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0010GY 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 


PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


PILCHARD  FISHING  ON  THE  CORNISH  COAST. 


Frontispiece  1. 


(See  pi»g«  352. 


8EA-WEED8. 

The  Blood-coloured  Deleueria.  Z.    The  Spotted  Nitophyllum.  3.    The  Scarlet  Plocamiu 

t.  The  Kuscu»-leaved  Deleuena.       5.  Perforated  Ulva  of  the  North  Pacific. 


(See  Chapters  7  anil  -  ) 


MARITIME  FLOWERS. 

1.  The  Yellow  Horned  Poppy.      2.  The  Scarlet  Horned  Poppy.       3.  The  Sea-side  Pea.      4.  The  Sea-side  Convolvulus. 
5.  The  Sea  Lavender.       6.  The  Sea  Buckthorn.      7.  The  Sea  Rocket.       8.  The  Sea  Chickweed.    9.  The  Sea  Wrack-grass 

_        .     .  See  Chapters  9  and  10.) 

Frontispiece  2. 


SEASIDE  DIVINITY 


BY    THE 


EEY.    EOBEET    W.    FKASER,    M.A. 

AUTHOB  OF 
'  SCIENTIFIC    WANDBBINGS  ;  "      "  SACKED    BITES    OP   ANCIENT    ISRAEL  ; 

"DAY  AND  NIGHT;"  "LEAVES  OP  THE  TEES  OP  LIFE;" 
"ELEMENTS  OP  PHYSICAL  SCIENCE;" 

"  HEAD  AND  HAND  ;"    ETC. 


WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS  BY 

HENRY  NOEL  HUMPHREYS,  J.  WOLF,  G.  H.  ANDREWS,  T.  W.  WOOD, 
AND  J.  B.  ZWECKER 

ENGRAVED  BY  DALZIEL  BROTHERS 


LONDON:    JAMES    HOQa   AND    SONS 

MDCCCLXI 


[The  Eight  of  Translation  is  reserved] 


BIOLOGY 
UBRARf 


6IOLO€T 

UBRAWf 


PREFACE. 


SOME  years  ago  the  Author,  at  the  desire  of  the 
editor  of  an  eminent  periodical,  contributed  a 
short  series  of  papers  on  one  of  the  branches  of 
the  Natural  History  of  the  Sea-shore.  The  ex- 
tremely favourable  reception  which  those  contri- 
butions had  the  honour  to  meet  with  from  persons 
qualified  to  appreciate  them,  has  encouraged  him 
to  present  the  following  work  to  the  Public. 

Its  nature  and  object  are  perhaps  sufficiently 
indicated  by  its  title  of  " Seaside  Divinity;"  it 
may  be  added,  however,  that  the  work  has  not 
been  written  with  the  view  of  teaching  geology, 
botany,  or  natural  history,  but  of  directing  the 
reader's  attention  to  the  many  very  striking  illus- 
trations of  great  and  impressive  truths  which 
those  departments  of  science  exhibit  in  the  phe- 
nomena and  productions  of  the  sea-shore. 

The  studies  to  which  the  following  chapters 
refer  are  calculated  in  no  small  degree  to  enhance 
the  charms  of  a  visit  to  the  sea-shore,  to  yield 

A  3 


IV  PREFACE. 

recreation  amidst  graver  toils,  and  to  minister  to 
intellectual  and  moral  soundness,  while  the  scenes 
in  which  they  are  pursued  contribute  to  the  in- 
crease of  bodily  health  and  vigour.  It  is  the 
Author's  earnest  hope  that  the  volume  he  now 
submits  to  the  reader's  perusal  may  conduce  in 
some  measure  to  such  important  results. 

June,  1861. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTEK  I. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Charms  of  the  Sea- shore. —  Classic  and  Oriental  Myths  relating 
to  the  Sea.  —  Various  Studies  suited  to  the  Seaside.  —  What 
is  requisite  for  such  Studies  — an  Illustration  from  Botany.  — 
Advantages  of  such  Pursuits Page  3 


CHAP.  II. 

MARITIME   GEOLOGY. 

Extent,  Character,  Variety  of  Aspect  of  our  Sea-shores,  and 
their  Relation  to  Geological  Structure.  —  General  View  of 
Geology. — Geological -Tour  from  Cornwall  and  Devonshire 
along  the  Coasts  of  England  and  Scotland,  exhibiting  the 
General  Features  of  our  Sea-shores  as  regards  their  Struc- 
ture .  15 


CHAP.  III. 

CHANGES   IN-  OUB   SEA-SHORE. 

Mutations  of  the  Earth's  Surface  indicated  by  Geology. — 
General  View  of  their  Causes.  — Alterationstwhich  from  Age 
to  Age  have  occurred  in  various  Parts  of  the  British  and  Irish 
Coasts,  and  their  Causes.  —  Analogous  Changes  in  other  Parts 
of  the  World  ,  33 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

CHAP.  IV. 

FOSSILS   OF   THE   SEA-SHORE. 

General  Views. — Fossils  of  the  Palaeozoic,  the  Secondary  and 
the  Tertiary  Epochs,  and  various  considerations  regarding 
them Page  55 

CHAP.  V. 

THE   OCEAN. 

Aspect  of  the  Ocean. — Sunrise  and  Sunset. — Extent. — Rela- 
tion to  Rivers  and  Lakes. — Medium  of  Intercourse.  —  Depth. 
—  Colour.  —  Saltness.  —  Circulation  in  the  Ocean.  —  Coral 
Reefe,  &c .81 

CHAP.  VI. 

WINDS   AND   TIDES. 

Interest  of  the  Subject. — Air  and  Water,  Ocean  and  Atmo- 
sphere. —  Theory  of  the  Tides.  —  Tidal  Phenomena.  —  Rise 
of  Tide  in  various  parts  of  the  Coast  —  The  Bore.  —  Currents 
of  the  Sea.  —  The  Winds  .  107 


CHAP.  VII. 

MARINE   VEGETATION. 

Analogy  between  Marine  and  Terrestrial  Vegetation. —  Variety 
of  the  Algae.  —  Marine  Botany,  its  Classification.  —  Specimens 
of  the  three  Subdivisions  in  which  our  Sea- weeds  are  compre- 
hended .  .  125 


CHAP.  VIII. 

PHYSIOLOGY   OF   MARINE   PLANTS. 

Claims  which  they  have  on  our  Attention.  — Fructification.  — 
Peculiarity  «f  their  Structure.  —  Reproduction.  —  Their  re- 
markable Structure  as  related  to  the  Element  they  exist  in.  — 
Artificial  Uses  of  Sea-weeds.  —  Their  Relation  to  Marine 
Animals,  &c 137 


CONTENTS.  IX 

CHAP.  IX. 

MABIT1ME   PLANTS. 

Seaside  Flowers. — Interest  attached  to  them. —  Vegetation  of 
Seaside  less  luxuriant  than  in  Inland  Places.  —  Seaside 
Grasses.  —  Seaside  flowering  Plants.  —  Examples  of  various 
Species  .  Page  151 

CHAP.  X. 

PHYSIOLOGY   OF  MABITIME  PLANTS. 

Adaptation  of  their  Structure  to  their  Places  of  Abode. — Special 
Instances  of  this  Adaptation.  — Analogy  between  Marine  and 
Maritime  Plants. — Functions  of  Boots. — Adaptation  of  Leaves 
to  their  Office,  &c 171 

CHAP.  XL 

CLASSIFICATION. 

Number  and  Variety  of  Organic  Forms. — Generalisation. — 
Classification  of  the  Animal  Kingdom  .  .  .  .183 

CHAP.  XII. 

BADIATA,    OB  HAYED   ANIMALS ZOOPHYTES. 

Various  Species  of  Zoophytes.  —  Tubularia.  —  Sertularia.  — 
Sea-pen. —  Sea-fan.  —  Actiniae,  "  Sea  Anemones,"  &c.  .  191 

CHAP.  XIIJ. 

BAYED   ANIMALS  —  SEA-NETTLES. 

Structure  and  Organisation.  —  Variety  of  Species.  —  Differences 
in  Form,  Colour,  Modes  of  Locomotion.  —  Luminous  Proper- 
ties.— Eeproduction,  &c 203 

CHAP.  XIV. 

BAYED   ANIMALS STAB-FISHES. 

Crinoidese  of  Primaeval  Seas.  —  Different  Families  of  the  Star- 
fishes— Their  Structure,  &c.  —  Ophiuridae. — Feather-star.  — 
!    Sun-star.  —Brittle-star,  &c 219 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAP.  XV. 

BAYED   ANIMALS  —  SEA-URCHINS. 

Antiquity  of  the  Race.  —  Egg-urchin.  —  Complexity  of  Struc- 
ture.— Method  of  Enlargement. —  Mechanism  of  Spines,  of 
Mouth,  &c Page  231 

CHAP.  XVI. 

ARTICULATA,    OB   JOINTED   ANIMALS  —  MARINE   "WORMS,    ETC. 

Their  Structure.  —  Tubicolse  and  Serpulae,  &c. — Nereis. — 
Sea-mouse 239 

CHAP.  XVIL 

ARTICULATA,    OB  JOINTED   ANIMALS  —  CIRRIPEDA. 

"  Curl-footed  "  Animals. — Balanus  or  Acorn-shelL  — Barnacles. 
—  Pentalismus  anatifera. — Popular  Error. — Young  of  the 
Barnacle  Shell,  &c 249 

CHAP,  xvm 

ARTICULATA —  CRABS. 

Structure.  — Spider-Crab  and  various  other  Species.  — Pagurus : 
Habits  and  Structure,  &c.  —  Zoea 257 

CHAP.  XIX. 

ARTICULATA  —  LOBSTERS,   ETC. 

The  Shrimp.  —  The  common  Lobster.  —  Various  Species.  — 
Structure  and  Habits,  &t. 273 

CHAP.  XX. 

MOLLUSCA,    OR  SOFT-BODIED   ANIMALS  —  BIVALVES. 

Molluscs. —  Bivalves. — Structure  and  Habits  of  various  Spe- 
cies.— The  common  Cockle,  &c 283 

CHAP.  XXI. 

MOLLUSCA  —  WHELKS. 

The  Whelk  and  its  Varieties.  —  Structure  and  Instincts,  &c.  — 
The  Limpet. — Structure,  &c 293 


CONTENTS.  XI 

CHAP.  XXII. 

MOLLTJSCA CUTTLE-FISH. 

Cuttle  Fish:  its  Habits  and  Structure. — Varieties  of  Species. 

Page  305 

CHAP.  XXIII. 

VERTEBRATA  —  FISHES. 

Form  of  Fishes :  its  Adaptation.— External  Covering.— Colours. 
— Locomotive  Powers.  —  Kespiration,  &c.  .  .  .317 

CHAP.  XXIV. 

VERTEBRATA  —  FISHES. 

Fishes:  Instances  of  remarkable  Form,  Structure,  and  In- 
stincts. — The  Lump-Sucker.  —  The  Lamprey. —  The  Stickle- 
back. — Pipe-Fishes.  —  The  Fishing-Frog.—  Shark.  —  Eays, 
&c .329 

CHAP.  XXV. 

VERTEBRATA FISHES. 

Edible  Fishes :  The  Cod  Family.— Flat  Fish.— The  Herring  and 
Pilchard  Family.— Pilchard  Fishing  .  .  .  .345 

CHAP.  XXVI. 

VERTEBRATA  —  MARITIME   BIRDS. 

Swimming  and  Wading  Birds.— The  Curlew.  — The  Sand- 
piper. —  Divers.  —  Grebes.  —  The  Grannet  :  its  remarkable 
Structure 359 

CHAP.  XXVII. 

VERTEBRATA SEASIDE   MAMMALIA. 

The  Cetacea,  or  Whale  Tribe.  —The  Dolphin.— The  Sea  Uni- 
corn.— The  common  Whale:  remarkable  Adaptations  of 
Structure,  &c.  — The  Seal  Family:  Form  and  Habits. — 
Adaptations  of  Structure.  —  Conclusion  .  .  .  369 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PILCHARD  FISHING  ON  THE  CORNISH  COAST      .      .   Frontispiece  l 
From  a  Drawing  by  O.  H.  Andrews. 

SEA-WEEDS  :  —  1.  The  Blood-coloured  Delesseria ;  2.  The  Spotted  Ni- 
tophyllum ;  3.  The  Scarlet  Plocamium ;  4.  The  Ruscus-leaved  Deles- 
seria; 6.  Perforated  Ulva  of  the  North  Pacific.  —  MARITIME 
FLOWERS:  —  1.  The  Yellow  Horned  Poppy;  2.  The  Scarlet  Horned 
Poppy ;  3.  The  Seaside  Pea ;  4.  The  Seaside  Convolvulus  5  5.  The 
Sea  Lavender  ;  6.  The  Sea  Buckthorn;  7.  The  Sea  Rocket;  8.  The 
Sea  Chickweed ;  9.  The  Sea  Wrack-grass  .  .  .  Frontispiece  2 

From  Drawings  by  Henry  Noel  Humphreys. 

FOSSILS  OF  THE  SEA-SHOEE:— 1,2.  Chain  Coral;  3.  Mushroom  Coral ; 
4.  The  Fossil  Flying-Fish;  5.  A  Fossil  Fish  of  Permian  Formation  ; 
6.  Fossil  Fish  of  the  Devonian  Formation ;  7.  The  Berry -bone  Fossil 
Fish  ;  8.  A  Fossil  Bat;  9.  The  Great-headed  Fossil  Lizard;  10.  A 
Trilobite ;  11.  A  Small  Trilobite ;  12.  The  Lily  Encrinite  Page  66 
From  Drawings  by  Henry  Noel  Humphreys. 

BATED  ANIMALS  :  —  1.  The  Sand  Star ;  2.  The  Brittle  Star;  3.  Gem- 
med Sea- Anemone ;  4.  The  Medusa  Sea- Anemone ;  5.  A  Jelly  Fish ; 
6.  The  Sea  Fan ;  7.  The  Sea  Pen ;  8.  The  Sea  Urchin     ...    191 
From  Drawings  by  Henry  Noel  Humphreys. 

JOINTED   ANIMALS  —  SOFT-BODIED  ANIMALS  :  — Lobster   Fishing; 
Shrimping;  Dredging  for  Oysters;  The  Hermit  Crab;   The  Spider 
Crab ;  The  Cockle ;  The  Cuttle-Fish  ;  Eggs  of  the  Cuttle-Fish     .    239 
From  Drawings  by  O.  H.  Andrews  and  T.  W.  Wood. 

FISHES  :— Cod  Fishing ;  Trawling  for  Flat  Fish ;  Remarkable  Fishes : 
1.  The  Lamprey ;  2.  The  Lump  Fisher  or  Lump  Sucker ;  3.  Fifteen- 
spined  Stickleback  ;  4.  Fishing  Frog,  or  Frog  Angler ;  5.  The  Pipe 

Fish 317 

From  Drawings  by  O.  H.  Andrews  and  T.  W.  Wood. 

MARITIME  BIRDS  :  —  The  Bass  Rock ;  Terns,  or  Sea  Swallows ;  Puffins ; 
The  Sheldrake :  The  Smew ;  The  Gannet  (adult  and  young) ;  The 

Diver 369 

From  a  Drawing  by  J.  Wolf. 

SEASIDE  MAMMALIA  :  —  Seal  Fishing  in  Greenland ;  The  Seal  Family : 
1.  The  Common  Seal ;  2.  The  Grey  Seal ;  3.  The  Walrus ;  4.  The  Harp 

Seal 369 

From  a  Drawing  by  J.  B.  Zwecker. 


INTRODUCTION 


SEASIDE    DIVINITY, 


CHAPTER    I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Charms  of  the  Sea-shore.  —  Classic  and  Oriental  Myths  relat- 
ing to  the  Sea.  —  Various  Studies  suited  to  the  Seaside.  — 
What  is  requisite  for  such  Studies,  —  an  Illustration  from 
Botany.  — Advantages  of  such  Pursuits. 

IT  is  the  month  of  June.  The  keen  and  withering 
blasts  of  Eurus,  which  blow  with  such  direful  per- 
tinacity in  April  and  May,  are  at  last  superseded 
by  the  soft  west  winds,  fraught  with  health  and 
oxygen  from  the  luxuriant  vegetation  of  the 
tropical  lands  where  they  have  their  birth.  It 
must  have  been  in  this  same  month — the  love- 
liest of  the  year — that  "holy  George  Herbert" 
indited  those  lines  so  dear  to  quaint  old  Isaac 
Walton:  — 

"  Sweet  day,  so  calm,  so  pure,  so  bright, 
The  bridal  of  the  earth  and  sky ! " 

In  no  other  month  does  Nature  exhibit  so  many 
and  such  varied  evidences  of  that  august  bridal 
of  which  the  poet  so  sweetly  sings.  Heaven, 
with  its  soft  breezes  and  gentle  showers  and 
genial  sunshine,  is  united  with  the  smiling  Earth ; 


4  SEASIDE  DIVINITY. 

and  the  happy  bride  has  decked  herself  in  her 
verdant  garniture,  and  thousands  of  flowers  rich 
in  colour  and  perfume,  and  multitudes  of  living 
beings  born  of  this  union  have  sprung  into  joyous 
existence.  Woods,  meadows,  rivers,  hills,  valleys, 
all  vie  with  each  other  in  presenting  their  vari- 
ous charms  to  the  delighted  wayfarer ;  but  no 
scenes  can  advance  stronger  claims  on  his  atten- 
tion at  this  season  than  the  sea-shore. 

Let  us  wander  along  the  beach.  On  one  hand 
is  the  sea:  its  surface  is  rippled  by  the  fresh 
breeze;  the  tide  is  gently  encroaching  on  the 
sands;  the  wavelets  falling  in  quick  succession, 
utter  their  murmurs  in  a  monotone  not  unmu- 
sical to  a  poet's  ear.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
are  rocks  whose  bases  have  for  thousands  of  years 
resisted  the  storms  of  winter,  and  whose  summits 
are  crowned  with  trees,  and  flowers,  and  waving 
ferns,  and  from  a  rift  in  which  falls  a  clear 
sparkling  runnel,  that,  after  wandering  through 
woods  and  fields,  at  length  leaps  over  the  rock 
and  loses  itself  in  the  sea.  Then,  high  overhead, 
the  sky  is  of  that  same  deep  blue  which  we  see 
reflected  in  the  waters  beneath ;  and  here  and 
there  far  aloft  are  clouds  of  that  kind  which 
meteorologists  tell  us  never  betoken  rain,  and 
which,  as  the  rays  of  the  sun  light  them  up,  seem 
lovely  enough  to  realise  the  poet's  dream,  that 

"  Some  angels  in  their  upward  flight 
Had  left  their  mantles  floating  in  mid  air ;" 

and  the  no  less  poetical  fancy  of  the  philosopher, 


THE  SEA-SHORE.  5 

that  such  radiant  forms  might  be  the  vehicles  on 
which  denizens  of  some  of  the  planetary  worlds 
might  pass  from  place  to  place  through  the  fields 
of  ether.  Then  far  at  sea  on  the  verge  of  the 
horizon  there  are  a  few  ships,  with  only  a  speck 
of  snowy  canvas  visible,  for  the  convex  waters 
interpose  between  their  hulls  and  the  spectator's 
eye ;  while  only  a  few  hundred  yards  off,  a  flock 
of  gulls  are  floating  on  the  waves,  screaming  to 
each  other  as  if  discussing  the  probabilities  of  a 
contemplated  attack  on  the  next  shoal  of  small 
fry  that  make  their  appearance  near  the  surface. 
None  but  very  ordinary  observers  can  resist  the 
attractions  which  heaven,  and  earth,  and  sea 
thus  unite  in  presenting  to  the  visitor  of  the  sea- 
shore ;  and  so,  without  any  disparagement  to  the 
special  charms  of  purely  rural  scenes,  we  reiterate 
our  conviction  that  in  this  lovely  month  of  June 
no  charms  of  natural  scenery  exceed  those  of  our 
sea-shores. 

Let  us  seat  ourselves  beneath  the  grateful 
shadow  of  this  rock,  and  no  longer  resist  the  spirit 
of  contemplation  which  whispers  to  us  in  these 
whispering  waves. 

What  an  inexhaustible  fund  of  strange  and 
marvellous  knowledge  does  not  that  sea  contain ! 
What  mysteries  amid  its  depths  !  What  wonders 
in  the  structure  and  habits  of  its  denizens !  In 
its  tides  and  currents  how  much  that  is  interesting 
and  marvellous !  In  its  storms  and  calms  how 
much  that  is  grand  and  sublime !  In  all  that 
pertains  to  the  great  deep  how  striking  and  how 

B  3 


6  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

solemn  the  lessons  uttered  as  to  Creative  wisdom, 
and  power,  and  foresight,  bidding  us 

"own 

The  Hand  Almighty  who  its  channelled  bed 
Immeasurable  sunk,  and  poured  abroad, 
Fenced  with  eternal  mounds,  the  fluid  sphere ! " 

Looking  upon  the  sea  on  a  day  so  lovely  as  this, 
one  ceases  to  marvel  at  those  wild  and  wayward 
fancies  of  Greek  and  Oriental  mythology  which 
loved  to  people  the  realms  of  ocean  with  nymphs 
and  deities  endowed  with  natures  suited  to  the 
element  in  which  they  were  presumed  to  exist. 
How  favourable  to  the  birth  and  development  of 
such  charming  myths  must  have  been  the  shores 
of  Baiae,  or  the  isles  that  stud  the  blue  Egean ! 
With  cloudless  azure  above,  and  serene  waters 
below,  and  all  nature  breathing  grace  and  beauty, 
how  natural  the  idea  that  those  bright  waters  were 
the  abode  of  the  Nereides,  marine  damsels,  ever 
blooming  in  youth  and  loveliness,  and  who  by  the 
favoured  few  might  sometimes  be  seen  disporting 
on  the  backs  of  dolphins,  or  frequenting,  on  the 
sea-shore,  caves  and  grottoes,  adorned  with  flowers 
and  sea-shells !  How  natural  too,  and  how  credible 
to  a  fervid  imagination,  the  story  of  Ceyx  and 
Halcyone,  told  in  strains  of  such  tender  melan- 
choly by  Ovid,  in  which  the  faithful  pair  are 
reunited  in  the  form  of  birds  dear  to  the  sea- 
nymphs,  and  which  make  their  nests  on  the  sea 
foam  when  winds  and  waters  are  at  rest !  The 
desire  one  feels  to  be  able  to  take  up  one's  abode 
beneath  these  mysterious  waves  would  itself  render 


OCEAN   MYTHS.  7 

perfectly  credible  in  Classic  times  the  history  of 
the  Boeotian  fisherman  who,  perceiving  that  the 
fish  he  had  caught  on  being  thrown  upon  the  grass 
were  endowed  with  new  life  and  enabled  to  regain 
their  native  element,  imitated  their  example,  and 
tasting  the  miraculous  herbage,  became  forthwith 
a  denizen  of  the  deep. 

How  charming  would  it  be  if,  as  we  are  here 
seated  contemplating  those  waves,  we  should  sud- 
denly find  the  Arabian  myth  of  Abdallah  of  the 
Sea  realised!  How  gladly  should  we  accept  a 
polite  invitation  to  visit  the  caves  of  the  ocean, 
protected  by  the  enchanted  unguent  from  all 
inconvenience  which  a  descent  beneath  the  waters 
would  otherwise  cause  to  our  organs  of  respiration  ! 
How  pleasant  is  this  warm  weather  to  visit  in 
safety  those  crystal  depths,  where  the  finny  tribes 
lead  "  their  cold  sweet  silver  life,  wrapped  in  round 
waves  !  "  Beneath  the  liquid  crystal  would  await 
us  scenes  more  wonderful  than  the  fairy  dreams 
of  childhood. 

It  is  hopeless,  however,  to  await  a  visit  from 
Abdallah ;  for  that  remarkable  personage  dwells, 
it  is  more  than  probable,  only  beneath  those 
bright  waves  which  bathe  the  shores  of  Yemen, 
and  so  cannot  be  expected  to  emerge  from  our 
hyperborean  waters.  We  have  nothing  for  it, 
therefore,  but  to  content  ourselves  with  what  our 
sea-shores  themselves  present  us. 

Happily  no  preternatural  aid  or  direction  is 
required  to  enable  us  to  perceive  the  objects  with 
which  the  sea-shores  furnish  us.  They  are  many 

B  4 


8  SEASIDE  DIVINITY. 

and  various.  They  all  belong  more  or  less  to 
Natural  History  in  its  more  comprehensive  accep- 
tation ;  and  Natural  History  is  itself  a  charming 
study. 

Then  we  have  to  consider  the  aspect,  the 
character,  and  the  structure  of  our  sea-shores ;  the 
ocean  itself,  with  its  special  laws  and  history; 
marine  vegetation  and  littoral  plants  ;  and  a  great 
variety  of  living  beings  which  either  make  their 
abode  continually  on  our  shores,  or  only  visit  them 
from  time  to  time.  Such  objects,  so  many  and  so 
various,  invest  our  sea-shores  with  the  greatest 
novelty;  for  the  most  diligent  and  industrious 
observer  cannot  with  all  his  labour  exhaust  the 
store  even  of  the  microscopic  objects  alone  which 
the  sea-beach  affords.  Be  it  observed,  however, 
that  to  reap  the  full  advantage  which  such  studies 
are  capable  of  conferring,  some  particular  know- 
ledge is  requisite,  as  well  as  diligence  and  at- 
tention. 

A  very  simple  illustration  will  be  sufficient  to 
explain  this.  Let  us  suppose,  for  example,  the 
case  of  a  person  entirely  ignorant  of  the  botany 
of  field  flowers.  He  never  heard  of  the  artificial 
system  of  Linnaeus,  or  the  natural  system  of 
Cuvier.,  He  has  no  more  acquaintance  with  one 
flower  than  another,  as  regards  its  structure,  its 
functions,  its  habits,  or  its  qualities.  To  such  an 
individual  a  ramble  through  the  fields  or  woods  in 
spring  presents  little  more  than  the  fact,  that  the 
hedge-rows,  the  meadows,  and  the  trees  are  again 
assuming  their  verdant  garniture,  and  that,  after 


SPECIAL  KNOWLEDGE  —  ITS  USE.  9 

the  long  sleep  of  winter,  nature  is  once  more 
exhibiting  a  cheerful  aspect.  The  want  of  special 
and  particular  acquaintance  with  the  science  of 
botany  deprives  him  of  numberless  pleasing 
impressions,  which  would  otherwise  be  made  upon 
his  mind  by  the  reappearance  of  those  objects  in 
the  vegetable  kingdom  to  which  he  had  given 
attention  in  some  preceding  season. 

"  A  primrose  by  the  river's  brim 
A  yellow  primrose  is  to  him, 
And  it  is  nothing  more." 

The  Book  of  Nature  has  opened  its  pages  before 
his  eyes;  those  pages  are  distinctly  printed  and 
gloriously  illustrated ;  but  to  him  they  are  in  a 
great  measure  written  in  an  unknown  language, 
and  the  characters  fail  to  awaken  in  him  more 
than  a  few  vague  and  indefinite  ideas. 

How  different  is  the  case  of  the  person  who  is 
even  but  imperfectly  acquainted  with  botany  I 
To  him  a  solitary  ramble  among  the  green  lanes 
and  shadowy  woods  offers  an  inexhaustible  fund 
of  cheerful,  healthful,  elevating  contemplation. 
He  can  read  the  book  that  is  opened  before  him, 
and  comprehend  much  of  its  language.  The 
simplest  flower  that  springs  up  beneath  the  haw- 
thorn hedge  suggests  to  him  a  train  of  ideas.  Every 
leaf  that  issues  from  nature's  press  is  in  his  view 
like  the  Prophet's  roll,  printed  within  and  without 
in  characters  full  of  the  sublimest  significance; 
every  blade  of  grass  is  vocal  to  him,  and, 
awakening  the  echoes  of  memory,  renews  past 


10  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

impressions  and  past  enjoyments.  To  him  there 
are  sermons  not  only  in  trees,  but  in  the  humblest 
flower  beneath  his  feet;  in  the  moss  that  crowns 
the  mouldering  wall,  the  little  fern  that  grows  on 
its  sides,  or  the  various  coloured  lichens  that 
give  their  peculiar  tints  to  the  stones  that 
form  it. 

These  remarks  are  not  less  applicable  to  a 
ramble  by  the  sea-shore  than  to  a  walk  among 
the  rustic  places  of  the  inland  country.  In  both 
instances  some  special  and  particular  knowledge 
is  essential  to  the  pleasure  and  enjoyment  of  the 
observer;  and  with  such  particular  acquirement 
the  wanderer  by  the  seaside  may  convert  even  the 
murmur  of  the  ocean  into  an  articulate  voice,  and 
understand  much  of  what  the  "wild  waves  are 
saying." 

No  study  is  better  calculated  to  strengthen  our 
corporeal  and  mental  faculties,  or  to  recruit  them 
when  wearied  or  overtaxed,  than  that  of  the 
Natural  History  of  the  Sea-shore.  Even  the 
fresh  air,  the  exercise,  the  freedom  from  restraint 
connected  with  these  pursuits,  are  for  a  large 
number  of  human  ills  medicines,  in  the  uni- 
versality of  which  all  physicians  are  agreed  from 
the  days  of  Hippocrates  and  Galen  to  the  present 
hour.  And  what  a  solace  to  mind  and  body  to 
leave  behind  the  thousand  and  one  "  winged 
cares  "  which  the  poet  tells  us  flit  about  the  ceilings 
of  our  abodes!  What  a  delight,  if  they  still 
pursue  us  as  we  drive  away  to  the  beach,  to  bid 
them  begone,  or,  if  they  succeed  in  entering  the 


SEA-SHORE   LESSONS.  11 

boat  with  us,  to  push  them  over  into  the  bright 
waves !  Nay,  the  very  effort  thus  to  obtain  freedom, 
albeit  it  may  not  be  entirely  successful,  is  itself 
conducive  in  no  small  degree  to  mental  and 
corporeal  vigour. 

Then  in  the  objects  themselves  which  we  study 
how  much  is  there  that  is  wholesome  to  the  moral 
and  intellectual  powers  as  fresh  air  and  exercise 
to  the  bodily  functions !  The  various  depart- 
ments of  natural  history,  of  which  the  sea- 
side furnishes  illustrations,  exhibit  innumerable 
organised  structures,  singularly  beautiful  in  them- 
selves, and  marvellously  adapted  to  places, 
conditions,  and  circumstances.  It  ministers  in  no 
small  degree  to  the  health  and  vigour  of  the  mind 
to  examine  such  structures,  and  note  such 
adaptations,  and  suffer  them  to  enforce  the  lessons 
they  read  us  as  to  Creative  power,  foresight,  and 
beneficence. 

It  is  not  necessary  for  us  to  inquire  as  to  the 
manner  in  which  Creative  power  and  wisdom  have 
been  exercised.  We  are  not  called  upon  to  deter- 
mine what  the  method  may  have  been  or  may 
still  be ;  whether  the  great  Originator  has  produced 
the  organisms  we  admire,  directly  or  indirectly 
by  the  action  of  general  laws.  Whatever  view 
we  may  take,  the  result  is  the  same.  We  discover 
substances  and  elements  highly  complicated  in 
their  relations,  resulting  in  organisms  so  adapted 
to  the  conditions  they  are  placed  in,  that  it  is 
impossible  not  to  admit  that  the  adaptation  is 
designed  by  the  same  Agent  in  which  the  structure 


12  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

itself  originated.  Such  indications  are  extremely 
various  and  numerous,  and  to  these  we  invite  our 
reader,  to  discern  with  us  some  of  the  striking 
truths  of  what  we  venture  to  denominate  Seaside 
Divinity. 


MARITIME   GEOLOGY 


15 

eh" 


CHAP.  II. 

MAKITIME   GEOLOGY. 

Extent,  Character,  Variety  of  Aspect  of  our  Sea-shores,  and  their 
Relation  to  Geological  Structure.  — General  View  of  Geology. — 
Geological  Tour  from  Cornwall  and  Devonshire  along  the  Coasts 
of  England  and  Scotland,  exhibiting  the  General  Features  of 
our  Sea-shores  as  regards  their  Structure. 

THE  shores  of  the  British  Islands,  including 
those  of  the  many  smaller  isles  which  form  the 
group,  comprehend,  when  measured  along  the 
extremely  irregular  line  of  our  numerous  bays  and 
estuaries,  a  circuit  of  several  thousands  of  miles, 
and  exhibit  throughout  their  vast  extent  the 
utmost  variety  of  scenery  and  aspect. 

In  some  instances  the  shores  are  tame  and 
uninteresting ;  but  as  a  general  rule  they  possess 
great  beauty  and  grandeur.  In  some  parts  of  the 
coast  the  land  slopes  gently  toward  the  sea,  and  is 
either  clothed  with  trees,  or  consists  of  rich 
meadows  and  cultivated  fields,  and  is  terminated 
by  a  beach  of  smooth  sand  or  of  pebbles  mingled 
with  shells.  In  others  the  coast  is  bounded  by 
precipitous  cliffs  of  great  altitude,  exposed  to  the 
perpetual  action  of  the  billows,  and  presenting 
features  of  the  wildest  and  most  romantic  character. 
In  the  one  case  the  wanderer  easily  gains  access 


16  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

to  the  water's  edge,  and  may  enjoy  the  charms  of 
the  seaside  \ 

"  in  summer  eve, 

When  the  broad  shore  retiring  waters  leave, 
And  all  is  calm  at  sea  and  still  on  land." 

On  the  other,  all  access  to  the  water  is  imprac- 
ticable, for  it  is  often  of  profound  depth,  and  it 
never  leaves  the  base  of  the  cliffs.  But  ample 
amends  are  made  in  the  sublimity  of  the  scenery, 
and  the  extent  of  the  view  which  from  such 
situations  can  be  obtained. 

The  variety  of  features  thus  presented  to  us  in 
the  scenery  of  our  sea-shores  may  be  traced  in  a 
great  measure  to  peculiarities  in  their  geological 
structure.  But  there  are  other  respects  besides 
form  and  outline  in  which  the  geology  of  our 
shores  modify  their  aspect.  The  vegetation,  both 
in  its  amount  and  its  character,  depends  in  a  very 
considerable  degree  on  the  nature  and  properties 
of  the  soil ;  and  the  soil  in  its  turn  is  dependent 
for  its  quality  on  the  rocks  and  strata  on  which  it 
rests ;  and  hence  the  geology  of  any  particular 
district  is  concerned  in  modifying  the  character  of 
the  vegetation.  Thus  the  tameness  or  the  sub- 
limity of  the  scenery,  and  the  scantiness  or  the  luxu- 
riance of  the  terrestrial  plants  by  which  the  scenery 
is  adorned,  may  originate  in  the  same  cause; 

These  remarks  may  to  some  extent  be  illustrated 
even  by  a  very  general  view  of  the  geology  of 
Britain.  The  Tertiary  formations  are  for  the  most 
part  spread  along  the  eastern  and  south-eastern 
maritime  districts ;  the  formations  of  the  Plutonic 
rocks  and  the  strata  of  greatest  antiquity  occur 


VAEIETY   OP  ASPECT,   ETC.  17 

for  the  most  part  on  the  western  coasts.  This 
imparts  a  corresponding  Variety  to  the  eastern 
and  western  shores.  The  latter  are  generally 
bold  and  precipitous,  the  former  comparatively 
tame  and  low.  The  natural  productions  of  the 
soil,  too,  exhibit  a  corresponding  difference.  In 
the  latter  they  are  scanty  compared  with  the 
luxuriance  they  exhibit  in  the  former. 

To  those  acquainted  in  any  considerable  degree 
with  the  variety  of  aspect  presented  by  our  sea- 
shores, a  view  of  the  geological  phenomena  on 
which  that  variety  so  much  depends  can  hardly 
fail  to  prove  interesting.  We  shall,  therefore, 
exhibit  to  the  reader  such  a  sketch  as  is  com- 
patible with  the  nature  of  this  work,  in  the  form 
of  a  Geological  Tour  along  the  Coast.  It  will, 
however,  facilitate  our  design  to  take  a  rapid 
survey  of  the  chief  divisions  of  geological  science. 

The  solid  materials  of  the  globe  are  by  geo- 
logists understood  to  consist  of  the  igneous  rocks 
or  those  left  in  their  present  condition  by  the 
action  of  heat  and  the  aqueous  formations,  or  the 
strata  originating  in  the  action  of  water.  These 
two  great  classes  comprehend,  it  need  hardly  be 
added,  a  great  number  and  variety  of  rocks  and 
strata,  more  or  less  distinguished  from  each  other 
by  peculiarities  of  structure  and  composition. 
The  "  igneous  rocks  "  are  of  great  value  in  all 
geological  investigations.  They  are  the  monu- 
ments of  vast  organic  convulsions,  caused  by 
stupendous  force  to  which  the  surface  of  our 
planet  has  been  subjected,  and  they  have  acted  a 
c 


18  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

most  important  part  in  causing  the  diversity  of 
elevation  exhibited  on  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
giving  origin  to  hills  and  mountains  and  valleys, 
with  all  their  variety  of  scenery ;  and  so  causing 
the  conditions  necessary  to  the  existence  of 
springs,  rivers,  and  lakes,  from  which  results  so 
much  variety  and  beauty  of  scenery.  But  a 
still  higher  interest  belongs  to  the  study  of  the 
stratified  formations ;  for  the  various  organic 
remains  they  contain  are  a  record  of  the  past 
history  of  the  earth,  by  indicating  the  character 
of  the  plants  and  animals  by  which  it  has  been 
successively  inhabited,  and  by  pointing  out,  in 
some  degree,  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  climate, 
and  in  general  the  physical  geography  of  the 
earth,  in  periods  incalculably  remote  from  the 
present  time. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  truths  disclosed 
by  geology  is,  not  merely  that  multitudes  of  the 
remains  of  plants  and  animals  peculiar  to  former 
conditions  of  the  earth  are  preserved  in  the 
stratified  rocks,  but  that  in  many  instances  these 
rocks,  although  of  vast  depth  and  extent,  are 
formed  almost  exclusively  of  the  remains  of 
creatures  once  endowed  with  the  senses  and 
functions  of  vitality.  This  truth,  wonderful  as 
it  is,  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  wide  and  all  but 
universal  diffusion  of  life  at  the  present  moment ; 
and  it  proves  that  in  the  remotest  ages  of  the 
earth's  history  the  mysterious  principle  of  vitality 
was  employed  by  its  Divine  Originator  to  minister 
with  a  most  energetic  agency  to  a  great  variety 


GEOLOGICAL  TOUR.  19 

and  multitude  of  chemical  and  organic  combi- 
nations carried  on  in  the  great  laboratory  of 
nature. 

Eaces  of  beings  belonging  to  an  epoch  of 
incalculable  duration  lived  and  perished,  leaving 
their  exuviaB  in  the  solid  rock  as  memorials  of 
their  existence.  These  were  succeeded  by  others 
of  different  forms  and  habits,  who  also  becoming 
extinct,  bequeathed  to  subsequent  times  a  history 
of  themselves  and  their  age,  written,  like  that  of 
their  predecessors,  in  the  durable  materials  of  the 
globe ;  they  in  their  turn  were  succeeded  by  others 
of  dissimilar  forms ;  these  again  by  others ;  so 
that  the  mutations  which  geological  inquiries 
disclose  may  truly  be  considered  as  the  history  of 
life  and  its  metamorphoses. 

Commencing  our  tour  at  the  Land's  End,  and 
proceeding  eastwards  along  the  shores  of  Corn- 
wall and  Devonshire,  the  remarkable  circumstance 
attracts  our  attention,  that  the  whole  of  the  coast, 
with  certain  exceptions,  is  formed  of  the  old  red 
sandstone,  to  which  the  term  Devonian  strata  is 
applied,  but  which  sparingly  occurs  in  any  other 
district  of  England,  while  it  constitutes  a  large 
portion  of  the  central  and  northern  divisions  of 
Scotland  and  a  considerable  portion  of  Wales. 
Associated  with  this  prevailing  formation  we  find, 
moreover,  granite  rocks,  which  form  the  Land's 
End;  serpentine,  which  constitutes  the  Lizard; 
mica  and  chlorite  schists  at  the  promontory  of 
Start  Point,  and  several  instances  of  trap  and 
porphyry  occurring  at  intervals.  Proceeding 

C  2 


20  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

onwards,  we  discover  that  the  formation  of  the 
Palaeozoic  era  of  Devonshire  is  succeeded  on  the 
shores  of  Dorsetshire  by  the  formation  of  the 
Secondary  era,  the  oolite  and  lias,  which  latter 
forms  the  cliffs  near  Lyme  Regis.  Along  the 
Hampshire  coast  formations  belonging  to  the 
same  epoch  occur,  consisting  of  the  chalk,  the 
wealden,  and  the  oolite,  associated  in  certain 
places  with  freshwater  and  marine  tertiary 
deposits.  Advancing  towards  Brighton,  we  find 
the  Cretaceous  formation,  which  constitutes  the 
foundation  strata  of  the  district,  rarely  exhibits 
itself,  the  shores  being  for  the  most  part  low,  and 
composed  of  tertiary  and  alluvial  deposits.  To 
the  east  of  Brighton,  however,  a  bold  line  of 
chalk  cliffs  bounds  the  shore  towards  the  river 
Ouse,  extending  to  the  promontory  of  Beachy 
Head,  succeeded  to  the  eastwards  by  the  lower 
series  of  the  Chalk  formation,  firestone,  gait,  and 
greensand,  which  occur  on  the  southern  shores  of 
the  Isle  of  Wight  and  along  some  parts  of  the 
coast  over  which  we  have  already  passed.  East- 
wards from  Beachy  Head,  we  enter  upon  the 
Wealden  formation,  the  range  of  cliffs  which  skirt 
the  shore  being  formed  of  the  Wealden  sand- 
stone alternating  with  clays  and  shales.  From 
Dover  to  the  N.  Foreland,  the  coast  line  is  formed 
of  chalk  cliffs ;  and  at  Folkestone  and  Hythe  in 
particular  the  lower  series  of  the  Cretaceous 
formation  is  manifested,  the  greensand  strata  being 
at  the  base  and  on  a  level  with  as  well  as  reaching 
beneath  the  sea,  the  gait  lying  over  the  greensand, 


KENT,   NORFOLK,   ETC.  21 

the  firestone  resting  on  the  gait,  and  over  all  the 
lower  and  upper  chalk  formations. 

Continuing  our  journey  along  the  Kentish  coast, 
we  arrive  at  the  London  Clay,  a  Tertiary  deposit 
of  great  thickness,  being  in  some  instances  600 
feet  in  depth,  and  covering  a  very  wide  area, 
extending  from  the  eastern  shores  of  Kent  to  the 
chalk  hills  of  Wiltshire,  Berkshire,  Oxfordshire, 
Buckinghamshire,  and  Hertfordshire  toward  the 
west,  and  northwards  to  the  extreme  limits  of 
Norfolk.  This  deposit,  on  which  the  metropolis 
of  England  stands,  formed  in  some  remote  era 
the  bottom  of  a  gulf  of  the  ocean,  and,  like  the 
various  strata  already  noticed,  constitutes  an 
object  of  the  deepest  interest  to  the  geologist,  from 
the  abundance  of  organic  remains  which  it  dis- 
closes. Of  this  clay  the  Isle  of  Sheppey  is 
entirely  composed. 

On  the  northern  shores  of  the  county  of  Norfolk 
the  Cretaceous  formation  is  again  manifested,  and 
from  this  point  along  the  coast  of  Lincolnshire 
and  beyond  the  Humber  into  Holderness  the  coast 
line  is  chiefly  made  up  of  low  cliffs  of  gravel, 
marine  detritus,  and  tertiary  deposits.  The 
promontory  of  Flamborough  Head,  which  we  now 
reach,  is  formed  of  chalk,  to  the  north  of  which 
the  coast  boundary  is  formed  of  various  members 
of  the  Oolite  and  Lias  formations.  From  the 
river  Tees  to  Tynemouth  the  trias  deposits  and 
the  magnesian  limestone  of  the  Permian  system 
occur,  and  beyond  this  point  to  Berwick  the  coast 
is  formed  by  the  Carboniferous  system,  interrupted 

c  3 


22  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

at  intervals,  as  at  Dunstansborough  and  Barn- 
borough  Castle,  by  masses  of  trap  rocks. 

From  the  rapid  view  we  have  thus  taken  of  the 
geological  features  of  the  southern  and  eastern 
coasts  of  England,  it  will  be  observed  that  it  is 
only  toward  the  extremities  of  this  long  line  of 
coast  that  any  instances  of  the  plutonic  rocks 
occur,  as  in  Cornwall,  Devonshire,  and  Northum- 
berland; and  that  with  the  few  exceptions  thus 
presented  by  some  of  the  more  remarkable  head- 
lands on  the  southern  and  northern  coasts, ,  the 
entire  shores  are  composed  of  strata  belonging 
either  to  the  Palaeozoic  epoch  or  to  the  Secondary 
or  Tertiary  eras. 

Before  supposing  ourselves  to  cross  the  embou- 
chure of  the  Tweed  and  continue  our  expedition, 
one  or  two  general  remarks  regarding  the  geology 
of  Scotland  will  not  be  out  of  place.  Geologists, 
by  very  distinct  natural  lines  of  demarcation, 
have  divided  this  portion  of  Britain  into  three 
great  geological  provinces.  The  Southern  province 
lies  between  "the  borders"  and  a  line  running 
from  near  St.  Abb's  Head,  in  Berwickshire,  in  a 
direction  S.S.W.,  to  near  Grirvan,  in  Ayrshire; 
the  Middle  province  is  comprehended  between  this 
latter  boundary  and  a  line  running  also  S.S.W., 
from  near  Stonehaven,  on  the  east  coast,  to  the 
middle  of  the  Island  of  Bute  and  Cantire  on 
the  west;  and  the  Northern  province  includes 
the  whole  region  beyond  this  line.  Each  of  these 
districts  is  distinguished  by  certain  general 
characteristics.  The  first-mentioned  region  is 


GEOLOGY  OF  SCOTLAND.  23 

that  of  the  formation  termed  by  Werner  the 
Transition  rocks,  but  to  which  the  title  of  Silurian 
system  is  now  applied.  It  consists  in  a  great 
measure  of  Grauwacke,  limestone,  and  slate  rocks, 
and  in  some  localities  the  plutonic  or  unstratified 
rocks  make  their  appearance,  such  as  granite, 
porphyry,  and  basalt.  The  Central  region,  of  which 
the  boundaries  have  been  already  stated,  consists, 
like  the  preceding,  of  formations  belonging  to  the 
Palaeozoic  epoch,  and  chiefly  of  the  Devonian  and 
the  Carboniferous  formations;  the  former  con- 
sisting of  the  old  red  sandstone,  conglomerates, 
and  other  strata  of  an  analogous  character ;  and 
the  latter  of  layers  of  ironstone,  limestone,  and 
beds  of  coal.  The  third,  or  most  Northerly  region, 
comprehending  within  its  limits  a  space  nearly 
equal  to  both  the  divisions  already  mentioned, 
is  composed  for  the  most  part  of  the  metamorphic 
rocks,  known  as  the  Gneiss  system,  and  contains 
in  addition  a  large  development  of  the  old  red 
sandstone  strata,  as  well  as  numerous  instances  of 
the  amorphous  crystalline  rocks,  known  as  the 
Granitic  system,  and  comprising  granite,  porphyry, 
and  trap. 

A  striking  dissimilarity  prevails  between  the 
geology  of  England  and  Scotland,  not  only  on  ac- 
count of  the  large  development  of  the  unstratified 
and  plutonic  rocks  in  the  latter  country,  but  the 
almost  total  absence  of  the  more  recent  tertiary 
formations.  According  to  the  estimates  of  geolo- 
gists, the  trap  rocks  of  Scotland  occupy  about  one 
seventh  of  the  area  of  the  country,  whereas  in 

c  4 


24  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

England  they  do  not  comprehend  much  more 
than  a  hundredth  part  of  the  area  of  that  country. 
In  Scotland  the  metamorphic  rocks  occupy  nearly 
half  the  surface,  whereas  in  England  they  are  only 
about  a  hundredth  part ;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Oolitic  system,  and  the  formations  more  recent 
than  those  of  the  Carboniferous  era,  constitute  a 
very  insignificant  part  of  Scotland,  but  extend 
over  two  thirds  of  the  area  of  England.  This  dis- 
similarity, extending  to  the  coasts  of  both  divisions 
of  Britain,  causes,  it  is  obvious,  a  corresponding 
general  difference  of  character  on  their  sea-shores, 
a  difference  which  becomes  very  striking  if  we 
compare  the  northern  and  north-western  coasts 
of  Scotland  with  the  southern  and  eastern  shores 
of  England. 

But  to  proceed  with  our  expedition.  Beyond 
Berwick  the  Scottish  coast  is  in  many  places  very 
precipitous.  The  cliffs  are,  in  a  few  instances, 
formed  of  granite,  but  in  general  are  similar  to  the 
strata  forming  the  Lammermuir  Hills.  North- 
wards from  St.  Abb's  Head,  the  sea-shores  are 
skirted  by  rocks  of  the  Devonian  formation,  ex- 
tending to  the  valley  of  the  Tyne,  beyond  which 
groups  of  trap  and  porphyry  extend  along  the 
shores  of  the  Firth  of  Forth  to  Aberlady  Bay, 
near  which  place  limestone  occurs  in  immediate 
proximity  to  trap  rocks,  and  the  coal  formation 
is  observed,  which  extends  to  within  a  short  dis- 
tance of  Edinburgh,  and  thence  across  the  whole 
country  to  the  shores  of  Ayrshire.  The  northern 
shores  of  the  Firth  of  Forth  are  in  the  highest 
degree  interesting  to  the  geologist,  exhibiting  from 


EAST    COAST  OF  SCOTLAND.  25 

North  Queensferry  to  Fife  Ness  a  great  variety  of 
strata  alternating  with  igneous  rocks.  Northwards 
along  the  Forfarshire  coast  to  Stonehaven,  the 
prevailing  geological  formation  is  that  of  the  De- 
vonian, appearing  as  a  fine  red  sandstone,  or  as  a 
conglomerate  intermingled  in  several  instances 
with  trap,  gneiss,  and  other  primary  rocks.  Many 
parts  of  the  coast  are  in  a  high  degree  bold  and 
romantic.  The  precipitous  cliffs  are  often  from  a 
hundred  to  nearly  two  hundred  feet  in  height,  and 
exhibit  most  picturesque  forms.  "  The  incessant 
lashings  of  the  sea,"  says  Mr.  Miller  in  a  very  elo- 
quent and  graphic  passage,  "  have  ground  them 
down  into  shapes  the  most  fantastic.  Huge  stacks, 
that  stand  up  from  amid  the  breakers,  are  here 
and  there  perforated  by  round  heavy-browed 
arches,  and  cast  the  morning  shadows  inland 
athwart  the  cavern-hollowed  precipices  behind. 
The  never-ceasing  echoes  reply,  in  long  and  gloomy 
caves,  to  the  wild  tones  of  the  sea.  Here  a  bluff 
promontory  projects  into  the  deep  green  water, 
and  the  white  foam,  in  times  of  tempest,  dashes 
up  a  hundred  feet  against  its  base.  There  a  nar- 
row strip  of  vegetation,  spangled  with  wild  flowers, 
intervenes  between  the  beach  and  the  foot  of  the 
cliffs  that  sweep  along  the  bottom  of  some  semi- 
circular bay ;  but  we  see  from  the  rounded  caves 
by  which  they  are  studded,  and  the  polish  which 
has  blunted  their  lowerx  angularities,  that  at  some 
early  period  the  breakers  must  have  dashed  for 
ages  against  their  bases."  * 

*  The  Old  Red  Sandstone,  p.  249. 


26  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

Between  Stonehaven  and  Aberdeen  the  sea- 
coast  exhibits  many  interesting  geological  pheno- 
mena ;  the  lofty  cliffs,  however,  which  bound  the 
coast,  are  in  many  instances  so  inaccessible  as  to 
render  an  examination  of  them  impracticable.  To 
the  north  of  Aberdeen  the  coast,  for  several  miles, 
is  formed  of  a  thick  mass  of  drifting  sands,  forming 
a  group  of  low  irregular  hillocks,  but  beyond  this 
to  Peterhead  and  Fraserburgh  gneiss  and  granite 
almost  exclusively  prevail.  The  coast-line  now 
trends  westwards  toward  the  Moray  Firth,  and 
exhibits  great  variety  in  its  geological  structure, 
and  forms  a  most  interesting  field  of  scientific 
inquiry.  The  geological  peculiarities  of  this  por- 
tion of  the  coast  would  require,  if  fully  described, 
a  very  lengthened  and  elaborate  treatise.  The 
shores  of  the  Firths  of  Moray  and  Cromarty  and 
the  southern  shores  of  Dornoch  Firth  are  composed 
of  the  old  red  sandstone,  which,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  space  between  Dornoch  and  Berridale, 
where  rocks  of  granite,  gneiss,  oolite,  and  other 
formations  occur,  extends  around  the  whole  shores 
of  Caithness.  Along  the  northern  coast  of  Scotland 
gneiss  is  the  prevailing  formation,  interrupted  to- 
ward the  west  by  rocks  of  quartz  and  limestone, 
and  the  Devonian  formation,  and  at  length  is  ter- 
minated by  Cape  Wrath,  a  promontory  of  gneiss 
and  hornblende  intersected  by  granite.  Here  the 
surges  of  the  Atlantic  are  opposed  by  stupendous 
cliffs,  many  of  them  six  hundred  feet  in  height, 
which,  by  the  action  of  the  waves  during  a  long 
course  of  ages,  have  in  many  instances  been  hoi- 


NORTH  AND  WEST   COASTS.  27 

lowed  out  into  deep  caverns,  or  fashioned  into 
arches  and  pinnacles,  and  innumerable  grotesque 
forms,  presenting  altogether  a  scene  of  extraordi- 
nary grandeur  even  in  calm  weather ;  but  during 
a  storm,  when  the  tremendous  billows  roll  in  from 
the  westward,  exhibiting  a  degree  of  sublimity 
which  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  conceive. 

The  vast  extent  of  the  western  coasts  of  Scotland 
renders  anything  beyond  a  general  description 
wholly  impossible  within  the  limits  of  this  sketch. 
From  Cape  Wrath  southwards  to  the  great  estuary 
of  the  Clyde,  the  coast,  with  its  numerous  indenta- 
tions forming  bays  and  gulfs,  or  "  lochs,"  which 
reach  far  into  the  land,  exhibits  a  great  variety  of 
romantic  scenery.  The  geological  formations  con- 
sist for  the  most  part  of  rocks  of  granite,  gneiss, 
trap,  porphyry,  quartz,  and  in  a  few  instances  of 
stratified  rocks,  such  as  the  old  red  sandstone  and 
clay  slate,  the  former  occurring  on  the  shores  of 
Ross-shire,  the  latter  on  those  of  Argyle.  On  the 
southern  shores  of  the  Firth  of  Clyde  the  character 
of  the  coast  becomes  entirely  different  from  that 
which  prevails  on  the  northern  or  the  north-wes- 
tern shores.  The  aspect  is  comparatively  uniform, 
with  little  of  the  wild  and  romantic  appearance 
peculiar  to  the  plutonic  and  metamorphic  forma- 
tions. From  about  Greenock,  conglomerates,  and 
old  red  sandstone  strata  reach  to  Ardrossan,  to  the 
south  of  which  place  the  coal  formation  occurs, 
bounded  beyond  Ayr  by  the  red  sandstone. 
Southwards  from  Grirvan  the  rocks  of  the  Silurian 
system  occur,  and  the  northern  shores  of  the  Sol- 


28  SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 

way  exhibit  the  Devonian  formation,  interrupted 
at  certain  districts  by  granitic  rocks. 

Continuing  our  investigation  on  the  English 
side  of  the  Solway  Firth,  we  find  the  geological 
phenomena  are  those  of  the  Palaeozoic  epoch,  like 
those  of  the  Southern  and  Central  districts  of 
Scotland,  such  as  the  Silurian,  Devonian,  and 
Carboniferous  systems.  Magnesian  limestone,  to 
which  the  term  Permian  is  applied,  constitutes 
the  cliffs  at  Maryport ;  at  Whitehaven  and  Wor- 
kington  the  sea-shores  are  formed  of  the  Carboni- 
ferous strata,  the  coal  mines  reaching  far  under 
the  sea ;  and  at  St.  Bees  the  same  system  is  con- 
tinued covered  by  the  Permian  formation.  Be- 
yond this  point  the  coal  formation  is  succeeded  by 
the  Silurian  strata;  and  upon  entering  on  the 
coast  of  Lancashire,  marine  detritus  and  alluvium 
forming  the  tertiary  strata,  are  discovered.  Cross- 
ing from  Liverpool  to  Birkenhead,  the  New  Ked 
Sandstone  formation  called  the  Trias  appears,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  southwards  by  the  Carboniferous 
strata.  The  Welsh  coast  affords  illustrations  of 
the  Silurian  system,  as  at  the  Menai  Straits  and 
at  Holyhead.  At  Carnarvon  Bay  the  cliffs  are 
formed  of  mica  and  chlorite  schists,  and  in  Cardi- 
gan Bay  the  strata  consist  chiefly  of  slate  asso- 
ciated with  the  igneous  rocks.  On  the  southern 
shores  of  Wales  the  coal  measures  are  again  mani- 
fested, and  on  the  southern  shores  of  the  Severn 
the  coal  formation  alternates  with  the  Devonian, 
which  is  the  peculiar  characteristic  of  Devonshire. 

The  vast  extent  of  sea-shore,  the  leading  geolo- 


VARIETY  AND   EXTENT.  29 

gical  features  of  which  we  have  thus  pointed  out, 
exhibits  the  utmost  variety  of  scenery,  in  number- 
less instances  presenting  features  of  most  pictu- 
resque beauty,  or  of  the  utmost  sublimity  and 
grandeur.  But  perhaps  the  most  striking  scenes 
are  those  strictly  of  geological  character,  and 
which  have  had  their  birth  in  those  agencies  which 
in  the  course  of  centuries  produce  a  variety  of  mo- 
difications on  almost  every  sea-shore  throughout 
the  globe.  Of  such  modifications  many  parts  of 
our  own  shores  afford  remarkable  illustrations. 


CHANGES    IN    OUR    SEA-SHORES 


33 


CHAP.  III. 

CHANGES  IN   OUR  SEA-SHORES. 

Mutations  of  the  Earth's  Surface  indicated  by  Geology. — Genera 
View  of  their  Causes. — Alterations  which  from  age  to  age  have 
occurred  in  various  Parts  of  the  British  and  Irish  Coasts,  and 
their  Causes. — Analogous  Changes  in  other  Parts  of  the  World. 

THE  phenomena  with  which  the  science  of  geology 
is  conversant  afford  unquestionable  evidence  that 
in  periods  long  antecedent  to  that  which  beheld 
the  present  distribution  of  sea  and  land,  a  series 
of  stupendous  changes  took  place  on  the  surface 
of  our  globe.  Some  of  these  changes  may  have 
been  effected  with  comparative  rapidity,  such  as 
those  arising  from  the  elevation  of  the  igneous  rocks 
in  a  state  of  fusion  ;  but  in  general  the  process  of 
modification,  must  have  been  slow  and  gradual  so 
as  to  extend  over  many  thousands  of  years.  Of 
this  there  is  incontrovertible  evidence  in  the  fact, 
that  all  the  stratified  rocks  of  whatever  kind  are 
of  aqueous  origin,  and  were  formed  by  processes 
which  could  not  be  sudden,  the  disintegration  and 
wearing  away  of  the  primary  rocks  by  the  action 
of  water,  the  deposition  of  the  various  materials 
of  which  they  consisted  at  the  bottom  of  the 
sea,  and  their  subsequent  consolidation  either  by 
physical  or  chemical  causes,  or  by  both  in  com- 
bination. 


34  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

The  causes  of  such  modifications  have  not 
ceased  to  operate  from  the  earliest  period  of  the 
existence  of  our  globe  to  the  present  hour,  for 
they  depend  upon  laws  originally  impressed  upon 
matter  by  the  Great  Creator,  and  not  only  uni- 
versal, but  unceasing  in  their  action.  Many  and 
various  as  are  the  vicissitudes  to  which  material 
substances  are  liable,  the  laws  by  which  these 
vicissitudes  occur  are  not  themselves  subject  to 
mutation.  In  this  respect  those  laws  partake  of 
the  nature  of  their  Mighty  Originator,  who  is 
"  the  same  yesterday,  to-day,  and  for  ever.*'  In 
the  primitive  islands  and  continents  which  existed 
in  periods  incalculably  remote  from  the  present 
epoch,  and  were  afterwards  wholly  or  partially 
submerged  beneath  the  waters,  the  combinations 
produced  by  the  laws  of  chemistry,  and  the  changes 
effected  by  other  physical  agencies,  were  no  other 
than  those  which  at  the  present  day  take  place 
around  us.  Heat,  light,  electricity,  together  with 
the  chemical  ingredients  of  air  and  water,  pro- 
duced by  their  incessant  action  the  same  series 
of  combinations  as  they  now  effect.  The  same 
results  as  are  now  observable  arose  in  those 
remote  periods  from  the  mechanical  action  of  ma- 
terial substances.  Then  as  now  the  waters  of  the 
great  deep  were  carried  by  evaporation  into  the 
atmosphere  ;  at  an  altitude  determined  by  certain 
laws  they  became  clouds,  and  fell  in  snow,  hail, 
or  rain  upon  the  mountains,  and  forming  rivers 
pursued  their  way  to  the  ocean  from  which  they 
originally  came.  The  rivers  thus  formed,  even 


PHYSICAL   CAUSES   AND   EFFECTS.  35 

when  gentle  and  silent  as  the  classic  Liris,  wore 
away  their  banks  and  triturated  into  sand  and 
pebbles  the  solid  beds  over  which  they  rolled. 
The  lakes,  too,  dashed  their  waves  against  their 
banks,  forming  beaches  more  or  less  extended, 
while  they  were  themselves  either  gradually 
filled  up  by  the  substances  carried  into  them  by 
the  rivers,  or  drained  by  the  gradual  depression 
of  their  outlets.  The  surges  of  the  ocean  also,  im- 
pelled by  the  winds,  broke  against  opposing  rocks, 
wearing  them  down,  and  then  suffering  the  disin- 
tegrated materials  to  subside  to  the  bottom  and 
form  those  strata  subsequently  laid  bare ;  the 
lightning  struck  against  the  cliffs,  and  hurled  them 
downwards ;  the  rain  percolated  through  their 
cavities,  and  exposed  them  to  the  powerful  action 
of  the  oxygen  in  the  air ;  and  the  volcano  and  the 
earthquake  raised  new  islands  from  the  abysses  of 
the  ocean,  and  caused  tracts  of  land  to  subside 
beneath  its  waters. 

The  brief  span  over  which  human  life  extends, 
and  the  consequent  limited  range  of  individual 
observation,  are  apt  to  lead  us  to  suppose  that 
the  present  state  of  things  is  less  liable  to  those 
modifications  which  have  taken  place  in  former 
eras  of  the  world's  history.  But  that  such  a  sup- 
position is  erroneous,  there  is  abundant  evidence 
to  prove.  Even  during  a  single  lifetime  many 
changes  are  perceptible.  Those  places  in  the 
smaller  lakes  at  which  the  rivers  which  supply 
them  empty  themselves,  are  frequently  perceived 
in  the  course  of  a  few  years  to  grow  shallow  and 

D  2 


36  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

the  soil  they  deposit  at  last  to  become  sufficiently 
dry  to  bear  grass  and  be  pastured  by  cattle. 
The  estuaries  of  great  rivers,  by  the  joint  action 
of  the  tides  and  the  streams,  become  soon  too 
shallow  for  navigation,  unless  some  artificial  pro- 
cess be  employed  to  deepen  them.  Sea-beaches 
are  perceived  to  undergo  great  alteration,  pro- 
bably by  some  unperceived  change  in  the  neigh- 
bouring headlands ;  in  some  cases  those  which 
were  formed  of  hard  clay  becoming  covered  with 
sand,  shells,  and  pebbles,  and  the  opposite  process 
occurring.  If  such  modifications  have  been  wit- 
nessed in  a  single  lifetime,  or  if  they  have  been 
known  with  certainty  to  have  occurred  within  a 
generation  or  two,  or  even  within  the  space  of  a  few 
hundreds  of  years,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  the 
same  agencies,  acting  incessantly  for  many  cen- 
turies, nay,  many  thousands  of  years,  must  have 
produced  very  great  alterations.  Geological  in- 
vestigations clearly  prove  that  very  great  and 
remarkable  mutations  have  occurred  and  are  still 
taking  place  in  many  parts  of  our  sea-shores. 
Those  mutations  afford  a  subject  of  study  ex- 
tremely interesting  and  instructive.  We  shall 
advert  to  some  of  the  most  remarkable. 

Many  very  remarkable  changes  on  our  shores 
have  been  produced  by  the  perpetual  action  of 
the  waves  of  the  sea.  Such  changes  are  frequently 
to  be  observed  in  places  where  the  shores  are  low 
and  formed  of  materials  easily  acted  on  by  the 
forces  of  currents  and  storms.  From  such 
agencies  even  the  hardest  and  most  solid  rocks 


ACTION   OF   THE   WATES.  37 

undergo  in  the  progress  of  ages  a  great  alteration. 
This  is  more  or  less  perceptible  in  all  those  parts 
of  the  British  Islands  where  the  coast  is  bounded 
by  precipitous  rocks  exposed  to  the  fury  of  the 
waves.     It  is  remarkably  so  in  the  Shetland  Is- 
lands, which  are  open  to  the  uncontrolled  violence 
of  the  Atlantic.      Upon  these  islands  the  waves  of 
the  ocean,  during  the  prevalence  of  westerly  winds 
and  violent  storms,  break  with  irresistible  force. 
The   spray  of  the   sea,  carried   upwards  by  the 
wind  and   sinking  through   the   fissures   of  the 
rocks,  tends  to  disunite  and  decompose  them,  so 
as  to  render  them  more  liable  to  be  disrupted  by 
the  mechanical  force  of  the  waves.     In  the  more 
solid  cliffs  composing  the  coast,  the  continual  ac- 
tion of  the  water  has  hollowed  out  the  rocks  into 
deep  caves,  and  in  some  cases  into  the  forms  of 
arches ;  in  other  instances  rocks  in  the  form  of 
pinnacles  and  columns  stand  in  the  sea  completely 
separated  from  the  shore  by  the  washing  away  of 
the  intervening  soil.     The   beaches  of  some  of 
these   islands    are    also    strewed   with   immense 
stones,  which  have  been  driven  forwards  by  the 
irresistible  power  of  the  waves  during  the  storms 
of  winter.     Dr.  Hibbert  mentions  that  this  is  ex- 
tremely remarkable  in  the  Isle  of  Stennes,  one  of 
the  Shetland  group,  which  presents  a  scene  of 
great  desolation.     An  example  of  the  immense 
power  of  the  ocean  in  causing  alterations  in  the 
appearance  of  its  shores,  may  be  stated  in  the 
fact  that  in  1802  a  tabular-shaped  mass  of  rock 
eight  feet  square  and  five  feet  in  thickness  was, 
D  3 


38  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

by  the  violence  of  the  waves  on  the  coast  of  that 
island,  removed  from  its  bed  and  driven  along  a 
distance  of  eighty  or  ninety  feet ;  and  in  a  storm 
in  1818,  a  block  of  stone  seventeen  and  a  half 
feet  broad  and  two  feet  in  thickness  was  borne 
along  by  the  waves  a  distance  of  thirty  feet,  and 
having  broken  into  pieces,  the  fragments,  many 
of  them  of  great  weight,  were  driven  along  still 
further.     In  some  instances  the  rocks  are  formed 
of  materials  of  various  degrees  of  hardness.     Oc- 
casionally a  broad  vein  of  soft  stone  occurs  sur- 
rounded by  the  hardest  granite.     In  process  of 
time  the  soft  central  substance  moulders  away 
under  the  violent  action  of  the  sea ;  and  thus  caves 
of  great  extent  are  hollowed  out,  arches  are  formed, 
and  in  many  instances  promontories  or  headlands 
separated  from  the  mainland,  and  straits  with  deep 
water,  are  formed  between  the  insulated  rocks  and 
the  land  with  which  they  were  once  connected. 
The  coasts  of  Scotland  and  Orkney,  and  several 
parts  of  the  mainland  of  Scotland  on  the  north- 
west, exhibit  many  phenomena  of  this  kind. 

The  process  which  is  thus  obvious  in  places 
much  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  the  waves,  is  con- 
tinually carried  on,  with  more  or  less  rapidity,  on 
every  sea-shore,  causing  great  alterations  in  the 
course  of  ages.  Many  instances  of  this  have  oc- 
curred within  comparatively  limited  periods,  in 
various  parts  of  Britain.  In  the  counties  of  In- 
verness, Moray,  Forfar,  Fife,  and  others,  several 
parts  of  the  coast  have  undergone  great  and  re- 
markable alterations.  In  Kincardineshire  the 


ENCROACHMENTS   OF   THE    SEA.  39 

ledge  of  rocks  which  lay  between  the  village  of 
Mathers  and  the  sea  was  broken  through  in  1795, 
the  whole  village  swept  away,  and  its  site  re- 
mained covered  by  the  sea,  the  shore  of  which 
was  removed  nearly  200  yards  inland.  At  Ar- 
broath  gardens  and  houses  have  been  swept  away 
since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century ;  and 
on  the  southern  shores  of  the  Firth  of  Forth  simi- 
lar occurrences  have  taken  place.  A  large  tract 
of  land,  which  in  1688  was  a  common  covered 
with  grass,  immediately  to  the  east  of  Leith,  is 
now  covered  with  the  tide  at  high  water ;  and 
within  the  last  few  years  the  sandstone  rocks  at 
Prestonpans,  and  the  soil  that  covered  them,  have 
been  so  much  wasted  away  by  the  action  of  the 
waves  that  several  small  gardens  between  the 
houses  and  the  sea-shore  have  all  but  disappeared ; 
and  within  the  last  two  or  three  years  the  author 
perceived  what  appeared  to  be  parts  of  stone 
coffins  protruding  from  the  soil,  and  daily  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  the  waves.  The  place 
where  these  remains  appear  is  part  of  a  garden 
between  the  houses  of  the  town  and  the  sea, 
and  is  only  now  a  few  yards  in  breadth,  the 
boundary  wall  and  a  large  portion  of  the  soil 
having  long  since  disappeared.  It  was  not  known 
to  have  been  a  place  of  sepulture ;  but,  when 
chosen  for  that  purpose,  perhaps  two  thousand 
years  ago,  it  may  have  been  several  hundred 
yards  from  high-water  mark.  The  low  sandstone 
rocks,  indeed,  which  run  out  in  parallel  strata  sea- 
ward, must  then  have  been  covered  with  soil. 

D  4 


40  SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 

In  some  parts  of  the  ancient  village  to  which  we 
now  refer,  the  washing  away  of  many  of  the 
houses  is  a  mere  question  of  time,  unless  some 
effectual  artificial  barrier  is  opposed  to  the  en- 
croachments of  the  sea. 

On  every  part  of  the  coast  of  England  similar 
alterations  have  been  taking  place.  A  variety  of 
instances  of  very  striking  changes  in  the  sea-shores 
of  Yorkshire,  Lincolnshire,  and  Norfolk  are  re- 
corded by  geologists.  In  old  maps  of  the  first- 
mentioned  county,  spots  are  mentioned  as  the 
sites  of  towns  and  villages  which  are  now  sand- 
banks in  the  sea.  The  town  and  harbour  of 
Eavenspur,  from  which  Edward  Baliol  sailed  to 
invade  Scotland  in  1332,  and  where  Henry  IV. 
landed  in  1399,  no  longer  exists;  and  in  their 
place  are  extensive  sands,  dry  only  at  low  water. 
The  ancient  towns  and  villages  of  Hyde,  Auburn, 
and  Hartburn  have  long  since  disappeared,  and 
the  places  where  they  stood  are  now  covered  by  • 
the  waters.  Fears  by  no  means  unreasonable  are 
entertained  that  Spurn  Point  will  at  some  future 
time  be  separated  from  the  mainland  and  become 
an  island, — a  change  which  will,  if  it  occur,  be 
productive  of  great  devastation  from  the  estuary 
of  the  Humber  being  thus  exposed  to  the  ravages 
of  the  ocean. 

Great  changes  in  process  of  time  have  occurred 
in  other  portions  of  the  English  coast.  In  the 
Isle  of  Sheppey,  the  church  at  Minster,  now  near 
the  shore,  was  seventy  years  ago  in  the  middle  of 
the  island ;  and  one  of  the  most  eminent  geologists 


ENCROACHMENTS  OF  THE   SEA.  41 

of  the  present  age  asserts  that  "  if  the  present  rate 
of  destruction  should  continue,  we  might  calculate 
the  period,  and  that  not  a  very  remote  one,  when 
the  whole  island  will  be  annihilated."  The  church 
of  Eeculver,  too,  affords  a  remarkable  instance  to 
the  same  effect.  A  view  taken  of  it  so  lately  as 
1781,  and  published  in  the  "  Grentleman's  Maga- 
zine," represents  it  as  at  a  considerable  distance 
from  the  shore ;  but  it  now  stands  close  to  a  pre- 
cipice, and  a  few  years  it  is  probable  will  complete 
its  destruction.  The  church  was  abandoned  in 
1804,  part  of  the  churchyard  and  the  adjoining 
houses  having  been  demolished  by  the  sea. 

The  sea-shores  of  Lincolnshire  have  been  the 
scene  of  very  remarkable  changes  from  age  to 
age.  Consisting  of  the  deposits  of  the  tertiary 
formation,  and  of  marine  detritus,  the  shores  of 
Lincolnshire  are  so  low  that,  as  on  the  Dutch 
coast,  embankments  are  necessary  to  keep  off  the 
sea.  Parts  of  the  fenny  tract  of  land  on  the  coast 
were  in  remote  ages  covered  with  forests,  subse- 
quently inundated,  and  again  reclaimed  from  the 
sea.  Some  of  the  fens  are  understood  to  have 
been  drained  and  embanked  so  recently  as  the 
time  of  the  Eomans,  and  that  after  their  depar- 
ture from  England  the  sea  again  took  possession 
of  the  land  they  had  cultivated,  and  covered  large 
tracts  of  it  with  beds  of  silt  and  marine  shells,  but 
that  the  lands  thus  lost  a-re  once  more  rendered 
productive.  Independent  of  such  alternations, 
great  devastation  has  been  caused  on  the  coast  of 
Lincolnshire  by  the  inroads  of  the  sea,  several 


42  SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 

large  districts  having  been  at  different  times  over- 
whelmed. 

The  shores  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  are  likewise 
subject  to  great  changes  from  the  constant  as- 
saults of  the  sea.  At  Hunstanton,  and  between 
Weybourne  and  Sherringham,  the  cliffs  are  con- 
stantly undermined  by  the  waves.  It  is  stated  by 
Sir  Charles  Lyell  that  in  1805,  when  the  inn  at 
Sherringham  was  built,  it  was  computed  that  it 
would  take  seventy  years  for  the  sea  to  reach  the 
spot  on  which  the  building  stands,  the  distance 
between  it  and  the  sea  being  fifty  yards.  But  in 
1829  only  a  small  plot  of  ground  was  left,  seven- 
teen yards  having  been  swept  away  during  the 
preceding  five  years  alone.  In  the  harbour  of  this 
same  port  there  was  in  1829  a  depth  of  twenty- 
four  feet  of  water,  at  a  place  where  only  forty- 
eight  years  before  there  stood  a  cliff  fifty  feet  in 
height,  with  houses  upon  it.  The  havoc  made  on 
the  coast  of  Norfolk  has  been  most  formidable. 
The  site  of  the  ancient  town  of  Cromer  now  forms 
part  of  the  German  Ocean,  the  inhabitants  having 
gradually  been  compelled  to  retreat  to  their  present 
situation,  from  which  the  same  process  of  demolition 
still  threatens  to  dislodge  them.  In  the  winter  of 
1825,  a  mass  of  land  of  some  twelve  acres  near  the 
lighthouse  was  engulphed  in  the  sea.  The  old 
villages  of  Shipden,  "Wimp well,  and  Eccles  have 
long  ceased  to  exist,  and  several  manors  and 
parishes  have  gradually  been  obliterated,  and 
their  sites  are  now  covered  with  water.  In  1605 
the  inhabitants  of  the  last- mentioned  of  these 


DEVASTATIONS   BY   TEE    SEA.  43 

towns  petitioned  James  I.  for  a  reduction  of  their 
taxes,  in  consequence  of  300  acres  of  land,  and  all 
their  houses  except  fourteen,  having  been  de- 
stroyed by  the  sea.  Not  half  that  number  of  acres 
now  belong  to  the  parish. 

Dunwich,  on  the  Suffolk  coast,  was  in  former 
times  a  large  seaport.  Near  that  place  two  large 
tracts  of  land  which  had  been  taxed  in  the  time 
of  Edward  the  Confessor,  are  referred  to  in  a 
survey  made  by  William  the  Conqueror  a  few 
years  afterwards  as  having  been  swept  away  by 
the  waves.  Subsequently  a  monastery,  several 
churches,  the  old  harbour,  four  hundred  houses  at 
once,  roads,  town-hall,  and  various  public  buildings, 
are  recorded  as  having  perished  in  succession  at 
different  times,  In  the  sixteenth  century  not  a 
fourth  of  the  original  town  existed,  and  the 
inhabitants  continued  retreating  inland  as  the  sea 
gained  upon  them,  and  still  retaining  the  ancient 
appellation  of  their  town,  although  its  site  had  been 
long  obliterated. 

As  we  proceed  southwards  along  the  coast  of 
England,  we  discern  that  similar  alterations  have 
from  age  to  age  occurred  on  the  sea-shores.  On 
the  coasts  of  Kent,  Sussex,  Hampshire,  Dorset- 
shire, and  Cornwall,  in  a  great  many  different 
places,  large  tracts  of  land  have  been  devoured  by 
the  ocean,  and  in  others  great  additions  have  been 
made  to  the  shores,  probably  by  the  deposition  of 
the  materials  swept  off  from  other  localities. 
Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  devasta- 
tions effected  by  the  sea  on  the  coast  of  the  Isle 


44  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

of  Sheppey ;  but  in  many  other  parts  of  Kent 
the  same  process  has  from  age  to  age  been  going 
on.  Thus  at  Hythe  several  encroachments  of  the 
sea  are  recorded ;  while  towards  Dungeness  the 
level  tract  called  Eomney  Marsh  has  received 
considerable  accessions.  To  the  south  of  Komney 
Marsh,  the  town  of  Rye  was  once  destroyed  by 
the  sea  ;  but  by  the  additions  made  by  the  waves, 
it  is  now  two  miles  distant  from  the  beach.  In 
the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  the  town  of 
Brighton  was  situated  on  the  tract  where  the 
chain  pier  now  extends  into  the  sea.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  last  century  there  still  remained  under 
the  cliff  more  than  a  hundred  houses,  all  of 
which  were  swept  away  from  1703  to  1705;  and 
no  traces  of  the  ancient  town  now  remain. 

The  Isle  of  Wight  affords  a  remarkable  instance 
of  similar  changes.  Sir  Harry  Englefield,  in  his 
work  on  that  island,  states  that  a  great  and 
singular  alteration  occurred  within  no  very  distant 
period  in  the  shores  of  the  Solent,  near  Ryde; 
and  that  in  1753,  the  town  is  said  to  have  been 
totally  inaccessible  by  sea  except  at  or  near  high 
water,  as  the  shore  was  covered  with  a  vast  extent 
of  mud  too  soft  to  bear  the  slightest  weight.  This* 
mud-bank  is  now  entirely  covered  with  a  stratum 
of  fine  white  sand,  smooth  and  firm  enough  to 
bear  wheel  carriages,  and  rendering  bathing  at  all 
times  safe  and  agreeable.  This  bed  of  sand  now 
reaches  to  Binstead,  having  covered  at  least  two 
miles  of  the  shore  within  the  last  half  century; 
and  the  inhabitants  say  it  is  still  extending  west- 


OTHER   EFFECTS   PRODUCED.  45 

wards.  To  what  cause  this  change  is  owing  it  is 
difficult  to  guess;  but  it  is  an  example  of  the 
alternation  of  deposits  from  the  action  of  the  sea, 
in  circumstances  apparently  unchanged,  and  which 
may  afford  cause  for  reflection  to  the  geologist. 

A  great  variety  of  other  instances  might 
be  mentioned  of  such  alterations  on  our  sea- 
shores, as  occurring  from  age  to  age.  The 
western  coast  is  less  liable  to  such  alterations, 
because  bounded  to  so  great  an  extent  by  rocks, 
the  materials  of  which  offer  great  resistance  to 
the  most  violent  action  of  the  sea.  But  on  almost 
all  the  western  coasts,  wherever  the  shores  are 
low  or  are  formed  of  materials  liable  to  be  easily 
acted  on  by  the  waves,  great  changes  have  taken 
place,  in  some  instances  extensive  tracts  having 
been  swallowed  up  by  the  waters,  and  in  others 
great  additions  by  the  deposition  of  the  soil  being 
made  to  the  extent  of  the  sea-shore. 

But  the  waters  of  the  ocean  and  the  force  of  the 
winds  produce  other  alterations  in  the  aspect  of 
the  sea-shore  than  those  now  described.  In  some 
instances,  where  the  beach  is  low,  the  waves  cast 
up  mounds  of  gravel,  formed  of  stones  of  various 
kinds,  rounded  by  being  constantly  rolled  upon 
each  other ;  and  these,  during  the  prevalence  of 
storms,  and  where  the  shores  are  exposed  to  strong 
currents  from  either  side,  are  swept  along,  varying 
their  quantity  in  different  localities  as  the  effects 
of  the  impelling  forces  are  modified  by  the  form 
of  the  shore  itself.  In  other  instances,  where  the 
water  is  comparatively  shallow,  the  waves  during 


46  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

the  storms  of  winter  drive  the  sand  upon  the 
beach,  where  it  is  raised  in  a  bank.  This  at  the 
recess  of  the  tide  becomes  partially  dried,  and 
during  strong  winds  in  summer  is  carried  from 
the  shore  for  a  considerable  distance  inland, 
forming  mounds  of  fine  sand  far  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  waters.  Some  portions  of  the  coasts  thus 
present  a  remarkable  appearance,  occasioned  by 
those  downs  or  ranges  of  low  sand-hills,  and  in 
some  instances  fertile  tracts  of  land  have  thus 
become  covered,  to  the  destruction  of  vegetation. 
A  remarkable  instance  may  be  mentioned  as 
occurring  between  the  towns  of  Arklow  and 
Wicklow,  on  the  east  coast  of  Ireland.  Some 
years  ago  the  author  travelled  along  a  fine  road 
near  the  sea-shore  between  these  two  towns,  and 
on  returning  a  fortnight  afterwards,  more  than 
half  a  mile  of  the  road,  although  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  sea,  had  been  covered  with  fine 
dry  sand  to  the  depth  of  several  feet,  a  storm 
from  the  east  having  taken  place  during  the 
interval,  and  drifted  the  loose  sand  over  the  road 
and  the  adjoining  fields,  many  of  which  were 
entirely  covered,  so  that  not  a  blade  of  grass 
could  be  seen.  On  the  coast  of  Sligo,  a  destructive 
sand  inundation  took  place  some  years  ago,  and 
although  in  some  measure  checked,  it  is  still  in 
progress. 

On  the  north  coast  of  Cornwall  a  similar  sand 
deluge  occurred  many  ages  since,  completely 
overwhelming  a  large  tract  of  once  fertile  and 
cultivated  land,  and  forming  in  its  place  numerous 


EFFECTS   OF   DRIFTED    SAND.  47 

hills,  composed  of  sand  and  marine  shells,  several 
hundreds  of  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  By 
the  shifting  of  these  sands,  the  ruins  of  buildings 
which  once  occupied  the  land  have  been  dis- 
covered, and  the  remains  of  wells  formed  by  the 
ancient  inhabitants.  Among  the  ruins  thus  laid 
bare  are  those  of  an  ancient  chapel,  erected, 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe,  by  Piranus  or 
St.  Piran,  one  of  the  most  zealous  of  the  early 
Christian  missionaries  in  Britain,  who  in  the 
fourth  century  fixed  his  abode  in  this  remote 
region  of  England,  and  devoted  his  life  to  the 
instruction  of  its  rude  inhabitants,  as  Ninian, 
Kentigern,  and  Columba  did  in  the  western  dis- 
tricts of  Scotland.  On  the  coast  of  Norfolk  the 
same  cause  has  produced  great  devastation ;  and  at 
Eccles,  already  mentioned,  large  mounds  of  blown 
sand  occupy  the  places  of  houses  which  existed  in 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century.  About 
twenty  years  ago  the  force  of  the  waves  laid  open 
the  foundations  of  one  of  the  houses  which  had 
thus  been  overwhelmed  by  the  sand-flood,  the 
upper  part  of  which  appeared  to  have  been  pulled 
down  before  it  was  finally  overwhelmed.  Even  the 
body  of  the  old  church  of  Eccles  has  been  buried 
under  the  sand,  and  nothing  now  remains  but  its 
tower  to  point  out  the  place  where  the  old  inhabi- 
tants were  wont  to  assemble  for  worship,  and  all 
around  it  is  completely  desolate. 

The  changes  thus  effected  on  various  parts  of 
our  own  sea-shores,  by  the  agency  of  drifted  sand, 
have  also  occurred  on  the  shores  of  France  and 


48  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

Jutland.  In  Brittany,  near  St.  Pol  de  Leon,  a 
whole  village  was  so  entirely  overwhelmed  by  the 
sand  that  no  remains  of  it  were  visible  but  the 
spire  of  the  village  church.  And  on  the  shores 
of  Jutland  large  hillocks  of  sand  and  sea-shells, 
intermingled  with  sea-weed,  have  been  formed  by 
the  violence  of  storms  acting  on  the  dry  sands. 

The  alterations  thus  produced  in  some  districts 
of  our  sea-shores  are,  although  on  a  smaller  scale, 
scarcely  less  remarkable  than  those  which  have 
been  occasioned  by  the  same  causes  in  Egypt, 
Lybia,  and  Peru. 

In  Egypt  many  of  the  most  fertile  plains  and 
valleys  which  in  distant  ages  teemed  with  a  busy 
population  have  been  converted  into  arid  wastes, 
and  many  of  the  finest  monuments  of  her  ancient 
grandeur  have  been  overwhelmed  by  the  sands  of 
the  desert.  On  the  western  shores  of  the  Nile, 
the  sands  drifted  by  the  winds  have  left  no  lands 
capable  of  being  cultivated  but  those  which  are 
sheltered  by  the  mountains ;  and  in  Upper  Egypt 
whole  districts  are  thus  buried,  and  here  and  there 
the  ruins  of  cities  and  the  summits  of  temples 
may  be  seen,  which  have  been  thus  overwhelmed. 
Denon  observes  :  "  Nothing  can  be  more  melan- 
choly than  to  walk  over  villages  swallowed  up  by 
the  sand  of  the  desert,  to  trample  under  foot 
their  roofs  and  minarets,  and  to  reflect  that  yonder 
were  cultivated  fields,  that  there  grew  trees,  that 
here  were  the  dwellings  of  men,  and  that  all  have 
now  vanished.  The  sands  of  the  desert  were  in 
ancient  times  remote  from  Egypt ;  and  the  oases, 


EAISED  BEACHES.  49 

which  still  appear  in  the  midst  of  this  sterile 
region  on  the  remains  of  fertile  soils  which 
formerly  extended  to  the  Nile.'*  Although  the 
desolation  has  taken  place,  it  must  nevertheless 
be  remembered  that  the  inundations  of  the  Nile 
are  constantly  adding  to  the  extent  of  the  alluvial 
soil,  and  may,  perhaps,  be  completely  counter- 
balancing the  effects  produced  by  the  shifting 
sands. 

But  in  Peru  many  of  the  finest  maritime  plains 
and  valleys  are  exposed  to  desolation  from  the 
same  causes.  It  appears  that  the  sand-drift  has 
already  surmounted  the  lofty  hills  which  form  the 
boundary  of  the  valley  of  Lurin,  and  is  flowing 
down  over  the  cultivated  grounds,  threatening 
their  total  destruction.  The  same  process  is 
taking  place  on  the  elevated  plain  called  the 
Tablada,  where  the  tops  of  the  hills  appear  like 
Egyptian  oases,  the  sand  falling  in  overwhelming 
floods  over  the  valley  of  Eimac,  to  the  gradual 
extinction  of  the  sugar  plantations  of  Villa  and 
San  Juan.* 

Other  changes  in  the  character  and  aspect  of 
our  sea-shores  may  here  be  referred  to  as  having 
been  produced  by  strictly  geological  causes.  On 
a  great  many  districts  of  our  sea-shores,  as,  for 
instance,  from  Brighton  to  Eottingdean,  near 
Bromley  in  Kent,  and  Reading  in  Berkshire,  and 
various  other  places  on  the  eastern  and  western 
coasts  of  England,  and  in  a  variety  of  localities 

*  Blackwood's  Magazine,  March,  1839. 
£ 


50  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

along  the  shores  of  the  Firth  of  Forth  in  Scotland, 
are  traceable  at  a  distance  at  certain  elevations 
above  the  existing  margin  of  the  sea,  and  at  various 
distances  from  it,  deposits  of  shells  and  pebbles 
and  sand,  which  at  some  far  distant  period  formed 
the  beach  washed  by  the  waves  of  the  sea.  These 
phenomena  are  extremely  remarkable,  and  it  is 
impossible  to  examine  the  appearances  they  pre- 
sent without  coming  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
coast  has  risen  above  its  ancient  level,  and  that 
the  waters  of  the  deep  have  retired  from  places 
on  which  they  formerly  flowed.  Whether  the 
causes  which  have  produced  these  elevations  are 
still  in  progress  as  regards  our  own  shores  it  is 
difficult  to  affirm ;  but  it  is  certain  that  within 
the  last  few  years  the  sea-shores  of  various  parts 
of  South  America  have  been  raised  during  earth- 
quakes, the  relative  levels  of  the  sea  and  land 
have  been  greatly  altered.  Like  changes,  however, 
from  the  raising  of  the  ancient  margins  of  the 
sea  in  this  country  have  taken  place,  it  is  probable, 
long  antecedent  to  the  period  when  the  human 
race  were  called  into  existence. 

Geology,  as  already  observed,  points  out  a  series 
of  vast  and  marvellous  changes  which  have  oc- 
curred in  the  physical  condition  of  the  globe  we 
inhabit.  To  these  changes  our  sea-shores  have 
in  the  progress  of  ages  been  themselves  subjected, 
and  the  agencies  by  which  many  of  those  changes 
are  effected  are  in  active  and  incessant  operation. 
Stable  as  we  are  apt  to  deem  the  solid  structure 
of  the  earth,  nevertheless  its  materials  are  subject 


CHEMICAL   AND   PHYSICAL  LAWS.  51 

in  the  course  of  ages  to  great  mutations,  and  of 
this,  the  changes  which  occur  on  our  sea-shores 
afford  an  example.  Such  modifications  are  occa- 
sioned by  the  chemical  and  physical  laws  which 
the  All-powerful  and  infinitely  wise  Creator  of 
the  world  has  instituted ;  and  the  more  carefully 
we  investigate,  and  the  more  clearly  we  compre- 
hend, those  laws,  and  the  extreme  uniformity  with 
which  they  work  out  their  various  and  manifold 
results,  the  more  must  we  be  impressed  with  a 
sense  of  the  vastness  of  that  Divine  intelligence 
by  which  those  laws  were  formed,  and  by  which 
all  the  vast  complication  of  results  they  produce 
must  have  been  foreseen  and  intended.  Amid 
the  mutations  of  temporal  things,  we  perceive 
the  invariable  character  of  the  laws  now  referred 
to,  which  have  acted  immutably  and  incessantly 
from  the  earliest  birth-time  of  our  planet ;  and 
in  these  laws  we  recognise  their  immutable 
Author,  who  is  without  all  variableness  or  shadow 
of  turning. 


E   2 


FOSSILS    OF    THE    SEA-SHORE 


FOSSILS  OF  THE   SEA-SHOfiE. 
1,  2.  Chain  Coral          3.  Mnahroom  Cora!.         4.  The  Fowil  Klyiug  FUh.         5.  A  Fossil  FM,  of  IV.na.u,   l,,n,,atu 

6.   A   KohMl  Fish  of  the  IVvomm   V ati,,n.         7.  The  Berry-bonc   F,.>M|   Ki>h.  >    A    l,,»,l    Hat. 

U.  The  (ireat-headetl  Fowil  Liiaiil.  10.  A  Trilobite.  11.  A  Small  Trilobite.  i'2    Tlic  l.ily   Kncriuit,' 

(Sec  Chapte 


55 


CHAP.  IV. 

FOSSILS   OF   THE   SEA-SHORE. 

General  Views. — Fossils  of  the  Palaeozoic,  the  Secondary  and 
the  Tertiary  Epochs,  and  various  Considerations  regarding 
them. 

FROM  the  geological  phenomena  presented  by  our 
sea-shores  as  apparent  from  the  preceding  sketch, 
it  will  be  perceived  that  a  very  large  proportion 
of  the  space  they  include  is  occupied,  not  by  the 
Primary  or  Plutonic  Eocks,  but  by  what  are  called 
by  geologists  the  Secondary  Formations,  Tertiary 
Strata,  and  Alluvial  Deposits.  All  of  these  abound 
in  the  fossil  remains  of  plants  and  animals  pecu- 
liar to  the  epochs  to  which  they  belong.  It'  is 
requisite  therefore  in  noticing  the  geology  of  the 
sea-shore,  that  we  direct  our  attention  to  the 
remains  of  organised  beings  which  they  contain. 

To  do  this,  however,  it  is  not  requisite  that  we 
proceed  to  consider  the  organic  remains  of  the 
various  formations  in  the  miscellaneous  order  in 
which  they  occur  to  us  in  a  tour  along  the  coast. 
It  will  conduce  much  more  to  clearness  and  accu- 
racy if  instead  of  this  we  adopt  the  plan  of  point- 
ing out,  independently  of  their  locality,  the  fossils 
characteristic  of  the  formations  which  occur  in 


£  4 


56  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

various  parts  of  the  coast.  One  or  two  general 
remarks  may,  however,  be  requisite  before  pro- 
ceeding to  our  particular  description. 

In  the  Hypogene  and  Volcanic  rocks,  and  the 
various  groups  they  comprehend,  there  are  no 
appearances  of  organic  remains.  These  rocks 
include  granite,  porphyry,  basalt,  trap,  and  others 
which  are  of  a  crystalline  structure,  and  evidently 
appear  to  have  assumed  their  peculiar  forms  under 
the  action  of  intense  heat.  This  circumstance  is 
of  itself  sufficient  to  account  for  the  fact  that 
those  rocks  are  entirely  destitute  of  the  fossil 
remains  either  of  plants  or  animals. 

All  the  other  geological  formations,  comprised 
under  the  rocks  which  are  more  or  less  stratified, 
have  the  hypogene  or  primary  rocks  for  their 
foundation,  and  in  the  destruction  of  which  they 
seem  in  great  measure  to  have  originated,  by  being 
deposited  in  the  basins  of  lakes,  bays,  and  estua- 
ries, and  in  the  profound  depths  of  the  ocean. 
The  alluvial  deposits,  like  the  stratified  rocks, 
owe  their  existence  to  the  agency  of  water,  and 
consist  of  accumulations  of  water-worn  and  drifted 
materials.  All  these  formations  abound  in  fossil 
remains  peculiar  to  their  respective  geological 
epochs,  and  in  this  respect  essentially  differ  from 
the  rocks  which  form  their  foundation,  and  which, 
as  already  stated,  owe  their  peculiar  structure  to 
the  agency  of  heat. 

In  taking  into  view  the  fossils  of  our  sea-shores, 
we  shall  first  notice  those  of  the  most  anci  mt  of 
the  fossiliferous  strata,  all  of  which  belong  to 


SILURIAN   FOSSILS.  57 

what  geologists  call  the  PALEOZOIC  EPOCH.  These 
strata  are  the  Cambrian,  the  Silurian,  the  De- 
vonian, the  Carboniferous,  and  the  Permian 
Formations. 

These  various  groups  also  we  shall  notice  in 
the  order  of  their  antiquity,  commencing  with  the 
most  ancient,  and  so  advancing  upwards  towards 
the  secondary  and  tertiary  deposits,  and  observ- 
ing as  we  approach  the  period  when  man  inhabits 
the  earth,  the  changes  which  from  one  epoch  to 
another  take  place  in  the  character  of  the  living 
creatures  by  which  the  earth  is  inhabited. 

I.  We  first  notice  therefore  the  Silurian  for- 
mation, which,  so  far  at  least  as  fossils  are  con- 
cerned, may  be  said  to  include  the  Cambrian  also. 
The  Silurian,  as  already  described,  is  largely  deve- 
loped in  various  parts  of  England  and  Scotland, 
and  is  in  many  places  bounded  by  the  sea-shores. 

The  investigations  of  geologists  have  not  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  to  light  any  vegetable  remains 
in  the  Silurian  system  in  Europe,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  some  imperfect  indications  of  fucoids 
or  marine  plants  of  the  simplest  character.  The 
lowest  Silurian  deposits  in  which  those  fucoids 
appear,  rest  upon  the  primitive  crystalline  rocks 
which  contain  no  fossils,  and  it  has  been  assumed, 
therefore,  that  they  indicate  the  first  indications 
of  organic  creation.  But  this  view  is  not  held  by 
Lyell,  who  states  in  his  Travels  in  America, 
that,  although  the  Silurian  strata  in  Europe  con- 
tain no  remains  of  vegetables  except  the  fucoids, 
the  same  strata  in  America  exhibit  abundant 


58  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

remains  of  vegetables  of  the  carboniferous  type, 
such  as  Lepidodendra  and  ferns.  Although  the 
vegetable  remains  are  so  few  in  the  Silurian  strata 
in  this  country,  more  than  800  species  of  fossil 
animals  have  been  discovered,  almost  exclusively 
belonging  to  the  Invertebrata,  that  is  to  say  ani- 
mals in  whose  structure  the  back-bone  does  not 
occur.  This  our  readers  will  observe  is  what 
might  be  expected  in  the  earliest  development 
of  animal  existence.  But  the  fact  that  the 
animals  peculiar  to  the  Silurian  seas  existed  in 
prodigious  multitudes  is  itself  evidence  that  the 
vegetation  must  have  been  proportionately  abun- 
dant, although  consisting,  it  may  be,  in  great 
measure,  only  of  the  simplest  forms  of  sea-weed ; 
for  we  must  take  into  view  the  relation  which 
marine  plants  bear  to  marine  animals,  either  as 
their  food,  or  as  the  source  of  the  oxygen  requi- 
site to  their  existence.  The  various  remains 
belonging  to  the  system  now  referred  to  may  be 
divided  into  those  of  Zoophytes,  Molluscs,  and 
Crustaceans. 

The  ZOOPHYTES  comprise  various  kinds  of  coral, 
among  which  the  prevailing  forms  are  those  of 
Catenipora,  or  chain-coral,  and  Cyathophyllum,  or 
that  of  a  cup-like  figure.  These  corals  appear  in 
immense  quantities  in  the  limestone  rocks  of 
Dudley.  Other  zoophytes  also  occur,  such  as 
Graptolites,  and  various  kinds  of  Crinoidea. 

The  SILURIAN  MOLLUSCA  embrace  a  consider- 
able variety  of  bivalve  shells  analogous  to  those 
which  now  swarm  in  our  seas,  and  thus  we 


MOLLUSCS   AND   CRUSTACEANS.  59 

perceive  that  among  the  first  traces  of  animal 
life,  in  the  remotest  periods  of  the  natural  his- 
tory of  our  planet,  there  were  many  species 
which  still  continue  to  exist.  There  were  also 
numerous  simple  univalve  mollusca,  or  Gastero- 
poda, such  as  Euomphalus;  and  many  Ceph- 
alopoda, such  as  Orthoceras  and  Actinoceras. 
Various  examples  of  Annelida,  or  animals  whose 
bodies  consist  of  articulated  segments  or  rings 
likewise  occur  in  the  Silurian  strata,  some  of  them 
being  naked  marine  worms,  and  others  those  which 
are  covered  with  shells,  of  which  the  Nereis,  the 
Grordius,  the  Serpula,  are  instances.  Of  all  these, 
distinct  imprints  have  been  discovered  in  the 
limestone  rocks  of  the  period  referred  to. 

The  CRUSTACEA  of  the  Silurian  system  include 
a  very  remarkable  and  peculiar  race  of  creatures 
which  are  called  Trilobites,  from  thfc  circum- 
stance of  their  bodies  consisting  of  three  lobes 
or  divisions.  Of  these  creatures  there  are  no  living 
representatives:  they  are  entirely  restricted  to 
the  Palaeozoic  or  most  ancient  fossiliferous  de- 
posits. In  these  remarkable  animals  the  body  is 
protected  by  -a  strong  case  or  shell,  composed  of 
numerous  ring-shaped  segments  or  arches,  and 
as  already  stated  is  divided  into  three  lobes  by 
two  longitudinal  furrows.  The  head  and  the 
abdomen  are,  however,  enclosed  in  a  single  piece 
of  armour.  The  eyes  are  large  and  are  found  to 
consist  of  numerous  facets  or  lenses,  and  are  thus 
similar  in  structure  to  the  eyes  of  several  kinds 
of  crustaceans  at  present  existing,  as  well  as  those 
of  various  insects,  such  as  the  house-fly  and  the 


60  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

dragon-fly.  No  traces  of  feet  or  swimmers  have 
been  found,  and  it  has  therefore  been  supposed 
that  these  organs  must  have  been  of  a  soft  and 
perishable  nature.  Trilobites  occur  in  great  mul- 
titudes in  the  Dudley  limestone.  They  seem  to 
have  varied  greatly  in  form  and  magnitude.  Some 
of  them  were  of  very  minute  size,  others  twenty  or 
twenty-four  inches  in  length ;  some  possessed  the 
power  of  coiling  themselves  into  a  ball  like  the 
Oniscus  or  wood-louse  ;  in  others  this  was  impos- 
sible, the  central  segments  alone  being  moveable ; 
in  some  the  body  was  elongated,  so  as  to  form  a 
tail  of  greater  or  less  dimensions,  in  others  it  was 
truncated,  without  any  appearance  of  a  caudal 
appendage.  These  remarkable  creatures,  of  which 
about  250  varieties  have  been  discovered,  formed 
the  great  mass  of  the  population  of  the  Palaeozoic 
seas.  It  is  impossible  not  to  regard  their  forms 
with  great  interest,  inscribed  as  they  are,  and  with 
such  marvellous  accuracy,  in  the  solid  rock ;  for 
they  are  the  typical  hieroglyphics  of  an  epoch, 
compared  with  the  antiquity  of  which  the  re- 
motest period  of  Egyptian  history  is  as  nothing, 
and  they  refer  us  to  one  of  the  most  august 
periods  in  the  history  of  our  planet,  when  the 
all-creating  Spirit  first  peopled  the  primitive 
waters  with  living  forms. 

We  have  already  mentioned  that  the  eyes  of  the 
Trilobite  were  similar  in  structure  to  those  of 
certain  insects  and  crustaceans  at  present  existing. 
The  discovery  of  this  fact,  and  some  deductions 
consequent  upon  it,  are  among  the  most  marvellous 
things  unfolded  to  us  by  geology.  The  micro- 


EYES   OF   THE   TRILOBITE.  61 

scope  has  disclosed  to  us  the  structure  of  an  insect's 
eye,  which  is  one  of  the  most  striking  miracles 
of  Divine  skill  which  the  bodies  of  living  beings 
exhibit.  The  human  eye,  and  that  of  other 
mammalia,  consists  of  a  single  optical  instrument 
analogous  in  its  structure  to  a  telescope,  or  re- 
sembling rather  a  photographic  apparatus  with  its 
lens,  its  dark  chamber,  and  the  paper  on  which  to 
receive  the  reduced  image  of  the  object  to  be 
observed,  answering  to  similar  parts  of  the  eye 
itself.  The  eye  of  an  insect,  however,  consists,  not 
of  a  single  optical  instrument  thus  constructed, 
but  of  a  series  of  such  instruments,  each  furnished 
with  its  separate  lens,  pupil,  cornea  and  optic 
nerve,  but  all  combined  together  in  the  one  eye. 
In  the  common  house-fly  there  are  8,000  such 
distinct  optical  instruments  in  each  eye,  and 
nearly  13,000  in  the  eye  of  a  dragon-fly.  Each  of 
these  distinct  tubes,  with  its  accompanying  appa- 
ratus of  vision,  is  indicated  by  one  of  the  facets  into 
which  the  outward  surface  of  the  one  compound 
eye  is  cut,  and  the  structure  is  rendered  necessary 
because  the  eye  is  motionless  and  cannot  be  directed 
towards  its  object  with  the  facility  in  which  this 
can  be  done  by  the  mammalia.  Than  this  no 
portion  of  the  structure  of  an  insect  exhibits  a  more 
remarkable  instance  at  once  of  creative  skill  and 
foresight — skill  in  the  formation  of  the  complicated 
apparatus  itself  and  its  accurate  adaptation  to  the 
laws  of  light,  and  foresight  in  anticipating  and 
supplying  the  wants  of  the  creature  to  whose 
structure  it  occurs. 


62 


SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 


An  examination  of  the  eyes  of  a  trilobite  proves 
that  they  were  constructed  in  the  manner  now 
described.  The  creature  has  two  compound  eyes, 
each  of  them  possessing  several  hundreds  of  the 
separate  visual  organs  already  described,  but  each 
imperfect  on  the  side  opposite  to  each  other,  be- 
cause in  that  position  unnecessary.  Dr.  Buckland 
thus  expresses  himself  on  the  subject : — "  We  find 
in  the  trilobite  of  those  early  rocks,  the  same  modi- 
fications of  the  organ  of  sight  as  in  the  living 
crustaceans.  The  same  kind  of  instrument  was 
also  employed  in  the  intermediate  periods  of  our 
geological  history,  when  the  secondary  strata  were 
deposited  at  the  bottom  of  a  sea  inhabited  by 
Limuli  in  those  regions  of  Europe  which  now  form 
the  elevated  plains  of  Central  Germany.  But  these 
results  are  not  confined  to  physiology :  they  prove 
also, the  ancient  condition  of  the  seas  and  the 
atmosphere,  and  the  relation  of  both  these  media 
to  light.  For  in  those  remote  epochs  the  marine 
animals  are  furnished  with  instruments  of  vision 
in  which  the  minute  optical  adaptations  were  the 
same  as  those  which  now  impart  the  perception  of 
light  to  the  living  Crustacea.  The  mutual  relations 
of  light  to  the  eye  and  of  the  eye  to  light  were 
therefore  the  same  at  the  time  when  crustaceans 
first  existed  at  the  bottom  of  the  Silurian  seas  as 
at  the  present  moment."  The  conclusion  at  which 
Dr.  Buckland  thus  arrives  may  be  less  generally 
expressed  thus :  At  that  period  in  the  history  of 
the  planet  we  inhabit,  when  its  waters  alone  con- 
tained living  beings,  countless  ages  before  the 


DEVONIAN   FOSSILS.  63 

superior  races  of  creatures,  or  man  had  himself 
appeared,  the  sun-light  was  as  perfect  as  it  now  is, 
the  rays  of  light  obeyed  the  same  laws  of  refrac- 
tion then  as  now,  and  perhaps  we  may  add,  when 
this  globe,  which  is  comparatively  a  small  portion 
of  the  solar  system  was  in  its  rudest  condition,  and 
those  alterations  had  not  yet  occurred  on  its  sur- 
face requisite  to  fit  it  to  be  the  habitation  of  the 
human  race.  The  sun,  the  centre  of  the  system 
of  which  it  is  a  part,  had  already  attained  a  high 
condition  of  perfection  during  an  existence  it 
may  be  of  myriads  of  years  antecedent  to  the 
time  when  the  all-creating  Power  called  this 
planet  into  existence,  sent  it  on  its  annual  course 
round  the  sun,  and  peopled  it  with  its  innumerable 
living  forms,  and  at  last  placed  man  upon  it 
endowed  with  the  capacity  of  admiring  the  place  of 
his  abode,  and  doing  homage  to  that  mighty  Arti- 
ficer whose  wisdom  and  whose  power  it  unfolds. 

II.  The  formation  to  which  we  are  now  to  turn  is 
the  Devonian,  which  is  second  in  point  of  antiquity 
to  the  Silurian,  and  is  an  assemblage  of  sandstones, 
marls,  conglomerates,  beds  of  coralline  marble  and 
laminated  micaceous  sandstones :  this  formation, 
from  the  generally  dull  red  colour  communicated 
to  some  of  the  strata  belonging  to  it,  has  been 
called  the  OldEed  Sandstone.  We  have  already  seen 
in  our  tour  along  the  sea-shore  that  it  is  developed 
in  various  parts  of  the  coast,  such  as  Devonshire 
or  Cornwall,  Herefordshire,  portions  of  Wales,  and 
various  parts  of  the  coast  of  Scotland.  The  organic 
remains  of  this  formation  are  extremely  rich.  They 


64  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

contain  many  peculiar  types,  and  are  supposed  to 
form  a  connecting  link  between  those  of  the 
Silurian  system,  which  preceded  the  Devonian,  and 
the  Carboniferous  system,  which  followed  it. 

Almost  the  only  traces  of  vegetables  found  in 
this  system,  are,  like  those  of  the  Silurian,  the  re- 
mains of  fucoid  plants. 

The  Zoophytes  are  numerous,  and  consist  of 
corals  and  Crinoidea,  comprising  a  number  of 
kinds  ;  the  Mollusca  contain  many  genera  and 
species,  such  as  those  of  Buccinum,  Turbo,  Pecten 
and  others ;  the  Cephalopoda  are  also  numerous, 
embracing  such  shells  as  those  of  Orthoceras, 
Bellerophon  and  others. 

Among  the  Crustaceans  of  this  formation  are 
considerable  numbers  of  trilobites,  which,  as 
already  shown,  are  embedded  in  countless  my- 
riads in  the  older  strata  of  the  Silurian. 

The  fishes  of  this  formation,  according  to 
Agassiz,  amount  to  at  least  a  hundred  species,  of 
which  those  belonging  to  British  strata  are  more 
than  sixty  in  number.  Of  these  the  Cephalaspis 
or  buckler-head ;  the  Perichthys  or  winged-fish ; 
and  the  Coccosteus  or  berry-bone,  may  be  men- 
tioned as  examples. 

III.  We  now  turn  to  the  fossils  of  the  Carboni- 
ferous system,  so  called  because  it  comprises  the 
principal  deposits  of  mineral  fuel.  This  system  is 
next  in  point  of  antiquity  to  the  Devonian,  which 
in  order  of  time  occupies  the  interval  between  the 
Carboniferous  and  the  Silurian  systems.  The  Car- 
boniferous formation  extends,  as  already  stated, 


CARBONIFEROUS  SYSTEM.  65 

to  various  portions  of  our  sea-shores,  as  those  of 
South  Wales,  Lancashire,  Northumberland,  and 
various  parts  of  Scotland.  This  formation  consists 
of  the  coal  measures,  deposits  of  ironstone,  mill- 
stone grit,  and  limestone,  exhibiting  great  variety 
of  hue  and  quality.  The  organic  remains  peculiar 
to  it  are  very  numerous,  and  of  great  interest. 

The  fossil  plants  of  this  system  are  extremely 
characteristic :  they  constitute  the  entire  mass  of 
those  deposits  of  coal  which  are  of  such  surpassing 
value  to  mankind ;  they  are  likewise  thickly  inter- 
spersed throughout  the  other  formations  belonging 
to  the  carboniferous  system,  and  are,  as  may  be 
presumed,  of  great  interest  to  the  student  of  fossil 
botany.  Without  discussing  the  many  interesting 
questions  which  suggest  themselves  on  the  subject 
of  the  structure  and  other  peculiarities  of  the  plants 
of  the  era  to  which  the  coal  deposits  belong,  we  can 
only  point  out  a  few  examples  of  those  plants. 
Many  of  the  plants  were  evidently  similar  in  bota- 
nical character  to  the  equisetum  or  mare's-tail,  so 
common  in  all  our  marshes  at  the  present  day ;  but 
these  calamites  were  of  gigantic  dimensions ;  exist- 
ing plants  of  this  species  are  little  more  than  a  foot 
and  a  half  in  height,  and  their  stems  about  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  stems  of  the  fossil 
specimens,  on  the  other  hand,  are  often  fourteen 
inches  in  diameter,  and  thirty  feet  in  length. 
The  common  fern  is  also  an  example  of  another 
numerous  family  of  plants  which  flourished  during 
the  carboniferous  period.  These  were  Sigillarise  or 
tree-ferns  such  as  belong  at  present  to  the  torrid 
F 


66  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

zone.  Many  of  them  were  from  thirty,  forty,  and 
sixty  feet  in  height.  The  leaves  of  this  tribe  of 
plants  exhibit  great  elegance  and  variety  of  forms, 
and  are  pictured  with  wonderful  accuracy  and 
minuteness  in  the  coal  shale.  Besides  the  tree- 
ferns  there  were  Lepidodendra,or  arborescent  club- 
mosses  of  gigantic  dimensions,  attaining  an  altitude 
of  sixty  or  seventy  feet.  These  cryptogamic  plants 
grew  with  extreme  rapidity  and  luxuriance  in  the 
hot  and  moist  atmosphere  of  the  period  to  which 
they  belonged,  and  formed  in  the  mode  explained 
by  geologists  those  immense  deposits  of  coal  which 
belong  to  the  formation  now  in  question. 

The  animal  remains  must  now  be  referred  to. 
The  Zoophytes  and  Mollusca  exhibit  numerous 
corals  and  crinoideans,  shells  of  great  varieties  of 
form  occurring  in  the  limestone  strata  of  the 
formation.  Among  the  Crustaceans  of  this  period 
are  animals  which  are  referred  to  the  Limulus  or 
king-crab,  a  genus  abundant  at  present  in  the 
Indian  seas.  We  also  discover  vestiges  of  the 
trilobites  which  belong,  as  we  have  seen,  to  the 
Silurian  waters,  but  which  had  become  extinct 
long  antecedent  to  the  Carboniferous  era.  The 
fossil  remains  of  insects,  including  various  kinds 
of  beetles ;  fossil  scorpions  and  various  fishes,  many 
of  them  of  great  magnitude,  and  some  related  to 
lizards  in  character  and  form,  others  to  the  shark 
family,  and  many  of  them  possessed  of  finely 
enamelled  scales,  and  having  their  heads  protected 
"by  strong  and  smooth  plates  of  enamel. 

IV.  The  Permian  Formation  now  remains  to  be 
noticed  as  belonging  to  the  Palaeozoic  system.  This 


FOSSILS   OF   THE   PERMIAN.  67 

formation  is  the  Magnesian  Limestone ;  it  occurs 
in  certain  portions  of  our  sea-shores,  as  for  example 
from  Tynemouth  to  Hartlepool,  at  St.  Bees  Head, 
and  at  Maryport.  It  is  the  last,  and  least  ancient  of 
the  Palaeozoic  formations,  and  is  characterised  by 
a  peculiar  type  of  organic  remains,  and  by  an  entire 
absence  of  any  species  of  fossil  that  occurs  in  the 
newer  strata.  Between  the  period  of  the  Permian 
formation  and  the  most  ancient  of  the  secondary 
strata,  one  of  the  two  grand  revolutions  in  the 
organic  world  occurred,  and  hence  the  fossil  re- 
mains of  the  Permian  possess  great  interest,  as 
exhibiting  the  last  and  most  advanced  condition 
of  organic  life  in  the  Palaeozoic  era,  and  as  being 
separated  by  a  vast  and  marvellous  revolution  from 
the  succeeding  epoch. 

•  The  plants  of  this  formation  are  such  as  are 
common  to  the  coal  measures,  and  the  same  remark 
may  be  made  as  to  a  large  number  of  the  Kadiata, 
Mollusca,  and  Articulata.  Of  the  trilobites  which 
swarmed  in  the  Silurian  seas,  and  which  occurred 
to  a  limited  extent  in  the  Carboniferous  formation, 
there  are  no  traces  whatever  in  the  Permian. 

The  fishes  of  the  Permian  comprise  about  fifty 
species.  They  all  seem  to  have  possessed  the  pecu- 
liar modification  of  the  tail  in  which  the  vertebral 
column  is  prolonged  into  the  upper  lobe  of  the 
caudal  fins.  This  remarkable  structure  of  the 
caudal  fin,  although  apparently  universal  among 
the  fishes  of  the  Permian  group,  is  found  to  be 
of  excessive  rarity  in  the  fishes  of  the  secondary 

and  tertiary  epochs ;  and  at  the  present  day  almost 

F   2 


68  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

the  only  members  of  the  finny  tribe  in  which  it 
occurs,  are  the  sturgeons  and  various  kinds  of 
sharks,  including  of  course  the  dog-fish  of  our  own 
seas.  The  fishes  of  the  Permian  are  chiefly  ganoid, 
and  are  so  called  from  the  character  of  their  scales, 
which  are  composed  of  angular  plates  of  horn  or 
bone  thickly  enamelled.  They  consist  of  various 
kinds,  such  as  Palseoniscus,  Platysomus,  Ceratodus 
and  others. 

The  Permian  formation  affords  the  earliest 
certain  indications  of  the  existence  of  reptiles  on 
our  globe,  although  it  appears  that  some  slight 
traces  of  their  existence  during  the  Carboniferous 
era  have  been  discovered.  Fossil  lizards,  turtles 
and  crocodiles  belong  to  this  period ;  and  among 
the  saurians  are  found  the  remains  of  the  huge 
marine  lizard  called  Ichthyosaurus  or  fish-lizard, 
the  Plesiosaurus,  another  marine  reptile,  and  the 
Pterodactyle  or  winged  lizard. 

It  will  thus  be  perceived  that  the  various  for- 
mations of  the  Palaeozoic  or  most  ancient  strata, 
are  represented  more  or  less  abundantly  in  various 
parts  of  our  sea-shores. 

We  now  turn  to  the  consideration  of  the 
SECONDARY  EPOCH,  the  various  formations  com- 
posing which  are  more  or  less  extensively  repre- 
sented in  various  parts  of  our  sea-shores,  as,  for 
instance,  in  parts  of  Cheshire,  Denbighshire  and 
Devonshire.  Observing  the  order  already  adopted, 
we  shall  first  consider  the  lowest  and  most  ancient 
of  the  Secondary  formations. 

I.  The  Triassic  Formation.  The  name  triassic  is 


FOSSILS   OF  THE   TRIAS,   OOLITE,   ETC.  69 

derived  from  the  circumstance  that  this  formation 
exhibits  a  triple  series  of  limestone,  sandstone  and 
variegated  marls,  and  conglomerates,  containing 
peculiar  fossils.  This  formation  is  the  great 
depository  of  rock  salt. 

As  to  the  organic  remains  the  trias  presents  a  re- 
markable contrast  with  the  formation  immediately 
above  in  the  paucity  of  such  remains.  Twenty  or 
thirty  kinds  of  ferns  and  cone-bearing  plants  have, 
however,  been  attained.  The  animal  remains  are 
numerous  and  various.  They  consist  of  zoophytes 
and  corals,  lily  encrinites,  so  called  from  their 
resemblance  to  that  flower;  fishes  of  various  kinds, 
reptiles  of  the  lizard  and  frog  tribes,  many  of  them 
of  vast  dimensions,  and  one  of  them  in  particular 
presenting  a  most  unique  and  marvellous  structure, 
having  a  pair  of  huge  tusks  like  the  walrus,  and 
thence  called  Dicynodon  or  bidental ;  huge  birds 
likewise  appear  to  have  belonged  to  this  formation ; 
their  footprints  have  been  discovered  distinctly 
marked,  eighteen  inches  in  length  by  fourteen  in 
breadth,  deeply  made  originally  in  the  mud  in 
which  the  creature  walked.  These  immense  birds 
appear  to  have  been  four  or  five  times  larger  than 
an  African  ostrich,  and  must  have  weighed  about 
600  Ibs. 

II.  The  Oolite  and  Lias  formation  now  claim 
our  notice.  These  formations,  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  one,  occur  in  some  portions  of  the  coasts 
of  Yorkshire  and  Devonshire,  and  also  in  various 
parts  of  the  Scottish  coast. 

The  fossils  of  these  formations  consist  of  fucoids, 

F  3 


70  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

'trees  allied  to  pines,  and  similar  to  the  Araucaria, 
corals  and  other  zoophytes,  nautili,  ammonites, 
belemnites,  cuttles,  &c.  ;  crustaceans  allied  to 
shrimps,  lobsters  and  crabs  ;  various  insects  and 
numerous  fishes  and  reptiles. 

III.  The  Wealden  formation  is  next  in  order, 
and  extends  from  the  interior  along  the  coast  of 
England  to  the  east  and  west  of  Hastings,  in  the 
county  of  Sussex.  This  formation  is  a  series  of 
fluviatile  deposits  of  great  thickness  and  extent, 
and  consists  of  alternations  of  clays,  limestones, 
sandstones  and  sand,  with  beds  of  freshwater 
shells  and  crustaceans.  The  fossil  remains  pecu- 
liar to  this  formation  are  those  of  enormous  land 
and  aquatic  reptiles*  and  various  trees  and  plants. 
The  Wealden  series  of  deposits  afford  the  most 
striking  evidence  of  a  vast  alternation  in  the  rela- 
tions of  land  and  water  having  occurred  at  the 
remote  epoch  when  they  were  deposited.  All 
the  strata  seem  to  have  been  deposited  by  the 
waters  of  a  great  river;  the  organic  remains  are 
chiefly,  if  not  wholly,  such  as  belonged  to  creatures 
inhabiting  fresh  water,  and  what  now  forms  the 
south-eastern  district  of  England  must  at  a  far 
distant  epoch  have  been  the  mouth  of  an  immense 
river  flowing  from  a  vast  inland  lake,  the  shores 
of  which  were  the  abode  of  those  prodigious  forms 
of  animal  life  which  the  strata  now  disclose. 
How  difficult  to  realise  all  this  while  wandering 
at  the  present  day  along  the  sea-shores  of  Sussex ! 
How  brief  and  transitory  human  life  appears  when 
contrasted  with  the  immense  series  of  ages  to 


FOSSILS   OP   THE   WEALDEN.  71 

which  these  geological  changes  refer ;  and  how 
marvellous  are  those  physical  laws  by  which  the 
All-wise  Author  of  Nature  carries  out  the  purposes 
of  his  creative  and  providential  designs ! 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  reptiles  of  the 
Wealden  is  the  iguanodon,  a  lizard  of  enormous 
dimensions.  The  fossil  remains  of  this  creature 
indicate  the  extraordinary  size  it  attained.  The 
leg  and  thigh  bones  prove  that  the  entire  length 
of  the  limb  of  a  full-grown  specimen  must  have 
exceeded  nine  feet,  and  when  covered  with  muscles 
and  integuments  of  suitable  proportions  the  limb 
could  not  have  been  less  than  seven  feet  in  cir- 
cumference !  The  body  of  this  gigantic  lizard 
was  as  large  as  that  of  the  largest  elephant,  and  its 
length,  if  the  tail  was  slender,  was  probably  sixty 
feet,  or  if  the  tail,  like  that  of  some  lizards,  were 
short,  the  whole  length  of  the  animal  must  have 
been  at  least  thirty  feet.  Besides  the  iguanodon 
there  were  other  reptiles  of  no  less  magnitude ; 
and  fossil  remains  have  been  discovered  which 
belonged  to  reptiles  having  the  power  of  flying 
through  the  air. 

The  character  of  the  country  which  these 
creatures  inhabited  is  remarkably  indicated  by 
the  fossil  remains  thus  discovered.  It  does  not 
appear  whether  it  was  an  island  or  a  continent, 
but  it  appears  to  have  been  diversified  by  hills 
and  valleys,  rivers  and  lakes,  and  possessed  a 
climate  much  higher  in  temperature  than  any 
part  of  modern  Europe.  Palm  trees,  arborescent 
ferns,  and  various  kinds  of  cone-bearing  trees 

F  4 


72  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

formed  its  groves  and  forests,  and  the  land  was 
clothed  with  a  large  abundance  of  ferns.  Among 
its  herbivorous  quadrupeds  was  the  gigantic  igu- 
anodon  already  mentioned ;  among  its  carnivora 
was  the  megalosaurus  and  other  huge  reptiles,  and 
crocodiles  and  turtles  inhabited  its  rivers,  while 
its  waters  teemed  with  mollusca,  crustaceans  and 
fishes.  The  greater  part  of  all  the  bones  which 
have  been  discovered  appear  beyond  doubt  to  have 
been  rolled  and  broken  ;  the  teeth  have  been  de- 
tached from  their  sockets,  and  all  the  bones  of  the 
extremities  and  of  the  vertebrae  have  been  sepa- 
rated, and  scattered  in  confusion.  The  trees,  too, 
have  been  torn  to  pieces,  and  their  branches 
broken  into  fragments.  This  was  evidently 
effected,  not  by  the  waves  of  the  ocean,  but  by  the 
violent  currents  of  rivers.  The  condition  of 
these  fossils  is  sufficient  to  prove  that  they  were 
floated  down  the  rivers  with  the  rafts  of  trees  and 
other  spoils  of  the  land,  till,  arrested  in  their 
course,  they  sunk  to  the  bottom  or  became  em- 
bedded in  the  soil.  The  immense  extent  and  vast 
quantity  of  the  deposits  thus  accumulated,  prove 
that  the  river  which  flowed  through  the  country 
inhabited  by  the  iguanodon  must  have  been  as 
large  in  its  volume  as  the  Mississippi,  and  that  it 
had  a  course  not  of  hundreds,  but  of  thousands  of 
miles.  How  marvellous  are  the  changes  which 
the  science  of  geology  thus  indicates  as  having 
occurred  on  the  surface  of  our  globe ! 

IV.  The  Cretaceous  or  Chalk  formation  presents 
itself  to  us  as  the  least  ancient  of  the  formations 


FOSSILS   OF  TERTIARY  EPOCH.  73 

of  the  secondary  epoch.  It  extends  over  a  large 
district  of  the  interior  of  England,  and  reaches  to 
various  parts  of  the  coasts  of  Hampshire,  Sussex, 
Kent,  Norfolk  and  Yorkshire.  It  consists  chiefly 
of  marine  strata,  comprehending  the  white  lime- 
stone called  chalk,  and  various  marls,  clays,  and 
sandstones. 

This  formation  abounds  with  the  remains  of 
extinct  species  of  zoophytes,  molluscs,  fishes  and 
reptiles:  the  characters  of  the  chalk  formation 
are  those  of  a  vast  oceanic  basin,  filled  up  with 
organic  and  inorganic  debris,  the  innumerable  re- 
mains of  successive  generations  of  marine  animals 
which  lived  and  died  in  its  waters  during  periods 
of  incalculable  duration. 

Having  thus  briefly  reviewed  the  several  forma- 
tions which  belong  to  the  secondary  epoch  from 
the  most  ancient  and  lowest  formation  to  the 
least  ancient  and  highest,  in  the  series,  we  are 
now  to  consider  the  fossils  of  that  epoch  which 
intervenes  between  the  secondary  and  the  modern 
or  human  epoch. 

The  TERTIARY  EPOCH  comprises  an  extensive 
series  of  marine,  fluvio-marine  and  lacustrine 
deposits,  containing  the  remains  of  all  the  existing 
orders  of  animals  and  vegetables  associated  with 
those  of  numerous  extinct  genera.  This  formation 
extends  from  the  interior  along  the  northern  coasts 
of  Kent  to  those  of  Norfolk,  Lincolnshire,  and 
part  of  Yorkshire,  H  ampshire  and  Lancashire. 
At  the  time  of  the  great  chalk  or  cretaceous  for- 
mation, which,  as  we  have  seen,  is  the  last  and 


74  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

least  ancient  of  the  secondary  rocks,  it  would 
appear  that  the  surface  of  the  earth  presented  the. 
appearance  of  great  unevenness.  On  this  account 
what  is  now  the  continent  of  Europe  was  a  group 
of  islands  with  wide  channels  and  seas  lying  be- 
tween them.  The  tertiary  epoch  presents  us  with 
the  geological  formations  by  which  many  of  the 
deep  depressions  on  the  surface  were  filled  up. 
Thus,  London  and  Paris  are  situated  above  the  de- 
posits thus  formed,  the  tertiary  deposits  filling  up 
the  basin  over  which  London  is  built  being  from 
300  to  600  feet  in  thickness. 

The  fossils  of  the  tertiary  epoch  are  extremely 
numerous.  The  shells  alone  amount  to  nearly 
3000  kinds.  Fishes,  reptiles,  and  birds,  occur 
in  it  in  great  number  and  variety.  At  this 
epoch  the  earth  had  become  the  fit  abode  of 
creatures  superior  to  the  amphibious  reptiles 
which  were  the  principal  inhabitants  of  more 
ancient  formations.  Accordingly  the  remains  of 
the  tertiary  epoch  are  those  of  pachydermata  or 
thick-skinned  animals,  of  which  the  elephant  and 
the  rhinoceros  are  existing  specimens.  But  many 
of  them  were  of  vast  bulk  and  uncouth  shape. 
The  Megatherium  was  larger  than  the  largest 
existing  species  of  elephant.  The  Mylodon  was 
nearly  as  large  as  the  Hippopotamus.  Along  the 
eastern  coast  of  England  and  off  the  mouth  of  the 
Thames,  teeth,  tusks,  and  bones  of  elephants  are 
often  dredged  up  by  the  fishermen,  which  have 
been  washed  out  of  the  deposits  belonging  to  the 
tertiary  period.  Great  numbers  of  the  fossil 


MULTITUDES   OF   LIVING   BEINGS.  75 

^ 

bones  of  mammalia  have  also  been  discovered  at 
Herne  Bay  and  along  the  shores  of  Lincolnshire 
and  Norfolk,  as  well  as  other  parts  of  the  coast  to 
which  the  tertiary  formation  extends. 

Such  are  the  various  formations  belonging  to 
the  epochs  or  periods  in  the  physical  history  of 
our  planet  which  preceded  the  period  when  the 
human  race  became  its  inhabitants.  From  the 
earliest  deposits,  having  for  their  immediate  foun- 
dation the  primary  unstratified  rocks,  to  the 
human  epoch,  we  discover  that  an  inconceivable 
multitude  of  creatures  existed,  suited  with  infi- 
nite wisdom  to  the  condition  of  the  globe  at  their 
respective  periods.  Vast  multitudes  of  these  crea- 
tures from  age  to  age  became  extinct,  and  were 
succeeded  by  others  of  a  higher  type  as  the 
unnumbered  ages  passed  away.  From  the  first 
formation  of  the  globe  to  the  completion  of  the 
tertiary  formation,  and  the  deposit  of  the  bed  of 
clay  on  which  Paris  and  London  stand,  everything 
indicates  that,  so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  judge, 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  years  must  have  elapsed. 
Imagination  is  lost  in  endeavouring  to  conceive 
the  vastness  and  the  violence  of  the  changes  to 
which  the  earth  has  thus  been  subject,  before  it 
became,  in  the  eyes  of  its  mighty  Creator,  a  suit- 
able abode  for  man.  That  changes  perhaps  as 
marvellous  still  await  the  earth  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  doubt ;  changes  in  which  the  destiny 
of  man  is  involved,  and  which  may  be  succeeded 
by  an  improvement  in  the  condition  of  the  earth 
and  an  advancement  in  the  state  of  the  human 


76  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

race,  as  great  and  as  marvellous  as  some  of  those 
which  geology  points  out  as  having  already  oc- 
curred. The  gradual  progress  from  the  lowest  to 
the  highest  orders  of  creatures  which  the  investi- 
gations of  geology  establish,  may  be  considered  as 
supporting  the  hypothesis  that  such  changes  as 
we  refer  to,  and  accompanied  by  still  higher  ad- 
vancement, may  still  constitute  a  part  of  the 
system  of  the  divine  administration  as  regards 
this  portion  of  the  universe. 

We  shall  close  the  review  thus  taken  of  the 
fossil  remains  of  the  various  formations  with  a 
passage  from  an  eloquent  writer,  in  which  he 
supposes  some  being  of  high  intelligence  from 
another  sphere  to  describe  the  series  of  muta- 
tions which  have  occurred  from  the  period  of  the 
Wealden  formation  to  the  present  time.  (<  Count- 
less ages  ere  man  was  created,"  he  might  say, 
"  I  visited  these  regions  of  the  earth,  and  beheld 
a  beautiful  country  of  vast  extent,  diversified  by 
hill  and  dale,  with  its  rivulets,  streams,  and  mighty 
rivers,  flowing  through  fertile  plains.  Groves  of 
palms  and  ferns,  and  forests  of  coniferous  trees, 
clothed  its  surface ;  and  I  saw  monsters,  of  the 
reptile  tribe,  so  huge  that  nothing  among  the 
existing  races  can  compare  with  them,  basking 
on  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  and  roaming  through 
its  forests ;  while  in  its  fens  and  marshes  were 
sporting  thousands  of  crocodiles  and  turtles. 
Winged  reptiles  of  strange  forms  shared  with 
birds  the  dominion  of  the  air,  and  the  waters 
teemed  with  fishes,  shells,  and  Crustacea.  And 


MULTITUDES   OF   LIVING   BEINGS.  77 

after  the  lapse  of  many  ages  I  again  visited  the 
earth ;  and  the  country,  with  its  innumerable 
dragon-forms,  and  its  tropical  forests,  all  had 
disappeared,  and  an  ocean  had  usurped  their 
place.  And  its  waters  teemed  with  nautili,  am- 
monites, and  other  cephalopoda,  of  races  now 
extinct ;  and  innumerable  fishes  and  marine  rep- 
tiles. And  thousands  of  centuries  rolled  by,  and 
I  returned,  and  lo !  the  ocean  was  gone,  and  dry 
land  had  again  appeared,  and  it  was  covered  with 
groves  and  forests;  but  these  were  wholly  dif- 
ferent in  character  from  those  of  the  vanished 
country  of  the  iguanodon.  And  I  beheld  quietly 
browsing,  herds  of  deer  of  enormous  size,  and 
groups  of  elephants,  mastodons,  and  other  her- 
bivorous animals  of  colossal  magnitude.  And  I 
saw  in  its  rivers  and  marshes  the  hippopotamus, 
tapir,  and  rhinoceros ;  and  I  heard  the  roar  of  the 
lion  and  the  tiger,  and  the  yell  of  the  hyaena  and 
the  bear.  And  another  epoch  passed  away,  and  I 
came  again  to  the  scene  of  my  former  contem- 
plations ;  and  all  the  mighty  forms  which  I  had 
left  had  disappeared ;  the  face  of  the  country  no 
longer  presented  the  same  aspect ;  it  was  broken 
into  islands,  and  the  bottom  of  the  sea  had  be- 
come dry  land,  and  what  before  was  dry  land  had 
sunk  beneath  the  waves.  Herds  of  deer  were  still 
to  be  seen  on  the  plains,  with  swine  and  horses 
and  oxen  ;  and  bears  and  wolves  in  the  woods  and 
forests.  And  I  beheld  human  beings,  clad  in  the 
skins  of  animals,  and  arnred  with  clubs  and  spears; 
and  they  had  formed  themselves  habitations  in 


78  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

caves,  constructed  huts  for  shelter,  and  enclosed 
pastures  for  cattle,  and  were  endeavouring  to  cul- 
tivate the  soil.  And  a  thousand  years  elapsed, 
and  I  revisited  the  country,  and  a  village  had 
been  built  on  the  sea-shore,  and  its  inhabitants 
supported  themselves  by  fishing,  and  they  had 
erected  a  temple  on  the  neighbouring  hill,  and 
dedicated  it  to  their  patron  saint.  And  the  ad- 
jacent country  was  studded  with  towns  and  vil- 
lages ;  and  the  downs  were  covered  with  flocks 
and  the  valleys  with  herds,  and  the  cornfields  and 
pastures  were  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation,  de- 
noting an  industrious  and  peaceful  community. 
And  lastly,  after  an  interval  of  many  centuries, 
I  arrived  once  more,  and  the  village  was  swept 
away,  and  its  site  covered  by  the  waves :  but  in 
the  valley  and  on  the  hills  above  the  cliffs  a 
beautiful  city  appeared,  with  its  palaces,  its 
temples,  and  its  thousand  edifices,  and  its  streets 
teeming  with  a  busy  population  in  the  highest 
state  of  civilisation;  the  resort  of  the  nobles  of 
the  land,  the  residence  of  the  monarch  of  a 
mighty  empire." 

The  period  referred  to  in  this  passage  is  that 
which  intervenes  between  the  time  when  the 
Portland  forests  were  flourishing  and  the  present 
day.  That  interval  forms  but  a  very  small  part 
of  the  many  and  vast  intervals  during  which  the 
various  formations  were  deposited  which  are  more 
ancient  than  the  era  of  the  forests  of  Portland. 
And  yet  it  must  itself  have  embraced  a  period  of 
vast  duration. 


THE    OCEAN 


81 


CHAP.  V. 

THE   OCEAN. 

Aspect  of  the  Ocean. — Sunrise  and  Sunset. — Extent. — Relation 
to  Kivers  and  Lakes. — Medium  of  Intercourse. — Depth. — 
Colour. — Saltness. — Circulation  in  the  Ocean. — Coral  Eeefs, 
fee, 

How  magnificent  the  spectacle  which  the  ocean 
presents  from  its  shores !  Every  one  who  is 
in  any  degree  capable  of  creating  for  himself  the 
"inner  world  of  thought"  must  acknowledge 
that  no  external  object  is  more  calculated  to  ele- 
vate the  mind,  and  to  fill  it  with  grand  and 
sublime  ideas,  than  the  vast  and  boundless  sea. 
Casting  our  eyes  towards  the  distant  horizon, 
where  sea  and  sky,  air  and  water,  seem  to  meet 
and  blend  together,  it  is  impossible  for  us,  if  we 
are  at  all  alive  to  ennobling  impressions,  not  to 
perceive  in  the  boundless  and  unbroken  prospect 
a  striking  and  sublime  image  of  infinitude. 

Let  us  wander  down  to  the  beach  before  sunrise 
on  a  spring  or  summer  morning.  There  is  not  a 
breath  of  wind  stirring.  The  fishermen's  boats 
anchored  a  little  way  from  shore  lie  motionless 
in  the  calm  water.  The  shores  are  deserted. 
Even  their  feathered  visitants,  so  busy  during  the 

G 


82  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

day,  have  not  yet  begun  their  labours.  The  wave- 
lets, for  the  tide  is  full,  are  gently  breaking  on  the 
pebbly  shore  with  a  soothing  murmur,  and  a 
narrow  fringe  of  white  foam,  extending  far  away 
on  each  hand,  marks  the  line  where  they  break 
upon  the  shingle.  Seated  on  a  rock  let  us  observe 
the  gradual  birth  of  the  day. 

A  long  line  of  light  marks  the  edge  of  the 
eastern  horizon.  The  few  clouds  hanging  over  it 
are  suffused  with  a  roseate  hue  suggesting  the 
poet's  beautiful  idea  of  the  rosy-fingered  Eos.  Now 
the  colour  brightens  into  a  golden  tint,  the  line 
of  light  passes  into  a  broad  general  refulgence, 
and  the  sun  emerges  as  if  out  of  the  deep.  How 
glorious  that  long  radiant  path  of  light  along  the 
surface  of  the  water  between  the  eye  and  the  sun ! 
Now  turn  toward  the  shores.  How  brightly  the 
little  billows  are  glancing  as  they  fall  upon  the 
pebbles !  How  much  of  all  this  splendour  is  due, 
not  merely  to  the  direct  rays  of  light  which  enter 
the  eye,  but  to  those  that  are  reflected  from  the 
water,  or  refracted  as  they  pass  through  the  clouds 
and  appear  on  the  various  tints  of  gold  and  purple ! 
While  the  laws  of  material  nature  are  adapted  to 
produce  these  effects,  and  the  eye  fitted  to  perceive 
them,  we  must  also  admit  that  in  the  mind  to 
which  the  scene  communicates  pleasure,  there  must 
likewise  be  such  an  adaptation  as  renders  the  pros- 
pect capable  of  eliciting  the  emotions  of  the  soul. 

From  our  western  shores  the  view  of  the  ocean 
at  sunset  is  no  less  magnificent,  touched  although 
it  is  with  a  certain  sadness  that  seems  to  a  thought- 


SUNSET   AT   SEA.  83 

ful  observer  to  accompany  the  waning  light  of  day. 
Chateaubriand  thus  eloquently  describes  a  scene 
not  unlike  that  of  sunset  from  our  coasts  in  mid- 
summer. He  i§  speaking  of  a  voyage  along  the 
shares  of  Virginia,  when  the  crew  of  his  ship  were 
called  to  evening  prayers.  (e  The  globe  of  the  sun, 
whose  lustre  even  then  our  eyes  could  scarcely 
endure,  ready  to  plunge  beneath  the  waves,  was 
discovered  through  the  rigging  in  the  midst  of  a 
boundless  space.  From  the  motion  of  the  stern 
of  our  vessel  it  appeared  as  if  the  radiant  orb 
every  moment  changed  its  horizon.  A  few  clouds 
wandered  confusedly  in  the  east,  where  the  moon 
was  slowly  rising ;  the  rest  of  the  sky  was  serene ; 
and  towards  the  north  a  water-spout  forming  a 
glorious  triangle  with  the  luminaries  of  day  and 
night  glistening  with  all  the  colours  of  a  prism, 
rose  out  of  the  sea  like  a  column  of  crystal  sup- 
porting the  vault  of  heaven.  He  who  recognised 
not  in  this  spectacle  the  beauty  of  the  Deity  was 
greatly  to  be  pitied.  Religious  tears  involuntarily 
flowed  from  my  eyes.  The  consciousness  of  our 
insignificance  excited  by  the  spectacle  of  infinity ; 
our  songs  resounding  to  a  distance  over  the  silent 
waves ;  the  night  approaching  with  its  dangers, 
and  our  occupation  in  supplicating  Him  whose 
spirit  inclined  over  the  abyss,  and  who  as  it  were 
with  one  hand  stayed  the  sun  at  the  portal  of  the 
west,  and  with  the  other  raised  the  moon  in  the 
eastern  hemisphere,  and  yet  lends  through  im- 
mensity an  attentive  ear  to  the  feeble  voice  of 
his  creatures.  This  is  a  picture  which  baffles 

G  2 


84  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

description,  and  which  the  whole  heart  of  man  is 
scarcely  sufficient  to  embrace." 

One  of  the  first  ideas  which  a  contemplation  of 
the  ocean  originates  is  that  of  itsVast  extent,  and 
a  comparison  is  naturally  suggested  between  the 
relative  extent  of  sea  and  land.  On  examining  a 
map  of  the  world,  we  observe  that  from  the  fortieth 
degree  of  south  latitude  to  the  Antarctic  pole,  the 
earth  is  almost  wholly  covered  with  water.  We  per- 
ceive also  that  the  ocean  predominates  between  the 
western  shores  of  the  New  World  and  the  eastern 
coasts  of  the  Old,  containing  but  a  few  groups  of 
islands  throughout  the  immense  intervening  space 
of  water.  The  proportion  of  the  solid  to  the  fluid 
surface  of  the  globe  is,  according  to  Eigaud,  as 
100  to  270,  in  other  words  nearly  three-fourths  of 
the  globe  are  covered  with  water. 

Now  these  relative  proportions  of  sea  and  land 
are  no  more  accidental  than  the  beautiful  and 
highly  organised  structures  of  an  animal's  body, 
every  part  of  which  affords  an  instance  of  wise  and 
beneficent  design;  for  it  has  been  clearly  estab- 
lished by  Humboldt  and  other  distinguished 
philosophers,  that  the  relation  thus  subsisting 
between  the  solid  and  fluid  parts  of  the  globe 
exercises  a  most  important  influence  on  the  dis- 
tribution of  temperature,  the  variations  of  atmo- 
spheric pressure,  the  direction  of  the  winds,  and 
the  quantity  of  moisture  contained  in  the  air,  with 
which  the  development  of  vegetation  is  so  essen- 
tially connected. 

Another  consideration  which  suggests  itself  is 


EVAPORATION   OF  THE   SEA.  85 

the  relation  of  the  ocean  to  the  lakes  and  rivers 
of  the  globe.  The  waters  of  the  ocean,  as  already 
stated,  are  the  source  of  supply  for  all  the  innu- 
merable rivers  and  lakes  in  the  old  and  new  world. 
"  There  is  not  a  fountain,"  says  an  eloquent  writer, 
"  that  gushes  in  the  unfrequented  desert,  nor  a 
rivulet  that  flows  in  the  remotest  continent,  nor  a 
cloud  that  swims  in  the  highest  regions  of  the 
firmament,  but  is  fed  by  this  all-replenishing 
source." 

If  we  regard  the  continent  of  South  and  North 
America  only,  with  its  deep  and  wide  rivers  of 
fresh  water  and  magnificent  inland  seas, — if  we 
keep  in  mind  that  these  lakes  and  rivers  are  sup- 
plied entirely  by  the  evaporation  of  the  sea  water, 
— we  cease  to  wonder  that  the  source  of  a  supply 
so  vast  must  itself  be  so  inexhaustible.  Nor  are 
any  of  those  great  rivers  greater  than  is  requisite 
for  the  requirements  of  the  animal  and  vegetable 
world ;  for,  although  a  large  quantity  of  the  water 
carried  down  by  the  rivers  finds  its  way  into  the 
sea,  it  does  so  only  after  having  been  circulated 
by  thousands  of  brooks  and  rills,  like  so  many  veins 
and  arteries,  throughout  the  valleys  and  plains, 
carrying  life,  freshness,  and  beauty,  to  places  which 
must  otherwise  have  been  as  dry  and  barren  as 
the  deserts  of  Asia  or  Africa.  The  atmosphere 
may  be  regarded  as  the  vast  distilling  apparatus 
by  which  the  salt  waves  are  converted  into  pure 
and  fresh  water.  In  evaporation  the  watery  par- 
ticles alone  are  raised  into  the  atmosphere,  the 
ingredients  previously  incorporated  with  them,  and 

G   3 


86  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

which  give  them  their  briny  taste,  are  left  behind. 
Purer  than  from  the  finest  artificial  still,  the  sea 
water  rises  up  in  the  air  day  and  night  unceasingly, 
invisible  and  impalpable,  yet  in  millions  of  tons. 
Even  the  surface  of  the  ice-covered  lake,  or  the 
iceberg  on  the  snow-capped  mountains,  throw 
forth  their  contributions  to  the  great  aerial  reser- 
voir of  moisture;  for  it  is  remarkable  that  the 
surface  of  the  hardest  ice,  in  the  coldest  weather, 
evaporates  nearly  as  fast  as  if  it  were  a  movable 
fluid.  It  is  obvious  that  the  ocean,  as  the  source 
of  the  supply  of  fresh  water,  is  indispensable  to  the 
existence  of  animal  and  vegetable  life.  The  sub- 
stance of  all  vegetables  consists  to  a  great  extent 
of  water :  the  same  remark  is  applicable  to  all 
animal  bodies ;  the  body  of  man  himself,  "  the 
measurer  of  the  sea,  and  the  land  and  the  in- 
numerable shores,"  *  is  formed  of  but  little  solid 
matter,  a  very  large  proportion  of  his  frame  being 
water  more  or  less  modified.  But  the  circumstance 
that  water  thus  held  in  solution  in  the  air,  is  not 
necessary  only  for  the  supply  which  animals  and 
vegetables  demand  for  their  structure,  it  is  re- 
quisite even  for  the  respiration  of  animals  (for  ex- 
periment has  shown  that  an  atmosphere  absolutely 
dry  is  unsuited  to  breathing,)  these  considerations 
alone  are  sufficient  to  exhibit  the  importance  of 
the  ocean  in  the  economy  of  nature. 

There  is  another  aspect  in  which  we  may  regard 
the  ocean.     It  is  the  great  medium  of  intercourse 

*  Hor. 


MEDIUM   OP   INTERCOURSE.  87 

between  countries  remote  from  each  other,  the 
means  by  which  the  benefits  it  confers  on  all  lands 
as  the  primary  source  of  rivers  are  reciprocated 
between  one  nation  and  another. 

"  With  every  wind  it  wafts  large  commerce  on, 
Joins  pole  to  pole,  consociates  severed  worlds, 
And  links  in  bonds  of  intercourse  and  love 
Earth's  universal  family." 

The  waters  of  the  ocean  indeed  unite  shore 
with  shore,  connecting  together  the  most  distant 
regions  of  the  inhabited  world,  and  rendering  every 
land  they  wash  easy  of  access.  It  is  evident  that 
if  the  earth  consisted  only  of  dry  land,  and  life 
could  exist  under  such  circumstances,  intercourse 
between  remote  countries  would  be  impossible; 
and  when  we  reflect  upon  the  difficulties  which 
travellers  find  in  passing  over  a  few  hundred  miles 
in  the  centre  of  Africa,  or  the  interior  of  South 
America,  when  there  is  no  transit  by  water,  and 
that  in  the  latter  continent  there  are,  on  both  sides 
of  the  Amazon,  thousands  of  square  miles  of  country 
through  which  the  most  adventurous  traveller  can- 
not penetrate,  it  is  not  too  much  to  suppose,  that, 
were  there  neither  seas  nor  rivers,  we  should  have 
to  this  day  remained  in  ignorance  of  all  countries 
at  a  great  distance  from  our  own. 

It  is  plain  likewise  that  as  the  means  of  com- 
munication between  different  nations,  the  ocean 
must  be  regarded  as  the  means  of  a  rapid  increase 
in  knowledge  and  civilisation.  By  its  instrumen- 
tality the  temperate  regions  of  the  earth  can 

G  4 


88  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

speedily  acquire  the  richest  productions  of  more 
favoured  climes.  Thus,  too,  we  obtain  for  use  in 
winter  the  warm  furs  of  the  Antarctic  seas  or  of 
North  America.  In  summer  we  procure  the  lighter 
fabrics  produced  by  warmer  climates ;  for  all  these 
commodities  we  can  exchange  the  productions  of 
our  own  ingenuity,  which  could  not  otherwise  be 
rendered  available  to  distant  nations. 

Thus  the  cotton  of  the  West  Indies  is  trans- 
ported to  the  looms  of  Britain,  and  again  in  a 
manufactured  state  sent  to  supply  the  inhabitants 
of  India  and  China.  Thus  the  riches  of  the  Indies 
are  wafted  to  our  shores,  and  we  are  enabled  to 
reciprocate  the  benefit  by  a  happy  and  beneficial 
interchange.  One  of  the  most  striking  illustrations 
of  the  importance  of  the  ocean  as  the  medium  of 
communication  between  remote  countries  is  the 
recent  employment  of  steam  navigation  in  our 
intercourse  with  distant  Australia.  Over  thousands 
of  leagues  the  steam-ship  ploughs  her  way  across 
the  pathless  deep,  carrying  the  manufactures  of 
Europe  to  supply  the  wants  of  those  far-off  colonies, 
and  bringing  home  their  gold  and  their  fleeces  in 
return.  But  these  are  by  no  means  the  only 
advantages  which  the  ocean  confers  by  affording 
the  means  of  intercourse  between  parts  of  the  earth 
far  removed  from  each  other.  In  the  earliest 
history  of  civilised  society,  many  centuries  before 
the  discovery  of  the  New  World,  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  adjoining  seas,  although  traversed 
by  timid  navigators  who  scarcely  dared  to  venture 
beyond  sight  of  land,  afforded  the  means  by  which 


STEAM  NAVIGATION.  89 

the  advantages  of  Eoman  civilisation  were  carried 
to  the  shores  of  Britain,  whose  inhabitants  were 
then  little  removed  from  the  present  condition  of 
the  rudest  aborigines  of  America ;  but  since  the 
period  of  the  revival  of  letters  and  the  coeval  ad- 
vancement of  science,  how  unspeakable  have  been 
the  benefits  which  Europe  has  conferred  on  remote 
nations  by  wafting  over  the  deep  those  stores  of 
knowledge  which  tend  to  multiply  and  strengthen 
the  moral  and  intellectual  bonds  that,  like  the 
principle  of  charity,  will,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  yet 
unite  the  whole  brotherhood  of  mankind ! 

The  Eoman  poet  was  so  impressed  by  the  idea 
of  the  perils  of  the  deep  to  which,  in  a  short 
voyage  from  Athens,  his  friend  Virgil  was  exposed, 
that  he  spoke  of  the  sailor  who  first  trusted  his  frail 
bark  to  the  waves,  as  a  man  around  whose  heart 
was  the  threefold  brass  of  courage  and  heroism. 
What  amazement  would  have  filled  the  mind  of 
that  elegant  writer,  could  he  have  seen  the  illus- 
tration his  metaphorical  description  has  obtained 
in  the  immense  iron  steam-ship,  with  its  marvellous 
machinery,  literally  surrounding  the  brave  hearts 
of  our  countrymen  as  they  venture,  not  along  the 
shores  of  sunny  Italy,  or  the  once  terrible  Syrtes, 
but  over  seas  unknown  to  the  ancient  world, 
where  for  thousands  of  miles  the  waters  reach 
away  on  every  hand. 

"  Maria  tmdique  et  undique  coelum ! " 

What  flight  of  poetry  would  Horace  have  attempted 
in  referring  to  the  mighty  ship,  with  her  hundreds 


90  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

of  passengers,  her  powerful  mechanism,  and  her 
vast  stores  of  wealth  traversing  against  wind  and 
tide,  not  some  narrow  strait  of  an  inland  sea,  but 
the  vast  ocean  that  lies  between  the  opposite  sides 
of  the  earth ;  and  carrying  with  her  knowledge 
and  cultivation,  liberty,  and  the  means  of  human 
advancement ! 

The  depth  of  the  sea  is  another  question  which 
seldom  fails  to  suggest  itself  to  the  minds  of  the 
contemplative  visitor  of  its  shores.  What  that 
depth  is,  what  untold  wonders  and  inexplicable 
mysteries  the  abysses  of  the  sea  contain,  have 
always  afforded  a  subject  of  sublime  speculation. 
It  is,  indeed,  scarcely  possible  to  look  on  the  calm 
surface  of  the  deep,  and  think  of  the  marvels  and 
the  mysteries  which  lie  beneath,  without  emotions 
akin  to  those  with  which  the  devout  astronomer, 
in  the  stillness  of  the  night,  contemplates  the 
starry  heavens,  and  thinks  of  the  mysterious  worlds 
they  contain,  their  number,  their  magnitude,  their 
grandeur,  and  the  questions  that  suggest  them- 
selves as  to  their  probable  inhabitants  and  their 
physical  forms,  intellectual  powers,  their  degrees 
of  knowledge,  the  length  of  their  lives,  and  the 
many  similar  questions  that  force  themselves  upon 
his  imagination. 

And  there  is,  in  fact,  much  that  is  analogous 
in  the  degree  of  success  which  has  attended  human 
efforts  to  penetrate  the  mysteries  of  the  ocean 
depths,  and  to  investigate  those  which  bslong 
to  the  inconceivably  remote  objects  of  the  firma- 
ment. In  the  former  case  comparatively  shallow 


DEPTH   OF   THE   SEA.  91 

places  of  the  ocean  have  been  sounded,  and  various 
discoveries  made  connected  with  them;  in  the 
latter  the  less  remote  objects  of  the  heavens  have 
been  examined,  such  as  the  various  planetary 
bodies  of  the  solar  system.  But  of  the  profound 
abysses  of  the  sea  little  is  known,  and  as  to  the 
far  distant  fixed  stars  our  efforts  accomplish  little 
more  than  to  prove  how  slight  is  our  knowledge 
of  them,  and  how  much  we  have  to  learn. 

The  soundings  taken  in  the  Mediterranean 
prove  that  sea  to  be  of  enormous  depth.  In  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar,  where  the  passage  is  narrowest, 
there  is  a  depth  of  500  fathoms.  Between  Gibraltar 
and  Ceuta,  Capt.  Smyth  found  a  depth  of  950 
fathoms.  At  Nice,  within  a  short  distance  from 
shore,  Saussure  found  the  water  to  be  2,000  feet 
deep,  and  M.  Berard,  in  another  place,  could  not 
reach  the  bottom  with  a  line  of  6,000  feet.  Lyell 
and  others  express  the  opinion  that  the  central 
abysses  of  the  Mediterranean  are  at  least  as  deep 
as  the  Alps  are  high;  but  this  is  only  a  conjecture. 

Within  the  last  few  years  great  depths,  in 
some  parts  of  the  ocean,  have  been  sounded,  and 
specimens  of  the  soil  at  the  bottom  have  been 
obtained.  By  means  of  a  simple  line  attached 
to  a  heavy  cannon-ball,  Capt.  Denham,  of  H.M. 
ship  "  Herald,"  sounded  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean 
to  the  depth  of  46,000  feet,  and  Lieut.  Parker,  of 
the  U.S.  frigate  "  Congress,"  in  the  same  region 
let  go  his  plummet,  and  saw  it  run  out  50,000  feet 
without  apparently  touching  the  bottom.  Lieut. 
Walsh,  of  the  U.S.  schooner  "  Taney,"  attempted 


92  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

unsuccessfully  to  find  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  with 
a  line  34,000  feet  long,  and  Lieut.  Berryman  re- 
ported another  unsuccessful  effort  of  the  same 
kind  on  a  sounding  line  measuring  39,000  feet. 
In  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean  the  greatest  depth  to 
which  the  sounding  line  has  reached  appears  to 
be  25,000  feet.  That  the  greatest  depths  of  the 
ocean  far  exceed  those  measurements  there  is  much 
reason  to  suppose,  and  although  Laplace  estimated 
the  greatest  depth  at  eleven,  and  Dr.  Whewell  at 
nine,  it  is  probably  as  much  as  fourteen  or  fifteen 
miles.  Whether  animal  or  vegetable  life  exists 
at  those  enormous  depths,  and  under  the  immense 
pressure  of  so  great  a  mass  of  water,  and  in  the 
profound  darkness  which  there  prevail,  it  is  difficult 
to  say.  But  as  in  subterranean  waters,  under  vast 
pressure,  and  when  no  light  has  access,  some  species 
of  fishes  have  been  found  destitute  of  eyes,  which 
could  be  of  no  use  to  them,  and  probably  so 
organised  as  to  sustain  the  pressure  to  which  they 
are  exposed,  living  beings  may  also  exist  in  those 
unfathomable  depths  to  which  the  sounding  line 
has  never  reached. 

The  colour  of  the  sea  is  another  subject  which 
naturally  attracts  the  attention  of  the  visitor  to 
its  shores.  That  the  general  hue  of  its  surface 
varies  greatly,  as  seen  from  the  beach,  is  well 
known  to  every  observer.  At  one  time  the  watery- 
expanse  assumes  a  grey  or  leaden  colour,  at  an- 
other its  colour  is  a  light  or  a  dark  blue.  All  these 
shades  of  the  surface  with  their  modifications  are 
produced  by  reflection.  The  surface  of  the  deep 


COLOUR   OP  THE   SEA.  93 

reflects  the  hue  of  the  superincumbent  sky,  and 
appears  to  be  of  the  same  colour.  Thus,  if  the 
day  be  cloudy  and  rainy  the  surface  of  the  sea 
is  more  or  less  of  a  leaden  or  grey  tinge ;  if  the 
sky  is  cloudless  or  a  smart  breeze  blows  to  the  shore, 
the  waters  appear  blue,  the  depth  of  the  colour 
varying  under  certain  modifications  of  its  causes. 

But  the  sea  has  other  colours  besides  those 
occasioned  by  its  reflecting  the  hues  of  the  sky. 
It  has  colour  essential  to  itself.  In  shallow  places 
along  our  shores  its  colour  cannot  be  very  accu- 
rately observed.  In  such  places  it  is  modified  by 
the  reflection  of  the  bottom  :  if  the  bottom  be,  on 
the  one  hand  of  fine  white  sand,  or  on  the  other 
of  dark  rocks,  the  water  assumes  more  or  less  of 
the  light  or  a  dark  hue.  It  is  in  the  wide  ocean 
that  the  colour  of  its  waters  is  best  observed. 
The  colour  of  the  sea  waters  varies  in  different 
parts  of  the  ocean  from  light  green  to  dark  blue, 
independently  altogether  of  atmospheric  reflec- 
tion. The  waters  of  the  North  Sea  and  of  the 
Polar  regions  are  light  green :  those  of  the 
regions  of  the  trade  wind,  and  especially  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  are  dark  blue.  The  waters  of  the 
great  current  in  the  ocean  called  the  Grulf  Stream, 
which  flows  from  the  Grulf  of  Mexico  towards  the 
Arctic  Seas,  are  of  an  indigo  blue,  and  afford  a 
striking  contrast  with  the  green  of  the  Atlantic 
through  which  they  take  their  course. 

The  causes  of  this  dissimilarity  are  not  yet  fully 
understood.  But  probably  one  of  the  chief  causes 
is  a  difference  in  the  chemical  constitution  of  the 


94  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

sea-water  in  different  parts  of  the  ocean,  that  is  to 
say,  a  difference  in  the  quantities,  and  perhaps 
proportions,  of  the  salts  it  holds  in  solution.  That 
some  parts  of  the  ocean  are  salter  than  other 
parts  is  beyond  question.  Now  the  salter  the 
sea  water,  the  deeper  is  its  blue,  and  the  greener 
it  is,  the  less  is  its  saltness.  The  waters  of  the 
Grulf  Stream  are  salter  than  the  ocean  through 
which  it  flows,  and  their  colour,  as  above  stated, 
is  different,  being  of  an  indigo  blue.  And  that 
this  difference  in  the  amount  of  salts  they  contain 
is  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  difference  of  the 
colour  of  the  sea-water  is  further  confirmed  by 
the  experience  of  those  engaged  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  salt  by  evaporation  along  the  shores  of 
Italy  and  France.  The  more  the  sea-water  is 
exposed  to  evaporation  in  the  vats  into  which  it 
enters  from  the  sea,  the  salter  it  becomes,  and  it 
is  found  that  this  change  in  its  saltness  is  accom- 
panied by  an  alteration  in  its  colour,  from  the 
green  of  its  ordinary  hue  to  a  gradually  deepening 
shade  of  blue.  The  saltness  of  the  ocean-waters, 
already  alluded  to,  is  also  a  phenomenon  which 
merits  the  attention  of  the  visitor  of  the  sea- 
shore. Several  writers,  some  of  them  recent,  but 
not.  well-informed  on  such  matters,  follow  the  old 
authors  who  have  referred  to  this  peculiarity,  by 
repeating  their  hypothesis,  that  the  saltness  of  the 
water  is  a  provision  against  the  stagnation  and 
putrescence  of  the  ocean.  This  is  altogether 
erroneous.  Neither  salt  nor  fresh  water  is  liable 
to  what  is  popularly  understood  by  putrescence ; 


SALTNESS    OP   THE    SEA.  95 

and  when  this  appears  to  take  place  in  small 
portions  of  water  of  either  kind,  it  is  the  effect 
of  the  decomposition  of  innumerable  animalculse 
and  minute  vegetable  substances  which  multiply 
and  perish  in  succession,  and  is  not  caused  by 
any  organic  change  in  the  constituents  of  the  fluid 
itself.  But  the  putrescent  condition  thus  arising 
is  fully  provided  against  in  large  bodies  of  water 
by  the  relative  proportions  of  vegetable  and  animal 
life,  a  provision  which  evinces,  like  innumerable 
other  adaptations  of  creative  power,  the  most  mar- 
vellous wisdom  and  unerring  skill  and  foresight. 

If  we  were  thoroughly  conversant  with  all  the 
complicated  processes  which  take  place  in  the 
system  of  nature,  we  should  be  able  doubtless 
to  perceive  a  variety  of  reasons  rendering  it 
necessary  that  the  waters  of  the  sea  should  be 
salt,  and  not  fresh.  But,  so  far  as  our  present 
knowledge  enables  us  to  judge,  the  sea  must 
have  been  salt  from  the  earliest  period  of  its 
creation,  when  it  was  inhabited  by  those  crea- 
tures whose  fossil  remains  occur  in  the  most 
ancient  strata,  and  where  there  was  little  or  no 
dry  land,  and  therefore  neither  rivers  nor  lakes. 
And  this  saltness  of  the  sea,  as  originally  consti- 
tuted, was  requisite  to  the  system  of  circulation 
which  modern  investigations  have  proved  to  be 
constantly  carried  on  with  a  degree  of  regularity 
and  completeness  as  wonderful  and  admirable  as  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  body  of  an  animal. 

The  currents  of  the  ocean,  or  its  system  of 
circulation,  and  the  saltness  of  its  waters  are 


96  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

therefore  intimately  related.  The  saltness  of  the 
ocean  is  not  the  only  cause  of  its  currents,  it  is 
true;  for  the  difference  of  temperature  in  its 
waters  must  produce  currents,  as  differences  of 
the  same  kind  in  the  atmosphere  produce  winds ; 
yet  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  saltness  of 
the  sea  materially  aids  those  currents,  and  thus 
ministers  to  a  vast  and  most  important  part  of 
the  economy  of  creation,  and  illustrates  in  a  most 
remarkable  manner  that  divine  foresight  by  which 
in  thousands  of  instances  we  find  provision  is 
made  for  conditions  and  necessities  to  arise  at 
some  long  subsequent  period.  Without  entering 
into  this  interesting  but  abstruse  subject  more 
minutely  than  the  nature  of  this  work  permits 
some  further  particulars  may  here  be  stated. 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  there  is  some 
difference  in  the  degree  of  saltness  in  the  sea  in 
different  places.  But  this  is  owing  to  local  causes. 
The  general  rule  is  that  the  constituents  of  sea 
water  are  extremely  uniform  in  their  proportions. 
This  is  most  singularly  illustrated  by  experiment. 
Thus,  for  example,  in  the  Ked  Sea  there  is  no 
rain,  and  no  rivers  empty  themselves  into  it,  but 
the  process  of  evaporation  is  constantly  going  on 
from  its  surface,  by  which  the  fresh  water  is  ab- 
stracted and  the  marine  salts  are  left  behind. 
We  should  expect,  therefore,  that  the  waters  of 
this  sea  must  be  salter  than  that  of  other  parts 
of  the  ocean.  But  the  water  of  the  Eed  Sea  is 
not  salter  than  the  ocean  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Amazon,  a  region  where  the  amount  of  rain  is 


SALTNESS   AND    CIRCULATION.  97 

greater  than  the  evaporation ;  and  it  is  not  salter 
than  the  Mediterranean,  a  sea  into  which  a  vast 
number  of  rivers  fall,  bringing  with  them  from 
the  countries  through  which  they  flow  a  very 
large  and  perpetual  supply  of  salts,  sulphates 
and  carbonates  of  lime,  magnesia,  soda,  potash, 
and  iron,  chemical  substances  which  are  found  in 
solution  in  sea-water.  Now  this  equality  in  salt- 
ness  is  extremely  remarkable,  and  can  be  ac- 
counted for  only  on  the  supposition  of  a  system 
of  circulation  in  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  and  this 
system  we  know  does  subsist. 

But  .the  saltness  of  the  sea  has  a  special  rela- 
tion to  this '  system  of  circulation.  In  the  Eed 
Sea  and  the  Mediterranean  there  is  an  under- 
current flowing  far  below  the  surface  into  the 
Indian  Ocean  from  the  former,  and  into  the 
Atlantic  from  the  latter  sea.  These  under-cur- 
rents  may  in  a  great  measure,  if  not  wholly,  be 
attributed  to  the  saltness  of  their  waters.  The 
surface-currents  likewise  which  flow  from  the 
ocean  into  both  these  inland  seas,  may  be  attri- 
buted to  the  same  cause. 

And  this  is  easily  explained.  It  is  well  known 
that  in  the  process  of  evaporation  the  vapour  of 
water  which  is  taken  up  into  the  air  is  pure,  for 
the  salts  of  the  sea-water  are  not  raised  into  the 
atmosphere.  Now  by  the  abstraction  of  the  watery 
particles,  the  surface-water  is  rendered  salter, 
and  therefore  heavier,  than  the  stratum  of  water 
immediately  below  it.  It  therefore  sinks  down- 
ward and  gives  place  to  a  layer  of  water  lighter 
H 


98  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

and  less  salt,  on  which  in  its  turn  the  process  of 
evaporation  acts,  and  which  again  sinks  only  to 
give  place  to  another  supply.  And  thus  in  per- 
petual succession  different  layers  of  surface-water 
are  subjected  to  the  same  process,  each  sinking 
down  afterwards  by  reason  of  its  increased  specific 
gravity.  In  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Mediterranean, 
which  we  take  as  examples,  the  waters  at  a  great 
depth  are  considerably  heavier  than  those  at  the  sur- 
face, and  by  a  familiar  physical  law  flow  outwards 
by  their  own  weight  in  an  under-current,  while  their 
place  is  supplied  by  a  surface-current,  which,  as 
already  stated,  flows  inward  from  the  ocean.  Now 
in  fresh  water  this  system  of  currents  could  not 
occur,  because  evaporation  from  the  surface  of 
fresh  water  does  not  make  any  change  in  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  water  subjected  to  the  im- 
mediate action  of  the  process. 

The  cause  thus  explained  as  regards  the  two  in- 
land seas  now  referred  to  is  also  greatly  concerned 
in  the  much  vaster  system  of  circulation  which 
takes  place  in  the  ocean  itself;  as,  for  instance,  in 
the  under-current  of  salter  and  heavier  water  that 
flows  from  the  equator  toward  the  poles,  and  the 
surface-current  of  water  lighter  and  less  salt  that 
flows  in  a  contrary  direction. 

But  while  it  is  certain  that  the  saltness  of  the 
sea  in  relation  to  the  process  of  evaporation  has 
much  concern  in  the  system  of  circulation  between 
one  part  of  the  ocean  and  another,  other  con- 
siderations there  are  which  show  that  the  chemical 
constitution  of  the  sea-water,  independently  of 
evaporation,  adapts  it  to  this  office. 


'CONSTITUENTS  OF  SEA-WATER.  99 

One  of  the  constituent  parts  of  sea-water  is  a 
solution  of  lime.  The  river  or  brook  to  which 
the  visitant  of  the  sea-shore  approaches  as  he 
wanders  along  the  beach  is  perpetually  engaged, 
especially  if  it  flows  through  a  country  in  which 
limestone  abounds,  in  carrying  away  to  the  sea 
solutions  of  that  substance,  which  themselves  are 
poured  into  the  channel  of  the  rivers  by  the  rain 
which  percolates  through  the  soil,  and  dissolves 
part  of  the  lime  it  meets  with  in  its  course.  The 
solutions  which  the  river  thus  carries  along  in  its 
waters  are  too  delicate  to  be  discovered  by  the 
sense  of  taste ;  nevertheless  the  aggregate  quantity 
of  lime  thus  poured  into  the  ocean  from  all  the 
rivers  of  the  earth  must  be  vast. 

Now  it  is  from  this  lime  so  dissolved  and 
mingled  with  the  sea-water,  that  in  some  parts  of 
the  ocean,  as  for  instance  the  Pacific,  the  prodi- 
gious coral  reefs  are  constructed.  These  reefs 
form  under  the  waters  a  solid  mountain  of 
stone,  often  of  immense  extent.  On  the  coast  of 
New  Holland  there  is  one  coral  reef  a  thousand 
miles  in  extent,  and  unbroken  for  a  distance  of 
three  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  In  the  Pacific 
there  are  groups  of  twelve  hundred  miles  in  extent 
by  more  than  three  hundred  in  breadth.  All  these 
vast  structures  are  the  work  of  countless  myriads 
of  coral-building  polypes  (Madrephyllicea),  and 
afford  one  of  the  many  proofs  how  vast  a  work 
may,  in  the  complicated  processes  of  divine  pro- 
vidence, be  executed  by  a  feeble  instrumentality. 
A  little  worm  which  could  in  a  moment  be  crushed 

H  2 


100  SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 

by  the  finger,  and  is  individually  the  very  type  of 
weakness,  can  by  the  multiplication  of  its  numbers, 
construct  a  mountain  on  which  the  fiercest  billows 
of  the  ocean  spend  their  fury  in  vain ;  on  whose 
shores  the  proudest  ship  that  ever  illustrated 
human  genius  may  be  broken  to  fragments,  and 
on  whose  surface  plains  full  of  beauty  and  verdure 
may  appear,  and  towns  and^villages  the  habitation 
of  man  be  erected. 

And  how  marvellous  the  thought  thus  suggested 
to  us!  By  this  means  the  component  parts  of 
the  limestone  rocks  of  countries  far  removed  from 
the  sea  may  be  gradually  carried  thither,  and  then 
transported  by  oceanic  currents  may  be  formed 
into  new  mountains  at  the  bottom  of  remote  seas, 
thus  giving  origin  to  new  countries  which  in  some 
future  geological  convulsion  may  be  raised  into 
lands  far  above  the  sea  level,  on  whose  mountains 
rains  shall  fall,  and  through  whose  valleys  rivers 
shall  flow,  again  to  repeat  the  process  by  which 
the  limestone  which  formed  its  rocks  found  its 
way  to  the  original  coral-builders. 

And  what  relation  has  the  coral-building  polype 
to  the  circulation  of  the  sea  ?  Let  us  consider  this 
question.  Out  of  the  sea- water  this  little  creature 
has  the  power, — a  power  in  itself  marvellous,— 
of  extracting  the  lime  necessary  to  the  building  it 
is  to  erect.  It  secretes  this  substance,  no  doubt, 
for  its  own  individual  use;  but  in  so  doing  it 
is  accomplishing  a  grand  design  of  Him  who 
originated  the  economy  of  the  globe  we  inhabit. 
It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  secretion  of  lime 


POLYPES  AND  CIRCULATION.        101 

from  the  sea-water  by  the  act  of  myriads  of 
polypes  at  the  same  instant,  must  lessen  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  water  with  which  they  are 
in  contact,  and  from  which  they  extract  one  of  its 
constituent  parts.  Whatever  the  actual  weight  of 
the  lime  thus  secreted  may  be, — and  it  may  in  the 
construction  of  one  reef  alone  amount  to  thousands 
of  pounds  in  a  day,  ^-  that  weight  is  so  much 
abstracted  from  the  wafer,  which  being  thus  lighter 
than  the  strata  of  water  over  it  rises  upwards  to 
the  surface,  and  is  replaced  by  water  heavier, 
salter,  and  charged  with  the  lime  required  by  the 
little  reef  builder,  for  the  work  which  he  could 
not  carry  on  if  the  water  he  had  deprived  of  its 
lime  remained  around  him  without  being  replaced 
by  a  new  supply.  Thus  the  marine  insect  may 
have  a  very  important  office  to  perform  in  the 
circulation  of  the  ocean  waters,  and  the  function 
the  polype  thus  discharges  is  not  accidental.  It 
is  exercised  by  the  design  of  Him  who  gave  the 
creature  its  power  to  secrete  the  lime  and  the 
instinct  with  which  to  labour. 

The  waters  which  on  becoming  heavier,  because 
rendered  salter,  by  evaporation,  sink  do  wnward, 
are  likewise  warmer  than  those  which  ascend  to 
supply  their  place.  Thus  the  circulation  of  the 
sea  modifies  not  only  its  own  temperature,  but 
the  temperature  of  the  climates  of  the  lands  it 
washes.  This  effect  is  produced  on  a  great  scale  in 
some  parts  of  the  globe ;  and  an  illustration  of  it 
is  presented  by  our  own  shores.  The  western 
shores  of  the  British  islands,  and  especially  the 

U  3 


102  SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 

western  shores  of  Ireland  and  the  north-western 
shores  of  Scotland,  possess  a  climate  greatly 
milder  and  moister  than  the  eastern  coasts,  and 
it  is  not  to  be  doubted  that  this  difference  is 
occasioned  by  the  current  of  the  Grulf  Stream, 
which,  touching  our  western  shores,  imparts  to 
the  climate  the  mildness  of  its  character  by  dif- 
fusing a  portion  of  the  galoric  brought  from 
warmer  latitudes.  It  is  for  this  reason,  for  ex- 
ample, that  the  western  shores  of  Sutherland- 
shire,  although  so  much  further  north  than  other 
parts  of  Scotland,  possess  a  climate  so  soft  and 
genial,  and  exhibit  such  early  and  luxuriant 
vegetation ;  and  it  is  for  the  same  reason  that  the 
climate  of  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  islands  ap- 
proaches so  nearly  to  that  of  Torquay.  That  this 
circulation  of  warmth  from  one  part  of  the  globe 
to  another  is  evidence  of  a  wise  design,  and  that 
the  saltness  of  the  ocean  is  a  part  of  the  instru- 
mentality by  which  that  design  is  carried  out,  no 
intelligent  observer  can  doubt,  any  more  than  he 
can  doubt  that  the  design  of  the  fabricator  of  the 
eye  was  that  it  should  be  an  instrument  of  vision, 
or  that  the  wings  and  limbs  of  animals  should  be 
organs  of  locomotion. 

Independently,  however,  of  its  relation  to  the 
circulation  of  the  oceanic  currents,  the  composition 
of  the  sea-water  ought  to  be  regarded  in  another 
point  of  view.  In  addition  to  the  coral-making 
polypes  who  extract  the  lime  it  contains  for  their 
vast  submarine  structures,  there  are  countless 
myriads  of  creatures  inhabiting  the  deep  who 


COMPOSITION    OF   SEA-WATER.  103 

employ  the  same  substance  to  form  their  own 
abodes.  The  structure  of  a  vast  number  and 
variety  of  these  creatures  is  expressly  adapted  to 
secrete  lime  and  form  it  into  shells  of  every  form 
and  colour,  and  in  many  instances  of  great  mag- 
nitude. The  external  covering  of  all  the  Crustacea 
and  considerable  portions  of  the  internal  structure 
of  other  marine  animals  either  inhabiting  our 
sea-shores  or  living  in  deep  water3  are  formed  of 
lime  thus  marvellously  extracted  from  the  element 
they  inhabit.  In  all  cases  where  such  shelly 
coverings  are  found,  they  are  absolutely  requisite 
not  only  to  the  enjoyment,  but  to  the  very 
existence,  of  the  creatures  whom  they  enclose. 
And  thus  we  perceive  that  the  constitution  of  the 
sea-water  is  designed  by  its  Divine  originator  to 
minister  to  the  wants  of  an  infinite  number  and 
variety  of  forms,  all  endowed  with  the  mysterious 
principle  of  life,  and  all  possessed  of  degrees  of 
happiness  and  modes  of  enjoyment  adapted  to 
their  condition. 


H  4 


WINDS   AND    TIDES 


107 


CHAP.  VI. 

WINDS   AND   TIDES. 

Interest  of  the  Subject. — Air  and  Water,  Ocean  and  Atmo- 
sphere.— Theory  of  the  Tides. — Tidal  Phenomena. — Eise  of 
Tide  in  various  parts  of  the  Coast. — The  Bore. — Currents  of 
the  Sea,— The  Winds. 

EVERY  visitor  of  our  sea-shores  ought  to  be  greatly 
interested  in  the  subject  of  the  winds  and  tides. 
Familiarity  with  such  phenomena  ought  not  to 
render  them  less  worthy  of  attention  than  those 
of  a  more  novel  character.  It  is  indeed  the 
province  of  well-cultivated  minds,  and  such  as 
in  any  degree  possess  the  quality  of  genius,  to 
find  in  things  which,  because  of  frequent  oc- 
currence, are  all  but  unnoticed  by  common-place 
observers,  abundant  interest  and  ample  supplies 
of  intellectual  occupation.  Among  such  as  are 
thus  happily  gifted  we  would  class  those  who 
peruse  this  book,  feeling  assured  that  as  they 
wander  by  the  sea-shore,  they  will  not  perceive 
the  periodical  ebbing  and  flowing  of  the  tides, 
and  the  varying  directions  of  the  breezes  that 
ripple  the  waters,  without  considering  the  causes 
of  those  familiar,  but  at  the  same  time  marvellous 
and  beautiful  phenomena. 


108  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

There  is  no  inconsiderable  similitude  between 
the  sea  and  the  atmosphere.  Air  and  water  are 
both  fluids,  although  in  many  respects  they  differ 
from  each  other.  The  vast  assemblage  of  waters 
which  constitute  the  sea,  and  the  immense  extent 
of  air  which  forms  the  atmosphere,  are  both 
oceans.  The  marine  ocean  has  its  inhabitants, 
some  of  which  move  about  on  the  ground  at  the 
bottom,  while  others  swim  far  above  in  the  midst 
and  at  the  surface  of  their  watery  world ;  in  the 
aerial  ocean  these  are  represented  by  the  animals 
which  move  on  the  ground  and  those  which  fly 
through  the  air;  in  the  marine  ocean  there  is 
submarine  vegetation  of  vast  luxuriance,  answer- 
ing to  the  meadows,  the  fields,  the  copses  and 
the  forests  that  belong  to  the  aerial  ocean ;  in  the 
former  there  are  currents  and  tides,  represented 
in  the  latter  by  the  monsoons  and  the  trade  winds, 
and  the  land  and  sea  breezes ;  in  both  there  are 
storms  and  calms. 

The  Roman  soldiers,  when  they  first  made  their 
way  to  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic,  are  said  to  have 
been  filled  with  astonishment  at  the  regular  and 
periodical  ebbing  and  flowing  of  the  ocean, — a 
phenomenon  unknown  to  them  on  the  lovely 
shores  of  Italy.  And  but  for  our  familiarity  with 
it,  we  ourselves  should  experience  the  same  as- 
tonishment on  first  perceiving  so  striking  a  phe- 
nomenon. 

Do  we  not  call  to  mind  in  the  well-remem- 
bered time  of  childhood, — happy  period  passed 
away! — the  ineffable  pleasure  with  which  for 


THE    TIDES.  109 

the  first  time  we  trod  the  beach  and  picked  up 
the  shells  and  pebbles  or  ran  with  youthful  glee 
"  along  the  golden  sand  ?  "  Do  we  not  picture  to 
ourselves  the  huge  delight  with  which  we  saw  the 
flowing  tide  gradually  advance  over  the  far  extend- 
ing and  level  sands,  covering  the  boulders  festooned 
with  algae  that  were  here  and  there  scattered  over 
it,  till  at  last  they  were  all  submerged ;  and  how 
again  we  watched  with  intense  interest  the  ebbing 
waves  as  they  retreated  once  more,  permitting  us 
with  naked  feet  to  ramble  over  the  wet  expanse 
of  newly  covered  sand,  to  search  for  some  fancied 
treasure  that  the  sea  might  have  left  behind? 
How  pleasant,  how  charming,  were  it  possible  in 
mature  years,  to  look  with  the  wonder  and  delight 
of  childhood  on  those  natural  phenomena  which 
in  the  fresh  morning  of  life  filled  us  with  those 
strange  emotions  with  which  we  behold  novel  and 
marvellous  things ! 

The  theory  of  the  tides  comprehends  several 
problems  which  are  very  abstruse,  in  consequence 
of  the  number  and  variety  of  circumstances  to  be 
taken  into  account.  We  require  not  only  to  con- 
sider the  action  of  the  sun  and  the  moon  upon 
the  earth  and  the  ocean,  but  the  modifications  of 
this  action  arising  from  the  position  of  the  earth 
in  relation  to  the  sun  and  moon,  the  influence  of 
the  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  as 
well  as  its  form  and  density,  the  figure  of  con- 
tinents, the  position  of  islands,  the  irregularities 
occasioned  by  the  character  of  the  bottom  of  the 
sea,  and  the  laws  of  motion  in  fluid  bodies  and 


110  SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 

waves.  The  variety  and  number  of  causes  and 
effects  thus  to  be  taken  into  view,  render  the 
theory  of  the  tides  one  of  the  most  complicated 
subjects  in  natural  science,  and  has  called  forth 
the  genius  and  taxed  the  powers  of  the  ablest 
investigators.  All  that  can  be  done  in  a  work  of 
this  kind,  is  to  present  a  general  view  of  the 
subject,  as  plain  and  lucid  as  possible  without 
mathematical  calculations. 

That  the  ebbing  and  flowing  of  the  tides  depend 
on  solar  and  lunar  influences  there  can  be  no 
doubt,  for  at  every  return  of  new  and  full  moon 
we  have  high  tides,  while  at  half  moon  the  tides 
are  low.  The  moon  is  in  a  line  with  the  sun 
both  when  about  to  appear  as  new  moon,  and 
when  at  full  moon.  At  those  periods,  therefore,  the 
attraction  of  the  moon  and  the  sun  upon  the 
earth  acts  in  one  and  the  same  direction,  and  the 
united  influence  causes  what  are  called  the  spring 
tides.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  moon  has 
completed  her  first  quarter,  and  her  third  quarter, 
her  attractive  power  at  those  points  in  her  course 
is  exercised  at  right  angles  to  that  of  the  sun,  and 
thus,  by  preventing  the  waters  from  rising  as 
high  as  before,  the  neap  or  lower  tides  take 
place.  Nothing  can  be  more  obvious,  therefore, 
than  the  effect  of  solar  and  lunar  attraction  on 
the  phenomena  of  the  tides. 

But,  along  with  this  general  explanation,  the 
motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  must,  as  already 
hinted,  be  taken  into  view,  and  this  will  be 
found  greatly  to  influence  the  tidal  phenomena. 


THEIR   CAUSES.  Ill 

Not  only  does  the   motion    of  the  earth  in  its 
annual  orbit,  and  that  of  the  moon  in  her  monthly 
course  round  the  earth,  produce  an  alternately 
diminishing  and  increasing  influence  on  the  tides, 
but  the   diurnal   revolution   of  the   earth   itself 
exercises  a  remarkable  power.     In  its  daily  revo- 
lution from  west  to  east  it  brings  every  successive 
hour  one  meridian  after  another  vertically  under 
the  moon,  so  that  the  point  at  which  the  greatest 
attractive  power  of  the  moon  is  felt  upon  the 
earth,  and  which  is  vertically  beneath  the  moon, 
changes  hour  after  hour  as  different  portions  of 
her  surface  are  presented  to  the  action  of  her 
attendant  satellite.     In  consequence  of  this  the 
attractive  power  of  the  moon  and  the  sun  is  at  no 
time  stationary,  but  is  continually  moving,  as  it 
were,  along  the  earth's  surface,  changing  its  posi- 
tion with  the  apparent  place  of  the  bodies  by 
which  it  is  exercised.     As    the   moon   therefore 
moves   from  east   to    west,    or,    to   speak    more 
correctly,  as  the  earth  revolves  in  the  opposite 
direction,  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  instead  of  accu- 
mulating in  one  place,  form  a  tidal  wave  which  fol- 
lows the  course  of  the  moon.  This  wave,  as  it  moves 
along  the  ocean,  produces  high  water  on  the  coasts 
it  visits  in  its  flow ;  but  its  force,  direction,  and 
height,   are   more  or   less  modified   by   circum- 
stances already  alluded  to,  such  as  the  obstacles 
in  its  way  arising  from  oceanic  currents,  irregu- 
larities in  the   figure    of   the   land,   the   shape, 
position,  and  breadth   of  the   channels   through 
which   it   passes.     The  broader   and  deeper  the 


112  SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 

channel,  the  greater  the  speed  of  the  tide,  and 
thus  the  tide-wave  traverses  thousands  of  -miles  of 
the  open  ocean  in  the  same  space  of  time  it 
requires  to  pass  through  a  narrow  and  shallow 
channel  of  comparatively  very  limited  extent. 

Without  entering  into  minute  details  it  will  be 
sufficient,  in  order  to  illustrate  the  direction  and 
the  rate  of  progress  of  the  tide,  briefly  to  refer 
to  that  which  occurs  in  the  Indian  or  the  Atlantic 
oceans.  From  the  south  of  New  Zealand  the 
tide-wave  advances  westwards  and  northwards 
towards  the  Cape  of  (rood  Hope,  at  which  it 
arrives  in  thirteen  hours  from  Van  Dieman's 
Land,  at  the  same  time  producing  high  water  also 
along  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  the  southern  shores 
of  India,  and  the  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archi- 
pelago. Entering  the  Atlantic,  and  moving  to  the 
north-west,  the  wave  of  high  water  arrives  on  the 
coast  of  Newfoundland  in  twelve  hours  after 
leaving  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  four  hours 
afterwards  it  reaches  the  mouth  of  the  British 
Channel,  where,  owing  to  the  nature  of  the 
various  shores,  it  is  subdivided  in  its  course.  One 
portion  passes  through  the  Straits  of  Dover,  an- 
other flows  up  St.  George's  Channel,  a  third  por- 
tion of  it  passes  northwards  along  the  west  coasts 
of  Ireland  and  Scotland,  around  the  Orkneys,  and 
thence  southwards  till  it  meets  the  tide,  which, 
owing  to  the  narrowness  of  the  British  Channel, 

O 

had  in  the  meantime  advanced  at  a  comparatively 
slow  rate  to  the  north. 

The  effect  of  the  double  wave  thus  produced 


TIDAL   WAVES.  113 

by  the  intervention  of  the  British  islands,  and  the 
comparatively  narrow  space  between  England  and 
France,  is  very  remarkable  on  the  Danish  shores, 
where  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  sea  ceases  to  be 
perceptible,  and  it  is  constantly  high  water. 

The  height  to  which  the  tide  flows  is  various 
in  different  parts  of  the  world,  and  this  dissimi- 
larity is  chiefly  occasioned  by  the  conformation 
of  the  coast.  In  the  Mediterranean  there  is 
little  or  no  tide,  while  in  some  parts  of  the 
American  coast,  as  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  the 
spring  tide  frequently  rises  to  the  extraordinary 
height  of  120  feet,  and  in  Asia,  as  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Indus,  the  rise  of  the  tide  is  30  feet. 
Even  in  Britain  there  is  great  difference  in  the 
depth  of  high  water  at  different  places.  At  Chep- 
stow,  in  the  Bristol  Channel,  the  rise  of  the  tide 
is  much  higher  than  in  many  other  places,  being 
from  45  to  60  feet,  and,  after  a  strong  westerly 
wind,  it  is  said  sometimes  to  reach  70  feet. 

The  very  striking  phenomenon  called  the  Bore 
cannot  be  passed  over  in  silence  while  referring  to 
the  subject  of  the  tides.  Where  an  estuary  is 
narrow,  and  the  shore  is  level  to  a  considerable 
distance  inland,  the  great  body  of  water  pro- 
duced by  the  tidal  wave  being  suddenly  forced 
into  a  confined  space,  rises  to  a  proportionate 
height  between  the  opposite  shores,  and  flows 
onward,  partly  under  the  influence  of  the  original 
impulse  acting  upon  it,  and  partly  by  its  own 
gravitation1!  Into  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  already  men- 
tioned, the  (i  bore  "  rushes  with  tremendous  force, 
I 


114  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

and  with  a  roaring  noise,  appearing  as  it  ascends 
like  a  cataract  pouring  down  a  slope,  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence.     This 
singular   phenomenon    takes    place   likewise   in 
many  of  the  Asiatic  rivers.     In  the  Hoogly,  or 
Calcutta  River,  "  the  bore,"  says  Eennell,  "  com- 
mences  at   Hoogly   Point,  the  place  where  the 
river  first  contracts  itself,  and  is  perceptible  above 
Hoogly  Town,  and  so  quick  is  its  motion  that  it 
hardly  employs  four  hours  in  travelling  from  one 
to  the  other,  though  the  distance  is  nearly  seventy 
miles.     At   Calcutta  it   sometimes   occasions   an 
instantaneous  rise  of  six  feet,  and  both  here,  and 
at  every  other  part  of  its  track,  the  boats  on  its 
approach  immediately  quit  the  shore,  and  make 
for  safety  to  the  middle  of  the  river.     In  the 
channels  between  the  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Megna,  the  height  of  the  bore  is  said  to  exceed 
twelve  feet,  and  is  so  terrific  in  its  appearance,  and 
dangerous  in  its  consequences,  that  no  boat  will 
venture  to  pass  at  spring  tide."  *     The  following 
is   an   interesting   and   graphic   account   of  the 
same  phenomenon,  which  in  China  is  called  the 
"  eagre,"  as  taking  place  on  the  Chikiang  River, 
which  enters  the  sea  about  ten  miles  below  the 
city  .of  Hang-Chow.     "Between  the  river,"  says 
the   writer,  who  was  an  eye-witness  of  the  oc- 
currence, "  and  the  city  walls,  which  are  a  mile 
distant,  dense  suburbs  extend  several  miles  along 
the  banks.     As  the  hour  of  flood-tide  approached, 
crowds  gathered  in  the  streets,  runnirfg  at  right 
*  Kennell,  Phil.  Trans.  1781. 


THE   BORE.  115 

angles  with  the  Tsien-tang,  but  at  a  safe  distance. 
My  position  was  a  terrace  in  front  of  the  Tri- 
wave  Temple,  which  afforded  a  good  view  of  the 
entire  scene.  On  a  sudden  all  traffic  on  the 
thronged  mart  was  suspended;  porters  cleared 
the  front  street  of  every  description  of  merchan- 
dise,, boatmen  ceased  loading  and  unloading  their 
vessels,  and  put  out  into  the  middle  of  the  stream ; 
so  that  a  few  moments  sufficed  to  give  a  deserted 
appearance  to  the  busiest  part  of  one  of  the 
busiest  cities  of  Asia.  The  centre  of  the  stream 
was  crowded  with  craft,  from  small  boats  to  huge 
barges,  including  the  gay  "  flower  boats."  Loud 
shouting  from  the  fleet  announced  the  appearance 
of  the  flood,  which  seemed  like  a  glittering  white 
cable  stretched  athwart  the  river  at  its  mouth 
as  far  down  as  the  eye  could  reach.  Its  noise, 
compared  by  the  Chinese  poets  to  that  of  thunder, 
speedily  drowned  that  of  the  boatmen ;  and  as  it 
advanced  with  prodigious  velocity,  it  assumed  the 
appearance  of  an  alabaster  wall,  or  rather  of  a 
cataract  four  or  five  miles  across,  and  about  thirty 
feet  high,  moving  bodily  onward.  It  soon  reached 
the  immense  assemblage  of  vessels  waiting  its 
approach.  Knowing  that  the  bore  of  the  Hoogly, 
which  scarce  deserved  mention  in  connection  with 
the  one  before  me,  invariably  overturned  boats 
that  were  not  skilfully  managed,  I  could  not 
but  feel  apprehensive  for  the  lives  of  the  floating 
multitude.  As  the  foaming  wall  of  water  dashed 
impetuously  forward,  threatening  to  submerge 
everything  afloat,  they  were  all  silenced,  and 

I  2 


116  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

intently  occupied  in  keeping  their  prows  toward 
the  wave ;  and  thus  they  all  vaulted,  as  it  were, 
to  the  summit  in  perfect  safety.  The  spectacle 
was  of  the  greatest  interest  when  the  eagre  had 
passed  about  half-way  among  the  craft.  The 
boats  in  front  were  quietly  reposing  on  the  un- 
ruffled surface  of  the  stream,  others  were  scaling 
with  the  agility  of  salmon  the  formidable  cascade, 
while  those  behind  were  pitching  and  heaving  in 
tumultuous  confusion  on  the  troubled  water.  This 
grand  and  exciting  scene  was  but  of  a  few  mo- 
ments' duration;  it  passed  up  the  river  in  an 
instant,  but  with  gradually  diminishing  force, 
size,  and  velocity,  until  at  about  eighty  miles 
above  the  city,  according  to  the  Chinese  ac- 
counts, it  ceases  altogether  to  be  perceptible."  * 

On  our  own  shores  the  remarkable  phenomenon 
may  be  witnessed  in  more  than  one  instance,  and 
especially  in  the  estuary  of  the  Severn,  where  the 
spring  tides  rush  upwards  with  extraordinary 
rapidity,  and  the  bore  is  sometimes  nine  feet  in 
height.  A  similar  instance  occurs  in  the  Solway 
Firth,  where  the  tidal  wave  flows  into  the  channel 
with  such  velocity  that  it  is  said  that  at  a  certain 
part  of  it,  if  a  man  on  a  swift  horse  were  at  the 
water's  edge,  the  utmost  efforts  of  his  steed  would 
be  insufficient  to  enable  him  to  gain  the  land. 

The  regular  ebb  and  flow  of  the  ocean  waters 
produce  many  vastly  important  effects,  although 
many  of  their  effects  in  the  economy  of  nature 

*  North  Amer.  Jour,  of  Science. 


OCEANIC    CURRENTS.  117 

may  be  of  much  higher  importance  than  we  are 
at  present  aware.  Even  if  we  restrict  our  view  of 
their  beneficial  results  to  those  which  refer  to 
navigation,  we  may  perceive  how  considerable 
they  are.  There  are  numerous  rivers  on  our 
coasts,  the  bars  at  the  entrance  of  which  would  be 
impassable  unless  during  a  rise  of  tide,  and  many 
places  now  used  as  harbours  could  not  be  so 
employed  were  the  water  always  to  remain  at 
a  low  level.  The  currents,  moreover,  produced  by 
the  flow  and  recess  of  the  tides,  are  of  no  small 
importance  to  the  navigation  of  estuaries,  giving 
motion  to  ships  when  there  is  no  wind. 

In  speaking  of  the  saltness  of  the  sea-water 
some  reference  was  incidentally  made  to  the  cur- 
rents of  the  ocean.  A  few  further  remarks  on  the 
subject  are,  however,  desirable  in  this  place. 

The  currents  of  the  ocean  differ  entirely  from 
the  tides,  not  only  in  being  permanent  phenomena, 
but  as  arising  from  causes  altogether  different. 
The  oceanic  currents  are  very  numerous,  and  it  is 
impossible  to  contemplate  them  without  perceiv- 
ing that  they  constitute  a  system  of  circulation 
carried  on  in  obedience  to  physical  laws,  and  indi- 
cating in  a  very  striking  manner  the  design  of 
the  All-Wise. 

There  are,  as  already  stated,  currents  which 
run  from  the  Atlantic  into  the  Mediterranean, 
and  from  the  Indian  Ocean  into  the  Eed  Sea, 
and  on  the  principles  laid  down  with  great  inge- 
nuity by  Lieutenant  Maury,  it  may  be  considered 
as  fully  demonstrated  that  under-currents  proceed 
i  3 


118  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

from  those  two  inland  seas  outward  to  the  oceans 
with  which  they  are  connected,  carrying  with 
them  the  waters  which  by  the  process  of  evapo- 
ration have  become  salter,  and  therefore  heavier, 
than  those  of  the  ocean ;  and  were  this  process  not 
to  be  carried  on,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  the 
depths  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Eed  Sea 
would,  in  process  of  time,  become  filled,  not  only 
with  water  saturated  with  the  chemical  ingredients 
of  sea-water,  but  that  they  would  become  filled 
up  by  deposits  of  solid  crystals  of  marine  salts. 

The  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Pacific  have  their 
currents  arising  from  several  causes  and  variously 
modified,  but  all  obviously  subject  to  physical 
laws  which  give  regularity  to  their  phenomena, 
and  minister  to  the  great  system  of  circulation  in 
the  waters  of  the  ocean.  + 

But  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the  ocean  cur- 
rents is  the  Grulf-stream.  This  vast  flow  of  waters 
is  more  rapid  in  its  course  than  the  Amazon  or 
the  Mississippi,  and  a  thousand  times  greater  in 
its  volume  than  either^  of  these  majestic  rivers. 
The  Gulf-stream  may  truly  be  called  one  of  the 
most  marvellous  things  in  the  natural  history  of 
the  sea.  It  has  its  birth  in  the  Mexican  Gulf, 
from  which  it  flows  along  the  shore  towards  the 
British  islands,  the  North  Sea,  and  the  Frozen 
Ocean.  Our  knowledge  of  the  various  causes 
in  which  this  vast  current  originates,  and  by 
which  it  is  modified,  is  in  many  respects  indefi- 
nite, but,  according  to  the  views  of  Maury,  two  of 
the  principal  agents  concerned  in  producing  the 


THE   WINDS.  119 

phenomenon  are  the  increased  saltness  of  its 
waters,  caused  by  the  evaporation  necessary  to 
supply  the  trade-winds  with  vapour,  and  the  di- 
minished quantity  of  salt  in  the  northern  seas, 
towards  which  the  Grulf-stream  flows.  We  have 
already  referred  to  the  important  influence  which 
this  ocean-current  has  in  tempering  the  climate 
of  those  lands  toward  which  it  tends.  Much  highly 
interesting  and  minute  information  on  this  sub- 
ject will  be  found  in  the  various  works  devoted 
especially  to  the  physical  geography  of  the  sea. 
But  it  is  not  requisite  to  the  plan  of  this  work 
minutely  to  discuss  a  subject  which  not  only 
demands  an  elaborate  disquisition,  but  is  only 
indirectly  connected  with  the  phenomena  which 
it  is  our  immediate  object  to  illustrate. 

The  winds  or  currents  of  the  atmosphere  which 
are  now  to  engage  our  attention  constitute  a  sub- 
ject full  of  interest  to  those  who  frequent  the 
beach,  and  who  have  opportunities  of  witnessing 
the  effects  which  the  wind  produces  upon  the 
ocean.  It  is  a  subject  also  strikingly  illustrative 
of  several  important  physical  laws,  as  well  as  of 
the  admirable  wisdom  in  which  those  laws  have 
had  their  birth.  Some  general  observations  on 
the  subject  will  not  be  unsuitable  before  giving 
our  attention  to  the  aerial  currents  of  our  sea- 
shores. 

The  winds  are  either  constant,  or  such  as  blow 
always  in  the  same  direction,  periodical,  or  such 
as  blow  six  months  in  one  direction  and  six 
months  in  another,  or  variable,  that  is  to  say, 

I  4 


120  SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 

such  as  do  not  appear  to  be  subject  to  any  gene- 
ral rule.  All  winds  or  aerial  currents  may  be 
said  to  be  caused  by  something  which  acts  either 
continuously  or  at  intervals  in  disturbing  the 
equilibrium  of  the  atmosphere. 

Of  this  the  tropical  winds  afford  the  most 
remarkable  instances.  The  trade-winds  of  the 
Atlantic  are  occasioned  by  the  heat  of  the  sun, 
which,  rarefying  the  air  over  the  African  continent, 
causes  it  to  rise  upwards,  when  its  place  is  im- 
mediately supplied  by  currents  of  colder  air 
blowing  from  the  north  and  south.  In  the 
Indian  Ocean  likewise,  a  similar  phenomenon 
takes  place ;  the  air  over  the  vast  plains  of  tropi- 
cal India  becomes  heated,  and  a  current  blowing 
from  the  south  to  occupy  the  place  of  the  heated 
atmosphere  causes  the  periodical  winds  known  as 
the  monsoons.  The  sea  and  land  breezes  which 
occur  during  the  morning  and  night  in  the  tropics 
originate  in  a  similar  cause.  The  sun  heats  the 
land,  and  consequently  the  air  over  its  surface, 
which  ascending  causes  a  breeze  from  the  cooler 
atmosphere  over  the  ocean  to  blow  towards  the 
land ;  but  at  night,  when  the  land  and  the  air 
over  it  have  cooled  down  after  sunset,  the  wind 
blows  from  shore  to  supply  the  place  of  the 
warmer  air  which  then  ascends  'from  the  surface 
of  the  sea. 

The  winds  which  prevail  on  the  coasts  of 
Britain  are  extremely  variable,  and  can  hardly 
be  reduced  to  anything  like  system.  But  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  they  are  occasioned  by  heat 


LAND  AND   SEA  BREEZES,   ETC.  121 

and  electricity,  agents  which  produce  rapid  altera- 
tions in  the  equilibrium  of  the  atmosphere.  The 
land  and  sea  breezes  already  referred  to  may  be 
frequently  perceived  on  the  shores  of  Britain  dur- 
ing the  fine  weather  of  summer,  and  are  produced 
by  the  same  causes  which  operate  on  tropical 
coasts. 

The  westerly  winds  which  blow  upon  our  shores 
are  much  more  regular  and  continuous  than  any 
others,  and  are,  as  is  well  known,  greatly  more 
genial  and  healthful.  Their  causes  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  trade-winds  already  adverted  to. 
The  heated  air  over  tropical  lands  rises  upwards, 
as  already  described,  and  while  its  place  is  taken 
by  cooler  currents  blowing  towards  the  equator, 
the  warmer  air  ascending  to  a  great  height  in 
the  atmosphere  spreads  itself  to  the  north  and 
south,  and  as  it  parts  with  its  superabundant 
caloric  falls  again  towards  the  earth,  blowing 
towards  our  western  coasts  laden  with  much  of 
the  warmth  of  tropical  lands,  and  with  an  abun- 
dant supply  of  oxygen  obtained  from  the  luxu- 
riant vegetation  of  'the  more  favoured  climates 
from  which  it  originally  arose. 

.  Thus  the  ocean  and  the  atmosphere  both  have 
their  systems  of  circulation,  and  those  systems 
produce  effects  of  vast  importance  in  the  economy 
of  nature,  conducing  in  a  marvellous  degree  to 
the  vitality  and  the  enjoyment  of  animated  beings. 
The  limits  of  this  work  do  not  permit  more  than 
a  very  general  view  of  those  most  interesting 
natural  phenomena,  but  even  a  general  view  is 


122  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

sufficient  to  exhibit  the  beauty  and  the  efficiency 
of  the  laws  of  physics  to  which  they  can  be  traced, 
and  the  beneficence,  the  wisdom,  and  the  power, 
in  which  those  laws  have  their  birth.  To  the 
continual  operation  of  those  laws  we  may  attri- 
bute not  only  those  fresh  and  salubrious  breezes 
which  contribute  so  much  to  the  health  and 
vigour  of  the  inhabitants  of  our  coasts,  but  those 
rains  which  fall  upon  the  land  supplying  our  in- 
numerable brooks,  rivers,  and  lakes ;  and  clothing 
our  hills,  plains,  and  valleys,  with  luxuriant 
verdure.  In  such  an  agency  it  is  impossible  not 
to  perceive  an  ever  recurring  evidence  of  provi- 
dential design. 


MARINE    VEGETATION 


125 


CHAP.  VII. 

MAKINE   VEGETATION. 

Analogy  between  Marine  and  Terrestrial  Vegetation.—  Variety 
of  the  Algse. — Marine  Botany,  its  Classification. — Specimens 
of  the  three  Subdivisions  in  which  our  Sea-weeds  are  compre- 
hended. 

THE  ocean  is  not  to  be  regarded  merely  as  a  vast 
kingdom  replete  with  an  inexhaustible  variety  of 
living  forms,  but  as  rivalling  the  land  itself  in 
the  profusion  of  its  vegetable  productions.  The 
bottom  of  the  sea  is  in  many  respects  analogous 
to  the  surface  of  the  dry  land,  for  it  is  diversified 
with  level  plains,  deep  valleys,  caverns  and  rocks, 
hills  and  mountains,  submerged  beneath  the 
liquid  element,  as  the  plains,  valleys,  and  moun- 
tains of  the  land  are  covered  by  the  great  aerial 
ocean  at  the  bottom  of  which  we  live.  And  the 
analogy  is  no  less  strict  between  the  vegetable 
productions  of  the  sea  and  the  land.  The  general 
distinction  is  only  such  as  necessarily  obtains 
from  the  difference  between  the  circumambient 
fluids  in  which  they  have  their  abode.  Thus  the 
stems  of  marine  plants  are  slender,  because  they 
are  sufficiently  supported  by  the  dense  element 
in  which  they  grow  and  do  not  require  to  be 


126  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

thick  and  strong;  their  roots  also  are  a  mere 
apparatus  for  attaching  them  to  one  spot,  for 
they,  unlike  most  terrestrial  plants,  gain  no  sus- 
tenance from  the  root,  but  from  the  fluid  in 
which  they  are  immersed. 

There  is  nevertheless  no  small  similitude  be- 
tween the  two  great  classes  of  vegetable  now  re- 
ferred to.  Some  districts  of  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean  are  covered  with  vegetation  so  luxuriant 
that  to  such  districts  we  might  well  apply  the 
term  of  marine  forests.  The  submarine  trees 
bear  in  some  respects  a  resemblance  to  many  of 
the  most  magnificent  trees  in  an  American  forest; 
for  although  not  in  any  way  rivalling  them  in 
thickness  or  in  solidity  of  structure,  they  are 
their  superiors  in  altitude.  Captain  Cook  men- 
tions that  at  Kerguelen  Land  the  sea-weed  was 
of  enormous  length.  In  some  of  the  compara- 
tively shallow  places  the  line  did  not  reach  the 
bottom  with  twenty-five  fathoms,  and  the  depth 
may  have  been  much  greater,  but  the  sea-weed 
grew  up  in  those  places  from  the  bottom,  not 
only  so  as  to  reach  the  surface,  but  spreading 
over  it  a  profusion  of  large  fronds,  and  some  of 
the  plants  were  more  than  sixty  fathoms  or  360 
feet  in  length. 

The  geographical  range  of  these  immense  sea 
plants  extends  from  the  extreme  southern  islets 
near  Cape  Horn  to  the  43°  of  latitude,  a  dis- 
tance of  more  than  15  degrees  and  more  than  900 
miles,  throughout  that  space  affording  food  and 
shelter  to  countless  myriads  of  living  creatures  of 


LOCALITIES,    ETC.    OF   THE   ALG^T.  127 

all  sizes  and  varieties.  Other  subaqueous  regions 
produce  other  kinds  of  vegetation  differing  from 
the  gigantic  sea-weeds  now  mentioned,  as  the 
grass  of  the  prairies  differs  from  the  trees  of  the 
forest.  The  bottom  of  the  sea  in  many  of  the 
inlets  on  the  Indian  coasts  is  covered  with  algae 
and  fuci,  as  a  rich  meadow  is  clothed  with  grass, 
and  there,  at  a  depth  of  three  or  four  fathoms, 
dugongs  in  immense  herds  browse  like  cattle  in 
a  meadow.  But  between  the  comparatively  short 
marine  herbage  on  which  those  huge  herbivorous 
animals  feed,  and  the  enormous  sea-weeds  of 
the  southern  ocean,  there  exists  a  vast  number 
and  variety  of  species,  many  of  those  pertaining 
to  tropical  seas  wholly  unknown  to  the  marine 
botanist. 

But  it  is  not  our  purpose  to  go  in  search  of 
marine  plants  to  remote  seas  and  foreign  shores. 
Our  own  coasts  afford  many  sea-plants ;  in  many 
instances  of  much  beauty,  in  some  of  very  con- 
siderable value  and  importance,  and  in  all  cases 
of  much  interest  to  the  intelligent  observer.  Be- 
fore, however,  taking  notice  of  a  few  of  these,  some 
general  observations  may  not  be  out  of  place. 

The  growth  of  marine  plants  on  our  shores  is, 
according  to  the  most  eminent  botanists,  limited 
to  certain  localities  on  the  coast,  and  to  certain 
depths  of  water.  Thus  some  of  our  sea-weeds 
have  their  northern  limit  on  the  'southern  coasts 
of  England ;  others  belong  peculiarly  to  the 
Scottish  coasts  and  the  northern  shores  of  Eng- 
land and  Ireland ;  some,  again,  have  a  wider 


128  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

range,  extending  from  the  south  of  England  to 
the  north  of  Ireland  and  south-west  of  Scotland, 
and  others  even  to  Orkney  and  Shetland  along  the 
western  shores  of  both  islands.  As  regards  depth 
our  marine  plants  are  likewise  variously  dis- 
tributed. Some  sea-weeds  extend  to  the  line  of 
ebb  at  spring-tides,  some  belong  to  an  inner  line 
within  which  they  become  partially  uncovered 
every  ordinary  tide ;  others,  again,  flourish  within 
the  line  of  the  neap-tides,  and  become  entirely 
uncovered  at  each  recess  of  the  water,  and  others 
occupy  stations  so  shallow  and  near  the  shore 
that  they  are  frequently,  and  for  a  considerable 
period  at  one  time,  left  almost  quite  dry.  It 
thus  appears  that  there  are  certain  boundaries 
or  limits  within  which  certain  kinds  of  algae  are 
found  to  flourish ;  but,  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained 
at  the  depth  of  fifty  fathoms  in  the  British  seas, 
the  vegetation  is  scanty. 

The  various  species  of  sea-plants  on  our  shores 
amount  to  about  three  hundred  and  seventy. 
Some  of  these  are  large,  some  so  minute  that  their 
structure  can  be  examined  only  with  a  microscope. 
They  all  exhibit  great  variety  of  form.  Some 
are  composed  of  broad,  ribbon-like  leaves  or 
fronds ;  some  are  like  long  strings  of  brown  cord ; 
others  have  leaves  very  similar  to  those  of  terres- 
trial plants;  others,  again,  are  like  strings  of 
beads,  tufts  of  silk  or  velvet,  network,  bunches  of 
slender  hairs,  tubes  of  glass  filled  with  colouring 
matter,  or  minute  trees  with  spreading  branches 
and  numerous  slender  twigs;  in  a  word,  the 


DARK-COLOURED  ALG.E.  129 

utmost  diversity  of  form  prevails,  but  in  every 
instance  the  structure  illustrates  in  a  striking 
manner  the  admirable  skill  of  the  Great  Artificer, 

All  the  marine  plants  are  flowerless,  and  are 
comprehended  in  the  class  Cryptogamia,  to  which 
ferns,  mosses,  lichens,  and  fungi  belong,  and  they 
are  themselves  classified  according  to  the  prevail- 
ing colour  of  their  seeds. 

Thus  the  term  Melanospermece  is  given  to  the 
series  of  plants  in  which  the  seeds  or  spores  are  of 
a  dark  colour ;  Ehodospermece  is  the  general  title 
of  the  series  in  which  the  seeds  are  of  a  red  hue ; 
and  Chlorospermece  is  the  name  of  the  series  in 
which  the  seeds  are  greenish.  One  distinction 
thus  supposed  to  subsist  is  not  sufficiently  clear 
without  the  consideration  of  other  additional 
particulars,  by  which  each  series  may  be  distin- 
guished from  each  other  ;  but  to  describe  all  such 
minute  particulars  would  be  contrary  to  the 
intention  of  this  work. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  of  the  whole  of 
our  marine  plants  each  series  now  mentioned 
embraces  a  different  proportion.  The  first-men- 
tioned series  comprehends  about  one-fifth  of  the 
whole  number  ;  the  second  includes  three-eighths, 
and  the  third  contains  one-fourth. 

Observing  the  order  now  stated,  we  shall  sup- 
pose the  reader  to  examine  a  few  specimens  from 
each  series. 

Of  the  Melanospet^mece  there  are  specimens  to 
be  found  on  every  sea-shore.  One  of  the  most  com- 
mon is  the  bladder  wrack  (Fucus  vesiculosus). 
K 


130  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

Its  colour  is  dark  green,  the  substance  is  tough, 
and  the  fronds  long  and  narrow,  and  the  air- 
vessels  large,  round,  and  chiefly  arranged  in  pairs, 
and  near  the  ends  of  the  fronds  are  vesicles  or 
receptacles,  large,  swollen,  and  rilled  with  mucus. 
This  plant  is  extremely  common  on  all  rocky 
shores. 

Another  equally  common  species  is  the  knotted 
fucus.  The  stem  of  this  plant  is  divided  into 
branches,  which  are  forked,  and  the  stem  is 
studded  at  intervals  with  large  air-vessels.  The 
substance  is  tough  and  leathery ;  the  colour,  olive- 
green,  and  where  exposed  to  the  air  and  light, 
nearly  black.  This  plant  frequently  reaches  six 
feet  in  length. 

The  Fucus  serratus  (or  toothed  or  serrated 
fucus)  is  destitute  of  air-vessels ;  the  receptacles 
are  flat,  and  placed  at  the^ends  of  the  fronds;  the 
colour  is  dark  olive-green. 

The  tangle,  or  sea-girdle  (Laminaria  digi- 
tata\  is  another  familiar  species.  Unlike  the 
species  above  referred  to,  which  are  found  between 
high  and  low  water  mark,  this  plant  grows  in 
water  of  from  seven  to  fifteen  fathoms  in  depth, 
and  is  rarely  found  in  places  from  which  the  tide 
recedes.  From  the  roots  attached  to  the  rocks 
shoots  up  a  long  stem,  the  summit  of  which 
expands  into  a  broad  leaf  or  frond,  divided  into  a 
number  of  irregular  strips.  This  plant  is  olive- 
brown  in  colour. 

Another  of  the  same  class  of  plants  is  the  sea- 
lace  (Chorda,  filum).  The  fronds  of  this  plant 


BRIGHT-COLOURED   ALG.E.  131 

are  often  of  great  length,  s extending  to  twenty  and 
even  forty  feet,  and  resembling  a  cord  of  leather 
or  gutta-percha.  In  some  parts  of  the  coast, 
especially  of  the  Orkney  Islands,  this  plant  grows 
in  great  profusion,  forming  a  sort  of  marine 
meadow  through  which  a  boat  forces  its  way  with 
some  difficulty.  The  cord  or  string  of  which  it 
consists  is  a  hollow  tube,  divided  into  chambers 
filled  with  air,  which  renders  the  whole  plant 
very  light,  and  enables  it  to  float  upwards  to  the 
top,  and  along  the  surface  of  the  water.  More 
than  fifty  species,  all  differing  more  or  less  from 
each  other,  are  enumerated  by  marine  botanists 
as  comprehended  in  the  series  of  the  Melano- 
spermese. 

We  shall  now  notice  a  few  specimens  of  the 
Ehodospermese.  These  plants  are  generally  of  a 
rose,  purple,  or  red-brown  hue,  and  many  of  the 
varieties,  which  are  numerous,  are  extremely 
beautiful,  especially  those  of  a  pink  colour. 

"  Their  blushes  speak 
Of  rosy  hues  that  o'er  the  ocean  break 
When  cloudy  morn  is  calm ;  yet  fain  to  weep, 
Because  the  beautiful  are  still  the  frail." 

One  of  the  most  elegant  of  these  plants  is  the 
scarlet  plocamium  (Plocamium  sanguineum), 
with  which  most  visitors  of  the  sea-shore  are 
familiar.  It  is  of  a  fine  pink  colour.  The  fronds 
are  much  branched,  and  are  feathery  in  their 
structure,  the  smaller  branches  being  furnished 
with  minute  subdivisions  like  the  teeth  of  a  comb ; 

K  2 


132  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

when  dried  and  expanded  on  white  paper  or  on 
the  pearly  white  inner  surface  of  a  large  shell, 
this  plant  is  highly  pleasing  from  the  delicacy  and 
beauty  of  its  structure. 

Probably  the  delesseria  is  the  most  beautiful 
of  all  the  order  to  which  it  belongs.  The  Deles- 
seria sanguined  bears  large  leaves  of  extreme 
delicacy,  and  in  shape  resembling  those  of  the 
red  dock,  and  of  a  rich  rose-red  colour,  with  the 
margins  waved  or  plaited.  This  plant  is  less 
common  than  the  preceding,  and  is  sometimes 
found  attached  by  its  roots  to  the  larger  kinds  of 
algae  as  well  as  to  the  rocks.  Another  species  of 
delesseria  is  the  D.  sinuosa  or  oak-leaved  delesse- 
ria. The  colour  of  this  plant  is  claret-red,  and  it 
is  a  remarkably  beautiful  plant. 

The  Nitophyllum,  of  which  there  are  likewise 
several  kinds,  is  a  very  fine  sea-weed.  The  colour 
is  a  rich  purple  lake  in  some  of  the  species,  which 
becomes  brighter  when  dried,  in  others  it  is  deep 
crimson,  and  in  others  a  delicate  rose-pink.  The 
fronds  in  this  plant  are  reticulated,  membrana- 
ceous,  and  without  veins. 

Another  plant  of  this  class  not  uncommon  is 
the  Rhodomenia  palmata  or  dulse.  It  is  of  a' 
fine  purplish  red  colour.  The  fronds,  which  grow 
in  tufts,  are  flat  and  so  divided  as  to  represent  in 
a  rude  manner  the  form  of  the  human  hand,  a 
circumstance  giving  origin  to  the  term  palmata. 

The  Chrondus  crispus,  or  crisped  chrondus,  is 
another  plant  meriting  attention.  It  is  frequent 
on  rocky  shores,  and  is  found  in  great  abundance 


GREEN-COLOURED   ALGJ1.  133 

on  the  Devonshire  coast  as  well  as  on  the  coast  of 
Ireland.  The  colour  is  a  purplish  green,  and  it 
is  well  known  as  the  Irish  moss,  which,  when 
boiled,  produces  a  nutritious  jelly.  Of  the  class 
of  which  we  have  thus  referred  to  one  or  two 
examples  there  is  a  large  number  of  species. 

It  now  remains  that  we  notice  a  few  of  the 
series  termed  Chlorospermece. 

These  plants  are  the  least  beautiful  and  in- 
teresting of  the  sea-weeds.  The  most  common 
of  them  belong  to  the  order  Confervas.  Some  of 
these  are  to  be  found  on  every  sea-shore,  covering 
the  stones  in  great  profusion,  and  rendering  them 
very  slippery.  The  Ulva  latissima  or  green 
sloke,  the  colour  of  which  is  a  full  green,  and  of 
which  the  fronds  are  broadly  egg-shaped  or  oblong 
and  variously  cleft  and  waved ;  the  Porphyra  laci- 
niata,  or  cleft  porphyra,  laver  or  sloke,  of  a  rich 
purple  colour,  a  species  sometimes  boiled  and 
used  at  table,  and  several  other  species,  are  com- 
prehended in  this  class. 

Of  the  three  series  referred  to  a  large  number 
of  species  present  themselves  to  the  lovers  of 
marine  botany,  and  all  of  them  will  be  found 
worthy  of  notice  either  from  their  appearance, 
their  structure,  or  the  purposes  to  which  they  are 
applicable.  To  some  peculiarities  in  their  phy- 
siology we  shall  in  a  succeeding  chapter  direct 
our  readers'  attention. 


K.  3 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF    MARINE    PLANTS 


137 


CHAP.  VIII.       - 

PHYSIOLOGY   OF  MARINE   PLANTS. 

Claims  which  they  have  on  our  Attention. — Fructification. — Pe- 
culiarity of  their  Structure. — Keproduction. — Their  remarkable 
Structure  as  related  to  the  Element  they  exist  in. — Artificial 
Uses  of  Sea-weeds.  —  Their  Relation  to  Marine  Animals,  &c. 

THE  beauty  of  many  of  these  plants,  their  impor- 
tance in  the  economy  of  nature,  their  use  in  various 
respects  to  man  himself,  are  all  considerations 
likely  to  dispose  the  intelligent  observer  to  inquire 
into  their  structure.. 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  ail  the  marine 
plants  are  comprehended  in  the  class  termed 
Cryptogamia,  in  which  are  included  ferns,  lichens, 
and  other  non-flowering  terrestrial  plants.  The 
fructification  of  cryptogam  ic  plants  differs,  as  our 
readers  are  aware,  from  that  of  the  class  which 
produce  blossoms,  and  this  peculiarity  may  be 
readily  observed  by  examining  in  autumn  the 
back  of  a  fern  leaf,  or  frond  on  which  a  multitude 
of  seed-like  bodies  may  be  seen  grouped  together 
in  various  forms.  These  bodies  consist  of  a  num- 
ber of  distinct  capsules,  in  which  are  the  germs  or 
spores,  analogous  to  the  seeds  in  flowering  plants. 

The  fructification  of  marine  plants  is  of  this 
kind.  Their  reproduction  takes  place  by  means 


138  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

of  germs  or  spores  which  are  contained  in  certain 
parts  of  the  fronds  in  appropriate  capsules  more 
or  less  obvious  on  examination. 

The  highest  forms  of  marine  plants  are  com- 
posed of  the  same  elements  as  the  most  simple. 
They  all  consist,  not  of  organs  related  to,  and 
affording  nutriment  to  each  other  as  the  root  of 
terrestrial  plants  does  to  the  branches,  but  of  a 
series  of  separate  and  independent  parts.  In  se- 
veral marine  plants  there  are  various  parts  analo- 
gous to  those  of  land  vegetables,  such  as  roots, 
stems,  branches,  and  leaves.  But  between  these 
parts  of  marine  plants  there  is  no  difference  of 
organisation,  all  being  alike  formed  of  cellular 
tissue,  and  each  part  appearing  to  have  an  inde- 
pendent existence,  and  not  to  participate  in  the 
common  vitality  of  the  vegetable. 

The  manner  in  which  these  plants  are  formed 
is  very  simple,  and  may  be  easily  understood. 
There  is,  first,  the  germ  or  spore,  consisting  of  a 
minute  isolated  cell.  This  cell,  when  about  to 
produce  a  plant,  elongates  itself  and  becomes 
divided  in  the  centre  by  a  septum  or  cell-wall ; 
thus  two  cells  are  formed  entirely  distinct  from 
each  other.  The  same  process  of  subdivision  still 
continues ;  the  new  cell  produces  by  its  own  elon- 
gation and  division  a  third  cell ;  the  third  gives 
birth  in  the  same  manner  to  a  fourth,  and  thus 
either  a  row  or  a  cluster  of  cells  is  speedily  formed. 
In  those  sea-weeds  which  are  in  the  form  of  cords, 
— such  as  the  Chorda  filum,  already  spoken  of, — 
the  spores  or  cells  lengthen  themselves  in  one 


STRUCTURE,   ETC.    OF   THE   A.L&M.  139 

direction,  succeeding  each  other  in  a  line,  while  in 
those  plants  whose  parts  are  broad  and  extended, 
the  spores  or  cells  multiply  laterally  as  well  as 
longitudinally,  and  thus  the  broad  frond  is  formed. 
Why  it  is  that  one  species  always  increases  in  one 
direction,  and  others  in  a  different  direction,  is 
one  of  those  mysteries  the  cause  of  which  eludes 


our  investigations. 


It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  reproductive 
power  of  the  algae  differs  considerably  in  different 
kinds.  Thus  in  the  ulva  already  spoken  of, 
known  as  sloke,  whose  thin  grass  green  or  olive 
brown  and  purple  fronds  abound  on  some  of  our 
shores,  every  part  of  the  frond  is  capable  of  pro- 
ducing cells  or  spores,  and  thus  the  plant  is  capable 
of  spreading  indefinitely  on  every  side.  It  is 
otherwise  with  the  alga3  of  the  higher  orders, 
such  as  the  bladder  wrack  or  Fucus  vesiculosus, 
and  the  notched  wrack,  F.  serratus ;  in  these  it 
has  been  discovered  that  the  tissue  is  less  uniform 
in  character  than  in  the  simpler  forms  of  marine 
vegetation,  and  that  some  approach  is  made  to 
that  separation  of  organs  perceptible  in  the  higher 
orders  of  the  Cryptogamia.  Unlike  the  ulva,  the 
fuci  now  mentioned  have  their  reproductive 
powers  restricted  to  one  part  only,  the  extremity 
of  the  fronds.  These  are  found  to  dilate  them- 
selves into  receptacles  or  spore-sacs,  beautifully 
adapted  to  their  office,  being  furnished  with  pores 
through  which  the  germs  make  their  escape  when 
arrived  at  maturity. 

There  is  another  peculiarity  in  the  structure  of 


140  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

sea-weeds  extremely  worthy  of  notice,  as  distin- 
guishing them  in  a  remarkable  manner  from  ter- 
restrial plants,  and,  at  the  same  time,  exhibiting  a 
striking  instance  of  an  obviously  designed  relation 
of  their  physiological  character  to  the  element  in 
which  they  exist.  To  perceive  this  peculiarity  it 
is  requisite  to  refer  to  the  structure  of  the  higher 
orders  of  terrestrial  plants.  In  these  the  root  is 
not  only  that  which  serves  to  fix  them  in  the  soil, 
but  it  is  the  part  of  the  plant  which  absorbs  the 
moisture  requisite  to  their  growth.  .The  power 
of  absorption  which  the  root  exercises  is  very  great, 
some  plants  being  capable  of  thus  taking  up  in  a 
very  short  period  many  times  their  own  weight  of 
water.  Thus,  for  example,  in  an  experiment  made 
with  four  plants  of  spearmint  grown  for  fifty-six 
days  in  water,  it  was  found  that,  although  they 
themselves  weighed  only  403  grains,  they  absorbed 
by  their  roots  54,000  grains  of  water,  a  quantity 
equal  to  about  seven  pints.  The  liquid  thus  ab- 
sorbed is  transmitted  from  the  root,  along  with  any 
chemical  ingredients  it  contains,  to  every  part  of 
the  plant  for  the  nourishment  and  growth  of  its 
several  parts. 

Now  in  the  sea-weeds  the  only  function  which 
the  roots  perform  similar  to  those  of  land  vege- 
tables, is  that  of  fixing  the  plant  to  its  place.  It 
has  no  power  whatever  of  transmitting  moisture 
to  other  parts  of  the  plant,  there  being  no  system 
of  vessels  for  such  a  purpose,  and  the  cells  forming 
the  plant  being  entirely  insulated  from  each  other. 
Accordingly,  while  in  the  majority  of  terrestrial 


POWERS   OF   ABSORPTION,   ETC.  141 

vegetables  the  power  of  absorption  is  restricted  to 
the  root,  this  power  in  sea-weed  is  distributed 
over  every  part  of  the  surface,  for  the  obvious 
reason  that  it  is  entirely  immersed  in  the  fluid 
from  which  its*  nutriment  is  extracted.  As  a  con- 
sequence, therefore,  if  a  sea-weed  be  partly  raised 
out  of  the  water,  the  portions  so  deprived  of  their 
source  of  nourishment  will  wither  and  die  from 
drought,  while  the  portions  which  continue  im- 
mersed will  continue  to  thrive,  without  transmit- 
ting any  moisture  to  the  part  of  the  plant  raised 
out  of  the  water. 

Intimately  connected  with  the  subject  of  the 
physiology  of  the  algae  is  that  of  the  artificial  uses 
to  which  they  are  adapted,  the  peculiar  properties 
they  possess,  and  the  purposes  which  in  nature 
they  fulfil. 

Many  of  them  are  of  no  inconsiderable  import- 
ance and  value  to  mankind.  All  the  larger  species 
of  fuci  already  referred  to  were  formerly  very 
largely  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  kelp,  an 
impure  carbonate  of  soda  used  in  soap-making. 
Chloride  of  sodium  is  found  in  the  tissues  of  marine 
vegetables,  and  the  carbonate  of  soda  now  referred 
to  is  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  this  chlo- 
ride. The  chloride  is  driven  off  and  the  carbon 
and  the  sodium  combine  with  oxygen,  and  the 
chemical  result  is  the  carbonate  of  soda  or  kelp. 
The  manufacture  of  this  substance,  although  now 
in  some  measure  superseded  by  the  introduction 
of  foreign  alkali,  is  still  of  value.  It  was  at  one 
time  extensively  carried  on  at  various  places  along 


142  SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 

the  shores  of  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  sea- ware 
being  collected  and  dried  upon  the  shore,  a 
simple  kiln,  five  or  six  feet  square,  is  enclosed 
with  stones,  and  a  fire  being  made  in  it,  the  sea- 
wrack  is  reduced  to  a  melted  condition.  On  being 
allowed  to  cool  it  assumes  a  solid  state,  not  unlike 
a  grey  coloured  porous  clay  or  stone,  and  being 
broken  in  pieces  is  ready  for  the  market. 

Another  important  use  to  which  marine  vege- 
tables are  applied  is  that  of  manure  in  the  culti- 
vation of  land.  Marine  plants  contain  in  large 
quantities  those  various  ingredients,  such  as  phos- 
phates, earthy  and  alkaline  carbonates,  that  are 
requisite  to  enrich  the  land  and  render  it  capable 
of  producing  plants  of  whose  composition  these 
ingredients  are  a  part.  The  sea-ware,  therefore, 
when  spread  upon  the  soil  and  allowed  to  decom- 
pose, constitutes  a  valuable  manure,  and  being 
often  cast  in  great  quantities  upon  the  shore  during 
storms,  affords  a  rich  return  to  those  cultivators 
of  land  on  the  coast  who  avail  themselves  of  the 
opportunity  of  gathering  it.  The  gathering  of 
seaweed  for  the  purpose  of  manure  and  for  fuel 
exhibits  in  the  Channel  Islands  a  busy  and  pic- 
turesque scene. 

Another  use  to  which  some  species  may  be  put, 
is  that  of  supplying  food  for  pigs  and  cattle,  and 
for  this  purpose  it  may  at  all  times  vbe  applied  as 
well  as  in  times  of  scarcity.  It  is  applied  to  this 
important  purpose  in  the  Western  Isles,  and  in 
several  parts  of  the  northern  coasts  of  Europe. 
The  animals  fed  upon  it  are  said  to  thrive  re- 


VARIOUS   USES   OF  ALG^!.  143 

markably  well,  a  result  to  be  anticipated  from  the 
chemical  constituents  of  the  plant. 

It  may  further  be  mentioned  that  from  marine 
plants  the  chemical  substance  called  iodine  is  ex- 
tracted. This  substance  is  of  very  great  value  in 
medical  practice,  possessing  great  efficacy  in  reduc- 
ing glandular  and  other  tumours.  It  is  said  also 
that  the  mucilaginous  seed  vessels  of  the  Fucus 
vesiculosus,  when  soaked  in  brandy,  may  be  used 
with  excellent  effect  as  an  external  application  in 
diseases  of  the  throat,  and  that  the  sea-water  in 
which  they  have  been  bruised  in  a  considerable 
quantity,  affords  a  valuable  strengthening  bath  for 
the  limbs  of  weak  and  delicate  children.  A  black 
salt,  also  possessed  of  medicinal  powers,  has  also 
been  procured  from  the  same  plant. 

Thus  external  appearances  are  not  always  to  be 
trusted  as  evidence  of  intrinsic  worth,  and  many 
virtues  may  lurk  under  a  very  plain  and  unosten- 
tatious exterior.  Those  sea-weeds,  thus  capable 
of  being  put  to  so  many  valuable  uses,  are  the 
least  beautiful  of  all  their  tribe.  But,  like  some  of 
the  most  valuable  land  plants,  their  sombre  and 
unpretending  aspect  is  made  ample  amends  for  by 
the  valuable  qualities  they  possess. 

The  Rhodomenia  palmata,  already  referred 
to,  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  saccharine 
matter,  is  considered  the  most  nutritious  as  well  as 
the  most  agreeable  of  all  the  sea- weeds  used  as  food, 
at  least  in  Europe.  It  is  eaten  raw  by  the  natives 
of  the  Scottish  coasts,  and  in  former  times  was 
regularly  brought  to  market  in  the  larger  cities. 


144  SEASIDE  DIVINITY. 

Even  at  the  present  day  it  may  be  found  for  sale 
in  some  of  the  Scottish  towns.  The  name  Dulse 
is  derived  from  the  Celtic  Duillisk  or  Dillisk,  the 
name  by  which  the  plant  is  known  in  Ireland  and 
Scotland,  and  which  signifies  a  waterleaf. 

The  crisped  chrondus,  already  referred  to,  is  also 
of  considerable  value  for  domestic  and  medicinal 
use.  When  boiled,  it  produces  a  gelatine  of  very 
nutritious  qualities,  which  may  be  used  at  table 
in  various  forms.  From  its  restorative  properties, 
the  mucilage  may  be  taken  with  advantage  by 
those  suffering  from  debility,  or  from  affections  of 
the  lungs.  Its  slight  bitterness  in  taste  may  be 
rendered  almost  imperceptible  by  the  addition  of 
,lemon  juice  or  wine. 

To  this  plant  is  related  the  species  from  which 
the  edible  birds'  nests  are  formed,  which  are  con- 
sidered so  great  a  delicacy  by  the  Chinese,  and 
even  by  our  own  countrymen  who  have  partaken 
of  them.  These  nests  are  brought  from  certain 
islands  on  the  Chinese  coast,  where  there  are 
caves  in  which  birds  resembling  swallows  build 
for  themselves  these  remarkable  habitations,  em- 
ploying for  the  purpose  a  species  of  sea-weed,  which 
they  subject  to  the  process  of  maceration  before 
applying  it  to  its  purpose. 

We  have  thus  seen  that  sea-weeds  are  of  no  in- 
considerable value  to  mankind.  But  there  are 
other  considerations  worthy  of  notice  regarding 
them.  The  plants  of  the  sea  afford  shelter  and 
food  to  countless  hosts  of  animated  beings  who  in- 
habit the  waters,  and  to  whom  as  well  as  to  man 


SUPPLY   OF   OXYGEN.  145 

the  bountiful  Author  of  every  perfect  gift  opens 
His  hand,  and  they  are  filled  with  good.  Man  is 
not  the  principal  beneficiary  for  whom  provision 
is  made  in  the  qualities  of  marine  plants;  the 
humblest  of  his  fellow- creatures  share  with  him 
the  ample  supply  which  divine  beneficence  has 
prepared. 

But  another  important  truth  demands  our  ad- 
miration of  the  divine  wisdom  and  care  by  which 
the  processes  of  physical  nature  are  carried  on. 
It  is  now  fully  understood  that  on  the  land  the 
great  source  of  oxygen  requisite  to  animal  life  is 
the  vegetable  kingdom ;  that  a  continued  recipro- 
cation of  benefits,  so  to  speak,  takes  place  between 
animals  and  plants,  the  latter  consuming  the 
carbon  produced  by  the  former,  and  the  former 
living  on  the  oxygen  exhaled  by  the  latter. 

The  same  process  is  carried  on  beneath  the 
waters.  The  marine  animals  which  live  upon 
sea  plants  also  require  oxygen,  without  which 
their  vital  functions  cannot  proceed.  This  oxygen 
their  organs  of  respiration  separate  from  the 
liquid  element  in  which  they  live.  But  the  sea- 
water  would  thus  soon  cease  to  be  capable  of  sup- 
porting its  countless  hosts,  if  some  provision  were 
not  made  for  the  renewal  of  the  life-sustaining 
fluid  strained  from  it  by  the  respiration  of 
animals.  This  renewal,  however,  is  effected  by 
aquatic  plants.  They  are,  like  land  plants,  the 
great  source  of  oxygen ;  they  afford,  therefore, 
food  and  vital  air  to  the  denizens  of  the  deep, 
from  whose  decay  they  in  return  obtain  carbon 
L 


146  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

for  their  own  nourishment.  Thus  a  perpetual  cir- 
culation takes  place,  which  affords  one  of  the 
most  striking  evidences  of  prospective  wisdom 
that  it  is  possible  to  conceive. 

In  reference  to  the  subject  of  iodine  as  extracted 
from  marine  plants,  one  remark  may  here  be  ad- 
ded. "  When  it  is  considered,"  observes  the  justly 
celebrated  Liebig,  "  that  sea-water  contains  less 
than  the  one-millionth  of  its  own  weight  of 
iodine,  and  that  all  combinations  of  iodine  with 
the  metallic  bases  of  alkalies  are  highly  soluble  in 
water,  some  provision  must  necessarily  be  sup- 
posed to  exist  in  the  organisation  of  sea-weeds  and 
the  different  kinds  of  fuci,  by  which  they  are 
enabled  during  their  life  to  extract  iodine  in  the 
form  of  a  soluble  salt  from  sea-water,  and  to  as- 
similate it  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is  not  again 
restored  to  the  surrounding  medium.  These 
plants  are  collectors  of  iodine,  just  as  land  plants 
are  of  alkalies  ;  and  they  yield  us  this  element  in 
quantities  such  as  we  could  not  otherwise  obtain 
without  the  evaporation  of  whole  seas."  * 

How  this  process  is  carried  on  is  hot  under- 
stood, but  it  cannot  fail  to  add  additional  interest 
to  the  consideration  of  marine  plants,  that  not 
only  in  this  respect,  but  as  regards  the  oxygen 
they  furnish,  their  structure,  simple  as  it  ap- 
pears, is  nevertheless  adapted  to  carry  on  unceas- 
ingly a  great  system  of  chemical  decomposition 
for  purposes  which  are  all  wise  and  good,  although 

*  Chemistry  in  its  Application  to  Agriculture  and  Physiology, 
p.  83. 


LESSONS   THEY   TEACH.  147 

we  understand  but  few  of  them,  and  are  unable  to 
perceive  all  the  ends  they  are  intended  to  effect. 

We  behold  enough,  however,  to  incite  us  to 
know  more,  and  above  all  to  teach  us  to  adore 
that  mighty  Being  who  has  not  only  arrayed  in 
all  their  beauty  the  lilies  of  the  field,  but  has  con- 
ferred such  qualities  and  functions  on  the  plants 
that  adorn  the  fields  of  the  great  deep,  as  tend  to 
evince  at  once  His  beneficence  in  providing  for 
the  wants  of  the  millions  that  wander  "  through 
the  paths  of  the  sea ; "  and  the  exuberance  of  His 
skill  and  power  in  dispersing  at  the  same  moment 
in  inexhaustible  profusion  and  luxuriance  forms  of 
vegetable  life  which  flourish  in  consummate  grace 
and  beauty,  although  far  removed  from  human 
eye  amid  the  abysses  of  the  ocean. 


MARITIME    PLANTS 


151 


CHAP.   IX. 

MARITIME   PLANTS. 

Seaside  Flowers. — Interest  attache'd  to  them. — Vegetation  of 
Seaside  less  luxuriant  than  in  Inland  Places. — Sea-side  Grasses 
— Sea-side  flowering  Plants. — Examples  of  various  Species. 

MANY  a  charm,  besides  its  geological  features,  its 
rocks  festooned  with  algae,  its  beach  of  smooth 
sand  or  of  intermingled  shells  and  pebbles,  does 
the  seaside  present  to  its  contemplative  visitor. 
It  exhibits  to  him  a  class  of  objects  very  pleasant 
at  once  to  the  mind  that  thinks  of  them  and  the 
eye  that  perceives  them,  in  the  flowers  and  plants 
peculiar  to  the  sea-shore  or  its  vicinity.  To  such 
plants  and  flowers  the  title  of  maritime  is  given. 
They  delight  to  dwell,  as  a  general  rule,  out  of 
the  reach  of  the  waves,  but  still  almost  always 
near  enough  to  the  sea  to  be  sprinkled  with  its 
spray  during  a  storm  ;  and  had  they  but  organs  of 
hearing  they  must  always  hear  the  voice  of  the 
waves  either  murmuring  on  the  beach  in  the  soft 
west  winds,  or  thundering  on  the  shore  in  a 
tempest. 

And  truly  most  agreeable  to  the  mind  and  the 
eye  are  those  maritime  plants,  for  they  possess 
much  of  the  beauty  derived  from  form,  from 
colour,  or  from  adaptation  of  character  and  quality 
to  the  place  of  their  abode,  and  they  suggest 

L   4 


152  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

moreover  to    those    who    are   able   to   perceive 
typical  resemblances,  not  a  few  emblematic  les- 
sons regarding  virtues  of  great  store  in  the  busi- 
ness  of  human   life.     Some   of  them   dwell   in 
solitary  spots'  rarely  seen  or  visited,  wasting  what- 
ever sweetness  they  possess,  not  indeed  upon  the 
desert  air,  but  upon  the  wild  sea  breezes ;  and  so 
afford   emblems   of  modest  and   retiring   virtue 
which  courts  no  approval  from  without,  and  is 
amply  contented  with  its  own  rewards.     Others 
there  are  that  select  their  abode  in  places  so  arid 
as  hardly  to  afford  them  any  kind  of  nutriment, 
nay,  scarcely  any  footing  by  which  to  resist  being 
torn  up  by  the  fierce  winds,  and  yet  in  places  so 
unpromising    and     unproductive,    thriving    and 
flourishing,  and  opening  their  blossoms  gratefully 
to  the  summer  sun,  and  so  exhibiting  types  of 
humble  and  contented  poverty,  and  thus  having 
more  beauty  than  many  a  plant  nurtured  by  a 
sedulous  gardener  in  the  warmth  and  luxury  of  a 
hothouse :  others  again  there  are  which  seem  to 
derive   no   nourishment  whatever   from  the  dry 
sands  or  the   hard   rocks    on   which  they  grow, 
whose  roots  seem  to  serve  no  other  purpose  than 
to  fix  them  to  one  place,  and  whose  thick,  suc- 
culent leaves  derive  the  moisture  tha,t  fills  them 
from  the  air,  and  so  afford  emblems  of  those  who 
by  ingenuity,   industry   and   toil    know  how   to 
make  the  most  of  untoward  conditions,  and  how 
to  prosper  where  others  less  energetic  must  perish. 
Then,  once  more,  these  various  plants  are  hardy 
in  the  extreme ;    the   cutting  east  winds   injure 


SEASIDE   PLANTS.  153 

them  not ;  the  storm  or  the  ocean  spray  does  them 
little  harm ;  and  so  they  are  all  more  or  less  sug- 
gestive of  that  mental  vigour,  that  strength  of 
character,  and  those  sterling  virtues  of  courage 
and  self-dependence,  which  enable  the  brave  to 
smile  at  the  frowns  of  fortune,  and  by  the  force  of 
perseverance  to  be  superior  to  adversity.  If  there 
be  sermons  in  stones ;  if  we  discover  theology  in 
the  strata  of  the  sea-shores  ;  we  may  also  discover 
divinity  in  the  flowers  and  plants  that  make  their 
dwelling  by  the  wild  sea  waves. 

As  a  general  rule,  vegetation  at  the  sea-shores 
does  not  exhibit  the  luxuriance  by  which  it  is 
characterised  in  situations  at  a  distance  from  the 
sea.  In  many  parts  o£  the  coast,  and  especially 
on  the  eastern  coast,  trees  will  not  grow  unless  in 
sheltered  situations,  and  those  which  do  take  root 
seldom  attain  to  the  size  they  exhibit  in  inland 
localities.  They  appear  to  increase  slowly,  and  to 
have  a  stunted  aspect ;  the  principal  branches,  it  is 
remarkable,  grow  chiefly  from  the  side  of  the 
trunk,  which  is  toward  the  land,  towards  which  all 
the  branches  appear  to  be  directed.  This  is 
probably  caused  by  the  violence  with  which  the 
wind  blows  on  an  unsheltered  shore,  and  by  the 
saline  quality  of  the  air  when  impregnated  by  the 
spray,  which  in  high  winds  is  carried  like  small 
rain  over  the  adjacent  land,  and  sometimes  in 
storms  to  an  immense  distance.  Proximity  to  the 
sea,  therefore,  is  unfavourable  to  the  growth  and 
development  of  plants  belonging  to  inland  situa- 
tions ;  but,  as  already  observed,  there  are  plants 


154  SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 

and  flowers  which  flourish  in  no  locality  so  well 
as  on  the  sea-shores,  for  which  they  are  peculiarly 
adapted.  Their  fitness  for  the  localities  in  which 
they  thus  flourish  affords  one  of  the  many  proofs 
which  the  various  departments  of  nature  exhibit 
of  the  express  purpose  and  design  of  the  all-wise 
Creator. 

The  numerous  family  of  British  grasses  com- 
prehends more  than  a  hundred  and  twenty  species, 
and  of  these  about  twenty  belong  exclusively  to 
the  sea-shores,  some  making  their  habitation  in 
rocky  and  stony  places,  others  in  salt  marshes  and 
in  muddy  soil,  and  others  growing  in  the  sand. 
Those  making  their  abode  in  the  sand  are  con- 
siderably more  numerous 'than  all  the.  rest.  It 
will  be  sufficient  to  enumerate  a  few  of  those 
most  likely  to  come  under  the  notice  of  the  visitor 
of  the  seaside. 

The  seaside  Catstail-grass  (Phleum  arenarium) 
is  a  short  grass  about  six  inches  in  height,  which 
flowers  in  July,  and  grows  in  the  sand.  The 
beard  grass  (Polypogon  littoralis),  which  flourishes 
in  salt  marshes  is  about  a  foot  in  height,  the 
straws  are  branched,  the  leaves  are  rough  on  both 
sides,  and  the  panicle  or  cluster  of  flowers  is  of  a 
purplish  colour.  The  Dog's-tooth  grass  (Cynodon 
dactylon),  like  the  last,  is  found  on  the  southern 
shores  of  England,  but  grows  in  sand ;  the  grey 
hair-grass  (Aira  canescens),  found  chiefly  on  the 
sandy  shores  of  Suffolk  and  Norfolk,  is  about  six 
inches  high,  and  possesses  a  panicle  of  numerous 
small  flowers,  variegated  with  purple,  green,  and 


MARITIME    GRASSES.  155 

white.  The  Sea-reed,  Mat-grass,  or  Sea-bent 
( Arundo  arenaria)  is  common  on  various  parts  of 
our  sandy  shores,  and  easily  recognised ;  the  straw 
is  stiff,  and  of  a  greenish  yellow  colour.  The  root 
of  this  species  of  grass  is  creeping,  and  often  twenty 
feet  in  length,  and  being  very  tough,  and  sending 
forth  numerous  fibres,  it  serves  the  valuable 
purpose  of  binding  the  loose  sand,  and  preventing 
its  being  blown  away  during  high  winds.  On  the 
coast  of  Norfolk,  between  Hunstanton  and  Wey- 
bourne,  low  hills  or  "  dunes "  of  blown  sand  are 
found  along  the  shore,  some  of  which  are  fifty  or 
sixty  feet  in  height.  They  are  composed  of  dry 
sand,  but  they  are  bound  into  a  compact  mass  by 
the  long  creeping  roots  of  this  useful  species  of 
grass.  It  has  been  planted  for  the  same  purpose 
on  the  shores  of  some  of  the  islands  of  the 
Hebrides,  and  there  are  several  parts  of  the  Irish 
coast  on  which  it  might  be  encouraged  with  great 
advantage.  The  Arundo  arenaria  has  also  been 
employed  in  various  useful  manufactures;  it  is 
not  only  well  adapted  to  make  door-mats  and 
floor  brushes,  but  it  forms  ropes  of  considerable 
strength,  and  is  employed  in  making  sacks  for 
holding  grain,  and  hats  for  summer  use.  For 
these  purposes  it  is  the  peculiar  toughness  of  the 
straw  which  renders  it  available.  In  addition  to 
these  there  are  two  species  of  Glyceria  or  Sweet- 
grass  peculiar  to  sandy  places  on  the  sea-shore  ;  the 
fescue  grass  (Festuca  uniglumis),  remarkable  for 
its  being  single-husked,  and  which  also  affects  the 
sand  ;  the  Sea  Hard-grass  (Rotibollia  incurvata) 


156  SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 

flourishing  in  salt  marshes  ;  the  upright  sea-lyme- 
grass,  with  straws  three  or  four  feet  high,  leaves 
hard  and  stiff,  and  remarkable  for  having  thorny 
points ;  the  sea-barley  or  squirrel-tail  grass,  and 
some  species  of  sea-wheat-grass(Tri£icttm^miceum 
and  Triticum  loliaceum),  all  of  which  make  their 
abode  on  the  sand.  The  study  of  these  various 
seaside  grasses  affords  much  interest ;  but  it  is 
requisite  to  employ  for  this  purpose  the  aid  of  a 
botanical  treatise,  by  which  the  minute  pecu- 
liarities of  each  species  are  specially  described. 

Interesting,  however,  as  the  study  of  the  seaside 
grasses  may  be,  they  attract  less  attention  than 
those  plants  which  bear  coloured  flowers,  some  of 
which  among  those  which  flourish  on  the  coast 
possess  no  inconsiderable  beauty. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  those  seaside 
flowering  plants  is  the  sea-bindwood,  of  which  the 
scientific  name  is  Convolvulus  soldanella.  Like 
the  bent,  it  is  very  useful  in  retaining  the  sand, 
which  without  such  numerous  fibres  as  it  throws 
out  might  be  easily  blown  away.  The  charac- 
teristics of  this  plant  render  it  easily  to  be 
recognised.  The  root  is  creeping,  the  stems  about 
two  feet  in  length,  the  leaves  kidney-shaped  and 
somewhat  thick  and  succulent,  the  flower-stalks, 
like  the  two  other  species  of  convolvulus  which 
are  found  in  inland  localities,  bearing  a  single 
flower,  which  is  large  and  of  a  purplish-pink 
colour,  with  pale  yellow  plaits. 

Another  flower  which  is  found  in  gravelly  places 
on  the  sea-shores  in  the  north  of  England,  in 


SEASIDE    FLOWERING   PLANTS.  157 

Ireland,  and  in  Scotland,  is  the  sea  gromwell  or  sea 
bugloss,  known  to  botanists  as  the  Lithospermum 
maritimum.  The  leaves  of  this  pretty  .plant  are, 
like  many  others  belonging  to  the  sea-shore,  some- 
what fleshy  or  succulent,  egg-shaped,  sprinkled 
with  callous  dots;  the  stems  are  numerous,  and 
from  one  to  two  feet  long,  the  flowers  in  leafy 
clusters,  and  of  a  beautiful  purple. 

The  Dwarf  Branched-centaury  (Erythrcea  pul- 
chella)  is  another  beautiful  plant  of  the  sandy 
sea-shore.  The  stem  of  this  plant  is  sometimes 
much  branched,  sometimes  simple,  and  only  from 
one  to  three  inches  in  height,  the  leaves  egg- 
shaped,  the  flowers,  which  spring  from  the  fork  of 
the  stem,  are  slender,  and  are  of  a  fine  pink 
colour,  and  are  often  found  in  some  situations 
in  such  profusion  as  to  produce  a  most  agree- 
able impression  upon  the  eye.  Another  species 
(Erythrcea  littoralis),  minute  like  the  preceding, 
and  perhaps  a  mere  variety  of  the  same  species, 
and  with  rose-coloured  flowers  in  dense  clusters, 
is  found  in  the  same  situations  as  the  preceding. 

The  Sea  Eryngo  (Eryngium  maritimum)  is 
another  gay  and  beautiful  plant,  the  characters  of 
which  are  easily  perceived.  The  stem  is  about  a 
foot  high,  round  and  branched ;  the  root-leaves 
are  roundish,  plaited,  and  thorny,  like  the  holly ; 
the  heads  of  flowers,  which  are  stalked  and 
numerous,  are  of  a  bright  blue ;  the  leaves  are  of 
a  bluish  green. 

Contrasted  with  the  eryngo  is  the  Yellow 
Horned  Poppy  (Glaucium  luteum)  and  the  Scarlet 


158  SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 

Horned  Poppy  (Glaucium  phceniceum),  both  in- 
habitants of  the  sea-shore.  The  latter  is  rare, 
but  the  former  by  no  means  uncommon.  It 
derives  its  name  from  the  glaucous  colour  or 
bloom  which  every  part  of  the  plant  exhibits, 
and  may  be  readily  recognised.  The  root-leaves 
are  numerous,  stalked  and  hairy,  the  stem-leaves 
embrace  the  stem,  and  are  waved,  rough,  and 
deeply  cut,  and  from  these  arise  the  flower  stalks, 
bearing  large  bright  yellow  flowers,  which  falling 
off  are  each  succeeded  by  a  pod  shaped  like  a 
horn,  and  nearly  a  foot  in  length. 

The  Sea-pink,  Sea-gilliflower,  or  Thrift  (Statice 
armeria\  is  a  familiar  plant,  and  produces  a 
great  profusion  of  pink  blossoms,  which  in  the 
months  of  July  and  August,  when  they  are  in  full 
bloom,  have  an  extremely  gay  appearance.  There 
are  three  other  species  of  this  plant,  which  differ 
in  some  respects  from  the  preceding,  and  which 
bear  spikes  of  blue,  and  of  purplish  blue  flowers. 
One  of  these  is  called  the  Sea-lavender  (Statice 
limonium)  ;  another  is  the  Upright-spiked  Thrift 
(S.  spathulata) ;  and  the  third  is  the  Matted 
Thrift  (S.  reticulata). 

The  Sea-Kocket  (Cakile  maritima)  is  a  plant 
which  grows  in  sand  and  is  common.  It  is  about 
a  foot  in  height,  the  stem  is  much  branched,  the 
leaves,  which  are  scattered,  are  fleshy,  and  pinna- 
tifid,  that  is  to  say,  cut  transversely  into  oblong 
segments,  something  like  the  oakleaf,  the  flowers 
large,  growing  in  dense  clusters,  and  of  a  lilac 
colour. 


SEASIDE   FLOWEKING   PLANTS.  15  9  * 

The  Great  Sea-Stock  (Matthiola  sinuata) occurs 
in  some  localities,  but  is  less  frequent  than  the 
preceding,  although  a  genuine  plant  of  the  sea- 
shore. The  stem  grows  to  the  height  of  two  feet, 
the  leaves  are  downy,  obtuse  at  the  ends,  sinuate, 
but  those  of  the  branches  undivided.  The  whole 
plant  is  covered  with  dense  starry  hairs  and  short 
prickles,  and  the  flowers  are  purple. 

Two  species  of  Sandwort  (Arenaria)  invite  the 
attention  of  those  who  visit  the  localities  where 
they  flourish,  and  which,  as  the  name  indicates, 
grow  in  the  sand.  The  one  is  A.  peploides ;  its 
leaves  are  egg-shaped,  acute,  and  fleshy,  and  its 
flowers  white  and  inconspicuous.  The  other  (A. 
marina},  which  has  semi-cylindrical  leaves,  has 
rather  large  flowers  of  a  pale  purple  ;  both  plants 
are  fleshy  and  succulent  in  their  structure,  and  are 
associated  by  botanists  in  the  order  to  which  pinks 
and  carnations  belong. 

The  Sea  Stork's-bill  (Erodium  maritimum)  is 
another  plant  common  on  the  sandy  shores  of  va- 
rious parts  of  the  south  of  England  ;  its  leaves  are 
simple,  heart-shaped,  crenate  or  notched  in  their 
margins,  and  rough,  the  stems  depressed  and  hairy, 
the  flowers  small  and  of  a  pale  red. 

Taking  up  their  abode  in  gravelly  and  sandy 
places  on  the  sea-shores  there  are  likewise  several 
plants  of  the  vetch  family,  one  characteristic  of 
which  is  the  pod  more  or  less  similar  to  that  of 
the  pea.  The  Sea  Pea  (Pisum  maritimum),  with 
a  "procumbent  stem,  bearing  alternate  pinnated 
leaves  and  branched  tendrils,  and  stalks  with  nu- 


«*160 


SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 


merous  flowers,  purple  and  veined  with  crimson  ; 
the  Smooth-podded  Sea  Vetch  (Vicia  Icevigata), 
with  pale  blue  or  whitish  blossoms ;  the  Purple 
Milk-Vetch  (Astragalus  hypoglottis),  with  stems 
two  or  three  feet  long,  and  pale  yellow  flowers  in 
egg-shaped  spikes,  supported  by  short  axillar 
stalks ;  and  the  Kidney-vetch  or.  Ladies'-fingers 
(Anthyllis  vulneraria),  the  stems  of  which  are 
about  a  foot  high,  and  the  corolla  yellow  and 
sometimes  white,  —  a  plant  which,  unlike  the 
preceding,  grows  in  dry  pastures  near  the  sea. 

Several  species  of  clover  (Trifolium)  are  also 
peculiar  to  the  coast.  On  the  south-eastern  shores 
of  Britain  and  other  districts,  is  found  the  Suffo- 
cated Trefoil  (T.  suffocatum),  so  called  from  the 
circumstance  that  the  whole  plant'  is  generally 
buried  in  the  sand, — bearing  heads  of  flowers  of  a 
pale  rose  colour ;  the  Teasel-headed  Trefoil  (T. 
maritimum),  which  flourishes  in  the  same  localities 
as  the  preceding  plant,  has  flowers  of  a  pale  red  in 
heads  of  an  oval  shape. 

The  Sea  Cotton-weed  (Diotis  maritima)  is  an 
easily  recognised  plant  belonging  to  the  southern 
coasts  of  England.  The  stems,  which  are  about  a 
foot  in  height  and  branched,  bear  lance-shaped 
leaves,  the  blossoms  are  yellow,  and  the  whole 
plant  white  and  cottony.  Then  there  are  many 
others  which  we  shall  only  very  briefly  mention. 
The  Sand  Strap- wort  (Corrigiola  littoralis),  with 
lance-shaped,  linear,  glaucous  leaves,  and  terminal 
clusters  of  numerous  white  flowers ;  the  Sea  Plan- 
tain (Plantago  maritima)  and  the  Buckshorn 


MARITIME    FLOWERS.  161 

Plantain  (P.  coronopus} ;  several  varieties  of 
rushes,  especially  the  Juncus  acutus,  and  J. 
maritimus ;  the  Sea  Feverfew,  with  its  large 
flowers,  which  have  a  very  convex  yellow  central 
disk  and  white  rays;  the  Sea  Beet  (Beta  mari- 
tima),  the  flowers  of  which  are  green ;  several 
species  of  Orache  (Atriplex) ;  the  Sand  Mustard, 
(Sinapis  muralis),  with  greenish  yellow  flowers ; 
the  Sea  Kadish  (Raphanus  maritimus),  with 
flowers  large  and  of  a  pale  yellow ;  the  purple 
Brooin-rape  (Orobanche  ccerulea),  with  its  funnel- 
shaped  greyish-purple  corolla;  the  broad-leaved 
Pepperwort  (Lepidium  latifolium),  with  its 
compound  clusters  of  numerous  very  small  white 
blossoms ;  in  addition  to  which,  among  the  less 
conspicuous  seaside  plants,  there  are  two  or  three 
kinds  of  Scurvy-grass  (Cochlearia),  with  white 
flowers ;  the  Hare's-ear  (Erysimum  orientale), 
with  its  cream-coloured  flowers,  in  loose  clusters ; 
the  Sea  Chamomile  (Anthemis  maritima),  and 
several  species  of  spurge  (Euphorbia),  all  which 
have  their  own  peculiar  claims  on  those  who  cul- 
tivate the  botany  of  the  sea-side. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  that  inhabit  gra- 
velly places  and  in  dry  mud,  all  the  plants  now 
enumerated  grow  in  the  sand.  We  shall  now 
direct  our  attention  to  those  which  flourish  in  salt 
marshes,  or  in  muddy  places  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
sea. 

Among  the  plants  most  characteristic  of  marshes 
of  which  the  water  and  the  soil  are  largely  im- 
pregnated with  salt,  is  the  common  Jointed  Grlass- 
M 


162  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

wort,  Saltwort,  or  Marsh  Samphire  (Salicornea 
herbacea).  It  is  a  small  herb,  about  a  foot  high, 
the  stem  is  erect,  herbaceous,  fleshy,  cylindrical, 
and  divided  into  joints,  the  leaves  are  like  scales, 
which  proceed  from  the  joints,  at  which  point  also 
three  minute  flowers  on  the  two  opposite  sides  of 
the  stem  are  produced.  This  plant  makes  a  good 
pickle.  It  is  also  eaten  by  cattle.  There  are  two 
other  species  of  saltwort  found  in  the  same  loca- 
lities. 

The  Water-Parsnep  (Sium  verticillatum)  also 
occupies  the  salt  marsh.  This  plant  has  leaflets 
in  whorls,  that  is  to  say,  growing  in  a  circle  around 
the  stem  and  of  a  hair-like  form.  It  produces 
numerous  white  flowers  on  terminal  umbels,  or 
flower-stalks  arising  from  a  common  centre. 

The  slender  hare's-ear  (Bupleurwm  tenuissi- 
mum),  a  plant  from  three  to  twelve  inches  high, 
with  lance-shaped  leaves,  and  yellowish  flowers, 
few  in  number  and,  like  the  last,  in  umbels ; 
the  Sea  Sulphur-wort  or  Hog's-fennel  (Peuceda- 
num  officinale),  has  a  stem  about  three  feet  in 
height,  leaves  deeply  divided,  and  bears  yellow 
flowers;  the  Mud-rush  (Juncus  caenosus)-,  the 
smooth  Sea-heath,  with  its  flesh-coloured  flowers ; 
the  parsley  Water-Drop  wort,  (GEnanthe,  pimpi- 
nelloides),  bearing  flesh-coloured  flowers;  the 
Least  Lettuce  (Lactuca  saligna),  with  pale  yellow 
flowers ;  the  Star-wort  (Aster  tripolium),  with  its 
large  purple  flowers  with  yellow  disks ;  all  belong 
to  the  salt  marsh.  To  these  we  may  add  the 
Bartsia  (B.  viscosa),  with  its  yellow  corolla 


MARITIME    PLANTS.  163 

stained  with  purple;  the  beautiful  little  plant 
called  the  Sea  Milk-wort  or  Black  Saltwort 
(Glaux  maritima),  which  bears  flesh-coloured 
flowers,  and  is  found,  not  in  salt  marshes  strictly 
so  called,  but  in  muddy  places  along  the  shore, 
and  is  very  common  in  many  parts  of  the  coast ; 
and  the  Sea  Campion  or  Catchfly  (Silene  mari- 
tima),  with  its*%iflated  bladdery  calyx,  of  a 
purplish  colour,  beautifully  reticulated,  and  its 
white  petals. 

There  are  two  plants  to  which  we  would  solicit 
the  reader's  special  attention,  on  account  of  the 
remarkable  evidence  they  afford  of  the  effects 
which  may  be  produced  on  members  of  the  vege- 
table kingdom  by  cultivation.  The  first  to  be 
noticed  is  the  Sea  Cabbage,  (Brassica,  oleracea). 
This  plant  is  from  one  to  two  feet  in  height ;  the 
leaves  are  glaucous,  waved,  lobed,  and  smooth; 
the  flowers  are  large  and  pale  yellow  ;  the  plant  is 
a  biennial  and  grows  on  maritime  cliffs,  and  is 
very  abundant  along  the  chalky  cliffs  of  the 
English  coast.  Looking  at  this  plant  in  its  native 
condition,  no  one  could  possibly  imagine  that  by 
the  care  and  skill  of  the  gardener,  it  could  be 
made  in  the  course  of  time  to  assume  the  extraor- 
dinary appearance  of  the  ponderous  drumhead 
cabbage  of  the  kitchen  garden,  or  the  character  of 
the  cauliflower  or  brocoli.  Yet  such  a  metamor- 
phosis is  actually  effected.  In  its  natural  state 
the  stem  of  the  wild  cabbage  is  slender  and  its 
leaves  are  small.  Under  the  influence  of  cultiva- 
tion the  stem  becomes  thick  and  fleshy,  and  the 

M   2 


164  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

leaves  become  succulent,  and  so  numerous  and 
closely  packed  on  the  internal  stem  that  they 
have  no  room  to  expand,  but  form  into  a  com- 
pact and  solid  body,  from  the  internal  portions 
of  which  the  sunlight  being  wholly  excluded  so 
that  they  are  perfectly  colourless,  as  well  as  much 
more  delicate  and  tender  than  the  external  green 
leaves.  So  extraordinary  is  tfre  alteration  thus 
made  that,  although  the  plant  in  its  wild  condi- 
tion may  not  weigh  more  than  a  few  ounces,  it 
is  forced  to  shape  itself  into  a  solid  sphere 
several  feet  in  circumference,  and  weighing  perhaps 
thirty  pounds. 

The  other  plant  to  which  we  made  reference  is 
the  Sea-Kale  (Crambe-maritima).  The  leaves  of 
this  plant  are  roundish,  sinuated,  toothed,  and  of 
a  glaucous  hue,  and  leathery ;  the  stems  are  about 
two  feet  in  height,  branched  and  spreading;  the 
flowers  are  large  and  white,  in  terminal  clusters. 
It  flourishes,  like  the  sea  cabbage,  in  the  south  of 
England,  and  in  various  parts  of  the  Irish  coast. 
This  plant  undergoes  under  a  similar  process  a 
transformation  almost  as  remarkable  as  that  of 
the  brassica,  and  by  being  placed  in  rich  although 
light  soil,  and  blanched  by  being  carefully  covered 
from  the  sunlight,  it  produces  the  delicate  sea- 
kale  of  the  kitchen  garden. 

These  two  instances  now  given  are  among  the 
most  remarkable  effects  produced  by  human  in- 
genuity on  the  natural  characters  of  plants.  Along 
with  many  hundreds  of  examples  to  the  same  pur- 
pose, although  not  more  remarkable,  they  afford 


MAEITIME   PLANTS.  165 

evidence  of  a  peculiarity  in  which  may  be  traced 
the  purpose  and  design  of  creative  foresight.  The 
members  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  are  endowed 
with  a  power  of  accommodating  or  adapting  them- 
selves to  circumstances  and  localities,  and  vicissi- 
tudes of  soil  and  climate ;  a  power  which  it  may 
easily  be  conceived  is  necessary  to  the  preservation 
of  the  species,  and  perhaps  we  may  add,  without 
being  far  from  the  truth,  in  order  that  they  may 
minister  in  an  improved,  or  at  least  a  more  useful 
and  available  form,  to  the  wants  of  man,  some- 
what in  the  same  way  in  which  various  animals 
which  have  been  domesticated  are  rendered  use- 
ful by  their  acquired  habits  and  instincts.  It 
is  important  also  to  notice,  on  this  very  interesting 
subject,  that  the  same  creative  power  which  gave 
to  the  vegetable  kingdom  this  peculiar  adapta- 
bility, has  also  marked  out  a  limit  to  it,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  animal  creation  ;  so  that  the  cabbage, 
the  cauliflower,  the  brocoli,  and  the  seakale  of  the 
kitchen  garden,  if  left  by  the  gardener  to  grow 
wild,  will  not  continue  to  exhibit  the  monstrous 
forms  into  which  they  have  been  driven,  but  will 
return  to  the  simple  and  natural  conditions  which 
they  display  in  their  native  abodes. 

In  addition  to  the  numerous  plants  and  flowers 
above  referred  to,  there  are  others  of  larger  di- 
mensions which  add  in  no  small  degree  to  the 
amenity  of  the  sea-shores  where  they  occur.  A 
few  of  these  we  shall  now  mention. 

The  Tree  Mallow  (Lavatera  arborea)  grows  in 
rocky  places,  attains  the  altitude  of  from  six  to 

M  3 


166  SEASIDE   DIYINITT. 

ten  feet,  and  produces  large  flowers,  the  petals  of 
which  are  purplish  rose-colour,  darker  on  the  base 
than  elsewhere;  the  Tamarisk  (Tamarisk  gal- 
lica),  a  small  shrub  with  minute  scattered  leaves 
and  beautiful  clusters  of  reddish,  flesh-coloured,  or 
white  flowers,  is  found  in  rocky  places,  and  chiefly 
on  the  southern  coast  of  Britain ;  and  the  common 
sallow  thorn,  a  bushy  shrub  five  or  six  feet  in 
height,  with  green  flowers  and  orange- coloured 
berries,  whose  native  places  are  the  rocks  and 
cliffs  of  our  eastern  shores,  and  various  species  of 
the  Eock  Eose  (Helianthemum),  which  produce  in 
rapid  succession  during  summer  thin  white  or 
yellow  flowers  which  are  so  frail  as  scarcely  to 
last  a  day.  Then  there  is  the  Eed-fruited  Dwarf 
Eose  (Rosa  rubella),  about  three  feet  high, 
bearing  white  flowers  tinged  with  pink,  and  bright 
scarlet  fruit-,  which  grows  in  the  sand  in  several 
parts  of  the  eastern  coast;  and  the  silky  sand 
willow,  a  shrub  about  four  or  five  feet  high, 
which  makes  its  abode  on  the  sea-shore  among 
loose  sand. 

We  have  hitherto  confined  our  enumeration 
strictly  to  those  flowers  and  plants  which  belong 
to  the  sea-shore,  and  either  occupy  the  rocks,  or 
grow  in  sand  and  gravel, '  or  in  marshes,  or  in 
muddy  places.  This  plan  was  indispensable,  be- 
cause in  the  "  debateable  ground  "  which  is  neither 
sea-coast  nor  inland,  as  well  as  in  sheltered  fields 
and  meadows,  or  along  the  shores  of  estuaries  not 
much  exposed  to  violent  tempests,  and  too  narrow 
to  allow  the  waves  to  rise  so  high  as  to  scatter 


MARITIME    PLANTS.  167 

their  salt  spray  to  great  distances,  numerous 
flowers  and  shrubs  flourish  which  strictly  belong 
to  the  country;  and  to  do  more  than  refer  to 
these  would  be  to  pass  beyond  the  limits  assigned 
to  a  book  which  treats  of  the  productions  of  the 
sea-shore.  Without  going  beyond  those  limits, 
we  have  pointed  out  a  large  number  of  plants  and 
flowers,  many  of  them  of  much  beauty,  and  all  of 
them  of  much  interest  to  the  student  of  nature, 
and  the  characters  of  all  of  which  may  be  easily 
discovered  by  the  aid  of  a  botanical  treatise,  if  our 
brief  description  shall  be  insufficient.  Every  part 
of  the  coast  has  its  peculiar  features  and  produc- 
tions ;  and  whether  the  sea-shore  be  bounded  by 
rocks  and  cliffs,  or  consists  of  level  sands,  the  in- 
vestigfction  of  the  botany  of  the  particular  districts 
can  hardly  fail  to  have  many  claims  for  the  eye, 
and  to  suggest  many  lessons  to  the  mind,  of  the 
contemplative  observer. 


U  4 


PHYSIOLOGY   OF   MARITIME   PLANTS 


171 


CHAP.   X. 

PHYSIOLOGY  OF   MAKITIME   PLANTS. 

Adaptation  of  their  Structure  to  their  Places  of  Abode. — Special 
Instances  of  this  Adaptation.— Analogy  between  Marine  and 
Maritime  Plants. — Functions  of  Koots. — Adaptation  of  Leaves 
to  their  Office,  &c. 

IN  our  enumeration  of  littoral  plants  and  flowers, 
it  was  unavoidable  to  take  into  view  among  those 
lovely  denizens  of  the  sea-shore  some  occasionally 
found  inhabiting  places  far  removed  from  the 
beach.  Such  plants  do  not  differ  in  their  general 
structure  from  the  ordinary  botanical  specimens 
found  in  inland  districts.  It  is  therefore  unne- 
cessary to  speak  of  their  physiology.  It  is  our 
province  chiefly  to  describe  objects  peculiar  to 
those  localities,  the  natural  productions  of  which 
it  is  our  object  to  illustrate.  With  reference  to  the 
subject  of  physiology,  we  shall  therefore  restrict 
our  observations  to  plants  strictly  belonging  to 
the  sea-shore. 

The  chief  object  which  attracts  our  attention  in 
considering  the  physiology  of  littoral  plants,  is  the 
series  of  admirable  adaptations  in  their  structure, 
fitting  them  in  a  special  manner  for  the  places  of 
their  abode. 

Such  is  the  rich  profusion  with  which  the  hand 
of  Creative  Power  has  scattered  over  the  earth 


172  SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 

the  various  plants  comprehended  in  what  is  called 
the  vegetable  kingdom ;  and  such  are  the  beauti- 
ful and  beneficial  adaptations  of  the  parts  of 
plants  to  each  other,  or  of  the  whole  plant  to  the 
place  it  is  to  occupy,  that  there  is  scarcely  any 
portion  of  the  earth's  surface,  however  apparently 
unfavourable,  where  some  form  of  vegetable  life 
may  not  be  found. 

Thus  it  is  not  only  in  the  soil  which  has  been 
rendered  rich  and  fertile  by  the  decay  of  succes- 
sive generations  of  vegetable  substances  that 
plants  chiefly  flourish.  In  such  soil,  indeed,  the 
higher  orders  of  plants  are  to  be  found,  because 
all  the  conditions  are  favourable  to  their  luxuriant 
development. 

But  vegetation  proceeds  in  situations  the  most 
unpropitious.  The  coral  island  in  the  midst  of 
the  ocean,  on  which  there  does  not  exist  a  particle 
of  soil,  and  which  has  been  but  recently  raised 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  soon  becomes  covered 
with  verdure.  The  surface  of  the  hard  rock,  on 
which  no  soil  could  find  a  resting-place,  becomes 
covered  with  many-coloured  lichens,  which  season 
after  season  flourish  and  cast  their  germs ;  the 
castle  wall,  between  the  crevices  of  which  nothing 
but  the  hardest  lime  is  to  be  discovered,  affords  a 
resting-place  to  the  moss  or  the  fern. 

Even  the  extremes  of  heat,  cold,  and  drought, 
are  not  incompatible  with  vegetation.  A  hot 
spring  in  the  Manilla  Islands,  the  water  of  which 
raises  the  thermometer  to  187°,  is  not  too  hot  for 
plants  to  flourish  in  it.  In  the  boiling  springs  of 


ADAPTATION   TO   PLACES.  173 

Iceland,  in  which  an  egg  can  be  cooked  in  four 
minutes,  a  species  of  plant  is  known  to  flourish ; 
and  in  the  mud  of  a  hot  spring  in  the  Island  of 
Amsterdam,  the  heat  of  which  is  considerably  be- 
yond the  boiling-point,  a  kind  of  liverwort  grows. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  the  realms  of  perpetual 
frost,  the  snow,  which  scarcely  yields  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  solar  rays  in  midsummer,  is  often  red- 
dened for  miles  by  the  profuse  growth  of  the 
minute  cryptogamic  plant  known  as  "red  snow," 
and  the  lichen,  which  forms  the  food  of  the  rein- 
deer, grows  in  great  luxuriance  entirely  buried 
under  the  snow.  In  like  manner,  in  situations 
where  in  general  these  roots  can  find  no  moisture 
whatever,  numerous  races  of  plants  thrive  with 
apparently  as  much  luxuriance  as  "  willows  by  the 
watercourses."  In  all  such  instances  it  is  obvious 
there  must  be  a  designed  correspondence  and 
adaptation  of  the  plant  and  its  organisation  to  the 
conditions  under  which  it  is  to  exist. 

These  observations  obtain  a  striking  illustra- 
tion from  the  physiology  of  sea-shore  plants, 
strictly  so  called.  Some  of  them  make  their 
abode  on  shores  and  rocks,  in  gravel,  or  in  the 
sand.  In  such  instances  there  is  either  no  soil 
whatever,  or  the  soil  contains  no  moisture,  and  is 
destitute  of  the  chemical  properties  which  belong 
to  the  ground  in  inland  situations.  For  such  pe- 
culiarities of  condition  there  must  be  an  express 
provision  in  the  organisation  of  the  plant,  otherwise 
it  could  not  subsist. 

Without  referring  to  those  plants  which,  al- 


174  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

though  found  near  the  sea-shore,  do  not  differ  in 
their  physiological  structure  from  those  occupying 
inland  situations,  we  shall  notice  those  only 
which  are  specially  adapted  to  such  localities. 
The  house-leek,  which  belongs  to  the  order 
Crassulacese,  so  called  because  of  their  thick,  suc- 
culent leaves,  may  be  considered  as  a  type  of  those 
we  now  refer  to.  All  such  plants  flourish  in 
places  which  would  be  fatal  to  those  differently 
organised.  They  can  occupy  the  driest  situations, 
where  not  a  particle  of  grass,  and  not  even  moss, 
can  grow,  such  as  naked  rocks,  old  walls,  hot,  dry 
sands  exposed  alternately  to  the  fiercest  rays  of 
the  sun  and  the  heaviest  night-dews.  They  re- 
present in  the  temperate  regions  of  the  earth  the 
cactus,  and  other  succulent  plants  of  tropical 
countries,  the  structure  of  which  enables  them  to 
flourish  in  similar  circumstances. 

One  of  the  most  familiar  examples  of  the  kind 
of  plants  now  referred  to  is  the  Sedum  or  stone- 
crop,  several  varieties  of  which  exist  in  Britain, 
and  flourish  in  the  dry  sand  of  the  sea-shore. 

We  have  already  stated  that  the  function  per- 
formed by  roots  of  the  algse  or  sea-weeds,  seems 
chiefly,  if  not  altogether,  to  be  that  of  fixing  the 
plants  to  one  place.  The  same  remark  may 
almost  be  made  as  to  the  roots  of  the  succulent 
plants  of  the  sea-shore.  The  places  in  which 
they  grow  afford  so  very  small  a  quantity  of 
moisture,  except  during  rains  or  when  the  spray 
of  the  waves  reaches  them  during  a  storm,  that 
in  general  the  root,  even  were  its  powers  of 


FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  LEAVES.        175 

absorption  as  great  as  those  of  inland  plants, 
could  not  furnish  to  the  stem,  the  leaves,  and  the 
flowers  a  supply  of  moisture  equal  to  the  great 
demand  arising  from  a  situation  not  only  ex- 
tremely dry,  but  exposed  to  the  greatest  heat  of 
the  sun.  Two  objects,  therefore,  require  to  be 
effected,  both  of  them  apparently  indispensable 
to  the  very  existence  of  the  plant :  one  of  these 
is  the  power  of  obtaining  moisture  otherwise  than 
by  the  root ;  the  other  is  the  means  of  preventing 
the  evaporation  or  loss  of  the  moisture  when  so 
obtained.  To  perceive  how  this  object  is  accom- 
plished, it  is  requisite  to  consider  the  structure 
and  functions  of  leaves  in  general,  and  those  of 
succulent  plants,  such  as  we  now  speak  of,  in 
particular. 

The  functions  of  the  leaves  of  plants  are  pre- 
cisely similar  to  those  of  the  gills  of  fishes  and 
the  lungs  of  land  animals.  The  gills  and  lungs 
of  animals  expose  over  a  wide  surface  the  venous 
blood  to  the  action  of  the  oxygen  contained  in 
water  or  in  air ;  by  this  means  the  blood,  which 
during  the  process  of  circulation  had  parted  with 
some  of  its  most  important  constituents,  is  again 
rendered  fit  for  the  purposes  of  imparting  vigour 
and  health  and  continuing  the  growth  and  life  of 
the  animal.  Unless  the  vital  fluid  be  thus  con- 
tinually supplied  with  these  qualities,  obtained  by 
respiration,  the  animal  necessarily  ceases  to  exist ; 
if  the  supply  be  deficient  it  ceases  to  possess 
health.  This  great  rule  is  often  exemplified  by 
members  of  the  human  family.  The  fresh  breezes 


176  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

of  the  sea-shore,  laden  with  vital  oxygen  from 
the  tropics,  are  often  known  to  restore  to  the 
cheek  of  the  invalid  the  bloom  of  health,  lost 
amidst  the  defective  ventilation  of  the  busy  fac- 
tory or  the  impure  atmosphere  of  the  crowded 
city. 

The  fluid  taken  up  by  the  roots  of  plants  or 
absorbed  by  their  leaves  is  as  unfit  to  nourish  or 
promote  growth,  till  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the 
atmosphere,  as  the  blood  of  animals  before  it  is 
supplied  with  oxygen.  The  leaves  are  the  lungs 
or  gills  by  which  vegetables  breathe.  They  are 
the  organs  in  which  the  crude  juices  of  the  plant 
are  elaborated  by  exposure  to  atmospheric  in- 
fluences, and  so  rendered  capable  of  ministering 
to  the  health,  the  growth,  and  the  life  of  the 
plant. 

An  examination  of  the  leaf  proves  how  ad- 
mirably it  is  adapted  to  the  office  it  is  intended 
to  perform.  It  consists  of  an  extension  of  the 
skin  or  cuticle  of  the  plant  into  a  flat  expanded 
surface,  supported  by  a  skeleton  prolonged  from 
the  wood  of  the  stem  or  branch.  Between  the 
upper  and  under  cuticle  of  the  leaf  is  a  soft  green 
tissue,  which  on  being  examined  by  the  microscope 
is  found  to -consist  of  distinct  cells  packed  to- 
gether more  closely  near  the  upper  surface  than 
the  lower,  where  there  appear  to  be  many  cavities 
and  spaces  between  them. 

The  cuticle  is  furnished  with  what  botanists 
call  stomata  or  mouths.  These  are  apertures  or 
pores  of  an  oval  and  sometimes  circular  form, 


SUCCULENT   PLANTS.  177 

bounded  by  two  kidney-shaped  cells  containing 
green  matter,  by  the  expansion  and  contraction  of 
which  cells  the  aperture  is  diminished  and  in- 
creased. These  stomata  are  always  placed  over 
the  spaces  between  the  cells  of  tissue,  and  so 
minute  and  numerous  are  they  that  in  some  leaves 
70,000  occur  in  a  square  inch  of  cuticle;  the 
longest  are  about  the  -^  of  an  inch  in  length, 
and  the  least  are  not  the  ^-oW-  Their  office 
is  to  allow  of  the  passage  of  watery  vapour  and 
gases  from  the  soft  tissues  of  the  leaf,  and  to 
permit  the  access  of  the  sunlight  and  atmosphere 
and  their  chemical  influences  to  the  sap  or  juice, 
in  order  to  its  being  converted  into  a  substance 
adapted  to  the  nourishment  of  the  plant.  The 
exhalation  from  the  leaves  of  inland  plants  is  so 
great  and  rapid  that,  if  planted  for  experiment 
sake  in  the  dry  hot  sand  in  which  any  sea-shore 
plants  thrive,  they  must  speedily  wither  and  dry 
up.  If,  therefore,  there  were  no  modification  of 
structure  in  the  leaves  of  the  plants  now  in 
question,  they  could  not  even  for  a  few  hours  exist 
in  the  situations  in  which  we  find  them. 

Let  us  take,  therefore,  the  sedum  and  the 
samphire  with  their  fleshy  and  succulent  leaves 
as  special  examples  of  the  adaptation  now  in 
view,  and  exhibited  in  many  other  strictly  sea- 
shore plants.  In  such  plants  the  leaves  possess  a 
very  high  power  of  absorbing  moisture  from  the 
surrounding  air  compared  with  those  of  other 
plants.  In  this  respect  they  are  similar  to  the 
cactus  and  other  succulent  plants  of  the  tropics 


178  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

which  collect  their  stores  of  moisture  almost 
wholly  from  the  atmosphere.  The  power  of  thus 
absorbing  moisture  is  singularly  adapted  to  the 
locality  in  which  the  sea-shore  plants  flourish, 
for,  although  the  soil  or  sand  in  which  they  are 
fixed  is  dry  and  hot,  the  air  is  loaded  with  moisture, 
the  process  of  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the 
sea  being  carried  on  with  the  greatest  rapidity 
during  the  heat. 

But  the  power  of  absorbing  fluid  from  the  air 
is  not  the  only  peculiarity  of  the  succulent  plants 
of  the  sea-shore.  They  are  in  a  remarkable 
degree  exposed  to  the  influence  of  heat  and 
drought,  and  they  must  perish  unless  some  pro- 
vision exists  in  their  structure  to  check  the 
exhalation  which  otherwise  would  take  place 
with  great  rapidity  from  the  leaves.  The  cuticle, 
therefore,  is  much  firmer  in  its  texture,  and  much 
thicker,  than  in  plants  occupying  situations  in 
which  the  root  can  obtain  an  abundant  supply  of 
moisture.  Moreover,  in  succulent  plants  the 
stomata  are  comparatively  so  few  in  number  that 
sometimes  they  appear  to  be  wholly  absent ;  and 
as  it  is  by  these  stomata  that  air  enters  the  leaves 
and  carries  off.  as  if  by  evaporation,  their  fluid  con- 
tents, the  deficiency  of  those  orifices  along  with  the 
thickness  of  the  cuticle  itself,  render  these  plants 
capable  of  retaining  their  moisture,  producing 
their  blossoms,  and  completing  their  fructification, 
under  circumstances  which  even  in  a  few  hours 
would  be  fatal  to  other  races  of  vegetables. 

This  is  but  one  out  of  the  innumerable  instances 


SPECIAL   ADAPTATIONS.  179 

of  express  adaptation  to  special  circumstances 
which  the  physiology  of  plants  affords.  But  it  is 
impossible  not  to  perceive  that  it  is  a  very  striking 
instance,,  inasmuch  as  without  it  there  could  be 
no  vegetation  in  places  such  as  rocks,  where  there 
is  no  soil,  and  in  arid  sands  affording  little  or 
nothing  of  the  moisture  ordinarily  required  for 
luxuriant  vegetation.  It  is  impossible,  therefore, 
not  to  regard  the  physiological  structure  of  the 
succulent  plants  of  the  sea-shore  as  an  evidence 
of  design  on  the  part  of  that  Being  whose  will 
it  is  that  the  earth  should  nowhere  be  wholly 
destitute  of  vegetable  productions,  and  by  whose 
intention  accordingly  the  capability  of  existing 
and  flourishing  in  their  particular  locality  is 
specially  provided  in  the  structure  of  the  plants 
now  referred  to. 


N  2 


CLASSIFICATION 


183 


CHAP.  XL 

CLASSIFICATION. 

Number   and  Variety  of    Organic  Forms. — Generalisation. — 
Classification  of  the  Animal  Kingdom. 

IMPERFECTLY  as  we  are  able  to  investigate  the 
zoology  of  the  ocean,  and  although  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  vast  expanse  beneath  the  sur- 
face of  which  the  various  objects  of  our  research 
have  their  abode  is  unknown  and  unexplored, 
there  is  abundant  reason  to  believe  that  the  sub- 
aqueous realms  are  much  richer  in  the  number 
and  variety  of  the  organic  forms  that  inhabit  them, 
than  the  terrestrial  portions  of  the  globe. 

Speaking  of  the  myriads  of  living  creatures 
whose  existence  is  connected  with  one  species  of 
sea-weed  found  in  the  southern  ocean,  Darwin 
makes  the  following  remarks : — "  The  number  of 
living  creatures  of  all  orders  whose  existence 
depends  on  that  of  the  kelp  is  wonderful.  A 
great  volume  might  be  written  describing  the 
inhabitants  of  one  of  those  beds  of  sea-weed. 
Almost  every  leaf,  excepting  those  that  float  on 
the  surface,  is  so  thickly  encrusted  with  coral- 
lines as  to  be  of  a  white  colour.  We  find  ex- 
quisitely delicate  structures,  some  inhabited  by 
simple  hydro-like  polypi ;  others  by  more  or- 

M  4 


184  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

ganised  kinds,  and  beautiful  compound  Ascidiae. 
On  the  flat  surfaces  of  the  leaves  various  patelli- 
form  shells,  Trochi,  uncovered  Molluscs,  and 
Bivalves  are  attached.  Innumerable  Crustacea 
frequent  every  part  of  the  plant.  On  shaking 
the  great  entangled  roots,  a  pile  of  small  fish, 
shells,  cuttle-fish,  crabs  of  all  orders,  sea-eggs, 
star-fish,  beautiful  Holothuria, — some  taking  the 
external  form  of  the  nudibranch  Molluscs, — Pla- 
nariae,  and  crawling  nereidous  animals  of  a  mul- 
titude of  forms  all  fall  out  together.  I  can  only 
compare  those  great  aquatic  forests  of  the  southern 
hemisphere  with  the  terrestrial  ones  in  the  tropi- 
cal regions.  Yet  if  the  latter  should  be  destroyed 
in  any  country,  I  do  not  believe  nearly  so  many 
species  of  animals  would  perish,  as  under  similar 
circumstances  would  happen  with  the  kelp." 

"  In  the  oceanic  depths,"  says  Humboldt,  "  far 
exceeding  the  height  of  the  loftiest  mountain 
chains,  every  stratum  of  water  is  animated  with 
polygastric  sea-worms,  Cyclidiae  and  Ophrydinse. 
The  waters  swarm  with  countless  hosts  of  small 
luminiferous  animalcules,  mammaria  of  the  order 
Acalephse,  Crustacea,  Peridinea,  and  circling  Ne- 
reides, which  when  attracted  to  the  surface  by 
peculiar  meteorological  conditions  convert  every 
wave  into  a  foaming  band  of  flashing  light." 

If  we  reflect  upon  the  almost  infinite  numbers 
and  variety  of  marine  animals  from  those  of 
microscopic  size  to  the  largest  of  the  Crustacea, 
and  if  to  these  we  add  the  countless  myriads  of 
various  fishes,  and  especially  the  gregarious  tribes, 


MYKIADS   OF   LIVING   FORMS.  185 

we  can  hardly  fail  to  admit  the  accuracy  of  the 
comparison  made  in  the  quaint  words  of  Spenser : — 

"  Oh  !  what  an  endlesse  worke  have  I  in  hand, 
To  count  the  sea's  abundant  progeny ! 
Whose  fruitfulle  seede  farre  passeth  those  in  land, 
And  also  those  which  wonne  in  the  azure  sky, 
For  much  more  eath  to  tell  the  starres  on  hy, 
Albe  they  endlesse  seeme  in  estimation 
Then  to  recount  the  Sea's  posterity; 

So  fertile  be  the  flouds  in  generation, 

So  huge  their  numbers,  and  so  numberless  their  nation." 

The  organisation  of  these  various  animated  beings 
so  exactly  adapted  to  their  condition,  the  habits 
and  instincts  they  possess,  the  supply  of  food  for 
their  vast  and  never-ceasing  demands,  the  kind 
and  degree  of  enjoyment  of  which  they  are  capa- 
ble, all  afford  subjects  of  the  most  instructive 
contemplation,  illustrating  in  a  striking  manner 
not  only  the  wisdom  and  the  power  of  the  great 
Source  of  Existence,  but  the  beneficence  by  which 
those  attributes  are  directed. 

The  living  beings  from  which  such  lessons  are 
derivable  present  themselves  to  our  observation 
in  a  miscellaneous  manner ;  it  ought  nevertheless 
to  be  our  object  to  study  them  with  some  attention 
to  system  and  order.  And  the  reason  of  this 
may  be  found  in  the  constitution  of  the  mind 
itself,  and  not  in  any  arbitrary  mode  of  classifi- 
cation adopted  by  naturalists.  The  power  of 
generalisation  is  possessed  and  exercised  even  in 
early  youth,  and  independently  of  instruction. 
The  child  classifies  as  if  by  intuition  objects 


186  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

which  seem  to  it  to  possess  some  one  quality  in 
common.  The  principle  is  indispensable  to  the 
acquirement  of  knowledge ;  and  in  adopting  what 
at  first  sight  appears  to  be  a  system  of  artificial 
classification,  the  philosophic  naturalist  is  merely 
giving  effect  to  the  tendency  of  the  human  mind 
as  manifested  even  in  childhood.  The  applica- 
tion of  scientific  terms  not  only  to  the  classes 
and  orders  into  which  living  beings  are  subdivided, 
but  even  to  the  individual  animals  themselves,  is 
certainly  a  considerable  difficulty  in  the  way  of 
those  unacquainted  with  the  ancient  languages 
from  which  those  terms  are  taken.  Such  terms, 
however,  are  extremely  convenient1,  and  may  per- 
haps be  said  to  be  indispensable  to  a  system  of 
classification. 

We  are  n,ow  to  suppose  the  reader  to  enter 
on  the  study  of  some  of  the  animated  beings  of 
which  the  sea-shore  furnishes  specimens,  and 
although  they  present  themselves  to  him  in  a 
miscellaneous  manner,  he  will  find  it  highly  con- 
ducive to  his  purpose  to  study  them  in  somewhat 
of  the  order  in  which  they  are  placed  by  natu- 
ralists. The  scientific  phraseology  need  not  oc- 
casion any  alarm.  It  may  be  to  some  extent 
laid  aside,  and  can  always  be  explained. 

Thus  our  reader  may  be  presumed  to  classify 
all  the  living  forms  that  come  under  his  notice 
in  one  or  other  of  the  four  great  groups  into 
which  the  illustrious  Cuvier  and  others  who  have 
followed  him  have  divided  the  whole  animal 
kingdom. 


CLASSIFICATION.  187 

The  FIRST  of  these  four  groups  comprehends 
all  animals  that  have  backbones  or  vertebrae,  and 
which  are  hence  called  the  Vertebrata. 

The  SECOND  group  comprehends  all  those  ani- 
mals which  have  soft  bodies,  and  are  therefore 
called  the  Mollusca. 

The  THIRD  group  includes  those  animals  that 
are  jointed,  and  which  are  therefore  termed  the 
Articulata. 

The  FOURTH  group  contains  all  those  that  are 
rayed,  and  are  therefore  called  the  Eadiata. 

The  reader  may  further  be  presumed  to  begin 
with  the  lowest  of  these  four  great  divisions,  and 
thence  to  advance  upwards  in  the  scale.  This  is 
the  best  mode  of  advancing  to  the  consideration 
of  the  higher  ranks  of  organised  beings.  We 
shall  therefore  presume  our  reader  to  adopt  this 
course,  and  to  observe  also  the  subdivisions  of  the 
groups  brought  under  his  attention,  so  far  at 
least  as  the  natural  objects  which  the  sea-shore 
presents  to  him  shall  enable  him  to  do  so. 


RADIATA,    OR    RAYED   ANIMALS  - 
ZOOPHYTES 


EAYED  ANIMALS. 


The  Sand  Star.  2.  The  Brittle  Star. 

5.  A  Jelly  Fish.  .  The  Sea 


3.  Gemmed  Sea-Anemone. 
Fan.  7.  The  Sea-Pen. 


4.  The  Medusa  Sea-Anemone. 
5.  The  Sea-Uichin. 


(See  Chapters  12   13   14   and  15. 


191 


CHAP.  XII. 

RADIATA,  OK  RAYED  ANIMALS  —  ZOOPHYTES. 

Various  Species  of    Zoophytes. — Tubularia. — Sertularia. — Sea- 
pen. — Sea-fan. — Actiniae,  "  Sea  Anemones,"  &c. 

LET  us  restrict  our  attention  to  such  specimens 
of  the  great  sub-kingdom  of  the  Radiata  as  our 
visit  to  the  sea-shore  affords  us  an  opportunity  of 
examining,  keeping  in  view  the  subdivision  of  the 
Eadiata  into  the  four  great  classes  into  which 
scientific  men  have  included  them. 

Here  is  a  little  rock  pool.  It  contains  sea- 
water  clear  and  pure,  left  by  the  last  tide.  Its 
sides  are  festooned  with  sea-weeds,  and  the  bot- 
tom of  it,  on  which  those  little  crabs  are  moving 
about,  is  composed  of  fine  sand.  Let  us  take  up 
a  little  of  this  sand  and  subject  it  to  our  micro- 
scope, which  although  a  pocket  instrument  pos- 
sesses no  inconsiderable  power. 

The  sand  is  itself  an  interesting  object  when 
magnified;  but  we  perceive  mingled  with  it  a 
multitude  of  extremely  minute  shells.  Some  of 
them  are  broken,  but  many  of  those  which  are 
complete  are  extremely  elegant  in  their  forms. 
These  minute  but  beautiful  shells  belong  to  a  tribe 
of  microscopic  creatures  called  Foraminifera. 


192  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

These  little  creatures  belong  to  the  class  Infu- 
soria; they  are  found  to  exist  in  inconceivable 
multitudes  and  in  great  variety  in  the  open  ocean 
.far  from  land,  and  even  in  the  cold  waters  of  the 
Polar  seas. 

An  hour  or  two  spent  in  dredging  for  speci- 
mens in  the  deep  water  off  the  shore  often  sup- 
plies many  members  of  the  great  sub-kingdom 
we  are  now  speaking  of.  Examples  of  the  class 
Zoophytes  may  thus  be  frequently  obtained. 

Among  these  are  the  Tubularia  and  Sertularia, 
which  comprehend  a  great  many  varieties  of 
species.  Some  of  these  may  be  found  in  such  a 
rock-pool  as  we  have  been  visiting  or  attached  to 
sea-weeds  near  low-water  mark.  The  Coryne 
Pusilla  is  an  object  which  ordinary  industry  may 
discover  on  almost  any  shore.  It  is  a  very  remark- 
able zoophyte,  or  animal-plant,  as  the  term 
means.  It  is  found  attached  to  stones  and  sea- 
weeds, and  resembles  a  plant  with  its  stem  and 
branches.  The  ends  of  the  branches  are  termi- 
nated by  the  heads  of  the  zoophyte,  which  are 
fleshy  and  of  a  reddish  colour  and  covered  with 
short  and  thick  tentacula. 

The  Sertularia  are  also  zoophytes.  The  speci- 
men we  pick  up  on  some  sea-weeds  at  low-water 
mark  is  a  very  common  but  elegant  species.  It 
is  called  Sertularia  filicula ;  it  resembles  a  fern 
in  shape,  having  a  middle  stem  from  which  pin- 
nated branches,  (like  the  fronds  of  some  species 
of  fern,)  proceed.  These,  and  others  of  the 
same  genera,  are  compound  and  formed  of  a  vast 


POLYPIDOMS. — SEA  PENS,   ETC.  193 

multitude  of  individuals,  a  single  specimen  some- 
times containing  five  or  six  thousand  individual 
polypes,  and  some  of  the  species,  known  as  Ser- 
tularia  argentea,  being  formed  of  eighty  or  ninety 
thousand,  all  united  together  by  the  medullary 
substance  or  fibre  contained  in  the  branches. 
Numerous  specimens  of  this  kind  are  often  found 
fixed  upon  a  single  sea-weed,  which  would  thus 
afford  an  abode  to  a  population  greatly  more 
numerous  than  the  most  populous  city  in  the 
world. 

The  Sea  Pen  is  by  no  means  a  rare  object  on 
many  of  our  coasts.     It  belongs  to  the  family  of 
polypes,    and    is    compound,    consisting    of   nu- 
merous individuals  united.  The  Pennatula  phos- 
phorea  may  often  be  met  with,  and  is  extremely 
remarkable.     It  is  three  or  four  inches  in  length, 
of  a  purplish  red  colour,  and  fleshy  in  substance, 
and   like   a  pen   naked    at   one   extremity  and 
feathered  on  the  other,  with  closely-set  pinnae,  on 
the  edges  of  which  are  the  cells  of  the  polypes. 
The  body  of  the  common  stalk  and  branches,  or 
pinnae,  is  calcareous,  and  thus  possesses  the  requi- 
site degree  of  strength.     The  sea  pen  is  phospho- 
rescent, and  when  irritated  or  injured  or  thrown 
into  fresh  water  the  polypes  shed  a  brilliant  light. 
The   Sea  Fans  are  of  the  same  order.      The 
Gorgonia  flabellum  is  a  well-known  West  Indian 
species,  called  Venus's  fan,  but  it  has  occasionally 
been  found  apparently  cast  ashore  on  the  British 
coasts.     One  of  the  British  species  of  sea  fans -is 
common  on  the   shores   of  Devonshire,    and   is 
o 


194  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

called  Gorgonia  verrucosa.  This  species  is  from 
six  to  twelve  inches  in  height,  and  much  branched. 
On  the  surface  of  these  branches,  which  are  calca- 
reous, like  other  corals,  is  a  flesh-coloured  crust, 
which  is  the  living  membrane  in  which  the  indi- 
vidual polypes  reside.  A  careful  examination 
with  a  microscope  of  these  creatures  will  amply 
repay  the  observer;  and,  independently  of  the 
structure  of  the  whole,  or  of  the  individual 
polypes  that  compose  it,  not  the  least  marvellous 
is  the  faculty  they  possess  of  secreting  from  the 
surrounding  water  the  lime  requisite  to  the  struc- 
ture of  their  common  abode — a  faculty  not  the 
less  wonderful  although  shared  by  them  with  a 
great  multitude  of  other  inhabitants  of  the  sea. 

Specimens  of  another  order  of  zoophytes  present 
themselves  to  us  on  every  rocky  shore,  belonging 
to  the  order  Helianthoida,  so  called  because  of 
their  resemblance  to  the  sunflower.  These  are 
what  are  known  as  Actiniae,  or,  in  popular  lan- 
guage, sea-anemones.  They  have  fleshy  bodies, 
of  various  hues  and  sizes,  are  attached  to  one 
spot,  *  and  the  tentacles  which  surround  their 
mouths  when  expanded  give  them  a  striking 
resemblance  to  flowers.  When  the  tide  has  re- 
ceded, they  may  be  seen  attached  to  the  sides  of 
the  rocks,  beneath  the  overhanging  seaweed. 
Their  appearance  when  thus  discovered  is  by  no 
means  attractive.  They  resemble  small  hemi- 
spheres, or  cones,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  an 
orifice  closed  up,  something  like  the  mouth  of  a 
bag  when  tightly  drawn  together  by  the  string. 


THE   SEA   ANEMONE.  195 

Those  of  a  red  colour  are  very  similar  to  a  piece 
of  raw  flesh,  and,  on  being  touched,  the  re- 
semblance is  still  more  striking,  on  account  of 
the  tough  muscular  sensation  they  convey.  Very 
different  does  the  sea-anemone  appear  when  the 
tide  is  in ;  it  then  puts  on  all  its  charms :  and  if 
the  sea  is  clear  and  tranquil,  and  not  too  deep, 
may  be  seen  in  great  perfection,  expanding  under 
the  influence  of  the  water,  as  the  flower  unfolds 
its  petals  to  the  sun.  The  cone-shaped  mass  of 
inert  matter  is  now  full  of  life  and  activity ;  the 
tentaculse,  before  concealed  within  the  body  of 
the  animal,  are  now  extended,  reminding  the 
beholder,  by  their  form  and  colour,  of  some  gay 
denizen  of  the  garden ;  so  much  so,  that  where 
many  of  these  creatures  are  found  together,  they 
resemble  the  parterre  adorned  with  many-coloured 
blossoms. 

About  twenty  varieties  of  Actiniae  common  to 
our  shores  are  already  known  to  the  naturalist, 
and  beyond  doubt  many  others  yet  remain  to 
reward  his  researches.  The  specific  names  of 
many  of  these  are  the  same  as  the  flowers  they 
are  supposed  to  resemble,  while  others  have  appel- 
lations derived  from  some  peculiarity  of  form 
or  of  colour.  Thus  we  have  the  cereus,  the 
daisy,  the  pink,  the  aster,  the  sunflower,  the 
auricula,  the  gemmacea,  and  others  named 
after  their  discoverers,  or  the  particular  locality 
they  inhabit. 

The  Actinia  mesembryanthemum,   so    called 
from  the  resemblance  of  its  extended  tentacula 
o  2 


196  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

to  the  starry  petals  of  its  floral  namesake,  is  one 
of  the  most  common.  It  is  not  so  beautiful  as 
many  of  its  fellow  ocean-flowers;  its  stalk  or 
body,  instead  of  the  graceful  bell-shape  and 
brilliant  appearance  which  distinguish  many 
other  species,  is  of  uniform  thickness,  smooth, 
and  of  a  dull  crimson  colour ;  the  edge  of  its 
disk  is  surrounded  by  a  single  row  of  tubercles, 
and  the  tentacula  are  numerous  and  slender. 

This  very  common  species  is  far  surpassed  in 
beauty  by  many  other  less  known  denizens  of  our 
sea-shores.  A  few  of  these  will  be  here  described, 
although  no  language  can  do  justice  to  the 
beauty  of  these  singular  creatures,  when  seen  to 
advantage  in  their  native  element. 

The  Cereus,  frequently  found  on  the  Welsh 
coast,  and  also  on  the  south-western  shores  of 
England,  has  its  body  marked  with  longitudinal 
furrows,  or  sulci.  Its  summit,  when  expanded, 
is  furnished  with  slender  tentacula,  from  a  hun- 
dred and  twenty  to  two  hundred  in  number; 
the  body  is  of  a  pale  chestnut  colour,  the  ten- 
tacula of  a  sea-green,  varied  with  purple. 

The  daisy  anemone  (Actinia  bellis)  is  a  re- 
markably beautiful  species,  also  found  on  the 
south-western  shores  of  England,  and  also  in 
other  localities.  A  cylindrical  stalk  from  one  to 
three  inches  in  length,  and  of  a  fine  red  colour, 
supports  the  disk  or  body.  When  expanded,  it 
exhibits  a  radiated  surface  or  disk  much  larger, 
in  comparison  with  the  size  of  the  body,  than 
that  of  any  other  varieties.  The  surface  of  this 


VARIETIES   OF   ACTINLE.  197 

disk  is  covered  by  several  hundred  tentacula 
disposed  in  separate  circles  round  the  centre, 
from  the  outside  of  the  disk  to  near  its  centre. 
These  tentacula  point  outwards  to  the  circum- 
ference of  the  circle,  with  the  exception  of  those 
forming  the  inner  ring,  which  are  elevated  more 
or  less  from  the  plane  of  the  disk.  These  nu- 
merous feelers  exhibit  great  variety  of  hue.  In 
some  they  are  dark  brown,  yellowish,  ornamented 
with  white  spots,  while  the  disk  itself  is  tinted 
with  grey,  lilac,  white,  and  is  sometimes  dark 
brown  with  scarlet  lines  diverging  from  the 
centre.  This  species  is  exceedingly  like  a  beau- 
tiful flower. 

Another  remarkable  kind  is  the  Actinia 
geinmacea.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  circum- 
stance that  it  has  its  stalk  or  body  marked  with 
tubercles  like  gems,  reaching  from  the  base  to 
the  top.  When  contracted,  it  assumes  the  form 
of  a  bell  with  the  mouth  downwards,  and  the 
gem-like  rows  of  tubercles  converge  in  an  elegant 
manner  from  the  base  to  the  closed  aperture  of 
the  mouth.  The  body  is  of  a  beautiful  rose 
colour.  The  rows  of  tubercles  are  alternately 
white  and  grey,  the  disk  when  expanded  is  varie- 
gated with  different  hues,  green,  white,  scarlet, 
black,  while  the  tentacles  are  of  a  fine  blue  colour 
and  add  much  to  the  beauty  of  this  "  gem  of  the 
sea."  The  actiniae,  although  almost  invariably 
found  attached  by  their  bases  to  the  rocks,  are 
understood  by  naturalists  to  be  able  to  remove 
from  one  station  to  another.  Their  food  consists 
o  3 


198  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

of  aquatic  animals  of  all  kinds ;  they  swallow 
crabs  and  shell-fish,  the  hard  and  indigestible 
parts  of  which  they  afterwards  disgorge. 

Sea  anemones,  like  other  members  of  the 
zoophyte  family,  possess  remarkable  powers  of 
bearing  mutilation.  If  the  tentacula  are  cut  off, 
others  speedily  take  their  place.  If  the  body  of 
the  animal  be  cut  into  two  parts  lengthwise,  each 
part  will  become  perfect,  and  two  separate  acti- 
nias will  be  the  result.  Even  if  all  the  original 
animal  be  destroyed  except  a  minute  fragment 
of  the  base,  this  fragment  will  be  sufficient  to 
originate  a  new  and  perfect  specimen. 

A  very  singular  instance  is  related  by  an 
excellent  naturalist  of  the  marvellous  manner  in 
which  this  creature  is  enabled  to  accommodate 
itself  to  circumstances  of  the  most  apparently 
untoward  character.  "  I  had  once  brought  to  me 
a  specimen  of  the  Actinia  gemmacea  that  might 
have  been  originally  two  inches  in  diameter,  and 
that  had  somehow  contrived  to  swallow  a  shell 
of  Pecten  maximus,  the  common  scallop,  of  the 
size  of  an  ordinary  saucer.  The  shell  fixed  within 
the  stomach  was  so  placed  as  to  divide  it  com- 
pletely into  two  parts,  so  that  the  body,  stretched 
tensely  over,  had  become  thin  and  flattened  like 
a  pancake.  All  communication  between  the  in- 
ferior portion  of  the  stomach  and  the  mouth  was 
of  course  prevented;  yet,  instead  of  emaciating 
and  dying  of  atrophy,  the  animal  had  availed 
itself  of  what  had  undoubtedly  been  a  very  un- 
toward accident,  to  increase  its  enjoyments  and 


CORAL   POLYPES.  199 

its  chances  of  double  fare.  A  new  mouth,  fur- 
nished with  new  rows  of  numerous  tentacula,  was 
opened  up  on  what  had  been  the  base,  and  led  to 
the  under  stomach !  " 

Specimens  of  the  coral-building  polypes  of  the 
tropical  seas  have  sometimes  been  found  in  deep 
water  off  the  shores  of  the  British  islands.  They 
belong  to  the  same  order  as  the  sea-anemones 
we  have  been  referring  to,  but  to  a  different 
family.  The  structures  which  these  creatures  rear 
in  the  Pacific  are  of  amazing  extent.  One  of  the 
coral  reefs  off  the  eastern  coast  of  New  Holland 
is  1000  miles  in  length,  and  there  are  groups  of 
coral  islands  extending  more  than  1200  miles 
with  a  breadth  of  300  or  400.  These  are  entirely 
constructed  by  those  minute  but  indefatigable 
labourers,  and  afford  one  out  of  many  other 
proofs  of  the  magnitude  of  the  effects  which  by 
the  arrangements  of  Divine  Providence  are  pro- 
duced in  the  natural  world  by  agents  individually 
feeble  in  the  extreme,  but  possessing  marvellous 
power  when  united  in  great  numbers.  The 
organisation  of  those  apparently  insignificant 
beings,  and  the  instinct  with  which  they  are 
endowed,  adapt  them  to  perform,  with  a  precision 
never  exceeded  by  the  most  skilful  chemist,  one 
of  the  grandest  operations  of  nature's  laboratory. 
The  currents  of  the  ocean  bring  to  them  in  the 
sea-water  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  lime,  washed 
by  the  rains  and  carried  by  the  rivers  of  remote 
continents  into  the  sea.  This  lime  those  little 
chemists  separate  from  the  sea-water,  and  form 

O  4 


200  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

into  a  symmetrical  structure  as  compact  and  solid 
as  marble.  Myriads  of  them  thus  labouring 
without  a  moment's  intermission  day  and  night 
and  year  after  year,  are  able  to  transform  the 
dissolved  lime  contained  in  the  waters  of  the  deep 
into  solid  mountains  on  which  the  utmost  force  of 
the  billows  is  spent  in  vain,  and  which  perhaps,  in 
some  future  geological  epoch,  will  form  the  foun- 
dations of  new  continents  and  new  islands,  in 
which  all  the  richest  charms  of  natural  scenery 
will  be  exhibited,  and  where  future  cities  may 
arise  inhabited  by  man  in  his  highest  condition  of 
civilisation. 


RAYED    ANIMALS -SEA    NETTLES 


203 


CHAP.  XIII. 

RAYED    ANIMALS  —  SEA   NETTLES. 

Structure  and  Organisation. — Variety  of  Species. — Differences 
in  Form,  Colour,  Modes  of  Locomotion. — Luminous  Proper- 
ties.— Eeproduction,  &c. 

MORE  marvels  than  the  most  active  and  acute 
naturalist  can  ever  fully  investigate,  are  profusely 
scattered  around  us  in  the  comparatively  shallow 
waters  of  our  sea-coasts.  At  every  reflux  of  the 
tide,  creatures  are  to  be  found  whose  structure, 
habits  and  instincts,  richly  reward  the  utmost 
patience  of  the  investigator,  and  yield  lessons  as 
to  the  great  Fountain  of  Life  calculated  to  fill 
the  soul  with  love  and  praise,  and  tending  to  im- 
press the  mind  with  the  great  philosophic  truth, 
that,  viewed  aright,  no  creature  is  "  common  or 
unclean ; "  and  that  even  those  which  seem  to  the 
ignorant  and  superficial  of  uncouth  and  forbidding 
aspect,  may,  in  a  scientific  and  religious  point  of 
view,  be  truly  termed  beautiful,  because  giving 
birth  to  sentiments  of  beauty  in  the  reflecting 
beholder. 

The  tide  has  now  receded,  and  a  long  reach  of 
shore  is  uncovered.  We  pick  our  steps  along  those 
slippery  stones  covered  with  green  Confervce, 
towards  the  rocks  now  laid  bare.  We  venture  to 


204  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

feel  assured  that  something  shall  be  found  to 
justify  our  laudation  of  a  sea-beach  ramble.  The 
bard  of  Avon  sings  of  "  books  in  the  running 
brooks,"  and  "  sermons  in  stones :  "  we  doubt  not 
that  we  shall  discover  many  goodly  volumes  even 
in  the  little  pools  left  by  the  receding  waters ;  and 
although  we  shall  not  look  for  homilies  in  the 
stones,  since  we  are  not  now  to  discuss  the  subject 
of  mineralogy,  we  shall  obtain  under  them  many 
a  text  for  seaside  divinity.  We  are  not  dis- 
appointed! Here,  hopelessly  entangled  among 
the  still  dripping  seaweed,  is  one  of  the  largest 
of  those  strange  creatures  which  naturalists  term 
Acalephse,  —  the  Greek  word  for  nettles, — a  title 
they  have  merited  from  the  power  of  stinging 
they  possess. 

It  is  impossible  to  contemplate  these  creatures 
without  surprise.  Their  bodies  are  frail  in  the 
extreme.  They  appear  to  be  no  more  than  a 
mass  of  jelly.  Yet  that  jelly  is  animated.  The 
sacred  and  mysterious  principle  of  life  is  contained 
in  it,  and  gives  motion,  and  no  doubt  a  kind  of 
perception,  to  the  simple  structure. 

And  the  structure  is  indeed  marvellously  simple. 
A  large  jelly-fish  weighing  two  pounds  when 
recently  taken  from  the  water  will  be  represented, 
when  the  fluid  parts  are  allowed  to  drain  off,  as 
Professor  Owen  remarks,  "  by  a  thin  film  or  mem- 
brane not  exceeding  thirty  grains  in  weight." 
The  structure  of  a  body  exhibiting  apparently  so 
little  complexity  baffles  the  skill  of  the  anatomist, 
but  even  it,  if  fully  understood,  would  evince  the 


JELLY   FISH.  205 

marvellous  skill  and  wisdom  from  which  organised 
beings  proceed,  as  fully  as  the  structure  of  bodies 
greatly  more  complex.  The  property  of  emitting 
light  which  many  of  the  acalephse  possess — the 
power  of  stinging  seated  even  in  the  finest  of 
their  thread-like  tentacula,  and  the  wonderful 
digestive  powers  by  which  their  stomachs  quickly 
dissolve  fish  and  even  Crustacea, — all  afford  matter 
of  surprise,  and  when  the  simplicity  of  their 
structure  is  considered  furnish  problems,  both  in 
chemistry  and  anatomy,  which  it  requires  the 
highest  skill  to  examine  and  the  greatest  genius 
to  solve.  On  this  subject  an  excellent  writer 
thus  expresses  himself: — "  Our  admiration  of  the 
various  functions  performed  by  the  acalephse  is 
much  increased  when  we  reflect  upon  the  ex- 
tremely small  quantity  of  solid  matter  which 
enters  into  their  composition.  This  fact  admits  of 
easy  illustration.  On  one  occasion  I  took  a  dead 
cydippe,  and  placing  it  on  a  piece  of  glass-  ex- 
posed it  to  the  sun.  As  the  moisture  evaporated 
the  different  parts  appeared  as  if  confusedly 
painted  on  the  glass,  and  when  it  was  become 
perfectly  dry,  a  touch  removed  the  only  vestiges 
of  what  had  been  so  lately  a  graceful  and  animated 
being." 

Although  the  mode  by  which  the  organisation 
of  the  jelly-fish  enables  it  to  perform  the  func- 
tions now  referred  to  is  in  a  great  measure  mys- 
terious, yet  that  organisation  itself  is  in  some 
degree  understood.  It  appears  that  the  body  of 
the  animal  is  composed  of  large  cells,  accurately 


206  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

put  together,  and  filled  with  a  transparent  fluid, 
and  that  these  cells  are  arranged  in  a  peculiar  man- 
ner in  the  various  families  and  genera  into  which 
these  animals  are  subdivided.  Thus  they  are 
either  four  in  number,  or  some  multiple  of  four, 
and  are  placed  in  a  certain  relation  to  the  centre 
of  the  creature's  body  in  which  they  are  arranged. 
Considerable  variety,  too,  exists  in  the  organ  in 
these  animals  for  the  reception  and  assimilation 
of  food.  In  some  the  arms  which  hang  down 
from  the  central  disk  have  at  their  extremities  a 
multitude  of  pores.  These  are  the  mouths  by 
which  animalculse  or  the  juices  of  decayed  animal 
substances  are  imbibed.  In  another  species  the 
food,  consisting  of  fishes  and  Crustacea,  is  re- 
ceived into  a  single  mouth  furnished  with  four 
lips. 

Those  visitors  of  the  sea-shore  who  indulge  in 
the  pleasures  of  boating  must  frequently  have 
observed  and  admired  the  frail  but  beautiful 
creatures  we  are  speaking  of,  and  beheld  with 
delight  their  graceful  movements  as  they  impelled 
themselves  through  the  water,  by  the  alternate 
contraction  and  expansion  of  their  umbrella-like 
bodies:  now  mounting  through  the  clear  water 
to  the  surface,  now  descending  slowly  downwards 
to  the  depths  below,  though  at  first  sight  their 
apparent  want  of  power  seems  to  make  them  the 
sport  of  every  wave  and  current. 

The  order  of  the  Acalephae  comprehends  a 
great  variety  of  species  in  addition  to  those 
already  pointed  out.  Some  are  so  minute  as  to 


VARIETIES    OF   ACALEPEkE.  207 

be  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  can  only  be 
seen  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope ;  others  have 
a  diameter  of  two  or  three  feet.  The  forms 
of  some  are  hemispherical,  of  others  orbicular. 
Some  are  seen  adorned  with  long  tentacula, 
which  stream  behind  them  in  the  water ;  others 
again  have  no  such  appendages.  Their  mode 
of  locomotion  is  also  various.  By  means  of 
contracting  its  disk,  one  species  propels  itself 
through  the  water ;  by  aid  of  small  paddles  placed 
on  the  circumference  of  the  disk,  another  species 
urges  its  way  onward.  They  differ  also  in  colour. 
Some  are  singularly  beautiful,  exhibiting  those 
symmetrical  patterns  produced  by  the  kaleido- 
scope ;  some  are  brown  in  the  centre,  with  sixteen 
lines  pointing  like  radii  to  the  circumference; 
some  have  a  light  purple  cross  in  the  middle, 
between  each  bar  of  which  is  a  horseshoe  mark 
of  a  similar,  though  much  deeper,  hue,  and  from 
the  circumference  diverge  rays  of  the  same  tint, 
but  lighter  than  the  rest.  Others  again  have  a 
white  cross,  with  a  black  spot  on  each  of  its  arms, 
and  others  have  a  disk  almost  as  translucent  as 
the  water  in  which  they  float,  but  in  its  centre  is 
a  bright  crimson  spot,  like  a  piece  of  cornelian 
encased  in  crystal.  The  hues  of  others  are  still 
more  beautiful,  though  they  are  extremely  mi- 
nute. Of  one  of  these  last,  whose  tints  are  white 
and  crimson,  the  late  ever-to-be-lamented  Pro- 
fessor Forbes  thus  elegantly  speaks :  — "  There  is 
not  a  medusa  in  all  the  ocean  which  can  match 
for  beauty  with  the  minute  creature  now  before 


208  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

us,  though  its  smallness  is  such  that  a  split  pea 
would  overtop  it ;  yet  small  though  it  be,  it  has 
shape,  colour,  and  substance,  so  disposed  that  as 
yet  no  explorer  of  the  sea  has  met  with  another 
like  it.  It  is  gorgeous  enough  to  be  the  diadem 
of  sea  fairies,  and  sufficiently  graceful  to  be  the 
nightcap  of  the  tiniest  and  prettiest  of  mer- 
maidens." 

These  singular  and  interesting  creatures  are  to 
be  found  in  immense  multitudes  floating  in  all 
our  seas.  Some  of  them,  as  already  stated,  have 
the  power  of  stinging  when  handled.  This  pro- 
perty, however,  belongs  only  to  a  few  of  those 
that  inhabit  our  coasts.  The  medusa  most  re- 
markable for  the  possession  of  this  power,  this 
weapon  of  defence,  is  the  Cyanea  capillata,  or 
hairy  cyanea.  Contact  with  it  produces  a  burning 
sensation,  similar  to  that  caused  by  the  sting  of 
the  common  nettle.  And  the  swimmer  knows 
this  to  his  cost  when  he  chances  to  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  long  tentacula  of  this  creature,  as  it 
marks  his  body  with  long  red  lines,  like  the  cut 
of  a  thin  whip,  causing  considerable  pain  and 
feverishness. 

The  cyanea  is  a  very  common  species,  and  must 
have  been  seen  by  all  frequenters  of  the  coast, 
either  lying  helpless  on  the  beach,  or  floating  at 
sea.  Its  disk  is  of  a  brown  colour,  with  the  edge 
festooned  with  an  immense  number  of  tentacula 
of  various  lengths,  that  extend  behind  it  as  it 
flaps  along  beneath  the  surface.  The  name 
Crineta,  perhaps,  might  be  appropriately  applied 


LUMINOUS   ACALEPILE.  209 

to  it,  from  its  resemblance  to  a  comet  with  its 
streaming  tail,  which  the  old  Greek  astronomers 
distinguished  by  that  title. 

The  acalephae,  as  already  mentioned,  have  the 
power  of  emitting  light.  In  the  seas  of  warmer 
latitudes  this  power  produces  an  effect  so  striking 
that  the  most  eloquent  description  is  insufficient 
to  do  justice  to  it.  So  innumerable  are  these 
medusae  in  tropical  waters,  that  the  points  of  light 
they  emit  illuminate  the  whole  surface  of  the 
midnight  deep.  Under  such  circumstances  the 
scene  from  on  board  ship  has  a  magical  effect. 
As  the  vessel  urges  her  way  through  the  waters 
where  these  sea  lamps  hang  suspended,  the  con- 
sequent agitation  of  the  waters  excites  their  illu- 
minating powers  into  greater  activity,  and  she  is 
surrounded  not  only  with  innumerable  sparks  of 
phosphorescent  fire,  but  broad  flashes  of  light  run 
along  the  top  of  every  surge  that  strikes  her  sides, 
while  globes  of  fire  are  seen  just  below  the  sur- 
face, produced  by  the  larger  jelly-fish.  If  during 
a  dark  night  one  could  descend  a  few  fathoms 
below  the  surface,  the  appearance  on  looking 
upwards  would  be  beautiful  in  the  extreme,  pre- 
senting, in  the  orbs  of  greater  or  lesser  mag- 
nitude scintillating  in  countless  galaxies  overhead, 
much  the  aspect  of  the  heavens  on  a  starry  night, 
fretted  with  golden  fires. 

In  our  own  seas  similar  phenomena  occur,  though 
much  less  brilliant  in  character.     And  few  occu- 
pations are  more  delightful  to  the  naturalist  in 
rowing  along  some  romantic  shore,  than  to  watch 
p 


210  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

in  the  deepening  twilight  the  phosphorescent 
radiance  of  the  larger  acalephse,  as  the  boat  glides 
silently  past  them,  and  to  admire  the  shower  of 
sparks  that  fall  from  the  oars  at  every  stroke, 
produced  by  the  microscopic  animals  of  the  same 
kind. 

The  order  of  acalephae  now  referred  to,  are  dis- 
tinguished from  others  by  their  mode  of  swimming. 
This  they  effect,  as  has  been  stated,  by  the  sudden 
contraction  of  their  mushroom-shaped  bodies, 
which  thus  strike  the  water  with  their  under 
parts,  and  propel  themselves  forward.  This  move- 
ment, easily  perceptible  in  smooth  water,  has  a 
sort  of  resemblance  to  the  action  of  breathing 
performed  by  the  lungs,  and  from  this  fancied 
similarity  to  the  heavings  of  the  chest,  the  general 
name  of  Pulmonigrade  is  applied  to  the  whole  of 
this  order  of  jelly-fish. 

Another  order  is  known  by  the  name  Ciliograde, 
because  they  progress,  not  by  alternate  contraction 
and  expansion,  but  by  means  of  the  cilia  that 
fringe  their  bodies.  These  minute  and  innumerable 
cilia  or  hairs  strike  the  water  like  a  set  of  paddles, 
ranged  in  rows  along  the  outside  of  the  living 
machine ;  and  thus  propel  it  through  the  deep. 

One  of  the  members  of  this  class,  of  most 
fascinating  aspect,  is  known  to  naturalists  by  the 
name  Beroe,  and  the  name  is  absurd  enough  ;  for 
what  resemblance  is  mere  between  this  beautiful 
and  symmetrical  creature  and  the  decrepid  old 
woman  whom  Juno  impersonated  in  her  inter- 
view with  Semele  ? 


LIVING   PADDLE-WHEELS.  211 

The  Beroe  is  from  half  an  inch  to  about  an  inch 
in  length ;  its  body  is  pellucid  ;  in  shape  it  is 
like  a  nutmeg.  Its  body  is  subdivided  by  eight 
equidistant  bands  or  ridges,  much  in  the  same  way 
that  a  terrestrial  globe  is  subdivided  by  the  lines 
from  south  to  north  marking  the  longitude.  De- 
pending from  the  body  are  two  tentacula,  five 
or  six  inches  in  length,  and  furnished  with  a 
number  of  slender  fibres  like  tendrils,  all  of  which 
this  fairy-like  creature  can  at  will  draw  up  within 
its  body.  With  these  long  tentacula  it  either 
secures  its  prey,  or  attaches  itself  to  some  point 
of  support. 

The  locomotive  machinery  of  this  little  medusa 
is  even  still  more  worthy  of  admiration  than  its 
singular  beauty.  A  minute  examination  of  the 
bands  or  ridges  already  mentioned  exhibits  the 
extraordinary  fact,  that  on  the  surface  of  each  of 
them  are  a  multitude  of  flat  plates,  formed  by 
hairs  or  cilia,  with  their  edges  placed  together 
like  the  plume  of  a  feather.  These  paddles  the 
Beroe  puts  in  motion,  and  the  power  is  sufficient 
to  propel  its  orbicular  body  through  the  yielding 
water.  But  what  is  still  more  noteworthy,  not 
only  can  the  Beroe  thus  move  forward,  but  by 
reversing  the  motion  of  these  living  paddles,  it 
can  move  backwards,  and  by  using  those  on  one 
side  only,  it  can  turn  round.  "  Man  justly  boasts 
his  steamboat,"  says  Professor  Jones,  "  and  with 
pride  points  to  those  paddle-wheels  with  which  he 
walks  upon  the  waves.  The  paddle-wheels  are  here 
more  perfect  far  than  ever  were  contrived  by 
p  2 


212  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

human  ingenuity,  for  all  the  cumbrous  engineer- 
ing required  by  man  to  urge  their  movements  is 
not  needed ;  each  float  self-moving  keeping  time 
with  all  the  rest," 

This  wonderful  creature,  endowed  with  so 
marvellous  and  complicated  a  mechanism,  is 
nevertheless  amazingly  simple  in  structure,  so  far 
as  appearance  would  lead  us  to  suppose ;  it  is  so 
translucent,  that  during  day  it  is  visible  only  by 
the  iridescent  hues  shot  forth  from  its  paddles  as 
they  strike  the  water,  and  in  darkness  it  shines 
with  a  blue  phosphoric  light,  reminding  one  of  a 
bubble  inhabited  by  some  sea-fairy,  whose  diadem 
glows  through  the  fragile  covering  in  which  she 
is  encased. 

Another  species  of  the  medusa  derives  its  title 
(Physograde)  from  the  circumstance  that  it  moves 
by  means  of  a  kind  of  air  bladder  with  which  it  is 
furnished,  and  by  inflating  which  it  can  also  rise 
to  the  surface.  The  well-known  Physalia,  or 
Portuguese  man-of-war,  is  an  example  of  this 
order,  and  can  hardly  be  considered  one  of  our 
native  species,  although  occasionally  found  on  the 
shores  of  the  South  of  England  and  Ireland. 

The  Cirrhigrade,  of  which  the  Velella  is  an 
example,  is  another  species  of  the  jelly-fish. 

The  Velella  sails  on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and 
may  be  found  in  multitudes  on  our  south-western 
shores  during  summer  and  autumn.  It  has  a 
flattish  oblong  body,  which,  although  membranous 
and  fleshy,  is  transparent,  and  is  tinged  with  dark 
blue  spots.  It  is  distinguished  from  any  of  the 


YOUNG   OF  THE   MEDUSAE.  213 

preceding  species  by  the  possession  of  a  sort  of 
skeleton  or  framework,  also  transparent,  and  of 
a  horny  texture  furnished  with  a  plate,  which, 
when  the  animal  comes  to  the  surface,  serves  as  a 
sail,  by  which  it  is  wafted  onward.  And  more 
wonderful  still,  by  means  of  long  blue  appendages 
which  hang  downwards  from  its  body,  this  ani- 
mated skiff  can  row  itself  onward,  in  the  absence 
of  a  breeze,  or  steer  when  going  before  the  wind. 

Until  very  recently  the  mode  in  which  the 
young  of  the  acalephse  are  produced  was  wholly 
unknown,  although  much  curiosity  was  naturally 
felt  on  such  an  interesting  subject.  Discoveries, 
however,  have  been  within  the  last  few  years 
made  by  several  distinguished  naturalists,  which 
greatly  add  to  the  interest  with  which  they  are 
regarded. 

It  appears  that  the  medusa  gives  birth  to  a 
multitude  of  minute  bodies,  gelatinous  like  itself, 
and  in  shape  somewhat  oval,  like  the  seeds  or 
sporules  of  some  of  the  sea-weeds,  and  clothed 
with  cilia,  or  hairs,  that  by  their  vibration  propel 
them  through  the  water.  These  buds,  as  they 
have  been  appropriately  called,  after  a  little 
while,  fix  themselves  to  some  stationary  object, 
and  soon  undergo  a  rapid  transformation.  The 
body,  instead  of  retaining  its  oval  form,  becomes 
elongated,  growing  like  a  plant  from  the  point 
by  which  it  is  attached,  increasing  in  width  at 
its  upper  extremity.  In  this  upper  extremity  a 
mouth  is  soon  formed,  surrounded  by  four  pro- 
minences that  soon  become  long  tentacula,  like 

P  3 


214  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

those  of  the  sea  anemones.  When  this  process 
has  reached  a  certain  stage  of  maturity,  the 
young  medusae  begin  to  be  formed.  Their  earliest 
appearance  is  detected  in  the  series  of  cups  into 
which  the  stalk  is  divided.  These  cups  are 
placed  one  within  another,  and  have  their  edges 
divided  into  lobes.  At  length,  in  each  of  these 
cups  an  independent  life  is  developed.  The 
upper  one  separates  from  the  rest,  and  immedi- 
ately begins  to  swim  about  by  means  of  the 
alternate  contraction  and  dilation  peculiar  to 
the  parent  medusa.  The  second  hemisphere  soon 
follows  the  first,  like  ripe  fruit  from  the  stem  on 
which  it  grew.  And  so  the  process  goes  on.  In 
succession  the  juvenile  jelly-fishes  set  forth  on 
their  voyage  through  the  waters,  as  soap  bubbles 
blown  from  a  pipe  wander  through  the  air. 

However  various  in  size  and  in  other  respects 
the  acalephae  are,  they  are  all  in  the  highest 
degree  worthy  of  admiration.  Not  to  speak  of 
other  peculiarities,  how  astonishing  is  it  to  find 
in  creatures  not  exceeding  the  size  of  a  pea,  and 
as  pellucid  and  apparently  as  simple  in  structure 
as  the  soap-bubble,  apparatus  perfectly  adapted  to 
purposes  of  locomotion,  and  evading  in  subtilty  of 
structure  our  acutest  scrutiny.  Referring  to  those 
beautiful  and  delicate  organisms  the  poet  justly 
exclaims, 

•     "  Figured  by  hand  divine,  there's  not  a  gem 

Wrought  by  man's  art  to  be  compared  with  them, 
Soft,  brilliant,  tender  through  the  ware  they  glow, 
And  make  the  moonbeam  brighter  where  they  flow." 


BRILLIANCY   OP   THE   ACALEPILE.  215 

On  the  subject  of  the  luminosity  of  the  sea, 
Professor  Rymer  Jones  thus  eloquently  expresses 
himself,  speaking  of  the  phenomenon  as  witnessed 
by  himself  in  the  Mediterranean :  —  "  The  light 
is  not  constant,  but  only  emitted  when  agitation  of 
any  kind  disturbs  the  microscopic  medusae  which 
crowd  the  surface  of  the  ocean ;  a  passing  breeze, 
as  it  sweeps  over  the  tranquil  bosom  of  the  sea, 
will  call  from  the  waves  a  flash  of  brilliancy 
which  may  be  traced  for  miles;  the  wake  of  a 
ship  is  marked  by  a  long  track  of  splendour ;  the 
oars  of  your  boat  are  raised  dripping  with  living 
diamonds ;  and  if  a  little  of  theVater  be  taken 
up  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  and  gently  agitated 
luminous  points  are  perceptibly  diffused  through 
it,  which  emanate  from  ^innumerable  little  aca- 
lephse,  scarcely  perceptible  without  the  assistance 
of  a  microscope.  All,  however,  are  not  equally 
minute ;  the  Beroes,  in  which  the  cilia  would  seem 
to  be  vividly  phosphorescent,  are  of  considerable 
size,  and  the  Cesium  Veneris,  as  it  glides  along,  has 
the  appearance  of  an  undulating  ribbon  of  flame 
several  feet  in  length.  Many  of  the  larger  forms 
shine  with  such  dazzling  brightness  that  they 
have  been  described  by  navigators  as  resembling 
'  white-hot  shot,'  visible  at  some  depth  beneath 
the  surface." 


P  4 


RAYED    ANIMALS -STAR -FISHES 


219 


CHAP.  XIV. 

RAYED   ANIMALS— STAR-FISHES. 

Crinoidese  of  Primaeval  Seas. — Different  Families  of  the  Star- 
fishes— Their  Structure,  &c. —  Ophiuridse. — Feather-star. — 
Sun-star. — Brittle-star,  &c. 

ALL  the  animated  beings  we  suppose  that  our 
readers  have  hitherto  examined  belong,  let  us 
remind  them,  to  the  great  sub -kingdom  of  radiated 
animals.  There  is,  however,  another  order  of 
creatures  belonging  to  the  same  group  examples 
of  which  may  be  discovered  on  every  shore.  These 
are  the  star-fishes,  known  to  naturalists  as  the 
Echinodermata,  a  division  comprehending  all 
those  rayed  animals  which  are  enveloped  in  a 
covering  either  hard  or  rough  or  beset  with 
prickles,  like  the  hedgehog,  a  peculiarity  from 
which  the  general  title  of  the  order  is  derived, 
echinus  being  the  Greek  word  for  hedgehog, 
and  derma  meaning  in  the  same  language  a 
covering. 

The  star-fish  differs  in  a  striking  manner  from 
those  gelatinous  radiaries  already  noticed,  not 
only  in  the  hardness  of  the  integument  with 
which  it  is  invested,  but  in  the  extreme  com- 


220  SEASIDE   DIYINITT. 

plexity  of  its  structure.  The  various  species  of 
star-fishes  likewise  differ  widely  from  each  other. 
Thus,  the  star-fish  and  the  urchin  belong  to  the 
same  order ;  but  nothing  can  be  more  remarkable 
than  their  external  dissimilarity. 

The  whole  order  has  been  subdivided  by 
naturalists  into  six  families,  some  specimens  of 
which  we  shall  suppose  to  fall  under  our  readers' 
observation. 

In  the  first  of  these  six  families  are  compre- 
hended those  fossils  so  well  known  to  geologists 
as  Crinoidece,  a  term  signifying  likeness  to  a  lily. 
These  animals  were  the  inhabitants  of  the  primaeval 
seas.  They  consisted  of  a  stalk,  by  which  they 
were  attached,  like  other  zoophytes,  or  like  marine 
plants,  to  a  particular  spot,  on  the  extremity  of 
which  stalk  was  the  body  of  the  animal,  formed, 
like  the  common  star-fish,  of  arms  or  rays  di- 
verging from  a  centre.  The  jointed  stalk  by 
which  the  lily-shaped  body  was  supported  con- 
sisted, like  the  -back-bone  of  a  fish,  of  a  large 
number  of  pieces  perforated  in  the  centre.  These 
pieces,  separated  from  each  other,  may  frequently 
be  picked  up  among  the  shingle  on  the  beach. 
In  ancient  times  they  were  often  formed  into 
rosaries  by  being  strung  upon  a  thread  by  means 
of  the  perforation  in  the  centre,  and  in  the  north 
of  England  they  are  still  known  as  St.  Cuthbert's 
beads,  after  the  name  of  the  venerable  Abbot  of 
Lindisfarne.  Sir  Walter  Scott  thus  refers  to  the 
ancient  tradition  to  which  those  parts  of  the 
crinoidea  owe  their  name  :  — 


FAMILIES   OP   THE   STAR-FISHES.  221 

"  But  fain  St.  Hilda's  nuns  would  learn 
If  on  a  rock  by  Lindisfarn 
Saint  Cuthbert  sits  and  toils  to  frame 
The  sea-born  beads  thatbear  his  name ; 
Such  tales  had  Whitby's  fishers  told, 
And  said  they  might  his  shape  behold, 

And  hear  his  anvil  sound : 
A  deadened  clang,  —  a  huge  dim  form, 
Seen  but  and  heard  when  gathering  storm 

And  night  were  closing  round; 
But  this,  as  tale  of  idle  fame, 
The  nuns  of  Lindisfarn  disclaim." 

The  multitudes  of  Crinoideae  which  inhabited 
the  primitive  ocean  exceed  all  conception.  The 
immense  deposits  of  what  is  called  encrinital 
marble  which  are  found  in  some  districts  of 
England,  are  formed  almost  entirely  by  their 
remains. 

The  second  family  of  the  star-fishes  is  that  of 
the  Ophiuridse.  These  are  distinguished  by  their 
circular  bodies,  and  five  long  and  very  slender  legs. 

The  third  family  are  the  Asteriadse,  or  true 
star-fishes. 

The  fourth  family  is  that  of  the  Echinidse,  or 
sea-urchins. 

The  fifth  are  the  Holothuridse. 

The  sixth  are  named  the  Siphunculidse.  These 
in  external  appearance  resemble  worms,  but  their 
natural  history  has  not  been  fully  investigated. 

The  families  now  enumerated  include  a  great 
variety  of  species,  a  special  description  of  which 
would  occupy  a  large  space,  but  a  few  of  the 
more  interesting  varieties  may  be  described. 

Let    us   suppose   then    that    the   reader   has 


222  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

secured  a  specimen  or  two  of  each  of  these  great 
families  of  the  Echinodermata,  and  that  he  is 
desirous  to  examine  their  structure,  we  can  assure 
him  that  his  labour  will  be  amply  repaid  by  the 
results  of  such  investigation. 

Let  him  first  examine  his  specimen  of  the 
Asteriadce,  by  the  aid  of  the  description  now  to 
be  given  of  these  peculiar  inhabitants  of  the  sea- 
shore. 

The  star-fishes  then  or  Asteriadce  (aster,  a 
star),  have  their  bodies  divided  generally  into  five 
lobes'  or  rays,  more  or  less  elongated.  In  some 
cases  the  rays  form  the  points  of  five  angles, 
into  which  the  body  is  divided.  The  upper  sur- 
face of  these  rays  is  protected  by  a  very  thin 
skin,  which  seems  to  the  touch  as  if  filled  with  a 
soft  pulpy  substance.  The  lower  surface,  how- 
ever, is  much  more  complex  in  structure.  From 
the  centre  to  the  point  of  each  ray  runs  a  groove 
or  channel,  lined  on  each  side  by  two  walls  of 
shelly  matter,  which  form  part  of  the  skeleton  of 
the  little  animals.  In  each  of  these  channels  are 
a  multitude  of  suckers.  These  suckers  are  placed 
on  the  ends  of  transparent  footstalks;  they 
serve  the  double  purpose  of  hand  and  foot, 
enabling  the  star-fish  to  move  from  place  to 
place,  seize  upon  its  food,  or  to  attach  itself  to 
one  spot.  Each  of  these  feet,  thus  terminated 
by  a  sucker,  issues  from  a  hole  in  the  groove 
already  spoken  of.  Each  foot  is  formed  by  a  tube 
filled  with  liquid,  which  is  injected  into  it  from 
a  gland  at  its  base  by  means  of  muscular  pres- 


VARIETIES   OF   STAR-FISHES.  223 

sure.  When  this  pressure  is  withdrawn,  the 
liquid  retreats  into  the  gland,  and  the  feet  col- 
lapse. Thus  by  this  simple  and  effective  mecha- 
nical arrangement  the  star-fish  can  either  retract 
or  extend  his  feet  at  will.  Individually  the 
suckers  exert  little  power,  but  their  collective 
force  is  fully  adequate  to  all  the  animal's  require- 
ments. 

The  Ophiuridce  (ophis,  a  serpent,  and  oura,  a 
tail)  are  very  common  along  our  sea  coasts.  This 
generic  term  by  which  they  are  known,  a  name 
assigned  them  by  the  celebrated  naturalist,  Pro- 
fessor Edward  Forbes,  accurately  describes  their 
general  form.  Their  bodies,  small  and  round,  are 
furnished  with  fine,  long,  and  slender  arms.  These 
arms,  instead  of  the  sluggish  movement  of  the  ordi- 
nary star-fish,  are  endowed  with  great  activity,  and 
move  and  twist  about  with  great  rapidity,  and,  by 
their  resemblance  to  the  tails  of  small  serpents, 
suggest  the  name  by  which  they  are  distinguished. 
The  celerity  of  motion  possessed  by  these  arms 
furnishes  the  creature  with  power  to  crawl  with 
considerable  rapidity. 

Another  beautiful  variety  is  the  Comatula  or 
feather  star.  It  possesses  much  elegance  of  form 
and  beauty  of  colour.  Its  body  is  of  small  size, 
covered  with  jointed  filaments.  Fine,  long,  and 
slender  arms,  feathered  along  their  sides  and  fur- 
nished with  claws,  enable  it  to  adhere  to  rocks  or 
seaweed  with  great  force.  Its  internal  structure 
is  most  elaborate  and  wonderful,  and  cannot  be 
well  described  without  recourse  to  very  minute  de- 


224  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

tail ;  in  fact,  it  must  be  seen,  as  no  description  can 
do  justice  to  the  marvellous  mechanism  of  its 
organs  of  locomotion,  respiration,  and  deglutition. 
The  student  will  recognise  it  by  its  fine  rose 
colour,  sometimes  variegated  with  bands  of  crim- 
son and  yellow. 

Another  beautiful  species  of  these  interesting 
animals  is  the  Sun-Star.  It  is  so  called  because 
the  disk  is  surrounded  by  twelve  broad  rays.  In 
colour  the  sun  star  is  variable.  Sometimes  the 
whole  body  is  red ;  sometimes,  also,  it  is  purple ; 
sometimes  the  centre  is  red  and  the  rays  white. 

Several  of  these  remarkable  creatures  now  de- 
scribed are  further  distinguished  by  the  possession 
of  a  most  singular  power — the  power  of  self- 
destruction;  for  on  being  removed  from  their 
natural  element  they  fall  to  pieces :  they  are  hence 
called  "  brittle  stars."  Whether  this  peculiarity  is 
the  result  of  voluntary  action,  or  the  natural  effect 
of  exposure  to  the  air  or  to  touch,  it  seems  diffi- 
cult to  determine,  although  in  some  instances  it 
looks  like  an  act  of  will  on  the  creature's  part. 

Let  us  hear  what  Professor  Edward  Forbes  says 
on  this  point.  Having  taken  a  fine  specimen  of 
the  Lingthorn  (Luidia  fragilissima),  a  star-fish 
measuring  some  two  feet  across,  he  gives  the  fol- 
lowing humorous  account  of  its  suicidal  propen- 
sities : — "Never  having  seen  one  before,  and  quite 
unconscious  of  its  suicidal  powers,  I  spread  it  out 
on  a  rowing  bench,  the  better  to  admire  its  form 
and  colours.  On  attempting  to  remove  it  for 
preservation,  I  found  only  an  assemblage  of  re- 


SUICIDAL   PROPENSITY.  225 

jected  members.  My  conservative  endeavours 
were  all  neutralised  by  its  destructive  exertions ; 
and  it  is  now  badly  represented  in  my  cabinet  by 
an  armless  disk  and  a  diskless  arm.  Next  time  I 
went  to  dredge  on  the  same  spot,  determined  not 
to  be  cheated  out  of  a  specimen  such  a  way  a 
second  time,  I  brought  with  me  a  bucket  of  cold 
fresh  water,  to  which  article  sea-fishes  have  a 
great  antipathy.  As  I  expected,  a  luidia  came 
up  in  the  dredge,  a  most  gorgeous  specimen.  As 
it  does  not  generally  break  up  before  it  is  raised 
above  the  surface  of  the  sea,  cautiously  and 
anxiously  I  sank  my  bucket  to  a  level  with  the 
dredge's  mouth,  and  proceeded  in  the  most  gentle 
manner  to  introduce  luidia  to  the  purer  element. 
Whether  the  cold  air  was  too  much  for  him,  or 
the  sight  of  the  bucket  too  terrific,  I  know  not, 
but  in  a  moment  he  proceeded  to  dissolve  his 
corporation,  and  at  every  mesh  of  the  dredge  his 
fragments  were  seen  escaping.  In  despair  I 
grasped  at  the  largest,  and  brought  up  the  ex- 
tremity of  an  arm,  with  its  terminating  eye,  the 
spinous  eyelid  of  which  opened  and  closed  with 
something  exceedingly  like  a  wink  of  derision." 

Before  quitting  the  subject  of  star-fishes,  a 
highly  interesting  fact  in  the  natural  history  of 
the  Cribella  oculata  common  on  almost  every  sea- 
shore, must  be  noticed, — its  maternal  solicitude. 
The  young  of  the  star-fish  are  produced  from  ova, 
and  the  cmbella  by  bending  its  arms  -forms  its 
body  into  a  concave  figure  and  hatches  the  eggs 
in  the  hollow  thus  made.  During  this  process, 
Q 


226  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

which  it  is  said  requires  eleven  successive  days, 
the  mother  star-fish  remains  in  this  recurved  and 
contracted  form  necessary  to  her  purpose,  and  in 
that  attitude  cannot  obtain  any  nourishment. 
This  singular  circumstance  affords  one  of  the 
many  proofs  which  have  been  discovered  that 
parental  instincts  are  not  confined  to  the  higher 
orders  of  animated  beings,  but  are  shared  with 
them  by  the  humblest  creatures,  to  whom  for 
wise  ends  the  Great  Parent  of  all  has  permitted 
the  exercise  of  parental  solicitude. 

Another  observation  we  would  make  before 
passing  on,  is  one  suggested  by  the  statement 
made  by  Professor  Forbes  of  the  voluntary  dis- 
memberment of  the  luidia,  on  the  subject  of 
pain  as  endured  by  the  humbler  orders  of  crea- 
tures. 

Various  species  of  Crustaceans,  such  as  crabs 
and  lobsters,  possess  the  power  of  dismember- 
ment, and  share  it  not  only  with  the  "  brittle  stars," 
but  with  many  other  creatures  both  terrestrial 
and  aquatic.  These  and  a  great  many  analogous 
phenomena  seem  to  afford  very  conclusive  evi- 
dence that  in  a  numerous  class  of  animated  crea- 
tures, bodily  injury  is  not  accompanied  by  what 
we  call  pain,  as  is  the  case  in  the  higher  order  of 
animals. 

If  this  be  so,  and  there  is  little  reason  to  doubt 
it,  the  fact  presents  us  with  a  very  beautiful  and 
striking  illustration  of  the  beneficent  wisdom 
of  that  Great  Being  "  whose  tender  mercies  are 
over  all  his  works."  Pain  is  to  man  an  admoni- 


LIABILITY  TO  PAIN.  227 

a 

tary  intimation  of  physical  injury  received  or 
threatened;  it  is  a  provision  absolutely  essential 
to  his  security,  since,  without  this  warning,  he 
might  sustain  irreparable  damage  without  being 
aware  of  it.  It  is  a  warning,  too,  strictly  con- 
sistent with  man's  intellectual  superiority,  and 
furnishes  a  powerful  stimulus  to  the  exercise  of  pru- 
dence, caution,  foresight,  as  the  means  of  escaping 
it,  while  it  acts  likewise  as  an  impulse  to  his  skill 
and  ingenuity  in  remedying  those  evils  by  which 
it  is  occasioned.  Bodily  pain  would  be  a  very 
gratuitous  and  an  almost  unnecessary  infliction, 
if  man  were  not  highly  endowed  with  intellectual 
powers,  by  the  exercise  of  which  physical  evils 
may  be  avoided  or  obviated  ;  or  if  the  very  effort 
to  avoid  these  evils  did  not  tend  directly  to  ad- 
minister to  the  strength  and  the  activity  of  his 
mental  powers.  We  may  truly  observe  that 
among  the  means  devised  by  supreme  wisdom 
for  human  advancement,  both  in  a  moral  and 
intellectual  point  of  view,  pain,  employing  the 
term  in  its  widest  sense,  is  one  of  the  most  ap- 
propriate as  well  as  efficient.  But  in  the  case  of 
the  lower  animals,  to  what  purpose  could  pain 
tend,  if  accompanying  bodily  injury  ?  It  is  indeed 
inconceivable  that  infinite  goodness  and  wisdom 
should  in  vain,  or  to  little  purpose,  expose  a  vast 
multitude  of  helpless  creatures  to  physical  agony. 
There  is  therefore  reason  to  believe  that  in 
proportion  as  the  lower  orders  of  animated  crea- 
tures are  exposed  to  injury  they  are  free  from 
those  sufferings  which  injuries  produce  in  those 


228  SEASIDE   DIYINITY. 

*» 

of  higher  organisation,  and  in  this  respect  there 
is  reason  to  perceive  an  evidence  of  the  same 
benignity  which  so  great  a  variety  of  other  con- 
siderations tend  to  favour. 


RAYED    ANIMALS -SEA    URCHINS 


231 


CHAP.  XV. 

BATED   ANIMALS  —  SEA-URCHINS. 

Antiquity  of  the  Eace. — Egg-urchin. — Complexity  of  Struc- 
ture.— Method  of  Enlargement. — Mechanism  of  Spines,  of 
Mouth,  &c. 

IT  has  been  already  stated  that  the  fourth 
family  of  the  Echinodermata  is  that  of  the  Echi- 
nidse  or  sea-urchins.  Although  this  creature 
differs  in  appearance  so  completely  from  the 
star-fish,  an  investigation  of  its  structure  places 
it  unquestionably  in  the  same  order. 

The  urchin  belongs  to  a  race  whose  pedigree 
extends  far  into  the  ages  of  hoar  antiquity,  hav- 
ing existed  thousands  of  years  before  man  became 
a  denizen  of  this  terraqueous  globe.  The  species 
now  existing  indeed  are  not  found  in  a  fossil 
state,  save  in  very  recent  deposits;  but  their 
ancestors  flourished  in  prodigious  multitudes 
during  the  secondary  and  tertiary  epochs,  and 
are  found  imbedded  in  the  oolite  and  chalk  for- 
mations, some  shaped  like  helmets,  some  elliptical 
in  form,  some  turbinated,  and  others  heart-shaped 
like  those  of  the  present  day.  The  urchin  is 
therefore  an  object  of  interest  to  the  geologist 
as  well  as  to  the  student  of  natural  history. 


232  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

Let  us  suppose  the  student  to  obtain  a  spe- 
cimen of  the  egg-urchin  (Echinus  sphcera),  a 
species  which  may  often  be  found  beneath  the 
seaweeds  that  cover  the  rocks  on  our  sea-shores. 
The  shell,,  it  will  be  seen,  is  globular,  but  some- 
what compressed,  much  like  the  orange  in  shape. 
Its  structure  is  most  interesting.  This  is  adapted 
to  suit  the  growth  of  the  animal  within.  The 
shell,  in  fact,  grows  with  the  growth  of  the  dweller 
within,  and  it  does  so  because,  unlike  the  lobster 
or  crab,  the  urchin  does  not  cast  its  shell.  Now 
this  necessity  for  the  increase  of  the  size  of  the 
house  with  the  growth  of  the  tenant  is  provided 
for  by  an  arrangement  wonderfully  complex  and 
beautiful.  The  shell  is  formed  in  the  first  place 
of  hundreds  of  minute  portions,  for  were  the 
panoply  to  consist  of  one  piece,  it  would  not 
admit  of  increase  or  growth  in  every  direction. 
But,  as  it  has  been  said,  the  sphere  consists  of 
hundreds  of  minute  segments  of  a  pentagonal 
shape.  These  are  fitted  together  like  the  stones 
of  an  arch  or  dome.  On  the  inside  of  these 
segments,  and  also  between  their  edges,  is  the 
mantle,  a  thin  delicate  membrane.  It  is  the 
office  of  this  membrane  to  enlarge  the  sea-urchin's 
house  whenever  he  feels  himself  pressed  for 
room.  And  how  does  the  mantle  do  this  ?  Simply 
by  secreting  carbonate  of  lime,  and  thereby  adding 
to  the  thickness  and  the  superficial  size  of  each 
individual  segment  of  which  the  shell  is  composed. 
It  is  in  this  way  that  the  shells  of  all  bivalves 
and  molluscs  are  increased  in  size.  Accordingly 


STRUCTURE   OF   SEA-URCHIN.  233 

the  number  and  form  of  the  divisions  of  which 
the  shell  consists,  are  the  same  both  in  the  full- 
grown  urchin  and  in  the  young  animal ;  they 
differ  only  in  size.  By  this  beautiful  provision 
the  sphere  is  gradually  enlarged,  without  any 
alteration  of  its  form  or  of  the  relative  position 
and  size  of  its  various  parts.  How  admirable 
this  arrangement !  How  completely  adapted  to 
the  end  in  view !  Were  we  to  suppose  there  ex- 
isted a  necessity  for  a  certain  bridge  gradually  to 
increase  in  size  up  to  a  particular  point,  we 
could  imagine  no  other  available  plan  than  this. 
Either  the  whole  structure  must  be  taken  to 
pieces  and  built  with  stones  either  larger  or 
more  numerous,  or  the  stones  originally  employed 
must  increase  in  breadth  and  length  by  the  addi- 
tion of  new  matter  at  their  sides  and  ends — a 
process,  however,  far  beyond  the  limits  of  human 
contrivance. 

Other  parts  of  this  creature's  structure  are  no 
less  striking  and  interesting  than  those  now  de- 
scribed. If  the  shell  be  denuded  of  the  spines,  it 
will  appear  to  be  from  top  to  bottom  marked  out 
by  five  double  rows  of  small  holes  into  ten  spaces 
shaped  somewhat  like  the  gores  into  which  paper 
is  cut  in  forming  a  balloon.  Each  of  these  spaces 
is  studded  with  rows  of  minute  hemispheres. 
These  little  points,  which  seem  when  the  shell  is 
divested  of  its  spines  to  be  merely  ornamental, 
are  a  portion  of  a  piece  of  mechanism  truly  ad- 
mirable. It  is  to  one  of  these  that  each  of  the 
spines  is  fixed  when  the  animal  is  alive.  Each 


234  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

spine  is  furnished  with  a  socket,  into  which  the 
little  point  or  prominence  fits,  so  that  the  spine 
revolves  upon  it  precisely  in  the  manner  of  what 
is  called  by  engineers  a  universal  joint,  —  a  kind 
of  mechanism  exemplified  in  the  shoulder  joint 
of  the  human  frame,  with  this  difference,  that  in 
the  human  arm  the  convex  part  of  the  apparatus 
revolves  in  the  socket,  whereas,  in  the  case  now 
referred  to,  the  spine  with  the  socket  revolves 
upon  the  stationary  convexity  or  point. 

The  spines  thus  adjusted  are  put  in  motion  by 
a  set  of  appropriate  muscles,  acted  on  by  nerves 
obeying  the  instincts  of  the  animal.  From  each 
of  the  holes  already  mentioned  issues  a  sucker, 
by  which  the  urchin  either  attaches  itself  to  one 
place  or  changes  its  position.  Among  the  spines 
are  likewise  numbers  of  minute  pincers,  called  by 
naturalists  pedicellarice,  consisting  of  a  stalk  with 
a  knob  at  the  end  furnished  with  three  hard 
teeth,  some  obtuse  and  others  elongated.  The 
use  of  these  pincers  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  ascertained ;  but  whatever  be  the  special 
use  for  which  they  are  intended,  they  are  beyond 
doubt,  like  all  the  understood  portions  of  the 
complex  structure,  adapted  with  inimitable  skill 
to  the  purpose  intended. 

If,  again,  we  examine  the  mouth  of  the  urchin, 
we  shall  find  its  mechanism  to  be  extremely  com- 
plex. It  is  scarcely  possible,  indeed,  to  convey  a 
suitable  notion  of  it  without  pointing  out  its  parts 
in  a  living  specimen ;  but  sufficient  may  be  said  to 
incite  the  reader  to  examine  for  himself.  The 


COMPLEX  MECHANISM.  235 

teeth  or  jaws  consist  of  five  pieces  of  triangular 
shape,  fitting  together  into  the  form  of  a  cone 
in  the  centre  of  which  is  an  additional  tooth. 
This  cone  occupies  the  middle  of  the  orifice  in 
the  base  of  the  shell,  and  the  teeth  or  jaws  of 
which  it  consists  are  attached  to  the  arches  around 
the  orifice,  by  means  of  powerful  muscles,  and 
are  furnished  with  others  enabling  them  to  work 
upon  each  other  so  as  to  triturate  and  grind  the 
substances  on  which  the  animal  preys.  To  this 
purpose  the  jaws  are  so  perfectly  adapted  that 
very  hard  substances  exposed  to  their  action  are 
speedily  reduced  to  a  pulp. 

The  elaborate  and  complex  mechanism  which 
is  presented  to  us  in  the  structure  of  the  sea- 
urchin,  cannot  be  perceived  by  the  intelligent 
and  candid  observer  without  those  convictions 
which  consummate  excellence  in  the  adaptation 
of  animal  mechanism  rarely  fails  to  originate. 
(( In  a  moderate  sized  urchin,"  observes  Professor 
Forbes,  ee  I  reckoned  sixty-two  rows  of  pores  in 
each  of  the  ten  avenues.  Now  as  there  are  three 
pairs  of  pores  in  each  row,  their  number  mul- 
tiplied by  six  and  again  by  ten,  would  give  the 
great  number  of  three  thousand  seven  hundred 
and  twenty  pores ;  but  as  each  sucker  occupies  a 
pair  of  pores,  the  number  of  suckers  would  be 
half  that  amount,  or  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty. 
The  structure  of  the  egg-urchin  is  not  less  com- 
plicated in  other  parts.  There  are  above  three 
hundred  plates  of  one  kind,  and  nearly  as  many 
of  another  all  dovetailing  together  with  the 


236  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

greatest  nicety  and  regularity,  bearing  on  their 
surfaces  above  four  thousand  spines,  each  spine 
perfect  in  itself,  and  of  a  complicated  structure 
and  having  a  free  movement  on  its  socket.  Truly 
the  skill  of  the  great  Architect  of  nature  is  not 
less  displayed  in  the  construction  of  a  sea-urchin 
than  in  the  building  of  a  world !  "• 


ARTICULATA,    OR    JOINTED    ANIMALS 
MARINE    WORMS,    ETC. 


JOINTED  ANIMALS. — SOFT-BODIED   ANIMALS. 
Uerinil  Crab.  2    Spider  Crab  3.  Cockle.  -t.  Cuttle  Fish.  5.  Epgs  of  Cuttle  Fish 

(See  Chapters,  17,  18,  and  19.) 


239 


CHAP.  XVI. 

ARTICULATA,  OR  JOINTED   ANIMALS — MARINE  WORMS, 
ETC. 

Their  Structure. — Tubicolae  and  Serpulse,  &c. — Nereis. 
Seamouse. 

WE  have  supposed  our  admirers  of  the  sea-shore 
and  its  productions  to  classify  the  objects  of  their 
attention,  in  other  words,  to  observe  them  not  in  a 
miscellaneous  manner,  but  in  the  order  prescribed 
by  natural  history,  this  being  for  a  variety  of  rea- 
sons the  most  advantageous. 

According  to  this  plan  we  presume  our  readers 
to  have  discovered  various  specimens  of  the  lowest 
rank  of  animated  beings,  which,  as  already  stated, 
are  grouped  together  in  the  great  sub-kingdom  of 
the  Radiata,  and  proceeding  with  this  plan  of 
observation,  we  now  arrive  at  another  great  sub- 
division, called  the  Articulata. 

The  Articulata,  or  Articulated  Animals,  are  so 
called  from  the  Latin  word  signifying  a  joint, 
and  they  are  therefore  jointed  animals,  as  distin- 
guished from  those  which  are  called  Radiata,  as 
being  constructed  in  rays,  in  the  manner  already 
described.  It  is  by  no  means  easy  in  all  cases 
for  an  observer  not  already  instructed  upon  the 
subject,  to  ascertain  on  what  principles  the  term 


240  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

" jointed"  is  applicable  to  all  the  creatures  so 
called.  As  a  general  rule,  however,  the  distinction 
is  sufficiently  obvious.  But  in  their  internal 
structure  the  articulata  differ  widely  from  all  the 
members  of  the  group  to  which  reference  has 
already  been  made.  Their  nervous  system  is  not, 
as  in  the  radiaries,  placed  in  the  centre,  from 
which  it  extends  in  rays  or  branches,  but  it  con- 
sists of  a  brain  from  which  a  thread  of  the  nervous 
matter  extends  along  the  body,  having  at  certain 
distances  along  the  thread  nervous  centres,  called 
ganglions  or  knots,  from  which  proceed  the  nerves 
which  supply  the  limbs  or  other  extremities.  The 
articulata  "are  arranged  in  five  different  classes, 
each  comprehending  animals  distinguished  by  some 
general  character. 

The  first  of  these  classes  to  which  we  shall  sup- 
pose our  attention  to  be  directed  is  that  of  the 
Annellata.  The  animals  comprised  in  this  class 
are  very  numerous,  and  various  specimens  may  be 
discovered  with  a  little  industry  on  almost  every 
sandy  sea-shore  at  low  water.  The  whole  class 
may  be  considered  as  represented  by  the  common 
leech  or  the  earth-worm,  the  bodies  of  which 
creatures  are  formed  of  numerous  rings,  a  circum- 
stance which  gives  origin  to  the  generic  term,  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  word  annellus,  signifying  a 
little  ring. 

A  very  common,  but,  when  carefully  examined, 
a  very  interesting  example  of  the  animals  of  this 
class  is  the  lug,  a  large  worm  inhabiting  the 
sand  and  much  employed  as  a  bait  by  fishermen. 


MARINE  WORMS.  241 

The  place  where  this  worm  may  be  found  is 
easily  known  by  a  small  heap  of  sand,  somewhat 
like  a  worm  in  shape,  lying  on  the  surface,  within 
eight  or  ten  inches  from  which  is. a  circular  de- 
pression frequently  rilled  with  water.  The  latter 
is  the  place  at  which  the  lug  protrudes  its  mouth, 
and  the  former  the  point  at  which  its  tail  is 
extended  to  the  surface,  and  between  which  two 
points  it  can  be  obtained  by  digging  to  the  depth 
of  eight  or  ten  inches. 

On  examining  this  annelid  it  will  be  found 
that  the  upper  extremity  of  the  body  is  of  consi- 
derable thickness,  and  the  lower  end  so  much 
thinner  as  to  exhibit  the  appearance  of  a  tail. 
On  opposite  sides  of  the  body  rows  of  tufts  of 
a  dark  crimson  colour  will  be  found.  These  tufts 
are  the  lungs  or  respiratory  organs  of  the  worm, 
through  which  its  blood  circulates,  and  undergoing 
the  same  process  as  the  blood  of  fishes  when  pass- 
ing through  the  gills,  becomes  suited  to  the  pur- 
poses of  vitality.  All  the  worms  inhabiting  the 
sand  form  a  tribe  called  Arenicolae. 

Another  tribe  of  marine  worms  are  those  which 
inhabit  tubes,  and  are  from  this  circumstance 
called  Tubicolse.  The  tubes  they  inhabit  are 
constructed  by  themselves,  either  from  particles 
of  sand  joined  together  by  some  species  of  cement 
with  which  they  are  provided,  or  consisting  of 
lime  secreted  for  the  purpose  by  some  process 
similar  to  that  by  which  the  shells  of  various 
crustaceans  are  formed. 

The    Serpulae,    of    which    there    are    several 


242  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

varieties,  are  found  upon  shells,  stones,  or  broken 
glass  and  pottery,  which  have  been  long  immersed 
in  the  water.  On  these  the  tube-worms  form  their 
abodes,  consisting  of  a  vermiform  encrustation 
of  carbonate  of  lime,  firmly  attached  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  hard  body  with  which  it  is  connected, 
and  presenting  a  variety  of  fantastic  convolutions. 
There  are,  however,  several  distinct  species  of 
serpula.  Some  are  very  minute,  some  form  their 
shelly  tubes  in  a  spiral  manner,  others  twist 
them  into  a  great  variety  of  convolutions.  In 
others  again  the  tubes  are  lime-coloured,  in  others 
perfectly  transparent;  in  some  they  are  round, 
some  wrinkled  and  angular.  Some  of  the  ser- 
pulae  are  evidently  gregarious,  a  large  number 
of  them  occupying  the  surface  of  the  same  shell 
or  stone,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  we  find  a  large 
species  which  is  solitary  occupying  the  surface  of 
one  shell,  and  living  without  any  companion. 

The  serpulae  differ  from  the  lug  already  spoken 
of  in  the  peculiar  modification  of  their  breathing 
apparatus,  which  consists  of  a  fan-shaped  body  ex- 
tremely graceful  in  its  form  and  brilliant  in  its 
colouring,  which  the  worm,  in  order  to  breathe, 
protrudes  from  the  end  of  its  tube-shaped  domi- 
cile. By  obtaining  some  of  the  serpulae  alive  and 
placing  them  in  sea-water,  the  process  of  respira- 
tion may  be  easily  perceived.  At  the  mouth  end 
of  the  tube  is  a  door,  the  mechanism  of  which  is 
singularly  admirable.  This  door,  when  the  whole 
of  the  animal  is  immersed  in  water,  is  opened, 
and  the  inhabitant  slowly  protrudes  the  upper 


SERPUL^l. — NEREIS.  243 

part  of  its  body,  from  which  soon  afterwards  it 
spreads  out  its  two  fan-shaped  branchiae  or  respi- 
ratory organs,  the  purple  or  scarlet  hues,  the 
form,  and  the  motions  of  which  are  extremely  in- 
teresting. The  habitations  of  the  other  species  of 
tube-worms  referred  to,  are  frequently  found  in 
vast  quantities  lying  upon  the  dry  beach,  or  half 
buried  in  the  wet  sand,  and  these  consist  of  thin 
semi-transparent  tubes,  formed,  as  already  stated, 
of  particles  of  sand,  but  not  attached,  as  those  just 
described,  to  the  surface  of  stones  or  other  hard 
substances. 

The  Nereis  is  another  marine  worm  of  which 
there  are  several  varieties,  some  of  which  may 
attract  the  attention  of  the  visitor  of  the  sea-shore. 
Some  of  these  worms  are  extremely  small,  but, 
like  some  other  very  minute  creatures,  they  pos- 
sess the  faculty  of  emitting  light,  and  are  able  to 
illuminate  the  midnight  waters  with  marvellous 
splendour.  It  is  in  a  great  measure  to  these  di- 
minutive annelids  that  the  brilliancy  is  owing 
which  is  perceptible  on  the  agitation  of  the 
water. 

Another  species  is  of  much  greater  length,  but 
not  possessed  of  the  power  of  producing  light.  It 
is  about  four  inches  in  length,  and  of  a  bluish- 
green  colour,  semi-pellucid,  and  formed  of  about 
184  distinct  segments.  It  is  frequently  found  in 
the  sand  at  low  water.  Another  species  is  a  foot 
in  length,  and  as  thick  as  a  goose  quill ;  the  tail 
is  orange  colour,  and  the  rest  of  the  bod}7"  exhibits 
a  beautiful  iridescence.  There  are  several  other 

B  2 


244  SEASIDE   DIYINITT. 

varieties  of  this  worm.  These  and  some  other 
kinds  are  found  under  stones  when  the  tide  has 
retired. 

Instead  of  being  sedentary  and  attached  to 
one  place,  they  move  from  place  to  place  with 
great  rapidity  along  the  bottom  of  the  water. 
The  movements  of  these  worms  are  extreme- 
ly active  and  graceful.  They  are  all  greedily 
sought  after  by  all  kinds  of  fishes,  to  whom  their 
naked  bodies  furnish  an  easy  repast;  but  their 
movements  are  so  rapid  that  they  readily  make 
their  escape  by  hiding  beneath  the  fronds  of  sea- 
weed or  between  the  stones. 

Before  quitting  the  numerous  family  of  marine 
worms,  one  may  be  mentioned  which  is  not  un- 
common on  the  coast  of  Devonshire,  and  also  in 
some  localities  on  the  west  coast  of  England.  It 
is  the  largest  example  of  the  Grordius  or  hair- 
worm. It  grows  to  the  extraordinary  length  of 
thirty  feet,  and  possesses  the  singular  power  of 
contracting  and  expanding  itself  at  will,  one  of 
eight  feet  in  length  being  found  to  contract  itself 
to  one-eighth  of  its  extent.  The  colour  of  this 
remarkable  annelid  is  dusky  brown  with  a  tinge 
of  green.  Those  of  the  largest  size  are  taken  by 
dredging  in  deep  water,  and  are  found  inhabiting 
old  bivalve  shells. 

Belonging  to  the  tribe  we  are  now  referring  to  is 
the  sea-mouse,  or  Aphrodite,  a  creature  of  which 
several  varieties  may  be  discovered  on  the  shore 
after  the  tide  has  ebbed,  and  especially  after  a  storm. 
The  largest  and  most  common  is  the  Aphrodita 


SEA-MOUSE.  245 

aculeata.  Although  belonging  to  the  family  of 
worms,  this  creature  altogether  differs  from  its  rela- 
tives in  its  shape.  Instead  of  being  thread-shaped 
or  elongated,  its  body  is  oval,  and  about  three  or 
four  inches  in  length,  and  from  an  inch  and  a 
half  to  two  inches  broad.  Its  back  is  clothed  with 
silky  hairs  of  a  rich  metallic  lustre,  and  exhibiting 
several  of  the  colours  of  the  rainbow.  Along  its 
sides  are  bundles  of  bristles  attached  to  muscular 
points  which  the  creature  can  move  at  will,  and 
which  serve  as  organs  of  motion,  either  in  swim- 
ming or  crawling  along  the  bottom.  The  splen- 
dour of  the  colours  which  adorn  this  creature  is 
not  inferior  to  that  of  the  feathers  of  the  humming 
bird,  although  its  habitation  is  the  mud  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sea.  The  structure  of  the  humblest 
organised  being  is  sufficient  to  excite  the  senti- 
ment of  beauty  in  any  intelligent  observer,  even 
in  the  total  absence  of  mere  brilliancy  of  external 
colouring.  All  the  marine  worms  afford  marvel- 
lous evidences  of  the  same  divine  skill  in  which 
the  most  complicated  organisms  have  originated. 


B  3 


ARTICULATA,    OR    JOINTED    ANIMALS 
CIRRIPEDA 


249 


CHAP.  XVII. 

ARTICULATA,   OR  .JOINTED  ANIMALS — CIERIPEDA. 

"  Curl-footed  "  Animals. — Balanus  or  Acorn-shell. — Barnacles.  — 
Pentalismus  anatifera. —  Popular  Error.  —  Young  of  the 
Barnacle  Shell,  &c. 

PASSING  from  the  numerous  family  of  marine 
worms  which,  as  already  stated,  constitute  the 
class  called  the  Annellata,  we  suppose  the  visitor 
of  the  beach  to  proceed  to  examine  the  class 
which  naturalists  have  named  Cirripeda  (or  curl- 
footed). 

Examples  of  the  Cirripeda  may  be  found  on 
every  sea-shore.  The  stones  and  rocks  -covered  at 
high  water,  but  left  bare  when  the  tide  has  ebbed, 
are  often  found  entirely  covered  with  the  most 
common  species.  Shells  which  have  been  long 
immersed  in  the  water,  limpets,  oysters,  whelks, 
are  also  frequently  found  more  or  less  occupied 
by  them. 

The  animal  now  referred  to  is  known  as  the 
Balanus  or  acorn-shell.  Our  readers  will  easily 
recognise  it  by  a  brief  description.  Each  shell  is 
composed  of  several  pieces,  so  placed  together  as 
to  form  a  cone,  the  broadest  part  of  which  is 
attached  to  the  rock  or  shell  which  forms  its 
abode.  Of  these  acorn-shells  there  are  several 
varieties.  The  size  of  some  is  from  about  a 


250  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

quarter  to  six-eighths  of  an  inch  at  the  base,  and 
from  a  quarter  to  half  an  inch  in  height.  Others 
are  considerably  larger,  being  an  inch  and  a  half 
in  diameter  at  the  base,  and  from  half  an  inch  to 
an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  height.  These  shells  on 
superficial  examination  appear  as  if  formed  of 
one  piece.  But  this  is  not  the  case.  They  are, 
as  already  stated,  composed  of  several  pieces,  and 
this  circumstance  is  of  the  greatest  importance, 
being  absolutely  necessary  as  a  provision  for  the 
growth  of  the  animal.  This  circumstance  caused 
them  formerly  to  be  classed  with  the  multivalve 
shells,  and  the  animal  was  classed  with  shell-fish 
or  mollusca.  But  their  structure  is  now  better 
understood,  and  the  acorn-shells  and  barnacles 
form  a  small  class  with  characteristic  peculiarities 
of  their  own,  although  allied  to  the  Crustacea. 

Like  the  various  kinds  of  actiniae  and  other 
marine  animals,  the  inhabitants  of  these  acorn- 
shells  are  entirely  inactive  when  no  longer  covered 
with  water.  But  as  soon  as  the  tide  rises  they 
project  from  the  opening  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  shells  the  apparatus  from  which  their  name 
curl-footed  is  derived.  This  has  a  striking  resem- 
blance to  a  plume  of  feathers,  the  motions  of 
which  are  extremely  regular  and  graceful.  This 
apparatus  is  adapted  at  once  to  the  respiration 
and  the  nutrition  of  the  animal,  and  its  structure, 
adapted  to  these  purposes,  affords  a  striking  evi- 
dence of  that  marvellous  skill  which  has  been 
employed  in  the  adaptation  even  of  the  humblest 
living  creatures  to  their  mode  of  life  and  the 


GOOSE-BE ARIN&   LEPAS.  251 

exigencies  of  their  condition.  The  manner  in 
which  the  little  inhabitant  of  the  acorn-shell 
extends  its  organs,  by  which  it  breathes  as  well  as 
obtains  food,  may  be  easily  observed.  Let  our 
visitor  of  the  beach  carry  home  with  him  a  shell  or 
piece  of  stone  to  which  some  of  them  are  attached, 
and  in  depositing  it  in  sea-water  the  balani  will 
be  seen  in  a  few  minutes  expanding  their  appa- 
ratus, and  gently  moving  it  in  the  still  water. 

In  the  same  class  with  those  now  referred  to 
are  the  Barnacles.  One  of  these,  which  is  called 
Pentelasmis  anatifera,  is  very  common  in  some 
parts  of  the  southern  coasts  of  England  and 
Ireland,  where  it  is  found  in  great  numbers 
attached  to  drift  wood.  The  bottoms  of  ships 
are  sometimes  covered  with  them.  The  shell  of 
this  cirripod  is  whitish,  flattened  at  the  sides,  and 
opening  down  the  edges  by  a  slit.  It  is  composed 
of  five  distinct  pieces,  united  together  by  a  mem- 
brane, and  the  whole  is  attached  to  a  flexible  stalk 
several  inches  in  length,  of  a  fleshy  or  rather 
tendinous  character.  The  feathered  apparatus 
or  cirri,  by  which,  like  the  acorn-shell  already 
described,  the  animal  breathes,  have  been  sup- 
posed to.be  the  rudimentary  feathers  of  a  future 
bird  to  be  excluded  from  the  shell  when  arrived 
at  a  sufficient  state  of  maturity. 

This  popular  error  is  of  considerable  antiquity, 
and  still  prevails  in  many  of  those '  parts  of  the 
sea-coast  in  which  the  barnacle  is  found.  Gerard, 
a  naturalist  who  flourished  at  the  close  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  whose  authority  in  his 


252  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

own  day  stood  very  high,  not  only  repeats  this 
fable  as  an  ascertained  truth  in  natural  history, 
but  enters  into  a  detailed  account  of  the  meta- 
morphosis by  which  the  cirripod  is  changed  into 
a  bird.  The  following  is  a  passage  from  his 
"Herbal  "  on  the  subject,  part  of  which  has  been 
frequently  quoted  by  modern  writers  on  natural 
history : — es  What  our  eyes  have  seene  and  hands 
have  touched  we  shall  declare.  There  is  a  small 
island  in  Lancashire  called  the  Pile  of  Foulders, 
wherein  are  found  the  broken  pieces  of  old  and 
bruised  ships,  some  whereof  have  been  cast 
thither  by  shipwracke,  and  also  the  trunks  and 
bodies  with  the  branches  of  old  and  rotten  trees, 
cast  up  there  likewise ;  whereon  is  found  a  certaine 
spuma  or  froth  that  in  tyme  breedeth  into  certaine 
shels,  in  shape  like  those  of  the  muskle,  but 
sharper  pointed,  and  of  a  whitish  colour,  wherein 
is  contained  a  thing  in  form  like  a  lace  of  silke 
finely  woven  as  it  were  together,  of  a  whitish 
colour,  one  end  whereof  is  fastened  into  the  inside 
of  the  shel,  even  as  the  fish  of  oisters  and 
muskles  are ;  the  other  end  is  made  fast  into  the 
belly  of  a  rude  masse  or  lumpe,  which  in  tyme 
commeth  to  the  shape  and  forme  of  a  birde: 
when  it  is  perfectly  formed  the  shell  gapeth  open, 
and  the  first  thing  that  appeareth  is  the  aforesaide 
lace  or  string ;  next  come  the  legs  of  the  birde 
hanging  out,  and  as  it  groweth  greater  it  openeth 
the  shel  by  degrees,  till  at  length  it  is  all  come  forth, 
and  hangeth  onlie  by  the  bill :  at  short  space  after 
it  commeth  to  full  maturitie,  and  falleth  into  the 


FABULOUS  ACCOUNT.  253 

sea,  where  it  gathereth  feathers,  and  groweth  to  a 
fowle  bigger  than  a  mallarde  and  lesser  than  a 
goose,  having  blacke  leggs  and  bill  or  beake,  and 
feathers  black  and  white,  spotted  in  such  a 
manner  as  is  our  mag-pie,  called  in  some  places 
a  Pie-Annet,  which  the  people  of  Lancashire  call 
by  no  other  name  than  a  tree-goose :  which  place 
aforesaide  and  all  those  parts  adjoining  do  so 
much  abound  therewith  that  one  of  the  best  is 
bought  for  three  pence.  For  the  truth  hereof,  if 
any  doubt,  may  it  please  them  to  repaire  to  me, 
and  I  shall  satisfie  them  by  the  testimonie  of 
goode  witnesses." 

This  fabulous  history  of  the  origin  of  the  bird 
so  well  known  as  the  barnacle  was  by  our 
ancestors  held  to  be  perfectly  correct,  and  it 
still  maintains  its  footing  among  those  inhabitants 
of  our  sea-shore  from  whose  minds  modern  and 
more  accurate  ideas  have  not  yet  expelled  the 
errors  of  former  ages.  But  natural  history  ex- 
hibits many  phenomena  greatly  more  marvellous 
than  any  that  originate  in  the  imagination  of  a 
credulous  naturalist.  In  this  respect  the  remark 
applied  to  the  department  of  literature  occupied 
by  the  novelist,  that  truth  is  stranger  than 
fiction,  is  equally  applicable  to  natural  history. 
And  as  regards  the  creature  now  referred  to,  the 
metamorphosis  it  undergoes  prior  to  assuming 
its  condition  in  the  shell  as  above  described,  is 
fully  as  wonderful  as  that  which  it  has  been 
fancied  to  undergo  subsequently.  Prior  to  enter- 
ing upon  a  condition  which  is  permanent  and 


254  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

not  subject  to  any  further  change — the  young 
of  the  acorn-shells,  and  likewise  those  of  the 
barnacles,  have  been  discovered  by  Mr.  J.  V. 
Thomson,  Mr.  Owen,  and  other  naturalists,  to  be 
minute  creatures  of  an  oval  form,  furnished  with 
six  pairs  of  legs,  terminated  by  hairs,  and  capable 
of  impelling  them  with  great  rapidity  through 
the  water,  by  acting  in  concert  with  each  other, 
like  oars  all  pulled  at  the  same  moment.  After 
passing  some  time  wandering  hither  and  thither 
through  their  native  element,  these  singular 
creatures  select  the  place  of  their  future  per- 
manent abode,  and  attaching  themselves  to  it, 
begin  immediately  to  assume  the  form  of  an 
acorn-shell  or  a  barnacle,  as  the  case  may  be; 
their  organs  of  locomotion,  and  even  of  sight,  cease 
to  exist,  and  they  henceforth  depend  for  their 
food  on  what  happens  to  come  in  their  way, 
having  no  longer  any  power  to  pursue  their  prey. 
Such  alterations  of  condition  and  form  are 
precisely  the  opposite  of  that  which  occurs  in  the 
instance  of  the  jelly-fish  already  spoken  of. 
These  in  their  earlier  stages  of  growth  are  attached 
to  a  stalk,  and  are  successively  thrown  off  like 
living  buds,  to  wander  through  the  watery  plains  ; 
while  the  others,  free  to  rove  in  their  youth, 
become  fixed  to  one  locality,  where  they  attain 
maturity.  How  marvellous  the  variety  of  those 
works  which  proclaim  the  wisdom  of  the  mighty 
Creator ! 


ARTICULATA-  CRABS 


257 


CHAP.   XVIII. 

s 

ARTICULATA  —  CRABS. 

Structure.  —  Spider-Crab  and  various  other  Species.  —  Pagurus, 
Habits  and  Structure,  &c.  —  Zoea. 

WHEN  the  aged  priest  of  Apollo  found  his  prayers 
for  the  liberation  of  his  fair  daughter  rejected  by 
Agamemnon,  he  betook  himself,  the  poet  tells 
us,  to  the  shores  of  the  loud  resounding  sea,  and 
seeking  an  unfrequented  place  poured  forth  his 
supplications  to  the  Silver  Bow-bearer.  And 
truly  no  locality  is  more  suited  to  devotion, 
whether  in  grief  or  gladness,  than  the  shores  of 
the  great  deep.  Nowhere  do  we  find  so  much  to 
awaken  those  sublime  emotions  which  are  so 
closely  allied  to  all  true  devotion. 

And  it  may  be  affirmed  that  of  all  men  the  dili- 
gent student  of  nature  is  best  able  to  decipher  and 
understand  the  language  with  which  the  sea-shore 
addresses  both  the  intellectual  and  the  moral  fa- 
culties and  powers  of  the  soul.  What  a  world  of 
wonders  does  not  the  sea-shore  unfold  to  him,  all 
but  invisible  although  they  be  to  other  and  common 
eyes  !  Even  if  he  confine  himself  to  an  examina- 
tion of  the  structure,  the  forms,  the  habits  of  the 
Crustacea  alone,  what  a  fund  of  strange  and  in- 
teresting knowledge  awaits  him ;  and  what  unde- 


258  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

niable  evidences  of  careful  adaptation  and  of 
express  design  on  the  part  of  the  great  Author  of 
life,  whose  tender  care  has  been  bestowed  alike  on 
the  most  minute  as  well  as  the  greatest  of  His 
creatures !  Of  all  this  the  observations  we  have 
already  made  afford  ample  confirmation. 

Let  us  wander  away  along  this  patch  of  sand, 
on  which  there  has  not  been  impressed  the  mark 
of  a  footstep  since  the  tide  left  it  white  and 
smooth,  with  clean-washed  pebbles  and  shells 
scattered  over  its  surface,  and  here  and  there  a 
piece  of  olive  or  pink  seaweed.  We  shall  make 
our  way  to  those  distant  rocks,  now  uncovered, 
from  whose  sides  hang  a  profusion  of  the  dark 
olive-green  seaweed,  along  the  fronds  of  which 
are  bladders,  dear  to  our  boyhood,  because  cut  off 
and  dried  they  produce  prodigious  explosions  when 
cast  into  the  fire.  Around  those  rocks  there  are  pools 
of  water,  bright  and  clear  as  if  from  a  spring,  and 
in  those  pools,  sheltered  by  the  overhanging  sear- 
weeds,  or  hidden  in  holes  under  the  rock  itself, 
may  be  found  numerous  living  beings,  marvellous 
and  beautiful  in  structure  in  the  eyes  of  those  who 
regard  them  with  true  wisdom. 

Here  is  a  pool  which  probably  will  repay  an  in- 
vestigation. It  is  a  foot  or  so  in  depth  at  the 
base  of  the  large  stone  which  juts  into  it  as  a 
miniature  peninsula.  We  lift  up  the  green  sea- 
wrack  by  which  the  sides  of  the  stone  are  fes- 
tooned, and  which  are  still  wet,  for  the  tide  has 
but  recently  receded.  Lo  !  here  are  limpets  and 
mussels  attached  to  the  stone  beneath  the  algse, 


MARINE   CRUSTACEANS.  259 

and  in  the  water,  but  half  concealed  beneath  the 
overhanging  fronds,  a  large  crab  of  the  edible 
species  usually  brought  to  market,  another  kind 
usually  found  in  rock  pools,  and  two  or  three 
hermit-crabs,  whose  claws  are  protruded  from  the 
mouths  of  the  shells  in  which  they  have  taken  up 
their  abode.  Then  there  are  several  shrimps, 
which,  terrified  by  our  visit,  have  darted  off,  and 
are  busily  engaged  burying  themselves  in  the 
sand,  on  which  their  semi-transparent  bodies 
would  be  almost  effectually  concealed  without 
the  process  of  sinking  into  the  surface.  Leaving 
such  of  the  molluscs  as  we  thus  discover  to  be 
studied  on  some  future  ramble,  we  shall  pay  our 
respects  to  our  hermit  and  his  relations. 

According  to  the  most  eminent  naturalists,  the 
essential  character  of  the  class  Crustacea  is  the 
combination  of  branchiae,  or  breathing  apparatus, 
with  jointed  limbs  and  distinct  sexes.  "The 
name  of  this  class  refers,"  as  Professor  Owen  ob- 
serves, "  to  the  modification  of  the  external  tegu- 
ment by  which  it  acquires  due  hardness  for  pro- 
tecting the  rock-dwelling  marine  species  from  the 
concussion  of  the  surrounding  elements,  from  the 
attacks  of  enemies,  and  likewise  for  forming  the 
levers  and  points  of  resistance  in  the  act  of  sup- 
porting the  body  and  moving  along  the  firm 
ground.  In  the  crab  and  lobster  tribes  the  in- 
ternal layer  of  the  integument  is  hardened  by  the 
addition  of  earthy  particles,  consisting  of  the  car- 
bonate with  a  small  proportion  of  the  phosphate 
of  lime." 

8  2 


260  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

The  Crustacea  are  to  be  found  in  every  part  of 
the  ocean,  but  in  the  tropical  seas  they  attain 
their  greatest  size,  and  are  frequently  possessed  of 
most  brilliant  colours.  The  excellent  naturalist  who 
accompanied  the  expedition  of  the  "Samarang" 
to  Borneo,  speaks  with  the  liveliest  rapture  of  the 
beauty  of  colouring  which  some  large  crabs  ex- 
hibited, which  he  perceived  on  rocks  in  the  deep 
water,  but  of  which,  from  their  singular  activity, 
he  found  it  impossible  to  procure  any  specimens. 
The  variety  of  form  which  the  class  exhibits  is 
very  remarkable.  Unhappily,  however,  we  cannot 
expect  on  visiting  the  beach  to  be  so  fortunate  as 
to  pick  up  a  specimen  of  more  than  a  very  few  of 
the  many  species  by  which  even  our  own  seas 
are  frequented.  Such  as  we  discover  will  never- 
theless be  sufficient  as  an  example  of  their 
various  relations  in  the  class  to  which  they 
pertain. 

The  crabs  we  have  supposed  ourselves  to  find 
in  the  pool  are  worthy  of  careful  attention.  The 
large  one  is  a  specimen  of  the  Cancer  Pagurus, 
and  so  well  known  from  the  excellence  of  its 
edible  qualities,  as  well  as  from  its  size  and  its 
smooth  claws,  with  black  tips,  that  little  special 
description  of  its  outward  aspect  is  requisite. 
This  crab  is  found  on  all  our  rocky  coasts,  and  in 
the  south  of  England  is  sometimes  taken  of  the 
weight  of  nine,  ten,  and  even  fourteen  pounds. 
The  other  is  a  specimen  of  the  common  crab, 
C.  moenas,  a  small  species  found  on  any  coast, 
and  whose  abode  is  in  the  rocks  near  the  shore, 


SPIDER    CRABS.  261 

where  it  lurks  beneath  the  seaweed.  It  likewise 
buries  itself  in  the  sand. 

These  are  but  two  from  among  a  large  number 
of  species  belonging  to  the  coasts  of  Britain  and 
Ireland,  some  of  which  are  very  remarkable. 

One  of  the  most  singular  species  is  the  Spider- 
crab,  of  which  there  are  several  kinds.  The  body 
of  this  crab  is  triangular  or  heart-shaped,  and  the 
legs  of  great  length,  so  that  it  is  able  to  elevate 
its  body  very  much  in  the  same  manner  as  some 
of  the  long-legged  spiders,  to  which  it  bears  no 
inconsiderable  resemblance.  One  of  the  com- 
monest of  these  spider-crabs,  —  to  which  natural- 
ists have  given  the  name  of  Stenorhyncus  pha- 
langium,  —  is  obtained  by  dredging  on  scallop 
and  oyster  banks.  Its  body  is  an  inch  in  length, 
triangular,  spiny,  and  the  legs  are  four  times  the 
length  of  the  body,  and  covered  with  rough  hairs. 
This  creature  is  not  possessed  of  the  nimbleness 
so  frequent  among  its  various  connections ;  it  is 
sluggish  and  feeble,  and  its  shell  is  often  found 
covered  with  a  growth  of  seaweed  and  zoophytes. 
A  very  singular  case  of  this  kind  is  related  by  an  ex- 
cellent writer  in  the  "  Annals  of  Natural  History." 
He  states  that  a  spider-crab,  the  breadth  of  whose 
shell  was  only  two  inches  and  a  quarter,  had  an 
oyster  of  three  inches  in  diameter  firmly  attached 
to  his  back ;  and  that  this  oyster  was  encrusted 
with  large  acorn-shells,  so  that  it  must  have  been 
of  considerable  age.  All  this  weight  the  spider- 
crab  carried  about  with  him  from  place  to  place, 
unable  to  shake  off  the  incubus  which  adhered  to 
s  3 


262  SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 

his  back,  with  a  tenacity  greater  than  that  with 
which  the  old  man  of  the  sea  clung  to  Sindbad's 
neck,  and  we  may  suppose  that  the  unfortunate 
spider-crab's  feeble  limbs  were  often  wearied  out 
by  the  burden  they  were  thus  compelled  to  sus- 
tain. 

Another  remarkable  species  is  the  Spinous  crab, 
not  uncommon  on  many  parts  of  the  shores  of 
Britain,  one  of  the  family  of  the  Maiada,  which 
bears  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  spider- 
crabs  already  spoken  of.  Its  body  is  oval  and 
convex ;  it  possesses  in  front  two  stout  horns,  and 
the  whole  surface  is  covered  with  spines  and  tu- 
bercles of  various  sizes.  The  Masked-crab  is 
another  singular  species,  deriving  its  name  from 
the  circumstance  that  the  depressions  and  protu- 
berances on  its  shell  are  so  arranged  as  to  present 
some  resemblance  to  the  human  face.  The 
Wrinkled-crab  is  another  species,  the  shell  of 
which  is  corrugated  transversely,  and  the  Velvet- 
crab  has  a  coat  of  fine  hairs  covering  his  shell. 
The  smallest  of  all  the  crab  family  is  the  Pea- 
crab,  Pinnotheres  pisum,  of  which  there  are 
several  varieties.  They  form  a  very  interesting 
group,  not  only  on  account  of  their  diminutive 
size,  but  their  habits.  These  little  crustaceans  are 
only  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  across  their  shells, 
which  are  rounded  and  convex,  and  of  a  delicate 
texture  of  a  brownish  colour. 

The  most  singular  circumstance  regarding  these 
minute  crabs  is  that  they  take  up  their  abode  in 
the  large  bivalve  shells,  not  after  the  shell  has 


PINNA   AND    THE    PEA-CRAB.  263 

been  deserted,  but  during  the  life  of  its  occupant. 
The  pinna  and  other  mussels,  and  the  cockle,  are 
the  favourite  dwelling-places  of  the  pea-crab. 
The  species  called  Pinnotheres  veterum,  takes 
up  its  residence  in  the  shell  of  the  pinna  only, — 
a  bivalve  so  large  as  to  measure  sometimes 
three  feet  in  length,  and  deriving  its  appellation 
from  the  resemblance  it  was  supposed  to  possess 
to  the  pinnce  or  plumes  worn  by  the  Roman 
soldiers.  This  habit  of  the  pea-crab  was  known 
to  the  naturalists  of  classic  times,  who  fancied 
that  the  crab  discharged  the  office  of  intimating 
to  the  pinna  the  moment  when,  by  suddenly 
closing  its  shells,  it  might  seize  upon  some  unwary 
fish  that  might  serve  for  its  food.  For  this  reason 
this  minute  member  of  the  crab  family  was  called 
Pinnophylax,  or  the  pinna's  keeper.  To  this 
fable  the  Greek  poet  Oppian  refers  in  the  follow- 
ing lines : — 

"  In  clouded  deeps  below  the  Pinna  hides, 
And  through  the  silent  paths  obscurely  glides  ; 
A  stupid  wretch,  and  void  of  thoughtful  care, 
He  forms  no  bait,  nor  lays  the  tempting  snare  ; 
But  the  dull  sluggard  boasts  a  Crab  his  friend, 
Whose  busy  eyes  the  coming  prey  attend. 
One  room  contains  them,  and  the  partners  dwell 
Beneath  the  concave  of  one  sloping  shell ; 
Deep  in  the  watery  waste  the  comrades  rove, 
And  mutual  interest  binds  their  constant  love : 
That  wiser  friend  the  lucky  juncture  tells 
When  in  the  circuit  of  his  gaping  shells 
Fish  wandering  enter ;  then  the  bearded  guide 
Warns  the  dull  mate,  and  pricks  his  tender  side ; 
He  knows  the  hint,  nor  at  the  treatment  grieves, 
But  hugs  the  advantage,  and  the  pain  forgives. 
S  4 


264  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

His  closing  cells  the  Pinna  sudden  joins, 
And  'twixt  the  pressing  sides  the  prey  confines : 
Thus  fed  by  mutual  aid,  the  friendly  pair 
Divide  their  gains,  and  all  the  plunder  share." 

Modern  observation  has  discovered  that  there 
is  no  ground  for  the  statement  thus  made  by  the 
ancient  poet ;  and  the  pea-crab,  so  far  from  dis- 
charging the  functions  referred  to,  is  understood 
to  enter  the  shells  of  the  bivalves  for  self-pro- 
tection. 

The  hermit-crab  next  claims  our  notice.  There 
are  several  in  the  pool  we  are  examining ;  one  of 
these  occupies  the  shell  of  a  whelk,  and  is  of  a 
large  size.  Others  are  small,  and  have  taken  up 
their  abode  in  shells  not  much  larger  than  the 
common  periwinkle. 

The  hermit-crab  (Pagurus  Bernhardus)  is  an 
interesting  little  creature,  both  in  its  structure 
and  habits.  It  seems  to  constitute  a  sort  of  inter- 
mediate link  between  the  crab  and  the  lobster, 
and  is  in  consequence  of  its  similarity  to  the 
lobster,  as  regards  the  length  of  its  body,  compre- 
hended in  the  order  to  which  the  lobster  belongs. 
The  very  singular  peculiarity  of  the  hermit-crab  is 
that,  although  its  tail  is  prolonged  like  that  of  the 
lobster,  it  is  wholly  destitute  of  the  hard,  defen- 
sive covering  in  which  the  tail  of  the  lobster  is  en- 
cased, and  by  which  the  anterior  portion  of  its  own 
body  and  its  claws  are  enclosed.  Surrounded  as 
he  is  with  many  and  various  enemies,  and  espe- 
cially by  those  of  his  own  relations  of  the  crab 
and  lobster  families,  the  naked  and  exposed  con- 


THE   HERMIT   CRAB.  265 

dition  of  so  essential  a  part  of  the  hermit's  person 
would  be  speedily  fatal  to  him,  as  the  sharp  pin- 
cers of  his  rapacious  foes  would  quickly  deprive 
him  of  his  tail,  a  part  of  his  body  greatly  more 
important  to  him  than  the  caudal  appendage  of  a 
terrestrial  animal.  An  instinct,  however,  is  given 
to  this  otherwise  helpless  animal,  which  com- 
pensates for  the  apparent  defect  in  its  structure. 
Exposed  to  the  imminent  peril  of  having  the  pos- 
terior part  of  his  body  tampered  with  by  the 
unscrupulous  claws  of  his  congeners,  he  ensures 
its  safety  by  appropriating  some  shell  suited  to 
his  own  dimensions,  into  the  spiral  chambers  of 
which  he  extends  his  unprotected  part,  and  is  at 
once  in  security,  carrying  about  his  abode  with 
him  with  as  much  convenience  as  if  it  originally 
formed  a  part  of  his  organisation.  Deserted  shells 
of  very  small  size  are  suited  to  the  hermit  in  his 
juvenile  condition ;  but,  as  he  increases  in  bulk, 
being  unable,  like  the  original  owner  of  the 
house,  to  increase  its  dimensions  with  his  own 
developement,  he  is  obliged  to  seek  a  new  domi- 
cile with  ampler  accommodation ;  and  at  length, 
on  arriving  at  maturity,  he  finds  it  requisite  to 
appropriate  the  shell  of  the  whelk.  It  is,  how- 
ever, extremely  probable  that  the  hermit  does  not 
always  content  himself  with  shells  which  have 
been  abandoned  by  their  true  owners,  but  that  he 
resorts  to  the  most  violent  proceedings  in  order 
to  eject  the  owner  and  gain  possession  of  his 
abode.  This  is  rendered  almost  certain  by  the 
perfect  freshness  of  many  of  the  shells  in  which 


266  SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 

he  is  found.  To  effect  this  nefarious  purpose,  the 
hermit  probably  seizes  some  unsuspecting  mol- 
lusc, as  it  is  grazing  on  the  fronds  of  the  seaweed, 
and,  lacerating  it  with  his  powerful  claws,  drags 
it  from  its  abode,  and,  after  devouring  it,  takes 
quiet  and  undisputed  possession  of  the  vacant 
shell.  The  stealthy  manner  in  which  the  creature 
moves  about,  would  enable  it  easily  to  surprise 
its  victim,  who,  if  possessed  of  any  instinctive 
fear  of  such  a  foe,  might  be  easily  deceived  by 
the  hermit's  outward  similarity  to  one  of  its  own 
harmless  race.  Thus  the  hermit-crab,  while 
acting  on  its  own  instinct,  accomplishes,  along 
with  other  voracious  inhabitants  of  the  waters,  the 
object  of  keeping  in  check  the  increase  of  the 
tribe  of  molluscs,  and  so  preserving  the  balance 
so  marvellously  maintained  between  various  spe- 
cies in  the  animal  kingdom,  and  which  in  so 
striking  a  manner  bears  testimony  to  the  inten- 
tion of  the  Great  Artificer. 

Among  the  many  evidences  of  divine  foresight 
and  intention  of  which  marine  animals  afford 
examples,  the  most  striking  and  instructive,  as 
well  as  beautiful,  are  those  which  are  afforded  by 
a  combination  of  instinct  and  organisation  adapted 
to  each  other.  Of  this  kind  of  evidence  the  her- 
mit-crab affords  an  admirable  instance. 

On  the  one  hand,  the  singular  instinct  by  which 
it  seizes  upon  the  shell  of  a  species  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  itself  is  not  accidental ;  it  is  not 
forced  upon  it  by  the  notion  of  self-preservation, 
in  consequence  of  its  exposed  condition ;  but,  like 


INSTINCT   AND    STRUCTURE.  267 

all  instincts,  is  an  original  impulse,  a  tendency 
forming  part  of  its  constitution.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  structure  of  the  uncovered  portion  of 
its  body  is  such  as  to  prove  beyond  question  that 
it  is  expressly  adapted  to  the  act  to  which  it  is  in- 
stinctively impelled.  The  tail  or  hinder  part  of 
its  body  is  not  merely  capable  of  assuming  a 
spiral  form,  so  as  to  fit  itself  into  the  chambers  of 
the  shell,  but  it  is  terminated  by  certain  hard, 
movable  pieces,  worked  by  a  powerful  muscle,  by 
which  it  can  easily  fix  its  tail  in  the  interior  of 
the  shell  and  draw  itself  into  its  retreat  at  will. 
The  instinct  could  not  have  given  origin  to  the 
structure,  nor  could  the  structure  have  suggested 
or  inspired  the  instinct  which  the  little  creature 
acts  upon  long  before  it  has  had  either  the  expe- 
rience of  its  danger  or  of  the  facility  its  structure 
affords  for  the  end  in  view.  We  must  regard  this 
adaptation  as  a  beautiful  and  striking  evidence  of 
the  intention  of  Him  to  whose  divine  skill  and 
purpose  alone  we  can  attribute  at  once  the  struc- 
ture and  the  instinct  of  living  beings  and  such 
adaptations  as  that  to  which  we  now  refer. 

One  of  the  most  marvellous  things  in  th&  his- 
tory of  the  crab  is  the  strange  metamorphosis  it 
undergoes  before  assuming  its  permanent  form. 
It  was  long  believed  by  naturalists  that  the  young 
of  the  crab,  on  being  excluded  from  the  ova,  pre- 
sented a  minute  but  perfect  resemblance  to  the 
species  they  belong  to  ;  and  this  belief  gained 
support  from  the  circumstance  that  vast  numbers 
of  very  minute  crabs  are  frequently  to  be  found 


268  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

on  the  sea-shores.     This  opinion,  however,  has 
been  found  erroneous ;  but  the   change  of  form ' 
which  the  creature  undergoes   is  so  remarkable 
that,  were  it  not  established  upon  unquestionable 
evidence,  it  could  not  be  credited. 

Certain  minute  creatures  to  which  the  name 
Zoea  was  formerly  applied,  and  which  were  sup- 
posed to  form  a  distinct  tribe  of  crustaceous 
animals,  have  been  discovered  to  be  the  young  of 
crabs.  But  nothing  can  be  more  dissimilar  from 
the  form  and  habits  of  the  crab  than  that  of  the 
diminutive  zoea. 

When  the  crab  is  first  hatched  and  escapes  from 
the  egg,  its  appearance  is  in  the  highest  degree 
grotesque.  Its  head  is  shaped  like  a  Eussian 
helmet,  with  a  long  spike  projecting  from  the  top 
of  it.  In  the  front  of  this  singularly  formed  head 
are  the  antennae  and  a  long  beak,  together  with  a 
pair  of  huge  eyes,  not  raised  on  supports  as  in  the 
full-grown  crab,  and  beneath  are  four  pair  of 
legs,  with  hairs  at  their  extremities,  and  a  long, 
jointed  tail.  Thus  furnished,  the  little  creature 
is  capable  of  swimming  with  rapidity  through  the 
water,  and  in  this  respect  differs  entirely  from  its 
parents,  who,  instead  of  sporting  through  the 
waves,  live  only  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  After 
remaining  in  this  shape  a  certain  length  of  time, 
the  zoea  undergoes  its  first  change,  and  approaches 
in  some  degree  its  permanent  form ;  the  eyes  be- 
come elevated  on  stalks ;  the  claws  appear ;  but 
the  tail  is  not  yet  laid  aside,  and  the  creature 
still  continues  to  swim  through  the  water.  The 


YOUNa   OF   THE   CRAB. 


269 


next  stage  completes  the  progressive  metamor- 
phosis, and  the  form  of  the  crab  is  in  all  respects 
assumed ;  the  power  of  swimming  is  laid  aside, 
and  the  little  crustacean,  although  scarcely  yet 
the  eighth  of  an  inch  in  size,  relinquishes  its 
mode  of  life,  and  its  habit  of  living  near  the 
surface,  for  a  very  different  state  amidst  the  rocks 
and  seaweed  at  the  bottom. 

Strange  as  these  successive  alterations  of  form 
and  habits  are,  they  are  not  more  so  than  those  of 
other  creatures  with  which  we  are  more  familiar, 
as,  for  example,  the  mutation  of  the  caterpillar 
into  a  butterfly.  But  the  result  appears  very 
different.  The  caterpillar  advances  from  its  con- 
dition to  one  not  only  displaying  more  complexity 
of  structure,  but  habits  of  vastly  increased  ac- 
tivity, with  power  to  range  through  the  bright 
sunshine,  amidst  the  perfume  of  many-coloured 
flowers,  and  amidst  those  sounds  of  joy  of  which 
its  senses  beyond  doubt  have  a  perception.  But 
how  different  is  the  result  as  regards  the  zoea ! 
Although  its  organs  and  faculties  are  much  more 
perfect  when  it  assumes  its  permanent  condition, 
the  scene  of  its  future  existence  presents  no  anal- 
ogy with  that  to  which  the  caterpillar  is  advanced. 
The  waves,  bright  with  sunshine,  are  no  longer 
the  scene  of  its  activity;  it  sinks  to  the  bottom, 
and  the  perfect  condition  of  its  habits  and  organs 
consigns  it  to  a  state  of  comparative  darkness  and 
inactivity. 

In  this,  as  in  all  such  instances  however,  we  be- 
hold an  evidence  of  the  inexhaustible  variety  which 


270  SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 

the  animal  kingdom  exhibits,  and  in  which,  how 
different  soever  the  results  may  be,  we  may  trace 
the  same  ever-prevailing  design  of  infinite  skill 
and  goodness  adapting  the  creature  to  its  place  in 
creation,  and  conferring  on  it,  whatever  its  con- 
dition be,  appropriate  means  of  enjoying  its 
existence  and  accomplishing  the  end  for  which 
it  was  called  into  being. 


ARTICULATA- LOBSTERS,    ETC. 


273 


CHAP.  XIX. 

ARTICULATA — LOBSTERS,   ETC. 

The  Shrimp.  —  The  Common  Lobster.  —  Various    Species.  — 
Structure  and  Habits,  &c. 

WE  are  now  to  look  at  another  order  of  crusta- 
ceans in  which  the  prolongation  of  the  animal's 
body  into  a  tail  distinguishes  it  from  all  the 
various  species  of  crabs.  Our  rock  pool  which  has 
already  afforded  us  specimens  of  other  crustaceans 
also  contains  a  few  shrimps,  one  of  the  most  fami- 
liar examples  of  the  order  referred  to.  There 
are,  "however,  a  large  number  of  species  included 
in  the  order  to  which  the  lobster  belongs,  but  it 
is,  of  course,  impossible  to  mention  more  than  a 
very  few  of  the  most  familiar. 

The  shrimp  (Crangon  vulgaris)  is  a  well- 
known  inhabitant  of  our  sea-shores,  frequenting 
some  sandy  beaches  in  vast  multitudes.  The 
prawn  (Palcemon  serratus),  which  is  a  shrimp  of 
large  size  differing  in  some  minute  particulars 
from  the  common  shrimp,  is  likewise  found  on 
many  of  our  shores  among  loose  stones,  and  what 
is  remarkable  it  is  sometimes  taken  at  sea  on  the 
surface  of  the  water  when  there  has  been  a  depth 
of  more  than  thirty  fathoms. 

The  young  of  the  shrimp  or  prawn  are  often 
T 


274  SEASIDE  DIVINITY. 

found  in  myriads  on  the  beach  close  to  the  margin 
of  the  sea.  These,  during  the  ebb,  each  receding 
wave  leaves  for  a  while  uncovered,  when  they  may 
be  seen  leaping  as  they  endeavour  to  find  their 
way  to  their  native  element,  which  threatens  to 
leave  them  high  and  dry  upon  the  sand.  Dr. 
Paley,  speaking  of  the  happiness  which  such  crea- 
tures probably  experience,  thus  describes  the 
movements  of  the  young  shrimp,  and  deduces 
from  them  a  lesson  of  Divine  goodness  : — "  Walk- 
ing by  the  sea-side  on  a  calm  evening  upon  a 
sandy  shore  and  with  an  ebbing  tide,  I  have  fre- 
quently remarked  the  appearance  of  a  dark  cloud, 
or  rather  very  thick  mist  hanging  over  the  edge 
of  the  water,  to  the  height,  perhaps,  of  half  a  yard, 
and  the  breadth  of  two  or  three  yards,  stretching 
along  the  coast,  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach,  and 
always  retiring  with  the  water.  When  this  cloud 
came  to  be  examined,  it  proved  to  be  nothing  else 
than  so  much  space  filled  with  young  shrimps  in 
the  act  of  bounding  into  the  air  from  the  shallow 
margin  of  the  water,  or  from  the  wet  sand.  If  any 
motion  of  a  minute  animal  could  express  delight, 
it  was  this ;  if  they  had  meant  to  make  signs  of 
their  happiness,  they  could  not  have  done  it  more 
intelligibly.  Suppose  then,  what  I  have  no  doubt 
of,  each  individual  of  this  number  to  be  in  a  state 
of  positive  enjoyment,  what  a  sum,  collectively, 
of  gratification  and  pleasure,  have  we  before  our 
view!" 

Besides  the  common  lobster   (Homarus  vul- 
garis)  there  are  several  varieties  of  this  crusta- 


THE   LOBSTER.  275 

cean,  all  of  which  differ  more  or  less  from  the 
species  with  which  we  are  most  familiar.  In  the 
common  lobster  the  body  and  thorax  are  smooth, 
the  antennae  long,  the  claws  and  fangs  large ;  one 
of  them,  which  is  greater  than  the  other,  has  the 
inside  of  the  pincers  tuberculated ;  the  other, 
which  is  less  in  size,  is  not  tuberculated,  but  ser- 
rated on  the  inner  edge. 

Another  kind,  called  the  Long-clawed  lobster, 
differs  in  a  remarkable  degree  from  the  common 
species.  The  body  is  smooth,  indeed,  like  the 
preceding,  but  in  front  of  the  thorax  there  are 
three  sharp,  slender  spines,  the  legs  are  weak  and 
bristly,  and  the  antennae  slender.  In  this  species 
the  body  and  tail  are  about  five  inches  long,  but 
the  long  slender  claws  and  fangs  are  six  inches 
and  a  half  in  length. 

In  the  Norway  lobster  there  are  other  peculi- 
arities. The  snout  is  long  and  spiny,  the  body  is 
marked  with  three  ridges,  the  claws  are  long  and 
angular,  having  spines  along  the  angles,  the  legs 
are  slender,  and,  what  is  remarkable,  they  are 
furnished  with  pincers. 

The  Spiny  lobster  differs  from  all  the  preceding 
species  in  several  particulars.  It  has  a  broad  front 
armed  with  two  large  spines,  and  between  them  a 
smaller  as  guard  to  the  eyes  which  are  prominent ; 
the  body  and  thorax  are  all  covered  with  spines, 
the  claws  very  small  and  short,  and  the  fangs  small, 
single,  and  hinged,  the  legs  slender  and  smooth, 
and  the  tail  longer  than  in  the  common  lobster. 

Another   remarkable    species    is    the   Plaited 

T  2 


276  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

lobster,  which  is  only  about  six  inches  in  length. 
The  snout  is  of  a  pyramidal  form  and  spiny,  and 
the  thorax,  body,  and  tail,  elegantly  plaited  ;  the 
claws  long,  spiny,  and  tuberculated.  This  species  is 
extremely  active,  and,  when  taken,  slaps  its  tail 
with  much  violence  and  noise.  All  these  different 
kinds  are  found  in  many  parts  of  our  rocky  coasts 
and  are  sometimes  taken  by  the  hand,  sometimes 
by  means  of  traps  or  pots,  and  sometimes  with 
nets. 

The  common  lobster  being  the  best  known 
example  of  the  family  to  which  it  belongs  a  more 
particular  account  of  it  will  most  gratify  the 
reader. 

The  habitation  of  this  species  is  the  clearest 
water  at  the  base  of  rocks  overhanging  the  sea. 
Places  of  this  description  are  frequent  in  many 
parts  of  the  coast.  The  western  and  northern 
shores  of  Scotland  abound  in  places  where  lobsters 
are  found  in  great  numbers,  many  of  which  are  of 
great  size.  Various  parts  of  the  English  coast, 
and  many  localities  on  the  shores  of  the  sister 
island,  are  frequented  by  this  crustacean. 

Lobsters  are  extremely  prolific;  more  than 
12,000  eggs  have  been  counted  under  the  tail  of 
one  hen  lobster.  They  begin  to  breed  in  spring 
and  continue  (Joing  so  the  greater  part  of  summer 
depositing  their  ova  in  the  sand  where  they  are 
hatched. 

In  addition  to  the  power  of  creeping  along  the 
bottom,  and  rising  gracefully  over  the  sunken 
rocks  and  the  sea-weed,  the  lobster  possesses  the 


ADAPTATIONS   OF   STRUCTUKE.  277 

power  of  darting  or  shooting  with  great  rapidity 
through  the  water.  This  act  is  performed  by 
means  of  the  tail,  the  broad  plates  at  the  end  of 
which  put  in  motion  by  the  powerful  muscle  con- 
necting them  with  the  anterior  part  of  the  body, 
strike  the  water  with  immense  force,  enabling  the 
lobster  to  project  itself  many  feet.  One  of  the 
most  singular  feats  performed  by  the  creature  is 
that  of  throwing  itself,  apparently  with  one  stroke 
of  its  tail,  directly  into  its  hole,  from  a  distance, 
it  is  said,  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet. 

In  all  the  Crustacea,  crabs  as  well  as  lobsters, 
the  shelly  armour  which  they  wear  being  inelastic 
and  incapable  of  accommodating  itself  to  the  in- 
creased size  of  the  animal,  an  admirable  provision 
is  made  by  which,  from  time  to  time,  the  covering 
can  be  thrown  off,  and  its  place  supplied  by  a  new 
suit  perfectly  adapted  to  the  convenience  of  the 
possessor.  But  for  this  provision  the  animal  upon 
increasing  in  size  must  inevitably  perish. 

Crabs  and  lobsters  are  said  to  cast  their  shells 
once  a  year,  and  the  facility  with  which  this  ap- 
parently impossible  process  is  performed  is  truly 
marvellous.  At  first  sight  it  would  appear  as  im- 
possible for  the  animal  to  extricate  itself  from  its 
unyielding  envelope  as  it  would  have  been  for  a 
soldier,  in  the  days  when  complete  suits  of  armour 
were  worn,  to  find  his  way  out  of  his  steel  clothing 
without  opening  the  joints  and  separating  the 
pieces  composing  it.  Impossible  as  the  process 
appears,  however,  the  crab  and  lobster  are  gifted 
by  the  express  design  of  the  All-wise  Creator 

T  3 


278  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

with  the  power  of  performing   it   with   perfect 
facility. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  celebrated  naturalist, 
Reaumur,  for  an  account  of  the  manner  in  which 
the  cray- fish  or  fresh-water  lobster  throws  off  its 
shell  prior  to  obtaining  a  new  suit  of  armour. 
The  animal  retires  to  its  hole  so  as  to  be  free 
from  danger  and  interruption,  and  remains  for 
several  days  without  food.  During  the  period  it 
is  probable  it  becomes  more  or  less  attenuated 
while  a  new  skin  is  in  the  act  of  forming  under 
the  shell.  Observing  that  a  cray-fish  was  about 
to  moult,  Eeaumur  carefully  observed  the  method 
in  which  the  action  was  performed.  The  animal 
commenced  by  rubbing  his  feet  together  and 
struggling  violently,  as  if  by  its  contortions  to 
loosen  the  shell.  It  then  appeared  to  distend  its 
body,  upon  which  the  first  segment  of  the  shell 
of  the  abdomen  separated  from  that  of  the 
thorax,  the  membrane  which  united  these  portions 
of  the  crust  then  burst  asunder,  and  the  new 
body  appeared  beneath.  After  resting  awhile, 
the  cray-fish  repeated  the  process  till  all  the  pieces 
of  the  armour  were  separated  and  cast  off,  and  so 
completely  that  in  the  exuviae  no  external  part 
was  found  wanting.  How  the  large  muscles  of 
the  claws  were  to  be  freed  from  their  covering 
seemed  the  most  insoluble  part  of  the  problem ; 
but  this  was  also  effected  without  difficulty,  the 
sutures  dividing,  the  articulations  having  opened, 
allowing  the  soft  muscles  to  be  withdrawn.  Every 
part  of  the  shell  is  at  last  thrown  off,  the  muscles 


VOLUNTARY  MUTILATION.  279 

being  withdrawn  even  from  the  antennae,  and  the 
case  appears  perfect  and  complete.  This  process, 
so  observed  in  the  cray-fish,  is  probably  similar 
in  all  the  other  Crustacea.  The  change  when 
completed  is  followed  like  all  violent  muscular 
action  by  reaction.  The  animal  is  wearied  as 
well  as  defenceless,  and  remains  secluded  in  its 
hole  till  its  strength  returns  and  its  shell  is 
hardened.  During  this  period  it  is  quite  in- 
capable of  capturing  its  prey.  The  whole  shell 
is  soft,  and  even  the  pincers  are  as  pliant  as 
parchment,  so  as  to  be  unable  to  hold  any  object 
requiring  the  exertion  of  strength.  The  larger 
crabs  when  in  this  helpless  condition  may  be 
easily  taken  by  the  naked  hand  in  their  holes 
among  rocks  at  low  water  mark ;  and  it  is  some- 
what amusing  to  insert  one's  finger  within  the 
formidable  looking  forceps  and  observe  the  futile 
effort  the  poor  animal  makes  to  seize  upon  the 
aggressor. 

One  of  the  most  singular  faculties  possessed  by 
the  crustaceans  is  the  power  of  voluntary  dis- 
memberment. This  faculty,  however,  is  exercised 
by  other  animals.  There  are  some  species  of 
lizards  which  on  being  alarmed,  or  even  on  being 
touched,  strike  off  a  considerable  portion  of  their 
tails,  and  shuffle  off  apparently  no  worse  for 
the  loss  of  the  important  appendage.  Some 
species  of  star-fishes  have  this  faculty  also :  the 
brittle  star,  as  described  in  a  former  chapter,  being 
capable  of  separating  itself  into  a  great  many 
pieces. 

T  4 


280  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

The  lobster  is  said  to  shake  off  its  claws  at 
the  sound  of  thunder  or  on  the  report  of  a  cannon ; 
and  it  is  extremely  probable  that  the  act  of  so 
doing  gives  little  or  no  pain.  Their  limbs  are 
often  lost  or  injured.  A  large  crab  on  seizing  a 
small  one  is  capable  of  destroying  its  claws,  and 
such  mutilations  must  be  fatal  to  the  creature 
unless  some  provision  be  made  to  meet  the 
exigency.  The  crab  or  lobster,  therefore,  is  able 
to  throw  oif  the  injured  limb,  and,  according  to 
the  ablest  comparative  anatomists,  it  does  so  for 
two  purposes,  to  stop  the  excessive  flow  of  blood 
from  the  injured  part  and  to  lay  bare  the  organ 
which  reproduces  the  limb.  The  bleeding  ceases 
whenever  the  damaged  part  is  cast  off,  and  a  new 
limb  shortly  makes  its  appearance,  and  although 
at  first  it  is  much  smaller  than  the  other  limbs, 
it  attains  its  full  dimensions  on  the  first  occasion 
of  moulting. 

If  the  hypothesis  be  correct  that  the  crab 
suffers  little  or  no  pain  on  being  injured,  it  is  a 
circumstance  which,  combined  with  the  marvellous 
reproduction  of  the  limbs,  cannot  but  be  con- 
sidered, in  the  case  of  a  creature  so  much  exposed 
to  injury,  as  an  instance  of  the  benevolence  which 
is  so  conspicuous  in  the  designs  of  Infinite  Wisdom 
and  Goodness. 


MOLLUSCA,  OR  SOFT-BODIED  ANIMALS 
BIVALVES 


283 


CHAP.  XX. 

MOLLUSCA,   OR   SOFT-BODIED   ANIMALS — BIVALVES. 

Molluscs.  —  Bivalves.  —  Structure    and]  Habits  of   various 
Species. — The  common  Cockle,  &c. 

IN  those  districts  of  our  sea-shores  where  the 
beach  is  covered  with  sand,  or  fine  gravel,  a  very 
considerable  variety  of  empty  shells  may  often  be 
found  strewed  along  the  limit  of  high-water. 
Many  of  these  are  bivalves,  such  as  the  common 
mussel,  and  many  are  univalves,  like  the  peri- 
winckle.  All  these  shells,  with  the  exception  of 
those  of  crabs,  which  sometimes  are  cast  ashore 
with  the  others,  belong  to  a  very  extensive  pri- 
mary group  of  animals,  called  molluscs,  from  the 
Latin  word  signifying  soft,  a  quality  which  dis- 
tinguishes them  from  the  jointed  or  articulated 
animals  we  have  been  considering. 

The  group  of  animals  to  which  we  are  now  to 
give  our  attention,  exhibit  great  diversity,  not 
only  as  respects  size  and  shape,  but  as  regards 
the  places  they  inhabit. 

Some  of  the  shells  of  microscopic  molluscs  are 
so  inconceivably  minute  as  to  pass  readily  through 
a  hole  pierced  in  paper  with  the  point  of  a  fine 
needle.  Others,  again,  are  of  enormous  dimen- 
sions; the  Giant  Clamp-shell,  a  huge  bivalve, 


284  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

being  said  to  attain  the  weight  of  about  a  quarter 
of  a  ton. 

Every  part  of  the  ocean,  both  in  the  tropics, 
and  in  the  arctic  regions,  is  inhabited  by  mem- 
bers of  the  mollusc  family ;  they  abound  likewise 
in  fresh-water  lakes  and  rivers,  both  having  their 
own  species.  Some  burrow  in  the  sand  and  mud 
of  our  sea-shores,  others  crawl  among  the  rocks 
and  sea-weed,  and  several  species  are  entirely 
terrestrial,  like  the  garden-snail.  The  form  and 
colours  of  many  of  the  molluscs  are  so  remarkable 
and  beautiful,  as  to  defy  all  attempts  to  describe 
them.  But,  without  making  the  vain  effort,  we 
shall  suppose  our  reader  to  examine  for  himself 
such  specimens  as  he  discovers  during  his  visits  to 
our  sea-shores. 

The  mollusca  have  been  divided  into  two  dis- 
tinct groups,  to  which  naturalists  have  given 
appropriate  names.  The  one  group  comprehends 
all  molluscs  destitute  of  heads,  of  which  the  oyster 
is  a  familiar  example,  and  this  group  is  therefore 
called  the  Acephala ;  the  second  group  is  deno- 
minated Encephala,  because,  comprehending  ani- 
mals furnished  with  heads,  and  of  which  the 
garden-snail  affords  a  well-known  type.  Each  of 
these  two  groups  has  been  again  subdivided  into 
three  classes ;  the  first  three  belonging  to  the 
Acephala,  being  classified  according  to  certain 
peculiarities  in  their  gills,  or  in  their  integuments ; 
the  three  last,  pertaining  to  the  Encephala,  being 
classified  according  to  certain  modifications  of 
their  organs  of  motion.  This  brief  statement 


HEADLESS   MOLLUSCS.  285 

will  probably  assist  our  reader  in  placing  in  its 
corresponding  class  those  specimens  which  he 
discovers. 

Of  the  three  subdivisions  of  the  headless  mol- 
luscs, we  shall  omit  the  two  first,  the  specimens 
of  which  are  comparatively  rare.  The  third 
class,  however,  contains  a  large  number  of  fa- 
miliar "  shell-fish,"  and  merits  careful  attention. 
It  is  known  by  the  sesquipedalian  title  of  La- 
mellibranchiata,  which  signifies  that  the  gills  are 
in  the  form  of  flat  plates — lamella  being  the 
Latin  word  for  a  plate. 

This  subdivision  comprehends  a  great  many 
well-known  bivalves,  or  animals  with  shells,  having 
two  separate  sides  attached  together  by  hinges. 
Of  these,  the  cockle,  the  mussel,  the  scallop,  and 
the  oyster,  are  the  most  familiar  types. 

Let  us  suppose  it  to  be  low-water  on  one  of 
those  sandy  shores  where  the  common  cockle 
may  be  found.  It  is  a  spring-tide,  and  the  waves 
have  retreated  far  below  their  usual  limit,  leaving 
a  wide  extent  of  sand  quite  bare.  Furnished 
with  a  trowel,  we  dig  a  little  way  below  the  sur- 
face, and  our  labour  is  at  once  rewarded  with  a 
handful  of  cockles.  One  of  these  will  serve  to 
illustrate  the  internal  structure  of  several  other 
species  of  bivalve  molluscs. 

The  shelly  covering  of  the  animal  consists,  we 
perceive,  of  two  pieces.  In  the  cockle,  the  clam, 
and  some  others,  each  of  these  two  pieces  is 
almost  hemispherical ;  in  the  oyster,  the  scallop, 
and  others,  they  are,  on  the  contrary,  almost  flat. 


286  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

The  hinge  which  unites  them  is  a  beautiful 
piece  of  mechanism,  and  affords  an  admirable 
illustration  of  that  Infinite  Goodness  and  Skill 
by  which,  even  in  the  humblest  creatures,  the 
means  are  adapted  to  the  end  designed.  The 
processes  of  the  opposite  parts  of  the  hinge  lock 
into  each  other,  and  are  firmly  kept  together  by 
a  ligament  of  great  strength,  and  yet  so  elastic  as 
to  act  as  a  spring  in  opening  the  shell  (whenever 
the  animal  relaxes  the  muscle  which  keeps  it 
close),  precisely  as  the  spring  of  a  watch-case 
throws  it  open,  whenever  the  power  keeping  it 
shut  is  removed.  • 

The  hinge  and  ligament  differ  in  form  in 
different  kinds  of  bivalves,  and  their  modifications 
mark  out  differences  of  genera,  according  to  the 
system  of  Linnaeus.  In  some,  as  in  the  mussel 
and  oyster,  the  hinge  is  very  simple,  and  consists 
almost  entirely  of  the  ligament  itself;  in  the  mya, 
or  gaper,  the  hinge  is  furnished  with  a  thick, 
strong,  and  broad  tooth ;  in  the  ligula  there  is  a 
broad  tooth  on  each  valve,  with  a  cavity  for  the 
reception  of  the  cartilage  or  ligament  which 
binds  the  parts  together ;  the  Venus-shell  has  a 
hinge  of  three  teeth,  and  in  the  area  the  hinge 
becomes  a  complicated  piece  of  apparatus,  con- 
sisting of  numerous  teeth  or  processes,  inserted 
between  each  other.  None  of  these  differences 
are  either  unnecessary  or  undesigned.  They  are 
all  intended  and  adapted  to  give  such  a  degree  of 
compactness  to  the  hinge,  as  is  suited  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  creature  inhabiting  the  shell, 


STRUCTURE  OF  BIVALVES.        287 

and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  were  we  fully 
aware  of  the  habits,  the.  modes  of  life,  the  degree 
of  exposure  to  danger,  or  other  peculiarities  of 
each  of  the  bivalves,  we  should  perceive  that  the 
special  differences  even  in  this  apparently  unim- 
portant part  of  their  structure,  so  far  from  being 
accidental,  have  been  expressly  intended  for  a 
certain  purpose. 

On  opening  the  cockle,  we  perceive  that  the 
whole  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  two  valves, 
or   shells,  is   lined  with  a  smooth  and  delicate 
membrane,  or  skin.     This  membrane,  because  it 
encloses  the  body  of  the  animal,  is  termed  the 
mantle.     It  is  found  in  all  the  molluscs,  although 
subject  to  various  modifications.     It  is,  in  fact, 
an  essential  part  of  their  structure,  and  among 
the   marvels   of  creative   design   there   are   few 
things  more  wonderful  than  the  office  which  this 
apparently    simple    membrane   performs.      The 
mantle  is  an  apparatus  adapted  to  form  the  shell 
by  which  the  mollusc  is  covered,  and  to  deposit 
the   colouring   matter  by  which  it   is   adorned. 
Simple  as  its  structure  appears  to  be,  the  manner 
in   which   it   is  fitted  to  effect   this  object,  far 
exceeds  the  highest  efforts  of  human  ingenuity. 
It  is  composed  of  minute  cells,  differing  in  size, 
shape,  and  arrangement,  in  different  species  of 
molluscs,   and  containing  calcareous  matter  se- 
creted from  the  fluids  of  the  animal.     The  edges 
of  the  membrane  are  occupied  in  adding  con- 
tinually to  the  edge  of  the  shell,  as  its  occupant 
increases  in  size,  and  the  inner  portions  of  it  are, 


288  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

at  the  same  time,  employed  in  adding  to  the 
thickness  of  the  shell,  depositing  the  beautifully- 
smooth  and  pearly  substance  so  remarkable  in 
their  inner  surfaces.  Thus,  the  fine  mother-of- 
pearl  on  the  inside  of  the  oyster-shell,  and  the 
various  patterns  in  yellow,  blue,  pink,  brown, 
crimson,  and  other  colours  which  ornament  the 
exterior  of  other  shells,  is  all  the  work  of  this 
simple,  and  efficient  piece  of  mechanism.  What 
the  peculiarity  of  structure  in  the  glands  of 
this  marvellous  organ  may  be  by  which  it  elabo- 
rates the  shelly  matter,  and  deposits  frequently  in 
a  regular  pattern,  the  colours  adorning  it,  and 
from  what  materials  the  lime  and  the  colours  are 
extracted,  are  all  questions,  which,  while  they 
demand  for  their  solution  the  highest  exercise  of 
the  naturalist's  skill,  display,  at  the  same  time,  an 
instance  of  creative  design  which  it  is  impossible 
too  greatly  to  admire.  The  body  of  the  cockle, 
besides  containing  the  viscera,  is  furnished  with  a 
yellow-tipped  instrument,  which  is  by  naturalists 
called  its  foot,  being  the  means  by  which  it 
moves,  burying  itself  with  ease  in  the  sand. 

The  Scallop,  the  empty  shells  of  which  are 
frequently  found  scattered  along  the  margin  of 
the  sea,  is  not  found,  like  the  cockle,  buried  in 
the  sand,  but  is  taken,  like  the  oyster,  in  deep 
water,  by  means  of  a  dredge.  There  are  more 
than  a  dozen  varieties  peculiar  to  the  British 
shores.  This  mollusc  is  well  known  to  every 
visitor  of  the  sea-shore,  and  its  beautifully- 
marked,  and  regularly-fluted  shell,  is  generally  a 


STRUCTURE  OP  BIVALVES.         289 

great  attraction  to  those  who  amuse  themselves 
gathering  specimens  of  our  native  shells.  What 
has  already  been  said  of  the  mantle  is  equally 
applicable  to  that  of  the  scallop.  Around  its 
margin,  however,  there  are  numerous  pellucid, 
thread-like  tentacula,  which  the  animal  can  pro- 
trude or  retract  at  will.  But  what  is  most 
remarkable  is,  that  along  its  margin  is  a  row  of 
singularly  beautiful  eyes,  so  placed  that  each  eye 
can  look  out  upon  the  watery  world  through  one 
of  the  grooves  in  the  fluted  shell  Unlike  many 
bivalves,  the  scallop  possesses  the  power  of  loco- 
motion, a  circumstance  stated  by  Aristotle,  and, 
although  -  subsequently  doubted,  now  confirmed 
by  modern  naturalists.  The  animal,  by  opening 
its  shells,  and  suddenly  shutting  them,  is  enabled 
to  propel  itself  through  the  water,  and  from  the 
rapid  movements  of  its  variegated  valves,  it  has 
been  appropriately  called  the  sea-butterfly.  The 
beautiful  figure  of  the  Crouching  Venus  in  the 
celebrated  Maffei  Collection  is  placed  sitting  in  a 
shell  of  this  kind,  in  correspondence  with  the 
classic  myth  that  the  sea-born  goddess  arose  from 
the  ocean  in  a  scallop.  The  scallop-shell  was,  in 
the  olden  time,  worn  by  pilgrims  to  the  Holy 
Land,  as  an  indication  of  their  having  performed 
their  pilgrimage. 


JJ 


MOLLUSCA  -WHELKS 


293 


CHAP.  XXI. 

s 

MOLLUSCA  —  WHELKS. 

The  Whelk  and  its  Varieties. — Structure  and  Instincts,  &c. — 
The  Limpet. — Structure,  &c. 

THE  bivalve  molluscs  are  far  from  being  the  only 
members  of  the  group  they  belong  to  which  attract 
the  attention  of  the  visitor  of  the  sea-shore. 
Numerous  specimens  of  the  second  of  the  two 
groups  into  which  the  molluscs  are  divided  pre- 
sent themselves  to  his  notice.  This  second  group 
is,  as  already  mentioned,  called,  the  Encephala, 
and  embraces  all  the  molluscs  furnished  with 
heads.  The  group  is  itself  farther  subdivided  into 
three  classes  in  accordance  with  certain  modifica- 
tions of  their  locomotive  organs. 

The  first  of  these  three  classes  is  that  of  the 
Pterapoda,  a  term  which  signifies  "  wing-footed," 
and  which  comprehends  several  species  of 
molluscs  of  small  size,  specimens  of  which  are  so 
little  likely  to  come  under  the  reader's  notice,  that 
it  is  unnecessary  to  refer  to  them  in  a  particular 
manner.  We  shall  presume  therefore  that  our 
reader's  attention  is  given  to  the  second  class  of 
molluscs,  which  are  called  Gasteropoda,  or  belly- 
footed  animals.  Of  these  every  rocky  sea-shore 

u  3 


294  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

affords  numerous  examples,  such  as  the  various 
kinds  of  whelks,  limpets,  wreath-shells  and  others. 

All  these,  and  a  vast  multitude  of  other  animals 
of  the  same  order,  although  differing  from  each 
other  in  many  minute  particulars,  possess  one 
peculiarity  in  common  in  their  organs  of  loco- 
motion, which  consists  of  a  broad  muscular  disk 
on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body.  Of  this  pecu- 
liarity the  common  garden  snail  is  a  familiar 
example,  its  mode  of  progression  being  precisely 
similar  to  that  of  the  aquatic  members  of  the  class 
to  which  it  belongs. 

The  class  of  which  we  are  now  to  notice  some 
specimens  is,  as  already  stated,  extremely  numer- 
ous, and  comprehends  eight  orders  or  subdivisions, 
differing  from  each  other  in  some  modification  of 
their  organs  of  breathing.  It  is  not  desirable  in 
a  work  of  this  kind  to  enter  into  a  minute  descrip- 
tion of  the  characteristics  of  each  of  these  eight 
orders.  Our  purpose  will  be  sufficiently  accom- 
plished by  a  description  of  some  of  the  more 
familiar  specimens  of  the  class  by  which  these 
orders  are  embraced. 

The  common  whelk  (Buccinum  undatum)  is  a 
well-known  example.  It  is  to  the  empty  shell 
of  this  mollusc  that  the  poet  Wordsworth  refers, 
in  his  description  of  the  effect  produced  on  the 
imagination  of  a  child  by  the  murmuring  sound 
heard  from  the  shell  when  held  close  to  the  ear. 

"  I  have  seen 

A  curious  child  applying  to  his  ear 
The  convolutions  of  a  smooth-lipped  shell, 


STRUCTURE,  ETC.,  OF   THE   WHELK.  295 

To  which  in  silence  hushed,  his  very  sold 
Listened  intensely,  and  his  countenance  soon 
Brightened  with  joy ;  for  murmuring  from  within 
Were  heard  sonorous  cadences  whereby, 
To  his  belief,  the  monitor  expressed 
Mysterious  union  with  its  native  sea." 


The  whelk  is  carnivorous,  and  one  of  the  most 
interesting  peculiarities  in  its  structure  is  a  power-  '' 
ful  piece  of  mechanism  by  which  it  is  enabled  to 
bore  into  the  shells  of  those  molluscs  on  which  it 
preys.  This  apparatus  is  a  kind  of  proboscis  acted 
upon  by  a  beautiful  and  complex  system  of 
muscles,  by  means  of  which  the  animal  can  extend 
it,  move  it  in  any  direction,  or  retract  it  within  its 
shell.  This  proboscis  consists  of  several  parts. 
There  is  the  external  tube,  to  which  the  muscles 
for  moving  it  are  attached ;  in  this  tube  there  is 
a  cylindrical  implement  which  works  in  the  tube 
as  in  a  sheath.  This  implement  opens  at  its 
extremity,  and  forms  the  mouth  of  the  animal. 
This  mouth  is  surrounded  by  two  strong  muscular 
lips,  within  which  is  the  tongue  armed  with  spines, 
the  action  of  which,  conjoined  with  that  of  the 
lips,  can  perforate  the  hardest  shells.  By  means 
of  this  apparatus  the  whelk  forms  in  the  shells  of 
other  molluscs  an  orifice  into  which  the  tongue 
with  its  hooks  being  protruded,  the  body  of  the 
helpless  victim  is  drawn  out  and  devoured.  This 
apparatus,  it  will  be  perceived,  is  extremely  com- 
plicated. It  is  not  only  the  tongue,  the  lips,  the 
mouth,  and  the  throat  of  the  animal  which  uses 
it,  but  it  combines  in  itself  the  multiple  action  of 
u  4 


296  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

a  centre-bit  or  auger,  and  a  rasp  and  pincers.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  point  out  a  more  striking 
instance  of  elaborate  contrivance  directed  to  a 
certain  definite  purpose:  to  that  purpose  it  is 
adapted  with  unerring  accuracy,  and  displays  a 
beautiful  instance  of  creative  foresight. 

The  egg-clusters  of  the  species  of  whelk 
now  referred  to  are  very  remarkable,  and  may 
often  be  picked  up  on  the  shore  after  a  storm, 
mingled  with  the  froth  of  the  sea,  and  the  sea- 
weed recently  torn  from  the  rocks.  These  clusters 
consist  of  a  light  sponge-like  body,  consisting  of 
several  globular  subdivisions  attached  together, 
and  about  six  or  eight  inches  in  length.  They  are 
composed  of  numerous  little  semi-transparent  and 
flattish  bladders  united  by  their  edges.  The  whole 
substance,  to  those  unacquainted  with  its  nature, 
seems  to  be  some  species  of  sponge.  It  is  never- 
theless a  congeries  of  the  eggs  of  the  whelk,  which 
inhabits  deep  water,  and  attaches  these  masses  to 
the  rocks,  from  which  they  are  separated  by  the 
force  of  the  waves. 

Another,  but  a  much  smaller  species  of  whelk, 
is  a  well-known  inhabitant  of  the  shallow  pools 
left  by  the  receding  tide,  and  may  be  found 
attached  to  the  rocks  beneath  the  seaweed.  It 
is  the  Purpura  lapillus,  or  dog-whelk ;  it  is 
about  an  inch  in  length ;  the  shell  is  very  hard 
and  thick,  and  either  white  or  ornamented  with 
bands  of  yellow  and  brown. 

This  mollusc,  like  the  murex,  —  a  species  of 
whelk,  which  yielded  the  Tyrian  purple  so  cele- 


THE   DYE    OF   THE    DOG-WHELK.  297 

brated  in  ancient  times, — is  also  remarkable  for 
furnishing  a  permanent  dye,  which,  although  not 
of  the  rich  hue  so  highly  prized  in  the  classic 
murex,  makes  nevertheless  an  indelible  marking 
ink  of  a  purple  colour.  The  colouring  matter  is 
contained  in  a  vein  or  gland  in  the  animal's  body, 
easily  found  on  breaking  the  shell.  The  fluid  in 
this  receptacle  is  of  a  pale  yellow  tint,  but  such  is 
its  chemical  composition,  that  it  is  remarkably 
affected  by  light.  If  it  be  applied  when  fresh  to 
white  linen,  and  exposed  to  the  sun,  the  pale  tint 
becomes  a  brilliant  yellow:  soon  afterwards  it 
deepens  into  a  delicate  green,  which  grows  darker 
in  its  shade ;  from  green  it  gradually  changes  into 
blue,  then  successively  into  indigo,  red,  and  finally 
purple.  The  relation  which  the  rays  of  the  sun 
bear  to  colour,  is  a  highly  interesting  subject  of 
study  in  chemical  science,  and  probably  a  careful 
analysis  of  the  fluid  now  referred  to  might  dis- 
close some  new  relation  which  the  sunlight  bears 
to  certain  substances,  and  might  be  of  use  in 
suggesting  some  process  in  the  arts.  Independently 
of  any  practical  use,  however,  an  investigation  into 
the  causes  leading  to  the  vicissitudes  of  colour  we 
have  just  noticed,  would  be  highly  interesting  in 
a  scientific  point  of  view. 

The  eggs  of  the  Purpura,  or  dog-whelk,  are 
still  more  remarkable  than  those  of  the  buccinum, 
already  described.  They  may  be  frequently  dis- 
covered on  the  recess  of  the  tide  adhering  to  the 
surfaces  of  flat  stones.  These  eggs  are  not 
attached  together  in  clusters,  but  placed  separate 


298  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

from  each  other.  They  are  about  a  third  of  an 
inch  in  length,  and  are  of  a  most  singular  form, 
being  small  urn-shaped  bodies,  supported  by  a 
foot,  and  bearing  a  striking  resemblance  to  the 
wooden  egg-cups  sold  in  turners'  shops.  We 
remember  with  much  interest  our  first  discovery 
of  these  remarkable  eggs,  which  for  some  time  we 
looked  upon  as  an  unknown  species  of  seaweed. 

Unlike  the  buccinum,  which  preys  on  other 
animals  of  its  own  kind,  many  of  the  gastero- 
podous  molluscs  are  herbivorous,  feeding  exclu- 
sively on  marine  vegetables.  Such  is  the  case  as 
regards  the  periwinckle  and  its  varieties,  which 
pasture  upon  the  bladder  fucus  and  other  algae. 
The  shells  of  those  which  thus  feed  on  plants  differ 
from  those  of  the  carnivorous  species ;  they  seem 
only  to  have  circular  orifices  destitute  of  the 
sulcus  or  furrow  seen  in  those  of  the  whelk  tribe ; 
their  mouths  too  differ,  as  may  be  supposed,  from 
those  of  the  predaceous  kinds,  as  an  examination 
with  a  lens  will  at  once  indicate.  As  they  have 
to  browse  on  plants,  they  do  not  require  a  for- 
midable apparatus  for  cutting  into  the  hard 
materials  of  shells ;  their  mouths  therefore  are 
furnished  with  such  cutting  instruments  only  as 
the  nature  of  their  food  renders  necessary. 

The  limpet  (Patella  vulgata\  of  which  every 
rocky  shore  furnishes  several  kinds,  exhibits  much 
that  is  remarkable  in  its  structure.  The  circular 
disk  by  which  it  adheres  to  the  rock  is  its  organ 
of  locomotion ;  for  although  it  has  been  supposed 
to  be  permanently  fixed  to  one  spot,  such  is  by  no 


STRUCTURE  OP  THE  LIMPET.        299 

means  the  case,  for,  like  other  molluscs,  it  migrates 
from  place  to  place.  The  tenacity  with  which  it 
adheres  to  the  rock  is  worthy  of  notice.  This  feat 
is  performed  on  the  same  principle  by  which 
various  fishes,  such  as  the  lump,  the  remora  or  the 
lamprey,  are  enabled  to  attach  themselves  to  flat 
surfaces,  and  by  exactly  the  same  process  as  that 
by  which  the  schoolboy's  toy,  called  a  leather- 
sucker,  is  fixed  to  stones  or  other  smooth  surfaces. 
The  circular  disk  of  the  limpet's  body  or  foot  is 
applied  to  the  smooth  surface  of  the  rock,  and  by 
means  of  the  muscles,  while  the  rim  of  the  disk 
is  pressed  down  very  closely,  the  centre  is  raised 
up,  thus  creating  a  vacuum  between  the  stone  and 
the  animal's  body ;  the  shell  is  therefore  pressed 
down  upon  the  rock  by  the  weight  of  the  superin- 
cumbent water  and  atmosphere,  or  if  the  tide  be 
out,  by  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere  alone.  Thus 
a  shell  of  which  the  mouth  is  but  a  square  inch 
in  diameter,  may  be  pressed  down  upon  the  rock 
it  adheres  to  with  a  weight  of  fifteen  pounds,  and 
as  the  conical  form  of  the  shell  is  the  most  favour- 
able for  resisting  the  external  force  of  the  waves, 
the  limpet  has  the  power  of  remaining  unmoved 
and  in  perfect  safety  in  the  most  violent  storms. 
No  candid  and  unprejudiced  mind  can  avoid  per- 
ceiving how  remarkable  an  illustration  is  thus 
afforded  of  the  doctrine  of  design  and  intention  in 
the  structure  of  animals.  The  circular  disk  of  the 
limpet  is  constructed  with  express  reference  to  the 
laws  of  fluid  pressure,  as  exhibited  in  the  ocean  and 
in  the  atmosphere :  the  instinct  of  the  creature 


300  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

itself  is  so  adapted  to  its  physical  structure,  that 
it  can  avail  itself  of  those  laws  without  being  aware 
of  their  existence ;  and  as  it  is  the  object  of  the 
limpet  to  remain  fixed  in  one  place,  the  pressure 
it  can  exert  by  creating  a  vacuum  is  obviously 
combined  with  the  shape  of  its  shell  to  give  it 
greater  stability.  The  purposes  in  view,  and  the 
means  by  which  they  are  to  be  effected,  are  all  dis- 
tinct from  each  other,  and  clearly  point  out  an 
intention  on  the  part  of  one  Intelligent  Contriver, 
by  which,  with  means  various  and  distinct,  the  one 
end  is  brought  about.  No  instance  ever  suggested 
by  writers  on  Natural  Theology  can  be  more 
striking  or  more  instructive  than  this. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  proboscis  of  the 
larger  species  of  whelk,  the  Buccinum  undatum : 
the  limpet  is  endowed  with  an  instrument  for  ob- 
taining its  food,  which,  if  less  complex,  is  quite  as 
well  adapted  to  the  creature's  necessities.  This 
instrument  is  its  tongue,  by  means  of  which  it  is 
able  to  devour  those  marine  plants  which  are 
adapted  to  its  support.  This  tongue  consists  of  a 
parchment-like  strap,  a  couple  of  inches  long  and 
about  half  a  line  in  diameter,  having  the  end 
fashioned  something  like  the  bowl  of  a  spoon.  On 
subjecting  it  to  the  microscope  this  singular 
tongue  is  found  to  be  along  its  whole  length  set 
with  teeth,  recurved  like  the  top  of  a  bill-hook,  and 
disposed  in  rows,  four  teeth  in  each  alternate  row, 
and  two  differently  shaped  in  the  intermediate 
space. 

By  means   of  its   tongue   thus   mounted,  the 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  LIMPET.         301 

limpet  is  able  to  rasp  through  the  outward  tough 
skin  of  the  algae  it  feeds  upon,  with  as  much  ease 
as  a  joiner  cuts  a  piece  of  soft  wood  with  a  sharp 
saw.  In  order  to  have  an  idea  of  the  efficiency 
of  such  an  implement  as  the  limpet's  tongue,  let 
the  reader  imagine  a  leather  strap,  of  an  inch  in 
breadth,  set  with  rows  of  fishing  hooks  and  points 
of  lancets  alternately,  and  let  him  suppose  this  strap 
so  prepared  to  be  forcibly  drawn  over  the  object  to 
be  lacerated.  Can  any  candid  mind  fail  to  admit 
that  the  implement  thus  furnished  to  the  limpet 
has  been  adapted  to  the  creature's  wants  by  the 
exercise  of  design,  as  unquestionably  as  any  tool 
used  by  the  joiner  is  suited  to  the  purpose  for 
which  it  is  applied  ? 


MOLLUSCA-  CUTTLE   FISH 


305 


CHAP.  XXII. 

* 

MOLLUSCA  —  CUTTLE-FISH. 

Cuttle  Fish :  its  Habits  and  Structure. — Varieties  of  Species. 

THE  second  class  of  the  encephalous  molluscs,  of 
which  we  have  just  been  examining  a  few  speci- 
mens, is,  as  already  stated,  extremely  numerous ;  a 
vast  multitude  and  variety  of  species  being  found 
on  our  sea-shores.  The  third  and  remaining  class 
however,  presents  but  few  varieties.  It  is  en- 
titled the  Cephalopoda  or  class  of  molluscs  whose 
heads  are  the  organs  of  locomotion,  as  the  scien- 
tific term  signifies. 

Of  this  class  the  cuttle-fish  is  the  only  ex- 
ample to  which  we  shall  refer.  This  creature 
is  in  its  organisation  the  most  elevated  of  all  the 
class  to  which  it  belongs.  Its  muscular  and 
nervous  system,  its  organs  of  respiration,  and 
its  internal  skeleton  contribute  to  give  it  a  close 
analogy  as  regards  its  structure  to  those  animals 
known  to  naturalists  as  the  vertebrata,  because 
possessed  of  internal  skeletons,  or  strictly  speak- 
ing because  furnished  with  a  backbone. 

The  cuttle-fish  may  often  be  found  cast  ashore 
after  a  storm.  Let  us  suppose  our  reader  to  have 
discovered  one  and  submitted  it  to  an  examina- 
tion. The  body,  it  will  be  perceived,  is  soft, 
x 


306  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

although  it  feels  not  unlike  a  kind  of  cartilage. 
The  arms  or  feet,  eight*  in  number,  are  arranged 
around  the  top  of  the  head,  and  are  covered  with 
a  multitude  of  small  circular  disks  raised  above 
the  surface  of  the  adjoining  skin.  From  the 
midst  of  these  arms  extend  two  long  tentacula, 
which  are  thickened  at  the  ends  and  furnished, 
like  the  shorter  arms,  with  similar  disks  or  suckers. 
The  mouth  of  the  animal  consists  of  a  powerful 
beak  like  that  of  a  parrot.  The  eyes  are  large 
and  prominent,  and  when  the  creature  is  alive 
and  in  vigour  are  not  only  bright  and  staring, 
but  have  a  look  of  intelligence  and  even  of  fero- 
city. The  singular  appearance  of  this  creature 
is  accompanied  by  habits  no  less  remarkable. 
The  members  or  limbs,  already  referred  to,  are 
used  by  it  both  as  arms  and  legs.  It  walks  at 
the  bottom  of  the  water  with  them,  having  its 
mouth  and  head  downwards,  and  its  body  up- 
wards ;  it  also  swims  partly  by  these  means,  and 
employs  them  moreover  in  the  capture  of  its 
prey,  to  which  it  attaches  itself  by  means  of  the 
suckers  before  mentioned,  which  are  furnished 
with  muscles  for  creating  a  vacuum,  as  is  the  case 
of  the  disk  of  the  limpet  already  referred  to.  As 
to  its  jaws  or  mandibles  they  are  a  very  formidable 
weapon,  and  can  easily  break  open  many  species 
of  crustaceans  and  shell-fish.  One  would  think 
•that  the  soft  body  of  the  cuttle-fish  would  avail 
it  little  against  the  attack  of  a  lobster  with  its 
formidable  claws.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  how- 
ever, that  even  a  lobster  is  no  match  for  a  large 


STRUCTURE   OF   CUTTLE-FISH.  307 

cuttle-fish,  naked  and  exposed  although  the  latter 
appears  to  be.  By  means  of  its  suckers  it  can 
easily  tie  together  the  pincers  of  the  lobster  so 
that  they  cannot  open,  and  while  its  prey  is  thus 
rendered  helpless,  it  can  tear  off  with  its  power- 
ful beak,  as  with  a  forceps,  the  crust  in  which  its 
victim's  body  is  encased. 

On  examining  that  part  of  the  animal  from 
which  the  head  protrudes,  a  tube  or  funnel  is  dis- 
covered, which  is  connected  with  its  branchiae  or 
breathing  organs.  To  these  organs  the  water  is 
admitted,  as  it  is  admitted  to  the  gills  of  fishes, 
but  by  a  different  apparatus.  It  gains  access  by 
valves  which  allow  it  to  enter  on  the  muscular 
dilatation  of  its  body ;  and  when  the  water  so  ad- 
mitted has  communicated  its  oxygen  to  the  blood, 
it  is  expelled  by  the  tube  referred  to;  as  in  the 
case  of  fishes,  it  is  driven  out  at  the  gills.  But  the 
cuttle-fish  is  said  to  employ  this  funnel  or  tube  for 
another  purpose ;  for,  by  ejecting  the  water  from 
it  with  force,  it  is,  by  the  reaction  of  the  sur- 
rounding medium,  enabled  to  dart  backward  with 
amazing  velocity  out  of  the  reach  of  danger.  While 
therefore  it  swims  forward  with  rapidity  by  means 
of  the  fin-like  expansion  of  its  tail,  it  possesses 
in  the  hydraulic  apparatus  now  mentioned  an 
additional  organ  of  locomotion  in  a  contrary 
direction.  It  thus  appears  that  the  apparatus 
adapted  primarily  for  breathing  is  applicable 
to  an  additional  purpose  under  the  impulse  of 
instinct. 

Another  most  remarkable   peculiarity   distin- 

X  2 


308  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

guishes  the  cuttle-fish.  It  is  provided  with  an 
organ  which  secretes  a  black  fluid  by  means  of 
which  it  can  darken  the  water  so  as  to  escape 
its  pursuers.  This  ink  is  said  to  yield  the  Chinese 
or  Indian  ink,  so  well  known  to  artists.  In  Italy 
a  similar  ink,  although  not  so  black,  is  prepared 
from  it,  and  Cuvier  is  known  to  have  used  it  to 
colour  the  plates  for  his  memoir  of  these  animals. 
It  is  interesting  to  add  that  the  ink  bag  having 
been  found  in  a  fossil  state  in  the  Belemnite,  a 
kind  of  Cephalopod  which  has  been  entombed  in 
the  solid  rock  for  countless  ages,  Dr.  Buck- 
land  presented  some  of  it  to  Chantry,  requesting 
him  to  ascertain  its  worth  as  a  pigment,  and  a 
drawing  having  been  made  with  it  and  shown  to 
a  celebrated  artist  he  pronounced  the  sepia  to  be 
excellent,  and  inquired  by  what  colourman  it  was 
prepared. 

There  are  several  species  of  cuttles,  each  dif- 
fering in  some  respect  from  the  specimen  now 
referred  to ;  these  it  is  unnecessary  to  describe, 
but  we  cannot  quit  the  subject  without  noticing 
a  member  of  the  family  peculiar  in  form  and 
habits  even  among  the  very  peculiar  race  it 
belongs  to.  Let  us  fancy  ourselves  to  have  met 
with  one  of  these  on  the  beach.  It  is  low  water, 
and  the  creature  has  been  left  by  the  receding 
tide,  but  perhaps  not  unwillingly,  for  he  is  not 
only  alive  but  moving  along  in  an  inverted  posi- 
tion, and  although  at  a  leisurely  pace,  indeed, 
still  making  some  progress.  This  is  the  cele- 
brated polypus  of  the  ancients,  and  is  called  the 


THE   POULPE.  309 

Octopus,  from  its  eight  feet,  or  the  common 
Poulpe.  The  body  of  this  creature  is  almost 
globular ;  it  is  furnished  with  eight  feet  or  arms, 
each  having  240  suckers  arranged  in  a  double 
series.  It  is  without  the  two  long  arms  possessed 
by  its  relative  the  cuttle-fish ;  but  it  can  walk 
with  comparative  facility,  and  in  the  water  it  can 
swim  rapidly  backwards.  This  animal,  with  its 
staring  eyes  and  uncouth  shape,  is  undoubtedly 
of  a  very  repulsive  aspect,  and  must  not  a  little 
terrify  the  unhappy  creatures  it  pursues  and 
seizes  upon  with  its  suckers.  The  ferocity  of  its 
look  is  doubtless  an  accurate  index  of  the  fierce- 
ness of  its  disposition.  This  is  illustrated  by  the 
following  anecdote,  which,  although  referring  to  a 
foreign  member  of  the  poulpe  family,  may  per- 
haps indicate  the  character  of  our  native  species. 
In  his  account  of  the  "  Natural  History  of  the 
Sperm  Whale,"  Mr.  Beale  mentions  that  on  one 
occasion,  while  engaged  in  collecting  specimens  of 
shells  on  the  shores  of  the  Bonin  islands,  he  en- 
countered a  most  extraordinary  animal,  which 
was  crawling  on  the  rocks  toward  the  water. 
It  was  creeping  on  its  eight  legs,  which  being 
soft  and  flexible  bent  under  the  weight  of  its 
body,  and  served  indeed  to  raise  it  only  a  little 
from  the  surface  along  which  it  was  moving.  It 
seemed  alarmed,  and  made  great  efforts  to  escape, 
but  the  naturalist  had  no  idea  of  consenting  to 
the  termination  of  so  unexpected  an  interview 
with  the  odd-looking  stranger.  In  his  first  at- 
tempt to  prevent  its  escape  he  placed  his  foot 

x  3 


310  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

upon  one  of  its  legs,  but  so  great  was  its  strength 
that  although  he  pressed  upon  it  with  consider- 
able force  it  easily  liberated  itself.  Determined 
however  to  secure  his  prize  as  a  remarkable  speci- 
men of  its  class  he  then  seized  one  of  the  legs  in 
his  hand,  when  the  animal  struggled  with  such 
vigour  that  it  seemed  as  if  the  limb  would  be 
torn  off  in  the  contest.  The  animal  in  the  mean 
time  held  itself  fast  to  the  rock  by  its  suckers, 
and  Mr.  Beale  gave  it  a  sudden  jerk  to  disengage 
it.  This  seemed  to  excite  it  into  fury,  and  after 
successfully  resisting  the  attempt  it  suddenly  let 
go  its  hold  of  the  rock  and  sprung  on  its  assail- 
ant's arm,  which  was  bare,  and  fixing  itself  by  its 
suckers  endeavoured  to  attack  him  with  its  pow- 
erful beak.  The  sensation  of  horror  caused  by 
this  unexpected  assault  may  be  readily  imagined. 
Mr.  Beale  states,  that  the  cold  and  slimy  grasp 
of  the  ferocious  animal  induced  a  sensation  ex- 
tremely sickening,  and  he  found  it  requisite  to 
call  to  the  captain  who  was  occupied  in  gather- 
ing shells  at  a  little  distance.  Mr.  Beale,  aided 
by  his  friend,  then  made  his  way  to  the  boat  and 
the  poulpe  was  at  last  destroyed  with  the  boat 
knife,  but  it  did  not  surrender  till  the  limbs  by 
which  it  so  tenaciously  adhered  were  successively 
cut  off..  The  body  of  this  cephalopod  was  not 
larger  than  a  man's  fist,  but  it  measured  four 
feet  across  its  extended  arms. 

In  the  tropical  seas  the  poulpe  is  said  to  arrive 
at  an  enormous  size.  Mr.  Pennant,  on  the  autho- 
rity of  a  friend  long  resident  among  the  Indian 


MONSTERS  OF  TROPICAL  SEAS.       311 

islands,  and  who  was  a  diligent  observer  of  nature, 
states  that  the  natives  affirm  that  some  have  been 
seen  two  fathoms  broad  over  their  centre,  and 
each  arm  nine  fathoms  in  length.  It  is  also  well 
known  that  the  Indians,  when  navigating  their 
little  boats,  are  in  great  dread  of  those  frightful 
monsters,  and  always  provide  themselves  with  an 
axe  to  cut  off  their  arms,  which  if  thrown  across 
their  boats  would  place  them  in  imminent  danger. 
The  pearl  divers  too  are  said  to  be  sometimes 
seized  by  these  monsters  of  the  deep,  from  whose 
grasp  under  such  circumstances  there  is  no  release. 
Possibly  the  account  given  by  Mr.  Pennant's  friend 
may  have  been  exaggerated  by  the  terrors  of  the 
Indians  who  are  his  informants ;  but  besides  the 
general  fact  that  the  tropical  seas  nourish  crea- 
tures of  far  greater  magnitude  than  those  of 
temperate  latitudes,  authentic  instances  are  re- 
corded in  which  the  octopus  has  actually  been 
found  of  great  size.  During  Cook's  first  voyage 
the  carcass  of  one  was  discovered  floating  in  the 
sea  surrounded  by  aquatic  birds  which  were  feed- 
ing upon  it,  and  having  examined  the  remains 
of  this  animal,  which  were  deposited  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  Pro- 
fessor Owen  stated  that  its  body  must  have  been 
four  feet  in  length,  and  its  arms  at  least  three 
feet  more.  There  is  therefore  the  highest  proba- 
bility that  the  tropical  seas  are  inhabited  by 
monsters  of  far  greater  magnitude  of  the  same 
species.  Dr.  Shaw  thus  speaks  on  the  subject: 
"  The  existence  of  some  enormously  large  species 
x  4 


312  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

of  the  cuttle-fish  tribe  in  the  Indian  northern 
seas  can  hardly  be  doubted;  and  though  some 
accounts  may  have  been  much  exaggerated,  yet 
there  is  sufficient  cause  for  believing  that  such 
species  may  very  far  surpass  all  that  are  generally 
observed  about  the  coasts  of  European  seas.     A 
northern  navigator  of  the  name  of  Dens,  is  said 
some  years  ago  to  have  lost  three  of  his  men  in 
the  African  seas  by  a  monster  of  this  kind  which 
unexpectedly  made  its  appearance  while  they  were 
employed,  during  a  calm,  in  raking  the  sides  of 
the  vessel.     The  colossal  fish  seized  three  men  in 
its  arms  and  drew  them  under  water  in  spite  of 
every  effort  to  preserve  them :  the  thickness  of 
one  of  the  arms  which  was  cut  off  in  the  contest 
was  that  of  a  mizen-mast,  and  the    suckers   of 
the  size  of  pot-lids."      A  variety  of  statements 
have  been  made  in  different  places  and  at  various 
periods  all  tending  to  strengthen  the  belief  that 
such  enormous  octopods  exist,  and  it  is  not  easy 
to  avoid  concurring  in  the  opinion  of  a  celebrated 
naturalist   who   has    discussed   the   subject   with 
great  ability,  that  the  different  authorities  who 
have  referred    to  it  "  are  sufficient  to  establish 
the  existence  of  an  enormous  inhabitant  of  the 
deep, — a  cuttle-fish  possessed  of  characters  which 
in  a  remarkable  degree  distinguish  it  from  every 
other  creature  with  which  we  are  familiar ;"  and 
further,  that  it  would  be  "  contrary  to  an  enlight- 
ened philosophy  to  reject  as  spurious  the  history 
of  an  animal,  the  existence  of  which  is  rendered 
so  probable  by  evidence  deduced  from  the  pre- 


EGGS   OF   CUTTLE-FISH.  313 

vailing  belief  of  different  tribes  of  mankind 
whose  opinions  it  is  evident  could  not  have  been 
influenced  or  affected  by  the  traditions  of  each 
other,  but  must  have  resulted  from  the  occasional 
appearances  of  the  monster  itself  in  different 
quarters  of  the  globe." 

The  eggs  of  the  cuttle-fish  are  almost  as  re- 
markable as  the  animal  itself.  They  are  oval,  or 
rather  spindle-shaped  bodies,  about  the  size  of 
grapes,  and  somewhat  like  them  in  colour,  one 
end  of  each  egg  is  furnished  with  a  fleshy  stalk 
and  the  other  is  prolonged  to  a  nipple-shaped 
point,  and  the  skin  is  tough  like  india-rubber. 
By  means  of  the  stalk,  the  egg  is  attached  to 
branches  of  seaweed,  and  numbers  of  them 
united  to  the  same  substance  form  a  cluster  by 
no  means  unlike  a  bunch  of  grapes,  and  appear- 
ing to  an  observer  unacquainted  with  their  real 
character  to  be  some  species  of  sea  plant.  These 
eggs  or  bladders  contain  at  first  a  yoke  of  a  white 
colour  enclosed  in  transparent  albumen,  but  as  it 
advances  toward  maturity  the  contents  assume  the 
form  of  the  young  cuttle-fish,  which  is  at  length 
excluded,  like  the  chick  from  the  shell,  by  the 
opening  of  the  envelope  in  which  it  is  enclosed. 


VERTEBRATA— FISHES 


REMARKABLE  FISHES. 


1.  Lamprey.        2,  Lump  Fish,  or  Lump  Sucker. 


3.  Fifteen-spined  Stickleback. 
5.  Pipe  Fi.h. 


4.  Fishing-Frog  or  Frog-Angler. 
(See  Chapters  23,  24,  and  25.) 


317 


CHAP.  XXIII. 

VERTEBRATA  —  FISHES. 

Form  of  Fishes  :  its  Adaptation. — External  Covering. — Colours. 
Locomotive  Powers. — Eespiration,  &c. 

OUR  readers  have  now  been  supposed,  on  their 
occasional  visits  to  the  sea-shore,  to  have  seen  a 
variety  of  examples  from  three  out  of  the  four  great 
subdivisions  or  groups  into  which  Cuvier  has 
divided  the  whole  animal  kingdom,  proceeding 
from  the  lowest  rank  of  organised  beings  upwards 
to  those  of  the  highest  grade.  By  this  process 
they  have  now  arrived  at  the  great  sub-kingdom 
of  the  Vertebrata,  which  comprehends  within  it 
all  animals  possessed  of  a  vertebral  column,  or 
back-bone. 

The  group  or  sub-kingdom  of  the  vertebrata  is 
distributed  into  four  classes  :  fishes,  reptiles,  birds, 
and  mammalia.  Of  several  of  these  classes  a 
great  variety  of  examples  are  either  occasionally 
or  permanently  inhabitants  of  our  sea-shores,  and 
their  structure,  their  instincts,  and  their  habits 
afford  most  striking  illustrations  of  that  creative 
power,  skill,  and  foresight  which  every  reflective 
mind  delights,  to  recognise. 

Our  attention  is  naturally  directed,  in  the  first 
instance,  to  the  lowest  of  the  four  classes  now 


318  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

mentioned,  which  comprehends  all  the  varieties 
of  fishes,  properly  so  called,  and  regarding  which 
some  considerations  occur  as  suitable  before 
giving  attention  to  any  particular  specimens  of 
the  finny  tribes. 

Fishes  exhibit  great  variety  of  form,  but  not- 
withstanding such  special  differences  of  shape  as 
exist  in  different  examples  of  the  class,  the  ge- 
neral form  which  they  all  possess  in  common  is 
in  all  instances  such  as  to  fit  them  for  rapid  and 
easy  motion  in  their  native  element.  Those  whose 
motion  is  swiftest,  such  as  the  salmon,  having 
precisely  such  a  figure  as  may  be  shown,  on  the 
strictest  principles  of  physics,  to  be  that  which 
presents  the  least  resistance  to  the  fluid  through 
which  they  swim.  Their  centre  of  gravity  too 
is  so  placed,  and  their  specific  gravity,  or  the 
weight  of  the  fishes'  body  compared  with  an 
equal  bulk  of  water,  is  such  as  to  adapt  them 
with  the  nicest  accuracy  to  the  fluid  in  which 
they  exist.  The  unity  of  purpose  and  design 
which  these  considerations  clearly  exhibit  can  be 
referred  to  nothing  else  than  that  Infinite  Intel- 
ligence to  whom  every  physical  law  is  known, 
and  that  Infinite  Skill  by  which  those  laws  can 
be  directed  and  employed. 

The  external  covering  and  the  colours  of  fishes 
present  to  us  many  striking  lessons  to  the  same 
purpose.  One  of  the  distinctive  characters  of 
fishes  is  their  scales,  which  constitute  a  covering 
peculiarly  adapted  to  the  element  in  which  they 
live.  These  organs  differ  in  form  in  various 


FORM,    COVERING,   ETC.  OF   FISHES.  319 

fishes;  some  are  round,  some  oval,  others  are 
angular,  and  others  are  denticulated.  They  en- 
velop the  body  so  completely  as  to  protect  every 
part  of  it,  and  at  the  same  time  admit  of  that 
perfect  flexibility  which  is  requisite  to  those  rapid 
and  graceful  motions  for  which  the  finny  tribes 
are  so  remarkable.  Among  evidences  of  design 
the  structure  of  the  scales  of  fishes  merits  our 
careful  attention.  On  examining  them  with 
a  microscope,  it  is  found  that  each  of  these 
organs  is  pierced  by  a  minute  hole,  which  is  the 
extremity  of  a  tube.  Through  this  orifice  is 
emitted  a  kind  of  mucus  or  slime,  which  is  se- 
creted by  glands,  and  forms  an  external  coating, 
which  not  only  lubricates  the  body  of  the  animal, 
but  diminishes  the  friction  of  its  transit  through 
the  water.  The  orifices  are  found  to  be  more 
numerous  and  larger  about  the  head  of  the  fish 
than  the  other  parts  of  its  body,  and  in  this  we 
perceive  an  additional  evidence  of  creative  fore- 
sight acting  in  correspondence  with  the  laws  of 
physics ;  for,  as  Mr.  Yarrell  has  observed,  "  whether 
the  fish  inhabits  the  stream  or  the  lake,  the 
current  of  the  water  in  the  one  instance,  or  pro- 
gression through  it  in  the  other,  carries  this  de- 
fensive secretion  backwards,  and  spreads  it  over 
the  whole  surface  of  the  body."  This  provision 
is,  as  our  readers  will  observe,  analogous  to  that 
which  is  found  in  the  structure  of  birds,  in  which 
a  gland  is  made  to  supply  the  oily  matter  by 
which  the  feathers  are  smoothed  and  rendered 
impervious  to  moisture.  We  thus  perceive,  in. 


320  SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 

both  cases,  an  apparatus  adapted  to  a  similar  use 
in  elements  and  under  conditions  widely  different, 
and  thus  exhibiting  the  unity  of  purpose  in  the 
one  creative  Mind. 

The  colours  of  fishes  are  likewise  most  re- 
markable. Nothing  can  exceed  the  beauty  of 
the  metallic  lustre  which  some  of  them  possess. 
The  herring,  for  instance,  when  just  taken  from 
the  water,  presents  a  variety  of  iridescent  hues ; 
and  there  are  many  fishes  the  external  deco- 
ration of  whose  scales  exhibits  the  most  brilliant 
tints  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  blue,  green,  and 
scarlet,  distinct  or  intermingled.  The  colours 
of  fishes  are  all  most  brilliant  when  they  are  in 
full  season,  and  at  the  period  of  reproduction; 
and  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  those  bright 
hues  serve  to  promote  the  benevolent  purposes  of 
the  Author  of  Nature  by  contributing  in  some 
manner  to  the  happiness  of  those  tribes  which 
inhabit  the  world  of  waters. 

The  locomotive  organs  of  fishes  present  to  us 
several  very  striking  lessons ;  they  exhibit  an  ad- 
mirable mechanical  contrivance,  adapted  with  the 
utmost  nicety  to  the  purpose  in  view.  The  tail, 
including  the  lower  extremity  of  the  body,  is  the 
principal  organ  of  motion.  By  means  of  this  ap- 
paratus the  fish  can  turn  to  either  side,  or  propel 
itself  forwards.  A  stroke  of  the  tail  to  the  right 
or  left  turns  the  head  of  the  fish  in  the  opposite 
direction ;  a  combination  of  strokes  in  both  direc- 
tions causes  it  to  dart  forwards.  The  action  of 
the  tail  in  causing  progression  is,  our  readers  will 


LOCOMOTIVE   ORGANS.  321 

observe,  an  illustration  of  what  natural  philoso- 
phers call  the  composition  of  motion,  the  two 
forces  which  separately  would  move  the  animal  to 
the  right  or  left,  producing  as  their  combined 
result  motion  in  an  intermediate  direction,  that  is 
to  say  straight  forwards.  Human  ingenuity  has 
in  various  ways  applied  the  same  combination  of 
force  for  a  similar  end.  A  boatman  at  the  stern 
of  a  boat,  by  means  of  a  single  oar,  turns  the 
boat  to  the  right  or  left,  and  by  combining  the 
two  motions  of  the  oar  which  separately  produce 
that  result,  he  imparts  to  the  boat  an  onward 
motion.  The  screw  placed  at  the  stern  of  the 
steamship  is  an  application  of  the  same  prin- 
ciple. But  thousands  of  years  before  man  existed 
the  same  natural  laws,  which  he  learnt  to  employ 
only  after  centuries  of  slow  and  painful  progress, 
had  already  been  taken  advantage  of  by  the  All- 
wise  Artificer  in  the  structure  and  application  of 
the  fish's  tail.  The  fins  of  fishes,  which  are 
analogous  to  the  legs  of  quadrupeds,  appear  to  be 
chiefly  employed  in  balancing  the  animal's  body, 
and  their  structure  is  no  less  admirably  adapted 
to  this  purpose  than  the  tail  is.to  its  own  proper 
effect. 

Related  to  the  locomotive  powers  of  fishes  there 
is  a  peculiar  organ  possessed  by  many  species, 
which  cannot  be  too  much  admired  as  the  evi- 
dence of  an  arrangement  expressly  adapted  to  a 
certain  purpose.  It  has  been  already  remarked 
that  the  weight  of  a  fish's  body  is  nearly  the  same 
as  that  of  an  equal  bulk  of  water.  This  equality, 

T 


322  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

where  it  is  perfect,  has  the  effect  of  causing  any 
body  immersed  in  a  fluid  to  remain  in  one  and 
the  same  place  without  sinking  or  ascending.  An 
increase  of  the  weight  of  the  body  in  relation  to 
the  water  causes  it  to  descend,  while  a  diminution 
of  its  relative  gravity  obliges  it  to  rise  toward  the 
surface.  Now,  many  fishes  are  furnished  with  an 
internal  piece  of  mechanism,  by  which  they  are 
able  in  an  instant  to  alter  their  specific  gravity, 
and  to  ascend  or  descend  without  employing 
either  fins  or  tail.  This  apparatus  is  called  the 
air-bladder.  It  consists  of  a  membraneous  bag, 
filled  with  air  secreted  by  the  fish.  This  bag  is 
surrounded  with  muscles,  on  which  the  fish  can 
act  at  will.  By  relaxing  those  muscles  the  blad- 
der becomes  larger,  the  body  is  therefore  speci- 
fically lighter,  and  ascends  upwards ;  by  pressing 
on  the  bladder  with  the  muscles  its  size  is  di- 
minished, and  the  animal  sinks.  This  apparatus, 
although  possessed  by  a  great  variety  of  fishes,  is 
not  universal.  Many  of  those  which  live  at  the 
bottom  of  the  water  are  not  furnished  with  it,  and 
for  the  obvious  reason  that  they  do  not  par- 
ticularly require  it.  It  is  impossible  not  to  per- 
ceive that  this  part  of  the  animal's  organisation 
proceeds  from  the  express  design  of  an  Intelligence 
to  whom  are  fully  known  those  laws  to  which  it  is 
so  wisely  and  accurately  adjuste.d. 

The  gills,  or  apparatus  for  respiration  in  fishes, 
present  a  singularly  beautiful  adaptation  of  means 
to  the  end  in  view.  These  organs  consist  of 
arches  on  each  side  of  the  head,  to  which  are 


INSPIRATION  AND  VISION  323 

attached  a  series  of  fringes,  formed  of  minute 
blood-vessels,  and  so  constructed  that  the  water 
taken  in  at  the  mouth  passes  freely  over  them, 
imparting  to  the  venous  blood  they  contain  the 
supply  of  oxygen  necessary  to  its  purification. 
These  organs  are  precisely  analogous  to  the  lungs 
of  terrestrial  animals,  and  point  out  the  same  de- 
sign adapted  with  equal  precision  to  the  element 
in  which  the  animal  breathes,  and  for  a  similar 
purpose. 

The  eyes  of  fishes  exhibit  several  striking  pecu- 
liarities pointing  out  special  design  and  adaptation. 
As  the  medium  in  which  the  sense  of  sight  is  to 
be  exercised  is  much  more  dense  than  air,  the 
form  of  the  lenses  of  the  eyes  is  accommodated  to 
the  condition.  The  pupil  also  is  large,  so  as  to 
admit  as  much  light  as  possible  to  enter.  In  ter- 
restrial animals  the  organ  of  sight  is  furnished 
with  glands,  by  which  a  fluid  is  secreted  in  order 
that  the  surface  of  the  cornea  may  be  kept  per- 
fectly clean.  This  fluid  forms  a  wash  which  is 
passed  over  the  eye  by  what  is  called  the  nic- 
titating membrane.  But  in  the  fish  this  apparatus 
does  not  exist,  because  it  is  unnecessary.  The 
element  in  which  the  animal  lives  performs  the 
office  of  keeping  the  organs  perfectly  free  from 
any  substances  which  might  impede  the  entrance 
of  the  rays  of  light.  While,  therefore,  in  ter- 
restrial animals  the  arrangement  of  gland  and 
membrane  points  out  in  a  most  striking  manner, 
the  design  of  Infinite  Wisdom,  the  absence  of  the 
Y  2 


324  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

apparatus  in  the  eyes  of  fishes  is  an  equal  evidence 
to  the  same  effect. 

If  we  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  instincts 
of  fishes  we  shall  perceive  much  that  is  calculated 
to  point  out  the  same  divine  wisdom  and  fore- 
sight which  is  manifested  in  their  organisation. 
Without  entering  upon  any  discussion  as  to  the 
nature  of  that  marvellous  power  which  we  call 
instinct,  we  shall  merely  at  present  refer  generally 
to  one  of  the  most  striking  instances  of  its  exer- 
cise on  the  creatures  we  are  now  considering,  that 
by  which  fishes   are  directed  in  the  process  of 
reproduction.     In  order  to  the  vivifying  of  their 
eggs  or  spawn  certain  conditions  are  indispensable, 
which  could  not  be  attained  in  deep  water,  such 
as  a  certain  degree  of  exposure  to  light,  warmth, 
and  the  influence   of  the   atmosphere.     To  ac- 
complish this  end,  there  is  an  instinct  implanted 
precisely  adapted  to  the  object  in  view.     Directed 
by  this  unerring  impulse,  fishes  at  the  breeding 
season  betake  themselves  to  such  stations  as  are 
best  suited  to  the  continuance  of  their  species. 
The  herring,  for   example,   frequents    the  com- 
paratively shallow  waters  of  the  coast,  and  the 
salmon  enters  the  rivers  from  the  sea  and  proceeds 
to  the  shallow  parts  of  the  streams,  where  the  con- 
ditions necessary  to  the  fruitfulness  of  its  spawn 
can  be  obtained.     This  instinct,  displayed  as  it  is 
in  a  great  variety  of  forms,  must  be  regarded  as 
arising  from  no  perception  on  the  part  of  the 
animals  exercising  it,  as  to  the  importance  of  the 
act  they  perform ;  it  is  accompanied  by  no  know- 


INSTINCTIVE   HABITS.  325 

ledge  whatever  of  those  physical  and  chemical  laws 
to  which  it  is  adapted.  The  tendency  to  act  in 
a  manner  suited  to  those  laws  is  a  part  of  their 
constitution.  It  exhibits  one  of  the  most  striking 
evidences  that  it  is  possible  to  conceive  of  over- 
ruling foresight  on  the  part  of  that  Infinitely 
Wise  Being  to  whom  all  the  laws  of  the  material 
universe  are  known,  and  from  whose  special  in- 
struction alone,  creatures,  without  any  design 
arising  from  their  own  intelligence,  act  in  the 
strictest  conformity  to  those  laws,  and  so  answer 
the  purposes  for  which  they  are  called  into 
existence. 

The  skeletons  of  fishes  are  formed  either  of 
cartilage,  as  in  the  skate,  or  of  bone,  as  in  the 
trout  or  perch.  This  circumstance  has  been 
adopted  by  the  illustrious  naturalist  Cuvier  as 
the  basis  of  his  classification.  He  has  accordingly 
divided  fishes  into  two  primary  groups,  the  one 
comprehending  all  the  osseous  fishes,  the  other 
all  the  cartilaginous  tribes.  These  two  groups 
admit  of  further  subdivision  with  reference  to 
certain  peculiarities  in  the  fins  and  other  parts. 
It  is,  however,  unnecessary  minutely  to  describe 
the  details  by  which  those  subdivisions  are  dis- 
tinguished. 


Y  3 


VERTEBRATA-  FISHES 


329 


CHAP.  XXIV. 

VERTEBRATA — FISHES. 

Fishes :  Instances  of  remarkable  Form,  Structure,  and  In- 
stincts.— The  Lump-Sucker. — The  Lamprey. — The  Stickle- 
back.— Pipe-fishes. — The  Fishing-Frog. — Shark. — Rays,  &c. 

MANY  of  the  finny  denizens  of  our  sea-shores  are 
very  remarkable,  and  in  their  structure,  habits, 
and  instincts,  exhibit  in  a  striking  manner  those 
great  truths  of  natural  theology  to  which  we  have 
so  frequently  referred.  Without  entering  into 
such  minute  details  as  belong  to  the  province  of 
the  naturalist,  it  will  be  sufficient  for  our  purpose 
to  describe  such  peculiarities  as  tend  to  illustrate 
our  subject. 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  various  marine 
animals,  such  for  instance  as  the  limpet  or  the 
cuttle-fish,  are  furnished  with  disks,  by  which,  in 
consequence  of  the  law  of  atmospheric  and  fluid 
pressure,  they  are  enabled  to  adhere  with  great 
tenacity  to  those  objects  to  which  their  disks  are 
applied.  There  are  several  kinds  of  fishes  not 
uncommon  on  our  coasts  furnished  with  this  very 
remarkable  apparatus. 

One  of  these  is  the  lump-sucker  (Cycloptei^us 
lumpus),  a  fish  frequently  taken  on  various  parts 
of  our  coast,  and  often  found  cast  ashore.  This 


330  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

is  by  no  means  a  handsome  fish.  Its  form  is 
thick  and  clumsy,  its  skin  rough  and  covered  with 
tubercles,  and  although  the  various  tints  of  blue, 
purple,  and  orange  are  mingled  together  over  its 
surface,  its  general  aspect  is  not  pleasing.  The 
flesh  is  rich,  but  it  does  not  agree  with  all 
stomachs,  owing  to  the  quantity  of  oil  it  contains. 
Seals  devour  them  with  great  avidity.  This  fish 
is  extremely  remarkable  on  account  of  the  ap- 
paratus by  which  it  can  attach  itself  at  will  to  the 
surface  of  other  bodies.  This  apparatus  which  is 
popularly  termed  a  sucker,  is  situated  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  creature's  body  between  the  pec- 
toral and  ventral  fins,  and  consists  of  an  oval- 
shaped  disk  or  flat  surface,  furnished  with  muscles 
by  which  a  vacuum  can  be  created  between  the 
disk  and  the  object  to  which  the  fish  adheres. 
Such  is  the  tenacity  with  which  it  is  able  to  fix 
itself  by  this  means  that  one  of  these  fish  having 
been  placed  in  a  bucket  of  water,  it  attached 
itself  so  firmly  to  the  bottom  that  the  whole 
vessel,  containing  several  gallons  and  of  consider- 
able weight,  could  be  lifted  from  the  ground  on 
using  the  fish's  tail  as  a  handle.  It  is  difficult  to 
ascertain  all  the  purposes  which  are  served  by 
this  part  of  the  creature's  structure,  but  one 
purpose  appears  evident.  The  lump  is  not  an 
active  or  powerful  fish,  and  its  shape  exposes  it  in 
no  ordinary  degree  to  the  power  of  the  waves. 
By  means  of  its  sucker,  however,  it  can  bid 
defiance  to  their  utmost  force,  and  remain  amidst 
the  agitation  of  the  water  free  from  all  danger  of 


THE  LUMP-SUCKER  AND  THE  LAMPREY.    331 

destruction.  We  are  entitled  to  regard  the  sucker 
in  this  particular  instance  as  a  compensation 
which  makes  up  for  want  of  greater  activity  and 
power.  The  spawn  of  the  lump-sucker  is  de- 
posited among  rocks  and  seaweed  within  low- 
water  mark,  and  the  male  fish  is  said  to  watch 
the  spawn  after  its  exclusion  until  the  young  fry 
are  hatched,  when  the  latter  instantly  employ 
their  suckers  by  fixing  themselves  on  the  sides 
and  back  of  their  parent,  by  whom  they  are  carried 
into  deeper  water.  We  may  truly  consider  the 
mechanical  apparatus  with  which  this  fish  is 
furnished  as  one  of  those  innumerable  instances 
with  which  the  wise  and  beneficent  Creator  has 
provided  for  the  safety  of  some  of  the  humblest 
of  his  creatures. 

There  are  other  fishes  which  are  provided  with 
"  suckers,"  constructed  on  precisely  the  same 
principles  as  that  of  the  fish  now  mentioned,  but 
apparently  employed  for  different  purposes.  One 
of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  is  the  lamprey 
(Petromyzon  marinus),  specimens  of  which  fall 
under  our  notice  on  various  parts  of  the  English 
coast  much  more  frequently  than  on  the  shores 
of  Scotland  and  Ireland.  This  fish  has  an  eel- 
shaped  body,  and  is  from  two  to  three  feet  in 
length;  its  colour  is  a  yellowish-brown  marbled 
with  a  dusky  hue.  It  is,  like  the  salmon,  a 
migratory  fish,  passing  a  portion  of  the  year  in 
the  sea,  and  entering  the  rivers  in  spring  for  the 
purpose  of  spawning.  The  remarkable  peculiarity 
in  its  structure  is  the  mouth,  which  is  circular, 


332  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

surrounded  by  a  flexible  lip,  and  armed  with  a 
very  singular  tooth.  The  lamprey  feeds,  like  the 
eel,  on  any  animal  matter  it  finds ;  but  it  occa- 
sionally attacks  other  fishes  fastening  upon  them 
with  its  sucker-shaped  mouth,  and  cutting  into 
their  flesh  with  its  tooth-like  processes  evidently 
adapted  to  the  purpose.  This  is  not,  however, 
the  only  use  to  which  its  sucker  is  applied.  The 
fish  is  imperfectly  adapted  for  swimming,  having 
neither  air-bladder  nor  pectoral  or  ventral  fins; 
by  means  of  the  sucker,  therefore,  it  can  in  no 
small  degree  remedy  the  defects  of  its  natatory 
powers,  by  attaching  itself  to  stones,  and  thus  not 
only  obtaining  rest,  but  perfect  security  against 
the  strength  of  the  current.  Another  and  very 
distinct  use  of  the  sucker  remains  to  be  mentioned. 
The  lamprey,  prior  to  depositing  its  spawn  in  the 
rivers,  finds  its  necessary  to  prepare  a  place  for 
its  reception,  and  this  it  does  by  removing  the 
small  stones  from  the  spot  in  which  the  roe  is  to 
be  laid.  In  the  rivers  they  frequent  the  male 
and  female  lamprey  may  often  be  observed  from 
a  bridge,  busily  occupied  in  this,  to  them,  im- 
portant process.  To  those  who  are  not  aware 
that  substances  immersed  in  water  are  much 
lighter  than  in  air,  it  is  quite  marvellous  what 
large  stones  the  lampreys  contrive  to  carry  from 
the  place  which  in  their  parental  instinct  they 
are  preparing  for  their  progeny.  The  structure 
of  the  lamprey's  mouth  is  precisely  analogous  to 
that  of  the  little  apparatus  called  a  leather  sucker 
used  by  boys  at  school,  or  to  the  mouth  of  an 


FISHES'  NESTS.  333 

* 

exhausting  syringe.  It  is,  however,  like  all  in- 
stances of  natural  mechanism,  much  more  perfect 
than  any  artificial  apparatus  can  ever  be.  In  this 
particular  instance  we  find  the  mouth  serving  not 
only  for  the  reception  of  food,  but  for  a  variety 
of  purposes,  to  any  of  which,  if  its  form  were 
similar  to  that  of  other  fishes,  it  could  not  be 
applied,  and  for  which,  even  if  its  shape  were  cir- 
cular, it  would  be  unfit  if  unaccompanied  by  an 
apparatus  for  creating  a  vacuum,  and  by  an  im- 
planted instinct  adapted  both  to  the  structure 
and  to  the  wants  of  the  animal.  Can  any  con- 
sideration more  clearly  evince  the  design  of  Divine 
skill  and  benevolence  ? 

Our  readers  are  all,  doubtless,  acquainted  with 
those  active  little  fishes  called  sticklebacks,  from 
their  being  armed  on  the  back  with  spines.  There 
are  several  varieties  of  these,  but  they  inhabit 
fresh  water,  although  some  of  the  species  are 
found  on  the  brackish  water  at  the  mouths  of 
our  larger  rivers.  There  is,  however,  one  species 
which  is  entirely  a  salt  water  fish,  and  is  found  in 
a  great  variety  of  places  on  the  coasts  of  Britain 
and  Ireland.  It  is  the  fifteen-spined  stickleback, 
and  is  sometimes  called  the  sea-adder.  It  in- 
habits places  where  there  are  rocks  and  stones 
covered  with  seaweed,  among  which  it  takes 
refuge  when  alarmed.  The  most  interesting 
circumstance  regarding  this  little  fish  is  its  nest- 
building  instinct.  The  nest  may  often  be  disco- 
vered during  spring  and  summer  in  the  rock-pools 
between  tide  marks.  The  structure  is  about  eight 


334  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

inches  in  length,  pear-shaped,  and  formed  of  bran- 
ches of  seaweed,  intermixed  with  confervse  and 
corallines.  To  unite  these  materials  together,  the 
little  architect  forms  a  thread  as  fine  as  silk,  and 
strong  as  well  as  elastic,  for  which  purpose  it  is 
furnished  with  a  secretion  capable  when  drawn 
into  a  thread  of  resisting  the  water.  With  this 
thread,  which  is  frequently  of  great  length,  the 
fish  binds  together  the  sea  weeds  forming  its  nest, 
carrying  it  through  and  around  them  in  all 
directions.  In  the  middle  of  this  nest  the  spawn 
is  deposited  in  irregular  masses,  containing  many 
hundreds  of  eggs  of  a  whitish  or  amber  colour, 
and  about  the  size  of  small  shot ;  the  masses  of 
eggs  in  the  same  nest  are  met  with  in  different 
stages  of  advancement  towards  maturity,  from 
which  it  appears  that  the  fish  deposits  its  spawn 
at  various  times  in  the  same  place.  The  care  of 
the  little  creature  does  not  cease  with  the  depo- 
sition of  its  spawn;  it  watches  the  scene  of  its 
parental  toils,  with  anxious  solitude  guarding  it 
from  all  danger,  so  far  as  its  limited  powers  will 
allow,  till  the  young  fry  are  excluded.  In  this 
instance  we  perceive  that  the  parental  instinct, 
the  tendency  to  build,  and  the  possession  of  a 
substance  secreted  to  form  a  thread,  without  which 
the  nest  could  not  be  constructed,  all  exhibit  unity 
of  design  in  that  Creative  Power  which  implanted 
the  instincts  and  gave  the  corresponding  struc- 
ture. 

The  family  of  Pipe-fishes  (Sygnathidce)  is  repre- 
sented in  our  seas  by  some  species,  specimens  of 


PIPE   FISHES. — SEA-HOESE.  335 

which  are  to  be  found  in  various  parts  of  our  sea- 
shores. The  appearance  of  all  this  tribe  is  most 
remarkable ;  their  bodies  are  long  and  slender, 
their  snouts  much  elongated,  and  the  whole  body 
is  covered  with  plates,  like  a  coat  of  mail,  and  the 
plates  are  so  disposed  that  the  body  is  rendered 
angular.  They  possess  no  ventral  fins,  and  in 
the  majority  of  cases  neither  pectoral  nor  caudal 
fins.  But  what  is  more  remarkable  still  is  the 
the  fact  that,  like  the  kangaroo,  these  fishes  are 
furnished  with  a  marsupial  cavity,  into  which 
their  young  may  retreat.  Of  this  tribe  there  are 
seven  species  known  on  our  shores,  and  differing 
from  each  other  in  various  minute  respects.  Per- 
haps the  most  remarkable  of  these  is  the  species 
known  as  the  short  nosed  sea-horse,  which  is  a 
kind  of  pipe-fish,  somewhat  rare  on  the  British 
shores,  although  frequent  on  the  continental 
coasts.  The  name  is  suggested  by  the  resemblance 
which  the  head  of  the  fish  bears  to  that  of  a  horse. 
The  animal,  it  appears,  is  accustomed  to  use  its 
tail  as  a  prehensile  instrument,  for  which  the 
shape  and  position  of  the  plates  by  which  it 
is  covered,  adapt  it;  and  it  is  enabled  to  twist 
it  round  marine  plants,  and  wait  with  its  head 
free,  ready  to  dart  upon  any  object  it  desires 
to  make  its  prey.  It  is  said  to  swim  in  a  vertical 
attitude,  with  the  tail  ready  to  catch  any  object 
within  its  reach.  Two  of  these  singular  fish 
sometimes  engage  in  combat,  when  they  twist 
tails  round  each  other,  and  struggle  with  great 
violence.  The  eyes  have  the  faculty  of  moving 


336  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

independently  of  each  other,  and  this,  along  with 
the  brilliant  iridescence  about  the  head  and  its 
blue  bands,  gives  it  a  considerable  resemblance  to 
the  chameleon.  Among  the  most  remarkable 
fishes  which  can  attract  our  attention  is  the 
Fishing-frog,  or  Angler  (Lopkius  Piscatorius),  a 
creature  whose  structure  and  instincts  are  very 
marvellous.  This  fish  is  frequently  taken  three 
or  four  feet  in  length,  and  is  said  occasionally  to 
be  found  of  the  dimensions  of  seven,  and  even 
ten  feet  in  length.  Its  head  is  flat,  and  of  enor- 
mous breadth  and  size,  its  surface  exceeding  that 
of  all  the  rest  of  the  fish,  and  the  mouth  is  pro- 
digious, and  armed  with  numerous  teeth.  But 
the  most  singular  part  of  the  animal's  structure 
are  three  tentacula,  which  arise  from  the  head. 
Two  of  these  filaments  arise  from  above  the 
upper  lip,  and  the  third  from  the  back  of  the 
head.  The  first  of  these,  on  the  upper  lip,  is 
nearly  half  the  length  of  the  fish's  body ;  at  its 
base  it  is  accommodated  with  a  joint,  which 
admits  of  its  motion  in  every  direction,  and  at  the 
extremity  it  is  surmounted  by  a  little  membrane 
of  a  brilliant  metallic  lustre.  This  filament  con- 
stitutes the  rod,  line,  and  bait,  by  which  the 
fishing-frog  entices  its  prey.  It  swims  with  dif- 
ficulty, and  instead  of  pursuing  its  prey  it  has 
recourse  to  a  degree  of  craft  rivalling  that  of 
a  disciple  of  Walton  himself.  Crouching  close  to 
the  ground,  it  stirs  up  the  sand  and  mud  with  its 
fins,  and  thus  concealed  from  the  sight  of  its 
victims,  it  elevates  its  fishing-rod  and  bait,  moving 


THE   FISHING  FROG.  337. 

the  coloured  membrane  about  in  all  directions. 
This  attracts  the  fishes  in  its  vicinity,  who  hasten 
to  seize  upon  tempting  spoil,  but  they  no  sooner 
attempt  to  nibble  at  the  apparent  worm  than  the 
angler  withdraws  the  lure,  and  elevating  his 
enormous  mouth,  seizes  his  unsuspecting  prey, 
and,  swallowing  it  in  a  moment,  immediately 
holds  out  the  bait  to  capture  another  prize. 

Many  authentic  anecdotes  are  related  of  the 
voracity  of  this  fish,  a  quality  which  the  extra- 
ordinary magnitude  of  its  mouth  unequivocally 
indicates.  A  fisherman  had  hooked  a  large  cod- 
fish, and  while  drawing  it  up  he  felt  a  much 
heavier  weight  attach  itself  to  his  line.  This 
proved  to  be  a  large  angler,  which  had  seized 
the  cod,  and  which  the  fisherman  compelled  to 
quit  its  prey  only  by  giving  it  some  heavy  blows 
on  the  head.  On  another  occasion,  an  angler 
seized  a  large  conger-eel,  which  had  taken  the 
hook,  and  was  in  the  act  of  swallowing  the  huge 
morsel,  when  the  prey  escaped  from  the  angler's 
jaws  by  finding  its  way  out  by  the  gill-covers 
behind  the  mouth,;  and  in  this  condition  both 
were  drawn  up  together.  Another  of  those  fishes, 
pressed  by  hunger,  is  known  to  have  seized  at 
the  top  of  the  water  a  large  cork  buoy  employed 
as  a  float  for  a  deep  sea-line ;  and  it  is  said  that 
some  fishermen  near  Queensferry,  in  Scotland, 
observing  the  water  much  discoloured  at  one  par-* 
ticular  spot  where.it  was  not  very  deep,  rowed  to 
the  place,  and,  on  poking  the  bottom  with  a  long 
handled  mop,  found  it  taken  hold  of  by  an  angler, 


338  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

who  was,  doubtless,  busily  engaged  plying  his 
vocation,  and  who,  mistaking  the  mop  for  a  fish, 
seized  it,  with  the  intention  of  swallowing  the 
savoury  morsel ;  the  woolly  substance  of  the  mop, 
however,  caught  in  his  teeth,  and  being  unable 
to  extricate  himself  in  time  he  was  hauled  into 
the  boat,  the  victim  of  his  own  inordinate  appe- 
tite. 

It  is  to  the  structure  and  instincts  of  this  singu- 
lar creature,  however,  that  we  would  especially 
direct  the  reader's  attention.  From  what  has 
already  been  stated,  the  mechanism  of  the  fishing- 
rod,  as  we  may  call  the  filament  with  which  it 
entices  its  prey,  is  adapted  with  extreme  nicety 
to  its  purpose.  The  peculiar  form  of  the  joint  by 
which  it  is  fixed  admits  of  its  being  moved  in 
every  direction,  and  it  is  supplied  with  a  set  of 
muscles  under  the  control  of  the  animal's  will, 
while  the  size  and  position  of  the  mouth,  and  the 
the  situation  of  the  eyes  with  reference  to  the 
membrane  or  bait  at  the  end  of  the  rod,  are 
precisely  such  as  to  be  most  efficient.  To  these 
peculiarities,  we  must  add  the  instinct  and  craft, 
without  which  the  structure  could  not  be  available ; 
but  what  is  more,  the  structure  and  the  instinct 
are  both  adapted  to  the  instinct  of  other  fishes, 
who,  in  pursuit  of  food,  mistake  the  angler's  lure 
for  some  living  object,  such  as  they  are  wont  to 
pursue.  This  latter  adaptation  is  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  the  angler  itself,  and  the  whole 
arrangement  points  in  the  clearest  manner  to  the 
design  of  that  Supreme  Intelligence  by  whom 


TEETH   OF   THE   SHARK.  339 

alone  the  structure  and  the   instincts  could  be 
adapted  to  each  other. 

Specimens  of  almost  every  species  of  the  shark 
family — Squalidce — have  been  found  on  the  British 
coasts,  but  the  largest  and  most  formidable  of  the 
tribe  are  rare.  Most  visitors  of  our  sea-shores, 
however,  must  be  familiar  with  one  or  other  of  the 
minor  species  of  shark,  called  dog-fish,  of  which 
there  are  several  kinds,  and  which  frequent  some 
parts  of  our  coasts  in  immense  multitudes,  occasion- 
ing great  havoc  among  the  nets  and  fishing  lines, 
and  often  tearing  to  pieces  the  best  fish  on  the 
hooks.  A  very  remarkable  example  of  beneficent 
care  has  been*  observed  in  relation  to  the  teeth  of 
the  shark.  In  the  larger  specimens  the  teeth, 
from  their  extraordinary  and  indiscriminate  vora- 
city, must  be  exposed  to  frequent  injury,  and 
without  some  provision  by  which  those  terrible 
weapons  of  destruction  may  be  renewed  the  shark 
tribe  would  have  become  extinct,  or  their  peculiar 
functions,  that  of  thinning  the  number  of  the  inha- 
bitants of  the  deep,  would  be  rendered  impossible. 
Accordingly  the  teeth  of  shark  are  not  fixed  in 
sockets,  but  attached  to  a  cartilaginous  membrane. 
This  membrane  grows  outward ;  the  outer  row  of 
teeth  in  due  time  drop  out,  and  another  row 
which  has  been  gradually  advancing  occupies  the 
place  of  the  first ;  this  in  due  time  disappears  and 
other  sets  follow  in  succession.  By  this  means, 
even  in  the  oldest  of  these  monsters  of  the  deep, 
the  teeth  are  always  in  the  most  perfect  condition 
2  2 


340  SEASIDE    DIYINITY. 

for  the  work  of  destruction  for  which  they  are 
destined. 

The  family  of  fishes,  known  as  Rays  or  Skates — 
Raiidce — are  also  numerous  in  our  seas.  They 
belong,  like  the  sharks  and  lampreys,  to  the  carti- 
laginous division  of  fishes.  Of  the  rays  there  are 
many  varieties,  some  scarce,  and  others  occurring 
in  great  plenty. 

Several  of  the  shark  tribe  bring  forth  their 
young  alive ;  but  others  produce  eggs,  as  also  do 
the  rays,  and  these  are  not  deposited  in  large 
multitudes,  like  those  in  the  spawn  of  other 
fishes,  but  in  comparatively  very  small  numbers, 
and  each  egg  is  contained  in  a  case  formed  of  a 
substance  like  thin  horn,  and  of  a  very  remark- 
able shape.  Those  produced  by  the  skate  are 
about  four  or  five  inches  in  length,  of  a  dark 
brown  colour,  similar  indeed  to  the  darkest  sea 
weed  when  dried  ;  their  shape  is  as  near  as  possible 
that  of  a  four-handed  barrow,  but  with  these  our 
readers  are  probably  familiar,  as  they  are  fre- 
quently found  empty  on  the  sea-shore :  they  are 
called  mermaids'  purses  or  skate-barrows. 

Those  belonging  to  the  dog-fishes  are  very  much 
like  the  purses  of  the  skate,  but  are  of  a  clear  yel- 
lowish horn-colour.  From  each  of  the  four  corners 
of  the  purse  issues  a  long  tendril  which  coils  round 
the  sea  weeds  or  other  substances  near  which  the 
parent  fish  deposits  it,  and  it  is  thus  so  fixed  as  to 
be  free  from  danger  of  being  driven  ashore  by  the 
waves.  Both  kinds  of  purses  are  furnished  with 
openings  at  the  ends  through  which  the  sea  water 


EGG-PURSES   OF   RATS,    ETC.  341 

flows  while  the  young  fish  is  being  matured,  and 
by  which  it  eventually  issues  forth  from  its  very 
singular  envelope. 

Kemarkable,  however,  as  these  "  sea-purses  "  are 
in  form  and  structure,  there  is  one  particular  re- 
garding them  which  presents  us  with  a  most 
striking  instance  of  a  provision  made  for  the  wants 
of  the  young  fish  before  it  is  able  to  quit  its 
prison.  During  its  embryo  state  it  cannot  use  its 
gills  for  the  purpose  of  breathing,  any  more  than 
an  infant  before  birth  can  employ  its  lungs  in 
breathing.  Yet  in  order  to  the  development  of  the 
fish,  it  is  indispensable  that  through  its  circulating 
system  the  blood  shall  pass  purified  by  the  action 
of  the  water,  and  supplied  with  oxygen  as  it  is  re- 
quired. Without  this  process  the  young  fish  must 
perish.  And  how  is  this  accomplished  ?  By  a 
very  marvellous  expedient.  From  the  gills  of  the 
young  fish  project  certain  threads  or  filaments ; 
each  of  these  contains  a  minute  blood-vessel,  and 
as  the  water  has  free  ingress  to  the  interior  of  the 
receptacle,  these  blood-vessels  serve  the  purpose 
of  gills.  They  are,  however,  entirely  temporary ; 
they^cease  to  exist  after  the  gills  are  capable  of 
acting.  The  purpose  they  had  to  serve  is  accom- 
plished otherwise,  and  by  an  apparatus  possessed 
of  a  degree  of  efficiency  suited  to  the  enlarged 
powers  of  the  fish.  Can  any  mode  be  devised  by 
which  to  account  for  the  admirable  appropriate- 
ness of  this  structure,  but  that  of  referring  it  to 
the  wisdom  and  skill  of  the  Creator  ?  The  supply 
of  a  temporary  breathing  apparatus  to  be  used 
z  3 


342  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

while  the  gills  were  imperfect  and  only  gradually- 
assuming  a  condition  fit  for  their  future  purpose ; 
the  orifices  in  the  egg-purse  allowing  the  water 
access  to  that  temporary  breathing  apparatus,  and 
the  fact  that  the  apparatus  itself  ceases  to  exist 
when  it  is  no  longer  required ;  these  and  other 
considerations  cannot  fail  to  point  out  the  design 
of  that  Divine  Intelligence  to  which  all  the  con- 
ditions that  require  to  be  provided  for  are  known, 
and  that  Divine  Skill  by  which  the  details  requi- 
site to  the  result  intended  are  carried  out  in  an 
unerring  correspondence  with  natural  laws. 


VERTEBRATA-  FISHES 


345 


CHAP.  XXV. 

VERTEBR ATA FISHES. 

Edible  Fishes.— The  Cod  Family.— Flat  Fish.— The  Herring 
and  Pilchard  Family.— Pilchard  Fishing. 

HAVING-  given  our  attention  to  some  of  those 
fish  most  remarkable  for  their  structure,  or  some 
other  peculiarity,  we  shall  now  notice  a  few  spe- 
cimens of  those  whose  immense  numbers  and 
whose  edible  qualities  render  them  of  the  greatest 
value  to  mankind. 

Among  the  most  valuable  of  this  class  of  fishes 
are  those  comprehended  in  the  cod  and  haddock 
family — Gadidce — which  include  several  varieties, 
such  as  the  haddock,  coal-fish,  rockling,  ling,  and 
various  kinds  of  whitings,  hake,  and  others  of  the 
same  order.  It  will  suffice  to  mention  the  cod 
properly  so  called,  as  being  a  familiar  type  of  the 
order  to  which  it  belongs. 

These  fishes  are  to  be  found  on  every  part  of  the 
shores  of  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  appear  to  be 
most  plentiful  off  the  northern  coasts  of  Scotland. 
They  chiefly  inhabit  places  where  the  water  is 
from  forty  to  fifty  fathoms  in  depth.  They  are 
extremely  voracious,  devouring  fish  of  all  kinds, 
molluscs  and  Crustacea,  crabs  of  considerable  size 


346  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

being  often  found  in  their  capacious  stomachs,  no 
fewer  than  thirty-five  crabs,  none  of  them  smaller 
than  a  half-crown  piece,  having  been  taken  from 
one  fish.  No  fish  is  of  greater  utility.  The  flesh 
is  white,  firm,  and  of  excellent  quality,  and  every 
part  of  the  fish  is  capable  of  being  turned  to  some 
useful  purposes.  The  tongue,  either  salted  or 
fresh,  is  a  great  delicacy.  The  gills  are  employed 
as  baits  in  fishing ;  the  liver  furnishes  an  enormous 
quantity  of  excellent  oil,  applicable  to  a  variety  of 
useful  purposes,  and  possessing  highly  nutritive 
qualities,  and  peculiarly  suited  as  an  article  of 
nourishment  to  persons  of  feeble  health ;  the  swim- 
ming-bladder furnishes  isinglass  equal  in  quality 
to  that  yielded  by  the  sturgeon ;  and  even  the  head 
furnishes  the  fisherman  and  his  family  with  food. 
The  Norwegians,  on  whose  coast  the  cod  is  very 
abundant,  give  it  together  with  marine  plants  to 
their  cows,  for  the  purpose  of  producing  a  greater 
quantity  of  milk.  In  Iceland  the  bones  afford 
nourishing  food  for  cattle,  and  the  people  of 
Kamschatka  feed  their  valuable  dogs  with  it.  On 
the  desolate  shores  of  the  Icy  Sea  the  same  parts 
when  thoroughly  dried  are  employed  as  fuel. 

The  fecundity  of  the  cod  is  amazing.  Nine 
millions  of  eggs  have  been  counted  in  the  roe  of 
a  single  fish  of  middling  size,  and  if  the  enormous 
multitudes  which  must  be  thus  produced  and 
which  must  survive  the  devastation  of  their 
enemies,  be  taken  into  consideration,  along  with 
the  useful  and  valuable  properties  which  this  fish 
possesses,  it  is  impossible  not  to  admit  that  among 


STRUCTURE   AND   INSTINCT.  347 

the  purposes  for  which  it  has  been  designed,  we 
are  entitled  to  reckon  that  of  supplying  many  of 
the  wants  of  the  human  race. 

Another  family  of  fishes,  of  which  many  of  the 
various  species  are  familiar  to  our  readers,  is  that 
of  the  Pleuronectidce,  so  called  from  the  remark- 
able circumstance  of  their  swimming  on  one  side. 
These  are  what  are  popularly  known  as  flat  fish, 
and  comprehend  eighteen  or  twenty  kinds,  inclu- 
ding among  them  the  plaice,  the  flounder,  and  its 
varieties,  the  halibut,  the  turbot,  and  several 
kinds  of  sole.  The  characters  peculiar  to  this 
race  of  fishes  are  so  distinct  as  to  render  it  one  of 
the  most  marked  and  insulated  of  all  the  families 
into  which  the  finny  tribes  have  been  subdivided. 
There  is  a  singular  want  of  symmetry  in  some 
parts  of  the  figure  of  the  flat  fish.  The  head 
appears  as  if  forcibly  twisted  to  one  side,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  mouth  appears  distorted. 
The  body  is  compressed,  and  almost  surrounded 
by  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  as  with  a  fringe.  The 
habitation  of  these  fishes  is  the  bottom  of  the  sea, 
and  they  are  not  furnished  with  the  air-bladder  so 
frequently  forming  part  of  the  structure  of  those 
fishes  which  frequent  the  higher  parts  of  the 
water.  Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the 
very  remarkable  resemblance  which  fishes  present 
in  their  hues  to  that  of  the  ground  they  frequent. 
In  no  instance  is  this  more  striking  than  in  the 
tribe  of  fishes  to  which  we  now  refer.  While  the 
side  next  the  ground  is  white,  the  upper  side, 
which  is  exposed  to  the  light  is  of  some  dark 


348  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

shade,  either  brown,  or  greyish  sand  colour,  and 
in  some  instances  this  general  hue  is  broken  by 
blotches,  light  or  dark,  blackish  or  reddish,  which 
not  only  present  a  resemblance  to  under-shades 
caused  by  inequalities  of  the  ground,  but  to  the 
different  tints  that  occur  upon  it.  Flat  fish  too 
seem  to  be  endowed  with  the  power  of  altering 
their  colour,  so  as  to  correspond  with  the  prevail- 
ing tints  of  the  ground,  and  even  when  the  sand 
is  of  a  very  light  colour,  they  so  nearly  resemble 
it,  that  even  in  very  clear  and  shallow  water,  a 
flat  fish  may  be  immediately  under  the  observer's 
eye  without  being  perceived.  But  that  this  is  one 
among  many  similar  instances  of  design  in  the 
Author  of  Nature,  by  which  an  express  provision 
is  made  for  the  safety  of  the  creatures  endowed 
with  the  faculty  and  with  the  general  and  perma- 
nent resemblance  in  question  cannot  be  disputed. 
The  Clupeidce,  which  comprehend  the  herring, 
the  pilchard,  and  several  other  species,  is  a  family 
of  fishes  of  the  highest  importance,  and  in  several 
respects  of  great  interest.  Familiar  as  we  are 
with  the  herring,  we  are  by  no  means  fully  ac- 
quainted with  its  natural  history.  On  this  subject 
some  of  the  statements  that  have  been  made 
appear  from  recent  observation  to  have  been 
purely  imaginary.  The  herring  has  been  described 
as  having  its  permanent  abode  within  the  arctic 
circle,  from  which  it  migrates  southwards  towards 
the  British  Islands  in  a  shoal  of  countless  myriads, 
at  certain  periods  of  the  year,  and  when  the 
shoal  reaches  the  Shetland  Isles,  it  separates  into 


THE    HEREING*  349; 

two  vast  bodies,  one  of  which  proceeds  eastwards, 
filling  with  their  numbers  the  creeks  and  bays  on 
the  east  coasts  of  Britain,  while  the  other  passes 
along  the  west,  visiting  the  various  lochs  and  bays 
on  that  part  of  Scotland,  the  Irish  Sea  and  the 
Irish  Coast.  This,  however,  appears  to  be  a  fabu- 
lous account.  The  herring  does  not  possess  its 
habitual  place  of  abode  in  the  arctic  seas,  where  it 
is  said  to  be  extremely  rare,  and  not  only  are  there 
no  herring  fisheries  of  any  importance  in  Green- 
land, or  even  in  Iceland,  but  no  notice  has  been 
taken  of  this  fish  by  voyagers  to  the  frozen  seas. 

That  the  herring. does  perform  a  migration  is  of 
course  unquestionable,  for  it  entirely  disappears  at 
certain  times  and  revisits  our  coasts  afterwards; 
but  the  extent  of  its  migration  is  understood  to 
be  very  limited,  and  the  best  naturalists  are  of 
opinion  that  it  inhabits  the  deep  water  of  our 
coasts  all  the  year,  and  only  approaches  to  the 
shallow  water  of  the  shores  for  the  purpose  of 
reproduction,  in  this  respect  being  similar  to  other 
tribes  of  fishes.  The  opinion  thus  expressed  is 
corroborated  by  several  circumstances.  The  her- 
ring is  known  frequently  to  occur  in  great  abun- 
dance in  some  southern  localities  before  its  ap- 
pearance in  those  more  to  the  north,  and  this  fact 
is  not  consistent  with  the  theory  that  they  arrive 
on  the  British  coast  from  the  arctic  regions.  And 
the  accuracy  of  opinion  in  question  is  rendered 
still  more  probable  by  the  circumstance  that  the 
pilchard,  a  fish  nearly  allied  to  the  herring,  is 
now  known  to  reside  permanently  in  the  British 


350  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

seas,  and  although  at  one  time  supposed,  like  the 
herring,  to  migrate  to  the  north,  is  extremely 
limited  in  its  range. 

The  pilchard  is  a  smaller  fish  than  its  relative 
the  herring,  and  is  by  no  means  of  such  general 
occurrence  along  our  coasts.  Its  chief  locality  is 
the  south  coast  of  England,  and  especially  that 
of  Cornwall  and  Devonshire,  and  although  a  few 
stragglers  may  sometimes  be  obtained  along  the 
eastern  shores  of  the  island,  yet  the  range  of  this 
fish  seldom  extends  on  the  east  beyond  the  Straits 
of  Dover,  and  on  the  coast  beyond  the  parallel  of 
the  southern  shores  of  Ireland.  The  prodigious 
multitude  of  both  these  kinds  of  fishes  which  are 
annually  caught  in  the  British  seas  has  rendered 
the  herring  and  pilchard  fisheries  of  the  greatest 
value  and  importance,  employing  as  they  do  many 
thousands  of  fishermen,  affording  support  for  their 
families,  and  supplying  a  large  quantity  of  food. 

But  what  is  especially  worthy  of  our  remark  is 
the  instinctive  impulse  by  which  these  fishes  quit 
the  deep  water  and  approach  the  shore.  This  in- 
stinct, which  is  possessed  by  them  in  common 
with  many  others  of  the  finny  tribes,  is,  like  all 
other  instances  of  it,  how  differently  soever 
directed,  a  blind  and  unintelligent  impulse.  The 
shallower  parts  of  the  shores,  probably  because  of 
the  higher  temperature  of  the  sea  in  such  places, 
the  greater  amount  of  light  which  reaches  the 
spawn,  and  the  increased  supply  of  oxygen  which 
it  obtains,  are  the  only  suitable  localities  in  which 
the  ova  could  be  rendered  productive.  But  of 


THE  HERRING. — ITS   INSTINCTS,   ETC.          351 

this  the  herring  and  the  pilchard  know  as  little 
as  of  the  chemical  and  vital  agencies  thus  brought 
into  operation.  Without  the  continual  reproduc- 
tion of  their  kinds  the  whole  race  must  perish, 
and  with  them  doubtless  many  other  animals 
which  subsist  upon  them,  while  even  man  himself 
would  not  a  little  feel  the  loss ;  but  directed  by  an 
unreasoning  impulse  these  fishes  draw  near  the 
shore  free  from  all  intention  or  purpose  either  of 
preventing  their  species  from  becoming  extinct  or 
administering  to  the  important  purposes  referred 
to.  The  migratory  instinct,  independent  as  it  is 
of  all  knowledge  or  intelligence,  can  be  referred 
only  to  that  Being  to  whom  all  the  chemical, 
physical,  and  vital  laws  relating  to  the  humblest 
of  His  creatures  are  fully  known,  and  from  whom 
alone  could  proceed  an  impulse,  which,  although 
blind  itself,  is  adapted  to  produce  its  result,  with 
a  degree  of  precision  and  accuracy  far  exceeding 
that  which  the  most  exalted  human  reason  can 
attain.  When  we  take  this  marvellous  instinct 
into  view,  whether  we  regard  it  as  intended  to 
produce  a  result  or  a  combination  of  different 
results,  it  is  impossible  not  to  reflect  upon  it  with 
that  reverential  admiration  with  which  we  recog- 
nise the  design  of  Infinite  wisdom,  knowledge, 
and  beneficence. 

The  mode  of  fishing  for  the  herring  and  the 
pilchard  is  much  the  same.  The  herring  is  taken 
by  means  of  a  net  of  great  length  and  of  consi- 
derable depth.  These  nets  are  suspended  per- 
pendicularly from  a  rope  extending  along  the 


352  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

surface  of  the  water,  on  which  it  is  floated  by 
means  of  buoys.  These  nets  are  run  across  the 
usual  course  which  the  shoal  of  herrings  takes, 
and  the  fish  run  their  heads  into  the  meshes 
from  which  the  threads  entering  behind  the  gills, 
render  it  impossible  for  them  to  withdraw,  while 
the  size  of  the  mesh  makes  it  equally  impossible 
for  them  to  pass  through  the  net.  These  nets 
are  made  to  extend  a  great  distance  from  the 
boat,  and  having  been  left  floating  are  often 
found,  on  being  taken  up,  to  contain  as  many 
herrings  as  will  completely  fill  the  boat  to  which 
the  net  belongs. 

The  pilchard  is  taken  by  the  same  method  as 
that  employed  in  the  capture  of  the  herring,  but 
the  largest  quantities  are  obtained  by  means  of 
the  net  called  the  seine  or  sean,  a  form  of  net  of 
great  antiquity,  the  name  of  which  has  come  down 
to  us  from  the  Greek  language.  The  seine  is  a 
net  of  great  length,  which  may  either  be  shot 
from  the  shore  or  from  a  boat.  In  the  latter 
case,  other  nets  are  used  called  stop  nets,  which 
are  shot  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  the  fish  already  enclosed  in  the  seine 
itself,  by  completing  the  circle  in  which  the  fish 
are  enclosed.  In  some  instances  several  seines  are 
united  together,  and  when  fully  extended,  enclose 
a  great  space  and  frequently  capture  a  corre- 
sponding quantity.  On  such  occasions,  several  boats 
are  employed,  and'  when  a  large  shoal  of  fish  is 
discovered  and  the  direction  in  which  they  are. 
moving  ascertained,  the  greatest  activity  prevails. 


PILCHARD   FISHING,  353 

and  no  small  degree  of  skill  is  manifested  by  the 
fisherman.  The  extent  and  course  of  a  shoal  of 
pilchards  is  frequently  much  more  correctly  as- 
certained from  an  elevated  part  of  the  shore,  and 
the  experienced  eye  of  the  fisherman  who  takes 
his  station  on  an  eminence  enables  him,  from 
certain  indications  in  the  water  which  would 
escape  the  notice  of  others,  to  discover  those  par- 
ticulars regarding  the  shoal  necessary  to  a  suc- 
cessful cast  of  the  nets.  This  he  easily  commu- 
nicates by  preconcerted  signals  to  the  fishermen 
in  the  boats,  who  act  on  the  suggestions  thus 
conveyed  to  them.  A  graphic  and  spirited 
account  of  the  process  is  given  in  an  eminent 
periodical*,  with  a  quotation  from  which  we  will 
close  this  part  of  our  subject.  (s  On  an  eminence 
above  the  sea,  and  probably  on  a  narrow  path, 
paces  a  strong  rough  Cornishman  in  apparently 
a  meditative  mood.  He  carries  a  branch  of  a  tree 
or  of  furze  in  his  hand.  He  carefully  scrutinises 
the  sea,  and  now  and  then  shades  his  eyes  with 
his  large  hand,  as  if  he  would  descry  a  far  sail. 
A  well  laden  boat  now  shoots  out  to  sea,  and  at 
this  the  solitary  watcher  gazes.  Does  it  hold  his 
son  or  his  daughter?  Is  he  full  of  fatherly 
anxiety  for  his  son  as  he  is  about  to  emigrate  ? 
Mark  him !  He  now  frantically  waves  his  branch 
and  his  arm  in  one  wide  sweep.  The  folks  in  the 
boat  see  this ;  and  strange  to  say,  are  swayed  by 
this  mad  motion.  He  again  sweeps  round  the 

*  Athenseum,  Dec.  1859. 
A  A 


354  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

branch,  and  as  they  look  up  to  him  he  directs 
their  course  by  it,  as  if  it  were  their  compass. 
What  can  this  mean  ?  Why  the  supposed  mad- 
man is  sane  and  sagacious  enough.  He  sees  a 
faint  bluish  line  on  the  surface  of  the  waters  and 
there  are  the  pilchards  in  one  fluctuating,  change- 
ful, life-abounding  shoal.  See  how  they  leap,  they 
play,  •  they  shift,  they  sink,  they  rise  again ! 
Swiftly  row  the  oarsmen,  down  bend  the  seiners 
in  less  time  than  common  men  would  think  pos- 
sible, down  goes  fathom  after  fathom,  and  heap 
after  heap  of  the  seine,  up  float  the  bordering 
corks,  clash,  dash,  splash  go  the  long  oars  again. 
The  cliff  watcher  is  now  doubly  frantic.  He  waves 
and  raves,  and  runs  and  stamps,  and  jumps ;  the 
shoal  is  shifting,  warping,  eluding,  the  boat  is 
turned,  the  telegraphic  branch  is  again  eyed  and 
obeyed;  and  now  the  cliff-watcher  is  satisfied. 
He  lowers  his  branch,  he  nods,  he  assents  by  every 
primitive  symbol  and  significant  action  that  can 
be  imagined.  The  entire  seine  is  gradually  lowered 
into  the  sea,  the  men  bend  over  and  you  dread  a 
capsize,  and  even  more  and  more  when  you  see 
their  motions  reversed.  Now  they  no  longer  let 
down  but  haul  up.  A  hearty  shore-resounding 
and  echo-awakening  shout  is  their  mutual  en- 
couragement— up  comes  bit  by  bit  of  the  seine. 
How  heavy !  How  joyfully  full !  Fishermen's 
heads  almost  touch  the  brine,  their  backs  alone 
are  broadly  apparent.  Now  one  strong  combined 
haul  and  nearer  together  is  the  seine  drawn. 
What  hundreds  of  glancing,  leaping,  struggling 


PILCHARD   FISHING,  355 

fish  spring  up  from  within  that  spot !  The  shore 
is  soon  lined  with  assistants.  Some  row  off  with 
( tuck  nets' to  the  great  boat  and  let  the  said 
small  tucks  down  inside  the  large  seine.  The 
waters  are  beaten  with  oars  and  loaded  ropes, 
and  thus  the  fish  are  frightened  into  a  narrower 
space.  Listen  to  the  discordant  noises  on  the 
shore!  Boys  shout  shrilly;  dogs  bark  loudly; 
and  women  chatter,  and  all  these  sounds  mingle 
with  the  deep-toned  nautical  ( Yo  !  heave  ho !  yo ! 
hoy !  hoy !  hoy !'  at  sea.  Though  yourself  a  calm 
reticent  student  when  in  London  you  catch  the 
Cornish  enthusiasm,  and  as  if  your  whole  venture 
was  in  pilchards  you  yourself  shout  and  shriek, 
and  jump  and  rave.  Never  mind ;  all  is  right. 
To  shore  comes  the  little  crowd  of  boats,  and  out 
on  the  bare  beach  is  poured  one  teeming,  strug- 
gling, leaping,  panting  mass  of  silvery  scales !" 


A   A  2 


YERTEBRATA  -  MARITIME    BIRDS 


1.  Terns,  or  Sea  Swallows.       2.  Puffin 


MARITIME  BIRDS. 

3.  Sheldrake.        4.  Smew.        5.  Gannet  (adult  and  young).       6.  Diver. 

(See  Chapter  2G. ) 


359 


CHAP.  XXVI. 

YEKTEBKATA  —  MARITIME   BIRDS. 

Swimming  and  Wading  Birds. — The  Curlew. — The  Sandpiper. — 
Divers. — Grebes. — The  Grannet:  its  remarkable  Structure. 

AMONG  the  most  interesting  objects  which  pre- 
sent themselves  to  our  notice  during  a  ramble 
along  the  sea-side  are  those  birds  of  which  our 
shores  are  either  the  occasional  or  permanent 
abode.  Many  of  the  feathered  tribes  belonging 
to  the  inland  country  may  be  found  inhabiting 
the  woods,  the  groves,  or  the  fields  near  the  coast, 
but  to  any  of  these  it  is  not  our  intention  to 
refer ;  our  object  is  to  point  out  a  few  of  those 
which  are  characteristic  of  the  sea-shore.  A  few 
general  remarks  will,  however,  be  necessary  in 
the  first  instance. 

Birds  form  one  of  the  four  great  classes  into 
which  all  the  vertebrated  animals  have  been  sub- 
divided. They  possess  a  higher  rank  as  regards 
organisation  than  either  fishes  or  reptiles,  and 
like  the  mammalia,  they  breathe  by  means  of 
lungs  and  are  warm-blooded.  Naturalists  have 
divided  the  class  into  several  orders,  each  order 
comprehending  birds  possessed  of  some  general 
characteristic  sufficient  to  distinguish  them  from 

A  A  4 


360  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

others.  Thus  the  first  order  includes  all  birds  of 
prey ;  the  second,  birds  which  perch  ;  the  third, 
those  that  scrape;  the  fourth  embraces  all  wading 
birds,  and  the  fifth,  all  the  swimmers.  It  is  to 
the  two  last  of  these  five  orders  that  we  are  now 
to  turn,  selecting  a  few  examples  from  some  of 
the  many  groups  which  they  contain. 

Various  species  of  gulls  are  common  to  our 
sea-shores,  building  in  the  precipitous  cliffs  near 
the  sea,  or  resorting  to  a  solitary  island  in  some 
distant  lake  for  the  same  purpose.  All  of  these 
are  remarkable  for  the  ease  and  elegance  of  their 
motions  when  on  the  wing,  and  for  the  power 
with  which  they  are  able  to  make  their  way 
amidst  the  storm.  To  the  gull  family  belongs 
the  Tern,  a  bird  which  merits  its  popular  name 
of  sea-swallow  on  account  of  its  shape  and  its 
rapidity  of  flight ;  the  Kitty-wake,  so  called  from 
its  peculiar  note ;  the  Fulmar,  a  large  grey  and 
white  species ;  and  the  Storm-petrel,  so  dreaded  by 
the  mariner  as  the  forerunner  of  a  tempest.  In 
addition  to  these,  there  are  many  birds  which 
frequent  those  parts  of  the  sea-shore  when  the 
tide  recedes  to  a  great  distance  leaving  bare  a 
long  tract  of  sand  or  mud  in  which  they  find  an 
ample  supply  of  marine  worms  and  other  kinds 
of  food.  Among  these  there  are  Curlews,  Sand- 
pipers, Plovers,  and  other  birds ;  they  are,  how- 
ever, as  a  general  rule,  so  shy,  and  keep  at  so 
great  a  distance,  that  it  is  impossible  to  observe 
their  actions. 

The  swimming  birds  that  frequent  our  shores 


WADERS   AND   SWIMMERS.  361 

are  also  highly  interesting.  Of  these  a  few  may  here, 
be  referred  to.  The  Sheldrake  is  a  very  handsome 
bird,  belonging  to  this  family,  and  very  common 
on  some  of  our  shores,  where  it  builds  its  nest  in 
old  rabbit  holes.  The  body  of  this  bird  is  diver- 
sified with  patches  of  chestnut,  white,  and  black ; 
its  bill  is  bright  red,  its  head  is  glossy  green,  and 
its  legs  are  flesh  coloured.  The  Scoter  is  another 
familiar  bird  on  some  of  our  coasts,  but  it  differs 
much  from  the  sheldrake,  being  uniformly  black 
in  its  plumage,  but  like  the  former  it  frequents 
the  sea-shore,  often  in  considerable  numbers, 
when  it  seeks  its  food,  which  consists  of  small 
molluscous  animals. 

Besides  these  there  are  the  tribe  of  Mergansers, 
of  which  there  are  four  species  known  on  our  shores. 
Of  these  the  Smew  is  the  smallest,  as  well  as  the 
most  common.  Its  colour  is  white,  diversified 
with  black  and  grey,  the  bill  is  slate-coloured,  the 
face  is  black,  and  the  head,  neck,  and  breast, 
white ;  on  the  head  is  a  crest  of  feathers,  partly 
greenish-black  and  partly  white.  Another  and 
larger  species  is  the  Eed-breasted  Merganser. 
The  head  and  throat  of  this  bird  are  green,  the 
lower  part  of  the  neck  and  the  breast  are  chestnut 
colour,  and  the  body  and  wings  are  diversified 
with  white,  black,  and  brown.  The  largest  species 
is  the  Goosander,  which  in  its  colours  bears  a 
considerable  resemblance  to  the  last-mentioned 
species. 

The  divers  and  the  grebes  have  also  their 
representatives  at  various  parts  of  our  shores. 


362  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

These  are  all  easily  distinguished  from  the  tribes 
of  aquatic  birds  above  referred  to  by  the  long- 
conical  bill,  and  by  the  position  of  the  legs,  which 
are  placed  so  far  back,  that  when  on  the  land 
these  birds  appear  to  stand  upright.  The  divers 
are  very  common  on  almost  every  part  of  our 
coast,  and  may  be  readily  distinguished  by  the 
expertness  with  which  they  carry  on  their  pisca- 
tory labours,  diving  incessantly  after  their  finny 
prey.  The  Great  Northern  Diver  is  a  very  hand- 
some bird.  The  upper  part  of  the  body  is  dark 
mottled  with  white,  the  head  and  neck  are  black 
tinted  with  green,  and  having  two  rings  of  mot- 
tled feathers,  the  under  surface  is  white.  This 
bird  is  the  largest  of  the  tribe  to  which  it  belongs, 
and  visits  our  shores  during  the  winter  months, 
retiring  during  the  breeding  season,  like  the  gulls, 
to  some  remote  and  little  frequented  inland  lake, 
on  whose  borders  it  rears  its  young. 

Another  family  of  maritime  birds  comprehends 
the  guillemots,  auks,  razor-bills,  and  puffins,  all 
of  which  are  gregarious,  inhabiting  the  rocky 
headlands  and  islets,  especially  on  our  northern 
coasts,  in  immense  multitudes.  In  those  inac- 
cessible places  these  birds  congregate  at  the 
breeding  season,  each  of  them  producing  a  single 
egg,  which  some  of  them  place  upon  the  bare 
rock,  and  hatch  by  sitting  upon  it  in  their  singular 
erect  posture  during  the  requisite  period.  Such  is 
the  fidelity  with  which  these  birds,  especially  the 
guillemots,  devote  themselves  to  the  all-important 
duty  of  incubation,  that  they  will  suffer  them- 


STRUCTURE   AND   INSTINCTS.  363 

selves  to  be  seized  rather  than  quit  their  post. 
The  puffin,  however,  a  round  little  bird,  with 
black  and  white  plumage,  and  a  parrot-shaped 
bill,  ribbed  with  orange,  lays  its  single  egg  in  a 
burrow  which  it  digs  with  its  bill,  if  it  is  unable 
to  discover  one  already  made  by  a  rabbit,  and 
there  for  a  month  it  sits  with  the  utmost  patience, 
till  the  young  puffin  at  length  breaks  the  shell. 
The  structure  of  all  these  birds,  their  instincts 
and  their  habits,  are  such-  as  illustrate  in  a  most 
striking  manner  the  observations  already  made, 
exhibiting  in  the  evident  correspondence  sub- 
sisting among  them  the  obvious  designs  of  Infinite 
Wisdom. 

On  this  subject  we  must,  however,  content  our- 
selves with  one  illustration,  furnished  by  the 
structure  of  the  gannet  or  solan  goose.  This 
bird  is  very  abundant  on  our  northern  shores, 
and  has  various  favourite  breeding  places  in  the 
inaccessible  precipices  both  on  the  eastern  and 
western  coasts  of  Scotland.  In  seeking  its  appro- 
priate food  the  gannet  flies  at  no  great  distance 
from  the  surface  of  the  water,  but  on  perceiving 
a  fish  it  immediately  rises  into  the  air,  and  de- 
scends with  extraordinary  force  upon  its  prey, 
sometimes  by  the  mere  impulse  of  its  descent 
penetrating  the  waters  to  a  depth  of  twenty  or 
even  thirty  fathoms.  Incredible  as  this  may 
appear,  it  is  certain  that  these  birds  have  oc- 
casionally been  found  in  great  numbers  entangled 
in  the  fishing  nets  sunk  in  the  sea  to  the  depths 
now  stated,  having  darted  into  the  water  in  pur- 


364  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

suit  of  fish.  This  power  of  penetrating  to  so 
great  a  depth  beneath  the  surface  is  rendered  all 
the  more  marvellous  when  the  extreme  buoyancy 
•  and  lightness  of  the  bird  are  considered.  The 
gannet  floats  very  high  in  the  water,  differing  in 
this  respect  from  some  aquatic  birds,  whose  bodies 
when  they  are  swimming  are  almost  wholly  im- 
mersed, so  that  only  the  neck  and  head  seem 
to  be  raised  above  the  surface.  Now  the  cause  of 
the  extreme  lightness  of  the  gannet's  body  has 
been  ascertained  by  anatomists.  It  appears  that 
a  system  of  air  cells  exists  both  along  the  sides 
and  the  inferior  part  of  the  body,  and  that  these 
all  communicate  with  each  other,  and  can  be 
completely  inflated  at  the  will  of  the  bird.  It 
also  appears  that  there  exists  an  air  cell  in  the 
front  of  the  breast  four  inches  in  diameter,  in 
direct  communication  with  the  lungs,  which  the 
bird  can  inflate  in  an  instant.  Over  all  these  air- 
vessels,  however,  a  system  of  muscles  are  stretched, 
by  means  of  which  the  gannet  can  in  a  moment 
press  upon  the  vessels,  and  completely  expel  the 
air  they  contain.  When  afloat,  therefore,  or 
when  flying  aloft,  the  gannet  inflates  all  these 
air  vessels.  x  The  specific  gravity  of  its  body  is 
thus  reduced,  and  it  swims  high  on  the  wave,  or 
soars  with  comparative  facility  in  the  air.  On 
perceiving  its  prey,  however,  and  darting  down 
upon  it,  the  air-vessels  are  immediately  com- 
pressed, the  size  of  the  bird  becomes  greatly 
reduced,  its  weight  and  specific  gravity  are  in- 
creased, and  these  circumstances,  united  with  the 


STRUCTURE   AND   INSTINCTS.  365 

velocity  of  its  fall,  enable  it  to  sink  deep  beneath 
the  wave  and  secure  its  prey,  an  act  which  would 
have  been  physically  impossible  if  the  bird  still 
retained  its  former  buoyancy.  Having  captured 
the  fish,  the  gannet  again  comes  to  the  surface, 
instantaneously  inflates  its  air-vessels,  and  soars 
away  with  the  captured  prey  with  a  degree  of 
facility  which,  had  it  still  maintained  its  increased 
density,  would  have  been  unattainable.  Can  any 
arrangement  be  conceived  more  clearly  evincing 
an  express  design,  a  design  carried  out  with  the 
most  precise  and  accurate  reference  to  the  laws  of 
physics  ?  Can  any  design  better  display  the 
thorough  knowledge  of  those  laws  which  the  wise 
and  Beneficent  Designer  possessed  ? 


VERTEBRATA- SEASIDE   MAMMALIA 


THE  SEAL  FAMILY. 
1.  Common  Seal.  2.  Gray  Seal.  3.  Walrus. 


4.  Harp  Seal. 


(See  Chapter  27.) 


369 


CHAP.  XXVII. 

VERTEBRATA SEASIDE    MAMMALIA. 

The  Cetacea,  or  Whale  Tribe. — The  Dolphin.— The  Sea  Unicorn. 
The  Common  Whale. — Kemarkable  Adaptations  of  Structure, 
&c.— The  Seal  Family:  Form  and  Habits. — Adaptations  of 
Structure. — Conclusion. 

THE  class  which  occupies  the  highest  rank  in  the 
animal  kingdom  is  that  of  the  Mammalia,  and  of 
this  class  there  are  several  marine  animals  which 
make  our  sea-shores  either  their  occasional  resort 
or  their  permanent  abode. 

The  mammalia  is  the  class  to  which  man  him- 
self belongs,  and  the  scientific  term  being  derived 
from  the  Latin  word  mamma,  a  teat,  indicates 
the  characteristic  which  distinguishes  the  mam- 
malia from  all  the  other  animals,  viz.  that  they 
suckle  their  young.  In  this  class  the  whale,  the 
seal,  and  their  varieties  are  comprehended. 

Of  the  order  Cetacea,  to  which  the  whale  be- 
longs, there  are  several  examples  more  or  less 
known  in  our  seas.  The  Dolphin  is  one  of  these ; 
but  it  is  only  occasionally  met  with.  The  Narwhal 
or  Sea-unicorn,  which  Cuvier  comprehends  in  the 
family  of  the  DelpTiinidce,  and  which  is  remarkable 
for  having  a  spirally  twisted  tusk  projecting  from 
B  B 


370  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

its  snout  five,  seven,  and  even  ten  feet  in  length, 
sometimes  finds  its  way  to  our  shores  from  the 
dreary  regions  of  the  North  Sea,  where  it  habitu- 
ally resides.  The  Beluga  or  White  Whale  has, 
although  very  rarely,  paid  us  a  visit,  and  some  of 
the  more  common  species  not  unfrequently  enter 
our  bays  and  estuaries.  Of  all  the  cetacea,  how- 
ever, the  porpoise  is  the  most  common. 

There  are  many  considerations  of  the  greatest 
interest  connected  with  the  natural  history  of  all 
these  animals.  But  we  shall  refer  only  to  one  or 
two  points  regarding  their  structure,  many  of  the 
peculiarities  of  which  evince  in  a  most  striking 
manner  the  design  of  the  great  Author  of  Nature. 

There  is  a  remarkable  peculiarity  in  the  struc- 
ture of  the  tail  in  the  cetacea,  which  distinguishes 
all  the  order  from  fishes  properly  so  called.  The 
tail  of  the  fish  is  vertical  in  its  direction,  while 
that  of  the  whale  family  is  horizontal.  Now  the 
reason  of  this  peculiarity  becomes  obvious  at  once 
if  we  consider  that  all  the  whale  tribe  breathe  by 
means  of  lungs  in  the  same  manner  as  quadrupeds. 
They  require,  therefore,  to  have  direct  access  to 
the  atmosphere,  and  although  living  in  the  sea 
and  capable  of  remaining  submerged  for  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time,  must  at  certain  intervals 
visit  the  surface  in  order  to  breathe.  Now  the 
horizontal  position  of  the  tail  is,  of  all  others,  the 
best  suited  to  this  purpose.  The  structure,  therefore, 
has  a  direct  reference  to  the  necessity  under  which 
the  animal  is  laid  to  obtain  easy  and  swift  access 


STRUCTURE  OF  CETACEA.         371 

to  the  atmosphere,  and  it  refers  us  at  once  to  that 
Being  to  whom  the  physical  necessities  of  all  His 
creatures  are  known,  and  by  whose  wisdom  alone 
those  necessities  can  be  appropriately  supplied. 

A  similar  remark  may  be  made  with  respect  to 
the  structure  of  the  mouth  in  the  common  whale. 
This  animal,  as  is  well  known,  feeds  upon  the 
minute  crustaceous  and  molluscous  animals,  and 
the  gelatinous  medusa  that  abound  in  the  northern 
seas.  Its  jaws  are  accordingly  furnished,  not  with 
teeth,  but  with  a  series  of  horny  laminae,  called 
whalebone,  or  baleen.  These  plates  are  attached 
to  the  upper  jaw  in  rows  parallel  to  each  other, 
and  are  furnished  at  their  edges  with  fringes  to 
the  number  of  several  hundreds.  These  fringes 
form  a  strainer  through  which  the  water,  taken 
into  the  animal's  mouth,  is  made  to  pass,  leaving 
behind  multitudes  of  the  creatures  which  form 
its  food.  To  an  animal  thus  nourished,  teeth 
would  not  constitute  a  suitable  apparatus;  but 
the  huge  strainer  in  question  is  precisely  adapted 
to  the  whale's  requirements,  its  food  requiring  no 
mastication.  Here  we  possess  a  very  striking  in- 
stance of  a  structure  strictly  adapted  to  a  peculiar 
and  indispensable  purpose,  for  which  nothing  but 
the  intention  and  design  of  Infinite  Skill  can 
account. 

We  arrive  at  a  similar  conclusion  when  we 
consider  another  peculiarity  in  the  structure  of 
the  whale.  What  is  called  the  blubber  has  been 
ascertained  by  anatomists  to  be  the  true  skin  of 

B  B  2 


372  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

the  whale.  This  skin  consists  of  a  mass  of  fibres 
interlacing  each  other,  as  in  ordinary  skin ;  but 
the  texture  is  much  more  loose  and  open,  and  thus 
affords  room  for  the  fatty  matter,  or  oil,  deposited 
in  it,  and  varying  in  thickness  from  that  of  several 
inches  to  between  one  and  two  feet.  The  integu- 
ment, or  skin,  thus  thickened  is  adapted  in  such 
a  manner  to  the  requirements  of  the  animal  as  to 
excite  the  utmost  admiration. 

The  skin  is,  as  already  stated,  not  only  open  in 
its  texture,  and  of  great  thickness,  but  it  is  filled 
with  a  substance  the  specific  gravity  of  which  is 
considerably  less  than  that  of  sea  water.  This 
substance  envelops  the  whole  body  of  the  animal, 
and  serves  the  important  purpose  of  rendering 
buoyant  a  fabric  so  huge,  of  which  even  the  bones 
are  of  very  great  weight  compared  with  those  of 
fishes. 

But  this  skin,  so  peculiar  in  its  structure,  per- 
forms another  office.  It  is  an  extremely  bad  con- 
ductor of  heat,  inasmuch  as  there  is  no  circulation 
among  the  particles  of  which  the  deposited  oil  is 
composed.  Hence  the  animal  heat  of  these  warm- 
blooded animals  is  not  transferred  to  the  sur- 
rounding waters,  or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  the 
external  cold  cannot  penetrate.  By  this  means 
the  whale  can  with  perfect  safety  inhabit  the 
coldest  water.  This  arrangement  of  its  skin  is 
necessary  to  its  existence,  because  of  its  being  a 
warm-blooded  animal ;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
whale  possessed  cold  blood,  like  a  fish,  such  a 


ADAPTATION   OF   STRUCTURE.  373 

protection  would  have  been  unnecessary.  •  Is  it 
possible  to  avoid  the  conclusion  which  a  contem- 
plation of  this  admirably  adapted  structure  forces 
upon  us,  that  the  Supreme  Intelligence  in  ori- 
ginating the  structure  intimately  knew  and  care- 
fully provided  for  the  laws  of  the  transmission  of 
caloric  ? 

But  it  remains  to  be  added  that  the  integu- 
ment in  question  answers  a  third  purpose.  It  is 
extremely  elastic,  and  it  is  well  known  that  elas- 
tic substances,  and  even  air  itself,  which  possesses 
great  elasticity,  present  an  increasing  resistance 
with  every  increase  of  pressure.  Thus  the  more 
elastic  the  substance  is  the  more  does  its  reaction 
equal  the  compressing  power  to  which  it  is  ex- 
posed. Now  the  whale  is  wont  to  descend  to  an 
immense  depth  in  the  ocean,  and  this  would  ex- 
pose it  to  destruction,  were  it  not  for  the  resist- 
ance which  the  structure  of  the  skin  presents  to 
the  enormous  compression  of  the  surrounding 
water.  At  a  great  depth  below  the  surface  every 
square  inch  of  the  animal's  body  may  be  pressed 
upon  with  a  ton  weight,  making  an  aggregate 
compressing  force  of  many  thousands  of  tons. 
This  immense  power  must  necessarily  diminish, 
to  a  certain  degree,  the  whale's  body ;  but  the 
compression  extends,  it  is  certain,  only  a  limited 
distance  from  the  surface  of  the  skin,  and  cannot, 
therefore,  extend  to  any  of  the  vital  organs.  Does 
not  this  use  of  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  skin 
clearly  indicate  the  design  of  Supreme  Wisdom  ? 

BBS 


374  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

The  Phocidce,  or  Seal  family,  are  represented 
on  our  sea-shores  by  some  four  different  species, 
of  which  the  most  familiar  is  the  common  seal. 

The  common  seal  is  a  gregarious  animal,  and, 
although  the  water  is  its  chief  abode,  it  haunts 
caverns  and  recesses  among  the  rocks,  in  which 
it  brings  forth  its  young,  which  are  generally  two 
in  number,  and  are  nursed  by  their  mother  with 
great  assiduity  and  tenderness.  The  favourite 
food  of  this  animal  when  inhabiting  coasts  at  a 
distance  from  rivers  consists  of  almost  any  of  the 
larger  kinds  of  fish,  and  it  is  said  especially  flat 
fish ;  but  when  it  frequents  the  estuaries  of  our 
larger  rivers  it  makes  terrible  havoc  among  the 
salmon,  which  it  often  pursues  even  into  the  nets 
of  the  fisherman.  The  common  seal  is  remark- 
ably intelligent  and  docile.  It  is  capable  of  being 
tamed,  and  it  evinces  great  affection  for  its  master. 
But  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  its  peculiarities 
is  its  marvellous  fondness  for  music.  Laing  men- 
tions, in  his  "  Account  of  a  Voyage  to  Spitzbergen," 
that  the  tones  of  his  violin  would  generally  draw 
around  him  an  audience  of  seals  who  would  follow 
his  boat  for  miles.  In  the  "  Naturalists'  Library  " 
the  following  statement  is  made  by  an  excellent 
writer: — "The  fondness  of  these  animals  for 
musical  sounds  is  a  curious  peculiarity  of  their 
nature,  and  has  been  to  me  often  a  subject  of 
interest  and  amusement.  During  a  residence  of 
some  years  in  one  of  the  Hebrides  I  had  many 
opportunities  of  witnessing  this  peculiarity,  and,  in 


THE   SEAL ITS    STRUCTURE,    ETC.  375 

fact,  could  call  forth  its  manifestation  at  pleasure. 
In  walking  along  the  shore  in  the  calm  of  a 
summer  afternoon,  a  few  notes  of  my  flute  would 
bring  half  a  score  of  them  within  twenty  or  thirty 
yards  of  me ;  and  there  they  would  swim  about 
with  their  heads  above  water,  like  so  many  black 
dogs  evidently  delighted  with  the  sounds.  For 
half  an  hour,  or  indeed  for  any  length  of  time  I 
chose,  I  could  fix  them  to  the  spot;  and  when  I 
moved  along  the  water's  edge  they  would  follow 
me  with  eagerness,  like  the  dolphins,  who,  it  is 
said,  attended  Arion.  I  have  frequently  wit- 
nessed the  same  effect  when  out  on  a  boat  excur- 
sion. The  sound  of  a  flute,  or  of  a  common  fife, 
blown  by  one  of  the  boatmen,  was  no  sooner  heard 
than  half  a  dozen  would  start  up  within  a  few 
yards,  wheeling  round  us  as  long  as  the  music 
played."  Another  author  mentions  the  remark- 
able fact  that  when  the  bells  of  the  church  of 
Hoy,  which  stands  on  the  sea-shore,  were  rung 
for  divine  service,  all  the  seals  within  hearing 
made  directly  for  the  shore,  where  they  kept 
looking  about  them  as  if  surprised  at  the  sounds. 
This  peculiarity  in  the  seal  has  often  been  re- 
garded as  fabulous,  but  there  is  no  reason  what- 
ever to  doubt  its  accuracy. 

The  element  in  which  the  seal  chiefly  dwells  is 
the  sea,  and  although  on  land  its  movements  are 
awkward  in  the  extreme,  no  aquatic  animal  is 
more  admirably  adapted  to  move  in  the  water. 
If  we  examine  its  structure  we  perceive  that  its 

B    B    4 


376  SEASIDE   DIVINITY. 

trunk  bears  no  inconsiderable  resemblance  in  its 
general  figure  to  the  body  of  a  fish.  It  is  elon- 
gated and  conical,  tapering  from  the  chest  to  the 
tail ;  the  hinder  limbs  are  directed  backwards  so 
as  to  terminate  the  body,  and  consist  of  broad 
webbed  and  powerful  paddles ;  the  whole  struc- 
ture of  the  body  combined  with  the  animal's  great 
muscular  power  adapting  it,  like  a  fish,  to  make 
its  way  with  extraordinary  ease  and  rapidity 
through  the  element  in  which  it  chiefly  lives,  and 
to  seize  upon  its  finny  prey,  notwithstanding  the 
swiftness  of  their  movements. 

The  structure  of  this  creature's  body  exhibits 
several  other  most  striking  instances  of  adaptation, 
one  or  two  of  which  we  cannot  refrain  from  point- 
ing out.  Water  is  the  principal  element  in  which 
the  seal  has  its  abode,  and  in  order  to  capture  its 
prey  it  is  frequently  necessary  for  the  animal  to 
remain  immersed  for  a  considerable  length  of 
time.  Its  respiration  accordingly  corresponds 
with  this  necessity,  differing  materially  from  what 
is  observed  in  most  other  animals.  It  is  able  to 
remain  at  least  twenty  minutes  under  water, 
during  which  time  the  nostrils  are  closed,  so  that 
during  its  immersion  no  water  can  enter  the  air 
passages.  Even  when  on  land  the  period  inter- 
vening between  the  inspirations  has  been  found 
to  be  of  great  length,  two  minutes  often  occurring 
between  each  breath ;  but  the  great  quantity  of 
air  taken  in  upon  each  breath  makes  up  for  the 
small  number  of  the  animal's  respirations. 


CONCLUSION.  377 

But  not  only  its  respiration,  and  even  its  nostrils, 
are  accurately  adapted  to  its  subaqueous  habits,  but 
the  eye  itself  is  so  accommodated.  It  is  specially 
adapted  for  seeing  in  the  water,  and  as  the  seal 
is  often  at  great  depths  exposed  to  unusual  pres- 
sure, a  provision  for  the  protection  of  the  eye  is 
made  by  an  appropriate  mechanism,  consisting  of 
an  additional  eyelid,  placed  at  the  inner  angle  of 
the  cornea,  which  at  the  will  of  the  animal  may 
be  drawn  over  the  whole  eye.  It  appears  more- 
over, that  even  the  apertures  of  the  ears  may  "be 
closed,  a  structure  existing  for  this  purpose,  by 
which  they  are  rendered  impervious,  however 
great  the  pressure  of  the  surrounding  fluid  may 
be.  Can  any  causes  be  assigned  for  arrangements 
so  specially  adapted  to  the  required  conditions 
other  than  the  design  and  purpose  of  that  Being 
who  gave  to  the  material  world  its  peculiar  laws, 
without  a  suitable  adaptation  to  which  animal  life 
could  not  subsist?  Can  any  arrangements  in  the 
body  of  an  animal  be  pointed  out  more  clearly 
indicative  at  once  of  Divine  intelligence,  power, 
and  goodness  ? 


Having  thus  confined  our  attention,  with  few 
if  any  exceptions,  to  illustrations  of  our  subject, 
derived  from  the  natural  history  of  the  sea-shore, 
and  having  presented  to  our  readers  a  variety  of 
examples  derived  from  the  chief  branches  into 
which  that  delightful  science  is  divided,  we  now 


378  SEASIDE    DIVINITY. 

bring  our  volume  to  a  close,  and  we  do  so  in  the 
belief  that  such  studies  as  those  which  it  is  the 
purpose  of  this  work  to  suggest,  are  capable  of 
adding  immeasurably  to  the  charms*  of  a  visit  to 
the  coast,  by  furnishing  the  mind  with  cheerful 
and  ennobling  contemplations,  and  aiding  the 
thoughtful  observer  to  convert  the  simplest  object 
which  engages  his  attention  into  a  lesson  on 
Seaside  Divinity. 


THE    END. 


LOSDOK 

PBIKTKD  BY  SPOTTISWOODB  AlfD   CO. 
NEW-STEEET  SQUABS 


0  0  KS 


PUBLISHED   BY 


JAMES   HOGG   AND   SONS 

LONDON 


The  Female  Characters  of  Holy  Writ. 

By  the  Rev.  HUGH  HUGHES,  D.D.,  Rector  of  St.  John's,  Clerkenwell,  and 
Lecturer  of  St.  Leonard's,  Shoreditcb.  A  New  and  revised  Edition.  One- 
voL  8vo.  cloth,  10s.  6d. 

"  rpHE^lanof  this  work  differs  from  all  others  of  the  kind  iu  the  following  require 
1  ments :— 1.  To  present  all  the  Female  Characters  of  Holy  Writ  with  scarcely  an 
exception  or  omission  of  any.  2.  To  present  the  Female  Characters  of  the  Canonical 
books  without  intermixing  with  them  any  of  the  Apocryphal  biographies.  8.  To  deduce 
from  each  of  them  distinct  practical  instruction.  4.  To  exhibit  them  chronologically,  and 
to  connect  them  by  a  chain  of  reference,  so  as  to  keep  in  view  the  stream  ot  Sacred  History 
and  the  varying  aspect  of  the  Church  in  different  a«es  of  the  world. 

"As  combining  these  several  requisites  to  unity,  comprehensiveness  and  complete- 
ness, this  attempt  will  be  seen  to  bear  features  which  distinguish  it  from  all  other  attempts 
in  the  same  field  of  Sacred  Literature."— Extract  from  the  Preface. 

The  English  Gentlewoman ; 

or,  A  Practical  Manual  for  Young  Ladies  on  their  Entrance  into  Society. 
Third  Edition.  Revised  and  enlarged  by  the  Author.  Fcp.  8vo.  cloth,  floral 
gilt  edges,  4s. 

"  rpHIS  work  is  intended  chiefly  for  young  ladies  of  the  upper  classes  of  English  Society. 
1  The  object  of  the  writer  is,  by  the  experience  of  a  life  passed  in  those  circles  which 
constitute  what  is  called  '  the  world,'  to  supply  those  who  are  entering  into  a  new  and 
busy  sphere  with  some  of  the  practical  benefits  of  observation  and  reflection,  to  propound 
the  elements  of  that  species  of  knowledge,  which,  contrary  to  other  sciences,  is  usually  ac- 
quired by  blunders  and  err  rs;  the  lessons  of  which  are  often  received  with  mortification, 
and  remembered  often  with  regret.  This  little  book,  which  pretends  to  no  deeper  learning 
than  that  which  the  heart  and  the  memory  can  impart,  is  therefore  offered  to  the 
young  who  are  destined,  not  for  the  happy  duties  of  an  humble  and  narrow  sphere,  but  for 
the  arduous  introduction  into  a  career  usually  deemed  more  perilous.  It  is  lor  those  who 
must  live,  more  or  less,  in  communion  with  the  gay  and  the  opulent,  but  who  wish  'to 
live  unspotted  in  the  world.'  It  is  meant  to  resemble  the  warning  voice  of  the  nurse  who 
sees  the  children  of  her  care  sporting  on  the  brink  of  a  sedgy  pool,  all  green  with  aquatic 
plants,  and  calls  to  them  to  beware."— Extract  from  the  Preface. 


/VA//A/W  /;//  .In mrx    llntjij  ti/nl,  finus. 


Tim  Kiiglisli  Matron ; 


or,  A  I'nirtirnl   Manual  for  Yomiff  Wivon.     Hy  tlio  Author  of  "  The  Bttffllgh 

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I         I,,      I  mi  II I  it.     In   I    1 1.  •  I    .Hill  :.    1 1)  I)laCO  (1V01I    Ml     •  .,1,   Mill     I. -I  III       tin'     1 1 1 1  ••.-!  II-M  .  it     I'.lllilli'. 

WiW  tin-  ..l.|i-i-l  nMlii'i  work.      lln  ilicrllM,  uncll    MM   llnv    Hit,  Wart    nr\rr    nmrc    nrnli-,1  I  li:ni 
IHI\V       1 1  i  •>  nil.  M  '.I  u  illi    i   ii  in    I    |  n  i\  i  i      I  "i    I  In-    <i  i-H  I  »-i  1 1  ••  nl    I  In-    \  i  ii  1 1  r-,   in  il  ron  ;   in   all 

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Hughes Js  Graduated  Reading-Lessons,  in  Pour 

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coloured  Engravings.  Sixteen  varieties,  uniform  in  size  and  style,  Is.  6d. 
each.  Every  volume  contains  one  or  more  Tales  complete,  is  stronsly  hound 
in  cloth  boards,  with  Four  coloured  Engravings  on  Wood,  designed  and  en- 
graved by  Dalziel  Brothers,  and  124  pages  of  clear,  bold  letter-press,  printed 
upon  stout  paper. 

The  Tales  are  written  by  various  Authors,  most  of  them  expressly  for  the 
Series,  and  for  cheapness,  attractiveness,  and  sterling  interest,  they  present, 
perhaps,  one  of  the  most  pleasing  and  useful  collections  of  Stories  in  modern 
Juvenile  Literature. 

As  the  fresh  rose-bud  needs  the  silvery  shower, 

The  golden  sunshine,  and  the  pearly  dew, 

The  joyous  day,  with  all  its  changes  new, 
Ere  it  can  bloom  into  the  perfect  flower; 
So  with  the  human  rose-bud ;  from  sweet  airs 

Of  heaven  will  fragrant  purity  be  caught, 

And  influences  benign  of  tender  thought 
Inform  the  soul,  like  angels,  unawares. 

MAET  HowtTT. 

Ally  and  her  School-fellow : 

A  Tale  for  the  Young.  By  Miss  M.  BETHAM-EDWABDS,  Author  of  "  Holi- 
days among  the  Mountains,"  "  Charlie  and  Ernest,"  &c.  With  Four 
coloured  Pictures.  Royal  18mo.  cloth  lettered,  ornamental  side,  Is.  6d. 

Loyal  Charlie  Bentham. 

By  Mrs.  WEBB,  Author  of  "The  Beloved  Disciple,"  "  Naomi,"  "  Idaline," 
&c.  And  THE  CHILDREN'S  ISLAND:  A  True  Story.  Edited  by  L. 
NUGENT.  With  Four  coloured  Pictures.  Royal  18mo.  cloth  lettered,  orna- 
mental side,  Is.  6d. 

Simple  Stories  for  Children. 

By  MARY  E.  MILLS.  With  Four  coloured  Pictures.  Royal  18mo.  cloth 
lettered,  ornamental  side,  ls.6d. 

A  Child's  First  Book  about  Birds. 

By  a  COUNTRY  CLERGYMAN.  With  Four  coloured  Pictures.  Royal  18mo. 
cloth  lettered,  ornamental  side,  Is.  6d. 

Prince  Arthur ; 

or,  The  Four  Trials.  By  CATHERINE  MARY  STIRLING.  And  TALES  BY 
THE  FLOWERS.  By  CAROLINE  B.  TEMPLER.  With  Four  coloured  Pic- 
tures. Royal  18mo.  cloth  lettered,  ornamental  side,  Is.  6d. 

The  Story  of  Henrietta  and  the  Ayah ; 

or,  Do  Not  Trust  to  Appearances.  And  MY  LITTLE  SCHOOL-FELLOW ; 
or,  One  Good  Turn  deserves  Another.  By  Madame  DE  CHATELAIN.  With 
Four  coloured  Pictures.  Royal  18mo.  cloth  lettered,  ornamental  side,  Is.  6d. 


Books  Published  by  James  Hogg  and  Sons. 


THE  ROSE-BUD  STORIES— continued. 

Stories  from  English  History. 

For  Young  Children.  Edited  by  the  Rev.  ROBERT  HENNIKER,  M.A.,  In- 
cumbent of  South  Charlton,  Northumberland.  With  Four  coloured  Pictures. 
Royal  18mo.  cloth  lettered,  ornamental  side,  Is.  6d. 

Twelve  Links  of  the  Golden  Chain. 

By  ANNA  J.  BUCKLAND.  With  Four  coloured  Pictures.  Royal  18mo.  cloth 
lettered,  ornamental  side,  Is.  6d. 

Easy  Talks  for  Little  Folks. 

By  the  Author  of  "  A  Visit  to  the  Seaside,"  "  Cousin  Elizabeth,"  "  Little 
Crumbs,"  &c.  And  MAY-DAY  ;  or,  Anecdotes  of  Miss  Lydia  Lively.  Edited 
by  L.  NUGENT.  With  Four  coloured  Pictures.  Royal  18mo.  cloth  lettered, 
ornamental  side,  Is.  6d. 

Susan  and  the  Doll; 

or,  Do  Not  be  Covetous.  And  THE  LITTLE  ORPHAN'S  HISTORY;  or, 
Everything  for  the  Best.  By  CAROLINE  LEICESTER.  With  Four  coloured 
Pictures.  Roy'al  18mo.  cloth  lettered,  ornamental  side,  Is.  6d. 

Juvenile  Tales  for  Juvenile  Readers. 

By  CHARLOTTE  ELIZABETH.  With  Four  coloured  Pictures.  Royal  18mo. 
cloth  lettered,  ornamental  side,  Is.  6d. 

The  Life  of  Eobinson  Crusoe. 

In  Short  Words.  By  SARAH  CROMPTON,  Author  of  "A  Plan  to  Combine 
Education  with  Instruction,"  "Life  of  Columbus,"  "Life  of  Luther,"  in 
Short  Words,  &c.  With  Four  coloured  Pictures.  Royal  18mo.  cloth  lettered, 
ornamental  side,  Is.  6d. 

A  Winter's  Wreath  of  Illustrative  Tales. 

Edited  by  Lady  CHARLOTTE  LAW.  And  SYMPATHY:  A  Tale.  By  E,  A.M. 
With  Four  coloured  Pictures.  Royal  18mo.  cloth  lettered,  ornamental  side, 
is.  6d. 

Little  Paul  and  his  Moss-wreaths  ; 

or,  The  King  and  the  Boy  who  kept  his  Word.  By  ANGELIKA  VON 
LAGBRSTROM.  Together  with  the  STORY  OF  LITTLE  GEORGE  BELL. 
With  Four  coloured  Pictures.  Royal  18mo.  cloth  lettered,  ornamental  side, 
is.  6d. 

Six  Short  Stories  for  Short  People. 

By  the  Rev.  F.  W.  B.  BOUVERIE,  Author  of  "Life  and  its  Lessons,"  &c. 
With  Four  coloured  Pictures.  Royal  18mo.  cloth  lettered,  ornamental  side, 
is.  6d. 

The  Captive  Sky-Lark ; 

or,  Do  as  You  Would  be  Done  by  f  A  Tale.  By  Madame  DE  CHATELAIN. 
With  Four  coloured  Pictures.  Royal  ISmo.  cloth  lettered,  ornamental  side, 
Is.  6d. 

c  c 


Books  Published  by  James  Hogg  and  Sons. 


Studies  of  Christian  Character. 


By  BITHA  Fox,  Author  of  "  Pictures  of  Heroes,"  "  The  Yews,"  &c.  With 
Illustrations  by  James  Godwin,  printed  on  toned  paper.  Crown  8vo. 
elegantly  bound  in  cloth,  labelled  boards,  gilt  edges,  6s. 

CONTENTS. 


Signal  Fires. 
The  Fair  Pietist. 
"The  Tenth  Muse." 
The  Lamp  in  the  Cell. 
The  Red  Silk  Banner. 


Watchers  for  the  Dawn. 
The  Artists  of  the  Reformation. 
The  Cobbler- Poet  of  Nuremberg. 
The  Friendships  of  the  Reformation. 


The  Golden  Casket : 

A  Treasury  of  Tales  for  Young  People.  Edited  by  MARY  HOWITT.  With 
Illustrations  by  John  Palmer,  printed  on  toned  paper.  Small  crown  8vo. 
elegantly  bound  in  cloth,  gilt  edges,  5s. 

CONTENTS. 

The  Elchester  College  Boys.    By  Mrs.  Wood,  Author  of  "  Bed  Court  Farm,"  "  Danesbury 

House,"  &c. 

The  Delft  Jug.    By  Eliza  Meteyard  (Silverpen). 

The  Boy  and  the  Man.    From  the  German  of  Christopher  von  Schmidt. 
William  and  his  Teacher.    By  Mrs.  S.  C.  Hall. 
The  Story  of  Luke  Barnicott.    By  William  Howitt. 

The  Castle  East  of  the  Sun  and  West  of  the  World :  A  Story  from  the  Old  Danish. 
My  First  Cruise.    By  W.  H.  G.  Kingston. 
The  Holidays  at  Barenburg  Castle.    By  Ottilie  Wildermuth. 
Some  Passages  from  the  Child-Life  of  Lucy  Meredyth.    By  the  Author  of  "An  Art  Student 

in  Munich." 
The  Touching  and  Marvellous  Adventures  of  Prince  Hempseed  and  his  Young  Sister. 

From  the  French  of  Le"on  Gozlari. 

Pit  to  be  a  Duchess  ; 

With  other  Stories  of  Courage  and  Principle.  By  Mrs.  GILLESPIE  SMYTH, 
Author  of  "  Selwyn,"  "  Life  and  Times  of  Olympia  Morata,"  "Probation," 
"Tales  of  the  Moors,"  &c.  With  Illustrations  by  Corbould  and  Absolon, 
printed  on  toned  paper.  Crown  8vo.  elegantly  bound  in  cloth,  gilt  edges,  5s. 

Men  who  were  Earnest : 

The  Springs  of  their  Action  and  Influence  :  A  Series  of  Biographical  Studies. 
With  Illustrations  by  Frederick  Borders,  printed  on  toned  paper.  Crown 
8vo.  elegantly  bound  in  cloth,  gilt  edges,  5s. 

The  Art  of  Doing  our  Best, 

as  seen  in  the  Lives  and  Stories  of  some  Thorough  Workers.  By  HALWIN 
CALDWELL.  With  Illustrations  by  John  Absolon,  H.  K.  Browne,  and  the 
Brothers  Dalziel,  printed  on  toned  paper.  Fcp.  8vo.  elegantly  bound,  cloth, 
gilt  edges,  5s. 

The  Old  Favourites : 

A  Treasury  of  Tales  for  Young  People.  Edited  and  Written  by  MARY 
HOWITT.  With  Illustrations  by  Zwecker,  printed  on  toned  paper.  Small 
crown  8vo.  elegantly  bound  in  cloth*  gilt  edges,  5s. 

rpHE  Volume  contains  an  Original  Tale,  entitled  "  Rockbourne  Hall,"  introducing  the 
-L  Young  Folks'  Readings,  and  their  Conversations  about  Old  Favourite  Tales.  The 
course  of  the  Narrative  embraces  many  Stories  by  various  Standard  Authors,  given  in  a 
carefully  Revised  and  sometimes  Popularised  form. 


Books  Published  by  James  Hogg  and  Sons. 


A  Treasury  of  New  Favourite  Tales  for  Young 

People.  Edited  and  Written  by  MARY  HOWITT.  With  Illustrations  by 
Coleman  and  Palmer,  printed  on  toned  paper.  Small  crown  8vo.  elegantly 
bound  in  cloth,  gilt  edges,  5s. 

CONTENTS. 


The  Lords  of  Wyvon.    By  Mary  Howitt. 
Jonas  on  a  Farm.    By  Jacob  Abbott. 
The  Gray  African  Parrot.   By  Harry  Gringo. 
The  Travelling  Tinman.    By  Miss  Leslie. 
Red-headed  Andy.    By  Fannv  Fern. 
My  Little  Lizzie.    By  Miss  Gillies. 


The  Secret  Society.    By  Mrs.  De  Morgan. 

The  Rainy  Day.    By  Fanny  Fern. 

The  Chimera.    By  Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 

Making  Something.    By  Mrs.  Child. 

The  Boat  Club.    By  Oliver  Optic. 

The  Little  Peacemaker.    By  Mary  Howitt. 


Every  Boy's  Stories  : 


A  choice  Collection  of  Standard  Tales,  Rhymes,  and  Allegories.  In  One 
thick  Volume,  with  Twelve  full-page  Illustrations,  printed  on  toned  paper. 
Small  crown  8vo.  cloth,  5s. 

4 

The  Brave  Old  English  Confessors. 

With  Illustrations  by  L.  Huard,  printed  on  toned  paper.  Crown  8vo. 
elegantly  bound  in  cloth,  bevelled  boards,  gilt  edges,  5s. 

Mornings  with  Mama ; 

or,  Scripture  Dialogues  for  Young  Persons  from  Ten  to  Eighteen  Years  of 
Age.  By  Mrs.  GILLESPIE  SMYTH,  Author  of  "Selwyn,"  "The  Life  and 
Times  of  Olympia  Morata,"  "  Probation,"  &c.  Third  Edition,  revised  and 
Illustrated.  In  Six  Volumes,  fcp.  Svo.  green  and  gold,  2s.  6d.  each. 

TITLIS  OF  THE   SIX  VOLUMES. 


THE  LIFE  OF  MOSES  AND  THE  EARLY 
HISTORY  OF  THE  ISRAELITES,  &c. 

n. 

LIVES  OF  JOSHUA,  SAMSON,  AND 
RUTH;  THE  EARLY  DAYS  OF 
SAMUEL  AND  SAUL,  &c. 

III. 

THE  LIVES  OF  DAVID  AND  SOLOMON, 

&c. 


LIVES  OF  THE  KINGS  AND  THE  PRO- 
PHETS, &c. 

v. 

THE  GOSPELS  :— The  Anarel's  Message 
—St.  John— The  Transfiguration  — 
Parables,  &c. 


THE  GOSPELS  :- 


VI. 

-Lessons  of  the  Para- 


bles—The Crucifixion,  &c. 


•trARIOUS  eminent  Clergymen  encouraged  the  preparation  of  these  favourite  Dialogues ; 
V  and  the  late  Dr.  CHALMERS  (to  whom,  by  permission,  the  volumes  were  originally 
dedicated)  made  daily  use  of  them  in  his  own  Family.  Each  volume  is  Illustrated  by 
highly-finished  Engravings  on  Wood  by  Dalziel  (printed  on  Toned  Paper),  chiefly  from 
choice  Compositions  of  the  Old  Masters. 


Mornings  with  Mama 


may  also  be  had  in  three  vols.  thus  :— 

THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  SERIES. 


ir. 


EARLIER  LIVES  AND  NARRATIVES.      |  LATER  HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 

THE  GOSPEL  SERIES.    1  VOL. 
Fcp.  Svo.  bevelled  boards  and  gilt  edges,  5s.  each. 


10  Books  Published  by  James  Hogg  and  Sons. 


The  Book  of  Drawing-Room  Plays  and  Evening 

Amusements  :  A  Comprehensive  Manual  of  In-door  Recreation,  including  all 
kinds  of  Acting  Charades— Mute,  Comic,  Poetic,  Fairy,  Dramatic,  Historic, 
and  Classic ;  Proverbs,  Burlesques,  and  Extravaganzas  ;  comprising  Novel  and 
Original  Ideas,  numerous  Skeleton  Plots  and  Dialogues;  Descriptions  of 
Continental  Court  Tableaux  hitherto  unnoticed  in  this  Country  ;  Intellectual, 
Active,  Catch,  and  Trick  Games  ;  Forfeits,  Board  Games,  Puzzles,  and  Par- 
lour Magic.  The  whole  interspersed  with  Practical  Directions  concerning 
Costume,  and  Hints  on  Management  and  Accessories.  By  HENRY  D ALTON. 
With  Scenic  Illustrations  by  Corbould  and  Du  Maurier,  printed  on  toned 
paper,  and  upwards  of  120  Diagrams  on  Wood ;  accompanied  by  a  copious 
Index.  Small  crown  8vo.  elegantly  bound  in  cloth,  gilt  edges,  6s. 

Sketches  of  Foreign  Novelists. 

By  GEORQINA  GORDON.  A  Series  of  Tales  and  Sketches  from  recent  Works 
of  the  Popular  Novelists  of  Germany  and  France,  including  Muhlbach, 
Auerbach,  Miigge,  and  Aygare-Carlin ;  Feuillet,  Sandeau,  and  Dumas.  Post 

8VO.  10S.  6d.  CONTENTS. 

A  Royal  Marriage.  I  Louisanne's  Stratagem. 

Cinderella  of  the  Black  Forest.  The  Jailer's  Daughter. 

A  Peasant  Prince.  The  Smugglers. 

The  Story  of  Chateau  Laroque. 

De  Quincey  on  Self-Education. 

With    Hints  on  Style  and  Dialogues  on  Political  Economy.      Fcp.  8vo 

Cloth,  6S.  CONTENTS. 


Letters  to  a  Young  Man  whose  Education 

has  been  neglected. 
Language. 
Style. 


Conversation. 
Superficial  Knowledge. 
Dialogues  of  Three  Templars  on  Political 
Economy. 


Khetoric. 

,  perhaps,  for  brevity,  pungency  and  force.    They  not 


•1  only  bring  the  Ricardian  Theory  of  Value  in  strong  relief,  but  triumphantly  repel, 
or  rather  annihilate,  the  objections  urged  against  it  by  Malthas  in  the  pamphlet  now  re- 
ferred to  and  his  Political  Economy,  and  by  Say  and  others.  They  may,  indeed,  be  said  to 
have  exhausted  the  subject."— ,7.  R.  M' CullocA— Literature  of  Political  Economy. 

WORKS    BY    GEORGE    CILFILLAIM. 

1.  The  Bards  of  the  Bible. 

Fifth  Edition.    Crown  8vo.  cloth,  5s. 

2.  Christianity  and  our  Era : 

A  Book  for  the  Times.    Demy  8vo.  cloth,  10s.  6d» 

3.  Galleries  of  Literary  Portraits. 

(First,  Second,  and  Third.)  Fourth  Edition,  complete  in  Two  Volumes. 
Crown  8vo.  cloth,  10s. 

The  Romance  of  Diplomacy : 

Historical  Memoir  of  Queen  Carolina  Matilda  of  Denmark,  Sister  to  King 
George  the  Third  ;  with  Memoir,  and  a  Selection  from  the  Correspondence 
(Official  and  Familiar)  of  Sir  Robert  Murray  Keith,  K.B.,  Envoy  Extra- 
ordinary and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  at  the  Courts  of  Dresden,  Copenhagen, 
and  Vienna.  By  Mrs.  GILLESPIE  SMYTH.  Second  Edition,  revised,  with 
Portraits  engraved  on  Steel.  Two  vols.  post  8vo.  14s.