the phosphorescence of the sea is
due in part to the presence of these animals. The latter may be
obtained from all depths, down to several thousand fathoms.
The beauty of the radiolarians as a class lies in the wonderful
shells that protect the great majority of them. These shells are
composed not of carbonate of lime, as is the case with foraminifers>
but of silex or silica, a substance that is not acted on by the
strongest mineral acids. They are of the most exquisite shapes,
and exhibit a great variety of forms. Some resemble beautifully
112 THE SEA SHORE
sculptured spheres, boxes, bells, cups, &c. ; while others may be
likened to baskets of various ornamental design. In every case
the siliceous framework consists of a number of clusters of radia-
ting rods, all united by slender intertwining threads.
It is not all the radiolarians, however, that produce these
beautiful siliceous shells. A few have no skeleton of any kind,
while others are supported by a framework composed of a horny
material, but yet transparent and glassy in appearance.
The sizes of the shells vary from about one five-hundredth to
one half of an inch ; but, of course, the larger shells are those of
colonies of radiolarians, and not of single individuals, just as we
observed was the case with the foraminifers.
Those in search of radiolaria for examination and study should,
whenever possible, obtain small quantities of the dredgings from
deep water. Material brought up by the trawl will often afford
specimens ; but, failing these sources of supply, the muddy deposit
from deep niches between the rocks at low-water mark will often
provide a very interesting variety.
Place the mud in a glass vessel, and pour on it some nitric acid
(aqua-fortis). This will soon dissolve all calcareous matter present,
and also destroy any organic material. A process of very careful
washing is now necessary. Fill up the vessel with water, and
allow some time for sedimentary matter to settle. Now decant off
the greater part of the water, and repeat the process several times.
By this means we get rid of the greater part of the organic material,
as well as of the mineral matter that has been attacked by the acid ;
and if we examine the final sediment under the microscope, pre-
ferably in a drop of water, and covered with a cover-glass, any
radiolarians present will soon reveal themselves.
It is often possible to obtain radiolarian shells, as well as other
siliceous skeletons, through the agency of certain marine animals.
The bivalve molluscs, for example, feed almost entirely on micro-
scopic organisms ; and, by removing such animals from their shells,
and then destroying their bodies with aqua-fortis, we may frequently
obtain a sediment composed partly of the skeletons referred to.
There remains one other class of protozoons to be considered,
viz. the Infusorians — the highest class of the sub-kingdom. In
this group we observe a distinct advance in organisation ; for, in
the first place, the infusorians are enclosed in a firm cuticle or skin,
which forms an almost complete protective layer. Within this is
a layer of moderately firm protoplasm, containing one or more
TEE PROTOZOA OF THE SEA SHOSE
113
FIG. 63. — THREE IXFUSORIANS
MAGNIFIED
cavities that contract at intervals like a heart. Then, in the
interior, there is a mass of softer material with cavities tilled with
fluid, two solid bodies, and numerous granules.
In these creatures we find, too, a distinct and permanent mouth,
usually funnel-shaped, leading to the soft, interior substance, in
which the food material becomes
embedded while the process of
digestion proceeds. Here, then, for
the first time, we meet with a
special portion of the body set
apart for the performance of the
work of a stomach ; and, further,
the process of digestion being over,
the indigestible matter is ejected
through a second permanent open-
ing in the exterior cuticle.
Again, the infusorian does not
move by means of temporary
pseudopods, as is the case with the lower protozoons, but by means
of minute hair-like processes which permanently cover either the
whole of the body, or are restricted to certain portions only. These
little processes, which are called cilia, move to and fro with such
rapidity that they are hardly visible ; and, by means of them the
little infusorian is enabled to move about in its watery home with
considerable speed.
In some species a few of the cilia are much larger than the
others, and formed of a firmer material. These often serve the
purpose of feet, and are also used as a means by which the little
animal can anchor itself to solid substances.
As with the lower protozoons, the infusoria multiply by division ;
but, in addition to this, the nucleus may sometimes be seen to
divide up into a number of minute egg-like bodies, each of which,
when set free, is capable of developing into a new animal. Should
the water in which infusorians have been living evaporate to dryness,
the little bodies just mentioned become so many dust particles that
may be carried away by air currents; but, although dry, they
retain their vitality, and develop almost immediately on being
carried into a suitable environment.
Infusorians are so called because they develop rapidly in infu-
sions of various vegetable substances ; and those who desire to
study their structure and movements with the aid of a microscope
I
114
TEE SEA SHORE
cannot do much better than make an infusion by pouring boiling
water on fragments of dried grass, and leaving it exposed for a few
days to the warm summer atmosphere. The numerous germs
floating in the air will soon give rise to abundance of life, including
several different species of in-
fusoria, varying from -fa to 5^^
of an inch in length.
Fresh - water pools and
marshes provide such an
abundance of infusoria that
the animals are generally ob-
tained for study from these
sources, and a few of the
common and most interesting
FIG. 64.— A PHOSPHOEESCENT MARINE sPecies inhabiting fresh water
INFUSORIAN (Noctiluca), MAGNIFIED have already been described in
a former work. Nevertheless,
the sea is abundantly supplied with representatives of the class,
and it is certain that the beautiful phosphorescence sometimes
observed in the sea at night is in part due to the presence of
luminous infusoria, some of which appear to have an aversion to
sunlight, retiring to a depth during the day, but rising to the
surface again after sunset.
CHAPTER VIII
BRITISH SPONGES
IT seems to be the popular opinion that sponges are essentially
natives of the warmer seas, and it will probably be a surprise
to many young amateur naturalists to learn that there are about
three hundred species of this sub-kingdom of the animal world to be
found on our own shores. It must not be thought, however, that
they are all comparable with the well-known toilet sponges in
regard to either size or general form and structure, for some of
them are very small objects, no larger than about one-twentieth of
an inch in diameter, and some form mere incrustations of various
dimensions on the surfaces of rocks and weeds, often of such
general appearance that they would hardly be regarded as animal
structures by those who have not studied the peculiarities of the
group.
Sponges are known collectively as the Porifera or Polystomata,
and constitute a separate sub-kingdom of animals of such distinct
features that they are not readily confused with the creatures of
any other group. Their principal characteristic is expressed by
both the group names just given, the former of which signifies
' hole-bearing,' and the latter ' many openings ' ; for in all the
members of the sub-kingdom there are a number of holes or pores
providing a means of communication between the body cavity or
cavities and the surrounding water. Most of these holes are very
small, but there is always at least one opening of a larger size at
the anterior end.
It will be seen from what we have just stated that sponges
exhibit a distinctly higher organisation than the protozoa described
in the last qhapter, inasmuch as they possess a permanent body-
cavity that communicates with the exterior ; but in addition to
this there are many points of differentiation of structure that
denote a superior position in the scale of life.
116 THE SEA SHORE
In order to ascertain the general features of a sponge we cannot
do better than select one of the simplest forms from our own shores.
If we place the live animal in a glass vessel of sea water, and
examine it with a suitable magnifying power, we observe a
number of minute pores scattered over its whole surface ; and a
much larger opening at the free end. The animal is motionless,
and exhibits no signs of life except that it may contract slightly
when touched. The water surrounding the sponge also appears to
be perfectly still, but if we introduce some fine insoluble powder,
, such as precipitated chalk, or a drop of
<£$k ' 8»^ a somble dye, the motion of the sus-
/$? ^H^ pended or soluble material will show
fff -^ that the water is passing into the
2>— sponge through all the small pores, and
that it is ejected through the larger
~* Pi jj opening.
set On touching the sponge we observe
Hi that it is of a soft, gelatinous consistence
"""* Hi H throughout, or if, as is often the case, the
jSji body is supported by a skeleton of greater
yp ^f or less firmness, a gentle application of
Jf9 the finger will still show that this frame-
J»~ work is surrounded by material of a jelly -
\M ll? like nature. This gelatinous substance
tj|? is the animal itself, and a microscopic
Jjj examination will show that its body- wall
is made up of two distinct layers, the
inner consisting of cells, many of which
==• possess a cilium or whip-like filament
FIG. 65. — SECTION OF A that protrudes from a kind of collar, its
SIMPLE SPONGE free extremity extending into the body-
cavity.
These minute cilia are the means by which the water currents
just described are set up. By a constant lashing movement they
urge the fluid contained in the body-cavity towards the larger hole,
thus causing the water to flow in through the numerous small
pores. This circulation of sea water through the body-cavity of
the sponge is the means by which the animal is supplied with air
and food. Air is, of course, absorbed from the water by the soft
material of the external layer of the body, but the constant
flow of fresh water through the body-cavity enables this process of
BRITISH SPONGES
117
respiration to go on with equal freedom in the interior. The mode
of feeding of the sponge is very similar to that of the protozoa.
Organic particles that are carried into the body-cavity, on coming
in contact with the cells of the internal layer, are absorbed into
their protoplasm by which they are digested. Thus the sponge
may be compared to a mass of protozoon cells, all united into
a common colony by a more or less perfect coalescing of the
cell-substance, some of the units being modified in structure
for the performance of definite functions. The air and food
absorbed by any one cell may pass readily into the surrounding
FlG. 66. — DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION OF A POETION OF
A COMPLEX SPONGE
cells, and thus each one may be said to work for the common
weal.
The description just given applies only to the simplest of the
sponges, and we have now to learn that in the higher members
of the group the structure is much more complicated. In these the
surf ace -pores are the extremities of very narrow tubes which
perforate both layers of the body-wall and then communicate with
wider tubes or spaces within, some of which are lined with the
ciliated cells above described. These spaces, which are sometimes
nearly globular in form, and often arranged in groups with a
118 THE SEA SHOKE
common cavity, communicate with wider tubes which join together
until, finally, they terminate in a large opening seen on the
exterior of the sponge. Hence it will be seen that the water
entering the minute pores of the surface has to circulate through
a complicated system of channels and spaces, some of which are
lined with the ciliated cells that urge the current onwards before
it is expelled through the large hole. Further, imagine a number
of such structures as we have described growing side by side, their
masses coalescing into one whole, their inner tubes and spaces
united into one complex system by numerous inter-communications,
and having several large holes for the exit of the circulating water,
and you then have some idea of the general nature of many of
the more complex sponges to
be found on our shores (see
fig. 66).
— .. ,. But even this is not all, for
Ji Ji /^-jl_/y'* as yet we have been regarding
n/ V^ il\f \r\\ II ^e sponges as consisting of
animal matter only, whereas
nearly all of them possess some
kind of internal skeleton for
the support of the soft, gela-
tinous animal substance. The
skeleton consists of matter
secreted by certain cells from
material in the water and food.
FIG. 67.— HORNY NETWORK OF A and is either horny, calcareous,
SPONGE, MAGNIFIED or siliceous. The horny skele-
ton is formed of a network of
fibres of a somewhat silky character, and often, as in the case
of the toilet sponges, highly elastic ; but it is sometimes so brittle
that the sponge mass is easily broken when bent. The fibres of
this framework support not only the outer wall of the sponge, but
also the walls of all the internal tubes and spaces, which are often
of so soft a nature that they would collapse without its aid.
The other forms of skeletons consist of minute bodies of
carbonate of lime or of silica, respectively, which assume certain
definite shapes, resembling stars, anchors, hooks, pins, spindles, &c.,
and are known as spicules. Such spicules are usually present in
those sponges that have horny skeletons, but in others they form
the entire skeleton.
BRITISH SPONGES 119
Sponges sometimes increase by division, a part being separated
from the parent mass and then developing into a complete colony ;
and they may be reproduced artificially to almost any extent by
this method, each piece cut off, however small, producing a new
sponge. They also increase by a process of ' budding,' the buds
produced sometimes remaining attached to the original colony, thus
increasing its size, but on other occasions becoming detached for
the formation of new colonies on a different site. In addition to
these methods of reproduction there are special cells in a sponge
that possess the function of producing eggs which are ejected through
the larger holes. The eggs are usually developed in the autumn,
and, after being ejected, swim about freely for a time, after which
they become fixed to rocks or weeds, and produce sponges in the
following year. The eggs may often be seen towards the end of the
summer by cutting through a sponge, or by carefully pulling it
asunder. They are little rounded or oval bodies, of a yellowish
or brownish colour, distinctly visible to the naked eye, occupying
cavities in the interior.
Sponges are classified according to the composition of the
skeleton and the forms of the spicules, the chief divisions being : —
1. The CALCAREOUS SPONGES (Calcarea). Skeleton consisting
of spicules of carbonate of lime in the form of needles and
three- or four-rayed stars.
2. The SIX-RAYED SPONGES (Hexactinellida). Skeleton of six-
rayed glassy spicules.
3. COMMON SPONGES (Demospongia). Skeleton horny, flinty, or
entirely absent.
The first of these divisions contains about a dozen known British
species, which are to be found on the rockiest shores, attached to
stones, weeds, or shells, generally hidden in very secluded holes or
crevices, or sheltered from the light by the pendulous weeds. They
should be searched for at the lowest spring tide, particular attention
being given to the under surfaces of large stones, narrow, dark
crevices, and the roofs of small, sheltered caves. They may be
readily recognised as sponges by the numerous pores on the surface,
though these are often hardly visible without a lens, and the
calcareous nature of the skeleton may be proved by dropping a
specimen into dilute hydrochloric acid, when the carbonate of lime
will speedily dissolve, the action being accompanied by the evolution
of bubbles of carbonic acid gas.
120
THE SEA SHORE
If calcareous sponges are to be preserved for future reference,
they may be placed in diluted spirit, in which case the animal
matter, as well as the mineral substance, will be preserved with
but little alteration in the natural appearance and structure. A
specimen which has been decalcified by means of acid, as above
described, may also be preserved in the same manner ; and small
portions of this will serve for the microscopic study of the animal
portion of the sponge. If the skeleton only is required, the sponge
is simply allowed to dry, when the soft animal substance, on losing
its contained water, will leave hardly any residue ; or, better, allow
the calcareous sponge to macerate in water for some days for the
FIG. 68. — Grantia compressa
FIG. 69. — SPICULES OF
Grantia, MAGNIFIED
animal substance to decompose, and then, after a few minutes in
running water, set it aside to dry.
Small portions of the skeleton, examined under the microscope,
will show the nature of the calcareous spicules of which it is
composed. These consist of minute needles and stars, the latter
having generally either three or four rays.
"We give figures of three of the calcareous sponges of our
shores, the first of which (Grantia compressa} resembles little
oval, flattened bags, which hang pendulous from rocks and weeds,
sometimes solitary, but often in clusters. The smaller openings
are thickly scattered over the flat sides of the bag, and the larger
BRITISH SPONGES
121
ones, through which the water is expelled, around the margin.
When the sponge is out of the water and inactive, the two
opposite sides of the bag are practically in contact, but, when
active, the cavity is filled with
water by means of the whip-
cells that line it, and the sides
of the sponge are then more
or less convex.
The ciliated sycon (Sycon
ciliatum), fig. 70, though of
a very different appearance
externally, is similar in
structure to Grantia. It is
also found in similar situa-
tions, and is not uncommon
on many parts of the South
Coast, from Wey mouth
westwards. The other exam-
ple, Leucosolenia botryoides,
shown in fig. 71, is a branch-
ing calcareous sponge, con-
sisting of a number of tubes,
all united to form one com- FIG. 70. — Sycon ciliatum
mon cavity which is lined
throughout with whip-cells. It is usually found attached to weeds.
Nearly all our British sponges belong to the group Demo-
spongia — common sponges ; but the members of this group present
FIG. 71. — Leucosolenia botryoides, WITH PORTION MAGNIFIED
a great variety of form and structure. Most of them have a
skeleton consisting of siliceous spicules, but some have a horny
skeleton, somewhat after the nature of that of the toilet sponges ;
and others, again, have fleshy bodies entirely, or almost entirely,
122
THE SEA SHORE
unsupported by harder structures. They are sometimes known
collectively as the Silicia, for the greater number of them have
skeletons consisting exclusively of siliceous matter, while the
so-called horny sponges usually have spicules of silica inter-
mingled with the horny substance, and even those which are
described as having no skele-
ton at all sometimes contain
scattered spicules of silex.
As the spicules of sponges
are in themselves beautiful
objects, and are important to
the naturalist, inasmuch as
they form a basis for the
classification of sponges, it is
well to know by what means
they may be separated from
the animal for microscopic
examination. The separa-
tion is based on the fact that
nitric acid (aqua-fortis) will
destroy organic matter while
it has not the slightest action
on silica. In some of our
common horny sponges the
fibres are so transparent that,
when teased out and placed
under the microscope, the
siliceous spicules may be seen
embedded within them, but
the spicules, both in these
and the fleshy sponges, may
be separated completely from
the animal matter by putting
a fragment of the sponge in
a test-tube, covering it with nitric acid, and boiling it for a short
time. The tube should then be filled up with water and allowed
to stand undisturbed for a time, after which the liquid is poured
off gently from the sediment. If the sediment is then put under
the microscope on a slip of glass, it will be seen to consist of grains
of sand, of which there is always a considerable amount in the pores
and cavities of a sponge, and the siliceous spicules.
FIG. 72. — Chalina oculata
BRITISH SPONGES
123
Among the common objects of the sea shore is the horny
skeleton of the sponge Chalina oculata, which is frequently
washed on the beach by the waves, especially after storms. This
sponge is not likely to be seen between the tide-marks except
at the lowest spring tide, when it may be found suspended in a
sheltered crevice or cave. The skeleton consists of a fine network
of horny fibres, in the centre of which lie the spicules, imbedded
in the horny material. The spicules are short and straight, taper-
ing at both ends.
The Bread-crumb sponge (Halichondria, panicea) is even more
common, for it is to be found on every rocky coast, encrusting
FIG. 73. — Halichondria panicea
weeds and rocks, often considerably above low-water mark. It is
of a yellowish or pale greenish colour, and forms an incrustation
varying in thickness from one-twentieth of an inch to half an inch
or more ; and, like most sponges, should be looked for in narrow
crevices, under heavy growths of weeds, or in other situations
where it is protected from the light. Sometimes its free surface is
unbroken, except, of course, by the minute pores, and, here and
there, the larger openings that serve for the outgoing currents;
but when it is found encrusting a rock in patches of considerable
size, the larger holes all occupy the summit of a little cone
resembling a miniature volcano with its crater. This sponge is
easily removed from the rock with the aid of a blunt broad-bladed
124
THE SEA SHOBE
knife, and retains its natural appearance to perfection if preserved
in methylated spirit. Its horny skeleton is of a very compact
nature, and the spicules are minute siliceous
needles pointed at both ends.
Rambling on the sea beach we frequently
meet with old oyster and other shells per-
forated by a number of circular holes about
the size of a pin's head or less, and chalk
and limestone rocks also are seen similarly
bored. On breaking into or grinding down
the substance we find that the openings are
the ends of channels that form a network of
canals and chambers, some of which are so
near the surface that they are covered by
an exceedingly thin layer of the calcareous
substance. These canals and chambers form
the home of the Boring Sponge (Cliona), which, although a very
soft-bodied animal, has itself excavated them.
FIG. 74. — SPICULES OF
Halichondria,
NIFIED
FIG. 75. — AN OYSTER SHELL BOEED BY Cliona
The manner in which the Cliona excavates such a complicated
system of passages in so hard a material has naturally raised a
considerable amount of curiosity, and those who have studied the
BRITISH SPONGES 125
matter are divided in opinion as to whether the work is done by
chemical or by mechanical action.
Some of those who advocate the chemical theory suppose that an
acid fluid is secreted by the sponge, and that the carbonate of lime
forming the shell or stone is thereby dissolved ; but such advocates
have, as yet, failed to detect the presence of any acid substance in the
body of the animal. Others ascribe the action to the solvent power
of carbonic acid gas. This gas certainly has the power of dissolving
carbonate of lime, as may be proved by a very simple experiment :
Pour a little lime water into a glass, and blow into it through a glass
tube. The lime water speedily becomes milky in appearance, the
lime having been converted into particles of chalk or carbonate of
lime by union with the carbonic acid gas from the lungs. Continue
to blow into the liquid for some time, and the carbonate of lime
will slowly disappear, being gradually dissolved by the excess of
the gas — the gas over and above that required for the formation of
the carbonate. Thus, it has been said, the carbonic acid gas
evolved as a product of the respiration of the sponge is the agent
by which the channels are excavated. Whatever be the acid to
which this power is ascribed, whether it be the carbonic acid or a
special acid fluid secreted for the purpose, there is still this
difficulty in the way of accepting the theory, namely, that an acid,
though it has the power of dissolving the mineral matter of a shell
— the carbonate of lime — has no action on the laminae of animal
substance that form part of the structure. If we put the shell of a
mollusc in hydrochloric or dilute nitric acid, we obtain, after the
complete solution of the carbonate of lime, a substantial residue of
animal matter which the acid does not touch, but in the case of
Cliona both animal and mineral sub-
stances yield to its power.
Those who favour the mechanical
theory assert that the material is worn
away by siliceous particles developed by
the sponge, and kept in constant motion
as long as the animal lives; and the
theory is supported by the statement that,
in addition to the spicules of silica, which
, , , ,, • , . FIG. 76. — SPICULES OF
are pin-shaped, and occupy the interior Cliona
of the animal, there are little siliceous
granules scattered on the surface of the sponge which are kept in
constant motion resembling that of cilia ; and the minute particles
126 THE SEA SHOBE
of carbonate of lime that form a dusty deposit within the galleries
are supposed to be the product of the rasping or drilling action of
these granules.
The pin-shaped spicules of Cliona may be obtained for micro-
scopic examination by breaking any old oyster shell that has formed
its home, and brushing out the dust from the galleries ; or, a part
of the shell may be dissolved in acid, and the sediment examined
for spicules on a slip of glass.
CHAPTEE IX
TEE CCELENTERATES— JELLY-FISHES, ANEMONES,
AND THEIR ALLIES
ONE of the most interesting groups of marine life is that including
jelly-fishes and anemones. In it are the pretty little sea firs, so
often mistaken for sea-weeds by the youthful admirers of these
plants, who almost always include them in their collection of marine
algce ; the transparent, bell-shaped jelly-fishes, which may often
be seen in thousands during the summer, carried by the tides, and
swimming gently by graceful contractions of their bells ; and, most
beautiful of all, the lovely anemones — the ' sea flowers' of the
older naturalists, by whom they were regarded as forms of vege-
table life.
The simplest animals of this group are minute jelly-like crea-
tures, of a more or less cylindrical form,
usually fixed at one end, and having a
mouth at the other. The body is a simple
hollow cylinder, the wall of which is
made up of two distinct layers, while
the cavity within serves the purpose of
a stomach. The mouth is surrounded by
a circle of arms or tentacles by means of
which the creature is enabled to capture
its prey. These arms are capable of free
movement in every direction, and can be
readily retracted when the animal is dis-
turbed. They are also armed with minute
oval, hollow cells, each of which has a
slender filament coiled up into a spiral
within its cavity. Each filament is
capable of being suddenly protruded, thus becoming a free whip-
like appendage, and these are so numerous as to be very effectual
in seizing and holding the living beings on which the animal
Fio. 77. — THBEAD CELLS
OF A CCELENTERATE,
MAGNIFIED
1. Thread retracted
2. Thread protruded
128
THE SEA SHORE
feeds. This would undoubtedly be the case even if they were
capable of mechanical action only, but, in many instances at
least, they seem to be aided by the presence of some violent irri-
tant, judging from the rapidity with which the struggling prey
is paralysed when seized, especially in the case of some of the
larger members of the
group.
The simple forms re-
ferred to increase by a
process of budding, the
buds appearing first as
simple swellings on the
side of the parent crea-
ture, and afterwards de-
veloping a mouth and
tentacles, thus becoming
exactly like the adult
form. Clusters of eggs
also are developed in the
outer layer of the body-
wall, and these are set
free at intervals, and
produce new individuals.
These animals possess no
blood system of any kind,
and have no special organs
for respiration, but the
nutrient matter absorbed
from the body-cavity per-
meates the soft structures
of the flower-like body,
and the oxygen required
for respiratory purposes
is readily absorbed from
the surrounding water.
The higher coslenterates differ in certain particulars from the
lower forms just referred to. Thus, they frequently have a large
number of tentacles around the mouth, often arranged in several
distinct whorls. They have also a stomach separate from the
general body-cavity, but communicating with the latter below;
and the body-cavity is divided into compartments by a number of
FIG. 78. — THE SQUIRREL'S-TAIL, SEA Fm
(Sertularia argentea), WITH A PORTION
ENLARGED
THE CCELENTERATES
129
radiating partitions. Some, also, develop a hard, stony skeleton
by secreting carbonate of lime obtained from the water in which
they live.
We often see, when collecting on the beaches of rocky coasts,
and especially after storms, a number of vegetable-like growths, of
a greyish or brownish colour, each consisting of one or more main
FIG. 79. — Sertularia filicula
stalks bearing a number of delicate branches. Some of them, by
their peculiar mode of growth, have suggested the name of sea firs,
and a few of these, together with other animals of the same group,
may readily be recognised by the accompanying illustrations. They
are the objects already referred to as being commonly included in
collections of sea-weeds by young naturalistb, but they are in reality
K
130
THE SEA SHORE
the horny skeletons of colonies of crelenterates of the simplest type,
belonging to the division Hydrozoa.
If we examine them with a lens we find that there are little cup-
like bodies projecting from each portion or branch of the stem-like
structure, and that the stem itself is hollow, with a communicating
pore at the base of each cup. This constitutes the skeleton only of
FIG. 80. —Sertularia cupressina
the colony — the dead matter, so to speak, which persists after the
living creatures have perished ; but if the specimens collected have
been obtained fresh from the sea, placed in a glass of sea water, and
then examined with the aid of a lens, little jelly-like hydroids or
polypites will be seen to protrude from the cups, and extend their
short arms in search of food.
THE CCELENTEEATES
131
Each of the little creatures has a tubular stalk which passes
through the hole at the base of the cup, and is continuous with a
tube of gelatinous material in the interior of the horny stem, and
thus each member of the colony is directly connected with all the
others, so that any nutrient matter collected and digested by one
member may be absorbed into the central tube for the nourishment
of the entire company of little socialists, the activity of the one
being thus made to compensate for the laziness or incompetency
of others. And this provision seems to be absolutely necessary for
FIG. 81. — THE HERRING-BONE POLYPE (Halecium halecinum)
the well-being of the colony as a whole, for a close examination
will often show that a kind of division of labour has been established,
since it includes two or three distinct kinds of polypites, each adapted
for the performance of a certain function. Thus, in addition to the
feeding or nutritive members of the community, there are some
mouthless individuals whose sole function seems to be the produc-
tion of eggs for the propagation of the species, while others, also
mouthless, develop an enormous number of stinging cells, probably
for the protection of the whole community against its enemies, and
132
THE SEA SHORE
these must therefore be provided, as we have Been they are, with a
means by which they may derive nourishment through the agency
of the feeding polypites.
When the eggs are liberated from what we may call the repro-
ductive members, they are carried away by the currents or tides,
FIG. 82. — Tubularia indivisa
FIG. 83. — THE BOTTLE BKUSH
(Thuiaria thuja)
and soon develop into little larvce which are very unlike the parent,
since they are covered with minute vibratile cilia by means of
which they can swim freely. This they do for a period, and then
settle down, lose their cilia, become stalked, and thus constitute
the foundation of a new colony. A tubular stalk grows upward
from its root, new members are added as outgrowths or buds
THE C(ELENTERATE8
133
from their progenitor, and so the growth proceeds until an
extensive colony of hundreds of individuals has been formed.
We have spoken of the hydroid
communities as being washed up on
the beaches of our rocky coasts, but
the collector of these interesting objects
should not depend on such specimens
for purposes of study. It is undoubt-
edly true that splendid examples of
the sea firs and their allies are fre-
quently washed up by the waves,
including some species that inhabit
deep water, and which are, conse-
quently, not to be found by the ordi-
nary collector in their proper habitat,
and that these may often be secured
with the polypites still alive ; but
several species are to be obtained
between the tide-marks, especially at
extreme low water, growing on rocks,
weeds, and shells ; and we have often
met with good specimens, still alive,
attached to the shells of whelks,
scallops, &c., in fishmongers' stores,
even in inland towns.
Sometimes individual polypites
become detached from a colony, and
develop into little umbrella-shaped
jelly-fishes, about a fifth of an inch in
diameter ; and these float about freely,
keeping themselves near the surface
by rhythmic contractions of their
' bells,' the margins of which are
fringed by numerous fine tentacles.
The mouth is situated centrally on
the under side, and is surrounded by
a circular canal from which proceed
radiating tubes ; and pigmented spots,
supposed to be rudimentary eyes, are
formed round the edge. These little Fm> S4._ Antennulwia
bodies are called Medusoids, and may antennia
frequently be seen floating round our coasts towards the end of the
summer. In the water they are almost invisible on account of the
extreme transparency of their bodies ; but if a muslin net be drawn
through the water from the stern of a boat, and the net then gently
turned inside out in a vessel of sea water, a number of medusoids
may be obtained for examination. These creatures produce eggs
which yield small ciliated larvae that swim about freely for a time,
and then settle down and establish stalked colonies as previously
described.
The larger jelly-fishes or Medusae so frequently seen floating in
enormous numbers near the surface of the sea during the summer
months are allied to the medusoids. Their bodies are so soft that
it is a difficult matter to remove them from the water without
injury, 'and when removed their graceful forms are completely
destroyed by the pressure of their own weight. When left stranded
on the beach, as is often the case, they seem to dissolve almost
completely away, so readily does the soft animal tissue disintegrate
in the large proportion of water, which forms about 95 per cent, of
the weight of the whole body.
Those who desire to examine the nature and movements of
the medusas will find it necessary to observe them in water. The
creatures may be lifted out of the sea in a vessel placed below them,
and then transferred to a glass tank or a still rock pool by
submerging the vessel and allowing them to float out. It will
then be observed that the mouth is situated at the summit of a
tube that projects from the middle of the under side of the ' bell,'
and is surrounded by lobed or frilled lips. Marginal tentacles also
generally fringe the edge of the bell, projecting downwards into the
water. Round the circumference of the body may be seen a
circular canal, from which several tubes converge towards, and
communicate with, the cavity of the stomach.
When a medusa is inactive, its body gradually sinks to the
bottom, being usually slightly heavier than the water in which
it lives; but it is enabled to keep afloat by those rhythmic con-
tractions of the bell with which we are so familiar. It seems that
the medusae are very sensitive to various external conditions, for
they frequently disappear simultaneously from the surface water,
and as suddenly reappear in shoals when the conditions are more
favourable; but it is-difficult to understand the causes which give
rise to these remarkable movements.
The medusae are often termed the AcalepTice — a word which
THE CCELENTERATES
135
signifies 'nettles,' and they are popularly known as sea nettles.
They all possess stinging cells, which are distributed most thickly
in the tentacles, and some of the larger species are undoubtedly
able to produce an impression on the bodies of unwary bathers,
while almost all have the power of paralysing the living prey on
which they feed.
By far the. commonest of the jelly-fishes of our seas is the
beautiful blue medusa — Aurelia aurita. This species appears in
enormous shoals during the
summer, and large numbers
are washed upon flat, sandy
beaches. They vary in size
from two or three inches
to nearly a foot in dia-
meter, and may be recog-
nised from our illustration.
The ' bell ' is umbrella-
shaped, and is so trans-
parent that the stomach
with its radiating canals
may be seen through its
substance. Around the mar-
gin there are little pigment
spots which are supposed
to be rudimentary eyes, and
Little cavities, containing a
clear fluid, that are thought
to serve the purpose of ears.
On the under surface
may be seen the square
mouth, furnished with four FlG< 85.— Aurelia aurita
long and graceful frilled
lips, which are richly supplied with stinging cells; also the lour
ovaries or egg-producing organs, rendered conspicuous by their
violet colouring.
The life history of Aurelia is most interesting. The eggs are
produced in pouches that communicate directly with the stomach-
cavity, and these give rise to little ciliated larvae that are ejected
through the mouth, and then swim about freely in the water for
a time. After this they settle at the bottom, lose their cilia, and
become little cylindrical jelly-fishes, fixed by a short stalk-like foot
136
THE SEA SHORE
to rocks or weeds. Numerous tentacles develop as the creatures
increase in size, and a number of transverse furrows appear at the
surface. The furrows gra-
,-jJ^L dually increase in depth
L (£g& until, at last, the body is
broken up into several
star-like discs, each of
which floats away and
develops into a new me-
dusa.
Other j elly-fishes, some
of which are considerably
larger than Aurelia, fre-
FIG. 86.— THE EAKLY STAGES OF Aurelia quent our seas, and are
often to be seen stranded
on the beach. Two of these — Rhizostoma and Chrysaora — are
figured. Although they differ considerably in form from the
FIG. 87. Rhizostoma
FIG. 88.— Chrysaora
blue aurelia, they closely resemble it in genera! structure and
habits.
TEE CCELENTERATES 137
When strolling on flat, sandy beaches, especially in the spring
and early summer, we commonly see what appear to be little balls
of exceedingly transparent and glassy jelly, no larger than an
ordinary marble. If picked up and examined, we observe that
they are not quite spherical, but oval in form, with a little tubercle
at one end, and eight equidistant bands running from this to the
opposite end, like the meridians on a globe.
This extremely beautiful little creature is one of the ccelenterates,
belonging to the division Ctenophora, or comb-bearing jelly-fishes,
so called because they possess comb-like ciliated plates, and is
called the Globular Beroe (Cydippe pileus}.
The ctenophores are very active creatures, swimming freely in
the open seas by means of their numerous cilia ; and, although of
such delicate structure, are very predaceous, devouring small
crustaceans and other marine animals. They are usually globular
in form, but some are like long ribbons, and almost all are remark-
FIG. 89. — Cydippe pileus
able for their wonderful transparency, which renders them nearly
invisible when floating in water. They have not the power of
stinging or paralysing their prey, as the medusae have, but their
fringed arms are provided with adhesive cells by which they hold
their prey tenaciously.
In order to observe the form and habits of the Beroe we
transfer it to a vessel of sea water, when it immediately displays
its regular spheroid form, and its eight rows of comb-like plates
which form the meridians before alluded to. Its mouth is situated
on the little tubercle at what we may call the lower pole, for it is
the habit of the Beroe to swim in an inverted position, and the
digestive cavity may be seen through its glassy body.
At first no appendages of any kind are visible, but soon the
animal protrudes two long and exceedingly slender arms, fringed
with slender gelatinous threads, from two cavities, at opposite
sides of the body, into which they can be withdrawn. A close
138 THE SEA SHORE
examination will also reveal the rapid movements of the cilia of its
combs, and it is remarkable that these do not always work to-
gether, the animal being able to move any of its plates indepen-
dently, and to reverse their motion when occasion requires. It
has no tentacles corresponding with those of jelly-fishes and
anemones, but is assisted in the capture of its prey by its two long
arms, the chief use of which, however, seems to be that of a
rudder for steering.
If the Beroe is left out of water for some time, the water which
forms such a large proportion of its body evaporates, leaving an
almost imperceptible residue of solid matter ; and if left in water
after it is dead, its substance rapidly dissolves away, leaving not
the slightest trace of its presence. There seems to be no satis-
factory way of preserving this beautiful form of animal life. If
placed in strong spirit the water is rapidly extracted from its body,
and its animal substance shrivelled to a minute, shapeless mass ;
while in weak spirit and in other fluid preservatives it becomes
more or less distorted, and deprived of its beautiful transparency,
or else it disappears altogether.
We now come to the great favourites among the coelenterates —
the beautiful anemones — the animated flowers of the ocean,
remarkable not only for their lovely flower-like forms, but also for
the great variety of colour and of habits which they display. These,
together with the corals, form the division of the coelenterates
known as the Zoantliaria, characterised by the possession of
simple tentacles, the number of which is a multiple of either five
or six. The latter differ from the former mainly in the power of
secreting a calcareous skeleton which remains attached by its base
after the animal substance has decayed.
The expanded anemone exhibits a more or less cylindrical body,
attached by a suctorial base to a rock or some other object, and a
broad circular disc above. In the centre of this disc is the mouth,
surrounded by the tentacles, often very numerous, and arranged in
one or more whorls. When the animal is inactive the tentacles
are usually completely withdrawn, and the body contracted into a
semiglobular or pear-shaped mass which is very firm to the touch.
The general internal structure of an anemone may be made out
by simple dissections, and the examination conducted with the
specimen submerged in water. A longitudinal section will show
that the body is a double tube, the outer being formed by the body-
wall, and the inner by the wall of the stomach. Thus there is a
THE CCELENTERAtES
139
body-cavity distinct from that of the stomach, but the two will be
seen to communicate below, since the stomach-wall does not extend
as far down as the base. It will be seen, too, that the body-wall is
made up of two distinct layers — an outer one, that is continued
inward at the mouth to form the inner wall of the stomach, and an
inner one that lines the whole of the body-cavity. The latter
contains the muscular elements that enable the anemone to
contract its body.
When the animal is expanded, the whole interior is filled with
sea water, as are also the tentacles, which are hollow tubes, really
extensions of the body-
cavity, and formed by
prolongations of the
same two layers that
constitute the body-
wall. As it contracts
this water is expelled,
partly through the
mouth, and partly
through small openings
that exist at the tips of
the tentacles.
The outer layer of
the body-wall is pro-
vided with stinging
cells which serve not
only to protect the FIG. 90.— SECTION OF AN ANEMONE
anemone from its ene- *• tentacles ; m, mouth ; *, stomach ; b e, body-cavity
p, mesentery ; o, egg-producing organ
mies, but also to aid it
in the capture of its prey, for which latter purpose they are distributed
in much greater abundance in the tentacles.
The body-cavity is divided into a number of communicating
compartments by means of vertical partitions running from the
body-wall and converging towards the centre of the cavity. These
are called mesenteries, and are extensions of the inner layer of the
body-wall. Five or six of these are larger than the others, extend-
ing from disc to base, and are called primary mesenteries. Between
these are an equal number of smaller secondary mesenteries ; and,
sometimes, a third set of still smaller tertiary mesenteries.
These internal partitions are best displayed in a transverse section
of the body, which shows the double tube formed by the walls of the
140
THE SEA SHORE
body and the stomach, together with the wheel-like arrangement
of the mesenteries. At one time all animals that had a radial
symmetry — the regular arrangement of parts round a common
centre — were grouped together under the title of Eadiata ; but it
has since been recognised that the creatures of this group exhibited
such a great diversity of structure that they have been re-classified
into two main divisions, one of which constitutes the ccelenterates
which we are at present considering, and the other containing such
creatures as star fishes and sea urchins.
FIG. 92. — DIAGRAMMATIC TRANS-
VERSE SECTION OP AN ANEMONE
S, stomach : 6c, body-cavity ; m', TO", m'",
primary, secondary, and tertiary mesen-
teries
a be
FIG. 91. — STINGING CELLS OF ANE-
MONE, HIGHLY MAGNIFIED
a and r, with thread protruded ;
fr, with cell retracted
FIG. 93. — LARVA OF ANEMONE
On the surface of the mesenteries of the anemone may be seen the
ovaries or egg-producing organs. These discharge the ova into the
general body-cavity, after which they are ejected through the mouth.
The embryos are minute jelly-like creatures that have an active exis-
tence, swimming about freely in the ocean by means of vibrating cilia,
but after this period of activity they settle down and fix them-
selves, gradually assuming the adult form common to the species.
The habits of sea anemones are particularly interesting, and
THE CCELENTERATES 141
it will well repay anyone to make a study of these animals in
their natural haunts as well as in the aquarium. The gentle
swinging of the tentacles when searching for food, the capture and
disposal of the prey, the peculiar modes of locomotion, and the
development of the young, are among the chief points of interest.
As regards locomotion, the usual method of moving from place
to place is by an exceedingly slow gliding of the base or ' foot ' ;
and while some anemones are almost constantly on the move,
others hardly ever stir from the secluded niche in which they have
taken up their abode.
Sometimes an anemone will detach itself from the rock, and
drag itself along, but very slowly, by means of its tentacles, some-
times inverting its body and walking on its head, as it were, and
though one may never have the opportunity of witnessing this
manreuvre on the shore, we have found it far from an uncommon
occurrence in the aquarium.
The natural food of anemones consists of small crustaceans,
such as shrimps, and crabs, molluscs, small fishes, and in fact almost
every kind of animal diet, and there need never be any difficulty
in finding suitable viands for species kept in captivity. It is really
astonishing to see what large morsels they can dispose of with the
assistance of their extensile mouths and stomachs. It is not even
necessary, indeed, that the morsel be so small as to be entirely
enclosed by the walls of its digestive cavity, for the anemone will
digest one portion while the other remains projecting beyond its
mouth. Further, it will even attack bodies which it cannot
swallow at all, by protruding its stomach so as to partially
envelope them, and then digesting the portion enclosed. Indi-
gestible portions of its food, such as the shells of small molluscs,
are ejected through the mouth after the process of digestion has
been completed.
We have already referred to the reproduction of sea anemones
by means of eggs, but it is interesting to note that they may also
increase by a division of the body into two or more parts, and that
this division may be either natural or artificial.
If an anemone be cut into halves longitudinally, each half will
develop into a complete animal. If cut transversely, the upper
portion will almost always develop a new suctorial disc, and
produce a new individual complete in every respect ; and it has
been stated that the basal portion of the divided animal will also,
occasionally, produce a new disc and tentacles.
142 THE SEA SHORE
The natural division of the anemone has frequently been spoken
of as by no means an uncommon occurrence, but, as far as our
experience of captive anemones go, this mode of multiplication
does not seem to take place except as the result of some mechanical
force applied, or as a means by which the animal may relieve itself
of a solid body that it is unable to eject. Thus, on one occasion,
when a stone had slipped so that its narrow edge rested across the
middle of the disc of a large Mesembryanthemum, the animal,
apparently unable to free itself from the burden, simply withdrew
its tentacles and awaited results. In a few days two individuals
were to be seen, one on either side of the stone, both undoubtedly
produced as the.result of the pressure applied. This instance seems
to be exactly akin to artificial division, for it is far more likely that
the animal was severed by the simple pressure of the stone than
that it divided itself to be relieved of its burden.
On another occasion an anemone that had almost entirely sur-
rounded a mussel on which it had been feeding, gradually released
itself of the shell by a longitudinal division of its body ; but here,
again, it is probable that the fission was the result of pressure
applied rather than of any power on the part of the animal.
A few of the British sea anemones are shown on Plates II. and
III., and although the coloured illustrations will probably suffice
for purposes of identification, yet a short description of each one
represented may be acceptable.
The most common and most widely distributed species is un-
doubtedly the familiar Beadlet (Actinia mesembryanthemum —
Plate II., figs. 1, 2, 3), which is to be found on every bit of rocky
coast around the British Isles, and even on some stony beaches
where there are no standing rocks between the tide-marks.
The colour of this species is exceedingly variable, but the most
abundant variety is of a liver-brown colour, with crimson disc and
tentacles, brilliant blue spots round the margin of the disc, and a
line of bright blue around the base. In others the prevailing
colour is deep crimson, orange, yellowish brown, or green. Fig. 1
represents a variety commonly known as the Strawberry Beadlet
(Fragacea), which is distinguished by its superior size, and in which
the dark-red ground is often conspicuously spotted with green.
Two members of the same genus are also shown on Plate III.
One of these — A. glauca (fig. 3) — is of a bluish -green colour ; while
the other — A. chiococca (fig. 4) — is bright scarlet, with deep
crimson disc and white spots round the disc.
PLATE M.
SEA ANEMONFS
i, 2, 3, Actinia mescmbryanthemum.
-}. ("aryophyllia Smithii.
5. Tealia crassicornis.
fi. Sagartia bellis.
7. Balanophyllia reg'ia.
8. Actinolob;i dianthus.
THE CCELENTEEATES 143
The general form of this genus is that of an expanded flower
on a short column ; the name Beadlet is applied on account of
the little bead-like projections on the margin of the disc. The
tentacles number nearly two hundred in a fully grown individual,
and are arranged in several rows ; but when the animal is disturbed
and the tentacles retracted, its form is almost hemispherical.
It is interesting to note that A. mesembryanthemum not only
exists in varieties distinguished by distinct colours, but that the
same individual will sometimes change its tint, as may be observed
when it is kept in the aquarium ; and it may be mentioned, by the
way, that it is very easily reared in captivity, either in the natural
or the artificial salt water, for not only may the same individuals
be kept alive for years with only a moderate amount of attention,
but their offspring may be reared without difficulty.
On Plate II. (fig. 8) are two illustrations of the beautiful
Actinoloba dianthus, which grows to a length of five or six inches,
and is easily distinguished by its expanded and frilled disc, its very
numerous short and slender tentacles, and its tall, pillar-like body.
Its colour is somewhat variable, being either salmon, flesh-colour,
cream, white, red, orange, or brownish ; but whatever be the tint
of the body and tentacles, the margin of the mouth is always red
or orange. When young it may easily be mistaken for another
species, as its disc is not then frilled, and the tentacles are much
fewer in number.
This pretty anemone usually inhabits deep water, and is
frequently brought in, attached to shells and stones, by trawlers,
but it may be commonly observed in the dark crevices of rocks, a
little above low-water mark, where it is usually seen contracted
into a ball, or even so much flattened that it looks like a mere
pulpy incrustation of the rock. It is very common on the rocky
coasts of Dorset, Devon, and Cornwall, as well as in many parts of
Scotland and Ireland.
Like the Beadlet, it is easily kept alive in the aquarium, where
it commonly multiplies by natural division ; but as it does not
generally expand in full daylight, its beauty is often better observed
at night by artificial light.
On Plate II. (fig. 5) we have an illustration of the beautiful
Dahlia Wartlet (Tealia crassicornis), which may be readily recog-
nised by its thick, banded, horn-like tentacles, and the numerous
little adhesive warts that almost cover the surface of its body.
This species is as abundant as it is beautiful, for it is to be
144
THE SEA SHORE
found in plenty on almost every rocky coast, where it may be seen
in the rock pools and in the crevices of rocks near low-water mark.
The diameter of its cylindrical body often reaches two or three
inches, while the expanded tentacles embrace a circle of four or
five inches. Specimens even much larger than this are sometimes
obtained by dredging in deep water.
FIG. 94. — THE TRUMPET ANEMONE (Aiptasia Cvuchii), CORNWALL ;
DEEP WATER
The ' Dahlia ' is not so frequently seen by sea-side collectors as
its abundance would lead one to expect, and this is principally due
to the fact that it not only conceals itself in narrow and out-of-the-
way crevices and angles of rocks, but also that, on the retreat of
the tide, it generally covers itself with small stones, fragments of
shells, &c., held fast to its body by means of its numerous suckers.
In this manner it conceals its beauty so well that the sense of
THE CCELENTERATES
145
touch, as well as that of sight, is necessary in determining its
whereabouts. As a rule, however, it does not resort to this method
of concealment when it inhabits deep water, or even a permanent
rock pool between the tide-marks, and thus it is in the latter home
where one may expect to see this sea flower in all its glory, for
when permanently covered with water it will seldom hide its
crown, except when alarmed, or when in the act of swallowing its
food.
It should be noted, too, that the rock pool is the right place in
which to study the habits of this anemone, for it is not nearly so
easy to rear in the artificial aquarium as the species previously
described, and, moreover, it requires a great deal of food. We
FIG. 95. — PeacTiia hastata, S. DEVON
have found it live longest in running water, kept cool, and fre-
quently renewed by supplies fresh from the sea. It may be fed on
almost any, if not every, form of animal life inhabiting a rock pool.
A small fish or a prawn is perfectly helpless when once it is seized
by the creature's tentacles. Mussels, winkles, limpets, &c., are
eagerly swallowed, and the indigestible shells disgorged after the
animal substance has been dissolved by the digestive fluid. Even
the active shore crab, armed as it is with a coat of mail and power-
ful pincers, is no match for its powerfully adhesive tentacles ; nor
do the sharp spines of the prickly urchin preserve it from so vora-
cious a creature.
The rocky coasts of Devon and Cornwall are the chief haunts of
L
146 THE SEA SHORE
the pretty ' Daisy Anemone ' (Sagartia bellis), and here it is very
abundant in places. This species lives in holes and crevices of the
rocks, its body usually entirely hidden from view, but its dark
brown disc, intersected by bright red radiating lines, and fringed
with numerous small tentacles, fully exposed to view as long as it
is submerged. The length of its body is always adapted to the
depth of the hole or crevice in which the animal lives, and may
vary from half an inch to two or three inches, the diameter of the
columns being greatest where the length is least.
Sometimes the ' Daisy ' may be seen living a solitary life,
having settled down in a hole just large enough to accommodate it,
but more commonly it is seen in company with several others of
its species, occupying a crevice in a rock pool, and often so closely
FIG. 96. — Sagartia pallida, DEVON AND CORNWALL
packed together that the tentacles of each individual are inter-
mingled with those of its neighbours, thus exhibiting a more or
less continuous cluster or line of ' flowers,' each disc being from
one to two or three inches in diameter when fully expanded.
On account of the peculiar positions selected by this species, it
is not easily removed without injury, and hammer and chisel are
almost always necessary for its removal ; but if it is obtained
without injury, and transferred to the indoor aquarium, but little
difficulty will be found in keeping it alive and in health. It is also
very prolific, and a single specimen placed in the indoor tank will
frequently produce a large number of young.
The colour of S. bellis, like that of many of our anemones,
is very variable, but the species may easily be recognised by the
THE C(ELENTEEATES
147
radiating lines of the disc, and the numerous small tentacles.
One variety, however, deviates considerably in form, colour, and
habit from the normal. It (Plate II., fig. 6) is of a dull yellow
colour, and has a much less graceful form ; and, instead of living in
the holes and crevices of rocky coasts, where it would be washed
by fresh sea water at every tide, it inhabits the muddy and
foetid waters of narrow inlets of the sea in the neighbourhood of
Weymouth.
Three other species of the same genus are represented on
Plate III. The first of these — Sagartia troglodytes, sometimes
called the Cave-dweller (fig. 1) — though very variable in colour,
may be known by its barred tentacles, each with a black B-like
FIG. 97. — Sagartia nivea, DEVON AND CORNWALL
mark near its base. It lives in sheltered, sandy, or muddy
hollows between the rocks on most rugged coasts, often with its
body entirely buried beneath the sediment ; or, if only partially
buried, the projecting portion of the column concealed by particles
that adhere to its suckers.
The column is usually of an olive colour, striped longitudinally
with a paler tint, and sometimes reaches a length of two inches,
while the diameter of the expanded ' flower ' may even exceed this
length.
This anemone is not a very conspicuous object of the shore,
since the exposed portion of its column is usually more or less
covered by sedimentary matter, and the tentacles are generally
148 THE SEA SHORE
of a tint closely resembling that of the surrounding surface. Thus
the anemone is protected from its enemies by its peculiar habit
and colouring, while at the same time the spreading tentacles
constitute an unseen but deadly snare for the unwary victims that
come within their range.
This species is often difficult to secure without injury on
account of its preference for narrow chinks in awkward situations,
but we have found that it is sometimes easily removed by first
clearing away the surrounding debris, and then gently pushing it
from its hold by means of the finger-nail. It seems, in fact, that
its base is occasionally quite free from the underlying rock, being
FIG. §§.—Carynactus viridis, DEVON AND CORNWALL
simply imbedded in sand or mud. In other cases hammer and
chisel are necessary to remove it from its snug hole.
If placed in the aquarium it should be allowed to get a foot-
hold in a suitable hole or crevice, which should be afterwards
partially filled with sand. It is not difficult to keep, and although
not a showy species, and having a decided preference for shady
places, yet its habits will be found interesting.
The Orange-disked Anemone (Sagartia venusta) is represented
in fig. 2 of the same plate. It may be easily distinguished by its
brilliant orange-coloured disc, surrounded by white tentacles,
which, when fully expanded, commands a circle of from one to one
and a half inches. South-west Wales is said to be the head-
quarters of this pretty sea flower, but we have found it abundant
THE CCELENTEEATES 149
on parts of the north Devon coast, especially in places between
Ilfracombe and Lynton. Like the last species, it may be termed
a cave-dweller, for it delights to hide in corners and crevices that
are so overhung with rocks and weeds that the light is never
strong.
Yet another species of this genus (S. rosed) is depicted in
Plate III., fig. 8. It has been termed the Eosy Anemone, from the
brilliant rosy tint of its numerous tentacles. The column is
generally of a dull brown colour, with suckers scattered over the
upper portion, and the flower reaches a diameter of an inch or
more. This anemone may be seen at rest on overhanging rocks
near low-.water mark when the tide is out, its disc only partially
hidden, and the tips of its bright tentacles just exposed. It may
be seen on many parts of the Devon coast, and is, or, at least,
was, abundant in localities near Brixham and Shaldon.
On the same plate is an illustration (fig. 7) of one of the most
abundant and most interesting of our anemones. It is commonly
known as the Opelet, and its scientific name is Antliea cereus.
Almost everyone who has done a little collecting on the rocky
shores of the south-west of England, or on the shores of Scotland
or Ireland, must have seen this species, easily distinguished by its
long, slender, smooth tentacles, all of about equal length, and
presenting a waxy appearance. These appendages are usually green
and tipped with pink, but sometimes pale yellow or red, and are
of such a length that they cover a circle of five or six inches.
This species is decidedly of social disposition, for a number
may generally be seen in a cluster, crowded closely together ; and
when we see them, as we often do, occupying a little tide pool that
contains scarcely sufficient water to enable them to give free play
to their tentacles, and exposed for hours to the full blaze of the
summer sun, we naturally form the opinion that they ought to
require no special care in the indoor aquarium. And this is
actually the case, for they thrive well with but little trouble.
Perhaps the chief interest attached to this anemone is the
deadly nature of its grip. The numerous long tentacles have
considerable clinging power throughout their length, and their
paralysing power is very considerable compared with that of many
other species of the same size. Even the human skin is more or
less affected by the irritating influence of this species, a sensation
approaching to a sting being sometimes produced, and the skin
showing visible signs of the injury done. The grip, too, is so
150
THE SEA SHORE
tenacious that tentacles are sometimes torn off when the hand is
quickly withdrawn from their hold.
Our next example is the Red-specked Pimplet (Bunodes
Ballii), shown in fig. 5 of Plate III., which has received its popular
name on account of the numerous longitudinal rows of red-specked
warts that run down its short yellow column, and other red spots
on the column itself, between the rows. Its tentacles are usually
pale yellow or white, but sometimes grey or greenish, and often
tinged with pink.
This anemone is common on some parts of the coasts of
Hampshire, Dorset, Devon, and Cornwall, as well as on the south
FIG. 99. — Bunodes thallia, WEST COAST
coast of the Isle of Wight, and may be found in secluded crevices of
the rocks, or under the large stones that are scattered on the beach.
The Gem Pimplet (Bunodes gemmacea) is shown on the same
plate (fig. 6). It is easily distinguished by the six conspicuous
longitudinal rows of large white warts, between which are several
other rows of smaller ones. The column is pink or brownish, and
the thick tentacles are conspicuously marked by light-coloured
roundish spots. It is not uncommon on the south-west coast of
England, where it may be seen in the rock pools and on the
surfaces of rocks between the tide-marks. Both of the species of
SEA ANEMONES
1. Sagartia troglodytes 2. Sagartia venusta 3. Actinia glauca
4. Actinia chiococca 5. Bunodes Eallii 6. Bunodes gemmacea
7. Anthea cereus 8. Sagartia rosea
THE C(ELENTERATES
151
Bunodes above mentioned may be kept in the aquarium without
much trouble.
All the anemones so far briefly described are quite devoid of
any kind of skeleton, the whole body being of a pulpy or leathery
consistence, but some of our British species develop an internal
calcareous skeleton, consisting of a hollow cylinder of carbonate of
lime secreted by the body-wall, and attached to the rock by means
of a similar deposit formed in the base, and also, within the
cylinder, of a number of thin plates attached to the skeleton of the
body-wall and projecting inwards towards the axis, thus resembling,
in fact, the skeletons of a number of the tropical corals with which
we are familiar. The animals in question are often collectively
spoken of as British corals.
FIG. 100. — Bunodes gemmacea, WITH TENTACLES BETBACTED
One of the finest of these corals is the Devon Cup-Coral (Caryo-
phyllia Smithii), figured on Plate II. It may be found in many
parts of Devon and Cornwall, attached to the rocks between the
tide-marks, often in very exposed places, but is much more abundant
in deep water.
Its skeleton is white or pale pink, and very hard, and is in itself
a beautiful object. The animal surrounding this stony structure is
of a pale fawn colour, with a white disc relieved by a deep brown
circle round the mouth. The tentacles are conical, almost colour-
less and transparent, with the exception of the deep-brown warts
scattered irregularly over them, and are tipped by rounded white
heads.
Of course a hammer and chisel are necessary for the removal of
152
THE SEA SHORE
these corals, but they are hardy creatures, and may be kept for a
considerable time in captivity. Their habits, too, are particularly
interesting, and two or more may sometimes be found with skeletons
attached, suggesting that branched arrangement so common in
many of the corals from warmer seas.
Another of these stony corals (Balanopliyllia regia) is shown
on the same plate. It is much smaller than the last species, but
exceedingly pretty. It is also much less abundant, being confined
almost exclusively to the coast of North Devon, and is seldom seen
far above the lowest ebb of the tide.
FIG. 101. — Caryophyllia cyathus
Our few brief descriptions of British anemones and corals have
been confined to those species which appear in our coloured plates,
but we have interspersed here and there between the text a few
illustrations which will assist in the identification of other species
and also help to show what a rich variety of form is exhibited by
these beautiful creatures. ,Sorne of these inhabit deep water only
and are consequently beyond the reach of most sea-side observers
during the ordinary course of their work ; yet they may often be
seen in fishing villages, especially in the south-west, where they
THE CfELENTERATES 153
are frequently brought in among the haul of the trawlers, attached
either to shells or stones ; and live specimens of these deep-sea
anemones may even be seen on the shells of whelks and bivalve
molluscs in the fishdealers' shops of London and other large towns.
One of the species in question — the Parasitic Anemone (Sagartia
parasitica) is generally found on the shell of the whelk or some
other univalve ; and, if removed from its chosen spot, it will again
FIG. 102. — Sagartia parasitica
transfer itself to a similar shell when an opportunity occurs. This
interesting anemone is usually seen among the dredgings of the
trawler, but may be occasionally met with on the rocky coasts
of the south-west, at extreme low-water mark. Though sometimes
seen attached to stones, shells may undoubtedly be regarded as
constituting the natural home of the species, and many regard the
former position as accidental or merely temporary, and denoting
154
THE SEA SHORE
that the animal had been disturbed and removed from its favourite
spot, or that circumstances had recently rendered a change of
lodgings necessary or desirable. Further, the shell selected by this
anemone is almost always one that is inhabited by a hermit crab ;
and this is so generally the case that the occasional exceptions to
the rule probably point to instances in which the occupant of the
shell had been roughly ejected during the dredging operations.
The peculiar habit of the anemone just referred to makes it an
interesting pet for the aquarium, for if removed from its natural
home, and placed in the aquarium with a hermit crab, it will, sooner
FIG. 103. — THE CLOAK ANEMONE (Adamsia palliata) ON A WHELK
SHELL, WITH HEKMTT CRAB
or later, as the opportunity occurs, glide from its hole on the stone
or rock, and transfer itself to its favourite moving home.
It may be difficult at first to see what advantage can accrue to
the anemone by the selection of such a situation ; and, moreover,
it becomes an interesting question as to whether the advantage
is a mutual one. Close observations may, and already have, thrown
some light on this matter, though it is probable that there still
remains something to be learnt concerning the relations which
exist between the inside and outside occupants of the portable
house.
It may be noticed that the anemone almost invariably takes
THE C(ELENTERATES 155
up a position on the same portion of the shell, and that, when fully
expanded, its mouth is usually turned towards that of the crab.
This seems to be a very favourable position for the anemone, since
it is one that will enable it to catch the waste morsels from the
crab's jaws by its expanded tentacles. But it is, perhaps, not so
easy to suggest a means by which the anemone can make an
adequate return for free board thus obtained. It is well to re-
member, however, that crabs are regarded as such delicate morsels
by fishes that we have already spoken of the value of these
crustaceans as bait ; while the fact that sea anemones remain
perfectly unmolested in rock pools inhabited by most voracious
fishes, coupled with the fisherman's experience as to the absolute
worthlessness of anemones as bait, is sufficient in itself to justify
the conclusion that these creatures are very distasteful to fishes.
This being the case, it is possible that the hermit crab is amply
repaid by the anemone for its liberal board not only by partially
hiding the crab from the view of its enemies, and thereby rendering
it less conspicuous, but also by associating its own distasteful
substance with that which would otherwise be eagerly devoured.
"When the hermit grows too large to live comfortably in its
shell, a change of home becomes necessary, and it is interesting
to observe that the anemone living on the outside of the shell
transfers itself at the same time ; and this is a matter of vital
importance to the crab, since it usually changes its lodging at the
moulting period, at which time its body is covered by a soft skin,
and is then even more acceptable as prey to the fishes. Thus the
anemone accompanies its host, affording it continued protection
during the period of its greatest danger.
Before leaving the ccelenterates we must refer to one other form
which, though not often having its habitat between the tide-marks,
is nevertheless a very common object in the neighbourhood of
fishing villages, where the refuse from the nets used in deep
water has been thrown on the beach. We refer to the peculiar
animal known to fishermen as ' Dead Men's Fingers,' and to the
naturalist as the Alcyonium.
When seen out of water it is not by any means an inviting
object, but is apparently a mass of gristly matter, of a dirty
yellowish or brownish colour, sometimes flattened and shapeless,
and sometimes lobed in such a manner as to suggest the popular
name so commonly applied. It is always attached to some hard
object, such as a stone or a shell, and is so frequently associated
156 THE SEA SHORE
with oyster shells that it is by no means an uncommon object in
the fishmonger's shop, from which we have often obtained live
specimens for the aquarium.
When placed in sea water it gradually imbibes the fluid
surrounding it, becoming much swollen. Then little star-like
openings appear, the circumference of each of which protrudes so
as to form a little projecting tube. Finally, a crown of eight little
tentacles is protruded, and the mass, so uninteresting at first
sight, reveals itself as a colony of pretty polyps.
In general structure the Alcyonium resembles the sea anemone,
but the firm body-wall of the colony is supported and protected to
some extent by the presence of minute spicules of carbonate of
lime; and it is interesting to note that while the tentacles of
anemones and corals make up a number that is a multiple of either
five or six, those of the Alcyonaria and the allied ' Sea pens ' are
always in multiples of four.
CHAPTEE X
STARFISHES, SEA UECHINS, ETC.
STILL passing up the scale of animal life, we now come to the
Echinodermata — the other sub-kingdom which we have already
referred to as forming, with the Coelenterates, the old division of
Eadiata. The term Echinoderm signifies ' hedgehog skin,' and is
applied to the group on account of the fact that the majority of its
species possess a skin that is either distinctly spiny, or exhibits
numerous more or less defined prominences. This skin is also
supported and hardened by the deposit of little plates or spicules
of carbonate of lime, all joined together so as to form a kind of
scaffolding or ' test ' for the protection of the animal ; and this
secretion of carbonate of lime is not always confined to the outer
skin, for, in some cases, it occurs in the walls of the internal organs
as well.
Most of the animals of this sub-kingdom display a regular
radiate symmetry ; that is, the parts of their bodies are arranged
regularly round a common axis, and the arrangement is usually
a five-fold one, as may be observed in the case of the common
Five-fingered Starfish of our coasts (see Plate IV.)i and it is worthy
of note that this radiate disposition of parts is not merely external,
but that, as in the case of anemones and jelly-fishes, it also obtains
within, and determines the arrangement of the internal organs.
Further, although this radiate symmetry characterises the adult
animals of the group we are considering, yet some show a tendency
towards bilateral symmetry (parts arranged equally on two opposite
sides of a common axis), while this is the rule, rather than the
exception, with the early stages or larvce of these creatures.
Observe, for instance, the larva of the common Brittle Starfish,
the adult of which species exhibits an almost perfect radiate
symmetry, and we see something more than a mere trace of a two-
sided disposition.
158
THE SEA SHORE
We have not to look far into the structure of any typical
echinoderm to see that it is a distinct advance on the anemones in
the matter of organisation. To begin with its digestive system —
this consists of a tube having no communication with the general
body-cavity, but remaining quite distinct throughout its length,
with both ends communicating directly with the exterior. Its
nervous system also is more highly developed, for it has a well-
formed ring of nerve matter round the mouth, from which pass two
or three systems of nerve fibres, each system having its own special
function to perform. The sense organs, however, do not appear to
be well developed, though there exist certain ' pigment spots,' in
which nerve fibres terminate,
and which are supposed to serve
the purpose of eyes.
One of the most interesting
features in connection with the
echinoderms is undoubtedly the
structure and function of the
apparatus for locomotion. Ex-
amine a live sea urchin, or the
common five-rayed starfish, in a
rock pool or aquarium, and it
will be seen to possess a large
number of soft, flexible, and
protrusible processes, each of
which terminates in a little
sucking-disc that enables the
animal to obtain a good 'foot-
hold ; ' and, having fixed itself on one side by means of a number
of these little 'feet,' it is enabled, by the contraction of certain
muscles, to pull itself along.
The little feet we are examining are really tubes filled with
water, and capable of being inflated by the injection of water into
them from within the body of the animal. Each one communicates
with a water tube, several of which (usually five) radiate from a
circular canal of water that surrounds the mouth. This circular
canal does not communicate with the mouth, but with a tube,
known as the ' stone canal ' because of the carbonate of lime
deposited within its walls, that opens at the surface of the body on
the opposite side, and is guarded at the orifice by one or more
perforated plates through which water gains admission. Thus the
FIG. 104. — LAKVA or THE
BRITTLE STARFISH
STARFISHES 159
animal can fill its ' water system ' direct from the sea, and, by the
contraction of muscles that surround the main canals, force this
water into the little ' tube-feet,' causing them to protrude and
present their sucking-discs to any solid object over which it desires
to creep. We may observe, however, that some of the little
protrusible tubes have no sucking-discs, and probably serve the
purpose of feelers only; also, that while these tube-feet are the
principal means of locomotion in certain species, in others the
movements of the body are performed almost exclusively by the
five or more rays that extend from the centre of the animal, and
which are readily curved into any desired position by the action
of well-developed muscles.
All the echinoderms come within the domain of the marine
naturalist, for no members of the sub-kingdom are inhabitants
of fresh water ; and it is interesting to observe that, unlike the
animals previously described, none of them live in colonies.
A general examination of the various starfishes to be found
in our seas will show that they may be divided into three distinct
groups. One of these contains the pretty Feather Stars, which are
distinguished by their long and slender ' arms,' usually ten or more
in number, each of which bears a number of pinnules that give it
quite a feathered appearance. The second includes the Brittle
Stars, possessing five slender arms that are jointed to the small,
flattened, central disc, and which are so named on account of the
readiness with which the animal falls to pieces when alarmed or
disturbed ; and the third is formed by the remaining five-rayed
stars, the arms of which, instead of being jointed to, are continuous
with, the centre of the body.
All these starfishes have a leathery skin, supported and
hardened by a framework of calcareous plates, and presenting a
number of hard ridges or spines. In addition to the system of
water tubes already mentioned as characteristic of the echinoderms,
they also possess a second circular vessel round the mouth, from
which a number of vessels are distributed to the walls of the diges-
tive tube. These, however, are bloodvessels, and are directly
concerned with the nutrition of the body. Some, also, have imper-
fectly developed eyes at the ends of the arms or rays.
Contrary to what one would expect after watching the some-
what sluggish movements of starfishes, they are really very
voracious creatures, attacking and devouring molluscs and small
crustaceans, sometimes even protruding their stomachs to surround
160
THE SEA SHOEE
their prey when too large to be passed completely through the
rnouth ; and they are also valuable as scavengers, since they
greedily devour dead fishes and other decomposible animal
matter.
Feather Stars differ from other starfishes in that they are
stalked or rooted during one portion of their early life. At first
they are little free-swimming creatures, feeding on foraminifers
and other minute organisms that float about in the sea. Then
they settle down and become rooted to the bottom, usually in
deep water, at which stage they are like little stalked flowers, and
closely resemble the fossil encrinites or stone lilies so common in
FIG. 105. — LAKVA or THE
FEATHER STAR
FIG. 106. — THE BOSY FEATHER
STAB
some of our rock beds, and to which they are, indeed, very closely
allied. After a period of this sedentary existence, during which
they have to subsist on whatever food happens to come within
their reach, they become free again, lose their stalks, and creep
about by means of their arms to hunt for their prey.
The commonest British species of these starfishes is the Eosy
Feather Star (Antedon rosaceus) ; and as this creature may be
kept alive in an aquarium for some considerable time without
much difficulty, it will repay one to secure a specimen for the
observation of its habits. It is not often, however, that the
Feather Star is to be found above low-water mark, its home being
the rugged bottom under a considerable depth of water, where
STARFISHES 161
a number usually live in company; but there is no difficulty
in obtaining this and many other species of interesting starfishes
in fishing towns and villages where trawlers are stationed, for
they are being continually found among the contents of the net.
Although the Feather Star can hardly be described as an active
creature, yet it will cover a considerable amount of ground in the
course of a day, creeping over rocks and weeds by means of its
arms, which are raised, extended, and again depressed in succession,
each one thus in turn serving the purpose of a foot. These arms
are capable of being moved freely in any direction, as are also the
little more or less rigid pinnules appended to them. The latter
are bent backwards on an extended arm that is being used to pull
the animal along, so that they form so many grappling hooks that
hold on the bottom ; and then the arm in question is bent into a
curve by the contraction of its muscles, thus dragging the body
forward. The arms on the opposite side of the body are also used
to assist the movement by pushing it in the same direction, and
this is accomplished by first bending the arms, and then, after
curving the pinnules in a direction from the body, again extending
them. Other movements of the feather star are equally interest-
ing. Thus, the manner in which it will suddenly extend its arms
and apply its pinnules to the surface on which it rests in order
to obtain a good hold when alarmed, and the way in which it
apparently resents interference when one of the arms is touched,
are worthy of observation. The arms themselves are readily
broken, and will- continue to move for some time after being
severed from the body, but the loss to the animal is only tem-
porary, for a new arm grows in the place of each one that has
been broken off.
This tendency to break into pieces is much greater in the
Brittle Stars, as might be expected from their popular name ; and
is, in fact, such a marked characteristic of the group that it is not
by any means an easy matter to obtain a collection of perfect
specimens. They will often snap off all their arms, as if by their
own power of will, when disturbed or alarmed, and even when
removed from their hold without injury, they will frequently
break themselves into pieces if dropped into spirit or in any way
subjected to a sudden change of conditions.
The tube-feet of Brittle Stars are very small and are not pro-
vided with suckers, but are very sensitive, serving the purpose of
feelers ; also, having thin, permeable walls, they probably play a
N
162
THE SEA SHOEE
large part in the process of respiration. Both arms and disc are
hardened by a dense scaffolding of calcareous plates ; and not only
are the former attached to the latter by a well-formed joint, but the
arms themselves are constructed of a number of segments that
are held together by a kind of ' tongue and groove ' joint. Bound
the mouth are a number of tentacles that are kept in constant
motion with the object of carrying the food towards it, and
FIG. 107. — THE COMMON BRITTLE STAB
of holding the larger morsels while the act of swallowing is pro-
gressing.
The various species of Brittle Stars live among the rocks and
weeds, chiefly in deep water, where they move about by means of
the muscular contraction of their arms, the disc being raised on the
curved arms as the animal proceeds. Some species are to be found
between the tide-marks, and especially abundant on the south-west
coast are two small species that live among the tufts of coralline
weeds, sometimes so crowded together that dozens may be taken
STARFISHES 163
from a little patch of coralline only two or three inches square.
These have such small discs, and such slender arms, and are, more-
over, so well concealed by their colouring, which closely resembles
that of the weed-tuft they inhabit, that they are only to be detected
by close inspection.
The remaining division of the starfishes, sometimes distinguished
by the name of Common Stars, possess five arms or rays, which may
be either long or short, and which are not jointed with the central
disc, but continuous with it ; that is, there is no sharp line of demar-
cation between arm and disc. One or two species are well known
to all frequenters of the sea-side, but the majority of them inhabit
deep water, where they creep about over the rocks and weeds,
obtaining their food from the bed below them.
If we examine the common five-finger star that is so often
stranded on the beach, and so frequently found in rock pools between
the tide-marks, we see that each arm has a large and conspicuous
groove running along its centre on the under side, and on each side
of these are the rows of tube-feet, arranged in such a manner that
they have suggested the appearance of an avenue of trees on each
side of a garden walk, and have consequently earned the name of
ambulacrum. These tube-feet may be protruded for some distance ;
and, being provided with suckers that possess considerable clinging
power, they form the principal means of locomotion.
Put the starfish in the aqnarium, or in a tidepool by the sea,
and you will find it very interesting to observe how the animal pro-
gresses, while some idea of the clinging power of the tube-feet may
be ascertained by allowing the animal to creep over the submerged
hand.
The movements of the tube-feet may also be seen to advantage
when the starfish is laid upside down in a pool, and, what is still
more interesting, the manner in which the animal turns itself over.
To do this it will first bend the tips of one or two of its arms so as
to bring the suckers against the ground ; and then, aided by the
pulling action of these, it will gradually bring other suckers into a
similar position till, at last, the whole body has been turned over.
Some of our common starfishes have rays so short that they may be
termed angles rather than arms, and these are unable to turn their
inverted bodies by the gradual method just described. They
generally raise their bodies on the tips of three or four of the rays,
assuming somewhat the form of a three- or four-legged stool, and
then, bending the remaining one or two arms over the body, they
164 THE SEA SHOEE
alter the position of the centre of gravity till eventually the bodj
topples over to the desired position.
Some of the common five-rayed stars have no suckers on their
tube-feet, and consequently have to creep by means of the muscular
contractions of their arms ; and several of them are like the brittle
stars in breaking up their bodies when irritated or seized. This latter
peculiarity will account for the frequency with which we come across
animals with one or more rays smaller than the others, the smaller
rays being new ones that have been produced in the place of those
lost. Again, we sometimes meet with such monstrosities as a five-
rayed star with six or more rays, some smaller than others, the
smaller ones representing two or more that have grown in the place
of one that has been lost ; or a starfish with branched or forked
arm, illustrating the tendency to produce a new arm even when the
original one has been only partially severed.
A close observation of a starfish in water may enable us to
detect a number of little transparent processes standing out between
the prominences of the rough skin of the upper surface. These are
little bags filled with fluid, formed of such thin walls that gases can
readily pass through them, and are undoubtedly connected with the
process of respiration. Also, on the upturned extremity of each
arm a red spot may be seen ; and this from the nature of its struc-
ture, and from its association with the nervous system, has been
regarded as a rudimentary eye.
On the upper side of the disc one may also observe a more or
less conspicuous spot of variable colour, on one side of the
centre. It is a plate, finely perforated, covering the outer extremity
of a short canal which communicates with the system of water tubes
that were described in the earlier part of this chapter. It is, in
fact, the entrance through which water is admitted into the central
ring round the mouth, and from this into the radial water tubes that
run through each arm of the starfish to supply the tube-feet. The
short tube referred to is always filled with sand, and thus the
water that enters into the water- vascular system is filtered before •
it reaches the circular vessel. It is interesting to note, in this con-
nection, that here is one respect in which the radiate symmetry of
the starfish is broken, there being only one entrance, and that
not a central one, by which water is distributed into the five rays.
Of course, when the ray of a starfish has been broken off
the water vessel or vessels that it contained are destroyed, as is
also the prolongation of the stomach, in the form of a long, blind
STARFISHES— SEA URCHINS 165
tube, that extended into it. But no inconvenience attaches itself
to this loss, for the starfish has the power of reproducing even
its lost viscera, as well as any of the five rays of the body that
may be broken off.
We must briefly refer to one other feature of the common star,
viz. the possession of small prehensile organs around the mouth.
These are little spines, the extremities of which are movable, and
take the form of little pincers by means of which the animal can
hold its prey.
"When it is desired to preserve starfishes for future study,
immersion in diluted spirit or a solution of formaldehyde will answer
all purposes, the soft parts being thus preserved as well as the
harder structures ; but it is usual to preserve them in a dry state
when they are required merely for purposes of identification, as
is usually the case with the specimens in an ordinary museum
collection. In the latter case it is advisable to put the starfishes
in strong spirit for a few days, changing the spirit if several speci-
mens are put together, and then drying them as quickly as possible
in the open air.
We have now to consider the Sea Urchins or Sea Eggs, which
are readily known by the hedgehog-like covering of hard spines.
Externally they appear as globular or heart-shaped bodies, the
surface entirely hidden by spines except, perhaps, the mouth on
the under side, which is provided
with an apparatus for mastica-
tion. If alive, and in the water,
one may notice that the animal
creeps along the bottom, mouth
downwards, moving itself either
by means of its moveable spines,
or by soft tube-feet resembling
those of starfishes, that are pro-
truded between the spines, or by
both combined ; and the move-
ments of its masticating organ may
be seen by observing the animal J^G. 108. — SECTION OF THE
through the side or bottom of a SPINE OF A SEA UKCHIN
glass vessel of sea water. The last-
named organ is surrounded by an area of soft skin, and is not
present in all species.
A closer examination of the common globular urchin will show
166
THE SEA SHORE
that it is wonderfully constructed. Even the spines, which are
in themselves uninteresting objects to the naked eye, are most
beautifully formed, a transverse section revealing a radiate or
reticulated structure when viewed through the microscope. Each
spine has a concave base which fits on a little tubercle of the
calcareous shell or test that covers the body of the animal, forming
a perfect ball-and-socket joint, and is capable of being moved in
any direction by means of small muscular bands.
On removing the spines the shell is seen to completely enclose
the animal with the exception of the mouth, with its masticatory
apparatus, and the
small area around it
which is covered by
the uncalcified skin
just referred to.
FIG. 109. — SEA URCHIN WITH SPINES REMOVED
ON ONE SIDE
FIG. 110. — APEX OF
SHELL OF SEA
URCHIN
At the very top
of the shell, exactly
opposite the mouth,
there is a small plate
perforated by the ex-
tremity of the digestive tube. Bound this are five angular plates,
each perforated by the ducts of the ovaries or egg-producing
glands, but one of these is enlarged and further perforated, that it
may serve the second purpose of allowing water to enter the system
of water tubes that supply the tube-feet, and thus corresponds
exactly with the plate already noticed on the upper surface of the
starfish. Between these are five smaller plates, each with a rudi-
mentary eye that receives a fine nerve-thread.
The remaining and greater portion of the shell of the urchin is
composed of ten radiating segments, each of which is made up of
SEA UECHIN8
167
two rows of flat angular plates united at their edges. Five of these
segments, arranged alternately with the others, are perforated by
numerous holes, through which the tube-feet of the urchin are pro-
truded, while the remainder are imperforate : and all ten plates bear
the little hemispherical processes to which the spines are jointed.
One of the most interesting features of this urchin is un-
doubtedly its complex and wonderful masticating system. There
are five teeth, symmetrically
arranged, and all pointing to-
wards the centre of the mouth.
Each is attached to a wedge-
shape jaw, made up of several
pieces, and the whole apparatus
is attached by ligaments to loops
in the interior of the shell, and
is moved by no less than thirty
distinct muscles. The complete
system may be readily dissected
out, and is well worthy of study
and preservation. (The harder portions of the system may often
be found in the interior of the empty shell of an urchin after the
softer structures of the body have decayed away.)
An interesting dissection of the globular urchin may also be
made by cutting completely round the shell with a pair of sharp-
FIG. 111. — SHELL OF SEA URCHIN
WITH TEETH PROTRUDING
FIG. 112. — INTERIOR OF SHELL or
SEA URCHIN
FIG. 113. — MASTICATORY
APPARATUS OP SEA URCHIN
pointed scissors midway between the mouth and the apex, and
then separating the upper and lower halves, as shown in tig. 114.
In this way the whole of the digestive tube, with its numerous
curves, may be traced from the mouth to the anus at the opposite
pole. The water-vessels that supply the tube-feet in the regions
168 THE SEA SHORE
of the five perforated plates may also be seen, as well as the
ovaries or egg-producing organs and the bases of the five jaws with
then: complicated system of muscles.
A little acquaintance with the commonest of the British sea
urchins will show that they may be divided into two well-defined
groups, one containing the globular or subglobular forms, of which
the common sea urchin or sea egg (Echinus sphcera) above
described, is a type, as well as the pretty little Green Pea Urchin
(Echinocyamus pusillus), and the little Purple-tipped Urchin
(Echinus miliaris), which is found principally on the west coast
of Scotland ; while the second group is formed by the less
symmetrical Heart Urchins, which differ from the others in several
interesting particulars of structure and habit.
FIG. 114. — SEA URCHIN DISSECTED, SHOWING THE DIGESTIVE TUBE
These heart urchins (Plate IV., fig. 4) are covered with short,
delicate spines which are not much used for purposes of locomo-
tion, the animals moving from place to place almost entirely by
means of their tube-feet, while the globular urchins travel princi-
pally by their spines, which are stouter and more freely moved on
well-formed ball-and-socket joints. Also, while in the globular
species the perforated plates that admit of the protrusion of the
feet are arranged with a perfect radiate symmetry, those of the
heart urchins are confined to one side of the shell ; and the digestive
tube, which in the former terminates in the pole opposite the mouth,
in the latter ends close to the mouth itself. Further, the heart
urchins do not possess any kind of dental apparatus.
PLATE IV
.
ECHINODERMS
1. Asterias rubens
2. Goniaster equestris
3. Ophiothrix fragilis
4. Echinocardium cordatum
5. Echinus miliaris
6. Echinus esculentus
SEA URCHINS 169
The habits of sea urchins are interesting, and may be watched
in the aquarium, where the movements of the spines and of the
tube-feet may be seen perfectly. Some species are very inactive,
living in holes and crevices, or under stones, and seldom move from
their hiding-places, while others travel considerable distances.
The former have generally no eyes, and, instead of seeking their
food, simply depend for their subsistence on the material carried
to them by the movements of the water ; while the latter possess
visual organs similar to those observed in certain starfishes. Some
species also protect themselves from their enemies when in the
open by covering their bodies with sand, small stones, shells, or
weeds, and thus so perfectly imitate their surroundings that they
are not easily detected. The feet that are used for purposes of
locomotion terminate in suckers resembling those of the common
five-fingered starfish, and have considerable clinging power, but
some have either very imperfectly developed suckers or none at all,
and are probably used as feelers only.
Sea urchins, like their allies the starfishes, generally inhabit
deep water beyond low-water mark, where they often exist in
enormous numbers, feeding on both animal and vegetable substances;
but some species are often to be met with between the tide-marks,
where they may be seen under stones, and frequently half hidden
in mud. The globular species occur principally on rocky coasts,
but the heart urchins are more commonly dredged from banks of
sand or mud that are always submerged.
The life-history of urchins closely resembles that of starfishes,
for the young are free-swimming creatures of an easel-like form, and
during this early larval existence their bodies are supported by a
calcareous skeleton.
We will conclude our short account of the British echinoderms
with a description of the peculiar Sea Cucumbers, which belong to
the division Holothuroidea. These creatures are so unlike star-
fishes and urchins in general appearance that the uninitiated would
hardly regard them as close relatives. The body is, as the popular
name implies, cucumber-shaped, with the mouth at one end, and
the general aspect is wormlike. There is, however, a radiate
symmetry — a five-fold arrangement of parts, though not so regular
as in most echinoderms. Running lengthwise along the body are
five rows of tube-feet, but only two of these are well developed
and terminate in functional suckers; and, as might be expected)
the animal crawls with these two rows beneath it. The feet are
170 THE SEA SHOES
outgrowths of a system of water tubes similar to that of the urchin,
there being a circular tube round the mouth, from which branch
five radial tubes, one for each row.
The mouth of the sea cucumber is surrounded by plumed
tentacles which can be retracted at will, and which are used in
capturing the smaller living things that form its food. Like the
earthworm, it will often swallow large quantities of sand, from
which it digests the organic matter contained.
The body-wall of the Holothuroidea is strong and muscular,
and is strengthened by the presence of numerous spicules of
carbonate of lime, often in the form of little anchors, wheels, and
crosses, while the outer surface is rough and slimy, and often of
a colour so closely resembling the surroundings of these animals
FIG. 115. — THE SEA CUCUMBER
that they are not easily observed. This feature is one of great
value to the creatures, since they have no means of defence from
their enemies, and seem to owe their safety entirely to their
protective colouring.
There are several species of sea cucumbers on our coasts, but
all inhabit deep water and are seldom to be seen above low-water
level. They are, as a rule, easily obtained from fishermen, who
will bring them in when requested to do so. Live specimens may
be kept for a considerable time in the indoor aquarium, and seem
to prefer a rocky bottom on which they can hide under stones at
times, and a bed of sand on which they will occasionally crawl.
They will readily devour small molluscs and crustaceans, and
will partake of dead organic matter in a partially decomposed
state.
SEA URCHINS
171
The following tabular summary of the classification of Echino-
derms may possibly be of use for reference : —
SUB-KINGDOM ECHINODEBMATA
Body star-shaped.
Body glob-
Body elon-
gated
Body
stalked,
Body not stalked.
Tube-feet used for locomotion.
globular,
or heart-
and cov-
ered with
at least
Class : Stelleridce.
shaped,
a soft
and cov-
skin con-
early
stage.
Arms jointed to
disc, and not
Arms continu-
ous with disc,
ered with
a con-
taini jig
calcare-
Feet not
used for
locomo-
tion.
Class :
Crinoidea
(Feather
containing
prolongations
of the inter-
nal organs.
Order :
Ophiuroidea
(Brittle
and contain-
ing processes
of the viscera.
Order :
Asteroidea
(Common
Stars).
tin u o u s
shell.
Class :
Echinoidea
(Sea Ur-
chins).
ous spi-
cules.
Class :
Holothu-
roidea
(Sea Cu-
cumbers).
Star).
Stars).
CHAPTEE XI
MARINE WORMS
SOME groups of animals are so well defined that the individual
species contained in them can be assigned their proper place
without any difficulty, the main characteristics by which the group
is distinguished running with more or less precision throughout the
series ; but, unfortunately this is not the case with the ' worms,'
which constitute the sub-kingdom Vermes. Here we have a most
heterogeneous assemblage of animals, collectively exhibiting
exceedingly wide variations in both form and structure.
We have already referred to the sea cucumber as wormlike in
form, and this creature is only one of a large number of wormlike
animals that are not worms ; and it is also a fact that a considerable
number of the worms are not wormlike. It appears as if the
sub-kingdom Vermes were a kind of receptacle into which we may
throw almost any invertebrate animal that does not readily fall in
line with the general characteristics of the other important groups ;
for in it we have such a varied assemblage of creatures that,
speaking of them collectively as worms, it becomes most difficult,
if not absolutely impossible, to say exactly what a worm is ; and
it is a question whether the sub-kingdom ought not to be divided
into at least two or three groups of the same standing.
This being the case we can hardly give a satisfactory summary
of the characteristics of the group, and therefore it must be under-
stood that in our attempt to do so we unavoidably exclude some
forms that belong to it according to our present system of classifica-
tion. This being remembered, we will define worms as soft-
bodied and elongated animals, exhibiting a bilateral symmetry
(that is, having appendages and organs arranged symmetrically on
each side of a plane extending from the dorsal to the ventral
surface through the centre of the body), and with the body usually
divided into a succession of segments, each of which resembles the
MARINE WORMS 173
one preceding and following it. Though many of the worms are
generally looked upon as uninteresting creatures, of such an
unattractive appearance and with such depraved habits that they
are beneath respect, yet a study of the sub-kingdom will prove
that not only does it include a number of wonderful forms with
the most marvellous life histories, but that some of them are very
beautiful objects ; and this last remark refers more particularly to
many of the marine worms, which come directly within the scope
of our work.
Before passing on to the special study and classification of the
marine species, however, we must say a few words concerning the
worms in general, reminding the reader that all our statements
regarding the anatomy of the creatures may be readily verified by
simple dissections of one or two typical species, such as the common
earthworm, the fisherman's lugworm, the sea mouse, or the
common horse-leech of our fresh-water ponds. With this object
in view, the animal may be killed by immersion in spirit, then
pinned out in the dissecting tray under water, and the body-wall
opened by means of a pair of sharp-pointed scissors.
The digestive tube of a worm runs completely through the
length of the body, and though there is no distinct head, there is
always a mouth, and this is often provided with horny jaws, and
sometimes also with horny teeth, with which the animal is enabled
to inflict wounds on its prey.
Like the preceding sub-kingdom — the Echinodermata — worms
possess a system of water tubes ; this system, however, is not in
any way connected with the function of locomotion, but is, in many
cases at least, if not in all, intimately associated with the process of
respiration. It consists of a series of tubes, arranged in pairs in the
successive segments, communicating with the body-cavity internally,
and opening at the exterior by means of pores in the cuticle. In
some there is a highly organised system of bloodvessels, con-
taining blood that is usually either colourless, red, or green, but
the colour of the blood is never due to the presence of corpuscles,
as is the case with higher animals, the tint being due to the
plasma or fluid portion of the blood ; and though worms cannot be
said to possess a true heart, yet they often have one or more con-
tractile bloodvessels which serve the purpose of propelling the blood.
Most worms possess a nervous system, and, where this is
present, it consists of a chain of ganglia, placed along the ventral
side of the body, beneath the digestive tube, all united by means
174 THE SEA SHOEE
of a nerve cord, and distributing nerves in pairs to various parts of
the body ; and it may be well to note here one very important
point of distinction between the general arrangement of the central
portion of the nervous system in the worms and higher invertebrates,
as compared with that of the corresponding structure in the verte-
brates : — In the former the main axis of the system, consisting, as
we have seen, of a chain of ganglia connected by a nerve cord, is
invariably placed along the ventral portion of the body-cavity — the
surface on which the animal crawls ; while in the vertebrates the
axis of the nervous system lies along the upper or dorsal part of the
body ; and, instead of lying in the general body-cavity, in company
with the organs of digestion and circulation, is enclosed in the bony
canal formed by the vertebral column. It will be seen from this
that when it is desired to examine the nervous system of the in-
vertebrate animal, the body-wall should be opened along the middle
of the ventral surface, while, in the vertebrate, the central axis
should be exposed from above.
Many of the vermes are parasitic, either attaching themselves
to the exterior of other animals, and deriving nourishment by suck-
ing their blood, or they are internal parasites, living in the digestive
canal of their hosts and partaking of the digested food with which
they are almost perpetually surrounded, or burrowing into the
tissues and imbibing the nutritive fluids which they contain ; and it
is interesting to study even these degraded members of the group,
if only to observe how then* physical organisation degenerates in
accordance with their depraved mode of living. In them we find
no digestive system with the exception of the simplest sac from
which the fluids they swallow may be absorbed, for their food is
taken in a condition ready for direct assimilation ; and the food so
obtained being readily absorbed into all parts of their soft bodies,
and being sufficiently charged with oxygen gas by the respiration
of their hosts, they require no special organs for circulation or
respiration, nor, indeed, do we find any. Further, we find that the
nervous system is often undeveloped ; for since the parasites, and
especially the internal ones, are so plentifully surrounded with all
the necessaries of existence, their bodies are so simple in construc-
tion that no complex nervous system is required to promote or
control either locomotion or internal functions. Even the general
body-cavity often disappears in these degraded creatures, the
internal organisation being of such a low type that there is no
necessity for it ; and all the abundant nourishment absorbed over
MARINE WORMS
175
and above that required for the sustenance of their simple bodies is
utilised in the reproduction of the species ; consequently we find,
as a rule, the reproductive organs well represented, and the species
concerned very prolific.
It is an interesting fact, too, that these parasites, in their
earliest stage, possess organs which are present in the higher
worms, but which degenerate
as they approach the adult
form , thus indicating that they
have descended from more
respectable members of the
animal world, and that the
low physical development
which they ultimately attain
is the natural result of their
base mode of living.
The young marine natu-
ralist, working on our coasts,
will not be brought into
intimate contact with para-
sitic worms to any large
extent, yet we have said this
little on parasitism to show
that these degenerate crea-
tures are not really devoid
of interest, and that they will
repay study whenever they
are found. They will be
more frequently met with
during the examination of
the animals — usually higher
types — that become then*
hosts, and thus they hardly
come within the scope of this
work.
The simplest of the worms
are those forming the class
Turbellaria, so designated on account of the commotion they produce
in the water surrounding them by means of the vibratile cilia that
fringe their bodies— a characteristic that is also expressed by their
popular name of Whirl Worms. They are usually small creatures,
FlG. 116. A TUBBELLAKIAN,
MAGNIFIED
a, mouth : 6, cavity of mouth : e, gullet ; d,
stomach ; «, branches of stomach :/, nerve
ganglion ; g to m, reproductive organs.
176 THE SEA SHORE
with soft, flattened, unsegrnented bodies, though some of the larger
species are really wormlike in form, and are more or less distinctly
divided into a chain of segments. Many of them are marine, and
may be seen gliding over stones left uncovered by the receding tide
with a smooth slug-like motion, and when disturbed in a rock pool,
occasionally swimming with a similar smooth motion by the aid of
their cilia. They avoid bright light, and are consequently generally
found on the under surfaces of stones, especially in rather muddy
situations, and where the stones are covered with a slimy deposit
of low forms of life. In these turbellarians the mouth is situated
on the tinder surface, thus enabling the animal to obtain its nourish-
ment from the slimy surface over which it moves, and it is also pro-
vided with an extensile proboscis that aids it in the collection of its
food. The digestive tube is generally very complex in form, extend-
ing its branches into every part of the soft body ; and, there being
no special organs of respiration, the animal derives all the oxygen
required by direct absorption from the water through the soft
integument.
When searching for turbellarians on the sea shore one must be
prepared to meet with interesting examples of protective colouring
that will render a close examination of rocks and stones absolutely
necessary. Some of these worms are of a dull greyish or brownish
colour, so closely resembling that of the surface over which they
glide that they are not easily distinguished ; and the thin bodies of
others are so transparent that the colour of the stone beneath is
visible through them, thus preventing them from being clearly
observed.
Overturned stones should be examined for their flattened bodies
gliding along rapidly in close contact with the surface. They may
be removed without injury by placing a wet frond of a sea weed
close to the stone, in front of one end of the body, and then urging
them to glide on to it by gently touching the opposite end. Some-
times, however, the turbellarians remain perfectly still when exposed
to the light, in which case they are even more difficult to detect,
but a little practice will soon enable one to distinguish them with
readiness.
Allied to the turbellarians are the Spoon Worms or Squirt Worms,
some species of which inhabit deep water round our shores, where
they burrow into the sand or mud of the bed of the sea. These
form the class Gephyrea, and consist of creatures with sac-like or
cylindrical and elongated bodies, and a protrusible proboscis, which
MAEINE WOEMS 177
is often of great length. Their bodies are not distinctly segmented,
nor do they bear any appendages. The skin is tough and horny,
and the body-wall, which is very thick and muscular, is often
contracted when the animal is disturbed, thus causing a jet of water
to be forcibly ejected.
All the most interesting of the marine worms belong to the
Annelida or Chcetopoda, popularly known as the Bristle-footed
worms, because their locomotion is aided more or less by the
presence of stiff bristles that project beyond the surface of the
skin. These are all highly organised worms, mostly with very
elongated bodies that are distinctly segmented exteriorly by a
number of transverse grooves, while the interior is correspondingly
divided into a number of compartments by means of a series of septa.
In addition to the bristles already mentioned, there are often
numerous appendages, but these must be distinguished from the
more perfect appendages of the arthropods, to be hereafter described ;
for while the latter are distinctly jointed to the body, and are
themselves made up of parts that are jointed together, the former
are mere outgrowths of the body-wall. The digestive and circulatory
systems are well developed, as is also the system of water tubes
that connect the body-cavity with the exterior, while the body-
cavity itself is full of fluid.
This group of worms is subdivided into two divisions, the many
bristled (Polychceta) and the sparsely bristled (Oligochceta) worms.
The latter contain the common earthworms and some less known
species, while the former include a number of interesting and even
beautiful worms, all of which are marine, and many of them among
the commonest objects of the sea shore.
These Polychsetes exhibit a great variety of habit as well as of
appearance. Some live in crevices of the rocks or under stones
and weeds, or make burrows in the sand or mud of the bed of the
sea, and roam about freely at times in search of food. They are
continually coming within the ken of the sea-side collector, being
revealed by almost every overturned stone near the low-water
mark, and are often seen crawling over the wet rocks just left
uncovered by the receding tide ; while their burrows are often so
numerous that hundreds may be counted in every few square feet.
But many are sedentary species, and these are not so generally
known to young sea-side naturalists, who frequently observe, arid
even preserve, the interesting homes they construct, while less
attention is given to the architects that build them.
N
178 THE SEA SHORE
It is very interesting to observe some of the general differences
between the roving and the sedentary species — differences which
illustrate the principle of adaptation of structure to habit. The
roving species are provided with a lobe that overhangs the mouth,
bearing feelers and eyes, and are thus enabled to seek out any
desired path and to search for their food. They are provided with
bristles and other appendages by means of which they can travel
freely over the suri'aces of solid objects, and are able to swim well
either by undulations of the body, or by fringed appendages, or
both. The carnivorous species, too, are provided with strong, horny
jaws, and sharp, curved teeth, by means of which they can capture
and hold their prey. The sedentary species, on the other hand,
unable to move about in search of food, are supplied with a number
of appendages by means of which they can set up water currents
towards their mouths, and which also serve the purpose of special
FIG. 117. — Arenicola piscatorum
breathing organs, and, having no means of pursuing and devouring
animals of any size, they do not possess the horny jaws and curved
teeth so common in the rovers. Their eyes, too, are less perfectly
developed, and the tactile proboscis of their free-moving relatives
is absent.
Of the roving worms, perhaps, the Lugworm or Sandworm
(Arenicola piscatorum) is the best known. Its burrows may be
seen on almost every low sandy or muddy shore, and, being so
highly valued as a bait, its general appearance is well known to
all professional and amateur sea fishers. It reaches a length of
eight inches or more, and varies in colour according to the sand
or mud in which it lives. The segments of this worm are very
different in structure in different parts of the body. Those in the
front of the body have a few tufts of bristles arranged in pairs,
while the middle portion of the body has large brush-like tufts
of filamentous gills placed rather close together ; and the hindmost
MARINE WORMS 179
part has no bristles or appendages of any kind, and is so well filled
with the sand or mud that it is quite hard and firm to the touch.
As is the case with our common earthworms, the sand or mud is
swallowed in enormous quantities, and this is not only the means
by which the lugworm derives its food, but also assists it consider-
ably in making its burrows; the extent to which this creature
carries on its work of excavation may be estimated by the thousands
of little contorted, worm-like heaps of sand that lie on the surface
at every period of low water. These little heaps are known as
1 castings,' and consist of the sand that passed through the worm's
body as the burrowing proceeded.
The Eagworm is another species that is highly valued as bait.
It burrows into the odorous mud that is so commonly deposited
in harbours and the mouths of sluggish rivers. In this species
FIG. 118. — THE SEA MOUSE
the segments are similar throughout the length of the body, and
the numerous flattened appendages give it the ragged appearance
that has suggested its popular name. Quite a number of marine
worms closely allied to the common ragworm, and resembling it
in general form, are to be found on our shores. Many of these
may be seen by turning over stones that are left exposed at low
tide, while others hide themselves in snug little crevices of the rock,
or in the empty shells of the acorn barnacle and various molluscs ;
and some species, including one of a bright-green colour, creep
freely over the wet rocks in search of food or home, often exposing
themselves to the rays of a fierce summer sun.
The Sea Mouse (ApTirodita aculeata) is certainly one of the
most interesting of the roving marine worms, and, though seldom
seen above low-water line, may often be obtained by the sea-side
180 THE SEA SHORE
collector with the aid of friendly fishermen, who sometimes find
it plentifully among the contents of their trawl nets. Failing
such aid, it may be looked for among the encrusted stones that
are exposed only at the lowest spring tides, especially in places
where a certain amount of mud has been deposited under the
shelter of outlying rocks ; and the chances of success are much
greater if the search is made immediately after a storm, for at
such times much of the life that exists in deep water will have
been driven shoreward by the force of the waves.
At first sight the sea mouse would hardly be associated with the
worms ; for, instead of having the elongated and cylindrical form that
is usually regarded as characteristic of these creatures, it is broad
and slug-like in shape, the under surface, on which it crawls, being
flat, while the upper side is convex. The segmentation of the body,
too, is not readily seen in the upper surface on account of the thick
felt-like covering of hairs, but is at once apparent when the
creature has been turned over to expose the ventral side.
When seen for the first time in its natural haunt one naturally
wonders what the moving mass may be. Crawling sluggishly over
incrusted stones, or remaining perfectly still in a muddy puddle
that has been exposed by overturning a stone, it looks like a little
mound of mud itself, about four or five inches long, and its general
colour and surface so closely resembles that of its surroundings
that an inexperienced collector may never even suspect that the
mass is a living animal form. But take the creature and wash it
in the nearest rock pool, and it will be recognised as a broad
segmental worm, thickly covered with fine hairs above, and its
sides adorned by bristles that display a most beautiful iridescence.
It is not easy to see the value of this gorgeous colouring to the
animal, and it is doubtful whether, on account of the muddy nature
of the creature's home, such colouring is often displayed to the
view of other inhabitants of the sea ; but it is well known, on the
other hand, that sea mice are readily devoured by fishes, even
though they possess an armature of stiff and sharp spines, and that
they must therefore be often preserved from destruction by the
close resemblance of the general colour to that of their surroundings.
The gills of the sea mouse are not prominent appendages, as
with most marine worms, but are soft fleshy structures situated
beneath the overlapping scales that lie hidden below the thick hair
of the upper surface.
As it is most probable that the reader may desire to preserve
MARINE WORMS 181
a sea mouse at some time or other, a few words concerning the best
methods of doing this may be of value. If it is to be preserved
in fluid, it should be thoroughly washed to remove all the mud
that normally covers its body, and then placed hi spirit or formal-
dehyde, both of which fluids have no destructive effects on the iri-
descent colouring of the bristles. If, however, it is desired to keep
the specimen in a dry state, it should first be put into strong spirit
containing a few grains of corrosive sublimate, for a few days. It
should then be put under considerable pressure between several
thicknesses of absorbent paper to expel the fluid it contains, as well
as all the softer internal structures. By this means it will have
been squeezed quite flat, so that it presents anything but a natural
appearance ; but the skin may be blown out to the normal shape
by means of a glass tube inserted into the mouth, and then set aside
to dry. As the water it originally contained has been extracted
by the strong spirit, the drying takes place very quickly ; and the
small amount of corrosive sublimate that has penetrated into its
substance will be sufficient to protect it from the invasion of those
pests that commonly attack our museum specimens.
Passing now to the sedentary or fixed worms, we meet with
some that are very interesting and beautiful creatures, even when
considered apart from the wonderful homes they construct. The
several species of the genus Terebella form a soft and flexible tube
by binding together particles of sand, shells, or mud with a sticky
substance that exudes from their own bodies. These tubes are to
be found in abundance between the tide-marks on almost every
low, sandy shore, the nature of the tubes varying, of course, with
the character of the materials at the disposal of the builder.
In some cases the tubes are exposed throughout the greater
part of their length, but very frequently they are more or less
buried in the sand or other material of the beach, so that one has
to dig to a moderate depth in order to extricate them. In
either case, however, the tube of Terebella may be known by
the free tufts of sandy threads that form a deep fringe around its
mouth.
These worms almost invariably select a sheltered situation for
their abode, and should be searched for at the foot of rocks, or
under stones, and it is no easy matter to move the buried tube
with its occupant intact.
When turning over the stones of a sandy or muddy beach one
frequently discovers the slender, thread-like tentacles of the
182
THE SEA SHORE
Terebella, together with the sandy filaments that surround the
mouth of the tube, the remainder of the tube and its occupant
being beneath the surface, and the ground is often so hard and
FIG. 119. — TUBE-BUILDING WORMS : Terebella (LEFT), Serpula (MIDDLE),
Sabella (BIGHT)
stony that a strong tool is necessary to dig it out ; but the work
entailed will be amply repaid if a perfect specimen be obtained
and placed for observation in the aquarium.
The reader may possibly be acquainted with the tubes or cases
MARINE WORMS
183
that are constructed by the larvae of caddis flies in fresh-water
ponds and streams, and perhaps has noticed the ease with which
these creatures may be made to construct new homes after
having been turned out of doors. Similar experiments may be
performed with Terebella ; for when the worm has been extricated
from its tube without injury — a work that requires great care on
account of the soft and slender nature of the creature's body and
placed in the aquarium with a bed of suitable material, it will build
itself a new dwelling. As with
the caddis larvae, the different
species may be known by the
materials they select to construct
their tubes, but in captivity they
may be compelled to employ
other than their favourite sub-
stance for this purpose. It is
unfortunate, however, that Tere-
bella is a nocturnal builder, and
thus its movements are not so
easily observed.
When removed from its tube
its first movements suggest a
resentment at the untimely ejec-
tion. This being over, it seeks
a sheltered situation beneath the
edge of a stone, and, at nightfall,
commences the slow process
of the construction of a fresh
home. The particles of material
at hand are seized by the ten-
tacles, placed in position round
the body, where they are held together by the sticky secretion
already mentioned.
The tentacles are employed in two distinct ways : — They may
be flattened into slender ribbon-like structures, which, by being
folded longitudinally at any point, may be made to grasp a particle
of sand ; and, in addition to this, the tip of the tentacle may be con-
verted into a minute cup-shaped sucker by the withdrawal of the
fluid it contains into the body.
Some species of Terebella build their tubes of ordinary sand,
while others select fragments of shells. Some employ mud only,
FIG. 12Q.~Terebella REMOVED
FROM ITS TUBE
184 THE SEA SHORE
and occasionally we meet with tubes constructed of the silky secre-
tion of the body with hardly any foreign matter.
We sometimes see edges of rocks, on low, sandy shores, covered
with what appears to be large masses of consolidated sand, full of
holes a little more than an eighth of an inch in diameter ; and these
masses are often so extensive and so firm that they seem to form
the greater part of the rock itself. Such masses are particularly
abundant on the south coasts of Devon and Cornwall, but are more
or less plentiful on most sandy shores of Great Britain. They
consist of the tubes of a species of the marine worm Sabella, which
have been built up much in the same manner as those of Terebella,
but usually exist in such numbers in the same spot that, together
with the sand that has been washed between them, they form the
dense masses just described.
A cluster of some dozens of these tubes may be detached with
the aid of a hammer and chisel ; or, in some instances, where the
mass of tubes is not held so firmly together, by the mere pressure
of the hand ; and it will then be observed that each tube consists
of a flexible membrane, of a somewhat leathery nature, formed by
a sticky secretion from the body of the worm, with its outer surface
covered with grains of sand. The tubes may be easily opened, and
the occupants extracted for examination, when it will be observed
that the front or upper portion of the worm is short and thick, while
the hindmost portion is much thinner, and is doubled forwards in
the tube. The body is also provided with numerous bristles, by
means of which the worm is enabled to grasp the membranous
lining of the tube, and thus secure a firm hold within its home.
A cluster of these tubes should be placed in a rock pool, or in
the marine aquarium, when the worms may be seen to protrude
gradually, and expose a large number of feathered tentacles, which,
by their incessant motion, keep up the constant circulation of the
water for the purpose of respiration as well as to bring food particles
towards the mouths of the worms.
It is possible to keep these worms alive for some time in the
aquarium, but special care is required for the reason that it is a very
difficult matter to secure a cluster of tubes without injury to a
certain number which are sure to be broken or otherwise damaged ;
and these, dying and decomposing within their homes, speedily
pollute the water. Hence it is necessary to keep a sharp watch for
dead specimens, which should, of course, be removed at once. The
presence of a putrefying worm may often be detected by the
MARINE WORMS • 185
appearance of a whitish fungoid growth round the mouth of what
appears to be an empty tube ; and if, through neglect, the water of
the aquarium has been allowed to become contaminated by the
products of decomposition, it will often happen that some of the
living worms will come entirely out from their tubes, as if to seek a
more sanitary situation. Thus, the exit of worms from their homes
may always be looked upon as pointing to a suspicious condition
of the water which, if not corrected immediately, may lead to the
death of all.
The species we have briefly described is by far the commonest
of the genus Sabella, but there are several others to be found on our
shores. Some are of a solitary nature, and construct a sandy tube
so much like that of a certain species of Terebella that they may be
mistaken for that genus. Another solitary species builds a hard
stony tube of carbonate of lime that has been extracted from the
sea water ; and although it is hardly
possible to take the live worm from
this calcareous tube without injury,
the animal may be obtained intact
for examination or preservation by
dissolving away the tube in dilute
hydrochloric acid.
While engaged in collecting
specimens on the sea shore we are FIO. 121. — A TUBE OP Serpula
continually meeting with stones ATTACHED TO A SHELL
and shells that are more or less
covered with white, limy tubes twisted into all manner of serpentine
forms. These are the tubes of other marine worms known as the
Serpulce, which, like the species previously mentioned, are inter-
esting objects for the aquarium.
The tubes themselves are worthy of study and preservation,
more especially as they vary in form, and may, to some extent,
provide a means by which the different species may be identified.
They are composed of fine layers of calcareous matter secreted by
the body of the worm within, and lined by a thin leathery membrane
which may be easily exposed by dissolving away the mineral
matter as just described. Some are triangular in section, and often
distinctly keeled, while others are cylindrical, and flattened more
or less on the lower side. The triangular tubes are attached to
stones or shells throughout their length, but the cylindrical ones are
often elevated above the surface in the wider and newer part.
186
THE SEA SHORE
If a cluster of these tubes, freshly gathered from between the
tide-marks, be placed in the aquarium, the worms will soon
protrude the foremost portion of their bodies, exposing beautiful
fan-like gills, often brilliantly coloured in shades of scarlet, blue, or
purple, which are kept in motion in such a manner as to convey
water, and consequently also food, towards the mouth. The gills
are of course, richly supplied with blood, for their main function is
to aerate that liquid by exposing it to the water in order to absorb
oxygen gas. The body of the
worm is provided also with
little cilia, which, by their
constant vibratory motion,
keep up a circulation of water
through the tube ; and this
not only keeps the tubular
home free from excrement
and other sedimentary mat-
ter, but also probably assists
in the function of respiration
by bringing fresh supplies of
water in contact with the
animal's soft and absorbent
skin.
When the worms are
disturbed they immediately
withdraw themselves within
the tubes, this being done
by the aid of the numerous
minute booklets on the sur-
face of the body that enable
the worms to cling firmly to
the membranous linings of
their homes ; and it will then be observed that the mouth of each
tube is closed by a lid (operculum), which hangs as by a hinge when
not in use. These operculi vary much in character, and supply
another aid in the identification of the various species. They
differ much in shape, and may be either membranous, horny, or
calcareous.
Little calcareous tubes, somewhat similar to those of the Serpulce,
but always in the form of a spiral, may often be seen on stones and
shells, and the fronds of sea weeds, sometimes so closely packed
FIG. 122. — Serpula REMOVED TBOM
ITS TUBE
MARINE WORMS
187
together as to almost entirely cover the surface. The average
diameter of these spirals is only about a sixteenth of an inch, and
many are so small that a lens is necessary to discern their shape.
In general form they closely resemble some of the small species of
Planorbis shells that are so common in our ponds and streams,
but these latter are the shells of freely moving molluscs, and are
generally of a brownish colour.
FIG. 123.— THE SEA MAT (Flustra)
The minute worms that live within the tubes in question belong
to the genus Spirorbis, and are very similar to those of the
Serpulce, and their pretty plumed gills may be seen with a lens
when a cluster of the tubes is placed in a shallow vessel of sea
water. A sharp tap on the table on which the vessel rests will
cause the little creatures to suddenly retire into their homes, the
entrances to which may then be seen to be closed by an operculum.
188
THE SEA SHORE
There is an interesting group of animals known collectively as
the Bryozoa, or Polyzoa, or, popularly, as the Moss Polyps, that
are often classed with the worms, though they are not, according
to the general idea, wormlike in appearance. They live in pretty
colonies, many of which are certainly familiar objects to all who
ramble along the sea shore. Some form pretty lacelike patches on
the fronds of sea weeds, while others are built up into flat, frond-
like, branching objects that are often mistaken for sea weeds by
young collectors. Among the latter is the Sea Mat (Flustra), that
is so commonly washed up on the shore in great abundance. An
examination with a lens will show that, in both instances, the mass
consists of very many minute cells, with horny or calcareous walls,
the mouth of each cell being close by an operculum.
On placing the colony in sea water, how-
ever, we find that each little cell is the home
of a small animal, that protrudes from the
cell, exposing a mouth that is surrounded by
a crown of tentacles. A moderately high
magnifying power will also show that the
tentacles are covered with minute vibratile
cilia, by means of which currents of water
are set in motion towards the mouth to
supply the animal with food. Some, too,
have a lip by means of which the mouth
may be closed.
In addition to the colonies just briefly
described, there are other moss polyps that
build up little, branching, tree-like clusters
which closely resemble some of the sea firs,
and many of these are to be found in the
sheltered crevices of rocks, or attached to the under sides of
stones between the tide-marks.
While searching the surfaces of rocks and weeds at low tide,
one's fingers will be constantly coming in contact with fixed, soft-
bodied animals that suddenly eject a fine stream of water as they
are touched. These are the Sea Squirts, sometimes spoken of as
the Tunicate Worms. They are semi-transparent creatures of oval
or elongated form, and usually of a pale yellow, brown, or pink
colour ; and derive their popular name from the fact that they are
covered externally by a continuous tunic or wall of tough structure.
Although the tunicates resemble worms in many points of
FIG. 124.— Flustra
IN ITS CELL,
MAGNIFIED
MARINE WORMS
189
structure, it is interesting to note that in their young or larval state
the body consists of two cavities, one of which contains the internal
organs, while in the other the central portion of the nervous system
is • developed, in which respects they resemble the vertebrate or
back-boned animals — fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mam-
mals. At this stage, too, the creatures possess a tail that is sup-
ported by a rod of gristle similar to that which gives place to the
backbone in the developing vertebrate. These features, though only
transitory, are regarded as a mark of relationship to the higher
FIG. 125.— SEA SQUIRT
forms of animal life, and thus the tunicates have been separated
from the sub-kingdom Vermes by some zoologists, and given an
exalted place at the top of the invertebrate scale, where they form
a sub-kingdom of their own, and are looked upon as a link con-
necting the invertebrates with the vertebrates.
Before passing on to the next sub-kingdom, we should observe
that the interesting Eotifers or Wheel AnHr-.ls also belong to the
Vermes ; but although many of these minute creatures are to be
found in sea water, their principal home is the stagnant water of
fresh-water ponds and ditches, and thus we may be excused for
neglecting them here.
CHAPTER XII
MARINE MOLLUSCS
THE sub-kingdom Mollusca includes a great variety of soft-bodied
animals which differ from the members of the last division in the
fact that they are never segmented, and in the possession of a thick
outer covering, of a leathery nature, which completely envelops the
body, and which usually secretes a calcareous shell of one or more
parts. A general idea of the extent of the group may be formed
when we state that it contains the Octopus and the Cuttlefish;
all Snails and Slugs, and animals of a similar nature ; and all those
numerous ' bivalves ' which are represented by the well-known
Oysters, Mussels, Scallops, &c.
By far the greater number of the molluscs are aquatic in habit ;
and of these such a large proportion are marine that the group
provides plenty of occupation for the sea-side naturalist. This
being the case, we shall devote the present chapter to a description
of the general characteristics of these animals, and to the principles
of their classification, illustrating our remarks by a few selections
from all the chief divisions.
Although, as we have already hinted, the body of a mollusc
generally bears but little resemblance to that of the typical elon-
gated and segmented worm, yet the study of the earliest stages of
the former shows that a certain relationship exists between the
two sub-kingdoms, the newly hatched mollusc being often a minute
free-swimming creature with expanded lobes fringed with cilia,
and bearing a resemblance to certain of the Rotifers, Moss Polyps,
and other annuals that are included among the Vermes. But in
the adult molluscs this resemblance is lost, these creatures being
generally easily distinguished from all others by certain well-
marked external features, as well as by internal characters that
are peculiar to them and fairly constant throughout the group.
The external shell, where it exists, is usually composed of one
or of two parts, and therefore we speak of univalve and bivalve
MARINE MOLLUSCS
191
molluscs; and no internal skeleton of any kind is to be found
except in the division containing the Cuttlefishes, the ' bone ' of
which is one of the common objects washed up on our shores by
the breakers.
In all the molluscs there is a well-formed digestive tube, and
often a complex arrangement of small teeth which sever the food
by a rasp-like action. There is also a well-formed heart, consist-
ing of two or more cavities, by means of which the blood is forced
through the body ; but, as a rule, bloodvessels are either few or
absent, the blood being driven through spaces between the tissues
that serve the same purpose.
Fro. 126. — LARVAE OF MOLLUSCS
», ciliated ' velum ' ; /, rudimen tal foot
The nervous system consists of a few masses of nerve substance
(ganglia), connected by nerve cords, and sending off fibres to
various parts of the body, the principal ganglion being one
situated close to the mouth, and often surrounding the first portion
of the digestive tube.
The animals of this sub-kingdom are grouped into three principal
and well-marked divisions — the Lamellibranchs, or Plate-gilled
molluscs, the gills of which are composed of plate-like layers, and
the headless bodies enclosed in a bivalve shell ; the Cephalophora,
or head-bearing molluscs, protected by a univalve shell ; and the
Cephalopoda, or Head-footed molluscs, so called because the mouth
is surrounded by tentacles or arms by which the animal can cling
to objects or seize its prey.
We shall deal with these three divisions in the above order,
192
THE SEA SHORE
taking first the bivalves, the shells of which are found in great
variety along our shores.
The general nature of a lainellibranch is easily made out by
the examination of one of the common species that may be
obtained alive on any part of the coast, such as the Edible Mussel,
the Cockle, or the Oyster, and the reader will do well to secure
a few specimens and examine them with the aid of the following
description of the principal distinguishing features.
The shell is formed of two valves, united by a hinge which is
sometimes of the simplest possible description, but which often
exhibits a beautiful arrangement of interlocking teeth. A ligament
of flexible and elastic substance often holds the two valves together.
FIG. 127. — SHELL OF THE PRICKLY COCKLE (Cardium aculeatum)
SHOWING UMBO AND HINGE ; ALSO THE INTERIOR SHOWING THE TEETH
The reader has probably observed that the valves of a dead
lamellibranch usually gape. This is due either to the pull exerted
by a ligament that is attached to the valves outside the hinge, or
to the pressure of an internal cartilage which unites the valves
within, and which is compressed when the shell is closed. When
the animal is alive, it has the power of closing its shell by the
contraction of the adductor muscles, to be presently described, and
when the valves are brought together by this means the external
ligament is more or less stretched, or the cartilage within, which is
also an elastic material, is compressed.
MARINE MOLLUSCS
193
Examining the shell from the exterior we observe that each
valve has a nucleus (the umbo) close to the hinge, round which
are usually a number of more or less distinct concentric lines,
extending to the lower or ventral margin. This nucleus represents
the whole shell of the young mollusc, and the lines are the lines
of growth, each one marking the extreme limit of the valve at a
particular period of the animal's existence. Further it will be
observed that the lines of growth are often wider apart in some
directions than in others, thus denoting the unequal rate of growth
that determined the form of the adult shell.
The shell of a bivalve is often made up of two very distinct
layers, the outer one called the prismatic layer because, when
examined microscopically, it is seen to consist of minute vertical
prisms of calcareous matter; and the inner one presenting a
beautiful pearly iridescence, due to the fact that it is made up of
a number of extremely thin and finely waved layers of calcareous
substance that have the power of decomposing light. This latter
layer is secreted by the whole surface of the mantle that lies in
contact with it, while the outer, prismatic portion of the shell is
formed only by the free edge of the mantle ; and we often find
a distinct line (ihepallial line), some little distance from the ventral
margin that marks the junction of the muscle of the mantle with
the shell. The shape of this
line is a very important
feature of the shell, since it
is of great value in the de-
termination of relationships.
Further, the inner sur-
face of each valve is marked
by the impressions or scars
of other muscles, the num-
ber and position of which
vary considerably in diffe-
rent species. They include
the adductor muscle or
muscles (one or two in
number) that pull the valve
together; the muscle or muscles that withdraw the foot, called
the retractor pedis, and the protractor pedis that pulls the foot
out. Not only are these scars often very distinct in themselves,
but we may frequently observe lines running tangentially from
0
FIG. 128. — INTERIOR OF BIVALVE
SHELL, SHOWING MUSCULAR SCARS
AND PALLIAL LINE
194
THE SEA SHORE
their circumferences towards the urnbo, to which they all converge.
These lines enclose the areas previously occupied by the muscular
impressions ; in other words, they show the directions in which the
muscles named above shifted their positions as the animal grew.
Now let us obtain a few species of live lamellibranchs, put
them in a vessel of sea water, and observe them after they have
been left undisturbed for a time. The shell will be seen to gape
slightly, exposing the edges of the two lobes of the mantle which
lie closely on the inner surface of the valves, thus completely
enveloping the body of the animal; and at one end, usually the
narrower end in the case of irregular shells, we shall observe two
FIG. 129. — DIAGRAM or THE ANATOMY OF A LAMELLIBBANCH
/, mouth, with labial palps ; g, stomach ; i, intestine, surrounded by the liver ;
a, anus: r, posterior adductor muscle; e, anterior adductor muscle; c, heart;
(I, nerve ganglion ; m, mantle (the right lobe has been removed) ; s, siphons ; h, gills ;
ft, foot
openings — the siphons, sometimes enclosed within a tube formed
by a prolongation of the united mantle lobes, and protruding from
between the valves, and sometimes formed by the mere contact
of the mantle lobes at two adjacent points. If now we introduce
a little carmine or other colouring matter by means of a glass tube,
setting it free near the lower siphon — the one more remote from
the umbo of the shell, we observe that it enters the body of the
mollusc through this opening, and reappears shortly afterwards
through the upper or dorsal siphon. Thus we see that water
currents are incessantly circulating in the body of the animal,
entering by the inhalent or ventral siphon, and leaving by the
MAEINE MOLLUSCS 195
cxlialent or dorsal siphon. These currents are maintained by the
vibratile action of thousands of minute cilia belonging to cells that
line the cavities of the body, and serve to supply the animal with
both air and food ; for lamellibrauchs, being gill-breathers, derive
the oxygen necessary for respiration from the air held in solution
by the water, and their food consists entirely of the minute living
creatures that always abound in natural waters.
Again, we shall find that some of our live bivalves have
protruded a thick, conical, fleshy mass— the foot, from the opposite
end of the body. This organ is the means of locomotion in the
case of the burrowing and other free-moving bivalves, but is
developed to a less extent in those species that lead a sedentary
life. Thus, the common Edible Mussel secretes a tuft of strong
silky fibres (byssus) by
means of which it fixes
itself to a rock or other
body, and therefore does not
need the assistance of a
muscular foot ; and an ex-
amination of its body will
show that the foot is very
small in proportion to the
size of the animal, as com-
pared with that of the
wandering and burrowing Fio. 130.-Jf^t« rfufo,
species. The same is true
of the oyster, which lies fixed on its side, the lower valve being
attached to the surface on which it rests.
We have made use of the terms dorsal and ventral in speaking
of the shell of a bivalve, and it is important that these and a few
other similar terms be well understood by those who are about to
read the descriptions of the animals, or who may desire to describe
them themselves. To do this, take a bivalve in your hand, and
hold it before you in such a position that the hinge is uppermost,
and the siphons turned towards you. The foot of the animal is
now pointing in the direction you are looking, and the mouth,
situated at the base of the foot, is also directed the same way. You
have now placed the shell, and, of coarse, also the animal, in such
a position that its dorsal side is uppermost, the ventral side below,
the anterior end turned from you, the posterior (often narrower)
end towards you, the right valve on your right, and the left valve
196
THE SEA SHORE
on your left. Knowing the exact uses of these few terms you are
in a better position to understand the descriptions of bivalves, and
to locate the exact situations of the various internal organs named
in such descriptions.
A great deal of the internal anatomy of a bivalve mollusc may
be made out by easy dissections, and although the structure of the
different species varies in several
details, the general characteristics
of the group are practically the
same in all and may be gathered
by the examination of a few speci-
mens.
For this purpose the shell
should be prised open by means
of some flattened but blunt im-
plement, such as the handle of a
scalpel, and then, after inserting
a piece of cork to keep the valves
apart, gently remove the mantle
lobe from the valve which is held
uppermost with the same imple-
ment, being careful to separate
it from the shell without doing
any damage to the soft structures.
Separating the mantle from the shell in this way we meet with one
or more hard masses of muscle that are joined very firmly to the
latter. These are the adductor muscles that pass directly from
valve to valve, and on cutting them through close to the uppermost
valve, the latter can be raised so as to expose the body of the
animal, mostly hidden by the overlying mantle lobe.
Before raising the upper mantle lobe we observe the heart, on
the dorsal margin of the body, near the hinge of the shell, situated
in a transparent cavity (the pericardium) containing a colourless
fluid. It consists of at least two cavities — a thick- walled ventricle
and a thin-walled auricle, and its slow pulsations may be watched
with or without the use of a hand lens. On opening the pericar-
dium the heart is still better seen, and if we carefully cut into the
thick-walled ventricle we find a tube running completely through
its cavity. This is the rectum — the last part of the digestive tube,
that commences at the mouth, and terminates in a cavity at the
posterior end communicating with the exhalent siphon.
FIG. 131. — A BIVALVE SHELL
(Tapes virgineana)
a, anterior : p, posterior ; I, left valve ;
r, right valve ; u, umbo, on dorsal side
MAKING MOLLUSCS 197
After noting the nature and position of the one or two adductor
muscles previously cut through, we turn the upper mantle lobe
upwards, laying it back over the hinge of the shell, cutting it
through at the bases of the siphons if we find it is united with the
opposite lobe at those points ; or, if not united, we observe two points
at which the lobes touch each other in order to form the siphonal
openings.
Several organs are now exposed to view. The lower mantle
lobe is seen in close contact with the valve below it, and if we touch
its edge we shall probably observe that it is retracted slightly by the
contraction of its own muscular fibres. The tip of the foot is also
seen projecting towards the anterior end, its base being hidden
between the two sets of plate-like gills that extend along the length
of the body. On touching the tip of the foot we find it retract by
the contraction of the muscular fibres of which it is composed,
aided, perhaps, by the action of one or more retractor pedis muscles
with which it is supplied. On raising the upper gill-plates we may
observe the dark colour of the digestive gland (liver) at the base of
the foot, and also see two or more tentacles or labial palpi on the
anterior side of the same.
Between the labial palpi is the mouth, which leads into the
stomach by a short, wide tube, and then into a convoluted tube
which finally passes through the heart, and terminates near the
exhalent siphon as above described. The whole length of this tube
may be followed by careful dissection, its direction being determined
at short intervals by probing it with a bristle that has been tipped
with a little melted sealing wax. It will be seen to wind through
the base of the foot, surrounded through the greater part of its
course by the digestive gland, from which a digestive fluid enters it
through small ducts.
The diagram on p. 194 shows the general internal anatomy of
a lamelh'branch, parts of which have been removed to reveal the
underlying structures. The animal lies in its left valve, the right
valve, the right mantle lobe, and the right set of gill-plates having
been completely dissected away. The whole course of the digestive
tube has also been exposed, and the positions of the three nerve
ganglia, with their connecting nerve cords, constituting the central
portion of the nervous system, are also indicated.
It will be interesting, finally, to learn the direction taken by the
water currents which supply the animal with air and food in their
course through the system. Passing in through the inhalent siphon,
198 fHE SEA SHORE
the water immediately enters a large cavity between the mantle
lobes. This cavity (the branchial cavity) contains gills, as we
have already seen, and also extends to the mouth. The water,
urged on by the motion of myriads of minute ciliated cells in the
walls of the cavity, passes in part through the digestive tube, and
in part around, between, and through the gill plates, which are per-
forated by numerous holes. After thus completely bathing the gills,
and supplying the oxygen necessary for respiration, this latter
current passes into a second cavity above the gills, and thence into
the exhalent siphon, where it mingles with the fluid from the diges-
tive tube as well as with other excretory matter.
Lamellibranchs are, as a rule, exceedingly prolific, a single indi-
vidual of some species discharging more than a million ova in one
season. The larvae swim freely in the water, and are provided with
eyes that enable them to search for their food, but the eyes always
disappear when the young settle down to a more sedentary life. It
is true that adult bivalves sometimes possess visual organs, often in
the form of conspicuous coloured spots on the edge of the mantle,
these, however, are not the same that existed during the larval
stage, but are of a more recent development.
Lamellibranchs are classified in various ways by different
authorities, the arrangement being based principally on the number
and position of the adductor muscles, or on the nature of the gills.
For our present purpose we shall look upon them as consisting of
two main divisions — the Asiphonida and the Siphonida, the former
including those species which do not possess true tubular siphons,
the inhalent and exhalent openings being formed merely by the
touching of the mantle lobes ; and the latter those in which the
mantle lobes are more or less united and tubular siphons formed.
Each of these divisions contains a number of families, most of
which have representatives that inhabit the sea ; and we shall now
note the principal characteristics by which the more important
families are distinguished, and take a few examples of each, starting
with the Siphonida.
Examining the rocks that are left exposed at low tide we fre-
quently find them drilled with holes that run vertically from the
surface, seldom communicating with each other within, and vary-
ing in diameter from less than a quarter of an inch to half an inch
or more. Some of these holes are the empty burrows of a boring
mollusc, while others still contain the living animal in situ.
The molluscs in question belong to the family Pholadidce,
MARINE MOLLUSCS
199
which contains a number of species that exhibit very remarkable
features both as regards structure and habit. The shell is very
thin and fragile, but yet composed of hard material, and its surface
is relieved by a series of prominent concentric ridges that bear a
number of little rasp-like teeth. It gapes at both ends, has neither
true hinge nor ligament, and is often strengthened externally by
two or more extra or accessory valves. The hinge-plate is a very
peculiar structure, for it is reflected over the exterior of the um-
bones, above which they are supported by about ten thin shelly
plates, the whole thus forming a series of chambers. The accessory
valves are supported by these bridged structures, and a long,
FIG. 132.— Pholas dactylus
I, ventral aspect, with animal ; 2, dorsal aide of shell showing accessory valves
straight, calcareous plate also fills the space along the dorsal side
of the shell in some species. The muscular scars and the pallial
line are distinctly seen on the inner surface, and a peculiar curved
shelly plate projects from under the umbo of each valve.
The animal inhabiting the shell is somewhat wormlike in
general form, and the mantle lobes are united in front — that is at
the lower end of the shell as it lies in the burrow — except that an
opening is left for the protrusion of the short foot. The siphons
are united and much elongated, so that they protrude beyond the
mouth of the burrow when the animal is active ; the gills are
narrow, and extend into the exhalent siphon ; and the anterior
200 THE SEA SHORE
adductor muscle, being very near the umbones, serves the double
purpose of adductor and ligament.
Such are the general distinguishing features of this family, all
the species of which burrow into stone or other material. Those
more commonly met with on our coasts belong principally to the
genus Pholas, and are popularly known as Piddocks.
It was long a puzzle as to how the fragile piddocks could
excavate the tubular burrows in which they live, and, since their
shells are so thin that 5t seemed almost impossible for hard stones
to be ground away by them, it was suggested that the rocks were
excavated by the action of an acid secretion. This, however, would
not account for the formation of holes in sandstone and other
materials which are insoluble in acids ; and, as a matter of fact,
no such acid secretion has ever been discovered. The boring is un-
doubtedly done by the mechanical action of the rasp-like shell,
which is rotated backwards and forwards, somewhat after the
manner of a brad-awl, though very slowly, by the muscular action
of the foot of the animal.
Piddocks are found principally in chalk and limestones, though,
as before hinted, they are to be seen in sandstones and other rocks,
the material in any case being, of course, softer than the shell that
bores it. The largest holes and the largest specimens are to be
found in chalk and other soft rocks ; while the piddocks that bur-
row into harder material are unable to excavate to the same extent
and are, as a consequence, more stunted in their growth. The
burrowing is continued as long as the animal grows, the hole being
always kept at such a depth that the shell is completely enclosed ;
and not only this, for when the rock is soft, and the surface is
worn down by the sea, the piddock has to keep pace with this
action, as well as to allow for its increase in size.
As a result of the rasping action of the pholas shell on the
surrounding rock the space hollowed out becomes more or less
clogged with debris. This is ejected at intervals by the sudden
contraction of the foot of the animal, which brings the shell quite
to the bottom of the burrow, thus causing the water with its sedi-
ment to shoot upwards,
It is not usually an easy matter to obtain perfect specimens of
the pholas by simply pulling them from their burrows, the shells
being so thin and fragile, and the mouth of the burrow being often
narrower than the widest part of the shell. The best plan is to
chip away the rock with the aid of a mallet and chisel, or to break it
MARINE MOLLUSCS 201
into pieces with a hammer, thus laying open the burrows so that
the molluscs fall from their places.
The Common Piddock (PJiolas dactylus) may be identified by
the illustrations, and the other members of the family may be
recognised at once by the similarity in structure and habit. The
principal species are the Little Piddock (P. parva), the shell of
which is wider in proportion to the length, with only one accessory
valve ; and the White Piddock (P. Candida), also with a single ac-
cessory. In all the above the foot is remarkable for its ice-like
transparency.
There is another genus — the Pholadidea — the species of which
are very similar to pJiolas both in structure and habit. The shells
are, however, more globular in form, and are marked by a trans-
verse furrow. The gape at the anterior (lower) end is also very
wide, and covered over with a hardened plate in the adult. Also,
FIG. 133. — Pholas dactylus, INTERIOR OF VALVE ; AND Pholadidea
WITH ANIMAL
at the posterior (upper) end of the shell is a horny cup through
which the siphons protrude, and the latter, which are combined
throughout their length, terminate in a disc that is surrounded by a
fringe of little radiating appendages.
In the same family are the molluscs popularly known as ship
worms, which are so destructive to the woodwork of piers and
jetties, or which burrow into masses of floating timber. Some of
these, belonging to the genus Xylophaga — a word that signifies
' wood eaters ' — have globular shells with a wide gape in front, and
burrow into floating wood, nearly always in a direction across the
grain. The burrows are about an inch deep, and are lined with a
calcareous deposit. The siphons, combined except at the ends, are
slender and retractile ; and the foot, which is thick, is capable of
considerable extension.
Other ship worms belong to the genus Teredo, and are very
similar in general characters. The shell is small and globular, with
202
THE SEA SHORE
a wide gape at both ends, and consists of two three-lobed valves
with concentric furrows. It is so small in proportion to the size of
the animal that it encloses but a small portion of the body, and lies
FIG. 134.— THE SHIP WOBM
at the bottom of the burrow, which is of considerable length — often
from one to two feet. The animal is very wormlike in form ; and
although the shell is so small, yet all the internal organs are
FIG. 135. — 1. Teredo navalis. 2. Teredo norvegica
enclosed by it. The mantle lobes are united in front, except
where the sucker-like foot passes through them ; the gills are long
and narrow, and extend into the siphonal tube ; and the two very
long siphons are united almost throughout their length. It is also
MARINE MOLLUSCS
203
interesting to note that in these animals the rectum does not pass
through the heart, as it does in nearly all molluscs, and that a
pair of horny or calcareous 'styles' or 'pallets' project from the
place where the two siphonal tubes begin to diverge.
Several species of Teredo are to be met with on our coasts, but
they are so similar in general structure that the above brief descrip-
tion applies almost equally well to all.
Other boring molluscs frequent the British shores, but they
belong to quite a distinct family called the Gastroclicenida because
their shells gape widely on the ventral side. Their valves are
equal in size and very thin, the hinge has no teeth and the pallial
line is sinuated. The margins of the mantle lobes are thickened
213
FIG. 136. — Gastrochana modiolina
I, Animal in shell : 2, shell ; 3, cell
and united except where a small aperture is left for the protrusion
of the finger-like foot. The siphons are very long and retractile,
and the gills extend into the inhalent tube. These animals
burrow into mud, shells, or stone, often dwelling together in such
numbers that their galleries cross one another and form a most
intricate network, and the different species are to be found from
low-water mark to a depth of a hundred fathoms or more.
The British species belong to two genera — the typical genus
Gastrochcena, and the Saxicava or stone-borers.
The former contains the Common Flask shell (G. modiolina)
which burrows into limestone and shells, in the latter case passing
generally through the shells into the ground below, and completing
its home by cementing together any fragments of hard material that
204 THE SEA SHORE
come in its way into a flask-shaped cell. The opening of the
burrow is shaped like an hour-glass, the two expansions serving
for the protrusion of the siphonal tubes, and the neck of the flask-
shaped abode is usually lined with a calcareous layer that pro-
jects slightly to afford further protection to the extended siphons.
Although this species is very common on some parts of our coast, it
is seldom obtained without the aid of a dredge, for it usually lives
at a depth of from five to ten fathoms; and when found it is
generally no easy matter to extricate them from their holes, to the
sides of which they often cement their shells.
The genus Saxicava contains a few species that drill holes,
often several inches deep, in shells and stone, and frequently do
great damage to breakwaters and other artificial structures. The
foot is usually provided with a byssus by which the animal fixes
itself to a little projection on the side of its barrow. The species
FIG. 137. — 1. Thracia phascolina. 2. Thracia pubescens, SHOWING
PALLIAL LINE
are to be found from low -water mark to a depth of one hundred
fathoms or more.
The next family, named Anatinidce, contains a number of
molluscs that burrow in mud or sand or live in seclusion in the
crevices of rocks. Their shells are thin, with a granulated outer
surface, and the valves are united by a thin external ligament. The
inner surface is pearly, the pallial line usually sinuated, and both
valves are pitted for the reception of the somewhat stout internal
cartilage. The mantle lobes are united, as are also the siphons to
a greater or lesser extent ; and there is only one gill on each side.
Some of the common species of this family are popularly known
as Lantern shells, and perhaps the most familiar of these is
Thracia phaseolina, the specific name of which is given on
account of a fancied resemblance of the shell to a bean. The shell
is very fragile, and although large numbers may often be seen
stranded on sandy beaches, but few of them are perfect specimens.
MARINE MOLLUSCS
205
The family Myacidce may be recognised by the thick, strong,
opaque shells, usually gaping at the posterior end ; the wrinkled
epidermis which covers the whole or part of the shell ; and the
united siphons, which are more or less retractile. The mantle
cavity is also closed with the exception of a small hole left for the
protrusion of the small foot. The pallial line of the shell is
sinuated.
FIG. 138. — 1. Mya truncata. 2. INTERIOB OF SHELL. 3. Mya
arenaria. 4. Corbula nucleus
In the above illustration we represent the Common Gaper (Mya
arenaria), which burrows to a considerable depth in the sand or mud,
especially in the estuaries of rivers, from between the tide-marks
to a depth of twenty fathoms or more. It may be readily distin-
guished, in common with the other species of the same genus, by the
characteristic wrinkled, membranous tube that encloses its fringed
siphons, the membrane being a continuation of the epidermis that
extends over the shell. Another characteristic feature of the genus
206 THE SEA SHORE
is the large, flat process inside the left valve for the attachment of
the internal cartilage. An allied species, Mya truncata, is often
found abundantly in company with the above, and may be known
by the abruptly squared posterior end.
Other species of the Myacidce inhabit our shores, including the
little Basket shell (Corbula nucleus), the left valve of which is
much smaller than the right, which overlaps it. The latter, also,
is covered with epidermis, while the former, which is flat, is quite
naked.
We now come to the interesting family of Eazor shells
(Solenidce), specimens of which are washed up on almost every
sandy beach, while the living molluscs may be dug out of their
burrows at low-water mark. The shells are elongated, gaping at
both ends with an external ligament ; and the hinge has usually
two teeth in one valve and three in the other. The foot of the
FIG. 139. — Solen siliqua
The valves have been separated and the mantle divided to expose the large foot
animal is cylindrical, large and powerful ; and the siphons are
short and united in the long species, but longer and only partially
united in the shorter ones. The gills axe long and narrow, and
are prolonged into the inhalent siphon.
These molluscs lie vertically in their deep burrows at low-water
mark, the opening of the burrow having a form resembling that
of a keyhole. While covered with water they occupy the upper
portion of their abode, but sink to a depth of a foot or more when
the tide goes out. As we walk along the water's edge at extreme
low tide we may observe jets of water that are shot into the air
before us. These are produced by the sudden retreat of the
' Bazor-fish ' to the bottom of its burrow when alarmed by the
approaching footsteps. Owing to this wariness on the part of the
mollusc, and to the considerable depth of its burrow, specimens
cannot be obtained by digging without much labour ; but if a little
salt or some other irritant be dropped into the hole, the animal
MARINE MOLLUSCS
207
will soon rise to eject it, and may then be shut out from the lower
part of the burrow by sharply driving a spade below it. This is
undoubtedly the best method of securing perfect specimens for
study or preservation, but fishermen often obtain large numbers,
either for food or for bait, by suddenly thrusting a long hook down
into the gaping shells, and then pulling them out. This method
always does injury to the soft body of the animal, and often
damages the shell, but answers the fisherman's purpose exactly.
We give illustrations of two shells belonging to the typical
genus (Solen), including one on Plate V. ; also a British repre-
Fio. 140. — 1. Solen ensis. 2. Cerati-solen legumen. 3. Solecurtus
candidus
sentative of each of two other genera of the family — Cerati-solen
and Solecurtus, the latter of which, as the name implies, contains
shorter species.
The next family — the Tellinidce — contains a number of well-
known molluscs that burrow into sand or mud, and are enclosed
in shells that are often very prettily marked; and although the
family includes several genera, all may be recognised by the
following general features. The shell is compressed, composed of
two equal valves, with little or no gape, and the ligament situated
on the shortest side. The central or cardinal teeth never exceed
two in number in each valve, and the adductor impressions are
208
THE SEA SHOBE
round and polished. The mantle is quite open at the anterior end,
and its margins are fringed ; the foot is flattened and tongue-
shaped ; and the siphons, which are quite separate, are generally
long and slender.
In the typical genus (Tellina), of which we represent two
very common British species, the ligament is very prominent, and
the slender siphons are often much longer than the shell. The
members of this group move very freely, travelling about by
means of a broad, flattened foot.
The shells of the genus Psammobia are popularly known as
Sunset shells, being prettily marked with radiating bands of pink or
FIG. 141.— TellinidcB
1. Psammobia ferroensis. 2. Donax anatinus. 3. Tellina erassa. 4. Tellina tenuis.
5. Donax politus
other tint, reminding one of the beams of the sun when setting
in a cloudy sky. In these, too, the ligament is very prominent,
and the shell gapes slightly at both ends.
The same family contains the pretty little Wedge shells, which
are so called on account of their triangular form, and constitute
the genus Donax. These shells, which are seldom much over an
inch long, are very common on some of our sandy beaches, being
washed up in considerable numbers after the animals have died,
but the specimens are seldom perfect. The molluscs themselves
are burrowers, and live in the sand, at and just below low-water
mark ; and, as they usually burrow to a depth of only a few inches,
are easily obtained alive.
MAEINE MOLLUSCS 209
The shells are rather thin, closed at both ends, blunts and
rounded at the anterior end, but straight and more pointed at the
shorter posterior end ; and the margins of the valves are very
finely grooved in such a manner as to resemble the milling of a
coin. Each valve has two central hinge teeth, with one long
lateral tooth on each side ; and the ligament is external and
prominent. The lobes of the mantle are fringed ; the siphons
are separate and diverging, but shorter and thicker than in most
of the other Tellinidce, and the foot is comparatively large,
flattened, and pointed.
The genus contains many species, the commonest being,
perhaps, D. anatinus, the colour of which is yellowish, banded
with brown, and marked by a number of radiating white lines.
This colour, however, is due entirely to the thin, shining epidermis
that completely covers the valves ; and if this is rubbed off the
shell itself will exhibit a pale pinkish tint. Another common
species (D. politus) may be recognised by the broad patch of white
running from the hinge to the margin, on the posterior side of the
middle of each valve.
The family Mactridez contains some British shells popularly
known as Trough shells, and the family name itself is derived from
the word mactra, which signifies a kneading trough. In this group
the shells are all more or less triangular in form, with the valves
equal, and are either closed or very slightly gaping. The ligament,
perhaps more correctly designated the cartilage, is generally internal,
and contained in a deep triangular hollow ; and the shell is covered
with epidermis. The mantle of the animal is open in front, and
the siphonal tubes are united and fringed. The foot is usually large
and flattened.
The typical genus, Mactra, contains some common molluscs that
bury themselves just beneath the surface of sandy beaches; and
these are so abundant in some parts of Great Britain that they are
used largely for feeding pigs. Some of the mactras are remarkable
for the great power and extensibility of the foot, which, in some cases,
is used so vigorously that the animal turns itself quickly over, or
even leaps on the ground.
Our example of this genus is M. stultorum, which is a very
common object of the shore. Its colour is very variable, usually
some shade of grey or brown, and marked by radiating white lines.
The Otter shells (Lutraria), of which we figure one species, are
much like the Mactrce in structure, and are usually included in the
p
210
THE SEA SHORE
same family, but in some respects they resemble the Myacidce or
Gapers. The shell is oblong rather than triangular, and gapes at
both ends ; and the animal buries itself deep in sand or mud,
principally in the estuaries of rivers, from low-water mark to a
depth of about ten fathoms. The shells are not very common objects
of the shore, for they are found only in muddy places, and those of
3 4
FIG. 142. — 1. Lutraria elliptica.
2. PART OP THE HINGE OF Lutraria, SHOWING THE CARTILAGE PIT.
3. Macro, stultorum. 4. INTERIOR OF SAME SHOWING PALLIAL LINE
the commonest species (L. elliptica) are too large and heavy to be
washed ashore in the sheltered estuaries where they abound.
"We now leave the burrowers, to consider a family of molluscs
that move about somewhat freely by means of a flattened tongue-
shaped foot, and which only rarely fix themselves in any way. The
shells of the group are popularly known as Venus shells, probably
on account of the beauty of some of the species, and the family
in question as the Veneridee.
MARINE MOLLUSCS
211
The shells of the various species are usually of a graceful oval or
oblong form, frequently marked by chevron-shaped lines in pretty
colours, and distinctly grooved along the lines of growth. The
ligament is external, the hinge has usually three diverging teeth in
each valve, and the pallial line is sinuated.
The principal genus is Venus, in which the shells are ovate in
form, thick, and smooth, and the margins of the valves are minutely
crenulated. The genus is a very large one, and contains several
British species, two of which we represent in the accompanying
illustrations.
Allied to these is the larger but pretty shell Cytherea chione,
which inhabits deep water off the southern coasts, to about one
4 3
FIG. 143. — Veneridre
\. Venut fasciala. 2. Venus ftriatula. 3. Tapes virgineana. 4. Tapes aurta
hundred and fifty fathoms. It is much like the Venus shells in
form, but the margins are not crenulated.
The same family (Veneridce) contains the large genus Tapes, so
called because many of its shells are marked in such a manner as to
recall the patterns of tapestry. The general form of these shells
is oblong, and the margins are quite smooth. They are frequently
washed up on the beach, especially during storms, but the animals
may be found alive at low water, buried in sand, or hiding in the
crevices of rocks or among the roots of the larger sea weeds. The
mantle is open at the anterior end, and the siphons are either quite
distinct or only partly united.
Some of the shells are very prettily coloured. One (T. aurea)
212 THE SEA SHORE
receives its name from the yellow ground, which, is variously marked
by deeper tints ; another (T. decussata) is so called on account
of the cross grooves with which the shell is sculptured ; and a third
(T. virgineana), which inhabits the muddy bottoms of deep water,
is prettily marked by radiating bands that run from the umbones to
the ventral margins.
We now come to the family Cyprinidce, in which the shell is
regular in form, oval or elongated ; and the valves, which are equal
in size, are thick and solid, and fit closely. The teeth are beauti-
fully formed, the central ones numbering from one to three in each
valve, and the pallial line is not sinuated. The mantle lobes are
united on the posterior side by means of a kind of curtain that is
pierced by two siphonal openings. There are two gills on each
side, united posteriorly, and the foot is tongue-shaped and thick.
The typical genus — Cyprina — contains a large mollusc (C. islan-
dica), which is moderately common round our shores, especially in
the north, but is not often seen above low-water mark, except when
washed up by storms. The shell is oval and thick, with the
umbones prominent and turned towards the posterior side, and the
ligament is strong and prominent. It is entirely covered with a
thick epidermis, of a rich brown colour, often exhibiting a fine silky
gloss, especially near the margins. The interior of the shell is white,
and the adductor impressions oval and polished.
The same family includes some smaller shells that inhabit deep
water, and are therefore not commonly seen on the beach. Among
these are two species of the genus Astarte, one of which is deeply
furrowed in a direction parallel with the margins ; also Circe
minima, which seldom exceeds half an inch in length. Although
so small compared with Cyprina, these shells may be identified by
their clothing of epidermis, together with the family characteristics
given above.
The CyprinideB also contains the interesting Heart Cockle
(Isocardia cor), the form of which is so characteristic that identifica-
tion is easy. The heart-shaped shell is thick and strong, and is swollen
out in such a manner that the umbones are wide apart. These
latter are also curved into a spiral form, and the ligament between
them is prominent. The colour of the shell is variable, the
epidermis being of any shade from a yellow to a dark brown. The
foot is small and pointed, and the siphons fringed.
The Heart Cockle burrows in sand by means of its foot, going
down just far enough to bury the whole of its shell, and always
MARINE MOLLUSCS
213
leaving its siphons exposed at the surface. It inhabits deep water,
and is not likely to be obtained without the use of the dredge or
trawl.
The molluscs of the family Lucinidce are found principally in
tropical and sub-tropical seas, ranging from the shore to a very great
Fio. 144. — Cyprinidce
1. Cyprian islandiea. 2. Teeth of Cyprina. 3. Astarte compresta. 4. dree minima.
5. Isoeardia tor
depth, but a few are moderately common in our own waters. They
are closely allied to the Cyprinidce, but the shell is round rather
than oval, and is obliquely grooved inside. The mantle lobes of
the animal are not united on the ventral side, but at the posterior
end they are continuous, except where they form one or two siphonal
openings. The foot is long and of almost the same thickness
214
TEE SEA SHORE
throughout when extended ; and the gills, numbering either one or
two on each side, are large and thick. In all the members of this
family, as in the last, the pallial line of the shell is simple. None
of the shells are really common objects of our shores, since the
animals inhabit deep water, some of them moving about freely on
the bottom, while others moor themselves by means of a byssus.
We shall take only one example of the family — Galeomma
Turtoni — the generic name of which means 'weasel eye.' This
pretty little mollusc may be found on our southern coasts, where it
often moors itself to the rocks or weeds by
means of its silken byssus ; or, having broken
itself away from its temporary place of rest,
creeps freely on the bottom by a long, flat-
tened foot, applied closely to the surface over
which it travels, and used much in the same
way as the broad foot of a snail or whelk, its
valves being all the time spread out nearly
in the same plane.
The shell itself is oval, with central um-
bones, and is covered with a thick epidermis.
The mantle lobes are united behind, where
they form a single siphonal opening; and
the margins are double, with a row of eye-
like spots on the inner edge of each.
The true Cockles, some few species of
which are known to almost every one, constitute the family Cardiadce,
so called on account of the cordate or heart-shaped form of the
shell as viewed from the anterior or posterior side. The shell is
regular, or nearly so, and the valves, which are equal, are orna-
mented with prominent rays that run from the umbones to the
margin. The ligament is short, strong and prominent, and the
valves fit closely by the interlocking of their crenulated margins,
or gape slightly on the posterior side. There are two central teeth
in each valve, and a long lateral tooth both on the anterior and
posterior sides. The mantle lobes are open in front, with the
margins plaited, and the siphons, which are usually short, are
provided with a number of little tentacles. The foot is large and
powerful, and is usually curved into the form of a sickle.
Although the general nature of the common edible cockle (Car-
dium edule) is so well known even to the inhabitants of inland
towns that a description may seem out of place here, yet it is pos-
FIG. 145. — Galeomma
Turtoni
MARINE MOLLUSCS
216
sible that but few of our readers have ever taken the trouble to place
the animal in a vessel of sea water, either obtained direct from the sea
or artificially prepared, for the purpose of studying its movements
or other habits ; and it will be well to remember that this and several
other species of edible molluscs which reach our towns alive may be
very conveniently studied
at home, and often at
times and seasons when
work at the sea-side is
undesirable or impos-
sible.
The edible species re-
ferred to lives in banks
of sand or mud, buried
just below the surface,
and frequently in spots
that are exposed for seve- FlQ- ug.—i. Cardium pygmasum. 2. Car-
ral hours between the dium fasciatum. 3. Cardium rusticum
tides. They are usually
obtained by means of a rake similar to that used in our gardens.
On the coasts of Devon and Cornwall we find a much larger
FIG. 147. — Cardium aculeatum
species, also valued as an article of diet, and known locally as the
Prickly Cockle (C. aculeatum). Its shell is beautifully formed, the
216
THE SEA SHORE
rays being very prominent, each bearing a number of calcareous
spines arranged in a single row. We give an illustration of this
species, together with two sketches to show the nature of the teeth
of the shell.
In addition to the two species named, we have the red-footed,
C. rusticum, which can suddenly turn itself over by the action of
its powerful pedal organ ; the Banded Cockle (C. fasciatum), a very
small species distinguished by
the brown bands of the shell ;
and a still smaller one (C. pyg-
mceum), with a triangular shell,
occurring on the Dorset and
Devon coasts (fig. 146).
Passing now to the AsipJio-
rtida, we deal first with the
family A rcadce. These include a
number of shells which, though
very variable in general form and
appearance, may all be recog-
nised by the long row of similar
comb-like teeth that form the
hinge. The shells of this group
are regular in form, with equal
valves, and are covered with epi-
dermis. The mantle of the ani-
mal is open, the gills are united
by a membrane behind, and the
foot is large, curved, and grooved.
One of the prettiest shells
in the family is Pectunculus
glycimeris, which reaches a
length of about two inches. The shell is grooved in the direc-
tion of the lines of growth, and there are also very delicate
striations running radially from umbones to margin ; and the
ground colour of white or pale yellowish is beautifully mottled
with reddish brown. We give a figure of this species, together
with a drawing of the peculiar and characteristic teeth, but a
more typical shell of this family may be seen in the Noah's Ark
(Area tetragona). This shell is almost quadrate in form, swollen,
and strongly ribbed. The hinge is straight, with many comb-like
teeth — increasing in number with the age of the shell ; and the
FIG. 148. — Pectunculus glycimeris,
WITH PORTION OF VALVE SHOW-
ING TEETH, AND Area tetragona
MARINE MOLLUSCS 217
umbones are separated by a diamond-shaped ligament. The foot
of the animal is heeled — that is, it has a creeping surface that extends
backwards as well as forwards ; the mantle is furnished with minute
eyes (ocelli), and the animal has two distinct hearts. We give a
figure of this peculiar shell, and the other British members of the
same genus, though varying more or less in form, may be recognised
at once by the same general characteristics.
In the same family we have the small nutshells (genus Nucula),
which are often dredged up from deep water in large numbers ; and
the elongated shells of the genus Leda, also inhabitants of deep
water ; and, as before stated, the affinities of all may be readily
established by the characteristic nature of the teeth.
We now pass on to the family of Mussels (Mytilidce), of which
the common Edible Mussel (Mytilus edulis} is a typical species.
In this interesting group the shell is oval or elongated, with equal
valves, and is covered with a dark-coloured epidermis which is often
distinctly fibrous in structure. The umbones are at the anterior
end of the shell, which end is usually very narrow and pointed,
while the posterior is broad and rounded. The hinge has small
teeth or none, and the ligament, which is long, is internal. The
shells of mussels consist of two distinct layers ; on the inner, which
is often of a most beautiful pearly lustre, may be traced the simple
pallial line and the impres-
sions of the small anterior
and the large posterior
muscles.
The mantle lobes of the
animal are united only at
a point between the two
siphonal openings. There
are two elongated gills on
either side, and the foot is
thick and more or less FIG. 149. — Mytilus edulis
grooved.
Mussels inhabit salt, brackish, and fresh waters, generally
attaching themselves by means of a silken byssus, but sometimes
concealing themselves in ready-made holes, or in burrows of their
own ; and some even hide themselves in a nest which they prepare
by binding together fragments of shells or sand.
The edible mussel, which forms such an important article of
diet, especially among the poorer classes in our large towns, may
218
THE SEA SHORE
be easily distinguished from similar species of another genus by
the very pointed umbones, and the coarse and strong fibrous
byssus by which it clings to any solid object. It is found most
abundantly on muddy coasts, and on mud banks in the estuaries
of rivers, generally in such situations as are uncovered at low tide.
The fry abound just below low-water level, and grow so rapidly
that they reach their full size in a single year.
It is well known that a diet of mussels occasionally produces
very unpleasant and even dangerous symptoms in the consumer, and
this result has been attributed to the action of a particular organ
of the animal which has
not been carefully removed
before eating. This, how-
ever, is not the case, as
proved by the fact that
the eating of these edibles
is usually perfectly safe
when no such precautions
have been taken. It is
highly probable that the
deleterious character re-
ferred to is due to a disease
which sometimes attacks
the mussels themselves,
but the exact nature of this
has not been thoroughly
made out.
There is another genus
(Modiola) containing se-
veral species commonly
known as Horse Mussels,
and these may be distinguished from Mytilus by their habit of
burrowing, or of constructing a nest by spinning together various
fragments. The shell, also, is more oblong in form, and much
swollen near the anterior end ; and the umbones are not so pointed.
The epidermis covering the shell is of fibrous structure, and often
extends beyond the edges of the valves in the form of a fringe.
Several species of Horse Mussels inhabit our shores, from low-
water mark to a depth of fifty fathoms, but none of them is used
for food. The commonest species is Modiola modiolus, which has
a particularly strong byssus, and its fibres generally bind together
FIG. 150. — 1. Modiola modiolus.
2. Modiola tulipa. 3. Crenella discors
MAE1NE MOLLUSCS 219
such a number of stones &c. that the shell is completely hidden in
the entangled mass. Other British species include M, barbata, so
called on account of the peculiar fringed threads of the epidermis ;
M. phaseolina, in which the epidermis threads are not fringed ;
and M. tulipa, named from the streaks of crimson or purple that
radiate from the urnbones of the shell and remind us of the colour-
ing of the tulip flower.
An allied sub-genus (Crenella) includes a few small British
molluscs the shells of which are crenulated on the dorsal margin
behind the ligament. The shells are short and swollen, and lined
by a brilliant pearly layer. One species (C. discors) is pale green,
with radiating lines from umbo to margin. It is common on
many of our shores, but is not easily found, as it hides at or below
low water mark, in a nest formed by binding together small stones.
Other species, one of which is black, are less abundant, and are
not readily obtained except by the use of the dredge.
Before leaving this family we must refer to the remarkable
Dreissena polymorpha, sometimes called the Chambered Mussel,
on account of the chamber which
is formed in the beak of the
shell by means of a pearly plate
that stretches across it. This
animal is not indigenous to
Britain, but was introduced
from the East by trading vessels,
either attached by its silken Fio. 151. — Dreissena polymorpha
byssus to timber that had been
left floating in water previous to being shipped, or to the bottoms
of the ships. It seems to thrive almost equally well in salt,
brackish, and fresh waters, and has spread very rapidly since
its introduction. It is more commonly found, however, in docks,
canals, and rivers, and is on that account usually described with
the fresh-water species.
The form of the shell is very similar to that of Mytilus, but has
no internal pearly layer, and the valves are bluntly keeled. The
mantle is closed, the siphons short, and the foot small.
Our next family — the Aviculidce — contains those shells that are
distinguished by peculiar flat processes on each side of the um-
bones, one of which, the posterior, is generally wing-like in form.
They are popularly known as "Wing Shells, and the family
includes the so-called Pearl Oysters. Most of the species are
220
THE SEA SHORE
natives of tropical seas, but several are common on our own
shores.
One species of the typical genus is sometimes found off the
coasts of Cornwall and Devon. The shell is very oblique, and the
valves are unequal, the right one, on which the animal rests, being
somewhat smaller than the left ; and the epidermis is very scanty.
Fro. 152. — Avicula, AND Pinna pectinata
The hinge is long and straight, without teeth, and the cartilage is
contained in grooves. The interior of the shell is pearly. The
posterior adductor impression is large, and not far from the middle
of the shell, while the anterior, which is small, is close to the um-
bones. The mantle of the animal is open, and the margins of the
lobes fringed ; and the small foot spins a powerful byssus.
Most of the British species of the family belong to the genus
MARINE MOLLUSCS 221
Pinna, so called on account of the fins or wings on the dorsal side
of the shell. In this group the shell is more or less wedge-shaped,
with equal valves, and the umbones are quite at the anterior end,
while it is blunted and gaping at the other end. The hinge has no
teeth. The margins of the mantle are doubly fringed, and the
byssus is extremely powerful.
The Common Pinna (P. pectinatd) is a very large mollusc,
sometimes measuring a foot in length, and is very abundant off the
south-west coast, where it moors itself vertically at the bottom of
the water with the pointed end buried, and the broad end gaping
widely so as to expose its body. It has been stated that fishes are
frequently tempted to intrude into the open shell for the purpose of
devouring the animal within, and that they are immediately crushed
by the sudden closing of the valves, which are pulled together by
two large and powerful adductors.
We have already referred to the little Pea Crab that inherits the
shell of the Pinna, living permanently in the mantle cavity of the
animal.
The last family of the Lamellibranchs is the Ostreidce or Oysters,
of which the edible oyster may be taken as a type. In this
group the shells are frequently unequal, and they lie on one side
either free or adherent to the surface below them; the hinge is
usually without teeth. The mantle is quite open, the gills number
two on each side, and the foot is either small or absent.
The Edible Oyster is a type of the typical genus Ostrea, its
scientific name being Ostrea edulis ; and as this mollusc may be
readily obtained at any time, it is a convenient species for the study
of the general characteristics of its family. Its shell is irregular in
form, and the animal always rests on its left valve, which is convex,
while the upper or right valve is either flat or concave. The lower
valve is also thicker and laminated in structure, and is attached to
the surface on which it rests. On examining the interior we find
that the shell is somewhat pearly in appearance, and that the edges
of the mantle lobes are finely fringed. The gills, too, are united
with each other and with the mantle on the posterior side, thus
forming a distinct branchial chamber.
Oysters are found on banks at the depth of several fathoms,
where they spawn in early summer, and the fry or spats are
collected in large numbers and transferred to artificial beds or
tanks, where they are kept in very shallow water so as to be easily
obtainable when required for food. It is interesting to note, how-
222
THE SEA SHOEE
ever, that their growth is slow on these artificial grounds, the full
size being attained in about seven years, while, in the natural beds,
they are full grown in a little more than half that time.
Native oysters — those that are reared on artificial beds — are of
course removed as soon as they are ready for the market, but those
that live on natural banks are often left undisturbed till their shells
are thick with age. The latter, too, are often destroyed in large
numbers by the boring sponge
(p. 124), which so completely
undermines the substance of
the shell that it finally breaks
to pieces.
In the genus Anomia the
lower valve is concave, and per-
forated with a large oval hole
very near the hinge, while the
upper one is very convex, but the
shell is very variable in shape,
since the animal sometimes
clings permanently to an object,
and the shell, during its growth,
accommodates itself to the sur-
face of that object. The use of
the hole is to allow of the protru-
sion of a set of muscles which
proceed from the upper valve,
and give attachment to a plug
or button, more or less calcified,
by which the animal clings.
One species (A. ephippium),
FIG. 153. — 1. Anomia ephippium.
2. Pecten tigris. 3. Pecten,
ANIMAL IN SHELL
known as the Saddle Oyster, is
common on some parts of our
coast. It is seldom found on
the beach at low water, but the
empty shells are often washed up by the waves.
The same family includes the Scallops, which constitute the
genus Pecten. In these the shell is nearly round, with ears on each
side of the umbones, those on the anterior side being generally
much more prominent than the others, and both valves are
ornamented by prominent radiating ribs. The shell is often very
prettily coloured, and the animal rests on the right valve, which
PLATE V.
1- Solen ensis
2. Trivia Europsea
3. Trochus umbilicatus
4. Trochus magnus
5. Littorina littorea
6. Littorina rudis
7. Haminea (Bulla) hydatis
16
MOLLUSCS
8. Tellina
9. Capulus hungaricus
10. Chrysodomus antiquus
11. Buccinum undatum
12 & 13 Scalaria communis
14. Pecten opercularis
15. Pecten varius
16. Pecten maximus
MARINE MOLLUSCS 223
may be distinguished from the left by its greater convexity, and
by the presence of a notch under the anterior ear. The hinge is
straight, with a very narrow ligament, and the internal cartilage
is situated in a central pit.
The mantle of the animal is free, with double margins, the
inner of which forms a finely fringed curtain all round, and on this
curtain are a number of black eyes surrounded by very fine
tentacles. The gills are in the form of very thin crescents, and the
foot is shaped like a finger.
Although the majority of scallops are inhabitants of tropical
seas, several species are to be found off our coasts, where they
range from depths of about four to forty fathoms, and the empty
shells, often in the most perfect condition, are frequently found on
the beach.
The Common Scallop (P. maximus) is largely used as food, and
is therefore a common object in the fishmonger's shop. Its colour
is very variable, and the shell has equal ears and about twenty
radiating ribs. The Quin (P. opercularis) is also an important
article of diet in some parts.
Perhaps the prettiest of the British species is the Variable
Scallop (P. varius), so called on account of the very variable colour
of the shell, the ground tint of which may be almost anything
between a very pale yellow and a dark reddish brown, and this
is irregularly patched with some lighter colour. The chief dis-
tinguishing features of the species are the spiny projections of the
numerous ribs, most prominent near the margin of the valves, and
the presence of a permanent byssus, which, in other species, occurs
only in the young. Three of the species named above are shown
on Plate V.
We may also mention the Tiger Scallop (P. iigrinus), the
radiating ribs of which are sometimes slightly formed, and which
has only one ear in each valve ; and P. pusio, in which the adult
shell is often greatly altered in form.
It may be noted, in conclusion, that all the species of this genus
have the power of swimming rapidly by flapping their valves — a
mode of locomotion very common among the bivalves especially
during an early stage of their existence.
Before passing on to the univalve molluscs, we must refer
briefly to a group of animals that are enclosed in bivalve shells,
and which were once included with the Mollusca, but are now
made to form quite a distinct group by themselves. We refer to
224
THE SEA SHORE
the Brachiopods, at one time very abundant, as proved by the
immense number of fossil shells embedded in various stratified
rocks, but now represented by only a few living species.
The shells of these animals are commonly known as Lamp
Shells, on account of their resemblance to an antique lamp ; and
although at first sight they bear a general likeness to certain bivalve
shells of lamellibranchs, a close examination will show that not
only the shell, but also the animal residing within it, are both of
a nature very different from that of the molluscs with which they
were at one time supposed to be closely related.
The valves of the shell are unequal,
and are not placed respectively on the
right and left sides of the body of the
animal, but rather on the dorsal and
ventral or upper and lower sides. The
ventral shell is the larger, and is pro-
duced into a beak which sometimes has
a round hole corresponding in position
with the hole for the wick of an antique
lamp, and the dorsal or smaller valve
is always imperforate. The hinge is a
perfect one, the junction of the two
valves being so well secured by it that
it is impossible to separate them without
injury. It is formed by two curved teeth
on the margin of the ventral valve that
fit into corresponding sockets on the
dorsal. A few brachiopods, however,
have no hinge, the valves being secured by means of numerous
muscles. The hole in the shell serves for the protrusion of a
pedicel or foot by means of which the animal is enabled to attach
itself.
Two long arms, covered with vibratile cilia, and capable of
being folded or coiled, are attached at the sides of the mouth. They
are practically processes of the lips, mounted on muscular stalks,
and attached to a delicate calcareous loop on the dorsal valve ; and
serve not only to produce water currents for the conveyance of
food to the mouth, but also answer the purpose of gills.
The digestive system of a brachiopod includes an resophagus
that leads into a simply formed stomach round which is a large
digestive gland. The heart has only one cavity, but the animal
FIG. 154. — Terebratulina.
THE UPPER FIGURE RE-
PRESENTS THE INTERIOR
OF THE DORSAL VALVE
MARINE MOLLUSCS
225
is provided with two smaller and separate organs that assist in the
propulsion of the blood, which circulates through numerous blood
spaces in the bristly mantle.
About two thousand fossil species of brachiopods are known,
extending over a vast range of time ; and the living species,
numbering less than a hundred, are found from shallow water to
the greatest habitable depths.
Since the reader is hardly likely to form any extensive acquain-
tance with the Brachiopods, we shall illustrate our remarks by the
introduction of only one species — the Serpent's Head Terebratula
(Terebratulina caput-serpentis), which is
found in deep water in the North Sea.
The interior of the dorsal valve, showing
the calcareous loop above referred to, is
represented in fig. 154, as is also the
exterior of the shell, which is finely
striated. The latter represents the dorsal
aspect of the shell in order to show the
hole in the upturned beak of the ventral
valve.
We have now to consider the large
group of head-bearing molluscs (Cepha-
lophora), the study of which forms a very
important part of the work of the sea-
side naturalist; and while we deal with Flo 155.— UNDER SIDE OF
the general characteristics of this group, THE SHELL OF Natica
the reader will do well to have before
him a few living typical species in order
that he may be able to verify as many
as possible of the descriptions here given
by actual observation. These types may
include such creatures as the whelk, periwinkle, and limpet ; or if
marine species are not at hand at the time, the garden snail, fresh-
water snail, and slug will serve the purpose fairly well.
By far the large majority of Cephalopoda are enclosed in a
single shell, though a few have a rudimentary shell or none at all.
As is the case with the lamellibranchs, the shell is composed
of both animal and mineral substance, the latter being a calca-
reous deposit secreted by the mantle of the animal. The shell is
usually spiral in form, as in the whelk, but sometimes conical
(limpet) or tubular,
Q
catena, SHOWING THE
UMBILICUS ; AND OUT-
LINE OP THE SHELL,
SHOWING THE RlGHT
HANDED SPIRAL
226
THE SEA SHORE
Spiral shells are nearly .always dextral or right-handed; that
is, if we trace the direction of the spiral from the apex to the
mouth, we find that its turns or whorls run in the same direction
as the hands of a watch. A few, however, are sinistral, or left-
handed, and occasionally we meet with left-handed varieties of
those species that are normally of the right-handed type. The cavity
of the shell is a single spiral chamber which winds round a central
pillar, and each whorl of the shell generally overlaps the preceding
one, the two being separated externally by a spiral depression
called the suture.
Sometimes the coils of a shell
are not close together internally,
so that the central column of the
spiral is hollow, and opens to the
exterior at the base of the shell.
In this case the shell is said to
be umbilicated, and the opening
referred to is the umbilicus. In
others the spiral winds round
a solid central pillar which is
spoken of as the columella.
The apex of the shell, some-
times called the nucleus, is the
oldest part, and represents what
was once the whole. It is
generally directed backwards as
the animal crawls, and in adult
shells is often more or less worn
away by constant friction. We
speak of the whorls as first, second, third, &c., taking them in
the order of their growth, and it will generally be found that the
last whorl is much larger than the others, so much so that it con-
tains the greater part of the body of the animal ; hence this one is
commonly spoken of as the body-whorl, and the others make up
the spire of the shell.
The mouth of the shell is of different forms in different species,
but in the herbivorous kinds it is usually simple, while in the
carnivorous species it is notched or produced. The edge of the
mouth (peristome) is formed by an outer lip which is usually sharp
in young shells and either thickened, reflected (turned outward), or
inflected (turned inward) in adults ; also it may be considerably
FIG. 156. — SECTION OF THE SHELL
OF THE WHELK, SHOWING THE
COLUMELLA
MARINE MOLLUSCS 227
expanded, or ornamented by a fringed margin. The inner lip is
that side of the peristome adjacent to the central pillar of the
shell.
If we examine the external surface of several different shells,
we find that they are usually more or less distinctly furrowed or
sculptured, and that they are often marked by lines or bands of a
colour different from that of the ground tint. These furrows, lines,
or bands sometimes pass directly from the apex, across the various
whorls, to the base of the shell, in which case they are said to be
longitudinal. If they follow the course of the whorls, they are
described as spiral ; and if parallel with the peristome, so that they
mark the former positions of the mouth of the shell, thus denoting
the lines of growth, they are said to be transverse.
Most univalve shells are covered with epidermis, but in some
instances the animal, when extended, surrounds the exterior of the
shell with its mantle, as do the cowries, and then the outside of the
shell is always glazed. Other species keep their shells covered
with the mantle, and in these the shell is always colourless.
The body of the head-bearing mollusc is attached to the shell
internally by one or more muscles, and if we examine the interior
surface we are generally able to distinguish the impressions or scars
denoting the points of attachment.
The reader will have observed that the periwinkle, whelk, and
other univalves close their shells by a kind of lid when they
retract their bodies. This lid is called the operculum, and is
constructed of a horny material, often more or less calcified on the
exterior, and is attached to the hinder part of the foot. It some-
times fits accurately into the mouth of the shell, but in some species
it only partially closes the aperture. The operculum, like the shell
itself, often exhibits distinct lines of growth which display the
manner in which it was built up. If these lines are concentric we
know that the operculum grew by additions on all sides ; but if its
nucleus is at one edge, and the lines of growth widest apart at the
opposite side, the growth must have taken place on one side only.
Some, even, are of a spiral form, denoting that the additions were
made continuously at one edge, and such opercula may be right-
handed or left-handed spirals.
It will be noticed that in the above general description of uni-
valve shells we have introduced a number of technical terms
which are printed in italics, and this we have done advisedly, for
the employment of these terms is a very great convenience when
228 THE SEA SHORE
giving descriptions of individual shells, and we shall use them
somewhat liberally in noting the distinguishing characteristics
of the families and genera; but before entering into this portion
of our work we must briefly note the general features of the bodies
of the Cephalophora.
Sometimes these bodies are bilaterally symmetrical, as we have
observed is the case with the worms, but more commonly the
organs on one side are aborted, while the growth proceeds apace
on the opposite side. Thus the animal assumes a spiral form,
being coiled towards the aborted side, with the gills and other
organs developed on that side only. As a rule this curvature is
FIG. 157. — DIAGRAM OF THE ANATOMY OF THE WHELK, THE SHELL
BEING BEHOVED
c, stomach ; e, end of intestine : g, gills ; h, ventricle of the heart : a, auricle ;
/, nerve ganglia ; 6, digestive gland ; ft, foot ; o, operculum ; </, liver
such that the body takes the form of a right-handed or dextral
spiral, as we have already observed in the shells which cover them,
the mouth being thus thrown to the right, but sometimes it takes
the opposite direction.
When one of these animals is extended and creeping, we observe
that it has a distinct head, furnished with a mouth below, and
tentacles and eyes above ; also, if an aquatic species, the gills are
more or less prominent. Further, the exposed portion of the body
is covered with a leathery mantle, and the animal creeps on a
broad, flattened surface which is called the foot.
The tentacles or feelers are usually retractile, and, when retracted,
are turned outside-in. Each one is provided with a muscle that
MARINE MOLLUSCS
229
runs from the body internally to the tip ; and, by the contraction
of this muscle the tentacle is involuted just in the same way as the
finger of a glove could be by pulling a string attached to the tip
inside. In addition to these tentacles, and the eyes and mouth
previously mentioned, the head is furnished with ear-sacs, which
are little cavities, filled with fluid containing solid particles, with
nerve filaments distributed in the walls.
On the floor of the mouth there is a ribbon, supported on a base
of gristle, and covered with numerous minute teeth arranged
regularly in rows. The gristle is moved backwards and forwards
by means of muscles in such a manner that this ' lingual ribbon '
acts like a rasp, and is employed in scraping or tearing away
portions of the substance on which the animal is feeding. By this
action the teeth are gradually
worn away in front, but this
is of no consequence, for the
lingual ribbon is always growing
forwards, the worn material
being replaced by new growth
behind.
The arrangement and form
of the teeth are characteristic
and important ; and since they
afford one of the means by which
we may trace the natural affini-
ties of similar species, they will
be frequently referred to when
dealing with the principles of
classification. For this reason the student should be prepared to
examine the lingual ribbons of molluscs with the aid of a compound
microscope as occasion requires. As a rule the ribbon is easily
stripped away from the floor of the mouth ; and, if placed in a drop
of water and covered with a cover-glass, the teeth are readily
observed. Until a little experience has been gained the observations
may be confined to some of the larger species, in which the ribbon
is both large and easily obtained. In the common whelk, for ex-
ample, it often measures more than an inch in length.
It is difficult to understand how the univalve mollusc manages
to glide along so rapidly and gracefully on its expanded foot when
we observe it from above, but the difficulty is cleared away when
we see it creeping on the side of a glass aquarium, or when we
FIG. 158. — A PORTION OF THE
LINGUAL EIBBON OF THE WHELK,
MAGNIFIED J AND A SINGLE BOW
OF TEETH ON A MUCH LARGER
SCALE
6, medial teeth : a and c, lateral teeth
230 THE SEA SHORE
place it on a sheet of glass and observe its movements from the
other side. We then sec that the foot is in complete contact with
the glass, and that a steady but rapid tmdulatory movement is
produced by the successive expansions and contractions of the disc,
brought about, of course, by the action of muscular fibres.
A few of the univalves are viviparous — that is, they produce
their young alive ; but the majority lay eggs. The eggs are often
enclosed in horny cases, some of which may be commonly seen
washed up on the beach, or attached to rocks and weeds between
the tide-marks. The larvae are always enclosed in a shell, though
they are sometimes wholly or partially concealed by the mantle.
The shell is usually closed by an operculum ; but as the animal
advances in age the shell sometimes disappears altogether, or is
reduced to a mere shelly plate, as is the
case with the land and marine slugs and
sea lemons. The young of the water-
breathers always swim about freely by
means of a pair of ciliated lobes or fins,
but these remain only for a brief period,
after which the animal settles to the bottom
for a more or less sedentary existence.
The Cephalophora fall naturally into
two fairly well-defined groups, which we
may describe as the air-breathers and the
FIG. 159. EGG CASES water-breathers. The former breathe air
OF THE WHELK direct from the atmosphere through an
aperture on the right side of the body, the
air passing into a pulmonary organ or lung, in the walls of which
the bloodvessels ramify, and they include all the land snails and
slugs. The latter breathe by gills which are more or less prominent
on the sides of the body, and include all the fresh-water snails, as
well as the marine species which fall within our special province.
"We shall first consider the class Pteropo&a, or Wing-footed
Molluscs, so called from the wing-like appendages that are attached
to the side of the mouth, or to the upper side of the foot, which is
either very small or altogether wanting.
These Pteropods are in many respects lowly organised as com-
pared with the higher molluscs ; and as they spend the whole of
their existence in the open sea, they can hardly be considered as
falling within the scope of the sea-side naturalist's work. Yet
since their shells are occasionally drifted on to the shore, and
MARINE MOLLUSCS
231
because a knowledge of them is essential to the student of the
mollusca, we shall briefly note their principal characteristics. •
The pteropods are extremely abundant in some seas, occurring
in such vast numbers that they discolour the water for miles.
They swim about by flapping the pair of wings already referred
to. They are known to form an important article of the diet of
the whale, and are also devoured in enormous numbers by various
sea birds ; and they are themselves carnivorous, feeding on various
smaller creatures that inhabit the open waters.
In appearance they much resemble the young of higher species
of molluscs. The nervous system consists of a single ganglion
situated below the gullet, and the eyes and tentacles are either
rudimentary or absent. The digestive system includes a muscular
gizzard provided with teeth for the mastication of food, and
a digestive gland or liver for the preparation of a digestive fluid.
FIG. 160. — PTEROPODS
The heart has two cavities, and respiration is effected by a surface
covered with minute cilia. This surface is either quite external
or is enclosed in a chamber through which water freely circulates.
The shell is very different from that of a typical head-bearing
mollusc, for it generally consists of two glassy, semitransparent
plates, situated dorsally and ventrally respectively on the body of
the animal, with an opening for the protrusion of the body, and
others at the sides for processes of the mantle ; and it terminates
behind in one or three pointed processes. Sometimes, however,
its form is conical or spiral, with or without an operculum. We
append illustrations of a few pteropods, selecting for our purpose
species that have been found in the Atlantic.
It will have been noticed from the above short description
that the pteropod is very unlike the typical Cephalophore as
outlined in our general remarks on the group, especially in the
232 THE SEA SHORE
symmetrical form of both body and shell and in the total or almost
total absence of the foot ; and this distinction is so marked that
the pteropods are often separated from all the other Ceplialophora
into a class by themselves, while all the remainder are placed in
a separate extensive class called the Gasteropoda, because they
creep on the ventral surface of the body, the term signifying
stomach-footed.
These gasteropods are divided into four orders : the Nucleo-
branchiata, in which the respiratory and digestive organs form a
nucleus on the posterior part of the back ; the Opisthobranchiata,
with gills more or less exposed towards the rear of the body ; the
Pulmonifera, or lung-breathing order ; and the Prosobranchiata,
in which the gills are situated in advance of the heart. The third
order includes all the land snails and slugs, and does not therefore
fall within the scope of our work ; but the remaining three consist
either exclusively or principally of marine species, and will be
dealt with in the order in which they are named.
The Nucleobranchs are not really gasteropods in the strictest
sense of the term, for they do not creep along by means of their
foot, but all swim freely in the open ocean, always at the surface,
and sometimes adhere to floating weed by means of a sucker. In
fact, the foot of these creatures is greatly modified in accordance
with their habits, one part being often expanded into a ventral
swimming fin, and provided with a sucking-disc for adhesion,
and another produced into a posterior fin for locomotion.
Like the pteropods, the nucleobranchs are purely pelagic, so
that we can hardly expect to meet with a specimen on or near the
phore ; and thus we shall content ourselves with a brief notice of
their general characters.
The shell is very variable in size and form, and sometimes
even entirely absent. Large-bodied species often possess but
a very small shell, while some are able to entirely retract them-
selves and close the mouth of the shell by an operculum. These
animals are generally provided with a large cylindrical proboscis,
and the tongue has recurved teeth. The body is usually very
transparent, often so much so that the blood may be seen circula-
ting within it, and the nervous system is much more perfectly
developed than in the pteropods. The eyes, tod, are perfectly
formed.
The presence of special breathing organs may seem to be super-
fluous in such delicate and soft-bodied creatures as these, for it may
MARINE MOLLUSCS 233
be supposed that all the oxygen required could be absorbed directly
from the water through their soft structures, as is really the case
with many aquatic creatures ; and as a matter of fact some of the
nucleobranchs possess no gills, but others have these organs fully
formed.
Passing now to the true gasteropods, we shall first consider the
Opisthobranchs, which are commonly known as Sea Slugs and Sea
Lemons. Some of these have no shell at all, and even where one
exists it is very rudimentary, usually very small and thin, and con-
cealed within the mantle. The gills are either branched and tree-
like, or are composed of tufts or bundles of filaments ; and, as the
name of the order implies, are situated towards the posterior part of
the body. They are also retractile, and when the animal is alarmed
it will conceal its gills, thus reducing its body to a shapeless, slimy
mass, inviting neither to sight nor to touch.
The sea slugs are principally animal feeders, subsisting on
small crustaceans, other molluscs, &c.; the food being first reduced
by the rasping action of the teeth, and then masticated in a gizzard
which is provided internally with horny spines or hard, shelly
plates.
It will not be necessary to enumerate all the different families
of this order, especially as the species are mostly to be found beyond
the tide-marks, and are therefore obtained only with the aid of the
dredge ; but we shall describe a few of the British species with a view
of showing the general characteristics of the animals.
They are usually divided into two sections, those with exposed
or naked gills (NudibrcmcJiiata) forming the first, and those in
which the gills are covered either by the shell or the mantle (Tecti-
branchiata) comprising the second.
In the Nudibranchs the shell exists only during the embryonic
stage, and the external gills are arranged on the back or along the
sides. The tentacles are not employed as organs of touch, but are
probably connected only with the sensation of smell, being provided
with filaments of the olfactory nerve ; the eyes are small dark-
coloured spots embedded in the skin behind the tentacles. Various
species are to be found on all rocky coasts, where they range from
low-water mark to a depth of fifty or sixty fathoms, but a few are
pelagic, living on the surface of floating sea weeds.
It is almost impossible to identify the species of nudibranchs
from dead specimens, for the classification of the section is based
largely on the arrangement of the gills, which are almost always
234
THE SEA SHORE
retracted in the dead animals. This is also the case even with living
specimens when disturbed or removed from the water ; hence they
should always be examined alive in sea water, while the animals
are extended and moving.
It will be understood from the above statements that special
methods will be necessary when it is required to preserve specimens
for future study, the gills being always retracted when the animal
FlG. 161. — NUDIBRANCHS
1. Doto eoronata. 2. Elysia viridis. 3. Proctonotus mucroniferui.
4. Embletonia pulchra
is killed for this purpose by any rapid process. We have found two
methods, however, that are fairly satisfactory in the majority of
instances. — Place the living animals in a suitable vessel of sea
water, and leave them quite undisturbed till they are fully extended,
and then either gradually raise the temperature till they are dead,
or introduce into the water, cautiously, a solution of corrosive sub-
limate. In the latter case a much larger proportion of the sublimate
will be required than when used for a similar purpose with fresh-
MARINE MOLLUSCS
235
water molluscs. "When the animals are dead it will be found that
their gills are more or less extended, sometimes fully so, and they
may then be transferred to diluted spirit or a two per cent, solution
of formaldehyde.
In fig. 162 we represent four species. Two of these — Triopa
claviger and Mgirus punctilucens — belong to the family Doridce,
the members of which are popularly known as Sea Lemons, and
are distinguished by the presence of plume-like gills situated on the
FIG. 162. — NUDIBBANCHS
1. De ndronotus arborescent. 2. Trifonia plebeia. 3. Triopa claviger.
4. dSgirus punctilucens
middle of the back. Another family (Tritoniadce), characterised
by the arrangement of the gills along the sides of the back, and by
tentacles that can be retracted into sheaths, is represented by
Tritonia plebeia and Dendronotus arborescens in the same figure,
and by Doio ooronata in fig. 161. The family Molidce also
have their gills arranged along the sides of the back, but they differ
from the last in that their tentacles are not retractile. They in-
clude the two species numbered 3 and 4 on fig. 161. The remaining
one on fig. 161 — Elysia viridis—is a member of the family PhilU-
236
THE SEA SHORE
rhoidce, characterised by a pair of tentacles on the dorsal side of the
head and by the foot being either very narrow or absent, the latter
feature denoting that the animals are not adapted for creeping
on the bottom. In fact, several of the species of this family swim
freely by means of flattened tails.
The Tectibranchs are similar in general structure, but are very
different in appearance, inasmuch as the gills, so prominent in the
last division, are here covered by the mantle, or by the shell, which
is often well developed. The latter is very variable in form, being
of a globular, twisted, spiral, or other shape, but is sometimes
absent in the adult. In fig. 163 we give a few examples of the shells
of British species ; and one (Bulla liydatis) is shown on Plate V.
We now pass on to the largest and last order of gasteropods
— the Prosobranchiata — so called because the gills are situated in
front of the heart. This group is an important one to the sea-side
FIG. 163. — SHELLS OF TECTIBRANCHS
naturalist, since it contains nearly all the univalve molluscs that
are common between the tide-marks of our shores, as well as some
abundant species that are protected by a shell of several distinct
parts. In nearly all of them the abdomen is well developed, and
the shell is sufficiently large to cover the whole animal when the
latter is retracted ; and the gills, which are either pectinated (comb-
shaped) or plumed, are lodged in the chamber formed over the head
of the animal by the mantle.
The order is often divided into two sections — the Holostomata
or Sea Snails, in which the margin of the aperture of the shell is
entire, and the Siphonostomata, in which the margin of the mantle
is prolonged into a siphon by which water passes into the gill
chamber. This division does not seem to be very satisfactory, as
the sections are not separated by very prominent natural character-
istics, but it becomes convenient on account of the great extent of
the order.
MARINE MOLLUSCS 237
In the Holostomata the shell is either spiral, conical, tubular, or
composed of several valves, and the spiral forms are usually closed
by a horny or shelly operculum of the spiral kind. The head is
provided with a proboscis that is generally non-retractile, and the
gills usually extend obliquely across the back, or are attached to the
right side behind the head.
We shall first consider the lower forms, starting with the family
Chitonidce, the animals of which, as the name implies, are covered
with a shell that resembles a coat of mail.
Some of these creatures are very common on our rocky coasts,
and yet their nature is such that they are liable to be overlooked
by those who are not acquainted with their appearance and habits.
The shell is oval or oblong, often so coloured as to closely resemble
the rocks and stones over which they crawl ; and the animal is so
inactive when left exposed by the receding tide, and its flat
under surface so closely applied to that on which it rests, that
it looks merely like a little convexity of the rock. But after a
few have been discovered the eye becomes accustomed to their
appearance, and large numbers may be obtained in a short space
of time.
The shell will be seen to consist of eight transverse, curved
plates, overlapping each other at their edges, and all enclosed in a
leathery mantle, which also forms a projecting margin all round.
The middle six plates are different from the first and last in that
they are grooved in such a manner that each one displays a dorsal
and two lateral areas.
The animal holds on tightly to the rocks by its large creeping
disc-like foot, but may be removed without injury by forcing a
knife-blade under the margin of its shell. When examined it will
be found that it has not a well-formed head like the majority of the
gasteropods, and both eyes and tentacles are wanting. The gills
form a series of lamella? round the posterior end of the body,
between the edge of the foot and the mantle ; and it is interesting
to note that the Chitons further justify the low position assigned
to them among the gasteropods by their possession of a simple,
central, tubular heart, similar to that of worms.
Perhaps the commonest of the British species is Chiton cinereus.
Its colour is a dull grey, but the ground is variously mottled, often
in such a manner as to give it a protective resemblance to its sur-
roundings. C. ruber is the largest of our species : its shell is variously
mottled with shades of yellow and brown ; C.fctscicularis is bristled.
238
THE SEA SHORE
Another rather common species (C. Icevis) is distinguished by the
glossy appearance of the dorsal portion of the shell.
It will have been observed that the chitons differ from the
majority of gasteropoda in that their shells and bodies are both
bilaterally symmetrical, and the same is true of the next family —
Dentaliadce, which derive their name from the tooth-like form of
their conical shells. They are popularly known as the Tooth Shells,
and although they generally live beyond low-water level, they may
sometimes be seen alive on the beach, and the empty shells are often
washed up by the waves.
The shells (fig. 165) are curved, and open at both ends, the
narrower extremity being the posterior. The mouth is circular, and
the outer surface is quite smooth or grooved.
In these animals, too, the head is imperfectly formed, without
eyes or tentacles. The foot is conical and pointed, with two
FIG. 164.— CHITON SHELLS
FIG. 165. — SHELLS OF Dentalium
symmetrical side lobes; and the gills, also two in number, are
symmetrically disposed. The margin of the mouth is fringed, and
the animal is attached to the shell near the posterior end.
The DentaliadcB are carnivorous, subsisting on minute molluscs,
foraminifera, &c., and generally live on sandy or muddy bottoms, in
which they sometimes bury themselves.
Our next family includes the familiar Limpets, and is. designated
Patellidce on account of the resemblance of the conical shell to
a little dish. In these the apex of the cone is not central, but
situated more or less towards the anterior ; and the muscular
impression within is shaped like a horseshoe, with its open end
turned to the front.
Unlike the members of the preceding families, the limpets have
a well-formed head furnished with both eyes and tentacles, the
former situated at the bases of the latter. They have a horny
MARINE MOLLUSCS
239
upper jaw, and the tongue, which is very long, is supplied with
numerous hooked teeth. The foot is a very large disc, as large
as the shell, and the gills consist either of one or two branched
plumes, or of a series of lamellae almost or entirely surrounding
the animal between the shell and the margin of the mantle.
The reader has probably experienced the difficulty of detaching
a limpet from its hold on the rocks. The tenacity of the grip is
not due to the mere adhesive power of the foot itself, but to
atmospheric pressure, the effect of which is complete on account
of the total exclusion of air from under the disc of the foot ; and
when we remember that this pressure amounts to fifteen pounds
on every square inch of surface, we can readily understand the force
required to raise a large limpet from its position.
123
FIQ. 166.— PatellidcB
1. Patella vulgata. 2. P.pellueida. 3. P.athletiea. 4. Acmaca tettudinalit
The Common Limpet (Patella vulgata) is found on all our
rocky coasts between the tide-marks, often at such a level that it
is left exposed to the air for eight or nine hours at a time. The
apex of the shell of this species is nearly central, and the exterior
is sometimes nearly smooth, but more commonly relieved by radia-
ting ribs.
Although the shell itself is not a particularly pretty object, it is
often rendered very beautiful and interesting by the various animal
and vegetable organisms that settle on it. Those shells that are
left dry for hours together are commonly adorned with clusters of
small acorn barnacles, while the limpets that have found a home
in a rock pool and are perpetually covered with water, often
resemble little moving gardens in which grow beautiful tufts of
corallines or other weeds, as well as polyzoa and other animal
forms.
240 THE SEA SHORE
It appears that limpets are not great travellers, the appearance
of the rock from which they have been removed being such as to
point to a very long period of rest. Those on hard rocks are
generally situated on a smooth surface just the size of the shell and
generally worn slightly below the surrounding level by the constant
friction of the shell ; while others that have settled on very rugged
spots have their cones adapted to the irregular surface. It has
been suggested that the animals make occasional short excursions
from their chosen spot, but return again to it ; and whether or not
this is the case, it is evident that they frequently keep to one small
spot for a considerable length of time.
Limpets on chalk and other soft rocks are sometimes in circular
pits so deep that even the apex of the shell is below the general
level around; and though it is possible that the abrasion is
produced entirely by the friction of the shell as the animal turns,
yet, in the case of chalk, the action may be partly due to the
carbonic acid gas given off by the animal as a product of respiration,
for it is a well-known chemical fact that this gas, in solution, has
the power of dissolving calcareous material.
The other British Limpets include P. pellucida, which lives on
the fronds and stalks of the tangle, the form of the shell varying
according to that of the surface on which it rests ; also the Horse
Limpet (P. athletica), the bold radiating ribs of which are irregularly
notched ; and Acmcea testudinalis — the Tortoiseshell Limpet, with
reddish-brown mottlings on the exterior, and a dark-brown patch
at the apex within. The last-named species lives principally on
sea weeds, and has a single pectinated gill in the cavity between
foot and mantle, which is protruded on the right side when the
animal is extended. This latter feature is interesting since it shows
a tendency to that one-sided development already referred to as
characteristic of the typical gasteropod, resulting in the spiral form
of the adult.
In the limpets the lingual ribbon is proportionately long, and
is easily removed for examination. In P. vulgata it may exceed
an inch in length, and the teeth are arranged in rows each of which
contains four central, with laterals on either side, while in Acmcea
there are only three laterals on each side of the central line.
Other so-called limpets belong to separate families. Thus we
have the Cup-and- Saucer Limpet and the Bonnet Limpet in the
Calyptrceidce. Both these differ from Patella in that the apices
of their shells show a tendency to assume a spiral form, thus
MAEINE MOLLUSCS
241
denoting a somewhat closer relationship to the more advanced uni-
valves. They have distinct heads, with prolonged muzzles, and
well-formed antennae and eyes. The teeth of the lingual ribbon
are single, with dentated laterals on either side.
The Cup-and-saucer Ijimpet^alyptrceasinensis) is so called on
account of a curved plate that projects from the interior of the
shell, at the apex ; and though this plate takes the form of a half-
cup rather than of a cup, the whole shell has suggested the popular
name, while the generic name is
derived from calyptra, which sig-
nifies a cap. This mollusc is occa-
sionally found among stones at low
tide, but usually lives beyond this
line, thus necessitating the use of
a dredge. The Bonnet Limpet
(Pileopsis hungaricus) is of similar structure and habit, but the
nucleus of the shell is a more decided spiral (see Plate V.). Both
these animals adhere to stones and rocks, and, like the common
limpet, seldom or never move from their selected sites ; hence
their shells are variable in form, being adapted to the rock below,
and the movements of the shell often cause a little hollow to be
scooped out of the softer materials.
Yet other limpets belong to the next family Fissurellidce, which
is characterised by a perforation or a notch in the shell. In these,
too, the shell is conical, with a tendency to assume the spiral form,
but the curve of the nucleus, which is always apparent in the young
shell, frequently disappears as the growth proceeds.
FIG. 167. — Calyptrcea sinensis
128
FIG. 168.— Fissurellidee
1. Puncturella noachina. 2. Emarginula rtticulata. 3. Fissurella reliculala
In the Keyhole Limpet (Fissurella reticulata) which is found
chiefly on our southern shores, the perforation is at the summit
of the shell ; but as the animal grows the hole increases in size,
encroaching on the curved nucleus until the latter quite disappears.
In the genus Puncturella the perforation is just in front of the
R
242
THE SEA SHORE
recurved apex, and is surrounded by a rim internally ; while in the
Notched Limpets (genus Emarginula) it is represented by a fissure
on the anterior margin of the cone. In all, however, the hole
or notch serves the same purpose, for it
is the means by which water enters the
siphon.
It is doubtful whether we ought to
claim the beautiful Ear shell (Haliotis
tiiberculata) as one of our own, but it is
generally included among the British mol-
luscs on the ground that it is abundant
on the coast of the Channel Islands, where
it is called the Omar ; and it ie certainly
too beautiful an object to be excluded from
the British species without ample cause.
It belongs to the family HaUotidce,
and our illustration will show that the
shell is less elevated than that of limpets,
and that the spire, though not prominent,
is a fairly well-formed spiral. All along the outer lip of the very
large aperture is a series of perforations, occupying the summit
of a prominent, spiral ridge, and becoming gradually smaller and
smaller towards the spire. The whole shell is pearly in structure,
and displays a great variety of rich colouring. It is used largely
for inlaying and other ornamental purposes, and for making the
so-called pearl buttons. The animal is used largely as an article
of food in the Channel Islands, but it is of so tough a nature that
it requires a vigorous beating previously to being cooked.
Fio. 169.— Haliotis
FIG. 170. — lanthina fragilis
The same family contains the beautiful violet lanthina, which
also is not a British species, but a free-swimming oceanic snaiL It
is, however, occasionally drifted to our shores, though generally in
MARINE MOLLUSCS 243
an imperfect condition. In the Atlantic and the Mediterranean it
sometimes abounds in such multitudes as to distinctly colour the
surface of the sea.
It will be seen that the shell is round, with a well-formed spiral.
The spire is white, but the base is of a deep violet colour. The
animal is very remarkable in some respects. In the first place,
though it has pedicels similar to those on which the eyes of the
higher univalves are placed, yet it has no eyes. Then the foot,
which is in itself small, secretes a float or raft so large that it
cannot be retracted into the shell, with numerous air vesicles to
render it light, and the egg-capsules of the animal are attached to
the underside of this. The animal has no power of sinking, but
lives exclusively at the surface ; and, when disturbed, it exudes
a violet fluid that colours the surrounding water. It is apparently
the only gasteropod that lives in the open sea and has a large and
well-formed spiral shell.
Passing now to the family TurbinidcB we meet with turbinated or
pyramidal shells that are of a brilliant pearly lustre within, and
frequently without also when the epidermis is removed. The
animals inhabiting them have well-formed heads with a short
muzzle, long and slender tentacles, and eyes mounted on peduncles.
The sides are ornamented with fringed lobes and several tentacle -
like filaments, and the aperture of the shell is closed, when the
animal is retracted, by a spiral operculum. They are all vegetable
feeders ; and, as is usual with the plant-eating molluscs, the teeth
on the lateral portions of the lingual ribbon are very numerous.
We have a few common species belonging to this group, mostly
members of the typical genus Troclius and commonly known as
Top Shells. In these the shell is a pyramid formed of numerous
flat whorls, with an oblique and rhomboidal aperture. Of the three
species figured (including two on Plate V.) T. umbilicatus and the
Large Top (T. magnus) are umbilicated, the umbilicus being very
large in the latter ; and the former is characterised by the zigzag
greyish or reddish markings that run radially across the whorls.
The other (T. zizyphinus) is usually of a yellowish or pink colour
and has no umbilicus.
The same family contains the pretty little Pheasant Shell
(Phasianella pullas), which is richly coloured with red, brown,
and yellow on a light ground ; and Adeorbis subcarinatus, shown
in the same group.
The well-known Periwinkle (Littorina littorea) and the species
244
THE SEA SHORE
to the right of it on Plate V., belong to the family Littorinidce, the
members of which are similar in structure and habit to Trochus,
but the shell is usually more depressed, and is never pearly. The
FIG. 171. — 1. Trochus zizyphinus. 2. UNDER SIDE OF SHELL.
3. Trochus magnus. 4. Adeorbis subcarinatus
shell of the Periwinkle is thick, having but few whorls, and is not
umbilicated ; and the lingual ribbon, which is coiled up on the
gullet, contains no less than about five hundred rows of teeth ; but
only a little more than twenty of these rows are in action at any
one time, the remainder being a reserve stock
to come into active service as the ribbon grows
forward. In the genus Lacuna there is a narrow
umbilicus, and the aperture of the shell is semi-
lunar in form ; and the species of Bissoa are
very small, with white or horny shells, much
more pointed and having more whorls than
those of the Littorina.
FIG. lT2.—2iissoa Our next illustration shows three shells of
labiosa AND the family Turritellidas, so named from the
acui a pa resemblance of the shells to a tower or spire.
The form indeed is so characteristic that they
can hardly be mistaken. It will be seen that Turritella communis
is striated spirally, while the surface of Scalaria communis (Plate V.)
245
is relieved by strongly marked transverse ribs. Both these species
are very common, and the latter is peculiar for its power of
ejecting a dark purple fluid when molested. The other representa-
tive of the family — Ccccum trachea — has a
shell something like that of Dentalium
(p. 238), being cylindrical and tubular, but it
differs in being closed at one end.
In the succeeding
shells, of the family
Cerithiadce, the spire is
also considerably pro-
duced, so much so that
some of the species
closely resemble the
Turret shells, but they
are distinguished by
usually having an ex-
panded lip, at least in
the adult form ; and
the mouth is channelled
in front, and sometimes
also behind. The animals of the group have short muzzles that
are not retractile, the tentacles are wide apart, and the eyes are
mounted on short pedicels. The median teeth are arranged in
a single row, with three laterals
on either side of each.
Cerithium reticulatum re-
ceives its generic name from its
appearance to a small horn, and
FIG. 173. — SECTION
OF SHELL OP
Turritella
Fin. 174. — Turritella
communis AND
Ccecum trachea
the specific name refers to the
netted appearance of its surface
due to the presence of numerous
little tubercles arranged in rows
— a feature that serves to distin-
guish it from the small Turret
shells. It is a common shell, as
is also the other representative of the family illustrated, but the
latter is rendered conspicuous by the enormously expanded lip that
has earned for it the popular name of Spout Shell. Its scientific
name is Aporrhais pes-pelicani, and the application of the specific-
term will be understood when the shell is viewed from above, for
FIG. 175. — Cerithium reticulatum
AND Aporrhais pes-pelicani
246
THE SEA SHORE
the expanded lip is drawn out into long finger-like lobes that suggest
the foot of a bird. This is a very solid shell, sometimes reaching a
length of two inches ; and the animal inhabiting it is carnivorous.
We have yet some tur-
reted shells to deal with,
belonging to the family
PyramideUidce, but they
need not be confused with
the preceding groups if
carefully examined. In the
FIG. 176.— Aporrhais pes-pelicani, first place, ^ the aperture of
SHOWING BOTH SHELL AND ANIMAL the shell is very small ;
and the operculum, instead
of being spiral, as in the turreted shells before mentioned, is imbri-
cated or made up of parallel layers denoting that the growth took
place on one side only. Another distinguishing feature is seen in
the nucleus — that small portion of the spire that was developed
within the egg — which is sinistral or left-handed. In addition to
this, the animal has broad, ear-like tentacles, a retractile proboscis,
and a lingual ribbon without teeth.
The British species of this fanii^ belong principally to the
genera Odostomia, characterised by a tooth-like fold of the
columella; Eulima, containing small, white, polished shells with
numerous level whorls ; and Aclis, with little polished shells not
unlike Turritella.
The last family of the Holostomata is the Naticidte, the shells
of which are almost globular, with only a few whorls, and a small,
blunt spire. The mouth is semilunar in
form, and the lip sharp. The proboscis of
the animal is long and retractile, and the
foot large ; but perhaps the most charac-
teristic feature is the presence of large
mantle lobes which hide some of the shell
when the animal is crawling. In Natica
(fig. 155), the typical genus, the shells are
somewhat thick and smooth, with a large
umbilicus. As the animal crawls a large
fold of the mantle is reflected back over
the head, completely covering it, and ap-
parently obstructing its view; but this is not the case, for the
creature has no eyes. Natica is very abundant on some sandy
Fio. 177. — 1. Odostomia
plicata, 2. Eulima
polita. 3. Aclis supra-
nitida
MARINE MOLLUSCS
247
beaches, where it devours small bivalves and other animals ; and
it is frequently washed up alive by the waves. Its shell is also a
favourite one with hermit crabs. Its eggs, all connected together
in a spiral band, may often be seen stranded on sandy coasts.
Several species of Natica are found on our shores. An allied
mollusc — Velutina Icevigata, so called on account of the velvety
epidermis that clothes the shell, completely surrounds the shell by
its mantle folds when creeping.
The Siphonostomata form a much smaller section than the
last, and its members are distinguished mainly by the presence
of a true siphon, formed by the prolongation of the mantle margin,
and serving to convey water into the gill chamber. In all these
the shell is spiral, usu-
ally without an umbilical
opening, and the margin
of the mouth is prolonged
into a canal or distinctly
notched. The operculum
is horny, and lamellar or
imbricated. The animal
has a retractile proboscis,
and the eyes or eye-
pedicels are joined to
the tentacles. All the
species of this division
are marine.
We will first take the family Cyprceidce, which contains the
familiar Cowries, these forming the lowest group of the division.
An examination of the shells may at first seem rather puzzling,
for the spire is concealed, and the whole is convoluted in such
a manner as to make the mouth long and narrow, with a channel
at either end. The outer lip is also thickened and bent inward,
and there is no operculum.
The animal itself is particularly interesting, for, as it creeps
along on its broad foot, abruptly shortened in the front, the
mantle lobes bend over the top, meeting along the middle line,
where they are usually fringed with little tentacle-like processes ;
and, as a result, the whole 'shell is beautifully enamelled on the
outer surface. In all the Cowries the central teeth are single, and
the laterals are arranged either in twos or threes.
Perhaps the commonest representative of this family is the
FIG. 178. — Cypma (Trivia) europcea
248
THE SEA SHOEE
pretty little Cyprcea (Trivia) europcea (Plate V.), the shells of
which are sometimes washed up in large numbers on sandy
beaches. The animal lives mainly below low-water level, but it
may often be found in the larger rock pools, creeping rapidly
over the tangles, and may be easily secured with the aid of a net.
In the same family we have the little Erato (Marginella)
Icevis, the white shell of which is minutely furrowed along the
lips; and also Ovulum patulum (Calpurna patula), so called on
account of its fancied resemblance to a poached egg.
We have also several species of Cone shells (family Conida;)
on our coasts, readily recognised by their form, which is a cone,
with a long, narrow aperture, partially closed by a minute
operculum. As in the last family, the foot is abruptly shortened
in front. The head is very prominent, with eyes situated on
the tentacles. There are two gills,
and the teeth are arranged in pairs.
Fio. 179. — 1. Ovulum patulum.
2. Erato Icevis
Fio. 180. — Mangelia scptangu-
laris AND Mangelia turricula
The Conidae are principally inhabitants of tropical seas, where
some very large species exist. Two of the British representatives,
both common shells, are shown in fig. 180.
Our next family (Buccinidce) is so well distributed on our
coasts, that it would be difficult, we imagine, to find a spot quite
free from its familiar forms. It contains all those creatures
commonly known as Whelks, Dog Whelks, and Dog Winkles,
ranging from deep water almost to high-water mark.
In all these the shell is notched in front, or the canal is turned
abruptly upward. The foot of the animal is broad, the eyes are
situated either on the tentacles or at their bases, and there are two
gill plumes.
All the species are carnivorous, and some are said to be very
destructive to mussels and young oysters.
The Common Whelk (Buccinum undatum, Plate V.) lives in
deep water, whence it is dredged up largely for the market. Its
MARINE MOLLUSCS
249
FIG. 181. — 1. Purpura lapillus. 2.
EGG CASES OF Purpura. 3. Nassa
reticulata
clusters of egg cases are washed up in large numbers on the beach,
where they form one of the commonest materials among the
refuse at high-water mark. It is not uncommon, also, especially
after storms, to find the unhatched eggs stranded by the waves,
and these are so transparent
that the embryos, several in
each capsule, may be seen
within. The hole through
which the young escape
may also be seen on the
inner side.
The Dog Periwinkle
(Purpura lapillus) abounds
on all our coasts and is re-
markable for the production
of a dull crimson or purple
fluid that may be obtained
from it by pressing on the
operculum. This fluid turns
to a brighter colour on exposure to air, and is said to have been
used largely in former times as a dye. It will be seen from our
figure that the spire of this shell is shorter in proportion than that
of Buccinum ; but both are alike in that the operculum is made
up of layers with a nucleus on the external edge.
The other species figured
is Nassa reticulata, popularly
known as the Dog Whelk, and
characterised by a tooth-like pro-
jection of the inner lip close to
the anterior canal. It is very
common near low-water mark,
where it may be seen crawling
over the rocks on its broad foot,
from which project two hornlike
appendages in front and two
narrow tails behind. FIG. 182. — Murex erinaceus
From the last family of the
gasteropods (the Muricidce) we select two common species — Murex
erinaceus and Fusus antiquus (Plate V.). In both these the
anterior canal of the shell is straight and the posterior wanting.
The eyes are on the tentacles, and there are two plumed gills. Both
250 THE SEA SHORE
are carnivorous species, feeding on other molluscs ; and the former
is said to bore through the shells of its prey with the prominent
beak of its shell.
Murex may be readily distinguished by the prominent longi-
tudinal ridges of the thick shell, its rounded aperture, and by the
partly closed canal running through the beak. It is known to
fishermen as the Sting Winkle ; the other species is called the Bed
Whelk in some parts, and in Scotland is known as the Buckle.
Like the common whelk, it is dredged largely for the market, and
is said to be far more esteemed than the former, from which it may
be distinguished by the fusiform shape of the shell and the long
straight canal.
We now pass to the last and highest class of the mollusca,
called the Cephalopoda because they have a number of arms
attached to the head, round the mouth. Unlike the majority of
molluscs they are bilaterally symmetrical : and are much more
highly organised, in some respects even making an approach to
the vertebrates. Thus they generally have an internal hard
structure, either horny or calcareous in structure, representing the
vertebral column, and the circulatory system consists of arteries
and veins, connected by minute capillaries. The corpuscles of the
blood are also similar in form to those of the vertebrates. Exter-
nally they are all naked, with the exception of the nautilus and
argonaut of the warmer seas.
The arms, so characteristic of the class, are eight or ten in number,
long and muscular, and provided with numerous suckers by which
the animal can cling with remarkable tenacity. These suckers are
situated on the inner surface of the arms, and the disc of each one
displays a series of muscular fibres, all converging from the
circumference towards the centre, which is occupied by a softer
structure that works inwards and outwards like the piston of a
pump. Thus the suckers form a system of exhausting air-pumps
by which a vacuum can be produced, and the tenacity of the grip,
maintained by atmospheric pressure, is so great that the arms,
strong as they are, may be torn asunder by attempting to pull
them from their hold ; and yet the animal can release its grip with
the greatest of ease by simply releasing the pistons of its pumps.
The cephalopods are further distinguished by their very large,
glaring eyes, situated on the sides of the well-formed head, and by
powerful jaws that work in a vertical plane, like those of the verte-
brates, but somewhat resembling the beaks of certain birds. The
MARINE MOLLUSCS 251
tongue is also very large and fleshy, and in part armed with
numerous hooked spines or teeth.
The class is usually divided into two orders, one characterised
by the possession of two gills, and the other of foxir ; but the
British species belong to the former, known technically as the
Dibranchiata. This order is subdivided into two sections
according to the number of arms ; and the divisions are called the
Octopoda and Decapoda respectively.
The former section includes the Octopods, of which some species
inhabit our seas. They all have eight arms, of unequal size, with
the suckers arranged in two rows, and their round or oval bodies
FIG. 183.— OCTOPUS
seldom have any fins, locomotion being effected by means of the
arms, and by the sudden expulsion of water from the siphon. The
shell is rudimentary, being represented merely by two short ' styles'
within the mantle. The species vary considerably in size, some
being only about an inch long when fully grown, while others measure
two feet or more, and are looked upon as formidable creatures by
man. Sometimes they are washed up on our beaches, but the best
way to make their acquaintance is to examine the contents of the
fishermen's drag nets as they are hauled on the beach.
In the same manner we may secure various species of the
Decapods or Ten-footed Cephalopods, which comprise the Cala-
maries, Squids, and Cuttlefishes. These, too, properly speaking,
252
THE SEA SHORE
have but eight arms, the other two appendages being really ten-
tacles, which are usually longer than the arms, and more or less
retractile ; they are also expanded at the ends. The decapods
are also to be distinguished from the octopods by their elongated
bodies, and a flattened, fin-like appendage on either side. Their
eyes, also, are capable of being rotated within the orbits, while
those of the octopods are fixed ; and the shell consists of one or
more horny 'pens,' or of a calcareous 'bone,' contained in a cavity
so loosely that it drops out of its place when the cavity is opened.
The Common Calamary (Loligo vulgaris) may be recognised
by the accompanying illustration, from which it will be observed
FIG. 184. — Loligo vulgaris AND
ITS PEN
FIG. 185. — Sepiola atlantica
that the body tapers behind, bearing two rhomboidal fins in the rear.
The suckers are arranged in two rows on the arms, but in fours on
the expanded tips of the tentacles. The animal is a good swimmer,
and sometimes crawls, head downwards, on the disc surrounding
the mouth, pulling itself along by means of its arms. Its shell is
a horny pen, lanceolate in form, but it divides as the age of the
animal advances, so that two or more may be found in the same
specimen.
Belonging to the same family we have the Common Squid
(Sepiola atlantica), also a very abundant species. Here the body
is shorter and purse-like, and the fins are dorsal and rounded. It
MARINE MOLLUSCS
253
seldom exceeds four or five inches in length, and, like the Calamary,
is used largely as a bait by fishermen.
Another family — the Sepiadte — contains the Cuttlefish (Sepia
officinalis), the 'bone' of which is such a common object on the
beach. This latter is a broad, curved plate of carbonate of lime,
made up of a number of regular layers, and having a cavity hollowed
out at the posterior end. It is exceedingly light and porous in struc-
ture, and at one time was used largely as an antacid as well as a
dentifrice. It is also proportionately large, being both as long and
as broad as the body of the animal.
FIG. 186. — Sepia officinalis AND ITS 'BONE'
Cuttlefishes live principally in the shallow water close to shore,
where they swim backwards by the sudden propulsion of water
from their siphons ; and their eggs, which look like clusters of black
grapes, are frequently thrown up on the beach, generally attached
to the stems and fronds of sea weeds.
As a rule the cephalopods swim slowly by the aid of their fins
or by a rhythmic contraction by which water is expelled from their
siphons, but when in danger the muscular contraction is so violent
that they dart through the water with great speed, and even leap
into the air to avoid their enemies. But they have another and
much more remarkable way of escaping from their foes : — They
possess a gland, the duct of which opens into the base of the funnel
or siphon, that prepares an inky fluid ; and when the animal is
254
THE SEA SHORE
disturbed it suddenly ejects this fluid, rendering the surrounding
water so cloudy that it is often enabled to retreat unobserved. The
' ink ' of the Sepia was used for writing in former times, and is still
employed in the preparation of the artist's pigment that bears the
same name. Fishermen are well acquainted with this peculiar
characteristic of the animal, for they are frequently bespattered
FIG. 187. — EGGS OF Sepia
with the contents of the ink bag of the Sepia when the creature
is included in the contents of their draw-nets, and have learnt
to handle it cautiously until the objectionable fluid has been all
discharged.
We will conclude this chapter by giving a tabular summary of
the classification of the molluscs which will probably be useful to
the collector of marine objects.
MARINE MOLLUSCS 255
CLASSIFICATION OF THE MOLLUSCA
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA— Plate-gilled. Headless, usually en-
closed in bivalve shell.
Section SIPHONIDA — Mantle lobes more or less united to form
tubular siphons.
Families — Pholadidte, Ga&trochanidce, Anatinida;, Myacidce,
Solenidce, Tellinidce, Mactridce, Veneridie, Cyprinidfc,
Liicinidce, Cardiadte, &c.
Section ASIPHONIDA— Mantle lobes free or nearly so. No true
siphons.
Families — Arcadce, Mytilidce, Avictilidce, Ostreidce, &c.
Class CEPHALOPHORA— Head-bearing. Usually enclosed in a uni-
valve shell.
Section PTEEOPODA— Wing-footed molluscs.
Section GASTEEOPODA— Stomach-footed molluscs.
Order Nucleobranchiata — Viscera form a nucleus on the back.
Order Opisthobranchiata— Shell generally absent. Gills more or
less exposed.
Section NUDIBRANCHIATA — Naked gills.
Section TECTIBBANCHIATA — Gills covered by shell or mantle.
Order Pulmonifera— Lung-breathers. Terrestrial.
Order Prosobranchiata.
Section HOLOSTOMATA — Aperture of shell entire (sea snails).
Families — Chitonidce, Dentaliadce, Patellidce, Calyptrcsidce,
Fissurellidce, Haliolidce, Turbinidce, Littorinidce, Turri-
tellidcB, CeritliiadcB, Pyramidellidce, Naticidce, &c.
Section SIPHONOSTOMATA — Possess a true siphon. Carnivorous.
Families— Cyprceidce, Conidce, Buccinidce, Muricidce, &c.
Class CEPHALOPODA — Sucker-bearing arms round the mouth.
Order Dibranchiata- Two gills.
Section OCTOPODA — Eight arms.
Families — Argonautidce, Octopodidce.
Section DECAPODA.
Families— Teuthidcs (Calaniaries, Squids), Sepiada, &c.
Order Tetrabranchiata — Four gills (containing Nautilidce).
256 THE SEA SHORE
CHAPTER XIII
MARINE ARTHROPODS
THE sub-kingdom A rthropoda contains a vast assemblage of animals,
all of which, as the name implies, possess jointed appendages.
Their bodies are covered with a skin that is hardened by a horny
substance (chitiri), and frequently, also, by the deposit of carbonate
of lime.
The body of Arthropods is made up of a chain of segments, all
of wh ch are built up on one common pattern, and each one is sur-
rounded by a ring of the hardened skin or exo-skeleton that gives
attachment to a pair of appendages. Commonly, however, two or
more of the segments become fused together, being covered by a
continuous plate or shield, in which the boundaries of the rings are
almost or completely obliterated ; but in such cases the appendages
they bear always remain distinct, so that the true number of seg-
ments is always apparent. The skin between those segments that
are not so fused together remains soft and flexible, thus allowing
the body to be freely bent.
The appendages exhibit a great variety of structure, and are as
varied in their functions. Some are used as feelers, and others
as jaws for seizing or masticating food. Some are developed into
powerful seizing organs for purposes of defence or attack, some into
paddles for swimming, while others are legs adapted for walking.
All these appendages are made up of segments, each of which,
like those of the body itself, is surrounded by a ring of hardened
skin, and connected with its neighbours by a flexible integument
that allows perfect freedom of movement ; while within are the
muscles, often very powerful, by which the appendage is moved.
In the arthropods we have a sub-kingdom of highly organised
animals, with distinct, and often very complicated, systems of organs
for digestion, circulation, and respiration ; and the nervous system
consists of a well-developed chain of ganglia, connected by nerve
MARINE ARTHROPODS
257
cords, and from which nerve fibres are distributed to the various
parts of the body. It should be noted, however, that some members
of the group have degenerated into parasites, and in these, as with
all such degraded creatures, many of the organs have retrogressed
to such an extent that they are quite functionless, or have even dis-
appeared entirely. These parasitic forms, when very young, are
really highly organised creatures, not unlike the young of their
industrious and more noble relatives ; but, as the natural result of
their degraded mode of living, in which they find no use for their
organs of locomotion, digestion,
circulation and respiration, these
eventually disappear, with the
result that the organs of repro-
duction predominate to such au
extent that they often fill the
greater part of the cavity of the
body.
It should be noted, too, that
the sense organs of arthropods
are well developed, most of them
being supplied with complex
eyes, hearing organs, and highly
sensitive feelers.
This sub-kingdom consists of
four classes — the Crustacea, in-
cluding lobsters, crabs, shrimps,
prawns, &c.; Arachnoidea, con-
taining spiders, mites, and scor-
pions ; Myriopoda — centipedes
and millepedes ; and Insecta.
The first of these classes con-
sists mainly of marine animals,
and will therefore occupy much of our attention, but the members of
the other three are mostly terrestrial and aerial creatures that do
not fall within the scope of this work, except in the case of a few
species that are more or less decidedly marine in their tendencies,
The aquatic members are generally provided with well-formed gills
by means of which they are enabled to extract the dissolved oxygen
from the water in which they live, while those of terrestrial and
aeiial habits breathe by means of a system of tracheae or air-tubes
that are open to the air and supply branches to all parts of the body.
Fio. 188. — THE NERVE-CHAIN OF
AN ABTHKOPOD (LOBSTER)
>, optic nerve ; c, cerebral ganglion ;
i, large ganglion behind the oesophagus;
(A, ganglia of the thorax ; ab, ganglia
of the abdomeu
258 THE SEA SHORE
The Crustaceans are mostly gill-breathers, though some of the
aquatic species have no special organs for respiration, but obtain
the oxygen necessary for respiration by absorption through their
thin, soft skin, while the terrestrial species breathe by means of
tracheae, as we have just observed.
Most of them are covered with a calcified skin, as in the case of
crabs and lobsters; but many are protected with a chitinous or
horny covering such as we observe in shrimps and prawns. In
either instance the hardened integument constitutes what is known
as the exo- skeleton. None of the crustaceans have an internal
skeleton of any kind, though some of the inner parts are supported
by extensions of the hard skin that penetrate into the body.
It will be readily understood from the nature of the exo-skeleton
of the crustacean, and especially of the more or less rigid calcareous
covering of the crab and the lobster, that a uniform growth of the
body is absolutely impossible, and, in fact, that an increase in size
cannot take place without an occasional casting of the hard coat of
mail. Hence we find most crustaceans throwing off their coverings
at intervals, and growing by fits and starts during the periods
between the ' moultings ' and the hardening of the newly exposed
skin.
When a crab or a lobster is about to undergo the process of
moulting, it retires to a secluded niche in the rock, where it is not
so easily found by its numerous enemies — a necessary precaution,
since the creature in its soft or unarmoured condition is eagerly
devoured by fishes and other marine animals — and there awaits the
first stage of the ordeal. Presently the skin splits; and, after a
time, the crustacean succeeds in extricating itself from its shell,
which is cast off in a perfect condition, every joint being entire,
even to the coverings of the antennas, the stalked eyes, and other
delicate appendages. And not only this, for the portions of the
shell that penetrate inward into the body are also discarded, as well
as the linings of the stomach and the gills ; and these cast-off coats
of crabs and lobsters — especially the former — may often be found in
the most perfect condition on the sea shore, being washed up with-
out injury on the sandy beach, or found in the very niche in which
the creature changed its attire.
If one examines the powerful pincers of a crab or lobster, a thin
plate of considerable size will be seen to extend within from the
movable 'jaw' to give attachment to the muscles by which it is
moved, and it seems impossible that this can be removed with the
MARINE ARTHROPODS 259
cast skin without considerable injury to the new claw that is already
formed, though as yet in a soft condition, within the old and hard
one. But it has been observed that this plate actually cuts through
the new claw, and that the claw thus divided almost immediately
closes up and unites again.
The moulting process being over, the crustacean's body extends
itself within the new, yielding skin; and, the latter becoming
gradually hard by tbe deposition of carbonate of lime, the creature
is able, after a period of rest, to roam at large again, without much
fear of injury, until the time for the next moulting has arrived.
Those who have made but a slight acquaintance with the
common crustaceans of our shores must have noted the frequency
with which imperfect specimens occur — specimens with missing
appendages, or with a well-formed limb on one side of the body
opposed to a puny and almost useless fellow on the opposite side.
As to the loss of appendages, this matter will be readily understood
by those who have watched crustaceans, arid especially crabs and
lobsters, in their native element, so often do these pugnacious
creatures become engaged in furious broils with their neighbours.
And, when we are at work at the collection of various species on the
sea shore, how often do we find that a creature escapes from our
grip by leaving us in possession of a severed limb, while the owner
retreats rapidly among the stones and weeds apparently none the
worse for its trifling loss ! This is, in fact, a very common method
of securing its escape from an enemy ; and it appears that many
crustaceans have the power of thus rendering a seized limb so brittle
that it may be snapped off with the greatest of ease.
We have spoken of the loss thus sustained as a trifling one ;
and so it is, for crustaceans have the faculty of reproducing lost
appendages; and though the loss may be one of considerable
inconvenience at first, a new limb eventually appears in the place of
each one so willingly discarded.
When such mutilations occur, it will be observed that the
severed limb invariably breaks away at the end of the first or
basal joint — a point where the bloodvessels are so narrow and
contractile that but little loss of blood takes place when the
rupture is made— and it has been said that the animal would soon
bleed to death if the fracture were to take place at any other point.
As it is, the wound soon heals, but no trace of a new limb is to be
seen, at least without dissection, until the time of the next moult.
The part is developing, however, beneath the cover of the basal
260 THE SEA SHOBE
joint ; and when the moulting period arrives, the new limb, still
very small, is exposed to view. It then rapidly enlarges, though
not to anything like its proper size, and its surrounding skin
becomes hardened by the deposit of the calcareous secretion
simultaneously with that of the rest of the body. Further enlarge-
ments of the new appendage take place at subsequent moults, with
the final result that it is but slightly inferior to its fellow either in
size or in power.
The eye of a crustacean is a very complicated structure,
commonly described as a compound eye. It consists of a large
number of conical, radiating, crystalline rods, collected together
into a mass that presents a convex outer surface. This surface is
covered with a transparent layer
of chitin which naturally pre-
sents a more or less distinct
netted appearance, the bases of
the rods being in contact with
its inner surface, and visible
through it. Each rod is sur-
rounded by a layer of pigment
that prevents light from passing
from one to another, and the
FIG. 189. — SECTION THROUGH THE optic nerve passing into the base
COMPOUND EYE OP AN ARTHRO- Of the compound structure sends
a sensitive filament into each
one.
In many crustaceans this compound eye is situated on the end
of a movable stalk that generally allows it to be protruded or drawn
under cover as occasion requires, but in others the organ does not
project beyond the general surface of the body. Thus we hear of
the animals of this class being divided into the stalk-eyed and
the sessile-eyed groups ; the former being represented by crabs,
lobsters, shrimps, &c. ; and the latter by sandhoppers and sand-
borers.
Crustaceans undergo metamorphoses while very young, the
body being altered considerably in form at several successive
moults. Some, in their earliest stage, consist of a little oval body
that shows no signs of a division into segments. It swims about
by means of three pairs of appendages, and has only one eye.
Others start life with four pairs of limbs, attached to the front
portion of the body, a segmented abdomen, as yet perfectly limbless,
MARINE ARTHROPODS
261
and a pair of compound eyes. Then as the successive moultings
take place, new segments and new appendages are developed, until,
FIG. 190. — FOUR STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT or THE COMMON
SHORE CRAB
at last, the form of the adult is assumed. The accompanying
illustration shows four stages in the development of the Common
Shore Crab.
The lowest division of the crustaceans
contains the Cirripedia or Curl-footed
crustaceans, which includes the Barnacles
that are so frequently seen attached to
the bottom of ships and of floating timber,
and the Acorn Barnacles, the conical shells
of which often completely cover large
masses of rock on our shores.
For some time naturalists could not
agree as to the proper place of these
animals in the scale of life, but the matter
was finally settled when some minute
creatures only about a twelfth of an inch
in length, and closely resembling the early
stages of certain crustaceans, were seen
to undergo metamorphoses, and finally
develop into acorn barnacles. Their posi-
tion in the animal kingdom was thus
determined by their early stages ; but
these, instead of changing into a segmented and highly organised
creature like the typical crustacean, lose some of their appendages,
cease to be free-moving animals, and attach themselves to floating
FIG. 191.
THE BARNACLE
262
THE SEA SHORE
bodies by which they are carried about. Thus they are enabled to
find the food they can no longer seek without such aid. In their
young state they possess not only the means of freely moving in
search of their food, but have organs of vision to aid them in
the capture of their prey. As they grow, however, the foremost
appendages are transformed into a sucking-disc, and the eyes, no
longer necessary, disappear. It will thus be seen that the
degenerated adult — the product of a retrograde development — is
FIG. 192.
-FouB STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF
THE ACORN BARNACLE
A, newly hatched larva ; B, larva after second moult ; C, side view of same :
D,. stage immediately preceding loss of activity ; a, stomach ; b, base of future
attachment. All magnified
attached by what was originally the front of its body, while the
abdomen is undeveloped, and the thorax, with its appendages, forms
the summit of the free extremity.
Some of the Cirripedes attach themselves to the bodies of
whales and other marine animals. The majority of these are
pseudo-parasites — creatures that live on the bodies of other animals,
but do not derive their food at the expense of their hosts ; others,
however, are true parasites, subsisting on the nourishing juices they
extract from the animals to which they are attached.
MARINE ARTHROPODS
263
. The Acorn Barnacles, so numerous on our shores, are good
types of the Cirripedia, and they are so easily kept alive in the
FIG. 193. — A CLUSTER OF ACORN SHELLS
indoor aquarium that their interesting movements may be well
observed. A cluster of these animals may be obtained by chipping
off a piece of the rock en which they grow ; or, instead of this, a
few minutes' searching on
a rocky coast at low tide
will certainly provide us
with a stone of suitable
size, or the shell of a mol-
lusc, on which the crea-
tures have found a home.
Place them in the
indoor aquarium, or in
any shallow vessel con-
taining just sufficient sea-
water to cover them, and
carry out your observa-
tions with the aid of a
hand lens. They will soon
open the inner cone of their many-valved shell, and slowly pro-
trude six pairs of gracefully curved and delicately-feathered ap-
pendages which, as previously stated, are attached to the thoracic
FIG. 194. — SHELL OF ACORN BARNACLE
(Balanus)
264 TEE SEA SHORE
portion of the body. Then, with a much more rapid movement,
the appendages will be withdrawn, and the shell closed. These
alternate movements are con-
tinued incessantly, and are the
means by which the animals
provide themselves with both
food and air. The reader should
also obtain some specimens of
the larger species for the exami-
nation of the shell, the structure
of which is interesting and, of
course, peculiar to this order.
In general structure and
habits Barnacles are very similar
FIG. 195. — THE ACOKK BABNACLB to the acorn barnacles, except
(Balanus porcatus) WITH Ap- that the bod is supported on a
PENDAGES PBOTRUDED , „ , . , ,
tough stalk, which, as we have
already stated, is the modified
anterior portion of the animal. These animals also may be easily
kept alive and examined in the indoor aquarium. They are not
creatures of the sea shore, but may often be obtained on masses of
timber that have been washed ashore, or from the bottoms of ships
that have been placed in the dry dock for repairs.
Another order of the crustaceans — the Copepoda, or oar-footed
group — is so called on account of the bristled feet that are em-
ployed after the manner of oars when the creatures are swimming.
These Copepods are small animals, so small indeed that the
compound microscope is generally necessary merely for the ex-
amination of their external characters. Many species inhabit fresh
water, and the study of the group is more commonly pursued by
the investigator of fresh-water pond life than by the sea-side
naturalist. However, marine species are abundant, and may be
captured in the open water or in rock pools by means of a muslin
net. As with the last order, some degenerate from the comparatively
complicated free-swimming and eyed larval state to blind and
limbless parasites that feed on the bodies of fishes and are known
as fish lice.
The body of the typical copepod is distinctly segmented, and
the head and thorax are both enclosed in a hardened buckler. It
has two pairs of antennae, two pairs of foot jaws by which it captures
its prey, and four or five pairs of bristled feet for swimming. The
MARINE ARTHROPODS
265
jointed abdomen has also a tuft of bristles at its extremity. The
annexed illustration represents some marine species, and will serve
to show the general features of the order.
FIG. 196. — A GROUP OF MARINE COPEPODS, MAGNIFIED
The sea-side naturalist, intent on the collection of small life,
may possibly meet with representatives of two other orders of
crustaceans — the Ostracoda or shelled crustaceans, the bodies of
FIG. 197.— A GBOUP OF OSTBACODE SHELLS
which are enclosed in a bivalve, hinged shell ; and the JBrancMo-
poda, so called because the branchiae or gills are attached to the
feet.
The Ostracodes have two or three pairs of feet which subserve
266 THE SEA SHORE
locomotion, but are not adapted for swimming ; and two pairs of
antennae, one of which assists in locomotion. The mouth is pro-
vided with organs of mastication, the branchiae are attached to the
hind jaws, and the animals have but one eye. Some of these
crustaceans inhabit deep water only, while others live in sand
between the tide-marks ; but several species, belonging chiefly to
the genus Cythere, abound in rock pools, where they may be
readily obtained by scraping the confervas and corallines with a
small muslin net.
The branchiopods are free swimmers, and are protected by a
buckler-like envelope. Most of them are inhabitants of fresh water,
and are popularly known as water fleas. We have figured one
marine species, belonging to the genus Evadne, which has a colour-
less body, and a single conspicuous black
eye, and is interesting as being the food
of the herring.
The four orders of crustaceans that
have been briefly described belong to the
division Entomostraca, which signifies
' shelled insects.' This term is not a
FIG. 198. — Evadne happy one when judged from the stand-
point of our present knowledge of animal
life, but it must be remembered that, at the time it was applied
(1785), spiders and crustaceans were all included in the same class
as the insects ; and this is hardly surprising when we observe the
close relationship of these animals, as shown in their segmented
bodies and jointed appendages ; for, as we have already shown, the
lowly organised parasitic crustaceans which, in the adult state, lose
most of their appendages and cease to be distinctly segmented, are
more or less insect-like in their larval and free-swimming stage.
All the other crustaceans are included under the term Mala-
costraca, or soft shelled, since, although many of them are protected
by an exo-skeleton that is hardened by the deposit of carbonate
of lime, yet, generally speaking, their coverings are* softer than
those of the molluscs ; and therefore the term Malacostraca was
originally applied by Aristotle in order to distinguish them from
the animals that are covered by harder and thicker shells.
This division of the crustaceans contains wood lice, sand-
hoppers, lobsters, shrimps, crabs, &c., and consists of two main
groups — the Sessile-eyed (Edriophthalmata) and the Stalk-eyed
(Podophthalmata) crustaceans.
MARINE AETHEOPODS
267
We shall now consider the Sessile-eyed group, dealing first
with the order Isopoda or equal legged, and then the Amphipoda,
which have appendages adapted both for walking and swimming.
The general nature of an Isopod may be readily understood
by the examination of the common woodlouse that abounds in
gardens and damp places almost everywhere, and the reader will
probably remember having seen similar creatures crawling over
the rocks on the sea shore.
The body is generally depressed or flattened, but convex above,
and is composed of seven segments, each segment bearing a
pair of legs which terminate in a pointed claw, while the posterior
appendages are modified into flat, leaf -like organs of respiration.
FIG. 199. — MARINE ISOPOD
1. Sphceroma serratum. 2. Limnoria lignorum. 3. Ligia oeeanica. 4. Netaa
bidentata. 5. Oniscoda macxlosa
"When engaged in ' shrimping ' one frequently meets with
shrimps or prawns that are disfigured by a tumourous swelling
on the side of the body, and if the swelling be opened a little
parasite will be dislodged. This parasite is an Isopod (Bopyrus),
the appendages of which are imperfectly developed. The female
is very much larger than the male, and, as is usual with parasitic
creatures, the greater part of the body-cavity is occupied by the
well-developed organs of reproduction.
There are several other parasitic isopods, some of which live
on the bodies of fishes, and are popularly known as fish-lice, but
these are not so likely to come in the way of the sea-side naturalist
as the more typical forms that crawl about on the rocks and among
268
THE SEA 8EOEE
the weeds of the coast. A few of the latter are shown in the
accompanying illustration, including the Sea Pill-ball (Nescea
bidentata), common on the rocky coasts of the south-west, and
distinguished by the two sharp projections on the last segment ;
the Serrated Pill-ball (Sphceroma serratum), very common on
most rocky shores, and characterised by the fine sawlike teeth on
the outer edge of the outer plates of the ' tail ' ; the Great Sea-
slater (Ligia oceanica), also an abundant species ; the Spotted
Hog Louse (Oniscoda maculosa) that lives among the tufted sea
weeds ; and the Boring Pill-ball (Limnoria lignorum) that bores
5 0
FIG. 200. — MARINE AMPHIPODS
1. The spined sea screw (Dexamine tpinosa). 2. Westwoodia ccecvla. 8. Tetromatus
typieus. 4. The sandhopper (Orchestia littorea). 5. Montagua monoculotdes.
6. Iphimedia obesa. All enlarged
into the woodwork of piers and jetties, often doing considerable
damage.
The above and other isopods feed on various animal and
vegetable substances, some species being quite omnivorous in
habit. Most of them are eagerly devoured by birds and fishes.
The Amphipods, six species of which are shown in the above
illustration, include the Sandhoppers or Beach Fleas, so numerous
on our coasts that it is almost impossible to go any distance
without making their acquaintance. They are invaluable as
scavengers, as they rapidly devour decaying sea weeds, and will
speedily reduce the body of any animal washed on the beach to
MARINE ARTHROPODS 269
a clean skeleton. Although they are all small creatures, they
make up in numbers for any deficiency in size ; and though
devoured in enormous quantities by the various shore birds, they
multiply so prodigiously that they are never lacking wherever
there is decomposing organic matter to be consumed.
The bodies of these animals are usually flattened from side
to side, very distinctly segmented, and have a well-developed
abdomen. The head is furnished with two pairs of antennae and
a pair of sessile eyes, though some species possess only one pair
of antennae, while others have four eyes. The limbs of the thorax
are used either for walking or for swimming, and give attachment
to the gills. The abdomen has generally six pairs of appendages,
the foremost three pairs of which are usually small, and employed
in swimming, while the others are stronger and directed back-
wards, and are often adapted for jumping.
It is very interesting to observe the habits of the Sandhoppers
and other Amphipods both on the sandy beach and in the water,
and the student will find that certain species burrow into the sand
with considerable agility, and live principally at the extreme high-
water mark, where they feed on the organic matter washed in by
the breakers at each high tide, while others dwell almost exclu-
sively in the water, among weeds and stones, and should be
searched for at low water. The latter may be kept alive for some
time in the aquarium providing they are the only occupants, but
a little experience will show that these and all other Amphipods
are readily devoured by many marine creatures, and consequently
they are of real value to the aquarium keeper as food for other
animals.
We now come to the Stalk-eyed Crustaceans (Podophthalmata),
which contain those members of the class most generally known,
such as crabs, lobsters, shrimps, and prawns. In these the eyes
are mounted on movable pedicels, the head and thorax are generally
covered by a large shield called the carapace, and the appendages
are adapted partly for seizing and masticating, and partly for
locomotion.
The group includes two orders — the Stomapoda or Mouth-
footed crustaceans, so called because some of the limbs are crowded
round the region of the mouth ; and the Decapoda, or Ten-footed
crustaceans.
The Stomapods, though very abundant in tropical seas, are
not often met with on our own shores. However, since a few
270
THE SEA SHOEE
interesting species are inhabitants of our seas we will briefly describe
the distinguishing characteristics of the group.
"We have just mentioned the
fact that the head and thorax of
a decapod is usually covered by a
large shield — the carapace. Now,
the general character of this cara-
pace may be seen at once in
either the shrimp or the lobster.
In these animals the segments
that form the head and the thorax
are all fused together, and are
completely covered by the pro-
tective buckler of hardened skin ;
but in the Stomapoda the carapace
is much smaller in proportion,
and a few of the segments of the
thorax, instead of being fused into
the general mass of the ceplialo-
thorax, are quite distinct from
it. The abdomen, also, is large
and strongly formed in these ani-
mals. Five pairs of the thoracic
limbs are directed forwards, and
FIG. 201.— THE MANTIS SHRIMP are adapted both for catching food
(Squilla Mantis) and for climbing, while others
are used in walking. The limbs
of the abdomen generally number six pairs, of which the first five
bear feathery gills.
Two species of Mantis Shrimps, one of which is represented in
fig. 201, have been found off the south and south-west coasts, but
these are not likely to be seen on the shore, since they inhabit
deep water. Allied to these, and sometimes included with the
Stomapods, are the Opossum shrimps, so called because the
females of some species carry their eggs in a kind of pouch, thus
reminding us of the marsupial quadrupeds of the same name. They
are of very slender build compared with the mantis shrimps, and
differ from them in that the carapace completely covers the thorax ;
but though this is the case, the fusion of the thoracic segments
is not complete, since the posterior ones have still a certain amount
of freedom of movement. Some species of opossum shrimps are
MARINE ARTHBOPODS 271
abundant in the rock pools of our coasts, particularly in the south-
west, but their bodies being often so transparent as to be almost
invisible, they are consequently easily overlooked. Their general
appearance may be gathered from our illustration of Myais
chamceleon, which is probably the most common species inhabiting
our coast.
The highest crustaceans — the Decapods — are divided into two
sub-orders — the Macrura, or Great-tailed, in eluding lobsters, shrimps,
&c. ; and the BracTiyura (Short-tailed), containing the crabs; but
the number of British species is so large that it is impossible to
give, in our limited space, a detailed description of all the commonest
even. All we can do is to note a few of the more interesting
features of certain species, to introduce such illustrations as will
enable the young naturalist to identify a number of the commoner
Fro. 202. — THE OPOSSUM SHEIMP (Mysis chamceleon)
ones, and to give the general characteristics of the main divisions
so that the student may be able to classify his specimens
intelligently.
In the Macrura, as with other divisions of the crustaceans, we
meet with very interesting modifications of the appendages, adapted
to quite a variety of uses ; and if the reader is unacquainted with
these adaptations of structure to habit he cannot do better than
secure a lobster or crayfish for study. It will be observed that the
body may be divided into two main portions — the cephalothorax,
consisting of head and thorax combined, and the abdomen. The
former is composed of fourteen segments, so thoroughly fused
together that they are denoted only by the fourteen pairs of
appendages to which they give attachment, while the calcified akin
forms one continuous shield surrounding the whole. The abdomen,
on the other hand, consists of six distinct segments, each of which
272
THE SEA SHORE
is surrounded by its own ring of the hardened integument, and is
connected with its neighbours by means of a portion of uncalcified
skin that renders the whole very flexible. A groove in the front
portion of the great shield (carapace) marks the division between
the head and the thorax, the
former composed of six, and the
latter of eight united segments.
The calcareous covering of
each segment consists of an
upper portion, called the tergum,
and a lower, named the sternum,
united at the sides ; the sternal
portion of the cephalothorax,
FIG. 204.— A SEGMENT or THE
ABDOMEN OF A LOBSTER
t, tergum : *, sternum, bearing a pair of
swimmerets ; A, bloodvessel ; d, diges-
tive tube ; n, nerve chain
which gives attachment to the
walking limbs, is a most com-
plicated and beautifully formed
structure.
The six pairs of appendages
belonging to the head are easily
made out with a little care. The
first are the jointed eye-stalks
that bear the compound eyes pre-
viously described ; and these are followed by two pairs of antennce,
or feelers, the first being shorter and double, while the second
are very long. The former contain the organs of hearing. Then,
in front of the mouth, and completely hiding it, are a pair of
FIG. 203. — PARTS OP LOBSTER'S
SHELL, SEPARATED, AND VIEWED
FROM ABOVE
MARINE AETHEOPODS
273
strong mandibles or jaws that move horizontally, and the two pairs
of maxilloB that are also employed in reducing the food.
Following these, but belonging to the thorax, are three pairs
of appendages that are known as foot-jaws ; for, although they
assist the preceding organs in breaking up the food, they bear a
resemblance in some respects to the longer limbs behind them. Of
the latter there are five pairs (hence the term decapoda), the first
being a very powerful pair of seizers or pincers, and the remaining
four, which are well adapted for walking, terminating in either
double or single claws.
All the appendages above
mentioned are not only attached
to the body by movable joints,
but are themselves made up of
jointed parts, sometimes a con-
siderable number, each of which,
like the segments of the body
itself, is surrounded by a ring
of hardened skin, and connected
with those above and below it
by a portion of soft and flexible
skin
Lastly, beneath the abdo-
men, are paired limbs called
8'ivimmerets, which are used as
paddles, and probably assist
the animal more or less in its
progress through the water; but
the principal organ of locomotion
in the macrura is undoubtedly
the powerful muscular abdomen, aided by the broad and fanlike tail
formed by the appendages of the last segment. To demonstrate this
fact, put a live lobster, or even a shrimp, in a still rock pool, and
threaten it from before, when it will rapidly retreat backwards by a
series of powerful jerks, produced by suddenly doubling its abdomen
forwards beneath its body.
In addition to the external characters above mentioned, there
are many interesting features connected with the internal structure
of the lobster that may be studied on making easy dissections.
Thus, the gills, which are attached to the bases of the thoracic limbs,
may be exposed by cutting away the side of the carapace, and at tb.3
T
FIG. 205. — APPENDAGES OF A
LOBSTER
1. Second maxilla. 2. Third foot-jaw. 3.
Third walking leg. 4. Filch walking
leg
274
THE SEA SHOES
same time we may discover the bailing organ by means of which a
current of water is kept flowing forwards through the gill-cavity
to keep up the necessary supply of oxygen for respiration. The
removal of the upper portion of the carapace will expose the heart
and some of the principal bloodvessels, and also the stomach with
its powerful and complicated ' gastric mill,' formed by the harden-
ing of portions of the wall of the latter organ for the purpose of
crushing and masticating the food. Then, if these organs be care-
fully removed from above, together with the others we have not
space to describe, and the powerful muscles that fill up the segments
of the abdomen, the chain of ganglia and their connecting nerve
FIG. 206. — LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE LOBSTER
a, antenna; r, rostrum or beak; o, eye; m, mouth ; s, stomach ; in, intestine;
I, liver ; gl, gills ; h, heart ; g, genital organ ; ar, artery ; n, nerve ganglia
cords that form the central part of the nervous system may be seen
extending along the central portion of the body.
Several species of lobsters inhabit our seas, but they are gene-
rally to be found beyond the tide-marks, and are, therefore, not
often caught by sea-side collectors without the aid of some kind of
trap or the assistance of fishermen. The common lobster (Homarus
vulyaris), however, is often left behind by the receding tide on our
rocky coasts, and may be seen and caught if one knows where to
look and how to capture.
On cautiously approaching a deep rock pool one may often see
a lobster rapidly retreat in its usual backward fashion, and snugly
house itself in a narrow chink from which it is impossible to remove
it. And, when once surprised, it is not likely to show itself again
as long as the intruder is in view.
MAEINE AETHEOPODS
275
If one remains perfectly still for a time, a pair of waving antennae
may be seen gradually protruding from the safe retreat ; but, as soon
as the stalked eyes have advanced sufficiently to detect the figure
of a stranger, the lobster silently withdraws itself till quite out of
sight.
Lobsters, usually of rather small size, may often be seen quite
out of the water at low tide, in the narrow chinks of the rock, or
under large stones, but it is no easy matter, as a rule, to get them
out. It is of little use poking a stick into the entrance of their
hiding-places, though occasionally they will grasp the stick so
tenaciously with their forceps that they may be pulled within reach.
FIG. 207. — THE SPINY LOBSTEK (Palinurtts vulgaris)
You may be able to haul them out by their long antennae, but if you
can find a second way into their home such that you can disturb
them from behind you are pretty sure of your victim.
It will be unnecessary to describe other species of lobsters
individually, but we have introduced figures of a few for identifi-
cation. The Norway Lobster (Nephrops norvegicus) is often landed
in large numbers by the fishermen of the east and south-east coasts
and sold at a shilling or so a dozen under the name of Norway
Prawns. They are pretty and interesting creatures, and may be
easily kept alive in the indoor aquarium, where they may be fed on
any kind of fish.
276 THE SEA SHORE
Fig. 209 represents the two allied creatures that may some-
times be dug out of the sandy beach, or from the mud in the
estuary of a river. The one on the left is the mud-borer (Gebia
Fio. 208. — THE NORWAY LOBSTER (Nephrops norvegicus)
stellata), which is of a dull yellowish colour, marked more or less
distinctly by pinkish starlike spots — a feature that has suggested
the specific name. The beak in front of the carapace is very
MARINE ARTHROPODS
277
prominent and spiny, and the long abdomen is narrower in front
than in the middle. This creature hides in the holes that have
been excavated by boring molluscs, and seems also to extend the
cavities it inhabits by its own labours.
The other is very similar in general form, but has no spiny
beak and the abdomen is much broader in the middle than at the
base. It is also to be distinguished by the very unequal size of its
front legs, one of which is much more developed than the other.
It is known as the mud-burrower (Callianassa subterranea),
and is said to burrow very deeply into mud-banks, scooping out its
retreat principally by means of the second and third pairs of legs.
Fio. 209. — THE MUD-BORER (Gebia stellata) (1) AND THE MDD-BURROWER
(Callianassa subterranea) (2)
Although found at times between the tide-marks, its principal
habitat is probably in the mud that is covered by deep water, for
it is not uncommonly to be found in the stomachs of fishes that
habitually feed in such localities.
Lobsters of all kinds, and, indeed, the marine crustaceans
generally, are essentially the scavengers of the sea, for they are
carrion-feeders, greedily devouring flesh in all stages of decompo-
sition. Hence the value of their work on the sea shore is very
considerable.
An examination of shrimps and prawns will at once show
their close relationship with lobsters. The general build of their
bodies is practically the same, and their appendages, though often
278 THE SEA SHORE
different in form from the corresponding limbs of the lobster, will
be seen to resemble them closely in arrangement and structure.
The exo-skeletons of these creatures are, however, generally
hardened by a horny substance (chitiri) instead of a stony deposit
of carbonate of lime.
The shrimps and prawns sold for food in our markets are very
similar in appearance when alive, the leading distinguishing
feature being, perhaps, the presence of a sharp, serrated beak
projecting forward from the front portion of the carapace of the
latter.
The reader is probably acquainted with the fact that the shrimps
and prawns used as food have quite a different appearance when
alive and in their native element to that displayed by the corre-
Fio. 210. — THE COMMON SHRIMP (Crangon vulgaris)
spending wares in the fishmonger's shop— a fact that applies equally
well to the edible crabs and lobsters. Most crustaceans change to
a bright red colour when boiled, and, as stated in a previous chapter,
the same result is produced by the action of strong spirit.
The Common Shrimp (Crangon vulgaris) is an exception, how-
ever, for it may be distinguished when boiled by its dull greyish
brown colour. "When alive this species is of a very pale greenish
or greyish tint, lightly spotted with brown ; and its habits are so
interesting that it will well repay one to watch it either in the
aquarium or in a rock pool. It frequents sandy coasts, and can
hide itself very quickly by burying its body in the sand, using for
this purpose both its legs and its antennae.
The Prawn frequents rocky coasts, where it may often be
obtained in large numbers by sweeping with a suitable net under
MARINE ARTHROPODS
279
the cover of weeds and stones. Its body is of an exceedingly pale
greenish colour, and so transparent that it is quite inconspicuous
when in the water. Prawns are turned to a rose-red colour by
boiling, and they are captured in large numbers when young and
sold as ' red shrimps.'
In addition to the common species mentioned there are quite a
number of shrimps and prawns to be found in our seas, but some
of them inhabit deep water and are rarely to be found between the
tide-marks. All, however, are eagerly devoured by fishes, and, on
that account, are often to be obtained in good condition by examin-
ing the contents of the stomachs of freshly caught fishes. In fact.
FIG. 211.— THE PRAWN (Palawan serratus)
this mode of search for the smaller species of deep-sea life is not
to be despised, for it is a means by which we can obtain specimens
that are not often secured by the methods coming within the ordi-
nary range of the amateur's work.
It will be remembered that we spoke of the Decapods as con-
sisting of two main groups— the Great-tailed (Macrura) and the
Short-tailed (Brachyura) . Frequently, however, we find the order
divided into three sub-orders as follows : —
1. Macrura (Great-tailed), 2. Anomura (Peculiar-tailed),
3. Brachyura (Short-tailed) ;
280 THE SEA SHORE
the first containing lobsters, shrimps, &c. ; the third the typical
crabs, such as the shore crab and the edible crab ; while in the
second are placed those species of crabs which have been regarded
as intermediate in character. Thus, in the Anomura we find
decapods in which the abdomen, though not so well developed as
in the Macrura, is either permanently extended or is capable of
being extended and used for swimming as occasion requires. The
hindmost legs, also, are not well developed and adapted for walk-
ing, but are employed only as organs of prehension ; and, as is
the case with the first sub-order, there are often two pairs of well-
developed antennae.
In this sub-order of ' queer tails ' we find the Soldier or Hermit
Crabs, and those flat-bodied crabs that live almost exclusively on
the surface of stones, and are hence known as Stone Crabs ; but as
opinion now seems inclined against the formation of a special sub-
order for these creatures, we shall briefly deal with them as a first
section of the Brachyura.
The Stone Crabs are extremely interesting creatures, and the
observation of their habits, both in and out of the water, is particu-
larly entertaining and instructive. One species — the Broad-Clawed
Porcelain Crab (Porcellana platycTieles), shown on Plate VI. — is
very abundant on all our rocky coasts, and may be found in
immense numbers near low- water mark.
Turn over some of the large encrusted stones that strew the
beach among the rocks, and you are almost sure to find numbers
of these little crabs clinging to the freshly exposed surface. A few
of them may remain perfectly still, and exhibit no sign of surprise
on their untimely exposure to the light ; and these, on account of
their small size, the closeness with which they apply their flattened
bodies to the encrusted stone, and more than all to the protective
colouring of their dingy bodies, which so closely resembles that of
the surface to which they cling, may well be overlooked by the in-
experienced collector. But the majority of them will immediately
scamper away in their own peculiar fashion towards the edge of the
stone, and rapidly make their way to what is now the under side.
As they progress with a hasty, sliding movement they never for
one moment loosen their firm hold on the rough surface of the
stone, but keep both body and limbs in close contact with it,
clinging hard by means of their pointed claws as well as by the
numerous hairs and bristles with which their appendages are
liberally fringed.
MARINE ARTHROPODS 281
Attempt to pull one from its hold, or even take other than the
gentlest means to arrest its progress, and you will probably find
that it suddenly parts company with one of its broad claws in its
endeavour to escape ; and, unless some special precautions be
taken to remove these crabs, it is possible that quite half the
specimens taken will have been damaged in this way during their
struggles to escape. If, however, you gently thrust the point of a
penknife beneath the body, and then apply the thumb above, you
may lift them from a stone without injury. Another plan is to
press a frond of smooth sea weed as closely as possible to the
surface of the stone in the front of the crabs, and then allow them
to crawl on to it, or cause them to do so if necessary. The piece
of weed, with crab or crabs attached, may then be bagged for future
examination.
On turning over the Broad-clawed Crab its under surface will
be seen to be perfectly smooth, with an appearance closely re-
sembling that of white porcelain. Its foot-jaws, also, are propor-
tionately large, and closely fringed with hairs ; and the last pair of
legs, which are very slender in build, are folded closely beneath
the body. Further, the abdomen is wide, composed of six distinct
movable segments, and terminating in a tail-fin composed of five
fringed plates.
Drop the crab into water, and it will immediately extend its
abdomen, which it will flap sharply under its body somewhat after
the manner of lobsters and shrimps, and thus swim backward by a
series of jerks as it sinks to the bottom. On reaching the bottom
it instantly grasps the solid material, applies itself closely to the
surface, and glides away into the nearest chink it can find.
As one observes the nature and movements of these interesting
little crabs one cannot fail to see how beautifully their form and
structure are adapted to their habits. They are peculiarly con-
structed for abode in narrow chinks and crannies, and for feeding on
the small forms of life that inhabit such sheltered places. Their
legs move in the plane of their flattened bodies, and as they glide
among the confervse and other low forms of life that encrust the
stones of the beach they feel their way by, and are possibly also
guided by the sense of smell located in, their long outer antennae,
while the close fringes of their claws and foot-jaws form admirable
sweep-nets by means of which the little animals that form their
food are swept towards the mouth.
We have other species of stone crabs, one or two of which
282 THE SEA SHOEE
resemble the last species, and belong to the same genus, but the
others are very different in general appearance. The Northern
Stone Crab (Lithodes), found principally on and off the coasts of
Scotland and Ireland, has a spiny covering with a long beak.
Another species — Dromia vulgaris — is somewhat similar in habit,
though it can hardly be termed a stone crab, since it inhabits deep
water, and apparently lives among the sponges, sea firs, and weeds '
that cover the bottom.
The remainder of the Peculiar-tailed Decapods belong to the
Soldier or Hermit Crabs, and constitute the genus Pagurus.
Every one who has searched a few rock pools will have seen
the familiar Hermits, and will probably have been interested in
their varied antics. First you observe the shell of a mollusc — a
Trochus, Periwinkle, or a Whelk —travelling at an abnormal rate
FIG. 212. — Dromia vulgaris FIG. 213. — THE HERMIT CRAB IN
A WHELK SHELL
for a member of its class. You approach closely to make an
inquiry into the matter, when the motion suddenly ceases, and the
shell instantly drops into position with its mouth close to the sur-
face below. If left undisturbed for only a short time, the rapid and
somewhat jerky motion is resumed, only to cease as suddenly as
before as soon as the inhabitant is again threatened.
On examining the shell we find that it is the home of a species
of crab, and that the animal within it is completely hidden with
the exception of its head, stalked eyes and long, slender antennae,
one very large claw, and a few walking legs.
To remove the creature from its home is no easy matter as a
rule. To pull it out by means of its legs or its antennae would
probably be to sever some portion of its body; but if you thrust
the creature, shell and all, among the spreading tentacles of a large
anemone, it will at once grasp the peril of the situation ; and, if
MARINE ARTHROPODS 283
the shell has already been secured by the clinging petals of this
dangerous marine flower, the hermit will speedily quit its home
and endeavour to rush from the many snares in order to secure its
freedom. Orj it not infrequently happens that the occupied shell is
one that has withstood many a storm, but not without the loss of
the apex of its cone. In this case the insertion of a very flexible
fibre into the opening thus made will cause the hermit to leave its
home in the possession of the enemy.
Having, by some means or other, managed to drive the crab
from its shell, we place it in a shallow rock pool, or in a vessel of
sea water, and observe the chief features of its structure.
The first thing that strikes one is the absence of a calcified skin
on the extended abdomen, which is so soft that, remembering with
what eagerness fishes will attack and devour crabs of all kinds, we
can at once understand the necessity of such a home as the creature
selects. Again, we observe the presence of appendages at the tip
of the abdomen by means of which the crab is enabled to hold
itself securely in the shell. Also, when we note the general form
of the armoured portion of the body, and the position of the soft-
skinned abdomen, we can see how well adapted the whole is to fit
snugly into the spiral shell of a whelk or winkle.
We also observe that one of the pincers is much larger than the
other, and the value of such an arrangement may be estimated
when we see the animal at home. The smaller claw, together
with the other appendages used for walking or prehension, can be
retracted within the shell, but the large claw, which constitutes a
formidable weapon of attack and defence, is not only in such a
position as to be ready for immediate use ; but, lying as it does in
front of the body, with other portions hidden more or less behind
it, it serves the purpose of a shield when the animal retires.
If we place a homeless hermit crab in a rock pool, the be-
haviour of the creature immediately suggests a feeling of uneasi-
ness— a sense of danger — for it moves about in a very erratic fashion
that is quite different from the straightforward and deliberate action
of the same animal when properly protected ; and very amusing
results may be obtained by making it the subject of a few harmless
experiments. For instance, drop down before it an empty whelk-
shell that is much too large to properly accommodate its body. It
will immediately approach the untenanted house, search and probe
it well with its antennae and other appendages, and then, finding it
uninhabited, and having no apartment of more suitable size at
284 THE SEA SHORE
hand, will abruptly gives its body a turn and hastily thrust itself
backwards into it.
If at the time of this experiment the advancing tide disturbs
the water of the pool, the result is somewhat ludicrous, for the
shell, too cumbersome to be controlled by the creature within, is,
regardless of its attempts to maintain a normal position, turned
over and over as each wave advances and retreats.
Again, supposing the shell supplied to be too small for the
intended occupant, it will, after the usual examination of the
interior, thrust its soft abdomen as far in as possible, and make
the best of the unsatisfactory circumstances until a more suitable
home can be found. And if, at this distressing period, we drop
before it a shell of just the right size — the one from which the
creature was originally expelled for instance, it is astonishing how
quickly the change of houses will be accomplished. After a brief
examination of the shell with the object of determining whether all
is right within, during which the crab continues to avail itself of
the imperfect accommodation afforded by the previous shell, it
rapidly extracts its body from the one and thrusts itself backwards
into the other. Its normal habits are at once resumed, all its
movements being now suggestive of confidence and contentment.
We have already referred (p. 153) to the fact that a large
anemone (Sagartia parasitica) is commonly found attached to a
whelk shell, which at the same time forms the home of the hermit
crab, and (p. 44) that a marine worm (Nereis) is also a common
associate of the hermit, taking up its abode in the interior of the
same shell ; and we also briefly discussed the mutual advantage
of such an arrangement to the parties concerned. These triple
combinations are not so frequently met with on the shore between
the tide-marks, but are dredged in considerable numbers by
the trawler ; and the reader will find it repay him to secure one
in order that he may be able to watch the interesting habits of
the associates. The movements of the hermit crab are always
pleasing, particularly the manner in which it seizes and manipu-
lates its food; and still more so is the occasional appearance of
the head of the worm, always in exactly the same place, for the
purpose of deliberately stealing the food from the very jaws of the
crab.
Hermit crabs are easily kept in captivity, and may be fed on
any kind of animal food, but care should be taken not to allow an
excess of food to remain in the water and render it putrid by
MABINE ARTHEOPODS 285
decomposition. As long as the crabs are active and remain within
their shells you may assume that the conditions are favourable ;
but when they become sluggish in their movements, and leave
their homes, the sanitary condition of the aquarium should be
regarded with suspicion ; for hermit crabs, like many of the
marine tube worms, generally quit their homes when the condi-
tions are unfavourable, as if they preferred to die outside.
The Common Hermit Crab (Pagurus Bernhardus), also known
as the Soldier Crab, on account of its very pugnacious habits, is
common almost everywhere on our coasts, and may be distin-
guished by the numerous little tubercles on the claws and on the
upper edge of the front legs ; and there are several other species,
belonging to the same genus, distributed more or less locally on
the various shores. All are similar in general structure and habits,
the various species being identified principally by means of their
colour, the variations in the form of the appendages, and the
general character — smooth, tubercular, spiny, &c. — of the exo-
skeleton. One species, found in the sandy bays of Cornwall,
burrows rapidly in the sand.
Coming now to the true crabs — the Brachyura, or Short-tailed
crustaceans, as sometimes distinguished from the Anomura — we
find quite a variety of interesting creatures, many species of which
are always within the reach of the collector at work between the
tide-marks. In all these the abdomen is only slightly developed,
and is never used in swimming, being permanently folded beneath
the thorax. This portion of the body, however, is usually very
distinctly segmented, and if it be lifted from its position it will
be found that some of the segments bear appendages corresponding
with the swimmerets of the lobster. It is also wider in the female
than in the male, and crabs of the former sex may often be found
during the summer with the abdomen more or less depressed, and
the space beneath it quite filled with eggs.
The upper surface of the carapace of crabs is often very
distinctly grooved, and it is interesting to note that these features
of the exo-skeleton are not merely of external significance, for they
usually correspond in position with various internal structures,
some of them denoting the areas of the insertions of important
muscles, and others enclosing the regions of certain of the internal
organs.
It will be noticed, too, that the carapace, which in lobsters is
often less than half the length of the body, covers the entire body
286 THE SEA SHORE
of the crab, except, perhaps, a very small linear portion between
the bases of the last pair of legs, where the first part of the
segmented abdomen is visible from above.
The true crabs of our seas may be divided into four groups, as
follow :
1. Oxystomata, or Pointed-mouthed Crabs ;
'2. Oxyrhyncha, or Pointed-beaked Crabs ;
3. Catometopa, with forehead turned downwards ; and
4. Cyclometopa, or Bound-headed Crabs ;
and we shall briefly observe some of the more conspicuous and
interesting species in the order of the tribes as just given.
The first division is not well represented in our seas, the
principal species being the Nut Crabs and the Long-armed Crab,
all of which may be distinguished by the peculiar arrangement
of the foot-jaws, which, when closed, form a triangle with an
acute angle turned towards the front. The Nut Crabs are mostly
small ; and, since they generally inhabit deep water, are not
commonly seen on the shore ; but perfect specimens may some-
times be found among the contents of fishes' stomachs. They
derive their name from the nature of the carapace, which is of a
rounded form and very hard and strong.
Pennant's Long-armed Crab (Corystes Cassivelaunus) may
commonly be seen entangled among fishermen's nets, but is not
often seen on the shore at low tide. Its carapace is very convex
above, with three sharp spines on each side, and the grooves are
so arranged as to suggest the appearance of a face. Our illustra-
tion represents the female, but the ' arms ' of the male are very
much longer than those of this sex.
The Sharp-beaked Crabs (Oxyrhyncha) include all those long-
legged creatures that are known collectively as the Spider Crabs ;
and here, again, we have to do with species that almost exclusively
inhabit deep water. Although this is the case, but little difficulty
is experienced, as a rule, in obtaining specimens. If you are
unable to take a trip in a trawler for the purpose of examining the
' rubbish ' that is dredged from deep water, simply obtain permission
to search the nets and the boats as they arrive in port. In the
latter case you are almost certain to find the crabs you require,
though it is probable that some of the species will have been
damaged by the hauling and shaking of the nets.
These interesting crabs have been spoken of as the monkeys
MAEINE AETHEOPOD8 287
of the sea, and the comparison will certainly be tolerated by anyone
who has watched the creatures as they climb among the corallines
and sea firs in an aquarium. Among such growths they are quite
at home ; and although their movements do not often suggest the
extreme agility of the monkey tribe, yet the ease with which they
seize the branches of the submarine forest with their long ' arms '
and pull their bodies from one tree-like structure to another is
Fio. 214. — THE LONG-ARMED CRAB (Corystes Cassivelaunus)
decidedly monkey-like. Their comparison with the long-legged
spiders is also a happy one as far as their general form and
movements are concerned, but it must be remembered that they
have not the same reputation for cruel, predaceous habits, for they
are more truly the scavengers of the deep, subsisting mainly on the
decomposing bodies of their dead associates. The movements of
most spider crabs are so slow and deliberate that one can hardly
imagine them capable of anything of the nature of violent action ;
288
TEE SEA SHORE
yet, when occasion requires it, they will sometimes strike at the
object of their wrath with a most vigorous snap of their claws.
In these crabs, too, we find most interesting instances of
protective resemblance to their surroundings. Some of the small,
slender-legged species are not to be recognised without a careful
search when they are at rest among clusters of sea firs, their thin
appendages and small bodies being hardly discernible in the midst
of the slender, encrusted branches, and their peculiar forms are still
FIG. 215. — SPIDER CRABS AT HOME
more concealed by their colouring, which generally closely resembles
that of the growths among which they live. Further, the carapace
of spider crabs is in itself a garden on which thrive low forms
of both animal and vegetable life. Minute Alga, and occasionally
some of moderate size, are rooted to the shell, often securely held
by the aid of the rough hairs and tubercles that are so characteristic
of the exo-skeletons of these creatures ; and patches and tufts of
animal colonies that have found a convenient settlement on the
MARINE ARTHROPODS 289
moving bed still further serve to obscure the nature of the living
mass below — a mass that is always in danger of becoming the prey
of the fishes which inhabit deep water. It is probable, therefore,
that this association is one that is beneficial to both sides as far as
the animal life is concerned, the lower species serving to disguise
the true nature of the crab, thus protecting it from its numerous
enemies, while they in return are conveyed, carriage paid, to the
feeding-grounds, where they can freely partake of the fragments
that become diffused in the surrounding water.
Our illustration on p. 288 shows three species of spider crabs,
all of which are common on parts of our shores. The Scorpion
Spider Crab (Inachus dorsetensis) derive* its specific name from
the fact that it was first found off the coast of Dorset ; but it is
abundant off many of our shores, both in the south and north, and
may frequently be seen entangled among the fishermen's nets. It
may be distinguished from other and similar species by the four
spines arranged in a line across the front portion of the carapace,
and the five large, pointed tubercles behind them. This species is
undoubtedly a favourite food of the cod, for several specimens may
often be taken from the stomach of a single fish.
The next species — The Slender-beaked Spider Crab (Steno-
rhynclms tenuirostris) — is seldom missing from the dredgings
hauled in off the south-west coast, and is fairly common in other
parts. Its legs are extremely slender, and bear spines on the inner
side, and its body, where free from the incrustations so often
covering the carapace of spider crabs, is of a fresh pink colour.
The other one shown in the same illustration is Arctopsis
lanata, sometimes known as Gibb's Crab, the carapace of which
is pointed behind, bears a large pointed tubercle on each side, and
is completely covered with a thick clothing of stiff hairs. It is also
common on many parts of our coasts, more especially the coasts of
Devon and Cornwall.
Closely allied to the last-named, and belonging to the same
family, is the well-known Thornback Crab (Maia Squinado), also
a very common crab, of which we give a separate illustration.
The tribe Catametopa does not contain many British species, the
principal being the Pea Crabs ; the Floating Crab, which is occasion-
ally washed on the south-west coast; and the beautiful Angular
Crab. In these the front of the carapace is turned downwards — a
feature that has suggested the name of the tribe.
The pea crabs are all small, and they are parasites, living
u
290
THE SEA SHORE
within the shells of bivalve molluscs. One species — the Common
Pea Crab (Pinnotheres pisum) is frequently found in the Edible
Mussel ; the female, which is much larger than the male, being
FIG. 216. — THE THORNBACK CRAB (Mate Squinado)
much more commonly found. Another species — the Pinna Pea
Crab (P. veterum), infests the Pinna and Modiolus.
On Plate VI. is a drawing of the Angular Crab (Gonoplax
angulata) mentioned above, the striking form and delicate colouring
of which can never be mistaken. We would,
however, call particular attention to the broad
and square front of the cephalothorax, with
its two sharp spines, and to the length of the
eye-stalks. Unfortunately for the amateur,
this pretty crab is only to be found in deep
water, off the coasts of Devon and Cornwall,
so that here, again, the aid of the fisherman
is valuable ; but, as observed in the case of
other deep-sea dwellers, may also be looked for in the stomachs
of cod and other bottom fishes. The sex figured is the male, in
FIG. 217.— THE PEA
CRAB (Pinnotheres
pisum)
PLATE VI.
CRUSTACEA
1. Gonoplax angulata 3. Portunus puber
2. Xantho florida 4. Polybius Henslowii
5. Porcellana platycheles
MARINE ARTHROPODS
291
which, when fully grown, the front legs are much longer than in
the female.
The remaining division of the crabs — the Cyclometopa or Bound-
fronted Crabs, contains the larger number of species that may
truly be described as common objects of the shore, for while some
of them are well adapted for swimming, and live in the open water,
the majority inhabit the shore, either between or just beyond the
tide-marks, roaming about more or less freely when in the water,
but usually hiding under stones or weeds, or burrowing into the
sand, when left behind by the receding tide.
FIG. 218. — THE COMMON SHORE CRAB (Carcinus manas)
The members of this tribe may be known at sight by the form of
the carapace, which is wide and rounded in front, and narrowed
behind.
The accompanying illustration represents the commonest of
the group — the Common Shore Crab (Carcinus mcenas), which is
found plentifully on all our coasts, and even in brackish water far
up the estuaries of rivers. It is a very voracious and pugnacious
creature, probably the most active of all our crabs, and its move-
ments, whether connected with its feeding, its sports, or its warfare,
are always very interesting when observed through clear water.
This crab varies considerably in colour, but is usually of the
greenish tinge shown in the frontispiece.
292 THE SEA SHOES
Another abundant and well-known species is the Edible Crab
(Cancer pagurus), which is as familiar an object in town as on the
sea coast. Unlike the common lobster, its natural colour is not
considerably changed by boiling, being only turned from a dull to
a brighter red.
The finest specimens of this crab are to be caught beyond low-
water-mark, the usual snare being the basket or pot, baited with
fish refuse, but large numbers live among the stones and rocks
left exposed at low tide, and sometimes include specimens of consider-
able size. They should be looked for under large stones that are
loosely piled together, or in the narrow chinks of rocks.
It is very interesting to compare the habits of the two common
crabs just mentioned. The former, when molested, will run off
in great haste, but always retreat with its front to the enemy,
and its sharp and powerful pincers far apart and wide open,
ready for immediate use in its own defence if necessary. The latter
species, on the other hand, though strongly built and provided with
formidable claws, seldom runs far, and hardly ever attacks one in
the act of pulling it out of its hiding-place ; but, on the contrary,
doubles all its ten legs under its body as if endeavouring to
approach, as nearly as possible, the form of a ball, and will allow
itself to be rolled about without showing any signs of life.
The genus Xantho contains two or three species that are
common on the Cornish and Devon coasts, and which may be
known by their depressed and deeply-grooved carapace and the
presence of three or four prominent tubercles on the latero-anterior
margins. The abdomen of the female has seven joints, while that
of the male has only five. One of these (Xantho florida), shown
on Plate VI., is a powerfully built crab, as may be seen when, after
being disturbed, it pushes its way among the loose stones of the
beach, often lifting masses many times its own weight.
On the same plate is also a figure of the pretty Velvet Crab
(Portunus puber), also known as the Lady Crab and the Violet
Fiddler. The first of these popular names has its origin in the
dense covering of close hairs that clothe the carapace, and the
last refers to the beautiful violet colouring of parts of the front
legs, and, to a lesser extent, of the remaining legs. This is,
perhaps, the most ferocious of all our shore crabs, and its attacks,
when disturbed, are of such a determined nature that the catching
of the larger specimens is quite a lively sport. Though it can
hardly be described as an abundant species, yet it sometimes occurs
MARINE AMTHEOPODS 293
locally in such numbers that it may be found under nearly every
stone of any size. In fact, we have searched two or three localities
on the south-west coast where this crab is not only extremely
numerous, but is at the same time almost the only species to be
found ; and it seems not unlikely that the pugnacious Lady has
been the means of driving the less formidable species from its
favourite haunts.
When you disturb a Velvet Crab it will immediately raise itself
in a menacing attitude, stretching its brightly coloured pincers as
wide apart as possible, and then it will either retreat backwards, or
even make a firm stand, ready to strike as soon as it is threatened
with an attempted touch. Try to grasp it, and its two powerful
weapons of defence are brought together with lightning-like rapidity
giving one a decidedly smart blow, possibly followed by a grip of
great tenacity for a creature of its size ; but, should it miss its aim,
its pincers strike together with a sharp click, only, however, to
extend at once in preparation for the next attempt.
It will be observed that the walking legs of this crab are all
flattened, and that while the first three pairs terminate in sharp,
lance-like claws, the last pair are broad and fringed with hairs, thus
showing their close relationship to the swimming crabs. In fact,
the same genus contains British species which are popularly known
as Swimming Crabs.
One of the swimmers is represented in fig. 4 of Plate VI. It is
generally known as Henslow's Swimming Crab or the Nipper, the
scientific name being Polybius Henslowii. The carapace of this
species is quite smooth, thus enabling the crab to move through the
water with less resistance, and the walking legs, particularly the
last pair, are flattened and fringed for use as paddles. It, is said
that this crab can raise itself from the bottom to the surface of
moderately deep water by means of the swimming feet, and that it
preys on fishes which it pursues with some vigour.
Other crabs than those briefly described will reveal themselves
to the sea-side collector, but we have not the space to introduce
them here. Sufficient information has been given, however, to
enable the reader to broadly classify his specimens — a matter of
more importance to the young naturalist than the mere naming of
species.
Leaving the crustaceans now, and passing for a moment to the
Arachnoidea— the second great division of the arthropods— we shall
briefly describe the Shore Spider (Pycnogonum littorale), which is
294 THE SEA SHORE
the only representative of the class likely to be met with by the
sea-shore collector.
It will be seen by our illustration that this creature by no means
resembles a typical spider. The powerful jaws, really modified
antennae, that are such formidable weapons in the latter, together
with other appendages of the head, are undeveloped in the shore
spider, and the head is prolonged forward to
form a rigid beak with the mouth at the sum-
mit, and the head and thorax together form a
cephalothorax of four distinct segments, each
of which bears a pair of legs. Further, the
cephalothorax forms almost the whole of the
Fio. 219. — THE body, for the abdomen, usually so large in
SHORE SPIDER spiders, is here represented by a mere tubercle.
The shore spider is unable to swim, but crawls
about among the weeds and stones of the bottom, clinging firmly
by means of the curved claws of its eight thick legs, and is
protected by its dull grey colour which closely resembles that of
the encrusted stones among which it spends the greater portion
of its existence. It may sometimes be found hiding under stones
near low-water mark, but is far more commonly seen among the
'rubbish ' hauled in by the trawl.
We shall conclude our brief survey of the marine arthropods by
a short account of the insect life of the sea shore, referring to a few
of the more prominent forms and observing some of their habits ;
but since it is probable that some of our readers are not well
acquainted with the general characters of this interesting class of
animal life, it will be advisable to precede our remarks by a short
summary of their principal distinguishing features, more particularly
those in which they differ from the other arthropods.
Insects, then, may be defined as those arthropods in which the
body is divided into three distinct parts — the head, composed of
from four to six fused segments, and bearing as many pairs of
appendages ; the thorax, formed of three segments, each of which
gives attachment to a pair of legs; and the abdomen, composed of
eight segments that bear no appendages.
The head of an insect is furnished with a pair of compound eyes,
very similar in structure to those of a crustacean, and often, in
addition, a cluster of simple eyes ; also a pair of antennae, usually
composed of many joints. These antennae are important organs of
touch, and are employed, at least by many forms, as a means of
MARINE ARTHROPODS 295
communication between one insect and another. In them are
also located the organs of hearing, and, possibly, those of other
senses.
The mouth varies very considerably in different insects, but is
often supplied with a pair of mandibles or biting jaws, and, below
them, a pair of maxillae or chewing jaws, both pairs being jointed
to the head in such a manner as to be capable only of horizontal
movements. Above and below these jaws are, respectively, the
upper lip or labrum, and the lower lip or labium, the latter having
appended to it a pair of jointed feelers called the labial palpi,
and an additional pair of palpi are also frequently attached to the
maxillse, and therefore called the maxillary palpi.
These organs of the mouth of an insect are modified in various
ways according to the functions they are called upon to perform.
Thus, in bees, the upper lip, as well as the mandibles, are adapted for
chewing, while the maxillae and the labium are grooved in such a
manner that when brought together they form a tube through which
fluids may be sucked into the mouth. Also, in the butterfly and
the moth, the maxillae are not constructed for chewing, but consist
of two channelled rods which, when approximated, form a long
tube or proboscis employed for suction ; and in these insects the
labial palps are large for the protection of
the proboscis, which is retracted and closely
coiled between them when not in use. Fur-
ther, in the bugs, the labium is long and
tubular, while the mandibles and maxillse
are often modified into sharp, stiff bristles
that work within the tube, the whole thus
forming a combined piercing and sucking
arrangement.
The leg of an insect is built up much in
the same manner as that of the typical crus-
tacean. It consists of a basal hip joint or
coxa, a ring segment or trochanter, a thigh
(femur), a shin (tibia), and the tarsus or
foot of several joints which terminates in a j?IG 220.— TUB LEO
claw or claws, and is often provided with o? AN INSECT
sucking-pads. The wings, when present, are
attached to the second and third segments of the thorax, if two
pairs, but if, as in the case of the house fly, the insect has only one
pair of wings, these are always appended to the second segment.
296 THE SEA SHORE
Insects are developed from eggs, but in their young state they
are segmented larvae, with strong jaws, antennae, simple eyes, and
usually three pairs of legs attached to the first three segments next
to the head.
As regards internal structure, we need only mention here that
the body is traversed by numerous branching tubes (tracheez) that
open at the exterior and con-
stitute the respiratory appa-
ratus ; that the insect is
provided with a contractile,
tubular heart by means of
which the blood is propelled
through a system of blood-
Fia. 221.— TRACHEA" OF AN INSECT, vessels; that the nervous
MAGNIFIED system consists of a chain of
ganglia, connected by a nerve
cord, sending nerve filaments to all parts of the body ; and that
the digestive tube is often a complicated structure, especially in
the case of those insects that feed on herbivorous matter.
The above outline will be sufficient to show that insects are not
very unlike the crustaceans in their general characteristics ; and,
indeed, when we examine certain forms, noting the distinct segmen-
tation of the body, the hardened exo-skeleton of chitinous material,
and the unhardened skin between the segments to admit of freedom
of movement, we see a striking resemblance in external appearance
to some of the typical crustaceans.
Insects are divided into several orders, and some of these are
fairly well represented on the sea coasts, though it must be under-
stood that but few species are strictly aquatic and marine in their
habits. Fresh-water pools and streams teem with insect life, and
quite a large number of the insects that live in these situations -are
peculiarly adapted for a life of submersion, their general form being
often such as to allow of rapid progress through the water, their
appendages modified into admirable swimming organs, and, in many
cases, their breathing apparatus adapted for the direct absorption of
oxygen dissolved in the water.
However, one would hardly expect to find similar forms of life
abundant in the water that washes our shores, the disturbing action
of the waves, even in calm weather, being more than such fragile
creatures could withstand. And this is really the case, for there
are but few insects that may be described as marine in the strictest
MAEINE ARTHROPODS 297
sense of the word ; and of these the species that have been observed
are mostly inhabitants of warmer seas.
It is noteworthy that all the insects which exhibit marine ten-
dencies are small, and they seldom, if ever, live permanently below
the surface. But few of them can swim. A few run on the surface
of the water, supporting themselves on the surface film after the
manner of water-gnats, whirligig beetles, &c., without ever being
wetted ; and these are said to feed on different kinds of floating
matter, and occasionally to dive below the surface.
A rambler on the sea shore in the summer time will always meet
with plenty of insect life, but the number of species observed may
not be large : and omitting all those which show no decided pre-
ference for the coast, but are found in inland districts as well, we
find that by far the larger proportion live at or near the high-water
mark, where they feed on the refuse washed up by the waves.
Some species, however, live among the stones, or burrow into the
sand, between the tide-marks ; and these, as a rule, are not driven
inland by each advancing tide, but allow the sea to wash over them,
having at first protected themselves from disturbance by burrowing
or seeking other suitable shelter.
These latter, like many of the insects that inhabit fresh water,
are well adapted to withstand prolonged immersion. Their bodies
are not capable of being wetted, a covering of short hairs effectu-
ally preventing the water from coming into actual contact with the
body. The openings of the breathing tubes (spiracles) are also
guarded by closely set hairs which prevent the water from entering ;
and, in some cases, the creatures are provided with special air-sacs
in which a supply of air is stored for use while the insect is shut off
from the external atmosphere.
The lowest order of insects includes the so-called Bugs
(Rhynchota), which are parasitic on plants or animals. Quite a
number of these are to be found inhabiting fresh water, but only
one is truly marine hi its tendencies. This one is a small insect,
only about an eighth of an inch in length, and named &pophilus
(fig. 222). It has never been seen except between the tide-marks,
and occurs so near low- water level that it is submerged during the
greater part of its existence. But little is known of this peculiar
creature. Even its food has not been ascertained. As with the
other Rhynchota, but little change of form takes place during
growth, the young being very much like the adult in appearance.
298
THE SEA SHORE
It has been observed that the larvae live crowded together under
the protection of stones.
The reader is probably acquainted with those fresh -water bugs
that are popularly known as ' boatmen ' on account of the oar-like
action of their long, fringed hind legs ; and although none of these
may be described as marine, yet certain species may often be seen
in salt and brackish water, living in company with creatures that
are decidedly inhabitants of the sea.
We frequently meet with a pretty, slender-bodied insect,
measuring about half an inch in length without appendages,
creeping over the rocks in the sunshine, generally very near the
FIG. 222. — SEA SHORE INSECTS
1. jfpophilus. 2. Jfachilis maritima. 3. Isotoma maritima. 4. Cotlopa
crevices in which they hide, and leaping from place to place when
disturbed. These are the Bristle-tails (Machilis), belonging to the
order Thysanura, the members of which, like the bugs, scarcely
undergo any metamorphoses. This insect (fig. 222) has long
antennae, and also a long, stiff, and elastic bristle extending
backwards from the tip of the abdomen ; and this bristle is the
means by which the creature leaps. Occasionally the machilis
may be found resting on the surface of the still water of a rock
pool, in which case its body is not wetted, its weight not being
sufficient to break the surface film of the water ; and, in fact, the
film is even sufficiently firm to enable the insect to leap on the
surface just as it would on a solid body.
MAEINE ARTHROPODS 299
Allied to the bristle -tails, and usually grouped with them in the
same order, are the little Spring-tails, some species of which may
often be seen huddled together on the surface of the water of a
rock pool. They are so small that, unless closely examined, they
may be mistaken for particles of floating inorganic matter which
have been blown into a sheltered corner of the pool, and this idea
may be strengthened by the fact that these minute creatures are
driven by the wind into such sheltered spots. But when we
disturb them their true nature immediately becomes apparent,
for they may then be seen to move about on the surface of the
water, sometimes creeping on the surface film, and clambering on
the adjacent rock or weed, or leaping more or less vigorously, in
which latter case their bodies do not become wetted, the surface
film remaining unbroken by their exertions. And even when the
rising tide drives the spring-tails into crevices where they remain
submerged, perhaps for hours together, their bodies still remain
dry, the water being kept off by numerous short bristles and
prominences with which they are furnished.
"When we examine a spring-tail by means of a lens we observe
that it has no traces of wings, but that each of the three seg-
ments representing the thorax bears a pair of short legs, and that
the abdomen consists of only five or six segments. The head is
furnished with a pair of jaws, and the antennae, which are short
and thick, are composed of but few joints — never more than six in
number.
Some spring-tails live among the refuse washed up on the
beach, where they may be seen jumping about in company with the
sandhoppers when the material is disturbed. Such is the case with
Isotoma maritima, the illustration of which shows the forked
tail that enables the little animal to jump about so vigorously.
But some of the marine spring-tails are not so true to their name,
since they are not provided with this characteristic jumping organ,
and have to content themselves by creeping about slowly with the
aid of their short legs. One of these springless spring-tails (Anurida
maritima) is one of the commonest of the group, and is distributed
over almost every part of our coast.
Passing over several orders of insects which do not seem to have
any marine representatives, we come to the Diptera or two-winged
insects, of which the familiar house-fly is a type, and here we have
to deal with those troublesome creatures that literally swarm in
the neighbourhood of the matter washed up to the highest level
300 THE SEA SHORE
of the tide during the whole of the summer months. But although
these insects are so very numerous, we do not find among them
a particularly large number of species, their abundance being due
more to the extreme prolificacy of those that occur.
In this order, which includes all gnat-like creatures, as well as
those insects that are generally known as flies, the first pair of
wings are well developed, while the second pair are rudimentary,
and represented merely by a pair of scales, or by two little pin-like
bodies called the balancers or halteres. Some are provided with
piercing organs by means of which they can inflict a small wound
and then extract the juices of their victim, as does the female gnat,
but the majority have a proboscis adapted for suction only. The
larvae of the Diptera are generally limbless maggots, gifted with a
pair of jaws, and they are usually very voracious feeders, devouring
decomposing animal or vegetable matter in enormous quantities.
If we turn over a fermenting mass of the miscellaneous matter
thrown up on the beach quite beyond the reach of the tides, we
may observe a multitude of little maggots which feed on the moist,
odorous portion that was protected from the direct rays of the sun,
together with a number of dark-coloured pupae that lie at the
very bottom of the heap or buried in the sand below. These are
two stages of the black fly (Coelopa frigida) that is so attentive to
us when we rest on the dry sand above high -water mark. This fly
is very like the common house-fly in general appearance, though
its body is rather smaller. Other species of the same genus often
accompany them, all being very similar in general appearance and
habits, and none of the larvae seem adapted to a life in the water.
They are always found beyond the reach of the tide, and are
drowned if submerged for any length of time.
Another species belonging to the genus Actora will often be
seen in the same company, and this is readily distinguished by
their lighter greyish colour and its superior size. Also, along
the water-line, we often meet with species of the family Dolicho-
podidce, so called on account of the length of their legs, and noted
for the beautiful metallic colours which adorn their bodies. These
flies are carnivorous in habit, deriving their food from living as well
as from freshly killed animals, and their short, fleshy proboscis
contains a piercing bristle by which they can puncture the skins of
the animals that provide them with food. Most of the flies of this
group live on trees, walls, fences, &c., where they pursue and attack
their prey, but certain species follow the line of breakers on the
MARINE ARTHROPODS 301
sea shore, as before indicated, and obtain their food from the various
marine animals that are stranded on the beach. A peculiar feature
of the family is the nature of the abdomen of the males, which is
bent under the body and furnished with a number of appendages.
Another marine dipterous insect is a gnat-like fly closely allied
to Chironomus, which we have described in a former work * of this
series dealing with fresh-water life ; and it will be sufficient to
mention here that Chironomus is commonly known as the window-
gnat on account of the frequency with which it may be seen flying
on the windows of our dwellings ; also that the larva, known
popularly as the bloodworm, is truly aquatic in habit, being able to
swim by rapidly looping its body in opposite directions, and being
provided with a breathing apparatus adapted for the absorption of
the oxygen gas contained in solution in water. The larva of the
marine species referred to above may sometimes be seen in rock
pools, where it shelters itself among the sediment at the bottom.
It is much like the bloodworm in appearance and structure, but its
body is greenish instead of red.
The last order of insects calling for notice here is the Coleoptera
or sheath-winged insects, popularly known as beetles, and cha-
racterised by the hard and horny nature of the front pair of wings
(elytra), which are modified into sheaths and serve to protect the
second pair ; the latter are thin and membranous, usually adapted
for flight, and lie folded beneath the former when not in use.
One large section of beetles is known as the Oeodephaga or
Ground Beetles — a group of very predaceous insects that burrow
into the soil and attack almost every living thing that comes in
their way, and well represented by numerous species that may be
found in our gardens, and, in fact, almost everywhere.
A considerable number of these insects show a decided pre-
ference for salt marshes and the sea shore, where they hide under
stones, or burrow into the sand or mud in search of their prey.
They are not marine in the strictest sense of the word, for they are
not adapted for a life of submersion in water, either in the larval
or in the perfect condition ; yet they are often found below high-
water level, and some species burrow into the sand of the beach as
the tide advances, allowing the water to cover them for hours
together.
One interesting family of the ground beetles (the Bembidiidce)
includes several small species, all of which frequent salt and wet
* Life in Ponds and Streams.
302
THE SEA SHORE
places, such as salt marshes, the mouths of rivers, and the sea
shore. We give enlarged illustrations of a few of these, the actual
size being denoted at the side of each.
Bembidium biguttatum may be identified by its brilliant
bronze-green colour, and the two distinct impressions on the elytra
FIG. 223. — MARINE BEETLES OF THE GENUS Bembidium
1. B. biguttatum. 2. B.pdllidipenne. 3. B.fumigatum. 4. B.quadriguttatum
which have suggested the specific name. B. pallidipenne is, as its
name implies, a pale-winged species, the elytra being of a light
yellowish colour. 5. fumigatum is so called on account of the
MARINE ARTHROPODS
303
smoky tint of the elytra ; and the last species of the same genus
figured (B. quadriguttatum) may be known by the four conspicuous
spots on the deep violet-coloured outer wings.
The same family contains an interesting little beetle — Cillenium
laterale — only about one-sixth of an inch in length, that lives
among the refuse washed on the beach, where it feeds on the
sandhoppers ; and although the latter are so much superior in size,
the beetle has no difficulty in holding and killing its prey, always
seizing it on the ventral side of the body, which is less protected
by the hardened skin. This species, which is of a copper colour,
does not confine its ravages to that portion of the beach which
is above high-water mark, but often allows itself to be covered
by the advancing tide, remaining submerged for a considerable
FIG. 224. — MARINE BEBTLEB
pys marinui. 2. Micralymma brevipcnne
time. Another species — Aepus (^Epys) marinus — is even more
aquatic in its habits, for it searches out its prey among stones,
chiefly at the mouths of rivers, below high-water level, and is often
submerged for hours together. It is even provided with air-sacs
to enable it to withstand such prolonged submersions.
There is another section of beetles which has elytra so short
that they cover only a small portion of the abdomen ; but although
so short, these elytra completely cover the long membranous wings,
which are folded up beneath them in a wonderfully compact
manner. The section referred to is termed Brachelytra, from the
feature just mentioned, and includes a few species that are more
or less marine in their habits. One of them — Micralymma brevi-
penne — lives under stones below high-water level, and apparently
304 THE SEA SHORE
passes through all its stages within reach of the waves. Another
of the Brachetytra (Bledius) burrows into the sand or mud near
high-water mark, throwing up the debris as it proceeds. Both
these beetles are carnivorous, and the latter is in turn preyed upon
by a ground beetle of the genus Dyschirius, which hunts and
devours it within its own home.
The reader will have observed that the sub-kingdom Arthropoda
is not only a very extensive one in the sense that it contains a vast
number of animal forms, but also that its members exhibit a very
great variety of form and structure ; and the beginner will probably
find no little difficulty in locating his specimens in their correct
position in the scale of life. The following table, however, will
serve to show the general classification of the group at a glance,
and thus form a basis for a more detailed study at any future
tune: —
SUB-KINGDOM ARTHROPODA
CLASSIFICATION
Class CRUSTACEA.
Sub-class ENTOMOSTKACA.
Order Astracoda — Free. Body enclosed in a bivalve shell.
Order Copepoda — Free. Five pairs of feet adapted for swimming.
Order Cirripedia — Sessile. Enclosed in a shell of many valves.
Order Branchiopoda — Free. Gills attached to feet.
Sub-class MALACOSTBACA.
Division EDKIOPHTHALMATA, or Sessile-eyed Crustaceans.
Order Isopoda — Body flattened. Seven pairs of legs — equal.
Order Amphipoda — Body flattened laterally. Legs adapted for
both walking and swimming.
Division PODOPHTHALMATA, or Stalk-eyed Crustaceans.
Order Stomapoda — Anterior appendages directed towards the
mouth.
Order Schizopoda — Cleft-footed Crustaceans.
Order Decapoda — Ten-footed Crustaceans.
Sub-order Macrura — Great-tailed. Lobsters, &c.
Sub-order Brachyura — Short-tailed. Crabs.
Class ARACHNOIDEA.
Order Scorpionidse — Scorpions.
Order Araneidse — Spiders.
Order Acarina — Mites.
MARINE ARTHROPODS 305
Class MYRIOPODA.
Order Chilopoda— Centipedes.
Order Chilognatha — Millepedes.
Class INSECTA.
Order Ehynchota — Imperfect metamorphoses, suctorial mouth.
Order Thysanura — Imperfect metamorphoses. No wings.
Divided tail. Spring-tails.
Order Euplexoptera — Abdomen with terminal forceps. Earwigs.
Order Thysanoptera — Four equal membranous wings. Thrips.
Order Orthoptera — Anterior wings usually shorter and firmer.
Grasshoppers, &c.
Order Neuroptera — Two pairs of glassy wings — equal.
Order Trichoptera — Wings unequal, clad with hairs or scales.
Caddis flies.
Order Aphaniptera — No wings, no compound eyes. Fleas.
Order Diptera —Two membranous wings. Flies.
Order Lepidoptera— Wings clad with scales. Butterflies and
Moths.
Order Coleoptera — Fore wings hard and horny. Beetles.
Order Hymenoptera— Four membranous wings. Larva, footless
grubs. Ants, Bees, &c.
CHAPTEB XIV
MARINE VERTEBRATES
THE vertebrates form the highest sub -kingdom of animal life — the
sub-kingdom to which we ourselves belong, the chief distinguishing
characteristic of the group being the presence of an internal
skeleton, the principal part of which consists of a rod or column
of cartilaginous or bony material running along the dorsal side
of the body, known as the verte-
bral column.
This column is usually com-
posed of a number of elements
called vertebrae, each of which
gives off two processes that unite
and form an arch on its dorsal
side, while all the arches form a
tube through which passes the
central portion of the nervous
system.
Below, or on the ventral side
of the column, is the body-cavity
containing the organs of diges-
tion and circulation ; so that if
we make a transverse section of
a vertebrate animal we find that
there are two distinct tubes or
cavities — a neural or cerebro-
Fio. 225.— TRANSVERSE
THROUGH THE BONT
WORK OF A TYPICAL
BBATE ANIMAL
i
SECTION
FRAME-
VERTE-
Spinons process of the vertebra. 2.
Neural arch. 3. Transverse process,
5. Body of the vertebra. 6. Breast-
bone. 7. Rib. The space between 2
and 5 is the neural cavity ; and that
between 5 and 6 la the visceral cavity
spinal cavity on the dorsal side
of the vertebral column, formed by extensions from the substance
of the latter, and enclosing the chief portion of the nervous sys-
tem ; and a body-cavity on the ventral side containing the viscera
or internal organs.
The above features are highly important, and will always prove
MARINE VERTEBRATES 307
quite sufficient to enable us to decide whether any particular animal
is a vertebrate or an invertebrate, for it will be remembered that
the body of the latter has only one cavity, containing the nervous
system as well as the viscera, and that the nervous system is
commonly placed along the ventral side, but never along the dorsal.
In addition to this the vertebrates never have more than two pairs
of limbs, and these are always directed from the nervous system ;
and the jaws, which are appendages that move in the horizontal
plane in invertebrates, are, in the higher animals, portions of the
framework of the head and move vertically. In vertebrates, too,
there is always a complete blood system, consisting of a heart with
two, three, or four cavities, a system of arteries to convey the
blood to the different parts of the body, veins to return the blood
to the heart, and networks of fine capillaries connecting the former
with the latter.
All vertebrates, at an early stage of their existence, have a
cartilaginous rod running through the dorsal portion of the body,
called the notocord. In some of the lowest animals of the division
this rod persists without any important alterations in structure,
while in the higher forms it gives place to the series of cartilaginous
or bony elements above referred to as the vertebrae; and the
arrangement of the vertebrates into their relative positions in the
scale of life is based largely on the degree of development of the
vertebral column from the notocord. Another interesting feature
in the development of a vertebrate is the formation of five or more
transverse, archlike thickenings on each side of the digestive tube,
just behind the head ; and, in the spaces between them, of a series
of slits forming a communication between the pharynx and the
exterior. These arches and clefts have but a brief existence in
many vertebrates, while in others they persist throughout life;
and, like other points referred to, they assist us in recognising the
relations of the vertebrates to one another.
The vertebrates are divided into the following classes : —
1. Cyclostomata — Lampreys.
2. Pisces — Fishes.
3. Amphibia — Frogs, Toads, Newts, &c.
4. Reptilia — Snakes, Lizards, Tortoises, &c.
5. Aves — Birds.
6. Mammalia — Mammals.
The first of these includes only a few species, one of which is
308 THE SEA SHORE
found in our seas, and will receive a short notice here. The fishes
will, of course, demand a fair share of our attention. Amphibians
and reptiles have no British marine representatives, and are there-
fore quite excluded from this work. As to the birds, although there
are so many that live entirely on the sea and in its immediate
neighbourhood, these have been so ably dealt with by Mr. Hudson
in one of the books of this series that it would be superfluous to
mention them. The mammals include a considerable number of
marine species, but as only one of these — the Porpoise— is really
commonly observed round our coasts, it alone will be selected for
description.
Lampreys and their few allies were formerly classified with
fishes, but are now made to form a small class by themselves ; and
there is abundant reason for the separation. It will be remembered
that vertebrates, in the early stages of their development, are charac-
terised by a cartilaginous rod running through the dorsal region of
the bod}', below the central cord of the nervous system, and that they
possess a series of slits opening into the sides of the pharynx. Now,
while these characteristics are usually only transitory in the verte-
brates, the Lampreys and their relatives are the only animals in
which they persist throughout life, and it is for this reason that they
are exalted to the dignity of a class under the title Cyclostomata.
This name signifies ' round-mouthed,' while the Lampreys them-
selves form the still smaller division Marsipobranchii, which means
' pouch-gilled,' these two being among the most evident characters
of the creatures concerned. They have no true jaws, the circular
mouth being supported by a ring of cartilage, and provided with a
rasp-like tongue that enables them to divide their food. They have
no true bone in their bodies, the simple skeleton, without limbs
and ribs, being entirely cartilaginous, and the rudimentary skull is
not movable on the dorsal cartilage. Their bodies are elongated
and eel-like, with a single medial fin, supported by fine cartilaginous
rays, and with seven little slits on each side of the neck, communi-
cating with as many gills in the form of little pouches. The mouth
is suctorial, presenting, when open, a circular adhesive disc, by
which the animals can attach themselves to any solid object, but
assumes the form of a mere slit when closed. The young differ
from the adult in a few points of structure. Thus they have no
eyes, and the long fin, divided in the adult, is continuous. With
the above characteristics in mind, there will be no danger of con-
fusing the lampreys with the eels and other similar fishes.
MABINE VEETEBEATES 309
There are three or four British lampreys, two or three of which
inhabit fresh water. Their habits do not seem to be well under-
stood, but it appears certain that the Sea Lamprey (Petromyzum
marinus), which reaches a length of from one to two feet, ascends
rivers to spawn, while the smaller River Lamprey (P.fluviaiilis)
has been caught in the sea ; and it is probable that the migrations
of both, together with the sojourn of the young of the former for a
longer or shorter period in fresh waters, have been the cause of the
widespread confusion between species.
Lampreys are carnivorous creatures, and attach themselves to
fishes by their suctorial mouths, and rasp away the flesh. They
have also been known to attack bathers.
Passing now to the true fishes, we must first study the general
features of the group by which they are to bo distinguished from
other animals. Since there are so many creatures outside this class
that are more or less fishlike in some respects, it becomes no easy
matter to give a concise definition of a fish, and the shortest satis-
Fio. 226. — THE SEA LAMPBEY
factory description must necessarily include several points of struc-
ture. Thus, we may define a fish as a cold-blooded vertebrate that
does not undergo metamorphoses, with limbs modified into fins,
possessing also median fins on the dorsal and ventral surfaces,
having distinct jaws, a heart with two chambers, and breathing by
gills. To this we may add that the young are generally produced
from eggs, and that the skin is covered with scales or bony plates, or
is naked.
But let us now look more closely into the structure of fishes, so
that we may be enabled to see how marvellously they are adapted
to their aquatic life, and in order that we may become acquainted
with the few technical terms which will, as a matter of convenience,
be used in the descriptions of species.
Taking first the external features, we note that the body is
generally covered with scales, sometimes very large and distinct,
but often so small and closely set that they are not visible without
careful examination ; indeed they are often so small, and so
310 THE SEA SHOEE
thoroughly embedded in the slimy skin as not to be discovered with-
out the aid of a microscope. When the scales have unbroken edges
and overlap one another they are said to be cycloid, but when the
projecting edges are toothed or serrated, giving a roughness to the
touch, they are described as ctenoid. Sometimes the scales are
modified into bony plates or little isolated bony granules, and in
either case they are practically identical in structure with teeth,
consisting as they do of dentine, capped with a little harder sub-
stance resembling enamel.
We often observe a row of scales, of a different nature from
those covering the body generally, running along each side of a fish
from near the eye to the end of the tail ; and these constitute what
is called the lateral Une. If we examine these scales closely, we
observe that each one is pierced by a hole that communicates with
a little sac beneath containing a gelatinous material, and in which
Fio. 227.— THE PILCHARD
1. Dorsal fin. 2. Pectoral fin. 3. Pelvic fin. 4. Ventral or anal fin. 5. Candal fin.
a nerve tendril terminates. The presence of the nerve filament
evidently denotes that the scales in question, with the little sacs
beneath them, are organs connected with sensation, and it is also
believed that they have something to do with the secretion of the
slimy mucus that covers the scales of the body.
The mouth of a fish is generally situated on the extreme front
of the head, but occasionally, as in the sharks and rays, quite on the
under side. If it contains a tongue at all, this organ is of small
size and simple structure ; thus it is highly probable that the sense
of taste is very feeble in these animals, and this is just what one
might expect when one remembers that fishes never retain their food
in the mouth for any length of time, but simply bolt it without any
attempt at mastication.
The arrangement and nature of the teeth are very variable.
Often they are developed on the membrane of the mouth only, in
which case they are generally renewed as fast as they are worn
MABINE VERTEBRATES 311
down, but sometimes they are persistent structures more or less
embedded in the bone of the jaws. In some cases teeth are alto-
gether wanting, but in others they are situated not only on the
jaws, but also on the tongue, the roof of the mouth, and even on
the bony arches that support the gills.
A glance at the fins of a typical fish will suffice to show that
they may be divided into two groups — the paired fins, representing
the two pairs of limbs in most of the higher animals, and the median
fins occupying the middle line of the body. The former comprise
the two pectoral fins that correspond with our arms, and are
attached to the bones of the pectoral or shoulder girdle ; and the
pelvic fins, corresponding with the lower extremities. The pectorals,
too, are present in nearly all fishes, while the pelvic pair are rather
more frequently absent than the pectorals.
The medial fins comprise the dorsal, the ventral, and the caudal
or tail-fin, and are not to be regarded as limbs, but rather mere
outgrowths of the skin. They are not directly connected with any
part of the main bony framework of the body, though they are
generally jointed with a series of bones (interspinal bones) that
run between processes of the vertebral column. The dorsal and
ventral fins are often divided into two or more parts, and the tail
fin is commonly distinctly forked.
Although the seven fins above mentioned differ considerably
in general form, some being fanlike, while others form fringe-like
expansions, yet they generally agree in that they consist of bony or
cartilaginous rays, between which is a soft membrane. The rays,
however, vary much in character, being sometimes developed into
very hard and sharp spines, and sometimes quite soft and flexible.
The fins also differ in function, as will be seen when we observe the
movements of a fish as it swims. It will then be noticed that the
caudal fin, which is spread in the vertical plane and moved sharply
from side to side by the powerful muscles of the tail, is the chief
propelling organ, while the others are concerned principally in
maintaining the balance of the body. This latter point becomes
much more evident when we observe the movements of a fish in
which one or more of the fins have been injured or lost, as we shall
see presently.
It is true that the pectoral fins are sometimes used to propel,
but forward movement is brought about almost entirely by the
caudal fin, which acts much in the same way as the blade of the
propelling ' screw * of a steam-vessel, the pectorals being used at
312 THE SEA SHORE
the same time for steering. Occasionally, too, the latter are both
spread out at right angles to the body when the fish desires to stop
suddenly, and are even employed at times in swimming backwards.
When a fish wants to turn to cne side, it will be seen to give the
tail a sharp motion to the opposite side. The pectoral of the latter
side is also brought into play, while the other is kept close against
the body.
If the pectoral or pelvic fin of one side is injured, the body of
the fish will incline to the opposite side ; and if all the paired fins
are functionless the fish swims with its head inclined downwards.
Observations of fishes in which the dorsal or ventral fins are
injured will also show that these organs are necessary to maintain a
steady motion in the water.
In addition to the above facts, it may be mentioned here that the
paired fins are often modified into long finger-like processes that
serve as organs of touch, and even as means by which the fish can
creep along the bottom. This is notably the case with gurnards
and a few of the other fishes that spend their time almost exclusively
on the bed of the sea.
Fishes are essentially gill-breathers, the gills being generally
fringe-like organs, supported on bony arches (the gill arches), num-
bering four on each side, the cavity containing them being covered
by a gill-cover (operculum) that opens behind. Water is taken in
at the mouth, whence it passes into the gill-chamber ; and after
passing between and around the gills, it escapes under the opercula.
The gills themselves are richly supplied with bloodvessels that are
distributed close to the surface, and an exchange of gases takes
place through their exceedingly thin walls, carbonic acid gas pass-
ing from the blood to the surrounding water, and oxygen, held in
solution in the water, passing from the water to the blood.
When fishes are in foul water, containing but little oxygen in
solution, they rise to the surface in order to make up the deficiency
by taking oxygen direct from the air. This, however, is an unnatural
proceeding with the majority of fishes ; but there are some that are
provided with accessory breathing organs specially adapted to the
extraction of oxygen direct from the air, and these are so dependent
on the supply from this source that they are suffocated if prevented
from reaching the surface.
In other fishes, such as the sharks and rays, the gills are of an
entirely different character from those described above, for they are
pouch-like and five in number on each side, each pouch communi-
MARINE VERTEBRATES 313
eating with the pharynx as well as with the exterior by a slit-like
opening.
Before leaving the external characters of fishes we must say
a word or two about their forms and colours. As regards the
former, it is well known that fishes are well adapted for rapid
progression through water, but there are many exceptions to this
rule. These exceptions, however, apply principally to those species
that have no need to swim rapidly, and a study of their habits
will show that their form is just as perfectly adapted to their mode
of life. They are often species that live on the bottom, or hide in
the crevices and holes of rocks, and examples will be given in our
future descriptions.
Variations in colour are even more interesting, especially as
they are so commonly connected with the nature of the surround-
ings and the protection of the animals. In nearly all cases the
colour is darker on the upper surface than on the lower, thus
making it appear that the influence of light has something to do
with the formation of the pigments of the skin, and experiment
proves that this is, at least to a certain extent, the case ; for when
fishes have been kept for some time in an aquarium into which
light is admitted through the bottom only, pigment spots have
formed in the skin on the lower surface.
Fishes that swim at the surface are generally tinted on the
dorsal side with some shade that closely resembles the colour of
the water as viewed from above, and are white and silvery below.
Such colouring is of course highly protective, for they are not
readily distinguished by the sea birds and other enemies that would
pounce on them from above, and are almost invisible against the
sky to eyes below. This form- of protective resemblance is beauti-
fully illustrated in the mackerel, which is barred on the back with
black and green, closely imitating the ripples on the surface of the
deep green sea, while the under side is of a silvery whiteness that is
hardly visible from below with the bright sky as a background.
The flat fish afford other interesting examples, for these live on
the bottom, and are coloured above so as to resemble the bed on
which they live ; the tints being those of mud, sand, or gravel.
But what are we to say of the gaudy colours of the gurnards,
rock fishes, &c. ? These are certainly not protective in all cases,
for we sometimes find brightly coloured species conspicuous among
duller surroundings. Such instances, however, are comparatively
rare, the gaudy species living principally among the variously
314 THE SEA SHORE
coloured rocks, weeds, and corals ; and when they do occur it is
probable that they serve principally as a means by which the
brightly coloured sex — usually the male — attracts its mate. We
say ' usually the male,' but why so ? Because the female requires
the protection of a more sombre colour in order that she may with
safety deposit her spawn for the perpetuation of her species. Again,
the male referred to needs the assistance of his gaudy coat only
during the breeding season, hence we find that he assumes the
bright colours as a wedding garment, to be cast off when the breed-
ing season is over.
This leads us to the subject of changeability of colours in the
same individual. That such changes do occur is well known, and
it is still more remarkable that they are produced in rapid succes-
sion, apparently at the will of the fish concerned ; for its tints will
vary as it moves from place to place so as to always harmonise
with the surroundings, and also in response to other conditions.
The mechanism by which such variations are produced has also
been studied and explained : — The colouring matter is held in little
vesicles beneath the skin, and these vesicles are capable of being com-
pressed by muscles quite under the control of the fish. When they
are globular in form the contained pigment appears dark, but when
they are flattened by muscular compression, the pigment is spread
over a much larger area, and thus greatly reduced in depth of tint.
As with all vertebrates, the central axis of the internal skeleton
of a fish consists of the backbone and the skull. The structure of
the latter is so complicated, and its description so full of techni-
calities, that we deem it advisable to pass it over in a work like this
where the scope is so large in proportion to the space available ; and
this we do with reluctance, because the detailed study of the skull
is of real importance to those who would thoroughly understand
the principles of classification.
The backbone consists of a variable number of cylindrical
vertebrae, united end to end to form a continuous column, both the
anterior and posterior faces of each being concave. On the dorsal
surface of each vertebra there is a V-shaped arch, surmounted by
a spine, the former serving to protect the spinal cord, and the
latter giving attachment to the muscles of the back. Some of the
vertebrae are also provided with processes for the attachment of
the ribs, and those of the tail possess an arch and a spine on the
ventral as well as on the dorsal side.
It has already been shown that the pectoral fins are jointed to
MARINE VERTEBEATES 315
a girdle. This girdle corresponds with the shoulder-blade of higher
animals, and gives direct attachment to the rays of the fin, which
may be regarded as the equivalent of the fingers, and thus there is
no part of the limb corresponding with the arm. The pelvic fins
also are frequently jointed to a pelvic girdle or hip, but this is a
very rudimental structure, or is even entirely absent in some species.
The rays of the caudal fin articulate with the extremity of the
backbone, but this portion of the fish's anatomy undergoes such
remarkable changes that we must devote a few words to it. It is
probably well known to our readers that the tails of fishes exhibit
three distinct forms. The first of these is a simple fringe formed
by the union of unaltered dorsal and ventral fins ; the second is
Fio. 228.— THE SKELETON OF A FISH (PERCH)
<J, dorsal fin ; p, pectoral fin ; t>, pelvic fin ; t, tail fin ; a, anal fin
the unsymmetrical or unequally lobed tail so characteristic of
sharks, dogfishes, and rays ; and the third is the broad symmetrical
tail fin, often distinctly forked or bi-lobed, such as we meet with in
the majority of our bony fishes. These three kinds are known
respectively as the cLiphy cereal, heterocercal, and the homocercal
tails.
Now, it is an interesting fact that the most ancient fishes of our
globe possessed tails of the first type ; and that these gradually
gave place to the heterocercal form ; while the higher fishes of the
present day nearly all possess the homocercal tail. Thus as time
advanced the heterocercal tail was gradually evolved from the
diphy cereal, and the homocercal from the heterocercal.
316 THE SEA SHORE
Further, if we watch the development of one of the highest
fishes of the present day from its embryo, we find that similar
changes take place in the individual. At first its tail is a simple
fringe round the extremity of the backbone, the latter being
straight, or nearly so, to the end, so that the embryo fish, as yet
still in the egg, reflects a characteristic of its very early ancestors.
Then the end of the vertebral column turns upward, and strong
fin-rays are developed on its ventral side, so that the tail becomes
a heterocercal one like that of the less remote ancestors of a later
geological period. Next, the upward-bending portion of the vertebral
column is slowly absorbed, till nothing of it remains except a small
FIG. 229. — THE INTEIINAL ORGANS OP THE HERRING
a, oesophagus ; be, stomach ; e, intestine ; /, duct of swimming bladder ;
t, air-bladder ; ft, ovary
upturned bony spine, while, at the same time, the ventral lobe
expands on the upper side until the tail fin is once more of a sym-
metrical form.
Following these interesting changes, it becomes evident that
the symmetry of the tail fin of the bony fishes is really a false one,
the whole of it having been formed from the ventral lobe of a
heterocercal tail ; and although the backbone seems to terminate
abruptly exactly opposite the middle of the fin, it still contains the
remnant of the raised extremity of the backbone that ran to the
tip of the dorsal lobe when the tail was of the heterocercal type.
The flesh or muscle of fishes is usually white, but it often
assumes a pink colour in the case of those fishes that feed largely
on crustaceans. This is due to the presence of a substance in the
horny or calcareous skins of the crustaceans that is turned red
by the action of the digestive fluids — the same substance that is
turned red when the crustaceans are boiled. This is notably the case
with the salmon ; but the red pigment thus derived originally
MARINE VEETEBEATE8 317
from the crustaceans frequently shows itself more in the skin
of the fish than in the flesh, as observed in the common red
gurnard.
Most fishes possess a membranous bag containing air, situated
just below the backbone, and known as the air-bladder ; but this
organ does not exist in sharks and rays and in some of the heavier
bony fishes that live on the bottom. The air-bladder is capable of
being compressed by the action of certain muscles, and its principal
use seems to be the adjustment of the specific gravity of the fish to
that of the surrounding water ; but it is interesting to note that the
development of this air-bladder is precisely the same as that of the
lungs of air-breathing animals, and that in some fishes which live
in foul muddy waters it is really a functional lung by means of
which the fishes can breathe direct from the atmosphere.
"We can find space to refer only to one other internal structure
of the fish, namely, the roe of the female. This usually consists of
a very large number of eggs of small size, sometimes numbering
many thousands, and even millions, in a single individual. So
numerous, indeed, are the eggs, that were it not for the multitudes
of carnivorous animals that devour both eggs and fry, the sea
and fresh-water lakes and rivers would soon become so thickly
populated that the fish would die in millions for lack of food and
air.
In some cases, however, the eggs are much larger and fewer in
number, but these are generally protected from the ravages of
predaceous species by a hard covering, as we shall observe in the
sharks and rays.
Finally, a word or two must be said about the distribution of
fishes. We have already referred briefly to species that live princi-
pally at the surface, and others that make the bottom their home :
but some of the former go to the bottom for food or to deposit their
spawn, while some of the latter occasionally rise to the surface and
swim in shoals. We have noticed, too, that the paired fins of
bottom fishes are sometimes modified into feelers, or into fingerlike
processes adapted for creeping. Similar organs, employed un-
doubtedly as organs of touch, and called barbels or barbules, are
often developed on the chins or jaws of these fishes.
Although we have to deal principally with the species that
belong more or less to the shore — the littoral fishes — we should
like to refer briefly to one or two interesting features of those that
live at great depths. It will be readily understood that much light
318 THE SEA SHORE
is lost as the rays penetrate into deep water, so that the bottoms
of deep seas must be more or less darkened. To allow for this
loss, we find that the species living at moderate depths are pro-
vided with larger eyes to enable them to see their prey and their
mates ; but at still greater depths, where the sun's light cannot
penetrate, the fishes are either blind, or are possessed of luminous
organs which enable them to see their way. Again, as the sea is
so thinly populated at such great depths, the carnivorous species
do not find abundant food always at hand, hence they are often
provided with such mouths and stomachs as will allow them to
make the best of favourable opportunities, some being capable of
swallowing a fish quite as large as themselves.
We often find fishes roughly classified into fresh-water and salt-
water species, and although such a division is at times convenient,
it must be remembered that some of the former migrate into
brackish and even into salt water, while some of the latter ascend
estuaries and rivers either for the purpose of obtaining suitable
food, or for the deposition of their eggs.
The fishes that frequent our coasts may be classified into two
main groups, those with cartilaginous skeletons (Elasmobranchii),
and the bony fishes (Teleostomi). Both these are divided into
family groups, and we shall deal more or less briefly with all the
important families that include common British marine fishes, but
giving more attention to those species that are truly littoral in
habit — species that may be found in the rock pools or under stones
at low tide, and which may be obtained by the amateur angler
working from rocks, piers, &c.
The cartilaginous fishes include the Sharks, Dogfishes, and
Rays. They have pouchlike gills, five or more on each side, each
one opening to the exterior by a separate slit. The skin generally
contains bony elements that are toothlike in structure and often in
form ; the mouth is usually on the under side of the head, and the
tail is nearly always of the heterocercal kind. They are all
carnivorous creatures, and often exceedingly voracious ; and are
represented in our seas by the Rays and Dogfishes.
Rays or Skates (family Raiidcz), of which there are six or seven
British species, are readily known by their broad flattened rhorn-
boidal bodies, with the mouth on the under side of the head, a
longitudinal fold on each side of the tail, and pectoral fins extending
quite or nearly to the front point of the head.
Two of these fishes are very common in our markets, one being
MARINE VERTEBRATES
319
the Thornback Skate (Raia davata), distinguished by the clawlike
spines down the middle of the back as well as on other parts of the
body ; and the Common Skate (R. vulgaris), a very voracious
species, from two to four feet long, with a very sharp muzzle.
All the members of this family are bottom fish, without air-
bladders; and their eggs, which are large and detached, are
enclosed in horn capsules which are so commonly washed up on
the beach that they are well known to frequenters of the sea-side,
who call them Skates' Barrows or Shepherds' Purses. These cases
are oblong in form, with a pro-
cess at each corner, and the
material of which they are com-
posed looks very much like that
of some of the coarser sea weeds
after they have been dried in
the sun. As a rule only the
empty cases are cast ashore by
the waves, open at the end
where the little skate made its
escape ; but occasionally we meet
with the complete egg, and the
case, while still wet, is sometimes
sufficiently transparent to show
the form of the embryo within.
Dogfishes are also fairly well
known to sea-side ramblers, for
not only are some species used
as food in many places, but
they are also frequently to be
seen cast aside with the refuse
from the fishermen's nets. The
common Spiny Dogfish (AcantMas vulgaris}, belonging to the
family Splnacidce, frequents all parts of our coasts. It reaches a
length of three or four feet, and is of a slate -blue colour above
and very pale yellow below. The pectoral fins are very large, the
ventral fin absent, and there is a very sharp spine in front of each
dorsal. The creature is ovo-viviparous ; that is, the eggs are hatched
while still within the body of the parent.
Another family (Scylliidce) contains two British species without
spines, and is also characterised by having the first dorsal fin far
behind. They are the Larger Spotted Dogfish (Scyllium ccmicula)
FIG. 230.-
-THE EGG-CASE OP
DOGFISH
320 THE SEA SHORE
also known as the Nurse Dog and the Bull Huss ; and the Lesser
Spotted Dogfish (S. catulus), called also the Huss and the Kough
Hound. The egg capsules of both these are occasionally washed on
the beach, and those of the latter species may be known by the
yellowish colour and the long tendrils by which they are anchored
to sea weeds.
In addition to these we may briefly refer to two of the Blue
Sharks (family Carchariidce) that frequent our shores, distinguished
by their long and prominent muzzle, and the crescent -shaped
mouth. They may be regarded as higher in the scale of fish life,
as compared with the sharks and rays previously named, because
the vertebrae are more or less hardened by the deposit of calcareous
matter, and, therefore, make a nearer approach to the character of
true bone. The species referred to are the Common Blue Shark
(Carcharius glaucus), and the Smooth Hound (Mustelus Icevis).
The former often exceeds twelve feet in length, and is commonly
Fia. 231. — THE SMOOTH HOUND
seen off our south and west coasts during the summer months. It
is a nocturnal marauder, and is said to sleep at the surface by day
with its tail exposed above the water. The Smooth Hound is a
bottom feeder, subsisting on molluscs and crustaceans, the shells of
which are easily crushed by its flat and blunt teeth. It is a small
shark, measuring only three or four feet in length, and brings forth
its young alive.
The next division (Teleostomi) contains all the bony fishes,
which may be distinguished generally from the cartilaginous group
by the following features : — The skeleton is more or less hardened
by the deposit of calcareous matter, and the tail is generally not
of the heterocercal type. The paired fins are fan-like, and the
pectoral girdle is attached to the hinder part of the skull. These
fishes generally have an air-bladder, and the gills lie close together
in a cavity covered by an operculum. The eggs, too, are generally
very small and numerous, and massed together.
MARINE VERTEBRATES 321
Of these we will take first the family Salmonidez, of which the
Salmon (Salmo salar), and the Smelt (Osmerus eperlanus) are
well-known examples. Several species of the family are remark-
able for their periodical migrations from fresh to salt water
or vice versa, and we cannot do better than briefly relate the
interesting life-history of the salmon as a striking instance of these
peculiar wanderings. This fish quits the sea at the close of the
summer, and ascends the rivers for the purpose of depositing its
spawn, the colder water of the rivers being necessary for the
development of the young. Its upward journey is beset with many
difficulties, for it has to shoot the various rapids and leap the
cascades, the latter often demanding the most prodigious efforts on
the part of the fish, which frequently leaps several feet out of the
water, and even then has sometimes to renew its attempts over and
over again before it finally succeeds. Indeed, the difficulties to be
overcome are so numerous that the fish often reaches the goal in
such an exhausted condition that it would hardly be recognised as
the salmon by those who have only seen it in the prime condition
in which it is captured during its return to the sea in the following
spring or summer. The male, at this period called the kipper, is
of a dull red colour, irregularly blotched with yellow and light
brown, and its skin is covered with a slimy secretion. Its body is
lean, and the head, now large and out of all proportion, is rendered
still more unsightly by the protrusion of the lower jaw, which at
this season, when the males are particularly pugnacious, becomes a
formidable weapon of offence. The condition of the female, now
called the baggit, is equally poor, and the skin has changed its
bright silvery colour for dark and dingy shades.
The female digs a nest in the form of a deep trench by
wriggling her body in the gravel of the bed of the stream, and there
deposits her eggs, many thousands in number, small quantities
at a time. As each batch is deposited the eggs are fecundated
by the kipper, and then covered over lightly with gravel by the
baggit ; and this work having been accomplished, both male and
female rest and feed, with the result that their condition is rapidly
improved.
After about eighteen weeks the eggs begin to hatch, and the
fry wriggle out of the nest and seek shelter under stones in the
immediate neighbourhood. They are now peculiar little creatures,
as much like tadpoles as fishes, with big heads and narrow bodies,
and a bag of albuminous yolk-matter attached to the ventral side.
Y
322 THE SEA SHORE
The young subsist on this store of food for from twelve to twenty
days, during the whole of which time they remain under shelter,
having, of course, no need to expose themselves to the numerous
enemies with which they are surrounded, and they then leave their
hiding-place in search of food, being now about an inch in length.
They feed on aquatic and other insects, which are now becoming
plentiful on the approach of the warm weather ; and, growing
rapidly, reach a length of four inches in a month or two. They are
now called parr, and are distinguished by the dark bars that cross
their bodies transversely — a feature that persists for a year or more
from this time.
Towards the end of May the parr migrate seawards, accom-
panied by the adult salmon, but as their enemies include the
voracious fishes, wading birds, and even the adults of their own
species, it is probable that only a small proportion of the original
number ever enter salt water.
In the sea they feed on crustaceans, molluscs, and small fishes,
the young still growing rapidly, and attaining a weight of about five
pounds in the following autumn, when both young (now called
grilse) and old again ascend the rivers to spend the colder half
of the year ; the former will have reached a weight of ten pounds
or more on their return to the sea in the following year.
The Smelt may be seen in thousands in our estuaries during the
spring, for at that time they come up to spawn in the brackish
water. In the summer they swim about in shoals along the coast,
and are caught largely in nets for the market. In some parts
they are taken in large shallow circular nets suspended on a line.
This is lowered into the water, and hauled up when the fish are
seen swimming above it. Many amateurs secure numbers of
smelt by means of rod and line, fishing from piers, jetties, &c.
They bite freely at almost any kind of bait, and will snap at an
almost bare hook, with the tiniest fragment of the bait at its
point.
The Herring family (Clupeidce) contains some well-known food-
fishes to which we need only casually refer. They are mostly
littoral species, none inhabiting deep water, and none straying into
the open ocean. Their bodies are covered with silvery scales, and
are laterally compressed, so much so on the ventral side that there
is a moderately sharp ridge along the middle line. The principal
fishes of the family are the Herring (Clupea harengus), the Sprat
(C. sprattus), and the Pilchard (C. pilchardus).
MARINE VERTEBRATES 323
These fishes are particularly interesting on account of their
gregarious habits and the enormous size of the shoals they form, a
single shoal often containing millions of individuals ; and they are
often captured in such quantities that large numbers are sold to
farmers as manure to enrich the soil. The shoals are followed
closely by many larger carnivorous species that devour them in great
numbers, as well as by flocks of sea birds that prey on them, and
yet their numbers are not appreciably reduced by such ravages.
They spawn in shallow waters near the coast, and feed principally
on the crustaceans and worms of the littoral zone.
Sprats were once considered to be the young of the Herring,
but it is now universally acknowledged that they are a distinct
species, and quite a number of characteristics have been given as
a means of distinguishing between the two. The young of the
FIG. 232.— THE COMMON EEL
herring are, however, used largely as food, for that miscellaneous
mixture of fry and small species known as Whitebait consists largely
of these and the young of the sprat.
Herrings are captured principally off the north and east
coasts, but the pilchards, which are often confused with them,
and even at times sold under the same name, are caught chiefly off
the coast of Cornwall.
Although the Eels (Anguillidce) are so readily distinguished by
their general form and appearance, yet it may be advisable to call
attention to one or two of the leading characters that would possibly
be overlooked by an ordinary observer, and in doing this we ask
the reader to note that our remarks apply to the true eels only,
and not to the sand eels and other fish that may be confused with
them.
The elongated bodies of the Anguillidce are covered with a
324 THE SEA SHOEE
slimy skin that is apparently scaleless, but an examination with
the microscope will show that there are small scales embedded in it.
The dorsal and ventral fins extend to the tail, and the pelvics are
absent ; the gill-slits, which are very narrow, are at the base of
the pectorals.
It might well be expected that eels would be possessed of some
form of accessory breathing apparatus, seeing that they can live so
long out of water, but this is not the case. They have, however,
a pouch-like gill-cavity which can be inflated and filled with
water by the fish, thus keeping the gills moist and functional. In
most other fishes the gill-chamber is not capable of holding water,
and thus the gills soon become dry and sticky, so that they adhere
together and fail to absorb the necessary oxygen when the fish is
out of water.
Thus the Eel (Anguilla, vulgaris), in the remarkable migrations
for which it is noted, is capable of travelling over dry land for
considerable distances in search of suitable homes.
If an eel be taken out of the water, these gill-pouches will
be seen to swell out almost immediately, and remain filled with
water as long as the fish is kept on land ; but when it is returned
to its natural element, it will at once discharge the water that kept
its gills moist, and which has become foul with the products of
respiration, and, with a few vigorous gulps, renew the supply.
Eels spend their breeding season, which extends from July to
September, in salt or brackish waters ; and early in the following
summer, the young, which are now called elvers, and measure
from three to five inches in length, ascend the rivers, travelling
enorcnous distances and overcoming obstacles that we might well
expect to be insurmountable. Thus they perform two migrations
annually, though it is thought by some observers that the adult
never returns to the sea, but dies soon after it has deposited its
spawn.
The family of Flat-fishes (Pleuronectidce) present many interest-
ing points of structure and habit in which they stand alone, the
variations in structure as compared with other fishes being due, of
course, to the habits which they have acquired.
One of the first features that strike the observer on looking at a
flat-fish is the unsymmetrical form of the body. It is very much
compressed, and the fish having acquired the habit of lying on the
bed of the sea, sometimes on the left and sometimes on the right
side, the lower surface has become flattened more, and is of an
MARINE VEETEBEATES 325
almost pure white colour, while the upper convex side is more or
less coloured with pigment produced by exposure to light. The
dorsal and ventral fins are both very long ; and, as is usual with
bottom fishes, the swimming or air bladder is absent.
Young flat-fish are at first perfectly symmetrical in form, with
one eye on each side of the head, and they swim freely in the water
with their bodies in a vertical plane ; but they very soon acquire
the habit of swimming on one side, and the eye of that side slowly
passes round to the other side of the skull, rotating in its orbit as it
moves, till at last both are on the uppermost surface. This, of
course, is accompanied by a considerable distortion of the bones of
the skull, which is very evident in the skeleton of the adult. The
young fish then takes to the bottom, with the result that its under-
surface is flattened, while the upper becomes strongly pigmented.
These fish spend almost the whole of their time on the bottom,
only occasionally rising for short intervals, when they swim by undu-
latory movements of their bodies and fins ; their food consists of
crustaceans, worms, and other small marine animals.
They furnish very interesting illustrations of protective colouring,
the upper surface always closely resembling the ground on which they
rest and feed ; and thus they are not only protected from their own
enemies, but are enabled to lie unseen by the animals that form
their prey. Those which live on sandy shores are finely spotted
with colours that closely imitate the sand, while those that lie on
mud are of dark and dingy hues. Others, again, are irregularly
marked with spots of various sizes and colours that resemble a
gravelly bottom ; and most species are still further protected by
their habit of throwing sand or mud on the top of their bodies by
means of their dorsal and ventral fins.
SmaJl flat-fishes, especially young Plaice and Flounders, live so
close to the shore that they are often left behind in rock pools and
sandy hollows by the receding tide,, and it is very interesting to
observe the habits of these in their natural conditions. It will
generally be noticed that it is most difficult to detect them while
they are at rest ; and when disturbed, they usually swim but a
short distance, settling down very abruptly, and immediately
throwing a little sand over their bodies by a few vibrations of their
fins.
Another peculiarity of some of the flat-fishes is their indifference
to the nature of the water in which they live. Flounders may not
only be caught in the estuaries of our rivers, but they even ascend
326
THE SEA SHORE
to, and apparently live perpetually in, perfectly fresh water. In
many instances they may be seen miles from the sea, and even
flourishing in little fresh-water streams only a few feet in width.
Thus they may be found in numbers in the upper waters of the small
rivers of the Isle of Wight and of many streams of the mainland.
The principal British flat-fishes are the Plaice (Pleuronectes
platessa) and Flounder (P.flexus) above mentioned, and also the
Sole (Solea vulgaris), the Lemon Sole (S. aurantiaca), the Turbot
(Rhombus maximus), and the Halibut (Hippoglossus vulgaris) ;
and as all these are well-known food-fishes it is hardly necessary to
describe them.
Sand Eels (family OpTiidiidce) resemble the true eels in the
FIG. 233. — THE LESSER SAND EEL
general form of their elongated bodies, but may be readily distin-
guished by their bright silvery colour, the large gill-openings, and
the more strongly developed dorsal and ventral fins, the former of
which extends almost along the whole length of the back. The
lower jaw is also longer than the upper.
Two species are to be found on our shores — the Lesser Sand Eel
(Ammodytes tobianus), and the Greater Sand Eel (A. lanceolatus),
the former attaining a length of six or seven inches, and the latter
nearly three times this size. They may be seen off the south coast,
swimming in shoals over sandy bottoms, and when disturbed they
descend and burrow into the sand with remarkable agility. They
approach the shore so closely that they are often washed up by the
MARINE VERTEBRATES 327
waves, but immediately disappear into the sand ; and large numbers
commonly remain behind as the tide recedes, burying themselves to
the depth of a few inches, and are dug out by fishermen for bait.
The smaller species is by far the more common, and is taken
in large numbers by means of the draw net to be sold as food. It
is particularly abundant at Teignmouth, where it is known as the
Sand Sprat, and forms an important article of diet.
Quite a number of our important food-fishes belong to the Cod
family (Gadiadce), and although some of these are caught almost
entirely in deep water some distance from shore, others give
employment to the angler fishing from rocks, piers, and jetties.
In all, the gill-openings are very wide, and the body is covered
with small overlapping scales. The caudal fin is quite free, the
dorsal is generally divided into three distinct parts which extend
over the greater part of the back, and the ventral fin is also
frequently divided.
FIG. 234. — THE THREE-BEARDED KOCKLINO
The typical species — the Cod (Gadus morrhua) — is too well
known to need a description, and although it is a large fish, often
measuring four feet and more, it approaches so close to the shore
that it may be caught with a hand line thrown out from rocks
or piers. The barbel projecting from the chin denotes that it is
a bottom feeder.
On the rocky coast of the south the Pollack or Pollock (G. polla-
chius) is very abundant, and may be taken with rod and line from
the shore. It also enters estuaries in large numbers, and may be
caught close to quays and jetties. This species is a very free biter,
and will take almost any of the baits used for sea fishing. It has
no barbel.
The same genus includes the Whiting (G. merlangus), dis-
tinguished by a black spot at the base of the pectoral fin and the
absence of barbels ; the Whiting Pout (G. luscus), with a similar
black spot at the base of the pectorals, also dark, transverse bands,
and a barbel ; and the Haddock (G. ceglefinus), with a black patch
328 THE SEA SHORE
on either side above the pectorals, and a dark lateral line. The
family also includes the Ling (Molva vulgaris) and the Hake
(Merluccius vulgaris), both of which are caught in deep water ;
and the Bocklings (genus Motella), three species of which frequent
our rocky shores.
The last mentioned are interesting little fishes that may be
found on stony beaches at low tide, for they often remain under
cover between the tide-marks, and may be seen on turning over
stones and weeds. Perhaps the commonest of them is the Five-
bearded Eockling (M. mustela), which has four barbels on the upper
lip and one on the lower. It is of a dark-brown colour above, and
light below, and makes nests of corallines in rock cavities. The
Three-bearded Eockling (M. tricirrliata), known also as the Sea
Loach and the Whistle-fish, is a larger species, sometimes reaching
a length of a foot or more. Its colour is light brown, marked with
darker spots, and, like the other species, it lives in the shallow
FIG. 235.— THE SNAKE PIPE-FISH
water of rocky and weedy places. Another species — the Four-
bearded Rockling (M. cimbria), known by the three barbels on the
upper lip and one on the lower, is about eight inches long when
full grown, and is found principally on the northern shores.
Our next family (Syngnathidce) contains some peculiar creatures
called Pipe-fishes because their jaws are united into a tube. They
have long and slender bodies that are covered with bony plates
which form a kind of coat of mail and give them an angular form.
They have very small gill-openings, a single dorsal fin, and no
pel vies.
Pipe-fishes are very sluggish in habit, swimming but little, and
living in the shelter of weeds and stones on rocky coasts. In fact,
they are not adapted for swimming, and their attempts at this
mode of locomotion are awkward in the extreme, for their bodies
are rigid and the tail very small. When removed from their hiding-
places they move but little, and look as much like pieces of brown
MAEINE VERTEBRATES 329
or greenish wood as fishes ; and their rigid bodies are so completely
encased in the bony plates that they alter but little in appearance
when dried, and consequently the dried specimens are often seen
in museum collections.
All the British species, four in number, are small fishes,
inhabiting the shallow water of rocky shores, and are often found
hiding under stones near low-water mark. The largest is the great
Pipe-fish or Needle-fish (Syngnathus a cus), which grows to a length
of about fifteen inches ; and the smallest is the Worm Pipe-fish
(S. lumbriciformis), which is of an olive-green colour, and has
a short, upturned snout. The Lesser Pipe-fish (8. typhle), also
known as the Deep-nosed Pipe-fish, is very abundant on nearly all
rocky coasts, and may be distinguished from the others by having
the ridge on the tail continuous with the lateral line and not with
the dorsal angle. The other species is the Slender-nosed Pipe-
fish or Snake Pipe-fish (Nerophis ophidium), the body of which
is extremely slender, and the tail long and narrow. The male
is provided with a series of small, cup-like cells, in each of which
he carries an egg.
In all the bony fishes previously mentioned the fin rays are soft
and flexible, and in this respect they differ from those that are to
follow, for the remaining families are all characterised by the
presence of one or more sharp rigid spines on the dorsal fin, and
often by similar spines on other fins. They constitute the group of
Spiny-finned fishes.
Of these we shall first take the prettily coloured Wrasses (family
Labridce), which live in the holes of rocks and under the cover
of weeds on rugged coasts. These fishes are very voracious in
habit, and the sea angler will find that they are ready to seize
almost any bait that may be offered them, and even to attack
almost everything that moves within sight ; but they are likely
to give much trouble since they will rush into the crevices of rocks
or among large weeds when hooked, and thus frequently lead to
the breaking of the line.
Wrasses feed principally on molluscs and crustaceans, and are
provided with extensile telescopic lips that enable them to pull the
former from the rocks on which they creep, and the latter from
their hiding-places among the rocks. They have also strong
teeth in the gullet, by which they can crush the shells of their
prey.
There are several British species of Wrasses, one of which is
330 THE SEA SHORE
shown in the accompanying illustration. The commoner ones are
known to fishermen and juvenile anglers by quite a variety of local
names.
The family Gobioesocidce contains some small and very prettily
coloured fishes of very peculiar habits, known popularly as Sucker-
Fio. 236. — THE RAINBOW WRASS (Labrus julis)
fishes. They have one or two adhesive suckers between the pelvic
fins by which they attach themselves to rocks, stones, and shells.
Some are littoral species, and may be searched for at low tide ; but
others inhabit deeper water, and are seldom obtained without a
dredge.
One of the former is the Cornish Sucker (Lepadog aster cornu-
biensis), which may sometimes be taken in a hand net by scraping
the rocks and weeds at low tide on the south-west coast. It has two
suckers, each circular in form, surrounded by a firm margin, within
237. — THE CORNISH SUCKER
which is a soft retractile centre. This central portion is attached to
muscles by which it can be withdrawn ; and a vacuum is thus
produced, so that the sucker adheres by atmospheric pressure.
The structure of the sucking organs can be seen to perfection when
the fish attaches itself to the side of a glass aquarium, and if it be
taken in the hand it will cling quite firmly to the skin.
MAEINE VEETEBBATES
331
This peculiar Little fish is only about three inches long, and its
broad head is marked with two conspicuous purple spots, with a
blue dot in the centre, and surrounded by a yellowish ring.
The allied species include the very small Two-spotted Sucker
(L. bimaculatus), which is of a bright red colour, and adheres to
stones and shells in deep water ; the Sea Snail (Cyclopterus
liparis), about four or five inches long, with a soft and slimy
semi-transparent body; and Montagu's sucker (C. Montagui),
which is usually under three inches in length, and may be dis-
tinguished by its peculiar habit _
of curling the body laterally
when at rest.
Equally interesting are the
little Sticklebacks (family Gas-
trosteidce), the fresh- water repre-
sentatives of which are known
to almost everyone. Their
pugnacious habits, the bright
colours assumed during the
breeding season, and the won-
derful nests which they build
for the protection of their eggs
and young, have all served to
make them popular with those
who take interest in the forms
and ways of animals. They
are, moreover, such hardy crea-
tures that they may be kept
alive for a considerable time in
any well-managed aquarium.
In this family the hindmost
portion of the dorsal fin is soft-rayed, but the front portion is re-
presented by a row of strong, sharp, erectile spines, which constitute
a formidable weapon of offence and defence. Most of the species
live in fresh water, but all the members of the family seem
to be able to live almost equally well in both salt and fresh
water.
We have one marine species — the Sea Stickleback or Fifteen-
spined Stickleback (Gastrosteus spinachia), which may be caught
on rocky and weedy coasts. It derives one of its popular names
from the presence of fifteen spines along the middle of the back.
Fia. 238. — THE FIFTEEN-SPIKED
STICKLEBACK AND NEST
332 THE SEA SHORE .
Its tail is long and narrow, and its snout elongated, with the under
jaw projecting beyond the upper.
The nest of this species is a pear-shaped mass of soft sea weeds
and corallines, all bound together by a silky secretion, and sus-
pended to the rock in a sheltered spot. Within this the female
deposits her eggs in little clusters, all of which are bound together
and to the nest itself by the silk. If the nest is damaged while
occupied, it is immediately repaired, the male, it is said, taking
upon himself the responsibility of this task.
Sand Smelts (family Atherinidce) resemble the true smelts
previously described, but may be readily distinguished by the
anterior dorsal fin, which is small and spinous. We have two
species of this family, of which Atherina presbyter is by far the
more common. It is a very pretty fish, about five inches long,
with a broad silvery stripe along each side. It is very common on
the sandy coasts of the south, where it also enters the brackish
waters of estuaries. Young anglers catch them in considerable
numbers by means of rod and line ; but the professional fisherman,
taking advantage of the fact that sand smelts swim in shoals,
captures them in large, round, shallow nets. The net is baited with
bread, crushed mussels, or offal of almost any kind, and is then
lowered several feet below the surface by means of a long pole, to
the end of which it is suspended. It is raised to the surface at short
intervals, and will often enclose dozens of fish in a single haul.
The shallow waters of our southern coasts, including the
estuaries and harbours, are also frequented by the Grey Mullet
(Mugil capita), of the family Mugilidce, This fish may be distin-
guished from other similar species by the four stiff spines of the
front dorsal fin, and by the absence of a lateral line. The mouth
is small, and without teeth, and the mode of feeding is somewhat
peculiar. The food consists of worms, molluscs, and various
organic matter contained in the sand or mud of the bottom. It is
sucked into the mouth, together with more or less of the mud and
sand, and the former is strained through a special straining
apparatus situated in the pharynx.
The Grey Mullet may be taken with rod and line, and bites
freely when the rag-worm is employed as bait. It is often taken
in the fisherman's drag net ; but, being a splendid jumper, it
frequently makes its escape as the net is drawn on the beach.
Few of our littoral fishes are so well known as the Little Blen-
nies (family Blenniidce), which are to be found hiding amongst the
MARINE VERTEBBATES 333
weeds in almost every rock pool, and under stones as they await the
return of the tide. Their bodies are generally cylindrical, and are
either naked or covered with very minute scales. The dorsal fin
runs along the whole length of the back, and each pelvic has one
spine and two soft rays. When taken out of the water the gill-
cavities widen considerably, and the eyeballs will be seen to move
independently of each other, like those of the chamaeleon.
Most of the blennies are very active and voracious fishes, often
giving considerable trouble to the angler when fishing with a rod
among the rocks. They will bite at almost anything that moves,
and, completely swallowing the angler's hook, will immediately
rush into a crevice from which it is often difficult to remove them.
Most of them have tentacles on the head by which they assist
their movements among the rocks and stones ; and some actually
creep up the rugged surfaces of rocks by means of their ventral
FIG. 239.— THE SMOOTH BLENNY
fins. They can all live for a long time out of the water, being able
to retain a supply of water in their expanded gill-chambers to keep
the gills moist.
The Smooth Blenny or Shanny (Blennius pholis) is one of the
commonest species. It reaches a length of four or five inches, and
has no tentacles on the head. The Eyed Blenny or Butterfly
Blenny (B. ocellatus) may be distinguished by the conspicuous
spot on the spinous portion of the dorsal fin. The Large Blenny
(B. gattorugine) inhabits deeper water, chiefly off the south-west
coast, and reaches a length of a foot or more. The Crested Blenny
(B. cristatus) is named from the small crest on the head which can
be raised and depressed ; and the Viviparous Blenny (Zoarces
viviparus), as its name implies, brings forth its young alive.
The last species often exceeds a foot in length, and is found princi-
pally on the north and east coasts. The newly-born young are so
334 TEE SEA SHORE
transparent that the circulation of the blood within the body may
be seen under the microscope quite as easily as in the web of
the frog's foot and in the tail of the tadpole.
One very common species of the Blenniidce differs consider-
ably in general form from the others, its body being elongated and
eel-like, but much compressed laterally. We refer to the Butter-
fish or Butter Gunnel (Blennius gunellus), which is often mistaken
for a small eel by young sea-side naturalists. It is exceedingly
common under stones at low tide, and may be recognised at once
by the light rectangular spots along the flattened sides of the body.
It is quite as slippery and as difficult to hold as the eel itself.
It will be interesting to note that the ugly Sea Cat or Wolf-
fish (Anarrhichas lupus), which is sometimes sold for food in our
large towns, is also a member of the blenny family. It is a power-
ful, rapacious fish — a veritable wolf of the sea, always ready to
attack anything. It feeds on molluscs and crustaceans, the shells
FIG. 240. — THE BDTTERFISH
of which are easily reduced between the powerful crushing teeth
that line the jaws behind the formidable canines.
The Gobies (Gobiidce) form another interesting family of small
littoral fishes, easily distinguished by the fact that the ventral fins
are united in such a manner that they enclose a conical cavity.
The first portion of the dorsal fin has also six flexible spines. The
Spotted Goby (Gobius nvinutus) is commonly to be found on sand-
banks, where it is well protected by the colouring of its upper
surface, which closely resembles that of the sand on which it rests.
It is said to make a nest by cementing fragments together round
some little natural hollow, or to utilise an empty shell for a similar
purpose, fixing the shell to the surrounding bed, and constructing
a tunnel by which it can enter or leave. The eggs are deposited in
this nest, and the male keeps guard over the home. The Black or
Rock Goby (G. niger) inhabits rocky coasts, clinging to the rocks
by means of a sucker formed of the modified pelvic fins.
MARINE VERTEBRATES
335
A brightly coloured fish known as the Dragonet (Callionymus
lyra) is sometimes classed with the Gobies, though its pelvic fins
are not united. It is not a well-known species, and is seldom
obtained except with the dredge, as it inhabits deep water.
FIG. 241.— THE BLACK GOBT
A peculiar little fish called the Pogge or Hook-nose (Agonus
cataphractus), also known as the Armed Bull-head, is commonly
taken in shrimpers' nets on the south and east coasts. Its head
and body are very angular, and are covered with an armour of
keeled scales. It seldom exceeds six inches in length, and is
classed with the Flying Gurnards in the family Dactylopteridce.
The true Gurnards and the Sea Bullheads form the family
Cottidce. Several species of the former are included among our
food-fishes, and are therefore more or less familiar to our readers.
They are characterised by their large, square, bony heads, and by
the finger-Like rays of the pectoral fins which are used as organs of
touch and for creeping along the bottom of the sea. The Bullheads
are represented by the peculiar
Father Lasher or Sting Fish
(Cottus bubalis), which is very
common on our rocky coasts and
is frequently captured in shrimp
nets, its head and cheeks are
armed with sharp spines which
constitute formidable weapons of
offence. When taken out of the
water it distends its gills enormously ; and, unless very cautiously
handled, its sharp spines may be thrust deeply into the flesh. Young
specimens, with imperfectly developed spines, may be seen in almost
every rock pool, and the full-grown fish is easily taken with rod
and line by fishing in the deep gulleys between the rocks.
FIG. 242.— THE FATHER LASHEK
336 THE SEA SHOBE
The remarkable Angler Fish (Lophius piscatorius), known
also as the Fishing Frog and the Sea Devil (family Lophiidce) is
sometimes taken off the coasts of Devon and Cornwall ; and
although it cannot be truly described as a littoral species, its struc-
ture and habits are so peculiar that it deserves a passing notice.
It is an ugly fish, with an enormous head, a short naked body, and
a comparatively slender tail. The mouth is very capacious, some-
times measuring over a foot from angle to angle, and is directed
upwards. The scaleless body is furnished with numerous slender
filaments that resemble certain filamentous sea weeds, and these
together with the dull colouring of the body generally enable the
fish to rest unobserved on the bottom. The front portion of the
dorsal fin is on the head and fore part of the body, and consists of
a series of six tentacles, three long ones on the top of the head
and three shorter just behind them ; and the foremost of these,
which is the longest, terminates in a little expansion which is
kept in constant movement by the fish. The mouth is armed
with rasplike teeth which can be raised or depressed at will, and
when raised they are always directed backward ; the eyes are
directed upward, and the gill-openings are very small.
This strange creature habitually rests on the bottom of the sea,
disguised by its filamentous appendages and adaptive colouring,
dangling the expanded extremity of its first dorsal filament just
over its upturned cavernous mouth. It does not swim much, indeed
it is at the best but a bad swimmer ; and when it moves it simply
shuffles its heavy body along the bottom, gliding between the
stones and rocks, where it may remain unobserved, its movements
being produced by the action of the tail, and of the paired fins,
which are better adapted for walking than for swimming. Unwary
fishes, attracted by the dangling of the angler's bait, approach the
watchful monster, and while speculating on the nature of the
bait, are suddenly engulfed in the capacious mouth, from which
there is no escape on account of the backward direction of the
teeth.
The family Trachinidce contains the fishes known popularly as
the Stargazers and the Weavers. These are small, carnivorous
species, with rather elongated bodies, terminating in tail fins that
are not forked. The first dorsal fin is distinct and spinous, and
the spines, as well as others that are develeped on the giD-covers,
are grooved for the passage of a poisonous fluid that is secreted at
their bases.
MARINE VERTEBRATES 337
Our littoral species include two well-known fishes (the Greater
and Lesser Weavers) that are dreaded by fishermen on account of
the very painful wounds they are capable of inflicting, and the
smaller of the two is also a considerable annoyance to bathers on
certain sandy coasts.
The Greater Weaver (TracJiinus draco) lives at the bottom of
deep water, and is often dredged up in the trawl. Some fisher-
men call it the Sting Bull, and always take the precaution of cut-
ting off the poisonous spines before disposing of the fish. It lives
on the bottom with its mouth and eyes directed upward, always in
readiness to seize its unwary prey, and the sharp spines of the
dorsal fins are kept erect for the purpose of promptly attacking
approaching foes. Its mouth and palate are armed with sharp
teeth which render the escape of its prey almost impossible. The
smaller species ( T. vipera) seldom exceeds six inches in length. It
lives in shallow water on sandy coasts, with dorsal spines erect ;
FIG. 243. — THE LESSER WEAVER
and the wounds it produces on the unprotected feet of bathers are
often exceedingly painful on account of the injected poison, which
also causes the part to swell and turn to a dark purple colour.
The remaining important families, although they contain well-
known British food-fishes, do not include littoral species, and for
this reason we shall pass them over with but brief notice.
The Mackerel (Scomber vernalis) belongs to the family Scom-
beridce, and is so well known that no description need be given for
the purposes of identification. We have already referred to it as a
beautiful illustration of protective colouring, its upper surface
resembling the ripples of a deep green sea and the lower the
brightness of the sky. Mackerel swim in shoals in the open sea,
pursuing and devouring the fry of herrings and other fish ; and in
order that they may be enabled to cover enormous distances their
muscles are richly supplied with blood. This not only gives a
pinkish colour to the flesh, but results in a greater amount of
z
338 THE SEA SHOBE
oxidation and the maintenance thereby of a body temperature
several degrees higher than that of the surrounding water. We
would also call attention to the five or six small fins behind the
dorsal and anal fins as characteristic of the Scomberidcs.
Our next family (the Cyttidce) contains the John Dory (Zeus-
faber), concerning which some superstitions are still prevalent in
parts. It is brightly coloured, but not graceful in form, and is
often caught in large numbers off the coasts of Devon and Corn-
wall. Some fishermen call it the Cock, on account of the crest on
the back ; while others know it as St. Peter's Fish, and will point
out the impression of the Apostle's finger on each side — a black
spot surrounded by a light ring.
The Horse Mackerel (Caranx trachurus) is found principally
in the same parts, where it devours the fry of other fishes. It is
not a very close relative of the common mackerel, but belongs to a
distinct family (Carangidce), of which it is the only British repre-
sentative. It is a carnivorous fish, easily distinguished from
Scomber by its conical teeth, as well as by the bony plates of the
lateral line, the posterior of which are keeled or spined.
While the last-mentioned families contain only fishes of truly
pelagic habits, the next (Sparidce), formed by the Sea Breams, gene-
rally keep near the coast, and often enter fresh waters. In these the
body is much compressed laterally, and is covered with large scales;
the first half of the dorsal fin is also spinous. The Common Sea
Bream (Spams auratus), characterised by its red colour with
brilliant golden reflections, and by a dark spot on the shoulder, may
often be angled from rocks and piers. The young, in which the
dark spots have not yet appeared, are known as Chads, and are often
regarded as a distinct species. The Black Bream (Cantharus
lineatus) is an omnivorous feeder, and will take both animal and
vegetable baits.
The Eed Mullets (family Mullidce) may be distinguished from
the grey mullets previously described by the two long erectile
barbules on the lower jaw. The scales are large and thin, with
serrated edges, and the front portion of the dorsal fin has weak
spines. The common British species (Mullus barbatus) frequents
our south and east coasts, being specially abundant round Devon
and Cornwall, where they often occur in vast shoals, and the young
are often to be caught in estuaries and harbours.
Our last example is the Common Bass or Sea Perch (Morone
abrax), of the family Serranidce. It is also known locally as the
MARINE VERTEBRATES 339
White Salmon and the Salmon Dace. This fish may be taken with
rod and line on rocky coasts and at the mouths of rivers. The sand-
eel, or an artificial imitation of it, is commonly used as bait, but
the Cornish fishermen more frequently employ a piece of herring or
pilchard for the purpose. The first dorsal fin of this fish has very
strong spines which may inflict severe wounds when the live crea-
ture is carelessly handled.
Omitting all mention of sea birds, for the reason previously
given, we now pass to the highest division of vertebrates — the
Mammals — of which we shall describe but one species — the Com-
mon Porpoise, this being the only marine mammal that can- be
regarded as a frequent visitor to the British coasts in general.
It may be well at the outset to understand exactly why the
porpoise is classed with the mammals and not with the fishes — to
see how its structure and functions correspond with those of oui
own bodies rather than with those of the animals dealt with in the
preceding portion of the present chapter.
First, then, while the young of fishes are almost invariably pro-
duced from eggs and are not nourished by the parents, the young
of the porpoise are produced alive, and are nourished with milk
secreted by the mammary glands of the mother. This is an all-
important feature, and is the one implied in the term mammal.
The porpoise also differs from nearly all fishes in that it breathes by
lungs instead of gills, obtaining its air direct from the atmosphere,
and not from the water. Hence we find it coming to the surface at
frequent intervals to discharge its vitiated air and to inhale a fresh
supply. The body-cavity of a mammal is divided into two parts by
a muscular diaphragm, the foremost division, called the thorax, con-
taining the heart and lungs, and the other (the abdomen) the
remaindsr of the internal organs, while the diaphragm itself plays
an important part in the respiratory movement by which air is
drawn into the lungs. The body of the porpoise is so divided, but
no such division ever occurs in any of the fishes. Lastly, the heart
of the porpoise, in common with the rest of the mammals, is divided
into four cavities, and the blood is warm, while the heart of a fish
has generally only two divisions, and the blood propelled by it is of
about the same temperature as that of the surrounding medium.
Several other important differences between the porpoise and the
fish might be given, but the above will be quite sufficient to show
why they are placed in different classes.
340 THE SEA SHORE
Mammals are divided into several classes, and one of these
Cetacea) includes the fish-like Whales, Porpoises, and Dolphins, all
of which are peculiarly adapted to a purely aquatic life. Like most
of the fishes, their upper surfaces are of a dark colour, and the lower
very light. Their fore limbs are constructed on the same plan as
those of the higher mammals, the bones of the arm being attached,
to a large shoulder-blade, and the hand formed of four or five well-
developed fingers which are enclosed in skin, so that they consti-
tute a paddle or flipper well adapted for propulsion through water.
There is no collar-bone, however, and the fingers have no nails or
claws. There are no hind limbs visible externally, but a rudimentary
pelvic girdle forms a part of the internal skeleton. A dorsal fin
exists, but this is merely an extension of the skin of the back, and
is not supported by either bones or rays. The skin itself has no
scales, like that of most fishes, but is smooth and naked; and
below it lies a large amount of fat, which, being a very bad
conductor of heat, serves to prevent the escape of heat from the
body.
The tails of cetaceans are also mere folds of the skin, supported
in the centre by the extremity of the vertebral column ; but unlike
the tail fins of fishes, they are expanded horizontally instead of in
the vertical plane. This latter is an important adaptive feature of
the cetaceans, since the vertical movement of a tail so disposed is
exactly what is required to assist the animals as they alternately
rise to the surface for air and again descend into the sea in search
of their food.
Among the other external characters of the cetacean we may
note the nostrils, which are always situated on the highest point of
the head, and are thus the first part exposed when the creature rises
to renew its supply of air ; also the ears, which are two small aper-
tures behind the eye, without any form of external appendages.
The skeleton of the cetacean is formed of light spongy bones,
saturated with oily matter; and although the animal has no true
neck, visible as such externally, it is interesting to note that, in
common with all other mammals, even with the long-necked giraffe,
it possesses its seven cervical or neck vertebrae.
Porpoises and Dolphins together form the family Delphinidcc,
characterised by having the blow-hole in the form of a crescent with
its convexity turned towards the front, and of these the Porpoises
constitute the genus Phoccena.
The Common Porpoise (P. communis) is the species that is so
MARINE VERTEBRATES
341
often seen close to our shores and in the harbours and estuaries,
swimming in shoals with a graceful undulatory movement. Por-
poises move forward entirely by the vertical action of their powerful
horizontal tails, and extend their flippers only to change their
course or to arrest their progress. At short intervals they rise to
the surface, exposing their slate -coloured backs and dorsal fins for
a moment, and then immediately dive downwards in such a manner
as to appear to turn a series of somersaults. Occasionally they
will leap quite out of the water, exhibiting their white under surfaces,
which shine with a sudden flash when illuminated by the rays of a
FIG. 244. — THE COMMON POKPOISE
bright sun. The blow-hole is the first part exposed, and if one is
sufficiently near the shoal a fountain of spray may be seen to
shoot into the air, and the outrush of the expired air may be
heard as each one makes its appearance.
The true nature of the spouting of a cetacean seems to be very
generally misunderstood, the fountain of spray produced at each
exhalation giving the idea that the animal is expelling a quantity
of water from its nostrils. This, of course, is not the case ; for the
cetacean, being an air-breather, has no need to take in a supply of
water, as the gill -breathing fishes have. Air only is expelled through
342 THE SEA SHORE
the nostrils; but as the expiration sometimes commences before
these apertures are brought quite to the surface, a certain amount
of water is shot upwards with the expired air ; and even if the
expiration commences after the nostrils are exposed, the small
quantity of water they contain is blown into a jet of spray ; and in
a cool atmosphere, the density of this is increased by the condensa-
tion of vapour contained in the warm and saturated air from the
lungs of the animal. It will be noticed, too, that the creature does not
check its course in the least for the purpose of respiration, the foul
air being expelled and a fresh supply taken in exchange during
the short time that the blow-hole remains above the surface of the
water.
The Common Porpoise measures five or six feet in length, and
subsists on pilchards, herrings, mackerel, and other fish, the
shoals or ' schools ' of which it pursues so closely that it is often
taken in the fishermen's nets. Its flesh was formerly eaten in our
own country, but it is now seldom hunted except for its oil and its
hide. About three or four gallons of the former may be obtained
from each animal ; and the latter is highly valued on account of its
durability, though it should be known that much of the so-called
porpoise-hide manufactured is really the product of the White
Whale.
CHAPTER XV
SEA WEEDS
WE now pass from the animal to the vegetable kingdom, our
object being to give a general outline of the nature and distribution
of the principal marine algae or sea weeds that grow on our shores ;
and to supply a brief account of those flowering plants that either
exhibit a partiality for the neighbourhood of the sea, or that
grow exclusively on the rocks and cliffs of the coast. The present
chapter will be devoted to the sea weeds themselves, but we
consider it advisable to precede our account of these beautiful and
interesting plants by a brief outline of the general classification of
plant-life, in order that the reader may be able to understand
the true position of both these and the flowering plants in the
scale of vegetable life.
Plants are divided into two great groups, the Cryptogams or
Flowerless Plants and the Phanerogams or Flowering Plants. In
the former the reproductive organs are not true seeds containing
an embryo of the future plant, but mere cells or spores, which give
rise directly to a thread or mass of threads, to a cellular membrane,
or to a cellular body of more or less complexity of form from which
the flowerless plant is afterwards developed ; while in the latter the
reproductive organs are flowers that give rise to true seeds, each
of which contains the embryo plant.
The Cryptogams are subdivided into four groups — the Thallo-
phytes, the Charales, the Muscvnece, and the Vascular Cryptogams.
The first of these includes all the very low forms of vegetable
life, the simplest of which (Protophyta) are minute plants, each
consisting of a single microscopic cell that multiplies by a process
of budding, no sexual organs of any kind being produced. Some of
these minute unicellular organisms contain chlorophyll — the green
colouring matter of plants, by the action of which, under the
344 THE SEA SHORE
influence of light, the plant is enabled to decompose the carbonic acid
gas of the atmosphere, using the carbon for the purpose of building
up its own substance, and setting free the oxygen into the air again.
Others contain no chlorophyll ; and these, having no power of feed-
ing on carbonic acid gas, are more or less dependent on organic
matter for their supplies of carbon.
Only very slightly removed from these minute plants are the-
Algce of fresh and salt water, varying in size from microscopic
dimensions to enormous plants, the lengths of which may reach
many yards and the weight several stone. They contain chloro-
phyll, and can therefore avail themselves of inorganic food material ;
and although some multiply only by repeated subdivision of their
cells, others develop sexual organs by the union of which fertilised
spores are formed. The nature of these Algae will be more fully
described presently ; and we will go no further now than to justify
the location of such large and conspicuous plants (as many are) so
low in the scale of vegetable life by stating that they are entirely
cellular in structure, never producing true vessels such as we see
in higher plants ; and that though some of them develop parts
which more or less resemble the leaves and roots of higher forms,
the former are far more simple in structure and function than true
leaves and the latter are never engaged in the absorption of food
from the soil to which they are fixed.
Another important group of the Thallophytes is formed by the
Fungi, which include the familiar mushrooms, toadstools, and the
sap-balls so commonly seen on decaying trees ; also the smaller
forms known as moulds, mildew, and smut. These, also, are en-
tirely cellular in structure ; and, since they develop no chlorophyll,
are compelled to live as parasites on living beings or to derive their
food from decaying organic matter. Thus they are the creatures
of corruption, their presence always denoting the breaking down
of living matter or of matter that has previously lived.
Now leaving the TJiallophytes, and passing over the small
group of aquatic plants known as the Charales, we come to the
Muscinece, which contains the Liverworts (Hepaticce) and the Mosses
(Musci) .
The plants of both these groups require much moisture, and are
found principally in damp, shady situations. Like the preceding
groups they are cellular in structure, never producing true vascular
bundles such as the higher plants possess ; and their life histories
are rendered interesting by the ' alternation of generations ' which
SEA WEEDS 345
they exhibit. The first generation is a sexual one produced from
the spores, and consists either of a mass of delicate threads from
which a plant with a leafy axis is developed by a process of budding,
or of a little green frond (the thallus). These bear the male and
female elements, called respectively the antheridia and the
arcliegonia ; and when the central cells of the latter are fertilised
by the former, they give rise to a case, with or without a stalk,
containing a number of spores. When the case is ripe, it opens
horizontally by means of a lid, thus liberating the spores.
Following these in the ascending scale are the Vascular
Cryptogams, in which some of the cells become modified into true
vessels. Here, too, the plants exhibit a distinct alternation of
generations, the spore first giving rise to a small, leafless body,
the prothallium, which bears the sexual organs ; and then the
female elements, after fertilisation, produce the spore-bearing
plant.
This group contains quite a variety of beautiful and interesting
plants, including the Ferns (Filicales), Horsetails (E quisetales) ,
Club-mosses (Lycopodiales), Water Ferns (Rhizocarpece),a,ndSela-
ginellales.
Ferns usually produce their little green prothallia above ground,
and the perfect plant generally has a creeping rhizome or under-
ground stem. Some, however, have strong, erect, woody stems,
such as we see in the tree ferns of tropical and sub-tropical countries.
The horsetails and the club-mosses are also produced from prothallia
that are formed above ground. The perfect plants of the former
have branching underground stems which give off numerous roots,
and send up annually green, jointed, aerial stems that bear whorls
of fine leaves, each whorl forming a toothed, ring-like sheath. The
fertile shoots terminate in cones, on the modified leaves of which
the sporangia are produced. The stems of the club -mosses are
clothed with small overlapping leaves, in the axes of which the
sporangia are produced ; and the spores, which are formed in
abundance, constitute the lycopodium powder with which druggists
often coat their pills.
' Water ferns either float on the surface of water or creep along
the bottom, and produce their fruit either at the bases of the leaves
or between the fibres of submerged leaves. The Selaginellas are
characterised by a procumbent stem that branches in one plane
only, producing small, sessile leaves, with a single central vein.
A number of roots grow downward from the under side of the stem,
346 THE SEA SHORE
and the fruit is developed in the axils of the leaves that form the
terminal cones of the fertile branches.
The above are all the principal divisions of the flowerless plants,
and we have now to note the general characteristics of the
Phanerogams. The chief of these is, of course, the possession of
flowers as reproductive organs ; and although it is not convenient
to give a full description of the flower at the present time, it will
be necessary to say a little concerning it in order that we may be
able to grasp the broad principles of classification.
A flower, in its most complex form, consists of parts arranged
in four whorls arranged concentrically. The first and second
whorls, commencing from the outside, usually consist of leaf-like
bodies, united or distinct, and are called respectively the calyx and
the corolla. The third whorl consists of stamens, which are the
male reproductive organs of the plant, and each stamen consists
essentially of a case — the anther — in which are formed a number
of little pollen cells. When the anther is ripe it opens, thus
liberating the pollen, so that it may be dispersed by insects, by
the wind, or by other mechanical means. The remaining whorl
constitutes the pistil, which is generally made up of parts (carpels)
arranged round a common centre, and each surmounted by a
stigma adapted for the reception of the pollen cells. This portion
of the flower contains the ovules, enclosed in a case called the
ovary, and is, therefore, the female organ of the plant. When the
ovules have been fertilised by the pollen, they develop into seeds,
each one of which contains an embryo plant ; and the ovary itself,
ripening at the same time, develops into the fruit.
Such is the general description of a flower in its most complex
form, but it must be remembered that one or more of the whorls
named above may often be absent. Thus, calyx or corolla, or both,
may not exist; and the male and female organs may be developed
on separate flowers of the same plant, or even, as is frequently the
case, on different plants of the same species. In the latter instance
the flowers are spoken of as unisexual, those bearing the stamens
being the staminate or male flowers, and those bearing the pistil
the pistillate or female flowers.
The Phanerogams are divided into two main groups, the
Gymnosperms and the Angiosperms. In the former the ovules are
naked, no ovary or seed-case being developed. The pollen, carried
by the wind, falls directly on the ovule, and then develops a tube
which penetrates to the nucleus of the ovule, thus fertilising it.
SEA WEEDS 347
In the Angiosperms the ovules are always enclosed in an ovary,
and the pollen grains, alighting on the stigma, are held by a gummy
secretion. The tubes they produce then penetrate through the
underlying tissues, and thus come into contact with the ovules.
The Gymnosperms include a group of small palm-like trees and
shrubs (the Cycadece), of which the so-called Sago Palm is a repre-
sentative ; and the Coniferce or cone-bearing shrubs and trees, which
may be spoken of collectively as the Pines. In the latter the leaves
are either stiff, linear, and needle-like, or short and scale-like, or are
divided into narrow lobes ; and the plants are noted for their resinous
secretions. The flowers are always unisexual, and are generally
arranged in cylindrical or short catkins, where they are protected
by closely packed scales ; but the female flowers may be solitary.
There is no calyx or corolla, but the naked ovules and seeds are some-
times more or less enclosed in the scales (bracts) or in a fleshy disc.
The Angiosperms form the highest division of the flowering
plants ; and are subdivided into two extensive groups — the Mono-
cotyledons and the Dicotyledons. The chief distinguishing feature
of these is that implied in the above names, the embryo of the
former containing but one rudimentary leaf (cotyledon), while that
of the latter contains two. The Monocotyledons are also charac-
terised by having the bundles of vessels (vascular bundles) of the
stems dispersed ; the veins of the leaves are also usually parallel,
and the parts of the flower are arranged in whorls of three or six.
In the Dicotyledons the vascular bundles of the stem are united
into a ring which surrounds a central pith ; the veins of the leaves
form a network, and the parts of the flower are arranged in whorls
of four or five.
We are now enabled to understand the relative positions of the
principal groups of plants in the scale of vegetable life, and to locate
approximately the forms with which we have to deal ; and to aid
the reader in this portion of his work we present a brief summary
of the classification of plants in the form of a table for reference : —
THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS
I. CRYPTOGAMIA— Flowerless plants.
(a) THALLOPHYTES— Leafless, cellular plants.
1. Protophyta — Unicellular plants.
2. Algae — Sea weeds, <fec.
3. Fungi — Mushrooms, <fec.
348 THE SEA SHORE
(b) CHAEALES.
(c) MTJSCINE.E.
1. Hepaticse — Liverworts.
2. Musci — Mosses.
(d) VASCULAR CEYPTOGAMS.
1. Filicales— Ferns.
2. Equisetales— Horsetails.
3. Lycopodiales— Club-mosses.
4. Rhizocarpese — Water ferns.
5. Selaginellales.
II. PHANEROGAMIA.
(a) GYMNOSPEBMIA.
1. Cycadeae — Cycads.
2. Coniferse — Cone-bearing trees.
(b) ANGIOSPERMS.
1. Monocotyledons.
2. Dicotyledons.
We have now to deal more particularly with those marine Algce
that are commonly known as Sea Weeds, and which add so much to
the beauty of our rocky coasts. These exhibit such a variety of
graceful forms, and such charming colours, that they are admired
and treasured by thousands of sea-side ramblers, who are attracted
by them merely on account of their pleasing general appearance ;
but the naturalist has all this and a great deal more to interest and
instruct him, for the sea weeds possess quite a number of peculiar
and characteristic features that render them well worthy of a
detailed study, especially when they are compared and contrasted
with the better-known flowering plants of our fields, woods, and
hedgerows.
It has already been observed that sea weeds differ from the
majority of flowering plants in that they have no true roots or
leaves, though they are often attached to rocks and other substances
by a root-like disc, and sometimes have leaf -like expansions that
are supported by stem-like rods. The root-like structures, however,
serve simply for the attachment of the plant, and are never con-
cerned in the absorption of nourishment like the true roots of
higher plants ; and the leaf-like expansions, though they are some-
times symmetrical in form, never exhibit the spiral arrangement
that obtains in the leaves of higher plants, from which they also
differ in function.
SEA WEEDS 349
The plant-body of a sea weed is called a thallus, and differs
considerably in the various species. Sometimes it has no expanded
portion whatever, but is more or less cylindrical in all parts, and
may be either branched or simple ; and in some species it forms a
simple crust or a soft jelly-like covering on a rock.
All portions of a sea weed are made up of cells, and these are
never modified into vessels such as we see in the stems, leaves, and
roots of higher forms of vegetable life ; and one who is commencing
the study of the algse will find much interesting work in the exami-
nation of their microscopic structure. Thin sections of various
parts of the larger weeds, cut with a sharp knife or a razor, and
examined in a drop of water under a cover-glass, will show the
cellular structure perfectly ; while minute fragments of the small
and slender species are sufficiently thin and transparent to display
the form and arrangement of their cells without any previous pre-
paration.
One of the principal charms of the marine algge lies in the great
variety of colour that they display. They all contain chlorophyll
— that remarkable green colouring matter which enables a plant,
under the influence of light, to feed on the carbonic acid gas existing
in the atmosphere, or held in solution in water ; and with its aid
the sea weeds can utilise this product of decay and animal respira-
tion that would otherwise accumulate in the water of the sea. But,
in addition to this bright green chlorophyll, many of the sea weeds
contain a second colouring substance, and in these the great variety
of tint is dependent on the nature of the latter and on the proportion
in which it is present as compared with the chlorophyll itself.
The different means by which the algse reproduce their kind
forms a most engrossing subject, and to the botanist a most impor-
tant one, for it has much to do with the classification of the species.
The affinities of plants may be better determined by the nature of
their reproductive processes than by any other features, but unfor-
tunately this is not so well understood with regard to the algae
generally as compared with many other divisions of the vege-
table kingdom ; and, as a consequence, there is still a considerable
difference of opinion, not only as to the extent of the whole group,
but also as to its divisions and subdivisions. The reason for this is
clear ; for while it is quite an easy matter to trace a flowering plant
through its complete cycle from seed to seed, it requires a much
more careful examination, combined with much microscopic work,
to trace a lowly organised plant from spore to spore.
350 THE SEA SHORE
Some of the algae may be reproduced without the agency of any
sexual elements ; that is, without the aid of parts that correspond
with the ovules and the fertilising pollen of a flowering plant.
Some of these are reproduced by a repeated subdivision, or by the
separation of a portion of the plant that is capable of independent
growth ; while others produce spores that do not result from the
fusion of two different cells. In most, however, sexual differences
are to be observed, some cells being modified into female organs,
containing one or two more minute bodies that are capable of
developing into new plants after they have been fertilised, and
other cells produce the male elements by means of which the fertili-
sation is accomplished. The fertilised cells are spores, but are
named differently according to the nature of their development.
They all differ from true seeds in that they never contain an embryo
plant, but germinate by the elongation of some particular part,
which subsequently grows by a continuous process of cell-division ;
or the cell-division may originate directly in the spore without any
previous elongation or expansion.
The sea weeds are usually classified according to the colour of
their spores ; but, since this colour generally corresponds with that
of the plant itself, we may almost say that they are grouped accord-
ing to their general tints. There are three main divisions : —
The Chlorospermecs, or Green-spored ;
The Rhodospermece, or Red-spored ; and
The Melanospermea, or Brown-spored.
The ChlorospermetB contain no colouring matter other than the
chlorophyll. They are mostly small weeds, of a delicate green
colour ; and, although they are not particularly conspicuous on our
shores, they contribute very considerably to the beauty of the rock
pools, where their delicate green fronds contrast richly with the
olive Melanosperms and the pink and white corallines. The thallus
or plant-body is very varied in form, sometimes consisting of a
broad membrane, but more commonly of tufts of slender green
filaments or of narrow, flattened fronds.
These weeds are most beautiful objects for the microscope, and
they are generally so thin and transparent that no section-cutting
is necessary, nothing being required except to mount very small
portions in a drop of water. In this simple manner we may study
the beautiful arrangement and the various forms of the cells of
which they are composed. The more delicate species will be found
SEA WEEDS 351
to consist of a single layer of cells only, while in the larger forms —
the Ulvacece, for example — the thallus may be formed of two or three
distinct layers, and some of the cells may be elongated into tubes.
A remarkable feature of the green- spored weeds is the large
size of the chlorophyll granules as compared with those of the
other groups, and also the great variety of forms which these
granules assume. They may be easily seen under a low power,
and the examination of the weeds will show that the thalli are not
uniformly green, but that the colour of the plants is due entirely
to the chlorophyll granules, the remainder of the plant substance
being quite colourless.
If a green sea weed be placed in alcohol for a short time, it will
be found that the liquid assumes a green colour, while the plant
itself becomes colourless. The explanation is, of course, that
chlorophyll is soluble in alcohol. The presence of starch also in
the weed may be proved in a very simple manner, as follows : —
Mount a small piece in water, and then put a drop of iodine solution
by the edge of the cover-glass. The solution will gradually diffuse
itself around the object, turning the starch-grains to a deep blue
colour, and so rendering them very conspicuous under a moderately
high power.
The manner in which the green weeds are reproduced is very
interesting also. In some cases the fragments of a thallus that
have been detached by storms or other mechanical means possess
the power of independent growth, and develop into plants ; and this
mode of reproduction may often be watched in the indoor aquarium.
Another method is by the agency of little spores (zoospores) that
are produced at the edges or extremities of the thallus. Certain
of the cells become modified into what are called zoosi>orangia,
and the minute zoospores are formed within them. The walls of
the cells either gradually degenerate, or are fractured, and the
zoospores are thus set free. The latter are provided with little
vibratile cilia, by which they move about freely in the water.
Some eventually settle down and germinate without any further
aid, but others are unable to develop until they have been fertilised
by fusion with another cell. The former is therefore an asexual
development, while the latter is sexual.
Some of the delicate, filamentous green algae are reproduced by
another process termed conjugation. In this case two adjacent
threads that lie close together become lightly united by a covering
of gelatinous substance, and a cell of each throws out a process.
352 TEE SEA SHOES
The processes are directed towards each other, and unite to form
a tube in which the contents of the two cells become fused together,
with the result that zoospores are produced.
Among the lowest of the green sea weeds are the plants known
collectively as the Confervacece, which consist of delicate green
filaments, usually attached to rocks in dense masses, but often
found floating freely in the rock pools. The filaments are composed
of cells joined together at their ends, and are always unbranched.
Confervse are found principally in the tide pools, especially near
high-water mark, and often abound in hollows in the rock even
above high-water mark, where the spray of the waves is mingled
with rain-water or the drainage from the land. They exist in both
fresh and salt water, and some species seem capable of thriving in
brackish water of any degree of salinity.
Allied to the confervas is a group of marine algaj called Clado-
pliora, very similar to the former in general appearance, and found
in similar situations, but readily distinguished by the branching
of their jointed filaments. The various species of this group are
very beautiful weeds, their delicate filaments looking very pretty
as they float and sway in the water of the pools. They are also
exquisite objects for the* microscope ; but, unfortunately, often lose
their natural colour when preserved dry. They vary in colour,
some few being of a dull green tint, while others are bright green,
sometimes with a beautiful silky gloss.
One species (C. pellucida) is more rigid than most of the others ;
its fronds stand out erect and firm, and are repeatedly forked near
the tips. It is a moderately common weed, found in the lower rock
pools, and may be readily recognised by the long one -celled joints,
from the tops of which the branches proceed. Another species
(C. diffusa) is also very firm in structure, so much so that its bristly
tufts retain their form when removed from the water, instead of
becoming matted together in a shapeless mass. Its branches are
rather long, and bear a few simple branchlets towards their ex-
tremities. It is found in rock pools between the tide-marks.
C. lanosa is a very pretty little weed, growing in dense globular
woolly tufts, an inch or more in diameter, on the olive tangles be-
tween the tide-marks. It is of a pale yellowish-green colour, which
becomes much paler, or is even altogether lost, when the plant is
preserved in a dry state, and, at the same time its fine glossy appear-
ance is lost. Its fronds have straight branches, all making very
acute angles, and they have also small root-like filaments. It much
SEA WEEDS 853
resembles another species (C. arcta), which grows in dense tufts on
rocks, but the latter is larger, not so slender, and more freely
branched. The cells, too, of C. arcta are longer, being about ten
times the length of the diameter, and the fronds are silvery at
the tips.
Nearly thirty species of Cladophora have been described, but it
is impossible to give here a detailed description of all. We add,
however, a brief summary of the distinguishing features of a few
other species that are common on our coasts.
C. rupestris is common everywhere, and easily recognised by its
rigid, branching, tufted fronds, of a dark greyish-green colour ; its
branches, which are opposite, bear awl-shaped branchlets. It is
found in rock pools from half -tide downwards, and in deep water
beyond the tide-marks, the plants growing in the latter situa-
tions being generally of a fine dark-green colour.
C. Icetevirens is also very common on rocks between the tide-
marks. Its fronds are tufted and freely branched, of a pale-green
colour and soft flexible texture, and about six inches long. The
branchlets are usually slightly curved.
C. gracilis is a beautiful plant that grows on large weeds,
especially the Sea Grass (Zostera) in deep water ; and although not
very common, it is sometimes found on the beach after storms. It
is characterised by its slender silky fronds, from a few inches to
a foot in length, of a yellowish -green colour. It may always he
known by the comb -like branchlets growing only on one side of
each branch.
C. refracta grows in dense tufts, two or three inches long, in
rock pools near low-water mark. Its fronds consist of rigid stems
in rope-like bundles that are very freely branched, the whole tuft
being of a yellow-green colour and silky texture. C. albida closely
resembles it in structure and habit, but may be distinguished by its
paler colour, which disappears when the weed is dried, and by its
longer and more delicate branches.
In another order of the green-spored algae (the Siphonece or
Siphonacece) the frond is formed of single branching cells, and
many of these are often interwoven into a spongy mass, and some-
times coated with a deposit of calcareous matter.
In the genus Codium the fronds are of a sponge-like texture,
composed of interwoven branching fibres, and are of a globular,
cylindrical, or flattened form. The commonest species is C. tomen-
tosum (Plate VII.) > which consists of sponge-like, dark-green
354 < THE SEA SHORE
cylindrical fronds, which are forked and covered with short hairs
that give it a woolly appearance when in the water. Each frond is
composed of slender interwoven fibres with club-shaped filaments
passing vertically to the surface. It grows on rocks in the pools
between the tide-marks, and is abundant on nearly all our coasts.
The Purse Codium (C. bursa) has spongy hollow fronds of a
globular form, varying from a quarter of an inch to five or six inches
in diameter. It is a rare species, being found only at a few places on
the south coast. Another species (C. adhcerens) adheres to rocks,
over which the fronds spread in irregular soft patches, the club-
shaped vertical filaments of its interwoven fibres giving it the
appearance of rich green velvet.
An allied weed (Bryopsis), named from its moss-like appearance,
grows in erect tufts, each frond consisting of a branched one-celled
filament. There are two species of the genus, one (B. plumosa)
characterised by the light feathery nature of its fronds, the stems of
which are branched only near the top. It is found in rock pools
on most of our coasts. The other (B. hypnoides) is more freely
branched, and the branches are long, and issue from all sides of the
stem. Like the last species, it has branches on the outer part of
the stem only, but it is of a softer texture.
The best known of the green-spored weeds are certainly those
belonging to the Ulvacece, characterised by their flat or tubular
fronds, sometimes of a purplish colour, the cells of which multiply
both horizontally and vertically as the plants grow. In the
typical genus, Ulva, the frond is sometimes in two distinct layers,
and becomes more or less inflated by the accumulation of either
water or oxygen between them. The commonest species are
U. lactuca and U. latissima, both of which are eaten by the
dwellers on some of our coasts. The former, commonly known as
the Lettuce Ulva, has a frond of a single layer of cells, and grows
on rocks and weeds between the tide-marks. It is common on many
oyster beds, and is employed by the fishermen to cover the oysters
when sent to market ; they call it ' oyster green.' This species is
shown on Plate VIII. £7. latissima or the Broad Ulva sometimes
reaches a length of two feet, and a breadth of nearly a foot. The
fronds are composed of two layers of cells, are of an irregular
shape, with a very wavy, broken margin, and of a bluish-green
colour, It is known as the Green Laver, and is used as food in
districts where the true laver (Porphyra) is not to be obtained. A
third species — the Narrow Ulva (U. Linza) — has smaller and
SEA-WEEDS
1. Fucusnodosus 3. Codium tomentosum
2. Nitophyllum lacer.itum 4. Padina pavonia
5. Porphyra laciniata
SEA WEEDS 355
narrower fronds, of a more regular shape and of a bright-green
colour. The fronds are composed of two layers of cells.
The Ulvce retain their colour perfectly when dried, and, with the
exception of U. latissima, are of a mucilaginous nature, and adhere
well to paper, but, unfortunately, the graceful wavy outline of the
fronds is lost in pressed specimens.
The ' true laver ' mentioned above, which is also popularly
known as Sloke, is closely allied to Ulva, but may be distinguished
from it by the colour of its membranous fronds, which vary from
a light rose to a deep purple or violet, occasionally inclining to
olive, but never green. Its scientific name is Porphyra laciniata
(Plate VII.), and it differs from the majority of the chlorospermece in
having dark-purple spores, which are arranged in groups of four in
all parts of the frond. The fronds are very variable in form and
size, being sometimes ribbon-like, and sometimes spreading into an
irregular sheet of deeply-divided segments ; and the remarkable
variety of form and colour has led to a division into several species.
These, however, merge into one another so gradually that the sepa-
ration seems to be hardly necessary.
The same remark concerning the multiplicity of species applies
to another allied genus called Enteromorpha, in which the fronds
are green and tubular, and often more or less branched. In these
the colour varies from a pale to a dark green, and the cells are
arranged in such a manner as to give a reticulated appearance. The
commonest and best-defined species are E. intestinalis, the tubular
fronds of which are constricted at intervals in such a manner as
to resemble the intestines of an animal, and E. compressa, with
branched fronds of variable form and size. The former is common
on all our coasts, and may even be found in rivers and ditches
some distance from the sea. It thrives equally well in fresh and
salt water, and appears to grow most luxuriantly in the brackish
waters of tidal rivers. The latter species also thrives best in similar
situations.
Coming now to the red-spored sea weeds (Rhodospermece), we
have to deal with some of the most charming of the marine algae
that invariably attract the sea- side rambler, and provide many of
the most delightful objects in the album of the young collector.
Their brilliant colours, varying from a light red to dark purple and
violet, are sufficient in themselves to render them popular with the
collector, but in addition to this striking feature they are characterised
by extreme elegance of form and delicacy of texture. They are to
356 THE SEA SHOES
be found in most rock pools, from near high -water mark down wards,
the smaller and more delicate forms adding much to the beauty of
these miniature seas ; but the largest and many of the prettiest
species exist only at or beyond the lowest ebb of the tide, and hence
the algologist, in quest of these beautiful plants, will find it necessary
to work at the very lowest spring tides, with the occasional aid of a
small boat drifted into the narrow channels among outlying rocks,
and a long hook with which to haul up submerged specimens ; and
it will also be advisable to search the line of debris at high-water
mark after stormy weather for rare weeds that may have been
detached and washed ashore by the angry waves.
"While engaged in the former of these employments — the search-
ing of outlying rocks with the boat — and also when examining the
outer rock pools which are disturbed by the waves that wash over
their banks, the simple instrument known as the water-telescope
will prove invaluable. Everyone must have noticed how difficult
it is to observe objects in water, the surface of which is disturbed
by the wind or some other cause ; but the simple appliance named,
consisting only of a long tube of metal, a few inches in diameter,
and painted a dead black inside, will enable the observer to see all
submerged objects with the greatest of ease when the water is itself
clear. The principle of the water-telescope is as simple as its con-
struction ; for the tube, protecting the surface of the water within it
from the disturbances outside, prevents the light from being refracted
successively in different directions, while the dead-black surface of
the interior prevents those internal reflections that would otherwise
cause the vision to be indistinct.
A few hours spent with the rhodosperms at the sea-side will
be sufficient to show not only the great variety of their form
and colouring, but also that the same species may vary according to
the position in which it grows. Most of the smaller forms are
delicate and filamentous, but others have expanded fronds which are
very leaf-like. The brightest colours are usually to be found at or
beyond low-water mark, where the weeds are covered with a
considerable height of water for hours together, and also in shady
situations at higher levels, while some of the species that grow in the
upper rock pools are often of such a deep colour, with so much
admixture of brown, that they may be easily mistaken for the olive
melanospores to be presently described.
Most of the rhodosperms are attached directly to the rocks, and
the larger species have often a root-like disc by which they are very
SEA WEEDS 357
firmly held ; but some of the smaller species grow attached to
larger weeds, into the substance of which they frequently penetrate ;
and it is possible that these derive some amount of nourishment
from the sap of their supporters. Some are of a recumbent nature,
being attached to the rock throughout their whole length, while
others are so incrusted with carbonate of lime which has been
extracted from the water that they resemble corals rather than
forms of vegetable life. Nearly all of them contain a bright-red
colouring matter in addition to the chlorophyll by which they are
enabled to feed on carbonic acid gas.
None of the rhodosperms are of really microscopic dimensions,
and they all grow by the repeated division of the cells of the apex,
while the branches are derived by the similar division of new cells
at the sides.
All plants are particularly interesting during the period of
fruiting, and this is remarkably the case with many of our red-
spored sea weeds, which are brighter and prettier while laden with
their spore-producing cells ; and the collector of marine algee should
always endeavour to obtain as many species as possible in fruit, not
only on account of the brighter appearance that may characterise
them at this time, but mainly because the opportunity of studying
the mode of reproduction should not be missed.
In the rhodosperms the reproduction may be either asexual or
sexual. In the former case fertile spores are produced without the
necessity for any outside fertilising element, and four are usually
produced in each one of the sporangia, hence they are generally
known as tetraspores. Where the reproduction is of the sexual
type, the male cells are produced singly in the terminal cells of the
fronds, and since they are usually crowded together in consider-
able numbers, and contain none of the red colouring matter that
exists in the other parts of the plant, their presence is easily
observed.
The female cells (carpogonia) are also produced on the tips of
the branches, and when the male elements escape from their cells,
they are conveyed passively by the movements of the water, for they
have no vibratile cilia by which they are propelled, and on coming
into contact with the female cell they adhere closely. An opening
is then formed in the latter, and the male element enters the
carpogonium, which germinates, deriving its nourishment from
the parent plant, and the spores are thus formed. Lastly, it is
interesting to note that the asexual spores, the male cells, and
358 THE SEA SHORE
the female cells are generally produced on different plants of the
same species.
We will now proceed to examine some of the best known and
most interesting of the rhodosperms, beginning with the order
Ceramiacece, which contains a number of red or reddish-brown
weeds with jointed, thread-like fronds that enclose a single tube,
and which are generally surrounded by a cuticle of polygonal cells-
The spores are contained in transparent berry-like sacs which are
naked ; and the four-parted spores (tetraspores) are formed in the
cells of the cuticle or at the tips of the fronds.
Over twenty British species belong to the genus Callithamnion,
and nearly all of them are pretty red or rose-coloured, feathery
plants that are conspicuous for their beauty. Nearly all are of
small size, the largest measuring only seven or eight inches, while
some are so small that they would scarcely be noticed except by
those who search diligently for them. The principal features of
the genus are, in addition to those mentioned above as common
to the order, that the spores are angular, and clustered within a
transparent sac, and the tetraspores are naked and distributed on
the branches.
In some species the fronds have no stem, and these are very
small, generally only about a quarter of an inch in height or less, and
they grow on rocks or weeds, sometimes clothing the surfaces with
a velvet-like covering. C.floridulum forms a kind of reddish down
on the rocks, sometimes in little rounded patches, but sometimes
completely covering the surface. It occurs on several parts of the
English coast, but is so abundant on the west coast of Ireland that
the beach is strewn with it after stormy weather. Other allied
species grow in minute tufts on rocks, or are parasitic on other
weeds, and are so inconspicuous that they are but little known.
Another section of the genus is characterised by pinnate fronds
with opposite segments, and the species are very pretty plants with
fronds generally a few inches in length. One of the commonest of
these is the Feathered Callithamnion (C. plumula), a great favourite
with collectors of sea weeds, and a most interesting object for the
microscope. Its soft and flexible fronds grow in tufts from two to
five inches long. The branches are regularly arranged, and the comb-
like branchlets bear the tetraspores on the tips of the plumules.
This beautiful weed grows near low-water mark, and in deep water,
and is often very abundant on the beach after storms. C. Turneri
is another common species, easily known by its creeping fibres,
SEA WEEDS 359
attached by little discs to some larger weed, and from which the
tufts of branched fronds stand out erect. On the west and south-
west coasts of Britain we may often meet with the allied Crossed
Callithamnion (G. cruciatum), which grows on rocks, close to low-
water mark, that are covered with a muddy deposit. It grows in
tufts, somewhat resembling those of C. plumula, but its plumules
are arranged two, three, or four at a level, and are very crowded at
the tips of the branches.
Still another section of this large genus contains weeds of a more
shrubby growth, with veined stem and branches jointed obscurely.
Of these the Rosy Callithamnion (C. roseum) is not uncommonly
found on mud^ shores, and especially in and near the estuaries of
rivers. It grows in dense dark-coloured tufts, two or three inches
long, with alternate branches much divided. The tetraspores occur
FIG. 245. — Callithamnion Fio. 246. — Callithamnion
roseum tetricum
singly, one at the top of each of the lower joints of the pinnules of
the plumes. C. byssoideum grows on larger weeds in the rock pools,
and especially on Codium tomentosum (p. 353), in dense tufts of
exceedingly fine filaments, jointed, and branched irregularly. The
upper branches are plumed, and their tips bear very fine colourless
filaments. The spore-clusters are arranged in pairs, and the tetra-
spores are thinly scattered on the pinnules of the plumes. This
species is so very delicate in structure that a lens is absolutely
necessary to make out its structure. It is, in fact, impossible to
distinguish between the various species of Callithamnion without
such aid ; and many of them, particularly the species last described,
require the low power of a compound microscope.
Among the other common species, belonging to the same section,
we may mention C. corymbosum, distinguished by its very slender,
360 THE SEA SHORE
rosy, jointed fronds, with the ultimate divisions of the branches
disposed in a level-topped (corymbose) manner, growing on rocks
and weeds near low-water mark ; C. polyspermum, growing in
globular tufts on Fucus serratus and F. vesiculosus, with short awl-
shaped pinnules, and closely-packed clusters of spores ; C. HooJceri,
with opaque stem and branches, and spreading branchlets that are
themselves branched, and bear spreading plumules at their tips ;
and C. arbuscula, found on the west coasts, with a stout stem, naked
below, and having a very bushy habit.
It is often by no means an easy matter to distinguish between
the different species in such a large genus as Callithamnion, and
we strongly recommend the beginner to first stul^r the charac-
teristics on which the classification of the Algce is based, and to
arrange his specimens according to the orders and genera to which
they belong ; and then, after mastering the principles of classifica-
tion, he should refer to one of those larger works in which all known
British species are described, and make himself acquainted with the
features of each individual species in his collection.
Before leaving the present genus we ought also to mention the
fact that many of the species lose their natural colour rapidly
when placed in fresh water ; hence when they are being cleansed
for mounting salt water should be employed. Further, even after
they have been satisfactorily mounted, they are liable to be spoiled
if left exposed to moist air. The salt water used need not be the
natural sea water ; a solution of common table salt, made up to
approximately the same strength as sea water, will answer the
purpose just as well.
The genus Griffithsia includes some very beautiful weeds of deli-
cate threadlike structure and of a fine rose colour. The frond con-
tains a single tube, and is jointed and forked, the joints being
usually transparent. The spore clusters are enclosed in a gelatinous
sac surrounded by a whorl of little branchlets, the spores themselves
being minute and angular. The tetraspores are attached to the
inner side of whorled branchlets.
The commonest species is G. setacea, which is of a bright-red
colour and slightly branched. It is also of a somewhat firm structure,
but soon loses both firmness and colour when removed from salt
water ; and, like Callithamnion, rapidly fades if put into fresh water,
which is readily absorbed through its membranes, causing them
to burst and discharge their colouring matter. It receives its
specific name from its bristle-like forked fronds. G. secundiflora is
SEA WEEDS
361
FIG. 247.— Griffithsia
corallina
somewhat like Setacea, but is larger, and the tips of its branches are
obtuse. Its fronds grow in fan-shaped tufts five or six inches long.
It is not a common weed, but may often be met with on the coast
of Devon and Cornwall.
O. barbata, or the Bearded Griffithsia, receives its name from
its very delicate fibres, which bear spherical, pink tetraspores. It
seems to occur only on the south and south-west coasts, where it
grows on stones or attached to other weeds.
Our last example of the genus is G. corattina,
which is of a deep-crimson colour, and is so
jointed as to have the appearance of a coral-
line. Its fronds are from three to eight
inches long, regularly forked, and of a gela-
tinous nature. The joints are somewhat
pear-shaped, and the spore clusters are
attached to their upper ends. It soon fades,
and even if its colour is satisfactorily pre-
served, the pressure of the drying press
destroys the beautiful rounded form of its
bead-like joints. It forms a lovely permanent specimen, however,
when preserved in a bottle of salt water, with the addition of a
single grain of corrosive sublimate.
Our next genus (Halurus) contains a common weed of the south
coast which was once included in Griffithsia. It is the Equisetum-
leaved Halurus (H. equiseti-
folius), so called because
its. branches are regularly
whorled round the nodes of
the jointed branches, thus
resembling the semi-aquatic
Mare's Tail. Its frond is tu-
bular, and the spore-clusters
are situated on the tips of
the branches, surrounded by
a whorl of small branchlets.
The genus Pilota has a
slightly flattened cartilagi-
nous frond, divided pinnately, and the axis surrounded by a cuticle
of two layers of cells. The spore-clusters, at the tips of the branches,
are surrounded by a whorl of branchlets. It contains only two
British species, one of which (P . plumosa) is a very feathery species,
FIG. 248.— Halurus
equisetifolius
FIG. 249.— Pilota
plumosa
362 TEE SEA SHORE
with coinb-like branchlets, growing on the stems and fronds of
other weeds found on our northern shores. The other (P. elegana),
with narrower fronds, in long flaccid tufts, is found all round
our coasts.
Our last genus of the Ceramiacece is the large and typical one
Ceramium, which contains about a dozen British species in which
the frond is threadlike, jointed, branched or forked repeatedly, with
the tips of the branchlets usually curled. The spore-clusters are
enclosed in transparent sessile sacs, surrounded by a whorl of very
short branchlets ; and the tetraspores are embedded in the cortex, but
distinctly visible. As a rule the fronds are very symmetrical, and
the branches radiate in a regular fan-like manner.
In one species of the genus the frond is completely covered with
cortex cells, and at each node of the frond there is a single spine
which, although so small as to be invisible without a lens, so effec-
tually locks the threads together that they form an entangled mass
that is not easily arranged to the satisfaction of the collector. The
species referred to is C. flabelligemm — the Fan-bearing Ceramium
— and is very rare except in the Channel Islands.
Other species are armed with one or more spines at the nodes,
but the nodes only are covered with cortex cells, which render them
opaque, while the internodes or joints are transparent. In this
group we have C. ciliatum — the Hairy Ceramium, with reddish-
purple segments, and a regular whorl of hairs, directed upwards,
round each node ; each hair or spine consists of three segments.
This plant is common during the summer and autumn, and may be
found in the tide pools at all levels, either attached to the rocks or
parasitic on other weeds. The same section contains C. echinotum,
with rigid, forked fronds, and irregularly- scattered one-jointed
spines ; it is common on the south coast, where it may be found on
the rocks and weeds of the upper tide pools ; and 0. acanthonotum,
also common in the rock pools, with a single strong three- jointed
spine on the outer side of each filament. The last-named weed is
found principally on the northern shores, especially on rocks covered
with the fry of the common mussel.
Other species are characterised by transparent internodes as
above described, but have no spines at the joints, and may thus be
easily floated on to a sheet of paper without the troublesome matting
of their fronds. These include the Straight Ceramium (C.strictuni),
with erect and straight branches growing in dense tufts, and con-
spicuous tetraspores arranged round the nodes of the upper branchlets,
SEA WEEDS 363
C. gracillimum, of the lower rock pools, with very slender gelatinous
fronds, swollen nodes and small fan-shaped branchlets ; C. tenuissi-
mum, closely resembling C. strictum in
general appearance, but distinguished by
having its tetraspores only on the outer
side of the nodes ; and the Transparent
Ceramium (C. diaphanum), which may
be found throughout the year on rocks
and weeds in the rock pools. The last
species is the largest and most beautiful
of the genus, and may be readily recog- „ „_,, „
* _ J FIG. 250.— Ceramium
msed by its light-coloured, transparent diaphanum
stem with swollen purple nodes, and its
conspicuous spore-clusters near the tips of the filaments.
Our last example of the genus is the Common Red Ceramium
(C. rubrum), which may be found in the rock pools at all levels.
It is very variable in form, but may be known by its contracted
nodes, in which the red tetraspores are lodged, and its spore- clusters
surrotinded by three or four short branchlets. It differs from
most of the other species in having both nodes and internodes
covered with cortex-cells, and hence the latter are not transparent.
The order Spyridiacece has a single British representative
which may be found in various localities on the south coast. It is
Spyridia filamentosa, a dull-red weed with thread-like, tubular,
jointed fronds, from four inches to a foot in length. The main stem
is forked, and densely clothed with short and slender branchlets.
The frond is covered with a cortex of small cells. The spore-
clusters are grouped together, several being enclosed in a mem-
branous cell in conceptacles, or external sacs, at the ends of the
branchlets; and the tetraspores are arranged singly along the
jointed branchlets.
The next family (Cryptonemiacece) is an extensive one, con-
taining nearly twenty British genera of red or purple weeds,
with unjointed, cartilaginous, gelatinous, and sometimes mem-
branous fronds. The spores are irregularly distributed, and are
contained either in sunken cells or in conceptacles. The tetra-
spores are either in cells at the edges of the frond or collected
together in compact groups.
Of the genus Dumontia we have only one species (D. filiformis),
the frond of which is a simple or branched tube, from an inch to
more than a foot in length, containing a loose network of filaments
364 THE SEA SHOES
when young, and only a gelatinous fluid when the plant is mature.
The spores exist in rounded clusters among the cells of the tube,
and the tetraspores are similarly situated. A variety with wide
wavy fronds is sometimes found in the brackish water near the
mouths of rivers.
GloiosipTionia capillaris is a very delicate and beautiful weed
found in the lowest tide pools of the south coast. Its frond is a
very slender branched tube, filled with a gelatinous fluid, and con-
posed of delicate filaments embedded in transparent gelatine. It
is a beautiful object for the microscope.
ScMzymenia (Iridcea) edulis has flat, oval, dark-red fronds
that grow in clusters ; and, being eaten by various marine animals,
is often found imperfect and full of holes. The fronds are some-
times a foot or more in length, and five or six inches wide. They
are thick and leathery, and each is supported on a short, cylin-
drical stem.
In the lower tide pools we commonly meet with Furcellaria
fastigiata, with brownish-red, cylindrical fronds, solid, forked, and
densely tufted. The branches are all of the same height, with
sharp tips ; and the spore-clusters are contained in terminal
lanceolate pods. This weed is very much like Polyides, of another
order, but may be distinguished by its fibrous, creeping root, while
that of Polyides is a disc.
The genus Chylocladia is characterised by a tubular rounded
frond composed of two layers, the inner consisting of branching
filaments, and the outer cellular. The spores are contained in
external cones with a pore at the apex, and the tetraspores are
among the superficial cells of the branches. There are two
common British species of the genus, one of them — C.articulata —
with long, tubular fronds, constricted at intervals, the lower
branches forked and the upper whorled and tufted ; and Cf.
clavellosa, with freely branched fronds bearing short spindle-
shaped branchlets.
One of the best-known algae of the present family is the Irish
Moss or Carrageen (Chondrus crispus), which will be at once
recognised by its representation on Plate VIII. Its fronds are
cartilaginous, forked and fan-shaped ; and, when growing in deep,
sheltered pools, its branches are often broad and much curled.
This weed is an important article of commerce, being still used as
a food for invalids. When boiled it yields a colourless gelatine.
In the genus Gigartina the frond is cartilaginous, flat, or thread-
SEA WEEDS 365
like, irregularly branched, and of a purplish-red colour. The
spores are contained in external tubercles, and the tetraspores
are arranged in masses beneath the surface. The only common
species is G. mamillosa, which has a linear, furrowed stem, with
fan-shaped, deeply-cleft fronds. The spores are contained in
mamilliform tubercles scattered over the surface of the frond.
Callophyllis (Rliodymenia) laciniata is found on most rocky
coasts. It has bright-red, fleshy fronds that are deeply cleft into
wedge-shaped segments, the fertile specimens with 'waved edges
and small marginal leaflets. It is found on rocks and Laminaria
stems beyond the tide-marks, but is commonly washed up on the
beach during storms. It is a beautiful weed, and retains its colour
well when dried.
Cystoclonium (Hypnted) purpurascens is a very common weed,
growing on other algae between the tide-marks, and sometimes
reaching a length of two feet. Its cartilaginous, purple fronds are
much branched, and become almost black when dried. The spores
are embedded in the smallest branches, and the tetraspores are
arranged among the superficial cells.
The genus Phyllophora contains a few British weeds with a
stiff, membranous frond, bearing leaf-like appendages, and supported
on a stalk. The tetraspores are contained in external wart-like
swellings. The commonest species is P. membrcmifolia, the fronds
of which are divided into wedge-shaped segments, and grow in tufts
from an expanding root. The spores are contained in stalked
sporangia, and the tetraspores are near the centres of the segments.
Another species— P. rubens — has a shorter stem, and grows in deep
and shady rock pools. Its fronds are densely tufted ; and, as the
plant grows, new series of segments are formed at the tips of the
older ones. A third species (P. palmettoides) has a very bright-red
frond and an expanded root.
The order Rhodymeniacece includes a number of red or purple
sea weeds with flat or thread-like unjointed, cellular fronds, the
surface cells forming a continuous coating. The spores are lodged
in external conceptacles, and are at first arranged in beaded threads.
The tetraspores are either distributed among the surface cells,
collected in clusters, or situated in special leaflets.
The typical genus (Rhodymenia) contains two red, membranous
weeds, the commoner of which is E, palmata (Plate VIII.),so com-
mon on the Scottish and Irish coasts, where it forms an important
article of diet, and is known as the Dulse or Dillisk. It is also
366 THE SEA SHORE
widely distributed over the English coasts. Its broad, fleshy fronds
are divided into finger-like lobes, and are either sessile or supported
on a stalk that proceeds from a small discoid root. The frond is
very variable in form, being sometimes divided into very narrow
segments, and sometimes quite undivided. One variety has a
number of small stalked leaflets on its margin (see Plate VIII.) ;
and another is very narrow, with wedge-shaped irregular lobes.
R. palmetto is a smaller and less common species that grows on
rocks and large weeds in deep water. The tetraspores form
crimson patches on the tips of the lobes.
Maugeria (Delesseria) sanguinea (Plate VIII.) is a large and
beautiful weed, of a blood-red colour, that grows in the lower rock
pools or beyond low-water mark, under the shade of high rocks or
hidden by the olive tangles. Its frond is thin and membranous,
with a well-defined midrib. The spores are contained in globular
stalked conceptacles, usually on one side of the midrib ; and the
tetraspores may be seen in pod-like leaflets attached to the bare
midrib during the whiter.
Passing over some of the rarer membranaceous Rhodymeniacece,
we come to the beautiful Plocamium, distinguished by its linear
compressed crimson fronds, which are pin-
nate, with comb-like teeth, the branchlets
being alternately arranged on either side
in threes and fours. The spores are on
radiating threads, in globular conceptacles ;
and the tetraspores are in the outer divi-
Fio. 251. — Plocamium sions of the frond. We have only one
species of this beautiful genus, and that is
P. coccineum, which is of such a brilliant colour that it is always
a favourite with collectors.
Our last example of the order is Oordylecladia (Gracilaria)
erecta, with threadlike, cartilaginous frond, irregularly branched
and cellular in structure. The fronds arise from a disc-like root ;
and bear spores in thickly- clustered spherical conceptacles, and
tetraspores in lanceolate pods at the tips of the branches, both
in the winter. It is a small weed, and grows principally on sand-
covered rocks near low-water mark.
The order Sphcerococcoidece contains red or purple sea weeds
with unjointed cartilaginous or membranaceous fronds, composed
of many-sided, elongated cells, with spores in necklace-Like strings,
lodged in external conceptacles. The typical genus (Sphcerococcus)
SEA WEEDS 367
contains the Buck's-horn sea weed which grows at and beyond
low-water mark on the south and west coasts, where it is sometimes
washed up on the beach during storms. Its fronds are flattened
and two-edged, freely branched, and the upper branches are re-
peatedly forked, and terminate in fan-shaped, cleft branchlets.
Both branches and branchlets are fringed with slender cilia, in
which the spores are embedded. It is a handsome weed, of a bright-
red colour and a somewhat coral -like form.
Allied to this is Gelidium corneum, with flattened, horny fronds,
repeatedly pinnate, with the smallest branchlets obtuse and narrower
at the base. The spores are contained in conceptacles near the ex-
tremities of the branchlets, and the tetraspores are imbedded in
club-shaped branchlets. There are a large number of varieties of
this species, differing in form, size, and the mode of branching of
the fronds. The size varies from one to five or six inches, and the
colour is red or reddish green.
In the genus Gracilaria the frond is thick and horny, and the
surface cells are very small, while the central ones are large. The
spores, formed on necklace -like threads, are enclosed in sessile
conceptacles along the branches, and the tetraspores are imbedded
among the surface cells of the fronds. The only common species
is G. confervoides, with cylindrical cartilaginous fronds bearing
long thread-like branches, sometimes reaching a length of two feet.
The spore conceptacles are situated on the slender branches, giving
them a knotted or beaded appearance. The colour is a dark purple,
which rapidly fades when the weed is placed in fresh water or
left exposed to the air. Two other species — G. multipartita and
G. compressa — are rare.
Calliblepharis ciliata, perhaps more commonly known as
Rhodymenia ciliata, has a branching root, short round stem, and
a broad, crisp frond that is generally ciliated. Sometimes the
frond is simple and lanceolate, with small leaf-like appendages on
its edge ; and sometimes it is deeply cleft. The spores are arranged
in beaded threads in sessile conceptacles on the marginal leaflets.
Another species of the same genus (C. jubata) is very similar in
structure, but is of a duller-red colour, gradually changing to olive
green at the tips ; and it has its tetraspores in the cilia only, while
in C. ciliata they are collected in patches in all parts of the frond.
Both species grow in deep water, and are frequently washed up
during storms.
The large genus Nitophyllum contains some beautiful rose-red
368 THE SEA SHORE
sea weeds, with irregularly cleft membranaceous fronds, either vein-
less, or with a few indistinctly visible veins only at the base. The
spores are in rounded sessile conceptacles scattered on the surface of
the frond ; and the tetraspores occur in clusters similarly scattered.
One of the species — N. laceratum—so called from the torn and
jagged appearance of the frond, is represented on Plate VII. The
fronds are attached to a disc-like root, and are very variable in
form, being sometimes so narrow as to appear almost threadlike.
The plant grows on rocks and large weeds in the lower rock pools
and in deep water. In the same genus we have N. pwnctatum,
with broad pink fronds, dotted all over with spore-conceptacles and
dark-red clusters of tetraspores ; also a few other less common
species that are seldom seen except after storms, as they grow
almost exclusively in deep water.
The genus Delesseria contains some beautiful rose-coloured and
reddish-brown weeds with delicate, leaf-like, symmetrical fronds,
each of which has a darker midrib from which issue transverse
veins. The spores are arranged like minute necklaces, and are
contained in sessile conceptacles either on the midrib of the frond
or on leaflets that grow from the midrib. The tetraspores are in
clusters which are scattered over the frond or on its leaflets. The
algae of this genus are seldom found growing between the tide-
marks, as they generally thrive in deep water, but splendid specimens
are often washed up on the beach during storms, especially on the
south and south-west coasts.
FIG. 252. — Delesseria alata FIG. 253. — Delesseria hypoglossum
Among these we may specially mention D. alata, known
popularly as the Winged Delesseria, with a dark-red, forked frond,
consisting of a strong midrib, bordered by a wing-like lamina of very
variable width, supported by opposite veins. In this species the
clusters of tetraspores are arranged on each side of the midrib or
SEA WEEDS 369
special leaflets near the tips of the frond. D. sinuosa is a less
common weed, with a disc-like root and an oblong, cleft and
toothed frond, and tetraspores in leaflets growing from its margin.
Another species — D. hypoglossum — is characterised by the leaflets
of the midrib bearing still smaller leaflets in the same manner.
We have already referred (p. 366) to a sea weed commonly
known as the Dock-leaved Delesseria, the scientific name of which
is Maugeria (Delesseria) sanguinea. This plant was once included
in the present order, but has been removed on account of the dif-
ferent structure of its fruit.
Our next order is the interesting one containing the coral-like
weeds, some of which are so common and so conspicuous in the
rock pools. The order is known as the Corallinacece, and all its
species secrete carbonate of lime, which hides their vegetable struc-
ture and gives them more the appearance of stony corals.
The typical genus (Corallina) includes two weeds with jointed
pinnate fronds, and spore-conceptacles at the tips of the branches
with a terminal pore.
These and the allied sea weeds are very unlike plants in their
general nature, their stony covering of carbonate of lime hiding all
traces of the delicate cellular structure so characteristic of the various
forms of vegetable life, and especially those of aquatic or marine
habit. If, however, the weed is put into dilute hydrochloric
(muriatic) acid the calcareous matter will be completely dissolved
in a minute or two, with evolution of bubbles of carbonic acid gas ;
and if a portion of the frond be then examined in a drop of water
under the microscope, the cellular structure referred to will be seen
as well as in any other weed. Another characteristic of the plant,
or rather of the carbonate of lime which it secretes, is its property
of becoming intensely luminous when held in a very hot flame.
Thus if a tuft of coralline be held in the flame of a Bunsen
burner, it will glow so brilliantly as to remind us of the lime light.
Further, if we examine the plant in its natural state, we find that
the carbonate of lime is not secreted uniformly in all parts, but
that the nodes of the jointed frond are free from the stony deposit,
and are therefore flexible.
Our commonest species — G. officinalis — maybe found in almost
every rock pool between the tide-marks, growing on rocks, shells,
and other weeds. The joints of the stem and branches are
cylindrical or somewhat wedge-shaped, while those of the branch-
lets are linear ; and the colour varies from a dark purple to white,
B B
370 THE SEA SHORE
the former prevailing in the deep and shady pools and the depth
of tint decreasing according to the amount of exposure to the
bleaching action of the sun.
A second species (C. squamata) is very similar in growth and
habit, but is much less common, and is confined to the neighbour-
hood of low-water mark. It may be distinguished from the last by
the form of the segments, which are short and globose in the lower
portions of the stem, and become broader and more flattened
towards the tips of the branches.
Another genus — Jania — contains a few coralline weeds that
are somewhat like Corallina, but are of a more slender habit and
smaller, and have a moss-like appearance. They may be distin-
guished by the forked branching of the slender frond, and by the
position of the conceptacles in the axils of the branches, and not at
the tips. J. rubens is a very common red species that grows in
tufts on other weeds. It has cylindrical segments, longer towards
the tips of the branches ; while another and less common one
(J. corniculata], found principally on the south coasts, has flat-
tened segments except in the branchlets.
A third genus of the order — Melobesia — contains a very
peculiar group of algae that would certainly never be regarded
as plants by those who did not know them. They are apparently
mere solid incrustations of calcareous matter, without any jointed
structure, and often of very irregular form, covering the surfaces of
rocks, shells, or weeds. They are of varying colours, some pre-
vailing tints being dark purple, lilac, rose, and yellow ; and they
are equally variable in form, some being decidedly lichen-like,
some resembling fungoid masses, and others consisting of super-
imposed leaf-like layers. They are not weeds to be pressed for
the collector's album, but require storing in boxes or trays like sea
shells. As in the case of the branched corallines, the hidden
vegetable structure may be revealed by dissolving away the car-
bonate of lime ; and the spore-conceptacles, with terminal pores,
may be seen scattered irregularly over the surface.
The order Laurenciacecs contains some beautiful pink, red, and
purple weeds with round or flattened branching fronds. They
may be known by the disposition of the tetraspores, which are
irregularly scattered over the branches; and by the pear-shaped
spores in rounded capsules. The typical genus (Laurencia) in-
cludes an abundant weed (L. pinnatifidd) which was formerly
eaten in parts of Scotland, where it is known as the Pepper Dulse
SEA WEEDS 371
on account of its peppery taste. It is found in the tide pools on
many parts of the coast, and varies much in size, form, and colour
according to the situation in which it grows. The plants which are
exposed to the air at low tide are usually small, and of a pale brown
colour, while those found in the permanent rock pools at or near
low-water mark are larger and dark brown or purple. The fronds
are flat and cartilaginous, with stout branches bearing alternate
divided branchlets, which are blunt at the tips. The stem itself
is unbranched. The spores are pear-shaped, in oval cells ; and
the tetraspores are irregularly distributed near the tips of the
branches.
Another common species, known as the Tufted Laurencia
(L. cfespitosa), is very similar to the last mentioned, and is not
easily distinguished from it. It is, however, of a bushy habit, while
FIG. 254. — Laurencia plnnatifida FIG. 255. — Laurencia obtusa
L.pinnatifida is flat, and its fronds are less firm. This species
grows on rocks and stones between the tide-marks, and is varie-
gated in colour from a pale green to a purple.
A third species — the Obtuse Laurencia (L. obtusa) — is widely
distributed on our coasts, and may be known by its thread-like
bipinnate fronds with short blunt branchlets, cup-shaped at the tips.
It is parasitic on various other weeds.
The genus Lomentaria includes a few weeds with tubular fronds
that are constricted at intervals, and divided internally by trans-
verse membranous septa. The spores are pear-shaped and lodged
hi spherical cells ; and the tetraspores are scattered on the surface
of the branches. One species called the salt-wort (L. Ttaliformis) is
widely distributed. Its colour is pink, sometimes yellowish, and it
grows on rocks or stones, and sometimes on other weeds. It may
always be known by its spherical fruit, without any visible opening,
872 THE SEA SHOBE
containing crimson pear-shaped spores. Another species (L. ovalis),
found on the coasts of Devon and Cornwall, may be recognised by
its solid branched frond and little oval leaf-like branchlets, which
are hollow, jointed, and divided by partitions internally.
The one remaining order of the red-spored sea weeds is the
Bhodomelacece, which has either a jointed or a many-tubed axis,
and the surface divided up into little definite areas. The fronds are
either leafy or thread-like, and the prevailing colours are red, reddish
brown, and purple. The spores are pear-shaped, and occupy the
terminal cells of tufted threads in external, globular, or rounded con-
ceptacles ; and the tetraspores are lodged in special receptacles, or
in special modified branchlets. The order contains some of our
most beautiful weeds, while some of its members are of a very dark
colour and unattractive form.
The typical genus — Rhodomela — contains two British species
with dark-red, cartilaginous fronds, cylindrical, unjointed, and
irregularly branched ; and the tetraspores imbedded in the tips of
the slender branchlets. The name of the genus signifies ' red-black,'
and is applied on account of the tendency of the dark -red fronds to
turn black when dried.
JR. subfusca is very common on all our coasts. It has rigid
fronds, irregularly branched ; and is in its best condition during the
summer. The other species — B. lycopodioides — has long undivided
branches with thickly-set and freely- divided branchlets.
When turning over the fronds of different species of the larger
olive weeds we commonly find them more or less clothed with tufts
of filamentous plants, sometimes small and delicate, and sometimes
larger and of more robust growth, varying in colour from a purplish
brown to a dark violet, and the articulated filaments more or less
distinctly striated with parallel lines. These weeds belong to
the genus Polysiphonia, and derive their generic name from the
fact that the threadlike fronds are composed of several parallel
tubes. The surface cells are also arranged in regular transverse
rows, and it is this which gives rise to the striated appearance above
referred to.
Over twenty species of Polysiphonia are to be found on our shores,
where they exist at all levels between the tide-marks. They are
distinguished from one another partly by their general form and
mode of growth, and also by the number of tubes in their threadlike
fronds.
Although they would not always be considered as lovely weeds
SEA WEEDS 373
and are often anything but beautiful when dried and mounted, yet
in their fresh condition they are generally pretty objects, and their
microscopic structure is particularly interesting on account of
the beautiful and symmetrical arrangement of their siphons and
tubes.
If the reader is the fortunate possessor of a compound micro-
scope, it will amply repay him to make transverse sections of the
fronds for examination. A short length of the frond should be
inserted into a slit cut in a piece of carrot or elder pith ; and, while
thus supported, very thin transverse sections may be easily cut with
a sharp razor, care being taken to keep both razor and object very
wet during the process. Allow the sections to fall into a vessel of
water as they are cut, and then select the thinnest for examination,
mounting them in a drop of water in the usual way.
Specimens in fruit should always be obtained when possible, so
that the nature of the fructification may be observed. Two kinds
of spores may be seen in each species, but, as is usually the case
with the red sea weeds, on different plants. Some are small pear-
shaped bodies, enclosed in oval cells at the tips of the fronds ; and
the others are arranged in clusters of four in swollen parts of the
threads.
The commonest species is P. fastigiata, which may be found
in abundance as bushy brownish tufts on the fronds of Fucus
nodosus (p. 386). A transverse section
of this weed is a very beautiful micro-
scopic object. It resembles a wheel, with
a dark centre to the nave, and several
spokes enclosing about sixteen regularly
arranged tubes. The swollen tips of fronds
should also be examined for the urn-
shaped cells containing the spores ; and
if a gentle pressure be applied to the
cover-glass with a needle, the little pear-
shaped spores may be expelled. The other Flo 256.— Polysiphonia
kind of spores may be found near the fastigiata
bases of the branches on different plants.
Among other species we may briefly mention — P. parasitica,
sometimes found near low-water mark, growing in little feathery
tufts of a bright-red colour, on the lichen-like Melobesia or on
corallines. It has seven or eight parallel siphons in its fronds, all
regularly arranged round a small central space.
374
THE SEA SHORE
P. Brodicei is moderately common on our coasts. This is a large
brown species, with seven siphons surrounded by a thick cellular
layer which conceals the articulations and is too opaque to allow
the siphons to be seen without dissection. Its branches, which are
alternate, bear short tufts of delicate branchlets.
FIG. 257. — Polysiphonia parasitica FIG. 258. — Polysiphonia Brodiai
P. byssoides, so called on account of the pink filaments that
fringe the fronds, has also seven siphons. It is a large and beau-
tiful weed, moderately common on our coasts, of a bright-red
colour, with conspicuous fructification. The branches are alternate,
and the branchlets are clothed with the byssoid filaments above
referred to.
P. violacea is of a reddish-brown colour, with long silky alter-
nate branches, and four siphons. It receives its specific name from
the fact that it turns to a violet colour when dried.
P. nigrescens has, as the specific name implies, blackish fronds,
and these are freely branched. The
tubes, about twenty in number, are
flat, and are arranged round a large
central space.
Our last example — P. atro-rubes-
cens — is of a dark reddish-brown
colour, with rigid and densely-tufted
fronds. It has twelve tubes, arranged
spirally round a central cavity. It is common in the lower rock
pools of some coasts.
In the same order we have the genus Chondria, so called on
account of the cartilaginous nature of its thread-like fronds. These
are pinnately branched, and the club-shaped branchlets taper below.
The main stem is jointed and contains many siphons. The genus
FIG. 259. — Polysiphonia
nigrescens
SEA WEEDS 375
includes a common species (0. dasyphylla), with thick fronds, that
is found in shallow sandy pools, where it grows on pebbles, shells,
or on other weeds, the colour varying from pink to a dark purple.
C. tenuissima is a very similar weed, but may be distinguished by
its more slender growth, and by its long, rod-like simple branches,
clothed with slender, bristle-like branchlets that taper from the
middle towards both ends.
On the northern coasts of Britain we may meet with Odonthalia
dentata, the blood-red fronds of which are tufted, and arise from a
hard, disc-like root. Each frond projects from the axil of a tooth-
like projection of the main stem, and is deeply pinnatifid, with a
distinct midrib in the lower part, and thin and membi-anaceous
towards the tip. The puma are dentate, and the spores are in
stalked, oval conceptacles in the axils of the pinnae. The tetra-
spores are similarly situated in stalked, lanceolate leaflets.
The weeds of the genus Rytiphlcza are very similar to some of
the Polysiphonia, the axis of the frond being jointed and trans-
versely striped, but the nodes are less distinct and are not
constricted. They are shrub-like weeds, with tufted spores in oval,
sessile conceptacles ; and tetraspores in spindle-shaped branchlets
or in little pod-like leaflets. The principal British species
are: —
2?. pinastroides, a much-branched and shrub-like weed, of a
dull-red colour, which turns black when the plant is dried. The
branches have rigid, hooked branchlets arranged in such a manner
as to give a combed appearance. This species occurs on the south
coast, and is in its prime in very early spring. It is often rendered
peculiarly interesting by the colonies of zoophytes and the patches
of Melobesia with which it is more or less covered.
.R. fruticulosa is another shrubby species, with irregularly
branched, interlacing stems. It is to be found in the rock pools
of the south and west coasts, and is of a deep-purple colour in
the deeper shady pools, but varying to a yellowish tint where
exposed to the full light of the sun. The whole of the frond is
covered with hooked branchlets, and the weed is peculiar for the
fact that, when removed from the rock pool, little glistening beads
of water remain attached to the tips of the terminal branches. The
tetraspores are situated in distorted branchlets.
B. thuyoides has creeping, fibrous roots, from which arise the
erect stems of purple-brown, branched fronds with short spine-like
branchlets. It occurs in the shallower rock pools, where it grows
376 THE SEA SHORE
attached to rocks or to other weeds. It is in its best condition
during the summer, when we may see its oval spore-conceptacles
and the tetraspores in distorted branchlets.
The last genus of the Rhodomelacece is Dasya, which contains
some very graceful and brightly-coloured weeds that are found
principally on our south and west coasts. In these the fronds
are thread-like or flattened, branched, and without visible joints.
The main stem contains many tubes, but the tubular structure
is hidden by the outer layer of cells ; and the branchlets, which
are slender, one-tubed, and jointed, bear little lanceolate pods that
contain the tetraspores.
D. ocellata has small tufted fronds, about two or three inches
long, attached to a small discoid root. The main stems are densely
covered with slender, forked branchlets, those at the tips being
clustered in such a manner as to recall the eye-like marks of the
peacock's tail. It grows principally on the mud-covered rocks
beyond low-water mark, and is not by any means a common weed.
Another species — D. arbuscula — is somewhat plentiful on parts
of the Scottish and Irish coasts, but comparatively rare in South
Britain. It has a small disc -like root, and stems thickly clothed
with short branchlets. The spore-conceptacles are tapering, on
short stalks, and the tetraspores are contained in pointed pods on
the branchlets. The scarlet Dasya (D. coccinea) may be commonly
seen at and beyond low-water mark during late summer, at which
time splendid specimens may also be found on the beach after
storms. Its stem is thick, proceeding from a discoid root, and
is clothed with hair -like filaments; and the branches bear short,
slender branchlets that give them a feathery appearance. The
tetraspores are contained in elongated, pointed, and stalked pods.
There are three other species on the British list, but they are not
common weeds.
The last of the three great groups into which the sea weeds
are divided is the Melanospermece, or olive-spored algae, the different
species of which are generally very readily distinguished by their
olive-green or olive-brown- colour, for the whole plant, as well
as the spores, contains a dark olive colouring matter, in addition to
the chlorophyll which is always present.
These weeds are often very large, frequently attaining a length
of twenty feet or more in our seas, and from eighty to a hundred
feet in warmer parts ; and, being also extremely abundant almost
everywhere, they form a most conspicuous feature of the shore.
SEA WEEDS 377
They usually grow on rocks and stones, from high-water mark to
moderately deep water, but some of the smaller species are pseudo-
parasitic on other algse.
Their form is most varied. Some are minute filamentous plants,
consisting only of slender jointed threads, and others are mere
shapeless masses ; but many of the larger species exhibit a great
differentiation of form, having root-like and stem-like structures,
and expansions that resemble leaves. The latter, too, often have
large vesicles that contain air, sometimes arranged singly along the
median line of the frond, or in lateral pairs, or a single vesicle at
the base of each segment of the thallus.
The air vesicles, of course, serve to buoy up the plant when
it is submerged, thus enabling the light to penetrate between its
fronds to lower portions ; and when the plants have been wrenched
from their moorings by the force of the waves, they immediately
rise to the surface and are drifted on to the shore or accumulate
in the eddies of the surface currents. In this way immense masses
of floating weeds are formed, the most remarkable being that of the
Sargasso Sea in the North Atlantic.
Like other algae, the melanospores grow by a continued process
of cell-division, and when portions of the thallus are worn away
during stormy weather, they are renewed by the same process.
The cell-walls of many species are very mucilaginous, the
gelatinous covering being either the result of the degeneration of
the cell-walls themselves, or the secretion of special glands.
As with the last division, the reproduction of the melanospores
may be asexual or sexual. The asexual spores, which are not
motile, are formed in some of the surface cells of the thallus. The
male and female sexual organs, called respectively the antlieridia
and the oogonia, are produced in cavities on special portions of
the thallus, both kinds being often formed in the same cavity or
depression. The latter contains from one to eight little bodies
called oospheres. These escape and float passively away when the
wall of the oogonia ruptures. The antheridia are also discharged
whole, but the minute fertilising elements (antherozoids), which
are eventually set free from them, swarm round the oospheres,
being attracted by the latter. Soon one of the antherozoids enters
the oosphere, and from that moment all attraction ceases, the
remainder of the antherozoids floating passively away ; and the
oosphere, previously naked and barren, now develops a cell-wall,
and becomes the fertile progenitor of a new plant.
378
THE SEA SHORE
Starting with the lowest of the melanospores, we first deal with
the order Ectocarpacece, which is characterised by olive, thread-like,
jointed fronds, with spores on the branchlets or embedded in their
substance ; two kinds of spores often existing in the same plant.
The typical genus (Ectocarpus) contains many British species,
though several of them are rare. They are soft and flexible weeds,
generally of a dull olive colour, with slimy, tubular fronds, and
grow in tufts on other weeds or on mud-covered rocks. Spores of
various shapes are scattered over the fronds, and are also contained
in pod-like bodies formed of the branchlets. This latter feature is,
perhaps, the best distinguishing characteristic of the genus, but it
is not an easy matter to identify the several species it contains.
E. tomentosus is very commonly found on Fucus and other
weeds, where it forms matted tufts of slender threads of a yellowish-
brown colour. The threads are clothed with transparent cilia, and
together form a dense, spongy mass. The spores are contained in
narrow pods supported on short stalks. E. littoralis is another
common species, of a very unattractive appearance. It grows in
matted tufts on other weeds, on rocks, mud, or any submerged
object, and its spores are contained in linear swellings of the branches.
This species thrives well in brackish water, and may be seen far up
certain tidal rivers.
Among the other species we may briefly
mention E. granulosus, an abundant and beauti-
FIG. 260. — Ectocarpus FIG. 261. — Ectocarpus FIG. 262. — Ectocarpus
granulosus siliculosus Mertensii
ful weed that grows in feathery tufts on rocks and weeds, with
elliptical, stalkless pods, quite visible to the naked eye, freely
distributed over the opposite branchlets ; E. siliculosus, a pale
olive, parasitic species with lanceolate stalked pods, pointed and
striped ; E. spheerophorus, a small, soft, brownish-yellow species,
SEA WEEDS 379
with dense matted branches and spherical pods arranged either
opposite to one another or to a branchlet ; and E. Mertensii, a
pretty species that grows on muddy rocks, freely branched but not
matted, and having pods enclosed by the branchlets. The last
species is rare, but may be found in Cawsand Bay and a few other
localities about Plymouth Sound. The genus includes several other
species, but all these are more or less rare.
In the genus Myriotrichia we have two parasitic species with
fragile, hair-like, jointed fronds bearing simple straight branches
that are covered with transparent fibres. In these the spore-cases
are rounded and transparent, and arranged along the main threads ;
and the dark olive spores are readily visible within. In M.fiUformis
the branchlets are short, and clustered at intervals, thus giving a
somewhat knotted appearance to the threads, and both branches
and branchlets are covered with long fibres. The other species —
M. clavceformis — is very similar, but may be distinguished by the
arrangement of the branchlets, which are not clustered at intervals,
but are distributed regularly, and are longer towards the tip of the
frond, giving the appearance of minute fox-brushes.
The genus SpTiacelaria contains several British weeds with rigid
branched and jointed fronds, most easily distinguished by the tips
FIG. 263. — Sphacelaria cirrhosa FIG. 264. — • Sphacelaria, plumosa
of the branches, which are flattened, contain a granular mass, and
have a withered appearance. S. cirrhosa forms hair-like tufts of
slender fibres with closely-set branches on small weeds, the tufts
varying from a quarter of an inch to over an inch in length. The
fronds are naked at the base, and the spore-cases, which are globular,
are arranged on the branches. S.filicina is, as its name implies, of
a fern-like appearance, but is very variable in form. Its fronds vary
from one to three inches in length, and the spores are arranged
380
singly in the axils of the branchlets. Excluding some rarer species
we mention one other example — the broom-like S. scoparia, the
frond of which is coarse and very rigid, of a dark-brown colour,
two or three inches long, with the lower portion clothed by
woolly fibres. Its spores are arranged in clusters in the axils of the
branchlets.
The last genus of the Ectocarpacece is Cladostephus, which grows
in dark-green tufts, usually five or six
inches long, in the deeper tide pools.
The fronds are cylindrical, branched, in-
articulate, and rigid; and the branch-
lets, which are short and jointed, are ar-
ranged in whorls. The spores are situ-
ated in short accessory branchlets, or in
masses at the tips of the ordinary
branchlets. C. verticillatus is a very
common species, the whorled branch-
lets of which are deciduous in winter,
when the accessory branchlets that bear spores begin to develop.
C. spongiosus is densely clothed with branchlets, and is of a bushy
habit, with a very spongy feeling. It is by some regarded as a variety
of C. verticillatus.
The order Chordariacece is characterised by a compound
gelatinous or cartilaginous frond, consisting of interlacing horizontal
and vertical threads. The spores are not external as in the
FIG. 265. — Sphacelaria
radicans
FIG. 266.— Cladostephus
spongiosus
FIG. 267.— Chordaria
flagelliformis
Ectocarpacece, but contained in cells in the substance of the frond.
In the typical genus the frond has a cylindrical, branched, carti-
laginous axis, surrounded by whorls of club-shaped threads and
slender gelatinous fibres. We have only one common species —
SEA WEEDS 381
Chordaria flagelliformis, the fronds of which are from four to
twenty inches long, of uniform thickness throughout, with long,
glistening, soft and slimy branches among which the spores are
disposed. It may be found in rock pools at almost all levels.
In the genus Elachista there are some very small and peculiar
weeds that are almost sure to be overlooked by inexperienced
collectors. They are parasitic, and are composed of two kinds
of jointed threads, the inner of which are forked and combined into
a tubercle, while the outer are simple and radiate from the tubercle.
The spores are attached to the inner threads. The largest species
(E. fucicola) is parasitic on Fucus, growing in brush-like tufts about
an inch long. Some of the smaller ones are mere star-like tufts
of no attractive appearance, and would be disregarded as trouble-
some parasites by most young collectors, but all of them are very
interesting objects for the microscope.
The members of the genus Myrionema are similarly liable to
be neglected, for they are minute parasites appearing only as
decaying spots on larger weeds, but nevertheless form interesting
studies for the microscope. Like the last group, they have two
sets of jointed fibres, the inner being branched, and spread over
the surface of the plant on which it grows, while the outer are
simple and stand out at right angles, but all are united into a
rounded mass by a gelatinous substance. Perhaps the best known
is M. strangulans, which infests Ulva and Enteromorpha, pro-
ducing the appearance of small decaying spots.
In the genus Leathesia we have other unattractive weeds, the
jointed and forked threads of which are all united together into
tuber-like fronds that are common on rocks and weeds between the
tide-marks. There are three or four species, all similar in general
appearance, with the spores distributed among the outer threads.
These weeds cannot be satisfactorily pressed and dried in the usual
way, and should be preserved in formaldehyde or dilute spirit, when
they will always be available for microscopic examination.
The last genus of the Chordariacece is Mesogloia, so called
because the central axis of loosely-packed, interlacing threads is
covered with gelatinous substance. Around this axis there are
radiating, forked threads which are tipped with clubbed and beaded
fibres among which the spores are distributed. One species
(M. vermicularis), common in most rock pools, is of a wormlike
form, of a dirty olive or yellow colour, with soft, elastic fronds
growing in tufts from one to two feet long. M. virescens, also
382 THE SEA SHORE
a common species, is of a pale greenish or olive colour, and very
soft and slimy. Its stem is round and slender, freely branched,
with short, simple branchlets.
The order Diciyoiacece contains the olive weeds with inarticulate
fronds, and superficial spores disposed in definite lines or spots.
In the typical genus (Dictyota) the frond is flat and forked, some-
what ulva-like and ribless, and the spores are produced in little
superficial discs just beneath the cuticle. There is only one British
species — D. dichotoma — but that is a very common one, and it
assumes a great variety of forms as regards the shape and division
of its fronds according to the situation in which it grows, the fronds
being broadest and strongest in the deepest water. The root is
covered with woolly fibres, and the frond is regularly forked.
One of the most interesting algae of this order is the Turkey-
feather Laver (Padina pavonia), which is the only British repre-
sentative of its genus (see Plate VII.). Its very pretty fan-shaped
fronds are of a leathery nature, curved, fringed along the upper
margin, and marked with concentric lines. They often bear small
leaflets, and are partially covered with a powdery substance which
renders them beautifully iridescent when in the water. The root
has woolly fibres, and the spores are arranged in lines along the
upper margin. This weed seems to be confined to the south coast,
where it may often be seen in the deeper tide pools; though in
some of the sandy bays of the Isle of Wight it may be seen in
shallow pools, and even in places left exposed to the air at
low tide.
The genus Zonaria contains a British species (Z. parvula) that
covers the rocks in round patches ; and though moderately common
is not very frequently seen by collectors on account of the fact that
it grows in the deep crevices of rocks at or near low-water mark.
Its frond is flat and membranaceous, more or less divided into
lobes, without veins, and rather obscurely divided into concentric
zones. It is attached to the rock by fibres that proceed from the
under surface of the frond, and the spores are arranged in clusters
beneath the superficial cells.
Cutleria multifida, though not very abundant, is to be found
on most of our coasts ; but since it grows almost exclusively beyond
low-water mark, it should be looked for on the beach after storms,
or in the fishermen's nets. The frond is olive-green, fan-shaped,
rather thick, and irregularly divided into forked branches ; and
it has a beautifully netted surface. The spore-cases may be seen
SEA WEEDS 383
scattered over the surface of the frond as so many black dots, and
the antheridia are elongated, cylindrical bodies attached to tufted
filaments on all parts of the frond.
In the genus Stilophora the root is discoid ; the frond cylin-
drical, hollow, and branched ; and the spores arranged in clusters
over the surface. One species (8. rnizodes) is occasionally to be
seen on the south coast. It is of a yellowish colour, from six
to twenty inches long, and may be known by its long thread-Eke
branches, with scattered, forked branchlets, and by the wart-like
projections of the stem which contain the spores. This weed is
often the source of some disappointment to the collector, for it soon
turns to a jelly-like mass when removed from the water, and should
therefore be mounted as soon as possible after it has been collected.
The fennel -like DictyosipTion foeniculaceus is abundant in tide
pools, where it may be seen in its best condition during spring
and early summer. Its root is a small disc, the frond is tubular,
thread-like and branched, and the branches bear hooked branchlets.
The spores are naked, and distributed either singly or in clusters
over the surface of the frond.
Our next genus — Punctaria — contains a few British species with
a shield-shaped root, and a flat, membranous, undivided frond,
without a midrib, and having the spores disposed as minute dots
over the surface. A plantain-like species (P. plantaginea) has
broad, leathery, lanceolate fronds, of a dark olive-brown colour,
usually from six inches to a foot in length. Two other weeds — the
broad-leaved P. latifolla of the tide pools, and the slender, tufted
P. tenuissima, which is parasitic on Zostera and some algse, are
sometimes regarded as mere varieties of P. plantaginea.
In the genus Asperococcus the root is shield- shaped, and the
frond is a membranous tubular sac of two distinct layers. The
colour is pale green, and the general appearance very similar to
that of Ulva. The spores are arranged in small oblong clusters
which appear as dark dots on the surface of the frond. A. compressus
has slightly swollen flat fronds of a linear lanceolate form, taper-
ing below. It grows in deep water, but is often washed up during
storms. A second species — A. Turneri — has large, puffy, green
fronds, contracted at intervals, and grows in tufts on rocks between
the tide-marks, being specially partial to muddy shores. The
genus also includes the prickly A. echinatus, the long, thin fronds
of which grow in dense tufts in deep water.
The last genus of the order is Litosiphon, a parasitic group
384
THE SEA SHORE
characterised by a cylindrical, cartilaginous, unbranched frond,
with scattered, naked spores. A very small species (L. pusillus)
with tufted green fronds grows parasitic on the fronds of Chorda
and the stems of Laminaria. It is only two or three inches long,
has a reticulated surface, and is covered with minute jointed fibres.
A still smaller species (L. laminarice), seldom exceeding half an
inch in length, forms brown tufts on Alaria, and the rounded apex
of its frond is covered with minute fibres.
The order Laminariacecz contains olive, inarticulate algfe,
mostly of large size, and generally growing in deep water beyond
the tide-marks. Their spores are superficial, either covering
the whole surface of the frond or collected into indefinite cloudy
patches.
The typical genus (Laminaria) is characterised by flat leathery,
ribless fronds, either simple or cleft, and supported on a stem
which is often very thick and strong. The old laminae fall off every
year, and are replaced by new fronds. The well-known Tangle
or Sea Girdle (L. digitata), is a very common species on the rocks
just beyond low-water mark. It has a very thick, solid, cylindri-
cal stem, and an oblong leathery
frond which is entire when young
but deeply cleft later. Small
specimens may be found just
above low-water mark, but fine
large ones are commonly washed
FIG. 268. — Laminaria bulbosa FIG. 269. — Laminaria saccnarina
up on the beach. Although this weed may not be regarded as an
acquisition from the collector's point of view, it will generally repay
a careful examination, as it frequently bears rare parasitic species.
The other common species are the Furbelows (L. bulbosa), known
by its flat stem with waved margin, oblong frond cleft into narrow
strips, and the hollow bulb or tuber just above the root ; and the
PLATE VIII.
1. Chorda filum
2. Fucus vesiculosus
3. Fucus canaliculatus
SEA-WEEDS
4. Delesseria(Maugeria) sanguinea
5. Rhodymenia palmata
6' Chondrus crispus
7. Ulva lactuca
SEA WEEDS
385
FIG. 270.- Alaria
esculenta
Sugared Laminaria (L. saccharina) characterised by a round solid
stem, and a lanceolate, entire, membranous frond. The last species
is the one most commonly used by the
sea-side cottager as a weather indicator.
Alaria esculenta is an edible species
known as the Badderlocks in Scbtland, and
also locally as the Henware, Honeyware,
and the Murlins. It has a fibrous root,
and a stalked, lanceolate, entire frond with
a distinct midrib throughout. The stem
is winged with finger-like leaflets, in which
the spores are arranged in oblong clusters.
In the genus Chorda the frond is a
simple, cylindrical tube, divided internally
by numerous transverse membranes, and
the spores are distributed over the surface.
The commonest species is C. filum (see
Plate VIII.), the frond of which is very
slimy, and often from ten to twenty feet
in length. In its young state it is covered with gelatinous hairs,
but these are worn off as the plant develops. A smaller species
(C. lomentaria) is sometimes found on our shores. Its fronds are
constricted at intervals, taper at the tip, and grow in tufts. It is
seldom more than a foot long, and is not of a slimy nature.
The Sporochnacece have inarticulate, thread-like fronds, and the
spores are contained in oblong, stalked receptacles, each of which
is crowned with a tuft of slender jointed
filaments. The typical genus contains only
one British species — Sporochnus peduncu-
latus — and even that is by no means com-
mon. It is, however, a very pretty weed
of a delicate texture and pale olive-green
colour. Its stem is long and slender, pin-
nately branched, and the branches bear
numerous small thread-like tufts.
The same order contains the genus
Desmarestia, in which the frond is long
and narrow, thread-like or flattened, with a
tubular jointed thread running through it. Young specimens have
marginal tufts of branching filaments. The species decay very
rapidly after removal from the water, and should therefore be
c c
FIG. 271. — Sporochnus
pedunculatus
386
THE SEA SHORE
FIG. 272. — Desmarestia
ligulata
dried and mounted as quickly as possible. D. Ugulata, so named
from the flat, strap-like frond, is common on all our coasts. It is
pinnately branched, and all the branches andbranchlets taper towards
both ends. D. viridis has a cylindrical,
thread-like, and freely-divided frond, with
opposite branches and branchlets. It
occurs more commonly on the northern
shores.
The last order of olive-spored weeds
is the FucacecB, some species of which
are so abundant between the tide-marks,
from high-water to low-water levels, that
they form a verji important charac-
teristic of our shores. They are mostly
large, tough, and leathery weeds, without
joints, and the spores are contained in
spherical receptacles embedded in the
substance of the frond.
In the typical genus — Fucus — the root
is a conical disc, and the frond flat or com-
pressed and forked. Most of the species are furnished with one-celled
air-vessels in the substance of the frond, and these serve to buoy up
the plants and keep them more or less erect when submerged. The
spore-receptacles are usually embedded near the tips of the branches,
but are sometimes borne on special branches or shoots. They are
filled with a slimy mucus and contain a network of jointed fila-
ments. The weeds are very hardy, capable of withstanding long
exposures to air and sun, and are sometimes to be found above
high-water mark, where they are watered only by the spray of the
waves for a brief period at intervals of about twelve hours. Al-
though they are not usually looked upon as ornaments in the
collector's herbarium, they will repay examination for the tufts of
smaller and more beautiful weeds to which they often give attach-
ment and shelter.
Four species are common on our coasts, and these may be
readily distinguished by the most cursory examination. The Ser-
rated Wrack (F. serratus) has a flat, forked frond with toothed
edges and a strong midrib, ranging from one to four feet long, and
no air-vessels. The Knotted Wrack (F. nodosus — Plate VII.) may
be known by its flattened, thick and narrow frond, without a distinct
rib, from one to five feet long. The branches are narrow at the
SEA WEEDS 387
base, pointed at the tip, and are jointed to short projections on the
main stem ; and both these and the main stem have very large
oval air-vessels. The spore-receptacles are mounted on slender
stalks which arise from projections on the branches, and are of
a bright yellow colour when mature. This species does not grow
so near to high-water mark as do the others. Another species,
the Twin-Bladder Wrack (F. vesiculosus — Plate VIII.) — is abundant
everywhere along the coast, and is largely used by agriculturists
both as manure and as fodder for cattle. The frond is flat, with a
distinct midrib, and a non-serrated edge. Air-vessels are not
always present, but when they are they usually occur in pairs,
one on each side of the midrib, and are globular in form. The
spore-receptacles are situated at the tips of the branches, are full
of mucus, and are frequently forked. The last of the common
species is the Channelled Wrack (F. canaliculatus — Plate VIII.),
distinguished by a narrow frond, rounded on one side and chan-
nelled on the other. It has no midrib or air-vessels, and the fruit
is contained in forked receptacles at the tips of the branches.
This is the smallest of the genus, and may be found at all levels
between the tide-marks. Stunted specimens may also be seen in
situations where they are never submerged, but watered only by
the spray of the highest tides.
The genus Himanthalia provides us with a single species (H.
lorea) which is very peculiar on account of the small size of the
frond as compared with the enormous di-
mensions of the spore-receptacles. The
young frond is a pear-shaped sac which
soon becomes flattened into a hollow disc.
This disc then becomes solid, and concave
above, and from its centre there arises a
bi-forked, strap-like receptacle that often
reaches a length of three or four feet, and
may be mistaken for the frond of the
weed by those who do not take the trouble pia 273.— Himanthalia
to examine it. This weed is commonly lorea
known as the Sea Thong.
Belonging to the genus Cystoseira we have a few well-known
weeds with conical disc-roots, and shrubby fronds with woody stem
and alternate branches. The air-cells are hi the substance of the
frond, and the spore- receptacles at the tips of the branches. One of
the species (C. ericoides) is of a heath-like habit, with a short, woody
388 THE SEA SHORE
stem, and slender branches bearing hooked, leaf-like branchlets.
Its air-cells are small, and are arranged singly near the tips of the
branches ; and the spore-receptacles are cylindrical, with hooked
points. This weed is common on the south and west coasts, and
may be readily distinguished by the beautiful iridescence it displays
when in the water. C. fibrosa is very
similar in general form, but is larger,
and the air-vesicles are more con-
spicuous. It is not iridescent when in
the water. A third species is named
C. granulata from the rough and
knobby appearance of the stem, due to
FIG. 274. Cystoseira numerous oval projections, from some
ericoides of which spring the slender, much-
divided branches. The air-vesicles are
arranged in groups of two or three, and the spore-receptacles are
at the ends of the branchlets. Our last example is C. fceniculacea,
found on the south coast only, and readily distinguished by the
numerous blunt spines that cover its long branches. The air-
vesicles are narrow and pointed, and situated just below the fork-
ings of the branchlets.
We conclude our resume of the British sea weeds with a short
description of the Podded Sea Oak (Halidrys siliquosa), which grows
in the tide pools from high-water to low-water mark, the specimens
inhabiting the shallow pools being only a few inches long, while those
that grow in deep water often reach a length of three or four feet.
It is an olive, shrub-like weed, with a conical, disc-like root that
adheres very firmly to the rock, and a pinnately-branched frond with
leaf-like branchlets. The air-vesicles are cylindrical and pod-like,
divided internally into about ten cells, and the spores are contained
in globular receptacles at the tips of the branchlets.
The young algologist will probably meet with many difficulties
in his attempts to classify his sea weeds and name the various
species in his collection. In dealing with an unknown weed we
strongly recommend him to first determine the order to which it
belongs. The genus should next be settled ; and then, if possible,
the species. It must be remembered, however, that he who has
made himself acquainted with the principles of classification has
done good work, and that it is far better to be able to arrange the
weeds into properly-classified groups than to merely learn the names
of the different species without regard to the relations which they
SEA WEEDS 389
bear to one another. The following table will probably assist the
reader in the determination of the orders, but it must be remem-
bered that a microscope will often be necessary for the examination
of the spores and the minute structure of fronds.
CLASSIFICATION OF SEA WEEDS
A. Chlorospermeffl— Green-spored weeds. Fronds usually grass-
green, and filamentous or membranous.
1. ConfervacecB — Frond thread-like, composed of cylindrical
cells placed end to end. Spores very minute, formed
within the cells.
2. UlvacecB — Frond grass-green or purple, flat or tubular.
Spores minute, ciliated, formed in the cells of the frond.
3. Siphonacece — Frond a single, thread-like, branching cell,
or a spongy mass of many such cells.
B. Kliodospermese — Eed-spored weeds. Spores in globular con-
ceptacles. Tetraspores (four-clustered spores) in globular
or cylindrical cells. Frond red, reddish brown, or purple.
4. Ceramiacece — Frond thread-like, jointed, one-siphoned, and
more or less covered with a layer of cortical cells. Spores
grouped in transparent, membranous sacs, sometimes
surrounded by a whorl of short branchlets.
5. SpyridiacecR — Frond thread-like, jointed, one-siphoned,
more or less covered with small cells. Spores formed
in the upper cells of branched, jointed, radiating threads,
enclosed in a cellular membrane in external concep-
tacles.
6. CryptonemiacecB — Frond more or less cartilaginous, com-
posed of numerous jointed threads compacted by gela-
tine. Spores grouped without order in internal cells or
in external conceptacles.
7. Rhodymeniacece — Frond inarticulate, membranaceous, com-
posed of polygonal cells, the surface cells forming a
continuous layer. Spores in beaded threads in external
conceptacles.
8. Wrangeliacece — Frond inarticulate, thread-like, traversed
by a jointed tubular axis. Spores formed in the ter-
minal cells of clustered, branching, naked threads.
9. HelminthocladicB — Frond cylindrical, gelatinous, composed
of filaments imbedded in gelatine. Spores formed on
branching, radiating threads that are enclosed in the
frond without conceptacles.
390 THE SEA SHOEE
10. Squamaria— Frond lichen-like, rooted by under surface,
composed of vertical filaments imbedded in firm gelatine,
Spores in beaded threads in wart-like projections.
11. Spongiocarpece — Frond cylindrical, branching, cartilaginous,
composed of netted filaments imbedded in firm gelatine.
Spores large, in radiating clusters in wart-like excres-
cences.
12. GelidiacecB — Frond cartilaginous, inarticulate, composed of
hair-like filaments. Spores attached to slender threads
in internal conceptacles.
13. Sphcerococcoidece — Frond leaf-like or thread-like, inarticu-
late, cellular. Spores formed in beaded threads in ex-
ternal conceptacles.
14. HapalidiacecB — Frond minute, calcareous, composed of a
single layer of cells.
15. Corallinacece — Frond calcareous. Spores in tufted threads
at the bases of the conceptacles.
16. Laurenciacecz — Frond rounded or flattened, branching,
inarticulate, cellular. Spores in external oval or globu-
lar conceptacles. Tetraspores irregularly scattered over
the branches.
17. RJwdomelacece— "Frond leafy, thread-like, or jointed, com-
posed of polygonal cells. Spores in external con-
ceptacles. Tetraspores in distorted branchlets or in
receptacles.
C. Melanospermeae— Olive-spored weeds. Frond tough, leathery.
Spores in globular cavities in substance of frond.
18. Ectocarpacece — Frond jointed, thread-like. Spores attached
to or imbedded in branchlets.
19. ChordariaceeB — Frond gelatinous or cartilaginous, com-
posed of interlacing vertical and horizontal filaments.
Spores internal, attached to the filaments.
20. Dictyotacea — Frond inarticulate. Spores superficial,
arranged in definite spots or lines.
21. LaminariacecB — Frond inarticulate. Spores covering the
whole frond or in cloud-like patches.
22. SporochnacecB — Frond inarticulate. Spores attached to
jointed filaments which are either free or compacted.
23. Fticacece — Frond inarticulate, large and tough. Spores in
globular cavities.
CHAPTEE XVI
THE FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE SEA-SIDE
A CONSIDERABLE number of our flowering plants exhibit a decided
partiality for the neighbourhood of the sea, and many are to be
found only on the sea cliffs or in salt marshes not far from the
shore. The principal of these will be now briefly described, dealing
first with the monocotyledons, and then with the more highly
organised dicotyledons.
The chief distinguishing features of these two groups have
already been referred to, but it will be advisable here to give them
in somewhat fuller detail.
The monocotyledonous plants, then, are those in which the
stem is more or less woody and cylindrical, without either true
bark or pith ; and the woody
tissue is not arranged in con-
centric rings, but in isolated
bundles, which first bend in-
wards, as they rise, towards the
centre of the stem, and then
curve outwards towards the
surface, which is hardened by
the formation of a layer of hard
woody matter. As a rule the
stem is unbranched, and its
growth takes place by a single
bud at the summit. In nearly
all of them the leaves are long
and narrow, with veins running parallel throughout their length ;
and the parts of the flower are arranged in whorls of three
or six. The outer whorl of the flower is often a conspicuous
white or coloured perianth (that portion of the flower which lies
outside the anthers), but in some the perianth is absent, the flower
FIG. 275. — TEANSVEBSE SECTION OP
THE STEM OF A MONOCOTYLEDON
392
THE SEA SHORE
being protected by scaly bracts. The seeds are produced in a case
called the ovary, and are fertilised by pollen grains which are
developed in the anthers. When the pollen grains are set free they
alight on the adhesive stigma, and grow, send-
ing their tubes down into the ovary. The
term monocotyledon is applied to these plants
because the embryo has only one cotyledon
or seed-leaf.
The principal divisions of this group are
the Glumaceous Monocotyledons, in which
the flower has no perianth, but is enclosed in
scaly bracts or husks called glumes ; and the
Petaloid Monocotyledons, distinguished gene-
rally by the presence of a more or less con-
spicuous white or coloured perianth. The
first of these includes the rushes, sedges, and
grasses ; and the other contains the lilies and
orchids, with their allies, together with certain
aquatic and semi-aquatic plants.
Among the Grasses there are several
species that show a preference for the imme-
diate neighbourhood of the sea, some growing
luxuriantly at the bases of the cliffs where the
beach is sandy, and others thriving best in salt marshes ; but before
dealing with these individually we shall note the general character-
istics of the order (Graminece) to which they belong.
Grasses are distinguished by their jointed stems, which are
usually hollow, with a split sheath, and bearing alternately arranged
narrow leaves. The flowers, which are disposed either in spikes
(sessile flowers arranged along a common axis) or in panicles
(flowers stalked and arranged as in fig. 281), consist of scale-like
bracts enclosing the stamens and the pistil. The bracts are in two
series, the outer usually consisting of two glumes, and the inner of
two pales ; the upper pale, however, has two ribs running through
it, and is therefore usually looked upon as a combination of two.
In some species both glumes and pales are absent ; but the former,
when present, enclose one or more flowers, among which may
be some that are abortive. The stamens are generally three in
number, attached to the base of the flower ; and the ovary is
superior or free, that is, it grows above the other parts of the
flower, and contains but one seed.
FIG. 276 -LEAF OF
A MONOCOTYLEDON
FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE SEA-SIDE 393
It will be convenient at this stage to refer briefly to the two
principal methods by which the pollen of flowers is transferred
to the stigmas for the purposes
of fertilisation, and to see how
various species are structurally
adapted to the means by which
the transfer is brought about.
Speaking generally, we may
classify flowers into those which
are fertilised by the wind
(anemophilous flowers) and
those in which the pollen is
transferred by insects (entomo-
philous flowers). The former
offer no attractions to allure the
various forms of insect life.
They are, generally speaking,
F.S
FIG.
277. — EXPANDED SPIKELET OF
THE OAT
G, glumes ; P.e, outer pale ; P.i, inner pale ;
A, awn ; F.S, a sterile flower. The stamens
and the feathery stigmas of the fertile
flower are also shown
very inconspicuous, being of
small size and having no bright
corollas. None of them are
scented, nor do they produce the
sweet nectar that forms the
principal food of so many insects. Their anthers are borne on
long filaments, so that they are exposed freely to the wind ; and
they produce abundance of pollen to compensate for the very
wasteful method of wind-dispersion. The pollen, too, is not very
adherent, so that it may be readily carried away by the breeze ;
and the plants concerned often produce their flowers early in the
spring, before the leaves have appeared, thus giving the wind very
free play.
Insect -fertilised flowers, on the other hand, are usually of
attractive appearance ; and, though often small and inconspicuous
individually, they are in such cases grouped together in more or
less showy clusters. They are also usually scented, and supply
nectar and pollen to the insects which they allure. Some are
fertilised by insects that fly by day, and these often close their
petals on the approach of night, thus protecting their pollen during
the period in which their fertilisers sleep. Others, fertilised by
nocturnal insects, always spread their petals during the night, and
generally protect their pollen from waste by sleeping throughout
the day. As a rule, too, these night-bloomers have large and pale-
394 THE SEA SHORE
coloured petals that are . more easily seen by night ; they also
evolve a powerful scent to aid the insects in searching them out.
It will be seen that the economic relationship existing between
flowers and insects is a mutual one, the latter visiting the former
in order to obtain food, while the former derive in return the
advantage of a direct transfer of pollen from flower to flower.
It is a well-known fact that the self-fertilisation of a flower
often results in the development of very weak seedlings as compared
with those that are produced by crossing ; and it often happens that
the pollen of a flower is incapable of producing the least effect when
deposited on the stigma of the same bloom. In some cases the
contact of the pollen of a flower with its own stigma will even
act as a poison, causing the whole to shrivel and die ; and truly
wonderful are the varied means by which flowers contrive to secure
a cross-fertilisation. It is here that the work of the wind and
insects proves so valuable to flowers ; but, in addition to this, a very
large number of flowers are absolutely incapable of self-fertilisation,
for the anthers and the stigma are not mature at the same time,
or they exist in separate flowers, either on the same plant or on
distinct plants of the same species. It is most interesting and
instructive to study the many contrivances by which flowers
compel certain insects to convey the pollen exactly in the way
that best serves their purpose, sometimes even entrapping them,
after they have been allured, and not allowing them to escape
until they are thoroughly dusted with the pollen which they are
required to convey; but it is hardly our province to enter more
fully into this matter in these pages.
An examination of the grasses will show at once that they are
adapted for fertilisation by the wind. The flowers produce no
nectar; and, consistently, develop no bright petals and evolve
no odours to attract insects. On the other hand, their anthers
produce abundance of lightly- adhering pollen, and are mounted
on long filaments which hold them well exposed to the wind ; and
the stigmas are well adapted for catching the scattered grains, being
long and protruding, and often covered with sticky hairy or
feathery appendages.
Although the flowers of grasses are generally wanting in attrac-
tive colours, the clusters of blossoms are often very graceful and
pretty, especially when the large anthers, covered with bright-yellow
pollen, dangle in the breeze.
We will now briefly describe the principal British grasses that
FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE SEA-SIDE 395
grow chiefly or exclusively in the immediate neighbourhood of the
sea.
The Sea Hard Grass (Lepturus filiformis) is a perennial species,
usually about six inches in height, very common on some sandy
coasts, and found in flower during the hottest months of the
summer. The flowers are arranged in simple spikes, on slender
erect stems ; and the glumes, which are united at their bases,
enclose a single bloom.
In similar situations we may find the Sea Lyme Grass (Elymua
arenarius), a tall species, often reaching a height of four feet, with
glaucous rigid leaves. The flowers are arranged in a simple spike,
but the spikelets are clustered two or three together. This species
flowers in August.
Of the well-known Barley Grasses there is one species (Hordeum
maritimum) that has its habitat along the coast. Like the others
of its genus, the spikelets are arranged in threes, each bearing a
single flower, and the pales have long slender processes (aivns)
which constitute the so-called beard. It also resembles the common
Meadow Barley Grass in having the middle flower of ench three
perfect, while the two laterals are abortive,
but may be distinguished by its rough and
bristly glumes, and the semi-oval form of the
pales of the lateral flowers. It is a some-
what stunted species, sometimes only five or
six inches in height, and may be found in
flower about Midsummer.
The Brome Grasses have also a represen-
tative of a sea-loving nature, which is to be
found in fields near the cliffs. It is the
Field Brome Grass (Bromus arvensis), an
annual grass that grows to a height of two
or three feet. Brome grasses generally are
known by their loose panicles of flowers,
lanceolate and compressed spikelets, and
awned florets enclosed in unequal glumes ;
and B. arvensis may be distinguished by its
hairy leaves and stem-sheath, and the drooping panicle with the
lower peduncle branched.
Among the Meadow Grasses we have three or four coast specie?*
In these the florets are in panicles and are not awned. The outer
glumes are keeled and traversed by several veins ; and the lower
FIG. 278.— THE SEA
LYME GRASS
396 THE SEA SHOBE
pales are also keeled, with five or more nerves. The Sea Meadow
Grass (Poo. maritima) grows in salt marshes near the sea, its erect
rigid panicles reaching a height of about eight or ten inches. It
has a creeping root, and its leaves are curved inward at the margins.
The Procumbent Meadow Grass (P. procumbens) and a variety
of the Eeflexed Meadow Grass (P. distans) are also plentiful in salt
marshes. The former may be known by the short rigid branches
of its panicle and the five ribs of the lower pales ; and the latter
is much like P. maritima, but grows taller, and its spikelets are
crowded. The Wheat Meadow Grass (P. loliacea) grows on sandy
shores. Its spikelets are arranged singly and alternately along the
central axis, and the upper glume reaches to the base of the fourth
floret. This species flowers in June, but the other three of the
same genus bloom from July to September.
The reader is probably acquainted with the Fescue Grass, with
its awned flowers arranged in one-sided panicles. There are no
less than seven species, one of which — the Single-husked Fescue
(Festuca tmiglumis) — grows on sandy shores, flowering in June and
July, and reaching a height of from nine to twelve inches. The
panicles are upright and unbranched, and the species maybe readily
known by the flowers, which are compressed, with long awns, and
with the lower glumes wanting.
Knappia agrostidea is a dwarf species, rarely exceeding four
inches in height, that is found on certain sandy shores, but is very
local. Its flowers are arranged in a simple spike, the spikelets
being solitary and unilateral, with only a single flower, and the
pales are shaggy. The plant has several stems which bear short,
rough leaves.
The Mat Grass or Sea Eeed (AmmopJiila arundinacea) is com-
mon on many sandy coasts, where it grows to a height of three or
four feet, and flowers in July. The white flowers are clustered in
dense cylindrical, pointed spikes ; and the leaves are of a glaucous
green colour, rigid, and curved inward at the edges.
Dog's-tooth Grass (Cynodon dactylori). This species has a
creeping root, and the leaves are downy on the under side. The
flowers are arranged in a compound spreading spike, of three to five
parts, and the spikelets are of a purplish colour, ovate in form, and
arranged in pairs. The glumes are equal in size. It is found on
sandy shores, grows to a height of about six inches, and flowers in
July.
A species of Canary Grass (Plialaris arundinacea) is also to be
FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE SEA-SIDE 397
seen on sandy coasts. Unlike the other species of the same genus,
its flowers form an erect spreading panicle, and the glumes are not
keeled. It is also taller than the common canary grass of waste
places, often reaching a height of three feet,
and is commonly known as the Eeed Canary
Grass.
The Sea Cat's-tail Grass (Phleum are-
narium) is common on many coasts. It IF
FIG. 279. — Knappia
agrostidea
FIG. 280. — THE DOG'S-
TOOTH U-RASS
FIG. 281. — THE, BEED
CANARY GRASS
much smaller than the common species of Cat's-tail, being generally
less than a foot high. The spike is of an elongated oval form, blunt
at the tip and narrow at the base ; and the glumes are narrow,
pointed at both ends, and fringed. Each spikelet has but one flower.
In salt marshes we occasionally meet with the Perennial Beard
Grass (Polypogon littoralis), but it is somewhat rare. It has a
creeping root, and the flowers form a somewhat dense spike-like
panicle. The glumes have a slender awn. It grows to a height of
one to two feet, and flowers in July.
The Tuberous Fox-tail Grass (Alopecurus bulbosus) is another
rare grass of the salt marshes, where it grows to the height of twelve
to sixteen inches, flowering in May and June. The genus to which
it belongs is very closely allied to Phleum, but may be distin-
guished by having only one pale to each flower, and this species has
a long awn attached to the back portion. The panicle, too, is
cylindrical and slender, the glumes quite free and abruptly pointed,
and the awns longer than the pales.
The last of the sea-side grasses are two rare species of Cord
Grass (Spartina), both of which are found in salt marshes. In these
the inflorescence is a compound spike, with one-sided spikelets in-
serted in a double row. The glumes are keeled and pointed ; the pales
cleft, pointed and without awns ; and the styles two in number,
398 THE SEA SHORE
very long. The only British species of the genus are the two
(S. stricta and S. alternifoUa) referred to above. They both grow
to a height of about eighteen inches, and flower in late summer.
In the former the spikes number two or three, and are longer than
'the leaves ; and the outer glume is hairy, with a single nerve. The
latter, which is the rarer of the two, bears several spikes, shorter
than the leaves ; and the outer glume has five nerves.
Certain of the sedges (order Cyperacece) are also more or less
familiar to the sea-side naturalist, and must therefore receive a
small share of our attention. In general terms these are grasslike,
rnonpcotyledonous plants, the stems of which are solid, jointed,
and frequently angular. The leaves are very similar to those of
grasses, except that the sheaths, which surround the stem, are not
split. The flowers are generally arranged in a spike, overlapping
each other, and each one supported on a scale-like bract. In some
sedges the flowers are perfect, each one possessing both stamens and
pistil ; but in some species the flowers are unisexual, some bearing
stamens and no pistil, and others pistil only. The stamens are
generally three in number, the ovary is superior, and the stigmas
either two or three.
Sedges abound in moist places, some being peculiar to salt
marshes, while others grows on sandy shores ; and a few of the
British species of the latter habitat are often so abundant that their
creeping roots bind the sand together, effectually holding it in place
while the surrounding portions of the beach are mercilessly driven
by the wind.
A few of the sea-side sedges belong to the genus Carex, in which
the flowers are imperfect, and the fruit is enclosed in the outer
parts of the flower. C. extensa thrives in salt marshes, growing to
a height of a foot or more, and flowering about midsummer. Its
fertile flowers form oblong erect spikelets, while the barren spikelets
are solitary. The bracts are long and leafy, with short sheaths sur-
rounding the stem. The leaves are curved in at the edges, and
the fruit is oval and ribbed, with a short straight beak.
On sandy shores the Sea Sedge (C. arenarid) is often common,
and its underground stems are used for sarsaparilla. It is a
perennial species, growing to a height of about nine inches,
and flowering in June and July. The flowers grow in an oblong inter-
rupted spike, the upper spikelets being barren, and the intermediate
ones barren at the tip. The fruit is oval, veined, and winged.
Another species of this genus — the Curved Sedge (C. incurva)
FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE SEA-SIDE 399
— is sometimes to be seen on sandy shores, but it is rare, and is
also a very small sedge, growing only to a height of about three
Fio. 282. — MALE AND FEMALE FLOWERS OF Carex, MAGNIFIED
inches. It derives its specific name from its curved stem, and may
be further distinguished by its channelled leaves and the globular
mass of spikelets which are barren on the top.
Some of the so-called rushes belong to the same order as the
sedges, and a few of these are more or less restricted to the neigh-
bourhood of the sea. The Salt-marsh Club Bush (Scvrpus mariti-
mus), as its name implies, is to be found in marshes near the sea.
It is very variable in height, ranging from one to three feet, and
displays its dense terminal cluster of spikelets in July and August.
In this genus all the flowers are perfect, the glumes imbricated
and bristled ; and the present species may be distinguished by the
glumes being divided into two sharply pointed lobes. A variety of
S. lacustris may also be found on the sea shore, but it is somewhat
rare. It has a leafless glaucous stem, and flowers arranged in com-
pound spikes. The glumes are rough, and contain a compressed
fruit.
A very small species of the Spike Bush (Eleocharis parvula),
growing only one or two inches high, is sometimes found on the
muddy shores of Ireland. It has perfect flowers, in a single
terminal spikelet. The leaves are very narrow, growing from the
base of the plant ; and the round stem is enclosed in a single
leafless sheath.
400
THE SEA SHORE
The true rushes belong to the order Juncacece. These have
fibrous roots and narrow leaves, and bear clusters of brown flowers.
The perianth consists of six parts, and the stamens are usually
six in number. The ovary is generally three-celled, developing
into a three- valved capsule. The Lesser Sea Hush (Juncus mari-
timus) is common in salt marshes, growing to a height of two or
three feet, and flowering in July. It has a rigid leafless stem,
bearing lateral clusters of flowers. The segments of the perianth
are very narrow and sharp, and the seeds are enclosed in a loose
testa. Closely allied to this species is the Great Sea Bush
(<7. acutus), which grows three or four feet high on sandy shores.
In general characteristics it resembles J. maritimus, but the
FIG. 283.— THE
SEA SEDGE
Fro. 284.— THE CURVED
SEDGE
FIG. 285.— THE
GREAT SEA BUSH
segments of the perianth are oval and have thin transparent
margins ; and it is a much rarer species.
We now pass to the peculiar Sea Grasses or Grass Wracks
(Zostera) which grow in salt water. They belong to the order
Naiadacece, and are characterised by cellular leaves with parallel
veins, and inconspicuous unisexual or bisexual flowers. The
perianth, when present at all, consists of two or four scale-like
parts, and the stamens correspond in number with these. The
ovary is free, and the carpels, one or more in number, contain each
a single ovule. In Zostera the flowers are imperfect, and seem to
grow in the slit of the leaf. There are two species, both of which
grow in shallow water close to the shore, often in such dense
masses that they impede the progress of boats. They have long
FLO WEEING PLANTS OF THE SEA-SIDE 401
creeping stems that lie buried in the sand, giving off numerous
root-fibres, and send up to the surface slender branches that bear
grass-like leaves. The flowers are unisexual, and are arranged in
two rows on the same side of a flattened stalk that is enclosed in
a sheath formed by short leaves. They have no perianth, the male
flowers being composed of a single anther, and the female of a one-
celled ovary containing a single ovule, and surmounted by a style
with two long stigmas.
There are two species — the Broad-leaved Grass Wrack (Z. marina)
with leaves one to three feet long and traversed by three or more
parallel veins, and the Dwarf Grass Wrack (Z. nana), the leaves of
which are less than a foot long, with veins numbering one to three.
There is a variety of the former, however, named Angustifolia, in
which the leaves are much narrower than usual, and the veins
fewer in number.
The order Alismacece, which contains the water plantains,
arrow-heads, and other semi-aquatic plants, has a representative
of marine tendencies in the Sea-side Arrow
Grass ( Triglochin maritimum) . The flowers
of this order are bisexual, with six stamens
FIG. 286.— THE BROAD- FIG. 287.— THE SEA-SIDE FIG. 288.— THE
LEAVED GKASS WEACK AKKOW GRASS COMMON ASPARAGUS
and a six-parted perianth. The fruit consists of many carpels;
and, although the plants are monocotyledons, their leaves have
netted veins ; and altogether they somewhat resemble the ranun-
culaceous exogens. The Sea-side Arrow Grass is abundant in
some salt marshes, growing to a height of about a foot, and pro-
duces loose simple spikes of green flowers all through the summer.
The leaves are radical, narrow and fleshy ; and the ovary consists
of six carpels.
D D
402 THE SEA SHORE
Of the interesting order Liliacece we have only one plant of the
coast, and even that — the Asparagus — is not by any means generally
common. It is the same plant that is so largely cultivated as an
article of diet, and which is so highly valued on account of its
diuretic properties. It is moderately common on parts of the south
coast, particularly in the Isle of Portland and in West Cornwall,
and its general appearance is so graceful that it is largely employed
as an ornamental garden plant. The stem is erect and freely
branched, bearing feathery bunches of bristled leaves and pale-
yellow axillary flowers. As is the case with the Liliacece generally,
the flowers are bisexual, with a six-parted perianth, six stamens,
and a three-celled superior ovary ; and the last named, in the
Asparagus, forms a bright -red berry in the autumn.
We have now to leave the monocotyledonous plants and pass on
to the dicotyledons, which form the most highly developed of the
primary divisions of the vegetable kingdom. A few of the general
characteristics of this group have already been given, but we must
now look rather more closely into the nature of the plants included.
The class receives its name from the presence of two cotyledons
or seed-leaves in the embryo plant, and is also known as the
Exogence because the stems increase in thickness by the addition
of zones of woody tissue at the exterior. When the young dico-
tyledonous plant first appears above the ground, the two cotyledons,
which formerly served to shelter the immature bud, usually appear
as tiny fleshy leaves ; but these soon wither away, while the bud
produces the more permanent leaves that are of a very different
structure. A section of the stem will reveal distinct pith, wood,
and bark, the wood being more or less distinctly divided into wedge-
shaped masses by rays from the pith ; and, in the case of perennial
stems, the wood is arranged in concentric rings, the number of
which correspond approximately with the years of growth. The
leaves of exogens have their veins in the form of a network, and the
parts of the flower are generally arranged in whorls of two or five
or of some multiple of these numbers.
The flowers always have stamens and pistil, but in some these
organs exist in separate flowers, either on the same plant, or on
different plants of the same species, and the ovules are nearly always
contained in a case called the ovary.
Dicotyledons are divided into three main groups, the division
being based on the structure of the flowers. They are the Apetalce
in which the petals are absent, but the perianth is frequently peta-
FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE SEA-SIDE 403
loid, though it is occasionally also absent ; the Gamopetalce, in
which the petals are united ; and the Polypetalce, in which the petals
are always distinct.
Dealing with these divisions in the above order we come first to
the Spurges, three species of which occur on sandy shores. They
belong to the order Euphorbiacece, which includes, in addition to
the spurges, a number of herbs, trees, and shrubs with entire leaves
often a milky juice, and small flowers, sometimes enclosed in calyx-
like bracts. The flowers may have one or several stamens, and the
perianth, if present, consists of three or four parts ; but perhaps the
best distinguishing feature of the order is the nature of the fruit,
which separates elastically into three carpels.
The Sea Spurge (Euphorbia Paralias) is
commonly seen on sandy shores, where its
yellow flowers bloom in late summer and in
autumn. It may be distinguished among the
numerous species of the genus by its narrow
oblong imbricated leaves, of a tough leathery
nature, the broad heart-shaped bracts, and
the wrinkled capsules containing smooth seeds.
The Portland Spurge (E. portlandica) is a
similar plant, found in similar situations, and Fl0' 2^)-"
flowering from May to September. Its leaves
are oval and narrow, obtuse, and of a glau-
cous colour, and the bracts are more triangular than those of the
last species. The capsules are slightly rough, as are also the seeds.
There is yet another sea-side spurge — the Purple Spurge (E.peplis)
— a somewhat rare plant, found on some of the sandy shores of the
south of England. It grows to about eight or nine inches in length,
and blooms in late summer, the flowers, like those of most of the
spurges, being yellow. The stem is of a glaucous colour, and trails
along the ground ; the leaves are opposite and somewhat heart-
shaped, and the flowers solitary. This species may be distinguished
from other spurges by its stipuled leaves
On sandy cliffs we sometimes meet with the Sea Buckthorn
(Hippophae rhamnoides) — a spiny shrub, ranging from about two
to seven feet in height, the bark of which is covered with a silvery
scaly scurf that forms a beautiful object for the microscope. It is
the British representative of the Oleasters (order Eleagnacece).
The leaves are alternate, lanceolate, with a silvery surface ; and
the flowers are small, green and unisexual. The male flowers grow
404 THE SEA SHORE
in catkins, each arising from a scaly bract, and have a green
perianth. The female flowers have a tubular perianth, and a free
one-celled ovary. The latter forms a hard nut-like fruit, which is
FIG. 290. — THE PURPLE SPURGE Fia. 291. — THE SEA BUCKTHORN
surrounded by a succulent mass formed by the former. This
shrub flowers in the spring, while the leaves are still very small.
Of the order PolygonacecB, which includes the docks, knot
grasses, buckwheats, and sorrels, we have two sea-side representa-
tives, both belonging to the typical genus Polygonum. These are
the sea-side Knot Grass (P. maritimum) and Kay's Knot Grass (P.
Raii). The plants of this order are herbs, characterised by their
alternate leaves with sheathing stipules ; and small flowers, usually
bisexual, often with a coloured perianth. Most of the species are
remarkable for their astringent and acid properties. In the genus
Polygonum the flowers are usually in spikes or racemes ; the
perianth funnel-shaped, regular, and five-cleft. The stamens vary
from five to eight in number, and the styles number two or three.
The fruit is a small angular nut, usually enclosed in the perianth.
The sea-side Knot Grass is very common on some parts of the
shore, where it grows from one to three feet long, and flowers in August.
The stem is recumbent, tough and woody, bearing fleshy glaucous
leaves with curled edges. It may be further distinguished from the
other knot grasses by its long stipules, with freely-branching veins,
and by the length of the fruit exceeding that of the perianth. As in
the other knot grasses, the flowers arise from the axils of the leaves.
Ray's Knot Grass is very much like the common knot grass
so abundant in all waste places, the leaves being flat; and the
stipules, shorter than in the last species, having but few veins ; but
FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE SEA-SIDE 405
while in the latter the fruit is shorter than the calyx, in P. Ra/ii
it is longer. This species is found on many sandy shores, and
flowers in July and August.
The order Chenopodiacece is particularly rich in sea-side plants,
more than a dozen of the British species growing almost exclusively
near the shore. They are mostly inconspicuous plants, with small
flowers which are sometimes unisexual. The perianth is deeply
divided, and the stamens are inserted in its base, opposite the
divisions. The ovary is free, containing a single ovule.
The typical genus (Chenopodium) contains the weeds designated
by the name of Goosefoot, all characterised by their straggling
stems and small flat leaves. One species (C. botryoides) is common
on some sandy shores. It is a small weed, its prostrate stem
measuring only a few inches in length.
The leaves are triangular and fleshy, and
the flowers are arranged in dense leafy
clusters. A variety of the Bed Goose-
foot (C. rubrum) is also found on the
coast. It is of a reddish colour, with
rhomboid leaves and short crowded
spikes of flowers.
On muddy shores we meet with
the Common Beet (Beta maritima), the
leaves of which are often cooked and
eaten where the plant is abundant ; and
it is this species from which the different
varieties of garden beet and mangold
wurzel have been produced by cultiva-
tion. There are two distinct varieties of the wild plant. In one
the root and leaves are of a purple colour, while in the other
they are of a yellowish green. The former has been cultivated for
its root, while the latter is sometimes grown for the leaves. In
the wild state it has many stems, the lower parts being more or
less procumbent, and the leaves are fleshy, gradually narrowing
down into the stalk. The flowers, which are arranged in long,
simple, leafy spikes, are bisexual, with a five-parted perianth, five
stamens inserted opposite each segment, in a fleshy ring and a
flattened one-celled ovary which develops into a one-seeded
utricle.
In similar situations we meet with two species of Sea Purslane
(Obione), in which the flowers are unisexual, both male and female
FIG. 292. — Chenopodium
botryoides
406 THE SEA SHORE
flowers being on the same plant. They are also distinguished from
most other Chenopods by the perianth adhering to the wall of the
ovary. The Shrubby Sea Purslane (0. portulacoides) is, as its
name implies, a shrubby plant. It grows to a height of eighteen
inches or two feet, bearing silvery oval lanceolate leaves and sessile
fruit. The other species referred to — the Stalked Sea Purslane
(0. pedunculata) — is herbaceous, with oval, mealy leaves, and
stalked fruit.
The Oraches (genus Atriplex) resemble the Purslanes in the
granular mealiness of the foliage, and the two are so closely allied
that they are often placed in the same genus. Oraches are most
readily distinguished among the Chenopods by the two bracts which
enclose the fruit and enlarge after flowering ; and, like the Purslanes,
they have unisexual flowers, both male and female being on the
FIG. 293.- THE FROSTED FIG. 294.— THE PRICKLY
SEA ORACHE SALT WORT
same plant. Three of our five British species are sea-side plants.
The Frosted Sea Orache (A. arenaria) grows on sandy shores,
about six or eight inches in height, and flowers during late summer
and autumn. It may be known by its buff-coloured stem, with
triangular or rhomboidal, jagged, silvery leaves, and clusters of
sessile flowers in the axils of the leaves. Another species (A.
Babingtoni't) may be seen on both rocky and sandy shores, usually
from one to two feet in height, and flowering from July to September.
Its stem is procumbent, green with reddish stripes ; leaves oval-
triangular, lanceolate towards the top, three-lobed at the base of
the stem, light green, with a mealy surface ; flowers in terminal
clusters as well as in the axils of the leaves. A third species — the
Grass-leaved Orache (A. littoralis) grows in salt marshes. All
its leaves are grass-like and entire, and the stem is generally marked
FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE SEA-SIDE 407
with reddish stripes as in A. BabingtonH. The flowers, too, are
in sessile axillary clusters only. This plant reaches a height of
from one to two feet, and flowers in the late summer.
The Prickly Salt Wort (Salsola kali) is a very common sea-side
plant on some of our coasts, and may be recognised at a glance
by its general form and habit. The stem is very much branched
and prostrate, forming a very bushy plant about a foot in height.
It is also very brittle and succulent, furrowed and bristly, and of
a bluish-green colour. The leaves are fleshy, awl-shaped, nearly
cylindrical, with a spiny point, and little prickles at the base. The
flowers are axillary and solitary. This plant and its exotic allies
are very rich in alkaline salts, particularly carbonate of soda, and
were formerly the principal source from which this compound was
obtained.
Our last example of the sea-side chenopods is the Glass Wort
(Salicornia), which thrives in salt marshes. In this genus the
stem is jointed and the flowers bisexual. The Jointed Glass Wort
(S. herbacea) is common in most salt marshes, where its erect,
herbaceous, leafless stem may be seen growing to a height of a foot
or more. The joints are thickened upwards, and shrink to such
an extent when dry that the upper part of
each segment of the stem forms a mem-
branous socket into which fits the base
of the next segment above. The flowers
are arranged in dense tapering spikes, also
jointed, with a cluster of three flowers on
the two opposite sides of the base of each
segment. Each flower is composed of a
perianth, closed with the exception of a
small aperture through which the stigma
and, later, the stamens protrude. The
Creeping Glass Wort (S. radicans) has a
woody procumbent stem, with the joints
only slightly thickened, and the spikes
do not taper so much as in S. herbacea.
Both these plants yield considerable
quantities of soda, and they are named
' Glass Wort ' because they formerly con-
stituted one of the sources from which soda was obtained for the
manufacture of glass.
We now come to those flowers in which both calyx and corolla
FIG. 295.— THE CHEEPING
GLASS WOBT
408
THE SEA SHORE
exist, and shall deal first with the division Gamopetalce or Mono-
petalce, in which the petals are united.
Our first example of this division is the Seaside Plantain
(Plantago maritima), of the order Plantaginacece. This is a stem-
less herbaceous plant, with ribbed leaves and small green flowers,
common on many parts of the coast, and also found on the
mountains of Scotland, flowering throughout the summer. It may
be distinguished from the other plantains by its narrow fleshy
leaves. As in the other species, the flowers form a cylindrical
spike.
The order Plumbaginacece contains several sea-side plants,
including the Sea Pink or Thrift (Armeria maritima) and the
various species of Sea Lavender (genus Statice). They are charac-
terised by a tubular membranous
calyx, persistent and often
coloured, a regular corolla of five
petals united at their bases, five
FIG. 296. — THE SEA-SIDE PLANTAIN FIG. 297.— THE SEA LAVENDER
stamens opposite the petals and attached at the base of the ovary,
and a free one-celled and one-seeded ovary. The well-known Sea
Pink, with its compact head of rose-coloured flowers, in bloom
throughout the spring and summer, and linear one-veined leaves,
may be seen on most of our coasts, as well as on high ground in
inland districts. The Sea Lavender, of which there are four British
species, have their flowers arranged in spikes. The commonest species
(Statice limonium) may be found principally on muddy shores. Its
leaves are narrow and one-ribbed, and the bluish-purple flowers
arranged in short dense spikes, the flower stalk being branched
only above the middle. One variety of it has its flowers in
FLOWERING PLANTS OF TEE SEA-SIDE 409
a loose pyramidal cluster, while another bears its spikes in a
compact level-topped corymb with short firm branches. Another
species (S. bahusiensis) is characterised by long spikes of distant
flowers, the stalk being branched from near the base. The
Upright Sea Lavender (S. binervosa) of rocky shores has the stalk
branched from the middle, with, usually, nearly all the branches
flowering, though there are varieties in which the flowers are
differently arranged. The Matted Sea Lavender (S. caspia) grows
in salt marshes on the east coast of England. Its flower stalk is
branched from the base, but the lower branches are barren and
tangled, while the upper bear small crowded lilac flowers. The
leaves of the last two species are spatulate in form.
The Bittersweet or Woody Nightshade (Solanum Dulcamara)
of the order Solanacece is common in hedgerows and waste places
almost everywhere, but a variety of it (marinum) has its habitat
along the coast. It may be distinguished from the normal form
by its prostrate branched and non- climbing stem, and by its fleshy
leaves. The latter are all cordate, while in the normal the upper
leaves are auricular. The order to which Solanum belongs is
characterised by a regular five-cleft calyx and corolla, four or five
stamens attached to the corolla, and a superior two-celled ovary.
The flowers are in axillary cymes, and the fruit is a berry.
Convolvulacece is represented on sandy shores by the Sea-side
Bindweed (Convolvulus Soldanella), a small species, with pinkish
purple flowers, the prostrate stem of which rarely measures more
than a foot in length. The plants of this order are generally
climbing plants with alternate leaves and regular showy flowers.
The calyx is composed of five sepals, the corolla of four or five
lobes, and the stamens are attached to the corolla. The ovary is
superior, two- or four-celled, and the fruit a capsule. The above
species may be recognised by its reniform leaves (sagittate in the
others), which are also fleshy.
To the order Gentianacece belong the Centaury (Erythrcea),
three out of the four British species of which grow on sandy shores.
In the flowers of this order the calyx has from four to ten lobes ;
the stamens also number four to ten, and are alternate with the
lobes of the corolla. The ovary is one- or two-celled, and the fruit
is a berry with many seeds. The leaves are usually opposite and
entire, and the flowers are generally showy, regular, and solitary.
Erythrcea has a funnel-shaped corolla, five stamens, and two
stigmas, on a deciduous style ; and in all our species the flower
410 THE SEA SHOBE
is rose-coloured. The Dwarf Centaury (E. pulchella), which
is common on some sandy shores, is much smaller than the
species that thrives in pastures, being only
two or three inches in height. Its stem is
also more freely branched, and its flowers
are axillary and terminal. The Tufted Cen-
taury (E. littoralis) and the Broad-leaved
Centaury (E. latifolia) occur in similar
Fio. 298.— THE DWAKF situations» but SXQ comparatively rare.
CENTAUKY They are both small species, the former
with an unbranched stem, narrow leaves,
and corymbose inflorescence ; and the latter with branched stem,
broad elliptical leaves, and flowers in dense forked tufts.
The extensive order Composites contains comparatively few sea-
side plants, and, in dealing with these, we pass to another division
of the nionopetalous flowers, in which the ovary is inferior and the
stamens are on the corolla. The order includes those herbaceous
plants in which sessile flowers are collected together into com-
pound heads (capitula) surrounded by a whorl of bracts. The
corolla is either tubular or strap-shaped (ligulate), the stamens
four or flve in number, and the fruit one-seeded, usually crowned
with the liuib of the calyx in the form of a scaly feathery or hairy
pappus.
The Little Lettuce (Lactuca salignd) is found in chalky
pastures near the east and south-east coasts, growing to a height
of about a foot, and bearing heads of yellow flowers in July and
August. All the flowers are ligulate and perfect, the pappus
is composed of silvery hairs, and the fruit is compressed and
beaked, the beak being twice as long as the fruit. The leaves are
smooth, linear, and sagittate, terminating in a sharp point. The
Sea-side Cotton Weed (Diotis maritima) is occasionally met with on
sandy shores, and may be recognised by its dense coating of downy
hair, its sessile obtuse leaves, and heads of yellow flowers forming
a corymb. The heads are discoid, and the fruit has no pappus.
The Sea Wormwood (Artemisia maritima) is a common sea-shore
composite, bearing drooping heads of reddish-white flowers in
August. This is another of the downy species, its pinnatifid leaves
having quite a woolly appearance. The capitulum contains but
few flowers, all of which are perfect ; and the fruit has no pappus.
A variety of this plant is sometimes seen, with dense erect capitula.
The Sea Aster or Michaelmas Daisy (Aster tripolium) of salt
FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE SEA-SIDE 411
marshes may be known by the yellow discs and purple rays of its
flower heads, which are arranged in a corymb. The florets of the ray
form a single row, and the fruit has a hairy pappus. The leaves
of this plant are spatulate and fleshy. A variety occurs in which
the purple florets of the ray are absent. The Golden Samphire
(Inula crithmoides) is a very local sea-side plant, being found
principally on the south-west coast. Its leafy stems grow to a
height of a foot or more, and bear yellow heads of flowers that
radiate in all directions. The leaves are linear, acute, and fleshy,
and the bracts are linear and imbricated. Our last example of the
sea-side composites is the Sea- side Corn Feverfew or Scentless
Mayweed, which is a variety of Matricaria inodora of waste places.
The leaves are sessile and pinnatifid, with very narrow segments,
and the white flowers grow in solitary heads. The maritime
variety differs from the normal form in having fleshy leaves.
We next deal with another very extensive order (the Umbelliferce) ,
which, however, has only three or four representatives on the shore,
and these introduce us to the last great division of the flowering
plants, namely, the Potypetalous Dicotyledons, in which the petals
are not united. Of these we shall first deal with that subdivision
in which the stamens are attached at the side of or upon the ovary.
The most obvious characteristic of the Umbelliferte is that
implied hi the name — the arrangement of the flowers in that form
of inflorescence, called the umbel, in which the pedicels all branch
from one point in the main stalk, and are such that the flowers are
all approximately on a level. The flowers are mostly small and
white, with five sepals (when present), five petals, and five stamens.
The inferior ovary is two-celled, bearing two styles ; and the fruit
separates into two dry one-seeded carpels that are ribbed longi-
tudinally.
Our first example of this group is the Sea Carrot, a variety of
the Wild Carrot (Daucus carotd). In the ordinary form, which is
so common in fields, the leaflets are pinnatifid, with acute segments;
and the central flowers of each umbel are purple, while the
outer ones are white. The umbel, when in fruit, is concave
above. The maritime variety differs from this in having fleshy
leaves, and the umbel convex above when in fruit. The Sea Sam-
phire (Crithmum maritimum) grows on the rocks close to the sea,
and thrives well where there is hardly a vestige of soil. It usually
grows to a height of seven or eight inches, bearing greenish-white
flowers surrounded by a whorl of very narrow leaves. The other
412 THE SEA SHOES
leaves are glaucous and bi-ternate, the leaflets being narrow, fleshy,
and tapering towards both ends. On cliffs near the sea, especially
in chalky districts, we meet with the Fennel, with its finely-
divided leaves, split up into numerous capil-
lary leaflets, and its small yellow flowers
without bracts. It may be distinguished
from other closely-allied plants by the form
of the fruit, which is flattened at the sides.
It is grown in some parts for use as a potherb,
and an aromatic oil is also obtained from the
FIG' 2<J9 — T* SE see^s- The plant grows to a height of four or
SAMPHIRE nve ^ee*» Du^ there is a smaller variety known
as the Sweet Fennel, and distinguished by
the stem being compressed at the base. Our next example of
the UmbellifercB is the Sea Holly (Eryngium mwritimum), easily
distinguished from the other umbellifers by its spiny glaucous
leaves, and the thistle-like heads of blue flowers surrounded by a
whorl of spiny bracts. Its fleshy creeping roots were formerly
gathered largely for the purpose of converting them into the
once-prized ' candied eryngo root,' which is still prepared in a few
of the fishing villages of our coast. The lower leaves of this plant
are spinous and very glaucous, and the upper ones palmate. The
venation is particularly strong and durable, so that the leaves and
flowers are used largely by the sea-side cottagers in the construction
of skeleton bouquets and wreaths. Another plant of the same
genus — The Field Eryngo (E. campestre) — is occasionally seen on
sandy shores. It differs from the last in having ternate radical
leaves with pinnatifid lobes, and the upper leaves, bi-pinnatifid.
Our last example of the sea-side umbellifers is the "Wild Celery
(Apium graveolens) of salt marshes and ditches. This is the plant
from which our highly-valued garden celery has been produced,
and it is remarkable that this sweet crisp and wholesome vegetable
has been derived from a wild plant of coarse taste and odour, the
acrid sap of which is highly irritating if not dangerous. The plant
may be known by its furrowed stem, and ternate leaves, the leaf-
lets of the lower leaves being round and lobed, while those of the
upper ones are notched. The umbels are sessile or nearly so, the
flowers have no calyx, and the fruit has five prominent ridges.
On the sandy shores of the south-western counties we may meet
with the very local Four-leaved Allseed (Polycarpon tetrapTiyllum)
of the order Illecebracece. It is a small plant, only four or five
FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE SEA- SIDE 413
inches in height, with the lower leaves in whorls of four and the
upper ones in opposite pairs. The flowers are minute, and are
disposed in small dense clusters.
Another rare species is the shrub known as the English Tamarisk
(Tamarix anglica), which is our only representative of the order
TamariscacecB. There is some doubt, however, whether even this
is indigenous to Britain, though it occurs in a wild state on the
coast. It is a very twiggy shrub growing from six to ten feet in
height, with minute scale-like, acute leaves, and slender spikes of
small pinkish-white flowers.
We now pass to the large order of Leguminous plants, charac-
terised by their stipuled leaves, and irregular papilionaceous flowers.
The latter usually have five united sepals, five petals forming an
irregular, butterfly-like corolla, ten stamens, and a superior ovary
that develops into a pod.
Of these the Starry-headed Trefoil (Trifolium stellatum) is
very partial to the sea shore, though it is sometimes found some
distance inland. The genus to which it belongs is so called on ac-
count of its trifoliate leaves which are characteristic of the clovers,
trefoils, and vetches, and which have stipules adhering to the petioles.
The species under notice receives its name from the star-like
arrangement of the long teeth of the hairy calyx. The stem of the
plant is procumbent, usually about six or eight inches long, with
cylindrical and terminal heads of yellowish-grey flowers.
The Rough-podded Yellow Vetch (Vicia lutea) is somewhat
rare, and occurs principally on very rocky
coasts. In common with the other vetches
it has pinnate, tendrilled leaves, without
a terminal leaflet, one stamen free and
the rest united into a bundle, and a long,
slender, hairy style. Its stem is tufted
and prostrate, averaging about a foot in
length, the leaflets long and narrow, and
the yellow flowers sessile and solitary.
The teeth of the calyx are unequal, and
the pods hairy and curved.
The Sea-Side Everlasting Pea (Lathy-
rus maritimus) is a much commoner
plant of the coast, and may be readily
recognised by its general resemblance to
the garden sweet-pea. The genus to which it belongs is closely
FIG. 300.— THE SEA-SIDE
EVERLASTING PEA
414 THE SEA SHORE
allied to the vetches, but may be distinguished by the style, which
is flattened below the stigma, hairy on the inner or tipper side, but
quite smooth on the outer side. The sea-side species has an
angled (but not winged) stem, from one to three feet long, com-
pound tendrilled leaves with many oval leaflets, and large oval or
cordate stipules. Its purple flowers are in bloom during July and
August. A variety of this plant (acutifolius)> with a slender strag-
gling stem and narrow acute leaflets, occurs on some parts of the
Scottish coast.
The Geraniacece is represented at the sea-side by the Sea
Stork's-bill (Erodium maritimum), which, however, is by no
means a very common flower. Its relationship to the other stork's-
FIG. 301. — THE SEA STORK'S-BILL
bills and the crane's-bills may be readily proved by the five
persistent sepals, five distinct clawed petals, the five to ten stamens
attached under the ovary (for we have now reached that division
of the polypetalous esogens distinguished by this mode of insertion
of the stamens), and the five carpels surrounding a long beak
resembling that of the stork and the crane. The plant may
sometimes be seen on sandy shores, averaging a foot in height,
though very variable in this respect, and displaying its pretty pink
flowers during the whole of the summer. The principal features
by which it is to be distinguished from the two other British plants
of the same species are its ovate or cordate leaves with very
FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE SEA-SIDE 415
short petioles, and the presence of only one or two flowers on each
peduncle.
Passing now to the Sea Mallow (Lavatera arborea), we are
dealing with another rather rare plant, of the order Malvacea,
sometimes met with on rocky coasts, chiefly, it appears, on the
north coast of Cornwall and Devon. This is a very shrubby plant,
as its specific name implies, and it is sometimes popularly known
as the Tree Mallow on that account. It has a very woody stem,
growing to a height of four or five feet, and bearing seven-pointed,
downy leaves, and solitary, axillary, purple flowers. As in the other
mallows, the flowers have five petals, which are curiously twisted
when in the bud, five sepals, a large number of stamens united
into a tube, and an ovary of many cells, but it may be distinguished
from the other species of the order by its three-lobed bracts. The
plant is found principally in wild, uncultivated spots, but is
commonly grown as a garden plant by the cottagers of villages
in the south-west, and under cultivation it frequently grows
to a height of nine or ten feet, with a tree-like stem three or four
inches in thickness ; and it produces such a quantity of fibre
that its cultivation for manufacturing purposes has been sug-
gested.
We now come to another of the very extensive orders, at least
as far as British plants are concerned, although it contains
only a few sea-side species. We refer to the Caryophyllacece,
containing the pinks, campions, catchflies, chickweeds, &c. The
chief features of the order are jointed, herbaceous stems, opposite
leaves, and regular white or red flowers with four or five sepals
and petals, eight or ten stamens, and a capsular fruit opening at the
top with teeth.
One of the commonest species we have to consider is the Sea
Campion (Silene maritima), common on nearly all coasts, and
often growing in small crevices of the bare rocks quite within the
reach of the spray of storm-waves. In common with the other
members of its genus it is characterised by a tubular calyx of
united sepals, ten stamens, and a three-celled capsule opening at
the top with six teeth ; but it may be known at once by its small
size, being only a few inches in height, and its solitary flowers with
calyx much inflated and the corolla only shortly cleft.
The Sea Sand Wort (Spergularia marina) is another common
plant of the coast, recognised by its slender, creeping stems ; linear,
stipuled, fleshy leaves, convex below and blunt at the apex ; and
416
THE SEA SHOEE
its pinkish-white flowers. The Sea Purslane (Honclcenyapeploides),
belonging to the same order, is also a creeping plant, with ovate,
acute fleshy leaves, flowering
from May to August. It is
the only British plant of its
genus, and may be distin-
guished from others by the
absence of stipules, distinct
sepals, petals entire, ten
stamens, and from three to
five styles. The flowers are
white, solitary, and sessile.
The one remaining species of
the sea-side Caryopliyllacece
is the Sea Pearl Wort (Sagina
maritima). This plant is
closely allied to the last,
being a creeper with exstipu-
late leaves and distinct sepals,
but its flowers are reddish
white, on erect peduncles,
with very small petals. The
leaves, too, are linear, fleshy,
and obtuse. There are three
distinct varieties of this plant,
two of which have erect stems
with short internodes, while
the third is procumbent with long internodes ; and in all three the
capsules are shorter than the sepals.
A variety of the Common Milk Wort (Poly gala, vulgaris) — order
Polygalacece — is moderately common on sandy shores. The
ordinary form of the species, which is so common on heaths, is a
small plant with a woody stem, small ovate leaves crowded below,
and opposite lanceolate leaves above. The flowers are irregular
with five persistent sepals, two larger than the others ; three to
five petals, the lowest keeled, and all united to the tube formed by
the eight stamens, which are divided above into two bundles; and
the fruit is a flat capsule with two one-seeded cells. The flowers
are very variable in colour, being white, pink, lilac, or blue ; and the
seeds are downy. The sea-side variety (oxyptera) has smaller flowers
than the normal form, and the wings of the calyx are narrower.
TRJ.
FIG. 302.— THE SEA CAMPION
FLOWERING PLANTS OF TEE SEA-SIDE 417
One species of Pansy (Viola Curtisii) is occasionally to be
met with on sandy shores, and may be at once recognised as one
of the Violacece by its irregular spurred corolla, its five persistent
sepals, and the three-parted, one-celled ovary. The flowers are
variable in colour and size, the prevailing tints being blue and
yellow, and the diameter of the corolla occasionally reaching to one
inch. It has a creeping woody rootstock, and a rough angular
stem ; and the petals are generally but little longer than the
The Shrubby Mignonette (Reseda suffrut^culo8a), of the order
Resedacece, is a common sea-side plant that grows to a height of
one or two feet on sandy shores, bearing spikes of white flowers in
FIG. 304.— THE
SHUUBBY MIGNONETTE
FIG. 303.— THE SEA PEARL WORT
July and August. The order is characterised by alternate exstipu-
late leaves, persistent calyx with four or five sepals, corolla of
from four to seven petals, many stamens, and a three-lobed, one-
celled ovary. The sea-side species is very much like the wild
mignonette so common in chalky districts, but differs in having all
its leaves pinnate, waved, and glaucous, with linear segments ; and
in having five equal sepals and petals. In a variety of the species,
however, the sepals and petals are six in number.
The Crucifers are fairly well represented by coast plants, there
being several maritime species of the order. The Cruciferce are
named from the nature of the corolla, the limbs of the four petals
E E
418
THE SEA SHOEE
of which are arranged so as to resemble the Maltese cross. The
flowers have also four sepals, six stamens, two of which are shorter
than the other four, and the fruit takes the form of a two-celled
pod or pouch which opens by the separation of its two valves
from the central partition.
Our first example is the Wild Cabbage (Brassica oleracea),
which, although so unlike the cabbage of our gardens, is really the
FIG. 305.— THE WILD
CABBAGE
FIG. 306.— THE ISLE
OF MAN CABBAGE
parent of all the cultivated varieties, including the cauliflower,
broccoli, Brussels sprouts, &c. It is a biennial plant, with fleshy
lobed wavy leaves that are covered with bluish bloom, and a fleshy
cylindrical root. It grows erect to a height of one or two feet,
bearing yellow flowers during the summer months. An allied
species (B. monensis), with a prostrate stem and deeply-divided
leaves, occurs locally on the sandy shores of the Isle of Man.
Two species of Stock (Matthiola) are to be found on the coast,
both being characterised by purple flowers. The Great Sea Stock
(M. sinuata) is a rare plant growing on the shores of Wales and
Cornwall, and may be known by its herbaceous stem and narrow
downy leaves ; and the other species — the Hoary Shrubby Stock
(M. incana) — is also a rare plant, found principally on the cliffs of
the Isle of Wight, and is the parent of the Brompton Stocks of our
gardens. The latter has a branched woody stem and narrow
leaves. Both species grow to a height of about eighteen inches,
and the latter flowers in May and June, while the former is in
bloom during the hottest summer months.
The Hare's-ear Treacle Mustard (Erysimum orientate) is a
rare crucifer, frequenting the cliffs of the southern and eastern
FLOWEBING PLANTS OF THE SEA -SIDE 419
counties. It grows to a height of one to two feet, and bears its white
flowers about midsummer. It has glaucous leaves, and the fruit-
pods are quadrangular ill form.
FIQ. 307.— THE
GREAT SEA STOCK
FIG. 308.— THE HOARY
SHRUBBY STOCK
The Common Scurvy Grass (Cochlearia officmalis) is abundant
on many shores, and its fleshy leaves, once highly valued as an
antiscorbutic, are still used for salad by the cottagers near the sea.
It generally grows to a height of six or seven inches, and displays
its white flowers during late spring and early summer. The root-
leaves are cordate in form, and the upper ones are sessile and
angled, half embracing the stem. The fruit is a rounded pouch.
FIG. 309.— THE Sccim
GRASS
FIG. 310.— THE SEA
RADISH
A variety (danica) with stalked, deltoid leaves and an oval veiny
pod, is plentiful in some places.
On some coasts we find the Sweet Alyssum (Konigamaritima) —
a naturalised plant with procumbent stem, narrow lanceolate,
acute leaves, and white flowers. It may be recognised by its com-
pressed, pointed pouch with one-seeded cells. This species flowers
towards the end of the summer.
EE2
420
THE SEA SHORE
The Sea Radish (Raphanus maritimus) is a much larger plant,
growing three or four feet in height. In common with the Wild
Kadish of our corn-fields, it has a tapering pod divided into one-
seeded joints, but it may be distinguished from the latter by its
superior height and the
deeply-divided radical leaves.
Its flowers are always yellow,
while in the field species they
may be either yellow or
white ; and the style is also
shorter, being about the same
length as the last joint of
the pod.
On sandy shores the Sea
Eocket (Cakile maritima) is
commonly seen, and is
readily distinguished by its
zigzag branches, deeply-lobed,
smooth, fleshy leaves of a
glaucous colour, and its suc-
culent pod, which is divided
into two one-seeded cells by
a horizontal partition. It
grows from one to two feet
high, and bears pretty lilac
flowers about midsummer.
Our last example of the
crucifers is the Sea Kale
(Crambe maritima), a hardy perennial, commonly seen growing
among the sand and shingle of the shore, which is the parent of
the sea kale now so commonly cultivated in our market gardens.
It may be readily recognised by the fine glaucous bloom of its
stem, and its broad wavy toothed leaves of a glaucous grey colour.
It grows to a height of about eighteen inches, and bears white
flowers in June. The fruit is a two-jointed pouch, the upper being
rounded and one-seeded, while the lower is stalk-like and barren.
This plant is particularly common in the south-west of England,
where the leaves are sometimes blanched for food by burying them
in the sand.
One of the most striking plants of the coast is the Yellow Horned
Poppy (Glaucium luteum) of the order Papaveracece, which contains
FIG. 311.— THE SEA ROCKET
FLO WEEING PLANTS OF THE SEA-SIDE 421
the well-known poppies of corn-fields. The general characteristics
of the order are two deciduous sepals, four petals, many stamens
inserted below the ovary, and the ovary one-celled with membranous
divisions. The plants of this species usually contain a milky juice,
have alternate leaves without stipules, and the flowers, which are
regular, generally nod when in bud. The Horned Poppy is a very
conspicuous plant, usually growing quite alone on some inaccessible
FIG. 312.— THE SEA KALE
portion of the cliff, or among the pebbles or shingle not far from
high-water mark. Its stem is glaucous and branched, and the
large waved and deeply-cut leaves, which clasp the stem, are also
of a glaucous hue. The flowers are rendered conspicuous by
their large yellow petals, which, however, last only for a day, and
are succeeded by the hornlike seed-pods that sometimes reach a
foot in length.
We will conclude our list of sea-side flowers by a brief mention
of the Lesser Meadow Eue (Thalictrum minus), a variety of which
422
THE SEA SHORE
(maritimum) grows on sandy shores. The Meadow Rue belongs to
the Ranunculacecz, as may be seen from the fruit of several distinct
carpels, each containing a single seed, the
corolla of distinct petals, and the numerous
stamens inserted below the carpels. The
normal form of the Lesser Meadow Eue,
which grows freely in some chalky
pastures and thickets, has leaves three
or four times pinnate, and lax panicles
of drooping flowers without any petals.
The sea-side variety differs from this in
having the stem leafless at the base, and
the panicles leafless and broad. The
flowers are greenish white, and bloom in
July and August.
To assist the reader in the identification of sea-side flowers we
append a list of the orders to which they belong, together with the
principal distinguishing characteristics of each.
FIG. 313.— THE HORNED
POPPY
SYNOPSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS
WHICH CONTAIN OUR PRINCIPAL
SEA-SIDE FLOWERING PLANTS
I. MONOCOTYLEDONS
A. GLUMIFEB^E
FLOWERS WITHOUT A PERIANTH, ENCLOSED IN GLUMES
1. Graminese — Grassy plants with hollow stems enclosed in split
sheaths. Flowers generally bisexual with (usually) three
stamens.
2. Cyperaceae— Grassy plants with solid stems and entire sheaths.
Flowers arranged in spikelets, unisexual or bisexual, with from
one to three stamens.
B. PETALOID.E
PERIANTH PETALOID
3. Juncacese — Rushes, with narrow leaves and small brown flowers.
Perianth 6-partite, with scarious segments. Stamens usually
6 ; ovary superior ; fruit a 3-valved capsule.
4. Naiadacese— Aquatic herbs with inconspicuous, unisexual or
bisexual flowers. Perianth absent or scale-like. Stamens as
many as the segments of the perianth. Fruit of from one to
four carpels— superior.
5. Alismacese — Aquatic plants with radical net-veined leaves, and
(generally) conspicuous, white, bisexual flowers. Perianth
6-partite. Stamens 6. Fruit of many carpels — superior.
6. Liliacese— Herbs with narrow leaves and showy, bisexual flowers.
Perianth 6-partite. Stamens 6. Ovary superior, 3-celled.
Fruit a berry or capsule.
424 THE SEA SHORE
II. DICOTYLEDONS
A. CALYX, OR COROLLA, OR BOTH ABSENT
7. Euphorbiacese — Herbs with entire leaves and (generally) a milky
juice. Flowers small, unisexual, dioecious (male and female
flowers on separate plants), sometimes enclosed in calyx-like
bracts. Perianth 3- or 4-partite or absent. Stamens one or
more. Ovary inferior. Fruit separating into carpels elasti-
cally.
8. Eleagnacese — Shrub with silvery scales, alternate, entire leaves,
and small, unisexual flowers — the staminate flowers in catkins.
Sepals of male flowers 3 or 4. Stamens 4 to 8. Ovary superior.
Fruit indehiscent (not splitting).
9. Polygonacese — Herbs with sheathing stipules, alternate leaves,
and small (generally) bisexual flowers. Stamens 5 to 8. Ovary
superior. Fruit indehiscent.
10. Chenopodiacese — Herbs with jointed stems and small unisexual
or bisexual flowers. Stamens usually 5, sometimes 1 or 2,
opposite the sepals. Ovary superior. Fruit indehiscent.
B. PLANTS WITH BOTH CALYX AND COROLLA
a. COROLLA MONOPETALOXJS
1. Ovary Superior and Stamens generally on the Corolla
11. Plantaginaceae — Herbs with radical entire leaves, and spikes of
small, green flowers. Calyx 4-cleft. Corolla 4-lobed, scarious.
Stamens 4. Ovary 2- to 4-celled. Fruit many-seeded.
12. Plumbaginacese — Herbs with radical or alternate leaves, and
(generally) regular, blue flowers. Calyx tubular, scarious.
Corolla of 5 petals, united below. Stamens 5, opposite the
petals, attached below the ovary. Ovary 1-celled and 1-
seeded.
13. Primulaceae — Herbs with (generally) radical leaves and con-
spicuous, regular flowers. Calyx 4- to 7-cleft. Corolla 4- to
7-cleft. Stamens 4 to 7, generally opposite the petals. Ovary
1-celled. Fruit a capsule with many seeds.
14. Solanacese— Herbs with alternate leaves and axillary clusters of
regular flowers. Calyx 5-cleft. Corolla 5-cleft. Stamens 4 or
5. Ovary 2-celled. Fruit a berry.
FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE SEA-SIDE 425
15. Convolvulacese— Climbing herbs with alternate leaves and
showy, regular flowers. Sepals 5. Corolla 4- or 5-lobed.
Stamens 4 or 5. Ovary 2- to 4-celled. Fruit a capsule.
16. Gentianaceae — Herbs with opposite entire leaves and solitary
regular flowers. Calyx 4- to 10-lobed. Corolla 4- to 10-
lobed. Stamens 4 to 10, alternate with the lobes of the corolla.
Ovary 1- or 2-celled. Fruit a capsule.
2. Ovary Inferior and Stamens on the Corolla
17. Composite— Herbs with flowers (generally yellow or white)
collected into compact heads. Calyx absent or represented by
a pappus. Corolla tubular or ligulate. Stamens 4 or 5.
b. COROLLA POLYPETALOUS
1. Stamens Perigynous (around the Ovary), or Epigynous
(upon the Ovary)
18. Umbelliferae — Herbs with (generally) compound leaves, and
small, white, umbelled flowers. Sepals (if present) 5. Petals
5. Stamens 5. Ovary inferior. Fruit of two adhering oar-
pels.
19. Illecebracese — Small herbs with sessile, entire leaves, and small
flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals 4 or 5 or absent. Stamens 1
to 5. Ovary superior.
20. Tamariscacese— Shrub with small, scale-like leaves, and lateral
spikes of small regular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals 4 or 5.
Stamens 4 or more.
21. Leguminosae — Herbs or shrubs with alternate, stipuled, pinnate
or tern ate leaves, sometimes tendrilled, and irregular flowers.
Sepals 4 or 5. Corolla of 5 petals, papilionaceous (butterfly-
like). Stamens usually 10. Ovary superior. Fruit a pod.
2. Stamens Hypogynous (attached below the Ovary)
22. Geraniacese — Herbs with stipuled, lobed leaves, and showy
regular flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5. Stamens 5 or 10.
Fruit of 5 carpels surrounding a long beak.
23. Malvaceae— Herbs with alternate, stipuled leaves, and axillary,
red, or purple flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5, twisted in the
bud. Stamens numerous, united into a tube. Ovary of many
cells.
24. Caryophyllacese Herbs with (generally) jointed stems, opposite
leaves, and regular white or red flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals
4 or 5. Stamens 8 or 10. Fruit a 1-celled capsule opening at
the top with teeth.
426 THE SEA SHORE
25. Polygalacese — Herbs with alternate, simple leaves (without
stipules), and irregular flowers. Sepals 5, the inner petal-like.
Petals 3 to 5, unequal. Stamens 8, in two clusters. Fruit a
2-celled capsule.
26. Violaceae — Herbs with alternate, stipuled leaves and irregular
flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5, unequal, the lower one spurred.
Stamens 5. Ovary 3-partite, but 1-celled.
27. Resedacese - Herbs or shrubs with alternate, exstipulate leaves,
and spikes of irregular, green flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals
4 to 7, unequal. Stamens more than 10. Ovary 3-lobed, and
1-celled.
28. Cruciferse — Herbs with alternate, exstipulate leaves, and regular
flowers. Sepals 4. Petals 4, cruciate. Stamens 6—4 longer
and 2 shorter. Ovary 1- or 2-celled. Fruit a siliqua or a
silicula.
29. Papaveracese — Herbs with alternate, exstipulate leaves, a milky
juice, and regular, showy flowers. Sepals 2, deciduous. Petals
4. Stamens numerous. Ovary 1-celled with membranous par-
titions.
30. Ranunculacese — Herbs with (generally) alternate leaves and
regular flowers. Sepals generally 5, distinct. Petals 5 or more.
Stamens numerous. Fruit of many, distinct carpels.
INDEX
AcALEPaE, 134
Acanthias, 319
Acarina, 304
Aclis, 246
Acnisea, 240
Acorn Barnacles, '263
Actinia, 142
Actinoloba, 143
Actora, 300
Adam si a, 154
Adeorbis, 243
.SCgirus, 285
JEolidse, 235
Aepus, 303
Agonus, 335
Aiptasia, 144
Alaria, 385
Alcyonium, 155
Algse, 844, 347
— reproduction, 351
Alismacete, 401, 423
Allseed, 413
Alopecurus, 397
Ambulacrum, 163
Amnaodytes, 326
Ammophila, 396
Amoeba, 102
Amphibia, 807
Amphipoda, 267, 304
Anarrhichas, 334
Anatinidse, 204, 255
Anemones, 127, 138
Angiosperms, 346, 348
Angler Fish, 886
Angling, 84
Anguilla, 324
Anguillidae, 323
Angular Crab, '289
Annelida, 177
Anomia, 222
Anomura, 279
Antedon, 160
Anthea, 149
Anurida, 299
Apetalse, 402
Aphaniptera, 805
Aphrodita, 17U
Apium, 412
Aporrhais, 245
Aquarium, 51
— aeration of, (51, C:3
— cement for, 54, 57
— construction of, 53
— fountain, 64
— temporary, 52
— weeds for, 61
Arachnoidea, 257, 293, 301
Araneidae, 304
Area, 216
Arcadae, 216, 255
Arctopsis, 289
Arenicola, 178
Armeria, 408
Artemisia, 410
Arthropoda, 255
— classification, 304
Asiphonida, 198, 216, 255
Asparagus, 402
Asperococcus, 883
Astarte, 212
Aster, 410
Asteroidea, 171
Atherina, 332
Atherinidse, 332
Atriplex, 406
Aurelia, 135
Aviculidee, 219, 255
BADDERLOCKS, 385
Baits, 39
Balanophyllia, 152
Balanus, 6, 263
428
INDEX
Banded Cockle, 216
Barley Grasses, 395
Barnacles, 261
Bass, 838
Beach Fleas, 268
Beadlet, 142
Beard Grass, 397
Beet, 405
Bembidiidae, 301
Bembidium, 302
Beroe, 137
Bittersweet, 409
Bledius, 304
Blennies, 332
Blenniidse, 832
Blennius, 834
Blue Shark, 320
Bonnet Limpet, 240
Bopyrus, 267
Boring Pill -ball, 268
Boring Sponge, 124
Bottle-brush, 132
Brachelytra, 303
Brachiopods, 224
Brachyura, 271, 279, 285, 304
Branchiopoda, 265, 304
Brassica, 418
Bread-crumb Sponge, 123
Bristle-tails, 298
Brittle Starfish, 157, 159, 161
Broad-clawed Crab, 280
Brome Grasses, 895
Bromus, 395
Bryopsis, 354
Bryozoa, 188
Buccinidee, 248, 255
Buccinum, 248
Bugs, 297
Bulla, 236
Bull-heads, 385
Bull HUBS, 320
Bunodes, 150
Butter Gunnel, 334
Byssus, 43, 195
CABINETS, 89
Caecum, 245
Cakile, 420
Calamary, 252
Calcarea, 119
Calcareous Sponges, 119
Callianassa, 277
Calliblepharis, 367
Callionymns, 335
Callithamnion, 61, 358
Callophyllis, 365
Calpurna, 248
Calyptrssa, 241
Calyptrseidse, 240, 255
Canary Grass, 396
Cancer, 292
Carangidse, 338
Caranx, 888
Carapace, 272
Carchariidse, 320
Carcharius, 320
Carcinus, 291
Cardiadse, 214, 255
Cardium, 214
Carex, 398
Carrageen Moss, 61, 364
Caryophyllacese, 415, 425
Caryophyllia, 151
Catometopa, 286, 289
Cave-dweller, 147
Cell for live objects, 95
Cement for aquarium, 57
Centaury, 409
Centipedes, 305
Cephalophora, 191, 225, 255
Cephalopoda, 191, 250, 255
Ceramiacese, 858, 389
Ceramium, 61, 362
Cerati-solen, 207
Cerithiadse, 245, 255
Cerithium, 245
Cetacea, 340
Chaetopoda, 177
Chalina, 122
Chalk, 109
Chambered Mussel, 219
Channelled Wrack, 387
Charales, 343, 348
Chenopodiaceas, 405, 424
Chenopodium, 405
Chilognatha, 305
Chilopoda, 305
Chironomus, 301
Chiton, 237
Chitonidae, 237, 255
Chlorophyll, 74
Chlorospermese, 350, 389
Chondria, 874
Chondrus, 61, 364
Chorda, 885
Chordaria, 881
Chordariacese, 880, 390
Chrysaora, 186
Chylocladia, 364
Cillenium, 808
Circe, 212
Cirripedia, 261, 804
Cladophora, 852
INDEX
429
Cladostephus, 880
Cliffs, 2
Cliona, 124
Cloak Anemone, 154
Club-mosses, 345
Club Eush, 399
Clupea, 322
Clupeidse, 322
Coast — general characters of, 1
Cochlearia, 419
Cockles, 214
Cod, 327
Codium, 353
Ccelenterates, 127
Ccelopa, 800
Coleoptera, 801, 305
Columella, 226
Common sponges, 119
Compositffl, 410, 425
Cone Shells, 248
Conidse, 248, 255
Conifene, 347, 848
Confervaceae, 352, 389
Convolvulacese, 409, 425
Convolvulus, 409
Copepoda, 264, 304
Corallina, 61, 369
Corallinacese, 369, 390
Corallines — preserving 87
Corals, 151
Corbula, 206
Cord Grass, 398
Cordylecladia, 366
Cornish Sucker, 380
Corrosive sublimate, 76
Corystes, 286
Cottidse, 335
Cottus, 835
Cowries, 247
Crab-pots, 26
Crabs — as bait, 44
— preserving, 81
Crambe, 420
Crangon, 278
Crenella, 219
Crinoidea, 171
Crithmum, 411
Cruciferse, 417, 426
Crustacea, 257, 804
Crustaceans — preserving, 80
Cryptogams, 348, 847
Cryptonemiaceee, 863, 889
Ctenophora, 187
Cup Coral, 151
Cup-and-saucer Limpet, 240
Cutleria, 382
Cuttlefishes, 191, 251, 253
Cycadese, 847, 848
Cyclometopa, 286, 291
Cyclostomata, 807, 308
Cydippe, 137
Cynodon, 396
Cyperaceee, 398, 423
Cypreea, 248
Cyprseidae, 247, 256
Cyprina, 212
Cyprinidse, 212, 255
Cystoclonium, 865
Cystoseira, 887
Cythere, 266
Cytheria, 211
Cyttidse, 838
DACTYLOPTERID.'E, 835
Dahlia Wartlet, 143
Daisy Anemone, 146
Danica, 419
Dasya, 376
Daucus, 411
Dead Men's Fingers, 155
Decapoda (Decapods), 251, 255, 269,
271, 279, 804
Delesseria, 866, 3fi8
Delphinidse, 340
Demospongia, 119
Dendronotus, 235
Dentaliadse, 288, 255
Desmarestia, 385
Devon Cup-coral, 151
Dibranchiata, 251, 255
Dicotyledons, 347, 403, 424
Dictyosiphon, 888
Dictyotacese, 882, 890
Dillisk, 865
Diotis, 410
Diptera, 299, 805
Dissecting microscope, 91
Dissecting trough, 98
Dissection, 91
Dog-fishes, 818
Dog Whelks, 248
Dog Winkles, 248
Dog's-tooth Grass, 896
Dolichopodidse, 800
Dolphin, 840
Donax, 208
Doridse, 285
Doto, 285
Dragonet, 385
Dredge, 26
Dreissina, 219
Dromia, 282
Dulse, 61, 365
430
INDEX
Dumontia, 363
Dyschirius, 304
EAR-SHELL, 242
Echinocyamus, 168
Echinoderms, 157
Echinoidea, 171
Echinus, 168
Ectocarpaceae, 378, 390
Ectocarpus, 378
Edible Cockle, 214
Edible Crab, 292
Edible Mussel, 217
Edriophthalmata, 266, 304
Eel, 323
Elachista, 381
Elasmobranchii, 318
Eleagnacese, 403, 424
Eleocharis, 399
Elymus, 395
Elysia, 235
Emarginula, 242
Enteromorpha, 61, 355
Entomostraca, 266, 304
Equisetales, 345, 848
Erato, 248
Erodium, 414
Eryngium, 412
Eryngo, 412
Erysimum, 418
Erythrsea, 409
Establishment of port, 17
Eulima, 246
Euphorbia, 408
Euphorbiacese, 403, 424
Euplexoptera, 805
Exogense, 402
FATHEB LASHEK, 335
Feather Starfish, 159, 160
Ferns, 345
Fescue Grass, 396
Festuca, 396
Filicales, 345, 348
Fishes, 307
— classification, 818
— colour of, 313
— distribution, 817
— fins of, 311
— gills, 312
— preserving, 85
— scales of, 309
— skeleton, 314
— tails, 315
Fishing, 34
Fishing Frog, 336
Fissurella, 241
Fissurellidoe, 241, 255
Five-fingered Starfish, 157
Flat-fishes, 324
Floating Crab, 289
Flounders, 325
Flowering Plants — classification, 423
Flowers — fertilisation, 393
— preserving, 86
— structure, 346
Flustra, 188
Flying Gurnards, 335
Foraminifera, 106
Formaldehyde, 73
Fox-tail Grass, 398
Fragacea, 142
Fucaceae, 386, 390
Fucus, 386
Fungi, 344, 347
Furbelows, 384
Furcellaria, 364
Fusus, 249
GADIAD<E, 327
Gadus, 827
Galeomma, 214
Gamopetalae, 403
Gaper shell, 205
Gasteropoda, 232, 255
Gastrochsena, 203
Gastrochsenidse, 203, _!55
Gastrosteidae, 381
Gastrosteus, 331
Gebia, 276
Gelidiacese, 390
Gelidium, 367
Gem Pimplet, 150
Gentianacese, 409, 425
Geodephaga, 301
Gephyrea, 176
Geraniacese, 414, 425
Gibb's Crab, 289
Gigartina, 364
Glass-wort, 407
Glaucium, 420
Globigerina, 109
Globular Beroe, 1 37
Gloisiphonia, 364
Glumiferaa, 42o .
Glycerine, 73
Goadby's fluid, 73
Gobies, 334
Gobiidae, 334
Gobioesocidse, 330
Gobius, 334
INDEX
431
Golden Samphire, 411
Gonoplax, 290
Goosefoot, 405
Gracilada, 366
Gramineae, 392, 423
Grantia, 120
Grass-wracks, 400
Green Laver, 61
Green Pea-urchin, 168
Grey Mullet, 332
Griffithsia, 61, 360
Ground bait, 49
Gurnards, 335
Gymnosperms, 846, 348
HADDOCK, 327
Hake, 328
Halecium, 131
Halibut, 326
Halichondria, 123
Halidrys, 388
Haliotidse, 242, 255
Haliotis, 242
Halurus, 361
Hapalidiacese, 390
Hare's Ear, 418
Heart Cockle, 212
Heart Urchin, 16S
HelminthocladifB, 389
Henslow's Crab, 293
Henware, 885
HepaticiE, 344, 348
Hermit Crab, 44, 154, 280, 232
Herring, 322
Herring-bone Polype, 131
Hexactinellida, 119
Himanthalia, 887
Hippoglossus, 326
Hippochae, 403
Hog-louse, 268
Holostomata, 236, 255
Holothuroidea, 169
Homarus, 274
Honckenya, 416
Honeyware, 8N5
Hook-nose, 335
Hooks — fishing, 37
Hordeum, 395
Horned Poppy, 420
Horse Limpet, 240
Horse Mackerel, 338
Horse Mussels, 218
Horsetails, 345
Hydrozoa, 130
Hymenoptera, 305
Hypnsea, 365
IANTHINA, 242
Illecebraceae, 412, 425
Inachus, 289
Infusoria, 104, 112
Insecta (Insects), 257, 294, 305
Inula, 411
Iridsea, 364
Irish Moss, 61, 3G4
Isocardia, 212
Isopoda, 267, 304
Isotoina, 299
JANJA, 870
Jelly-fishes, 127, 134
John Dory, 838
Juncacese, 400, 423
Juncus, 400
KEYHOLE LIMPET, 241
Knappia, 397
Knot-grasses, 404
Knotted Wrack, 386
Koniga, 419
LABIAL PALPI, 197
Labridse, 329
Lactuca, 410
Lacuna, 244
Lady Crab, 292
Lamellibranchiata (Lamellibranchs),
191, 192, 255
Laminaria, 384
Laminariacese, 384, 890
Lampreys, 308
Lathyrus, 413
Laurencia, 370
LaurenciaceaB, 370, 390
Lavatera, 415
Laver, 61, 354
Leathesia, 881
Leda, 217
Leguminosae, 413, 425
Lemon Sole, 826
Lenses, 91
Lepadogaster, 330
Lepidoptera, 305
Lepturus, 895
Lesser Eue, 422
Leucosolenia, 121
Ligia, 268
Liliaceee, 402, 423
Limnoria, 268
Limpets, 43, 238
Ling, 328
432
INDEX
Lifchodes, 282
Litosiphon, 383
Little Lettuce, 410
Littorina, 243
Littorinidae, 244, 255
Liverworts, 344
Lobster pots, 26
Lobsters, 274
— preserving, 81
Loligo, 252
Lomentaria, 371
Long-armed Crab, 28(5
Lophius, 336
Lucinidse, 213, 255
Lugworm, 39, 178
Lutraria, 209
Lycopodiales, 345, 348
MACHILIS, 298
Mackerel, 337
Macrura, 271, 279, 304
Mactra, 209
Mactridse, 209, 255
Maia, 289
Malacostraca, 266, 304
Malvaceae, 415, 425
Mammals, 307, 339
Mantis Shrimps, 270
Marginella, 248
Marine aquarium, 51
Marsipobranchii, 308
Mat-grass, 396
Matricaria, 411
Matthiola, 418
Maugeria, 366
Meadow Grasses, 395
Meadow Rue, 421
Medusae, 134
Medusoids, 133
Melanospermeae, 350, 376, 290
Melobesia, 370
Merluccius, 828
Mesembryanthemum, 14-2
Mesenteries, 139
Mesogloia, 381
Methylated spirit, 72
Michaelmas Daisy, 410
Micralymma, 803
Milkwort, 416
Millepedes, 805
Modiola, 218
Molluscs, 190
— bivalve, 192
— classification, 255
Molva, 328
Monera, 110
Monocotyledons, 847, 391, 423
Montagu's Sucker, 831
Morone, 838
Moss Polyps, 188
Mosses, 344
Motella, 328
Mud-burrower, 277
Mugil, 832
Mugilidae, 832
Mullidse, 838
Mullus, 838
Mures, 249
Muricidse, 249, 255
Murlins, 385
Musci, 344, 348
Muscineae, 843, 344, 348
Museum, 88
Mussels, 42, 217
Mustelus, 320
Mya, 205
Myacidae, 205, 255
Myrionema, 381
Myriopoda, 257, 805
Myriotrichia, 879
Mytilidae, 217, 255
Mytilus, 217
NAIADACE*:, 400, 423
Nassa, 249
Natica, 246
Naticidae, 246, 255
Nautilidae, 255
Needle-fish, 329
Nephrops, 275
Nereis, 284
Nerophis, 329
Nesaea, 268
Nets, Collecting, 23
Neuroptera, 805
Nitophyllum, 367
Noctiluca, 114
Norway Lobster, 275
Notched Limpets, 242
Nucleobranchiata, 232, 255
Nucula, 217
Nudibranchiata, 233, 255
Nummulites, 108
Nummulitic limestone, 110
Nurse Dog, 320
Nut Crabs, 286
OBIONE, 405
Octopoda, 251, 255
Octopus, 251
Odonthalia, 875
INDEX
433
Odostomia, 246
CEpophilus, 297
Oleasters, 403
Oligochaeta, 177
Omar, 242
Oniscoda, 268
Opelet, 149
Operculum, 83, 227
Ophidiidue, 826
Ophinroidea, 171
Opisthobranchiata, 232, 255
Opossum Shrimps, 270
Oraches, 406
Orange- disked Anemone, 148
Orthoptera, 305
Osmerus, 321
Ostracoda, 265, 304
Ostrea, 221
Ostreidse, 221, 255
Outdoor work, 21
Ovulum, 248
Oxyptera, 416
Oxyrhyncha, 286
Oxystomata, 286
Oysters, 221
PADINA, 882
Pagurus, 282, 285
Pallial line, 193
Pansy, 417
Papaveracc-Be, 420, 426
Parasitic Anemone, 153
Patella, 239
Patellidse, 255
Paternoster, 48
Pea Crabs, 289
Pea Urchin, 168
Peachia, 145
Pearl Oysters, 219
Pecten, 222
Pectunculus, 216
Pennant's Crab, 286
Pepper Dulse, 370
Pericardium, 196
Peristome, 226
Periwinkle, 62, 243
Petaloidne, 423
Phalaris, 896
Phanerogams, 343, 346, 848
Phasianella, 243
Pheasant Shell, 243
Phleum, 897
Phocsena, 340
Pholadidoe, 199, 255
Pholadidea, 201
Pholas, 200
Phosphorescence, 18, 111
Phyllirhoidffl, 286
Phyllophora, 865
Piddocks, 200
Pilchard, 822
Pileopsis, 241
Pilota, 861
Pimplet, 160
Pinna, 221
Pinna Pea-crab, 290
Pinnotheres, 290
Pipe-fishes, 828
Plaice, 825
Plantaginaceae, 408, 424
Plantago, 408
Plants, classification, 343, 347
Plate-gilled Molluscs, 191
Pleuronectes, 826
Pleuronectidee, 824
Plocamium, 61, 866
Plumbaginaceee, 408, 424
Poa, 396
Podded Sea-oak, 388
Podophthalmata, 266, 269, 804
Pogge, 385
Pollack, 327
Polybius, 293
Polycarpon, 413
Polychsata, 177
Polygala, 416
Polygalacese, 416, 426
Polygon'acese, 404, 424
Polygonum, 404
Polypetalse, 408
Polypogon, 897
Polysiphonia, 372
Polystomata, 115
Polyzoa, 188
Porcelain Crab, 280
Porcellana, 280
Porifera, 115
Porphyra, 855
Porpoise, 889
Portland Spurge, 403
Portunus, 292
Prawn, 44, 278
Preservation of marine objects, 7i
Preservatives, 72
I Prickly Cockle, 215
I Prickly Salt-wort, 407
j Primulaceae, 424
| Prosobranchiata, 232, 236
j Protophyta, 348, 847
| Protoplasm, 102
Protoplasta, 104, 110
Protozoa, 102
— classification, 104
434
INDEX
Psammobia, 208
Pteropoda, 230, 255
Pulmonifera, 255
Punctaria, 883
Puncturella, 241
Purple Spurge, 403
Purple-tipped Urchin, 1C8
Purpura, 249
Pycnogonum, 293
Pyramidellidce, 246, 255
RADIATA, 140
Radiolaria, 104, 110
Ragworm, 40, 179
Raiidae, 318
Ranunculaceae, 422, 426
Raphanus, 420
Rays, 318
Red Mullets, 338
Red-specked Pimplet, 150
Reptilia, 307
Reseda, 417
Resedacese, 417, 426
Rhizocarpese, 345, 348
Rhizopods, 104
Rhizostoma, 186
Rhodomela, 372
Rhodomelacete, 372, 390
Rhodophyllis, 61
Rhodospermeae, 350, 355, 88
Rhodymenia, 61, 365, 867
Rhodymeniacese 865. 889
Rhombus, 326
Rhynchota, 297 805
Rissoa, 244
Rock-fishes, 46
Rocklings, 828
Rock-pools, 6, 31
Rosy Anemone, 149
Rosy Feather Star, 160
Rotifers, 189
Rushes, 400
Rytiphlsea, 875
SABELLA, 184
Saddle Oyster, 222
Sagartia, 146
Sagina, 416
Salicornia, 407
Salmo, 821
Salmon, 321
Salmon Dace, 339
Salmonidse, 321
Salsola, 407
Salt-wort, 407
Sand Eels, 326
Sandhoppers, 268
— preserving, 81
Sand Smelts, 332
Sandworm, 178
Saxicava, 203
Scalaria, 244
Scallops, 222
Scentless Mayweed, 4 1 1
Schizopoda, 804
Schizymenia, 61, 864
Scirpus, 399
Scomber, 837
ScornberidfB, 337
Scorpionidse, 804
Scorpion Spider-crab, 289
Scurvy Grass, 419
Scylliidae, 319
Scyllium 819
Sea angling, 84
— Aster, 410
— Buckthorn, 403
— Bullheads, 835
— Bream, 888
— Campion, 415
— Carrot, 411
— Cat, 334
— Cat's-tail Grass, 397
— Cucumbers, 169
- Devil, 836
- Eggs, 165
preserving, 79
— Girdles, 884
— Grass, 61, 858, 400
— Hard-grass, 895
— Holly, 412
— Kale, 420
— Lavender, 409
— Lemons, 233
— Lettuce, 61
— Loach, 328
— Lyme-grass, 895
— Mallow, 416
— Mat, 188
— Meadow Grass, 896
— Mouse, 179
— Pearl-wort, 416
— Perch, 888
— Pill-ball, 268
— Pink, 408
— Purslane, 406, 416
— Radish, 420
— Reed, 896
— Rocket, 420
— Rushes, 400
— Salt, 17, 59
— Saltness of, 17
INDEX
435
Sea Samphire, 411
— Sand-wort, 415
— Sedge, 898
— Slater, 268
— Slugs, 238
— Snails, 831
— Spurge. 408
— Squirts, 188
— Stock, 418
— Stork's-bill, 414
— Urchins, 157, 165
preserving, 79
shell of, 166
— teeth, 167
— water, artificial, 59
composition, 59
— • weeds, 348
— — classification, 889
preserving, 86
— Wormwood, 410
Seaside Arrow Grass, 401
— Bindweed, 409
— Cottonweed, 410
— Feverfew, 411
— Grasses, 392
— Knot Grass, 404
— Plantain, 408
— plants, 891
classification, 423
Section cutting, 96
Sedges, 398
Selaginellales,«345, 848
Sepia, 253
Sepiadse, 253, 255
Sepiola, 252
Serpula, 185
Serranidae, 838
Serrated Pill-ball, 268
Serrated Wrack, 386
Sertularia, 128
Sessile-eyed crustaceans, 266
Shanny, 888
Sharks, 818
Shells, preserving, 88
Shore Crab, 261, 291
— Spider, 293
Shrimps, 278
— preserving, 81
Shrubby Mignonette, 417
Silene, 415
Silicia, 122
Siphonaceae, 853, 889
Siphonida, 198, 255
Siphonostomata, 236, 247, 255
Six-rayed Sponges, 119
Skates, 818
Slender-beaked Crab, 289
Sloke, 61, 355
Smelt, 321
Smooth Hound, 320
Snoods, 87
Solanacese, 409, 424
Solanum, 409
Soldier Crab, 280
Sole, 826
Solea, 326
Solecurtus, 207
SolenidBe, 255
Sparidse, 838
Spartina, 897
Sparus, 338
Spergularia, 415
Sphacelaria, 279
Sphaerococcoidese, 866, 390
Sphaerococcus, 866
Sphajroma, 268
Spicules, 118
Spider Crabs, 288
Spike Kush, 399
Spiny-finned fishes, 829
Spirorbis, 187
Sponges, 115
Spongiocarpese, 890
Spoon Worms, 176
Sporochnacese, 885, 890
Sporochnus, 385
Spotted Dogfish, 320
Spotted Hog-louse, 268
Spout Shell, 245
Sprats, 828
Spring-tails, 299
Spurges, 408
Spyridia, 363
Spyridiaceae, 368, 889
Squamariae, 890
Squid, 252
Squirt Worms, 176
Stalk-eyed crustaceans, 266, 209
Starfishes, 157
— preserving, 79
Stargazers, 386
Statice, 408
Stenorhynchus, 289
Sticklebacks. 331
Stilophora, 383
Sting Bull, 887
Sting Fish, 885
Stock, 418
Stomopoda, 269, 804
Stone Crab, 280
Strawberry Beadlet, 142
Sucker Fishes, 380
Sweet Alyssum, 419
Swimming Crab, 293
486
INDEX
Sycon, 121
Syngnathidte, 328
Syngnathus, 329
TAMABISCACE^:, 418, 425
Tamarisk, 413
Tangles, 384
Tapes, 211
Tealia, 148
Tectibranchiata, 238, 255
Tectibranchs, 286
Teleostomi, 318, 820
Tellina, 208
Tellinidse, 207, 255
Terebella, 181
Terebratulina, 225
Teredo, 201
Tetrabranchiata, 255
Thalictrum, 421
Thallophytes, 343, 344, 347
Trichoptera, 305
Thoniback Crab, 289
Thracia, 204
Thrift, 408
Thuiaria, 132
Thysanoptera, 298, 305
Tides, 9
Tooth shells, 238
Top shells, 243
Trachinidfg, 336
Trachinus, 337
Treacle Mustard, 418
Tree Mallow, 415
Trefoil, 413
Trifolium, 413
Triglochin, 401
Triopa, 285
Tritonia, 285
Tritoniadee, 235
Trivia, 248
Trochus, 248
Trumpet Anemone, 11 1
Tubularia, 182
Tunicates, 188
Turbellaria, 175
Turbinidse, 248, 255
Turbot, 326
Turkey-feather Laver, 382
Turret shells, 245
Turritella, 244
TurritellidfB, 244, 255
Twin-bladder Wrack, 387
Two-spotted Sucker, 831
ULVA, 61, 354
Ulvaceae, 389, 354
Umbelliferffi, 411, 425
Umbilicus, 226
Umbo, 193
VASCULAB CRYPTOGAMS, 343
Velutina, 247
Velvet Crab, 292
Veneridse, 210, 255
Venus, 210
Vermes, 172
Vertebrates, 806
Vetch, 418
Vicia, 418
Viola, 417
Violacese, 417, 426
Violet Fiddler, 292
WATER PEBNS, 845
Weavers, 386
Wedge shells, 208
Whales, 340
Wheel animals, 189
Whelks, 248
Whirl Worms, 175
Whistle Pish, 328
Whitebait, 323
White Salmon, 889
Whiting, 827
Wild Cabbage, 418
Wild Celery, 412
Wing shells, 219
Wolf Fish, 834
Woody Nightshade, 409
Worms, 172
— parasitic, 174
Worm Pipe-fish, 329
Wrangeliacese, 889
Wrasses, 829
XANTHO, 292
Xylophaga, 201
YELLOW POPPY, 420
ZEUS, 338
Zoantharia, 138
Zoarces, 833
Zonaria, 882
Zostera, 353, 400
Printed in England at THE BAT,LANTYNE PRESS
SPOTTISWOODE, BALLANTYNE & Co. LTD.
Colchester. London 5 Eton
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