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Smithsonian 


Miscellaneous Collections 


VOLUME LII 


(QUARTERLY Issurz, VOLUME V) 





‘“ EVERY MAN IS A VALUABLE MEMBER OF SOCIETY WHO, BY HIS OBSERVATIONS, RESEARCHES, 


AND EXPERIMENTS, PROCURES KNOWLEDGE FOR MEN.’’—SMITHSON 


No. 1921 


CITY OF WASHINGTON 
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 
1910 





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ADVERTISEMENT 


The present series, entitled SmrrHson1iaAn MiscrLLaNxous Cot- 
LECTIONS, is intended to include all the publications issued directly 
by the Smithsonian Institution in octavo form, excepting the An- 
NUAL Report to Congress; those in quarto constituting the Smitn- 
SONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE. The quarto series includes 
memoirs embracing the records of extended original investigations 
and researches, resulting in what are believed to be new truths and 
constituting positive additions to the sum of human knowledge. The 
octavo series is designed to contain reports on the present state of. 
our knowledge of particular branches of science; instructions for 
collecting and digesting facts and materials for research; lists and 
synopses of species of the organic and inorganic world; reports of 
explorations; aids to bibliographical investigations, etc., generally 
prepared at the express request of the Institution, and at its expense. 

In the SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE, as well as 
in the SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, the actual daté 
of the publication of each article is that given on its special title- 
page or in the Table of Contents of the volume, and not necessarily 
that of the title of the volume in which it appears. 

The Quarterly Issue of the SMrrHsoniaAN MIscELLANEOUS COL- 
LECTIONS is designed chiefly to afford a medium for the early pub- 
lication of the results of researches conducted by the Smithsonian 
Institution and its branches, and especially for the publication of 
reports of a preliminary nature. 

The Quarterly Issue ends with the present number, Part 4, Vol. V. 
Articles will hereafter bear reference only to volumes of the regular 
series of SMITHSONIAN MiscELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 

CHARLES D. WALCOTT, 
Secretary of th. Smithsonian Institution. 


ill 





ARTICLES 


Page 


The Cretaceous Fishes of Ceard, Brazil. Davin Starr JorDAN and JOHN 
CaspEeR BRANNER. Prates I-vill. (Published April 20, 1908.)...... 
Observation of the Total Solar Eclipse of January 3, 1908: A Bolometric 
Study of the Solar Corona. C. G. Apgot. (Published April 30, 1908.) 
Report on a Trip for the Purpose of Studying the Mosquito Fauna of 
Panama. Avucust Buscx. (Published May 1, 1908.).............. 
Carl Ludwig Rominger. GrorcE P. Merrit. (Published May 1, 1908.).. 
Edward Travers Cox. Grorck P. Merritt. (Published May 1, 1908.)... 
An Apparently New Protoblattid Family from the Lower Cretaceous. 
EVELYN GROESBEECK MircHELL. (Published May 27, 1908.)......... 
Necessary Changes in the Nomenclature of Starfishes. WAt'TER K. FISHER. 
@eublishedm Vag 7eelOOGa) eisai s mr stcecererraec te sslelahtsisioe, on sveitelersieleicre 
Identity of a Supposed Whitefish, Coregonus angusticeps Cuvier & Val- 
enciennes, with a Northern Cyprinid, Platygobio gracilis (Richard- 
son). WittiAM CONVERSE KENDALL. (Published May 27, 1908.).... 
The Millers-thumb and its Habits. 'Turopore Gint. (Published June 18, 


EMS) MMe Pe eee eee trate eee nic oth eos Bae al MSO Aa ne Aeia esa ees, a.m s8 A tas 6 
UNIOE CSM RCE OTN TIS core Nc oteicas ay ree oo le oho are Mea srettach ear enaats 
The Nettelroth Collection of Invertebrate Fossils. R. S. BAssiER. Prates 

Dx Cob liShedsoeptemben 2oelOOGN)ias sais sitet eaiieeins oe easier 


A New Opuntia from Arizona. J. N. Rost. Puate xu. (Published 
ELON GOs MOOS Nie aeiat sont! Cc ental. de iia ROS eso UA R eh oe mits 
The Story of the Devil-fish. 'Turopork Git. (Published October 15, 
TQOSS Mee Ae re eh Ars, MET rete Rs Sonic ll ae. ete er RE TAL el ticks 
Indians of Peru. CHARLES C. EperHARDT, American Consul at Iquitos, 
Peru. Puates xi, xtv. (Published October 24, 1908.)............ 
On Opuntia Santa-Rita, a Species of Cactus of Ornamental Value. J. N. 
ROSEe LATE ve Chablished December,.20; 1008.)). a2: 4.51... +5 vas 
Two New Species of Abronia. ANTON Hetmert. (Published December 
2S ALCO PME TT Nec ae ey, AN NM geen, Cae Eaten cee ode Aa Bande Sikcos rite Ais 
Preliminary Notice of a Collection of Recent Crinotds from the Philippine 
Islands. Austt1n Hopart Crark. (Published December 23, 1908.)... 
The Relation of Richard Rush to the Smithsonian Institution. Cyrus 
DEER ELA xvi. Published’ januaty. 16, 1Q0Q,))..00. 0:1. 2c. 6 no « 
Descriptions of Some New Species and a New Genus of American Mos- 
quitoes. Harrison G. Dyar and FrepERICK Knaz. (Published Janu- 
AIA ARUO ET OOO) emer everson ACT e TR aerate notes, chee ees Mn Tee iets vhs 
NICE CSMME AAT G WMG TI CCUNE LS Me serater sce h yh eid ah chr nasty wicks eG isvecle Oe redew Lcnbelees 
The Archer-Fish and Its Feats. ‘THeopork Girt. (Published March 25, 
CGS) MRRP acer rcde PAN ee cee ao eh Sy See kant ateratydia tact rote Haas 2 olols Seteae' ese Sit te, 
The Peoples of Formosa. Ju~eaAN H. Arnoip. Prates x1x-xxu. (Pub- 
Misirermel icine oe TOON) Pientlaroiictes cicat susie eet « eae urmeiediniae ace staan 
Our Present Knowledge of Canal Rays: A Detailed Bibliography. Gorpon 
SCOLuHUneCHERE (Piplished™ March 25) TO09.). ..s.. 0066-0000 ses oe 


Vv 


LE 
31 
49 
79 
83 
85 


87 


95 


IOI 
117; 


155 
181 
195 
197 
199 
235 
253 
267 
277 
287 


295 


} 


vi SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52_ 


Page 
Observations on Living White Whales (Delphinapterus Leucas); with a 
Note on the Dentition of Delphinapterus and Stenodelphis, FRep- 
ERICK W. ‘TRUBS SEE ATE cox, (Published. April 28) Tones) a eeeak ee 325 
Some Recent Contributions to Our Knowledge of the Sun. Hamr.ton 
Lecture. Grorce FE. Hare. PLates xxiv-xxxvi. (Published May 


BS;  OOG. Nees oro eee chic octal gests cave EAS Danson G ce een Se oie eek 331 
Some New South American Land Shells. Witiam H. Dat. PLATE 
eKKvER Published May IT, \LO00)). 0.42. J. o2- ewe iste alee EO ee 361 


The American Ferns of the Group of Dryopteris Opposita Contained in 
the U. S. National Museum. Cart CHRISTENSEN. (Published July 


ME SEONG) er re toiS cece oes, Sinks ia oda tte is ee cd SE ees Oe neat a 365 
DNIOECS MnP CS sag Coated diets ea eee sty ee OE ee LSE ae Terenas ate a Eee 307 
Prehistoric Ruins of the Gila Valley. J. WaurER FEWKES. PLATES 

SMR ETC Piblished a NwetiSte sel QOO)) erie ener eon mice ere miata 403 
Description of:a New Frog from the Philippine Islands. L®oNHARD STEJ- 

NECHRO es GClublisheducAtiptistisemeQOOs ees eee eee ee nee eee 437 


A New Genus of Fossil Cetaceans from Santa Cruz Territory, Pata- 
gonia; and Description of a Mandible and Vertebre of Prosqualodon. 
Freperick W. Trur. PLAtEs xiui-xiv. (Published August 7, 1909.) 441 

Notes on Certain Features of the Life History of the Alaskan Freshwater 
Sculpin. Barton A, BEAN and AtrreD C. WEED. (Published August 


TOS TOOO..) "sre Sy ste ees ate i aoe eee BOR ina ee Calas ety Ol ene ei aa ae hee a 457 
The Geologic Work of Mangroves in Southern Florida. 'T. WaytLanp 
VAUGHAN. PLATES XLVI-LU. (Published September 15, 1909.)....... 401 
Crystallographic Notes on Calcite. J. E. Pocugr. Piates win, tiv. (Pub- 
lishedSeptember 24s siGOO: Viauie sb. «alee senayel st Deceit eae Gotan aha cee erent 465 
A New Rodent of the Genus Georychus. EDMUND pe PLATE LY. 
(Published: September: 245 190g, ))c--4s 7 bat: apts eateries pete tae eeege 469 
Two New Rodents from British East Africa. EpMuUND HELLER. PLATE 
LVI Geublished November 9173's TOOOS) aires: semen ene ae entree 471 


A Heretofore Undescribed Stony Meteorite from Thomson, McDuffie 
County, Georgia. Grorck P. Merritt. PLates Livi, Lv. (Pub- 
lished" December 27eTo0o!) eh est. es cos SG ene arlene ees 473 

On a Remarkable Cube of Pyrite, Carrying Crystallized Gold and Galena 
of Unusual Habit. J. E. Pocur. Pirate prix. (Published December 


pea 10 \010 i RR ARR ee RAM Sense by rmigst den ic sir oO GOMER oA os bok SG Ae 477 
A New Carnivore from British East. Africa.’ Gerrit S. MILLER, JR. 
PRATES [X—Dxi. “(Published sDecember re) 1O00;)i.c sas cl asia eee 485 ~ 


Descriptions of Fossil Plants from the Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North 
America. I. F. H. KNowrton. PLaAtes Lxim, ux1v. (Published Jan- 


WARY TT ATOTOD) . SE hc ROR Re eed arc esc ec 489 
Two New Genera of Murine Rodents. Gerrit S. MILLER, Jr. (Pub- 
lishediMantraryy 12; TOTO, ) 5 eres reek sete eas tedoie ease oa) iene See 407 


A Shelter for Observers on Mount Whitney. C. G. Aspot. PLATES LXV, 
LXVL, “Ce ublished) Jantiany. 12,1 1O1Os) pena vee a cate cee tan eer eee 409 


EHR < 
WA 


VII. 
VIM, 


IX. 
X. 


XI. 


XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

KV. 

XVII, XVIII. 
XIX. 

XX. 


XXI. 
XXII. 


XXIII. 
XXIV. 


XXV. 
XXVI. 
XXVII. 
XXVIII. 
XXIX. 
XXX. 
XXXII. 


XXXII. 
XXXII. 
XXXIV. 


LIST OF PLATES 


Page 
Belonostomus comptoni AgasSSiZ....-..+++eeeee erect teres 30 
Tharrhias araripis Jordan and Branner. Type, Serra do 

Araripe, Ceara, Brazile 0s. 6 cae ewe sers eee te bisin sees 30 
Calamopleurus cylindricus Agassiz. Ceara merrier sc seste 30 


Calamopleurus vestitus Jordan and Branner. Type, Ceara. 30 


1. Head of Notelops brama (Agassiz). Ceara, Brazil. 2. 
Rhacolepis buccalis. 3. Rhacolepis latws........++++++- 30 
Enneles audax Jordan and Branner........--++++++++++5 30 
1. Cladocyclus gardneri Agassiz. 2. Cearana roche Jor- 
Cate aC ATI Tes ase ave oetcle elietese caleinve ehoa wie! wll eines elm ieseleiese 30 
PlemiypNettelrotdn  £oa{rcis 5 ote ol cieccicen = sfeiapennyng foe eo oes 2 oitiee ie 121 
1. The falls of the Ohio at low water. 2. One of the Bear 


Ciaes queries era qac. sym die g ewe on heroes cme ole ee? 
3. Louisville limestone along Bear Grass creek, in Chero- 
kee Park, just above Big Rock. 4. Niagaran strata 


along Bear Grass creek, showing BieOc kiiaan. ore ae 126 
Opuntia vivipara ROSC......+-++-.2eeeee rect e ete e tees 153 
Type of Indian of the Peruvian region.....--.--+++++++- 181 
Type of Indian of the Peruvian LERION a eeiomins sete ey ven 188 
Opuntia Santa-Rita RoS€......--.- +e. ccee erste teeters 195 
Richard Rush (1780-1850)...2 266 caer wine ces ee eee ns cies 235 
Uintacrinus soctalis from Kansas......--.2++eseereee eres 268 
Map of Formosa, showing distribution of savage tribes... 288 


(a) The “Konkai” or dwelling-house of the unmarried 
males. (b) Human skulls on the skull shelviesijns see 
(a) Savage “Dug-outs” on. Lake Candidius, in Central 
Formosa. (b) Atayal savage village..........+-++-+-++: 
(a) Atayal women weaving cloth. (b) Married Atayal 
woman 
Young female white whale (Delphinapterus lemegs)). 5 
he Pleiades. 1. At the Yerkes Observatory. 2. At Mount 


294 


294 


204 
330 


Bie sa Ala Ta oi eta fel al ajnyetioyepn satel alieis: sfieienennka rousnepec ssa geiebeg ele nec) Siig 


NATH Gore nies ech een at cre esata doucusuedareley mustanehuie's easheuskerel gas svalevciese: 337 
Mount Wilson as seen from Mount Harvard..........-- 338 
Coelostat and second mirror of Snow telescope......----- 339 
South end of Snow telescope house on Mount Wilson.... 340 
Direct photograph of the sum..........-.--ee sede eeceree 340 
The spectroscopic laboratory on Mount WIC obascoos 342 


1. Titanium oxide flutings in spectra. 2. Spectrum of sun. 344 
The s-foot spectroheliograph, mounted for use with the 
STO WECIES COPE elite tie reteta ous ain oasis seo bade oe) ois wrote 350 
The sun, photographed with the 5-foot spectroheliograph. 351 
The sun, photographed with the 5-foot spectroheliograph. 352 
Bright H and K lines on the disk (a), (b), and (c), in 


the chromosphere (b) and ina prominence (@).....--- 353 


Vill 


Xe 
XK VE: 
XXXVIL 
XXXVIIL. 
SOG 
XL; 

Se: 
XLII. 
XLII. 


XLIV. 
XLV. 
XLVI. 


XLVII. 
XLVIII. 
XLIX. 


L. 


LI. 


LI. 


LITt. 
LIV. 
LV. 
LVI. 
LVII. 
LVIII. 


LIX. 
LX-LXII. 
LXITI, LXIV. 
LXV. 

LXVI. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 
Page 

Great sun-spot of October, 1903. Fig. 1 and Fig. 2....... 354 
Ely drogen alocculigere cman tern aee i mle es oa eee 356: 
Some new South American land shells.................- 364. 
Cliff dwellings near Roosevelt Dam, Salt River........... 406 
Pictographs, tnomm. Gilassalt valley... ose. 2 os eee ATA 
Rui iat{PleRanciiordel-iwweson..2.... <)> tee eee 416 


Pictographs onsclithenedr pl ceson.. 6c. SG: sie oe eee 418 
Riu opposite, old: BosteGrante. 2.20. Ss.) 5. saat eee 428 
1. Type skull of Proinia patagonica, new species. 2. Man- 
dible of Prosqualodon australis Lydekker.............. 456: 
Teeth of Prosqualodon australis Lydekker............... 456 
. Vertebre of Prosqualodon australis Lydekker............ 456 
1. Miami river between Miami and the edge of the Ever- 
glades. 2. Young mangroves along north bank of Miami 
ITE S4 aoe EE aye Op Ae Ae NOE er ae ae Ee RRNA oy 464 
1. Mangroves along south bank of Miami river. 2. Adult 
mangroves along north bank of Miami river............ 464. 
1. Mangroves at new cut, eastern side of Biscayne bay. 2. 
Manetovertootss Saimenocalitycere ener ares 464. 
1. Mangrove roots at Pigeon Key. 2. Mangroves along 
the southushoreror thes Marqwesdseree=: a. sone ca aeeciee 464. 
1. Young mangrove on southwest side of Bear Cut. 2. 
Young mangrove on shoal two miles northeast of Pigeon 
Key. 3. Two young mangroves from shoal about two 
milestnonthivol seteeons Meye eer ree cere 464 
I. Young mangroves on shoal, upper end of Long Island. 
2. Young mangroves, near view, same locality.......... 464. 
1. Elevated coral reef rock and vegetation at southern end 
of old Rhodes Key. 2. Mangrove Key, between Largo 
andvold' Rhodesulveyss .. yous eee here eeeee 464 
Joplinucalerteres:. 5 i. ctautow oct ae aie eee een ae ae 468° 
CalcitestwinelGuanatlatow\lextCOneeee en sere e eee 468 
Georychus RGpitt, New USpeCleSs nc x)-cehinske deers 469 
Thamnomys loringi Heller and Mus peromyscus Heller... 471 
The Thomson, Georgia, meteorite. Natural size......... 473 
The Thomson, Georgia, meteorite. Showing microstruc- 
ELIE EN 2 2) ca) a apes ceatedal | oleicuaetevertehste tata) stain tere Pe Paselele tate ache enete retest 475- 
Cube: faceiokspy rites. cere se cae oe tere eer eee 484 
Otocyon vurgaius: typCm tea tee och eee Soe 488 
Woodwardiatand Dennsicdid cose a eee ee 496 
Perspective elevation of shelter on Mount Whitney....... 502 
Shelter for observers on Mount Whitney................ 504 


VOL. 52 1908 


SMITHSONIAN 
MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 


VOL. V QUARTERLY ISSUE PaRT I 





THE CRETACEOUS FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL 
By DAVID STARR JORDAN anp JOHN CASPER BRANNER 
(WitH FEicH? PLATES) 


The first part of this paper deals with the general geology and 
geography of the region from which the Cretaceous fishes of Ceara 
come, while the second part is a systematic description of the fishes 
themselves. The collection is especially important because it con- 
tains all of the species hitherto described from Ceara, besides three 
new genera and four new species. The large number of duplicates 
has made it possible to restore several of these fishes almost entirely. 

The collection belongs to Senhor Francisco Dias da Rocha, pro- 
prietor of the Museo Rocha in Ceara, to whom it has been returned, 
but Sr. Rocha has generously presented several important counter- 
parts and duplicates to the junior author. These counterparts and 
duplicates are deposited with the geological collections of Stanford 
University, in California, and of these several specimens have been 
given to the Smithsonian Institution, at Washington. 


A. Notes oN THE GEOLOGY OF THE CRETACEOUS FISH-BEARING 
Beps oF CrearA, BRAZIL 


The collection of fossil fishes described in this paper was made by 
Sr. Francisco Dias da Rocha, of the Rocha Museum, at Fortaleza, 
Ceara, Brazil. They come from several places about the base of the 
Serra do Araripe, in the extreme southern end of the State of Ceara, 
but the precise localities are not given. The region is one that has 
been so rarely visited by scientific men that but little is known of the 
details of its geology. By far the most extensive and most valuable 
notes on the geology of Ceara are those made by Barao de Capa- 


I 


2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLI,ECTIONS VOL. 52 


nema in 1859. Unfortunately the results obtained by that writer were 
never published in full, and the paper giving a general outline of his 
explorations is disconnected and contains much irrelevant matter. 
However, the general geology of the Serra do Araripe itself is quite 
simple and its relations to the surrounding regions seem to be clear. 

The following facts are gleaned from the scanty notes of Gardner 
and Capanema, and from those of a few others.who have crossed 
adjacent portions of Maranhao, Piauhy, Parahyba, and Pernambuco. 

Spix and Martius refer to fossil fishes being found at Barra do Jar- 


N Araripe Ss 
MARANHAO = f= Para - 






Fic. 1—Hypothetical section across northeastern Brazil, showing the struc- 
tural and geographical relations of the fish-bearing beds of the Serra do 
Araripe to the coast sediments of Maranhao and Sergipe. 


dim, but it is not clear from their note (Reise in Brasilien, 11, 799) 
that the place was visited by either of the authors. The lithographed 
figure of a fish, Rhacolepis buccalis, published in one of the plates of 
the atlas accompanying their work, is reproduced here. It is the 
first one of the fossil fishes ever figured from that region (pl. v1, 
fie ie): 

The water-sheds between the State of Ceara and the-States that 
adjoin it on the south and west are mostly flat-topped table-lands or 
plateaus. These plateaus are composed for the most part of hori- 
zontal sedimentary beds. ‘They rest unconformably upon schists, 
gneisses, and granites, and at some places upon what seem to be 
folded but unaltered Paleozoic sediments. The position, distribu- 


aan 


Ss 
ae S ast 
tee 
Fic. 2—East-west section through the Serra do Araripe, constructed from the 
notes of Gardner and Capanema. 








tion, and character of the beds show that the sediments forming the 
plateaus formerly had a wide distribution over northeastern Brazil, 
and that they have been gradually removed by the ordinary processes 
of denudation. 

On the west these beds extend across Piauhy, probably with some 
interruptions, into the State of Goyaz; on the north they extend 
across Piauhy and into Maranhao; on the south they extend into 
Bahia and Pernambuco, approaching the Rio Sao Francisco; on the 


FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER 3 


east they form, in part at least, the flat-topped mountains of the 
western and southern boundaries of the State of Ceara. 

The section across the Serra do Araripe given herewith has been 
constructed from the notes of Gardner and Capanema: 

Sandstone forming the top of the mountain, 140 feet (Capanema). 

Sandstone series, yellow, white, and red, 600 feet (Gardner) ; (this includes 
the top bed of Capanema). 

Thin-bedded limestone (thickness not stated). 

Lignite, 2 feet (Gardner) ; bituminous shale (Capanema). 

Blue clay and gray sandstone at base (Capanema). 

The sequence, character, and relations of the rocks in the Serra do 
Araripe are sufficiently clear from this section to render further ver- 
bal description unnecessary. 

The fishes have only been found in concretions, and are said to 
come from the sandstone bed above the limestone layer. They have 
never been found in place, but occur in the talus and soil on slopes at 
the base of the sandstone ridges. The matrix in which the fossils 
occur is mostly the buff or cream-colored limestone in which these 
fossils have hitherto been found. 

The rock matrix suggests that while some of the specimens are 
from sandstone beds, most of them are from beds, or at least from 
lenses, of limestone. 

Slides were made of the matrix of two of the concretions. Under 

the microscope it is seen that the bulk of the rock is composed of 
microscopic crystals of calcite somewhat stained with iron. The cal- 
cite crystals, however, are so small that they are scarcely distin- 
guishable, even under an enlargement of 90 diameters. Between 
5 and 10 per cent of the rock is made up of clear round calcite bodies 
evidently of organic origin. 
_ Fragments were broken from specimens in the Rocha Collection 
and chemical analyses were made of them with the following re- 
sults. Care was taken not to include parts of the fossil fishes in the 
pieces analyzed. 


Analysis of pieces of a fossil-bearing concretion from Cearé, Brazil 
L. R. Lenox, Analyst 
(Record Book 779) 


Silitoce (SOD) Meera ee ern etn tele ce ce hetero sto ctde we bes 3.64 
@xidessoriron and valamina CAO: FesOs)i. 32. occ. si jasc oes ead ese ws 1.46 
IFisricm Ca @)) eee etre ey ements ay orate cote bed wy 'eteare 521.2 
eter tnectcaim (ii O)) wesiaen WARP yA choles, Pheer ae Sova d 4 elev yao BEd les tedlete- ach dhs 0.56 
Bes sm ttilie Conlon Te (©) a4 oles ©) CLG. ia, - us lore baer Solo &:sitoth vie oi, lsc ave.'0id 3. obee 42.28 





4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS WOM 8S 


Equivalent to— 


Carbonate of limes (CaCO: eee eis. re leer ee eee 93.26 
Carbonate or macnesia (Mic COn) pare rere ier eae ae eer 1.16 


Analysis of part of @ concretion containing a somewhat telescoped fossil fish 
(Rhacolepis buccalis) 


(Record Book 781) 





Silica i CS1O Da ac nN AECT os Io eo hs is Ol 6a, ee 4.31 
Lrompand alimannas @iies Ose aricdernlls Os) aa eet re =e eee 3.05 
Time CCAO eee ote oi reese pe aa OT ere soa Oe oie aro ree aaa 50.39 
Magnesia NGO) a Ao7h 0 areas CR mn nee ee Meter eS ht ~) \shssenae se uo Ree 0.66 
Toss COs arrdewater ye ocean eee ine EO car store ree ATS 
PEO GAM ee. oe eins ESC Yecds Men Eee ISMN FESR se pen ee 99.94 
Equivalent to— 

ACarbouatezot lime (Cac@ee eer asec ey cee ee Se ae eee 89.98 
Carbonate of magnesia, (Mie @;) 0c. che ede eee oe eee ee eae 1.38 


Analysis of part of a concretion containing a fossil fish, Calamopleurus vestitus, 
; Specimen No. 15 


(Record Book 7&2) 


Carbonatexof lime (GaCOn iene ees eee ee 90.64 
Carbonate ofsmacnesia (UMiaCO:) ee. aa sso cere een nee Tey 


Analysis of part of the concretion containing the large specimen of Calamo- 
pleurus cylindricus received from Dr. Paula Pessoa, of Rio de Janeiro 


(Record Book 783) 


Carbonateto£-lime: (‘CaCOs)i.ck ca eam cee EEE ee eee 92.57 
Carbonatetor magnesias(MioCOn)en..nor = oe cee ee een ies 


Many of the specimens of fossil fishes have been crushed together 
lengthwise or telescoped, so that the scales are thrust farther over 
than they should be. This peculiarity of these fishes has been noted 
before by Dr. A. Smith Woodward in his paper published in the 
Proceedings of the Zodlogical Society of London, 1887. The chem- 
ical analyses suggest that this telescoping may be due to the partial 
dolomitization and consequent shrinking of the original limestone 
caused by the substitution of magnesium carbonate for the calcium 
carbonate. 

The appearance of the rock and the analyses given above lead one 
to suppose that the composition of the concretions is fairly uniform. 
Some of them, however, are much more sandy than others, and the 
specimens in the sandy rocks are not so well perserved as those in 


FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER 5 


the limestone concretions. Possibly the sandy concretions are not 
from the same localities as the more calcareous ones. 

The fossil fishes from Ceara are generally spoken of as coming 
from Barra do Jardim, but they have been found at many other local- 
ities, though always about the base of the Serra do Araripe. Gard- 
ner’s collections came from Barra do Jardim, from a sugar planta- 
tion called Massapé (or Macapé, as he spells it), five leagues east of 
Barra do Jardim; from Mundo Novo, three leagues west of Barra do 
Jardim, and from Brejo Grande, a plantation west of the Serra do 
Araripe and about 35 miles west of Crato. Capanema found them 
also at Breijinho, a locality not mentioned by Gardner, but in the 
same neighborhood. 

A few other fossils occur in the rocks containing the fossil fishes, 
but no effort seems to have been made to collect these other fossils 
on the ground. The only ones mentioned by the collectors are noted 
here. Gardner found a single valve of a Venus half an inch long, 
the cast of a cephalopod an inch and a half long and supposed by 
him to be a Turrilites. Both of these came from loose pieces of 
sandstone. He was told of a small snake having been found rolled 
up in one of the concretions, but he thinks it was probably a species 
of cephalopod.t Judging from the Rocha Collection, it seems more 
likely that it was a specimen of Belonostomus comptoni, which is 
occasionally found thus coiled up. 

The specimens in the Rocha Collection contain a few entomostracan 
remains, but none of them have been specifically idenitfied. Dr. A. 
Smith Woodward notes that entomostracans found in the British 
Museum specimens were examined by Prof. T. Rupert Jones and 
Mr. C. D. Sherborn, who refer them with some doubt to Cytheridea.* 

Barao de Capanema, who visited the Serra do Araripe in 1859, 
reports finding associated with the fossil fishes coprolites “‘the bones 
probably of saurians, the teeth of fishes, and an unknown plant with 
imbricated leaves. I heard of fossil shells and zodphytes on the 
Piauhy frontier.”* Gardner says that flints are common on the side 
of the mountain northwest of Crato, and he speaks of chalk being 
found in the mountains near Crato. Gardner found limestone and 
marl beneath the fossiliferous sandstone, and beneath the limestone 
a bed of lignite about two feet thick. Capanema thinks that the 


*Geologia Elementar, por N. Boubeé, p. 55; Rio, 1846; Trans. Brit. Assoc., 
1840, 120. 

* Proc. Zodl. Soc., London, 1887, 541. 

*Trabalhos de Commissao Scientifica de Exploracao, 1, Introduc¢do, p. 130. 
Rio de Janeiro, 1862. 


6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


material reported to be chalk is only a white clay, but he confirms 
the existence of a thin-bedded limestone beneath the fossiliferous 
sandstone, and “beneath this limestone is a bed of very bituminous 
laminated shale. It is a kind of lignite changed to coal, only a few 
inches in thickness.” He says that fossil wood was found by Dr. 
Goncalves Dias near Sao Pedro, two leagues from the Villa de Mila- 
gres. ‘The existence of the limestone and lignite induce one to hope 
that a careful search may yet lead to the discovery of considerable 
additional paleontologic material, though Gardner distinctly states 
that no fossils could be found in the limestones.* 

In the Rocha Collection the rock inclosing the fossil fishes contains 
many fish scales and the remains of microscopic shells that have not 
been studied. One of the concretions is rather darker and more 
marly than the others, and in this are found many small rounded 
bodies evidently of organic origin. Some of these were submitted 
to Dr. E. O. Ulrich, paleontologist of the U. S. Geological Survey, 
who kindly reports as follows upon them: 


The ostracod seems to be one of the simple types of Cytheridea, apparently 
closely allied to the Miocene C. subovata U. & B. It resembles an Eocene 
species also very closely, and I know of a late Cretaceous form that is not far 
removed. However, with specimens in rock like yours it is difficult to satis- 
factorily determine even the genus of the host of smooth and subovate 
ostracods. 


Referring to the broader features of the Cretaceous geology of 
northeastern Brazil, the area covered by the Cretaceous rocks is not 
known with any certainty. Even where they are best known they . 
have been identified at only a few places on and near the coast. On 
the coast, however, they form only a narrow belt approximately 
parallel with the present shoreline, toward which they have a general 
and gentle dip, except on the immediate shores, where the dip is 
often landward. This coast belt of Cretaceous sediments is in places 
from twenty-five to fifty miles or more in width, while at other places 
the beds have been entirely removed and the old underlying rocks 
of the interior are exposed on the seashore. On the land side of 
the Cretaceous belt the surface rocks are usually granites, gneisses, 
schists, and other metamorphics of uncertain age or ages. 

In the region drained by the Rio Paranahyba above Theresina, 
and lying mostly in the State of Piauhy, there is a series of hori- 
zontal sedimentary beds which appear to be the inland remnants of 
the series exposed along the coast. But little is known of the geology 


‘Trans. Brit. Assoc., 1840, 119. 


FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER 7, 


of these inland sediments, however. What is here given has been 
collected from the notes of Spix and Martius and of Gardner. 

While the structural relations of these highland beds is not cer- 
tainly known at present, such information as we have suggests the 
relations indicated by the accompanying theoretic section across 
northeastern Brazil, say from about Maranhao on the north to 
Sergipe on the south, and passing through the Serra do Araripe. It 
should be added, however, that the slates reported near Lavras in 
Ceara are probably Paleozoic. No attempt is made to represent 
those slates in this section. ‘There are probably local variations in 
the dips and relations of the Cretaceous beds which are not sug- 
gested in this hypothetical section. 

Barao de Capanema says that the beds of the Serra da [biapaba 
along the northwestern boundary of Ceara dip toward the west, and 
he appears to think that the rocks of that range are the same as those 
of the Serra do Araripe. This attempted correlation is not based 
upon paleontologic evidence, and may be altogether erroneous. 

The table-lands so characteristic of the Serra do Araripe follow 
the water-sheds toward the south and west. Mr. J. W. Wells de- 
scribes what seems to be a similar topography and similar rocks 
about the southern ends of the states of Piauhy and Maranhao.? It 
is not to be inferred, however, that these sediments form the Serra 
Vermelha and Serra Dois Irmaos in the intermediate region, for the 
notes of Spix and Martius show that where they crossed the Serra 
Dois Irmaos the rocks are granites and schists,” a fact that lends 
support to the theory that this region was an archipelago during 
Cretaceous time. 

The junior author’s acquaintance with the geology of the sur- 
rounding region and the few published notes of travelers suggest 
that this northeast corner of Brazil was an archipelago at the time 
of the deposition of these Cretaceous sediments, and that the mechan- 
ical portions of these sediments were derived from islands of gran- 
ites, gneisses, and schists. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


J. B. von Sprx und C. F. P. von Martius: Reise in Brasilien, 1817-1820, 11, 
799; Atlas, pl. 22, fig. 5; Miinchen, 1828. 

GEORGE GARDNER: On the geology and fossil fishes of North Brazil. Rep. Brit. 
Assoc. Ady. Sci. for 1840, Transactions, 118-120. London, 1841. Abstract 
L’ Institut, 9¢ Anneé, No. 586, Ix, 173-174. Paris, 1841. 


*James W. Wells: Exploring and traveling three thousand miles through 
Brazil. London, 1886, 1, 144. 
? Reise in Brasilien, 11, 768. 


8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


G. GARDNER: Geological notes made during a jourtiey from the coast into the 
interior of the Province of Ceara, etc. Edinburgh New Philosophical 
Journal, xxx, 1841, 75-82. Edinburgh, 1841. 

GEORGE GARDNER: On the existence of an immense deposit of chalk in the 
northern provinces of Brazil. Proc. Philosophical Society of Glasgow, I, 
146-153. Glasgow, 1844. 

GrorGE GARDNER: Peixes petrificados que se-achao na provincia do Ceara. 
Journal do Commercio, Rio de Janeiro, 9 de Abril de 1842; also appendix 
to Boueé’s “Geologia Elementar,” pp. 54-55. Rio de Janeiro, 1846. 

GEORGE GARDNER: Travels in the interior of Brazil, 1836-1841. London, 1846. 

L. Acassiz: On the fossil fishes found by Mr. Gardner. Edinburgh New 
Philosophical Journal, xxx, 1841, 83. 

L. Acassiz: Recherches sur les poissons fossiles. Neuchatel, 1833-1843, J, 
40, 139, 303-304; IV, 293; V, 103, 122, 134. 

L. Acassiz: Sur quelques poissons fossiles du Brésil. Comptes Rendus, xvi, 
1007-1015. Paris, 1844. 

F. CHABRILLAC: Sur quelques poissons fossiles de la province de Ceara au 
Brésil. Comptes Rendus, xvi, 1007. Paris, 1844. 

GUILHERME S. DE CAPANEMA: ‘Trabalhos da Commissao Scientifica de Ex- 
ploragao. Introducgao. Rio de Janeiro, 1862. Secgaa Geologica, pp. 120- 
143. 

E. D. Cope: On two extinct forms of Physostomi of the neotropical region. 
Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., x11, 53-55. Philadelphia, 1871. 

A. Smita Woopwarp: On the fossil Teleostean genus, Rhacolepis Agass. 
Proc. Zool. Soc. London for 1887, 535-542. 

J. C. BranneEr: Geologia Elementar preparada com referencia especial aos 
estudantes Brazileiros. Rio de Janeiro, 1906, pp. 273-274. 


B. Nores ON THE Fossit, FISHES OF CEARA 
ANALYTICAL K&y TO THE CRETACEOUS FISHES KNowWN FROM CEARA 


a—GANnorE!I: Scales large, diamond-shaped or plate-like; tail strongly hete- 
rocercal; dorsal inserted behind the ventrals. 
b.—(ASPIDORHYNCHID#): Scales plate-like, those on the sides of the 
body much deeper than the others; both jaws much elongate, 
POMS Fayre a lheecesteras Morne stand sesame Belonostomus comptont, I 
bb.—(SEMrIoNoTIpa): Scales large, firm, diamond-shaped; a series of 
spine-like scales along middle of back; jaws not greatly elongate. 
Lepidotes temnurus, 2 
aa.—IsosponpyLI: Scales thin, cycloid or rhombic; no spines in fins; tail 
homocercal or slightly heterocercal; snout (in Brazilian Cretaceous 
species) not produced. 
d.—(LeEpro.Eerip): Scales small, thin, more or less diamond- 
shaped, at least along back; tail somewhat heterocercal, the 
last vertebra reduced in size and turned upward; ventral 
fins inserted under front of dorsal; subopercle small, its 
suture horizontal; cheek and postorbital region with three 
large plates (gular plate unknown) ; distance from gill open- 
ing to dorsal not greater than depth of body. 
Tharrhias araripis, 3 


FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER 9 


dd.—(Eorip#): Gular plate present ventrals (in Cretaceous 
species from Brazil) inserted under last rays of dorsal; 
temporal region with a bony plate or sheath; two parallel 
bony plates behind eye, with a third, usually larger, one 
sheathing the cheek. 

f.—Teeth subequal, without large canines. 

g.—Lateral line well developed; teeth small (less than 
one-tenth diameter of eye). 

h.—Scales small, 30 to 33 in a cross-series from 
dorsal to ventral; suborbital broad, its 
suture oblique. Calamopleurus cylindricus, 4 
hh.—Scales large, about 20 in a cross-series from 
dorsal to ventral; suborbital very narrow; 

its suture nearly horizontal 
Calamopleurus vestitus, 5 
gg.—Lateral line obsolete or nearly so; teeth rather 

large. 
1.—Scales cycloid, entire; teeth strong, more 
than one-tenth diameter of eye. 
Notelops brama, 6 
i1.—Scales crenate; teeth probably small. 
j—Body subcylindical, the depth not 
much greater than length of head. 
Rhacolepis buccalis, 7 
jj-—Body compressed, the depth much 
greater than length of head. 
Rhacolepis latus, 8 
ff.—Teeth very strong, unequal, many of those in each 
jaw canine-like (scales unknown) ..Enneles audax, 9 
e.—CHIROCENTRIDA(?): Gular plate wanting; scales large, the 
surface pustulose (no lateral line). 
Cladocyclus gardneri, 10 
cc.—OsTEOGLOssib%(?): Opercle large, without suture, the subopercle 
wanting; scales firm, with concentric striz; dorsal inserted over 
ventral, at a distance behind head greater than depth of body. 

Cearana roche, It 


Famity ASPIDORHYNCHIDA 
Genus BELONOSTOMUS Agassiz 


Belonostomus Acassiz, Neues Jahrbuch, 1834, p. 388; type, dspidorhynchus 
tenuirostris AGASSIZ. 

Ophirhachis Costa, Ittiol, Fossil, Ital., 1856, p. 13; type, Ophirhachis de- 
perditus Costa. 


? Platycerhynchus Costa, Atti Acad. Pontan, vu, 1864, p. 98; type, Platy- 
cerhynchus rhombeus. 


This genus contains numerous species of large, gar-like fishes, 
having rhombic scales, those of the lateral line deeper than the 
others, and having both jaws produced, subequal in length. Accord- 


IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


ing to Woodward, the suborbitals lie in contact with the cheek-bone, 
without separate cheek-plate, such as exists in Aspidorhynchus. In 
both these genera the vertebre are double-concave, not concave- 
convex, as in the true gar-fishes or Lepisosteide. According to 
Woodward, the vertebre in Belonostomus are “well ossified, smooth 
and constricted, about as long as deep, and pierced by a small thread 
of persistent notochord.” 


SOS 

SOS SS 

OES 
Sessa “S 





Fic. 3—Belonostomus comptoni (Agassiz). 
Barra do Jardim, Brazil. (Restoration. ) 


The Brazilian species of Belonostomus differs from the type of the 
genus in the very much greater depth of the scales composing the 
lateral line. These are anteriorly about five times as deep as long. 
The jaws are also more robust than in the typical species. 


1. BELONOSTOMUS COMPTONI (Agassiz) 


Aspidorhynchus comptonit Acassiz, Edinburgh Phil. Journal, xxx, p. 83, 
1841 ; Ceara. 
Agassiz, Comptes Rendus, xvitI, p. 1009, 1844; Ceara. 
Belonostomus comptont Woopwarp, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 629, pl. 


LIV, LV, figs. 1-10; Ceara. 
Woodward, Cat. Fossil Fishes, 1, p. 435, 1895; Ceara. 


Of this species we have fragments of different sizes from 5 or 6 
different fishes (Nos. 6, 7, 10, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, and 31, Rocha Col- 





Fic. 4.—Belonostomus comptoni Agassiz. Top of head. 


lection, the largest fish (No. 7) being about 20 inches long if re- 
stored and nearly 214 to 3 inches in depth, the depth about 7 in 
length. 

Length of head about twice greatest depth, about 4 in length. 
Jaws apparently equal, both pointed, the tips of both broken 
in all our specimens. Snout half head, or perhaps less, the tip being 
lost. Eye about 2 in snout, nearly 5 in head; maxillary broad 


FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER iat 


behind, almost fan-shaped, extending to a little behind middle of 
eye; opercle large, with concentric striz, provided with small pustu- 
lations along the ridges; top of head flat, narrow, the interorbital 
space about width of eye; lower jaw with what seem to be traces of 
long, slender, unequal teeth, but this is not certain. 

Scales ganoid, those of the median series very much enlarged, with 
parallel edges, the depth of each scale anteriorily 4 
to nearly 5 times its length, each scale with vertical 
striz ; about 4 rows of small scales above these, the 
small scales about as long as deep, impricated. Be- 
low the large scales are about three rows of smaller 
ones, those of the upper low largest. Posteriorly 
the large scales are progressively less deep, and at 
base of caudal they are scarcely deeper than those 
of the lowest of the upper rows or the highest of the 
lower row; 18 scales in a lengthwise series back- wy XS 
ward from the front of dorsal, about 33 anteriorly Fic. 5.—Scales of 

z : Belonostomus 
from the front of ventral; the scales in all probably an 
about 60. Bands of scales anteriorly nearly vertical, 
those posteriorly extending downward and backward. Scales all 
enameled, their surface rugose. 

Pectorals placed low, the upper ray broad (the fin broken) ; ven- 
trals inserted at a distance behind head equal to 11% length of head. 
Body tapering backward, subterete, but distinctly compressed, much 
deeper than broad; depth at dorsal fin 2% in distance from front of 
dorsal to base of caudal; dorsal and anal opposite each other, each of 
about 10 rays; both fins higher and long, the posterior rays rapidly 
shortened, caudal broken, evidently strongly heterocercal, with rudi- 
mentary rays at base of each lobe. 

Vertebrz distinctly biconcave, apparently well ossified. Two of 
the specimens are partly coiled within nodules of stone, their position 
and armature suggesting millipedes, or even snakes. From our 
excellent material we have ventured on a restoration of this species 
(fig. 3). Of these specimens numbers 7, 10, and 27 are in the United 
States National Museum. 





12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Famity SEMIONOTIDA 


Genus LEPIDOTES Agassiz 


Lepidotes Acassiz, Neues Jahrbuch, 1832, p. 145; type, Lepidotes gigas 
AGASSIZ. 

Lepidotus Acassiz, Poissons Fossiles, 1, pt. 1, 1833, pp. 8, 233 (altered 
spelling). 

Lepidosaurus voN Meyer, Paleologica, 1832, p. 208; type, Lepidotus un- 
guiculatus AGASSIZ. 

Scrobodus voN MUNSTER, Neues Jahrb., 1842, p. 38; type, Scrobodus subo- 
vatus. 

Plesiodus WAGNER, Abh. Bay. Akad. Wiss., 1x, 1863, p. 632; type, Plestodus 
pustulosus WAGNER. 

Prolepidotus MicHaktn, Zeitschr. Deutsch. Geol. Ges. xiv, 1893, p. 729; 
type, Prolepidotus gallineki MICHAEL. 


This large genus is distinguished among the Semionotidz by the 
deeply fusiform body, the presence of grinding teeth on the inner 
part of the jaws, and by the relatively low dorsal and anal fins. The 
teeth have not been preserved in any specimen of the Brazilian 


species. 
2. LEPIDOTES TEMNURUS Agassiz 












f Gi@ecereathe OEBoLsLes ess 








PO a ees 
TA SSS 
TEE ES SSS SSS SSS 
ANNA SSSR SIO SS 
ANS ESSE 
Ka 
> \ooees 


Fic. 6.—Lepidotes temnurus Agassiz. 
Barra do Jardim, Serra do Araripe, Brazil. 


Lepidotus temnurus AGAssiz, Edinburgh Phil. Journ., xxx, 1841, p. 83; 
Serra do Araripe, Ceara. : 
Agassiz, Comptes Rendus, xvirt, 1844, p. 1010; Ceara (misprinted 
lemnurus ). 
Woodward, Cat. Fossil Fishes, 1, p. 123, 1895; Ceara. 
? Lepidotus mawsont Woopwarp, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., vi, p. 135, 1888; 
Cretaceous at Bahia, Brazil. 
Woodward, Cat. Fossil Fishes, m1, p. 120, 1859; Bahia, Plataforma, 
Itacaranha, Pedra Furada, Brazil. 


Of this species we have one specimen within a concretion (No. 2, 
Rocha Collection), preserved also in counterpart. It includes the 
greater part of the body of the fish; is somewhat distorted by being 


FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER 13 


bent downward in the middle, the head is entirely crushed, and the 
dorsal, anal, and tail are absent and the pectoral fin broken (fig. 6). 

The head was about 3% times in length to base of caudal, the 
greatest depth over the ventral fins about 33. The scales are rhom- 
bic, entire, deeply overlapping, most of them deeper 
than long. The surface of the scale is not smooth, 
but marked with about three coarse ridges, parallel 
with the anterior margins. The distance of the 
ventral from the head is apparently a little more than 
length of head. The ridge scales on the back are 
very distinct, spine-like, more elevated than usual 
in Lepidotes. ‘Three are distinct behind the nuchal 
region, and there are traces of others farther back. 

In the description of Lepidotus mawsoni it iS fc. 7—Scale of 
stated that the principal flank scales are “with fre- Lepidotes 
quently discontinuous enamel marked with a few ae 
broad ridges and furrows radiating from the center to the hinder 
border, where they form feeble indentations.” The markings on 
L. temnurus do not answer to this description. 


Famitry LEPTOLEPIDA ° 


This family stands almost intermediate between the Ganoids and 
the Isospondyli. It has the general fin arrangement of the latter, 
but the scales are more or less diamond-shaped and ganoid on their 
exposed parts, and the last vertebrz are more or less turned upward, 
although the tail is usually or always forked. The orbital plates 
cover the cheek as in the Elopidz, but there is no gular plate, so far 
as known. 

Genus THARRHIAS Jordan and Branner, new genus 

A species from Ceara is referred by us to the family of Lepto- 
lepidze, and it is very closely allied to the typical genus, Leptolepis, of 
the Triassic and Cretaceous of Europe. It is, however, distinguish- 
able by the much larger opercle, which is more than four times as 
deep as the subopercle and separated from it by a horizontal suture. 
The vertebre are 50 to 55 in number, while the type of Leptolepis' 





* Leptolepis Acassiz, Neues Jahrbuch 1832, p. 146; type, Leptolepis bronni 
Acassiz (1832), Cyprinus corypenoides Bronn (1830). 

Ascalabos von MUwnsvter, Beitr. Petrsfakt, 1, 1839, p. 112; type, Ascalabos 
voitht voN MUNSTER. 

Tharsis GiEBEL, Fauna der Vorwelt, Fische, 1848, p. 145; type, Tharsis 
radiatus GIEBEL. 

Sarginmites Costa, Alte. Accad. Pontan, v, 1850, p. 285; type, Sarginites 
pygmaeus COSTA. 

Megastoma Costa, 1. c., 1850, p. 287; type, Megastoma apenninum Costa. 


14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


(Leptolepis coryphenoides Bronn, L. bronni Agassiz) has but 40. 
In Leptolepis dubius (subgenus Tharsis) the number is 50. 

The name Tharrhias, equivalent to Tharsis (@apoos, 6appos, cour- 
age, boldness), is suggested for the Brazilian fish. 

In Tharrhias, as in Leptolepis, the dorsal is inserted slightly 
before the ventrals. 


3. THARRHIAS ARARIPIS Jordan and Branner, new species 


Type No. 4, Rocha Collection, in Counterpart. Prats II 


Head about 3% in length to base of caudal; opercle large, with 
radiating strize; nearly 4 deeper than long; subopercle small, its 
depth not more than one-fourth that of the opercle, the suture hori- 
zontal; depth of opercle 13 in distance from gill opening to dorsal; 


22522 
5 
2252 


Z 
eZ 252 
oe 
222532252225 





Fic. 8.—Tharrhias araripis Jordan & Branner. 
Barra do Jardim, Brazil. Restored. 


preopercle with its upright limb nearly vertical; two bones behind 
eye and bone on cheek traceable, but the form not clearly made out 
(jaws and front of head destroyed). 

Dorsal fin with strong interneural bones, its insertion behind gill 
opening nearly equal to length of head and greater than depth of 
body, which is about 4} times in length to base of caudal; dorsal 
short, higher than long, about 12 rays traceable; ventrals about 
under middle of dorsal; anal inserted behind dorsal at a distance 
greater than depth of body and about equal to length of head; the fin 
smaller than the dorsal, of about 9 rays, the first longest, as in the 
dorsal. Vertebrze about 55, the last five small and turned upward; 
caudal apparently forked, the upper lobe perhaps the longer. 

Scales rather small, very thin, even, diamond-shaped along back, 
those below obscurely shown, but apparently rounded; no enamel on 
scales or ganoin; no trace of lateral line or of scaly sheaths. Scales 
about 56-19, 18 in a longitudinal row before dorsal; those at base of 
upper lobe of caudal smaller and more distinctly rhombic. 


FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER I 


on 


The type (No. 4, Rocha Collection) is 844 inches long, fairly well 
preserved from the preopercle backward, and represented in counter- 
part in a nodule of coarse sandstone. 

The species may be known from the Elopidze found at Ceara, by 
the narrow scales, by the subheterocercal tail, and by the large 
opercle, which is many times larger than the horizontal subopercle. 
This small subopercle separates this from other species of Lepto- 
lepide. From the Cretaceous species of Elopidee it is distinguished 
by the insertion of the ventrals under or slightly before the front of 
the dorsal. This is seen also in the genus Cearana, but in that genus 
both dorsal and ventrals are inserted farther back. 

A second specimen (No. 3, Rocha Collection), also in counterpart, 
94 inches long, shows the thin rhomboid scales and the fins fairly 
well, but the head is entirely crushed. 

Another nodule (No. 1, Rocha Collection) is referred provision- 
ally to Tharrhias araripis, with which it agrees in general form, in 
the insertion of the ventrals directly below the dorsal, and in having 
the distance from dorsal to gill opening about equal to depth of body. 
The bones of the head are all crushed, and the thin scales, about 
equal in number to those of T’harrhias araripis, are not any of them_ 
enameled nor rhombic in form; but, on the other hand, none of them 
are well preserved. The vertebrz are well preserved and compactly 
inserted. There is no trace of lateral line. We do not much doubt 
the identity of this specimen with the type of Tharrhias araripis, but 
the difference in the scales suggests that possibly the rhombic form 
in the latter case may be due in part to shrivelling of the specimen 
before it was encased in clay. Of these specimens, No. 3 is in the 
U. S. National Museum and the counterpart of No. 1 in the geo- 
logical collection of Stanford University. 


FamMiIty ELOPIDA 


The family of Elopide is characterized among the soft-rayed 
fishes by the presence of a triangular bone, or gular plate, between 
the rami of the lower jaw. This plate is present in the Amiatide 
and in some other ganoids, and it furnishes strong evidence that the 
Elopide are descended from extinct forms resembling Amiatus. In 
any event, the Elopide are among the oldest and most generalized of 
all the bony fishes. Their occurrence at Ceara in company with 
extinct ganoids like Belonostomus and Lepidolepis is significant. 
Another character of the Elopide is the enlargement of three bones 
of the suborbital ring below and behind the eye, a character which 
appears in others of the lower Isospondyli and points to their ganoid 
origin. 


16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Genus CALAMOPLEURUS Agassiz 


Calamopleurus Acassiz, Edinburgh Journ. xxx, 1841, p. 84; type, Cala- 
mopleurus cylindricus AGASSIZ. 


Agassiz characterizes the fragments on which this genus is based 
by the following characters: ~ 

“Le long tube étroit des écailles de la ligne latérale, et par l’uni- 
formite de ses écailles arrondies.” To this Woodward (499) adds 
the following, based on a specimen in the British Museum: “The 
scales are cycloidal, very much imbricated, and apparently longer 
than deep; the fin-rays are widely spaced and much divided distally.” 

A fine, large specimen in counterpart, from Ceara, shows the lat- 
eral line with well-developed tubes, and the scales equal, cycloid, and 
closely imbricated. As the species is one not specifically recognized 
by Woodward and as it is from Agassiz’s original locality, we ven- 
ture to identify it with Agassiz’s unrecognized Calamopleurus cylin- 
dricus. 

The genus Calamopleurus, as understood by us, belongs to the 
Elopide, differing from Notelops in the well-developed lateral line 
and in the small teeth, and from Elops in the more posterior insertion 
of the ventrals and in the less elongate form. Mouth large, the jaws 
subequal, the gape oblique, extending beyond the eye; teeth even, 
pointed, small, less than one-fifteenth the diameter of the eye; two 
large, oblong, parallel postorbital bones; below these a large trape- 
zoidal cheek-plate, broadest posteriorly; two parallel postorbital 
bones above this; subopercle very broad, its depth rather more than 
half that of the opercle. Scales cycloid, closely imbricated, the indi- 
vidual scales a little longer than deep; a sheath of scales at base of 
dorsal, as in Elops; a sheathing projection on occiput and one above 
opercle; lateral line well developed, nearly straight and median, its 
tubes simple and straight ; dorsal short, median, inserted at a distance 
behind gill opening about equal to depth of body ventrals; inserted 
under or perhaps behind last ray of dorsal; moderate; caudal well 
forked, its base closely scaly nearly to the tips of the median rays. 


4. CALAMOPLEURUS CYLINDRICUS Agassiz 
PATE Selene 

Calamopleurus cylindricus AGAssiz, Edinburgh Journ. xxx, 1841; Ceara. 

Agassiz, Comptes Rendus, xvii, 1844, p. 1012; Ceara. 

Woodward, Cat. Fossil Fishes, 11, p. 499, 1894. 

Jordan, Bull. Cal. Univ., 1907, p. 139, pl. 12; Ceara. 
We refer to this species the large specimen above mentioned. It 
is about 15 inches long. It was presented by Dr. Paula Pessoa, of 


FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER 7, 


Rio de Janeiro, to Dr. Branner. It was found in the Barra do 
Jardim, Serra do Araripe, State of Ceara. This specimen in a con- 
cretion, represented in counterpart, is one of the most perfect of 
fossil fishes, showing most distinctly the eye-ball and the dark pig- 
ment which lies in streaks along the rows of scales. It was at first 
identified by us with Notelops brama, but the distinctness of the lat- 
eral line and the small size of the teeth render this identification un- 
tenable. The genus Calamopleurus is very close to Elops, having 
the same general structure of the head and the same extension of the 
scales on the tail. 

The firmer character of the suborbital bones and the insertion of 
the ventrals furnish the only tangible difference, unless we consider 
the greater elongation of the body in Elops. 


Zo 
oo 





we 
Son) 
oH 
tet 
$524 
<4 
ood 
<4 
$25 












Ss 
= SS 
a ye He 
a 
i a 





Fic. 9.—Calamopleurus cylindricus Agassiz. 


Cretaceous of Ceara, Brazil. Partial restoration of type. 


Head 31 in length to base of caudal; depth about 4 in body, 1% in 
head. Eye 5 in head, 114 in snout, snout 3% in head, head as long 
as from gill opening to last ray of dorsal (bones of head all more or 
less crushed). Scales about 13-120-18. Mouth large, oblique, the 
maxillary extending well beyond eye, 11% in head; teei*small, sharp, 
even, not one-fifteenth diameter of eye; opercle broadly triangular, 
with the broad base anterior, the lower suture separating it from the 
subopercle, distinct and very oblique; upper part of opercle covering 
more than one-third of the bone separated from the rest by a hori- 
zontal mark indicating a ridge or suture, this perhaps due to crush- 
ing; subopercle nearly twice as long as deep, nearly half as large as 
opercle ; preopercle broadly rounded, the upright limb directed some- 
what forward; a large trapezoidal plate on cheek extending from 
level of lower part of eye to angle of mouth; this is a little longer 
than high and deepest posteriorly ; two parallel horizontally elongate 
suborbital bones behind eye; these’ about equal in size and each about 
twice as long as high; rest of orbital chain obscurely shown. The 

2 


18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


cheek-plate evidently belongs to this suborbital series. A trace of 
an occipital sheathing bone, as seen in Elops. 

Scales on body small, cycloid, those along base of dorsal enlarged, 
forming a distinct sheath; lateral line well defined, slightly curved 
downward, anteriorly about 15 rows of scales between dorsal and 
lateral line; the tubes straight and simple, scales extending over mid- 
dle part of caudal fin nearly to its posterior edge. Dorsal rays about 
12 (all the fins more or less broken) ; ventrals inserted under last 
rays of dorsal (or a little farther backward) ; caudal deeply forked, 
the vertebre of the caudal peduncle strong. 

Each scale of upper anterior and middle part of body with a dis- 
tinct black spot of pigment, these spots forming distinct lines along 





Fic. 11.—Scales of 

the lateral line 

of Calamopleurus 

Fic. 10.—Head of Elops saurus Lin- cylindricus. Show- 
neus. Honolulu. ing pigment. 





the rows of scales. No fossil fish known to the writers shows its 
original coloration so clearly as this. Of this specimen we have 
attempted to give a restoration. The pigment stripes doubtless ex- 
tended the whole length of the body. 

Besides this specimen, we have another smaller one with its coun- 
terpart (No. 14, Rocha Collection). This shows the lateral scales 
very perfectly! ut the lateral line is obliterated, being crushed against 
the vertebral column. Specimen No. 14 also shows black pigment 
underneath some of the scales. Specimen No. 23, Rocha Collection, 
is a crushed head, showing the opercular bones. 

Another nodule (No. 20, Rocha Collection) shows the side of the 
head and the anterior part of the body; the lateral line is traceable, 
though obscured by the telescoping of the scales, which are abnor- 
mally crowded together. 

Another fine specimen (No. 21, Rocha Collection) has the anterior 
part of the head crushed, but the anterior part of the body is very 
well shown. ‘The bones of the head are as in the larger specimen. 
The distance from gill opening to dorsal is a little less than greatest 
depth of body and considerably less than length of head. There 
are 25 scales along the lateral line before dorsal and about 30 


FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIIL~—JORDAN AND BRANNER 19 


(14 +1-+ 15) between dorsal and ventrals. The lateral line is very 
distinct. The well-preserved ventral is under the very last rays of 
the dorsal, a character which at once distinguishes Calamopleurus 
from the living genus Elops, in which the dorsal is inserted directly 
over the ventrals. 

Another specimen (No. 12, Rocha Collection) shows much the 
same parts, but not nearly so well preserved. The head is somewhat 
crushed and telescoped; the teeth are obliterated. The gular plate is 
apparently present. The lateral line is evident, but its position is dis- 
torted. There are 25 scales before the dorsal along the course of 
the lateral line. ‘The ventrals are under the last rays of the dorsal, 
at a distance from base of caudal but little more than the length of the 
head. Vertebrz about 50. 

Another nodule (No. 13, Rocha Collection) is a badly telescoped 
individual of Calamopleurus cylindricus showing the scales of the 
sides. 

5. CALAMOPLEURUS VESTITUS Jordan and Branner, new species 

PLATE V 

A nodule contains the outline of the body and of part of the side 
of the head of a fish with cycloid scales, similar to those of Calamo- 
pleurus cylindricus, but very much larger. ‘The specimen when com- 
plete would be about a foot in length. 

We here describe this specimen (No. 11, Rocha Collection) as a 
new species of Calamopleurus. It differs from the type species, 
however, in the very much smaller size of the subopercle, a character 
which may distinguish it generally. We call the species Calamo- 
pleurus vestitus, as the body is well clothed with scales. 

Head about 3% in length to base of caudal. Greatest depth about 
equal to length of head. Distance from gill opening to dorsal a little 
more than greatest depth. Anterior part of head destroyed; traces 
of three plates behind and below eye, as in other Elopide. Upright 
limb of preopercle directed forward above. Opercle large, convex, 
with some black pigment within the bone as long as deep. Sub- 
opercle with concentric striz, its depth about 3% times in depth of 
opercle. Suture between opercle and subopercle very oblique and 
somewhat curved. 

Scales cycloid, deeper than long, much larger than in any other of 
the Cretaceous Elopide from Brazil, about 28 along lateral line to 
front of dorsal; 8 in a vertical series from front of dorsal to lateral 
line, 10 to 12 between lateral line and ventrals. In Calamopleurus 
cylindricus there are about 32 scales before dorsal on lateral line, 
about 15 above it and 18 to 20 below. 


20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Lateral line very distinct, nearly median, slightly decurved ante- 
tiorly. Dorsal mostly obliterated, and pectorals also. Ventrals and 
anal wholly wanting, as is the whole caudal peduncle. Gular plate 
obliterated. 

This fish is undoubtedly one of the Elopide. It is near Calamo- 
pleurus; distinguished from C. cylindricus by the large scales and 
(perhaps generically) by the narrow subopercle. 

A second nodule (No. 15, Rocha Collection) shows a portion of 
the posterior part of the body of a large example. The ventral fins, 
as in Calamopleurus cylindricus, are inserted under the last rays of 
the dorsal, both fins being apparently rather small. Between the dor- 
sal and ventrals there are apparently only about 20 scales. The lat- 
eral line, although abraded, is readily traceable. Opercle and sub- 
opercle separate, separated by a distinct suture. 

The relatively large size of the scales leads us to refer this example 
to Calamopleurus vestitus. 

The counterpart of No. 11 is in the geological collections at Stan- 
ford University. 


Genus NOTELOPS Woodward 


Notelops Woopwarp, Cat. Fossil Fishes, 1v, p. 27, 1901; type, Rhacolepis 
brama AGASSIZ. 


This genus is close to Calamopleurus, from which it differs in the 
much stronger teeth and in the absence of a distinct lateral line. 
From Rhacolepis it differs in the entire scales, and, according to 
Woodward, in having the parietal bones not separated by a supra- 
occipital. This character we have been unable to verify. 


6. NOTELOPS BRAMA (Agassiz) 
IPiegAans) WA Vente 


? Amblypterus olfersi Acassiz, Poissons Fossiles, 1, pt. 1, p. 40, 1833; 
Ceara, Brazil (fragment; said to be unidentifiable). 
Agassiz, Poissons Fossiles, 1v, p. 293, 1844; Ceara. 
(Not Rhacolepis olfersi Acassiz, Comptes Rendus, xvii, p. 1012, 1844, 
which is based expressly on a figure of Rh. buccalis.*) 
Phacolepis brama Acassiz, Edinburgh Phil. Journ., xxx, p. 83, 1841. 
Barra do Jardim, based on a better specimen (misprint for Rhacolepis). 
Rhacolepis brama Woopwarp, Proc. Zodl. Soc. London, p. 539, pl. XLvI, 
fig. 1; pl. xiv, fig. 4; Ceara. 
Notelops brama Woopwakrp, Cat. Fossil Fishes, 1v, p. 27, 1901; Ceara. 


*In the Comptes Rendus, Agassiz thus refers to “Rhacolepis olfersi:” 

“Cest au genre Rhacolepis qu’ appartient l’espéce figurée par Spix; elle est 
plus large que la votre (R. buccalis), ses écailles sont plus grandes, et le second 
sous-orbitaire est plus étroit que les autres. Je l’ai appellée R. olfersi.” 


FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER 21 


Of this species, well described and figured by Woodward, we have 
one head (No. 25, Rocha Collection), more or less crushed and split 
through the middle, but showing the long jaws armed with long, 
sharp, slender, even teeth, each 14 to % the diameter of the eye. 
Maxillary more than half head, extending far behind eye; subopercle 
about half size of opercle and nearly % its depth; the suture hori- 
zontal, the lower bone with radiating ridges; orbital bones obscurely 
shown. 

This head corresponds fairly well to Woodward’s figure of the 
head of Notelops brama, but the postorbital bones are wanting and 
no scales are preserved. Whether this is the same as the [thacolepis 
brama of Agassiz we are not certain. 

The name brama should apparently stand for this species, the name 
olfersi being rather a synonym of buccalis. 


Genus RHACOLEPIS Agassiz 


Phacolepis Acassiz, Edinburgh Phil. Journ., xxx, p. 83, 1841; type, 
Phacolepis buccalis; misprint for Rhacolepis. 
Rhacolepis AcAssiz, Comptes Rendus, xvuit, 1844, p. 1011 (buccalis). 


This genus is very close to Notelops, the only difference evident in 
our specimens being the subcylindrical form of the body, the more 
pointed head, and the crenate edges of the scales. According to 
Woodward, the genus differs in having the parietals separated by 
the intervention of the supraoccipital. The lateral line is obsolete, 
though a few traces of tubes can be seen on the anterior region. 


7. RHACOLEPIS BUCCALIS (Agassiz) 
Prate VI, Fic. 2 


Spix and Martius, Reise Brasilien, pl. xxu1, fig. 5; Ceara. 
Rhacolepis buccalis Acassiz, Edinburgh Phil. Journ., xxx, p. 83; Cre- 
taceous of Ceara. 
Rhacolepis buccalis Acassiz, Comptes Rendus, xvi1t, p. ror1, 1844; Agassiz, 
Poiss. Fossiles, 1v, p. 293, 1844; Ceara. 
Woodward, Proc. Zoél. Soc. London, 1887, p. 530, pl. xiv, figs. 2-7; 
pl. xiv, figs. I to 3; Ceara. 
Woodward, Cat. Fossil Fishes, 1v, 1901, p. 30; Ceara. 
? Amblypterus olfersi Acassiz, Poissons Fossiles, mu, pt. 1, p. 40, 1833; 
Ceara; a fragment said to be unidentifiable. 
Rhacolepis olfersi Acassiz, Comptes Rendus, xvii, p. 1012, 1844; based 
expressly on the figure of Spix and Martius. 


Body subcylindrical, a little compressed, more slender than in 
Calamopleurus. Scales small, with crenate edges, about 12 above 
and 12 below lateral line. Lateral line inconspicuous or obsolete, 


22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


traceable anteriorly as a narrow streak or faint ridge on nearly all 
our specimens. Size small, the length about 6 inches. Of this 
species we have fragments of five individuals (Nos. 8, 9, 16, 17, 
Rocha Collection), besides a geodized trunk (Pessoa Collection) 






















PDD 
yyy yy 4 , ) 
ae PD . m PS ¥ ye xy) Bee 
ROR DN i 


Fic. 12.—Rhacolepis buccalis Agassiz. 
Barra do Jardim. ‘The head restored after Woodward. 


filled with quartz crystal, more or less telescoped, showing the scales 
well, but without head or fins. This specimen shows no trace of 
ventral fins, although the belly is completely preserved. In most of 





Fic. 13.—Rhacolepis buccalis Agassiz. Ceara. Top of head. 


these specimens the substance under the scales is jet black. This is 
apparently due to the presence of the original pigment, in which case 
we may assume that the fish itself was black in life. 

The plate or sheath-like projection above the opercle, more or less 
developed in all the Elopidz, is very distinct in this species. 


8. RHACOLEPIS LATUS Agassiz 
PLATE. Vile sbic.g 


Rhacolepis latus AcAssiz, Edinburgh Phil. Journ. xxx, p. 83, 1841; Cre- 
taceous of Ceara. 
Rhacolepis latus AcAssiz, Comptes Rendus, xvitl, p. 1012, 1844; Ceara. 
Agassiz, Poiss. Fossiles, 1v, p. 293, 1844; Ceara. 
Woodward, Proc. Zodél. Soc., London, 1887, p. 539, pl. xiv, fig. 5; 
Ceara. 
Woodward, Cat. Fossil Fishes, 1v, 1901, p. 322; Ceara. 


FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN.- AND BRANNER 23 


Of this small species we have two fragments (18, 19, Rocha 
Collection) fram Ceara. The best of these (No. 18) shows a crushed 
head and part of the side of the body. Scales in about 15 rows above 
lateral line and 15 below. It seems to differ from Rhacolepis buccalts 
in the greater depth and compression of the body, the head being 
rather abruptly reduced in depth. Three orbital plates subequal, 
parallel; distance from gill opening to ventrals less than length of 
head. Opercle more than twice as large as subopercle, the suture 
very oblique; nuchal plate distinct. A trace of lateral line. The 
other specimen shows mainly the scales on the side anteriorly. Our 
specimens, however, add nothing to the account given by Woodward, 
and it may be possible that these specimens are simply Rhacolepis 
buccalis crushed flat. 


Genus ENNELES Jordan and Branner, new genus 


Allied to Elopopsis (Heckel, Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien., X1, 
1856, p. 251; type, Elopopsis fenzli Heckel). Among the Elopide 
this genus is distinguished by the very wide-set teeth, and by the 
wide gape which extends beyond the eye. From the type of the 
genus Elopopsis our Brazilian species differs in having a series of 
short, compressed teeth in the posterior part of the mandible, and the 
teeth on maxillary sharp and equal in length. 

Pachyrhizodus, Agassiz, another Cretaceous genus with similarly 
large teeth, is closely related, but in that genus the teeth are closer 
set and more uniform. 


9. ENNELES AUDAX Jordan and Branner, new species 
PiaTEe VII 


Type a skull six inches in length, from Ceara (No. 22, Rocha Col- 
lection). With this is a partial counterpart showing the anterior 
part of the head without the lower jaw, the teeth of the maxillary 
being well preserved. 

Depth of head 1% in its length. Snout rather pointed, longer than 
eye, 3/4 in head; eye about 5%. Gape of mouth extending far be- 
yond eye, its length about 134 in head; supraoccipital crest somewhat 
elevated ; branchiostegals numerous, 10 behind the end of the gular 
plate. Gular plate well preserved, very large, narrowly fan-shaped, 
its length nearly half that of head, its breadth at posterior end nearly 
half its length; mandible very strong, about 12 in length of head; 
jaws even in front. 

Teeth large, robust, wide-set, broadened at base and bluntly and 
rather abruptly narrowed at tip, the free portion of the longest about 


24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 









—— 


SSS 
ae 









——— 
SS 
Poe 


== 
=s 





= = 
<= 


Fic. 15.—Skull of Enneles 
audax from below, show- 
ing gular plate and 
branchiostegals. 


VOL. 52 


Barra do Jardim. Type. 


one-third diameter of eye. Premaxillary 
with four very large teeth at its tip, these 
thicker and rather longer than any other 
teeth in the mouth. Similar teeth at tip 
of lower jaw, these followed by slenderer 
teeth ; those in the middle of the jaw also 
very robust and nearly as large as the 
front teeth; posterior part of lower jaw 
with a row of small compressed teeth, not 
very dissimilar and not one-third the 
length of the middle teeth; about eight 
of these teeth are evident. Teeth all one- 
rowed, none of them close-set ; maxillary 
with a row of 8 or Io stout, large, equal, 
sharp-pointed teeth, the anterior teeth 
most robust, similar to those of the mid- 
dle of lower jaw; suborbital region nar- 
row, the space between the eye and the 
roots of the maxillary teeth about half 
diameter of eye. Edge of maxillary 
straight. The maxillary teeth seem to be 
equal, not increasing in size backward, 
as in Elopopsis fenzli. ‘The lower teeth 


do not increase in size backward, the large fangs being followed by a 
series of short, compressed teeth. 


FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—JORDAN AND BRANNER 25 


The species is apparently new. On the characters at hand it is 
separable from Elopopsis by the form of the small teeth on the pos- 
terior part of the mandible, the presence of sharp subequal teeth on 
the maxillary, and by the relative size of other teeth. This may be 
held to indicate generic difference. In Pachyrhizodus the teeth of the 
mandible are subequal and close-set. The type of this species is in 
the possession of Senhor da Rocha at Ceara; the broken counterpart 
is in the geological collections at Stanford University. 

The genera of Brazilian Cretaceous Elopide may be thus compared 
with the living genera: 
a.—ELopIna:: Pseudobranchie large (in living species); scales relatively 

small; last ray of dorsal not prolonged; anal smaller than dorsal; base 
of caudal more or less scaly. 
b.—Dentition even, the teeth slender and close-set; dorsal with a sheath of 
scales. 
c.—Ventrals inserted behind middle of dorsal. 
d.—Lateral line well developed; teeth small....... Calamopleurus 
dd.—lLateral line obsolete or developed on the anterior scales only. 
e.—‘Parietals not separated by the supraoccipital’; scales 


entinesor: mearly SOs. ail erai sre (Sieia aio usie tend sh al eteiowen sto Notelops 

ee.—Parietals separated by the supraoccipital; scales crenate. 
Rhacolepis 
cc.—Ventrals inserted under first ray of dorsal; lateral line well de- 
veloped; body elongate; teeth small, even............... Elops 
bb.—Dentition uneven, some of the teeth large, robust canines..... Enneles 


aa.—MEGALOPINA: Pseudobranchiz none; scales large, firm; anal fin larger 
than dorsal; last ray of dorsal produced in a long filament; postorbital 

bones very thin, membranaceous. 
e.—Dorsal fin inserted above ventrals (cyprinoides) .Megalops 
ee.—Dorsal fin inserted behind ventrals (atlanticus)...Tarpon 





Fic. 16.—Head of Megalops 
cyprinoides — Broussonet. Fic. 17—Head of Tarpon atlanticus 
Riu Kiu Islands. C. & V. Porto Rico 


26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Famity CHIROCENTRIDZ (?) 
Genus CLADOCYCLUS Agassiz 


Cladocyclus Acassiz, Edinburgh Phil. Journ., xxx, 1841, p. 83; type. 
Cladocyclus gardneri Agassiz. 


Anedopogon Cork, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., x1, 1871, p. 53; type, An@do- 
pogon tenuidens Cope. 

This genus is notable for its large scales. The teeth are said to be 
small and nearly uniform. 


10. CLADOCYCLUS GARDNERI Agassiz 
PEATE, VLE Bie, 1 


Cladocyclus gardneri Acassiz, Edinburgh Phil. Journ., xxx, p. 83, 1841; 
Cretaceous of Ceara. 
Agassiz, Poiss. Fossiles, v, pl. 1, pp. 8, 103, 1844; Ceara. 
Agassiz, Comptes Rendus, xvitt, p. 103, 1844. 
Woodward, Cat. Fossil Fishes, 1v, 1901, p. 108, pl. 9, fig. 1; Ceara. 
Ane@dopogon tenuidens Cork, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., xu, 1871, p. 53; Ceara. 
We refer to this species a piece of a broken nodule (No. 26, Rocha 
Collection), showing a cast of 
part of the side of a very large 
fish. It. shows little except 
that the scales are very large, 
about half an inch in diameter, 
with uneven or pustulose sur- 





Fic. 19.—Scale of Cla- 
Fic. 18.—Species unknown. Barra do docyclus  gardneri. 
Jardim. Perhaps Cladocyclus gardneri. Ceara, Brazil. 


face and edges. No trace of lateral line. We follow Woodward in 
referring the genus Cladocyclus to the Chirocentride. 

Besides this specimen we have also a fragment of the caudal por- 
tion of the backbone of some unknown species (No. 30, Rocha Col- 
lection), possibly Cladocyclus gardneri. ‘The fragment is remarkable 
for the regular rhombic form of the interspaces between the vertebrze 
and for the extreme narrowness of the centrum of each vertebra as 
seen in section. 


FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—-JORDAN AND BRANNER 27 


Famity OSTEOGLOSSID/ (?) 
Genus CEARANA Jordan and Branner, new genus; type, Cearana roche 


A specimen, badly preserved in a sand nodule, of different and 
harder texture than most of the others from Ceara, seems to repre- 
sent a new genus, which we refer very doubtfully to the Osteo- 
glosside, because, as in Osteoglossum, there is no division between 
the opercle and subopercle. The elongate body distinguishes this 
genus from Phareodus (Dapedoglossus) and Brychetus; fossil 
genera of the Eocene, referred to the Osteoglosside. 

In Cearana the head is oblong, forming about two-sevenths of the 
length to base of caudal. The greatest depth of the body is a little 
less; the body is oblong; the distance from the gill opening to the 
dorsal is considerably more than the greatest depth, a character ap- 
parently important in this group. About two-fifths of the length of 
the head is formed by the very large convex opercle, which is a single 
undivided bone marked by radiating striz ; preopercle with the upper 
limb erect and forming nearly a right angle. Jaws and teeth not 
preserved, and mouth apparently large and oblique, extending past 
the eye. ‘Two postorbital bones behind eye and one on cheek approx- 
imately subequal in size; vertebre 50. Distance of ventrals from 
gill opening about equal to length of head. Dorsal short, rather 
high, inserted over ventrals, its basal bones strong; ventrals midway 
between gill opening and anal. Caudal rays fine, the fin well forked, 
the tail a little heterocercal. Scales not well preserved, apparently 
small, firm and somewhat bony, with marked striz. 


11. CEARANA ROCH: Jordan and Branner, new species 


BRAT EMV lem hirey2 


Of this species we have two specimens (No. 5 and No. 32, Rocha 
Collection), one in a nodule and represented in counterpart and one 
small one not in a nodule. In one specimen (No. 5) part of the 
body and the posterior portion of the head are very badly preserved. 
The head must have been a little less in length than the distance from 
the gill opening to the ventral fin. The preopercle is rounded, its 
upright portion nearly vertical. The opercle is very large, very con- 
vex, and in one piece, without separation of the subopercle. Its 
length is about equal to its depth and about three-fifths the greatest 
depth of the body, which is two-thirds the distance from gill opening 
to central. Surface of opercle nearly smooth. Pectoral fin placed 
low, a little longer than the opercle. Dorsal few-rayed (8 to 10) and 
rather high, the first rays longest, the first interneural large and 


28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


wedge-shaped, broadest below. Ventrals rather large, inserted 
opposite front of dorsal; vertebree spool-shaped, about 22 before 
dorsal. Scales mostly lost, apparently firm and cycloid, with marked 
concentric striz, about 14 in a cross-series below dorsal, these much 
larger than in Calamopleurus. 

This specimen is about 5 inches long, represented in counterpart, 
the portion in front of the preopercle and that behind the vent being 
lost. A small example (No. 32, Rocha Collection) of the same spe- 
cies and showing nearly the same parts is not quite 3 inches long. 





Fic. 20.—Cearana roche Jordan and Branner. From type. Ceara, Brazil. 


This shows the large, undivided opercle. The eye is shown also, 
its diameter about two-thirds that of the opercle, and the space 
between eye and opercle about two-thirds eye. 





Fic. 21.—Scale of Fic. 22.—Osteoglossum bicirrhosum 
Cearana roche. (a living form). Itaituba, Brazil. 


What seems to be the maxillary is also evident, rather broad, and 
extending behind the eye. About 18 vertebre before dorsal, which 
is rather higher than long. On the same stone is a faint impression 
of another specimen still smaller. 


FISHES OF CEARA, BRAZIL—-JORDAN AND BRANNER 29 


The species cannot be fully described without better material, but 
in any event it may be known at once among Brazilian Cretaceous 
fishes by the character of the large convex undivided opercle, very 
conspicuous in all these specimens. It is also distinguishable at once 
from Calamopleurus, Notelops, and Tharrhias by the much greater 
distance from the gill opening to the dorsal fin. This is greater than 
length of head or than depth of body. At the request of Senhor Dias 
da Rocha, its discoverer, this genus is named for his native province 
of Ceara, where the type was obtained; the species is named for 
Senhor Rocha himself, who brought together this remarkable col- 
lection. 

The counterpart of No. 5 is in the department of geology at Stan- 
ford University ; the type is with Senhor Francisco Dias da Rocha at 
Ceara: 

It may be noted that a peculiar interest attaches to this, as to any 
other accessible portion of the Cretaceous fish fauna. This period 
represents the decline and partial disappearance of the ganoid types, 
with rhombic enameled scales, represented by Belonostomus and Lep- 
idotes. ‘This is contemporaneous with the first appearance of the 
lowest of the bony fishes, of which the Leptolepidz and the Elopide 
are both among the most primitive, followed later by Chirocentride, 
Osteoglossidz, and other forms allied to the herring. 














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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. VI 





1. HEAD OF NOTELOPS BRAMA (Agassiz). Ceara, Brazil 





2. RHACOLEPIS BUCCALIS Agassiz 
(From figure of Spix & Martius, type of Rhacolepts olferst) 





3. RHACOLEPIS LATUS Agassiz. Ceara 








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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. VII 





1. ENNELES AUDAX Jordan and Branner 


Head. Cretaceous of Ceara 





2. ENNELES AUDAX Jordan and Branner 


Counterpart of part of head. Cretaceous of Ceari 





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vinag “ZzIsse6y IYSNGYVD SNIOADOAVIO “tf 








OBSERVATION OF THE. TOTAL-SOLAR ECLIPSE OF 
JANUARY: 2, 1008> (A), BOLOMETRIC: SLUDY OF -THE 
SOLAR CORONA 


By°C; G-ABBOT 


DIRECTOR OF THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN 
INSTITUTION 


By invitation of Director Campbell, of the Lick Observatory, an 
expedition in charge of the writer was sent by the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution to join with the Crocker Eclipse Expedition to Flint Island. 
In all matters of transportation, subsistence, and companionship the 
writer and his assistant, Mr. A. F. Moore, were cared for by Director 
Campbell as if members of his own staff; but the expenses of the 
Smithsonian party were paid in full by the Smithsonian Institution. 


NARRATIVE 


The writer left Washington on November 7, 1907, necessary 
equipment, comprising 14 boxes of apparatus, having preceded him 
on the way to San Francisco. A stop was made at Pasadena, Cali- 
fornia, in order to ascend Mount’ Wilson and make there certain 
comparisons of readings between a pyrheliometer which was carried 
as hand baggage and instruments of the Smithsonian Astrophysical 
Observatory stored on Mount Wilson. Additional small pieces of 
apparatus were taken from Mount Wilson and a few supplies were 
procured in San Francisco. According to previous arrangement, 
the provisions and camping outfit for the stay on Flint Island were 
procured by Director Campbell. At San Francisco the Flint Island 
eclipse party, comprising Director and Mrs.Campbell, Professors Per- 
rine and Aitkin, and Doctor Albrecht, of the Lick Observatory; Pro- 
fessor Lewis, of the University of California; Mr. Moore (a student 
at the University of California), and the writer, besides some friends 
of members of the expedition who were to accompany us as far as 
Tahiti, embarked on the steamship Mariposa November 22, 1907. 
We had a calm and pleasant voyage of 12 days to Tahiti, where it 
was expected that the gunboat Annapolis, under command of Gov- 


at 


32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


ernor Moore, of Tutuila, would be in waiting to convey the expedi- 
tion to Flint Island. Owing to a broken steam pipe, the Annapolis 
was delayed in reaching Tahiti until two days after our arrival, and 
owing to the making of necessary repairs, the start for Flint Island 
was deferred until the evening of December 7. About noon of 
December 9 the island was sighted, and soon a boat was seen to leave 
its shore to meet us. On near approach it proved to contain the 
English manager, Mr. Hawk, and a half dozen native boatmen. Our 
landing was immediately begun, as the circumstances were unusually 
favorable, owing to the complete absence of surf—a condition which 
Mr. Hawk said was not apt to be met with three days in a year. 

Flint Island, a low coral island lying in latitude 11°! S., longi- 
tude 152° W., is about two and a half miles long by half a mile wide, 
and only 24 feet above sea-level at the highest point. It is sur- 
rounded by a fringing reef, upon which the surf beats so strongly 
on the eastern, or windward, side that landing is there impracticable. 
An opening has been blasted out of the reef on the western, or lee- 
ward, side to facilitate the shipping of copra, or dried cocoanut pulp, 
which is the only export. The water becomes deeper so rapidly be- 
yond the reef that there is no anchorage for ships, although it is sate 
to cruise back and forth within a quarter of a mile of the shore. 
Favored by a bright moonlight, the equipment of the expedition, 
comprising over 300 separate packages and weighing more than 
25 tons, was all taken ashore by the natives of the island and the 
Samoans of the Annapolis by 9 o'clock p. m. of December 9. 

Our first night was spent on the veranda of the manager’s house, 
where we slept most comfortably, lulled by the swaying branches of 
the cocoanut palms and the incessant murmur and croaking of birds. 
Toward morning the sudden coming of a smart shower made us glad 
that we had worked late, tired though we were, and had thoroughly 
secured our equipment. ‘Two days later we learned how fortunate 
we had been in getting ashore so easily, for without much wind or 
roughness at sea the surf rose rapidly on the western side of the 
island and finally reached almost to the highest land of all. At this 
time our surf-boat was floated away and narrowly escaped loss 
at sea. 

The Lick Observatory camp was located in an open space of the 
cocoanut grove near the manager’s house, but as the writer desired 
to make measurements of the brightness of the sky, he preferred to 
locate the Smithsonian apparatus on the beach. After partly de- 
ciding upon a place nearly a quarter of a mile south of the main 
camp, he at length chose a point about 1,000 feet north of the camp 
and near the landing. As the event proved, the whole fortune of the 


SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JANUARY 3, I908—ABBOT Be 


Smithsonian expedition hung upon this choice, for on January 3, the 
day of the eclipse, a rain-cloud almost hid the total phase from view, 
and rain would probably have fallen throughout totality at the station 
first proposed. 

In the three and a half weeks spent on Flint Island the apparatus 
was put in the most perfect condition, many practice rehearsals were 
carried through, measurements were made of the brightness of the 
sky, the sun, and the moon, and a meteorological record was kept 
by Mr. Moore. At the suggestion of Mr. Rathbun, Assistant Secre- 
tary in charge of the U. S. National Museum, the writer collected a 
number of kinds of shells and corals for the use of that Museum. 

Among the interesting social events were the coming of the Eng- 
lish eclipse party of Mr. F. K. McLean and the celebration of Christ- 
mas, New Year’s, and a marriage anniversary. On Christmas day 
Rev. Mr. Walker, of the McLean party, read a service at 9 a. m., and 
in the evening a company of seventeen English-speaking people from 
England, Australia, New Zealand, Tahiti, and the United States had 
a turkey dinner together on this coral island of the South Pacific. 
On New Year’s evening a prize poetic contest was enjoyed. 

After the eclipse the expedition left Flint Island on January 5, 
reached Tahiti on January 7, and embarked for San Francisco Jan- 
uary 13. During the stay at Tahiti on the outward trip the presence 
of so many Americans had been taken advantage of by Consul 
Dreher as a fitting time to celebrate the completion of the new con- 
sulate at Papeite. Our stay on the return was also made pleasant 
by the attentions of the consul, and by trips to the interior and along 
the coast to the home of Chief Tati Salmon. The scenery of Tahiti 
is exceptionally beautiful and fine, for high mountains are broken at 
many points by nearly vertical precipices thousands of feet high, yet 
clothed from top to bottom by luxuriant tropical verdure.. Clear 
streams run down the steep-sided valleys and water-falls of more than 
600 feet sheer fall are found upon them. Our visit to Chief Tati 
Salmon was made most interesting by his recounting of ancient 
stories of the islands and by the serving of native dishes cooked on 
hot stones by the seashore. 

Our voyage to San Francisco, while unpleasantly rough, was made 
without mishap to the expedition, and the writer reached Washing- 
ton on February 1, 1908. 


OsjzEcts AND METHODS 


We proposed to measure with the bolometer the intensity of the 
radiation of the solar corona and to determine the quality of coronal 
radiation as compared with that of the sun. 


3 


34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


In the year 1900 the first bolometric observations of the corona 
were made by Smithsonian observers,’ and from these observations 
certain inferences were drawn by different authors as to the quality 
of the radiation of the inner corona. 

All bodies, by virtue of their temperatures, emit radiation; but it 
is only when the temperature is fairly high that any considerable 
part of the radiation is visible. ‘The higher the temperature the 
larger becomes the proportion of the radiation caused thereby which 
is visible. 

All bodies exposed to radiation reflect some fraction of it dif- 
fusely, but thereby generally alter the quality of complex radiation. 
When the reflecting bodies are particles whose diameters are small 
compared with the wave-length of light, they reflect the shorter 
wave-lengths better than the longer ones, and thus tend to render 
a larger proportion of the radiation visible. Larger particles and 
gross bodies, like the moon, by reflecting, generally alter the quality 
of radiation in a way to diminish the proportion visible. 

Visible rays are sometimes emitted by bodies which are apparently 
far below the temperature of incandescence, as in the cases of 
electrical discharges and of luminous insects. Such radiation may 
perhaps be almost wholly visible, without much intensity in the 
infra-red spectrum. 

In view of these considerations and others, the inferences drawn 
by the writer from the bolometric study of the corona made in 1900 
were contrary to the view that the radiation of the inner corona is 
produced mainly by the incandescence of matter heated to high tem- 
peratures by reason of its proximity to the sun, and more favorable 
to supposing the coronal radiation due largely to luminescence, or 
perhaps to the reflection of solar radiation by small particles. 
Arrhenius came to a different conclusion; but, as pointed out in the 
reference last cited, he misinterpreted the position of the bolometer 
in the coronal image. 

The bolometric observations at Flint Island were designed to test 
the inferences above referred to and to measure more definitely the 
quantity and quality of the coronal radiation. 





1See Astrophysical Journal, vol. 12, pp. 71-75; also pp. 366-375, 1900. “The 
1900 Solar Eclipse Expedition of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smith- 
sonian Institution,” pp. 22-26. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1904. 
Lick Observatory Bulletin No. 58. Astrophysical Journal, vol. 20, pp. 224-231, 
1904; Astrophysical Journal, vol. 21, pp. 194-195, 1905. 


SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JANUARY 3, 1908—ABBOT 35 


APPARATUS 


‘\ concave mirror of 50 centimeters diameter and only 100 centi- 
eters focus, mounted equatorially and driven by a clock, served to 
produce a very intense image of the corona.’ A small guiding 
telescope was attached to the mirror frame, so that the observer 
might point the mirror toward any desired object. In the focus of 
the mirror was placed the bolometer. A glass plate three millimeters 
thick was fixed close to the bolometer, between it and the mirror, so 
that the radiation examined was thereby limited to wave-lengths 
less than about 3u. This device prevented any exchange of rays of 
long wave-lengths between the bolometer and the sky, such as pro- 
duced negative deflections when the bolometer was exposed toward 
the corona in 1900.2. The bolometer had blackened platinum strips 
8 millimeters long and 0.7 millimeter wide and of 0.5 ohm resistance. 
A metal diaphragm with circular aperture of I millimeter diameter 
was fixed between the glass plate and the central bolometer strip, so 
as to limit the region of the corona examined at each observation to 
an angular area of about 3’ of arc in diameter. 

About 10 centimeters in front of the bolometer was a self-closing 
blackened metal shutter which cut off the beam excepting when 
designedly opened. The opening of this shutter therefore exposed 
the central part of the bolometer to such rays as are transmissible 
by glass. Between the shutter and the glass plate, and close to the 
Jatter, was a special screen composed of a thin stratum of asphaltum 
varnish laid on one side* of a plane parallel glass plate 3 millimeters 
thick. ‘This screen was held out of the beam by a spring, except 
when designedly interposed. Its property, when used, was to cut off 
nearly all the visible part of the radiation, while transmitting nearly 
all of the infra-red rays transmissible by glass. ‘The transmissibility 
of this screen for rays of different wave-lengths follows: 


| 


= ee 
| 





F 
Ie Me be |» Tee aN beg I PS. Oe | lb 

Wave-length...... | 0.50 | 0.55 | 0.60 | 0.65 | 0.70 0.80 1,00 | 1.20 a 2.00 

| oO 92 


Transmissibility. - | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.10 | 0.20 0.41 0.66 | 0 80 | 0.90 
| | | | 


1’ he mirror was freshly silvered and polished on the day before the total 
eclipse. 

?Negative deflections in those experiments were due to the fact that the 
card screen used was warmer than the effective temperature of the sky, not, 
as Deslandres intimated, because any kind of rays cools rather than warms 
when absorbed. 

2’The side nearest the bolometer. 


36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


By interposing this absorbing screen the proportion of the 
observed radiation which lay in the infra-red spectrum could be 
roughly determined. Various trials made on Flint Island showed 
that ordinary sun-rays comprised from 29 to 37 per cent of rays 
transmissible by this screen, depending on the humidity of the air 
and the altitude of the sun; whereas sky-rays were only about 
20 to 25 per cent transmissible. Moon-brightness (and by this is 
meant reflected sun-rays, not rays proper to the moon itself, for 
such were eliminated by the glass plate) was examined on one 
occasion and showed a transmissibility of about 50 per cent. 

Several diaphragms were provided for graduating the aperture 
of the concave mirror. The apertures of these diaphragms were 
knife-edged, and those of less than 1 centimeter diameter were 
adjusted to lie within 3 millimeters of the silvered surface of the 
mirror. Allowing for the portions of the mirror shaded by the 
bolometer and its adjuncts, the apertures available were as follows: 


| | | 
Aged (qi er): fo25 =. | ryOr8vay) "|| 263-6 62.0 | 0.316 | 0.077 
| | | | 

SA CCOT Aster svre susecisiel 6 svcheys | 1.0000 | 0.1750 | 0.0383 | 0.000195 0.000048 





The equatorial was set up at Flint Island, on the beach, at about 
12 meters’ distance from the galvanometers used for observing the 
indications of the bolometer. ‘Two galvanometers were provided, 
exactly alike in resistance and general construction, and arranged so 
that if at the last moment any accident should happen to one, the 
observer might pass at once to the other.t A thatched hut shaded by 
palm trees sheltered the galvanometers and their appliances and 
was found to give most satisfactory protection both from heat and 
rain. ‘The galvanometers were each of 1.5 ohms total resistance, 
composed of 12 coils all connected in series. The needle systems, 
of 30 needles each, had mirrors I mm. by 1.2 mm. and weighed com- 
plete 0.011 gram each. Acetylene lamps were employed as light 
sources, and the images of the narrow flames were read on ground- 
glass scalesgocentimeters in front of the galvanometers. Resistances 
of 3, 8, 17, 45, 200, and 1,000 ohms, respectively, could be put in 
series with either galvanometer to reduce its deflections if required. 
The corresponding factors of reduction are 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 13.1, 60.0, 
and 300. ‘These numbers were obtained by actual trial. 

The Wheatstone’s bridge of the bolometer comprised the two 
platinum strips of 0.5 ohm each and two coils of 5.0 ohms each. 


‘This prudent measure was suggested by Mrs. Abbot. 


SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JANUARY 3, 1908—ABBOT 37 


hese were inclosed in a wooden cylinder 7 centimeters in diameter 
and 18 centimeters long, itself shaded by a ventilated double-walled 
brass shield. A battery of 4 Gladstone-Lalande cells was used, fur- 
nishing a current of 0.4 ampere. This battery was located in the 
hut, and means for exactly balancing and trying the sensitiveness 
of the bolometric circuit were provided by joining to one galvanom- 
eter terminal and one battery terminal an adjustable resistance of 
about 500 ohms, acting as a shunt around one of the 5-ohm coils. 
It proved necessary to shade the copper cables connecting the bolom- 
eter and the apparatus in the hut, but after this was done the 
whole apparatus worked very satisfactorily, without prejudicial 
drift or wiggle of the galvanometer spot. When considerable 
changes of the pointing of the equatorial were made, it was generally 
necessary to alter the balancing resistance slightly, as would be 
expected in consideration of the changed inclination of the bolometer 
strips. During the eclipse the time of single swing of the galvanom- 
eter was 1.9 seconds, and a change of 1 ohm in the balancing re- 
sistance produced 250 millimeters deflection. This indicates that a 
rise of temperature of one bolometer strip of about O1OCOOL 4. ©: 
would have produced 1 millimeter deflection at that time. These, 
of course, are far from the most sensitive conditions possible,’ but 
were regarded as good for a temporary installation. 

The attention of the reader is invited to the following improve- 
ments in the apparatus of 1908 as compared with that of 1900: 

1. One mirror replaces seven. 

2. The uncertain exchange of radiations of long wave-length 
between the bolometer and sky is eliminated by interposing glass. 

3. Each observation is limited to a comparatively small angular 
area, well defined in position. 

4. An absorbing screen for indicating the quality of the rays is 
introduced. 

5. Means are employed for comparing in intensity the rays of the 
sun, the sky, and the corona. 

During the eclipse the writer was charged with pointing and 
manipulating the equatorial, Mr. Moore with reading the galvanom- 
eter, and Chief Yeoman Edward M. Chase, of the Annapolis, with 
giving time signals and exposing two small cameras. 





1In Washington, with a scale distance of 4 meters and a time of single 
swing in a vacuum galvanometer case of 7 seconds, a deflection of 0.1 milli- 
meter has been measurable. This corresponded to a rise of temperature of 
0.0000000T. 


38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS 
METEOROLOGICAL 


The sky conditions were seldom constant for any great length of 
time on Flint Island, so that pyrheliometer readings were not often 
attempted. On December 29, at noon, the intensity of solar radiation 
at the camp was 1.423 calories per square centimeter per minute, with 
fine blue sky. 

Mr. Moore observed on Flint Island the temperatures of wet and 
dry bulb thermometers, barometric pressure, direction, and approxi- 
mate velocity of the wind in miles per hour, and cloudiness, at the 
hours 7 a. m., 11° 18™ am. 5 pm, and 9 p. m., each day itom 
December 10, 1907, to January 4, 1908. Without giving individual 
values, excepting for January 3, a summary of the mean results of 
his observations follows. ‘The column marked P indicates the press- 
ure of aqueous vapor at the earth’s surface in centimeters of mer- 
cury, and that marked Q the corresponding total precipitable water in 
a vertical column of the atmosphere 1 sq. cm. in cross-section, ac- 
cording to Hann’s formule. 

















| Temperature. | | Baro- | ; | 
| | - | Direc-| Veloc- 
Time. | Onan metric | tion of ity of Cloud- 
Dry Webs | Press- | iad. | wind, | ess 
bulb | bulb. | | ture: Pl : 
: } am lay | 
RA Geen a 8 AOlEs cm. +|~ cm. In. | 
pote imettice se 27 Onna 24.7, 2A 2 ee eetSeO2 ils Orluleany bie rey) Of. Mn O18 
Vien tn \Mean..| 26.75 | 24.23 2.48 | 5.70 | 30078 E Ghee) || eG! 


rr 18" (GI ATMS Set Se Seater | Meese EP cages leeeiutecece licoatet Saseiauel anette |S Paes haces exes 
\ Mean ..| 28.83 | 24.69] 2.74 | 6.30 | 30.049] FE. | 11.7 | 0.63 


ie eee 28 252570 2.68 6.16 | BOOS ae macau One| LOl9 
5 P- ™- ) Mean ..| 27.09 | 24.22| 2.52 | 5.80 30.012 | ‘E. 5.6 | 0.62 


9p. m esa, 35 |) BOG 24.5 2:47 | 5.08" /230. 540 ONG, yt CLO 
cme le Vicat -. 2AM e552 | Soro) E. 8.4 | 0.53 








Nv 
on 
H 
= 
Nv 
S 
\O 
° 


BoLoMETRIC 


The eclipse observations are of much more interest when consid- 
ered along with other observations which have been made of the 
relative brightness and quality of sun, sky, and moon rays. 


SUN-BRIGHTNESS, SKY-BRIGHTNESS, AND MOON-BRIGHTNESS * 
On December 29, 1907, one of the very few days during our stay 


on Flint Island when the sky was mostly free from clouds and of a 


*T propose to employ these terms for brevity, to mean the intensity of the 
radiation of the sun, sky, or moon transmissible by glass, and therefore of 
less wave-length than 3 p. 


SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JANUARY 3, IQ08—ABBOT 39 


good blue color for a considerable time, numerous measurements 
were made with pointings on the center of the sun’s disk and on 
many parts of the sky. In these measurements the full aperture of 
the concave mirror was employed for the sky, and the “o.316” 
aperture for the sun. Sun-brightness was further reduced by inter- 
posing in the beam a rotating disk from which a sector of -045 of the 
whole circle had been cut. Eight ohms’ resistance was placed in 
series with the galvanometer, under which circumstances I ohm 
change in the balancing resistance produced 55 mm. deflection. The 
measurements were begun about 92 4o™ a. m. and continued till 
To" 40™ a. m., local time, so that the sun was 20° to 40° from the 
zenith. 

Reserving for another publication a detailed study of these and 
other comparisons of sun and sky brightness, it will be sufficient 
here to state that the relative brightness of sky and sun, equal areas 
being measured, varied from 0.0000031 at distant parts of the sky to 
0.0000140 at 20° from the sun. The average value was 0.0000062. 
It was impossible to secure accurate observations nearer the sun than 
20°, because the mirror could not be properly shaded from the sun 
in such cases, and the diffused reflection of sun-brightness would 
have masked the true sky-brightness. 

Measurements made on Mount Wilson, in California,? in 1905-6 
showed that the average ratio at that altitude was about 0.0000015, 
so that the sky at sea-level appears to be, roughly, four times as 
bright as on Mount Wilson. 

From measurements made on December 27 at 3. 30™ a. m., the 
moon-brightness was about 0.0000012 of sun-brightness; but this 
ratio can only be regarded as roughly approximate,” and likely to be 
altered with the haziness or humidity of the air as well as with the 
altitudes of the sun and moon. 


QUALITY OF SUN-BRIGHTNESS, SKY-BRIGHTNESS, AND MOoON-BRIGHTNESS 


On December 26, with the sun about 40° from the zenith, the ratio 
of the sun-brightness transmissible by the asphaltum screen to the 
total sun-brightness was found to be 0.366, while for zenith sky- 
brightness the result came out 0.248. Owing to the change of hu- 
midity from time to time, with consequent large alterations of the 


* Altitude, 1,800 meters. 

* This ratio is not directly comparable with the determinations which dif- 
ferent observers have made of the relative photometric measures of the light 
of the sun and moon, nor, on the other hand, with determinations of the 
relative amounts of the total radiation of the sun and moon. 


40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


intensity of the infra-red spectrum, ratios like these just given are 
not to be regarded as constants. In order to avoid errors from this 
cause, care was taken on eclipse day to determine the transmissibility 
of sun-brightness immediately before and after totality, as will appear 
in its place. 

On other days before the eclipse, values of the transmissibility 
ratio for sun-brightness were obtained, ranging from 0.29 to 0.37. 

On the morning of December 27, at 3" 30™ a. m., the transmissi- 
bility of the moon-brightness was found to be 0.50.1 It is very sig- 
nificant to note that the day sky and the moon, both reflecting sun 
rays, alter the quality of sun rays in opposite directions and in such 
marked degrees. The blue quality of the sky-brightness, as Lord 
Rayleigh has shown, is probably due to the fact that the reflection 
takes place from particles small compared with the wave-length of 
light, and principally perhaps from the molecules of air themselves. 

In view of the data just given, we should suppose that the bright- 
ness of the solar corona, if we imagine it to be caused merely by the 
reflection of ordinary sun rays, would be more transmissible to the 
asphaltum screen than sun-brightness, if the reflecting particles are 
of gross magnitude, like those composing the surface of the moon; 
but less transmissible than sun-brightness, on the other hand, if the 
reflecting particles are minute like the molecules of gases. 


OBSERVATIONS ON ECLIPSE Day 


The approach of totality was uncommonly exciting on this oc- 
casion. Early in the morning the sky was overcast with high clouds, 
but these gradually grew thinner, so that after 9 a. m. the prospects 
indicated a streaky sky containing something almost too thick for 
haze, but almost too thin for cirrus clouds. These prospects were 
fulfilled exactly during totality, but in the quarter of an hour next 
preceding a thick cloud came up, rain fell fast from 112 o8™ to 
114 14™, and the view of the sun became clear of the rain-cloud only 
15 seconds before totality, at the Smithsonian station. The rapid 
change from fair prospects to completely discouraging ones and the 
return of good conditions just at the critical time will long be re- 
membered. Our entire immunity from rain during totality was due 
to the fact that our station was about 1,000 feet north of the one 
occupied by the Lick Observatory. Second contact was observed by 
the writer, and recorded by Yeoman Chase at 11 15” 7.85, local civil 
time. 


*See also Langley’s comparison of the visible spectra of the sun and moon. 
Memoirs National Academy of Sciences, vol. 11, 1884, p. 21. 


SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JANUARY 3, I908—ABBOT 41 


At about 108 55™ and 115 45™ the following two series of obser- 
vations were recorded on the brightness of the center of the sun’s 
crescents visible respectively before and after the eclipse. In each 
series there was employed the “o.077” aperture, and also a series re- 
sistance of 200 ohms in the galvanometer circuit. The table includes 
actual readings on the galvanometer scale before and after opening 
the shutter of the bolometer, sometimes with, sometimes without, the 
asphaltum screen. In reading the galvanometer, the position of 
steady condition is first noted; then the furthest excursion of the 
spot of light after opening the shutter, which corresponds to the first 
swing of the galvanometer. In computing actual deflections, no 
account has been made of drift of zero between the steady position 
and the end of the first swing, because this interval is only 2 seconds, 
and the drift was at no time rapid enough to be of import in this 
brief interval. During all these measurements of sun-brightness the 
time of swing of the galvanometer was the same as employed during 
the total eclipse. The places on the sun may be regarded as having 
been 0.7 radius distant from the center of the solar disk. 


Measurements at toh 55 





Open. | Deflection. 
Closed: |——— | : = 
| No screen. Screen. No screen. Screen. 
cm cm. cw cm, cw 
16.0 DOG MMM ere tric cts G5 aU Sem eace nbs 
TOE Ost are steak Speers SEZ BN cee eae ay: 2D 
16.3) BOES= Wen Seana. cs GES reer onan 
ROWS og yl cence eee PONS Mad tiere ware ae 252 
16.5 | Date Mises csr GlOw S altreas cats 
TONS Sh byte week LOsOus ils aerate Daa 
16.6 | Doane Pe Mensh crys 6.7 | Paes aoe: 
WS aBUMoR UN eerints sc cane 1A 7we | cea eet ae | 2a 
lw Wieainsoeariliserrtcien 6.60 | 2:20) 


Ratio, 0.333 | 


42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Measurements at 11% 45™ 


| 














Open. | Deflection. 
CI OSEG es | rs 
| No screen. | Screen. | No screen. | Screen. | 
| cm. cm. anatczz8 cm. | cm. 
| 8.4 Ses Wate ove seene | GIO alec siener. 
SPO eale aes Saree LGAG eile cease neneazes 
8.4 D5 3c, wi sistnsiiees G59" Sher eistaeea te 
ONS MeL mise tee TO 7 PAN ea vatersts erect 252 
Sea TAN GMa lic. Watass Piet Gray Nise cre 
Neer SeA cae eich cree rave TOW, velcro. xcusehesae coll Dae 
8.4 THEA lee em ess FeO Ape. Ul cchar raat 
GOs Sie Met ocnct steed cheat ae TON orcie tet pe evokes 22 
sss TSS ee Ml Mecsowe erases FAO otal rN? Rares ee 
| MCGanSt a alee 6.80 2.25 
Ratio, 0.331 


| Mean transmissibility of sun-brightness, 0.332 | 


MEASUREMENTS ON THE CORONA 


In the field of the finder telescope were cross-threads, two of which 
intersected in the center, making an angle of 75°. One of these 
threads was adjusted along the line of diurnal drift of the sun, as 
found by stopping the clock of the equatorial. When the moon’s 
image was adjusted tangent to the threads, there were four positions 
available, according as the moon occupied one of the obtuse angles 
or one of the acute angles between the intersecting threads. During 
the eclipse, measurements were made of the corona-brightness at the 
two positions of tangency in the obtuse angles, and one measurement 
was made in one of the acute angles. Besides these three positions, 
two others were employed, situated 1.5’ of arc beyond the extremi- 
ties of the moon’s east and west diameter, and one position in the 
center of the dark moon, making six in all. In view of the symmet- 
rical character of the results to be given, and of the uncertainty of 
precise setting on so small an image with the bolometer, it seems 
unnecessary to specify the first three positions more definitely than 
to add, that in the two positions of obtuse angle tangency the bolom- 
eter was central on points 4’ of the arc beyond the extremities of a 
lunar diameter inclined 52.5° to the east and west diameter, and in 
the position of acute angle tangency the distance from the moon’s 
limb was about 12’ of arc. | 

Let the six positions be designated in the order described above as 
Positions 1, 1, iit AV. Ve anda. 


SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JANUARY 3, I908—ABBOT 


‘The measurements are as follows: 























Position I 
Open. | Deflection. 
Closed. | = al 
No screen. | Screen. | No screen. | Screen. 
cw. cm, | cn, cm, cm, 
11.3 14 2 | See aed Dei ame IS eretatchs 
WN 2 14.5 Kevateucatatvuree Briar | AE ye cteie tell 
TORS2F yr leet yh ect: | 12.4 | re oe Bes 
TELA) il Serer stars «20 nate Web Gag Apove 
| sists eucvewers | Bor L.2 








Ratio, 0.387. 


Position VI 
No deflection whatever. 


Position II 








| 
. | 
Open. Deflection. | 
Closed. : as Se | 
No screen. | Screen. No screen. | Screen. 
eae : al E | 
| 
cm cm | cm cm, cm | 
al 10.2 | Pe eae Bys Tet eae teens | 


Ratio, 0.323 





Position III 
No deflection whatever. 


Position IV 








Open. Deflection. | 

Closed. Seer ee ee | 

| No screen. | Screen. No screen. | Screen. | 

cn. om | cn cn cm | 

eiger. || 23.9 Segoe Se toe ‘10.8 Nee nnshe. eas 
[Gace | Bocas IMG. llharapars ie uate ote amare 


44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


PosITIon V 





17.8 | D7, [fe crete tous os 9.9 le rete | 


Ratio, 0.384 


On account of the number of observations, the result in Position 
I is entitled to twice as much weight as that in Position II; and on 
account of the larger deflections observed, the results jn Positions 
IV and V are regarded as each of twice the weight of those in Posi- 
tion II. It is not thought that the variations of the ratio of trans- 
missibility between the several observations just noted are beyond 
the probable errors of the single determinations, so that without dis- 
tinguishing separate positions, the weighted mean result for the 
transmissibility of the inner corona-brightness may be regarded as 
0.364. For positions I, II and IV, V, taken in pairs, the means are 
0.366 and 0.362 respectively. 

In order to determine the intrinsic corona-brightness as compared 
with sun-brightness, we must first multiply the average solar deflec- 
tions observed before and after the eclipse by the two factors appro- 
priate to allow for the ratio of size of mirror apertures employed and 
for the introduction of series resistance in the galvanometer circuit 
respectively. Performing this reduction and introducing also the 
data of sky-brightness already given, we obtain the following values 
based on a sun-brightness of 10,000,000: 


Suneneara zenith CHlant sland) aye seseeerien eee reenere iercete 10,000,000 
Skyi2ocstrom® sun cGPlint ‘Island)\. aac asen sem sem ee eceree acre 140 
Sky distant from sun (Flint Islanved)ijo sec enter iced ecto 31 
Skysaverage (Cilint Island). 2. .ceeeieeceere eee eee eae 62 
Skaymaverace (Nit Walsom)meon ose ee eee ee ec arr 15 
Corona Positions: LV ands Vis..,-c emcee coecnie series ana 13 
CoronasPositions’ land: lence nome ere ie sereeraieent 

Moon about 50° zenith distance (Flint Island)................ ToaGe) 


DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS 


When we recall the extreme brightness of the sky within a 
single degree of the sun as compared with that 20° away, and con- 
sider also the figures just given, the proposal to observe the carona 
without an eclipse seems an unpromising one. 


SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JANUARY 3, I908—ABROT 45 


From the figures just given it appears that the corona of 1908 
equaled the moon in radiation transmissible by glass only at the 
brightest observed part of the inner corona. Referring to the con- 
clusions made by the writer from the bolometric observation of the 
eclipse of 1900, it will be recalled that it was assumed by him that 
the region of the corona then observed was equally as bright as the 
moon visually. It now seems probable that this was not so, and ac- 
cordingly the argument he made for an exceptional richness of visible 
light in coronal radiation, which depended on the assumption just 
referred to, is weakened. In actual fact the coronal radiation proves 
to be almost, but not quite, as rich in visible light as the ordinary 
solar radiation coming from points 0.7 radius from the center of the 
sun’s disk, as shown by the measurements of 1908 made with and 
without the screen. 


PROBABLE NATURE OF THE CoRONA 


The nature of the radiation of the inner corona has been supposed 
by some to be principally reflected solar radiation; by others, prin- 
cipally due to the incandescence of particles heated by reason of theiz 
proximity to the sun; by others, principally luminescence, perhaps 
similar to the aurora; and by some as a combination of all these 
kinds of radiation. 

A satisfactory theory of the corona must take cognizance of the 
following facts at least: 

1. The color of the corona does not appear to change at varying 
distances from the limb of the sun, and the transmissibility of its 
rays to the asphaltum screen is the same at 1.5’ and 4’ from the limb. 

2. Its brightness is very small and falls off rapidly with increas- 
ing distance from the limb. 

3. Its spectrum is mainly continuous near the limb, but shows 
dark Fraunhofer lines, more and more distinctly, at increasing dis- 
tances therefrom. A few not very conspicuous bright spectral lines 
are present near the limb and perhaps in the outer corona also. 

4. Its light is polarized in the outer regions, but polarization 
grows less marked, and at length disappears near the limb. 

5. Its brightness is almost, but not quite, as little transmissible to 
the asphaltum screen as that of the sun itelf, and is far less so than 
the reflected brightness of the moon, but far more so than the re- 
flected brightness of the sky. 

6. Any kind of matter so near the sun must be hot and must also 
reflect solar rays. 

7. There is no evidence of high pressure in the corona. 


46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


The considerations (3), (5), and (7), taken together, are hard 
to satisfy; for if the inner corona were hot enough to give out a 
spectrum of incandescence satisfying (5), the matter composing it 
must be gaseous, if it is like any matter we know of.* Accordingly 
we should expect a bright line spectrum like that of the chromo- 
sphere if the inner corona shines chiefly by incandescence,? and, fur- 
thermore, we should expect its rays to increase in transmissibility to 
the screen and grow red to the eye with increasing distance from the 
sun. 

If we may suppose that the temperature of the corona is every- 
where low enough to allow solid or liquid particles to be formed, 
then all the specifications excepting (3) are easily satisfied by the 
hypothesis of a corona of reflection.* Our knowledge is not sufficient 
to enable us to prove that the particles even of the inner corona 
would be too hot to be mainly liquid (that is to say, above 3,000° to 
3,500°). If the particles were all gaseous, the rays reflected would 
probably be richer than sun rays in visible light, and this would be 
contrary to (5). May it not be that while a large proportion of the 
particles of the inner corona is gaseous, a considerable proportion 
is liquid or solid? Then may not the light of the inner corona be 
mainly reflected, like that of the outer corona, but with the bright 
line spectrum of incandescent gases present in sufficient strength to 
nearly obliterate the dark Fraunhofer lines of the reflected sun rays? 
The continuous spectrum of the incandescent solid and liquid par- 
ticles present would tend to increase the transmissibility of the coro- 
nal brightness to the asphaltum screen; so that the opposite tendency 
of the diffuse reflection of the gaseous particles present would be 
counteracted. At increasing distances from the limb we may suppose 
the particles would be cooler, and mainly solid or liquid, so that in- 
candescence would wane and a dark line spectrum would gradually 
appear. Still, the transmissibility and color would remain nearly 
unchanged, because the light would be still mainly reflected sunlight, 
and the particles now so large as not to enrich the proportion of blue 
light, but rather slightly to decrease it. 


* Arrhenius computes a possible temperature of 4,620° at 0.7’ from the limb, 
and then suggests that the matter there may be liquid drops. How is this 
possible? 

?The gaseous material of the sun itself is under enormous pressure, so 
that its spectrum is thereby made continuous. Not so the corona. 

* Specification (4) is no obstacle, because the particles near the sun receive 
light from a solid angle of nearly a whole hemisphere, and would therefore 
show no polarization in any particular direction, because partially polarized 
in all. 


SOLAR ECLIPSE OF JANUARY 3, I908—ABBOT 47 


As for the attractive hypothesis of electrical discharge lumines- 
cence, like that of the aurora, one hesitates to recommend recourse 
to a source so little known. So far as known, too, this hypothesis, 
like the others, has difficulty to reckon with the character of the 
photographic coronal spectrum. 

The cause of the corona-brightness seems very difficult to decide, 
in view of conflicting considerations; but in the judgment of the 
writer the hypothesis that it is mainly due to the reflection of ordi- 
nary sun rays, but modified by radiation of incandescence and per- 
haps also luminescence, seems most tenable. 

In conclusion, it is a pleasure to acknowledge the great aid 
afforded by the director and staff of the Lick Observatory Expedi- 
tion; the conscientious and able work of my assistant, Mr. Moore; 
the intelligent and faithful assistance rendered on the day of the 
eclipse by Chief Yeoman Chase, of the Annapolis; the aid furnished 
by the owners and manager of Flint Island, and the uniformly cor- 
dial and courteous attentions of Governor Moore and the officers of 
the Annapolis, and of many others during the time when the expedi- 
tion was in transit. 





REPORAWON Ay TRIP POR THE PURPOSE OF STUDYING 
THE MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA 


By AUGUST BUSCK 


In order to gain some knowledge of the mosquitoes of. Panama, 
heretofore practically unknown, Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief of the 
Bureau of Entomology of the U. S$. Department of Agriculture, 
instructed the writer to proceed to the Canal Zone on this mission. 

It was arranged that I should report to Col. W. C. Gorgas, Chief 
Sanitary Officer of the Canal Commission, in order that the work 
might be carried out in conjunction with the Sanitary Department 
with reference to the economic aspects of the subject. 

I left Washington April 12, 1907, and sailed the following day 
from New York on S. S$. Advance, arriving in Colon a week later. 
After a few days of general inspection, during which I made myself 
acquainted with the general lay of the land, I made my headquarters 
in Tabernilla, about midway between the Atlantic and the Pacific 
coasts. A very suitable tent was constructed and equipped for me, 
which I occupied during the following three months, except when my 
work temporarily caused me to take other quarters. 

Most of my work was done in the country around Tabernilla, 
but numerous trips to other localities along the Panama Railroad 
from Panama to Colon were made, and two more extended excur- 
sions were undertaken outside the Canal Zone, up the Chagres River 
in native dugouts. 

In accordance with the time limit of my authorization, I was pre- 
pared to leave the Isthmus on July 21, but prolonged my stay on a 
telegraphic request from the chairman of the Commission in order 
to be able to give a preliminary verbal report to Colonel Gorgas, who 
had been absent from the Zone during the latter part of my sojourn 
there. I finally left Colon July 30 and reached Washington August 
6, 1907. 

During my stay I was given every courtesy and constant help in 
my work by the officers of the Sanitary Inspector’s Department, 
especially by its Chief, Mr. J. Le Prince, and the Associate Chief, 
Dr. Herman Canfield, who thoroughly entered into the spirit of my 
investigations and fully realized their important bearing on the 
practical work of their department. 


4 49 


50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. ey 


Mr. Allen H. Jennings, of the department, was detailed to be 
with me as much as possible in order to learn our methods in the 
routine work of collecting, breeding, and taking care of the mosqui- 
toes; his frequent companionship in the field and in the laboratory 
was very pleasant and facilitated my work in many ways. He was 
good enough to take charge of my living larye on two occasions of 
more prolonged absence. 

The several local sanitary inspectors along the Zone line gave me 
much assistance by collecting material and giving me facilities for 
work when I visited their stations. 

Through the foresight of Doctor Canfield, a system was inau- 
gurated whereby each sanitary inspector sent me weekly a bottle of 
mosquito larvee, and though this material could not be expected to be 
of especial value, it furnished additional localities for the common 
species and occasionally yielded rarer ones. I must especially men- 
tion Mr. C. H. Bath, sanitary inspector at Las Cascadas, whose care- 
ful and regular sendings yielded several interesting larve. 

‘The number of species of mosquitoes secured was 83, of which 30 
species were new to science. Most of the species were bred from 
the larvee. Besides these I have included in the following list, in order 
to make it as complete as possible, 7 additional species, previously 
received by the U. S. Department of Agriculture from Panama 
through other collectors, bringing the total number of species at 
present known from Panama up to go. The collection was de- 
termined by Dr. H. G. Dyar and Mr. F. Knab.* All the types of 
new species are deposited in the U. S. National Museum, as well as 
all the other material, with the exception of a duplicate set presented 
to the Isthmian Canal Commission. 

Large as this number of species is—the largest number recorded 
from any one limited locality—there is yet much work to be done 
before the entire mosquito fauna of the Zone is known. 

It was impossible to work up théroughly so large an area within 
three months, and only the immediate region around Tabernilla was 
at all adequately investigated. Even here additional species will 
undoubtedly be found, because the fauna changes considerably with 
the season, and some species may not have been active at all during 
the period of my visit, though this was intentionally arranged so as 
to cover both the end of the dry season and the early part of the 
rainy season. The appearance of different species of tropical mos- 
quitoes at different seasons is a well-marked phenomenon and was 
repeatedly observed even during my short stay. 





*The new species were described in Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc., vol. xv, 1907, pp. 
197-214. 





MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 51 

Aside from obtaining a more complete list of the species of mos- 
quitoes, much additional work is needed on the biology of the species 
now known, both from a scientific standpoint and for practical 
reasons in connection with the fight against the mosquitoes in the 
Canal Zone. 

The anti-mosquito work of the Sanitary Department is considered 
of prime importance and is carried on throughout the Zone. It is 
a gigantic undertaking, but even now shows remarkable results in 
the constantly improving health conditions, apparent from the health 
reports, which are more gratifying every month. 

The Canal Zone proper is about 50 miles long by ten miles wide. 
It includes, as far as sanitation is concerned, the cities of Panama and 
Colon. The population of the Zone is about 100,000, of which the city 
of Panama has about 33,000, Colon 14,000, and the Zone proper 52,000. 
In the Zone proper this population centers at the towns La Boca, 
Ancon, Coracal, Miraflores, Pedro Miguel, Paraiso, Culebra, Empire, 
Las Cascadas, Bas Obispo, Matashin, Mamei, San Pablo, Tabernilla, 
Frijoles, Bohio, Lion Hill, and Gatun, with several native towns and 
camps for employees between, all of which lie along the line of the 
Panama Railroad. Anti-mosquito work is carried on throughout 
the area covered by these towns and settlements. The routine 
method is to brush, drain, and oil the whole area of a town or camp 
and its surroundings to a distance of not less than 200 yards from the 
last house in the town or camp. The same rule applies to isolated 
houses or native towns, but outside of this area no attempt is made to 
control the mosquitoes, on the correct supposition that these normally 
do not fly such a distance. 

In the beginning the land is cleared by the removal of all brush, 
undergrowth, and grass; only shade and fruit trees are left, and these 
are thinned out to admit sunlight and free ventilation. Where pos- 
sible, swamps and low land are filled in, the immense excavations at 
the Culebra cut furnishing abundant material. Then the whole area 
is drained to carry off the surface water or any constant flow from 
springs or seepage from the hills. ‘This drainage is extended to all 
new work in the canal cut and to railroad work or dumps near set- 
tlements. The drainage is accomplished by subsoil tile drains, open 
ditches, and open concrete or stone and cement ditches. Drain tiling 
or cement ditches are made where possible, as they require very little 
care afterwards, while the open dirt-ditches must be constantly 
cleaned and regraded to prevent “pocketing” and the consequent 
formation of breeding pools for mosquitoes. In open dirt-ditches 
the alge will form in two or three days after cleaning, and to pre- 
vent this drip-cans are placed at the head of those ditches with a 


52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


solution of sulphate of copper, five pounds to a barrel of fifty gallons 
of water. This is also used in all running streams after the removal 
of alge. 

Open ditches in which the water flows sluggishly have oil drip- 
cans at their heads. These oil drip-cans are raised three feet above 
the water to give a wide spread to each drop, and are arranged to 
drop about twenty drops to the minute. The oil used is a rather 
heavy dark grade, which costs the department $4.34 a barrel. About 
3,200 barrels of oil were used within the last year. 

All streams are kept free from alge and are kept within restricted 
banks as far as possible; this is done by blowing out the rapids or 
falls to produce a uniform flow, and the edges are filled in by hand. 

All swamps, pools, or even temporary collections of water are oiled 
at least weekly, and in the rainy season oftener; this applies to the 
smallest collection of water, even animal tracks, ruts from wagon 
wheels, and crab-holes. It entails a great amount of work, which is 
done by colored labor under continual supervision. 

All receptacles holding water must be screened or oiled. Water 
barrels are screened by covering with a board with a small screened 
opening in the center for the inflow. Below this board are two 
screened holes for overflow, and the water is drawn from a faucet 
at the bottom. Buckets and pails in daily use in a household are not 
permitted to stand filled more than twenty-four hours. All tin cans, 
bottles, etc., must be buried. No gutters are allowed on houses. 
There is a daily inspection of all water receptacles, and weekly the 
inspector at the head of the station must make a personal inspection 
and report any receptacle found containing mosquito larve. The 
second offense, after a warning, means the arrest and fine of the 
householder. 

All old machinery, which is found in great quantity all over the 
Canal Zone, left from the French occupation, is drained by punching 
holes in any part that will hold water, or where this is not possible, 
such places are filled with dirt. Even patent car couplings on the 
trains in use must be inspected and oiled, as they are often found to 
contain mosquito lanvee. 

When any house or camp is found: to contain any number of 
mosquitoes, it is fumigated with sulphur by the dry method. All 
cracks or openings are pasted over with paper; enough pots, each 
containing five pounds of sulphur, are placed at intervals on the 
floors to make about one pot for each 1,000 cubic feet of space. 
After fumigation, the house is left closed from three to four hours. 

All barracks, whether for white or black laborers, bachelor quar- 
ters, married quarters, offices, churches, lodge-rooms, and other 





MOSOUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 53 


rooms used for sleeping, living, or eating quarters are screened; 
the Sanitary Department is responsible for all repairs of this screen- 
ing and employs a large force of carpenters for this purpose. 

The physicians in each district make a weekly report on the num- 
ber of cases of malaria in the different camps; these reports are tab- 
ulated in the central office of the Sanitary Department and compared 
with the previous records, and if an increase of even a fraction of one 
per cent is shown for any locality, the local inspector is telephoned 
and ordered to locate the point of infection and eradicate the breed- 
ing places. Long-continued statistics show how nicely this system 
works. If any more serious increase occurs, a special mosquito in- 
spector is sent out from the central office to locate the trouble and 
report on the best measures to be taken. 

The difficulties of this work are numerous. The constant increase 
of population requires new sites for camps to be made in the unim- 
proved brush-covered country; the ever-changing conditions due to 
the canal work are a continued source of trouble; the progress of each 
steam shovel or of each of the extensive dumps produces new prob- 
lems to be solved in the way of drainage; and, above all, the recur- 
ring deluges of the rainy season cause rising creeks and rivers and 
overflow of lowlands so irregular as to be impossible to foresee. 

The Sanitary Department has, aside from its office force, about 
thirty sanitary inspectors and employs between 1,200 and 1,300 labor- 
ers. The total cost of the Sanitary Inspector's Department is be- 
tween three and four hundred thousand dollars. 

With all due credit to the truly excellent work and the undeniably 
brilliant results achieved, the work is nevertheless done more or less 
in the dark, at present, from lack of accurate knowledge of the 
enemy. It could undoubtedly be made both more effective in some 
ways and less expensive in others through a more intimate knowledge 
of the mosquitoes concerned, toward which the present investigation 
has made but a small beginning. 

At present the department deals with all mosquitoes as a nuisance 
to be done away with, whether they are good, bad, or indifferent ; 
but the work could be more profitably done with an accurate knowl- 
edge of those species which are infectious, those which are merely 
annoying, and those which are harmless or even beneficial. 

It is true that special attention is given the supposed malaria- 
carrying species, but even here there is little definite knowledge, and 
inferences may not prove reliable. 

Thus, it is generally supposed that all the species of Anopheles are 
capable of carrying malaria; but no accurate experiments have been 


54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


made to prove it in the case of most of the species occurring in the 
Canal Zone. One of the species, Anopheles eiseni, has an abnormal 
life history. It breeds in tree-holes and similar places instead of open 
puddles. It is quite possible that this species is not infectious; but 
it is most important for the practical work that this should be in- 
vestigated, as the usual methods of destruction by drainage and oil- 
ing of the ponds does not affect this species. 

Another large group of mosquitoes not affected by the present 
methods are those breeding in the parasitic plants high up in the 
branches of trees. None of these are supposed to carry disease,’ 
though it might be rash to take this for granted, with our present 
limited knowledge about them. At all events, the species of the 
genus Wyeomyia, which almost exclusively breed in such places, are 
among the few day-biting mosquitoes and are decidedly noxious, 
where they abound, as in the case of Wyeomyia adelpha around the 
I. C. C. Hotel in Tabernilla. 

It might be difficult to arrange the work of extermination so as 
not to destroy the predaceous, and therefore beneficial, species of 
Megarhinus, Psorophora and Lutzia; in fact, this discrimination 
would be somewhat doubtfully warranted, as some of these are them- 
selves aggressive biters. Some mosquitoes are known not to bite 
man, as the true crab-hole mosquito of the genus Deinocerites. The 
tedious and at best uncertain Work of oiling these numerous holes, as 
it is now done, might be saved if it were definitely ascertained, as it 
is reasonable to suppose, that the other crab-hole-inhabiting species 
also are harmless. 

It would seem within the scope of the work of the Sanitary De- 
partment to utilize the unique opportunities on the Zone to work out 
some of the hundreds of problems of a similar nature which must be 
solved before our knowledge of these insects, so intimately connected 
with human welfare, is complete. With easy access to abundant 
material of many species of mosquitoes, now that the life histories of 
most of them have been studied; with the constant influx of malarial 
patients in the hospitals available for observation and experimenta- 
tion, and with the large staff of medical men, among whom talents 
for bacteriological and systematic scientific work can not be wanting, 
the Sanitary Department on the Canal Zone has great opportunities 
to acquire knowledge which can not be gained except on the spot, 
and thus contribute this nation’s full share in the solution of the 
world’s problems in this important part of tropical medicine. 

Such knowledge, though in its nature merely theoretical and purely 
scientific, would be of great practical value and would alone enable 


*See footnote page 08. 


MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 55 


truly intelligent work against this scourge of the tropics. When the 
Panama Canal is finished, most of the localities in which the present 
work is going on will disappear, submerged under the lakes of the 
canal. Even then these problems will not cease to exist, but will, if 
possible, be of added importance on account of the traffic through 
the canal and the possibility of carrying infectious diseases between 
two hemispheres. 

It may be of value for the rediscovery of the many new species 
of mosquitoes obtained during the trip and for the continued study 
of these insects by the Sanitary Department that some general de- 
scription of the localities in which the collections were made should 
be given as well as some of the methods employed in obtaining and 
rearing the mosquitoes. 

The neighborhood of Tabernilla, in which most of the work was 
done, is low; from the Panama Railroad line the ground slopes grad- 
ually down toward the Chagres River. In the intervening country 
is the bed of the old French sea-level canal, which even in the dry 
season is covered by a series of shallow lakes connected by low 
meadows. Between this and the river the land is covered with tall 
bamboo, sparsely interspersed by large hardwood trees ; the crowns of 
these latter are thickly covered with parasitic plants, such as Tilland- 
sia and Agave, which constitute in themselves a thickly populated 
world for several species of mosquitoes. 

A few neglected trails wind their way through the heavy under- 
brush to native villages on the other side of the river, where patches 
of land are burned off and cleared for pastures or for sugar-cane and 
banana fields. When passing through this region one finds, as every- 
where on the lowland of the Zone, the old narrow-gauge railroad 
tracks left from the French works and quantities of old French 
machinery completely overgrown by heavy underbrush. 

During the rainy season the Chagres River rises, and this entire 
area is covered with water and is only accessible by wading knee 
deep. 

Here in the bamboo woods swarms of mosquitoes seek one out, 
and many species can be secured as adults, when they come to bite; 
but their larve are rarely accessible in nature, occurring as they do 
in broken bamboo joints filled with rain-water or in tree-holes, some- 
times high up in the branches or difficult to reach through the tangle 
of underbrush and fallen bamboos. A good way to secure these 
larvee is to clear spaces in the woods with a machete, fell a couple 
of bamboo trunks, and cut them up in short joints, which are then 
placed upright in the ground and filled with water. These bamboo 


50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


joints make ideal breeding places for the mosquitoes, and a large 
majority of the species, which have been attracted to you during this 
work, are induced to lay their eggs in these traps. The larve can 
be easily secured by a suction bulb or by turning the contents of the 
joints into a white enameled plate. Numerous larve of Joblotia, 
Carrollia, Aedes, Sabethes, Hemagogus, and the bamboo Wegarhinus 
were obtained in this way, which otherwise could not have been found 
at all or only by hard work, in small numbers. 

In the small pools in the woods and in the water-filled old French 
machinery, various Culex and Anopheles species were found, the 
former commonly preyed upon by the larve of Lutszia bigottu. 

On the other side of Tabernilla the country is higher and hilly, 
partly cultivated and sprinkled with small native settlements. In the 
still pools of small sluggish streams between the hills, good collecting 
grounds are found, which vielded several Culex, Uranotema, and 
Anopheles larve. ‘The trees in and around the villages, covered as 
they are by water-bearing epiphytic plants, furnish a rich fauna of 
mosquitoes, especially species of MVyeomyia, Phoniomyia, and 
Megarhinus. ‘The best way to secure the larvz in these plants is to 
carefuly cut the plant off with a machete and turn it over and wash 
it out into a bucket half filled with water. In the case of the tall 
trees in the lowlands, the whole tree was felled in order to secure the 
epiphytic plants and their mosquito population. ‘The corners of the 
leaves of the Spanish bayonet and other similar leaves holding water 
afford breeding places for several species of mosquitoes. The sharp 
spines on the leaves of these plants make it difficult to reach the 
mosquito larve. The best results in obtaining these are secured by 
cutting all the leaves off close to the stem, cutting the plant off near 
the ground, and turning the contents out into a bucket. 

On excursions to more remote localities, where a bucket can not 
well be carried along, one must depend upon a suction bulb with a 
long glass tube with which to suck up the larve from these and other 
similar plants; but the small amount of water found in most of these 
plants makes it difficult to use the rubber bulb, and it is advisable to 
carry a bottle of water along from which to replenish the leaf corners 
and thus enable repeated suctions. The suction bulb is indispensable 
in many other cases, as with tree-holes too narrow to admit a dipper. 

Once secured, the mosquito larve should be taken home as soon. 
and with as little shaking as possible, each lot in a separate bottle. 
In the laboratory each lot is given a serial number referring to the 
notes on their habitat; the larve are placed singly in breeding tubes 
with cotton stoppers. Each larva receives a separate isolation num- 


MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 57 


ber. When it pupates, the cast skin is carefully preserved in alcohol 
in a small tube with this isolation number, which the adult specimen 
also will bear. In this way only is it possible to be sure of associating 
the adult with the correct larva. 


Pannily CULICI DA 


Subfamily CULICIN 


Genus ANOPHELES Meigen 


ANOPHELES PSEUDOPUNCTIPENNIS Theobald 


This appears to be the commonest and most widely distributed 
Anopheles on the Zone, at least during the season of the year in 
which the present observations were made. 

It was bred from larve from the edges of a slowly running stream 
near Gatun; from a large ill-smelling stagnant pool near Tabernilla, 
caused by dumping dirt across a small stream; from a small swamp 
near Culebra; from still pools of a clear, cold mountain brook near 
the Culebra cut at Empire; from the borders of a large stream near 
Empire; from a large open pool in a bend of the upper Chagres 
River, and from a stagnant pool near Panama City. Adults were col- 
lected at Las Cascadas, Culebra, Tabernilla, La Boca, and Colon. 


ANOPHELES ALBIMANUS Wiedemann 


This species was bred from stagnant pools at La Boca and near 
Panama City. After my departure, Mr. A. H. Jennings bred it from 
water in an old boat on Taboga Island, where we both had failed to 
find any Anopheles six weeks before, though we carefully searched 
for them. This is a striking example of the repeatedly observed 
periodicity in the activity of tropical mosquitoes. 

Adults were also collected in large numbers by Mr. Jennings in 
the barracks at Gatun, and by the writer in houses at Tabernilla, 
Pedro Miguel, and Panama City. From its persistence in seeking 
human habitations for the purpose of biting, it is reasonable to sup- 
pose this species particularly concerned in the distribution of malaria. 

At one time in July during my stay the species became excessively 
abundant in La Boca, breeding in a temporarily dammed-up swamp 
near the laborers’ quarters. The subsequent increase of malaria in 
these barracks caused considerable anxiety as well as extra work for 
the Sanitary Inspector’s office. 


58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


ANOPHELES TARSIMACULATA Goeldi 


Two specimens were attracted to my tent at Tabernilla by the light. 
These specimens appear to have flown at least three hundred yards 
from the nearest possible breeding place, which was in the swamp 
back of the residence hill at Tabernilla. Their flight, however, was 
aided by the shelter of intervening trees and houses. 


ANOPHELES EISENI Coquillett 


This large white-kneed Anopheles was bred from larve taken in 
water in hollow trees and in bamboo-joints near Tabernilla. It was 
also bred from a palm leaf, lying on the ground and filled with rain- 
water, on the banks of the upper Chagres River. Other Anopheles 
larve, taken in water in the leaf corners of Spanish bayonet near 
Tabernilla, were not bred, but possibly belonged to this species.* 
The supposed Anopheles larve, reported to have been found in the 
leaf-corners of the banana, are probably all larve of small flies be- 
longing to the genus Corethrella. The small, triangular, often red- 
dish, larve have a certain resemblance to those of Anopheles and 
were sent me from sanitary inspectors as such on two occasions. 
They are very abundant on the Zone and are sometimes found in 
bananas as well as in tree-holes and bamboo-joints, feeding in part at 
least on young mosquito larve. 

The possibility of Anopheles breeding between the leaf-stalks of 
the banana might at times be of importance in the practical work 
against mosquitoes and has at least in one instance caused extra work 
and expense for the Sanitary Department on the Zone; but I have 
personally never found Anopheles larve in these plants, though I 
made it a point to investigate them, whenever an opportunity pre- 
sented itself. 

It would be of advantage in the practical mosquito work on the 
Canal Zone to ascertain whether this tree-hole-inhabiting Anopheles 
is capable of transmitting malaria. Its circumscribed breeding places 
necessarily limit its abundance, and the species can therefore at most 
not be a very important factor in the spread of the disease. The 


* Anopheles bellator D. & K. was bred from the leaf corners of Spanish 
bayonet in Trinidad, and this species may have to be added to the list. ‘The 
present larve were not bred; no adults of bellator were captured. As this is 
going to press, Mr. Jennings has sent in an example of Anopheles lutzii Theob. 
(not Cruz), which he bred from larve in the water in Tillandsia leaves. If 
this should prove to be a malaria-carrying Anopheles, the removal of epiphytic 
plants from trees in the vicinity of habitations would be imperative. 


MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 59 


specialized life habits and the consequent modifications in the anat- 
omy of the larva suggests that this species also differs from the pool- 
inhabiting species in disease-carrying power. 


ANOPHELES MALEFACTOR Dyar and Knab 


Bred from black-headed larve in a still pool of drying mountain 
stream along the upper Chagres; also from a slow-running spring, 
full of leaves, near Tabernilla, containing numerous small fish, so 
many that each dip of the cup would bring one or several of the fish. 
Evidently the fish did not play any important role in the extermina- 
tion of these mosquito larve.t The Anopheles larve and the larve of 
Culex elevator D. & K., found in the same spring, were present in 
considerable numbers. 

Mr. Jennings obtained adults of this species inside the barracks at 
Gatun. 


ANOPHELES GORGASI Dyar and Knab 


Collected as adult at La Boca by Mr. A. H. Jennings. The larva 
is as yet undiscovered. 

This species is named in honor of Colonel W. C. Gorgas, head of 
the Sanitary Department of the Canal Zone. 


ANOPHELES APICIMACULA Dyar and Knab 


A single specimen was collected at night on the outside of my 
mosquito-screened tent in Tabernilla. 


ANOPHELES PUNCTIMACULA Dyar and Knab 


There is a single specimen of this species in the collection of the 
U. S. National Museum from Colon, Panama, collected by Major 
W. M. Black. 


ANOPHELES ARGYRITARSIS Desvoidy 


xred from larve in water in an old dump car near the Culebra cut. 
The water in this car was recent, clear rain-water with no trace of 
algze; also bred from a shaded pool covered with algz in the native 
village near Pedro Miguel and from a swampy pasture near Empire. 


*Thirteen specimens of these fishes were submitted to Dr. E. B. Evermann, 
who determined them as four species, Tetragonoptcrus panamensis Gunther, 
Rivulus godmant Regan (?), Gambusia episopi Steindacher and Platypecilus 
mentalis Gill, of which the two latter were the predominating species. 


60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Genus MEGARHINUS Desvoidy 
MEGARHINUS TRINIDADENSIS Dyar and Knab 


Bred during May from water in bamboo near Tabernilla. The 
larve were feeding upon those of Joblotia. 


MEGARHINUS HYPOPTES Knab 


Bred from the identical bamboo-joints near Tabernilla from which 
the foregoing species was obtained; the larve of this species also 
were observed feeding upon Joblotia larve, 

The present species appeared a month later than trinidadensis, 
thus not interfering with it. Presumably another interesting example 
of the seasonal occurrence of mosquitoes in the tropics, though hardly 
convincing from the comparatively small number of specimens (seven 
of both species) reared. 

The female of this species was not previously known. 


MEGARHINUS SUPERBUS Dyar and Knab 


Bred near Tabernilla from larve in the leaf corners of bromelia, 
growing on a calabash tree. The larve feed on those of [Vyeomyia 
circumcincta and probably on the other mosquito larve present 
(Culex jenningsi and Phoniomyia scotinomus). The adult with its 
brilliant red abdominal tufts was seen on the wing in the tree-top, 


while I secured the larve. 
Genus MANSONIA Blanchard 
MANSONIA TITILLANS Walker 


Several adult specimens were captured in the palm-shaded swamp 
near Lion Hill, where they came in numbers to bite. Nothing is 
known of the life history of this common tropical mosquito; the 
larval habits must be peculiar to have so long escaped observation. 


MANSONIA PHYLLOZOA Dyar and Knab 


A small, very striking-looking species with spotted wings, bred 
from larve from water in the leaves of a bromeliaceous plant grow- 
ing on a tree in the native village near Tabernilla. 


Genus DEINOCERITES Theobald 
DEINOCERITES MELANOPHYLUM Dyar and Knab 
This species is a geographic variety of the common West Indian 
crab-hole mosquito, Deinocerites cancer, but it appears very distinct, 
owing to its dark brown color. 


MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 61 


It is identical in life-mode with the West Indian form and is found 
only near the crab-holes in which the larve live. During the day 
the adults remain within the holes. They come out in a swarm, if a 
stick is inserted into the hole, but return quickly to their hiding place 
when left alone. At dusk they come out and swarm above the hole 
for copulation. Though a few specimens alighted on my hand, 
which was held close to the hole, when I disturbed the mosquitoes, 
none attempted to bite, and I do not believe this species ever molests 
man. This is abundantly corroborated by earlier observations on 
Deinocerites cancer by Mr. Knab and the writer in Central America 
and the West Indies, against the observation of Dr. Grabham in 
Jamaica that ‘it is a voracious bloodsucker.” 

There are even good grounds for believing that none of the other 
crab-hole mosquitoes associated with this species bite man. This 
could be very easily determined by further observations on the spot, 
and if they should be found to be harmless, it would save considerable 
labor and expense at present spent by the Sanitary Department in 
oiling these crab-holes. 

The species was bred and collected from crab-holes at La Boca and 
back of the wireless telegraph station at Colon. 

The mosquitoes found associated with this species in the crab- 
holes, and whose proclivity for biting should be tested, are Dinomi- 
metes epitedeus and Culex extricator. 


Genus URANOTZENIA Arribalzaga 
URANOTAENIA GEOMETRICA Theobald 


Bred from larve in the pool of a clear, cold mountain brook back 
of the Culebra cut, near Empire. The larva looks curiously like an 
Anopheles larva, but furnished with a long tube. I bred this species 
also from a slow-running stream near Gatun and from a swamp 
near Culebra. Mr. A. H. Jennings bred it from streams near Gatun 
and on Taboga Island. 

In the U. S. National Museum there is also a single specimen of 
this species from Panama received from Dr. A. J. Kendall. 


URANOTZENIA CALOSOMATA Dyar and Knab 


This pretty little species is one of the smallest mosquitoes found in 
the Canal Zone; it is easily recognized by its size and by the silvery 
lateral line and the silvery edging around the eyes on the otherwise 
dark body. It was bred from deep hoof-prints in a swampy meadow 
near Tabernilla. The larve are very elongate, with reddish body, 


62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


deep black head, and comparatively short tube; they are easily over- 
looked, as they go down at the least disturbance and remain at the 
bottom for a long time, burrowing in the mud. 


URANOTZENIA LOWII Theobald 


This species, which is still smaller than the foregoing, was bred 
from similar black-headed larvz in a small semi-stagnant stream near 
Las Cascadas. 


URANOTANIA TYPHLOSOMATA Dyar and Knab 


Bred by Mr. A. H. Jennings from a still pool in the small stream 
supplying the water-tanks of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company on 
Taboga Island. 


Genus PSOROPHORA Desvoidy 
PSOROPHORA IRACUNDA Dyar and Knab 


The large predaceous larve of this species were taken in numbers 
near Las Cascadas in a newly flooded meadow covered with bushes 
and tall grass. They were preying upon the larve of Culex lactator 
and Janthinosoma posticata, which were very abundant in these tem- 
porary pools. The larve are very voracious, biting and even eating 
each other if confined together. Apparently their development is 
quick. All the larve taken pupated within a day, and adults issued 
from all of them within the next two days. This species was taken 
in May. 

PSOROPHORA S/EVA Dyar and Knab 


The larve of this species occurred sparingly at the same time and 
together with those of the foregoing species, but a month later it 
was the greatly predominating species in the same locality. It is a 
similar but longer and more slender larva, with longer tube than that 
of iracunda. 


Genus THINIORHYNCHUS Arribalzaga 
TANIORHYNCHUS COTICULA Dyar and Knab 


A single specimen, caught, as it came to bite, in the black swamp 
near Lion Hill. 

The larve of this and the following species may be expected to 
have a similar specialized life-mode to our Tentorhynchus perturbans, 
which baffled entomologists for several years, before Prof. J. B. 
Smith lately discovered that it lives several inches down in the mud 
at the bottom of certain ponds, attached to the roots of plants. 


MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 63 


The types of this species in the U. 5. National Museum came from 
Bocas del Toro (P. Osterhaut, collector). 


TZENIORHYNCHUS FASCIOLATUS Arribalzaga 


In the U. S. National Museum are specimens of this species from 
Panama (| We Ross collector), trom Colon (A. ©. H. Russell, 
collector), and from Bocas del Toro, Panama (McKenney, collec- 
tor). It was not met with by me. 


Genus AEDES Meigen 


AEDES TRIVITTATUS Coquillett 


The extension of the range of this species to the tropics is inter- 
esting. It has hitherto been recorded only from the eastern United 
States. It was bred from large, dark, fat-tubed larve, which were 
found in enormous numbers, together with Janthinosoma posticata, 
in a newly flooded meadow near Las Cascadas. 

The adult was also taken repeatedly at La Boca, Pedro Miguel, 
and at Colon. 


AEDES TENIORHYNCHUS Wiedemann 


Bred from larve occurring in countless numbers in the brackish 
swamp at La Boca. Adults were collected by Mr. Jennings in the 
barracks at Pedro Miguel. The species is a well-known inhabitant 
of brackish marshes on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the 
United States. 


AEDES POSTICATA Wiedemann 


The large, fat-tubed larve of this species were taken and bred in 
numbers from a recently flooded meadow near Las Cascadas; also 
from still pools of a nearly dried-up mountain stream emptying into 
the upper Chagres River and from a shallow pool formed by a 
slow-running stream on Taboga Island. ‘The adults were repeatedly 
captured, when they came to bite, in the bush around Tabernilia and 
Lion Hill. 


AEDES LUTZII Theobald 


Several adults were taken in the bamboo and palm swamps around 
Tabernilla and Lion Hill, where they came to bite. The larvee were 
not found, nor have they been bred in the United States. 


64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


AEDES NIGRICANS Ccquillett 


The types of this species in the U. S. National Museum came from 
Panama (J. W. Ross, collector). No other record of its capture has 
been made and I did not meet with it. 


AEDES LITHC:CETOR Dyar and Knab 


Bred from larve in a pot-hole in a rock at the edge of the upper 
Chagres River between Allehuela and San Juan. It is probable that 
the species breeds only in rock-holes, as in the case of the North 
American Aedes atropalpus Coq. 


AEDES INSOLITA Coquillett 


Bred from larvz in hollow trees in two localities along the upper 
Chagres River+far from civilization. The larve are known to be 
normally inhabitants of hollow trees. 


AEDES SERRATUS Theobald 


Bred by Mr. A. H. Jennings from a pool near Pedro Miguel. 


Genus HH MAGOGUS Williston 
HHMAGOGUS REGALIS Dyar and Knab 


The larve of this brilliant blue mosquito were taken in bamboo- 
joints and in several tree-holes near Tabernilla. One of these was a 
mere knot-hole holding only a spoonful of water. It was also bred 
from very foul water in old French machinery and from a wooden 
box near a house at Las Cascadas; also from a pot-hole in a rock, 
inhabited by a crab, along a small stream on Taboga Island, and 
from the rotten center of a cut banana trunk, filled with slimy juice, 
near Lion Hill. 

The short-tubed larva reminds one of that of Stegomyia by its 
slow, snaky movements. 


H2MAGOGUS SPLENDENS Dyar and Knab 


Bred from Stegomyia-like larve in a tree-hole along the upper 
Chagres River, far from civilization; also from bamboo-joints and 
tree-holes near Tabernilla. 


HAMAGOGUS AFFIRMATUS Dyar and Knab 


Adults, collected as they came to bite in the palm-shaded black 
swamp near Lion Hill. 


MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 65 


Genus STEGOMYIA Theobald 
STEOGOMYIA CALOPUS Meigen 


The scarcity of this, the yellow-fever mosquito, on the Canal Zone 
illustrates better than any other example the efficiency of the mos- 
quito-work done by the Sanitary Department. To a person who has 
traveled in other parts of the tropics and who has experienced the 
noxious abundance of Stegomyia everywhere—in the best hotels as 
well as in the humblest negro hut—it is indeed gratifying to be able 
to live for weeks in the Canal Zone without encountering a single 
Stegomyia. 

The yellow-fever mosquito is a strictly domestic animal, which is 
never found outside of man’s immediate environment, and which only 
breeds in artificial receptacles, such as barrels, water-coolers, bottles, 
tin cans, etc., in and around human habitations. Due to these cir- 
cumscribed habits, its control is comparatively easy, and it would be 
quite possible, with slight augmentation in the well-organized force 
of sanitary inspectors, to absolutely eliniinate this dangerous mos- 
quito from the Zone. The suggestion of such a radical attempt was 
enthusiastically received by the chiefs of the department, and their 
efforts will undoubtedly produce conditions within another year 
under which it can. confidently be asserted that a yellow-fever epi- 
demic on the Canal Zone is impossible, due to the total absence of 
the fever-carrying agent. 

The two coast cities, Panama and Colon, the sanitation of which 
is as yet only nominally under American control, constitute the only 
really difficult localities to treat. ‘The constant danger of infection 
through these cities should be sufficient reason for an arrangement 
under which the Sanitary Department of the Canal Zone should be 
given full power and responsibility in them. 

The larve of Stegomyia was met with in barrels and tin cans in 
native villages near Pedro Miguel and Tabernilla; in a barrel with 
rain-water in Bas Obispo; in a barrel in a house in San Pablo; in 
water-holders in a private house in Panama; in several receptacles in 
a large hotel in Colon; in the bottom of an old boat, and in barrels 
on Taboga Island. 

The adults were also taken in small numbers at La Boca, Panama, 
Las Cascadas, Culebra, Bohio, and occasionally on the passenger 
trains across the Isthmus. In Colon they were found in large num- 
bers in several places, notably in one of the largest hotels. 


Or 


66 SMITESONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Genus LUTZIA Theobald 
LUTZIA BIGOTII Bellardi 


This large yellow species is prevalent on the Zone and comes 
quickly and unhesitatingly to bite whenever one visits shady places. 
The predaceous larve are found quite as commonly in artificial re- 
ceptacles of water around human habitations as in shallow pools in 
the woods. The larva is easily recognized by its size and by the pecu- 
liar curved position it assumes, looking as if about to spring upon its 
prey. The larve are unquestionably beneficial in destroying other 
mosquitoes, though they are not a dependable factor for their control. 
They are very voracious during their growth, and they have, like the 
larve of Megarhinus, the habit of killing all surrounding larve be- 
fore they pupate, so as to have quiet during the pupal period. In 
many cases I found Lutzia larve which had completely cleared the 
receptacle in which they lived of other mosquito larve. If the food 
supply runs short before they are ready for pupation, the Lutzva 
larvee become cannibalistic, and thus in a measure counteract the 
value of the species by materially diminishing their own numbers. 

The species was bred from the following localities: Irom hoof- 
prints in a meadow near Tabernilla, where the larve were feeding 
upon those of Uranotenia calosomata; from an open lagoon south 
of San Pablo; from a rusty iron bucket near a house at Las Cascadas, 
with no other mosquito larve present; from a small temporary pool 
near Bohio, without any other mosquito larve present; from old 
French machinery in the woods south of Tabernilla; here again a 
few full-grown Lutzia larve alone remained; from larve in an old 
tin can near a house in Pedro Miguel, feeding on Stegomyia larve ; 
from large unused sugar boilers near Tabernilla; here the Lutzia 
larvee were present by the hundreds, preying upon those of Culex 
coronator. In one of the boilers all the Culex larve had been eaten 
and the nearly full-grown Lutzia larve were feeding upon their 
weaker companions. 


Genus CULEX Linnzus 


CULEX INQUISITOR Dyar and Knab 


sred from larvee taken along the edges of a slowly running stream 
near Pedro Miguel; larve were also taken in a shaded pool of a 
drying-up mountain stream along the upper Chagres River. The 
adults were obtained at Las Cascadas by Mr. Jennings. 


MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 67 


CULEX CUBENSIS Bigot 


Bred from larve taken in very foul water in some old French 
machinery near Las Cascadas. It was also bred, both by Mr. Jen- 
nings and myself, from old boats on Taboga Island associated with 
Culex coronator and Stegomyia calopus. 


CULEX CORONATOR Dyar and Knab 


Bred near Tabernilla, from a stagnant ill-smelling pool, caused by 
recent dirt dumping, and from a rain-water barrel near there; from 
hoof-prints along a stream and from an old iron sugar boiler; also 
from a stream back of Culebra prison; from a cement trap contain- 
ing sink-water in Las Cascadas; from a still pool of a shaded stream 
along the upper Chagres River; from a drinking-water tank at 
Allehuela; from a rain-water pool near Bohio; from a barrel in 
Pedro Miguel, and from an old boat on Taboga Island. Mr. Jen- 
nings also obtained this species from a boat on Taboga Island. 


CULEX REGULATOR Dyar and Knab 


Bred from an old boat on Taboga Island, and also by Mr. Jen- 
nings from a tub with water used for cattle, on the same island. 


CULEX LEPRINCEI Dyar and Knab 


Bred from larve taken from the grassy edges of a slowly running 
stream near Pedro Miguel, where it was associated with Culex in- 
quisitor, and from a large ill-smelling pool caused by dumping of 
dirt near Tabernilla; associated with Culex coronator and Culex 
conspirator. 

The species is named in honor of Mr. J. A. Le Prince, whose re- 
markable work against mosquitoes in Cuba and Panama is well 
known. 

CULEX EQUIVOCATOR Dyar and Knab 


Bred from larve taken near Lion Hill in the water-filled center of 
a cut banana trunk, where they were found together with the larve 


of Culex lactator and Hemagogus regalis. The water was foul and 
slimy. 
CULEX INTERROGATOR Dyar and Knab 


Bred from larve associated with those of Culex coronator in a 
barrel with rain-water near Tabernilla, and from a stagnant pool 
near the same place, from which Culex coronator and Culex leprincet 
were also bred. 


68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


The species was also bred by Mr. Jennings and the writer on 
Taboga Island from larvze taken in a boat filled with rain-water. 


CULEX CONSPIRATOR Dyar and Knab 


Bred together with Culex leprincei from grassy edges of a slow- 
running stream near Pedro Miguel. 


CULEX LACTATOR Dyar and Knab 


Bred from a barrel, from bamboo, and from a stagnant pool near 
Tabernilla ; from a metal washtub and from recently flooded meadow 
at Las Cascadas; from a tin can and from a rotten banana trunk in 
the black swamp near Lion Hill; from a hollow tree-stump in an 
open field near Gatun, and by Mr. Jennings from a water-tub used 
for cattle on Taboga Island. 


CULEX EXTRICATOR Dyar and Knab 


The larve of this species were taken in crab-holes near the wire- 
less telegraph station at Colon, and the species is clearly closely asso- 
ciated with these crabs, the adults remaining in the holes during day- 
time like those of the genus Deinocerites. A large series was bred, 
but neither adults nor larvze were obtained in other localities. 

This species was described from the larve collected and bred by 
the writer two years ago in Cedros, Trinidad. It is one of the sey- 
eral convincing examples justifying Messrs. Dyar and Knab in their 
classification of the mosquitoes, even to the extent of erecting new 
species on the immature stages alone. The closer study of the adults 
proved the distinctness of this species from the composite species 
“pipiens,” and now the study of the habits of the species further em- 
phasizes the correctness of the deduction from larval characters. 

This species also illustrates the importance of exact observations 
of superficially unimportant details. The Trinidad specimens were 
bred from larvee found in a small bucket used for holding live crabs; 
it was, in other words, an artificial crab-hole and thereby alone at- 
tractive as a place to oviposit for this crab-hole-inhabiting species. 

The importance for practical work on the Canal Zone of definitely 
ascertaining, by further observations, whether this species sucks 
blood from man or not, has been commented upon under the genus 
Deinocerites. 


CULEX JUBILATOR Dyar and Knab 


Bred by Mr. A. H. Jennings from larvee taken in an old tub in a 
pasture and from a slow-running stream on Taboga Island. Neither 


MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 69 


this nor the following species were secured by Mr. Jennings and the 
writer during our visit to Taboga Island, six weeks previously to Mr. 
Jennings’ last visit. As our investigations were careful and covered 
practically every water accumulation on the island, including the 
above-mentioned tub, this can only be explained by the periodicity of 
the activity of these mosquitoes. On Mr. Jennings’ second visit he 
failed to secure several of the species I took during my stay on the 
island, which is not so large, but that it can be thoroughly explored in 
a few days. 
CULEX REVELATOR Dyar and Knab 


Bred by Mr. Jennings from an old rain-filled boat on Taboga 


Island. 
CULEX HESITATOR Dyar and Knab 


Bred from a small swampy stream near Las Cascadas. 


CULEX ELEVATOR Dyar and Knab 


The larve of this species are dark prettily marked with black, 
“zebra-striped.”” They were taken in a slow-running spring, full of 
leaves and small fishes, which evidently did not seriously interfere 
with the mosquito larve; it was also bred from the edges of a small 
stream full of fishes, near Tabernilla. 


CULEX TANIOPUS Dyar and Knab 


A single adult specimen was taken. 


CULEX CORRIGANI Dyar and Krab 


Bred from small larve with very long, slender tubes, taken in 
bamboo-joints near Tabernilla. | 

The species is named in honor of my friend, Mr. J. Corrigan, 
Sanitary Inspector at T'abernilla, whose efficient work has made that 
place one of the healthiest settlements in the Canal Zone. His con- 
stant courteous attention to my needs greatly facilitated my work 
and made my sojourn in Tabernilla very pleasant. 


CULEX JENNINGSI Dyar and Knab 


Bred from larve taken in water in the leaves of bromelias, Ti7l- 
landsia sp., in a tree in the native village near Tabernilla, associated 
with Phoniomyia scotinomus and Wyeomyia circuimcincta, and with 
these was preyed upon by the larve of Megarhinus superbus. ‘This 
Species is named in honor of my friend, Mr. Allen H. Jennings. 


7O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


CULEX GAUDEATOR Dyar and Knab 


Very close to and possibly merely a color variety of the preceding 
species, together with which it was found in a Tillandsia species on a 
tree near Tabernilla. 

The eggs of this species are very remarkable, quite different from 
any mosquito-eggs at present known. They are laid in an egg-shaped 
gelatinous mass about 6 by 10 mm., which suggests a mass of frogs’ 
eggs. The mass contained about twenty-five eggs, each of which is 
oblong, more pointed at one end and rounded at the other, and each 
surrounded by its own spherical gelatinous envelope, about 2.5 mm. 
in diameter. The egg-mass floats at the surface of the water, kept 
buoyant by small air-bubbles, one near the end of each egg. The 
gelatinous substance is consumed at least partly by the newly hatched 


larve. 
CULEX FACTOR Dyar and Knab 


Bred from leaf corners of a Tillandsia species, on a tree overhang- 
ing the water on the upper Chagres River. It was there associated 
with the larve of Wyeomyia macrotus. Also bred from bromelia 
water near Tabernilla. 


CULEX FUR Dyar and Knab 


The type of this species is in the U. $. National Museum and came 
from Colon, Panama (A. C. H. Russell, collector). 1 did not find 
the species. 


o 


CULEX (CARROLLIA) IRIDESCENS Lutz 


This pretty, easily recognized little mosquito was bred on several 
occasions in large numbers from my bamboo traps in the neighbor- 
hood of Tabernilla. The species was not hitherto represented in the 
collection of the U. S. National Museum. 


Subfamily SABETHIN A 
Genus SABATHES Desvoidy 


SABETHES UNDOSUS Cogquillett 


A common species bred in large numbers from bamboo at Taber- 
nilla, Lion Hill, and Gatun. The larva has a long air-tube and hangs 
perpendicularly from the surface of the water when at rest. 

Adults of this species were also collected as they came to bite in 
the bamboo woods. 


MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 7X 


SABETHES IDENTICUS Dyar and Knab 


The large, fat, milky-white larva of this species is strongly seg- 
mented and has a short tube; it hangs perpendicularly from the sur- 
face film when breathing; the adults were bred in two localities near 
Tabernilla, from my bamboo traps, and are very similar to those 
of the preceding species. 


SABETHES LOCUPLES Desvoidy 


A single specimen of this species, very conspicuous by its long- 
tufted legs, was caught by my friend Mr. H. Simms, Sanitary In- 
spector at Empire. Nothing whatever is known of the life history or 
larva of this curious species. 


SABETHES LONGIPES Fabricius 


Also one of the species with heavy tufts of scales on its legs. A 
single specimen in the U. S. National Museum was received from 
Bocas del Toro (P. Osterhaut, collector). The early stages are en- 
tirely unknown. 


SABETHES CANFIELDI Dyar and Knab 


This large, striking species, dark bluish green, with silvery belly, 
was the common mosquito in the black swamp from Ahoga Lagarto 
to Gatun, and came in numbers to inflict its rather severe sting, 
whenever one stepped into the shade of the brush. I was not able 
to locate its larve. These will probably be found to inhabit tree- 
holes or bamboo, or still more probably the inaccessible leaf corners 
of some palm. 

This species was named in honor of my friend, Dr. Herman Can- 
field, whose broad comprehension of the problems of sanitation in 
general and of the bearings thereon, which insects may have, greatly 
adds to the efficiency of the work done by the Sanitary Department. 


Genus SABETHOIDES Theobald 
SABETHOIDES CYANEUS Fabricius 


sred from larve taken in leaf corners of Spanish bayonet in a 
native village near Tabernilla. 


Genus WYEOMYIA Theobald 
WYEOMYIA APORONOMA Dyar and Knab 


Bred from larve in a hollow tree-trunk lying in the open field 
near Gatun, surrounded by a few bushes. ‘The larve are long, 


72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


slender, and moniliform, with yellow head, short tube, and long anal 
appendages; they hang perpendicularly from the surface of the 
water when breathing, but can remain very long under water and 
burrow down into the sediment on the bottom when disturbed; they 
are thus easily overlooked. 


WYEOMYIA ADELPHA Dyar and Knab 


Bred from Tillandsia on a calabash tree near the railroad station 
in Tabernilla. 

The mosquitoes of this genus are small sombre-colored insects, 
with silvery-white bellies, and generally escape detection, though 
they are very persistent biters during the daytime. 

While nothing is known about this group of mosquitoes as possible 
carriers of disease, they are, on account of this day-biting habit, to 
be reckoned with as a nuisance and consequent detriment to humor 
and health, and it might be well worth while for the Sanitary De- 
partment to direct their efforts against them. The oiling and drain- 
ing of surface water does not affect this group at all. Trees infested 
with plant parasites, as Agave and Tillandsia, should not be per- 
mitted in the immedite neighborhood of residences or working dis- 
tricts, or, if they are desired for shade, should be cleared of the 
water-bearing growth. The single small tree, now cut down, from 
which the present species was bred, contained about a hundred speci- 
mens of epiphytic plants, and the resulting mosquito fauna was large 
enough to be distinctly felt in the surrounding area, which in this case 
happened to be about the most frequented lounging place for the 
workmen in Tabernilla during noon hours. | 


WYEOMYIA GALOA Dyar and Knab 


The very specialized larvee of this species live in the conspicuous 
red flower-sheaths of a Bihai (Heliconia) species, common on the 
Zone. These flower sheaths contain but little water and that of a 
slimy character, but they harbor a number of dipterous and coleop- 
terous insects. The mosquito larve of the present species are 
slender, flattened, strongly segmented with yellow head, short tube, 
and long anal appendages; they have the ability to move head fore- 
most, more crawling than swimming through the sometimes thick 
fluid, in which they live; they are even able to crawl head first up the 
sides of the calyx above the fluid, and undoubtedly seek another 
lower and wetter flower sheath in this way, if for some reason the 
sheath in which they are goes dry. 


MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 73 


This species looks very much like and has identically the habits 
of Wyeomyia pseudopecten D. & K., bred from similar flowers in 
Trinidad and Santo Domingo. As in this species, the eggs, which 
are black, smooth, and elliptical, are laid singly, but in large 
numbers, in the uppermost, just-opening, and yet dry flower 
sheath, where they await a rain for their development. 


WYEOMYIA LEUCOPISTHEPUS Dyar and Knab 


Bred from Tillandsia on branches of a tree near JTabernilla. 


WYEOMYIA CODIOCAMPA Dyar and Knab 


Adults of this species were repeatedly taken in the bamboo woods 
near Tabernilla, where they came to bite. Only two larve were 
taken, both in the bamboo traps. These were the most extraordinary- 
looking mosquito larve, which have come under my observation, 
and resemble more young caterpillars than dipterous larvz; they are 
short, fat and rotund, and covered with many long black spines in 
closely set clusters. The movement of the body is therefore short 
and slow, and they remain for long periods under water, quietly 
feeding in the decomposed vegetable matter on the bottom. 


WYEOMYIA MACROTUS Dyar and Knab 


The larve of this species were found, together with those of 
Phoniomyia scotinomus, in Tillandsia on trees along Bogueron 
River. Only a few specimens survived the upsetting accident on 
my way home. They have a very long, thin tube and lie on their 
backs, with the tube downward for long periods at a time. The 
species was also bred from bromelia water near Tabernilla. The 
pupze of this species have very remarkable long, thread-like breath- 
ing tubes, quite different from the short, stout tubes normally found 
in mosquito pup. The length of these tubes keeps the pupa well 
under the surface of the water when it takes air, and this may likely 
be of value to the species in the limited and often crowded surface 
area of its habitat. 


WYEOMYIA HOSAUTUS Dyar and Knab 


Bred from bamboo near Tabernilla. 


WYEOMYIA MELANOCEPHALA Dyar and Knab 


Bred from a single larva taken, together with Culex and Ano- 
pheles larve, in a nearly quiet pool of a slow-running, cold, clear 
brook in the mountains back of Empire. 


74. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


This is a very unusual breeding place for a larva of this genus, 
and it is probable that this single larva had been washed out by a 
rainstorm from a Tillandsia on an overhanging branch or from an 
overflowing tree-hole or bamboo-joint. 


WYEOMYIA CHALCOCEPHALA Dyar and Knab 


Bred from bamboo near Tabernilla. 


WYEOMYIA BROMELIARUM Dyar and Knab 


Bred in numbers from the bamboo traps around Tabernilla. 


WYEOMIA CIRCUMCINCTA Dyar and Knab 


Bred from larve in Tillandsia in trees along the Bogueron River 
and in a native village near Tabernilla. 


WYEOMYIA PANAMENA Dyar and Knab 


Bred from larve in bamboo near Tabernilla. 


WYEOMYIA HOMOTHE Dyar and Knab 


The adults were collected in bamboo woods near Tabernilla in the 
act of biting. The larve were not discovered. 


WYEOMYIA AGNOSTIPS Dyar and Knab 


Adult, collected, while biting, in bamboo woods near Tabernilla. 


No larve were found. 


WYEOMYIA AUTOCRATICA Dyar and Knab 


A single specimen of this species was received from Culebra (Wm. 
Black, collector). I did not meet with the species. 


Genus LIMATUS Theobald 
LIMATUS DURHAMI Theobald 


This widely distributed little mosquito, which is easily recognized 
by its brilliant golden and royal-blue thorax, was bred from larve 
found in rain-water collected in a fallen palm-leaf on the bank of the 
upper Chagres River, where it was associated with Anopheles eisent. 
It was also bred from an old tin can, full of rain-water and rotten 
leaves, in the woods near Tabernilla, and from a small wooden barrel 
in a native village near Tabernilla. 

The larvee are very long and slender and have a snaky movement ; 
they are only found in water rich in decomposed vegetable matter. 


MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK 75 


Genus PHONIOMYIA Theobald 
PHONIOMYIA PHILOPHONE Dyar and Knab 


Bred from larve in Tillandsia on a tree near Tabernilla. The 
adults were also collected on Taboga Island by Mr. A. H. Jennings. 


PHONIOMYIA CHRYSOMUS Dyar and Knab 


Bred, together with the foregoing species, from Tillandsia in a 
native village near Tabernilla. 


PHONIOMYIA SCOTINOMUS Dyar and Knab 


Bred from leaf corners of Tillandsia on branches of trees along 
the Bogueron River, Panama. ‘This species was secured and bred 
in large numbers, but most of my material was lost by the upsetting 
accident on the return trip; a vial with a few live larve had for- 
tunately been placed in my valise, which was ultimately recovered 
after floating for a few miles through the rapids of the upper Chagres 
River, and they were bred to adults at my headquarters in Tabernilla. 
A single specimen of this species was also bred from Bromelia water 
in a native village near Tabernilla, where it occurred together with 
IV yeomyia macrotus. 


Genus DINOMIMETES Knab 
DINOMIMETES EPITEDEUS Knab 


This peculiar mosquito, at once distinguished from all others ex- 
cept Deinocerites by the very long antennz, was bred from crab- 
holes near the wireless telegraph station at Colon, where it was 
found associated with Deinocerites melanophylum and Culex ex- 
tricator. 

Though possessing a well-developed proboscis, this species prob- 
ably does not bite man; but this should be definitely ascertained by 
observations. (See note under Deinocerites melanophylum.) 


Genus LESTICOCAMPA Dyar and Knab 
LESTICOCAMPA ULOPUS Dyar and Knab 


Taken at Lion Hill and near ‘Tabernilla. The larva lives between 
the stalk and the leaf stalk of a juicy large-leaved dark-green plant, 
which reminds one of Monstera deliciosa. ‘The space in these leaf 
corners is so limited and the amount of water they hold so small and 
so slimy from the plant’s juice that it would hardly be suspected to 


70 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


harbor mosquitoes ; and yet the plant probably has another sauekay 
peculiar to it upon which the present species preys. 


LESTICOCAMPA CULICIVORA Dyar and Knab 


The larve are predaceous on those of Wyeomia galoa in the red 
flower-sheaths of a Bihai (Heliconia) species. (See note under 
Wvyomyia galoa.) 


LESTICOCAMPA LEUCOPUS Dyar and Knab 


In the U. S. National Museum are four specimens of this species 
received from Bocas del Toro (P. Osterhaut, collector). I did not 


meet with it. 
Genus JOBLOTIA Blanchara 


JOBLOTIA DIGITATUS Rondani 


This and the following two species of this genus were abundant 
in bamboo woods. The adults were sure to come to bite, and the 
very similar looking, fat, short-tubed larve were to be found in any 
bamboo-joint, which contained the thick, saturated, often ill-smelling 
fermenting fluid, to which they seem partial. 

The present species, which is the Trichoprosopon nivipes of Theo- 
bald, has a wide distribution within the moist tropics. The writer 
bred it in Trinidad from cacao husks, in which the fluid was as thick 
as gruel. ‘Transferred to water, which is less rich in food, these 
larve remain alive unchanged for long periods. Some of my Trini- 
dad larve lived for four months after reaching Washington, and 
some of the Panama material did nearly as well. The normal de- 
velopment, under natural conditions, with abundant food, takes 
about two weeks. 

Eges of the following species, which were laid May 1, produced 
the first adults on May 14, 1907: 


JOBLOTIA TRICHORRYES Dyar and Knab 


Bred commonly together with the above somewhat larger species 
from bamboo near Tabernilla. The eggs are laid singly on the sur- 
face of the water. They are elliptical, black, with four longitudinal 
fringes of short white hairs from tip to tip. The larva issued from 
one end. Ina bamboo-joint, which I prepared and filled with water 
at 5 o'clock on the evening of May 1, I found the next morning at 
9 o'clock some twenty such eggs, kept floating on the surface by the 
hair fringes. Some of these eggs were submerged during transit to 
the laboratory, and with the fringes once wet remained under water, 


MOSQUITO FAUNA OF PANAMA—BUSCK ig 


but these hatched nevertheless successfully, together with the non- 
submerged eggs, during the afternoon of the same day. The young 
larve were white, with black mouth-parts and black lateral hairs 
pointing forward on the anterior half of the body. They remained 
under water for several hours, eating of the vegetable matter at the 
bottom of the jar to which they had been transferred. The next 
morning the larve had doubled in size, and on the third day they 
attained their full size; they came regularly, though not very fre- 
quently, to the surface to breathe. When feeding on the bottom 
they would lie in the soft residue of vegetable matter in different 
positions, sometimes on their back, sometimes with the back up, or 
on the side. The first adult from this lot issued May 14. 

The adults of this and other species of Joblotia are conspicuous 
objects in the bamboo woods, when they approach to bite, gracefully 
floating their long white-tipped middle and hind legs. 


JOBLOTIA MOGILASIA Dyar and Knab 


Bred with the two preceding species from bamboo near Tabernilla. 
While the larva and adult in a general way look much like the two 
other species, the pupa of this species is easily distinguished from 
the somber, dark pupa of the others; it is bright yellow, prettily 
marked with black cross-bands on the back of the abdominal seg- 
ments. 





CARL LUDWIG ROMINGER 


By GEORGE P. MERRILL 


Heap Curator oF GroLocy, U. S. Nationa, Mus&umM 


Carl Ludwig Rominger, the son of Ludwig and Johanna Dorothea 
(Hoecklin) Rominger, was born at Schaitheim, in Wurtemberg, 
December 31, 1820, and died at Ann Arbor, Michigan, April 27, 1907. 

He was matriculated at the University of Tubingen in the fall of 
1839, receiving his diploma as a doctor of medicine in the fall of 
1842. His record as a student was that of a painstaking, detailed 
worker and the winner of two academic prizes, one for a research 
demonstrating the mode of ascension and 
distribution of the sap in plants, and the 
other for making a detailed geological 
map of the environs of Tubingen. 

From 1842 to 1845 he remained at 
Tubingen as an assistant in the chemical 
laboratory of Chr. Gmelin, and at the 
same time devoted considerable attention 
to the study of geology and paleontology 
under the guidance of Professor Quen- 
stedt. From 1845 to 1848, under an an- 
nual grant of four hundred florins from 
the government of Wurtemberg, he trav- 
eled extensively on foot over a great por- Fy6 93. Carl enti eRe 
tion of Germany, Austria, Hungary, minger 
Switzerland, and France, his main ob- 
ject being the study of the geological structure of these coun- 
tries. At the outbreak of the Revolution in 1848, fearing an 
interruption of his studies, he crossed the Atlantic with the idea of 
continuing his work in America, though, as it subsequently proved, 
the step was premature and ill-advised, owing to his being poorly 





equipped for such an undertaking and mainly on account of his 
slight knowledge of the English language. He shipped in a sailing 
vessel from Bremen in April, 1848, arriving in New York some 
fifty days later. Being unable to understand the language or make 
himself understood ; without letters of introduction or knowledge of 
the manners and customs of the people, and without funds, he was 
obliged to follow his medical profession for a livelihood. After a 


79 


80 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


few months of travel through the coal regions of Virginia and Ken- 
tucky, he finally arrived in Cincinnati, to which locality he was 
attracted by the rich paleontological nature of the underlying forma- 
tions. 

His financial condition, however, was such that the only choice 
left open to him was to establish himself in his profession, which he 
continued to practice for the ensuing twenty-four years, in the 
meantime perfecting himself in his English studies as best he might 
and occupying his leisure hours with a study of the natural sciences, 
particularly the fresh-water mollusks and invertebrate fossils with 
which the region abounded. After a few months’ residence at Cin- 
cinnati he removed to Chillicothe, Ohio, where he remained for 
eleven years, though only fairly prosperous. In 1860 he removed to 
Ann Arbor, Michigan, where he resided for the remainder of his life. 
During the first twelve years’ residence here he continued his medical 
practice, and was pecuniarily somewhat more successful than at 
Chillicothe. | 

The Geological Survey of Michigan was reorganized in 1869, with 
Professor Alexander Winchell as director. On the recommendation 
of the numerous friends he had made through his paleontological 
studies, and especially through the influence of Professor James Hall, 
of Albany, Dr. Rominger was engaged by the survey as paleontolo- 
gist in 1870. Professor Winchell resigned in 1871, and Rominger 
remained in full charge, first of his particular department and finally, 
after the withdrawal of Brooks and Pumpelly, of the entire survey, 
until, with a change in the political administration in 1883, he was 
succeeded by Professor Charles E. Wright. 

During all this time his chief interests were paleontological, though 
circumstances naturally caused him to devote attention also to 
stratigraphy. Among the reports of this survey, the third part of 
volume 1 (1873), volumes m1 (1876) and 1v (1881) in their entirety, 
and the first part of volume v (1895) are of his authorship. The 
third part of volume 1 related to the Paleozoic rocks in the upper 
peninsulas. Of volume 111, two hundred and twenty-five pages and 
fifty-five plates were devoted to paleontology—amainly to fossil corals. 
The reports of 1881 and 1895 dealt almost entirely with economical 
problems relating to the iron and copper regions of the Upper Penin- 
sula. 

Rominger’s life was typical of that of many of the earlier geolog- 
ical workers, and that he accomplished so much, considering the dif- 
ficulties under which he labored, is one of the many impressive facts 
brought out by the study of the history of early American geology. 
Aside from financial considerations, his ignorance of the language 


CARL LUDWIG ROMINGER—MERRILIL 81 


offered a great obstacle to his progress. Indeed, he never became a 
ready writer of English. German was his native tongue and to it 
he resorted whenever conditions would allow. Even when: writing 
or talking, his form of construction was more German than English, 
and the force and point of his remarks and criticisms were often 
wholly lost on this account. 

The following quotation from a personal memorandum to the 
present writer, made a few years before his death, and referring to 
his work on corals (vol. 111 of the Survey reports), will illustrate both 
of these points: 

“It was my original intention to continue the work I had begun 
under the auspices of the Geological Survey, but the installation of 
Governor Alger made a sudden end of my position, which I had 
filled for fourteen years. . . . . To continue this work on my 
own expense [| became totally discouraged after I had made the 
experience with the extra copies I had printed of the third volume 
on my own expense. Urged to do it by more than one hundred 
letters of persons wishing to obtain it from me after the State had 
no more of this volume to give away, I ordered two hundred fifty 
copies printed, and paid for each volume $4.75; wanted to sell them 
for the same amount, but to my surprise most of the persons order- 
ing the volume were expecting it as a donation. With difficulty I 
could sell at the rate of $3.00 about fifty volumes, and one hundred 
fifty I gave away, and about one hundred are left in my hands un- 
sold. This experience cost me about $800.00 direct loss and cured 
me of every attempt to edit a book at my own expense.” 


Dr. Rominger is described by those who knew him as a genuine 
scientist of the old school—brusque in his manner, not always too 
patient toward those who asked what seemed to him foolish ques- 
tions, but withal generous and unpretentious. 

He was an indefatigable collector and spared neither time nor 
energy in the pursuit of his favorite study. His tremendous physique 
enabled him to make collections in regions which were practically in- 
accessible to those having less power of endurance. In illustration 
of this, attention may be called to the extensive collections of choice 
Silurian corals made by him in the Glade regions of west Tennessee. 
These glades even today are penetrated with difficulty, and at that 
time the entire journey had to be made on foot. 

Rominger left two important paleontological collections, the first 
being now the property of the University of Michigan, at Ann 
Arbor, and the second of the National Museum, at Washington. The 
first collection was especially rich in’ corals—in fact, it was the most 
complete set from the Paleozoic extant at the time it was made, and 
was the basis of his monograph (vol. 11 of the Michigan Survey). 
The second collection was of a more general Bisiowteal nature and 

6 


82 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


included a particularly fine set of Stromatoporoids. Unlike many of 
the earlier paleontologists, Rominger was most careful to accurately 
label his material, giving the exact horizon and locality. This, of 
course, added enormously to the value of his collections. 

He will be remembered by paleontologists, particularly those who 
appreciate the importance of such methods, as being one of the first, 
if not the first, to study fossil corals, Stromatoporoids and Bryozoa, 
by means of thin-sections. Many species of fossils and one genus, 
the unique coral Romingeria, are named in his honor. 

He was married in 1854 to Frederika Meyer, of Tubingen, by 
whom he had two daughters, Louise and Marie, and one son, Dr. 
Louis Rominger, now of Louisville, Kentucky. 

His bibliography is given as follows: 


Beitrage zur Kenntnisse der BOhmischen Kreide. Waiblingen, 1845. 

Vergleichnung des Schweizer Juras mit der Wiirtembergischen Alp. Tubin- 
gen, 1846. 

True Position of the So-called Waukesha Limestone of Wisconsin. Am. 
Jour. of Sci., 2d series, vol. 34, p. 136, 1862. 

Paleozoic Rocks (of the Upper Peninsula). Geol. Surv. of Mich., 1869-1873, 
VOl sie ptqess TO2.pp., loss. 

Observations on the Ontonagon Silver Mining District and the Slate Quarries 
of Huron Bay. Geol. Surv. of Mich., 1873-1876, vol. 111, pt. 1, Appendix 
A, pp. 151-166, 1876. 

Geology of the Lower Peninsula. Geol. Surv. of Mich., 1873-1876, vol. m1, pt. 
I, 166 pp., 1876. 

Paleontology (of the Lower Peninsula). Fossil Corals. Geol. Surv. of Mich., 
vol. III, pt. 2, 225 pp. and 55 pls. 

Marquette Iron Region. Geol. Surv. of Mich., 1878-1880, vol. Iv, pt. I, pp. 
I-154, map, I881. 

Menominee Region. Geol. Surv. of Mich., 1878-1880, vol. Iv, pt. 2, 241 pages, 
map, I88r. 

A Sketch from the State Geologist. In Michigan and its Resources, 1881. 

Observation in Chztetes and some related Genera in regard to their systematic 
position, with an appended description of some new species. Proc. Acad. 
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, May, 1886, p. 36. (Title only.) 

On the Minute Structure of Stromatopora and its Allies. Proc. Acad. Nat. 
Sci. Philadelphia, 1886. 

Descriptions of Primordial Fossils from Mt. Stephen, Northwestern Territory 
of Canada. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1887, pt. 1, pp. 12-19, pl. 1. 

Rejoinder to Mr. C. D. Walcott (on Primordial Fossils from Mt. Stephen, 
Canada). American Geologist, vol. 1, pp. 256-359, 1888. 

Studies on Monticulipora. American Geologist, August, 1890. 

On the Occurrence of Typical Chztetes in the Devonian Strata at the Falls of 
the Ohio and likewise in the Analogous Beds of the Eifel of Germany. 
American Geologist, vol. x, pp. 56-63, 1802. 

Geological Report on the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, exhibiting the progress 
of work from 1881-1884. Iron and copper regions. Geol. Surv. of Mich., 
vol. v, pt. I, pp. 1-179, with map and geologic cross-sections. 1895. 


EDWARD TRAVERS COX 


By GEORGE P. MERRILL 


Heap Curator oF GroLtocy, U. S. Nationa, MusEum 


Edward Travers Cox was born in Culpeper County, Virginia, 
April 21, 1821, and died at Jacksonville, Florida, January 6, 1907. 

The family, when the boy was but four years of age, moved to 
New Harmony, Indiana, joining the communistic colony founded by 
Robert Owen. Here he was educated, pursuing his geological 
studies under David Dale Owen, whose assistant he subsequently 
became on the geological surveys of Arkansas and Kentucky. After 
the death of Owen, in 1860, Cox became 
engaged in commercial work, and in 1864, 
in company with R. E. Owen, made ex- 
aminations of mining properties in New 
Mexico, including the Spanish Peaks and 
Raton coal fields and the copper and iron 
mines at the upper Gila River. In 1865, 
at the request of State Geologist Wor- 
then, he made an examination of the coal 
beds of Gallatin County, Illinois, and 
later those of the southern portions of 
the same State, the results being pub- 
lished in the reports of the State survey 
for 1875. In 1869, with the organization 
of a fourth attempt at a systematic sur- 
vey, he was appointed State Geologist of 
Indiana, which office he continued to hold until 1880, in the mean- 





Fic. 24. Edward Travers 
Cox 


time occupying also the chair of geology in the University of 
Indiana. 

Annual reports were issued for each of the ten years which marked 
the life of this survey. Those of 1869 and 1872 were accompanied 
by county maps, though no geological map of the State in its en- 
tirety was furnished. A colored section across the State from Green- 
castle to Terre Haute accompanied the report for 18609. 

Cox was assisted during the entire period or for a part of it by 
Frank H. Bradley, Rufus Haymond, G. M. Levette, B. C. Hobbs, 
R. B. Warde, W. W. Borden, M. N. Elrod, John Collett, and E. S. 
McIntire, the fossil flora being described by T,eo Lesquereux and the 

83 







84 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 


fauna of Wyandotte Cave by E. D. Cope. Zodlogical a 
subjects were treated by D. S. Jordan, J. M. Coulter, an 

These reports as a whole contained little that was or im- 
pressive. In the eighth, which was the most int € 50 far 
issued, Cox himself called attention to the fact that the geological 
history of the State “appears tame and devoid of the marvelous in- 
terest which attaches to many other regions, and that there is not a 
single true fault or upward or downward break or displacement of 
the strata thus far discovered.” The oldest rocks of the State were 
found in the southeastern portion, extending from the Ohio River 
near the mouth of Fourteen Mile Creek to the eastern boundary line. 
These are the so-called Hudson River rocks of Hall, which Cox 
correlated with Safford’s Nashville group, and which Worthen and 
Meek had included under the name of Cincinnati group. He re- 
garded the Silurian strata ‘as uplifted, not by a local disturbance, 
but “by an elevating force that acted very slowly and extending over 
the entire central area of the United States.” The seat of greatest 
force, he thought, however, was not limited to southwestern Ohio, 
but was to be looked for in Kentucky. 

Cox accepted the general theory of glacial drift as at present un- 
derstood, and conceived that the climatic changes might be due to 
the relative position of land and water, possibly a change in the 
course of the Gulf Stream. He could find no evidence of a subsi- 
dence of the land to terminate the glacial period, nor could he find 
in Ohio, Indiana, or Illinois anything to militate against the com- 
mencement of a glacial period in Tertiary times and its continuation 
“until brought to a close by its own erosive force, aided by atmos- 
pheric and meteorological conditions. By these combined agencies 
acting through time the mountain home of the glacier was cut down 
and a general leveling of the land took place.” 

After retiring from the survey, in 1880, Cox once more resumed 
private work, making New York City his headquarters. Becoming 
interested in the phosphate deposits of Florida, he removed to that 
state, taking up his residence at Albion, in Levy County. For a time 
he was employed as chemist of the Portland Phosphate Company, 
and from 1896 to 1902 served also as postmaster at Albion. In the 
latter year he retired from active work and removed to Jacksonville, 
where he died on January 6, 1907, at the ripe age of eighty-five 
years. 


AN APPARENTLY NEW PROTOBLATTID FAMILY FROM 
THe LOWER CRETACEOUS 


By EVELYN GROESBEECK MITCHELL 


The following description is based on a single nearly perfect wing 
found in association with numerous species of plants in the Kootanie 
beds (Lower Cretaceous) of the Great Falls coal field, Montana. It 
is noteworthy that all other Protoblattids appear to be from the Car- 
boniferous, the American forms coming from the Alleghany stage. 
It was detected by Dr. F. H. Knowlton while studying the plants, 
and by him placed in my hands for investigation. It has been care- 
fully compared with such specimens of the Protoblattoidea as are 
contained in the collection of the United States National Museum, 
as well as with the available literature on the subject, especially the 
recent work of Handlirsch, with the result that it appears to repre- 
sent not only a new genus and species, but a new family. It may 
be named and characterized as follows: 


Superfamily PROTOBLATTOIDEA Handlirsch 
Family Lycopma:, new family 


This family seems intermediate between Oryctoblattinide Hand- 
lirsch and Euceenide Handlirsch of the Carboniferous. The main 
venation would seem to place Lygobius among the Euczenide, but 
the latter entirely lacks intercalary and cross-venation, which are 
prominent characteristics of the former. This last venation much 
resembles that of some of the Oryctoblattinidz, but the strongly com- 
pound radial sector of the latter family is indistinct contrast to the 
almost simple radius of the new family. 

The Lygobidz is also characterized by the extension of the cubital 
area, which comprises nearly half the width of the wing; the com- 
paratively few-branched medius; almost complete intercalary vena- 
tion and numerous cross-veins, especially regular in the distal half 
of the wing, and a costal area apparently broad, especially at the 
base. 


LYGOBIUS, new genus 


Cubitus strongly compound, with branches directed obliquely 
backward and presenting a typical forking, with strong intercalary 
85 


86 SMITHSONTAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


venation and regular cross-veins; medius free and with three main 
branches; radius once forked distad of the middle. Cross-veins 
irregular in areas proximad of intercalary veins and in costal area, 



















So 
SRS 
SSRs 
is RAW: 
Y CS « 
- SSseees 


Fic. 25.—Lygobius knowltont 


otherwise fairly regular and closer spaced. Apex of wing bluntly 
rounded. Costal margin nearly straight, and, in distal half of wing, 
almost parallel to the posterior margin. 


LYGOBIUS KNOWLTONI, new species 


LocaLity.—Meriditt mine, 6 miles southwest of Geyser, Cascade 
County, Montana. Kootanie formation (Lower Cretaceous). 

LENGTH oF WING.—6.5 mm. 

GREATEST WiIDTH.—3.3 mm. 

Subcosta reaching decidedly beyond middle of wing, rather sin- 
uous, originating caudad of middle of base of wing. The two simple 
branches of the radius extend to the costal margin, near to the begin- 
ning of the apical border. Medius forking somewhat proximad of 
middle of wing, lower branch forking again at about the middle of 
wing, all three branches forking again at about distal fourth of wing. 
Cubitus ending in a fork beyond distal fourth of wing; proximad of 
this are a fork, a simple branch, and five forked branches. At least 


three slightly sinuous anal veins. Anal area defective.* 
Abypes Ups. WN. M.,\Cat.;No®so,461, 


* The drawing was made by the author with camera lucida. No restoration 
was attempted, save in the case of the cubital cross-veins, which are somewhat. 
obliterated and difficult to see. 


NECESSARY CHANGES IN THE NOMENCLATURE OF 
SLARFISHES 


By WALTER K. FISHER, 
oF LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY 


A number of generic names of starfishes are being incorrectly 
used. In view of the general acceptance of the International Code 
of Nomenclature there is now no valid excuse for the retention of 
such names as Cribrella Agassiz, Palmipes Agassiz, Ctenaster Per- 
rier, Crenaster Perrier, Asteropsis Miller and Troschel, Gymmnast- 
tria Gray, Pentaceros Schulze, Patiria Gray, and a few others listed 
below. The case of Cribrelia’ and of Palmipes? has already been 
argued, and need now only be mentioned in passing. Cribrella 
Agassiz, 1835, is a pure synonym of Linckia Nardo, 1834. Cribella 
Forbes, 1841 (not of Agassiz) is antedated by Henricia Gray, 1840, 
the correct name for the group of which Asterias sanguinolenta 
O. F. Miiller is the type. Palmipes Agassiz, 1835, is antedated by 
Anseropoda Nardo, 1834. The fact that Anseropoda is of mixed 
derivation has no bearing on its tenability as the name of the genus 
of which Asterias placenta Pennant is type. The other cases follow.° 


ANASTERIAS Perrier (Revision des Stellérides, 1875, 81), type, 
Anasterias minuta Per. 


Leipoldt (Vettor-Pisani Asteroidea, Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool., Bd. 59, 
1895, 570-571) considers Anasterias minuta a synonym of Spor- 
asterias rugispina. Ludwig (Seesterne, Voy. S. Y. Belgica, 1903, 
42) takes essentially the same view. <Anasterias, being monotypic, 
thus becomes a synonym of Sporasterias. But Ludwig, excluding 
the type, retains the name for 5 species: A perrierit Studer, A. studeri 
Perrier, and 3 new forms. Ludwig’s genus is. therefore not Anas- 


* Bell, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, v1, 1890, 472; Fisher, The Sterfishes 
of the Hawaiian Islands, Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1993, Part 111, 1906, 1089. 

* Bell, Loc. cit., vit, 1891, 233; Fisher, Loc. cit., 1088. 

*It is a pleasure to acknowledge the kindness of Dr. Theodore Gill, with 
whom I discussed the merits of nearly all the cases mentioned in this paper. 
In the matter of Schulze’s names Dr. L. Stejneger and Mr. H. C. Oberholser 
have also given helpful advice. I also wish to acknowledge the codperation of 
the Librarians of the National Museum and Philadelphia Academy of Sciences. 

87 


88 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


terias Perrier, but is new. Being nameless, it may be called Lysas- 
terias, with Anasterias perriert Studer as type. 


Asteropsis Muller and Troschel (Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, 
6 Jahrg., Bd. I, Sept., 1840, 322), type, A. carimifera (La- 
marck). 


This name, which was published in 1840, and not in the System 
der Asteriden, 1842, aS invariably quoted, has exactly the same sig- 
nification as Gray’s Gymmnasteria (Dec., 1840), but is in turn ante- 
dated by Asterope Miller and Troschel, as explained below under 
Gymnasteria. The Archiv ftir Naturgeschichte appeared in 3 parts 
to each volume. The article “Ueber die Gattungen der Asterien 
(Auszug aus dem Monatsber. der Konig. Akad. der Wiss. Monat, 
April, 1840)” was very probably in the beginning of the third part, 
which would make the date about September, 1840. The genus is 
monotypic, and the name can not therefore be restricted to Aster- 
opsis vernicina (Lamarck), as has been done by Perrier (Rev. Steil., 
1875, 282) and authors since. Asteropsis is a synonym of Asterope, 
along with Gymnasteria. Asteropsis vernicina (Lamarck) Perrier 
becomes Petricia vernicina. The genus Petricia Gray (Proc. Zool. 
Soc., pt. XV, 1847, 81) has for type P. punctata Gray, which equals 
Asterias vernicina Lamarck. 


CRENASTER’.Perrier (Aan. Sci -Nat. Zool Art: 8) xem esc: 
FL oat ype, .C wong Aner. 


This name is invalidated by Crenaster d’Orbigny (Prodrome de 
Paléontologie, t. 1., 1850, 240), a synonym of Astropecten Gray. 
Crenaster Perrier is very doubtfully distinct from Dytaster Sladen. 
The only difference is the absence of pedicellariz in Crenaster. The 
same character has been unsuccessfully used by Perrier in attempt- 
ing to distinguish Pontaster from Cheiraster. 


CTENASTER Perrier (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., [X, 1881, 18), 
type, Ctenaster spectabilis Per. 


L. Agassiz, in the Memoirs Soc. Scientif. Neuchatel, I, 1835, 192, 
used Ctenaster as a substitute name for Asterina Nardo, 1834. Its 
status corresponds to that of Cribrella. This prior use of Ctenaster 
(“Once a synonym, always a synonym’) leaves Perrier’s genus 
without a name. It may be called Letmaster, the type and only 
known species being Ctenaster spectabilis Perrier. 


NO. 1799 NOMENCLATURE OF STARFISHES—FISHER 80 


DIPLASTERIAS Perrier (Compt. Rend., CVI, No. 11, 1888, 765; 
Mission Scientif. du Cap Horn, VI, Zoologie, Echino- 
dermes, 1891, 77), type, Asterias sulcifera (Perrier), first 
species. 


In the first citation the name is mentioned so casually that it must 
in all probability be disregarded as a nomen nudum. Perrier, in an 
appendix on page 160 of the second reference, gives precedence to 
Sladen’s Cosmasterias (type, Asterias sulcifera), which was pub- 
lished while Perrier’s paper was in press. Thus Perrier relegated 
his own genus to synonymy. The group was a very artificial one, 
and, strictly speaking, was not coextensive with Cosmasterias. But 
by reason of its type the name, at least, can be restricted to a definite 
ageregation of species, namely, the Cosmasterias of Sladen. This 
name, however, is long antedated by Pisaster Miller and Troschel,* 
type, Asterias ochracea Brandt. I have examined Asterias sulcifera 
(Perrier), and find that it is a Pisaster, as indicated by the peculiar 
large pedicellariz and numerous rows of actinal intermediate plates. 
Podasterias Perrier (type, Diplasterias liitkeni Per.*) also seems to 
be typical Pisaster, making a third synonym. Since Perrier him- 
self repudiated Diplasterias, the name should then and there have 
died a painless death. Kcehler, however, has resurrected it for two 
new species in his report on the echinoderms of the Expedition 
Antarctique Francaise (1906, and again in Zoologischer Anzeiger, 
Sept. 17, 1907, 141. This use of the name is incorrect. 


Gontopon Perrier (Expeditions Scientifique du Travailleur et 
du Talisman, Echinodermes, 1894, 244), type, Pentagonas- 
ter dilatatus Perrier. 


This name is antedated, and therefore invalidated, by Goniodon 
CL. eHerrick,) Denison “Univ. Scientif. Laboratories, Bull. IT] 
(April), 1888, 4; type, G. ohioensis, a mollusc. Goniodon Perrier 
may be called Diplodontias. 





*Archiv f. Naturgesch. 6 Jahrg., Bd. 1, 1840, 367; System der Asteriden, 
1842, 20. Type Asteracanthion margaritifer M. & T. (=Asterias ochracea 
Brandt). This name was used by Prof. L. Agassiz on display labels in the 
Museum cf Comparative Zodlogy, Cambridge. The reference, in A. Agassiz’s 
“North American Starfishes,”’ to the genus Pisaster “as recognized by Profes- 
sor Agassiz” probably refers to these labels, as I find nothing in the latter’s 
writings bearing on the subject. 

*In Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vim, 1861, 265, Stimpson described from the 
Ccast of Oregon Asterias liitkenii, which is'a Pisaster, thus antedating Per- 
rier’s name. 


go SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


GYMNASTERIA Gray (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., VI, Dec., 
1840, 278), type, Gymmnasteria spinosa Gray==Asterias 
carinifera Lamarck. 


Within the year 1840 Asterias carinifera Lamarck was made the 
type of three genera: Asterope Muller and Troschel, Asteropsis 
Miller and Troschel, and Gymmnasteria Gray. The first was de- 
scribed in April (Monatsber. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss. Berlin, 104), the 
second in September (Archiv f. Naturgesch., 322), and the last in- 
December. Miiller and Troschel thought that their Asterope was 
invalidated by Asterope Philippi (for a crustacean), published the 
same year in Archiv f. Naturgeschichte, part 2, June, 186, so that 
they changed the name to Asteropsis in their article “Uber die Gat- 
tungen der Asterien,” published about September in the same jour- 
nal, page 322. Investigation proves, however, that Philippi’s name 
was published fully two months after that of Miller and Troschel, 
the evidence being a reprint of Philippi’s article in the Annals and 
Magazine of Natural History, VI, September, 1840, 89. This trans- 
lation states that it is reprinted from Wiegmann’s Archiv, Part 2, 
June, 1840, thus fixing the date. There is no reason why Asterope 
should not replace Gymmnasteria. The family Gymnastertide will 
become Asteropide. 


Patiria Gray (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., VI, Dec., 1840, 290), 
type, Patiria coccinea Gray=Asteriscus coccineus M. and 
T., 1842—Asterina coccinea (Gray) Perrier, 1875. 





Patiria was monotypic when described, and since its type is an 
Asterina, it naturally becomes a synonym of that genus. Gray, 
however, in Proc. Zool. Soc., 1847, 82, extended the genus to in- 
clude granifera, ocellifera, obtusa, and crassa. Perrier, 1875, then 
restricted Patiria to ocellifera and crassa, relegating coccinea, grani- 
fera, and obtusa to Asterina. Sladen, in 1889, added a third species. 
It will be seen that Perrier, with his usual freedom of treatment, ex- 
cluded the type from his genus Patiria, which is therefore not the 
Patiria of Gray. Perrier’s genus may be called Parasterina, the 
type being Patiria crassa Gray. 


PARARCHASTER Sladen (Narr. Chall. Exp., I, 1885, 610, Fig. 
204), type, P. pedicifer Sladen. 


This name is still employed by Ludwig, Keehler, and others. It 
is a synonym of Benthopecten Verrill (Amer. Journ. Sci., XXVIII, 
1884, 218, footnote). . 


NO. 1799 NOMENCLATURE OF STARFISHES—FISHER QI 


PENTACEROS, PENTAGONASTER, and ASTROPECTEN. 


Until recent years, and long after it had been agreed to abandon 
pre-Linnzan names, these three genera were attributed to Linck’s 
“De Stellis Marinis,” 1733. Even Ludwig, in “Die Seesterne des 
Mittelmeeres,’ 1897, followed the same course. Sladen, in 1889 
(“Challenger” Asteroidea), adopted many of Linck’s specific names, 
and the three generic names noted above. When it became evident, 
however, that adherence to generally accepted rules of nomenclature 
would be necessary, and that Linck’s pre-Linnzan and non-binomial 
names would have to be relinquished, Schulze’s booklet, “Betrach- 
tung der Versteinerten Seesterne und ihrer Theile” (Warschau und 
Dresden, 1760, 58 pp., 3 plates), was hastily invoked to save 
Pentaceros' and Astropecten. Then Pentagonaster was attributed 
to Schulze, but the author who accomplished this commendable 
piece of research inconsistently overlooked Pentadactylus (since ac- 
ceptance of that name would invalidate Linckia). 

I recently examined for the first time, in Washington, a copy of 
Schulze’s work, and showed it to Dr. Theodore Gill, Dr. Leonhard 
Stejneger, and Mr. H. C. Oberholser, all experts in matters of 
nomenclature. Each gave his opinion independently and emphatic- 
ally that Schulze’s names are not tenable. 

These names are mostly derived from Ljinck’s “De Stellis 
Marinis.” There is no evidence that Schulze knew anything about 
binomial nomenclature, for he does not conform to the Linnean 
system, and his so-called binomials are greatly outnumbered by 
single names. Both kinds are used in a specific or descriptive sense, 
as “Der Lederartige, coriacea” [=genus V, Stella coriacea, Linck, 
p. 30]. Those names in binomial form, such as Pentagonaster reg- 
ularis and Astropecten regularis, are not genus and species, but are 
a more elaborate descriptive term, in imitation of Linck. They are 
really the modifying portion of a trinomial, of which the “generic” 
name is mentioned previously (quinquefide). Schulze has no real 
genera. He divides (p. 49) his starfishes into two classes, fiss@ 
(—Asteroidea) and integre (—Ophiuroidea). The former he sub- 
divides into three genera (Geschlechte), according to the number of 
arms. In the first genus he places all which have less than five rays 
(stelle oligacte), and details several kinds, as der Dreistral, Trisac- 





‘Sladen first called attention to Pentaceros Schulze, but did so, rather dis- 
dainfully, for the benefit of those who refused to accept Linck’s names. 
Sladen said that Pentaceros was used by Schulze “exactly in Linck’s sense,” 
overlooking the fact that “Linck’s sense” of Pentaceros was a combination of 
Hippasteria, Oreaster, and Asterina! 


Q2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


tis, der Vierstral, Tetractis, etc. All 5-rayed forms are grouped in 
the second genus (quinquefide), under which he mentions numerous 
species or kinds, as das Funfeck Pentagonaster, das regulare Fiinf- 
eck, Pentagonaster reguiaris, das gesternte Fiinfeck mit ausgerun- 
deten Seiten, Pentagonaster semilunatus. 

Further, he says: “Der ftinfhornichte, Pentaceros, hat funf tiefe, 
ausgeschweifte Seiten, und lange, kolbichte oder zugespitzte Strah- 
len. Die hierher gehorigen Arten sind entweder platt, plane, oder 
aber hockericht und bauchicht, gibbe.” 

Then are mentioned: Der eingekerbte Funfstral Astropecten, der 
eingekerbte regulare Fiinfstral Astropecten regularis, der einge- 
kerbte irregulare Fiinfstral Astropecten irregularis, der Gansefuss- 
formige Palmipes, der lederartige coriacea, die stumpfwinklichte 
obtusangule, spitzwinklichte acutangule, funfblattrichte pentape- 
tale, die Meersonne Sol marinis, die Sternhand Pentadactylus aster. 
Besides those mentioned, there are numerous other single names 
referring to starfishes and ophiurans. 

The absurdity of Schulze’s names for other than historic purposes 
is well exemplified in Pentadactylus aster, which is Linck’s Penta- 
dact\'losaster divided, possiby because it appeared too long. As a 
recognizable description accompanies this name, those writers who 
accept Pentaceros can hardly avoid adopting Pentadactylus also. 

Sherborn, who has given the weight of his authority in favor of 
Schulze, misquotes in two instances in the “Index Animalium.” 
Palmipes Schulze [=Anseropoda Nardo] has, according to Sher- 
born (l. ¢, 1151), the following species: coriacea, obtusangula 
(sic), acutangula (sic), and pentapetala (sic). Schulze mentions 
no names under his Palmipes (p. 51). Those quoted by Sherborn 
have nothing to do with Palmipes, and, with one exception, are in- 
rectly spelled in the bargain. Coriacea, for instance, is coordinate 
with Palmipes, and is a descriptive term (“der lederartige’’). The 
other names occur in the plural. So under Pentaceros Sherborn 
cites! gibbus’” and “planus: Schulze says: Die </) 4 4.9 sarten 
sind entweder platt, plane, oder aber hochericht und bauchicht, 
gibbe.” 

These are not specific terms, either in form or intent—that is, not 
as we now employ specific names. But if Pentaceros “plane” were 
taken as a binomial, equivalent to Pentaceros planus Linck (the type 
of Pentaceros), then Hippasteria Gray would become Pentaceros 
and Oreaster would replace Pentaceros Gray, Sladen, et al. Asa 
matter of fact, Pentaceros Schulze is not a genus, and if it were it 
has no species name, being in the same class with Palmipes, Coriacca, 
Tetractis, Hexactis, Heptactis, Octactis, Enneactis, Decactis, Dode- 





NO. 1799 NOMENCLATURE OF STARFISHES—FISHER 93 


cactis, Triscedecactis. No efforts are being made to replace Solas- 
ter Forbes by Octactis Schulze, yet the identification by means of 
Linck, table XIV, n. 25 (the source of Schulze’s name) is certain. 
Similarly if Pentaceros is valid, so is Decactis for Crossaster; or if 
there is any doubt about Decactis, none can be urged against Tris- 
cedecactis! In some cases Linck’s plates are singularly good. 

Schroter, in 1782 (Musei Gottwaldiani Testaceorum, Stellarum 
marinum, etc., Nurnberg, 58), used Pentaceros, but he is not a con- 
sistent binomialist, and his “generic” names are not tenable. 

Pentaceros Schulze should be changed to Oreaster Muller and 
Troschel, 1842. Pentaceros, for starfishes, was given binomial 
standing by Gray in 1840, but Cuvier and Valenciennes adopted the 
name for fishes in 1828. The family becomes the Oreasteride. The 
type of Oreaster is Asterias reticulata Linn.: (=O. reticulatus M. 
and 1.) 

Fortunately Astropecten was given binomial standing by Gray in 
1840, and its signification does not change. Stellaria Nardo, 1834, 
another name for the same group, is invalidated by Stellaria Mceller, 
1832, for a mollusk. Gray’s Astropecten includes Ctenodiscus, Astro- 
pecten, and Chetaster. Chetaster was described a few months pre- 
viously by Miller and Troschel, and Ctenodiscus was eliminated in 
1842. No type was designated by Gray; as it is desirable to have 
one, 4. aurantiacus (Linn.) may be so considered. 

Pentagonaster Schulze is superceded by Gontaster Agassiz (type,’ 
Asterias tessellata Lamarck). The name Pentagonaster was given 
validity by Gray, 1840, for a small and different group of which 
P. pulchellus is type. Ayres’ Stephanaster, adopted by Perrier, is 
long antedated by this name, while Phaneraster Perrier is similarly 
invalidated by Gontaster. 


* Indicated by Agassiz. Mem. Soc. Sc. Neuchatel, t. i, 1835, 145. 





IDEN DEY VOE SA SUPPOSED WHIDEEISH, COREGONUS 
ANGUSTICEPS CUVIER & VALENCIENNES, WITH 
AWNORTHERN “CYPRINID, PLATYGOBIO 
GRACILIS (RICHARDSON) 


By WILLIAM CONVERSE KENDALL 


SCIENTIFIC ASSISTANT, BUREAU OF FISHERIES 


To Cuvier and Valenciennes’ is credited a name interrogatively 
applied by Valenciennes to a fish represented in a drawing made by 
himself. He supposed that it was a salmonoid, but was uncertain 
regarding the genus, and at the end of his description hesitatingly 
asks if it might not be called Coregonus angusticeps. 

If the drawing was puzzling to Valenciennes, his description has 
been no less so to subsequent ichthyologists, who, while accepting it 
as applying to a Coregonus have been uncertain what species should 
bear the name or to what the synonymy should be assigned. 

In the general ichthyological works since Cuvier and Valenciennes, 
it has been but briefly or doubtfully referred to or omitted entirely. 
Gunther? mentions it in a footnote as known from a figure only and 
as one of the species so imperfectly described as to be worthy of only 
passing notice. 

Jordan and Gilbert* do not notice it, while Jordan and Evermann* 
have placed it in the synonymy of Coregonus labradoricus, although 
with doubt. This disposition of it has been followed by Evermann 
and Smith® and by Evermann and Goldsborough.® 

Regarded as a whitefish, notwithstanding the fact that the de- 
scription, which was stated to be “brief and erroneous,” did not fit 
the species, this perhaps was a natural conclusion for two reasons: 
Because the original description of Coregonus angusticeps appears 


* Histoire Naturelle des poissons, xx1, 1848, 534. 

* Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum, vi, 1866, 172. 

* Synopsis of The Fishes of North America. < Bull. 16, U. S. Nat. Mus. 
1882 (1883). 

* Fishes of North and Middle America. <Bull. 47, U. S. Nat. Mus., part 1, 
1896, 466. 

°*The Whitefishes of North America. <Rept. U. S. Fish. Comm. 1804 
(1896), 302. 

°A Check List of the Freshwater Fishes of Canada. <Proc. Biol. Soc. 
Washington, XX, 1907, I00. 

95 


g6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


with the description of Coregonus labradoricus* almost as though it 
were continuous with the brief description of that species; and be- 
cause the Saskatchewan River, from which the fish came, belongs to 
the Hudson Bay drainage, in the eastern portion of which, at least, 
Coregonus labradoricus was supposed to be the most common species 
of whitefish. 

‘Recent investigations by the present writer, however, show that 
the description of “Coregonus angusticeps” is erroneous only in its 
erroneous application, and that the mysterious fish is not a whitefish 
at all, but a very common cyprinid of the far north, now known as 
Platygobio gracilis (Richardson). 

A careful consideration of Valenciennes’s description of Coregonus 
angusticeps shows that this fish, with so few scales in a longitudinal 


*“Ta Coregone du Labrador (Coregonus labradoricus, Richardson). 

“Je ne connais aussi ce poisson que d’apres M. Richardson. I] se rapproche 
du précédent par ses machoires et son palais sans dents, et par les quatre 
rangées qui sont sur la langue. 

“Tl en différe, parce que le museau est tronqué et que la machoire supérieure 
me parait plu longue que l‘inférieure. I,es écailes sont orbiculaires et disposées 
par rangs. L’espéce ressemble en général au Coregonus quadrilateralis. Les 
nombres sont: 

DPS Amon On Serbs sno e aio tele: 

“Ce poisson vient de la riviére Musguaw, qui se jette dans le golfe Saint- 
Laurent, pres de Vile Mingan. 

“Lorsque nous connaitrons mieux cette espéce et la précedénte, si les natural- 
istes les réunissent pour en former un genre particuliere nous retrouvercns en 
lui les deux sections que nous avons signalées dans nos Corégones. 

“Parmi les dessins que j’ai faits des poissons que nous a comimuniqués M, 
Richardson, 

“J’en trouve un aussi remarquable par la petitesse de sa téte que par la 
singuliére disposition de sa bouche. La longueur de la téte est du sixiéme de 
la longueur totale, tandi que la hauteur du trone n’y est comprise que cinqfois 
et quelque chose. La hauteur de la téte, prise a la nuque, mesure la moitié de 
sa longueur, et l’ouverture de la bouche est due tiers de cette méme téte. La 
pectorale est longue et pointue: elle atteint presque jusqu’ ala ventrale. L’anale 
est presque aussi haute que la dorsale. Les écailles sont de moyenne grandeur: 
il y en a cinquante-cing dans la longueur et quinze dans la hauteur. Chacune 
delles est cisselée de huit a dix stries fines et rayonnantes. 

=) STOP eAesTORIC AaTO> Es TORm\ Gane! 

“Ce poisson est appelé parles naturels Nat-chee-gews. Il a été péché dans la 
riviere de Saskatehewan [sic]. L’individu est long d’un pied. 

“Cest un curieux poisson que je ne retrouve pas cité dans l’ouvrage de M. 
Richardson. Je n’ose donner de nom a ce Salmonoide, parce que je ne puis 
pas assez préciser la forme des dents, des machoires et par conséquent fixer 
d’une maniére assez certaine le genre. Ma premiére impression avait été 
cependant d’en faire une Corégone puisque j’avais placé ce dessin a cOté des 
autres especes du méme genre. On pourrait l’appeler Coregonus angusticeps?” 


NO. 1800 IDENTITY OF A SUPPOSED WHITEFISH—KENDALL Q7 


series, could not be a whitefish, much less any other salmonoid. 
This character suggests a cyprinid or a Catostomid, but the character 
of the mouth precludes the latter. According to Valenciennes, the 
drawing upon which the description was based was made from a 
specimen from the Saskatchewan River furnished by Richardson. 

The only cyprinid recorded from the Saskatchewan by Richard- 
son? is his “Cyprinus (Leuciscus) gracilis,’ of which he gives a full 
description and an excellent plate figure. In the following com- 
parison of the essential features given in Valenciennes’s account with 
the corresponding characters shown in Richardson’s description and 
figure, it will be see that they almost exactly agree: 


Val.Remarkably small head. Rich.—Small head. 
Head 1/6 total length. “Head 5 in length to tip middle 
rays of caudal. 
# Depth of body something over “Depth of body 5 in length to 
5 in total length. tip middle rays of caudal 
{from figure]. 
depth of head, measured from “Depth of head a little more 
nape, I/2 its length. than 1/2 its length [from 
figure]. 
Length of mouth 1/3 head. Length of mouth slightly less 
than 1/3 head [from figure]. 
Pectoral long and pointed, al- “Pectoral long and pointed, ex- 
most reaching ventral. tending a little over 2/3 the 


distance from its origin to 
base of ventral [from 
figure]. 

Anal almost as high as dorsal. “Longest dorsal ray 1 inch and 
10 lines; longest anal ray I 
inch and 7 lines. 

Scales large, 55 in length. 

Seventeen scales in cross- 
series [only 15 shown in 


Scales moderate, 55 in length. 
Fifteen scales in cross-series. 


figure]. 
Scales grooved with 8 or 10 "3 Scales with 10 or 12 fine 
radiating striz. streaks radiating from the 
center. 
IDETO} FAS 105 1C. 10s) PeTOs Vins: pe DAO AeelOl Galo} ee Oi NWiao: 
; Length of specimen 1 ft. “Length 12 inches and 2 lines. 
Native name, Nat-Chee-Gees. “~~ Cree Indian name, No- 


nathchee-gees. 


The evidence presented by this strikingly close agreement in de- 
tails justifies the belief that Valenciennes had before him a drawing 
of the above-mentioned cyprinid of Richardson. Further evidence is 





*Funa Boreali-Americana, 111, 1836, 120, pl. 78. 


7 


98 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


found in Richardson’s work (loc. cit.), where he says “our specti- 
men having been submitted to the inspection of Baron Cuvier, was 
returned, with the following note attached to it: ‘Espeéce particuliere 
de Cyprin voisin de notre Cyprinus microcephalus. ” 

This specimen was therefore sent to Cuvier and returned with his 
or Valenciennes’s diagnosis prior to the publication of the first vol- 
ume of the Fauna Boreali-Americana (1836). It seems not improb- 
able, then, that the drawing was made from this specimen some 10 
or 12 years before Valenciennes made the description of “Coregonus 
angusticeps,’ which was published in 1848, and that after so long a 
time the subject of his drawing was forgotten and he did not recog- 
nize the strange fish therein represented, which elicited the remarks 
and hesitating description quoted in footnote’, page 96. But to 
some it will doubtless seem improbable, and even impossible, that an 
ichthyologist of Valenciennes’s attainments should not detect that 
such a fish, even represented in a drawing only, having so few longi- 
tudinal scales and other unsalmonlike peculiarities, was not a Core- 
gonus. Moreover, in volume xvi, 1844, p. 324 (Hist. Nat. Poiss.), 
there is a description of “Leuciscus gracilis’ copied from Richard- 
son’s work and a reference to Richardson’s “very pretty” figure of 
it, while, also, Valenciennes explicitly states in the description of 
C. angusticeps that he does not find it mentioned in Richardson’s 
work. 

But the fact that he did not find it mentioned by Richardson in- 
dicates that something was amiss; for Richardson would hardly have 
omitted such a “remarkable” species, especially one concerning which 
he considered it necessary to seek the opinion of Cuvier and Valen- 
ciennes. That Valenciennes did not find the fish mentioned in Fauna 
Boreali-Americana may possibly be accounted for by assuming that, 
his attention being concentrated mainly on the head parts, as the 
original description suggests,’ he overlooked the above-mentioned 
discrepancies, and, prepossessed by the idea that it was a salmonoid 
from its superficial resemblance in form, he searched only among 
the Salmonidz for its citation in Richardson’s work. 

A tracing of the original drawing of Valenciennes, made by a 
very experienced draughtsman connected with the Museum d’His- 
toire Naturelle and very kindly furnished by Prof. Leon Vaillant, 
conclusively proves that no other fish than the previously mentioned 
cyprinid could have been the subject of the drawing, notwith- 
standing the fact that the drawing shows an adipose fin, for the 


“Jen trouve un aussi remarquable par la petitesse de sa tete que par la 
singuliére disposition de sa bouche. 


NO. 1800 IDENTITY OF A SUPPOSED WHITEFISH—KENDALL 99 


form of the head and mouth parts and the fins are diagnostic, aside 
from the characters mentioned in the description. 

In a letter accompanying the tracing, Professor Valliant says that 
it is not to be doubted that the resemblance between the fish repre- 
sented in Valenciennes’ drawing and that of Richardson’s plate of 
Leuciscus gracilis is striking, and were it not for the adipose dorsal 
one would not hesitate to consider them identical. But, he con- 
tinues, it is not difficult to admit that Valenciennes may have added 
the fin afterwards. 

Professor Vaillant further suggests that, while Valenciennes was 
a very skillful and conscientious draughtsman, it is possible that he 
may have been deceived by some accident which happened to the 
specimen that he had before him. 

Either of the above suggestions may be the true explanation of 
the erroneous presence of the adipose fin in the drawing; which is 
the more probable is hard to say. 





THE MILLERS-THUMB AND ITS HABITS 


By THEODORE GILL 


I 


A quite common and characteristic denizen of the cold streams of 
the entire northern hemisphere is a small brownish fish with a wide 
head, which is mostly found recumbent on the bottom of the stream 
and generally under a stone or some other object used for partial 
concealment. ‘The name best known is Millers-thumb. “It is one of 
a large family. The species are numerous and constitute a natural 
group which may advantageously be recognized as a subfamily 
(Cottine) closely related to the marine fishes known along the coast 
of the United States as Sculpins (Myoxvocephaline). Although the 
species are mostly confined to fresh water, 
a few may occasionally wander into brack- 
ish or moderately salt water, as the Baltic 
Sea, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the 
North Pacific Ocean. Very little is known 





Fic. 27.—Skull of Sculpin. After Girard. 


to most persons about these fishes, but 
é considerable has been published in a scat- 
Fic. 26.—Skull of Sculpin. tered form, and the principal data are for 
After Girard. the first time brought together in the pres- 

ent article; these have been arranged so as to facilitate comparison 
with the account of “the Sculpin and its habits,’ published in the 
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections in 1905 (vol. 47, p. 348-359). 





II 


The Millers-thumbs, or Cottines, are a subfamily of Cottids* dis- 
tinguished from the Sculpins or Myoxocephalines by the restricted 


*The characters of the Cottids are given in the article on “the Sculpin” 


(p. 349). 
IoI 


102 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


lateral branchial apertures and the broad isthmus between them. 
The skull is differentiated into three regions—a broad, subquadran- 
gular, postocular portion, an abruptly contracted, narrow, interocu- 
lar region, and a wider preocular or rostral region. The armature 
of the head is weak, only one pair of conspicuous spines being de- 
veloped, a single one about the hinder angle of the preopercle ; there 
are, however, rudiments of two or three 
more below. There are a number of 
genera, especially in northern Asia, several 
of which are peculiar to the great lake 
Baikal and others to Japan.* 

The name-giving genus, Cottus, embraces 
nearly fifty species, most of which are very 
much alike and difficult to discriminate. 

LO They are most numerous in the northern 
portions of America and Asia, and less so 

Rig aoe Seuitor Millers: in Europe; but in the latter continent is to 

thumb. After Girard, be found the longest and best-known species, 
Cottus gobio. 

Millers-thumb is the most generally used name for the species of 
the genus in England. Yarrell explains how it came into use: “The 
thumb, by a peculiar movement, spreads the sample over the fingers 
and, employed with tact, becomes the gauge of the value of the meal 
produced. Hence the saying, ‘Worth a miller’s thumb.’” The 
thumb of the miller of the olden time became thus spread out be- 





Fic. 28.—Skull of fresh- 
water Millers-thumb. 


‘ 


OE 
\ 
\N 





Zz 


Fic. 30.—Cottus gobio. After Smitt (W. v. Wright). 


neath the nail, and a likeness was fancied between it and the little 
fish. ‘The name, however, is not the only one in use in England: 


“The Triglopsis thompsoni of the Great Lakes, often associated with the 
Cottines or otherwise misplaced, is a typical Myoxocephaline, very closely 
related to the common Oncocottus quadricornis (Cottus quadricornis of most 
authors). The present author indicated this relationship as early as 1862 
(Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phila., p. 13). 


NO. 1801 MILLERS-THUMB AND ITS HABITS—GILL 103 


Bullhead, Bull-knob, Bull-jub, Cob, Cod-pole, Cull, Harbeau, Nog- 
gle-head, Tom-cull, and Tommy-logge are applied in various re- 
stricted districts. None of these, unless it be Bullhead, was brought 
over to America by the early settlers, although it is said by Goode 
(1884, 259) that species are “known in some localities by the Eng- 
lish name of Miller’s thumb,” etc. The name in most general use in 
the United States appears to be Blob; the primitive use of blob was 
for a bubble or drop, then for a splotch or 
blotch, and its transfer to a fish resembling foo on 
a blotch when seen at the bottom of a stream [@) @) \ 
/ \ 


\ 


was not unnatural. Other names applied 
in various parts of the United States are | , 
Bull-head, Muffle-jaws, and  Spring-fish. ; 
Still more restricted are Stone-fish and ae 
Flying-fish, current, according to S$. H. 


_ 


ee 


a 
a 
f 
f 
See ee 
= = 


Gage, to some extent in central New York, i f 1 
the former being given because “it is found ! | | 
almost exclusively under stones,” and the | \ 
latter “from its rapid movements,” which, 
however, are only manifest as short darts. | | | 


Another name, Star-gazer, is a book name, 
originating from Dekay’s ignorance of 
the relations of the fish so named, but 
adopted by a naturalist (S. H. Gage) of 
later times (1878). In Maine, according to | 
Kendall (1904), in the Aroostook region, it | 
is known as Rock Cusk, “from a fancied 
resemblance to the Cusk? (Lota maculosa) ; 
Brook Cusk is also given by Kendall (1908) 
for the same fish; Goblin is another narie 
recorded by S. A. Forbes (1883) as a term 
for the C. meridionalis in Mlinois; Mullhead, 
according to H. Smith (1907), is used in Fic. 31.—Cottus gracilis. 
Virginia.? Aiter Girard. 


——— 





ao 


1The same idea seems to be prevalent in Sweden, where one of the names 
(Stenlake or Stone-burbot) recorded by Smith (p. 172) conveys the same idea 
as Rock-cusk. 

* Numerous popular names given to species of Cottus in various countries of 
Europe are recorded for the Austrian Empire by Heckel and Kner; for 
Germany by Siebold and others; for Scandinavia by Smitt, and for France by 
Blanchard, Rolland, and Moreau. 


104 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


III 


The only species whose habits are known are several of the genus 
Cottus.' ‘These have been referred by some authors to two genera, 
Cottus and Uranidea, but they are so very closely related that what 
is true of one may be predicated for the other. They agree in all 
structural details and size as well as appearance and have only been 
distinguished because Cottus has four soft rays to each ventral fin, 
while Uranidea has only three; the former includes all the Kuropean 
and most of the American species, while the latter, so far as known, 
is confined to America. Inasmuch, however, as individuals from the 
same pond may differ in the number of ventral rays, and even the 
same individual may have four rays in one ventral and three in the 
other, the groups must be reunited under the name Cofttus.’ 

The species are so similar in most characters that they can only 
be distinguished by a close, critical examination. The differences 
are mainly in the trend and character of the large preopercular 
spine, the number and condition of the rudimentary spines, the 
number of rays (especially anal), the relative size of the head and 
other parts, the presence or absence of palatine teeth (of less sig- 
nificance than in most groups), the spinescence or smoothness of the 
skin, the size of the mouth, the character of the nostrils, and the 
color. According to Jordan and Evermann, there are twenty-two 
species of Cottus and nine of Uranidea found in the United States 
and Canada, but no two original investigators, at present at least, 
would agree as to the exact number. The species are nearly unt 
form in size, most of them attaining a length of about three to five 
inches, few less, and few reaching a length of seven inches, or, quite 
exceptionally, a little more. 

There are no such sexual differences in the Cottines as occur 
among the Myoxocephalines, although the sexes are readily distin- 
guishable by the great development of a genital papilla in the male 
and its absence in the female; there may also be a difference in the 
size of the head (it being broader in the mature males than in the 
females), in the development of teeth on the palatine bones, the 


"A singular case of nomenclature occurs in Prevost’s article “De la Généra- 
tion chez le Séchot (Mulus gobio).” This name occurs only in connection 
with the title, but is reproduced in the reprint of the article in the Annales des 
Sciences Naturelles (x1x) in 1830. J/ulus may have originated as a printer’s 
mistake for Cottus; it could scarcely have been meant for a new generic 
name. 

* For extent of variation in number of rays, see appendix to this article. 


NO. 1801 MILLERS-THUMB AND ITS HABITS—GILL 105 


spinescence, and the size of some of the rays as well as the size of 
the body. Males appear to attain a larger size than the females, 
although the reverse is claimed by some.t All such probable differ- 
ences, however, require confirmation and may vary apparently with 
the species. 

The best observations on habits have been made on the Cottus 
gobio of Europe and the Cottus gracilis of the United States. The 
most notable on the former have been published by Newman, Heckel 
and Kner, Fatio, and Smitt; for the American species the best have 
been made known by S. F. Baird and Simon H. Gage; by the latter 
in “Notes on the Cayuga Lake Star Gazer,” in ““The Cornell Review” 
for 1878, pages 91-94, which merit exhumation from the obscurity 
in which they were buried. 


IV 


The species, numerous as they are, probably differ very little from 
each other in habits. All are inhabitants of fresh waters, though not 
all absolutely confined to such, and most of them of clear, cold 


a 





Fic. 32.—Cottus gracilis female. After C. viscosus Girard (Sonrel). 


streams or lakes with a stony or rocky bottom. When in lakes, they 
affect the mouths of streams discharging into them. ‘They are soll- 
tary most of the time, although where one is found, others may be 
lurking not far away. 

S. F. Baird, who explored extensively the fresh waters of the 
northern United States in the early years of his life, summarized 
(1851) the results of his investigations of the most common of the 








*My own observations have led me to believe that the male may attain a 
larger size than the female. Such was also represented to be the case by 
J. L. Prevost (1825). Fatio, a most careful observer, however, thought that 
the female was generally larger; he specified (p. 116): “Males présentant une 
tete plus largement arrondie en avant, avec une taille volontiers un peu 
moindre que celle des femelles.” It is apparently a case of averages. 


106 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


eastern cottids, Cottus gracilis, under the name C. viscosus: ‘These 
fish usually inhabit clear, spring waters, especially the spring 
runs which flow through rich meadows, bordered by turf, and hav- 
ing a shallow pebbly bottom. They lie concealed under projecting 
clods, flat stones, boards, or whatever may serve their purposes of 
concealment. On being disturbed, they usually hasten off to fresh 
cover, but sometimes remain motionless. Occasionally they occur 
in larger bodies of water, of less purity; but we have never seen 
them in creeks or rivers. Sometimes they are seen lying close to the 
edge of rivulets formed by leaking embankments, and where the 
water is far from clear. They always lie close to the bottom, and 
are never seen poised in the water.” 

According to Smitt, the common European species (Cottis gobio) 
“frequents shallow beaches and at spots of this nature is seldom 





Fic. 33.—Cottus gracilis male. After C. gobioides Girard (Sonrel). 


sought in vain, if one raises the stones. It is under them that it 
usually passes its time in quiet and inactivity,’ but watching for 
prey. Under a stone it may be often seen with its head or pectoral 
fins just exposed. “Its movements are quick; when driven from 
shelter, it darts with the speed of an arrow under the nearest stone 
or other suitable place of refuge.” ‘This peculiarity of lurking about 
stones has given rise to various names by which it is known in differ- 
ent parts of Sweden, as “Stensugare (stone-sucker)” and the like. 

In dart-lke movements the species resembles the little Perches of 
America’ known as Darters, and its American relatives indeed, to 
some extent, have been confounded with them. But, aside from the 
momentary darting movements, its actions are slow and laborious. 
It has, according to FE. Newman (1856), “no power of sustained 
swimming, and never suspends itself in water like a true swimming 
fish; but it will occasionally make a forced march to the surface, 
working its enormous pectorals with great vigour and great labour. 
Sometimes such efforts extend even to a tour of the globe or vessel 


No. 1801 MILLERS-THUMB AND ITS HABITS—-GILL 107 


in which it is kept, but after such extraordinary exertions it sinks 
down apparently exhausted to the bottom, and there for hours 
remains motionless.” 

Newman’s observations have been corroborated by the present 
writer. The attitudes and movements of the Millers-thumb are, in- 
deed, very characteristic. They contrast with those of the perches 
and minnows by their attachment to the bottom. There they will 
remain for minutes and perhaps hours, motionless save for the res- 
piratory movements of the gill and mouth—about 40 a minute. Gen- 
erally they rest on the exserted ventral or anal rays and the body 
is more or less tilted forwards and backwards. All the fins are 
erect and motionless, and the pectorals outstretched sideways. The 
eves are lateral, but directed somewhat upwards, and they bulge on 
each side of the interorbital area. The color is partly accommodated 
to the ground on which the fish rests, and when that ground is gray- 
ish sand, the color closely approximates, although the bands are 
generally distinct. They are quite apathetic and may not be at all 
disturbed by some other fish approaching and rubbing against them. 
Sooner or later, however, one is impelled to move, and with a flirt of 
the tail darts forwards. It rarely goes more than two or three inches 
away unless very much frightened. If induced to swim, it does so 
by a wriggling motion and laborious exercise of the pectoral fins.* 

Another characteristic early (1856) insisted on by Newman is a 
certain change of hues. ‘There is something very remarkable in the 
changes of colour,” and “these changes do not appear referrible to 
the ordinary tendency which the colour of certain fishes has to as- 
similate with the colour of the surface on which they are lying, but 
extraneous causes produce the effect; the swallowing a worm, the 
effort of a swimming adventure, and, on one occasion, the extrusion 
of ova, have produced such changes that the fish could not have been 
recognized under its altered aspect; the colours are various shades 
of gray and brown, and these are sometimes homogeneous, some- 
times varied with great distinctness and brilliancy.” Such changes 
of color surprised Gage, who experimented “over and over again to 
make sure there was no mistake.” The change “from black to gray 
takes place in five minutes and sometimes even less.” The “cause 
seemed” to Gage “to be the great fright and the light.’ Further, 
“pon studying them more carefully in an aquarium it was found 
that when the water became deprived of its oxygen they would pant 
like a suffocating animal, and become very pale, just as they did 


The observations of the present writer have been chiefly made on fishes in 
aquariums at close range and repeated very recently (April, 1908). 


108 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


when frightened. If the water is changed, these pale fish soon re- 
gain their natural color and respire slowly and regularly.’ 

According to Gage, “If one be carefully watched at a considerable 
distance, the respirations, indicated by the alternate opening and 
closing of the mouth and gill fissures, will be seen to take place about 
forty times per minute. Now if one suddenly moves up very near 
the fish, not the slightest motion of the body or of the respiratory 
apparatus can be detected. If, however, one remains perfectly still 
for about half a minute and watches the gill-covers, he will see them 
commence to rise and fall very gently, and in two or three minutes 
the respirations will be as vigorous as ever. This experiment may 
be tried over any number of times and always with the same result. 
This is equivalent to holding the breath with the higher animals, and 
is apparently for the same purpose, viz, to escape detection.” 

One of the means of defense resorted to by the Millers-thumb is 
the puffing sideways of the head and the consequent extension of the 
preopercular spines. This may not only deter an enemy, but may 
entail serious consequences on one that attempts to swallow the 
little fish. Birds have been found dead with a Millers-thumb sticking 
in the throat. 

The species are noted for voracity, and they are indiscriminate 
feeders. ‘They are most active in search of food during the hours 
of darkness, as has been remarked by Fatio. “Insects, worms, gam- 
maroids and other small crustaceans, or the fry or even the small 
fishes of no inconsiderable size’ have been noted by Smitt and 
others as subjects of capture. ‘They are even cannibalistic and do 
“not object to eating smaller brothers and sisters.” 

lL, Lépinay (1907) records an instance of two individuals which 
had seized on the same victim, and the smaller, refusing to let go, 
was taken in by the larger one as far as the head, the greed resulting 
in death to both. When two or more fishes seize the same object 
there is a regular tussle and pulling to and fro, which reminds the 
observer of a couple of dogs tugging at a string. 

Girard (1851) found only “insects and larve” in the stomachs of 
fishes he dissected. Six specimens, taken in southern Illinois and 
examined by S. A. Forbes, had eaten only animal food, about one- 
fourth of which consisted of fishes, one of which was furnished with 
ctenoid scales. Undetermined aquatic larve (thirty-six per cent) 
and other insects, were estimated at forty-four per cent of the food. 


*The changes of color have been also especially noticed by Fatio (1882, p. 
TO, 7!) \e 





No. 1801 MILLERS-THUMB AND ITS HABITS—GILL 10g 


Crustacea, all belonging to the genus Asellus, eaten. by two of the 
fishes, composed the remaining twenty-nine per cent.” 

But they are interesting to man, more especially on account of 
their destructiveness to fish-eggs. Inhabitants of the same waters 
as the Trouts, they are notorious for their ravages on the eggs of 
the latter fishes. They are consequently objects of detestation to 
pisciculturists and their numbers have sometimes to be reduced by 
special efforts. They crush the eggshells as well as the horny cover- 
ings of crustaceans and insects and reject them. A kind of masti- 
cation is thus manifested.* 

Fatio has well described the manner in which the Cottus gobio 
procures its food. It lays in wait patiently and motionless till a fit 
victim comes within easy distance, and then springs upon it before 
the incautious animal is aware of its danger. If the prey is compar- 
atively large—a Minnow, for instance—it will be seized head first, 
and while it is gradually taken inward, the Cottid looks as if it were 
chewing with its pharyngeal teeth. At other times, without moving 
its body, it will blow a current of water against some small body 
suspended above and in this way make it fall towards itself. Such 
a feat (which the present writer has never witnessed) was several 
times observed by Fatio and reminded him of the superior skill of 
the Archer-fish of Java (To.votes jaculator). ‘The mobility of the 
eyes upwards is advantageous to the fish for such purpose.’ 


*Quoique doué d’appétits voraces ce petit carnivore parait, en effet, ne pas 
gouter beaucoup les proies a enveloppes dures; du moins, je l’ai vu souvent 
happer par inadvertance et cracher de suite diverses sortes d’articulés. (Fatio, 
Faune Vert. de la Suisse, Iv, 1882, p. 127. See also this article, p. 113.) 

*Si la proie est grosse, un petit goujon ou un véron, par exemple, l’animal 
avalé, la téte la premiére disparaitra petit a petit dans le gouffre qui I’attire, 
sans que le Chabot ait l’air d’opérer la moindre mastication avec les maxil- 
laires, probablement sous l’action et la traction des dents pharyngiennes. 
D’autres fois, enfin, mieux nourri ou plus paresseux, notre Cottus usera de 
petits subterfuges pour amener jusqu’a lui les miettes qu’il désire; sans 
prendre la peine de bouger, il projetera ou soufflera, par exemple, un courant 
d’eau contre tel ou tel petit corps suspendu au-dessus de lui et qu’il veut 
détacher pour le faire rouler jusqu’a lui. Cette petite manceuvre, que j’ai eu 
Yoccasion de voir exécuter plusieurs fois, rappelle, jusqu’a un certain point, 
ladresse du Toxotes jaculator de Java qui projette, souvent a une distance 
de trois a cinq pieds, une goutte d’eau sur les insectes posés au-dessus de la 
surface, dans le but identique de les faire tomber et de s’en emparer (Fatio, 
Op, Cit, pp. 126; 127)). 


110 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


VI 


Distinctive sexual characters become manifest during winter or 
spring, varying in time of development with temperature. The color 
of the males becomes more intense. “The female, the belly of which 
is almost monstrously distended during pregnancy, lays its eggs in 
March” in Sweden—both then as well as earlier or later, according to 
temperature, in other countries.t But first preparation is made for 
the deposit, and a hiding place is prepared by the male or female (it 


eee 





Fic. 34.—C. gobio male. Fic. 35.—C. gobio female. 
After Prevost. After Prevost. 


is uncertain which) scraping a hole with its tail under a stone, or it 
fastens the deposit of eggs (which is in a mass about the size of a 
“sparrow’'s egg”) to “stones or bridge-piles driven into the bottom.” 


* According to Baird (1851), the eggs of Cottus gracilis (viscosus) “are laid 
from the middle of April to the end of May, and are deposited in round 
packets about the size of an ounce bullet, under boards, stones, and in shallow, 
springy water. It is possible that they are watched by the parent, as we have 
frequently found individuals under the same cover as the eggs. ‘The ova are 
of a rose color, and about the size of No. 3 shot, conveying the impression of 
disproportionate size.” 


No. I801 MILLERS-THUMB AND ITS HABITS 





GILL Tr 


The female then “deserts them, and the male takes” her “place as 
their protector and guards them for a month, until the young are 
able to shift for themselves.” 

Special data on oviposition or parental care have been published 
by Edward Newman and Simon Gage. 

The fish observed by Newman was a female, and soon after its 
reception (March) it “extruded during the night a mass of ova, col- 
lectively equal in size to a sparrow’s egg;” the eggs were “nearly 
transparent and enclosed in a tough envelope; the mass was closely 
adherent, somewhat reminding one of frog’s 
spawn, but the ova appeared to have no 
mucilaginous, covering. The number of ova 
must have been about a hundred.” ‘Two 
mornings after their extrusion, the un- 
natural parent had torn the mass asunder 
and devoured the greater part of the ova, 2 
and before night the work of demolition was Fic. 36.—Eggs of Cottus 
completed by the combined efforts of the  822#e- After Prevost. 
Millers-thumb and two minnows.” ‘There was no male to assume 
guardianship. If there had been, doubtless he would have protected 





and taken charge of the eggs. 

According to Gage, if one goes to the west shore of “Cayuga 
Lake from April to July, and lifts up flat stones in water twelve to 
fifteen centimetres deep, there will be found clinging to the under 
side of many of them an irregular conical mass of beautiful salmon- 
colored eggs; and under the same stone a Stargazer.” Gage thought 
“the fish seems to have forethought,” for the eggs “are never laid 
above the low-water mark of July; hence in April or May one must 
look in deeper water for them than in July.” 

Soland, in a work on the Fishes of Anjou (1869), has affirmed 
that, after hatching, the male continues his care of the young and 
remains with them until they are nearly full grown. No other ob- 
server has confirmed this claim, which is probably based on some 
error of observation or deduction. 


Vit 


No detailed observations corresponding to those on the Sculpin 
have been published about the embryology of the Millers-thumb. 
J. L. Prevost long ago (1825) noticed the eggs and the newly 
hatched embryo, 5 millimeters long, but did not carry his observa- 
tions further. Baird (1851) remarked that he had occasionally 
“found the eggs with embryos moving freely within the envelope. A 


1i2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


set examined April 22d, 1848, had the eye very distinct, and of large 
size. “The foetal fin extended from the head, by the tail, to the anus. 
In the course of the day, many became liberated and swam about 
with the yolk-bag attached. This was ses- 
sile, and filled with a transparent, reddish 
liquid, excepting opposite to the embryo, 
where was a hard, yellowish cake. All 
[his] attempts at raising the young, or of 
development of the egg, failed for want of 
Fic. 37-—Embryo of C.fresh spring water.” No later investiga- 
gobio. After Prevost. tions have been published. From the figure 
given by Prevost, it appears that Cottws has a larger yelk-sac than 
Myoxvocephalus. 
Growth appears to be moderately rapid, but exact data are want- 
ing. Specimens in the collection of the National Museum are not in 
sufficient number nor with exact dates of capture enough to enable 








Fic. 38.—Fetus of C. gobio 5 mm. long. After Prevost. 


one to distribute them according to size at any given period. Ac- 
cording to Hartmann and Fatio the common Cottid of Switzerland 
(Cottus gobio) became capable of reproduction at the age of two 
years—that is, about the beginning of its third year. 


VIII 


None of the species are utilized for food in the United States, at 
least by natives. In Europe, however, they are to some extent em- 
ployed—not in England, but on the continent. Moreau informs us 
that in France the quality of the flesh is variously appreciated ; Smitt 
remarks that in Scandinavia “‘it is stated by many to be of extremely 
good flavour.” The flesh is “white, but is said to turn red when 
boiled,” in some localities, but, according to Day, “not so in others.” 
Fatio tells that in Switzerland the fish is much sought for, not only 


\ 


No. 1801 MILLERS-THUMB AND {I's IABITS—GCILA, 113 


by fishermen for bait for other fishes, but by lovers of dainties as an 
agreeable food. 

In America, as already noted, the Millers-thumbs, under the name 
of blobs, are best known as destroyers of the eggs of the trouts as 
well as salmons, and as such do much damage, and are consequently 
regarded as pernicious pests. 

The published data respecting the injury inflicted on piscicultural 
interests are scanty. Mr. F. M. Chamberlain, in “Some observations 
on Salmon and Trout in Alaska,” compiled for the “Report of the 
Commissioner of Fisheries” for 1906 (issued December 18, 1907), 
simply reported that “the Sculpin or Bullhead would seem to be a 
more dangerous enemy to the Salmon fry than is the trout; it lurks 
under the stones in just such places as the fry will seek for shelter 
(p. 108) ; on the other hand, it has been asserted that the little fish 
not infrequently falls a victim to the old trouts (p. 107). 

An appeal to the U. S. Fish Commission, and especially Dr. B. W. 
Evermann, Mr. J. W. Titcomb, Dr. W. C. Kendall, Mr. E. L. Golds- 
borough, and Mr. H. W. Clark, elicited confirmation of the charge 
against the Cottids. Mr. Goldsborough communicated data which 
are noteworthy, not only for their bearing on the matter in question, 
but also confirmatory of the deliberate manner of feeding previously 
described by Fatio; his communication is herewith given: 


“Tn the fall of 1903 (September), while at the Salmon hatchery of 
the Alaska Packers Association, located at Loring, Alaska, I was 
watching and helping the men spawn the fish. We were wading 
around in the stream (Naha River) and many eggs were dropped 
into the water. These were at once gobbled up by the blobs (C. 
gulosus), hundreds of which were lurking around among and under 
the small stones in the stream. They were so voracious as to at 
once attract my attention. I got a handful of the fresh, soft eggs 
and pitched them where I could observe what happened. ‘They were 
devoured in a few minutes by several blobs and sticklebacks. I kept 
account of the work of one little blob particularly, which was per- 
haps three or four inches long; it ate twenty of the eggs and hunted 
for more. The eggs were all devoured in perhaps two or three 
minutes. ‘The fish would take a single egg in its mouth, puncture it 
to get the soft contents, then spit out with some force the soft shell, 
and immediately take another egg and do the same thing. 

“The blob has since been recognized by the superintendent of their 
hatchery, Mr. Fred Patching, as so destructive to salmon fry that 
he has made a regular and persistent effort to capture them, and by 
using traps bated with salmon eggs he has caught thousands,” 

8 


{14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Cottids have been little used in medicine, but in Russia, according 
to Pallas, dried fishes were used by peasants as charms or amulets 
worn round the neck as antidotes against fevers.* 


APPENDIX 


While engaged in the examination of Cottids many years ago, I 
was struck by the fact that there was unusual variation in the num- 
ber of rays of the ventral fins and was convinced that it had not the 
systematic value which it might naturally be supposed to have. 
Recent observations have fully justified the skepticism. Especial 
observations were made with reference to the value of the number 
of ventral rays by W. C. Kendall in “Notes on some fresh-water 
fishes from Maine,” published in the Bulletin of the United States 
Fish Commission for 1902 (XXII, 1904, pp. 361, 362). Dr. Ken- 
dall examined a large number of individuals of the Cottus gracilis. 
“Out of 28 specimens otherwise essentially alike from Caribou, 18 
had 3 ventral rays in each ventral fin, 6 had 4 rays in each fin, and 4 
had 4 rays on one side and 3 on the other. Of 15 specimens from 
six other localities in northern Maine, 4 had 3 rays in each ventral, 
7 had 4 on each side, and 4 had 3 on one side and 4 on the other. 
Six specimens from Bear River, Newry, in the western part of 
Maine, had uniformly 3 rays in each fin.” 

Being desirous to have still fuller statistics respecting the structure 
of the ventral fins and the development of sexual characters in the 
genus Cottus, I requested Mr. Alfred C. Weedy assistant .in the 
Division of Fishes, to compile certain data. He kindly prepared for 
me the results of examination of 50 specimens of the Cottus 
richardsonii. 

‘In cibo a nemine adhibetur, sed siccatum, amuleti instar, appendunt collo, 
ut pectus tangat, creduntque prodesse ad Tertianas abigendas. Pallas Zoé- 
eraphia Rosso-Asiatica, 3, 126. No special locality in the Russian empire is 
mentioned in connection with the superstition. 


NO. 1801 MILLERS-THUMB AND ITS HABITS—GILL II5 


COTTUS RICHARDSONII' 


Number of specimens, 50.” 

Number of males, 32. 

Number of females, 18. 

Number with ventral rays same on both sides, 45. 

Number with ventral rays 3 right and 3 left, 38. 

Number with ventral rays 4 right and 4 left, 7. 

Number with 3 ventral rays on right side, 42. 

Number with 3 ventral rays on left side, 39. 

Number with 4 ventral rays on right side, 8. 

Number with 4 ventral rays on left side, 11. 

Number with more ventral rays on right side than on left, 1. 
Number with more ventral rays on left side than on right, 4. 








The only asperities found were a small patch of prickles in the 
axilla of the pectorals, extending caudad as far as the end of the 
pectoral. In 5 specimens (4 males and 1 female) these were ap- 
parently absent. 

The sexes showed no noticeable differences in regard to the pec- 
toral and ventral fins. 

In the specimens from Labrador the longest dorsal spine was 
about 1/4 inch in males and about 3/16 inch in females, without re- 
gard to the length of the fish. 

Males from Labrador were 2 1/8 inches to 3 9/16 inches long. 

Females from Labrador were 2 1/4 inches to 3 1/8 inches long. 

Males from other localities were 2 11/16 inches to 5 1/2 inches 
long. 


"The Cottus richardsonit has been called Cottus ictalops in recent ichthyo- 
logical works by reason of the assumption that it was the species intended by 
Rafinesque under the name Pegedictis ictalops. WRafinesque’s fish with “small 
scales,” “thoracic fins with five rays,” and “secotid [dorsal] with twelve” rays 
was, however, apparently the same as his Etheostoma flabellare and E. fon- 
tinalis. 

* Number of specimens from Labrador, 42. 


a o : “Wytheville, Va., 1. 
. SS “White R., Ind., 1. 
s a “ Vermont, I. 

3 PS “2 Evanston, cll... I: 
He a “Alabama, 2. 


“6 “ “ “Marshfield, Mo., 2. 


116 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


A female from another locality was 2 5/16 inches long. 

As a whole, the dorsal and anal rays are a little higher in males. 
Other than this I can see no differences between the sexes except the 
structure of the post-anal region. 





Fic. 39.—Cottus punctulatus (Gill). 


No. 1802 


NOTES 
Notre on A Fossr, STICKLEBACK FisH FROM NEVADA 


In the Proceedings of the U. S$. National Museum, vol. 32, for 
1907, p. 271, fig. 12, Dr. Oliver P. Hay describes a fossil fish from 
the Lahontan beds of the Truckee irrigation canal near Hazen, 
Nevada, under the name of Gasterosteus williamsont leptosomus. 

In Publications of the University of California, Geology, v, no. 5, 
p. 131, figs. 25, 26, the present writer has described the same species 
from the same region, under the name of Merriamella doryssa. 
From the incomplete material, the relationships of this form were 
thought to be with the Atherinide, but the photographs given by Dr. 
Hay show clearly that the little fish is a genuine Stickleback ; in fact, 
the species can not be separated, on the material photographed, from 
the genus Gasterdsteus, the typical group of living Sticklebacks. Its 
slender form and longer spines sufficiently distinguish it from the 
living Gasterosteus williamsom, Girard, which is probably a fresh- 
water form or ontogenetic representative of the common marine 
Gasterosteus cataphractus, Pallas. 

As my paper was issued in April, 1907, and Dr. Hay’s on May 18, 
1907, the species should apparently stand as Gasterosteus doryssus, 
Jordan. I am indebted to Dr. Gill for calling my attention to the 





identity of these fossils—a fact still earlier noticed by Dr. Merriam 


and by Dr. Hay.—Davip Srarr JorDAN. 


ConGRESS OF AMERICANISTS 


At the suggestion of the Smithsonian Institution, the Department 
of State has designated Prof. Franz Boas, of Columbia University ; 
Prof. Marshall H. Saville, of Columbia University; Prof. George 
Grant MacCurdy, of Yale University; Prof. Charles Peabody, of 
Harvard University, and Prof. Paul Haupt, of Johns Hopkins Uni- 
versity, to represent the United States at the Sixteenth International 
Congress of Americanists, to be held at Vienna, September 9-14, 
1908. Dr. Franz Boas will be the official representative of the 
Smithsonian Institution. 


SMITHSONIAN GRANTS 


A grant from the Smithsonian fund has recently been approved 
to enable Dr. George P. Merrill, of the National Museum, to inves- 


EL7 


118 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


tigate personally the results of further borings in the Meteor crater 
of Canyon Diablo, Arizona. 

A grant has recently been approved in behalf of Miss Alice Fast- 
wood to aid in the re-collecting of the types of genera and species of 
plants collected by Thomas Nuttall in 1836 at Santa Barbara, Cali- 
fornia, and subsequently described by him. 


NAPLES ZOOLOGICAL STATION 


The Smithsonian seat at the Naples Zodlogical Station was occu- 
pied by Mr. I. F. Lewis, of Johns Hopkins University, during the 
month of March, and by Prof. F. M. Andrews, of the Department 
of Botany of Indiana University, during the months of April and 
May. 

Assignments of the Smithsonian seat have already been made for 
the first six months of 1909. The application of Prof. Charles A. 
Kofoid, of the University of California, has been approved for the 
first five months of the year, while through the courtesy of Dr. 
Anton Dohrn, the director of the station, Prof. Michael T .Guvyer, 
of the University of Cincinnati, will also occupy a seat through the 
months of April and May, as well as through the month of June. 


PUBLICATIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 


CoNnTINUED FROM List IN QuarTEeRLY Issur, Vor. IV, Part 4 


No. Title. 

1791 ReEsE, Arsert M. The Development of the American 
Hae iA Tea LOO, «  etctst cst alalsy cis) a/c\s' opera's slcyellelsisusiei= ole) cin 

1792 Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Quarterly 
Issue, Vol. V, Part 1 (containing Nos. 1793-1802) 
TNO SEIT lela re TET efor ar oherer skate Ste stays Sart ay ete) evetat neha sts 3 

1793 JorvAN, Davip Starr, and BRANNER, JOHN CASPER. 
The Cretaceous Fishes of Ceara, Brazil. (Quarterly 
RSSI1C) MOOS ra Sade ci. Sa einieleo te ch a arcvetele ey Neeiels- : 

1794 Aszot, C. G. Observation of the Total Solar Eclipse 
of January 3, 1908: A Bolometric Study of the 
Solar Corona. (Quarterly Issue) 1908............ 

1795 Buscx, Aucust. Report on a Trip for the Purpose of 
Studying the Mosquito Fauna of Panama. (Quar- 


LORS USS UCI MOOS septal tat oie iat ott ye ayet cio sis op sVaitu etal eLeiate 


1796 Merritt, GEorcE P. Carl Ludwig Rominger. (Quar- 
LORIE USSILE ie LOOM: wieis oie cveselsvarays s s\nis- oslo’ o/ePa's- oye, 4 pieueie.e 
1797 Merritt, GEorcE P. Edward Travers Cox. (Quar- 
LEHI SSILE TAL QOO) Meritea) heels cas, etieteiaicis ons see siele eis aievels 
1798 Mrrcuei., EvenyN Grorspeeck. An Apparently New 
Protoblattid Family from the Lower Cretaceous. 
CO arenas We TOS. waste wanes ciara ecicte qerelsrsucie anes 
1799 FisHER, WALTER K. Necessary Changes in the No- 
menclature of Starfishes. (Quarterly Issue) 1908.. 
1800 KenpALL, WitttAmM Converse. Identity of a Sup- 
posed Whitefish, Coregonus angusticeps, Cuvier & 
Valenciennes, with a Northern Cyprinid, Platygobio 
gracilis (Richardson). (Quarterly Issue) 1908.... 
tor Grit, THuKopore. ‘The Millers-thumb and its Habits. 
COmarterig: USSUe) QOS. crsae sieicisite hes «cs seta store 4,2 oho 
1802 Notes to Quarterly Issue, Vol. V, Part 1. 1908...... 
1803 TTowNsEND, CuaruEs H. T. The Taxonomy of the 
Muscoidean Flies, Including Descriptions of New 
Genenamand  Speciesy mOsm scisiisicl ec cretion sins ks 
1804 Watcort, CHartEs D. Cambrian Geology and Pale- 
ontology. No. 1—Nomenclature of Some Cambrian 
Cordilleran’ Hormationsy) wo0Ss.-.ceceeasscc eee 
1805 Watcorr, CHarLEs D. Cambrian Geology and Pale- 
ontology. No. 2—Cambrian Trilobites. 1908....... 
1806 Classified List of Smithsonian Publications Available 
TODOS EIU OM py Vilas LOOGH ee a ste cle cs ovelelstecrneeis 
1807 Gi,MorE, CuHartEs W. Smithsonian Exploration in 
Alaska in 1907 in Search of Pleistocene Fossil 
Vertebrates. 1008........- ei eee 





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VOL. 52, PL. IX 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 





HENRY NETTELROTH 


VOL, 52 1908 


SMITHSONIAN 
MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 


QUARTERLY ISSUE PART 2 





VOR, “V, 





tree NE TT hPROTE COLLECTION OF INVERTEBRATE 
FOSSILS 


By R. S. BASSLER 
(WitH 3 PLATES) 


One of the most important accessions in the division of strati- 
graphic paleontology during the year 1907 was the collection of the 
late Henry Nettelroth, acquired jointly by the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion and the U. S. National Museum from his sons, H. H. Nettel- 
roth and Dr. Alexander Nettelroth, of Louisville, Kentucky. ‘The 
registration and installation of these specimens was recently com- 
pleted, and it seemed in order, as well as very desirable on account 
of Mr. Nettelroth’s work in science and of the valuable nature of his 
collection, to publish an article upon the subject. The collection is 
composed entirely of invertebrate fossils, mainly from the Silurian 
and Devonian strata of Indiana and Kentucky, although many other 
American as well as foreign localities are represented. The total 
number of specimens is rather small compared with the number of 
species represented, the collection comprising about 8,000 specimens, 
registered under nearly 1,000 entries; but all of the material is the 
best that could be had. Mr. Nettelroth prided himself upon the 
fact that his cabinet contained only choice specimens, representing 
years of careful selection. Imperfect material was retained only 
when it showed something of scientific interest. In exchanging, 
Mr. Nettelroth also insisted upon a few good specimens rather than 
numerous poor representatives of a species. Likewise he paid par- 
ticular attention to a class of fossils, the mollusca, which is seldom 
well represented in the cabinets of even the best collectors. The 
result of this continual selection was that in the course of years his 
collection was unequaled along certain lines, and it was only fitting 
that the specimens should be used for study and illustration in the 


9 I2I 


122 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


monograph of “Kentucky Fossil Shells” prepared by Mr. Nettelroth 
and issued by the State as a memoir of the Geological Survey of 
Kentucky. Practically all of the specimens figured by Mr. Nettel- 
roth in this work were from his own cabinet and are now preserved 
in the U. S. National Museum collections. A list of these type 
specimens is given beginning on page 135. 

I am under obligations to Mr. Nettelroth’s sons for many courte- 
sies extended to me during my work upon the collection. Dr. Alex- 
ander Nettelroth has kindly furnished me with biographical notes 
from which the following sketch was prepared. 

Henry Nettelroth was born in the Kingdom of Hanover, on June 
6, 1835. His family from a remote period were land-owners, in- 
habiting that portion of German territory, with estates located about 
the village of Nettelrode. Henry Nettelroth attended the German 
universities and was graduated as a civil engineer just before the 
war between Prussia and Hanover; he was an engineer officer in 
the Hanoverian army, but came to America shortly after the battle 
of Langensalza. Here he took up the practice of civil engineering. 
His first employment as topographical engineer on the Elizabeth- 
town and Paducah Railroad, then building, taking him to Kentucky, 
determined his subsequent location in Louisville. In that city he 
continued the pursuit of civil engineering, both active and consult- 
ant, until incapacitated by ill health a few years before his death. 

He became an American citizen, having immediately on his arrival 
in this country renounced allegiance to any European government. 
In 1867 he was married, in Louisville, Kentucky, to Emma Vassmer, 
also of Hanover. Mr. /Nettelroth died on September 2, 1887, his 
widow and two sons surviving. 

He had been interested in paleontology while still in his native 
country, and it was but natural that the collection and study of fos- 
sils should be continued in connection with a profession which 
offered such good opportunities. In his spare time, therefore, dur- 
ing more than fifteen years, he enthusiastically collected geological 
specimens, wisely limiting his cabinets principally to those fossils 
found in the immediate vicinity of Louisville and the Falls of the 
Ohio, but including, however, related specimens from other sections 
of the country. His zeal in this pursuit stimulated the local interest 
in paleontology, and there appeared a number of collectors, several 
of whom became known later as capable and discriminating paleon- 
tologists. As a result of the enthusiasm of this coterie, a number 
of excellent collections were brought together and some rich beds 
and fossil-bearing strata were discovered which are now known 
universally to geologists. 


No. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLER 123 


Mr. Nettelroth’s contribution to geological literature consists of 
a quarto volume of 245 pages and 36 plates, entitled “Kentucky 
Fossil Shells: A Monograph of the Fossil Shells of the Silurian and 
Devonian Rocks of Kentucky.” This work, which was issued by 
the Kentucky Geological Survey in 1889, two years after the death 
of its author, is strictly biological in its scope. Over two hundred 
species of mollusca from the strata mentioned in the title were de- 
scribed and illustrated, in addition to a few Ordovician brachiopoda, 
sponges, and bryozoa. <A short sketch of geology and paleontology, 
written for the general reader, introduces the purely descriptive 
part, but no particular reference is made to the geology of the Ohio 
Falls region. Forty-three new species were instituted by Mr. Nev- 
telroth, the remainder being for the most part redescriptions and 
illustrations of forms described by others in various scattered publi- 
cations. 

The care with which the paleontologist of today assigns definite 
localities and horizons to his species was not always observed in the 
past, and it is therefore a satisfaction to note Mr. Nettelroth’s proce- 
dure in this matter. Although geographic names for the several 
Devonian formations at the Falls were not employed at the time of 
his studies, still his citations are careful enough to accurately locate 
most of the species. Thus the registration of a species as from the 
hydraulic limestone is equivalent to placing it in the Silver Creek 
formation as we now know it, and likewise the “rotten hornestone 
in the upper strata of Devonian age” or the “‘cherty layers on top of 
the hydraulic limestone” clearly indicate the present Sellersburg 
formation. 

His variety of ways of citing formation and locality is most inter- 
esting and entertaining. Thus the formation and locality of Meris- 
tella unisulcata (page 100, op. cit.) is described as follows: 


“Found in the upper strata of the Corniferous group surrounding 
the Falls of the Ohio, in Kentucky and Indiana, where fractions of 
this species are pretty abundant in some localities, but fine and well- 
preserved specimens of the whole shell, as well as of single valves, 
which are found, are exceedingly rare. My cabinet contains some 
exquisite examples of this species. The fossils of the Corniferous 
strata from the neighborhood of the Falls are, on the Indiana side 
Of the river, generally more numerous, and in the average better 
preserved than those found in Kentucky. The little town, Charles- 
town, in Clarke County, Indiana, two or three miles off the river, is 
about the center of one of the richest fields of the Devonian forma- 
tion, which has furnished a great many cabinets with very choice 
specimens. A day’s rambling in the washes of the fields around 
Charlestown, after several days’ hard rain, is a real treat to any 


124 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


geologist, and never fails to fill his basket with fine shells, beautiful 
corals, and sometimes, but not very often, with rare crinoids.” 


These little descriptions sometimes contain matter of a more scien- 
tific nature than the one just quoted, in witness of which is the 
following (Spirifer gregaria, page 120) : 


“This species is found abundantly in the Corniferous limestone at 
and around the Falls of the Ohio, in Kentucky and Indiana. It 
appears here silicified, in well-preserved specimens of the whole 
shell, as well as of the separated single valves. Specimens still in- 
closed in the limestone are of the same material. From observa- 
tions made by me at the Falls of the Ohio, and which, undoubtedly, 
were also made by other geologists, who visited and examined that 
world-renowned storehouse of Devonian fossils, but of which I 
never found any notice in print, | am forced to the conclusion that 
the silicification of the shells and corals is produced by their expo- 
sure to water and weather, and that this process requires only a 
comparatively short time. Whenever, at low stages of the water, 
the bed of the Falls becomes dry, we find it entirely covered by fossil 
shells and corals, partly exposed above the solid rock and partly in- 
closed in the same. All the exposed fossils which have been acted 
upon by water and weather for some length of time are silicified, as 
far as they are above the matrix, while the inclosed parts are still 
limestone, or, if a change in their material has already commenced, 
the silicification has not sufficiently advanced to resist the dissolving 
power of muriatic acid, which has not the least influence upon the 
exposed parts. In the same condition are the fossils found in the 
fields near the Falls in Kentucky and Indiana. Those which are 
entirely weathered out, and the parts of others freed from the 
matrix, are silicious, while the inclosed parts have retained their 
original material.” 


This explanation of the silicification of fossils has been held by 
few geologists, but in the opinion of the present writer Mr. Nettel- 
roth’s general idea is correct and can be verified from many other 
observations. 

The most valuable part of the Nettelroth collection was derived 
from the Silurian, Devonian, and Lower Carboniferous strata out- 
cropping in the vicinity of Louisville. The quarries and other ex- 
posures along Bear Grass Creek have long been known to paleon- 
tologists for the many fine Silurian and Devonian fossils yielded by 
them, while the outcrops at the Falls of the Ohio are recognized the 
world over as a storehouse of Devonian fossils. The accompanying 
photographs are of some of the best-known fossil localities in the 
vicinity of Louisville. Of most interest, probably, is the celebrated 
Falls locality shown in figure I, plate x. Here, at times of low 
water, great stretches of Devonian limestone are exposed with a 
new lot of fossils showing every year. The choicest specimens on 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 152; Pls xX 





Fic. 2.—ONE OF THE BEAR GRASS QUARRIES 


The uppermost strata are of Devonian age, while the lower rocks are compact argillaceous Niagara 
limestone 





No. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLER 12 


on 


the Falls naturally fell to the first collector on the scene, and there 
was therefore much rivalry among the paleontologists of the Falls 
cities. [he peculiar conditions of weathering on the Falls left all 
of the exposed fossils silicious, so that portions still embedded in the 
limestone had to be carefully chiselled out. This silicification ex- 
tended a short distance into the limestone, and it was due to this fact 
that the more delicate forms, when attached to the rocks, could be 
etched out with acid. In figure 2, plate x, both the Devonian and 
Silurian limestones are shown in the face of one of the old Bear 
Grass Creek quarries. Fresh exposures of these limestones show 
relatively few fossils, but the weathered débris and strippings of the 
quarry are often crowded with specimens. Other well-known Niag- 
ara localities along Bear Grass Creek are represented in figures 
t and 2, plate x1. The Devonian black shale, or New Albany shale, 
as it is locally known, although usually unfossiliferous, has yielded 
a few fossils from strata above the river banks at New Albany, 
Indiana. The youngest Paleozoic rocks in the immediate vicinity 
of Louisville are of early Mississippian age. ‘They include a repre- 
sentative of the Rockford limestone, which locally separates the 
black shale from the overlying shales and sandstones of the Knob- 
stone group. The latter forms the upper part of the hills and is 
well shown at Button Mold Knob, several miles south of the city. 

The Silurian and Devonian strata of the Louisville region are 
probably best known to the scientific world, and the accompanying 
views are introduced to illustrate some of the localities for fossils. 

The strata at the Falls of the Ohio have often been mentioned in 
the literature since 1827, when they were first described by Lapham. 
The age and correlation, particularly of the Devonian strata, have 
often been in question, although now there seems to be general 
agreement upon the subject. 

In 1860 Major Sidney S. Lyon divided the beds of the Falls, 
according to their fossils, as follows: 


Feet 
Blac kaes late ieee score toe polaron cost eh mene erene Grstoriaiereciesci cue 50 to 100 
Lor crimuta leeltmmestOncemene cm ake niericete lenis aioe: 8 
Elvdramlienlimestonemye seem stencee sorte, cick ise cle ee 20 
Sporiier culirijugaius bed. 4c) ockak coe pscheece a ae eeen 3 
INtrcle@eramise die, stam atc see eee eres cap ees veneer he 2 
Spiifer sregaria and Turbo bedss..:..... 2065. 0. e. 10 
(WorallO be sie cre pave, acer ees sick sce Sto ches oat cay hes ct isest otha vacsisaas IO 
Gateniporay escmarordes Weds. was cee dh wetoe see dees 40 


The Catenipora (Halysites) beds have always been recognized as 
Silurian, being filled with fossils characteristic of that age. Recently 


126 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Mr. Foerste applied the name Louisville limestone to this particular 
division of the Silurian. The fauna is a large one and is well 
known through the works of Hall, Lyon, Nettelroth, and others. 

The succeeding beds of Major Lyon’s classification have offered 
more difficulty in exact correlation. The scarce and undiagnostic 
fossil evidence afforded by the Devonian black shale has made it 
difficult of exact correlation. Following the determination by Hall, 
and the recent, more detailed studies of Kindle, it is now generally 
correlated with the Genesee and Portage shales of the New York 
section. The Devonian limestones, on the other hand, furnish an 
abundance of fossils; but here the difficulty first arose from a lack 
of care in the exact location of the fossils in the section. It is oniy 
in recent years that the horizons of the various species have been 
accurately determined, and even now the geologic position of some 
of the rare forms is in question. 

In the vicinity of Louisville the Devonian limestones are now 
divided into three beds: (1) gray to blue crystalline limestone about 
20 feet thick, overlying the Niagaran strata and comprising the four 
beds in Major Lyon’s section between his Catenipora bed and the 
hydraulic limestone; (2) a fine-grained silicious limestone or cement 
rock (the hydraulic limestone of Lyon), and (3) a thin bed of purer 
encrinal limestone which is overlaid by the Devonian black shale. 
These limestones were originally considered together as of Upper 
Helderberg age by Hall, but later the lowest division was correlated 
with the Corniferous (Onondaga) of New York, and the upper two 
members were referred to the Hamilton. 

In 1899 Kindle applied the local name of Jeffersonville limestone 
to the lowest division and proposed Sellersburg beds for the cement 
rock and overlying purer strata. The following year Siebenthal 
introduced the new name Silver Creek hydraulic limestone for the 
cement rock and restricted the name Sellersburg to the overlying 
beds. 

Mr. Nettelroth and other local collectors used no special geo- 
graphical names in locating the horizons of their fossils, but the 
various beds in the section were very well known. Mr. Victor Lyon 
has kindly furnished me with a list of the local names applied to 
these beds at that time, and these, in the form of a section with the 
more recent correlations, are given below. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52; (PE. Xi 








Fic. 3.—-LOUISVILLE LIMESTONE ALONG BEAR GRASS CREEK, IN CHEROKEE PARK, JUST ABOVE BIG ROCK 


Niagaran crinoids are most abundant in the strata just above the water level 





Fic. 4.—NIAGARAN STRATA ALONG BEAR GRASS CREEK, SHOWING BIG ROCK 








‘ 
S _ i 
on + i 4!  f 
. Seis 3 mi 
a Pe 
. , 
a 
a 
" — 
* 
‘ 7 
, a ry * r 7 < 
qi % h 
a 2 “ a > 
(<4 = i 
a oe 
| 
“yr 
; 
ay : 
J 4 
: f 
; Ea 
oe | = 
o 
} i’ i ‘ 
n= te f 
» . = - 
hoe ro 
a v7 i . 
So, : " A " * 
7 . i mW x a 2 
® Me rere 
f i,t — » 





So ina 


NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLER n27, 


SECTION OF STRATA, LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY, AND VICINITY 




















Sandstone and shale,. siigcedeereimse ese sss Knobstone sandstone and shale 
| 

Ferruginous limestone and shale........... 'Knobstone shale (New Provi- 
| dence) 

Goniatite limestone..,..0....-....+....-..-| Rockford 

Devonian black slate or shale..............| Genesee and Portage 





Brrerini tall sbedeaempreyetere savers acts raareieya ets ok 





5 
=e ae = i Hamilton (Sellersburg) 
Corals, shells, and fish bed...... ae ee: | 

J 


Upper cherty bed 
Middle Hydraulic limestone....| Hamilton (Silver Creek) 
Lower | 








Spleiier actiminatus: DEC ys ca. sun omen en eel 


EriayOZOaIa De Ge nyse en tetororteis «/- crelsterellas see /e ene | 


IMMClEOCrintIs: DEG yee eteea oe cise casks erent 


| | Onondaga (Jeffersonville) 


BMT OM DECC nit ane erate et tari rcrssehe aie Seouvatee 


White—Upper 
Black— Middle Coralbedsteraqaniacie cere i | 
Brown—Lower 








Ftallysiteswbedieyn aera actrees elder cieio sara Sas Silurian (Touisville) 


The following generalized section of the Paleozoic rocks in the 
vicinity of Louisville, Kentucky, is introduced to show the stratigra- 
phy of the region as now understood, and also to indicate the faunas 
chiefly represented in the Nettelroth collection. Indeed, the faunas 
of the rocks concerned are so well represented that this entire por- 
tion of the collection was assigned to the general stratigraphic series 


128 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


of the department. The fossils from foreign and other American 
localities are too few in numbers of species to represent faunas in 
the great detail desired for the Museum stratigraphic series, so these 
particular species were referred to the biologic collection. 


Grotocic SECTION, VICINITY OF LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY 


Mississippian. 
Knobstone group. 
Knob (Riverside) sandstone: Feet 
More or less pure, soft sandstones and sandy shales, holding 
Te MIEN OVATION LAI. cee uc soe oleyetate’ lalciesetr ie eae eke ratte ee 75-100 


Lingulodiscina newberryi Hall. 
Chonetes illinoisensis Worthen. 
Chonetes logani Norwood and Pratten. 
Chonetes planumbonum Meek and Worthen. 
Productella pyxidata Hall. 

Productus gracilis Winchell. 

Productus newberrw Hall. 

Spirifer keokuk Hall. 

Spirifer mortonanus Miller. 
Reticularia tenuispinata (Herrick). 
Spiriferina subelliptica (McChesney). 
Syringothyris texta Hall. 

Platyceras herzeri Winchell. 
Platyceras lodiense Meek. 

Conularia micronema Meek. 

Conularia newberryi Winchell. 
Goniatites greenei Miller. 

Goniatites indianensis Miller. 

Proetus missouriensis Shumard. 


Upper Knobstone shales: 
Soft light gray to green shales with impure fine-grained sand- 
stone at the top. No fauna has been recorded from this 
division, but in all probability most of the species registered 
under the New Providence shale below will be found here also 200 


Lower Knobstone (New Providence) shale: 
Blue to green, soft clay shales, with occasional thin ferruginous 
limestone bands holding numerous fossils..............-.... 50-106 
These limestone beds are often made up of crinoidal 
remains; at other times their surfaces are covered with 
fenestelloid bryozoa. ‘The most common species are : 
Paleacis cavernosa Miller. 
Zaphrentis centralis Edwards and Hainte. 
Zaphrentis cliffordana Edwards and Haime. 
Zaphrentis declinis Miller. 
Cyathaxonia cynodon Edwards and Haime. 
Trochophyllum verneuilli Edwards and Haime. 


NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLIER 129 


Rhombopora angustata Ulrich. 
Rhombopora elegantula Ulrich. 
Rhombopora incrassata Ulrich. 
Streblotrypa major Ulrich. 
Fenestella compressa Ulrich. 
Fenestella regalis Ulrich. 
Fenestella triserialis Ulrich. 
Thamniscus divaricans Ulrich. 
Thamniscus sculptilis Ulrich. 
Ptilopora cylindracea Ulrich. 
Cystodictya americana Ulrich. 
Cystodictya pustulosa Ulrich. 
Cystodictya lineata Ulrich. 
Meekopora ? aperta Ulrich. 
Athyris lamellosa 1) Eveille. 
Spirifer mortonana Miller. 
Spirifer suborbicularis Hall. 
Syringothyris texta Hall. 
Rhipidomella oweni Hall and Clarke. 
Productella arcuata Hall. 
Chonetes logani Norwood and Pratten. 
Chonetes illinoisensis Worthen. 
Goniatites brownensis Miller. 


Rockford (Goniatite) limestone (Kinderhook)................. . I-3 

Caleareous shale and fine-grained, ferruginous limestone with 
conchoidal fracture; brown when weathered, but mottled 
green upon fresh exposure. In places an abundant fauna is 
preserved, of which the cephalopods Brancoceras ixton Hall 
and Munsteroceras owent Hall are best known. Other species 
are Paleacis enorme Meek and Worthen, Amplexus rock- 
fordensis Miller and Gurley, Spirifer marionensis Shumard, 
Spiriferina solidirostris White, Euomphalus lens Hall, Prod- 
romites gorbyt Miller, Soleniscus rockfordensis Miller, Tre- 
matodiscus trisulcata Meek and Worthen, and Orodus multi- 
carinatus Meek and Worthen. 


Devonian black shale New: Albany shale)* eric. 4.0606 oncecel 100 

Black fissile, often bituminous shale with few fossils. Leior- 
hynchus quadricostatum Hall, Chonetes lepidus Hall, Styliola 
fissurella Hall, Lunulicardium fragile Hall, Schizobolus con- 
centricus (Vanuxem), Lingula spatulata Vanuxem, and 
Barroisella subspatulata Meek and Worthen have been noted. 
The lowest layer of the shale is almost invariably made up of 
an iron band 2 inches thick; in some places this band is con- 
glomerate, the pebbles being most abundant in the hollows of 
the underlying limestone. 


Devonian limestone: 
Sellersburce formation Cbamialtom) ie as. access datp sae as cers 8 
White to gray crystalline crinoidal limestone with the basal 
layer frequently arenaceous and containing small phosphatic 


130 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


concretions. The following is a partial list of the fauna of 
this limestone : 

Megistocrinus rugosus Lyon and Casseday. 

Megistocrinus depressus Hall. 

Ancyrocrinus bulbosus Hall. 

Genneocrinus kentuckiensis Shumard. 

Dolatocrinus greenei Miller and Gurley. 

Dolatocrinus bulbosus Miller and Gurley. 

Favosites placenta Rominger. 

Alveolites goldfussi Billings. 

Heliophyllum juvene (Rominger). 

Heliophyllum corniculum (Lesueur). 

Heliophyllum halli Edwards and Haime. 

Cystiphyllum americanum Edwards and Haime. 

Diphyphyllum archiact Billings. 

Acervularia davidsoni Edwards and Haime. 

Dendropora ornata Rominger. 

Athyris fultonensis (Swallow). 

Spirifer hobbsi Nettelroth. 

Spirifer audaculus Conrad. 

Spirifer granulosus Conrad. 

Stropheodonta perplana Conrad. 

Rhipidomella vanuxemi Hall. 

Camarotoechia sappho Hall. 

Pholidostrophia iowaensis Owen. 

Productella spinulicosta Hall. 

Platyceras dumosum Conrad. 

Feet 
Silver Creek hydraulic limestone (cement rock)................ 20 

Massive fine-grained limestone with hydraulic properties, 
breaking with subchoncoidal fracture and varying in color 
from buff on weathered surface to bluish drab when freshly 
exposed. Chonetes yandellana Hall is the most abundant and 
characteristic fossil. Spirifer granulosus Conrad, S. for- 
nacula Hall, S. varicosus Hall, Atrypa reticularis (Linneus), 
Tropidoleptus carinatus Conrad, Stropheodonta concava Hall, 
S. perplana Conrad, and Aviculopecten princeps Conrad are 
more or less abundant. 


Jetersonville limestone (Onondaca) een a4 se eae eee 22-30 
Bluish gray to white crystalline limestone, often crowded with 
fossils. ‘The upper member of this formation is marked by 
its many fine specimens of Spirifer acuminatus Owen. ‘This 
Spirifer bed is underlaid by extremely fossiliferous limestone 
which, when weathered, yields in its cherty débris an abund- 
ance of exquisitely preserved silicified specimens of bryozoa 
and ostracods. Nucleocrinus verneuili and its several varie- 
ties, or closely related species, are characteristic of the next 
lower bed, while species of Stropheodonta are abundant in 
the next. The large gastropod Turbo shumardi or the abund- 
ant brachiopod Spirifer gregarius are the diagnostic fossils 


NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL, COLLECTION—BASSLER 


of the underlying bed, while the many lower Devonian corals 
described from the Falls of the Ohio come from the lowest 
division of the Jeffersonville limestone. A few of. these 
corals have been listed below with a partial fauna from the 
other beds. The bryozoan bed contains a fauna so distinct 
and prolific that special lists of the bryozoa and ostracods 
are given. The Devonan rocks forming the Falls of the Ohio 
are illustrated on the accompanying plate. The following are 
the more common fossils: 

Favosites limitaris Rominger. 

Favosites canadensis Billings. 

Favosites emmonsi Rominger. 

Favosites hemisphericus Troost. 

Favosites tuberosus Rominger. 

Alveolites mordax Davis. 

Cladopora roemeri (Billings). 

Eridophyllum arundinaceum Davis. 

Blothrophyllum decorticatum Billings. 

Acrophyllum oneidaense Billings. 

Zaphrentis gigantea Lesueur. 

Syringopora hisingeri Billings. 

Romingeria umbellifera (Billings). 

FHadrophyllum orbignyi Edwards and Haime. 

Nucleorinus verneuili (Troost). 

Spirifer acuminata Conrad. 

Spirifer arctisegmentum Hall. 

Spirifer duodenarius (Hall). 

Spirifer gregarius Clapp. 

Spirifer raricosta Hall. 

Cyrtina crassa Hall. 

Athyris fultonensis Swallow. 

Leptena rhomboidalis Wilckins. 

Atrypa reticularis Linnzus. 

Meristella nasuta (Conrad). 

Pentagonia unisulcata (Conrad). 

Pentamerella arata (Conrad). 

Chonetes acutiradiatus (Hall). 

Stropheodonta demissa Conrad. 

Stropheodonta perplana Conrad, 

Stropheodonta concava Hall. 

Turbo shumardi Verneuil. 

Euomphalus decewi Billings. 

Glyptodesma erectum Conrad. 

Aviculopecten princeps Conrad. 

Paracyclas elliptica Hall. 

Platyceras dumosum Conrad. 


131 


132 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 


FAUNA OF THE BRYOZOAN BEDS 
OSTRACODA 


Leperditia ? subrotunda Ulrich. 
Tsochilina rectangularis Ulrich. 
Aparchites inornatum Ulrich. 
Beyrichia lyoni Ulrich. 

Beyrichia kolmodini Jones. 
Ctenobolbina spinulosa Ulrich. 
Ctenobolbina armata Ulrich. 
Ctenobolbina cavimarginata Ulrich. 
Ctenobolbina insolens Ulrich. 
Ctenobolbina papillosa Ulrich. 
Ctenobolbina informis Ulrich. 
Ctenobolbina antespinosa Ulrich. 
Kirkbya subquadrata Ulrich. 
Kirkbya parallela Ulrich. 

Kirkbya semimuralis Ulrich. 
Kirkbya cymbula Ulrich. 

Kirkbya germana Ulrich. 

Bollia ungula Jones. Z 
Bollia obesa Ulrich. 

Halliella retifera Ulrich. 
Octonaria stigmata Ulrich. 
Octonaria stigmata var. loculosa Ulrich. 
Octonaria ovata Ulrich. 

Octonaria clavigera Ulrich. 
Bythocypris devonica Ulrich. 
Bythocypris punctulata Ulrich. 
Bythocypris indianensis Ulrich. 
Pachydomella tumida Ulrich. 
Barychilina punctostriata Ulrich. 
Barychilina punctostriata var. curta Ulrich. 
Barychilina pulchella Ulrich. 


Bry0zoA 


Botryllopora socialis Nicholson. 
Buskopora bistriata Hall. 
Buskopora dentata Ulrich. 
Buskopora pyriformis Hall. 
Chetetes ? ponderosus Hall. 
Chetetes? tenuis Hall. 
Clonopora semireducta Hall. 
Coscinium cribriforme Prout. 
Cystopora geniculata Hall. 
Cystodictya gilberti Meek. 
Cystodictya ovatipora Hall. 
Cystodictya vermicula Hall. 


52 


No. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL, COLLECTION—BASSLER 133 


Dekayia devonica Ulrich. 
Discotrypa ? devonica Ulrich. 
Eridopora ? clivulata Hall. 
Eridopora denticulata Hall. 
Fenestella @qualis Hall. 
Fenestella cultrata Hall. 
Fenestella curvijunctura Hall. 
Fenestella depressa Hall. 
Fenestella perplexa Hall. 
Fenestella proutana Miller. 
Fenestella pulchella Ulrich. 
Fenestella serrata Hall. 
Fenestella singularitas Hall. 
Fenestella stellata Hall. 
Fenestella tenella Hall. 
Fenestella variapora Hall. 
Fenestella verrucosa Hall. 
Fenestrapora infraporosa (Ulrich). 
Fistulipora alternata (Hall). 
Fistulipora conulata (Hall). 
Fistulipora geometrica (Hall). 
Fistulipora granifera (Hall). 
Fistulipora normalis Ulrich. 
Fistulipora ovata (Hall). 
Fistulipora subcava (Hall). 
Fistulipora substellata (Hall). 
Glossotrypa paliformis (Hall). 
Hederella adnata (Davis). 
Hederella canadensis (Nicholson). 
Hederella cirrhosa Hall. 
Helicopora ulrichi Claypole. 
Hemitrypa cribrosa Hall. 
Hernodia humifusa Hall. 
Intrapora puteolata Hall. 
Lichenotrypa longispina (Hall). 
Lioclema intercellatum (Hall). 
Orthopora regularis (Hall). 
Orthopora rhombifera (Hall). 
Phractopora cristata Hall. 
Phyllopora aspera Ulrich. 
Polypora aculeata (Hall). 
Polypora blandida Ulrich. 
Polypora celsipora minor (Hall). 
Polypora intermedia Prout. 
Polypora levistriata (Hall). 
Polypora levinodata (Hall). 
Polypora quadrangularis (Hall). 
Polypora shumardi Prout. 
Polypora striatopora (Hall). 
Polypora submutans (Hall). 
Polypora transversa Ulrich. 


134 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 


Prismopora sparsipora (Hall). 
Prismopora triquetra Hall. 
Ptiloporella ? bifurca (Ulrich). 
Reteporidra adnata (Hall). 
Rhombopora lineinoides Ulrich. 


Rhombopora lineinoides-humilis Ulrich. 


Scalaripora scalariformis Hall. 
Scalaripora subconcava Hall. 
Selenopora circincta (Hall). 
Selenopora complexa (Hall). 


Semicoscinium 
Semicoscinium 
Semicoscinium 
Semicoscinium 
Semicoscinium 
Semicoscinium 
Semicoscinium 


biimbricatum (Hall). 
biserrulatum (Hall). 
imterruptum Hall. 
latijuncturum (Hall). 
lunulatum (Hall). 
permarginatum Hall. 
planodorsatum Ulrich. 


VOL. 52 


Semicoscinium rhomboideum Prout. 
Semicoscinium semirotundum (Hall). 
Semicoscinium tortum (Hall). 
Semicoscinium tuberculatum Prout. 
Strotopora perminuta Ulrich. 
Thamniscus nanus Hall. 

Trematella annulata (Hall). 
Trematella arborea (Hall). 
Unitrypa acaulis (Hall). 

Unitrypa anonyma (Hall). 
Unitrypa fastigata (Hall). 

Unitrypa tegulata (Hall). 


Feet 
Silurian. 


Niagaran limestone: 
ousville. formato tie eserves Melses See ae ee eee 38+ 

Argillaceous, cherty limestone, with the upper 8 feet crowded 
with fossil corals. Bluish, compact limestone below with few 
fossils. Pentameroid brachiopods are the prevailing forms 
in the lower bed. 

The molluscan part of the Louisville formation fauna is listed 
on a succeeding page. The fossil corals have been described 
or illustrated by Hall, Rominger, Greene, and Davis, par- 
ticularly. The list is large and no doubt many synonyms 
exist. The following forms are either very common or char- 
acteristic of the upper coral bed: 

Alveolites niagarensis Rominger. 

Amplexus shumardi (Kdwards and Haime). 

Anisophyllum trifurcatum Hall. 

Calceola tennesseensis Roemer. 

Cladopora complanata Davis. 

Cladopora equisetalis Davis. 

Cladopora reticulata Hall. 

Cenites verticillata (Winchell and Marcy). 


NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLER I 


Os 
qn 


Cystiphyllum granilineatum Hall. 
Cystiphyllum niagarense Hall. 
Dictyostroma undulata Nicholson. 
Eridophyllum dividuum Davis. 
Eridophyllum yugosum Edwards and Haine. 
Favosites cristatus Edwards and Haime. 
Favosites discus Davis. 

Favosites favosus Goldfuss. 

Favosites niagarensis Hall. 

Favosites spongilla Rominger. 
Favosites venustus (Hall). 

Halysites catenulata (Linneus). 
Halysites nexus Davis. 

Heliolites interstinctus (Linneus). 
Heliolites megastoma McCoy. 
Heliolites subtubulatwim McCoy. 
Heliophyllum dentilineatum Hall. 
Heliophyllum gemmiferum Hall. 
Lyellia americana Edwards and Haime. 
Lyellia glabra (Owen). 

Lyellia parvituba Rominger. 

Omphyma verrucosa Rafinesque and Clifford. 
Plasmopora elegans Hall. 

Plasmopora follis Edwards and Haime. 
Rhizophyllum attenuatum Lyon. 
Romingeria vannula Davis. 
Streptelasma spongiaxis Rominger. 
Striatopora huronensis Rominger. 
Strombodes pentagonus Goldfuss. 
Strombodes mammillaris (Owen). 
Strombodes striatus D’Orbigny. 

Thecia major Rominger. 

Thecia minor Rominger. 


NETTELROTH TYPES OF ORDOVICIAN FOSSILS 


In the following lists the number cited is that of the U.S. National 
Museum Catalogue. The type terms are those regularly used by 
the department, holotype and cotypes being primary types, and 
plesiotypes referring to secondary types: 


51342. CYPRICARDITES HALLI Nettelroth. Cotypes. 
Richmond (Ordovician), Oldham County, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 206, pl. xxxtv, figs. 1-6. 
= Cyrtodonta halli. 


51187. ZYGOSPIRA KENTUCKIENSIS James. Plesiotypes. 

Richmond (Ordovician), Taylors Station, Oldham County, 
Kentucky. 

Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 138, pl. xxx1v, figs. 21-25. 


UL 


51186 


51189 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52: 


. PTILODICTYA HILLI (James). Plesiotypes. 
Lorraine (Ordovician), Danville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 30, pl. xxxv, figs. I, 2, 4, 5. 
== Escharopora hilli. 
. RHYNCHONELLA INCREBESCENS Hall. Plesiotype. 
Trenton (Ordovician), Frankfort, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 83, pl. xxx1Vv, figs. 26-29. 
= Rhynchotrema inequivalve. 
. ORTHIS LINNEYI James. Plesiotypes. 
Trenton (Ordovician), Danville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 41, pl. Xxx1v, figs. 7-13. 
= Orthorhynchula linneyi. 
. ORTHIS BOREALIS Billings. Plesiotypes. 
Trenton (Ordovician), Frankfort, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 36, pl. xxx1v, figs. 14-20. 
= FHebertella borealis. 


SILURIAN ‘TYPES 


Unless otherwise noted, all the species listed under this heading 
are from the Louisville limestone division of the Niagaran at Louis- 
ville, Kentucky. 


51330. 


51331. 


51314. 


51340. 


51326. 


BRACHIOPODA 


ANASTROPHIA INTERNASCENS Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 47, pl. xxx, figs. 17-20. 


ATRYPA CALVINI Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 89, pl. xxxu, figs. 64-66. 
= Atrypa rugosa. 
ATRYPA RETICULARIS NIAGARENSIS Nettelroth. Cotypes. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 92, pl. Xxxu, figs. 5-8, 44-47. 
CAMARELLA CONGESTA (Hall). Plesiotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 48. 


CYRTIA EXPORRECTA (Wahlenberg). Plesiotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 93, pl. xxvut, fig. 20. 


51327. CYRTIA EXPORRECTA ARRECTA Hall and Whitfield. Ple- 


siotypes. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 94, pl. xxvu, fig. 21; pl. xxxIv, 
fig. 35. 


= Cyrtia myrtia. 


51322, LEPTOCOELIA HEMISPHERICA (Hall). Plesiotypes. 


Kentucky Fossil Shells, 18890, p. 152, pl. xxx, figs. 21-23, 36-39. 
= Anoplotheca hemispherica. 


NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL, COLLECTION—BASSLER 137 


51315. 


51332. 


51345. 


51349. 


51340. 


51347. 


51353. 


51339. 


51354. 


51328. 


51310. 


MERISTINA MARIA (Hall). Plesiotypes. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. ror, pl. XXIx, figs. 7-10. 


MERISTINA NITIDA Hall. Plesiotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 102, pl. XXXII, figs. 10, IT. 


— Whitfeldella nitida. 


_NUCLEOSPIRA ELEGANS Hall. Plesiotypes. 


Kentucky Fossil Shells, 18890, p. 104. 


_NUCLEOSPIRA PISIFORMIS Hall. Plesiotypes. 


Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 104, pl. Xx x1, figs. 7-9. 


_ ORTHIS BIFORATA (Schlotheim). Plesiotype. 


Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 35, pl. XXIX, figs. 18-22. 
= Platystrophia biforata, var. 
ORTHIS ELEGANTULA Dalman. Plesiotypes. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 37, pl. XXXII, figs. 52-57. 
= Dalmanella elegantula. 


ORTHIS FLABELLUM Sowerby (Hall). Plesiotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 38, pl. xxx1v, fig. 30. 
= Orthis flabellites. 
ORTHIS HYBRIDA Sowerby. Plesiotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 18889, p. 39, pl. XXXxUL, figs. 32-35. 
= Rhipidomella hybrida. 
ORTHIS NISIS Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 42, pl. xxvu, fig. 4. 
PENTAMERUS COMPLANATUS Nettelroth. Cotypes. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 53. 
= Conchidium tenuicosta. 
PENTAMERUS GLOBULOSUS Nettelroth. Cotypes. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 54. 
= Gypidula globulosus. 


. PENTAMERUS KNAPPI Hall. Plesiotype. 


Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 55. 
== Conchidium knap pi. 


. PENTAMERUS KNIGHTI Sowerby. Plesiotypes. 


Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 57, pl. 20, figs. I, 2, 17. 
PENTAMERUS KNOTTI Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 56, pl. xx x11, figs. 9-12. 
= Gypidula knotti. 
PENTAMERUS NUCLEUS Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotypes. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 59, pl. Xxx, figs. 31-33. 
= Gypidula nucleus. 


PENTAMERUS OBLONGUS Sowerby. Plesiotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 60, pl. xx x11, figs. 15-17. 


IO 


51311. 


51355- 


51337- 


51323. 


51300. 


51338. 


51330. 


51325. 


51320. 


51350. 


51310. 


51350. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


PENTAMERUS OBLONGUS CYLINDRICUS Hall and Whit- 
field. Plesiotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 61, pl. xxx, figs. 2-4. 


PENTAMERUS PERGIBBOSUS Hall and Whitfield. Plesio- 


type. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 62, pl. XxIx, figs. 23, 24. 


PENTAMERUS UNIPLICATUS Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 63, pl. XxxuI, figs. 25, 26. 
= Gypidula uniplicata. 


PENTAMERUS VENTRICOSUS Hall. Plesiotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 64, pl. Xxx10, figs. 12-14. 
= Clorinda ventricosus. 
RHYNCHONELLA ACINUS Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 73, pl. xxvi, figs. 6, 13, 14; pl. 
XXXII, figs. 13-16. 
= Camarotechia acinus. 
RHYNCHONELLA BELLAFORMA Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 73. 
RHYNCHONELLA INDIANENSIS Hall. Plesiotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 76, pl. xxx1m, figs. 18-20. 
= Camarotechia indianensits. 
RHYNCHONELLA PISA Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 78, pl. xxx11, figs. 24-27. 
RHYNCHONELLA RUGACOSTA Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 18890, p. 78, pl. xxxu, figs. 48-51. 
RHYNCHONELLA SAFFORDI Hall. Plesiotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 79, pl. xxx1mt, figs. 4-6. 
= Wilsonia saffordi. 


RHYNCHONELLA SAFFORDI DEPRESSA Nettelroth. Holo- 


type. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 80, pl. xxx1n, figs. 1-3. 
= Wilsoma satfordi depressa. 
RHYNCHONELLA STRICKLANDI Sowerby. Plesiotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 81, pl. xx1x, figs. 3-6. 
= Uncinulus stricklandi. 


. SPIRIFER CRISPUS SIMPLEX Hall. Plesiotype. 


Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 111, pl. xvit, figs. 36, 37. 


. SPIRIFER DUBIUS Nettelroth. Holotype. 


Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 115, pl. xxx, figs. 23, 24. 


. SPIRIFER FOGGI Nettelroth. Holotype. 


Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 117, pl. Xxxu1, figs. 28-31. 


. SPIRIFER RADIATA Sowerby. Plesiotype. 


Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 130, pl. XxIx, figs. 13-16. 


NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLER 139 


51318. SPIRIFER ROSTELLUM Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotypes. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 129, pl. xxvir, figs. 17-19; pl. 
GTX 25: 
51313. STREPTORHYNCHUS SUBPLANUS (Conrad). Plesiotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 141, pl. XXIx, figs. II, 12. 
= Schuchertella subplanus. 
51329. STREPTORHYNCHUS TENUIS Hall. Plesiotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 142. 
= Schuchertella tenuts. 
51319. STRICKLANDINIA LOUISVILLENSIS Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 65, pl. Xxx1Vv, figs. 31-34. 
51309. STROPHODONTA PROFUNDA (Hall). Plesiotypes. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 148, pl. xvi, figs. 20, 21; pl. 
SkIx fig, 26: 
51335. STROPHODONTA STRIATA Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 149. 
= Strophonella striata. 
51321. TREMATOSPIRA HELENA Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 137, pl. xxxu1, figs. 40-43. 
= Rhynchospira helena. 


GASTROPODA 


51362. CYCLONEMA RUGAELINEATA Hall and Whitfield. Plesio- 
type. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 187. 
51342. PLATYCERAS UNGUIFORME Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 168. 
53232. PLATYOSTOMA NIAGARENSE Hall. Plesiotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 185, pl. xx x11, fig. 30. 


51341. PLEUROTOMARIA CASII Meek and Worthen. Plesiotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 171, pl. xxvu, fig. 11. 


CEPHALOPODA 


51378. LITUITES MARSHI Hall. Plesiotype. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 195, pl. xxx, fig. 1. 


DEVONIAN ‘T'yPEs 


In this list, the faunas of the four Devonian formations, Jefferson- 
ville, Silver Creek, Sellersburg limestone, and New Albany shale, 
are not given separately because of the occurrence of a number of 
species in two or more of the divisions. Moreover, the exact horizon 
of a few of the types is uncertain, so that this would have prevented 
the preparation of exact faunal lists. 


140 


51235. 


51182. 


51214. 


51179. 


51220. 


51228. 


51222. 


B1223: 


51364. 


51200. 


51178. 


51176. 


SMITHSGNIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 
BRACHIOPODA 


AMBOCOELIA UMBONATA (Conrad). Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 86, pl. xvit, figs. 25, 26. 
ATHYRIS VITTATA Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 87, pl. xvi, figs. 25-32. 
= Athyris fultonensis. 
ATRYPA ASPERA Schlotheim. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 88, pl. xiv, figs. I-11. 
ATRYPA ELLIPSOIDEA Nettelroth. Cotypes. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. go. 
= Atrypa reticularis ellipsoidea. 
ATRYPA RETICULARIS Linnzus. Plesiotypes. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 91, pl. xiv, figs. 12-22. 
CENTRONELLA GLANSFAGEA (Hall). Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 153, pl. XXxX1, figs. 14-17. 
CHONETES ACUTIRADIATUS (Hall). Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Indiana side, Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 66, pl. xvitt, figs. 18-20. 
CHONETES SUBQUADRATUS Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 67. 
CHONETES YANDELLIANA Hall. Plesiotype. 
Silver Creek (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 68, pl. xvit, figs. 16-19. 
CRANIA BORDENTI Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Watson’s Station, Clark County, 
Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 32, pl. 1, fig. 14. 
= Cramia sheldont. 
CYRTINA CRASSA Hall. Plesiotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 95, pl. x11, figs. 21-24. 
CYRTINA HAMILTONIAE (Hall). Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 96, pl. xt, figs. 4-12. 
= Cyrtina hamiltonensis. 


NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLER I4!I 


51177. CYRTINA HAMILTONIAE RECTA Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 97, pl. x11, figs. 13-16. 
= Cyrtina hamiltonensts recta. 


51212. DISCINA DORIA Hall. Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 32. 
== Orbiculoidea doria. 


51215. DISCINA GRANDIS (Vanuxem). Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Watson’s Station, Clark County, 
Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 33, pl. m1, fig. 3. 
= Roemerella grandis. 


51231. LEIORHYNCHUS QUADRICOSTATUM (Vanuxem). Plesio- 
$1232. types. 
New Albany shale (Devonian), Lexington, Indiana, and 
Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 71. 


51218. LINGULA TRIANGULATA Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Silver Creek (Devonian), Kentucky side, Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 34, pl. x xvi, fig. I. 
= Glossina triangulata. 


51308. MERISTELLA NASUTA (Conrad). Plesiotypes. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohic. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 98, pl. xv, figs. 2-8. 


51207. MERISTELLA UNISULCATA Conrad. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 90, pl. xv, figs. 9-16. 
= Pentagonia unisulcata- 


51368. NUCLEOSPIRA CONCINNA (Hall). Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 103, pl. xxx, figs. 1-4. 


51184. ORTHIS GOODWINI Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p: 39, pl. xvu, figs. 30-32. 
= Rhipidomella goodwint. 


51185. ORTHIS LIVIA Billings. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 40, pl. xv1, figs. 23, 24. 
= Rhipidomella livia. 


142 


51188. 


51183. 


51301. 


51216. 


51230. 


51210. 


51365. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


ORTHIS PROPINQUA Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 43, pl. xvi, figs. I-3, 7-II. 
= Schizophoria propinqua. 


ORTHIS VANUXEMI Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 45, pl. xv1, figs. 4-6, 12-14. 
= Rhipidomella vanuxemt. 


PENTAMERELLA ARATA (Conrad). Plesiotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 49, pl. x11, figs. 17-20. 


. PENTAMERELLA PAPILIONENSIS (Hall). Plesiotypes. 


Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 50. 


PENTAMERELLA THUSNELDA Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 51, pl. Xxx1, figs. 26-28. 


PRODUCTELLA SEMIGLOBOSA Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 70, pl. xxvu, fig. 7. 


. PRODUCTELLA SUBACULEATA CATARACTA Hall and 


Whitfield. Plesiotypes. 

Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 69, pl. xv, figs. 5-9. 

= Productella spinulicosta. 


RHYNCHONELLA CAROLINA Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 75, pl. x1m, figs. 1-3, 34, 35. 
= Camarotechia carolina and Cyclorhina nobilis. 

As pointed out by Kindle, figures 1-3 are of Cyclorhina 
nobilis, while figures 34 and 35 refer to Camarotachia caro- 
lina. 

RHYNCHONELLA GAINESI Nettelroth. Cotypes. 


Jeffersonville (Devonian), Jefferson County, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 76, pl. Xxx1, figs. 6-9. 


. RHYNCHONELLA LOUISVILLENSIS Nettelroth. Holotype. 


Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 77, pl. xxx1, figs. 1-4. 


. RHYNCHONELLA TENUISTRIATA Nettelroth. Holotype. 


Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 82, pl. xvi, figs. 27-20. 


NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLER 143 


51200. 


51190. 


51194. 


51193. 


51194. 


are 


51190. 
51191. 


51203. 


51204. 


RHYNCHONELLA TETHYS Billings. Plesiotypes. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 83, pl. x1, figs. 25-33; pl. XXXI, 
figs. 22-25. 


= Camarotechia tethys. 


SPIRIFER ACUMINATUS (Conrad). Plesiotypes. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 105, pl. viru, figs. 1-8. 


SPIRIFER ARCTISEGMENTUM Hall. Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 108, pl. xu, figs. 14, I5. 


SPIRIFER ATWATERANA Miller. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 107, pl. Tx, figs. I-5. 
= Spirifer towaensis. 
SPIRIFER BYRNESI Nettelroth. Cotypes. 


Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 109, pl. x, figs. I-5, 31-34, 30-39. 


SPIRIFER CONRADANA Miller. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, t889, p. 110, pl. vu, figs. I1-13. 
= Reticularia fimbriata. 


. SPIRIFER DAVISI Nettelroth. Holotype. 


Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 112, pl. x11, figs. 1-4. 
SPIRIFER DIVARICATUS Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Lebanon, Kentucky, and Clark 
County, Indiana. 


Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 113, pl. x1, figs. 6-11; pl. x1, 
figs. 5-IT. 


. SPIRIFER DUODENARIUS (Hall). Plesiotype. 


Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 114, pl. x, figs. 12, 13, 16. 


SPIRIFER EURUTEINES Owen. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 115, pl. vi, figs. 1-8, II, 17, 21, 2 
= Spirifer fornacula. 


1) 


SPIRIFER EURUTEINES FORNACULA Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p: 117, pl. v1, figs. 9, 10, 18-20. 


= Spirifer fornacula. 


144 


51108. 


51192. 


51195. 


51200. 


51200. 


51205. 


51201. 


51202. 


51230. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOI,. 52 


SPIRIFER GREGARIA Clapp. Plesiotypes. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 119, pl. vit, figs. 9-13; pl. x, figs. 
6-10. 
SPIRIFER GRIERI Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 120, pl. 1x, figs. 8-14. 


SPIRIFER HOBBSI Nettelroth. Cotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 121, pl. x, figs. 21, 22, 26-30, 
35; 40. 
SPIRIFER KNAPPIANA Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 122, pl. vil, fig. 14. 
= Reticularia knap piana. 
SPIRIFER MACCONATHII Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 123, pl. x1, figs. I-5. 
SPIRIFER MEDIALIS Hall. Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 125, pl. XxvI, figs. 2-5. 
= Spirifer audaculus. 
SPIRIFER OWENI Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 126, pl. vu, figs. I-10. 
= Spirifer granulosus. 


. SPIRIFER SCULPTILIS Hall. Plesiotype. 


Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 132, pl. XxxI, fig. 13. 
= Delthyris sculptilis. 


. SPIRIFER SEGMENTUM Hall. Plesiotype. 


Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 132, pl. xt, figs. 36-38. 
SPIRIFER VARICOSUS Hall. Plesiotypes. 


Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 134, pl. x, figs. 11-20, 23-25. 


. STREPTORHYNCHUS ARCTOSTRIATA (Hall). Plesiotype. 


Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 140, pl. Xxx1, figs. 31-33. 
= Schuchertella chemungensis arctistriata. 
STROPHODONTA DEMISSA (Conrad). Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
IKentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 143, pl. xviu, figs. 10, 16. 


NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION 


SIIso. 


51360. 


o1 
= 
bo 

wo 

a 


SII8t. 





BASSLER 145 


STROPHODONTA HEMISPHERICA Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 144, pl. xvmt, figs. 4-6, 7-9. 


. STROPHODONTA INEQUISTRIATA (Conrad). Plesiotype. 


Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 145, pl. xvi, figs. Io, Ir. 


. STROPHODONTA NACREA Hall. Plesiotype. 


Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 146. 
= Pholidostrophia iowaensis. 


. STROPHODONTA PERPLANA (Conrad). Plesiotype. 


Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 147, pl. xvut, fig. 17. 


. STROPHODONTA PLICATA Hall. Plesiotype. 


Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 18890, p. 149. 


. STROPHOMENA RHOMBOIDALIS (Wilckens). Plesiotypes. 


Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 150, pl. xvimt, figs. 1-3. 
—= Leptena rhombaidalis. 


. TEREBRATULA HARMONIA Hall. Plesiotype. 


Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 154, pl. xv, figs. 1-4. 
= Euneila harmonia. 


. TEREBRATULA JUCUNDA Hall. Plesiotype. 


Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 889, p. 154. 


. TEREBRATULA LINCKLAENI Hall. Plesiotype. 


Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 155, pl. xvit, figs. 22-24. 
= Eunella linckleni. 
TEREBRATULA ROEMINGERI Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 155, pl. xvz, figs. 20-22. 
= Cranena romingeri. 


. TREMATOSPIRA HIRSUTA Hall. Plesiotype. 


Jeffersonville (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 136, pl. xvi, figs. 15-Io9. 
= Parazyga hirsuta. 
TROPIDOLEPTUS CARINATUS Conrad. Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 46, pl. xvu, figs. 14, 15. 


146 


51299. 


51303. 


51289. 


51359. 


51358. 


513060. 


51373. 


51305. 


51300. 


U1 
— 
ty 
A 


34 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


PELECYPODA 


ACTINOPTERIA BOYDI Conrad. Plesiotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 229, pl. 11, fig. 2. 
AVICULOPECTEN CRASSICOSTATUS Hall and Whitfield. 
Plesiotype. 
Silver Creek (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 223. 
. AVICULOPECTEN FASCICULATUS Hall. Plesiotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 224, pl. m1, fig. 4. 


_ AVICULOPECTEN PECTENIFORMIS Conrad. Plesiotype. 


Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 225, pl. 11, fig. I. 
AVICULOPECTEN PRINCEPS Conrad. Plesiotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 225. 
CLINOPISTHA ANTIQUA Meek. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 200, pl. Iv, figs. 9-IT. 
CLINOPISTHA STRIATA Nettelroth. Cotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 200, pl. Iv, figs. I, 2. 
CLINOPISTHA SUBNASUTA Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 199, pl. Iv, figs. 6-8, 12. 
CONOCARDIUM CUNEUS (Conrad). Plesiotypes 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 203, pl. v, figs. 10-19. 


. CYPRICARDINIA CATARACTA Conrad. Plesiotype. 


Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 204, pl. Iv, fig. 3. 
CYPRICARDINIA CYLINDRICA Hall and Whitfield. Plesio- 
types. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 205, pl. iv, figs. 13, 14. 
CYPRICARDINIA INFLATA SUBEQUIVALVIS Hall and 
Whitfield. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 206. 
. GLYPTODESMA CANCELLATA Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 227, pl. v, fig. I. 


NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLER 147 


51283. GLYPTODESMA OCCIDENTALE Hall. Plesiotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 228, pl. 111, fig. 5. 
51288. GONIOPHORA TRUNCATA Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 214, pl. Iv, figs. 21-23. 
51287. GRAMMYSIA GIBBOSA Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 208, pl. Iv, figs. 16-20. 
51285. LIMOPTERA CANCELLATA Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 198, pl. 11, figs. 6-8; pl. Iv, fig. 24, 
512901. MODIOMORPHA AFFINIS Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Watson Station, Clark County, 
Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 216. 
51293. MODIOMORPHA ALTA Conrad. Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 217, pl. XxXvI, fig. Io. 
51292. MODIOMORPHA CHARLESTOWNENSIS Nettelroth. Holo- 
type. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 218, pl. v, figs. 7-9. 
51295. MODIOMORPHA CONCENTRICA (Conrad). Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 219, pl. 1, figs. 9-12, 14. 
51204. MODIOMORPHA MYTILOIDES Conrad. Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 220. 
51300. NUCULA HERZERI Nettelroth. Cotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 221. 
51374. NUCULA NEDA Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 222, pl. v, figs. 5, 6. 
51301. NUCULA NIOTICA Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 222, pl. v, figs. 2-4. 
51279. PARACYCLAS ELLIPTICA Hall. Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 200, pl. 1, figs. 1-3. 
51282. PARACYCLAS ELONGATA Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 210, pl. um, fig. S. 


51305. 


51286. 


51208. 


531061. 


51262. 


512061. 


51263. 


51254. 


51376. 


51258. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


. PARACYCLAS LIRATA (Conrad). Plesiotypes. 


Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 211, pl. 11, figs. 4-7. 


. PARACYCLAS OCTERLONII Nettelroth. Holotype. 


Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 212, pl. xxx1, fig. 18. 
PARACYCLAS OHIOENSIS (Meek). Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 213, pl. v, fig. 20. 
PTYCHODESMA KNAPPIANA Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 201, pl. 11, figs. 13, 15, 18. 
YOLDIA ? VALVULUS Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 223, pl. 1v, figs. 4, 5. 


PTEROPODA 


TENTACULITES SCALARIFORMIS Hall. Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 156, pl. XXxI, fig. 12. 


GASTROPODA 


BELLEROPHON LEDA Hall. Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 158, pl. xv, figs. 12, 13. 
BUCANIA DEVONICA Hall. Plesiotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 160, pl. Xx, figs. 3, 4. 
CALLONEMA BELLATULA Hall. Plesiotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 175, pl. xx, fig. 7. 


. CALLONEMA CLARKI Nettelroth. Cotypes. 


Jeffersonville (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 175, pl. xxiv, figs. 2-5. 
CALLONEMA IMITATOR Hall and Whitfield. Plesiotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 176, pl. xx, figs. 12, 13. 
CYCLONEMA MULTILIRA Hall. Plesiotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 188, pl. xx11, fig. 5. 
EUOMPHALUS DECEWI Billings. Plesiotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 181, pl. xx1, figs. 1, 2. 


No. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL, COLLECTION—BASSLER 149 


51259. 


51276. 


51205. 


51264. 


51372. 


51270. 


51371. 


51275. 


51272. 


EUOMPHALUS SAMPSONI Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Watson’s Station, Clark County, 
Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 182, pl. xx, figs. 3, 4. 


LOXONEMA HAMILTONIAE Hall. Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 177, pl. XXxXI, fig. 20. 


LOXONEMA HYDRAULICUM Hall. Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 178, pl. xx, figs. 8, 9. 


LOXONEMA LAEVIUSCULUS Hall. Cotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
talib Naty Elise New. York ebale valPy. li sI87Os)p. T3i, plt 
Xxviul, figs. 10, 11.—Nettelroth, Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, 
DeL7ZOmply KRU, TS. On O: 


. MACROCHEILUS CARINATUS Nettelroth. Cotypes. 


Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 180, pl. xx, figs. 20-23. 


. MURCHISONIA DESIDERATA Hall. Plesiotype. 


Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 160, pl. xxv, fig. 8. 
PLATYCERAS BUCCULENTUM Hall. Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 160, pl. xxv, fig. 3. 
PLATYCERAS COMPRESSUM Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 162, pl. xxv, figs. 8, 9. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 161, pl. xxv, figs. 2, II. 


. PLATYCERAS DUMOSUM Conrad. Plesiotypes. 


Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 162, pl. xx1mI, figs. I-6, 12.» 


. PLATYCERAS DUMOSUM RARISPINUM Hall. Plesiotype. 


Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 163, pl. xx1u, figs. 7, 8. 
PLATYCERAS ECHINATUM Hall. Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 164, pl. xxxt, fig. 21. 
PLATYCERAS ERECTUM Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 165. 


150 


51274. 


512067. 


51273. 


51370. 


512066. 


51271. 


51248. 


51240. 


51249. 


51250. 


51253. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


PLATYCERAS MILLERI Nettelroth. Cotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 165, pl. xxv, fig. 1. 
PLATYCERAS MULTISPINOSUM Meek. Plesiotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 166, pl. xxv, fig. 4. 
PLATYCERAS RICTUM Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 18890, p. 166. 
PLATYCERAS SYMMETRICUM Hall. Plesiotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 167, pl. xx11, fig. Io. 
PLATYCERAS THETIS Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 168. 


PLATYCERAS VENTRICOSUM Conrad. Plesiotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 168, pl. xxv, fig. 10. 


. PLATYOSTOMA LINEATA Conrad. Plesiotypes. 


Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil. Shells, 1889, p. 183, pl. xrx, figs. 5-8; pl. xxi, 
figs. 7, 8. 
PLATYOSTOMA LINEATA CALLOSA Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 184, pl. xx1, fig. 14; pl. xxu, 
MCSE, MO) TILA OE nora, ankesy, 5 (oy xe) 
PLATYOSTOMA TURBINATA Hall. Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 184, pl. xx1, figs. 7, 8. 
PLEUROTOMARIA ARABELLA Nettelroth. Holotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 171, pl. Xxv1, fig. 12. 
PLEUROTOMARIA LUCINA Hall. Plesiotype. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 172. 


. PLEUROTOMARIA PROCTERI Nettelroth. Cotypes. 


Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana, and Lou- 
isville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 173, pl. Xx, figs. 9, I0, 13. 
PLEUROTOMARIA SULCOMARGINATA Conrad.  Plesio- 
types. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 174, pl. Xx1, figs. II, 12. 


NO. 1814 NETTELROTH FOSSIL COLLECTION—BASSLER I51 


51244. STROPHOSTYLUS VARIANS Hall. Plesiotype. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 186, pl. xxu, figs. 6, 7. 
51260. TROCHONEMA YANDELLANA Hall and Whitfield. Plesio- 
type. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 190. 
51257. TURBO SHUMARDI Verneuil. Plesiotypes. 
Jeffersonville (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 191, pl. x1x, fig. 4; pl. xxu1, figs. 
1 2. 


CEPHALOPODA 


51243. NAUTILUS MAXIMUS Conrad. Plesiotype. 
Silver Creek (Devonian), Falls of the Ohio. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1880, p. 196, pl. xxiv, fig. I. 
51277. GOMPHOCERAS OVIFORME Hall. Plesiotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 18890, p. 193, pl. XxX1, figs. 17, 18. 
51278. GOMPHOCERAS TURBINIFORMIS Meek and Worthen. Ple- 
siotypes. 
Sellersburg (Devonian), Clark County, Indiana. 
Kentucky Fossil Shells, 1889, p. 194, pl. Xx1, figs. 15, 16. 


Types oF Fossit, CoRALS 


The following species of fossil corals, illustrated by Davis in his 
Kentucky Fossil Corals, form a part of the Nettelroth collection: 


52754. ALVEOLITES LOUISVILLENSIS Davis. Cotype. 
Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. xvi, fig. 6. 
52774. CALCEOLA PROTEUS Davis. Cotypes. 
Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. cxxxI, figs. 2, 3, 13. 
52639. CALCEOLA SANDALINA Lamarck. Plesiotype. 
Devonian, Eifel, Germany. 
Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. cxxxz1, fig. 18. 
52642. CLADOPORA EQUISETALIS Davis. Holotype. 
Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. xivui, fig. 7. 
52641. CLADOPORA LAQUEATA Rominger. Plesiotypes. 
Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. xvii, figs. 8, 9. 


52 


52640. 


51643. 


52776: 


52645. 


52660. 


52743. 


52638. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


CLADOPORA RETICULATA Hall. Plesiotype. 
Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. XLvil, fig. 2. 
CLADOPORA STRIATA Davis. Holotype. 
Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. xivut, fig. 8. 
ERIDOPHYLLUM DIVIDUUM Davis. Cotype. 
Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. crx, fig. 5. 


. FAVOSITES AMPLISSIMUS Davis. Cotype. 


Jeffersonville (Devonian), near Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. xvu1, fig. I. 


4. FAVOSITES FAVOSUS Goldfuss. Plesiotype. 


Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. vin, fig. 1. 


. FAVOSITES FORBESI Edwards and Haime. Plesiotype. 


Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. vit, fig. 5. 
FAVOSITES SPONGILLA Rominger. Plesiotype. 
Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. vi, fig. 7. 
PLASMOPORA FOLLIS Edwards and Haime. Plesiotype. 
Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. 1, fig. Io. 


. PTYCHOPHYLLUM STOKESI Edwards and Haime. Plesio- 


types. 
Niagara (Silurian). Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. xv, fig. 6. 
ROMINGERIA VANNULA Davis. Cotype. 
Niagara (Silurian), Louisville, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. LXxt, fig. I. 
THECIA VETUSTA (Hall). Plesiotypes. 
Richmond (Ordovician), Oldham County, Kentucky. 
Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, pl. xxx1Vv, figs. 9, Io. 
= Protarea vetusta. 





7 
oe 
» 
, 
1 


ee 


52, PL. XII 


VOL. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 





OPUNTIA VIVIPARA Rose 


A NEW OPUNTIA FROM ARIZONA 
By aN ROSE 
(WitH ONE PLATE) 


While going from Tucson, Arizona, to the Pictured Rock some 12 
miles to the southwest, my attention was called by Dr. D. T. Mac- 
Dougal to a peculiar Opuntia resembling the very common O. versi- 
color, but of very different habit, branching and with larger fruit, 
etc. At first we came upon a large group of these plants where 
they formed the dominant element in the landscape. Farther on 
the species was less common and was associated with O. versicolor 
and O. spinosior, but it surely does not intergrade with either of 
them. It is much more open in its manner of growth than O. versi- 
color, while the branches readily drop off and take root about the 
old plant. This is shown very well in the accompanying illustration. 

This species may be technically described as follows: 


OPUNTIA VIVIPARA Rose, sp. nov. 


Stems 2 to 3.5 meters high, usually several from the base, 8 to 
Io cm. in diameter, much branched, but not compactly so; old 
stems with rather smooth bark; young branches bluish green, slen- 
der, I to 2 cm. long, 10 to 12 mm. in diameter; tubercles low, ob- 
long, 15 to 20 mm. long; areoles when young forming a dense cush- 
ion of yellow wool with few or no glochides; spines I to 4, 2 cm. 
or less long, covered with straw-colored sheaths; leaves small, terete, 
acutish, purple; flowers numerous, borne in clusters at the top of 
last year’s branches, purplish; ovary strongly tubercled, bearing 
white deciduous bristles; fruit oblong, 4 to 6 cm. long, smooth with 
a somewhat depressed umbilicus, yellowish-green, spineless; seeds 
white, 5 mm. long. 

On a mesa near Tucson, Arizona, to the southwestward, J. N. 
Rose, April 21, 1908 (No. 11836). 

Type in U. S. National Herbarium, No. 454,531. 

Illustration (Pl. x11) furnished by courtesy of the Carnegie Insti- 
tution of Washington. 


3 s 153 





THE STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH? 
By THEODORE GILL 
rt 


One of the most remarkable of animals is the great Ray, most 
widely known as Devil-fish, but which bears also several other 
names. 

Devil-fish is a name by no means restricted to any one of the Rays, 
for it is well known in connection with the gigantic Cuttlefishes and 
is also used locally in England for the Angler (Lophius piscatorius), 
and in California for the Gray whale (Rhachianectes glaucus). 
Among the Rays the name is applied not only to all of the same 
family as the great fish, but also, in some places (for instance, North 
Carolina and the Gulf of Mexico), to species of Eagle-rays. Sea- 
devil may be considered to be a natural variant of the same name, 
but it has also been used for the same animals as Devil-fish and even 
for those of another family, the species of the Sharks known as 
Squatina. 

Vampire originated in the form “Oceanic Vampyre” as a selective 
name and was given by Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill, in 1823, as the 
popular name for his Cephalopterus vampyrus. He claimed that 
“this fish being perhaps the largest of the Rays, as the vampyre is of 
the bats, or vespertilios, the name vampyrus may be attached.” ‘The 
name has somehow been taken up and found limited currency in cer- 
tain localities where the fish abounds. Thus C. F. Holder? has re- 
corded that it is in use in southern Florida. When, during a night 
on the water about Garden Key, he heard “a rushing, swishing sound ; 
then a clap as of thunder,” a negro boatman exclaimed ‘“Vampa fish, 
sah,” and later alluded to it as “Sea Vampa” or collectively as 
“Vampas.”’ 


‘Every well-known fish student is more or less frequently asked some ques- 
tion or questions about the Devil-fish. Not infrequently the student is at a loss 
for an answer. The requisite information may have been published, but to 
obtain it perhaps hundreds of articles may have to be examined. After a 
search through such articles the present paper has been compiled and will 
furnish answers to many of the questions that may be propounded. It will at 
least serve as a basis for investigation and a repertory of what has been ascer- 
tained or thought to be facts. 

*Big Game at Sea, 1908, pp. 2, 3, 4. 

155 


150 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Sea-bat was found by Holder to be in use in the same locality as 
Vampire. When the negro Paublo exclaimed “Sea Vampa, sure,” 
the Seminole chief in the same boat corroborated his identification 
rather than contradicted by exclaiming, “Sea-bat. . . . They 





Fic. 40.—The Devil-fish. After a photograph." 


‘The iconography of the Devil-fish is very defective and the figures herewith 
given are merely provisional. ‘The plate first given by Jordan and Evermann 
(1900), later reproduced by Fowler (1906), Hugh Smith (1907) and others, is 
quite inaccurate so far as the tail is concerned. Instead of the tail being much 
longer than the body, as therein represented, it is only about 6/10 as long. 
Elliott (p. Io1) especially criticized De Kay’s “characteristic, viz., tail longer 
than the body,” and affirmed “that the length of the tail is, to that of the body, 
as six to ten.” He had examined “almost twenty individuals.” The illustra- 
tion cited was drawn in Dec., 1894, but the present writer was long unable to 
learn. what was the basis of the figure. He finally traced it to De Kay, who 
published a composite figure based on Mitchill’s and Lesueur’s plates. There 
is no specimen of the Devil-fish in the National Museum. ‘The figures here 
presented are (1) the old one with the tail modified to suit photographs and 
Elliott’s description; (2) one drawn after the former outline with the under 
surface represented from a photographic illustration in Holder’s work, and 
(3) a reproduction of a photograph of a fish caught in 1869 or 1870, during a 
cruise in the Pacific of a revenue cutter (Captain Freeman commanding). The 
last was taken while the fish was suspended from a tripod and the drooping 
fins may have been partly at least due to the suspension. ‘That fish was about 
13 feet wide. ‘The photograph is very obscure behind and the reproduction 
consequently is unreliable, as are the other figures. Seven photographs or 
reproductions are at hand, but all are too obscure behind for guidance. A 
good one is extremely desirable as are also exact data as to relative propor- 
tions and weight. All published are deficient. A special article on the subject 
will follow. 


NO, I816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 157 


jump five—yes, eight—feet high.’ Bat-fish and Black-bat are 
sometimes used variants. 

Another name for the monster Ray has been borrowed from the 
Spanish. Among the fishermen, and especially the pearl divers of 
Central America and western Mexico, it is known as the Manta; 
this is a Spanish term, meaning originally blanket, and was given by 
the fishermen of parts of Spain and the island of Mallorca to a spe- 
cies of the Mediterranean? and extended thence to similar fishes of 
other regions. It has been explained that the name was given by the 
Spaniards of America to the Devil-fish because it was alleged to 
hover over and cover a fisherman at the bottom as a blanket prepar- 
atory to killing him for good. The belief, indeed, that the Devil- 
fish may so attack a man is not only widely spread, but of an ancient 
origin. 

Such an idea, however, is contrary to our knowledge of the fish. 
Like several other of the gigantic selachians,* its diet is itt almost 
inverse ratio to its size. 

Inasmuch as Devil-fish is the best known of all these names and 
has been long current in story as well as in works on natural history, 
it will be retained here and will be used for the great fish best known 
as such, as well as for its congeners of smaller size. The species 
especially called Devil-fish is one of a number having the same essen- 
tial characters and all designated in a general way as Devil-fishes. 


II 


The form of the Devil-fishes is extraordinary; the body, exclusive 
of the tail, is about twice as wide as long; the tail, however, corre- 
sponds to the hind part of the body in distant relations of the Devil- 
fish. Different as the animal is from Sharks generally, there is or 
has been every gradation from an ordinary Shark to the Devil-fish. 


1’Tlhe Manta of Mallorca, or Majorca, is the Mobula giorna, and is the Vacca 
or Vaca (Cow) with various qualifications of some other localities in the 
Mediterranean. It is also the Bous of Aristotle. ‘The names Vacca and Bous 
allude to the horn-like caropteres or head-fins. ‘The species is said sometimes 
to reach a width of 28 feet. Carus, in his Prodromus Faune Mediterranez 
(11, 1803, p. 520), specifies “Longit. 1.5-3 m.” Pellegrin in 1901 (Bull. Mus. 
Hist. Nat., vit, 327) noticed one 5m. 20 wide, and 4m. 15 long. There is record 
of one 28 feet wide and 21 feet long and “estimated to weigh a ton” (Zodl., 
1890, p. 146). ‘The data are insufficient and a fish of the dimensions noted 
must have weighed very much more than a ton. 

*The gigantic Basking Shark (Cetorhinus maximus) and the still larger 
Rhinodon (Rhineodon typus) of the Indian Ocean subsist mainly on the 
minute crustaceans and other animals living near the surface of the ocean. 


158 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 





FIG. 41. 








['iGs. 41 


Fic. 42. 


AND 42.—Squalus acanthias. Vics. 43 T0 45.—Rhinobatus lentiginosus, 


No. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL, 159 





mi 
if 





Be 





Fic. 46.—Raja erinacea. Fics. 47 AND 48.—Dasybatis sabina. 


160 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


A few forms still living exemplify the manner in which the extreme 
modification of the last has been attained; these forms, it is true, 
are not in the direct line of descent, but they are not very far off. 
The common Dog-fish of the New England coast (Squalus acan- 
thias) has a slender tail, but there is a regular gradation from the 
preanal region, or trunk, into the postanal, or tail, and the pectorals 
have the slender bases characteristic of the Sharks generally. The 
Guitar-fishes (Ithinobatide) still have the regular gradation of the 
trunk into the tail, but the pectorals have a broad basis of union with 
the body and head, and a narrow disk is thus formed. In the ordi- 
nary rays (Raude) the tail has become disproportionately slender 
and the disk wider and more sharply differentiated; in the Sting- 
rays (Dasybatide) the tail has almost entirely lost its muscular de- 
velopment, but the disk is much like that of an ordinary ray. The 
tail of the Sting ray is essentially like that of the Devil-fish, but in the 
Devil-fish the disk has become extended sideways into acutely angu- 
lated and wing-like fins. The homologies of the respective parts are 
thus evident. In the course of evolution, more and more resort has 
been had to the pectoral fins for progression and the tail correspond- 
ingly disused; the culmination has been reached in the Devil-fishes, 
which progress by wing-like flapping of their pectorals and the tail 
is carried inert behind. 

The tranformation of shark-like forms into the ray-like type must 
have commenced early in Mesozoic times, for well-developed repre- 
sentatives of the Dasybatids and Myliobatids were living in the Cre- 
taceous epoch and were abundant in the Eocene. It has been be- 
lieved that no fossil remains of Devil-fishes have been found, or 
rather identified. If this had been a fact, it might have been partly 
explained by the pelagic habitat of the species and partly by the 
reduction of teeth and spines, the parts most likely to be pre- 
served. ‘There is, indeed, one record of an extinct form which, 
however, only takes us one stage back in the geological series. 
The record is of a supracaudal tubercle from the “phosphate beds” 
of South Carolina, which are supposed to be of post-Pliocene age; 
the tubercle has been considered by Joseph Leidy to represent an 
extinct species closely related to the living Devil-fish of the same 
State and has received from him the name Ceratoptera unios; it was 
described and figured in 1877 in the Journal of the Academy of Nat- 
ural Sciences of Philadelphia (2nd ser., vi11, 248-9, pl. 34, figs. I, 2). 

The individual development of the fishes is to a large extent par- 
allel with the evolution of the type from the shark-like form to the 
ray-like one. 

The Devil-fishes form a family of ray-like Selachians to which the 


No. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 101 


names Cephalopteride, Pterocephalide, Mobulide, and Mantide 
have been given. Mantide@ is that used for it by most recent Ameri- 





Fic. 50. 


Fics. 49 AND 50.—The Devil-fish. After Jordan and Evermann. 
(With reduced tail.) 


can ichthyologists, as Jordan and Evermann, but it had been previ- 
ously taken for a family of insects. Mobulide may be used here. 
The essential external characters of the family follow: 


162 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL: §2 


MosuLip# 


The Mobulids or Devil-fishes include the largest as well as the 
widest of rays. Behind the anus the tail is abruptly attenuated and 
developed as a whip-like appendage without efficient spines. The 
mouth, instead of being inferior, as in other types, is in front, and 
the jaws have weak teeth or are partially toothless. The pectoral 
fins are extended outward in a wing-like manner, and long, flexible, 
horn-like processes or fins are developed on each side of the head 
and bound a preoral space. ‘These processes (caropteres, head-fins, 
or horns) can be used for grasping, and a number of cases have been 





Fic. 51.—Tail of the Devil-fish. After Holmes. (Proceedings Elliott Society 
of Natural History, I, pl. 3.) About half natural size. 1. Knob and 
base of tail. 2. Bone with the small spine as extracted from the 
knob. 3. Upper view of the same with the posterior spinelet (in 
white). 


recorded of a Devil-fish seizing the anchor of a vessel and running 
away with both anchor and vessel for some distance, to the wonder 
and fear of the sailors. ‘The spines about the base of the whip-like 
tail, characteristic of the nearest relations of the Devil-fishes, the 
Sting-rays and Eagle-rays, are reduced in size and sometimes to a 
minimum in the Devil-fishes. In the typical species the spine is 
quite rudimentary and concealed in a subosseous swelling at the base 
of the tail behind the small dorsal fin. 

Further, the Devil-fishes are peculiar in the possession of pre- 
branchial organs, to be noticed later. 


No. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 163 


i 


The Devil-fishes are inhabitants of warm-water seas. They are 
to some extent pelagic, though, as a rule, they appear not to extend 
far out into the high seas. ‘They belong to the category of tropico- 
politan forms, some one or other species occurring in every tropical 
and every subtropical sea. Besides, some may venture far beyond 
the limits of the Tropic of Cancer or of Capricorn, one wandering 
occasionally as far as New York and another into the Mediterranean 
Sea: 

If we may also believe Turner-Turner, “a characteristic pose is 
that of lying motionless, or at most with its disk slightly undulating 
with respiration, in the sand just under the water. Sometimes, in- 
deed, they are found a yard or so above low-water mark, in pits of 
their own making.’ ‘This observation needs confirmation for Devil- 
fishes, although applicable to Sting-rays. But certainly they require 
to rest on the ground, and sometimes, when harpooned, they descend 
and (to use a term of the angler) sulk on the bottom. Elliott re- 
marks that at times one “plunges desperately for the bottom, to which 
he sometimes clings for hours.” But they are best known as active— 
and very active—frequenters of the surface waters. 

Another characteristic of a Devil-fish’s action is a tendency to 
turn somersaults. According to Elliott,t “It is a very curious exhibi- 
tion. You first see the feelers thrown out of the water; then the 
white stomach, marked with five gills, or branchial apertures, on 
each side (for the fish is on his back) ; then his tail emerges. After 
a disappearance for a few seconds, the revolution is repeated, some- 
times as often as six times. It happens occasionally that in making 
these somersets the fish does not rise quite to the surface, but is 
several feet below; so that his revolutions are detected by the ap- 
pearance and disappearance of the white or under part of his body, 
dimly seen through the turbid water in which he delights. Some- 
times, indeed, he is unseen; but his presence is shown to the observant 
sportsman by the boiling of the water from below, as from a great 
caldron. With no better guide than this, the harpoon has been 
darted down, and reached him when twelve feet below the surface.” 

These somersaults (or somersets as Elliott? calls them) are often 
made by the fishes when leaping out of the water. Eliott especially 
noticed a number in 1846 (July Ist) at four o’clock in the afternoon 
near Hilton Head (S. C.): “They did not show themselves somer- 


- 


2 


Bec Ope 7 
Op-cit.; p. 


ox ot 


85. 


164 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL,-52 


setting for some time, but after a while began to sport and throw 
somersets under the water, but so near to the surface as to show their 
bellies in the evolution. We saw, I do not doubt, as many as twenty 
fish. We counted eleven that leaped entirely out of the water. 
They were in the channel, and were further from shore than where 
we had usually met with them; and, on approaching near to them in 
our boat, we remarked that those which leaped entirely out of the 
water did not again show themselves on the surface until they had 
silently gone a mile or so toward the sea, when they reappeared, 
gambolled awhile, threw new somersets, and again disappeared for 
anew seaward movement. ‘The fish which were behind came along 
sporting until they had reached the spot where the first had thrown 
their somersets. They, too, then threw their somersets, and disap- 
peared like the first. Usually they leaped twice—leaping from their 
backs, and falling likewise on their backs; leaping, I should say, at 
least ten feet above the water.” 

The appearance and evolutions of the Devil-fish are indeed im- 
pressive and startling. Holdert thought that “no more diabolical 
creature could be imagined. ‘They resembled enormous bats, and 
in following one another around the circle raised the outer tip of the 
long wing-like fin high out of the water in a graceful curve, the 
other being deeply submerged.” ‘They might be seen, “now gliding 
down with flying motion of the wings; sweeping, gyrating upward 
with a twisting vertical motion marvelous in its perfect grace; now 
they flashed white, again black, so that one would say they were 
rolling over and over, turning somersaults, were it possible for so 
large a fish to accomplish the feat.” Such evolutions, Holder 
learned, were “really a common practice of the big rays.” But it is 
the great leaps out of the water that are most striking, especially 
during the stillness of the night. Holder,? on such an occasion on 
the outer Florida reef, first encountered the fish. ‘There came out 
of the darkness, near at hand, a rushing, swishing noise; then a clap 
as of thunder, which seemed to go roaring and reverberating away 
over the reef, like the discharge of a cannon. So startling was the 
sound, so peculiar, that the negroes stopped rowing, and one or two 
dropped their oars in consternation.” 





* Opi cit pss: 
Opreit pee: 


NO. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 165 


VE 


In some warm sea a fortunate observer may find perhaps a Devil- 
fish or a couple swimming on or near the surface; not rarely a 
school, or “shoal,” of them. (Shoal is the word used by the Hon. 
William Elliott in his earliest full treatise on them as subjects of 
sport.) Frequently they project themselves in the air to a consid- 
erable height and for some distance. ‘Their progression indeed is 
rather of the nature of flight than swimming, and has been likened 
to “the flight of a bird of prey”; it is by flaps of the wing-like pec- 
toral fins and not at all by the tail, as in Sharks and fishes generally. 





T'tc. 52.—Eagle-rays in motion. After Mangelsdorff. (Natur und Haus, 
8, 1900, p. 255.) 


In fact, the progression of the Devil-fishes is quite similar to that 
of their near relatives, the Eagle-rays, which have been portrayed 
from life by Mangelsdorff. Meanwhile, according to Holder, their 
caropteres, or head-fins, otherwise called arms, feelers, claspers, or 
horns, are “in constant motion, being whirled about like the tentacles 
of a squid.” 

Mr. Hector von Beyer, of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, informed 
Dr. Hugh Smith? that he had ‘observed the animal in the Gulf of 





*Carolina Sports by land and water, including incidents of Devil-fishing, 
[ete.]. Charleston, 1846. (2d edition, N. Y., 1850; 3d edition, N. Y., 1859.) 
* The Fishes of North Carolina, 1907, p. 48. 


166 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


California’ and noticed that “each of these appendages may be 
curved on itself like an elephant’s trunk, and can firmly grasp ob- 
jects within reach.” According to Elliott,’ “It is the habit of this 
fish to ply these arms rapidly before its mouth while it swims, and to 
clasp with the utmost closeness and obstinacy whatever body it has 
once inclosed. In this way, the boats of fishermen have often been 
dragged from their moorings and overset by the Devil-fish having 
laid hold of the grapnel.” 

That these “arms” are muscular and powerful has been demon- 
strated on many occasions. ‘The natural movement of the head-fins 
or caropteres is inward, and when any object strikes between them it 
is instinctively held, a proceeding which explains the undoubted fact 
that these fishes can run away with quite large vessels. Many such 
cases of towing vessels have been recorded. 

One of the characteristics for which the Devil-fishes are celebrated 
is the capture of vessels and carrying them off far from their moor- 
ings. In one of the earliest notices of the Devil-fish, by John Law- 
son in “The History of Carolina” (1714), this peculiarity is de- 
scribed. ‘Ihe Devil-fish,” he says, “has been known to weigh a 
ship’s anchor, and run with the vessel a league or two, and bring 
her back, against tide, to almost the same place.’ Later notices do 
not give the animal credit for the same accommodating treatment! 
A number of accounts, however, corroborate the tendency indicated. 
William Elliott noticed several instances, and, in later times, Holder 
(p. 18) records that “at least instances of this were heard of on the 
reef occurring from ‘Tampa Bay to Garden Key.” He adds: “In 
every case the vessels, always at anchor, suddenly moved off in a 
mysterious manner and were towed greater or less distances. The 
Ray had collided with the chain, and, true to its instincts, threw its 
two tentacular feelers or claspers around it and rushed ahead, thus 
lifting the anchor.” 

In accordance, too, with this proclivity to seize upon objects which 
bar their progress, Devil-fishes have been charged with damage and 
destruction to wharves which extend into the water. “It was in 
obeying this peculiarity of their nature that a shoal of these fish, as 
they swept by in front of ‘Elliott’s’ grandfather’s residence, would 
sometimes, at floodtide, approach so near to the shore as to come in 
contact with the water fence, the firm posts of which they would 
clasp and struggle to uptear, till they lashed the water into a foam 
with their powerful wings.’ Any such action, however, would be 
entirely exceptional and the statement requires authentication. 


a Opmcit-pywl0! 
SOpucitn wpselo: 


Pay 


NO. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 167 


V 


The food of the Devil-fishes, so far from being large animals and 
occasionally a man or so, as has been alleged, appears to be chiefly 
the small crustaceans and young or small fishes which swarm in cer- 
tain places near the surface of the water. Rarely does one prey on 
large fishes. Once only did the man who had the most experience 
with the fish (Hon. William Elliott) see evidence of disposition to 
resort to scaly fish; he gives this testimony :* “I have frequently ex- 
amined the contents of their stomachs, and found little else in them 
than portions of shell-fish, highly triturated, resembling the shells 
of shrimps. Once a small crab was found entire; but I sought in 
vain for the scales of small fish, which I supposed to be their food, 
partly because the Devil-fish make their appearance in our waters in 
May, before the shrimps are found on our shores, and would thus 
be anticipating their food—a mistake which fish are not apt to 
make—and partly because I witnessed a performance on the part of 
a Devil-fish which could scarcely be referred to anything else but to 
an occasional indulgence in a fish diet. 

“T was watching a Devil-fish, who was playing close to the shore. 
But in shallow water he is often alarmed by the noise of the oars, 
and he would not suffer my approach within striking distance. 
While thus engaged, I observed a shoal of small mullets swimming 
near the surface, and showing signs of extraordinary agitation, when 
suddenly the open mouth of the Devil-fish was protruded from 
below, and the small fry disappeared from view, and were received 
into it, as into the mouth of an enormous funnel. I do not think it 
was mere wantonness on the part of the fish, but that he was, on 
that occasion, indulging a caprice of appetite, and substituting a diet 
of scale-fish for his ordinary mess of shrimps.” 

We have, in this observation, a hint as to the function of the 
“horns” or head fins; these may not only serve by their extension 
to partly confine the prey, but they may be actively used to drive or 
scoop them in. The stories of their grasping intentionally may be 
received with some skepticism, although they do so accidentally. 

It is, indeed, largely by means of the head fins, or caropteres, that 
the Devil-fishes secure their food. ‘That consists at least in part of 
crustaceans and other organisms which live about the surface of the 
seas they frequent. In the Gulf of California, where the Devil-fishes 
are most numerous, such animalcules are said by one observer to so 
abound that a thick sheet (nappe épaisse) of the organisms is 


AO pMcite pps ots.os: 


168 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


formed at the surface of the water. The fishermen in such localities 
affirm that they never find any large animals in the stomachs of the 
Devil-fishes. 

But, if Richard Hill’ is to be credited, some Devil-fishes may be 
also “ground feeders.” ‘They are, he thought, “formed for shoving 
through the fields of turtle grass, testudinaria, but, unlike the Rays, 
which are likewise ground feeders,” one of the Devil-fishes “does 
not seize its prey on the ground, but, pushing on through the marine 
herbage, it takes into its wide-open mouth the congregated living 
things that are in the way—it may be the fish that nestle in the vege- 
tation or the naked mollusca that depasture there—at once swallow- 
ing them, or rather cramming them in with its cranial arms into its 
mouth and stomach, without deglutition, having no cesophagus. As 
the animal in this gathering in of food can not see forward, it must 
depend on casualties in the course it steers through the marine 
meadows for prey. The rolled-up head-fins between the crescented 
head sufficiently direct the food to the mouth.” 

In the Gulf of Mexico and elsewhere, the Devil-fish has been 
charged with feeding on shell-fish and complaint has been made that 
it does considerable damage to oyster beds. This charge is due 
simply to the fact that the animal has been confounded with the 
Eagle-rays, whose large molar teeth eminently fit them for crushing 
shells. ‘The general resemblance as well as real relationship of the 
Devil-fish to the Eagle-rays is indeed such as to leave no room to 
wonder that the same name is applied to species of both families, but 
the singular head-fins of the Devil-fish distinguish it from all its 
relations of different families. 

Probably connected with the food and feeding of the Devil-fches 
are peculiar organs within the mouth, called by Panceri? and Dumé- 
ril, who first described them, “prebranchial appendages.” 

“On examining at the bottom of the mouth the pharyngeal aper- 
tures of the branchial chambers, or separating the walls of their 
external apertures, we see, in front of each of the respiratory sur- 
faces, a very regular series of organs which do not occur in any 
other fish, whether bony or cartilaginous. 

“These organs are elongated lamelle, the aspect of which some- 
what reminds us of that of the stems of ferns, but with the leaflets 


*The Devil-fish of Jamaica. Intellectual Observer, 2, 1862, p. 167-176. 

*Panceri (P.) e Leone de Sanctis. Sopra alcuni organi delle Cephaloptera 
Giorna, M. H. Atti Accad. Pontoniana, Napoli, vol. 9, 1871, pp. 335-370, 2 pls. 

*Duméril (A.). On the presence of peculiar organs belonging to the 
3ranchial Apparatus in the Rays of the Genus Cephaloptera. Ann. Mag. Nat. 
Hist. (4), 5, 1870, pp. 385, 386. 


NO. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 169 


turned back toward the branchiz. Each being formed of a fold of 
mucous membrane supported by a cartilage, these lamelle are 
attached to the anterior surface of the branchial arches, in front of 
the membranous and vascular folds of the respiratory organs; and 
it is their position that has suggested the name of prebranchial ap- 
pendages, by which they are designated by the Italian anatomist. 

“They do not serve for respiration. By means of injections, M. 
Panceri has ascertained that they receive arterial vessels, like the 
other organs, and not branches of the branchial artery.” 

These organs are thought by Panceri (and Duméril did not dis- 
sent) to be “destined, on account of the remarkable size of the aper- 
tures of the branchial chambers, the orifices of which are much 





Fic. 53.—Anterior Hemibranch of the Fourth Left Pouch. 


Fourth branchial arch. 

Section of the special muscle of the branchial arch or adductor of the two 
ceratobranchial and epibranchial portions, 

Branchial lamelle. 

Prebranchial appendages. 

av. Fold of the mucosa which partly covers the branchial lamellz. 


Saks 


aH 


smaller in the other Rays, to retain the water and prevent it from 
traversing these cavities with a rapidity which would be injurious 
to the perfect accomplishment of the act of hematosis.” 

A more probable use for these organs would be as strainers, sub- 
serving thus the same function, or rather an analogous one, as that 
of the gill-rakers of the giant Sharks. They would retain the smail 
organisms contained in the ingesta taken into the mouth, while the 


I2 


170 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


water itself would find exit as usual, relieved of a large part of its 
life. 





Fic. 54.—A Branchial Arch with Annexed Organs; transverse section next to 
the articulation of the arch (semischematic). 


a. Branchial arch with fossa of adductor muscle. 

b. One of the cartilaginous rays of the branchial diaphragm adherent to the 
anterior branchial lamelle. 

c. Accessory stem which connects with the arch. 

d. Muscle of the branchial diaphragm or interbranchial muscle to which 
posterior branchial lamellze adhere. 

e. Adductor muscle of the ceratobranchial and epibranchial parts of the arch. 

ff. Branchial lamellz whose external surface as usual is folded. 

gg. Cartilaginous stems of the bases of the branchial lamellze. 

hh. Muscles which unite the latter to the arch. 

it. Hydrophorous canals. 

jj. Prebranchial appendages in profile. 

1. Branch of the branchial artery. 

mm. Branchial veins with efferent lamellar branches, from which proceed the 

branches for the prebranchial appendages. 
n. Principal nervous trunk. 
x. Fold of mucosa covering partly the branchial lamellz. 


VI 


The Devil-fishes, of course, like other Selachians, come together 
in sexual intercourse.t ‘The details of their union as well as the 


‘According to Risso (Hist. Nat. Europe Mer., 1826, p. 165) the female of the 
M. giorna is always (toujours) much larger than the males. No observations 
have been made on the American Devil-fish; it is to be hoped that some 
may be. 


NO. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL I7I 


length of gestation are unknown. Even the exact date of the one 
observation that has been published has not been given, although it 
appears to have been some time in July. It is, indeed, quite possible 
that the appearance of the animals close to the coasts of the Southern 
States may be for the purpose of finding a suitable place for the 
birth of the young. By Elliott,) it was found, in the first years of 
his experience with them, that they appeared “only in August”; in 
1843, “for the first time, in July,” and in 1844 they were “taken in 
June.” 

Care seems to be extended even to the place of parturition by the 
Sting-rays, so that the young shall encounter the least danger from 
the tide as well as from living enemies. Alcock tells that all the 
small Sting-rays (Dasybatis walga) with embryos he observed “were 
found in shallow little tidal pools lying behind natural breakwaters 
of sand,” and he urges, “it seemed as if this comparatively safe sit- 
uation had been deliberately chosen by the mother as a nursery for 
her expected family, as, in the opinion of Professor McIntosh, is the 
case with the viviparous Blenny (Zoarces) of northern seas.” Anal- 
ogous care may therefore be exercised by the Devil-fishes, the rela- 
tions of the Sting-rays. 

A pair of these huge animals, male and female, were seen in union 


by Mr. Elliott and described by him.’ 
VII 


Whatever be the size or other characters of the Devil-fishes, so far 
as observed, they agree among themselves and differ from most other 
fishes® by having, normally, only a single young one at a birth. The 
giant mothers noticed by Duhamel, Risso, Mitchill, and Lamont 


= Op; Cit. ps 07. 

*Subito, leva—sed longiore spatio, quam, si jaculatus essem, speraverim 
transfigere ictu—duos pisces cephalopteras aspexi, amplexu conjunctos. Ven- 
tribus juxtapositis—capitibus erectis, et supra undam oblatis—antennis lascive 
intersertis—coitum salacem, ut solet genus squalus, ipso contactu corporis, 
tunc sine dubio exercuere. Ferire, ob distantiam non licitum, aut duos 
cephalopteras, solo ictu transfixisse, gloria inopinata mihi contegisset. Cym- 
bam appropinquantem, hastamque minantem, circumspecte evitant—et, in 
profundo paulisper latentes, iterum, dextra emergunt, ludosque lascivos 
repetunt. Tunc, quasi deliciis satiati, saltatione in aére, utrinque facta—aper- 
tum mare petivere. Hoc concursu tam raro notato—antennis albis, cum nigris 
admixis utsi lacertis—imago fcedi et immundi coitus, nudi Africani cum 
Caucasiana, plane prefigurabatur. (Elliott, Carolina Sports, 3d edition, pp. 


93, 94). 
*The Stingrays (Dasybatids) of some species at least have only a single 


young. 


172 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


each had only one (one or two, according to Risso*). In case of the 
small species named Ceratobatis robertsti or massenoidea, the mother 
likewise had a single foetus (a foetus sixteen inches wide). 

Although only one young is formed, that one is worthy of the 
giant mother and larger than any of the full-grown common Rays of 
ordinary size. It is practically immune from danger from the cus- 
tomary enemies of fishes and well able to take care of itself. 

Nature is economical in her methods and there is some adjustment 
of ways and means. In the case of egg-laying fishes of inferior size 
and when no care is taken of the eggs, many thousands—even inil- 
lions—may be laid by a single fish, and yet the number of adults 
remains practically the same, generation after generation. In the 
case of viviparous fishes like the Devil-fishes, a single young one at 
a birth is enough to keep up the species. 

The fishermen of Jamaica, according to Hill, “say that the mother 
fish makes the violent leaps she is seen to take out of the water to 
eject the foetus from the matrix; that the young fish is then observed 
to fall from her ; and that for a time it swims upon the parent’s back, 
and possibly enters the wide mouth-sack when necessary to seek 
shelter from apprehended danger.” All this is improbable. It ap- 
pears to be certain that the “leaps” are habitual to males and females 
alike, and it is probable that they are the extension of their peculiar 
mode of progression or “flight.” 

A pregnant female, 15 feet wide and which with difficulty forty 
men with two lines attached to it could drag along the ground, was 
landed, after a five hours’ fight, at Port Royal, Jamaica, in 1824. 
“On opening it a young, about 20 pounds weight, was taken out, 
perfectly formed”; it was five feet broad. An account of the cap- 
ture was given by Lieutenant Lamont in the Edinburgh Philosophi- 
cal Journal (x1, 113-118). 

Two observations respecting the procreation of Devil-fishes re- 
quire attention. 

That the Devil-fishes have only one young each, and consequently 
are viviparous, is the statement made by all observers. This vivi- 
parity is in analogy with the gestation in the relatives of the Devil- 
fishes, all the Sting-rays and Eagle-rays. Nevertheless a gentleman 


* Risso, in his “Remarques” on the “Céphaloptéres” gives the following data: 
L’époque de leurs amours est l’hiver ; les femelles mettent bas en Septembre un 
a deux petits, qui originairement sont renfermés dans un ceuf oblong jaunatre. 
Les males paraissent quelquefois n’abandonner leur compagne qu’aprés qu'elle 
a déposé ses feetus; et si l’un des deux se jette dans un filet, l’autre ne tarde 
jamais a le suivre. Risso Hist. Nat. Europe Mer., 3, 1826, p. 165. 


NO. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 173 


with considerable knowledge of ichthyology, Swinburne Ward, once 
the Civil Commissioner of the Seychelles Islands, after an account 
of the capture of a Devil-fish which “ten men could not haul” up on 
the beach, concluded with the affirmation that “she was full of eggs.” 
The idea might be (and has been) derived that this may have been 
a case of oviparity or multiparity, but the eggs (if they were such) 
were possibly the reserve stock left perhaps after the birth of a 
young one. The statement is in great need of confirmation. 

Mitchill, in 1823, tells that a “‘female that was struggling after 
having been wounded brought forth in her agony a living young 
one, as Captain Potter related, and Mr. Patchen, while he showed 
[ Mitchill] the orifices through which sucking is probably performed, 
declared that on dissection mammary organs were found, which dis- 
charged as much as a pailful of milk.” This at first incomprehen- 
sible and incredible statement may be reconciled with facts when we 
recall the mode of nutrition of the embryo among the Sting-rays, 
described by Alcock. It was the honest statement of an inex- 
perienced observer who misinterpreted facts. 

A remarkable provision among the Sting-rays for the nutrition of 
the embryo within the body of the mother has been made known by 
A. Alcock, on whose description, published in 1902, we may draw. 

It is by means of a secretion which is regarded as “analogous to 
milk” that the embryo is for some time fed. ‘The mucous membrane 
of the oviduct is “shaggy, with vascular filaments [named trophone- 
mata] dripping with milk” or rather a milk-like fluid, and on micro- 
scopic examination it was found that “each filament was provided 
with superficial muscles whose contraction must serve to squeeze the 
milk out. Some such mechanism is undoubtedly necessary, seeing 
that the young one has no power of extracting the secretion for 
itself. On examination of the young one, the mother’s milk was 
found inside the modified first pair of gill-clefts or spiracles (the 
other gill-clefts being tightly closed), and also in large clots within 
the spiral valve of the intestine, so that there can be no doubt that 
in these viviparous Rays the unborn young ones may be said to 


* Alcock (A.). A Naturalist in Indian Seas [etc.], London, 1902, pp. 210, 
71, 159. See, also, Observations on the Gestation of some Indian Sharks and 
Rays. Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 59, pt. 2, 1890, pp. 51-56, pl. 1; On the Uterine 
Villiform Papille of Pteroplatea micrura, [etc.] Proc. Roy. Soc., 49, 18901, 
PP. 359-367, pls. 7, 8; Further observations on the Gestation of Indian Rays; 
[etc.]; Proc. Roy. Soc., 50, 1891, pp. 202-209. On Utero-gestation in Trygon 
bleekeri. Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist., (6), 9, pp. 417-427, pl. 19, 18902; Some Obser- 
vations on the Embryonic History of Pteroplatea micrura, Ann, Mag. Nat. 
Hist., (6), 10, pp. 1-8, pl. 4, 1802. 


174. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


‘drink its mother’s milk’ like a mammal, even though the milk-like 
secretion does not go in at the mouth, but by channels homologous 
with the ear-drum of air-breathing vertebrates.” 









cmatiienn 
Wsene ene 
2 & Vitis 
: 3 





Fic. 55.—Pteroplatea micrura, After Alcock. 


No. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 175 


EXPLANATION OF FIG. 54. 


1. Embryo of Pteroplatea micrura, from dorso-lateral aspect; nat. size, but 
with only a few of the gill-filaments represented, for the sake of clear- 
ness. Ss, spiracle. 

2. End of a gill-+filament, showing marginal capillary filled in places with 
blood-clot. XX 42. 

3. Transverse section of a gill-filament, showing the marginal capillary in 
section and the single fold of epithelium. XX 188. For the sake of clear- 
ness the blood-clot is represented in one limb of the capillary only, and 
the spaces between the nuclei of the surface epithelium are a little 
exaggerated. 

4. End of a trophonema, or nursing-filament, seen as a transparent object in 
glycerine, showing the marginal artery and the superficial capillary 
plexus. X 42. The median vein is not seen so near the end. 

. Obliquely transverse section through a nursing-filament, showing the glands 
still in the form of solid bulbs lying beneath a still unbroken surface of 
epithelium. X II0. aa, arteries; v, vein; cc, superficial capillaries. 


on 


Doubtless an analogous provision for the nutrition of the embryo 
is developed in the Devil-fishes, and thus we have a satisfactory ex- 
planation of the statements of Patchen and Mitchill. Something 
like milk is secreted by the mother fish and is ingested by the young, 
but it is chemically different from milk, and instead of being sucked 
in by the mouth is absorbed through the postocular spiracles. The 
statements which have been much ridiculed have therefore a sound 
foundation in fact and are susceptible of a natural explanation. 

Nothing is known respecting the development of the embryo of 
any Devil-fish, but undoubtedly it is similar to that of the Sting-rays. 

The very young embryo of the Sting-rays, as of all other Rays, 
contrasts remarkably with the mother, especially in the case of the 
very wide forms, such as the Pteroplateines. The embryo at an 
early stage has a form very like that of a Shark, but with pectorals 
provided with basilar extensions free from the head, and extending 
forward parallel with it in advance of the eyes. These extensions 
later unite with the sides of the head, and the regular Ray has then 
become developed. Essentially, the form of the mother has been 
attained by the young when ready for extrusion from the mother’s 
womb. This much at least is known of the new born of Devil- 
fishes. 


VIII 


The various species of Devil-fishes are representatives apparently 
of three different generic types, distinguished by differences of deri- 
vation. Mobula (also called Aodon, Cephaloptera, or Dicerobatis., 


176 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


has teeth in both jaws; Manta (or Ceratoptera) has teeth confined 
to the lower jaw, and Ceratobatis has teeth only in the upper jaw. 
The species also differ in size and the character of the dorsal spine. 
While a width of twenty feet or more may be attained by some, 
others become sexually mature when four feet wide. In most of 
them the tail is short and the dorsal spine characteristic of Sting- 
rays is obsolete, but it is asserted to be well developed in the Mobula 
glorna. 

The number of species of Devil-fishes is uncertain. In 1870 seven 
species were recognized, five of the genus Dicerobatis (Mobula)* and 
two of Ceratoptera (Manta). One representing a new generic type 
(Ceratobatis) was added in 1897. One of gigantic size, generally 
supposed to be Manta vampyrus, has been observed at many places. 
Whether there are more than one species is uncertain.2 There is a 
discrepancy in the length of the tail assigned to some. Most of the 
giants have a tail nearly as long as the body, but one referred to by 
Hill, about fifteen feet wide, had a tail only two feet long. The spe- 
cies of Mobula differ. The M. giorna of the Mediterranean is said 
to have a tail about three times longer than the width of the disk; 
the M. japonica one “nearly thrice as long as the body,” and the 
M. olfersii of Brazil and the Caribbean Sea one about as long as the 
disk and much less than its width. The Ceratobatis robertsti has the 
tail not much less than twice the length of the disk (620: 350), but 
considerably less than its width (620: 780).* 

One species—the true Devil-fish of the United States, Manta 
vampyrus—is not uncommon in the warm American waters and ap- 
pears on the South Carolina coast in summer in “shoals.” 

The Manta vampyrus has a body or disk nearly twice as wide as 
long, and a tail about 6/10 as long as the body; the body and tail are 
rough from the development of small tubercles which extend almost 
everywhere; the band of teeth (confined to the lower jaw) extends 
over almost the whole width of the jaw and is composed of about a 


"Three nominal species were described later—Dicerobatis draco, Giinther, 
1872; D. monstrum Klunzinger, 1871, and Cephaloptera tarapacana, Philippi, 
1894. 

°'This subject will be considered in a future article. 

* The tail may have been decurtated in youth. 

“The figure in Day’s Fishes of India (1878, p. 745), which he “surmises” 
may represent “Ceratoptera chrenbergii’ is nothing but an illustration of a not 
unconimon monstrosity of an ordinary Ray (Raia) with free anterior exten- 
sions of the pectorals, resulting from arrest of development. (See Proc. U. S. 
Nat. Museum, 1895, pp. 195-108.) 


NO. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 177 


hundred transverse rows; the rows are separated from each other 
by well-marked interspaces. It is said to attain a width of 30 feet.' 

This or a very closely related species has been found not only in 
the West Indian and Carolinian seas, but along the west coast oi 
America, along the African coast, and in the Indian Ocean. A 
Devil-fish fourteen feet six inches wide, caught near Durban, Natal, 
also presented the same proportions as the American species. A 
plate representing it from before and behind was published in the 
Zoologist for April, 1899. 

Like most other large Selachians, the Devil-fish is beset by Echen- 
eidids, commonly known as Sucking-fish or Suckers and often 
confounded with the Pilot-fish. Elliott? noted that “he is attended 
by a band of parasites,” which “followed him into shoal water” and 
“adhered so closely after he was aground that several suffered them- 
selves to be taken by the hand.’ 


IX 


The Devil-fish from time to time has been the object of sport. He 
who indulged most in it and captured almost twenty has given 
animated pictures of some of his adventures. One of the most con- 
densed and entertaining accounts may be welcome here. 

One day in late June (24th), sailing toward “Hilton Head” 
(South Carolina), Mr. Elliott with his crew went after Devil-fish. 
Soon he saw “a shoal” of them “sweeping along the beach, traveling 
rapidly downward with the tide” and freely showing themselves at 
the surface. After an ineffectual cast with a harpoon, “three showed 
themselves below and one above.” 





*The records of size are very defective. ‘The largest actually measured by 
Elliott was 17 feet wide (p. 64), another 16 feet (p. 80), and another 15 feet 
(p. 43). Another lost after being dragged “into three feet water” was esti- 
mated to be larger; “there he lay, extending twenty feet by the wings” (p. 
51). One taken in the Gulf of California in 1846 was 19 feet wide, 3 feet 6 
inches thick, and had a mouth 3 feet 5 inches wide (Zodl., 1849, p. 2358). 
Another noticed by Gosse (The Ocean, p. 193-194, Amer. Edit., p. 189) taken 
at La Guayra, was 20 feet wide, with a “length from end of tail to end of 
tusks [caropteres] 18 feet,” a “mouth 4 feet wide,” and “its weight 3,502 
pounds.” 

* Op’, cit.,. p. 44, 

*Le Vaillant, near the African coast, met three Devil-fishes (“diable”), one 
of which was accompanied by a sucking-fish (“pilote du diable”) attached to 
each horn (“corne”) of the Devil-fish. His account is unreliable. ‘The para- 
site is the Remora remora according to Street (Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 7, p. 54), 
and Pellegrin (Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat., Paris, VII, 327). 


178 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Now he shall speak for himself :* 


“T pushed at one that showed his back fairly above water, as he 
swam; but he sank just before I reached him, and I drove down the 
harpoon at a venture. He had a narrow escape, for the staff struck 
him. At this moment, three showed themselves below and one 
above. I pushed for the latter, and when I approached the spot, I 
saw the water boiling up like a caldron—from which sign I knew that 
the fish was throwing his somersets below the surface (in the way 
which is so very peculiar to them). Making the oarsmen check the 
headway with their oars, I looked anxiously for a view, when, unex- 
pectedly, I saw the white of his belly far beneath the water, and 
quite away toward the stern. He was thus behind me, but wheeling 
suddenly to the right, I pitched the harpoon at him, across the oars, 
and felt a sensation of surprise, as well as pleasure, in finding that 
I had struck him. ‘The fish dashed out violently for the channel, 
and we payed him out thirty fathoms of rope until, headway being 
given to the boat, we brought him to a dead pull; and now his mo- 
tions were very erratic; unlike some that I had before struck, he did 
not take a direct course for the sea, but sometimes drew the boat 
against the tide, then suddenly turned and ran directly toward us, so 
as to give slack line. I inferred from these signs that he was mor- 
tally hurt. As often as he approached the Middle Bank and shoaled 
the water, he drew off in alarm, and would not cross it until he had 
got to its tail; his course was then for Paris Bank, which, suiting 
well with our intention to land him, if we could, at Bay Point, we did 
not interrupt. About this time he came to the surface without being 
pulled, and showed great distress—and we resolved, then, to draw 
upon him and get a second harpoon planted. It was after various 
fruitless efforts, and by shortening the rope as far as we prudently 
could, that we at length drew him so far up that the dark shadow 
of his body was indistinctly seen beneath. ‘The second harpoon was 
now driven, and the gush of blood to the surface showed that it had 
done its work. We now drew mainly on this second, leaving only a 
moderate strain upon the first—and after a few convulsive runs, 
brought him up helplessly to the surface, and with a spear dispatched 
him outright. With a hatchet we now cut a hole in one of his 
feelers, and inserting a rope, passed it to the stern, drawing solely 
on this, so that the resistance of the fish through the water should 
be as small as practicable. ‘The wind was now due east and moder- 
ately fresh; we raised both sails, and, helped at the same time by the 
oars, made some way in our tedious progress on towing our prize to 
land. At this time, espied a boat beating down from Beaufort, and 
on signalizing her, she proved to be that of Col. De Treville, then 
on his way to Bay Point. His offer of assistance was accepted, and 
a tow-line being passed to his boat, we landed our fish at the Point 
exactly at sunset. ‘This fish measured sixteen feet across, which I 
suppose to be the medium size of those that visit our waters. The 
first harpoon had struck it near the center of the belly—had pierced 


*Op. cit., pp. 68-72. The punctuation of the original is preserved. 


No. 1816 STORY OF THE DEVIL-FISH—GILL 179 


the liver, and passed nearly through to the back. The second had 
passed from the back into his lungs or gills—so that the full power 
of so large a fish was never fairly exerted against us. Had the same 
fish been struck in the wings, or other parts not vital, his capture 
would have been uncertain—and would at any rate have cost us the 
work of many hours. 

“T suppose the shoal of Devil-fish was a large one; the third which 
appeared we struck at—the fourth we harpooned—and as we were 
rapidly drawing off from the shore, a fifth was seen. How many 
were still behind, we had not leisure to observe; but conjecture this 
was but the advance guard of the column.” 


Later adventurers after sport with the Devil-fish have hunted it 
along the Florida coast as well as in the Gulf of Mexico and the 
Caribbean Sea. C. J. Holder has told of his experience in “Trailing 
the Sea-bat” in “Outing” for 1900, and J. Turner-Turner has de- 
voted two chapters of his book entitled “The Giant Fish of Florida” 
(1902) to the “Enormous Rays, or Devil-fish,’ which he pursued. 
The article by Holder has been republished in that author’s work 
entitled “Big Game at Sea,” published in 1908 (pp. 1-35). 

The pursuit of such a giant as the Devil-fish is necessarily attended 
with some danger, but this incident adds to the zest the sportsman 
feels. Elliott records that he had been “carried twenty-five miles in 
the course of a few hours by two of these fish (having struck a relay 
when the first sea-horse escaped, and losing both), with three boats 
in train.” 

According to Leon Diguet? (1898), in the Gulf of California, 
where Devil-fishes are numerous, the pearl-fishers, when caught 
during a calm away from mooring places, always take the precaution 
of dropping two anchors at night for fear that one should be seized 
by a Devil-fish and hauled afar by it. Diguet went in pursuit of a 
specimen for the Musée d’Histoire Naturelle of Paris, and, after one 
had been harpooned, it turned back on the boat, seized the bow with 
its headfins, and held it in its clasp till it was lanced a second time. 
But this clasping is largely automatic, and the Devil-fish only makes 
for the boat from which it has been attacked when it experiences 
the stress through the line from that direction. It is not like the 
attack of some sharks when wounded. ‘The Devil-fish, in fact, has 
been called a “timid animal” by Diguet. 

The Devil-fish, nevertheless, is the object of considerable dread 
among the fishermen of the Gulf of California; for, although not 
aggressive, it is frequently encountered, and Diguet tells that numer- 


*Vaillant (L.) et L. Diguet. Sur le Céphaloptére du Golfe de Californie. 
Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat., Paris, 1808, pp. 127-128. 


180 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


ous cases have occurred of death resulting to divers,as well as 
bathers from encounters with the Devil-fish, or Manta, as the men 
call it. On the other hand, the carcasses of many that are killed are 
used for bait for other fishes. 


* An accomplished naturalist of the second quarter of the last century, Col. 
Hamilton’ Smith, “once witnessed the destruction of a soldier by one of these 
Cephalopteri off Trinidad. It was supposed that the soldier, being a good 
swimmer, was attempting to desert from the ship, which lay at anchor in the 
entrance of the Boca del Toro. * * * ‘The Colonel is positive as to this 
fish being a Cephalopterus.” ‘The full account is given in Griffith’s edition of 
Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom (“The Class Pisces,’ p. 654). The evidence is 
very unsatisfactory. 





® 
- 
— 
r 
Pra! 
= 
6 


k. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XIII 








TYPE OF INDIAN OF THE PERUVIAN REGION 


Hipurina man, 22 years old, from Acre District, Brazil 


INDIANS OF PERU 


By CHARLES:.C. EBERHARDT 


AMERICAN CoNnsuL At Iguitos, PERU 
(WitH Two PLaTEs) 
INTRODUCTION 


The difficulty experienced in obtaining reliable information 
relative to conditions in general in the region about Iquitos, 
leads me to believe that the results of certain studies I have made 
regarding the Indians of Peru may be of some value and interest to 
others. 

I had hoped to make a more thorough study of this interesting 
subject from actual observation among the different tribes, obtain- 
ing specimens of their weapons of warfare, their clothing, utensils, 
etc., but ill health has prevented any systematic work along these 
lines. I have been fortunate, however, in having been able to make 
several trips among different tribes with Mr. George M. von Hassel, 
thus gaining first hand a limited amount of information on the sub- 
ject, but the greater part comes from Mr. von Hassel himself, who, 
it seems to me, is probably one of the best authorities on the subject 
and one highly qualified to speak regarding these Indians. Mr. von 
Hassel has had long experience in the interior of Peru. During the 
last ten or twelve years he has lived for months at a time with 
various tribes, speaks the Quechua language and many other dia- 
lects, and by gaining their confidence has been able to mingle freely 
with the Indians, gaining an insight into their customs, methods, 
and manner of living such as few white men have enjoyed. 

The accompanying photographs were taken by the French ex- 
plorer Robushon, who spent a number of years among different 
tribes. Among his experiences was his romantic marriage with an 
uncivilized Indian girl, whom he met in the forest one day roaming 
about entirely nude and alone, her father and mother and others of 
the tribe of which she was a member having died of some pestilence. 


‘Consular report to the Department of State, transmitted to the Smith- 
sonian Institution by the Department. Dated Iquitos, Peru, November 30, 
1907. Slightly abridged and several illustrations omitted. 


181 


182 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


He took her to France, where she was educated, and she returned 
to this country a few years later thoroughly conversant with three 
languages and assumed, with credit to herself, a place in local society 
among the best families here. Mr. Robushon undertook another 
trip in a wild part of the Upper Putumayo district about two years 
ago. He has never returned, and searching parties which have 
been sent out have been unsuccessful in their efforts to find him. It 
seems most probable that he was killed and eaten by some of the 
cannibal tribes of that region. 

Owing to the difficulty of obtaining authentic data as to popula- 
tion, due allowance must be made for the estimated number of in- 
habitants of the Department of Loreto (in which Iquitos is situated), 
120,000, and that of trans-Andean Peru, 300,000. Of this latter 
number one-half, or 150,000, are said to be wild Indians, most of 
whom, aside from petty tribal wars, are peaceably inclined, obtaining 
food and such raiment as they require from the supply furnished by 
a generous and lavish nature. 


ENUMERATION OF ‘TRIBES 


Following is a list of the principal tribes which go to make up 
this total of 150,000, with the approximate number of inhabitants 
of such tribes as are said to number more than 2,000, though names 
of smaller tribes and subtribes almost without number could be 
added. ‘The total of these numbers is 116,000, and the difference, 
therefore, 34,000, comprises such tribes as those whose number of in- 
habitants does not appear on the list and which are composed mostly 
of from 200 to I,000 souls each. Some of these tribes are said no 
longer to exist as such, having become extinct by intermarriage 
with other tribes, taken prisoners by stronger tribes and the whites, 
or dying from diseases introduced by the white man, usually small- 
pox. 

In the spelling of these names one will detect at once the Spanish 
style, which has been given to the words as pronounced by the na- 
tives themselves, and as there is always considerable difference in 
accent, enunciation, etc., of different individuals in the pronunciation 
of the same word, one often meets with several ways of spelling the 
name of a certain tribe. Most of the tribes retain the name handed 
down for generations, though others are known by the names of the 
rivers or vicinity in which they live, being thus designated by the 
rubber-gatherers or the whites with whom they come in contact. 


NO. 1817 INDIANS OF PERU—EBERHARDT 183 


Principal Indian Tribes of Peru 

Tribe Number 
Atti EOLOSMP TMT eretee oreo tee rere eae oer e le Sie Orb ihn ES Besaueels 

Cells Me RO eee are aah a avainsd os hust lig Stara a Oe ecole bie | 
TMT HS COMMON EI Ten hh elecssciva cis oid Seren cas ele ane Oe ake 
WPUMAS urate ijs.s: ots sie) cher ae Ne ota cinoab were Sisco ke poeta 
(Wickte nulasmencrie rr rks ce ee ieesiaiiaee Sesh sonia nia be citieteusieitete, 6 
@nocaiSeskwecr ate eer cece Sal ole hai sPae eaeianrns erate 
S CD MAS MMR Ter Net en ee tinrree vcfe iste e real srtestn nue stdmie a oh a inde eis 
NOMS Ori Semper heresy Pe eiseeitie iloe erepeie serine ocucis cite sincmeie a els 
COMeV OMe Smet el Verses isk ots teTa here caren has eae Goes sa tie ees 
SAV OL MEN R tent eet ota eee oucr on che deo eieasunattunitoe ew eis aes 
Witt rallesmmeyerperen tercfoeer fcrerercisra cis corte arnt oer otseeae ays ions i ales Meebrarawi oes 
IB OMAtL SAVES = arteistar ve. Scss estas) Siaiers hanes sivas hemes theese aa nies. 
CASADES Me eT ee Oe eens cierto ree ee ae nen 
Sarcrllas terre re eee anys etcetera olneials 
UIT AS gue FL Pe card eR PRA, Ana tag POR rea we) tralia $ oye 
NYCI EW a FIC). eral Gis GC rc REGIE EEIGIS Tene Ale Eerie vene ne = eee 
IMiitncay Se Stars ees earteencs ce eecten ct tae cic susie ans uetarsia Sle’ eip.s/e ssoucin doth 
WONG yaereterre ce tla os cloa hele e are ties eon ai on Reeiislc Aa eis 6 
PAMELA SUR Pee ce iekare see ein ld oe iors elele oS REE Ges eee ; 
TENANCY REISE Site ie ROR OERS ICC SRO ein ROA Cea 
(CTRABIOYORS iste, pee SRS Oa RC EINE er aL eee 
Canimesweie eee ee Tat arei ees oe Aen 
RecN IS tae Pee ren enone eters OP Eset tenes SC ees era ne Dake 
Misaatcttacpers, era ane excel crake ares Ao eis Soe oe Aca ok aes 
IMinetaspevrcrestis cet kc citer ees: REE LT TR eons 


20,000 


GESe VES pe era. risen casteienis soa Boh Maine eas 
TUETT TEES ete pct CCN A PR TORRE EA Sa aT Pa OR a 
PRORAV CS Maas Fie Gye Aaah digrstets oeishd pepe Be poe ad a 
Siciyeni CM eSata ae eae AA et aerate Merit Ne titans NI eS Se 
CC oI1N9) 1 eee Te eater rae eYt ees ioras hes etcuo ale cc: Skois Li eTe tee CREPES Crete en ee bie 
NUP OU CLOS ME tee ve nie citthr cris) totereey ccuiepticlses ion clots Suece 6.6:Sitrdwaloters D oisverslsveeaieuns 2,000 
@rTrejones. ere onicseon ies RE eens ee rae Gane TOPO Ta a akon 2,000 
EROS AIO SMEs etc tate core Gre iar shine aiaeno oc Dark sid ares OO use tee owe 
Peay fe Lit ituereraits cr sree eee avai le tae cic aks Sues Ges ye aa Bvsvereia Sots 
aAtOSMMby yee are cei is ot cess oti aa aes, 3 ? 
PTLGOAS Barrera ore fa arc eevere va cieca ake sia oie ken ei ioen Nei aiees See er otonvae Ve aGhie sd ( 
ReqtitOSsaeee ses erecta eee busthre sake Bereta Sie tiera etalelay erie piers & Sievsieaisielee ws 
EA TOS Hey arctescve arses wiier ciars/ aren’ Peter eersier eis sw esiere sivas ovsvalevels Nee veers 
ERT AMIDISAS Fue tances pate asians Sefer ae crartre Gevamaihier sia os at) 
SAGLECOS 4 cucsercnseie ct sia vatecs ine ie cle aa eaia aiolaaiaieis we ale eros eicie oe aioe = 
PSTIEI DAS MAEM er. Cyaya eter ceased site casio ceie sine on. Sis mvorehavshereiojaiess¥ersyerctovsiav aver sreyerorares oie 
PNOUATIIN A Siem ayeprcriersit sei kouserarss Soalele oxhere the dahalcievais o averertaverolereis eibiers Sasa 2,000 
WEDELOS ven -totce atte eteterats sels HONS aes 6-3 ses Bee Iveratoie aielelsieieiereicisisie-s 
CavanaSec.c 25 one cao. Ips sete atte MINERS ee chars TET nee e ave wate Se 
Calitianamasn cai censteGudewicm nee sens BAER ren ala eee ares eee cak 


7,000 


2,000 


184 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Tribe Number 


CA OS 35545 si ahh ws aieyecetes ete eek eee Ret pe ekcrres Son arate ce 2,000 
Cocamullas: so.3.5 Bae oo ds Leas SAE Le ene fae Le 
Mae UnMas® ss 2 s45. Sasad cee Sine cele eee are SS ee eS eRe 
Omagitas-i55°4 15 24.2 Te Shc, peas eee tis AVS RE FS nee need ae 
Mavorutias i255 iis itu. sore be Aer ee CE et UT hdc oe Re 
Capanahwasy ei): 2 sheeec eh eee eee EEO De cas D SLE SER eee 3,000 
INaiiitaSm esr eeries Ly day Semana ee Seats PMP RPRRE TRS oad 2B ved ci as hooey th ee ace 2,000 
SMipibes.. i creed cares eee aah ts cee TT MESA & tik pscieala ek A ae 
Shetibos, <e sce ces ee Saas See eee ae tL Aa ENED 
Conibas wo asks coe eo cle ee gs TEA Sola ee 
ReMOS yesteo eu eee eee Spent os Re adeylenaic: Gis ese reciaare Maree tOe oes . 
SACUVAS SA coke Se Mead Naoki phim mete fe Uw dik ir a.) ecient cichonise yar tee 
ATMUESH ASIN 2 Meanie he Rawece eee Saye eee eee chs ciate ucrees aie ce, Poe Se 
PUL OS cre ch cponey StS EAE RT ee AT Ee ATER OR Eaton CLO ns ne bees eae 
Ammahwacass aeerence cece DNase ere e oes elena eae BIST Re A TIE SIRT OD RTA 7,000 
Yurimaguas (now extinct)... .66s¢ssccee0 SC PE Hes Sere oe 
WViAT OS eee aOR aca leserersistel crovatandeile ele save ape decarnioans Rlaceal Meme ates 
PP ANTIAL 1S eA 24, oot aihi3.d 3 6 oe SS SOE Rb ER ee 3,000 
Wealnte mia Reece sich oi Me trcuy,cn ow eis ak ee OEY ae ena Be 2,000 
EMpUGinasta wea codsciedinad ove. pled nese ee 2,000 
Pacahiards™.<.d5< 0s dysiice is oheye eeceites oT TOoeUe Me ere ST REIRUSIS TS EL OLE ee 2,000 
Moyosmor Niuzos:.. <3. ds sees Eaut See Se Suntee arcieie ee ear 6,000 
PATA Aste ecciolesale who hb-s 3a Sea Coe Ee ee OT eee 
Capahenisnsiste Wis TOVREA Ra eine Sree ee en ee 
CAMP AS ek bros see. «'0 be er Hae aR Ee ee ee 
MA CHICAN GAS wx.» a2 didiere : eRe eIc Ae ee EER ORT e eee 
Camipash: (pure) ....2 eas rieoande nae an eee ade eee 
CampasrBravOSi:cchiccct oe: soe os sec ETN Oars 
Cash Pos. sai. stock a heave tetoaae Cone a eae ae eee 15,000 
Chonta-Campas: tas Ande 2505 ss) cee eee 
POMBO aSi--re,c) nna: ay onaciape tier oie ais eats ere : 
Comiatioass -.55.csiaru Bate wis sahetoeesy st ct Rare Reg ete! 
Cotameos:. iiscsd. c uka ek chute sae OER eee oe RE eee oe 


PMCAPACUEIS 24 Aw 2 cine eee oe ee Ree BE Con En ena ae 
INDASIICOS tan Sa ok 2s se, eee eee ; 


2,000 


6,000 


S018. 10 Tee (ella 0 '0.Fe a (@, (ele .6) elite, (a, ts sa) 116 1618 4a! \@,\8 (0. e)b)orelere lee (mere ele levesete nih a e,cs Teh\e 


Huachipairis 
PST GNIES Cogs Ce es ovina abe ania ORR OEE Ae Oe ee ee 
Tuyneiris 
Andoques 
Araizaires 


CCRC MO sae CLI tO OCC Cristie Cb IC CMC Oho Ch OcO i: CCL OIC) Cub VO Oech CCl rach a 5 


piel wliepe\ieite) sy sist aleyb) BXSV S/d) © nicollv. ey wis! alt Rpstele Pele aie re Sinpsbemcheieteys reer) ereiai sieges 2,000 
okishouslial bibiarnis cial elehelminycle,jcieFo¥ehetolieraielsYalelatetshchakatotelal fetes al el ctevehatitere 3,000 


SDE OOM OKS, SOE, wh KAR eS wXe save eho mel. 6jere uv, vf» le/iate pialofle eield éie:6 eens 


Se 8958/9 ee: 0) Bas ee See eee Be 8).6 6) ea) 69) & wie) e) ejmwieieleeleielésalele aha € 


Pacaharas) cv cupasact cess ey ee tr eee 2,000 


NO. 1817 INDIANS OF PERU—-EBERHARDT 185 


‘Tribe Number 
Girecob asm ee rear mera cia a clare niay a eva ots ssteslaceteles eis et wens nivie skiers aio eats 
NTIS CSMO LM IIA CRIS yale atcaiaie er starovose <2 sta aieceid ouererel9i sa adie edici sess a/dbi0', 00 
elite altel Suerte gee arena hekets oaeevayes Saeaci che cues cveks.£ Sisre:ovs ips, Shs wlerei ease iene sm, 8 a 3,000 
EB Oil SMP NET R eeorL eTRR elchaT ene oneness sestecel atone et cfessvaretare cat ete arenes cidunetie 6 3,000 
PaciMMON AMOSi Me MENS Sei Srn ce eiche ay ef ts ae) oiS.c torarn tare Sonya 5. oteiale laisiece. sheets 
Siete itt ls eee eves Pea NC Carisy at Acces tovains dois: oholet a AS oaliove Aciarive e's ole viewloe elt 3,000 
WVSTIMAD TTI CU AS MeN ete aces cts) ciel eusbelerete secrete, #s)s'a, ayes shovels s/sie) sw ies eisigial 3400.8 sae ee 
DYsci liven Meare TATE eat ray gave ster tea cicteteka ores cle a aisl onevel siaceleiatous. «leave dae cigs 
Re Dasma ee reer Tera Reta cial Seta checveiislis wichere ci euslokels ore aire ccs er eierdveeievetane 
GA LEO SMART CTT NCR PN eee spree ee ale a ees atabe: Sate aie, ov a eeate 
116,000 


BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF ‘TRIBES 


Brief sketches of the manners and customs of a few of the 
stronger of these tribes may be of interest before a general sum- 
mary is made. 

THE Huitotos 


The Huitotos, together with their subtribes, are considered the 
strongest in point of numbers of any of the Indians of Peru. They 
inhabit the district of the Upper Putumayo River (called Ica in 
Brazil) and the regions between that river and the Yapura, or 
Upper Caqueta, on the north and as far south as the vicinity of the 
Napo River. The greater part of these are inclined to treat with 
the whites, and several thousands of them are employed by rubber- 
gatherers. They speak a distinct language and use the lance and 
club as weapons, while stone axes are to be found among some of 
the tribes of the central regions. As is usual with Indian tribes 
generally, the women do most of the domestic drudgery and hard 
labor. It is a common sight to see a mother with a babe at her 
breast bringin’ in a supply of yucca for the noonday meal in a reed 
basket hung from her head down her back. 

The houses in which they live are not unlike huge circus tents ia 
shape, constructed of poles covered from peak to ground with a 
thatching of palm leaves. In one of these houses it was esti- 
mated that 150 persons were living at the same time. Each family 
is allotted a triangular space of about 12 feet, and at each point 
of the triangle poles are erected, from which their hammocks 
(made of woven reeds) are hung, while in the center of the triangle 
the cooking for the family is done over a small fire. The rougher 
work of crushing the yucca, etc., is carried on in the open space in 
the center of the house, though this space is free to all and is always 
used for their dances and other celebrations. 


13 


186 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


THE CAMPaAS 


Though less numerous than the Huitotos, the Campas, with their 
subtribes, numbering in all some 15,000, are much the more intelli- 
gent and in many respects the most interesting of any of the tribes 
of Peru. They inhabit the vast region from Rosalina, on the Upper 
Urubamba, to the junction of that river with the Tambo, and from 
that point the left bank of the Ucayali as far as the Pampas del 
Sacramento. All of the subtribes speak the Campa dialect and 
generally wear the traditional cushma, a sort of sleeveless shirt, 
crudely woven from the wild “cotton” which grows in abundance 
on a large tree in those regions. 

The Chonta-Campas and the Cashibos are the least advanced of 
the subtribes, and still use the light bark of a certain tree for the 
scant covering they wear when any is used at all. They are gener- 
ally hostile to the whites and at times have been known to eat human 
flesh, believing that by so doing they imbibe the strength, physical 
and intellectual, of their victim. The Cashibos are almost con- 
tinually at war with the neighboring subtribes. They inhabit the 
region of the Pachitea and Pampas del Sacramento. They num- 
ber approximately 3,000, though the continual intertribal wars and 
frequent excursions of the whites into their territory in quest of 
workers (when, if resistance is shown, they are often taken by 
force and practically enslaved) are causing a steady decrease. 
Men and women alike go naked or use the bark of the tree in the 
form of a long shirt, as above mentioned. Because of the isolation 
of their position, the machete and other arms so commonly used 
by other tribes are almost unknown to them, and they still use, as 
they have for centuries past, the stone axe and the bow and arrow, 
and defend the entrance to their homes by concealing sharpened 
spears in pitfalls. 

The Indians of the head tribes of the Campas are generally of 
rather noble features, friendly to the whites and willing and quick 
to learn their habits and customs. They are excellent canoeists, 
learn readily the use of firearms, and are sometimes employed in 
rubber-gathering. They spin and weave and cultivate quite exten- 
sive tracts of corn, yucca, bananas, peppers, and a species of potato. 

The Machigangas, another subtribe of the Campas, live in the 
Upper Urubamba and Pachitea districts, and with few exceptions 
are friendly toward the whites. They are rather small of stature, 
with regular features, and men and women alike wear the cushma. 
They are polygamists. Their numbers are also steadily decreasing, 


NO. 1817 INDIANS OF PERU—EBERHARDT 187 


as is the case with all the wild tribes, through fevers, smallpox and 
attacks by neighboring tribes. From their language and customs 
they show that they must have been in contact with the ancient 
Incas, though not entirely assimilated. They worship in their man- 
ner the sun and moon, believe in witchcraft, and besides their own 
language speak the Campa dialect. 

The Chonta-Campas are distinguished from others of the Campa 
subtribes by a small piece of wood about an inch long which they 
wear pierced through the upper lip. Some also wear such a decora- 
tion from the lower lip and a metal pendant from the nose and tattoo 
their faces with blue penciling. 


Tur AGUARUNAS 


The Aguarunas number approximately 2,000, inhabit the Marafion 
River district below the Cahuapanas River, have their own language 
and laws, believe in a good and a bad god as well as in witchcraft, 
and are polygamists. ‘They use the lance and blow-gun with poi- 
soned arrows. They are of medium stature, very muscular, with 
regular features, and some of the women are quite beautiful. They 
engage extensively in cultivating the natural products of the coun- 
try. This tribe, in civilization sometimes designated “Head-hunters,” 
has the gruesome custom of preparing human heads in a manner by 
which, though reduced to about one-fifth their natural size, they 
retain the same shape throughout that they possessed during life, 
and in a seemingly mummified, diminutive head thus prepared, 
can easily be recognized the features of the individual when 
alive. This custom originated in preparation of the heads of the 
enemies of the tribe who fell victims to them during their wars and 
which were kept as trophies. ‘The head was cut from the body and 
placed on a pole, where it was allowed to remain several days till 
decomposition had fairly set in. A vertical cut was then made in 
the cranium and the bones deftly removed in such a manner that 
only the thick cuticle remained. ‘The inside of the head was then 
burned and seared with hot stones and afterwards allowed to smoke 
in a flame from the burning roots of a certain species of palm. This 
flame is said to act much the same as salt on the parts exposed, and 
by the process described the head is made much smaller in size. 
Specimens of these heads became so much in demand a few years 
ago for museums, etc., that a premium seemed to be thus placed on 
the heads of persons venturing in the vicinity of this tribe, and 
many murders resulted. The Peruvian government has now for- 
bidden the practice, and the specimens becoming more scarce are 


188 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


commanding higher prices. I have known of them selling for $150 
to $200 in gold, and rather a poor specimen was recently sold in 
Iquitos for $80. In the Rio Negro and Orinoco regions there is said 
to exist a tribe which prepares entire bodies in this manner, and in 
the Putumayo district they are said to retain in natural size, by a 
system of smoking, the hands of enemies slain in battle. I have 
seen teeth, shin bones, and other parts of skeletons thus treasured. 

The Aguarunas, in commor with several tribes, also make use of 
certain poisons, both in their wars and in hunting. The poison is 
extracted from different species of vegetables and plants and pre- 
pared by the women and old men of the tribe. It has the peculiarity 
of killing game without giving any evil effects to one who may eat 
the flesh. Another poison is scattered over the surface of a pool 
where fish are known to gather, and great numbers of them are 
killed in this manner. The small fish, being able to withstand the 
effects of the poison for only a short time, rise to the surface first, 
and later the larger ones, though only the latter are taken. There 
is thus a vast waste, and though this form of fishing is prohibited 
by law, it is by no means stopped. The Indians of the Putumayo 
use in their wars a kind of poison which has the peculiarity of pro- 
ducing putrefaction almost as soon as the wound is made. 


THE HuICHIPAIRIS 


These Indians, united with neighboring tribes, have resisted to 
this day the invasion of the whites and remain hostile. They live 
in the Upper Madre de Dios district, are very muscular, both men 
and women, though not large of stature. The naturally fierce aspect 
of the men is heightened by the custom of perforating the upper lip, 
through which a piece of wood, feather or shell is inserted and worn. 
They have a language of their own, but many of them understand 
the Quechua and Campa dialects, the latter being introduced by the 
women of the Campa tribes, whom they are continually stealing. 


THE INJI-INJI 


Five hundred souls, the remnant of what was once a powerful 
tribe, go to make up all that now exists of the Inji-inji Indians, who 
live along the small streams and branches of the Curaray River. 
They are the lowest of the Peruvian Indians, both in manner of 
living and in the progress they have made. ‘They use stone axes 
for breaking down the trees when small clearings are needed in 
which to plant corn and yucca. ‘They are not hostile to the whites, 
but avoid as much as possible any contact with them. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XIV 





TYPE OF INDIAN OF THE PERUVIAN REGION 


Hipurina girl, 18 years old, from Acre District, Brazil 





NO. 1817 INDIANS OF PERU—-KBERHARDT 189 


Tue NAHUMEDES 


This tribe, now almost extinct, is remarkable only for the tradition 
which clings to it of having been responsible for the naming of the 
great Amazon. It was they who attacked the Spaniard Arellano 
on his journey down the great river after he had deserted the Pizarro 
expedition. The Indians, because of their cushmas and the manner 
of wearing their hair flowing loosely down their backs, were thought 
to be women warriors or “amazonas,’ and from that incident, as 
history also asserts, the river has retained to this day the name of 
Amazonas. 

THE OREJONES 


This name is given to the tribe which inhabits the Napo and its 
branches, from the fact of their enlarging the lower part of the ear 
by a process which is begun when they are children, until sometimes 
the ear hangs down almost to the shoulder. This custom is attrib- 
uted by some to the Incas, who in this manner indicated the families 
and descendants of Incas of “royal” blood. 


THE TRIBES AS A WHOLE 


The average traveler through the Amazon lowlands would prob- 
ably notice little difference between the various tribes further thau 
that some wear the cushma, others a short covering from waist to 
knees, and others go entirely nude. Several reasons are apparent 
by which the Indians have been driven to wear clothing at times: 
First, the moral; second, climatic conditions, such as cold in the 
mountainous regions, and third, the abundance of flies, mosquitoes, 
and other insects which abound in a hot country. 

The student would immediately note other differences, probably 
the first and one of the important ones being that in the regions on 
the right bank of the Amazon, from Urubamba and Ucayali to the 
Marajfion, all the Indians, with the exception of the Aguarinas, use 
the bow and arrow, while those on the left bank use the lance and 
blow-gun with poisoned arrows. These and many other items in 
detail would probably be interesting, but there has been no oppor- 
tunity for systematic study of the subject, so general information 
regarding the Indians of Peru is all that can be furnished. 


Form oF GOVERNMENT 


All of these tribes of Indians seem to be aggregations of 
numerous families, with one leader or chief, who is recognized as 
such by all the tribe. Among these families are subtribes, which in 
turn have their leaders or subchiefs, though the entire group in that 


190 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


vicinity are under the head tribe. For example, the Aguaranas, 
who, because of their superior culture rule over several smaller 
tribes, and each of these subtribes has its head man, or Curaca, but 
owe no allegiance whatever to each other; in fact, they often war 
with each other without interference from the head tribe. They 
rarely unite to fight a common enemy, which fact has been largely 
responsible for their condition today, as they have not been strong 
enough in their scattered condition to repel the invasion of the 
rubber-gatherers. 
LANGUAGES 


For the most part these tribes speak independent languages, 
with many dialects. Some of the tribes count as high as five, a very 
few even to ten, but the most of them use only the fingers in ex- 
pressing numbers greater than one. 


Houses 


Excessive rains have made living under some sort of shelter 
compulsory, and as a result, even during their wanderings in the 
forests, rude shacks of poles covered with a thatching of palm 
leaves are hastily constructed, though their permanent abodes are 
often very cleverly and strongly built of the same materials. 


Foop 


The Indians of Peru subsist almost entirely on the yucca, bananas, 
corn, fish, and the flesh of birds and game from the forests. Stones 
and hardwoods are used for grinding and crushing, and earthen- 
ware pots, etc., are used for boiling, roasting, and frying. In only 
a few localities is salt to be found, and even then it is generally used 
in a mixture with hot wild peppers. Some of the tribes that live on 
the Amazon and Ucayali eat earth from certain deposits (known by 
the Inca word kulpa) which contains a proportion of salt. Wild 
animals also seek these deposits. ‘This scarcity of salt and the nat- 
ural craving of the system for this mineral have been the means of 
making the eating of this earth a vice similar to the cocaine or 
opium habit. When taken in such quantities the stomach of the 
individual becomes much distended and death eventually results 
from it. 

The rather insignificant looking yucca, a shrub which grows ordi- 
narily to a height of from four to six feet, is probably the most prac- 
tical and useful of all the vegetal products of this region. The root 
of this plant, which resembles somewhat our sweet potato, is really 
the “staff of life’ for the average Indian household. Baked, it 


NO. 1817 INDIANS OF PERU—EBERHARDT 191 


serves as a substitute for bread; fried or boiled, it is as good as our 
potato; kneaded into a dough and baked with minced meats, fruits, 
etc., it makes a splendid pastry, while the juice, after treatment by 
certain processes, is made into masato, the beverage common to 
nearly all the tribes of Peru. To make this drink, baked yucca, 
crushed and ground till it forms a sort of a meal, is placed in earthen 
jars, mixed with the raw article likewise crushed (or sometimes 
chewed by the Indians till, mixed with saliva, a considerable portion 
is liquid), which serves to ferment the mixture, thus producing a 
greater or less amount of alcohol. The preparation of this drink is 
usually the occupation of the older women. Great quantities of it 
are drunk at the celebrations of marriage ceremonies, births, the 
beginning of a tribal war or at its successful termination. On jour- 
neys a certain amount is always carried, which, mixed with water, 
furnishes a very refreshing drink. The juice of the banana, pre- 
pared in more or less the same manner and mixed with water, is also 
refreshing. 
PuHysIcAL CHARACTERS 


In the color of his skin the pure-blooded Indian of Peru 
is practically the same dark brownish color as the North American 
Indian. The most of the tribes, however, seem to have become 
mixed at some time or other with whites or blacks, and many varia- 
tions in color are therefore to be noted, from the very dark tribes of 
the Putumayo, in whom may be traced strains of blood of escaped 
negro slaves from Colombia and Brazil, to the very light Huarayos 
of the Madre de Dios, of an ancestry of mixed Indian and Spaniard. 
In stature they may be said to be below the average in height, 
though usually very stockily built, and strong and muscular. 


MeEnTAL TRAITS 


When brought from their native haunts into contact with civiliza- 
tion, these Indians are as a rule very quick to adopt the customs of 
the whites. It is admirable to see the manner in which they learn 
in a short time to use firearms. As pilots on the smaller boats ply- 
ing the tributaries of the Upper Amazon many are rendering excel- 
lent service, while the crews are often made up entirely of men born 
and reared in the wilderness. A few of the more aggressive have 
become shrewd business men and wealthy exporters of rubber. 


PoLyGAMY 


All of the tribes of this region practice polygamy, a man’s 
standing and wealth being determined by the number of wives he 
may have, though this number rarely exceeds ten, the wives ranging 


192 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


in age from ten years to fifty years. A man’s wives are obtained 
from among the women of his own tribe, or by barter or theft from 
neighboring tribes. Thus a number of wives, one the favorite for 
a longer or shorter period, will live together in one household with 
very little jealousy or quarreling. ‘They are submissive, attend to 
all the duties of the household, also work in the small fields of yucca, 
corn, etc., and usually accompany the men on their journeys into the 
forests. 
DISEASES 


In addition to the violent deaths from the many tribal wars and 
attacks by the whites, certain diseases are proving an alarmingly 
great factor in reducing the population of the Indians of Peru. 
Probably chief among these is the viruela, or smallpox, unknown 
among them till after the coming of the whites, and entire tribes 
have been known to perish from epidemics of this disease, to which 
they seem peculiarly susceptible. In the mountainous parts of the 
country some die of pneumonia, and there is always a considerable 
number of deaths from malaria and other tropical fevers. Beri-beri, 
or elephantiasis, a swelling of the legs, is also quite common in cer- 
tain districts, and among the Aguarunas epilepsy has been known to 
exist at times. 

MEDICINES 


Contrary to the popular belief that Indians in general have a won- 
derful knowledge of the value of herbs, plants, roots, etc., for medic- 
inal purposes, very little is known or pretended to be known among 
the Indians of Peru. For fevers of all kinds they commonly use a 
species of tea made from Peruvian bark, and a mixture of quinine 
and the leaves of a certain shrub made into a poultice is placed upon 
wounds. In case of snake bite the blood is immediately sucked from 
the wound or the wound seared with a burning stick. Those who 
use firearms place powder on the wound caused by the bite, which 
is then set afire in the attempt to burn out the poison. When one is 
attacked by some unknown form of disease he is supposed to have 
been taken possession of by an evil spirit, and for his relief the 
Aguarunas, for example, use oaths and prayers by which they hope, 
through threats or entreaties, to free the victim from the malady. 


CANNIBALISM 


Cannibalism is practised by members of certain tribes of the Putu- 
mayo River district, who not only enjoy the flavor of human flesh 
well prepared, but also believe that they partake of the strength, 
both physical and intellectual, of their victims. Prisoners of war 


NO. 1817 INDIANS OF PERU-—-EBERHARDT 193 


are most always disposed of in this manner, amid great festivity, 
the prisoner always having been allowed for days previous all the 
food and delicacies of the village that he can consume, in order that 
he may become properly fattened. The indifference which these 
prisoners display toward the fate that awaits them, even when they 
know the exact time of their doom, is remarkable. ‘They eat great 
quantities of all that is given them, that they may make the better 
feast for their captors, perform duties as slaves, often going unac- 
companied for considerable distances from the place of captivity and 
returning without attempting to escape. When the day for the feast 
arrives the victim is brought to the center of the village, tied to a 
beam, and some one of the tribe who may have lost a relative in a 
war with the tribe of which the victim is a member, or perhaps had 
a brother eaten by them, is allowed to perform the execution. With 
a stone axe in his hand he addresses his victim, reminding him that 
his (the executioner’s) brother was sacrificed in a similar manner 
by the tribe of the victim, that he died without a moan or sign of 
pain, that he was therefore one of the most valiant of his tribe, that 
the assembled relatives and friends of the dead warrior would now 
have the opportunity of seeing if the victim could die as bravely and 
unflinchingly. After this address the victim’s skull is crushed with 
the axe, sometimes the unfortunate showing marvelous strength and 
determination in receiving several blows without a groan before he 
falls. Immediately after the execution the body is cut up and the 
feast indulged in. Among the Amahuacas the custom of burning 
the bodies is said to exist, and the charred bones are crushed or 
ground and afterward used as a flavor for their meals. 


SLAVERY 


. In various works written on Francisco Pizarro’s conquest of Peru 
we read that in character the Indians at that time were not at ail 
warlike, that their natural tendencies were toward husbandry and 
agriculture rather than war, which rendered Pizarro’s advance much 
less perilous, and with a few notable exceptions their complete sub- 
mission was comparatively easily brought about, nothing like such 
difficulties having been experienced by the Spaniards as was the case 
with Cortés in Mexico. This same trait of character is discernible 
in their descendants, who seem to expect no better fate than to be- 
come the servants of some padron, whom they serve submissively, 
with but little complaint. ‘Their songs, so characteristic, are indeed 
well named tristes (literally “sadnesses”), and when heard on a dark 
night about a campfire in the stillness of an Amazonian forest, their 


194 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


pathetic wail or lament seems the climax of all the sadness and 
pathos of their four centuries of servitude. 

The average Peruvian would no doubt show resentment at the 
statement that slavery exists in Peru, yet such is in reality the case 
with most of the Indians who come in contact with the whites. For 
the greater part, however, they are not treated harshly, and in their 
submissive way, with enough to eat and drink, seem to be contented 
and probably as well off as when roaming the woods. ‘Their condi- 
tion might be termed a system of peonage. The Indians enter the 
employ of some rubber-gatherer, often willingly, though not infre- 
quently by force, and immediately become indebted to him for food, 
etc. According to Peruvian law a person so indebted to another 
can be held and obliged to work till that debt is paid, and in these 
instances the employer sees to it that the employee never receives 
sufficient wages to extinguish his indebtedness, and he is therefore 
always practically a slave. By paying off this indebtedness a person 
may obtain the servant, who in this way becomes similarly the slave 
of him who pays the debt. However, the scarcity of labor and the 
ease with which the Indians can usually escape and live on the nat- 
ural products of the forest oblige the owners to treat them with some 
consideration. ‘The Indians realize this, and their work is not at all 
satisfactory, judging from our standards. This was particularly 
noticeable during a recent visit I made to a mill where cachassa, or 
aguardiente, is extracted from cane. The men seemed to work 
when and how they chose, requiring a liberal amount of the liquor 
each day (of which they are all particularly fond), and if this is not 
forthcoming or they are treated harshly in any way they run away 
to the forests. The employer has the law on his side, and if he can 
find the runaway he is at liberty to bring him back, but the time lost 
and the almost useless task of trying to track the Indian through 
the dense forests and small streams makes it far the more practical 
that the servant be treated with consideration in the first place. 

Through intermarriage with the whites, disease, and wars, the 
Indians of Peru are rapidly disappearing, and I am told that statistics 
compiled for a given period during recent years show that their 
numbers are diminishing at the rate of five per cent per annum; that 
in twenty years the wild Indians of the Upper Amazon will have 
disappeared almost entirely, and it seems only a question of time 
when the dying tribes of South American Indians must meet the 
fate of their brothers of North America, and the two in common, 
once the rulers of two continents, become only scattered remnants 
of their former greatness, if not entirely engulfed by the wave which 
seems sweeping over them. 





XV 


RES 


52, 


VOL. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 








OPUNTIA SANTA-RITA ROSE 


ON OPUNTIA SAN TA-RITA, A SPECIES OF CACTUS OF 
ORNAMENTAL VALUE 


By J. N. ROSE 
AssociATE Curator, Division oF Pirants, U. S. Nationa MusEuM 


For several years there has been growing in the New York Botani- 
cal Garden a strange Opuntia which somewhat suggests O. macro- 
centra, but which is more highly colored and more weakly armed, 
or not infrequently entirely unarmed. Upon my visit to Tucson, 
Arizona, in 1908, I found plants of this species in cultivation at the 
Desert Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, and 
growing spontaneously in waste places in the town itself and in the 
mountain ranges to the southeast of Tucson. An illustration of this 
new species recently appeared in the Plant World (vol. x1, p. 224, 
fig. 6) in connection with which Dr. D. T. MacDougal speaks of 
this cactus as follows: “The highly colored reddish joints and the 
delicately tinged flowers make this a very attractive plant, and it may 
be found in some of the gardens at Tucson.” It is, indeed, one of 
the most attractive of all the Opuntias, and is to be especially recom- 
mended for planting in the Southwest. If planted in mass, where 
it could occasionally be irrigated, I know of no other cactus which 
would be so striking or effective. 

It is to be regretted that persons in charge of public parks and 
large private or university grounds in that part of the country have 
not taken advantage of the various Opuntias to obtain unique and 
pleasing landscape effects. An attempt to show what can be done 
in this line is to be seen at Mesilla Park, New Mexico, where Prof. 
E.. O. Wooton has very effective groups of these plants. 

The description of the species is as follows: 


OPUNTIA SANTA-RITA (Griffiths and Hare) Rose 
Opuntia chlorotica santa-rita Griffiths and Hare, Bull. N. Mex. Coll. Agr. 


60: 64, 1906. 
PLATE XV 


Plant 60 to 140 cm. high, nearly as broad as high, with a short 
and somewhat definite trunk; joints orbicular or broader than long, 
blue-green, with the space about the areoles and the margins deep 
purple, or sometimes, especially when young, pinkish or purplish 


195 


196 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


throughout; areoles 1.5 cm. apart, bearing chestnut-brown bristles ; 
spines usually wanting, when present single or sometimes two, 2 
to 4 cm. long, needle-like, chestnut-brown; ovary purplish, shortly 
oblong; flowers very handsome, of deep yellow color, 6 to 7 cm. 
broad. 

Collected by J. N. Rose in waste ground in Tucson, Arizona, 
April 26, 1908 (no. 11922). This species is common on the foot- 
hills about Tucson and extends south nearly or quite to the Mexican 
border. 

This plant was described in 1906 by Griffiths and Hare as a sub- 
species of Opuntia chlorotica, but it seems to me to be a distinct 
species. 

EXPLANATION OF PLATE xv.—Made from a photograph taken by 
Dr. D. T. MacDougal at Surritas, Arizona, February, 1907, and 
here used through the courtesy of the Carnegie Institution of Wash- 
ington. 


TWO NEW SPECIES OF ABRONIA 


By ANTON HEIMERL 


UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA, AUSTRIA 
ABRONIA BIGELOVII Heimerl, sp. nov. 


Planta perennis, eodem modo ut in A. nana Wats. et in speciebus 
affinibus caule lignoso, abbreviato, in apice foliorum fasciculum 
densum et capitulum longipedunculatum gerente spectabilis. Folia 
omnia basilaria, in forma distinctissima, lineari-oblonga ad linearia, 
apice obtusata ad obtusissima, in petiolum cuneatim longe angustata, 
cum petiolo usque ad 34 mm. lg., 3.5-4 mm. It., petiolo laminam 
aequante ad evidenter superante, saepius in laminam sensim abeunte, 
latiusculo, albido, paulum hirtulo, lamina concolore, crassiuscula, 
griseo-viridia, integra, primum brevissime puberula, eglandulosa, 
denique glabra, nervo mediano imprimis basin versus distincto, nervis 
lateralibus indistinctis. Capitulorum pedunculus 5-7 cm. lg., gracilis, 
erectiusculus, in statu exsiccato angulatus, pilis eglandulosis, valde 
brevibus, modice dense, superne densius pulverulento-puberulus. 
Capitula (deflorata solum suppetunt) submultiflora, bracteis illis 
A. fragrantis Nutt. similia, membranacea, late ovata ad ovato- 
elliptica, breviter acuminata, acutiuscula, ad 8 mm. lg. et 5 mm. It., 
tenuiter pulverulento-puberula. Perianthia dense puberula. Antho- 
carpia, ut videtur, illis A. turbinatae Wats. similia. 

Legit Dr. J. M. Bigelow “near Galisteo” in expeditione anno 1853 
facta (Lieut. A. W. Whipple’s Exploration for a Railway Route 
from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, near the 35th 
parallel of latitude in 1853-54). 


ABRONIA COVILLEI Heimerl, sp. nov. 


Planta perennis, pluriceps, caespites densos, multifoliatos, ad 10-15 
cm. lt. formans. Radix valida, basi ad 1 cm. crassa. Caules 
complures e collo orientes, lignosi, f. intricati, procumbentes, valde 
abbreviati, ramosi, ad 3-4 cm. lg., eodem modo ut in A. nana Wats. 
foliorum fascicula et in apice capitula floralia pedunculata gerentes. 
Folia (spurie) radicalia, parva, lamina breviter ovata, in basi sub- 
truncata v. obtusata v. levissime cordata, 7-13 mm. lg., 5-9 mm. It., 


197 


198 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


in petiolum 10-30 mm. lg. cito contracta, antice obtusissima ad 
rotundata, crassiuscula, concoloria, lutescenti-viridia, subintegra v. 
paulum undulata, minutissime pulverulento-puberula, pilis brevissi- 
mis, patulis, eglandulosis, modice densis, nervis lateralibus gracilli- 
mis, paucis (2-3). Capitulorum pedunculi 17-24 mm. lg., subtenues, 
eodem modo ut folia minute superne solum distinctius, pilis + 
inaequilongis hirtuli, erecti, + rufescentes. Capitula minora usque 
2 cm. It., 6-12-flora, floribus erectiusculis, bracteis paucis (non raro 
solum 4-6), herbaceo-membranaceis, lanceolatis, ad 6 mm. lg. et 
2 mm. It., acutiusculis ad leviter acuminatis, viridi-albidis, dense 
brevissimeque puberulis suffulta. Flores parvi, ad Ir mm. lg.; 
perianthii pars ovarialis subturbinata, 2.5 mm. lg. et 2 mm. It., 
angulis 5 prominentibus, pilis eglandulosis, basi glabriuscula excepta, 
brevius supra autem longius et patenter hirta; tubus perianthii 
inferne I mm. It., sursum paulum sensimque ad 1.5 mm. dilatatus, 
viridulus, superne brevissime et parce, inferne paulo densius (eodem 
modo ut in parte ovariali) pilosulus; limbus ad 8 mm. It. (albus ?), 
profunde partitus, lobis f. obcordatis, ad dimidium emarginatis. 
Stamina 5-7, antheris paulo ultra 1 mm. lg. Germen 6 mm. lg., stylo 
superne ad 1.5 mm. stigmatoso. Anthocarpia desunt. 

Habitat in California ad Inyo Mountains in Inyo County ubi 
planta pulchra a clar. Coville et Funston lecta est. (Death Valley 
Expedition, no. 1782. “A. nana.”) 

Differt ab A. nana Watson indumento minutissimo, eglanduloso, 
foliis ovatis, bracteis capitulorum non scariosis, lanceolatis, minori- 
bus, ad triplo longioribus quam latis, floribus minoribus. 


PRELIMINARY NOTICE OF A COLLECTION OF RECENT 
CRINOIDS FROM THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 


By AUSTIN HOBART CLARK 


CoLLABORATOR, DEPARTMENT OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES, U. S. NATIONAL 
MusEuM 


The first consignment of crinoids received from the United States 
Fisheries steamer Albatross, now engaged in work among the Phil- 
ippine Islands, proves to be a collection of more than usual interest. 
Not only does it contain a remarkably large number of new and 
interesting forms, but many species, heretofore known only from 
single more or less imperfect specimens, are represented. 

The littoral comatulids of the Indo-Pacific region have already 
received more attention than any other group of recent crinoids; 
Seba, Linck, and Petiver described and figured species, upon which 
species Linnzeus bestowed binomial names; Lamarck diagnosed a 
number of additional species in 1816, and Miiller several more in 
1841 and 1846. Since then Carpenter and Bell have made great ad- 
ditions to our knowledge, the former, especially, in his magnificent 
Challenger monograph; in 1893 Hartlaub made the East Indian lit- 
toral forms the subject of a most excellent memoir; and in 1895 and 
1898 Koehler and Doéderlein published important papers dealing 
with them. In view of all this previous work, it is with no little 
surprise that I find in the present, mainly littoral, collection the new 
forms outnumbering those already known, if we except only the 
family Comasteride. 

Some time ago, while discussing the distribution of the recent 
crinoids, I mentioned that the entire Australian coast, southern as 
well as northern, was inhabited by purely tropical species, and be- 
longed in my “Indo-Pacific—Japanese” region. I did this with con- 
siderable hesitation; for the genus Ptilometra, characteristic of 
southern Australia, had never been taken elsewhere, though all the 
other genera range at least to Singapore, and most of them as far as 
Japan. It is, therefore, with peculiar satisfaction that I am now 
enabled to announce the discovery of Ptilometra north of the equa- 
tor, and to reaffirm, without the possibility of contradiction, the iden- 
tity of the southern Australian crinoid fauna with that of the tropical 
East Indies. 


199 


200 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Family PENTACRINITIDA® 
Genus METACRINUS P. H. Carpenter 
METACRINUS ZONATUS, new species 


Stem rather slender, rounded-pentagonal, the lateral grooves 
slightly marked; internodals 7 to 9 (usually 8), the edges scarcely 
crenulated, encircled by very prominent ridges, more strongly 
marked on alternate joints, high and thin, their bases not occupying 
more than the median third of the joints, and of uniform height all 
around the stem, passing unchanged over the broadly rounded 
angles; nodal joints moderately hollowed by the cirrus sockets, and 
with uniform high thin ridges connecting the bases of the cirri; 
cirrus sockets scarcely affecting the supra- and infra-nodal joints. 
Cirri in length about ten times the diameter of the stem, rather stout 
basally, composed of 55 to 57 joints, the first five short, then about 
half again as long as broad, gradually becoming broader than long 
in the distal half; cirrus joints with rather prominent and finely 
serrate distal ends, giving them a characteristic feeling and appear- 
ance, 

Basals broad and of nearly uniform height, slightly convex ex- 
teriorly, forming a very even basal ring, abruptly cut off distally and 
not produced into a point; “radials”? in all instances 8 (2+ 3; 
5+ 6) (1. e., “six, the second and fourth syzygies”) ; arms dividing 
three times both exteriorly and interiorly; distal edges of the arm 
joints prominent, making the dorsal surface of the skeleton very 
rough, especially proximal to the last axillary; pinnules resembling 
those of Metacrinus moseleyi. 

Measurements—Stem 195 mm. long, with thirty-six internodes; 
cirri 45 mm. long; arms (from the “primary” radials) 80 mm. long, 
the terminal 15 mm., with only rudimentary pinnules. 

Another specimen has a stem 190 mm. long, with thirty inter- 
nodes, and cirri 35 mm. long; the stems of both are freshly broken 
below. 

Color (in spirits).—Purple; stem, calyx, and arms to the second 
axillary greenish yellow; two other specimens are entirely light 
yellow. 

Type—Cat. No. 25435, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station No. 
5167; off Simonor, Tawi Tawi group; 110 fathoms. 


“I use Dr. Carpenter’s terminology to facilitate comparison with the species 
described in the Challenger report, in the Linnean Society’s Transactions, and 
by Dr. Déderlein in the Siboga report. 


1 


NC. 1820 RECENT CRINOIDS FROM PHILIPPINES—CLARK 201 


Also found at Station No. 5168; off Simonor, Tawi Tawi group; 
80 fathoms. 

The large number and regularity of the “radials” place this spe- 
cies with Metacrinus wyvillu, M. costatus, M. nodosus, and M. inter- 
ruptus, from all. of which, however, it is readily distinguishable by 
the prominent girdle on the internodals and the very broadly rounded 
angles of the stem. Its closest affinities appear to be with M. mose- 
ley, in which, however, the “radials” are irregular, the girdle on the 
internodals low and broad, arising from their whole surface, the 
angles of the stem more marked, and the cirri with fewer joints. 


Family COMASTERIDA 
Genus COMASTER L. Agassiz 
COMASTER SENTOSA (P. H. Carpenter) 


Station No. 5139; between Jolo (Sulu) and Pangasinan Island; 
20 fathoms. 

Station No. 5141; between Bubyan and Pangasinan Islands; 29 
fathoms. 

Station No. 5146; west of Tapul Island (south of Jolo); 24 
fathoms. 

Station No. 5147; off Balinpongpong Island (south of Jolo) ; 
fathoms. 


No 
H 


COMASTER FIMBRIATA (Lamarck) 


Station No. 5136; off the town of Jolo; 22 fathoms. 

Station No. 5137; off the town of Jolo; 20 fathoms. 

Station No. 5138; between Jolo and Pangasinan Island; 19 
fathoms. 

Station No. 5139; between Jolo and Pangasinan Island; 
fathoms. 

Station No. 5141; between Bubyan and Pangasinan Islands; 29 
fathoms. 

Station No. 5142; north of Jolo (town) ; 21 fathoms. 

Station No. 5147; off Balinpongpong Island (south of Jolo) ; 21 
fathoms. 

Station No. 5163; south of San Gasanga Island (Tataan group) ; 
28 fathoms. 

Station No. 5165; south of San Gasanga Island (Tataan group) ; 
9 fathoms. 

Station No. 5205; Janabatas Channel, between Leyte and Samar; 


bo 
oO 


6 fathoms. 


There are also some specimens with no definite locality given. 
I4 


202 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


COMASTER COPPINGERI (Bell) 


Station No. 5153; east of Port Dos Amigos, Tawi Tawi; 49 
fathoms. 
Two of the specimens have only ten arms. 


Genus COMATULA Lamarck 


COMATULA PECTINATA (Linnzus) 


Station No. 5139; between Jolo and Pangasinan Island; 20 
fathoms. 

Station No. 5142; north of the town of Jolo; 21 fathoms. 

There are some additional specimens without data as to exact 
locality. 

This species is at first sight very much like the ten-armed Coman- 
thus cumingii, first described by Professor Miller from Malacca— 
so much so, indeed, that I was at first forced to dissect apart the 
costals of each specimen to be sure of the identification, though I 
later learned to recognize the species from external characters. In 
Comanthus cumingti the cirri are proximally rounded with elongate 
joints, and distally flattened with short joints; this gives the cirri 
when viewed laterally the appearance of expanding distally; in 
Comatula pectinata the cirri are uniform throughout, the joints all 
subequal, usually not quite so long as broad. As a comparison, it 
may be said that while the cirri of C. cumingii resemble those of 
C. rotalaria, those of C. pectinata resemble those of C. solaris. In 
C. cumingii the lower pinnules are much elongated, and decrease 
gradually in length from the first outward; in C. pectinata only the 
first pinnule is elongated, the second and following being subequal 
and short; in the latter, moreover, the first two pinnules, and some- 
times the third also, are very strongly carinate basally, a feature 
never found in C. cumingii. In C. pectinata the costals have a shal- 
low and rounded, though distinct, median furrow, which is quite 
lacking in C. cumingii, while in the latter the proximal third or half 
of the arms is disproportionately large and swollen, this region not 
being enlarged in C. pectinata. 

I have compared the Philippine specimens with one from Java, 
identified by Dr. Carpenter, and find them identical. Indeed, Car- 
penter himself mentions the similarity between this specimen and 
some from Bohol collected by Professor Semper. 


NO. 1820 RECENT CRINOIDS FROM PHILIPPINES—CLARK 20 


WwW 


Genus PHANOGENIA Loven 
PHANOGENIA TYPICA Loven 


Station No. 5138; between Jolo and Pangasinan Island; 19 
fathoms. 

Station No. 5139; between Jolo and Pangasinan Island; 20 
fathoms. 

Dissection shows that the costals in this species, in P. multibrach- 
tata, in P. nove-guinee, and in P. gracilis of Hartlaub are united by 
synarthry and not by syzygy, the dorso-ventral ridge across the joint 
face being always plainly visible, at least near the central canal. 
The distichals are ordinarily 4 (3-+ 4); but all the succeeding 
division-series are 2 (1 + 2) ; the distichals are rarely 2. In Coma- 
tula pectinata the division series, when present, are 2 (1 + 2), as in 
C. paucicirra, and the costals are also united by syzygy. In Phano- 
genta typica the syzygies in the division series sometimes have traces 
of the synarthrial ridge which would seem to show that the syzygies 
were in the process of encroaching upon the synarthries of the divis- 
ion series, but had not yet succeeded in replacing the two first. 

Phanogenia typica, P. multibrachiata, P. nove-guinee, and P. 
gracilis,| therefore, occupy an intermediate position between Coma- 
tula and the group of species of “Actinometra’ typified by the 
Alecto parvicirra of Miller, having the costals and distichals of the 
latter, but the remaining division series of the former; they further 
differ from both in the great differentiation of the comb on the 
lower pinnules; this comb, moreover, is not confined to the proximal 
pinnules, as in other forms, but reappears at intervals all along the 
arm. ‘There is a sixth, undescribed, species from the East Indies 
allied to P. typica and P. gracilis, and presenting the same peculiar- 
ities ; in view of the sharp differentiation between these and the other 
species of the Comasteride, it would give a more correct idea of the 
systematic value of their characters to restrict the genus Phanogenia 
to them, and to consider the species with distichals 4 (3 +4) or 2, 
subsequent division series 4 (3-+4) or 2 as constituting the genus 
Comanthus, typified by the Alecto parvicirra of Johannes Miiller 
(= Comatula rotalaria Lamarck). 

These two genera may be differentiated as follows: 


a’.—First articulation of the free arm a syzygy;all division series except the 


first 2 (1+2); terminal comb short, with long curved teeth, and set at 
an angle to the axis of the pinnules, not confined to the proximal pin- 
nules, but occurring at intervals throughout the arm....... Phanogenia 


*To which must be added P. distincta. 


204. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


a’.—First articulation of the free arm a synarthry; all division series 4 (3+4) 

or 2; terminal comb long, with short teeth, continuing in the same direc- 

tion as the basal portion of the pinnule, and confined to the pinnules in 

PLS Mp LO xa) ap aint Ok elne welts Il eee erates eee eee erate eee ae ene Comanthus 

Comatula is readily distinguished from both of these genera by 

the syzygy between the costals, and Comaster by the presence of a 

pinnule on the first brachial of all arms not arising from costal axil- 
laries. 


PHANOGENIA NOV#-GUINEZ (Jj. Muller) 


Station No. 5136; off the town of Jolo; 22 fathoms. 

Station No. 5137; off the town of Jolo; 20 fathoms. 

Station No. 5138; between Jolo and Pangasinan Island; 19 
fathoms. 

Station No. 5142; north of Jolo town; 21 fathoms. 

Station No. 5147; off Balinpongpong Island (south of Jolo) ; 21 
fathoms. 

Station No. 5153; east of Port Dos Amigos, Tawi Tawi; 49 
fathoms. 

Station No. 5174; off Jolo town; 20 fathoms. 

Station No. 5179; between Tablas and Romblon; 37 fathoms. 


The cirri are usually less than ten in number, with 12 or 13 joints, 
the proximal much elongated, the distal short. The arms are 75 mm. 
to 90 mm. long, composed of joints with overlapping and spinous 
distal ends; the pinnule joints are more or less spinous. 


PHANOGENIA MULTIBRACHIATA (P. H. Carpenter) 


Station No. 5141; between Bubyan and Pangasinan Islands; 29 
fathoms. 

Station No. 5142; north of Jolo town; 21 fathoms. 

Station No. 5146; west of Tapul Island (south of Jolo); 24 


fathoms. 
Genus COMANTHUS A. H. Clark 


COMANTHUS NOBILIS (P. H. Carpenter) 


Santa Cruz, Marinduque. 

Station No. 5138; between Jolo and Pangasinan Island; 19 
fathoms. 

Station No. 5146; west of Tapul Island (south of Jolo); 24 
fathoms. 

Station No. 5147; off Balinpongpong Island (south of Jolo) ; 21 
fathoms. 


NO. 1820 RECENT CRINOIDS FROM PHILIPPINES—CLARK 20 


cn 


“Station No. 5163; south of San Gasanga (Tataan group); 28 
fathoms. 


‘Station No. 5165; south of San Gasanga (Tiataan group); 9 
fathoms. 


COMANTHUS DUPLEX (P. H. Carpenter) 


Station No. 5145; off the town of Jolo; 23 fathoms. 


COMANTHUS DIVARICATA (P. H. Carpenter) 


Station No. 5138; between Jolo and Pangasinan Island; 19 
fathoms. 

Station No. 5147; off Balinpongpong Island; 21 fathoms. 

There are also other specimens with no definite data. 


COMANTHUS ROTALARIA (Lamarck) 


Alecto parvicirra 1841. J. Mtiirr, Archiv fur Naturgesch., 1841, 1, p. 145." 


Station No. 5142; north of Jolo town; 21 fathoms. 
Station No. 5147; off Balinpongpong Island (south of Jolo) ; 21 
fathoms. 


Station No. 5159; west of Sunalac Island (Tataan group) ; 18 
fathoms. 


Station No. 5163; south of San Gasanga (Tataan group); 28 
fathoms. 


Station No. 5205; Janabatas Channel, between Leyte and Samar; 
6 fathoms. 

Pangasinan Island; shore. 

Tataan Islands; shore. 

There are also other specimens with no definite data in regard to 
locality. 

There can be no doubt that the species commonly known as parvi- 
cirra is in reality the same as the previously described rotalaria. 
The only recognized difference between the two is the possession by 
the latter of distichal series of 2 followed by palmar series of 
4 (3 +4), while in the former all the division series are 4 (3 + 4); 
but both Carpenter and Hartlaub, who have each treated of the 
species “parvicirra”’ at considerable length, admits the more or less 
common occurrence of distichal series of 2 in specimens they un- 
hesitatingly refer to it. Dr. Hartlaub, under his “Type B” of parvi- 
cirra, says that this type has distichal series of 2, and 4 (3+ 4), 


: au additional synonyms see Carpenter, Challenger Reports, xxv1, Zodlogy, 
P. 336. 


206 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


with a strong tendency toward the former condition; three of his 
specimens had five of each type, two six of 2, and the remainder 
(not more than four) 4 (3-+ 4) one eight of 2, and two all of 2. 
Carpenter in his description of rotalaria says “two distichals, the 
second axillary without a syzygy;” later he says “tridistichate series 
occur abnormally in both examples [he had only two] ;” his figure 
shows nine distichal series, three of 4 (3 + 4), and six of 2. Over- 
looking the difference in the number of the distichals, Carpenter’s 
description of rotalaria is included in every character in his more 
exhaustive one of parvicirra; since Hartlaub has shown the number 
of distichals to be valueless, we are forced to the conclusion that 
rotalaria and parvicirra are identical. 

Carpenter records from the same station in the Philippines (Sam- 
boangan, 10 fathoms) seven specimens of parvicirra+ and two of 
rotalaria, the latter, however, both with one or more distichal series 
of 4 (3+ 4). The present Philippine collection may safely be con- 
sidered to include specimens identical with Carpenter’s Philippine 
examples. I find in it all variations; the majority of the specimens 
have the distichals mainly 4 (3-+4); many have them all 
4 (3 +4); but one (Tataan) has them all 2, thus being even more 
typical than Carpenter’s specimens, which he refers without ques- 
_ tion to rotalaria. But there is not the slightest doubt that all the 
specimens before me are specifically identical ; and therefore, assum- 
ing my “tridistichate” specimens to be comparable to Carpenter’s 
Philippine parvicirra (they are certainly identical with the two 
Challenger specimens in the National Museum), and my “bidis- 
tichate’”’ specimens to be the same as his rotalaria, from the unques- 
tionable specific identity of mine I am led to infer the specific identity 
of his. . 

Some question might, of course, arise in regard to the correctness 
of Carpenter’s conception of rotalaria; but he personally examined 
minutely the collection at Paris, and so careful was he in regard to 
specific discrimination that I believe we are safe in assuming the 
identity of the Paris specimens and those dredged by the Challenger 
at Zamboanga. 


COMANTHUS ALTERNANS (P. H. Carpenter) 
Station No. 5142; north of Jolo town; 21 fathoms. 


*T have at hand two of these. 


NO. 1820 RECENT CRINOIDS FROM PHILIPPINES—CLARK 207 


COMANTHUS CUMINGII (J. Muller) 


Station No. 5137; off Jolo town; 20 fathoms. 

Station No. 5142; north of Jolo town; 21 fathoms. 

This very distinct species has about ten cirri with thirteen joints. 
It is hardly necessary to call attention to the fact that none of Pro- 
fessor Bell’s records of “Actinometra cumingit’ refer to this form. 


COMATELLA new genus 


The type of arm structure found in “Actinometra” pulchella (1. e., 
alata), maculata, stelligera, and migra differs from that found in 
any other group. The division series are all 2, but the first two 
brachials of the free arm are united by syzygy. In ten-armed speci- 
mens belonging to one of these species, or in arms springing direct 
from the costal in others, the first syzygy is between the third and 
fourth brachials. Assuming the type of arm division to be extra- 
neous, and Z, and Z, to be the distichals, this would be at once ex- 
plained; for a splitting of the arm just before the first syzygial pair 
would, of course, result in a doubling of the syzygial pair, these two 
resultants resting upon Z, as an axillary; thus we would get dis- 
tichals 2, and a syzygy between the first two brachials. This is the 
condition found in maculata and in the majority of specimens of 
alata; but in some specimens of the latter, and in stelligera and 
nigra, from one to five additional axillaries occur. Now the man- 
ner of occurrence of these additional division series is unique; in 
nigra, starting from the distichal axillary, they are only found ex- 
teriorly, so that from each distichal axillary there spring two main 
trunks giving off interiorly at every two joints an undivided arm, 
after the last axillary ending in undivided arms themselves. In 
stelligera and in alata, when palmars are developed, the costal ax- 
illary instead of the distichal is the starting point. The first two 
joints of the undivided arms and of the terminal arms at the end of 
the branching trunks always have a syzygy between the first two 
brachials; but in alata and in stelligera, in arms springing from the 
costal axillary the first syzygy is between the third and fourth brach- 
ials. The natural inference is an extraneous division, as in Comas- 
ter, but just before, instead of just after, the first syzygial pair. 
When exterior palmar series are developed in alata and in stelligera, 
we get a peculiar state of affairs; for internally the distichals repre- 
sent the first two brachials of a free arm followed by the third and 
fourth (a syzygial pair) as usual; but externally they represent an 


208 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


interpolated division series, the two palmars representing Z, and Z,, 
or the first two brachials of the two exterior arms. In nigra the 
costals and distichals appear both to be interpolated, instead of only 
the costals, as in the other species; the proof of this would be found 
in an arm arising undivided from a distichal axillary (a condition I 
have not been able to observe, as all the specimens before me have 
the full complement of palmar series), where, if this interpretation 
were correct, the first syzygy would be between the third and fourth 
brachials. This condition, in which a single division series repre- 
sents internally Z, and Z.,, and externally an interpolated series, I 
propose to distinguish as compound arm division; and it seems 
worth while to recognize the species possessing this compound type 
of arm division as constituting a distinct genus, which may be desig- 
nated Comatella, the genotype to be Actinometra migra P. H. Car- 
penter. The presence of a syzygy between the first two brachials of 
the free arm (this being the first syzygy), combined with the exclu- 
sive occurrence of division series of 2, distinguishes the species at 
sight from those of the remaining genera. 


COMATELLA NIGRA (P. H. Carpenter) 


Station No. 5136; off the town of Jolo; 22 fathoms. 

Station No. 5139; between Jolo and Pangasinan Island; 20 
fathoms. 

Station No. 5142; north of Jolo town; 21 fathoms. 

Station No. 5145; off Jolo town; 23 fathoms. 

Station No. 5146; west of Tapul Island (south of Jolo) ; 
fathoms. 

Station No. 5147; off Balinpongpong Island (south of Jolo) ; 21 
fathoms. 

The cirri are about xx, 30, the distal joints with small dorsal 
tubercles; there are three to five post costal axillaries; the first 
costals are entirely, and the radials partially, visible; the rays and 
division series are widely separated. The arms are 150 mm. in 
length, and the cirri, which are rather stout, 30 mm. 


bo 


4 


Family ZYGOMETRIDA‘ 
Genus CATOPTOMETRA A. H. Clark 
CATOPTOMETRA MAGNIFICA, new species 


Centro-dorsal large, discoidal, with a moderately concave, broad 
polar area 5 mm. to 10 mm. in diameter, having a deep rounded pit 
in the center. 


NO. 1820 RECENT CRINOIDS FROM PHILIPPINES—-CLARK 209 


Cirri marginal, arranged in two closely crowded, irregular, but 
more or less alternating rows XXX-XL, 18-25' (usually 20-24), 
30 mm. to 35 mm. long; first joint about twice as broad as long, 
second not quite so long as broad, third squarish or very slightly 
longer than broad, fourth slightly longer, fifth slightly longer still, 
about half as long again as its median diameter; next three joints 
similar, the following then gradually decreasing in length, the ter- 
minal six or seven being squarish; opposing spine, though promi- 
nent, small, terminally situated, rarely reaching in height more than 
one-third the diameter of the penultimate joint ; terminal claw large; 
longer than the penultimate joint (usually half as long again, some- 
times even longer), stout, and moderately curved. 

The cirrus joints are deeply concave dorsally and laterally, though 
nearly straight ventrally; this makes the articulations stand out 
prominently and gives the cirri a characteristic knobby appearance 
like those of C. rubroflava; this character becomes less and less 
marked as the joints decrease in length distally. 

Disk more or less plated along the ambulacra. 

Radials, and usually the first costals also, concealed by the centro- 
dorsal; first costals, when visible, very short, united in their anterior 
half, but widely separated distally; costals united by syzygy; costal 
axillaries short, triangular, in the smaller specimens about three 
times as broad as long, in the larger four or five times as broad as 
long; distichals, palmars, and post-palmars 2; first joints of each 
division series inwardly united for their proximal half, but their 
inner edges diverging in their distal half almost in a straight line 
from the point of union, so that the arms and division series are well 
separated. Arms 40 to 80 in number; first brachial usually rather 
large, sometimes nearly as long exteriorly as broad, inwardly united 
in the proximal half, diverging in almost a straight line in the distal ; 
there is considerable diversity in the size of the first brachials, some 
being very short, while most of them are about twice as broad as 
long exteriorly ; second brachial nearly oblong, about twice as broad 
as long; third and fourth (syzygial pair) oblong, somewhat less 
than twice as broad as long; following six or seven brachials oblong, 
about twice as broad as long, then becoming wedge-shaped, then 
almost triangular, about twice as broad as long, gradually becoming 
less and less obliquely wedge-shaped, and very gradually increasing 
in length, so that the terminal joints are wedge-shaped, about as 
long as broad, or rather longer, with rather prominent articulations. 


*The number of the cirri are given in Roman numerals, and the number of 
their component joints in Arabic. 


210 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Syzygies occur between the third and fourth brachials, again be- 
tween the thirteenth and fourteenth to seventeenth and eighteenth 
(rarely an additional one between the ninth and tenth), and distally 
at intervals of three to thirteen (usually six or eight) oblique mus- 
cular articulations. The second and following brachials have pro- 
jecting and finely spinous distal edges, making the arm character- 
istically rough. 

Proximal pinnules very slender and flagellate; first pinnule 15 
mm. to 20 mm. long, very delicate, with about 60 joints, the first 
five of which are broad and are provided with a dorsal carinate 
process, the. remainder squarish; second pinnule longer, about 
22 mm. in length, with the same number of joints, but slightly 
stouter ; first five joints modified as in the first pinnule, the remainder 
squarish; third pinnule similar to the second and about the same 
length; following pinnules decreasing gradually in length, in basal 
stoutness, and in the number of component joints, the sixth being 
12 mm. long with 30 joints, of which those in the proximal third are 
similar to the corresponding joints of the second and third pinnules, 
those in the distal portion being longer than broad, becoming ter- 
minally about twice as long as broad; twelfth pinnule 8 mm. long, 
with about 20 joints, the first two not quite so long as broad, the 
third and fourth squarish, the remainder becoming progressively 
elongated, and about twice as long and broad distally; distal pin- 
nules very slender, 9 mm. long, with about 30 joints, the first wedge- 
shaped, not so long as broad, the second trapezoidal, about as long 
as its greater diameter, the third longer than broad, the remainder 
about twice as long as broad. The pinnule joints have slightly pro- 
jecting and very finely spinous distal ends. 

Measurements—Arms 140 mm., cirri 30 mm. to 35 mm. in length. 

Color (in spirits) Red brown, the cirri yellow brown; in life 
apparently bright yellow with regular bands of bright red on the 
arms, like C. rubroflava. 

Type.—Cat. No. 25436, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station No. 
5137; off the town of Jolo; 20 fathoms. 

This species was also found at Station No. 5139; between Jolo 
and Pangasinan Island; 20 fathoms. 

This fine species resembles C. rubroflava in the knobby character 
of the cirri and the roughness of the arms; but the cirri are very 
much longer than in that species, while the arms are from forty to 
eighty in number as compared with a maximum of thirteen in C. 
rubroflava; moreover, the distichal series in C. rubroflava, as in all 
of the recent Zygometride previously known, are 4 (3 -+ 4), while 
in the present species they are 2. 


NO. 1820 RECENT CRINOIDS FROM PHILIPPINES—CLARK 2I1 


Genus EUDIOCRINUS P. H. Carpenter 


EUDIOCRINUS SERRIPINNA, new species 


Centro-dorsal discoidal, the rather broad dorsal area flat. 

Cirri x1x, 12°14, 5 mm. to 7 mm. long, arranged in a partially 
double marginal row; first joint short, second squarish, third, fourth, 
and fifth about half as long again as broad basally, the terminal five 
or six squarish; second and following with expanded distal ends, 
this character dying away distally ; cirri rounded basally, but becom- 
ing compressed distally, the distal portion consequently appearing 
broader in lateral view; opposing spine prominent, central in posi- 
tion, not reaching half the diameter of the penultimate joint in 
height; terminal claw longer than the penultimate joint, abruptly 
curved basally. 

The arms are as in the other species of the genus, except that the 
brachials are rather more strongly overlapping, the carination, which 
is very slight, is single instead of double, and the syzygies occur at 
intervals of three oblique muscular articulations; the surface of the 
joints is finely granulated, as in &. granulatus. 

The proportions of the pinnules are as in the other species, but the 
lower pinnules, and especially those which are enlarged, have the 
distal ends on the dorsal side very strongly produced, giving them 
a strongly serrate profile. 

The strongly serrate condition of the lower pinnules distinguish 
this species at once from the other three species of the genus; the ° 
single carination of the dorsal surface of the arms is also unique, 
while the small number of the cirrus joints differentiate it sharply 
from E. indivisus and E. granulatus. 

In Professor Bell’s description of E. granulatus, he uses “first” 
and “second” pinnule in the sense of the two first pinnules on the 
same side of the arm, while Professor Semper uses the same terms 
strictly, taking the pinnules alternately in order of sequence; hence 
Professor Bell finds a great difference between the “first” and “sec- 
ond” pinnules of his E&. granulatus, and those of E. indivisus, which, 
in reality, is non-existent. : 

Measurements——Arms about 40 mm., cirri 5 mm. to 7 mm. long. 

Color (in spirits).—Yellowish brown, the cirri lighter, the peri- 
some darker. 

Type.—Cat. No. 25437, U. S. N. M.; from Albatross Station No. 
5136; off Jolo town; 22 fathoms. 


212 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Genus ZYGOMETRA A. H. Clark 
ZYGOMETRA ELEGANS (Bell) 


This species was found at Station No. 5137; off Jolo town; 20 
fathoms; and at Station No. 5138; between Jolo and Pangasinan 
Island; 19 fathoms. 


Family HIMEROMETRIDA: 
Genus PONTIOMETRA A. H. Clark 


PONTIOMETRA ANDERSONI (P. H. Carpenter) 


One magnificent specimen was secured at Station No. 5146; west 
of Tapul Island (south of Jolo) ; 24 fathoms. 


Genus HIMEROMETRA A. H. Clark 
HIMEROMETRA BARTSCHI, new species 


Centro-dorsal thick, discoidal, with a rather strongly concave polar 
area; cirri arranged in two and a partial third crowded, more or less 
alternating, rows. 

Cirri Xxx, 41-43, long, rather more than one-third the length of 
the arms, moderately stout; first five joints about twice as broad as 
long, the following gradually increasing in length to the ninth or 
tenth, which is squarish; after about the sixteenth they gradually 
decrease in length, the terminal joints being about twice as broad as 
long; after the seventeenth joint small but prominent dorsal spines 
are developed; opposing spine centrally situated, rather slender, 
reaching about half the diameter of the penultimate joint in height; 
terminal claw considerably longer than the penultimate joint, slen- 
der, moderately curved. 

Radials approximately even with the edge of the centro-dorsal ; 
first costals short, united for their entire length; division series and, 
brachials as in H. crassipinna. 

Distichal and palmar pinnules 25 mm. long, very stout basally, 
but tapering gradually to a slender and delicate tip, with about 4o 
squarish joints; first brachial pinnule 15 mm. to 17 mm. long, pro- 
portionately more slender than those preceding, with about 32 joints, 
slightly longer than broad, the first two of which are slightly cari- 
nate; second brachial pinnule smaller and more slender, 13 mm. 
long, with 30 joints, the first short, the next three or four squarish, 


No. 1820 RECENT CRINOIDS FROM PHILIPPINES—CLARK 213 


the remainder slightly longer than broad; the second, third, and 
fourth joints are somewhat carinate; third brachial pinnule 8 mm. 
long, small and weak, with about 20 joints, those in the proximal 
half squarish, those in the distal slightly longer than broad, the sec- 
ond to the sixth rather strongly carinate; succeeding pinnules de- 
creasing rapidly in length, the fifth and following being 5 mm. long, 
then slowly increasing again and reaching a length of 9 mm. distally. 

Measurements—Arms, 120 mm., cirri 45 mm. in length. 

Color (in spirits). —Brown. 

Type—Cat. No. 25438, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station No. 
5146; west of Tapul Island (south of Jolo) ; 24 fathoms. 

Another similar specimen was obtained at Station No. 5147; off 
Balinpongpong Island (south of Jolo) ; 21 fathoms. 

This species agrees with H. crassipinna in the general scheme of 
its arm division and in the shortness and strong overlapping of the 
projecting distal ends of the brachials; the distichals are 4 (3 + 4), 
the palmars 4 (3-+4) externally, 2 internally; the post-palmars, 
which are developed on the inner side of the inner palmar series of 
each distichium only are 4 (3 +4); each distichium divides once 
externally and twice internally, which would make fifty arms in all; 
the type specimen has fifty-one. The comparatively slender lower 
pinnules, which become delicate and flagellate distally preclude any 
possibility of confusion with H. crassipinna. 


HIMEROMETRA ROBUSTIPINNA, new species 


This new form agrees in its general appearance and in its arm 
structure with H. crassipinna, but the cirri, while containing the 
same number of joints, are without dorsal spines, though the last 
three joints may have small central tubercles (in H. crassipinna 
strong dorsal spines are developed in the outer third or even half of 
the cirri), and the lower pinnules, though with the same number of 
component joints, are much stouter, with most of the joints broader 
than long, and smooth, without the prominent projecting spinous 
distal ends characteristic of the joints of the proximal pinnules of 
H. crassipinna. 

The type has 37 arms 100 mm. long, and 18 cirri 35 mm. long; 
the distichal pinnule is 15 mm. long. 

Color (in spirits ).—Dull violet. 

Tvpe—Cat. No. 25439, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station No. 
5165; south of San Gasanga (Tataan group); 9 fathoms. 


214 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOI,. 52 


HIMEROMETRA MAGNIPINNA, new species 


The absence of prominent dorsal spines on the cirri of this species 
separate it at once from Ay crassipinna and H. bartschi, and give the 
cirri a certain resemblance to those of H. robustipinna; but they are 
smaller than those of that species measuring only one-quarter of the 
arm length instead of rather over one-third, and are correspondingly 
delicate. 

The proximal pinnules, however, are different from those of any 
other form; they are very stout, but also very long, and taper evenly 
from the base to the tip; the distal ends of their component joints 
are slightly swollen, but are not spinous and overlapping as in H. 
crassipinna; the taper is much more gradual than in that species, 
while the pinnules have 28 or 29 joints instead of 20. 

The arm structure and arrangement is as in H. crassipinna, H. 
bartschi, and H. robustipinna. 

The type specimen has 62 arms 120 mm. long, and 25 cirri 30 mm. 
long, with 28 to 32 (usually 28 to 30) joints. 

Color (in spirits).—Dull violet. 

Type.—Cat. No. 25440, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station No. 
5139; between Jolo and Pangasinan Island; 20 fathoms. 

This species was also found at Station No. 5147; off Balinpong- 
pong Island (south of Jolo) ; 21 fathoms. 


HIMEROMETRA PERSICA A. H. Clark 


Station No. 5163; south of San Gasanga (Tataan group); 28 
fathoms. 
Another specimen has no definite data as to locality. 


HIMEROMETRA BENGALENSIS (Hartlaub) 


Station No. 5146; west of Tapul Island (south of Jolo); 24 
fathoms. 


HIMEROMETRA QUINDUPLICAVA (P. H. Carpenter) 


Station No. 5139; between Jolo and Pangasinan Island; 20 
fathoms. 
Another specimen has no definite data in regard to locality. 


HIMEROMETRA ANCEPS (P. H. Carpenter) 


Station No. 5147; off Balinpongpong Island (south of Jolo) ; 21 
fathoms. 
Other specimens have no definite locality given. 


NO. 1820 RECENT CRINOIDS FROM PHILIPPINES—CLARK 215 


HIMEROMETRA MILBERTI (J. Muller) 


Station No. 5100; off Corregidor Island (entrance to Manila 
Bay) ; 35 fathoms. 


HIMEROMETRA DISCOIDEA, new species 


Centro-dorsal large, hemispherical or somewhat columnar, with a 
large convex polar area; cirrus sockets marginal, in two crowded 
alternating rows. 

Cirri XVII, 37-45 (usually about 40), 30 mm. long; the cirri de- 
crease very gradually in diameter for the first eight or ten joints, 
then remain uniform; first cirrus joint short, about twice as broad 
as long, or rather shorter, the following gradually increasing in 
length, becoming squarish after about the twelfth or sixteenth, and 
becoming about one-third broader than long in the terminal portion ; 
from about the eighteenth onward prominent, though small, dorsal 
spines are developed, subterminal in position, becoming terminal in 
the last two or three joints ; opposing spine small, median in position, 
not rising to more than one-third the diameter of the penultimate 
joint; terminal claw somewhat longer than the penultimate joint, 
moderately curved. 

Radials projecting slightly beyond the centro-dorsal, their dorsal 
surface parallel to the dorso-ventral axis of the animal; first costals 
short, oblong, about three times as broad as long; costal axillaries 
rhombic, about twice as broad as long, rising to a low conical tubercle 
with the first costals. Ten arms about 130 mm. long; first brachial 
wedge-shaped, about twice and one-half as broad as its exterior 
length, almost entirely united interiorly; second brachial irregularly 
quadrate, rather larger than the first; third and fourth brachials 
(syzygial pair) oblong, twice and one-half as broad as long; follow- 
ing brachials to the tenth slightly wedge-shaped, about three times 
as broad as long; the following brachials become more obliquely 
wedge-shaped, somewhat over twice as broad as their greatest 
length, then gradually become shorter and less and less obliquely 
wedge-shaped and very short and discoidal after about the proximal 
third of the arm. 

First pinnule small and comparatively slender, 7 mm. long, with 
fifteen joints, all somewhat longer than broad, the first two and the 
terminal three or four being not quite so long as the others; second 
pinnule 11 mm. long, with seventeen joints, stouter than the first; 
first two joints squarish, the remainder slightly longer than broad; 


216 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


third pinnule 10 mm. long, with fifteen joints, resembling the second ; 
fourth and following pinnules 7 mm. long, with fourteen joints, 
the fifth and following being about as stout as the first; distal 
pinnules 10 mm. long. 

In the specimen from the Philippine Islands, all the lower pinnules 
have squarish joints; the first is 9 mm. long with 19 joints, the 
second 10 mm. with 17, the third 8 mm. with 15, and the fourth 
and following 6 mm. with 14; the distal pinnules are 10 mm. long. 

Color (in spirits).—Flesh color, the perisome brown. 

Type—Cat. No. 25453, U. S. N. M., from Port Denison, near 
Bowen, Queensland. 

A specimen was dredged at Albatross Station No. 5138, between 
Jolo and Pangasinan Islands; 19 fathoms. 

This is probably the species which has been recorded from Port 
Denison as “Antedon milberti,’ but the relatively slender cirri with 
comparatively long joints contrast sharply with the very stout cirri 
of milberti, which have exceedingly short joints. 


HIMEROMETRA VARIIPINNA (P. H. Carpenter) 


Station No. 5157; west of Sunalac Island (Tataan group); 18 
fathoms. 
HIMEROMETRA UNICORNIS, new species 


Centro-dorsal thick-discoidal, the small polar area deeply concave. 

Cirri XX, 30-32, stout, arranged in two closely crowded, more or 
less alternating rows; cirrus joints remarkably uniform, all about 
twice as broad as long, with very prominent dorsal distal ends, giv- 
ing the cirri a strongly serrate profile dorsally; after the tenth the 
joints bear paired dorsal tubercles. 

Radials barely visible, separated somewhat distally; first costals 
oblong, .short, about three times as broad as long, rounded, widely 
separated, with a strong rounded-triangular ventro-lateral process 
supporting the disk; costal axillaries broadly pentagonal, rather over 
twice as broad as long, with a somewhat larger ventro-lateral pro- 
jection than the first costals; distichals and palmars 2, the latter 
developed only on the outer side of the rays; joints of the division 
series and first brachials with stout ventro-lateral processes; about 
30 arms; first eight brachials oblong, about twice as broad as long, 
then becoming slightly wedge-shaped about twice as broad as long, 
gradually becoming less and less wedge-shaped and practically ob- 
long again, about twice as broad as long in the outer half of the 
arm. The brachials, except the discoidal proximal series, have 


NO. 1820 RECENT CRINOIDS FROM PHILIPPINES—CLARK 217 


everted and finely spinous distal ends, giving the arm a character- 
istic rough feeling, much as in Catoptometra. Syzygies occur be- 
tween the third and fourth brachials, again between the fourteenth 
and fifteenth to forty-second and forty-third (usually in the vicinity 
of the thirtieth) and distally at intervals of six to twelve (usually 
seven to nine) oblique muscular articulations. 

First pinnule very slender, 12 mm. long, with 28 joints, the first 
two about twice as broad as long, then increasing in length to the 
fifth, which is squarish, the remainder being slightly longer than 
wide, increasing to about half again as long as broad distally ; second 
pinnule 15 mm. long, very stout and stiff, with 20 to 23 joints, the 
first two nearly twice as broad as long, the third squarish, the re- 
mainder slightly longer than broad; the fourth or fifth and following 
joints have prominently everted and spinous distal edges dorsally 
and laterally, though ventrally the joint ends are unmodified; third 
pinnule smooth, 6 mm. long (or one-half the length of the first), 
small, but rather stiff, tapering evenly from the base to a slender 
tip, with 13 joints, of which the distal are about half again as long 
as broad; fourth pinnule similar, but only 5 mm. long; following 
pinnules similar, but very gradually increasing in length; distal pin- 
nules 10 mm. long, with 20 or 21 joints, the first nearly twice as 
broad as long, the second trapezoidal, nearly as long as its greater 
diameter, the remainder about half again as long as broad. All the 
pinnules are somewhat stiffened. 

Measurements —Arms 140 mm., cirri 20 mm. to 25 mm. long. 

Color (in spirits).—Reddish brown, the large second pinnule 
lighter, or yellow, the remaining pinnules nearly black in their prox- 
imal, white in their distal half; or, light blue-gray, with numerous 
small red-brown spots; cirri red-brown. 

Type.—Cat. No. 25441, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station No. 
5160; off Nusa Takbu Channel (Tataan group); 12 fathoms. 

Other specimens were obtained at Station No. 5141; between 
Bubyan and Pangasinan Islands; 29 fathoms. 

Station No. 5147; off Balinpongpong Island (south of Jolo) ; 21 
fathoms; and Station No. 5163; south of San Gasanga (Tataan 
group) ; 28 fathoms. 

The short, stout cirri of this species, combined with the greatly 
enlarged second pinnule, distinguish it at a glance from all the 
“bidistichate”’ species of Himerometra. It is most nearly related 


to H. bella and H. abbotti. 


a 
un 


218 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


HIMEROMETRA ECHINUS, new species 


Centro-dorsal discoidal, the moderately large polar area slightly 
concave; cirri arranged in two closely crowded, more or less alter- 
nating rows. 

Cirri xxiv, 26-30; first four joints about twice as broad as long, 
sixth squarish, seventh to tenth or eleventh about one-third longer 
than broad, then becoming squarish again, and, in the terminal 
twelve or fourteen, broader than long; tenth and following joints 
with large dorsal spines; opposing spine terminally situated, erect, 
about half as long as the diameter of the penultimate joint ; terminal 
claw rather longer than the penultimate joint, slender, and moder- 
ately curved. 

Radials projecting slightly beyond the centro-dorsal ; first costals 
trapezoidal, proximally about four times, distally about three times 
as broad as long, united in their basal third, but diverging very 
rapidly from their point of union, so that the free lateral border of 
two adjacent first costals forms a moderately curved even line; 
costal axillaries broadly pentagonal, nearly twice as broad as long, 
_ with large and broad ventro-lateral projections; distichals, palmars, 
and post-palmars 2, bearing on the outer side of the rays, in common 
with the first brachials, large and broad ventro-lateral processes. 
Forty arms in the type (one interior palmar series being absent, but 
its loss compensated by the development of an external post-palmar 
series on the same distichium) ; first nine or ten brachials discoidal, 
or very slightly-wedge-shaped, about twice as broad as long, then 
becoming short-triangular, rather more than twice as broad as long, 
and short-wedge-shaped in the distal portion of the arms. Syzygies 
occur between the twenty-second and twenty-third to thirty-second 
and thirty-third (most commonly in the vicinity of the twenty-third) 
brachials, and distally at intervals of 9 to 24 (usually 9 to 13) 
oblique muscular articulating. 

First pinnule 15 mm. long, large, stiff, and spine-like, resembling 
the second, with 15 joints, the first two nearly twice as broad as 
long, the third squarish, then increasing in length, the seventh and 
following being from once and one-half times to nearly twice as 
long as wide; second pinnule 16 mm. long, with 12 or 13 joints, of 
which the distal are rather longer than those of the first; third pin- 
nule 15 mm. long, resembling the second; fourth, 12 mm. long, with 
II joints, resembling the third; following pinnules decreasing in 
length and also slightly in stoutness, the seventh being 7 mm. long, 
with 10 joints, then gradually losing their peculiar stiffness, and 


NO. 1820 RECENT CRINOIDS FROM PHILIPPINES—CLARK 219 


later gradually increasing in length; distal pinnules 10 mm. long, 
with about 20 joints, the first two not so long as broad, the third 
squarish, the remainder about one-third longer than broad, becom- 
ing half again as long as broad distally. 

Measuremenis——Arms 110 mm., cirri 25 mm. in length. 

Color (in spirits) —Dull yellowish, the division-series and arms 
thickly covered with small dull red spots and blotches; perisome 
brown. 

Type.—Cat. No. 25442, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station No. 
5147; off Balinpongpong Island (south of Jolo) ; 21 fathoms. 

The length of the second pinnule, which has comparatively few 
joints, and the similarity of the first to the second, place this species 
near H. tenuipinna; but the greater number of joints in the lower 
pinnules, and the fact that the first eight or nine instead of only the 
first three are similar in character, distinguish it at once. 


HIMEROMETRA GRACILIPES, new species 


Centro-dorsal a thick disk with a small flat polar area, the cirri 
arranged in two, and a partial third, more or less alternating 
crowded irregular rows. 

Cirri XIx, 41-52 (usually about 50); first joint about twice as 
broad as long, following increasing in length to the fifth or sixth, 
which is squarish, then remaining the same (or becoming slightly 
longer than broad) to about the twenty-sixth, then gradually becom- 
ing shorter, about half again as broad as long; after the twentieth 
to the twenty-second dorsal spines gradually begin to develop, 
which, however, never become very large; opposing spine terminal, 
erect, about half as long as the diameter of the penultimate joint; 
terminal claw longer than the penultimate joint, slender, moderately 
curved. 

Radials very prominent, their external dorsal surface parallel with 
the dorso-ventral axis of the animal, about twice as broad as long; 
each radial bears a low rounded postero-lateral tubercle on each 
side; first costals trapezoidal, about three times as broad as long 
proximally and twice as broad as long distally; they are basally 
united, but diverge very rapidly distally; costal axillaries pen- 
tagonal, about one and one-half times as broad as long; distichals, 
palmars, and post-palmars 2, widely separated, the last developed 
only on the outer side of the distichal series. Forty-four arms in 
the type; first ten brachials oblong, not quite twice as broad as long, 
then wedge-shaped, almost triangular, about twice as broad as long, 
becoming proportionately longer in the distal part of the arms. 


220 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Syzygies occur between the third and fourth brachials, again be- 
tween the forty-fourth and forty-fifth to the fifty-sixth and fifty- 
seventh (usually nearer the latter), and distally at intervals of 6-11 
(usually 7-9) oblique muscular articulations. 

First pinnule 10 mm. long, slender but somewhat stiffened, taper- 
ing evenly from the base to the delicate tip, with 22 joints, the first 
about twice as broad as long, the fourth squarish, then gradually in- 
creasing in length, the seventh and following being about half again 
as long as broad; second pinnule usually slightly longer, with 17 
joints, those in the distal part being more elongated than the corre- 
sponding joints in the first; third pinnule 5.5 mm. long, of the same 
character as the two preceding, with 12 joints; following pinnules 
small, short, and delicate, 4 mm. long, with 12 joints, the first three 
squarish, the remainder longer than broad, becoming about twice as 
long as broad distally; distal pinnules 7 mm. long, with 20 joints, 
the first short, the second squarish, the third about half again as 
long as broad, the remainder about twice as long as broad, or rather 
longer. 

Measurements—Arms 90 mm., cirri 35 mm. to 40 mm. in length. 

Color (in spirits).—Brownish gray. 

Type.—Cat. No. 25455, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station No. 
5163; south of San Gasanga (Tataan group) ; 28 fathoms. 





HIMEROMETRA PROTECTUS (Lutken) 


Simonor, Tataan Islands. 
Pangasinan Island; also a specimen with no definite locality 
given. 
HIMEROMETRA MONACANTHA (Hartlaub) 


Station No. 5109; Simo Banks, southwest of Manila Bay, Luzon; 
6 fathoms. 

Station No. 5147; off Balinpongpong Island (south of Jolo) ; 21 
fathoms. 


Genus CYLLOMETRA A. H. Clark 
CYLLOMETRA SUAVIS, new species 


This species is allied to C. perspinosa, with which it agrees in its 
general structure; but it entirely lacks the prominent spinous over- 
lapping of the pinnule and cirrus joints characteristic of that species, 
and the lower pinnules, while stiffened as in C. perspinosa, are sub- 
equal in length and not elongated, and are much more slender than 


NO. 1820 RECENT CRINOIDS FROM PHILIPPINES—CLARK 221 


in that species. The cirri, while containing 35-40 joints, as in C. 
perspinosa, differ strikingly from those of that species in having the 
dorsal spines in the distal portion single and median in position in- 
stead of paired. The general appearance of the whole animal is 
much more delicate than in C. perspinosa; the costals are more elon- 
gated, the arms, cirri, and lower pinnules more slender. 

Measurements.—Arms about 100 mm., cirri 25 mm. to 30 mm. in 
length. 

Color (in spirits).—Purple, the costals and discoidal lower brach- 
ials with a median line of white; arms, pinnules, and cirri purple, 
with very numerous narrow bands of white. 

Type—Cat. No, 25443, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station No. 
5137; off Jolo town; 20 fathoms. 

Fragments of another specimen were dredged at Station No. 
5145; off Jolo town; 23 fathoms. 


CYLLOMETRA MANCA (P. H. Carpenter) 


Station No. 5213; east of central Masbate; 80 fathoms. 


Genus OLIGOMETRA A. H. Clark 
OLIGOMETRA GRACILICIRRA, new species 


Centro-dorsal thick-discoidal, the rather large polar area thickly 
covered with small blunt spines. 

Cirri in a single marginal row, xv, 28-30; first joint very short, 
the following gradually increasing in length to the fourth, which is 
squarish, then becoming very slightly broader than long after the 
tenth; from the seventh joint onward long and sharp dorsal spines 
are developed; opposing spine as long as the diameter of the penul- 
timate joint, arising from the entire surface of that joint; terminal 
claw rather stout, about as long as the penultimate joint, moderately 
curved. 

Radials visible, but short, bearing a small median tubercle on the 
distal border; first costals oblong, nearly three times as broad as 
long, with straight lateral edges which are just in apposition; costal 
axillaries broadly pentagonal, about once and one-half times as 
broad as long. T'en arms; first two brachials wedge-shaped, the 
shorter side in, the first interiorly united for one-half or two-thirds 
of their length, and both slightly flattened exteriorly; third and 
fourth brachials (syzygial pair) nearly twice as broad as long, rather 
longer interiorly than exteriorly ; following brachials to the ninth 
oblong, about twice as broad as long, after which they become 


222 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL, 52 


obliquely wedge-shaped, about as long as broad, and gradually less 
and less obliquely wedge-shaped distally ; costals and lower brachials 
with a faintly indicated rounded median keel; brachials after about 
the eleventh developing slightly overlapping and spinous distal 
edges. Syzygies occur ordinarily between the third and fourth, 
ninth and tenth, and fourteenth and fifteen brachials, and distally at 
intervals of seven to eleven (usually nine) oblique muscular articu- 
lations. 

First pinnule moderately stout, with 7 or 8 squarish joints, about 
2 mm. long; second pinnule about 3 mm. long, considerably stouter 
than the first, with 9 or Io joints, the first two not quite so long as 
broad, the third squarish, the remainder slightly longer than broad; 
third and following joints with strongly overlapping and spinous 
distal edges; third pinnule similar, but smaller; fourth pinnule, 
while similar to the third, is about the size of the first; after the 
twelfth or thirteenth the pinnules increase in length, reaching about 
4.5 mm. distally. 

Measiurements—Arms 55 mm., cirri 12 mm. in length. 

Color (in spirits)—Costals while, with a broad median line of 
purple; arms purple, with a median line of white in their proximal 
third; cirri white, with a narrow band of purple about the middle of 
each joint. 

Type.—Cat. No. 25444, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station No. 
5153; east of Port Dos Amigos, Tawi Tawi; 49 fathoms. 

The slender and spiny cirri with comparatively numerous joints, 
as well as the delicate build of the whole animal and the shortness 
and stoutness of the lower pinnules, distinguish this species at once 
from all the others of the genus. 


OLIGOMETRA PULCHELLA A. H. Clark 


“One specimen from Station No. 5139; between Jolo and Panga- 
sinan Island; 20 fathoms. 
This species was previously only known from Singapore. 


Family TROPIOMETRIDA 
Genus CALOMETRA A. H. Clark 
CALOMETRA CARDUUM, new species 


This species is a member of that division of the genus Calometra 
in which the rays, through lateral processes, are more or less in con- 
tact, and comes nearest to C. flavopurpurea, of Japan. 


No. 1820 RECENT CRINOIDS FROM PHILIPPINES—-CLARK 223 


Centro-dorsal hemispherical or thick discoidal, a large convex 
polar area bare, the cirri marginal, arranged in two closely crowded 
rows. 

Cirri x-xv, 26-40 (usually 34-36) ; first joint short, the following 
becoming progressively longer to the fourth or fifth, which is squar- 
ish, then remaining similar to about the end of the proximal third of 
the cirrus, after which the length gradually decreases; from the 
twelfth or fourteenth onward prominent blunt dorsal spines are 
developed ; opposing spine rather small, the apex opposite the end of 
the penultimate joint, the spine arising from the entire dorsal surface 
of that joint. 

Radials usually concealed by the centro-dorsal, but sometimes par- 
tially visible in the interradial angles; first costals short and band- 
like, in lateral apposition, the dorsal surface coarsely rugose, the 
edges crenulate or more or less dentate; costal axillary triangular, 
about twice as broad as long, the dorsal surface rugose, the edges 
finely crenulate; distichals 2, resembling the costals, and, like them, 
in close lateral apposition. Fifteen to twenty arms; first brachial 
wedge-shaped, longer outwardly than inwardly, in close apposition 
interiorly, the edges sharply crenulate or dentate; second brachial 
similar; third and fourth brachials (syzygial pair) roughly oblong, 
not quite twice as broad as long; next three brachials oblong, rather 
more than twice as broad as long, then becoming more and more 
wedge-shaped, after about the twelfth becoming triangular, broader 
than long, then very gradually becoming wedge-shaped again and 
increasing in length, though even distally the joints are never quite 
so long as broad; arm terminating very abruptly with three or four 
minute joints, beyond which the terminal pinnules extend for about 
3mm. Syzygies occur between the third and fourth brachials, again 
between the thirteenth and fourteenth to seventeenth and eighteenth 
(in undivided arms usually also between the ninth and tenth), and 
distally at intervals of four oblique muscular articulations. 

The pinnules are essentially like those of C. flavopurpurea. 

Measurements —Arms 60 mm., cirri 20 mm. to 25 mm. in length. 

Color (in spirits)—Bright yellow, the calyx, division series, and 
cirri white. One specimen has a narrow dull purple band crossing 
the arms. at the first syzygy, and another has indistinct dull purplish 
blotches on the pinnules. 

Type.—Cat. No. 25445, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station No. 
5167; off Simonor Island (Tawi Tawi group); 110 fathoms. 

This species is readily distinguishable from C. flavopurpurea by 
the absence of the sharp median keel on the costals, and the strongly 
dentate or sharply crenulate edges of those joints. 


224 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


CALOMETRA ACANTHASTER, new species 


This new form comes nearest to C. multicolor, of Japan, but it 
differs from that species in a number of characters which appear to 
be perfectly constant. The arms are thirty in number instead of 
twenty or less, palmar series (2) being developed on the outer side 
of each distichal series in 2, 1, 1, 2 order; the third pitinule is‘as 
large as and resembles the second instead of being considerably 
smaller, as in C. multicolor; the cirri, while containing the same 
number of joints, are very different in appearance from those of C. 
multicolor; in the latter the joints in the distal half of the cirri are 
rounded ventrally, the distal ventral ends are even with the proximal 
ventral ends of the succeeding joints, the width is about twice the 
length in the middle lateral line, and the dorsal spines arise from one- 
half or rather less of the dorsal surface and are small and pointed; 
in C. acanthaster the distal half of the cirri is sharply carinate ven- 
trally, and the distal ends of the joints are prominent, overlapping 
the bases of the succeeding joints; the joints themselves are broader, 
being about three times as broad as long in the lateral line, and the 
dorsal spines, which arise from the entire dorsal surface of the 
joints, are high, and terminate in a long ridge parallel to the median 
line of the joint instead of in a point. 

Measurements——Arms 60 mm., cirri 20 mm. long. 

Color (in spirits).—Yellow, the cirri with a few narrow bands of 
deep purple, and the pinnules with large, indistinct blotches of light 
purplish; or purple, the centro-dorsal, costals, and blotches on the 
arms and pinnules white; or white, the arms with about every third 
brachial deep purple, the pinnules and cirri narrowly banded with 
purple. 

Type—Cat. No. 25446, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station No. 
5153; east of Port Dos Amigos, Tawi Tawi; 49 fathoms. 


Genus PTILOMETRA A. H. Clark 
PTILOMETRA TRICHOPODA, new species 


Centro-dorsal columnar, the polar area a low truncated cone bear- 
ing five rather long, rounded tubercles which are radial in position; 
cirrus sockets in ten columns, two in each radial area, usually two 
cirrus sockets to a column. 

Cirri xx, 80-85 (usually 84 or 85), very long and slender, tapering 
gradually from a moderately stout base to a slender tip; first joint 
short, second about twice as broad as long, the following gradually 


NO. 1820 RECENT CRINOIDS FROM PHILIPPINES—CLARK 225 
increasing in length to the fifth, which is squarish, and still further 
increasing to the eighth, which is not quite half again as long as 
broad; the proportions of the following joints similar until the 
eighteenth or twentieth, after which the joints gradually decrease in 
length, the thirty-second to the thirty-fifth being squarish, the follow- 
ing gradually becoming broader than long, the terminal joints being 
very short; the fourth to about the sixteenth joints with a strong, 
ventral overlap (though smooth dorsally), and the middle of the 
distal ventral border strongly produced in the form of a sharp and 
prominent spine, this condition reaching a maximum on the eighth 
or ninth joint, then gradually decreasing in intensity, disappearing 
after about the sixteenth; at about the twenty-fifth joint a slight 
prominence of the distal dorsal edge is noticeable; after the thirty- 
sixth the median part of the dorsal edge is produced into a small, 
sharp spine which projects forward in line with the rest of the dorsal 
surface of the joint; after about the fiftieth joint this spine begins 
to broaden basally, soon transforming into a high curved spine 
arising from the entire dorsal surface of the joints, just like the 
dorsal spines in the distal part of the cirri of P. macronema; last 
four joints decreasing rapidly in size; opposing spine very smal 
(though of normal proportions when compared to the very smal 
penultimate joint which bears it) ; terminal claw minute. 

Ends of basal rays visible as dorso-ventrally elongated tubercles 
in the angles of the calyx; radials rather prominent, about four times 
as broad as long, with a rather low, rounded tubercle in the median 
part of their proximal border, first costals oblong, about three times 
as broad as long, in close lateral apposition and somewhat flattened 
laterally; costal axillaries rhombic, about twice as broad as long, 
with a tendency to rise into a low, rounded tubercle at the articula- 
tion with the first costals; distichals and palmars 2, the latter devel- 
oped exteriorly in 2, I, I, 2 order; division-series and first four or 
five brachials sharply “wall-sided ;” but, owing to the thinness of the 
joints dorso-ventrally, the flattened lateral area is comparatively nar- 
row. ‘Twenty-four to thirty arms; first eight brachials discoidal or 
oblong, about twice as broad as long, then gradually becoming more 
and more wedge-shaped, and after the twelfth obliquely wedge- 
shaped, not quite so long as broad, and in the distal portion of the 
arms less obliquely wedge-shaped again, but not increasing in length; 
arm ending abruptly with a few minute incurved joints, as in P. 
macronema, the terminal pinnules exceeding the arm tip by about 
4 mm.; arms dorsally rounded and comparatively broad in the prox- 
imal half, becoming gradually strongly compressed and carinate dis- 


l 
I 


226 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


tally, the brachials developing prominent overlapping spines, as in 
P. macronema. Syzygies occur between the third and fourth brach- 
ials (in one case the first syzygy is between the sixth and seventh), 
again between the thirteenth and fourteenth to nineteenth and twen- 
tieth (most commonly between the seventeenth and eighteenth, with 
rarely an additional syzygy between the seventh and eighth), and 
distally at intervals of six to twelve (usually seven or eight) oblique 
muscular articulations. 

First pinnule small and weak, about 6.5 mm. long, with Io or 12 
joints, the first short, the second rather longer than its anterior diam- 
eter, decreasing in width distally, the remainder about two and one- 
half times as long as broad; second pinnule about 9 mm. long, stiff 
and spine-like, with fifteen joints, the first short, the second rather 
longer than its anterior diameter, the third not quite so long as 
broad, the following about twice as long as broad; the pinnule is 
sharply triangular, and the dorsal ridge on each joint is produced 
distally over the bases of the succeeding joints in the form of a 
slender spine; third and following pinnules similar to the second, but 
about 10 mm. long. ‘The pinnules as a whole are considerably more 
delicate than are those of P. macronema; the plating of the disk and 
ambulacra is approximately as in P. macronema. 

Measurements.—Arms 70 mm., cirri 60 mm. in length. 

Color (in spirits)—White, the costals with a lateral line, the 
division-series with narrow transverse lines at the articulations, and 
the pinnules with a spot in the middle of each joint of very light 
purple; cirri deep violet in the distal two-thirds, in the proximal 
third white, with a lateral line of deep violet. 

Another specimen is entirely deep purple. 

Type—Cat. No. 25447, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station No. 
5153; east of Port Dos Amigos, Tawi Tawi; 49 fathoms. 

This species was also found at Station No. 5179; between Tablas 
and Romblon; 37 fathoms. 

The large number of arms, the narrowness of the calyx and arm 
bases, the extraordinary spinous ventral overlap of the joints in the 
proximal third of the cirri, the regular arrangement of the cirri, and 
the greater delicacy of the entire animal distinguish this species at 
once from P. macronema. ‘The number of arms alone is usually a 
sufficient character, for, although sometimes having as many as. 
thirty, P. macronema usually has less than twenty. 


NO. 1820 RECENT CRINOIDS FROM PHILIPPINES—CLARK 227 


Family THALASSOMETRIDA 
Genus THALASSOMETRA A. H. Clark 
THALASSOMETRA COMPRESSA (P. H. Carpenter) 


Station No. 5110; off Talin Point, west Luzon (14° N. lat.) ; 139 
fathoms. 
Genus CHARITOMETRA A. H. Clark 


CHARITOMETRA SMITHI, new species 


This is a species of Charitometra falling in the division including 
C. angusticalyx, C. inequalis, C. distincta, C. brevipinna, and C. im- 
bricata, species with the second division-series usually 4 (3 + 4) and 
the third 2 (1-+ 2), and with usually about thirty arms. The 
division-series and lower arm joints are in very close apposition so 
that the distichal pinnule is not visible exteriorly, as it is in C. dis- 
tincta and C. imbricata (= granulifera of P. H. Carpenter, not of 
Pourtalés) ; the strong carination of the more distal cirrus joints and 
the presence of an opposing spine, combined with the smooth and 
evenly rounded division-series and arm bases distinguish it at once 
from C. angusticalyx and C. brevipinna, while the length of the prox- 
imal and the shortness of the distal cirrus joints, the latter having 
the distal dorsal edges so prominent as to appear almost spinous, 
preclude any possibility of confusion with C. inequalis. It may be 
described as follows: 

Centro-dorsal thick discoidal or short-columnar, the cirrus sockets 
arranged in two rows and roughly in three irregular columns in each 
radial area, though the middle column is sometimes lacking. 

Cirri XXVII-XxXxX, 19-22 (usually 20) ; first joint very short, second 
about twice as broad as long, third nearly squarish, fourth slightly 
longer than broad, fifth nearly half again as long as broad; follow- 
ing joints decreasing very gradually in length, the tenth and follow- 
ing being about as long as their distal diameter; the joints after the 
eighth or ninth becoming rounded carinate dorsally, soon developing 
rather prominent rounded tubercles situated on the distal dorsal edge ; 
opposing spine, though prominent, small, terminally situated, reach- 
ing a height equal to about half the diameter of the penultimate 
joint or rather less, its base occupying only the distal third of the 
joint; terminal claw about as long as the penultimate joint, rather 
stout and moderately curved. 

Disk completely covered with small plates; side and covering 
plates of arms and pinnules very well developed. 


228 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Ends of basal rays just visible as more or less irregular tubercles 
in the angles of the calyx; radials quite concealed in the median 
line of the arm, though sometimes slightly visible over the ends of 
the basal rays; first costals very short, three or four times as broad 
as long, triangular, apex downward, laterally in close apposition, the 
dorsal surface coarsely rugose; costal axillaries triangular, rather 
more than twice as broad as long, the dorsal surface rugose; dis- 
tichals 4 (3 + 4), rarely 2; palmars 2 (1 -++ 2), developed interiorly 
in I, 2, 2, 1 order as a rule; first distichal more or less covered with 
small crowded tubercles, but the remaining joints of the division- 
series perfectly smooth; division-series and proximal six or eight 
brachials in close apposition and sharply flattened laterally. Twenty- 
eight arms (in the type); proximal twelve or fourteen brachials 
oblong, about twice as broad as long, then becoming triangular and 
nearly as long as broad, and in the distal part of the arm wedge- 
shaped and longer than broad. The first syzygy is usually between 
the first two brachials, but may be between the third and fourth, 
especially in arms springing direct from a distichal axillary ; in arms 
where the first and second brachials are united by syzygy the third 
and fourth are often similarly united, the next syzygy is near the 
nineteenth to the twenty-fifth brachial (usually between the twen- 
tieth and twenty-first or one or two joints farther on), and the distal 
intersyzygial interval is from four to twelve (usually six or seven) 
oblique muscular articulations. 

Distichal pinnule 13 mm. long, slender and evenly tapering, flag- 
ellate distally, with about 45 joints, in the proximal half about once 
and one-half as broad as long, becoming squarish distally; first 
brachial pinnule similar, but only about 9 mm. long with 35 joints, 
the first five of which are noticeably carinate ; second brachial pinnule 
about the same length, but with only about 25 joints, the first four 
or five of which are carinate and slightly broader than those of the 
first pinnule, the terminal joints being about twice as long as broad. 
In the following pinnules the joints, except the first two, gradually 
become longer and fewer in number; the tenth pinnule is 8 mm. 
long with 17 joints, the first two not so long as broad and bearing 
a triangular or bluntly triangular process distally, the remainder 


, 


squarish, gradually becoming slightly longer than broad; third to the 
seventh or eighth joints very slightly enlarged, protecting the genital 
glands, but the enlargement is not very noticeable and tapers off 
evenly in both directions; distal pinnules 9 mm. long with 17 or 18 
joints, the first short and wedge-shaped, the second not quite so long 
as broad, the remainder approximately half again as long as broad. 


NO. 1820 RECENT CRINOIDS FROM PHILIPPINES—CLARK 229 


Measurements —Arms 60 mm.; cirri 20 mm. to 25 mm. 

Color (in spirits) —Arms and cirri yellow, the calyx and division- 
series, and the first four or five brachials, dark brown. 

Type—Cat. No. 25448, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station No. 
5123; between Marinduque and Mindoro; 283 fathoms. 

This species was also found at Station No. 5116; north of Mari- 
caban Island (between Luzon and Mindoro) ; 200 fathoms; and at 
Station No. 5198; off Panglao (west of Bohol) ; 220 fathoms. 

It gives me great pleasure to associate with this interesting species 
the name of Dr. Hugh M. Smith, of the United States Bureau of 
Fisheries. 


Family ANTEDONIDA# 
Genus PEROMETRA A. H. Clark 
PEROMETRA ELONGATA, new species 


A specimen, consisting of the centro-dorsal (with the cirri) calyx, 
and arm bases, belonging to a species of this genus, while agreeing 
in the main with Carpenter’s description of P. balanoides, differs 
widely from his figure of that species, and probably represents a 
new form, which may be described as follows: 

Centro-dorsal sharply conical and greatly elongated, 4 mm. long 
by 1.5 mm. broad at the base; cirrus sockets arranged in ten columns 
of four or five each, two columns in each radial area; sockets in each 
column closely crowded, but the pair of columns in each radial area 
separated from their neighbors by a shallow rounded furrow averag- 
ing about half as broad as the adjacent cirrus sockets, the two col- 
umns of each pair being separated by a line rather less than half as 
broad as the furrow separating the radial pairs; distal third of the 
centro-dorsal marked with partially obliterated cirrus sockets which 
bear no cirri. 

Cirri XLV, 27-35 (usually nearer the latter), 20 mm. to 26 mm. 
long; first joint about twice as broad as long, second slightly longer 
than broad, third about twice and one-half as long as broad, fourth 
rather over three times as long as broad, fifth and following about 
four times as long as broad or rather over; after the tenth or twelfth 
the joints gradually decreasing in length, the terminal ten being 
squarish or only slightly longer than broad; after the first ten the 
distal dorsal edge of the joints begins to be somewhat prominent, 
this very gradually increasing distally; opposing spine rising from 
almost the entire dorsal surface of the penultimate joint, the apex 
terminal in position, rather stout, reaching not quite to the diameter 
of the penultimate joint in height; terminal claw moderately stout 
and moderately curved, about as long as the penultimate joint. 


230 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Radials rather long being, in the median line, about half as long 
as broad; first costals short, with concave distal ends and proximal 
borders, over twice as broad as their lateral length, decreasing 
slightly in diameter anteriorly, not in contact basally ; costal axillaries 
rhombic, about as long as broad; first brachials small, about three 
times as long exteriorly as interiorly, not in contact interiorly, the 
distal border concave; second brachials much larger, irregularly 
quadrate; third and fourth brachials (syzygial pair) half again as 
long interiorly as exteriorly, about twice as broad as the exterior 
length; brachials as far as the second syzygy slightly wedge-shaped, 
about twice as broad as long; first pinnule on the fifth (“fourth,” 
to use Carpenter’s terminology) brachial, as in P. balanoides. 

Color.—Centro-dorsal purple; arms purple, with a broad median 
line of white; pinnules and cirri white. 

Type.—Cat. No. 25449, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station No. 
5178; north of Tablas Island; 78 fathoms. 

The greatly elongated centro-dorsal, which does not have promi- 
nent interradial furrows, the elongation of the proximal and the 
shortness of the distal cirrus joints, together with the length of the 
radials and the absence of synarthrial tubercles, appear to differ- 
entiate this species sharply from P. balanoides; the absence of the 
pinnule on the second brachial and the regular arrangement of the 
cirri in ten columns, separate it at once from P. diomedce. 


EUMETRA, new genus 


Centro-dorsal hemispherical, the moderately large polar area 
finely papillose; cirrus sockets forty to sixty in number, in four or 
five closely crowded alternating rows. 

Cirri long and slender, compressed, deciduous, about one-third the 
length of the arms, with about twenty-five joints, all but the basal 
two of which are greatly elongated, three times as long as broad or 
longer; opposing spine absent; terminal claw not so long as the 
penultimate joint, slender, sharp, and nearly straight. 

Costals and first two brachials in close lateral apposition, though 
not laterally flattened, the synarthrial tubercles very prominent; 
brachials essentially as in Antedon. 

First pinnule small and weak; second pinnule half as long again, 
stouter and stiffer; third pinnule over one-third longer than the sec- 
ond, stouter, and very stiff; fourth resembling the second, but stiff 
like the third ; following pinnules decreasing gradually in length and 
stiffness ; distal pinnules about as long as the second, very slender, 
the first two joints very short, the remainder greatly elongated, as 
usual in the Antedonide. 


NO. 1820 RECENT CRINOIDS FROM PHILIPPINES—CLARK 231 


Genotype—Eumetra chamberlaint. 

The numerous and slender cirri with greatly elongated joints, no 
opposing spine, and an almost straight terminal claw, combined with 
the very stiff lower pinnules of which the third is much the longest 
make this genus easily recognizable. 


EUMETRA CHAMBERLAINI, new species 


Centro-dorsal hemispherical, rather low, bearing forty to sixty 
cirrus sockets in four or five closely crowded alternating rows. 

Cirri long, XL-Lx, 25, slender and delicate; first joint very short, 
second squarish, third about half again as long as broad, fourth 
nearly four times as long as its proximal diameter, fifth and follow- 
ing about five times as long as their proximal diameter ; terminal ten 
or twelve joints decreasing very slightly in length, so that the last 
three or four are only about two and one-half times as long as 
broad; penultimate joint slightly over twice as long as its proximal 
diameter, decreasing slightly in diameter distally ; no opposing spine; 
terminal claw about three-quarters the length of the penultimate 
joint, slender, evenly tapering, very slightly curved; the distal half 
of each cirrus joint is slightly and very gradually expanded, and the 
distal edges are prominent; cirri rather strongly compressed 
throughout. 

Radials even with the edge of the centro-dorsal; first costals ex- 
tremely short, divided in the median line by a posterior projection 
from the costal axillaries, and bearing more or less prominent 
rounded tubercles in the antero-lateral angles; costal axillaries rhom- 
bic, about once and one-half as broad as long, the sides strongly con- 
cave, the anterior angle sharp and somewhat produced; costals and 
first two brachials in close apposition; synarthrial articulations be- 
tween the costals and the first two brachials rising to a very promi- 
nent tubercle. Ten arms; first brachial about twice as long ex- 
teriorly as interiorly, deeply incised in the median line, the bases of 
adjacent first brachials just meeting over the anterior angles of the 
costal axillaries; second brachial much larger, irregularly quadrate, 
with a strong posterior prolongation incising the first brachial; third 
and fourth brachials (syzygial pair) rather more than twice as 
broad as long in the median line, rather longer inwardly than out- 
wardly; next four brachials and the next syzygial pair (ninth and 
tenth brachials) slightly wedge-shaped, about twice as broad as 
long; brachials then becoming triangular, at first not so long as 
broad, soon becoming as long as broad, and distally wedge-shaped 
again, and, in the terminal portion of the arms elongate; brachials 
smooth, not overlapping. Syzygies occur between the third and 


232 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


fourth, ninth and tenth, and fourteenth and fifteenth brachials, and 
distally at intervals of, in one specimen, three, and in another fonr, 
oblique muscular articulations. 

First pinnule 6 mm. long, somewhat stiff, slightly compressed, 
tapering evenly from the base to the tip, composed of 12 joints, the 
first not so long as broad, the third slightly longer than broad, the 
fourth about half again as long as broad, the remainder about twice 
as long as broad; second pinnule half as long again (9 mm.), stouter 
and stiffer than the first, containing about 16 joints, the first about 
twice as broad as long, the second squarish, the third rather longer 
than broad, the remainder about twice as long as broad; third pinnule 
the longest and stiffest, 13 mm. long, with 20 to 22 joints, the first 
short, the second squarish, the following increasing in length, the 
fifth and succeeding being about twice as long as broad, and slightly 
longer distally; fourth and fifth pinnules resembling the second; 
distal pinnules 9 mm. long with 18 or 19 joints, the first very short, 
the second about as long as its proximal diameter, slightly trapezoidal, 
the third and following greatly elongated and very slender, with 
slightly expanded articulations. 

Measurements——Arms 80 mm., cirri 25 mm. to 30 mm. in length. 

Color (in spirits).—Yellow, the cirri white, the perisome brown. 

Type—Cat. No. 25450, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station No. 
5178; north of Tablas Island; 78 fathoms. 


Genus IRIDOMETRA A. H. Clark 
IRIDOMETRA SCITA, new species 


This species comes nearest to J. psyche from Japan, in that the 
second pinnule is much the largest and longest on the arm; but it 
may be at once distinguished by its cirri which, though containing 
the same number of joints as those of J. psyche, have the proximal 
joints elongated and ‘‘dice-box shaped,” and the distal squarish; the 
first and second pinnules also are proportionately rather larger than 
those of J. psyche, and have more numerous joints. 

Measurements——Arms 60 mm., cirri 10 mm. long. 

Color (in spirits).—Purple, with blotches of darker. 


Type.—Cat. No. 25451, U. S. N. M., from the Philippine Islands. 
Genus TRICHOMETRA A. H. Clark 
TRICHOMETRA EXPLICATA, new species 

This new species resembles 7. aspera, of the West Indies, in its 
general appearance and in the character of its cirri, having fewer 
joints in the latter than 7. vevator, of the Hawaiian Islands. All 


NO. 1820 RECENT CRINOIDS FROM PHILIPPINES—CLARK 233 


the specimens are, unfortunately, badly broken, and only one has 
any Cirri remaining. 

The genus Trichometra was previously known only from the 
coast of the South Atlantic States (7. aspera) and from the 
Hawaiian Islands (7. verator); as the fauna of both the West 
Indies (including the coasts of the Southern States) and the 
Hawaiian Islands belongs to what I have called the “Oceanic” area, 
the genera and species characterizing which are evidently derivatives 
from Indo—Pacific—Japanese stock, and mostly occur in the Indo— 
Pacific—Japanese region, though separated from the typical Indo— 
Pacific—Japanese genera and species by a considerable difference 
in depth of habitat, it was only to be expected that Trichometra 
would eventually be found in the East Indies. Zenometra is another 
such genus; though now known only from the West Indies (Z. 
columnaris and Z. pyramidalis) and the Hawaiian Islands (Z. 
triserialis), it undoubtedly occurs in the East Indian region, and will 
eventually be discovered there. 

Centro-dorsal conical, in lateral view an equilateral triangle, with 
slightly convex sides; cirri in number, arrangement, and proportions 
of their joints resembling those of T. aspera; the cirrus joints num- 
ber 25-28. 

Radials even with the edge of the centro-dorsal; first costals short, 
in lateral apposition, much incised in the median line; costal axillaries 
rhombic, nearly as long as broad; costals and first two brachials in 
lateral apposition and laterally flattened; the synarthrial tubercles 
are slightly marked. ‘Ten arms; first brachial about twice as broad 
as long exteriorly, inwardly united at the base; second brachial 
much larger, irregularly quadrate; first syzygial pair and following 
brachials about as long as broad, wedge-shaped, after the tenth 
becoming very obliquely wedge-shaped and considerably longer than 
broad, the length gradually increasing distally. The costals and 
lowexbrachials have abruptly everted, finely spinous distal edges, 
but these are somewhat broader than those of T. aspera, and do not 
stand out so high; this eversion of the distal edge of the brachials 
after the second syzygy gradually becomes more and more recum- 
bent, taking the form of an overlapping of the distal ends of the 
brachials, which gradually dies away, disappearing after about the 
twentieth brachial. Syzygies occur between the third and fourth, 
ninth and tenth, and fourteenth and fifteenth brachials, and distally 
at intervals of two oblique muscular articulations. 

First pinnule 10 mm. long with 20 joints, resembling that of T. 
aspera, but proportionately stouter ; second pinnule 7 mm. long with 
16 joints, more slender than the first; the first three joints are 

16 


234 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


squarish, the following gradually increasing in length; third pinnule 
7 mm. long with about 20 joints, rather stouter than the second; 
the first three joints are squarish; fourth pinnule 7 mm. long, with 
a small genital gland; following pinnules similar, but with larger 
genital glands. The distal part of the arms is lacking in all the 
specimens. 

Color (in spirits)—Brownish yellow, probably yellow in life. 

Type.—Cat. No. 25452, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station No. 
5123; between Marinduque and Mindoro, Philippine Islands; 283 
fathoms. 

Family PENTAMETROCRINID/: 
Genus PENTAMETROCRINUS A. H. Clark 


PENTAMETROCRINUS DIOMEDEA,, new species 


This species is most closely allied to P. atlanticus of Southern 
Europe and the West Indies; of the Pacific species it is nearest to 
P. tuberculatus. 

Centro-dorsal conical, the sides gently convex, 3 mm. high and - 
4 mm. broad at the base, the cirrus sockets closely crowded, arranged 
roughly in two or three, with sometimes a partial fourth row, and 
four columns in each radial area. 

Cirri XL-LX, 14-17 (usually 15-17), 15 mm. to 20 mm. long; first 
joint short, second squarish, third about twice as long as broad, 
fourth about three times as long as broad, fifth-seventh about four 
times as long as broad; following joints gradually decreasing in 
length, the antepenultimate joint being about twice as long as broad, 
and the penultimate about as long as broad; cirri not tapering 
distally, but the penultimate joint less in diameter than the ante- 
penultimate ; terminal claw considerably longer than the penultimate 
joint, stout basally, tapering distally, comparatively straight in the 
basal half, but curved strongly downward at the tip; cirrus joints 
practically oblong in lateral view, the distal ventral ends of the more 
proximal only very slightly prominent; cirri moderately compressed. 

Arms and pinnules resembling those of P. varians, but the lowest 
pinnule present in that species is absent in P. diomedee, the first 
pinnule being on the fifth (epizygal) brachial and bearing a genital 
gland; proximal part of the arm moderately tubercular. 

Measurements—Arms about 100 mm. long; cirri 15 mm. to 20 
mm. in length. 

Color (in life).—Not distinguishable from P. japonicus. 

Type.—Cat. No. 22699, U. S. N. M., from Albatross Station No. 
4934; Eastern Sea, off Kagoshima Gulf, Japan; 152-103 fathoms. 

A specimen was obtained at Albatross Station No. 5173; between 
Mindoro and Luzon. 





SMITHSONIAN 


MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 


RICHARD RUSH 
(1780 859) 


From painting by T. W 


Wood, 18s¢ 


VOL. 52, 


PL. XVI 





ins ee oe 


sex 


THE RELATION OF RICHARD RUSH TO THE 
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 


By CYRUS ADLER 
(With One Plate) 


Three names are connected for all time with the establishment of 
the Smithsonian Institution: James Smithson, the founder; Richard 
Rush, the agent appointed by the United States to secure the bequest ; 
and Joseph Henry, the first Secretary and organizer of the Insti- 
tution. 

In the publications of the Institution and in public documents 
there are numerous references to the relation of Richard Rush to 
the establishment, yet nowhere have these been brought together in 
any succinct form. Moreover, the Institution has recently come into 
possession of some unpublished material bearing on the subject, and 
I therefore propose to give in the following pages a statement con- 
cerning the part which Richard Rush had in securing the bequest 
and in aiding in the organization of this unique establishment. 

Richard Rush, himself a famous man, was the son of an equally 
distinguished father, Dr. Benjamin Rush, and the family name has 
been honorably connected with Pennsylvania, as colony and State, 
since 1683. Benjamin Rush was a conspicuous figure of the Revo- 
lutionary period and one of the most distinguished inhabitants of 
Pennsylvania of his time. He was a medical professor in the Uni- 
versity of, Pennsylvania, a well-known practitioner of medicine, an 
accomplished scholar, a member of the Continental Congress, a 
signer of the Declaration of Independence, and the first to hold the 
position of Surgeon-General of the American Army. 

I cannot refrain, before proceeding to the subject of this paper, 
from quoting two paragraphs out of the “Commonplace Book” of 


Doctor Rush relating to his son Richard :* 
November 23, I8It. 
This day it was announced in the “National Intelligencer” that my son 
Richard Rush was appointed Comptroller of the United States, and to my 


*“A Memorial containing Travels Through Life or Sundry Incidents in the 
Life of Benjamin Rush, Born Dec. 24, 1745 (Old Style) died April 19, 1813. 
Written by himself also Extracts from his Commonplace Book as well as 
A Short History of the Rush Family in Pennsylvania. Published privately 
for the benefit of his Descendants. By Louis Alexander Biddle. Lanoraie, 
1905.” 

235 


236 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52. 


great astonishment and distress on November 25th he set off for Washington 
to accept of it. I dissuaded him from doing so from the following considera- 
tions: First. The degradation to which such an office exposed a man of 
literary and professional talents. It was an office that could be filled by any 
clerk of a bank. Second. The vexations and poverty of political life. Third. 
His comfortable establishment and excellent prospects in Pennsylvania, the 
State of his ancestors and family. Fourth. The sickliness of Washington and 
the insufficiency of the salary to support a growing family. Fifth. The dis- 
honor which he would do to his understanding by such an act. Sixth. My age, 
also my young family, which required his advice now and would still more 
require it after my death. I offered to implore him not to accept of the ap- 
pointment upon my knees, but all, all to no purpose. Oh, my son, my son 
Richard, may you never be made to feel in the unkindness of a son the 
misery you have inflicted upon me by this rash conduct. He was dissuaded 
from it by all his friends and was blamed for it by most of the citizens of 
Philadelphia who knew him. 


December 30, r8It. 
This day my son and his family set off for Washington to enter upon the 
labor of the humble office he had preferred to the respectable and professional 
office he held in Pennsylvania. This day also the awful news of the burning 
of the theatre in Richmond, Virginia, reached this city, in which above sixty 
persons, among whom was the Governor of Virginia and many other persons 
of note, perished. It took place on the 26th of this month. 


The foreboding of this otherwise far-sighted man did not, how- 
ever, come to pass. On the contrary, a most distinguished career 
awaited Richard Rush. As indicated in his father’s diary, he went 
to Washington to accept the office of Comptroller of the Treasury. 
From 1814 to 1817 he was Attorney-General of the United States. 
In 1817 he acted temporarily as Secretary of State, and was then 
appointed Minister to England, where he remained until 1825, negoti- 
ating several important treaties. In that year he was recalled to 
accept the position of Secretary of the Treasury in the Cabinet of 
President John Quincy Adams, and in 1828 he was candidate for the 
Vice-Presidency on the ticket with*Mr. Adams. He was Minister 
to France from 1847 to 1851. 

He was an author of prominence of his day and is especially 
remembered by his “Residence at the Court of London from 1817 
to 1825,” still one of the important contributions by an American 
to the history of our diplomacy. He also published a work entitled 
“Washington in Domestic Life,’ and is by some considered the real 
author of the Monroe Doctrine. 

However, I do not purpose to give here a biography of Richard 
Rush, but simply to state his relation to the Smithsonian Institution. 
This began in 1836, through the appointment by President Jackson 
of Mr. Rush as the agent on behalf of the United States to assert 


NO. 1821 RICHARD RUSH—ADLER 237 


and prosecute the claim to the legacy bequeathed by James Smithson, 
which had been previously brought to the attention of the Govern- 
ment. John Forsyth, then Secretary of State, writes to Mr. Rush 
under date of July 11, 1836, notifying him of his appointment by 
the President, remitting him power of attorney for the United States, 
and informing him that he would be required to give bond in the 
sum of $500,000 for the proper performance of his duties. He was 
allowed $3,000 per annum for his personal services and $2,000 for 
all contingencies other than legal expenses, and was given a letter 
of credit on the banker of the United States at London, M. de 
Rothschild, for $10,000, the amount appropriated by Congress for 
the purpose. ‘The modest allowance for salary and expenses, as 
contrasted with what was for that day an enormous bond, is signifi- 
cant of the customs of the times. 


The Secretary of State wrote in the following terms to the Secre- 
tary of the Treasury : 


Levi Woopzury, EsoQ., 


Secretary of the Treasury. 
DEPARTMENT OF STATE, 


WasHIncTon, July 11th, 1836. 

Sir: I have the honor to inform you that Richard Rush, Esq., of Pennsyl- 
vania, has been appointed by the President, in virtue of an act of Congress, 
passed at their recent session, the agent of the United States to assert and 
prosecute their claim to the legacy bequeathed to them by James Smithson, 
late of London, deceased; and likewise to state that Mr. Rush has been ap- 
prised that it is necessary for him to execute, and deposit with you, the bond 
or bonds required by the second section of the said act. 


I am, sir, your obedient servant, 
Joun ForsytuH. 


A copy of the bond has recently come into the possession of the 
Institution and is as follows. 


Know all men by these presents that we, Richard Rush, Benjamin C. 
Howard and John Mason, Jr., are held and firmly bound unto the Treasurer 
of the United States and his successors in office, in the full and just sum of 
Five hundred thousand dollars, current money of the United States, for the 
payment of which sum, we bind ourselves, our, and each of our heirs, execu- 
tors, and administrators, jointly and severally, firmly by these presents. 

Sealed with our seals and dated this twelfth day of July in the year Eighteen 
hundred and thirty-six. 

Whereas the President of the United States has appointed the said Richard 
Rush, the Agent of the United States, required to be appointed under the pro- 
visions of the Act of Congress, entitled “An Act to authorize and enable the 
President to assert and prosecute with effect, the claim of the United States 
to the legacy bequeathed to them by James Smithson, late of London, deceased, 
to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an 
establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men” Ap- 
proved ist of July, 1836. 


238 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Now, the condition of the above obligation is such, that, if the above bounden 
Richard Rush shall faithfully perform the duties of said Agency, and faith- 
fully remit to the Treasurer of the United States, all, and every sum or sums 
of money or other funds which he may receive for payment, in whole or part 
of the said legacy, mentioned in said Act of Congress, then the above obliga- 
tion to be void and of no effect, otherwise to remain in full force and. virtue. 

RicHARD RUSH [SEAL] 
J. Mason, Jr. [SEAL] 
Benyn. C. Howard [SEAL] 


Signed, sealed and delivered in the presence of 
Gro. P. Forrest 
TuHos. C. WricHT 
T. B. WasHINGTON 
E. R. Forp. 


I am satisfied with the within bond and securities. 
Levi WoopBury 
Secty of Treasury. 


Official Bond of Richard Rush to the Treasurer of the U. S. in penalty of 
five hundred thousand dollars, with B. C. Howard and Jno. Mason, Jr. Sureties. 
Received July 13, 1836. 
P, G. WASHINGTON 
Actg. Treas. U. S. 
Dated July 12, 1836. 


Mr. Rush sailed from New York on the first available ship, and 
arrived at Liverpool on the 31st of August. He employed as solici- 
tors Messrs. Clarke, Fynmore & Fladgate, with whom our legation 
at London had had previous transactions on the subject. His first 
considerable letter to the Secretary of State was from London, 
under date of September 24, 1836. In it he gives interesting infor- 
mation concerning Smithson and his will. He reports that while 
there seems to be no doubt that the United States is the final legatee 
of Smithson, a suit or legal proceedings of some nature, to which the 
United States must be a party, will have to be instituted in the Court 
of Chancery in order to make valid their right and enable them to 
get possession of the fund, now in the hands of the court and sub- 
ject to its judgment. 

After writing this letter Mr. Rush thought that it might possibly 
be more advisable not to subject the United States to the delays of 
court proceedings, but to bring the matter indirectly to the attention 
of the British Government through the American Minister. How- 
ever, after consulting counsel, Thomas Pemberton and Edward 
Jacob, the former of whom Rush describes as “at the head of the 
chancery bar,” and Mr. Jacob as being “in the first class of eminence, 
next to Mr. Pemberton,” it was decided that it was absolutely neces- 


NO. 1821 ' RICHARD RUSH—ADLER 239 


sary to file a bill, in the name of the President of the United States, 
against the testator’s executors, declaring the United States entitled 
to the fund. Mr. Rush explains the technical usages of the English 
bar, which require that his dealings with counsel should be through 
the solicitors ; but, in spite of all this eminent legal counsel, he seems 
to have taken a hand in the law affairs himself, for he points out to 
counsel, on its being recommended that the bill be drawn in the name 
of the President, that there was a possibility of a temporary vacancy 
occurring in the Executive power under our Constitution. ‘The coun- 
sel, however, decided that this did not alter the opinion, and they 
thought it would not answer to bring a suit in the name of the United 
States alone, whatever the provisions of our Constitution on this 
point. 

Under date of December 20, 1836, Rush writes to the Secretary 
of State that, while the Smithson case continues in the proper train 
with every advantage that he has been able to give it, it has not yet 
come to its first hearing before the Court of Chancery. 

On January 9, 1837, he writes cautiously: “We must hope that 
the bequest of Mr. Smithson will ultimately be adjudged to the 
United States ;” that there is a complication in the matter, “and we 
dare not with confidence affirm that the decision will be favorable 
prior to its taking place.” 

On February 2, 1837, he writes that the case had its first hearing 
in the Court of Chancery on the day before, and the results so far 
are favorable to the establishment of the claim of the United States; 
that the Attorney-General was not present in court personally, but 
was represented by Mr. Wray, who in effect abandoned all oppo- 
sition on the part of the Crown; that the court decreed that the 
case be referred to one of the masters in chancery. He further states 
that counsel also appeared for Messrs. Drummond, who were the 
executors, and made a little show of opposition; but he adds, “as 
their clients are, in fact, nothing more than stakeholders,” they will 
offer, he believes, no serious opposition. Mr. Rush closes his long 
report of the first proceedings in court with the statement that had 
the Attorney-General interposed a claim for the Crown under the 
law of escheats, he had contemplated drawing up a counter-repre- 
sentation on behalf of the United States, founded on the public 
objects of Mr. Smithson’s will, and have it presented to the British 
Government, through the American Minister; but that all necessity 
for such action was now at an end, by the course which the law 
officers of the Crown had pursued, and that he did not think that 
any such application appeared at present to be needed, either for the 
purpose of justice or expedition. 


240 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


The next extensive report was dated February 10, 1837. Mr. 
Rush writes that the court desired an amendment to the bill, which 
stands officially ‘““The President of the United States of America 
versus Drummond,” so as to include the Act of Congress authorizing 
the President to receive the fund and make arrangements therefor. 
He states that counsel were disposed to view this with satisfaction, 
the United States having never before appeared as suitor in an 
English court. 

Under date of March 25, 1837, he transmits the advertisements 
agreed upon to determine whether Smithson or his nephew had any 
heir or heirs, and calls attention to the form of the advertisement, 
which he says was by his direction framed with all the brevity com- 
patible with the essential object of the court’s decree, as he wished to 
guard against the risk of raising up spurious claimants or combina- 
tions in France, Italy, or England to battle with the right of the 
United States, whereby, although their ultimate recovery of the fund 
might not be prevented, great delays might be interposed. 

Writing April 28, 1837, Mr. Rush speaks of keeping a constant 
watch over the legal expenses, which are proverbially heavy in 
English chancery proceedings. He adds: “It seems that something 
is to be paid for every step taken, every line written, and almost 
every word spoken by counsel, senior and junior, solicitors, clerks, 
and everybody connected with the courts, and officers attached to 
them.” 

There then arose, in connection with the affair, several vexatious 
small claims upon the Smithson fund, which Mr. Rush combated 
with great dignity and firmness. On July 21, 1837, he seems to have 
become a little impatient, and writes to the solicitors asking them 
what the prospects were for a speedy decision. Under date of July 
28, 1837, he writes Mr. Forsyth: “Had it not been for the obstruc- 
tions created by Monsieur de la Batut, this part of the case would 
have been expedited, and a door the sooner opened by which the 
United States might have got possession of the fund.” 

On August 1, 1837, he writes that the arrears of cases in the 
Court of Chancery were upwards of 800, recounts other discourage- 
ments, but adds that he does not despair of having the case of the 
United States brought to a final and successful close in the course of 
the ensuing winter or spring. He asks for and receives by January, 
1838, a renewal of his power of attorney from the President to 
prosecute the Smithson claim. He is not sure whether the exhibi- 
tion of the new power will be eventually demanded, but if not, he 
trusts the President will believe that he has erred on the safe side. 


NO. 1821 RICHARD RUSH—ADLER 241 


On February 9, 1838, he writes to the solicitors that he is willing 
to take the responsibility of having the master’s report made without 
further evidence in the premises, and also that he will make certain 
concessions in order to avoid the possibility of an appeal to the 
House of Lords, which would consume a great deal of time. 

On March 28, 1838, he states that the report of the master has 
been made and confirmed. He expects a decree after the Easter 
term, and under date of May 12, 1838, he writes to the Secretary 
of State: “I have great satisfaction in announcing to you, for the 
President’s information, that the case came on to be heard again on 
the 9th instant, when a decree was solemnly pronounced adjudging 
the Smithson bequest to the United States.” He adds that the suit 
is ended, and that only a few formalities remain to put him in actual 
_ possession of the fund. The fund is principally in 3 per cent annui- 
ties. Having no special instructions as to what he is to do, it is his 
present intention to sell the whole at the best time and for the best 
prices to be commanded, and to bring it over in gold for delivery 
to the Treasurer of the United States, in fulfillment of the trust with 
which he is charged. 

He points out in this rather long report that, although the best 
part of two years has been spent in the suit, he yet regards the 
matter with satisfaction, and that within a fortnight a member had 
stated in the House of Commons that “a chancery suit was a thing 
that might begin with a man’s life and its termination be his epitaph.” 
He congratulates the President and the Secretary of State on the 
result, and adds: “A suit of higher interest and dignity has rarely, 
perhaps, been before the tribunals of a nation. If the trust created 
by the testator’s will be successfully carried into effect by the en- 
lightened legislation of Congress, benefits may flow to the United 
States and to the human family not easy to be estimated, because 
operating silently and gradually throughout time, yet operating not 
the less effectually.” 

His difficulties were not quite at an end. On May 31, 1838, he 
writes very urgently to the solicitors for the necessary document 
from the proper officer of the court, by which the Smithson fund 
adjudged to the United States may be placed at his disposal. But 
six days later, on June 5, he writes triumphantly to the Secretary 
of State that the formalities had been finally completed and the fund 
placed in his hand. He gives an exact statement of the stocks, and 
says that the important operation of selling them now remains to be 
conducted. He will take the best advice for so managing the sales 
as to promote the best interests of the United States. He still thinks 
that the best mode of bringing home the money will be in gold. 


242 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


On June 13, 1838, he reports that the sale of the stock is going 
on well. He had first intended to sell all the stock for cash immedi- 
ately, but found that an attempt to sell all at once would probably 
have depressed the market for this particular form of security and 
have occasioned a loss of several hundred pounds. In regard to 
this matter of selling the stock, he reports that he received most 
beneficial aid from the constant advice of our consul, Colonel Aspin- 
wall. 

On June 26, 1838, he reports that the sales of stock are finally 
closed; that they have all been good—even fortunate. ‘The prices 
have been high as compared with the state of the stock market for 
several years past. The entire amount of the sales yielded an agegre- 
gate of more than a hundred thousand pounds. ‘The two days on 
which all the transfers are to be made are the 30th of June and the 
6th of July. He will then convert the whole into English gold coin 
and bring it to the United States. He concludes this dispatch with 
very high praise of the solicitors, and says that had they desired 
“to eke out a job,” they could easily have made the suit last for 
years to come. 

Under date of July 14, 1838, Mr. Rush writes that he has made 
arrangements for obtaining, insuring, and shipping the gold; that 
it would be on the New York packet M@ediator, by or before the 
17th instant, and that he has taken passage on the ship himself. "The 
costs of the suit have been paid, but the other expenses he cannot 
definitely report upon until he arrives in New York or Washington. 

On August 28, 1838, Mr. Rush writes to the Secretary of State, 
from the harbor of New York, reporting the arrival of the ship 
Mediator with the gold on board; that he has paid the expenses of 
every kind incurred by closing the business in London and shipping 
the gold; that the freight, primage, and other small charges are still 
to be paid; that when all expenses are deducted there will be upward 
of £104,500. ‘The whole is in sovereigns packed in boxes. He adds 
that, the money being consigned to no one here, he must continue 
to hold it in his custody until he has received instructions as to whom 
to deliver it, as provided for by the Act of Congress of the rst of 
July, 1836. 

On actually landing in New York he received such instructions 
from the Secretary of the Treasury, directing him to transfer the 
Smithson fund to Philadelphia, to be deposited with the treasurer 
of the mint to the credit of the Treasurer of the United States. 
Mr. Rush also found a letter from the Secretary of State extending 
him congratulations on the success of his mission and on his safe 
return to this country. 


NO. 1821 RICHARD RUSH—ADLER 243 


On September 4, 1838, he writes from Philadelphia to the Secre- 
tary of State that, owing to the delay in getting the ship into the 
dock, he was not able to leave New York until the first of the month: 
that he was accompanied by two agents of the Bank of America, 
that institution having afforded him every facility. He nevertheless 
did not feel at liberty to withdraw his own personal superintendence 
from the operation of transferring the gold until he saw it deposited 
at the mint. He had immediately had it conveyed there on reaching 
Philadelphia on the Ist instant, the director and treasurer of the 
mint having been in readiness to receive it, and he writes: “I have 
now the satisfaction of informing you that official receipts of this 
amount from my hands have been forwarded to the Treasury De- 
partment.” ‘There are other details about the transfer of the money 
given, and at the end of his letter Mr. Rush writes: “Somewhat 
worn down by fatigue since coming on shore, after an uncomfortable 
voyage of squalls, gales, and head winds, I venture to ask a little 
repose at my home, before proceeding to Washington, for the pur- 
pose of making out and rendering to you an account of all expenses 
that have attended the final recovery of this fund, of which the 
United States, by the information I give you in this letter, are now 
in possession. In the course of the next week I shall hope to pro- 
ceed to Washington with the view stated.” 

On September 11, 1838, he writes to Mr. Forsyth that he has 
received a letter from the Secretary of the Treasury asking for an 
early statement of his expenses, but that he cannot then make out 
a statement, owing to sickness and fatigue. On the 15th of the 
month, however, in Washington, he writes to Mr. Forsyth, giving 
him the full statement. 

The next step was that of actually creating the establishment 
required under Smithson’s will, and here, too, Mr. Rush rendered 
important service. 

On July 19, 1838, John Forsyth, as Secretary of State, by direction 
of President Van Buren, invited a number of eminent gentlemen— 
public men and scholars—to express an opinion as to the best method 
of applying the proceeds of the bequest in order that the President 
might have the benefit of their judgment in presenting the matter 
to Congress. 

The view seemed to be generally accepted at the time that the 
Institution was either to be a university for instruction or an estab- 
lishment devoted to some one specific subject, such as an astronomi- 
cal observatory or a national library. Mr. Rush combated these 
views. He declared that a university or a college, in the ordinary 


244 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


sense, was not the kind of institution contemplated by Mr. Smith- 
son’s will; that he judged, from the language and the fact of the 
United States being trustee, that it ought to be as comprehensive 
as possible in its objects and means and national in its government. 
He thought that one of the main objects of the Institution should 
be the gathering of natural history productions of various places; 
recommended that our consuls, naval and military officers, and even 
ministers abroad be employed for this purpose; and that the officers 
of the army should collect facts bearing upon geology, natural his- 
tory antiquities, and the character of the aboriginal races of the 
United States. He recommended that a building be erected in Wash- 
ington with accommodations for the business of the Institution ; that 
a press be established, or authority to employ one, for printing com- 
munications and literature. He provided for a very elaborate system 
of lectures, to comprehend the leading branches of physical and 
moral science. In concluding his rather long letter, Mr. Rush, with 
a modest distrust of his own abilities to advise in the matter, de- 
clared that the establishment of this Institution would be like a new 
power coming into the Republic. I have omitted such parts of his 
statement as were not adopted, but it is noteworthy that he projected 
the lines upon which the Institution was finally established more 
closely than any other person. 

As Mr. Goode put it in his account of the founding of the Insti- 
tution in the Smithsonian History :t “Mr. Rush objected to a school 
of any kind and proposed a project which corresponds more nearly 
than any other of those early days to that which was finally adopted. 
In a shadowy yet far-seeing way, he outlined a system of scientific 
correspondence, of lectureships, of general codperation with the 
scientific work of the Government, a liberal system of publication, 
and collections—geological, zoological, botanical, ethnological, and 
technological.” 

The first meeting of the Regents of the Institution under the 
organizing act was held on September 7, 1846, and of this body 
Mr. Rush was a member as a citizen of Pennsylvania. At the meet- 
ing held the next day, September 8, 1846, he was appointed a mem- 
ber of the committee of three on library. 

How seriously Mr, Rush took up his work for the Smithsonian 
Institution when he became a Regent may be gathered from a remark 
in the introduction to a small volume entitled “Washington in domes- 
tic life, from original letters and manuscripts,” published by the 


*The Smithsonian Institution, 1846-1896. History of its first Half Century. 
I.dited by George Brown Goode. Washington, 1897, pp. 33. 


No. 1821 RICHARD RUSH—ADLER 245 


Lippincott Company of Philadelphia, in 1857. This little book, by 
the way, was largely based upon a collection of letters, mostly 
domestic and personal, addressed to Tobias Lear, the faithful friend 
and private secretary to Washington when President. Mr. Rush 
said: 

“Mrs. Lear first informed me of these letters ten or twelve years ago, when 
in Washington. . . . I brought them home as requested, being then too 
much engaged in the business of the Smithsonian Institution as one of the 
Regents on its first organization, to examine them while in Washington.” 

At the meeting of the Board of Regents held on December 17, 
1847, a resolution was introduced, reciting that, as Mr. Rush had 
been appointed Minister to France, a joint resolution be introduced 
into Congress for the appointment of a Regent to fill this vacancy, 
and that on the other hand the Board of Regents recommend to the 
establishment the election of Mr. Rush as an honorary member of 
the Institution, and furthermore that the then Chancellor, George M. 
Dallas, be deputed to propose Mr. Rush for this office. There is no 
record, however, of this action having been carried through. 

Mr. Rush early became interested in a building for the Institution, 
and in a letter from Philadelphia, May 20, 1847, to Mr. Owen, he 
_ refers to the work of the building committee generally, and adds: 

“On the eve of my departure on the French mission I cannot lose this op- 
portunity of saying with what constant interest I shall continue to follow up 
the proceedings of the Smithsonian Regents; and of adding, that if it ever be 
thought I could render the least service to the Institution, while in Paniswt 
would afford me the greatest pleasure to be called upon.” 

Mr. Rush returned, however, in time to actually take part in the 
work of the building committee, and his signature is appended to 
all its reports. In 1853 he was appointed a member of the special 
committee on the distribution of the income. 

In all the discussions in the year 1855, relative to the division of 
authority between the Secretary and the Board of Regents, Mr. Rush 
stood steadily for the authority of the Secretary over all his assist- 
ants, and thus again, by his far-sightedness, aided greatly in placing 
the executive work of the Institution upon a firm foundation. He 
was a member of the committee to represent the Board of Regents 
before the joint committee of the House and Senate appointed to 
investigate the Institution, at the instance of Rufus Choate. 

At the meeting of the Board January 28, 1860, Mr. Rush’s death 
was announced and Senator Pearce made the following remarks: 

Since the last meeting of the Board of Regents, as announced by the Secre- 


tary, one of its earliest and most distinguished members, the Hon. Richard 
Rush, has departed this life. 


240 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


The history of his public career is familiar to all the Regents, to whom I 
need scarcely detail even its more prominent incidents; but I may remark that 
it is seldom the good fortune of any man to fill so many important offices, and 
to execute so many responsible public trusts, not only with credit, honor and 
usefulness, but with ever-increasing reputation. Mr, Rush’s life was a long 
one, and he entered into the service of his country while yet in the spring of 
manhood. He was Comptroller of the Treasury at a time when the fiscal 
affairs of the Government were in disorder, when the public accounts were 
numerous and complicated, and often required difficult legal adjustment. He 
was next Attorney-General. Soon after the peace of 1815 he was Minister to 
England, and occupied that important post during eight years, when various 
national questions of difficulty and delicacy required for their proper settlement 
diplomatic skill, firmness and caution. He was Secretary of the Treasury 
when measures of revenue were violently disputed; Minister to France when 
the monarchy was a second time overthrown and a republic again proclaimed. 
To these great and varied employments he brought integrity, ability, intelli- 
gence, firmness, courtesy, and a directness of purpose which scorned all finesse, 
and which served his country to the full extent of all that could have been 
demanded or hoped. He was a good scholar, having graduated at Princeton 
College, and cultivated literature, as well as the severer studies of his profes- 
sion, with great zeal and success. 

Withal he was remarkable for the kindness of his temper, the amenity of 
his manners, and the charms of his conversation. 

With this establishment he had the earliest connection, having, under the 
authority of the Government, caused the institution of legal proceedings in 
England for the recovery of the fund with which it was founded and endowed, 
and superintended their progress to the close. 

The Act of Congress of 1846 having established the Smithsonian Institution, 
he was appointed one of its first Regents, and was constantly continued by 
Congress a member of their Board. His zeal for the increase and diffusion of 
knowledge among men, and his sound judgment, contributed to the adoption 
of the system of operations which, so far, has borne the happiest fruits; and 
his interest in and care for its successful management furnished one of the 
enjoyments of a tranquil old age, “attended by reverence and troops of 
friends.” 

I offer the following resolutions: 

Resolved, That the Board of Regents have learned with deep regret the 
death of the Hon. Richard Rush, one of their members, whose long and dis- 
tinguished career of public usefulness commanded their entire respect, and 
whose moral and social worth won their highest esteem and regard. 

Resolved, That a copy of this resolution be transmitted to the family of the 
deceased. 


This account of the relation of Richard Rush to the Smithsonian 
Institution is, in the main, based upon letters and papers already 


published by the Institution, largely in the various historical works 
edited by William J. Rhees, who for nearly half a century was the 


depository of the archives and history of the Institution. 


No. 1821 RICHARD RUSH—ADLER 247 


By chance the Institution has recently come into the possession of 
a number of private letters written by Mr. Rush to Colonel Aspin- 
wall, who was our Consul General at London during the period 
covered by the suit, and who, according to Mr. Rush’s official state- 
ment, aided him greatly in his labors. Most of the letters refer to 
the matter of the sale of securities in which Smithson’s fortune was 
invested. While in the main not important, these letters make an 
interesting addition to the story of Mr. Rush’s part in securing the 
Smithson bequest. 


54 Upper Norton Sr., June 6, 1838. 
My Dear CoLonett: 


How would it do to throw overboard entirely the idea of commission on 
effecting a sale of the stock, and charging one on a moderate or medium 
scale rather than the high scale, take both these latter operations into your 
own hands wholly, performing them in your own name to go before Con- 
gress—where all items of my account are finally to be scrutinized? 

I should in that case naturally say in writing to the government that the 
fund had naturally been saved all expense whatever of an agency for effect- 
ing a sale of the stock in addition to brokerage, by the useful advice and as- 
sistance I had derived from you. 

This might go a good way as a set off to objections that would be made 
(unreasonably, but that probably would be made,) to your having any hand 
whatever in the matter. 

Would not such a course be likely to come out better in the end, guarding 
against ultimate recoil either upon you or me directly or collaterally? 

Perhaps the peculiar character of the fund which looks exclusively to the 
interests of Letters and Science among us, would be thought to give it claims 
to as little diminution as possible in passing on to its final destination. The 
less taken from it, the better chance shall we have of coming off with flying 
colours. 

I throw out these as things for consideration. Don’t be at the trouble of 
writing about them; I shall certainly be with you on Friday at 12 or a little 
after when we will talk them over; remaining, as ever yours, 

ee 
(Upon reverse :) 


54 Upper Norton St., 6th June, 1838. R. R. Rush. 


54 Upper Norton St., June 9, 1838. 
My Dear CoLone.: 


Understanding, if I have rightly understood, that you will perform all the 
agencies necessary to enable me to realize in money the Smithsonian fund I 
have recovered for the United States, convert it into gold, and ship it to the 
U. S. for a commission of three quarters of one per cent, I will allow that 
amount, feeling myself fortunate whilst acting for the U. S. to be able thus 
to command your services on this interesting occasion; and although you 
forego all commission or charge on effecting the sales of the stock, I am 
greatly sensible of the benefit the fund derives in that important matter from 
your counsel and personal coéperation, not only in being relieved from a com- 


248 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


mission of one per cent usually charged for this service, but as your knowl- 
edge and experience relating to the great stock market of London enable you 
to get more for the stock than I could probably have done by all my own 
efforts acting merely through a broker. My understanding is, that the whole 
amount of what I am to allow you on all the operations from beginning to end, 
including of course the effecting of insurance, is not to exceed three quarters 
of one per cent; but please say if I am right, and believe me 
Always yours, 
RIcHARD RusH. 
Cor. ASPINWALL. 


54 Upper Norton St. oth June, 1838. R. 11th. A. do. R. Rush. 


54 Upper Norton St., June 10, 1838. 
My Dear CoLoneEL: 

I am decidedly against waiting for higher prices than can be commanded 
now, and should therefore like the whole of the Reduced annuities (£12,000) 
sold to-morrow for the 6th of June, to be paid for on that day, unless indeed 
something should occur not now known to me to make you think it inex- 
pedient. In which case forbear an order to the broker until we meet. 

I am to go with my solicitors to the accountant general to-morrow at a little 
after one, and if I can get away in time will make a point of calling upon you 
at the office before five, 

Remaining, as always, yours. RAR 


(Upon reverse:) 


54 Upper Norton St., toth June, 1838. R. R. Rush. 


54 Upper Norton Sr., June 16, 1838. 
My Dear CoLoneL: 

The more I reflect upon the stock sales, the more disposed I am not to de- 
lay them. We know things present, but not to come. The little Queen I have 
always understood is a great eater, and every newspaper tells us she is a 
great frolicker. Now, if the little thing should chance to be taken sick in 
these junketing times of the coronation, only think how the stocks would 
come down. People would have the Duke of Cumberland before their imagi- 
nations and what not besides—so, as we are now at the close of the week, I 
think we had better get to work again on Monday or Tuesday in earnest, not 
waiting for a rise lest, peradventure, a fall should plump upon us instead, 
through some unforeseen cause or other; and the stocks are really high now. 
Besides, as I have consented to lengthen out the sales on time (though not 
later than the roth of July) to be waiting shortens the interval, and therefore 
lessens our advantage in time contracts I should think. But I will be with 
you on Monday morning by or before 11, and until we meet nothing need be 
done, unless before I come the reduced should happen to touch 94 or the bank 
stock 205. 

Always yours, Ree 


(Upon reverse:) 


54 Upper Norton Street, 16 June, 1838. R. 18th do. R. Rush. 


NO. 1821 RICHARD RUSH—ADLER 249 


54 Upper Norron St., June 20, 1838. 
My Dear CoLoneEL: 

I will beg the favor of you to get me one of the printed papers of the Stock 
Exchange, giving the prices, on the 18th, the day on which our two last sales 
were made. 

I will call for you tomorrow at about % past 6 in a carriage to go out to 
our dinner together, 

Remaining yours sincerely, a Re 

Cor. ASPINWALL. 


(Upon reverse:) 


54 Upper Norton St., 20th June, 1838. R. do. 


54 Upper Norton St., Friday, June 22, 1838. 
My Dear CoLone.: 

Assuming that you may probably have sold the small remnant of bank 
stock to-day, I will ask the favor of a line in the course of to-morrow stating 
the gross amount in pounds sterling of what all the stock will have yielded 
when the money is paid—brokerage and stamps off. 

Always yours, RR: 


(Upon reverse:) 


54 Upper Norton St., 22d June, 1838. R. do. A. 23d do. R. Rush. 


June 22, 1838. 
My Dear CoLoneEL: 
With your line of to-morrow, may I beg you also to send the list of com- 
missions, &c., &c., to be copied from the newspaper—if done. 
R. R. 


(Upon reverse :) 


June 22d, 1838. R. 23d do. Richard Rush. 


54 Upper Norton Sr., June 26, 1838. 
My Dear CoLoneE.: 

I do not forget that I am to be with you on Saturday to attend to the busi- 
ness of the transfers, but will fix the time when I have the pleasure of being 
with you at dinner the evening before. 

Be so good as to favor me with a line to-morrow morning barely to say 
how the matter of exchange stands now, for I have not seen the last quota- 
tions; that is, just say how much less we should gain by the operation in gold 
than stated in your note of the 15th if the turn has been that way as I suppose. 

I have by some chance mislaid the printed slip of prices at the Stock Ex- 
change for the 18th instant; which please send me if still to be had—as I hope. 

Always yours, RR. 


54 Upper Norton St., 26 June, 1838. R. do. A. do. R. Rush. 


17 


250 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


54 Upper Norton Sr., June 30, 1838. 
My Dear Sir: 

It is high time now that all the stock is sold to be thinking of shipping the 
gold, as the money will soon be converted into it. Be so good therefore, as 
to be turning in your mind what you are to do for me. I shall count upon 
your services towards effecting insurance, paying the premium, agreeing for 
the freight and in short taking all the steps necessary to the whole operation 
at the custom house and elsewhere, in the most regular way and on the best 
terms attainable. I have mentioned to you my personal preference for going 
with Captain Champlain in the Mediator; but having a public trust in hand, I 
could not indulge my wish unless he would agree to take the gold on terms 
fully as favorable in every particular as could be obtained in any other packet 
ship. I shall trust to you for making the contract and all arrangements with 
Captain Champlain. 

I remain always sincerely yours, 
RIcHARD RusH. 

Cor. ASPINWALL,. 


(Upon reverse :) 


54 Upper Norton St., 30th June, 1838. R. 2d July. A. do. Richd. Rush. 


54 Upper Norton St., July 2, 1838. 
My Dear CoLone.: 

I have arranged it with my solicitors that one of them is to meet us on 
Friday next, at a quarter before ten, at No. 3z, Upper Norton Street (close 
by me) on the business of the trunks. You will perhaps request Mr. McCurley 
to be there at the same time, and if you will have the goodness to call on me 
after you have breakfasted, we will go to the house together, and be able IT 
have little doubt to make a short piece of work of it. 

Always yours, R. R. 

Cor. ASPINWALL. 


P. S.—I do not forget that Friday is the 6th and of course our day for 
transferring and receiving; but we shall be in ample time for that, after 
finishing the work in our neighborhood. 


(Upon reverse:) 


54 Upper Norton St., 2d July, 1838. R. 3rd do. Richard Rush 
Address: 
To CoLtoneL ASPINWALL, 
Consul of the United States, 
I Bishopsgate, 
Churchyard, London. 
By the Monongahela, 
Captain Miercken, 
for Liverpool. 


SYDENHAM, NEAR PHILADELPHIA, May 18, 1830. 
My Dear CoLone.: 
A late letter from my son informs us of your recent affliction in the loss of 
a daughter, on which event there are none who would offer you more heart- 


NO. 1821 RICHARD RUSH—ADLER 251 


felt condolence than Mrs. Rush and myself, which neither you nor Mrs. 
Aspinwall I am sure will doubt. Believe me my dear Sir I felt sincerely for 
you. Having so recently been with your amiable and interesting family cir- 
cle, I can see the more vividly the chasm that was made. But I will say no 
more, except to be remembered in the most friendly and kind manner, my 
wife joining, to Mrs. A. and the flock still surrounding you, and capable of 
affording you so many sources of happiness and content. 

I had intended before this to drop you a line on the termination of the 
little Smithson affair. I assure you we both came well out of it, as I hoped 
we should. I have reason to know that there were those in Congress eagle- 
eyed to find fault, but they could not. All that I did, with your good aid, 
was so fair and square—so above all cavil even—that they had to give up the 
task as hopeless. I have been fully discharged from the trust; my accounts 
all settled, all found correct, no extra charges, no disputed items, no sus- 
pended ones, (*) no any thing of that sort, and in the end I had a letter 
from the Secretary of the Treasury in which he was pleased to speak of the 
fidelity, care, promptness, &c., &c., with which the whole matter had been 
conducted, and to hear verbally when at Washington of your judicious and 
commendable assistance to me. But O what a little uproar would have been 
raised if we had not kept the main fund as undiminished as possible; even 
our old friend Mr. Adams would not have spared us you may be sure. It is 
well that we saved it from the usual mercantile pickings. I hope my son 
showed you the documents published by Congress on the subject. I would 
have sent you a copy of them also, had I been able to procure one. 

With renewed and kindest remembrances to you all, 

I am, my dear sir, 
Ever sincerely yours, 
RicHARD RUSH. 


(*) (The accounting officers wanted to suspend one item, a sum I had paid 
Mr. Brent, consul at Paris, under express directions from the department; 
but I said no, I will give up the item first—I will have a final and full clear- 
ance, and got it—and the item allowed too) 


(Upon reverse:) 


Sydenham, nr. Philada., 18 May, 1839. R. roth June. A. 23d Augt. Richd. 
Rush. 





DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME NEW SPECIES AND A NEW 
GENUS OF AMERICAN MOSQUITOES 


By HARRISON G. DYAR anp FREDERICK KNAB 
Or THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 


The following new forms are characterized for insertion in the 
forthcoming monograph of Culicide by Dr. L. O. Howard and the 
present authors. The present paper is in continuation of one recently 
published by us in Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 35, pp. 53-70, 1908: 


AEDES PAGETONOTUM, new species 


FEMALE.—Proboscis black; head with the occiput clothed with 
frosty white scales, a black patch well down the side; erect scales 
pale. Mesonotum clothed with frosty white scales, a few pale 
brownish ones intermixed on the disk, forming no pattern. Abdo- 
men black-scaled above, with moderate basal white segmental bands, 
entirely white beneath. Legs dark-scaled without rings. Wings 
dusky-scaled, the scales broadly linear, the costa black-scaled with 
a white patch at the base. Claws toothed. Length, 5 mm. 

MaLeE.—Similar to the female. Palpi longer than the proboscis, 
with patches of white scales at the bases of the last two joints. 
Length, 6 mm. 

Ten specimens, Ottawa, Canada, May 15, 16, 1900; May 17, 19, 
1901 ; May 20, 1905 (J. Fletcher) ; Chelsea [Canada], May 17, 1902 
(A. Gibson) ; Aweme, Manitoba, June 3, 1904 (N. Criddle). 

Type no. 12057, U. S. N. M. 


AEDES PAZOSI, new species 


FEMALE.—Occiput with golden scales. Mesonotum with broad, 
flat, golden scales. Abdomen dark violet blue above, with lateral 
triangular apical segmental spots of golden scales, venter golden- 
scaled. Legs dark violet blue, the scales on the hind tibize and 
tarsi not erect or roughened, last two hind tarsal joints white, the 
fourth joint marked with black beneath nearly throughout. Wing- 
scales brown. 

One specimen, Vuelta-Abajo, Cuba (J. H. Pazos). 

Type no. 12117, U. S. N. M. 

Named in honor of the collector, Dr. J. H. Pazos. 


254 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


BANCROFTIA PERSEPHASSA, new species 


FEMALE.—Proboscis black-scaled, a white ring at the middle. 
Thorax clothed with narrow golden scales, with a subdorsal narrow 
bare line on either side, the sides of the disk dark except for a patch 
of golden scales over the root of the wing. Abdomen subcylin- 
drical, truncate at tip, black-scaled above with yellowish white lateral 
basal segmental spots, venter black, with narrow white basal bands. 
Wings hyaline, the scales dusky black, the outstanding ones broad, 
obliquely subtruncate at the tip. Legs black-scaled, the femora with 
the apices yellowish white and a ring of this color at the apical third; 
tibiz similarly marked; tarsi of the hind legs ringed with white at 
both ends of the joints, the last joint black at the tip; front and mid 
tarsi with the markings similar, but obsolete on the last three joints. 
Length, 3.5 mm. 

One specimen, San Antonio de los Bafios, Cuba (J. H. Pazos). 

Type no. 12118, U. S. N. M. 


CULEX LACTATOR Dyar and Knab 
Variety lactator Dyar and Knab 


Our Culex lactator, described from larve, proves to be very vari- 
able as adult. We propose to restrict our name to that form of 
lactator in which the legs are entirely black and the proboscis lacks 
the white ring, being only white-marked beneath, leaving the name 
hassardu Grabham for the normally fully marked form. 


Variety loquaculus, new variety 


In this form the pale markings are all reduced, the tarsal rings 
smaller than in normal lactator and of a brownish shade; the pro- 
boscis instead of being ringed is white-marked on the under side. 

iype no; 12050, U..s, N. ML. 

We have selected six specimens as types from the Panama Canal 
Zone. 

Culex lactator is a common tropical mosquito, the adult variable, 
but the larvae constant. We have been obliged to recognize named 
varieties in this case, since the extremes are so different from the 
normal form as to fall very differently in any synoptic table. These 
forms would certainly be treated as distinct species by any student 
studying the adults alone. 


NO. 1822 NEW SPECIES OF AMERICAN MOSQUITOES 


to 


CULEX ELOCUTILIS, new species 


FEMALE.—Proboscis moderately long and slender, somewhat 
swollen towards the apex, black-scaled; palpi black-scaled. Occiput 
clothed with dark scales with bronzy luster, margin of the eyes nar- 
rowly white. Mesonotum uniformly dark brown-scaled with a 
bronzy luster, the scales on the scutellum paler. Abdomen depressed, 
truncate at tip, dark-scaled above with distinct coppery luster, the 
anterior angles of the segments laterally silvery white-scaled; be- 
neath with basal segmental silvery bands. Wing-scales dark brown- 
ish, long and narrow. Legs bronzy brown, the apices of the hind 
tibiz and the bases of the first, second, and third tarsal joints very 
narrowly pale-marked ; claws simple. Length, 3 mm. 

MarEe.—Palpi longer than the proboscis, entirely black-scaled ; 
coloration as in the female. Length, 2.5 mm. 

Two specimens, Coscojar River, Porto Bello Bay, Panama (A. H. 
Jennings). 

ype no. 12051, U.S. N; M. 


CULEX IMITATOR Theobald 


The typical adult has the thorax adorned with silvery markings, 
but these may be absent. We would restrict our name vector, based 
upon larvee, to this form in which the silvery markings are absent. 


CULEX VINDICATOR, new species 


The name Culex inquisitor D. and K. is here restricted to the 
‘Trinidad specimens. We propose the new name Culex vindicator for 
part of the specimens from Dominica included under inquisitor 
(Journ. New York Ent. Soc., xiv, 211, 1906). In the Dominican 
species the proboscis is not ringed, the tarsal joints are narrowly 
raarked with white at both ends, except that the tip of the last hind 
tarsal joint is black, the abdomen with basal white segmental bands. 

Four specimens, Dominica, July (A. Busck). 

Type no. 12098, U. S. N. M. 

The larve are similar to those of inquisitor, but the basal tuft of 
the tube is without the pecten. 


CULEX DICTATOR, new species 


Another part of the specimens referred to above from Dominica 
are close to vindicator, but the abdomen is differently colored; in 
the present species it is black above with a coppery luster, the basal 


250 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


white bands of uniform width, while in vindicator it is dull black, the 
basal white bands mesially produced. 

Six specimens, Dominica, July (A. Busck). 

Type no. 12099, U. S. N. M. 


CULEX PECCATOR, new species 

Proboscis rather long and slender, very slightly enlarged towards 
the apex, black-scaled; palpi short, black. Occiput clothed with 
broad, flat, bronzy black scales. Mesonotum clothed with bronzy 
black scales. Abdomen subcylindrical, truncate at the tip, clothed 
above with dull black scales; a row of white lateral triangular basal 
segmental spots; venter whitish, the last two segments with dark 
apical bands. Wings with the outstanding scales of the veins dense, 
spatulate on the forks of the second and fourth veins and on the 
third vein. Legs dark-scaled, the femora pale beneath. Length, 
3 mm. ; 

Eleven specimens, Scott, Lonoke County, Arkansas, September 30 
to October 8, 1908 (J. K. Thibault, jr.). 

Type no. 12192, U. S. N. M. 


CULEX REVOCATOR, new species 


Entirely similar to Culex cubensis Bigot, except that the labelle 
and tip of proboscis are white or whitish-scaled, and other minor 
differences. 

Dr. Grabham sent us the specimens some time ago with the tenta- 
tive determination “Culex cubensis?” We verified this determination 
at the time, but a later reexamination revealed the difference specified 
above. 

Twenty-five specimens, Hope Gardens and Newcastle, Jamaica 
(M. Grabham). 

Type no. 12100, U. S. N. M. 


CULEX REFLECTOR, new species 


In general similar to C. restuans Theobald; the head is entirely 
white-scaled behind and the impressed lines of the mesonotum are 
distinctly narrower; there is no thoracic ornamentation. 

Four specimens, Ancon, Canal Zone, Panama, bred from larve 
found in a tree-hole with Megarhinus (A. H. Jennings). 

Type no. 12101, U. S. Noa 


LS) 
UL 
“I 


NO. 1822 NEW SPECIES OF AMERICAN MOSQUITOES 


CULEX ABOMINATOR, new species 


With the general characters of C. pipiens Linn., but separable 
from it by the broader ovate wing-scales and the distinct banding on 
the under side of the abdomen. 

Ten specimens, Tutwiler, Mississippi, August 2, 1904 (H. S. Bar- 
ber); Rives, Tennessee, July 27 (H. S. Barber); Como, Franklin 
Parish, Louisiana, August 20 (G. E. Beyer) ; Victoria, Texas, July 
2emtoot) (G,1G. Hinds Plano, Lexas, September (i. S. Tucker): 

Type no, 12103, U. s. N. M. 


CULEX REDUCTOR, new name 


We propose this name to replace Mochlostyrax jamaicensis Grab- 
ham, since when Mochlostyrax is placed as a synonym of Culex, as 
we find necessary, Dr. Grabham’s name becomes preoccupied by 
Culex jamaicensis Theobald. Theobald’s species was later placed 
by him in the genus Grabhamia, and by us in Aedes, but the name 
Culex jamaicensis cannot again be used. 


CULEX DECEPTOR, new species 


Legs dark-scaled. Proboscis swollen at the tip. Occiput dark- 
scaled, the eyes margined with whitish. Venter of the abdomen 
black and white-banded, the upper surface dull black without dorsal 
bands, but with pale lateral spots; forks of the second vein with long 
ligulate scales. 

Three specimens, Fort White, Florida (H. Byrd). 

Type no. 12104, U. S. N. M. 


CULEX INCRIMINATOR, new species 


Entirely similar to Culex deceptor Dyar and Knab, except in the 
scaling of the veins. The scales of the present form are elliptical on 
the forks of the second vein. 

Three specimens, Agricultural College, Mississippi (W. V. Reed) ; 
sent to us under the name Melanoconion atratus by Prof. Glenn W. 
Herrick, 

Type no, 12105, U. S: N. M: 


CULEX FALSIFICATOR, new species 


Proboscis black, enlarged towards the apex. Occiput clothed with 
broad, flat, bronzy black scales, a small area of narrow curved ones 
behind. Abdomen dull black above with transverse, basal, seg- 


258 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


mental, dull white bands, beneath yellowish white scaled, the apices 
of the segments marked with indistinct pale brown bands. Wings 
with the scales narrowly ovate on the second to fourth veins out- 
wardly. Legs black. 

Seven specimens, Havana, Cuba, February 15, 1904 (J. R. Tay- 
lor). 

Type no. 12108, U. S. N. M. 


CULEX INVOCATOR, new species 


Proboscis moderate, not swollen at the tip, black-scaled. Occiput 
with broad flat bronzy brown scales, a few narrow curved ones on the 
vertex, a patch of dull white scales well down the side. Abdomen 
deep black-scaled above with rather small lateral whitish spots, venter 
black-scaled with narrow white basal segmental bands. Legs black. 
Wing-scales dense, narrow, those on the apical portion of the wing 
mostly somewhat broader. 

Sixteen specimens, San Antonio de los Bafios, Cuba (J. H. 


Pazos). 
ype mo, i2ui0, Ws. N. iM: 


CULEX DUPLICATOR, new species 


Proboscis uniform, black-scaled with a broad white ring at the 
middle. Abdomen black above, with rather narrow white basal seg- 
imental bands, some of them slightly produced in the middle. Legs 
black, femora and tibize white-lined on the outer side, the tarsal joints 
broadly white-ringed at base and apex. Wiing-scales narrow, those 
on the forks of the second vein moderately long, narrowly lanceolate. 

Five specimens, San Francisco Mountains, Santo Domingo (A. 
Busck). 

ype no. 12111, U, S.No. 


CULEX AIKENII Aiken 


Theobald described Gnophodeomyia inornata from British Guiana 
(Journal of Economic Biology, 1, 20, 1905; Monogr. Culicid., tv, 
252, 1907) ; the description is repeated by Mr. Aiken (The British 
Guiana Medical Annual for 1906, 60, 1907), but under the name 
Gnophodeomyia aikenti, which name he credits to Theobald, but 
erroneously. We have received specimens, and find the species 
referable to Culex, of which Gnophodeomyia Theobald will become 
a synonym. ‘Theobald’s species on being transferred to Culex be- 
comes invalidated through the existence of Culex inornatus Willis- 
ton (U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ornith. and Mam., North American 
Fauna, no. 7, 253, 1893), and will be known as Culex aikentt Aiken. 


NO. 1822 NEW SPECIES OF AMERICAN MOSQUITOES 259 


CULEX LACHRIMANS, new name 


Culex aikentt Dyar and Knab (not Gnophodeomyia aikenii Aiken), 
Proc: U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. 35, p. 61, 1908. 

On account of the above-described facts, we are obliged to change 
the name of our Culex aikentt. 


DINANAMESUS, new genus 


Metanotum without sete. Antennz of the female with the second 
joint about eight times as long as wide, third and fourth together 
longer than the second, last joint slender; of the male, the second 
joint about six times as long as wide, the third nearly as long as the 
second, the succeeding joints subequal, the terminal joint enlarged 
into a slight knob, the hair-whorls as in the female. 


DINANAMESUS SPANIUS, new species 


FEMALE.—Proboscis rather long and stout, black-scaled. Occiput 
dark-scaled, the margins of the eyes white. Mesonotum brown- 
sealed, with numerous coarse dark bristles, particularly in the ante- 
scutellar region and at the bases of the wings. Abdomen somewhat 
compressed towards the tip, blunt, the cerci small, vestiture above 
trown with bronzy luster, beneath paler ; tip of the abdomen coarsely 
hairy. Wings hyaline, the scales of the veins brown, long, narrowly 
ovate to ligulate ; those of the costa with a strong bronzy luster. Legs 
with the tibiz rather short and stout, bronzy brown-scaled above, 
pale-scaled beneath to near the apex. ‘Tibiz and tarsi uniformly 
bronzy brown-scaled. . Claws simple. Length, 2.5 mm. 

Marr.—Antenne much longer than in the female, the hairs of the 
whorls slightly longer. Proboscis longer, slightly enlarged towards 
the apex. Abdomen compressed basally, enlarged towards the tip, 
the claspers large and stout. Coloration as in the female; claws of 
the fore and middle legs equal, one claw with a long basal tooth. 
Length, 2 mm. 

Two specimens, bred from larve in crab-holes, Corozal, Canal 
Zone, Panama, and Coscojar River, Porto Bello Bay, Panama (A. H. 
Jennings). 

Type no. 12052, U. S. N. M. 

This genus is allied to Deinocerites, differing in the reduced length 
of the second antennal joint. It is a more ancestral form in this 
respect. 


260 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


DEINOCERITES PSEUDES, new species 


FEMALE.—Antenne very long, the second joint as long as the next 
three, the terminal joint not swollen. Proboscis rather long and 
slender, brown-scaled. Mesonotum dark brown-scaled with numer- 
ous coarse black bristles. Metanotum nude. Abdomen compressed 
apically, blunt, the cerci small, without jointed appendages, vestiture 
dark above with bronzy luster, yellowish beneath. Legs bronzy 
brown-scaled, the femora pale beneath nearly to the apex. Claws 
simple. Length, 4 mm. 

MarLe.—Antennz with the third joint slightly shorter than the 
second, the following joints successively shorter, the last joint with 
a small knob at the tip, the whorls at the bases of the joints incon- 
spicuous, as small as in the female. Coloration as in the female. 
Genitalia approximately as in D. cancer Theob. Length, 4 mm. 

Nine specimens, bred from larve in crab-holes, Ancon, Canal Zone, 
Panama (A. H. Jennings). 

Type no. 12053, U. S. N. M. 


DEINOCERITES TETRASPATHUS, new species 


Similar to D. cancer Theobald, but the cerci of the female with 
four terminal flattened appendages instead of two; the appendages 
are not inserted together, but are approximated towards the tip of 
the cercus. Second joint of the antennz about fourteen times as long 
as wide, the succeeding joints about six times as long as wide and 
sibequal. Coloration as in D. cancer. 

Two females, Bluefields, Nicaragua, and Puerto Barrios, Guate- 
mala, without date or collector label. 

Type no. 12109, U. S. N. M. 


DEINOCERITES TROGLODYTUS, new species 


Closely allied to D. cancer Theobald and of the same size and 
coloration, but the cerci of the female are sharply pointed and have 
a spine on the lower side (fig. 56, 2), and are not elongate conical as 
in D. cancer (fig. 56, 1), or stoutly conical as in D. melanophylum D. 
and K. (fig. 56, 3), while the antennz of the male are stout at the 
tip and uniform, the last joint not disproportionately enlarged (fig. 
56, 2), not uniformly slender as in D. melanophylum (fig. 56, 3), nor 
with the last joint enlarged like a knob, as in D. cancer (fig. 56, 1). 

Twenty specimens, Trinidad, British West Indies, June (A. 
3usck). 

Type no. 12128, U. S. N. M. 


On 
bo 
bo 


NO. I NEW SPECIES OF AMERICAN MOSQUITOES 261 


a 





Fic. 56.—Deinocerites, female cerci and male antenne: 
1. D. cancer Theo.; 2. D. troglodytus D. and K.; 3. D. melanophylum D. and K. 


WYEOMYIA PANDORA, new species 


Proboscis moderate, bronzy black. Occiput black with bronzy 
and blue reflection without white margin to the eyes. Prothoracic 
lobes dark metallic blue with violet and coppery luster. Abdomen 
with the colors separated on the sides in a straight line, silvery be- 
neath. Wing-scales broad, ovate, many obliquely subtruncate ; legs 
bronzy black, mid tarsi with the apical two-thirds of the second and 
all the succeeding joints silvery white on the outer side; hind tarsi 
with the last two joints white all around. Length, 3.5 mm. 

Four specimens, Corozal, Canal Zone, Panama, bred from larvee 
in Calladium leaf-axils (A. H. Jennings) ; Gorgona, Canal Zone, 
Panama, bred from larve (A. H. Jennings) ; Black Swamp, Canal 
Zone, Panama, from larve (A. H. Jennings). 

Type no. 12132, U. S. N. M. 


WYEOMYIA ONIDUS, new species 


FEMALE.—Proboscis moderately long, swollen at the tip. Occiput 
dark-scaled, the margin of the eyes narrowly white. Prothoracic 
lobes dark-scaled without white apices. Abdomen dark-scaled above 
with bronzy luster, white beneath, the colors separated in a straight 
line. Legs bronzy brown, the femora pale at base beneath, the hind 
tarsi with the last two joints silvery white beneath, the white inter- 
rupted at the apex of the fourth joint; fore and mid tarsi without 
white. Wing-scales broad. 

Mate.—Coloration as in the female. 

Three specimens, bred from larve in the flower cups of H eliconia, 
Tabernilla, Canal Zone, Panama (A. H. Jennings). 

Type no. 12054, U. S. N. M. 


262 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


WYEOMYIA PANTOIA, new species 


IEMALE.—Proboscis moderately long, swollen towards the tip, 
black-scaled. Occiput entirely dark-scaled. Prothoracic lobes dark- 
scaled, without light scales at the apices. Abdomen dark-scaled 
above, white beneath, the colors separated on the sides in a straight 
line. Legs bronzy brown, the femora pale beneath, the hind tarsi 
with the last two joints silvery white beneath; fore and mid tarsi 
without white. Wing-scales broad. 

Marr.—Coloration as in the female. 

Six specimens, bred from larve in flower-cups of Heliconia and 
captured, Tabernilla, Canal Zone, Panama, Caldera Island, Porto 
Bello Bay, Panama (A. H. Jennings). 

Type no. 12055, U. S. N. M. 


WYEOMYIA SYMMACHUS, new species 


FEMALE.—Proboscis moderately long, somewhat swollen at the 
tip, black-scaled. Occiput dark-scaled, the eyes with a narrow white 
margin, interrupted towards the vertex. Prothoracic lobes dark- 
scaled, the tips silvery white, as also the basal portion. Abdomen 
black-scaled, with bluish iridescence, white beneath, the colors sepa- 
rated on the sides in a straight line. Legs bronzy brown, the femora 
pale beneath ; hind tarsi with the last two joints white-scaled beneath 
nearly to their apices; mid tarsi with the apical three-fourths of the 
second, and all of the succeeding joints silvery white-scaled be- 
neath; fore legs dark. Wing-scales broad. 

Mar.—Unknown. 

Two specimens, bred from larve in water in bamboo joints, Taber- 
nilla, Canal Zone, Panama (A. H. Jennings). 

Type no. 12056, U. S. N. M. 


WYEOMYIA ABRACHYS, new species 


FEMALE.—Proboscis rather long, distinctly swollen towards the 
tip. Occiput dark-scaled, the eyes with a narrow whitish margin. 
Prothoracic lobes black above, the tips shining but not distinctly 
white, the lower part white-scaled. Abdomen dark above, white 
below, the colors separated on the sides in a straight line. Wing- 
scales narrow, spatulate, broader and denser at the tip. Legs black- 
scaled, the mid tarsi with the fourth joint distinctly white beneath in 
the female, the third and fourth joints white in the male, hind tarsi 
with white bands at the bases of the second and third joints, the 
fourth and fifth white below except at tip. 


No. 1822 NEW SPECIES OF AMERICAN MOSQUITOES 263 


Three specimens, Caldera Island, Porto Bello Bay, Panama (A. H. 


Jennings). 
Type no. 12133, U. S. N. M. 


7 WYEOMYIA EUETHES, new species 


FEMALE.—Proboscis rather short and stout, distinctly swollen at 
the tip. Occiput dark-scaled, the eyes with a narrow white margin. 
Prothoracic lobes dark, white below, without a distinct white tip. 
Abdomen dark above, white below, the colors separated on the sides 
in a straight line. Wing-scales large, ovate. Legs black, the mid 
tarsi with the tip of the second, the third to fifth joints white below, 
hind tarsi with the fourth and fifth joints white below except at tip. 

One specimen, Tabernilla, Canal Zone, Panama (A. Busck). 

Type no. 12134, U. S. N. M. 


WYEOMYIA CHRESTA, new species 


FEMALE.—Proboscis rather long and slender, distinctly swollen at 
the tip. Occiput dark-scaled, the eyes with a narrow white margin, 
interrupted subdorsally. Prothoracic lobes dark, white below; ab- 
dominal colors separated on the sides in a straight line. Wing-scales 
large, ovate. Legs black, the mid tarsi with tip of second joint, 
third and fourth white below, hind tarsi with bases of second and 
third narrowly white, fourth and fifth white below except at tips. 

Two specimens, Tabernilla, Canal Zone, Panama (A. Busck). 


iivpeno. 121735.U. 9. N. M. 


WYEOMYIA ANTOINETTA, new species 


Proboscis moderate, distinctly swollen at the apex. Occiput dark- 
scaled, obscurely iridescent, the margin of the eyes not white-scaled, 
a silvery spot on the occiput and on sides below. Prothoracic lobes 
dark-scaled, with a violaceous luster, the apex and base silvery- 
scaled. Abdomen dark-scaled above with obscure bronzy and blue 
tuster, white-scaled beneath, the colors separated on the sides in a 
straight line. Legs dark-scaled with a paler bronzy luster beneath, 
mid tarsi with the outer half of the second and all of the last three 
joints silver-white-scaled outwardly, hind tarsi unmarked. Wing- 
scales narrow. Length, 3 mm. 

One specimen, Estero, Florida (J. B. Van Duzee), bred from 
larve in bromeliaceous plants. 


iypeno, 12170,.U. S. N. M. 


264 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


WYEOMYIA CONCHITA, new species 


Proboscis moderate, distinctly swollen towards the apex. Occiput 
dark-scaled with bronzy and iridescent luster, a patch of silver scales 
on the vertex. Prothoracic lobes entirely silver-scaled. Abdomen 
dark-scaled above with faint bronzy and blue luster, the tip silver- 
scaled, venter white-scaled, the colors separated on the sides in a 
straight line. Legs dark-scaled, paler with brassy luster beneath, 
the mid tarsi white beneath on the tip of the second and the last three 
joints, hind tarsi broadly white-marked at the bases of all the joints 
beneath. Wing-scales narrow. Length, 2.5 mm. 

Fourteen specimens, San Antonio de los Bafios, Cuba (J. H. 
Pazos). 

Type no. 12180, U. S. N. M. 


WYEOMYIA DRAPETES, new species 


Proboscis short, swollen at the tip. Occiput dark-scaled, the eyes 
with a margin of white scales, widening into a spot on the vertex. 
Palpi white-tipped. Prothoracic lobes dark-scaled with silvery white 
tip and base. Abdomen dark-scaled above, white beneath, the colors 
separated on the sides in a straight line. Legs dark-scaled. Wing- 
scales short, dense and cuneiform on the forks of the second, third, 
and fourth veins. Length, 3.5 mm. 

Male similar to the female, the palpi entirely white-scaled ; mid 
tarsi with the outer half of the second and the last three joints pale 
brassy without. 

Three specimens, San Juan, Trinidad, British West Indies, larve 
in bamboo stumps, associated with Sabethes undosus Coq. (A. 
Busck). 

dype no. T2187, Ul S.No: 


WYEOMYIA CARA, new species 


Proboscis rather short, swollen towards the apex. Occiput clothed 
with dark scales, a white margin along the eyes and a longitudinal 
stripe on the vertex. Prothoracic lobes blackish with dark brown 
and violet reflections. Abdomen with the colors separated on the 
sides in a straight line. Wing-scales broadly ovate, their tips ob- 
liquely subtruncate, dense on the second and fourth veins. Legs 
btack with bronzy and blue reflections, the tibiz and tarsi with pale 
brassy luster beneath, the last two joints of the hind tarsi with silvery 
luster beneath. Length, 3.5 mm. 

One specimen, Trinidad, British West Indies, June, 1905 (A. 
Busck). 

Type no. 12182, U. S. N. M. 


NO. 1822 NEW SPECIES OF AMERICAN MOSQUITOLS 265 


WYEOMYIA CACODELA, new species 


Proboscis moderate, swollen towards the apex. Occiput clothed 
with dark scales, a narrow white margin along the eyes. Prothoracic 
lobes blackish with dull bronzy and blue reflection. Abdomen with 
the colors separated on the sides in a straight line. Wing-scales 
broadly ovate, their tips obliquely subtruncate. Legs black with 
bronzy and blue reflections, without white markings in the female, 
the male with the mid legs brassy beneath, the hind tarsi with the last 
two joints silvery white beneath. Length, 3.3 mm. 

Three specimens, selected from a series, Tabernilla, Canal Zone, 
Panama, bred from larve in flower-cups of Heliconia (A. Busck) ; 
Gorgona, Canal Zone, Panama, from flowers of Heliconia (A. H. 
Jennings). 

Type no. 12183, U. 8. N. M. 

This species is very similar to W. galoa D. and K., and was so 
identified by us for Mr. Busck, and published in his report on the 
mosquitoes of the Canal Zone. The hind feet of the male, however, 
are differently colored. 


WYEOMYIA AGYRTES, new species 


Proboscis rather short, swollen towards the apex. Occiput clothed 
with dark scales, the eyes with a narrow white margin. Prothoracic 
lobes blackish, a white patch below. Abdomen with the colors sepa- 
rated on the sides in a straight line. Wiéing-scales broadly ovate, 
their tips obliquely subtruncate, dense. Legs black with bronzy and 
blue reflections, front and mid legs bright bronzy beneath, without 
white markings in the female. Length, 3.5 mm. 

One specimen, Tabernilla, Canal Zone, Panama, bred from larve 
taken May 16, 1905, in water in a bamboo stump (A. Busck). 

Type no. 12184, U. S. N. M. 


WYEOMYIA HAPLA, new species 


FEMALE.—Proboscis very long and slender, the tip slightly en- 
larged; black. Palpi short, black-scaled. Occiput dark-scaled, with 
iridescent reflections in some lights. Prothoracic lobes large, promi- 
nent, clothed with dark blue scarcely metallic scales and with numer- 
ous coarse black bristles along the margin. Mesonotum dark-scaled 
with slightly metallic luster, predominatingly of a dull green color; 
scutellum clothed with similar scales. Abdomen black-scaled above, 
with faint greenish and bluish luster, white-scaled beneath, the colors 
separated on the sides in a straight line. Legs black-scaled with 


18 


206 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


greenish luster, the mid tarsi white-scaled on the fourth joint below, 
the hind tarsi at base of second and third, the fourth and fifth joints 
white below except at the tips. 

One specimen, Caldera Island, Porto Bello Bay, Panama, bred 
from a larva in water between the leaves of a bromeliaceous plant 
(A. H. Jennings). 

Type ie, 12102; WSN. NE, 

Described from one of the types of W. dymodora D. and K., which 
was wrongly included and does not fit the description. The Fort 
San Felipe specimen remains as the type. 


LIMATUS CACOPHRADES, new species 


FEMALE.—Occiput black with blue and green iridescence, a patch 
of golden yellow scales at the vertex. Prothoracic lobes golden. 
Mesonotum dark metallic violet-scaled with golden markings, a 
median wedge-shaped one anteriorly and a semicircular one before 
the root of the wing. Scutellum dark violet-scaled. Postscutellum 
bronzy brown-scaled, with blue, coppery, or golden reflections. 
Pleura clothed with golden scales above, silvery ones below. Abdo- 
men with the dorsal vestiture black with coppery and blue reflections, 
the venter yellowish silvery, the colors indented on the sides. Legs 
bronzy black, with a brighter luster beneath. 

Matet.—Proboscis with a tuft beyond the middle, the tip curved 
and slightly thickened by scales. Coloration as in the female, except. 
that the mid and hind legs are white-marked beneath. 

Twelve specimens, selected from a series, Tabernilla, Canal Zone, 
Panama (A. H. Jennings). 

Type no. 12130, U. S. N. M. 

This species was formerly identified as L. durhami Theobald, but 
differs therefrom most obviously in the color of the postscutellum. 


LIMATUS METHYSTICUS, new species 


Similar to L. cacophrades D. and Kk. ‘Thorax with five irregular 
golden patches. Abdomen silvery beneath, the colors separated on 
the sides in a straight line. Middle legs with the last three tarsals 
silver white beneath in the female, white all around in the male; 
lund legs with the last joint silvery white beneath in both sexes. 
Proboscis of the male straight, slender, swollen at tip. 

Four specimens, Port Limon, Costa Rica, September 28, 1905 (F. 
iXnab). 

LYpena: 12735, US: NiM. 


NOTES 


Somst NorEwortHy ACCESSIONS TO THE DIVISION OF INVERTEBRATE 
PALEONTOLOGY IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM 


(WitH Two PLaTEs) 


Mr. Frank Springer, of Burlington, Iowa, has deposited in the 
U. S. National Museum a second slab of the unique crinoid Uinta- 
crinus socialis, which, like the first (see Smithsonian Miscellaneous 
Collections, Quarterly Issue, Vol. 1, 1904, p. 450), deserves mention. 
Both of these slabs are now on exhibition, having been mounted on 
the wall facing the corridors of the southeast balcony. The one 
specimen so supplements the other that the Museum now has un- 
doubtedly the finest exhibit of this crinoid extant. The first slab 
was one of several pieces making up a mass originally less than one- 
half an inch thick, and fifty feet long by twenty feet wide, collected 
in the upper part of the Niobrara chalk near Elkader, Logan County, 
Kansas. ‘The bodies of about 140 of these crinoids can be counted 
upon the surface of the first slab, but the position of the crinoid 
crowns is such in most cases that, although exceptionally well placed 
to show their plate structure, they seldom exhibit the complete body 
and full length of arm. In this latter respect, the second slab is par- 
ticularly fine, as a glance at the accompanying plates will show. 

The slab lately sent by Mr. Springer is nearly six feet square and 
shows upon its surface over one hundred more or less perfect indi- 
viduals. It comprises a colony of the Uintacrinus found twenty 
miles west of Elkader, Kansas, in the Hesperornis bed of the upper 
Niobrara chalk, about the top of the blue chalk where the change in 
color to yellow has commenced. ‘This horizon has furnished prac- 
tically all of the Kansas specimens of Uintacrinus, and this recent 
discovery has extended the geographical range in this state to an 
area about 60 miles in diameter. 

Mr. Springer’s studies of Uintacrinus have been so thorough that 
nothing new of scientific interest was brought out in this latest find, 
but as a Museum exhibition specimen, the slab is unique. The 
reason for this lies in the exceptionally regular arrangement and 
position of the bodies and their corresponding arms. In many of 
the specimens hitherto found, the bodies have been crushed and the 
arms so flattened out or matted together and entwined that the full 
length could seldom be traced. In the present specimen, the bodies 

207 


208 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


are resting upon their sides with their arms closely folded together 
like bundles of parallel rods. The arms seem to be pointing uni- 
formly toward the center of the slab, but whether this arrangement 
is accidental or due to eddies in the water at the time of the death 
of this colony, can only be conjectured. However, the former sur- 
mise is probably nearer the truth, since the bundle-like arrangement 
of the arms in practically all of the specimens undoubtedly indicates 
a less distorted condition of the crinoids at the time of death. 
Clearer or purer water may likewise possibly account for this reg- 
ular arrangement, since, in specimens showing the arms widely 
extended or otherwise disturbed, the enclosing chalk gives an indica- 
tion of muddy water in its darker color. 

Mr. Springer’s interest in the National Museum has not been 
confined to fossil crinoids, on which he is the leading authority, but 
has extended to other branches of paleontology. From time to time, 
collections of fossils have been presented by him, but in 1907, the 
Museum was so fortunate as to secure, through its purchase and 
subsequent donation by Mr. Springer, the collection of Prof. W. F. 
Pate, of Lebanon, Kentucky, who had spent many years in accumu- 
lating this valuable lot of material. The size and value of the col- 
lection is evident when it is stated that about 12,000 specimens, 
mostly belonging to species hitherto unrepresented in the National 
collections, have been catalogued in the Museum register under 
nearly 2,000 entries, and are retained in the permanent stratigraphic 
and biologic series of the division. ‘The number of specimens set 
aside as duplicates for exchanges and like purposes was large enough 
to increase the sum total in the original cabinet to not less than 
50,000. ‘This collection, as a whole, came from the Paleozoic rocks 
of the Mississippi Valley, but specimens from numerous foreign 
localities, secured by exchange, are likewise present. Altogether 
about six hundred localities are represented by specimens. The 
faunas from certain localities and horizons are so complete that it 
seems in order to note a few of these. 

The various Ordovician and Silurian formations, especially of 
Kentucky, are abundantly represented, but probably the most com- 
plete fauna in the collection comes from the celebrated Niagaran 
Waldron shales. In Indiana a few localities are known where fos- 
sils from these shales can be had, but at present the finest exposures 
are along the west flank of the Cincinnati axis in Tennessee. Mr. 
Pate discovered the best of these localities, and the collection has 
benefited accordingly. In the Devonian, the most interesting faunas 
represented in detail were from the Onondaga and Hamilton lime- 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XVII 


eer) 


eR Nes 





UINTACRINUS SOCIALIS FROM KANSAS 


Size, nearly six feet square 





VOL. 52, PL. XVIII 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 





A CLUSTER OF THE FOSSIL CRINOID, UINTACRINUS SOCIALIS 





NO. 1823 NOTES 209 


stone of Kentucky. In the number of localities and exquisite 
preservation of the material, the Mississippian or Subcarboniferous 
strata of Kentucky have the best representation. ‘The lowest strata 
of this larger group, the Kinderhook Knobstone shales, are well 
exposed near Lebanon, Kentucky, so that naturally the number of 
species from this horizon is particularly large. 

From a biologic standpoint, the brachiopods of the collection are 
especially noteworthy. Several years ago a biologic series of this 
class of organisms was started in the division of invertebrate paleon- 
tology ; today, by selecting series of specimens from the Ulrich and 
Rominger collections, and now from the Pate collection presented by 
Mr. Springer, the number of species of post-Cambrian Paleozoic 
forms has increased to such an extent that 80 standard drawers are 
required to contain them. This, combined with the collection of 
Cambrian brachiopods, makes the National collection unrivaled.— 
R. S. BASSLER. 


Sounp SIGNALING BY INDIANS OF ‘T'RoPICAL SouTH AMERICA 


For a long time early travelers through tropical South America 
were at a loss to know how the Indians at the villages along the 
streams (all travel being by river, of course) were always prepared 
for them, seeming to know the number of their party, number of 
canoes, their destination, etc., and it was finally learned that these 
savages had solved the problem of immediate communication to 
their own satisfaction and for their own daily use and comfort. It 
is a well-known fact that the North American Indians of the Great 
Plains communicated with each other over long distances. Theirs, 
however, was a sight system of signaling, usually by smoke in day- 
time and fire by night. Such a system was impossible for the Indians 
of tropical South America because of miles of dense forests in a 
country of no mountains or eminences of any great height. By exer- 
cising their ingenuity, however, a system of signaling by sound, 
crude in a way, and yet very effective, has been perfected among 
them by which they communicate with each other, though many 
miles apart. A rough sketch of one of the most successful of these 
signaling devices, which I saw in operation, is reproduced herewith. 

The apparatus consists usually of two logs of about six and seven 
feet in length and twelve and fifteen inches in diameter, of a wood 
similar to the corkwood, of which the balsas, or huge rafts, com- 
muuly used on the river, are made. By means of hot stones, two 
holes, connected by a long narrow canal, are burned into the logs, 
and through these holes the logs are later hollowed out by the 


270 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


same process and by scraping. By leaving different thicknesses 
of the wood and by pasting or pegging with rubber different articles 
inside the log, the sound is regulated, much on the same principle as 
in the body of a violin. Usually four sounds or notes are produced 
by hammering, one from each side of the vertical canal on each log, 
the logs being suspended by rope-like vines from a tree or from a 
frame built especially for the purpose, as seen in accompanying 
sketch. The larger log, fromwhich emanate the deeper tones, is called 


Whe Maw haul 4 


wee 
X Fé uste SIA Wy, 





WAY, 
— —— ————————— 


—————————— 
Fic. 57.—The Manguaré, for sound signaling. 


the “male,” and the smaller one the “female.” The person who sig- 
nals stands between the logs, holding in each hand a “beater’’ made 
of a piece of wood covered at one end with a ball of crude rubber and 
not unlike a large drum-stick. The strokes are usually given very 
rapidly, producing deep, booming notes, which are heard for miles 
around. Stories vary as to the distances to which the sound pene- 
trates, but in my own experience I have known of a message being 
received at a distance of approximately 15 miles. The contrivance, 


NO. 1823 NOTES 271 


among the greater part of the Huitotos of the Peruvian region, is 
called manguaré, though others know it by the name of hudra, while 
among many tribes of the region of the northern Amazon it is called 
tundéy.—CHARLES C. EBERHARDT, American Consul. 


NATURAL History EXPEDITION TO AFRICA 


In March, 1909, Mr. Theodore Roosevelt, accompanied by his son 
Kermit and three representatives of the Smithsonian Institution— 
Lieut.-Col. Edgar A. Mearns, Medical Corps, United States Army, 
retired; Mr. Edmund Heller, and Mr. J. Alden Loring—will start 
on a hunting expedition in Africa. The natural history collections 
made by the party will be deposited in the United States National 
Museum. It is planned to reach Mombasa in April, 1909, whence 
the general route will be up the Uganda Railway to Nairobi and 
Lake Victoria Nyanza, a distance of 650 miles by rail, crossing into 
Uganda, and passing down the Nile to Cairo. Much of the hunting 
will be done in British East Africa, where the Uganda Railway can 
be used as a base of supplies and means of ready transportation. It 
is expected to reach Khartoum in April, 1910. The expenses of Mr. 
Roosevelt and his son will be borne by Mr. Roosevelt; the expenses 
of the three representatives of the Smithsonian Institution will be 
defrayed from private funds contributed for the purpose. 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN EGYPT 


Through an arrangement with the Metropolitan Museum of Art 
in New York, Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, in charge of physical anthropology 
in the U. S. National Museum, has gone to Egypt for the purpose of 
studying certain ancient human remains being unearthed near Cairo, 
Before returning Doctor Hrdlicka will visit a number of the more 
prominent museums and anthropological laboratories of Europe. 


CONGRESSES 


INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON TUBERCULOSIS.—In connection with 
the Sixth International Congress on Tuberculosis, held in the new 
building of the U. S. National Museum in Washington, September 21 
to October 12, 1908, the Smithsonian Institution offered from the 
Hodgkins fund a prize of $1,500 for the best paper “On the relation 
of atmospheric air to tuberculosis.” The following committee was 
selected to award this prize: Dr. William H. Welch, of Johns Hop- 
kins University, chairman; Dr. John S$. Fulton, Secretary-General 


272 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


of the International Congress on Tuberculosis; Dr. Simon Flexner, 
Director, Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research; Dr. George M. 
Sternberg, Surgeon-General, U. S. A., retired; Dr. Hermann M. 
Biggs, of the Department of Health, New York city; Dr. George 
Dock, of the University of Michigan, and Prof. William M. Davis, 
of Harvard University. The Secretary of the Institution was a 
member of the head committee on International Congress on Tuber- 
culosis. 


FisHERY Concress.—In connection with the Fourth International 
Fishery Congress in Washington, September 22-26, 1908, the Insti- 
tution made an allotment of $200 from the Smithsonian fund for the 
best essay or treatise on “International regulations of the fisheries on 
the high seas; their history, objects, and results.” This prize was 
awarded by the International Jury to Mr. Charles H. Stevenson, of 
the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. The Institution was officially repre- 
sented by Dr. Theodore Gill and Dr. Frederick W. True, and the 
National Museum by Dr. Leonhard Stejneger and Mr. W. deC. 
Ravenel. 


CONGRESS OF ORIENTALISTS.—At the fifteenth session of the Inter- 
national Congress of Orientalists, held in Copenhagen, Denmark, — 
August 14-20, 1908, Dr. Paul Haupt, of the United States National 
Museum and Johns Hopkins University, represented the Institution. 
Upon recommendation of the Institution the following gentlemen 
were designated by the Department of State as delegates on the part 
of the United States Government: Dr. Paul Haupt; Dr. C. R. Lan- 
man, of Harvard University; Prof. Morris Jastrow, Jr., of the Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania, and Prof. A. V. W. Jackson, of Columbia 
University. 


CoNGRESS OF AMERICANISTS.—The Sixteenth International Con- 
gress of Americanists was held in Vienna, Austria, September 9-14, 
1908. Dr. Franz Boas, of Columbia University, represented the 
Institution; and the Department of State, at the suggestion of the 
Institution, designated, besides Doctor Boas, the following-named 
gentlemen delegates on the part of the United States Government: 
Prof. Marshall H. Saville, of Columbia; Dr. George Grant Mac- 
Curdy, of Yale; Dr. Charles Peabody, of Harvard, and Dr. Paul 
Haupt, of Johns Hopkins. 


PAN-AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC CoNGRESS.—At the First Pan-Ameri- 
can Scientific Congress held in Santiago, Chile, December 25, 1908, 
to January 5, 1909, Mr. W. H. Holmes, Chief of the Bureau of 


NO. 1823 NOTES 273 


American Ethnology of the Smithsonian Institution, represented the 
United States in the section of anthropology and ethnology. 


ARCHEOLOGICAL ConcREss.—At the Second International Archeo- 
logical Congress to be held in Cairo, Egypt, at the Latin Easter, 
1909, upon suggestion of the Institution, Dr. Albert M. Lythgoe, of 
the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, and Prof. Paul Baur, 
of Yale University, will represent the United States. 


CoNGRESS FOR History oF RELIcGIoNS.—Prof. Paul Haupt, of the 
National Museum and Johns Hopkins University, and Prof. Morris 
Jastrow, Jr., of the University of Pennsylvania, were official dele- 
gates on the part of the United States to the Third International 
Congress for the History of Religions, held in Oxford, September 
15-18, 1908. 


OTHER CoNnGRESSES.—The Smithsonian Institution subscribed to 
membership in the Ninth International Geographical Congress in 
Geneva, July 27 to August 6, 1908, and in the First International 
Congress on Refrigerating Industries, held in Paris, October, 5-10, 
1908. 


NAPLES ZOOLOGICAL STATION 


In addition to the assignments of the Smithsonian seat at the 
Naples Zoological Station for the first months of 1909, announced in 
the last edition of the Quarterly Issue, the application of Mr. H. D. 
Senior, of the College of Medicine, Syracuse, N. Y., has been ap- 
proved for the month of July. 





PUBEICATIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 


CoNTINUED FROM LIST IN QUARTERLY IssuE, VoL. V, PART 1 


No. Title. 

1808 Arwoop, ALIcE CAry. Catalogue of the Botanical Library 
of John Donnell Smith, presented in 1905 to the Smith- 
Sonmzin Iiguiaieea, ie oo soon cod as ood pnoUoRnUMOOnOSe 

1809 LANGLEY, S. P. Researches and Experiments in Aerial 
Navigation. (Reprints from Smithsonian Reports for 
ESO7Ap LOGO TOOT, ands 1904), “TOOS. 2.005 dais ela tien sete e e « 

1810 CuHartEs D. Watcorr. Cambrian Geology and Paleon- 
tology. No. 3—Cambrian Brachiopoda: Descriptions of 
INewal Genera, and speciess, TO0Ssaece secs cas. cele rete « 

1811 CHARLES D. Watcorr. Cambrian Geology and Paleon- 
tology. No. 4.—Classification and Terminology of the 
Ganibrians Brachiopodar ) OOS. a.c «sate ts eats nme nae ws 

1812 CuHartEs D. Watcorr. Cambrian Geology and Paleon- 
tology. No. 5.—Cambrian Sections of the Cordilleran 
INE RB Ie! AiG \otey lec snicker eer ois Geis Pit CCRT ere OMOEA ee Pe 

1813 Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Quarterly Issue, 
Vol. 5, Part 2 (containing Nos. 1814-1823). 1900...... 

1814 BasstEr, R. S. The Nettelroth Collection of Invertebrate 


Hossils: »(Owarienly Issté). 1008s .1.i 00 ces o> ase vices 
1815 Rosr, J. N. A New Opuntia from Arizona. (Quarterly 
SLES S1UEa) Von OS oe nee treicpomer are aia he reeetee ieee oe ei eee eee i 
1816 Gi, THEopoRE. The Story of the Devil-fish. (Quarterly 
HES S16C)) PERL OO GME IAT PERC SCT nai eee cicic oD acini era ee 
1817 EBERHARDT, CHARLES C. Indians of Peru. (Quarterly 
ISS 1UC) PML OS REE aca eet STP SYA ae cierto oa oma aaron 


1818 Ross, J. N. On Opuntia Santa-Rita, a species of Cactus of 
Ornamental Value. (Quarterly Issue). 1908.......... 
1819 HEIMERL, ANTON. Two New Species of Abronia. (Quar- 
LEHUVMEUS SICA) S) MeL OOS cease ets oe oie ale om SCINS CR CNS Piles Seale 
1820 CLrarK, Austin Hopart. Preliminary Notice of a Collec- 
tion of Recent Crinoids from the Philippine Islands. 


CO marten loMissde WaaTOOSseh ae oc ais sche et Srassiew tents lla ius 
1821 ApLER, Cyrus. The Relation of Richard Rush to the 
Smithsonian Institution. (Quarterly Issue). 1909..... 


1822 Dyar, Harrison G., and KNaAs, FREDERICK. Descriptions 
of Some New Species and a New Genus of American 
Mosquitoes. (Quarterly Issue). 1900..............00 

1823 Notes to Quarterly Issue, Vol. 5, Part 2. 1900............ 

1824 Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 
ending June 30, 1907 (containing Nos. 1737, 1825-1854). 
ROOM er cree tare aes mrofagel el aperisy, Mee sie. 5-ahapthe ao eiaves cole are 

1825 Proceedings of the Board of Regents, Report of Execu- 
tive Committee, Acts of Congress, for the vear ending 


Niu ees OOO sete rere ere eo ces co oe aero 
1826 Parsons, Cuartes A. ‘The Steam Turbine on Land and 
LE SCAM Te ae ee RR ay Se abet h cd rte rate ba evel kocaie are eae oa renerarentteah 


Series. 


Sp. 


MiGs 53 


M.C. 53 


M.C. 53 
M.C. 52 
M.C. 52 
M.C. 52 
M.C. 52 
IMEC 52 
M.C. 52 


MEG 52 


IMEC=552 


MING. 7) 


M.C. 52 
M.C. 52 


R. 1907 


Price. 


25 


25 


50 


276 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


No. Title. Series. Price. 
1827 ‘TurpAInN, A. The Development of Mechanical Composi- 
CON AM TINE «2 oiss.njsstne store sieia? sey sieve staavose AVS tele R. 1907 
1828 SPRAGUE, FRANK J. Some Facts and Problems Bearing on 
Blecttie Trunk-Line Operationv....c5-+-.. ssc .et one eee R. 1907 
1829 FLEMING, J. A. Recent Contributions to Electric Wave 
Tele SrAaply: cassis ve < sis aie ee eee ine ols Sie eee seas R. 1907 
1830 Bracc, W. H. On the Properties and Natures of Various 
Electric Radiations =n. ..2: creme eae ceil eon aah R. 1907 


1831 KersHaAw, JoHN B. C. Progress in Electro-Metallurgy.. R. 1907 
1832 Sminuiz, TtHomAS W. Recent Progress in Color Pho- 

LOemaphy, eee hes eats celta wee ea tem etc s ante ers ees yere tet agers R. 1007 
1833 CaJAL, S. R. The Structure of Lippmann Heliochromes.. R. 1907 
1834 DE Mortiniet, ApriEN. Bronze in South America before 


the Arrivalcoh Europeans: ao. sence eee cer eee eee R. 1907 
1835 Hate, Georck E. Some Opportunities for Astronomical 

Work with Inexpensive Apparatus..................... R. 1907 
1836 ApsE, CLEVELAND. The Progress of Science as Illustrated 

by the Development of Meteorology................-.. R. 1907 
1837 Grecory, J. W. Geology of the Inner Earth—Igneous 

ORES rere Sia Schock eee sara ea AE aoe ePnae ee eis Sloe Serene eke nrreree re R. 1907 
Toso eNE WELT: bbls. eeu SaltGi Sea. aries so ctea anid fl rie R. 1907 
1839 CuisHoLM, GEorcE G. Inland Waterways................ R. 1907 


1840 Scorr, D. H. The Present Position of Paleozoic Botany.. R. 1907 
1841 LorseL, Gustave. The Zoological Gardens and Establish- 

ments of Great Britain, Belgium, and the Netherlands.. R. 1907 
1842 Gitt, Turopore. Systematic Zodlogy: Its Progress and 


PATH POSGs dee ie ora no ees asi agus ares sui eras hice ee tear eneketene R. 1907 
1843 ABEL, O. The Genealogical History of the Marine Mam- 

TYVLS RE od case cece ens. at eee ods eR E IS Fe CoeaT Sh BV eats OMe on ares SSUER None T en R. 1907 
1844 Fiscuer, T'HKopatp. The Mediterranean Peoples......... R. 1907 
1o1s. BAtiz. 5) Prehistoric: Japan. ... sj. <me-/seeeeeiee R. 1907 
1846 NaviLLE, Epouarp. The Origin of Egyptian Civilization.. R. 1907 
"1647 BAaLrour, HENRY. “The Bice Piston. 5. et ereiaere R. 1907 


1848 Pravrorius, FRANZ. The Origin of the Canaanite Alphabet R. 1907 
1849 Sacwau, Epuarp. Three Aramaic Papyri from Elephan- 


te? EO VIE. sais e aise oe oo Aaots nose nereretite aie eer ee eeeenetens tees R. 1907 

1850 DANE, JouN M. The Problem of Color Vision.......... R. 1907 

1851 FLEXNER, SIMON. Immunity in Tuberculosis............. R. 1907 
52 Soper, GkorcE A. The Air of the New York Subway 

DLIOL tO TOOOe.. «5 sini, Scere een a rene ete eatin tei Tere ois ici R. 1907 

1853 Maticnon, Caminite. Marcelin Berthelot................ R. 1907 

1854 GREENE, Epwarp L. Linnzan Memorial Address......... R. 1907 


1855 Report of Executive Committee and Proceedings of the 
Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for the 


Vearaendina aitinersomlQOos came erectile siete ice chs R. 1908 
1856 Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for 
thetyear, enaino) ume -sO OGsrmec te arecictente teresa eisai R. 1908 


1857 Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of American 
Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- 
tUEION.  TOO4=08,) KTOOS..aecints os sarees au eiewinee ste seas ioe 


VOU.’ 52 1909 


SMITHSONIAN 
MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 


VOLE ws, QUARTERLY ISSUE PART 3 


THE ARCHER-FISH AND ITS FEATS 
By THEODORE GILL 


A group of fishes of great interest on account of a most remark- 
able feat of which some at least are capable is that of the family called 
Archer-fishes or Toxotids. ‘These have a characteristic form; the 
contour is mostly of the rhomb-oval type, but from the middle of the 
back and front of the dorsal fin there is a downward slope, which is 
sometimes in so straight a line that the front half of the fish looks 
as if it may have been planed off. The head is conical, the mouth 
deeply cleft, so that its front is in the same line as the decline of the 
snout; the upper jawbones (mavillaries) are unusually narrow, and 
the lower jaw projects. The eyes are very large, lateral, convex, 
variously mobile and in the type species at least the irises are golden- 
yellow. The dorsal fin is set far backward and has only 4 or 5 
stout spines and a short soft portion. Other characteristics will be 
noticed in the account of the habits of the best known species. All 
the known species belong to a single genus—To-xotes. 

The osteological characters are so significant that a few points may 
be noticed. ‘The skeleton in its essential characteristics is of the 
percoidean type, but the vertebral column is almost quite straight, 
the neural spines have low set bases of insertion and the ribs are 
inserted directly and rather high up on the centra of the vertebre 
behind parapophyses on the third and succeeding vertebrze; the re- 
cession of the dorsal fin backwards is coordinated with extremely 
receding interneurals and with three free styliform interneurals in 
front; the suborbital chain is narrow and without a subocular shelf. 


T 


The Toxotids are mostly inhabitants of the littoral waters and 
mouths of rivers of southern and southeastern Asia and numerous 
outlying islands from India to Polynesia. In brackish waters some 


Dy 
Seis, 


278 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


seem to be quite at home, and Zolotnitsky, who had living specimens 
sent from Singapore to Russia, thought that water with about one 
per cent of salt was most congenial to the fishes he was cultivating. 
Nevertheless, they seem, from the testimony of many others, to be 
equally well accommodated in ordinary salt water. There may be a 





Fic. 58.—Skeleton of Archer-fish. (After Agassiz.) 


specific difference, however, in preference manifested for certain 
conditions. Day, for instance, asserted that the Toxvotes jaculator 
affected the sea waters of the coast while the Toxrotes chatareus was 
mostly to be found in estuaries and brackish or freshened water. All 
such characteristics, however, require further evidence. 


II 


Vague accounts of fishes which secured food by shooting drops 
of water at insects had reached Europe before, but not till 1764 was 
there published any notice of such sufficiently precise to give an idea 
of the character of the shooter. In that year and in 1766, Governor 
Hommel, of Batavia, sent descriptions and illustrations of two 
species which were published in different volumes of the Philosophi- 
cal Transactions of the Royal Society of London.’ One of these was 


*The observations of Governor Hommel were published in two communi- 
cations to the Royal Society by Dr. John Albert Schlosser, viz: 

(1) An Account of a Fish from Batavia called Jaculator: In a letter to 
Mr. Peter Collinson, F. R. S., from John Albert Schlosser, M. D., F. R. S., 
in Phil. Trans., Liv, 1764, pp. 89-91, pl. 9, 1765. (Chelmo only noticed.) 

(2) Some further Intelligence relating to the Jaculator Fish [etc.], im Phil. 
Trans., Lv, 1766, pp. 186-188, pl. 8, fig. 6, 1767. (Toxotes noticed.) 

Schlosser was only the intermediary for publication. 


No. 1861 THE ARCHER-FISH AND ITS FEATS—GILL 279 


a Cheetodontid subsequently named Chelmo rostratus, and the other 
a species called “the Jaculator fish,” now universally known as the 
Toxotes jaculator. In the second article the author jumped at once 
into a notice of the characteristic habits. 

“When the Jaculator fish intends to catch a fly or any other ins 
sect, which is seen at a distance, it approaches very slowly and 
cautiously, and comes as much as possible perpendicularly under the 
object; then the body being put in an oblique situation, more or less 


in this manner J+ and the mouth and eyes being near the 


surface of the water, the Jaculator stays a moment quite immovable, 
having its eyes directly fixed on the insect, and then begins to shoot, 
without ever shoving its mouth above the surface of the water, out 
of which the single drop, shot at the object, seems to rise. With 
the closest attention,” continues Hommel, “I never could see any 
part of the mouth out of the water, though I have very often seen 
the Jaculator fish shoot a great many drops one after another, with- 
out leaving its place and fixed situation.” 

The after history of the fish is a remarkable one. Hommel’s 
notice was the basis of all the accounts of the Archer-fish subse- 
quently published, but not of the illustrations. In spite of Hommel’s 
repeated statement that the fish never projected “its mouth above 
the surface of the water,” later artists (as in Brehm’s Tierleben) 
represented the entire head and more thrust out of the water and 
drop after drop ejected vertically at an insect. The illustration, like 
many other artistic effects, reflected the imagination of the artist 
rather than either the narrative or Nature. 

Year after year passed along—one century and much of a second— 
and no later observers corroborated Hommel’s account. Instead of 
doing so, inhabitants of countries in which the fish in question was 
common denied that such a habit as had been attributed to it was 
practiced or known. The most active ichthyologist that ever lived, 
long a resident of the same city (Batavia) as Hommel, Dr. von 
Bleeker, in vain sought corroboration of the ancient account, and in 
1875 declared that then the species was only fished for in the bay 
and he had never been able to obtain living individuals. It was no 
longer raised as appears to have been the case in the past century, 
either by Europeans or Chinese, and neither the Chinese nor natives, 
either at Batavia or elsewhere, practiced or knew about the pre- 
tended industry. Consequently he believed that the celebrity of the 
fish was undeserved and arose from some mistake; “la célébrité 
n’est pas méritée et ne repose que sur une erreur’ were his exact 
words. 


280 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


This conclusion was quite generally accepted afterwards. It was 
apparently justified by the absence of any special physiological apti- 
tude in the mechanism of the mouth and throat of the fish itself for 
shooting drops. Nevertheless, at last, in 1902,’ a Russian ichthy- 
ologist, N. Zolotnitsky, who had secured a number of living speci- 
mens from Singapore, fully corroborated the discredited account and 
gave many new and interesting details.?_ So remarkable—almost in- 
credible—are some of the statements that they should perhaps be 
given in the observer’s own words; they are here paraphrased so as 
to give his meaning, but with considerable alteration in the sequence 
of the paragraphs to accord with that adopted for other species. 


III 


The Archers are gregarious fishes, not consorting indeed in very 
large compact shoals like herrings, but in small and loose companies. 
Considerable activity is often displayed and they may jump entirely 
out of water; leaps, it has been claimed, sometimes extend to as 
high as 13 or 14 feet (“4 métres de hauteur”), but this is incredible. 
This activity is generally guarded against by would-be captors of the 
fish who surround the effective net with another or perhaps still 
more nets. 

They frequently swim backwards as well as forwards. ‘This 
habit of swimming backwards, remarks Zolotnitsky, is very curious 
and quite customary; indeed, they often swim in this manner for 
several minutes at a time. They reconnoiter a possible prey and 
back from it until they secure a good position for observation or 
attack. ‘The eyes work in harmony. 


IV 


The action of the eyes deserves special notice. They can be 
moved in almost every direction—to the left, to the right, upwards 
and backwards—backwards so that the fish can see everything that 
goes on behind. Their vision is also very penetrating; they can see 
small insects at a great distance and drench them with astonishing 
correctness of aim. But the eyes can not be turned downwards 
and consequently, when the fish would see what is below, it plunges 


*The habit was recognized by some able men. H. Milne-Edwards, for in- 
stance, in his admirable Lecons sur la Physiologie (x11, p. 502, 1879), ac- 
cepted the old statement without any expression of doubt. 

*Zolotnitsky (N.). Le Poisson Archer (Toxotes jaculator) en Aquarium. 
in Archives Zool. Expér, et Gén. (3), x, 1902, pp. Ixxiv-lxxxiv. 


NO. 1861 THE ARCHER-FISH AND ITS FEATS—GILL 281 


downward head foremost; it rarely, indeed, sees what is at the bot- 
tom, and although worms may be there in abundance, it finds them 
only when hunger impels it to search for them there. And it is not 
alone the mobility of the eyes which engages attention; instead of 
the expressionless stare which is characteristic of fishes generally, 
the Archer’s eyes sparkle with intelligence. Especially when the fish 
becomes sick or is dying is expression manifested; then it looks at 
you as if it would implore your attention and would like to speak. 
The gaze of one of Zolotnitsky’s fishes, which was dying, produced 
on him such a painful impression that he could never forget it! 
Still another noteworthy feature exists. ‘The eyes may be operated 
jointly or severally; if the eye of one side is pushed outwards, the 
opposite one may sink inwards. 


V 


Another characteristic feature is the susceptibility to external con- 
ditions and its manifestation by change of color. The faculty of 
changing the color of the body as well as the fins is, indeed, developed 
to a high degree. Every change to which Zolotnitsky’s fishes were 
subjected was accompanied by a change in their colors. The want 
of oxygen, the temperature of the water, clearness or cloudiness, 
abundance or deficiency of food, good or bad health, fright, joy. 
The color is in truth a barometer of their life. They avail them- 
selves of this susceptibility or capability, too, in assuming protective 
and dissembling hues. When for example they had a nocturnal 
feast, they discarded their bands and became greenish, accommodat- 
ing themselves to the color of the water. Zolotnitsky, noticing this, 
experimented. He covered the aquarium with a paper,—the fishes 
soon settled to rest and assumed their normal banded condition ; 
then the paper was removed and they immediately became greenish 
again. He was with good reason astonished at the disappearance of 
the bands and spots, and naturally puzzled to account for it. 

Not only is the coloration a barometer, it is also a thermometer ; 
the fishes are very sensitive to the weather and show its graduations 
by coloration of the body. At 70° Fahr. and upwards the colors 
are clear and lively ; at 66° Fahr. they begin to fade, and at 60° Fahr. 
or 61° Fahr., they are quite dull; a little further fall of temperature 
entails loss of appetite and sluggishness. Zolotnitsky did not venture 
to experiment with a temperature less than 55° Fahr. (10° R.), for 
he was convinced that such would be fatal. (Zolotnitsky, 78, 80.)* 


“The pages of the original are numbered in Roman figures. 


282 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


VI 


The Archers subsist largely on insects and their larve, and the 
common species (J'o-rotes jaculator), under some conditions at least, 
practices what has been called “a singular industry” in pursuit of 
insects. Numerous kinds of these hover over the water and alight 
on the vegetation in or close by the water. When the approach of 
one is sufficiently near, an Archer-fish may take advantage of it to 
secure a tit-bit or meal. ‘The fish will advance towards the insect, 
turn its head in a proper direction, direct its eves forward, and take 
























































Fic. 59.—Archer-fish Shooting at Insect. (Modified after Zolotnitsky. ) 


a good look. (Zolotnitsky, 76.) If the insect is badly placed, the 
fish will back away or change position for a more favorable base for 
attack. Having found this, it will apply the front of its mouth to the 
surface of the water, nearly close its jaws, leaving a narrow open- 
ing, and shoot a drop of water or perhaps drop after drop at the fly. 
Ordinarily the drops are projected to distances of from 12 to 20 
inches (76), but sometimes they may be sent even 40 inches or 
more (“I métre et davantage’”) away. ‘The aim is almost always 
true (“Il vise toujours juste”). ‘The insect, drenched by a shower 
of such drops, falls into the water, but the true archer may not be 


No. 1861 THE ARCHER-FISH AND ITS FEATS—GILL 283 


the captor. Its companions, like it, dart towards the victim and this 
naturally becomes the prize of the most adroit or lucky one. 

Discrimination and selection were exercised in the choice of in- 
sects. The common house-fly was distasteful and only taken, it was 
thought, when the demands of hunger could not be otherwise ap- 
peased. Ants were the chosen food, and small black ants were pre- 
ferred to the red ones, presumably because the former were less 
penetrated by formic acid than the latter. (Zolotnitsky, 76.) 

Considerable ingenuity is sometimes manifested in the attempt to 
secure food. On one occasion a larva (bloodworm) of a midge 
(Chironomus) was thrown by Zolotnitsky into the aquarium, but 
it lodged by the side and an Archer tried several times in vain to 
secure it, merely pushing it closer against the glass with its project- 
ing lower jaw; at length, it backed a little and blew on the larva, 
so that the latter was sent toward the middle, and then the Archer 
readily captured it. The experiment was twice repeated and the fish 
applied the same strategy to the capture of both larve. 

Zolotnitsky was very much impressed with the apparent reason 
which the fish applied. He thought, too, that the old archers could 
and did measure and proportion the distance and the force used 
in projecting the drops. The old fishes directed their efforts so 
successfully that the insects aimed at always fell within reach, but 
the young ones sometimes used such force as to shoot the flies so 
that they fell outside of the aquarium. 

Although chiefly day-feeders, the Archers are also active and may 
feed during a bright moon-light night. One hot summer day Zolot- 
nitsky (78) left the aquarium in the open air, and near it a lamp 
with a great moon-like globe, which attracted a number of insects— 
mosquitoes, moths and others; many of these came within reach of 
the archers’ shots and the fishes became greatly excited and very 
active, feeding to repletion. The next day, however, they were in 
excellent condition and exhibited renewed brilliancy of colors. 


VII 


Nothing is known respecting the reproductive habits. Zolotnitsky 
(80) believed that the temperature suitable for spawning was about 
73° F. to 75° F. (18° R. a+ 19° R.). At such a temperature he 
found that they were very lively and playful and would be 
attracted by their own images reflected from the mirror-like sides 
of the aquarium. Their play was so persistent that they even ceased 


284 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


to eat and ascended continuously to the surface to inhale atmospheric 
air. 


Vill 


Zolotnitsky found that they did not require great care and that 
they soon accommodated themselves to new conditions. He used 
the water of the Black Sea freshened with a little fresh water. At 
first they were very wild and timorous, and whirled round and 
round in the aquarium “like autumn leaves driven by the wind;” 
several were killed by dashing against the glass sides in attempts to 
escape. ‘They soon became accustomed to their owner's presence, 
however, and in a fortnight were so tame that they would approach 
the hand containing flies and shoot them off into the water. 

The chief difficulty experienced was in supplying them with the 
requisite food. ‘They will never eat dead insects and it is no easy 
matter to secure a liberal supply of living ones, especially during 
winter. Zolotnitsky (87) discovered a method of securing a supply 
of ants by wetting a stem or blade of grass with sea-water and in- 
serting it into an ant’s nest. The ants were so much attracted by 
it that they would not leave it and could be carried thereon as desired. 
In winter the active larve of mosquitoes were obtained and these 
were eaten by each fish; each larva, it must be remembered, should 
be alive and they should be fed one at a time. 


IX 


Five well-defined species of the genus Tovotes are known and 
these are most readily distinguishable by the number of fin rays, size 
of scales, and coloration. ‘The most generally distributed and best 
known is the Joxotes jaculator. ‘The specific characteristics of that 
form here given contrast with those of the others. 

The dorsal fin has only four spines, the scales are of medium 
size (28 to 30 in a longitudinal row). ‘The color is distinctive of 
the species; the ground-color is silvery, and on it are six transverse 
velvety black bands alternating with citron-yellow areas; the fins are 
mostly clear yellow, but the dorsal has a black spot and the anal is 
more or less black. The popular Siamese name, Pla-kat, or Tiger- 
fish, alludes to a certain analogy between its color and that of a tiger. 

All the species are of rather small or medium size, about 5 or 6 
inches long, but some individuals of the common Archer, Torotes 


NO. 1861 THE ARCHER-FISH AND ITS FEATS—GILL 285 


~ jaculator, reach a maximum of nearly ten inches, and Day obtained 
specimens of Toxotes chatareus over a foot long. 





Fic, 60.—Archer-fish. (After Bleeker.) 


X 


This summary is a true version of the article by Zolotnitsky and 
will doubtless excite skepticism among physiologists at large as well 
as psychologists. It contravenes certain assumptions respecting the 
power and range of vision among fishes, as well as of the intelligence 
and reasoning powers of such lowly ‘animals. The extent of ex- 
pression assigned to eyes destitute of mobile surroundings and ac- 
commodative adjustments may also be deemed to be exaggerated. 
Distinction therefore must be exercised between the facts observed 
(or alleged to have been observed) and the inferences respecting 
such facts. It must be conceded, however, that fishes which mani- 
fest such peculiar action as the Archers should be subjects for still 
more elaborate observations and experiments, and it appears that 
they are neither very difficult to procure nor hard to keep. 

While Zolotnitsky’s account of the Archer-fish is more complete 
and graphic than any other, it is not the only one, nor the first. As 
long ago as 1899, two articles appeared in the popular periodical 
named Natur und Haus,’ published in Berlin, and it is probable that 
other observations have been made known later. As, however, the 


* The following articles are known to the writer: 


NitscHe (PaAvuL). Der Schiitzenfische (To-rotes jaculator), in Nat. und 
Haus, vill, 1899, pp. 22-25. 


LAMPERT (K.). Der Schiitzenfische. Nat. und Haus. vu, 1899, pp. 43, 44. 


286 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


sets of this periodical in the Library of Congress and the National 
Museum are incomplete, the idea can not here be verified or dis- 
proved. A supplementary account may be given later. As Zolot- 
nitsky, who must have been acquainted with the two articles, made 
no comments on them, none are called for here. It is to be hoped 
that some American institution (the New York Aquarium, for in- 
stance) may be sufficiently enterprising to import some fishes and 
enable us to confirm or correct the published observations. 


THE PEOPLES OF FORMOSA?! 


By JULEAN H. ARNOLD 


AMERICAN Consur, To Formosa 


WirtH Four PLates 


The Island of Formosa was discovered by the Chinese about one 
thousand years ago. Since then it has been occupied by Japanese, 
Dutch, and Spanish respectively; then it passed into the control of 
the Koxinga family, and susequently back to the Chinese, in whose 
possession it remained for about 200 years. It has now been more 
than ten years in the possession of Japan. During these periods the 
savage tribes have been continuously pressed by foreign peoples. 
In accordance with their varying contacts with foreigners, there has 
been more or less difference in the character of the civilizing influ- 
ences upon the various tribes. With some tribes, the original cus- 
toms have remained intact during the whole time. 


AREA AND POPULATION 


The total area of the Island of Formosa is 2,333 square ri (13,893 
square miles), of which the savage district occupies 1,248 square ri 
(7,407 square miles). In the savage territory live nine groups of 
tribes, mutually hostile and differing from one another in customs 
and languages. ‘These groups comprise in all 723 tribes, whose 
villages number from three to upwards of three hundred houses 
each. According to investigations made up to the present time the 
savage population is as follows: Atayal group, 25,932; Vonuum 
group, 13,889; Tsou group, 2,267; Tsarisen group, 13,760; Paiwan 
group, 20,609; Amis group, 27,867; Puyuma group, 6,675; Yaami 
group, 1,427; Saiset group, 737; total population, 113,163. 


COMPARATIVE CIVILIZATION 


The degree of civilization to which these tribes may have attained 
depends greatly upon the nature of the country in which they dwell 


’This paper is extracted from a report to the State Department, made by 
Mr. Julean H. Arnold, American Consul to Formosa, the main portion of 
which is a translation of the Formosan Government report—submitted by Mr. 
Oshima, Superintendent of Police of the Japanese Government in Formosa— 
on the management of savage affairs during the fiscal year 1907. 

287 


288 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


as well as upon the opportunities they have had for communica- 
tion with the outside world. The work of civilizing these tribes 
was begun during the Chinese administration in Formosa, but their 
present state of civilization is the result of the assiduous efforts of 
the Japanese. 

The Yaami and Saiset groups are made up of a very small popu- 
lation. The former group is gentle in nature and dwells upon an 
isolated island. The latter dwells within the savage guard line, and 
is quite as civilized as the former. ‘The tribes of the Saiset group 
are in constant intercourse with native Chinese, whose customs and 
habits they have adopted to such an extent as to make them quite 
like the natives. In the near future they will be placed under the 
regular administration. There is no necessity to enter at length 
into the descriptions of these two races or groups, and the descrip- 
tions which follow will not apply to them. 

The Amis and Puyuma groups and a portion of the Paiwan 
group (about 8,000), living in Koshun Prefecture (the southern- 
most on the island), have already emerged from a condition of 
casual cultivation, and now cultivate permanent fields. They are 
in possession of rice fields and employ plows, hoes, and cattle. 
Chickens and pigs are also raised by these groups. In their manner 
of living and in dress they are not very different from the native. 
Chinese, with whom they associate. They willingly send their chil- 
dren to the schools provided for savage children. Up to the pres- 
ent, more than one hundred children have graduated from these 
schools, and a number of these graduates are holding positions as 
assistant police, assistant teachers in savage schools, and govern- 
ment interpreters. Postal communications have been established in 
these districts, which are easy of access, and native postmen deliver 
the mails. 

Next in order of civilization is the Tsou group; then follow the 
remainder of the Paiwan group and the Tsarisen group. As to 
agricultural pursuits, manner of living and schooling, the tribes of 
these groups are not so far advanced as those above mentioned. 
They are, however, gradually emerging from a state of savagery to 
one of civilization, and within a short time it is hoped to have them 
on an equal footing with their semi-civilized neighbors. 

The tribes of the Vonuum group dwell in the central range of 
mountains. Since their contact with civilized people has been very 
slight, they still retain their savage manners and customs. More- 
over, the lands surrounding their houses are poor. By them, head- 
hunting has been considered the highest achievement. ‘They are 





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MAP OF FORMOSA SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF SAVAGE TRIBES 





No. 1862 THE PEOPLES OF FORMOSA—ARNOLD 289 


also addicted to making war on other groups. In 1905 they became 
particularly troublesome to the Japanese and native Chinese living 
in the vicinity of their villages, and it was found necessary to make 
a combined attack on the more atrocious tribes. These were pun- 
ished, and as a result became partially pacified, no longer giving 
trouble to the natives and Japanese. Bringing them into civilization 
will require considerable more work. 

The members of the six groups above mentioned, namely, the 
Amis, Puyuma, Paiwan, Tsou, Tsarisen, and Vonuum are generally 
known as the southern savages. 

The Atayal, or northern savages, tattoo their faces, and for this 
reason are known as tattooed savages. Their district comprises an 
area of 500 square ri (2,975 square miles), and is gradually becom- 
ing less as the guard line is forced back. They are fierce by nature, 
and are the largest and most powerful race of savages in the island. 
They look upon hunting the human head as superior to all else. The 
human head is necessary as an offering in all of their celebrations. 
When there is a dispute between members of a tribe, it is settled by 
awarding the decision to that one who first secures a human head. 
When a savage lad attains his majority he is not admitted into the 
tribe as an adult until he secures a human head. Hence, head- 
hunting has become with them a part of their existence. They take 
only the heads of Chinese or Japanese (that is, they do not make 
war among themselves for the purpose of securing heads). ‘The 
method of taking a head is somewhat after the following order: 
Several of the tribe, armed with provisions and rifles, approach as 
near as possible to the frontier and secrete themselves in the jungle 
in proximity to a frequented path. Here they may await for days a 
chance of securing a head, and they are not to be satisfied until they 
secure the much-coveted trophy. Thus, unless afforded proper 
means of defense, the lives of those engaged in various pursuits in 
proximity to the savage border are greatly endangered. Under 
such circumstances it is quite impossible to explore the country in- 
habited by these tribes. A few of the centrally located tribes of this 
district never come into contact with the outside world, but, accord- 
ing to the investigations carried on with the neighboring tribes 
which come down to barter with the native Chinese, their numbers 
are not great. The Atayal group occupies the northern half of the 
savage territory, for which reason they are known as the northern 
savages. In the southern part of the savage territory, with the ex- 
ception of the lands occupied by the Amis, Puyuma, and Paiwan 
tribes, most of the country is barren hill land, and not adapted to 


290 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


cultivation. The forests in most of these districts have been de- 
stroyed in order to make room for vegetable gardens. Only the 
forests in the mountain regions west of Niitaka-yama (Mt. Morri- 
son) are available for lumber. On account of the steepness and 
ruggedness of the country inhabited by the northern tribes arable. 
lands in that district are scarce. But the land of the Atayals is dis- 
tinctly rich in forest products, especially in camphor. ‘There is also 
a bright prospect for gold mining in this district. The northern 
savage district indeed offers prospects of much wealth. 


CUSTOMS AND PRACTICES 


The following notes on customs and practices among the savage 
tribes of Formosa are translated from Mr. Ino’s investigations of 
this subject: 


MARRIAGE 


In the following particulars marriage customs are uniform 
throughout the savage district of Formosa: 

1. Marriage is effected by a definite ceremony. 

2. When the marriage state is once entered into, the relation of 
husband and wife continues perpetually unless a divorce be made, 
the reasons for which must be publicly announced. 

3. A woman having married once, is not allowed to remarry. 

4. Monogamy obtains throughout the various tribes, and is strictly 
adhered to. 

5. Intermarriage between near blood relatives is forbidden. 

6. Husband and wife possess equal rights. 

The method of effecting marriage differs with the various groups. 
Among portions of the Vonuum and Tsou groups, there is still a 
trace of marriage by capture. The Atayal and Vonuum groups 
practice the “competitive marriage.’ Among some of the tribes of 
the Vonuum group “exchange marriages’ obtain. The Tsarisen, 
Paiwan, Puyuma, and Amis tribes effect marriage by exchange of 
gifts. 

The relations of husband and wife are, generally speaking, dis- 
tinctly cordial throughout all the groups, and divorces are very ex- 
ceptional. However, in the case of the Tsarisen tribes, if a mar- 
riage results in the birth of no children after a certain prescribed 
period, then divorce ensues. Should the husband die before the 
wife gives birth to a child, the woman is privileged to remarry; but 
should the child be born before the death of the husband, the mother, 
in the event of the death of her husband, is not privileged to remarry, 


NO. 1862 THE PEOPLES OF FORMOSA—ARNOLD 291 


but shall attend to the bringing up of her child. As already men- 
tioned, husband and wife possess equal rights, so that cruelty to a 
wife is scarcely known. 

BirtH 


The customs pertaining to births which are common to all tribes 
prescribe that the mother giving birth to a child shall herself cut the 
navel cord with a piece of sharpened bamboo. The baby is then 
immediately washed with hot or cold water. In ordinary cases, the 
day following the birth the mother resumes her regular work in the 
tribe, although for the period of a month following the birth she 
confines her attention to work indoors. Among some of the tribes 
special customs pertaining to births obtain. For instance, with the 
Tsarisen tribes, when a woman is pregnant the husband performs 
for the wife certain sacred rites, and at the time of the birth of a 
child the husband offers prayers for the expulsion of evil spirits. 
Dinners celebrating births are given, and to these dinners only mar- 
ried couples are invited. It appears that in former times the Pai- 
wan tribes considered giving birth to twins as an ill omen, and the 
babies (twins) were tied to a tree and allowed to perish. 


BuRIAL 


The customs pertaining to burial of the dead among the tribes 
throughout the island are as follows: 

1. In case of a death in a family, the members of that family in- 
dulge in the bitterest lamentations. 

2. The manner of interring the dead is not uniform; some tribes 
bury their dead within their houses, others without. 

3. For a fixed period after the burial ceremonies are completed 
the members of the family do not leave the inside of the house, while 
at the same time they divest their bodies of all decorations. 

4. Among the tribes of the Tsarisen, Paiwan, and Puyuma groups 
mourning dress is worn. The superstition obtains with most of the 
tribes that the spirit after death requires the personal belongings of 
the one who died, and for that reason these are buried with the dead 
body. 


SICKNESS 


The most common sickness prevalent among the savage tribes of 
Formosa is malarial fever. Eye troubles are next in order of fre- 
quency. Among the northern Atayal tribes there are considerable 
lung troubles. * > As to the cause of sickness, it is generally 
believed to be punishment inflicted by the spirits of the dead. Among 


292 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


the tribes of the Atayal and Paiwan groups a superstition obtains to 
the effect that if a sick person can balance a round particle on the 
end of a pipe then recovery is certain; on the other hand, should the 
particle fall to the ground it is a sign that spirits are opposed to 
recovery. Among the Vonuum, Tsou, Paiwan, and Amis groups, 
in advanced stages of disease the body of the patient is cleaned with 
leaves. The tribes of the Tsarisen group shampoo their sick mem- 
bers in advanced stages of disease, while in the early stages of suf- 
fering from snake bites, sucking the wound is resorted to. 


RELIGION 


The ideas concerning after-death which commonly obtain through- 
out the various tribes are as follows: 

1. After death the spirit continues to live. 

2. Dream is a medium through which the spirits of the dead may 
communicate with the living. 

3. The spirits of the dead are sometimes given to the acts of the 
devil. 

4. The spirits of one’s ancestors are able to counteract the evil 
done by other spirits. 

5. The spirits of one’s ancestors have also the power to cause 
disaster. 

As a natural outgrowth of these superstitions ancestor worship 
became a recognized institution. The Atayal and Paiwan groups 
believe the virgin forests to be the abode of the spirits of their an- 
cestors. The tribes of the Tsou and Tsarisen groups consider cer- 
tain old trees to be the abode of the spirits of their ancestors, while 
the Vonuum, Puyuma, and Amis tribes believe they live in the azure 
skies. The idea is so far advanced with the tribes of the Paiwan 
group that they never destroy the trees within a certain designated 
sacred precinct, which precincts are in reality their places of wor- 
ship. All of the savage tribes worship with much reverence the sup- 
posed dwelling places of the spirits of their ancestors. In fact, this 
worship seems to constitute the greater part of their religion. 

It is generally recognized by all tribes that good or bad crops de- 
pend upon the extent of the protection which they afford to the 
spirits of their ancestors. Accordingly before the sowing of the 
seed or after the harvesting of a crop, certain ceremonies are in- 
dulged in, these ceremonies partaking of the nature of ancestral 
worship. 

In case of sickness it is supposed that all suffering is due to a 
visitation of evil spirits, and ancestral worship is indulged in for the 
sake of combatting the work of such spirits. 


NO. 1862 THE PEOPLES OF FORMOSA—ARNOLD 293 


In soliciting the aid of the spirits of their ancestors certain forms 
are used, as, for instance, three whistles or the pouring of wine on 
the ground three successive times. 

This idea of appealing to the spirits of their ancestors for aid in 
whatever undertakings they may be desirous of embarking upon has 
advanced a step farther in most of the tribes, in that the appeals are 
made through the interposition of a third person. Generally the old 
men and women of the various tribes are supposed to possess powers 
akin to those attributed to witches, and for this reason perform the 
religious rites for the tribes. 

As the idea of worshiping the spirit of ancestors advanced, there 
developed a strong hatred for the spirits of others than ancestors. 
Originally the word for spirit in the various savage dialects or lan- 
guages conveyed but one idea; gradually the term came to suggest 
reverence as well as hatred—reverence when the term was applied 
to the spirit of the ancestors and hatred when applied to other spirits. 

There exists among the various tribes a faith termed “parisi.” 
It embraces the idea of religious purification to dispel evil spirits or 
the work of such spirits. This ceremony of purification is performed 
at the time of the ancestral festival. Abstinence from food or drink 
during sickness and the ceremony of cleansing from evil spirits at 
the time of death are also classed as acts of “parisi.” A neglect to 
perform the ceremonies of “parisi” at the required times is consid- 
ered to be a forerunner of calamity. 


SUPERSTITION 


Mr. Ino cites a large number of instances of superstitious ideas 
which prevail among the various tribes. Probably the most interest- 
ing among these is that which has to do with head-hunting. He 
states that the practice of head-hunting originally stood for nothing 
more than a mark of superiority in combat. Gradually this practice 
became part of their superstitions. For instance, the tribes of the 
Atayal group now consider that the spirits of their ancestors will not 
be satisfied unless a human head is part of the offering made at the 
ancestral ceremonies. Likewise in the case of a dispute between two 
or more persons, the spirit of his ancestors will guide and protect the 
one whose cause is just, so that he may secure the first human head, 
and thereby win his case. 





SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XX 





HUMAN SKULLS ON THE SKULL SHELVES OF THE TSARISEN SAVAGES 





SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XxXI 





SAVAGE ‘ DUG-OUTS’’ ON LAKE CANDIDIUS IN CENTRAL FORMOSA 





ATAYAL SAVAGE VILLAGE 





30V4 3H1 4O S3GIS NO SHYVW OOLLVL ‘NVYWOM IVAVLV Galyuv HLONO SNIAWAM NAWOM IVAVLY 














even en cn Yn Nv SOR rea ee Er rT wen | 


IIXX “Id ‘ZS “10A SNOIL0377090 SNOZNW11390SIW NVINOSHLIWS 





OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF CANAL RAYS: A 
DETAILED BIBLIOGRAPHY 


By GORDON SCOTT FULCHER 


INTRODUCTION 


My object in compiling the following collection and correlation 
of the chief facts and theories regarding canal rays, as published 
to date by various experimenters, is two-fold. 

First, it is hoped that the paper will prove valuable in itself. It 
aims to be complete, to include all important phenomena discovered, 
and to give exact references where details and methods may be 
found. It should be an accurate map of the boundaries of knowl- 
edge in this domain of Physics, and should prove suggestive to 
research by indicating unexplored regions, and helpful to theorists 
by containing the important phenomena to be explained and the 
suggestions put forward by others. 

Second, it is hoped that the paper may illustrate the general 
method well enough to commend its use by others in connection 
with other branches of Physics, that these, too, may be mapped. 
Every physicist would value greatly such a boiling down of the 
literature in his field. 

In making the compilation, the articles were read as far as pos- 
sible in chronological order, notes of facts reported being made on 
cards and slipped into a card index under suitable heads. When 
all the articles had been read, it was a simple matter to put together 
the facts thus garnered. The method is perfectly flexible; results 
reported later can easily be incorporated. 

I shall be under deep obligation to any who will let me know of 
such mistakes or omissions as they may find in the following article. 

I am indebted to the authorities of Clark University for the privi- 
lege of using their fine Physical Library. 

The subjects included in the present paper are arranged under 
the following heads: 


295 


296 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


I. Bre_rocraPHy. 
II. Genera, DEscrIPrIon. 
III. ExprrimENntTAL REsuLts. 
1. Apparatus. 
2. Color of the bundles of rays. 
3. Propagation of the rays. Direction and dispersion. 
Absorption and reflection. 
. Fluorescence excited on glass wall and on metallic salts. 
. Charge carried by rays. 
. Magnetic deflection. 
. Electrostatic deflection and acceleration. 
. Simultaneous magnetic and electrostatic deflection. 
. Secondary emission of negative rays. 
. Chemical effects. 
. Mechanical effects, 
Disintegration of metals struck. 
Penetrating power. 
Heating effect. 
12. Miscellaneous effects. Ionization and screening. 
13. Spectrum of light from canal rays. 
Spectrum and Doppler effect in various gases. 
Shift of lines toward red. 
Broadening of lines. 
14. Partial polarization of light. 
IV. MatHEeMarticat, THEORY. 
1. Notation. 
2. Equations for energy, velocity, and specific charge of rays. 
3. Calculations. Specific charge and velocity of rays. 
V. THEorETICAL DiscUSSION AND EXPLANATION. 
I. Constitution of the rays. What are they? 
Place of origin. 
Explanation of non-homogeneity. 
2. Light from the rays. 
Carriers of line and band spectra. 
Intensity distribution in Doppler effect. 
Emission of light by an atom. 
3. Chemical effects. 
4. Secondary emission of negative rays. 


= 
HOMO ON AN £ 


= 


I, BIBLIOGRAPHY, 


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NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER 


Dr 


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300 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


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The following articles I have been unable to see, so they are not re- 
ferred to in the summary: 


Sip] OE UICEL Se yf! Sone jaca Prometheus, 7, 784. 1896. 
int, oh. PEUNINGE Reece ea Dissert. Wurtzburg, 1902. 
Sim15) G SCH MIDE S.J ote): “Die Kathodenstrahlen,” 2nd ed. 1907. 
SG.) bs SONEVIER: cheese “Uber Elektr. Entladungen,” Miinchen. 1907. 
S22 eke, Sl Gillean sees Wien. Anz. 81-82. 1907. 
S23 .° Hrs Bagh Gavan cate Wien. Ber. 116, 129. 1907. 
WE E. WIEDEMANN and 

Ee MEER Ite ean bones Sitz. Erlangen Med.-Phys. Soc. Dec. 11, 1891. 


Paria, List of ARTICLES ON Positive RAys OTHER THAN CANAL Rays. 


PositivE Rays IN GENERAL: GR(726-9, 380-5) ; also Ann. Phys. 25, 882. 
CatTHoODE AFFLUX: VI; V2; V3; Whz2. 
K,-Rays: G1(6098, 47) ; G3(207) ; G6(229, 373). 
S:-Rays: G2; G6(230, 374); Tm7(363); Kz1; Tm8(664). 
Puoro-Erectric Positive Rays: H. Dember, Ann. Phys. 26, 403-8. 
J. J. THomson Rays: J: J. Thomson, Proc. Roy. Inst. 1897; Din7(362)); 
Tm8 (658). 
P. Villard, Comptes Rendus 143, 674-6. 
ANoDE Rays: Battelli and Magri, Phys. Zeitschr. 1, 18-20. 
E. Gehrcke and O. Reichenheim, Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 8, 
559-566 ; 9, 76-83, 200-4, 374-80; 10, 217-25. 
Arch. Soc, Phys. Nat. 26, 5-15. 
Bull. Sce. France Phys. 1908, 40-7. 
Naturw. Rundschau 23, 209-11. 
Ann, Phys. 25, 861-84. 
W. Wien, W3(449). 


Concerning the discovery of POSITIVE ELECTRONS reported by Lillienfeld see 


following: 
Jee dealienteldh.-jes om cece oe Verh. Deutsch, Phys. Ges. 8, 631-5; 
9, 125-35. 
E. Gehrcke and O. Reichenheim...Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 9, 593-7. 
Bi Goldstein os week she see eee Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 9, 598-615. 
A. Bestelmeyer and S. Marsh..... Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 9, 758-63. 
A, Bestelimey@tis cs. cok cess eine Phys. Zeitschr. 9, 541, 1908. 
JeBecquerele sancti ce ose ae Comptes Rendus 146, 1308-11, 1908. 


TeBeediterel cdeescwcsnsiewee eee Comptes Rendus 147, 121-4, 1908. 


NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—IULCHER 301 


II. GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 


When a discharge is passed through an exhausted tube divided 
into two compartments by a perforated metal cathode, luminous bun- 
dles of rays appear, extending from the holes in the cathode back 
away from the anode. ‘These are the canal rays, discovered and 
named by Goldstein—G1 (692,39). Similar rays may be obtained 
with other arrangements of the cathode, but the rays obtained under 
the simplest conditions, 7. e., when the two compartments communi- 
cate only through the perforations in the cathode, alone will be 
considered in what follows. 

The rays move in straight lines except in a magnetic or in an 
electric field. ‘They excite glass and some other substances placed 
in their path to fluoresce temporarily, thus rendering the place where 
they strike them visible. They consist for the most part of positively 
charged particles of matter, with a mass not less than the hydrogen 
atom. With these preliminary remarks, we proceed to give a sum- 
mary of their properties as determined so far by experimental 
besearchi: 

Several authors have suggested changing the name from canal 
rays (Kanalstrahlen) to anode or positive rays—W8 (660), 
Ew3(300), I'm3(56r). By “canal rays” as used here is meant a 
specific form of positive rays. 

For brief general discussion of canal rays, see the following: 
S1; Tm1; Sm4; S4; Wlyr; Ew3; Andi; S17; Tig; Tms; Mnt; 
GR(726-9) ; of which the most complete is Ew3. For photo of 
Paysesce lenht- kat. Vil fr4, 


Ill. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS. 
1. APPARATUS. 


ILLUSTRATIONS OF DiscHARGE TUBES. 


Original tube: Grf1; Sm4fqo. 

Simple tubes: Giff2 and 3; Bgtf1; WSffr and 2; Wif2; W3f3; Ewrffi and 2: 
Borf1; G3f1; S13f1; Hleffs, 6; SHf1; Tm7f12; Mnrf17. 

To show charge: Prniffr and 2; V1f6; WSff1, 2, 3 and 4; Lnoff1, 2; Aurft: 
Au2f1; Tm8fs, 

To show magnetic deflection: Weft; W3f4; Ws5f7; Sifti9; Woffr and 2k 
S4ff224 and 225; Tm3f2; Tm8ff1, 2 and 6. 

To show electrostatic effects: V3f2; Wsff2, 5, 6 and 7; W6f1; Wofft and 2; 
$13f8; Tm3f2; Tm7f2. 

To show fluorescence: Ar1f3; W7f1; Smeffr and 2. 

To show secondary emission: Tm2f1; Fiff1 and 2; Auaffr, 2, 3 and q; Fafr. 


302 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


To show ionization: WSff2, 3, 4 and 5. 

To show mechanical action: Swiffi and 3. 

To measure energy radiated: W11(420). 

With alkaline gases: SSff1 and 2. 

For very slow rays: S2f1; cf.Wh3(464), Ew3(308). 


SUGGESTIONS FOR OBTAINING THE CANAL Rays. 


To obtain “Pure” Canal Rays, that is, to prevent cathode rays from “striking 
back,” thus obscuring the canal rays: 

1. Perforations in cathode must not be too large. The lower the gas 
pressure and the thicker the cathode, the larger they may be: 
G1 (697,45) ; G3(205) ; Ew3(298). With extreme vacuum, however, 
cathode rays may appear: W1(170) ; W3(446). 

2. Cathode rays may be bent aside with a weak magnet: G3(206) ; 
W5(523,245). ‘They may be distinguished from canal rays by their 
magnetic or electrostatic deflection or by their charge: W5(523, 245) ; 
or by fluorescence excited: G4(1I, I0T). 

To obtain “Slow” Canal Rays, even with high vacuum: 

1. An alloy of Na and K, or Ca may be used on cathode: Wh3(464) ; 
Ew3(307) ; T'm3(562). 

2. Gas may be ionized by some other agent: S2(585); Wh3(464) ; 
Ew3 (308). 

FLUORESCENT SCREEN; a willemite screen is best: Tm3(562). 
Purse Gas filling is necessary for some experiments. For precautions and 
devices used see the following: 

He. W4(423); W5(525, 255); W6(so1, Hittorf); SH(93); Fr(154); 
S13(28,407) ; St9(400) ; Ps2(248). 

O2 W4(423); W5(525, 256); W8(661); SH(93); Ps3(261). 

He. Rau1(422) ; T'm3(568). 

Hg. W5(525, 255); S19(400). 


z. COLOR OF THE BUNDLES OF RAYS. 


In N or Air. Apparently bright chamois yellow: G1(692, 696, 309, 44); 

G3(205). Due to diffuse secondary rays: G2(133); G6(229). 
Really bluish: Bg1(695) ; G2(133) ; G6(229) ; Kn3(37). 

In Oz Yellow-pink: G1(696, 44). Turns bluish as potential rises: Ps4(999) ; 

In Hz. Rosy: Gr(696, 44). Color very sensitive to impurities in gas, is red 
for pure H: $13(28, 407). 

In Hz and Na vapor. Brilliant sodium yellow: 5S(459). 

In H2 and K vapor. Beautiful violet like potassium Bunsen flame: SS(460). 

In CO2. Greenish gray, white: G1 (606, 44). 

In N.O. Momentarily gray, becomes blue in 5 sec.: Kn3(37). 

In illuminating gas. Gray: Kn3(37). 

In GeneErAL.—Color is the same as that of first cathode layer: G1(696, 44). 


Color is independent of the material of cathode: G1 (697, 45). 
Color depends to some extent on velocity: S10(254) ; S23(81r). 


NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER 303 


3. PROPAGATION OF THE CANAL RAYS. 


PROPAGATION IS RECTILINEAR except in a magnetic or electrostatic field: 
G1(694, 41); Sm4(109). Any obstacle in their path casts a sharp 
shadow on a screen: G1(608, 46). 

DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION. 

Relation to Cathode. 
Plane cathode: G1(694,41) ; Ew3(209). 
Each bundle slightly divergent: V3(15) ; ‘I'm3(1017). 
Axes of the various bundles converge slightly toward a central 
axis: W5(469) ; G5(70) ; $13(20, 408) ; G6(236). 
Convergence increases with vacuum, bundles may cross. 
Convergence greatest for circle of holes farthest from the 
center. 
Front surface of cathode sufficiently concave. 
Axes of various bundles may be parallel or diverge from a cen- 
tral axis: G1(695, 43) ; S13£3b. 
Front surface convex. Bundles converge and may cross: S13f3a. 
In general: 
Direction is approximately normal to the front surface of cath- 
ode: Wh2(424) ; G3(205). 
Direction is independent of shape of back surface, that is, the 
surface turned away from the anode: Gr(695, 43). 
Direction is independent of the obliquity of the canals, but 
intensity may be decreased by rays striking the sides: 
G1 (695, 43). 
Relation to Cathode Afflux and cathode rays. 
Apparently the rays are the prolongation through the cathode, of the 
cathode afflux, both always having the same direction: 
V1; Wh2(423); V3(15). By deflecting the cathode 
afflux the canal ray bundles are deflected. Relation to 
cathode rays only apparent: G1(695, 43) ; G6(236). 
Canal rays come from those holes alone which are covered by the 
first cathode layer: G1(695, 43) ; Wh2(423)f1; Gs5(70); 
G6 (236). 
DIspERSION, due to collision with gas molecules. 
Dispersion greater the larger the molecules: SH(06), least in Hs: 
$1(346), greater in Hg vapor: SH(06). 
Little dispersion for high discharge potentials: S16(81). 
Diffuse rays produced: G6(239) ; ‘I'm7(359). 
ABSORPTION OF THE Rays. 
By gas. 
Independent of the material of the cathode (Al, Fe, Pt): Ew1(182). 
Decreases as velocity increases, pressure being constant: [,n2(106). 
With constant velocity, the maximum distance penetrated by the rays 
as measured with an electrode, depends merely on the 
mean free path of the gas molecules, at a given pres- 
sure being greater in H2 than in O2, in Q2 than in 
CO.: Ew1(182, 198); Ew3(300) ; S4(606); Ln2(106) ; 
W11 (437). 
Also shown in connection with the Doppler effect: Ew3(312). 


304 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


ABSORPTION OF THE Rays. 
By thin film of grease. 
Thin film on electrode reduced charge received 95%. After polishing 
electrode with flannel, only 50% penetrated: Au2(314). 
Length of rays increases with decreasing pressure; visible rays may 
be over 50 cm. long: G1r(695, 43) ; Sm4(109). 
REFLECTION ON STRIKING AN OBSTACLE. 
Diffuse: Au2(318). 
Per cent reflected is a function of the discharge potential, reaching a 
maximum at a low potential: F1(156). 
At 2,500 volts, more than 10% are reflected from Pt, Ag, or Cu: 
F1(155). 
At 600 volts, about 50% are reflected from Pt, Ag, or Cu: F1(156). 
Reflection on glass wall produces thick bright layer when near enough to 
cathode: Raur(421I). 
Shown by Doppler effect in spectrum of light received by a slit at the 
end of tube: HK(566) ; S13(41, 423). 
20 to 35% of H rays reflected: S13(41, 423). 


4. FLUORESCENCE EXCITED. 
On Giass WALL. 
In air. 
Color shows great variations, even with same glass: W5(524, 252). 
Green, yellow, reddish yellow, and salmon observed: G1(697,45) ; 
G3 (211); Ar1(326); W2(10); W3(447); V3(15); G4; 
W5(524, 252). 
Differences due to variations in gas filling: W5(524, 252). 
Color differs for deflectable and non-deflectable rays. 
Deflectable excite bright green fluorescence; non-deflectable, 
a weak yellow brown fluorescence: W4(432, 435); 
W6(5890) ; Wo(675); Sm4(111); 54(649). 
In helium. Sodium light and green fluorescence: Raur(421). 
Deflected fluorescence blue: Raut(422). 
In hydrogen. With pure H, fluorescence is pure green: W5(525, 255) ; 
W6(590) ; 54(649) ; Rau1(421). 
With impure H, undeflected part is yellowish: W5 (525, 255). 
With potassium glass, fluorescence is weak blue: W5(525, 250). 
In mercury vapor. Brownish or salmon red, no green: W5(525, 255) ; 
W6(590) ; $4(649). 
White?: SH (96). 
In nitrogen. Sodium light persists in spite of all efforts to get rid of 
oxygen: Rautr(421). 
Glass wall previously exposed to cathode rays, at first shows no 
sodium light: Rau1(422). 
In oxygen. Brown fluorescence, no green: W5(525, 256); W6(590) ; 
$4(649). 
Sodium light alone appears after careful drying: Raur(421). 
No fluorescence with potassium glass: W5(525, 256). 


NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER 305 


In general. Weak effect compared with that of cathode rays: Ew3(302). 
Temporary effect, soon dying down, but may be revived by heating: 
Art (326). 

Color depends on gas filling, very sensitive to impurities: 
W5(524, 253); W6(589). Also depends on glass: 
W5(525, 256). 

Differences persist even for very low pressures, hence are not due 
to differences of absorption: W6(590). 

Spectrum is always a line spectrum: Ew3(302). 

Strongest fluorescence in the case of H: W4(435), cf. G3(2I0). 

Sodium light appears inside of glass wall and is easily distinguishable 

from cathode ray fluorescence: G4; V3(15); Ew3(302). 
On METALS AND METALLIC SALTS. 
Cobalt, Manganese, Mercury, Nickel, and Thallium Salts show no fluo- 
rescence: Ar1(326); Sm2(706). 
Solid solutions: See Ar1(326) ; Sm2(706, 708). 
Aluminum. Polished metal shows no fluorescence: W7. 

Oxide. Pure Al2O; does not fluoresce: Sm3(625). 

One part in 10,000 of chrome oxide causes bright red fluor- 
escence: Sm3(625) ; Ew3(304). A trace of CuO causes 
weak green fluorescence, which becomes bluish and then 
blue as more CuO is added: Sm3 (626) ; Cf. W7; S4(649). 

Cadmium salts show yellow fluorescence: Ar1(326) ; Sm2(706). 

Oxide. Weak greenish fluorescence in Hz or O2:: W7; S4(649). 
Calcium salts. White fluorescence: Arr(326). Bluish; Sm2(706). 
Caesium salts show bright blue fluorescence: Tr1(142). 

Copper oxide. No fluorescence in Oz or Hz: W7. 
Iron salts. No fluorescence: Ar1(326) ; Sm2(706). 

Oxide. No fluorescence: W7. ' 

Lithium, Salts show weak red fluorescence: Ar1(326); G6(220) ; 
Tr1(141) ; Tm3(1017). Chloride becomes black in H2: 
Tr1(141). 

Magnesium. Salts show green fluorescence, line spectrum: G6(229). 

Oxide obtained by burning Mg shows red fluorescence in O2 or H:2: 

W7; S4(649). 

Fluorescence probably due to an oxide impurity held in solid 
solution: Sm3(633). 

Potassium. Pure metal shows no fluorescence: I'm3(1017). 
Rubidium salts show red and blue fluorescence: Tr1(142). 
Sodium. Pure metal shows no fluorescence: T'm2(214) ; I'm3(1017). 

Sodium glass. Gold yellow fluorescence, D-line: G4; G6(229). 

% oxide. Greenish yellow: Tm2(214). 
salts. Red yellow, D-line, no noticeable discoloration of 
salts: Ar1(326); Sm2(705). 
Strontium salts. Rose-white fluorescence: Ari(326). 
Zinc. Salts show green fluorescence: Ar1(326). 
Willemite dusted on glass fluoresces brightly, especially in Hz: 
Tm3(562, 570). 


“ 


300 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Zine oxide. 
1. When prepared by burning thoroughly in O:, it showed an intense 
green fluorescence: W6(590) ; Tf1(613); S4(649). 
Oxide became coffee-colored and sticky: Tf1(614). 
Oxide permanently discolored yellow during fluorescence: 
W6(590) ; W7. 
White color and power to fluoresce restored by heating: T'f1(616). 
Oxygen is released during the fluorescence: W6(590) ; T’f1(613). 
No chemical change occurs large enough to detect by balance: 
Tf1(614). 
Oxide can be discolored and power to fluoresce be removed by 
intense pressure: Tf1(615). 
2. Chemically precipitated oxide shows little or no fluorescence: 
W6(590) ; Tf1(616). 
Oxide may be purified chemically until it will no longer fluoresce: 
Sm3 (623, 628). 
Minute traces of cadmium oxide caused it to show an intense 
green fluorescence: Sm3(628). 
Flakes or smoke from burned Zn show no fluorescence unless 
heated: $3(390). 
Explanation offered is that pure ZnO does not fluoresce except when 
it contains some other oxide in solid solution: 
Sm3(623, 628); cf. Tfa. 
METALLIC OXIDES IN GENERAL. 
Pure oxides, chemically obtained, do not fluoresce: Sm2(707); 
Sm3 (625, 628, 633); Ew3(303). 
Oxides obtained by burning the metal may fluoresce: Ew3(303). 
Oxides containing other oxides in solid solution may fluoresce: Sm2(707) ; 
Sm3(625, 628, 633). 
Fluorescence the same in either H2 or O2: Ew3(303). 
FLUORESCENCE IN GENERAL. S4(649). 
Temporary. All substances soon lose capacity to fluoresce in canal rays: 
Ari (326) ; Sm2(706) ; W6(590) ; W7. 
Extremely sensitive to minute quantities of impurity: Sm2(71I0). 
Superficial: Arr(326) ; Sm2(706). 
Spectrum. As fluorescence dies down spectrum bands widen out and 
finally disappear in a continuous spectrum: Sm2(707, 711). 


5. CHARGE CARRIED BY THE RAYS. 


Rays PositivELY CHARGED for the most part. 

Shown by the direction of the magnetic and electrostatic deflection (see 
below) : Tm1(521) ; Sm4(11I0). 

Shown by the positive charge received by a Faraday cylinder or electrode 
struck by the rays, cathode being earthed: Prnr; 
W1; W3(446); Ew1(175); Bgt(692); Ws5(524, 251); 
Ln2(198) ; Wo9(671); Aut; Fr(153); Pry. 

Nore.—In order to give the true current carried by the rays, charge 

received by an electrode must be corrected for two 
secondary effects elsewhere described, viz: 


NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER 307 
(1) Reflection of rays from electrode (see § 3), and 
(2) Secondary emission of cathode rays excited (see § 9). 
Nevertheless, Austin’s work seems to be conclusive: Aut. 
Failure to consider these effects may account for the following negative 
results reported: Ar1(327); V1; V3(16); Ln2(180); Bg1(602). 
Some NEGATIVELY CHARGED, as shown by the direction of the magnetic 
deflection: W5(262) ; Tm3(568) ; T’m8(671). 
Proportion of negative rays to whole is small: Wro(212). 
Some Rays Uncuarcep for a portion of their path: T'm8(670). 
CURRENT CARRIED BY THE RAYs. 
Ratio of current flowing to earth from electrode, to total discharge cur- 
rent, determined under varying conditions of pressure 
and tension, in air, O2 and H2: Ewr(176-82), plate I; 
Ln2(198) ; cf. Pry (448). 
Maximum current measured about 10o-tamp.: Ewt, plate I. 
No correction for secondary emission: F1(153). 
Ratio reaches a maximum about at pressure when cathode ray fluo- 
rescence begins: PryI (448). 
Undeflected rays also charged in part: W4(434) ; W9(671, 673). 


6. MAGNETIC DEFLECTION. 


DIFFICULTY IN OBSERVING EFFECT. 
First overcome by W. Wien, in 1898: W2(11) ; W3(448) ; W4(423). 


Effect a thousand times smaller than in the case of the cathode rays. 

Main discharge must be protected from the influence of the strong mag- 
netic field employed: Wa2(11); W3(448); W4(422); 
G5(70) ; W5(523, 244) ; G6(237) ; T'm3(563). 

Negative results reported: G1(608, 46); Arr(325); Prtr; Vr; V3(15); 
G3 (208). 

Suggestions for observing effect: W5(523, 245); Tm3(562). 

SENSE OF DEFLECTION, such as to prove the positive charge carried by the rays: 
Wa(12) ; W3(448) ; W5(523, 245) ; Tm3(568). 

Part of the rays are deflected in the opposite sense, indicating that part 
of the rays for a portion of their path are negatively 
charged: W5(262) ; T'm3(568). 

CHARACTER OF THE DEFLECTION. 

Non-uniform, spot drawn out in streak, part undeflected: W2(12) ; 

W3(448) ; W4(431) ; Raut (422) ; Tm3(564), 568). 
Diagram of deflection streak in air, also in Hz shown in T'm3. 
Not due to impurity in the gas filling: W4(431). 
Deflected fluorescence brighter than undeflected, in Hz: W4(432); 
W6(589). 
May differ in color from wundeflected: W4(432); Wo9(675); 
Sm4(111); S4(649). Most deflected fluorescence is 
always green, but becomes very faint if gas is carefully 
purified of H:: W10(213). 
Deflected beam much less bright than undeflected: W4(432, 435). 


308 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


MAGNITUDE oF MAxiMuM MAGNETIC DEFLECTION. 
Maximum deflection about 2 cm. with field of 500 C. G. S. units, tension 
30,000 v., screen at a distance of 7 cm. from cathode: 
W4(431) ; W5(561, 263) ; W8(663). 
Originally reported deflection much smaller: W2(12) ; W3(448). 
Independent of gas and also of cathode material. In Ho», however, a 
larger proportion seem to be deflected nearly the maxi- 
mum amount: W4(431) ; Wo9(674) ; I'm3(575). 
Lone Canat Ray Bram. Curious behavior in magnetic field: Pl1 (1008). 


7. ELECTROSTATIC DEFLECTION. 


DIFFICULT TO OBSERVE because gas becomes ionized by the rays, and electric 
field cannot be maintained: W2(11); W3(447); 
W4(425). 

Effect small; first observed by W. Wien in 1808: W2(10) ; W3(447). 
SENSE OF DEFLECTION same as that of magnetic deflection: W2(11), etc. 
CHARACTER. Same as that of magnetic deflection: W5(560, 259) ; I'm3(564). 
MacnitrupE. With a field of 400 v./cm., discharge potential of 10,000 v., 

length of plates 5 cm., distance of screen 10 cm., a deflec- 
tion of about 1 cm. would be obtained: W5(561, 259, 254). 
ELECTROSTATIC ACCELERATION OF Rays. 
By applying a field parallel to the rays, the fluorescence can be weakened 
or brightened according to direction of field: W5(s561, 
260). 


8. SIMULTANEOUS MAGNETIC AND ELECTROSTATIC DEFLECTION. 


EXPERIMENT due to W. Wien: W5(561, 261). 

Magnetic and electrostatic fields are superposed, and so arranged that 
they tend to deflect the rays in mutually perpendicular 
planes. ‘The resultant deflection streak is observed on 
the glass or willemite screen at the end of the tube. 

Wir Orpinary Low PRESSURES. 

Fairly straight diagonal streak extending from origin, in air, H» or pure 
O2: W5(561, 263) ; W6(588) ; W8(661-3). For diagrams 
see I'm3(568, 571). 

Wirt ExtrReEMELY Low Pressures. 

Undeflected spot and negative branch disappear: ''m3(572). 

Streak breaks up into two or three patches. 

Same two patches for all gases air, Hz, O2, He, CO2, Ar, and Ne. 
He giving, in addition, a third patch: T'm3(573, 575); 
Tm6(295). 

One patch is deflected the amount to be expected if canal rays are 
singly charged hydrogen atoms. 

Second patch corresponds to singly charged hydrogen molecules. 

Third patch, obtained under certain conditions with helium, cor- 
responds to singly charged helium molecules: Tm3(571)- 


NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL, RAYS—FULCHER 309 


Effect not due to presence of H2 as impurity. Brightness of fluorescence 
patch measured photometrically and found to be the 
same whether extreme precautions were taken to elimi- 
nate H2 or not: Tm6(2z93) ; Tm7(360) ; cf. W10(212). 

Hydrogen canal rays abundant when no hydrogen ions can be detected 
in other parts of the tube: T’m8(680). 

As pressure increases, patches enlarge, overlap and merge to form the 
continuous, fairly straight streak: 7'm3(574). 


9. SECONDARY EMISSION OF NEGATIVE RAYS FROM A METALLIC 
SURFACE STRUCK BY CANAL RAYS. 


INTENSITY OF SECONDARY RADIATION. 

Function of the velocity of the canal rays, few negative rays for low 
tensions (600 v.) : F1(156) ; F3(30r). 

Kinetic energy of canal rays must exceed a certain value: Pry1 (448). 

Function of the angle of incidence. 

Much less for normal than for greater angles of incidence in case of 
Al and brass: F1(153) ; F2(749) ; Au2(315) ; F3(306). 

In case of Cu, variation is slight: F1(153) ; F3(306). 

Depends on the metal struck. 

For high tensions (30,000 to 75,000 v.), the secondary negative cur- 
rent emitted is the following per cent of the canal ray 
current: Al, 300 per cent; Zn, 170 per cent; Cu and Ag, 
100 per cent; Pt, 80 per cent: F1r(155). For brass, 
6,000 v., 45 per cent: Au2(314). 

Measurements complicated by the positive reflection, which for the 
lower tensions may overbalance the negative emission: 
Fr(155). 

Relation to cathode fall. 

Metals which used as cathodes have the greatest cathode fall for a 
given pressure, show the least negative emission when 
struck by canal rays: Ew3(3I!0). 

VELOCITY. 

Not very great, since emission is stopped if electrode is charged to a low 
positive potential: T'm2(213). 
Varies considerably among the rays: Au2(318). 

AVERAGE Ve ocity, that is, the velocity of most of the rays, measured by 
deflecting them magnetically through a curved canal, 
and determining the current received by an electrode at 
the end as a function of the field strength: F2(749). 

Value is 3.2 to 3.5 x 10° cm. for Pt or Al: F2(749) ; F3(301, 304). 

Independent of the velocity of canal rays: F2(749). 

Independent of the gas (Hz or air): F2(749). 

Independent of the angle of incidence: F2(749). 

Independent of the metal struck (Pt or Al) : F2(749) ; F3(301, 304). 

Same as that of secondary rays produced by cathode rays striking a 
metal: Ew3(310). 

Distribution of the rays among different velocities shown by curves: 
F3(303). Varies with gas and with metal: F3(304). 


OD 


310 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS — VOL. 52 


to. CHEMICAL EFFECTS. 
Repucine EFFEct. 

In Hz, HgCl reduced to Hg:Clz to some depth, no fluorescence: 

Sm2(709). FeCls reduced to FeCle: Sm2(71I0). 
Various other metallic compounds reduced: Sm3(622). 

In Oz, these reducing effects do not take place: Sm2(710). 

Metallic oxides in solid solution are reduced, oxygen being evolved dur- 
ing fluorescence: W6(590) ; W7; Tf1(613); S4(654). 

Oxipiz1nc EFFect. 

All oxidizable metals are superficially oxidized by the rays: Wh2(425) ; 

Sm2(708) ; $4(654) ; Sm3(622) ; Sm4(112). 

Cu shows effect better than Cd, Al or Zn. 

Oxidization proved by chemical analysis: Sm2(708). 

Shaded parts of surface also oxidized as well as parts directly struck 
by the rays: Sm2(708). 

Au, Ag, and Pt show no oxidization in four hours: Sm2(609). 

PbO turns brown by formation of PbO2z: Sm2(709). 

Heg-Cl. turned black: Sm2(709). 

Not a heat effect, red HgI2 not changed to the yellow iodide: Sm2(708). 

DissocraTING ACTION. 
With acetylene, carbon is deposited on walls: Kn3(35). 
No deposit where rays strike walls: Kn3(35). 

N:O and CO: easily dissociated by the rays: Kn3(37). 

Dissociation of Hz and Oz may account for apparent chemical effects de- 
scribed above: Sm2(711); Sm3(622); Sm4(113); 
$4(654) ; Ew3(304). 

Metallic compounds decomposed: V2; V4; Tr1(142); Ar1(327). 

AcTION ON SENSITIZED PAPER. 

Canal rays affect sensitized papers, rendering them less sensitive to day- 
light, so that by exposing a canal ray positive to sunlight, 
it may be changed to a negative: Zn1(38). 

Celluloid paper is rendered more reflecting where rays strike: Znr. 

Photographic action slow, long exposure necessary: Prtt. 


11. MECHANICAL EFFECTS. 


DISINTEGRATION OF METALS struck by the rays: S4(630) ; Tm2(214). 

Too small in amount to weigh: Kl1(871). 

Varies for different metals: Al, none; Cu, small; Au and Pt, distinct 
deposit on walls of tubes; brass disintegrated but no 
deposit: K11(871). 

Varies with gas, greater in air than in H2 in case of Au and Pt, 

Not sensitive to traces of impurity in gas: K11(872). 

PENETRATING POWER. 

Canal rays will penetrate only extremely thin thicknesses of metal, paper, 
or mica: Wr; W3(445); V3(15). Metallic compounds 
decomposed: V2; V4; Tr1(142). 

Penetrate deeper in Al than in Cu, a possible explanation of some of the 
secondary cathode ray emission phenomena: F3(307). 


NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY’ OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER 3r1 


Heatine ErrFkcr. 
Obstacles struck are warmed: V1(1341) ; Ar1(327); Sw1(393). 
Heating of end of tube measured calorimetrically; 10 to 20 per cent of 
total energy of discharge regained as heat: Ew1(183, 
199). Measured bolometrically : W4(425). 
Mica mill-wheels rotated, probably a thermal radiation effect: Sw1(393). 


12, MISCELLANEOUS EFFECTS. 


CHARGED ELECTRODES do not appreciably affect rays: V1; V3(15) ; G3(208). 

BuNDLES Cross without any apparent interference: G1(698, 46). 

IONIZATION oF GAs takes place if canal rays have sufficient velocity (500 v.): 
S13(170, 427). 

Second discharge may be passed through part of tube traversed by the 
rays using only one-fourth the potential otherwise re- 
quired: WS(470-3). 

Effect makes the use of an electrostatic field difficult: W3(447). 

ScREENING Erect. Electric waves are absorbed by a tube traversed by canal 
rays: WS(470). 


13. SPECTRUM OF LIGHT FROM CANAL RAYS. 


The light may be received in a collimator pointed in a direction parallel 
or perpendicular to the rays. In the former case, whatever light is being 
radiated from the particles forming the rays while they are in motion should 
show a Doppler effect, since the wave length of the light from the moving 
particles will be slightly altered by the motion in the line of sight, causing a 
shift in the position of the lines in the spectrum. ‘There is always besides 
the “displaced line” the “rest line” with, usually, an “intensity minimum” 
between: S22(905). 


ALUMINUM LINES show Doppler effect 3944, 3962. Intensity weak: 
$23 (822). 
In Arr. Band spectrum of N appears: G1(692, 39). 
In Arcon. Doppler effect observed for 20 lines surely; for ten more, prob- 
ably: D1. 
In Carson DIOXIDE. 
Contains C line \ 4267 and H lines, all very bright. N, Swan, and C 
bands also present: Kn3(37). 
Doppler effect shown by H lines and \ 4267: Kn3(37) ; S1of2(photo). 
4267. Shift of 5A with 10,000 v.: Kn3(37). 
H lines more intense for lower pressures: Kn3(37). 
Band spectrum shows no Doppler effect: Kn3(37). 
IN HELIUM. 
Doppler effect shown by \ 4472 and other lines: S1roft(Rau) ; D1(589). 
Negative results: Raul (423) ; Hl2(15, 16). 


312 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


In HyproceEn, 
Contains main series line spectrum: Whlr1(132); SH(94)f4; 
55 (804, 462) ; So(112, 249). 

Also 44688: S13(43, 425) ; So(112, 249). 

Also H band spectrum and sometimes metal lines: SH(94) f4; 
$5 (461, 893) ; 513(43, 425). 

Line spectrum relatively more intense, the greater the discharge 
potential: SH(95). 

Intensity of shorter wave lengths increases faster: S10(253); 
S21(799). Hence, as potential increases, the intensity 
maximum in the series shifts to shorter wave lengths: 
$13 (184, 444). 

Doppler effect—see photo Ss5f1; Ps2, plate III; S2o0f1; SWff3 and 4. 

Shown by all lines of line spectrum: S5(462, 894); S13(33, 414); 
Hl2(12) ; Dr(589) ; Ps2(250). 

Cathode fall must exceed 700 v.: $20(64). 

Rest line sharp, intensity less than that of displaced line: 
S5(462, 804); S13(183, 443). Intensity closely related 
to that of band spectrum: $13(173, 43). 

Intensity of displaced line not a function of pressure: $13(34, 415) ; 
not related to stationary intensity: $13(175, 434). 

Ratio of intensities of displaced lines of different wave length in the 
same series is a function of the cathode fall: SSt(924). 

Intensity distribution, or cross section of intensity is similar for all 
lines of series: Ps2(250); Ps4(997) ; cf. S13(182, 442) ; 
S21(799) ; SSt(924-5). For diagrams of intensity dis- 
tribution see: HK (565) ; S13f5; Ps2(250). 

Shift as a function of wave length. 

A /d constant for maximum displacement of all lines showing 
effect: S5(462, 894) ; So(112, 249) ; S13(33, 414). 
Constant for maximum intensity of displaced line: Ps2(251) ; 
Ps4(997) ; cf. S21(799). 
Shift as a function of discharge potential. See Fig. 61. 
Maximum shift proportional to the square root of potential 
approximately: $5 (462). 
Shift of about 5A for velocity of 3x10'cm.: Hl2(12); 
$13(33, 414). 
Shift the same for light from all parts of rays: SW(745). 
Second displaced line appears with low velocities, 800 to 2,000 v.: 
Ps2(252 and plate m1). 
Sharp for the lower velocities, widening for higher. 
Band spectrum shows no Doppler effect: $5(463, 804) ; $13(43, 425). 
In SopIuM VApor. 
Difficulties of experiment: SS(457); S5(463). Only one plate of a 
number, intense enough. 
Contains main and first and second sub-series of line spectrum: $5(463). 
Doppler effect observed in case of two doublets of first series, a fine, 
displaced line, shift not measurable: SS(460) ; $5(463). 


NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER 313 


In Mercury VAPOR. 
Contains first and second sub-series of triplets: Sg(112, 250). 
Also A 4358, 4047, and 2537: SHK (463, 467). 
Doppler effect. Unquestionably observed for 12 Hg lines: $18(233) ; 
S2of3. 
5461. Small displacement: S5(463). 
Observed by Paschen: S20(65). No displacement observed with 
echelon, tension 60,000 v.: Hl1; Hl2(13). 
dA 4347, 4078. Distinctly observed only with high voltages, 45,000 to 
60,000 v.: SHK (468) ; S13(180, 439). 
Shift points to trebly charged atom as carrier: SHK (468). 
2537. Shift points to singly charged atom as carrier: SHK(467). 
Lines of 1st and 2nd series of triplets: S5(463); SHK(468) ; 
S20 (64). 
Same modified shift, AX/A, for all components of a triplet and 
for all triplets of both series: Sg(112, 250) ; SHK (466) ; 
$13(181, 440). 
Shift points to doubly charged atom as carrier: SHK (465). 
Displaced intensity relatively very weak, greater for higher velocities 
and for shorter wave lengths: S13(176, 434) ; S20(63). 
Effect independent of the presence of Hz: S20(65). 
Discussion of Hull’s negative results: S18; H13; S20; Hl4. 
In Nirrocen. See SHff2 and 3. 
Contains both the band and series line spectra of N, but band spectra 
subside as potential increases: Hr3(568) ; SH(95). 
Doppler effect. 
3995. Shift distinctly observed: $5(463); SH(94); Hr3(569) 
(photo). 
Intensity minimum well defined: S10(256). 
Width varies but slightly with cathode fall: Hr3(569). 
Maximum shift points to singly charged N atom as carrier: 
Hr3 (569). 
AA 5006/03, 4643/31/22/14/07/01, 4530, etc., all show shift similar in 
appearance and amount to 43995: Hr3(569). 
Band spectra show no Doppler effect: S5(463) ; Hr3(568). 
IN OXYGEN. 
Contains : 
(1) elementary line or spark spectrum of O: G1(606, 44); Wlr1; 
Ps3(261) ; Ps4(999) ; S23(814). 
(2) series of triplets: Ps3(261). Become weaker with higher dis- 
charge potentials: Ps4(999). 
(3) traces of bands: Wirt. 
Doppler effect shown by elementary line spectrum: Ps3(263) ; Ps4(998). 
All lines in question show same displacement and appearance: 
Ps3 (263) ; 523(814). 
Doppler effect for triplets even with high velocities doubtful: Sg3(129) ; 
Ps3(263) ; Ps4(998) ; S21(804); S23(819). 
Intensity very weak, shift not measurable: S23(82r). 


314 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


In PorasstuM VAPOR. 
Difficulty of experiment: SS(457) ; S5(463). 
Contains main and first and second sub-series of line spectrum: $5 (463). 
Doppler effect observed in case of doublet, \\ 4044-47 distinctly: S5 (463) ; 
SS(460) ; So(112, 250). No intensity minimum. 
Shift corresponds to singly charged potassium atom as carrier: 
55 (463) ; So(112, 250). 
In ILLUMINATING GAs. 
Contains H lines, C line 44267, N line » 3995, all very bright, also N 
bands and Swan bands which are rather weak: Kn3(37). 
Doppler effect shown by all lines, but by no bands: Kn3(37). 
In ACETYLENE. 
Contains H lines and C line \ 4267, all bright. N, C, and Swan bands 
are visible also: Kn3(36). 
Doppler effect shown by all lines but by no bands: Kn3(36). 
4267 shows intensity minimum, shift points to singly charged C 
atom as carrier: Kn3(36). 
SPECTRUM IN GENERAL. 
Spectrum is a part of that of gas in tube, same part as that of light from 
first cathode layer, that is the series line spectrum: 
G1(696, 44) ; Wlrr(132). 

May contain lines of metal forming cathode: SH(93). 

May contain band spectrum of gas besides line spectrum, but the 
latter is relatively more intense the greater the discharge 
potential: SH (95). 

DorrLER Errect IN GENERAL. For summary see §$23(828). 

Conditions to be satisfied to obtain effect: S18(231) ; S19(399). 

Measurements only semi-quantitative because of inestimable errors: 
513(33, 179, 413, 438). 

Shown by series line spectra of H, N, O, Na, K, and Hg: S5(461, 893), 
perhaps also by O triplets: Sg3(129); S23(821); 
Ps4(998). Also by spectrum of He: S19(401) and of 
Al: $23(822). 

Not observed for any band spectrum. 

Amount of shift serves to distinguish light from singly, doubly, and 
trebly charged atoms: $5(464, 894). 

All lines of same series show same modified shift, AX/A, hence have 
same carrier: $13(33, 414). 

Intensity minimum in general separates displaced from rest line: 
$10(252, 256) ; S13(31, 412, 179, 438) ; S19(399). 

Width varies with gas and in any series varies with \(?): 
S21(799) ; Ps2(250). 

Less distinct the greater the pressure: Ew3(312). 

Velocity corresponding to width of intensity minimum must be 
exceeded by the canal rays or no displaced line will be 
obtained: S13(180, 439) ; S18(232) ; S19(3909) ; S20(64). 

Minimum velocity varies for different gases and for different lines 
in any series (?): S21(799). 


NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER Bus 


Intensity of displaced line obeys different laws from that of rest line 
increasing with the velocity of the rays: S18(232). 
Displaced intensity varies with gas and, in any series, with A: 
513(176, 434) ; 520(63). 
Ratio of stationary to displaced intensity same on any one spectro- 
gram for all lines of one series: S13(182, 441). 
Stationary intensity appears to vary in step with that of band spec- 
trum, increasing with the pressure: S13(175, 434). 
Absence of Doppler effect in some cases not well understood: H14(119). 


Suirt oF Lines Towarp REp, observed with collimator perpendicular to rays. 

Definitely observed on all spectrograms taken, determined by measuring 
the position of lines in question with reference to certain 
band lines, most probably unshifted: S7; S8(107); 
S13(191, 452). 

Amount 0.7 A for Hg with 8,000 v.: S13(194, 453). 

No shift observed by Hull for H or Hg lines: Hl1; Hl2(19). 

Apparent shift may be due to error in setting collimator and may be the 
Doppler effect: S13(189, 450). 


BROADENING OF LINEs observed with collimator perpendicular to rays. 
H lines greatly broadened, most just behind cathode: Hl1; Hl2(19). 
Broadening increases with velocity, shorter wave lengths broaden 
more rapidly: $7; S8(107) ; S13(190, 451). 
Also with pressure: S(42, 423). 
Partly a Doppler effect: S13(191, 452). 
Less than Doppler effect in the ratio, velocity of rays to that of light: 
S8 (109). 
Hg lines show slight broadening: H1t. 
He lines show no broadening: H1l2(19). 


14. PARTIAL POLARIZATION OF LIGHT. . 


Slight effect reported by Stark in case of H lines, vibrations parallel to rays 
being more intense than those perpendicular to their 
direction, difference very small and difficult to observe: 
$7; S8(105, 106) ; S18(230). 

No polarization as great as one-half per cent of light was detected by Hull, 
using optical glass window and very sensitive Nicol 
prism and Savart plate: Hlr; Hl2(17); H13(234). 


316 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


IV. MATHEMATICAL THEORY. 


1. NOTATION. 


c= velocity of light. A= % F (? — B) 
é = charge on each particle. B= iy PH. 


£ = energy of » particles. 
/'=electrostatic field strength. 
H= magnetic field strength. 
/= distance from cathode to screen. 
m — mass of each particle. 
n = number of particles. 
g = ne = charge on # particles. 
p = radius of curvature of path in magnetic field. 
v = velocity of particles. 
V = cathode fall. 
x = electrostatic deflection on screen. 
y =magnetic deflection on screen. 
Ad, = shift of line \, in Angstrom units or tenth-meters. 


2. EQUATIONS. 
BAG v F 
(1) ai ae W4(431); $5(464, 894); W5(560, 258); Ew3(309). 
Kinetic energy of rays: 


(2) L=¥% nm. 


ea weer from definition of @. 
2e 
(A) ei ai from (1) and (2). 


a some number greater than one. 
(5) 2a" where | a— eat, in absolute mechanical units, generated 
by 7 particles striking an obstacle. 
Velocity of rays: 


(1) ce ge 
WL 


(6) va,/2% , ©; from (2) and (5): Ew1(184). 
) g m 








pee . 2» Walagi)s: Wa(s6n, 261); S4(6 
CD ray + on W4(431); W5(561, 261); S4(603). 
Vy 
(8) y= ari from (7) and (1). 
2 . 
(9) == Care Tm3(565). 
é 
(11) v= Hp: Tm3(564). 


(12) v= fF") _ ©: W5(561, 261); S1(346); Tm3(564). 
i WL 


NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY Ol CANAI, RAYS—FULCHER 317 


— A . es i 
x mM 
A 


Gea)37— Ss 
FP—8) y Ay 
(13) v= Se = RO Tm3(564); W5(561, 261). [(12) and (7) |. 
Ary 





(OFF Oa $5(459, 464, 893, 894); Ew3(313). 


Specific charge, e/m. 


2 


yee 
) mm” 2V 


Coen O78) oe ; 
(6) ieee sea Ew1(184). [(2) and Gils 
6 em 2a 5, 
Cea = ee W4(431); W5(561, 261); S4(603). 
Che Oy 
(9) Seas eS Tm3(565). 
C8 V. : 
(10) uae a TEae W4(431); S1(310, 345); S4(600). [(7) and (1)]. 
Pee Cec ; 
ian a" T'm3(564). 
é 2s 


(12) FEB) * W5(561, 261); S1(346); S4(603); Tm3(564). 





nee 
mA 
e PAVE 
(14) Sage oes W5(561, 261); Tm3(567). [(7) and (12)]. 
e 2 


(21) 7 = a ppim (Adn )?: S5(464, 894). 
3. CALCULATIONS. 


For calculation of the effect of lack of uniformity of the magnetic field 
upon the deflection see W4(426). For experimental method of inte- 
grating non-uniform field see Tm3(565). 

Vetociry or Rays, from simultaneous magnetic and electrostatic deflection 
using formula (13). 

Maximum velocity is a function of the cathode fall and varies from 
Io’ to 2x Io°cm.(15,000 v.) : W3(449) ; Ew3(306) ; W5(561, 263) ; 
Tm3(571); cf. Ew2(sor) ; Ew1 (186). 

Maximum velocity for voltages above 15,000 vy. is 2x 10° cm.; 
Ws (561, 263) ; I'm3(571) ; Tm8 (668). 

Velocity approximately the same for all the rays of one kind, as shown 
by the shape of the deflection streak: W5(561, 261); W6(588) ; 
Tm3(s60) ; W8(664); Str(686). H rays have velocity ;/ 2 times 
that of H: rays. 


318 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


VELOCITY OF THE SOURCES OF THE LicHT SHOWING THE Doppler EFFECT. 
Maximum velocity varies from 30 per cent to 85 per cent of the velocity 
of the canal rays computed from the cathode fall and the probable 

value of e/m: Ps2(257) ; SHK (464) ; $13(36, 417) ; S19(399). 
Sources of the H series lines: Ps2(252) ; S13(36, 417). See Fig. 61. For 
low voltages the displaced line is composed of two lines whose maxi- 
mum shifts are to each other as I: 1 2 


20 +x 107 cm./ sec. 








18+ xx - Stark. 


16+ °° - Paschen 


14 
| 


10+ 








0 
| 0 2000 4000 6000 10,000 14.000 18000 VOLTS. 








Fic. 61.—Range of velocities of sources of H lines as a function of the cathode 
fall in volts. Full lined curves are calculated, using formula (1). 


Sources of O spark lines: Ps3(263) ; S23(815). See Fig. 62. Phenomenon 
seems similar to that with H, data not so complete. 
Sources of He lines: 
Maximum velocity half that calculated for the canal rays assuming 
e/m = 2500, m= 4: D1(s5g0). 
Sources of C lines: 
Maximum velocity 0.9 times that calculated for canal rays assuming 
e/m = 800, m= 12: Kn3(36). 
SPECIFIC CHARGE, e/m. 
From magnetic deflection, equations (7) and (10), maximum values are: . 
In air. e/m=10' (He carefully eliminated): Tm3(560). Other 
values obtained range from 3x 10°: W2(12); W3(449), 
and 3.6x 10°: W5(561, 264), to 3.6x 10°: W4(432, 435). 
In H> e/m=10': W8(660, 662, 663) ; Tm3(571) ; Raur(422). 
In O2 e/m=10* (approximately): Ws5(562, 265): W8(663); 
Ew3 (306). 
In He. e/m=1o': Tm3(571); cf. Raur(522). 
In Ar. e/m=10‘: Tm3(573). 
At extremely low pressure, deflection strip divides into two patches, 
the maximum deflection of second giving for all gases 
(H, He, Air, Ar, Ne) e/m=5x10°: Tm3(571); 
Tm8 (664). 


NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER 319 


5 +x 10%cm,/sec 
2 62° 
| 0° — Paschen. te 


xx — Stark 

















Fic. 62.—Range of velocities of sources of O spark lines as a function of the 
cathode fall. Full lined curves calculated from formula (1). 


With He, a third patch may be divided off for which maximum 
e/m = 2.9 x 10°: ‘T'm3(571). 

Maximum value of e/m independent of the pressure of gas: 
Tm3(575). 

From Doppler effect, assuming the canal rays are the sources of light : 

For H. e/m=7,500 for V < 2,000 v.: $13(35, AIG) s"Ps2(25ai. 
= 3,000 for V 2 2)000 y.: Ps2(253). 

For O. e/m=500 for V < 3,000 v.: Ps3(264) ; e/m= 584, $23(816). 
= 180 for V > 3,000 v.: Ps3(264). 

For C. e/m=500 to 670: Kn3(36, 37). 

For Al. e/m=200: S$23(823). 

In general. As judged from the magnetic deflection, results are of same 
order ‘for (©) Hi: CO2, He, Ar, and Air: W6(588); 
Tm3(575) ; Tm6(295). 

Extreme precautions to get rid of Hz do not affect result: Tm7(361) ; 
W8(661). In each gas, however pure, there seem to 
be besides rays characteristic of the gas (detected by 
the Doppler effect), also two kinds of rays having a 
specific charge equal to that of a singly charged hydro- 
gen molecule and atom respectively: cf. W10(213). 


320 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


V. THEORETICAL DISCUSSION AND EXPLANATION. 
1. CONSTITUTION OF THE RAYS. 


WHAT ARE THE CANAL Rays? 

Not Roentgen rays, do not affect photographic plate: Ar(327) ; GR(726). 

Not cathode rays, much greater mass: Bor(717). 

Identical with first cathode layer particles: Gr(692, 699); Wh2(423) ; 
Sm4(109).  Prolongation of cathode afflux: V1; 
Wh2(422) ; Bg1(692). 

Consist mostly of positively charged gas atoms, together with some 
metal atoms from electrodes, according to Doppler effect: 
Gr; W4(421) ; Ew3(316) ; W5(561, 263). 

Always contain some rays with same mass as hydrogen atom, as shown 
by magnetic deflection: Tm3(575). Hydrogen seems to 
play a unique role in discharge tube phenomena: V2; 
V4. These singly charged H atoms and molecules may 
form the greater part of the rays even at high pressures: 
H13 (235). 

At extremely low pressures, consist mostly of two kinds of particles, 
singly charged hydrogen atoms and molecules, irrespec- 
tive of the gas filling the tube: I'm3(575) ; T'm6(295). 

Professor J. J. Thomson’s results seem to prove that various gases 
under the action of strong electric fields in extreme 
vacuum, give off identical carriers of positive electricity: 
Tm3(575); Tm6(295). 

Similar to a-rays: Ew3(310). 


PLACE OF ORIGIN. 

In gas beyond cathode dark space: W3(451); W4(422); G3(207); 
S1(133, 507) ; $4(602) ; Ew3(301). 

Theory: Gas molecules ionized by cathode rays or positive rays from 
anode, start to move along a line of force, acquire con- 
siderable velocity, forming the cathode afflux, and shoot 
through the canals, forming the canal rays: $4(602). 
See diagram of lines of force in canals: S1(134, 508). 

Not on cathode front surface or in canals because of shadows cast: 
Whz; cf. G1(699) ; Gr; Ew3(299). 

Not in dark space, since there is no ionization there and they could 
not acquire sufficient velocity: S2(583); Ps2(257); 
Ew3 (307). 

Not an anode: Ew1(193) ; Ew3(300) ; cf. Bg (696) ; Bo1(717). 

EXxpLANAtTION oF Non-Homocenerty (shown by non-uniform magnetic deflec- 
tion). 

Not due to variations of velocity, slower rays would be more deflected, 
not less: S2(583) ; Ps3(257) ; Ew3(307). 

Must be due to continuous variation of e/m since deflection streak is not 
fluted at ordinary pressures: ‘I'm3(560, 572). 

Assumption that e or m or both may be integral multiples of unit charge 
and unit mass (the H atom) respectively, is not 
sufficient: S2(583); Ps2(255); cf. Wo(669, 675); Gr. 


NO. 1863 = BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER 221 


Complex nature of the rays, perhaps containing H, N, Al, Hg. atoms, 
not a sufficient explanation, since carefully purified gases 
have been tried, and no fluting effect obtained: T'm3; 
cf. Ew3 (316). 

Probable explanation. The mean value of e/m for each ray during its 
passage through the magnetic or electric field, is evi- 
dently the quantity which determines the deflection. By 
collision with stray corpuscles or negative electrons, any 
canal ray may become discharged and charged again so 
that its average charge may have any value between 
+e and —e. This also explains the negative deflection 
observed: S2(585) ; W5(561, 263) ; I'm3(570). See also 
W4(433, 435); Wo9(669, 670, 675, 677); Sm4(111) ; 
$4 (604, 605) ; Tmr(520) ; SH(95); Ew3(307). 

Other effects mentioned above, as the variation of e and m by steps, 
complexity of the rays, probably do enter, but are insuffi- 
cient in themselves to explain the phenomena reported. 

Mass may also change en route, molecules being formed of atoms and 
vice versa: Ew2(sor). 

Non-homogeneity disappears at very low pressures as then collisions are 
much less frequent: 7m3(575); Tm6; Tm7. 

CHARGE. 

While for the most part the rays are positively charged, by collision with 
negative electrons some of them at various stages of 
their career become neutralized and later perhaps nega- 
tively charged, as evidenced by magnetic deflection ex- 
periments: I'm8(670). 


2. LIGHT FROM CANAL RAY REGION. 


CENTERS OF Emission. ‘The negative electrons, from the Zeeman effect: 
Sia(@3, 401): 
SouRcES OR CARRIERS OF SERIES LINE SPECTRA. 
All lines of one series have same carrier: S5(464, 894); So(113, 250); 
513(33, 414). 
Sources are positively charged. For confirming experiments see 
$13(24, 403). 
First hypothesis: Sources are the canal rays themselves, positive atoms, 
singly, doubly, or trebly charged: S5(464, 804); SH(95); So(113, 250); 
Raut (423) ; $13(34, 39, 415, 419) ; 523(830). 
Main and first and second series of doublets (H, Ca, Hg, C, K, Na) have 
singly charged atom as_ carrier: Sg(1I2, 249); 
S13 (36-38, 416-419); SS(461); Kn3(36). Doubtful: 
$23 (830). 

Series of triplets of Hg have doubly charged atom as carrier: 
So(112, 250); $13(38, 419); SHK(465). Doubtful: 
S23 (830). 

Some Hg lines, \ 4078, 4347, appear to have trebly charged atom as 

carrier: S13(38, 419); SHK(468). 


322 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS - VOL. 52 


Norke.—This hypothesis seems to be rendered doubtful by the discrep- 
ancy between the maximum velocity of the rays and that of the sources of the 
light showing the Doppler effect. If true, since the canal rays must probably 
be rendered luminous by the collision which ionized them, and emit most light 
while speeding up, no intensity minimum would be expected. 

Second hypothesis: Sources are gas molecules hit and ionized by the rays. 
To see how this explains the curve of maximum velocities Fig. 61, consider 
the case of H rays and Hz rays, having velocities u and 0.71 u respectively. 
Assuming perfectly elastic collision, maximum possible velocity is, for the 
collision of 

(1) H ray with H atom, I.00 u; (4) H ray with H molecule, 0.71 u; 

2) sia i AE 6S O04 ieee te gg ee y 0.67 u; 

(3) or | He srays socom (OE) forming oy O77 ts 
Assuming collision is not perfectly elastic, energy being lost in radiation and 
ionization, and that collisions of types (1), (2), (3), are less important with 
the higher cathode falls, the curve is accounted for. 

Now to see whether this hypothesis explains the intensity minimum. 
Assuming; that gas molecules hit squarely enough to be ionized, alone emit 
light, the canal rays being mostly neutralized by the collisions; that ioniza- 
tion occurs only when the energy imparted exceeds a certain minimum; and 
that the intensity of the light emitted is proportional to the momentum given 
to the molecule as a result of the collision; the author has calculated by a 
laborious statistical method (starting with 10,000 canal rays and computing 
the directions and magnitudes of the velocities of the gas atoms hit in five 
generations of collisions) the probable distribution of intensity in the resulting 
Doppler effect. One set of curves is shown in Fig. 63. 

The intensity minimum is seen to be distinct and of fairly constant width, 
in spite of the fact that the number of sources with small velocities is much 
greater than the number of the swifter sources. The importance of more data 
regarding the deflection streak and the Doppler effect so as to decide between 
these two theories is obvious. 


CARRIERS OF BAND SpEcTRUM. (Stark’s hypothesis.) 
Not the positive atoms while in motion since light shows no Doppler 
effect: 55(464, 894) ; SH(95). 
Probably neutralized atoms formed by the collision of charged rays with 
gas atoms, the former being stopped by the collision: 
S4(605); $5(461, 803); $12(355); S13(43, 425); 
S19(399) ; Ew3(314). 
Why canal rays neutralized by electrons and retaining their velocity 
do not emit the band spectrum is not explained. 


DoprLeR Errect, INTENsIty MINIMUM. 
Explanation. Either 
(1) Rays of slow velocity are relatively few: W5(561, 263) ; W6(588) ; 
W8(663) ; S2(583) ; S13(31, 412); St1(686) ; T'm3(569). This assump- 
tion fails to explain the constancy of width of the intensity minimum; or 
(2) Intensity of radiation is a function of the velocity: Sro(253) ; 
S13(31, 177, 180, 412, 435, 439) ; Kn3(36); Ps2(259). 
Velocity must exceed a certain minimum or no displaced line is ob- 
tained: S13(180, 439). 


NO. 1863 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANAL RAYS—FULCHER 323 





INTENSITY - VELOCITY CURVES. 


Rest a 








10 x 10’cm /Sec. 








Fic, 63.—Doppler effect to be expected if sources of light are H gas atoms 
hit by H canal rays of fairly uniform velocity. 


DopreLER EFrect, STATIONARY INTENSITY. 

Explained as due to emission of light either 

(1) By a positive atom on collision with a neutral atom which stops 
it, the intensity being proportional to the gas density: S13(172, 430). 
This hypothesis is not reconcilable with the existence of the intensity 
minimum; or 

(2) By neutral atoms ionized by secondary negative rays created by 
the canal rays: S19(308) ; S22(917). 


Surrt TowArRDS THE RED, 
Theoretical importance in deciding between the various electromagnetic 
theories of the emission of light by electrons in motion, those of Bucherer, 
Einstein, and Lorentz: St1(293). 


EMISSION OF LIGHT BY AN ATOM. 

The Doppler effect shown by light assumed to come from canal rays, 
since it may give a means of distinguishing the light emitted by singly 
charged atoms from that emitted by those which are neutral or doubly 
charged, promises valuable data as to the circumstances, even the mechan- 
ism concerned in this radiation of light. However, no theories advanced so 
far explain satisfactorily the phenomena observed, hence deductions from 
them seem premature. The theories are as numerous as the writers and 
at the present stage, it seems unnecessary to attempt the difficult task of 
abstracting them, but a partial list of articles on the emission of light by 
an atom based on the results of investigations with canal rays is sub- 
joined: S8(104, 109) ; St10(251, 253); S12(360) ; S13(40, 174, 422, ABZ) 
Hl2(17-20) ; W11(428, 437); S16(80); SW; Ps2(259); Str; St2(683) ; 
$22. Also— 


324 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Pe enardt-sec ect oe ee Ann. Phys. 17, 187. 

C. Fredenhagen.....220.5 Verh. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. 9, 393-401. 
C. Fredenhagen......./..< Phys, Zeitschr. 8, 729-737, 927-9. 
GiSchottenrids.22 none Phys. Zeitschr. 9, 214-2106. 

GES chotts sepmema ce oe Phil. Mag. 15, 172-108. 

GUuSchotte teense Ann. Phys. 25, 63-01. 

AStankssacne come ee eeee Phys. Zeitschr. 9, 85-04. 


3. CHEMICAL EFFECTS. 


No Drirecr Cuemicat Action of the rays other than that of splitting up the 
gas molecules, releasing their latent chemical activity. 
Hence in O:2 oxidation takes place, in Hz reduction: Sm2(708-710) ; 
Sm3 (622) ; Sm4(113) ; $4(654) ; Ew3(304). 
DISINTEGRATION. Double dependence on metal and gas indicates chemical 
process, perhaps indirect. Not sensitive to traces of impurity: 
K11 (872). 
FLUORESCENCE. 
(1) Explained as due to pressure of impact of rays: T'f1(616); Tf2; 
Ew3 (304). 
(2) Explained as accompanying chemical reaction indirectly produced by 
the rays, varying with the gas: Sm2(71I0). 
Na light not the result of heating or oxidizing process: Rau1I(421). 
Solid solutions. Fluorescence explained 
(1) as accompanying reduction of higher oxides: W7. 
(2) as accompanying reduction of active compounds: Sm3(622). 


4. SECONDARY EMISSION OF CATHODE RAYS. 


Unirorm Maximum Ve ocity explained by assuming electrons are merely 
released by canal rays, being shot out by the atom with a definite velocity. 
Distance penetrated by the rays determines how thick a layer the cathode 
rays must pass through before emerging, hence determines the distribu- 
tion of cathode rays of less velocity: F2(750) ; F3(302). 

INCREASE OF INTENSITY WITH ANGLE OF INCIDENCE is explained by assuming 
canal rays do not penetrate so far, hence negative rays are not so much 
absorbed in emerging. Effect is more marked with Al than Cu since 
rays penetrate farther in the former: F3(306, 307). 

Negative rays may be created by ultra-violet light or Roentgen rays, but 
probably not: F2(750) ; F3(301). 


AMHERST CoLLEcE, AMHERST, MASss., 
November 1, 1908. 


OBSERVATIONS ON LIVING WHITE WHALES (DEL- 
PHINAPTERUS LEUCAS); WITH A NOTE ON THE 
DENTIFION OF DELPHINAPTERUS AND 
STENODELPHIS 


By FREDERICK W. TRUE 


Heap Curator oF Bronocy, U. S. Nationa, MusEuM 
WitH ONE PLATE 


In June, 1908, I had an opportunity of studying two living white 
whales which were kept in confinement in a large tank on one of the 
piers at Atlantic City, New Jersey. Although living individuals of 
this species have been many times exhibited to the public, very little 
has been published regarding them, so far as I have been able to 
ascertain, and it seems to me, therefore, desirable to Eo on record 
the observations which I have made. 

The two specimens exhibited at Atlantic City were both youngish, 
and one of them (which I will designate as specimen A) was in an 
enfeebled condition, either through disease or lack of nourishment. 
It died soon after I saw it, and the remains were towed out to sea. 
This individual was about 10 feet long and was reported to be a 
female. 

The second individual (specimen B) was a young female 8 feet 
2¥Y inches long in a straight line. It was very active when I saw it, 
but died about a month later, and the body was presented to the Na- 
tional Museum by Mr. A. M. Renshaw through Mr. J. S. Young. 

The larger female (specimen A) was of a purplish white color, 
with darker purplish gray spots, lines and mottlings. The principal 
mottled area was on the head. There were several straight lines on 
the back about a foot long, each consisting of three strize—a central 
dark purplish one, with a white edging, and a lighter purplish line 
on either side. ‘The dorsal fin, or ridge, and the anterior edge of the 
pectorals were purplish gray, and some faint purplish lines indicated 
the position of the digits. The posterior margin of the pectorals was 
white. “The flukes were similar in color to the pectorals. ‘The head 
presented the blunt, rounded form characteristic of the species. Its 
girth increased from the eyes backward, but the neck, seen from 
above, presented a slight constriction. The thorax was nearly flat 
on top. The dorsal fin, or ridge, was quite sharp and distinct, be- 

4 325 


326 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


ginning about opposite the tip of the pectorals when laid back against 
the body, and was about one foot long and of a grayish color. Be- 
ginning opposite the anterior end of the dorsal fin, the body, seen 
from above, assumed a form resembling a pillar consisting of three 
attached columns, laid horizontally. It was made up of a median 
dorsal rounded ridge, with a similar rounded mass below it on either 
side. ‘This form, which was quite unlike that represented in any pub- 
lished figure of the animal, was probably due to extreme emaciation. 
The body tapered rapidly toward the flukes, the pedicel of which was 
very slender. The pectoral rested in a furrow which ran backward 
along the side of the body, and was probably due to emaciation. 

From the same point of view, the upper lip appeared as a thick 
rounded ridge, above which was the protuberance of the “forehead,” 
marked off by a concavity in front. The blowhole was nearly 
linear when closed, but oblong or elliptical when open. 

This whale remained nearly motionless in a corner of the tank, 
with its head under water and its flukes held almost vertically down- 
ward, but raised its head from time to time to spout. The expira- 
tion took place as soon as the head came to the surface, and was 
very feeble and quick, and usually noiseless, but occasionally ac- 
companied by a sound similar to that which a person makes in 
blowing dust off of an object, though rather more metallic. At the 
same time, drops of water ascended in a curve and fell forward 
some three or four feet beyond the head of the whale. Then the 
blowhole opened wider, the lower internal folds were seen to move, 
and inspiration took place with a rather faint sound. The flukes, 
as already mentioned, were held downward, and were waved about 
gently, the axis of motion being at the anterior base of the flukes. 
The pectorals were held horizontally and were nearly motionless. 

The smaller female (specimen B) was of a light purplish color, 
with whitish “forehead,” upper lip and blowhole. ‘The posterior 
‘edges of both pectorals and flukes were dark purple, but with a white 
marginal line. On the top of the head a dark purplish band about 
8 inches wide extended backward from the blowhole. Between this 
and the pectoral was a large oval area lighter in color than the sur- 
rounding parts, which area extended across the upper surface of 
the pectorals. 

The external orifice of the ear was situated in a depression. The 
dorsal fin, or ridge, appeared smooth, except for a few cross-fur- 
rows at intervals of less than an inch apart. ‘There appeared to be 
glandular openings in the longitudinal furrow below the dorsal ridge. 
The surface of the back along the median line began to assume a 


No. 1864 LIVING WHITE WHALES—TRUE 327 


ridge-like shape about opposite the insertion of the pectorals, while 
the dorsal ridge, or fin, itself began about opposite the tips of these 
limbs when Jaid backward. The sharpness of the back in front of 
the dorsal fin nearly disappeared when the head was raised. A 
rounded ridge, or swelling, extended from the pectoral to the orifice 
of the ear. The posterior edge of the pectorals, or that nearest the 
body, was curved upward, as was also the outer edge, but in much 
less degree. 

This female (specimen B) was constantly in motion, swimming 
back and forth across the tank in an irregular fashion. It usually re- 
mained under water from 2 to 3 minutes, then came to the surface 
with the head up, and spouted 5 or 6 times irregularly, lying be- 
tween times with the top of the back out of water. Its swimming 
movements were also irregular. It sometimes “rolled,” as dolphins 
do at sea—that is, with an undulating motion in a vertical plane. 
At other times it turned about lazily from side to side. Occasionally 
it turned suddenly on its side and gave a sharp stroke with its 
flukes, causing the body to move in a curve, but much of the time 
it remained motionless with a curved portion of the back out of 
water from about opposite the insertion of the pectorals to the 
posterior end of the dorsal fin, and both head and flukes curved 
downward. ‘The head was occasionally turned from side to side 
at a considerable angle. 

This whale, as already mentioned, spouted 5 or 6 times at irregu- 
lar intervals of a few seconds each, after which it went down quite 
suddenly and remained under water from 1 to 5 minutes. At the 
expiration there was a distinct rather metallic sound, and at the 
same time drops of water ascended in a curve and fell forward 
invariably some 3 or 4 feet beyond the head of the whale. A gentler 
sound sometimes accompanied the inspiration, but it was usually 
noiseless. 

The whale moved by strokes of the flukes. The flukes were held 
downward much of the time, with the two lobes in the same plane, 
but occasionally the lobes were at different angles, probably from 
unequal pressure of the water. The flukes were not put out of 
water at any time while the whale was under observation, although 
an attendant stated that it sometimes put them out. In sounding 
they were turned upward, but did not quite reach the surface. The 
whole tail was extremely flexible, and as it was turned about, the 
flukes were often at an angle with the surface of the water, but no 
screw-like motion was observable in them. They seemed, however, 
soft and flexible. 


328 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


The pectorals were held out from the body, but quite close to it, 
with the posterior margin tilted upward. They were moved but 
little, and apparently only for steering and not as an aid in swimming. 
To turn the head down, the whale seemed to thrust the thorax up- 
ward violently, rather than to effect the movement by a stroke of 
the flukes. This peculiar movement was repeated many times and 
always in the same connection, so that it would appear to be char- 
acteristic rather than exceptional. 

This whale was at times especially active, rolling and churning up 
the water, and on such occasions the expiration was accompanied by 
a louder “puff” than usual. It appeared to swim on its side under 
water a great deal of the time. Occasionally it made convulsive 
movements, as if shuddering, and moved its pectorals rather rapidly. 

On one occasion I timed the movements of this whale, as regards 
remaining at the surface and below the surface, respectively. The 
results were as follows for 2614 consecutive minutes, the time under 
water being denoted by black-faced type and the time at the surface 
by light=faced type: 2, 1,2, 1, 2, 12, 2, 1, 114, 644, 4, 2, 74,2,.(6 
trifle), I, I, 1%. 

The body of this whale was received at the National Museum on 
August 18, 1908, and the following measurements were taken: 

Measurements of specimen B; female, Atlantic City, N. J., Aug. 18, 
1908: Total length from tip of snout to notch of flukes in a straight 
line, 8 ft. 2% in. (98% in.) ; the same along the curves of the body, 
8 ft. II in. (107 in.) ; greatest girth of body, 52% in.; girth of head 
at eyes, 35; girth of neck, 38%; length from tip of snout to highest 
point of dorsal ridge (straight), 48; to blowhole, 8% ; to eye, 9; to 
ear, 14; to anterior base of pectoral, 22; to posterior base of pectoral, 
27; to navel, 47; to anus, 71; length of pectoral along center, 12% ; 
length of pectoral from anterior base, 14; from posterior base, 10% ; 
greatest breadth of pectoral, 734 ; breadth between axille, 17; trans- 
verse breadth of flukes, 2314; greatest antero-posterior breadth of 
flukes, 12%4; depth of notch of flukes, 3; vertical depth of caudal 
peduncle, 7; length of eye, 34; breadth of blowhole, 134; length of 
dorsal ridge, or fin, 101% ; length of genital slit and anus, 9%; length 
of mammary slit, 11%4; distance between anterior ends of mammary 
slits, 244; distance between posterior ends of mammary slits, 234 ; 
distance from mammary slit to anus, 2; distance from notch of 
flukes to posterior end of pelvic bone when in the natural position, 31. 

For purposes of comparison, I append measurements of a male 
observed at Provincetown, Mass., Aug. 16, 1893: ‘Total length from 
tip of snout to notch of flukes, 13 ft. 1 in. (157 in.); length from 


No. 1864 LIVING WHITE WHALES—TRUE 329 


tip of snout to anterior base of pectoral fin, 32 in.; to eye, 14%; 
to ear, 2114; length of pectoral, 18; greatest breadth of pectoral, 
13; transverse breadth of flukes, 3714; greatest antero-posterior 
breadth of flukes, 17 in.; depth of notch of flukes, 4; distance from 
notch of flukes to anus, 41; to prepuce, 54%. 


Nore ON THE DENTITION OF DELPHINAPTERUS AND STENODELPHIS. 


In the literature relating to the white whale, the teeth are de- 
scribed as having simple conical crowns, like the typical dolphins. 
Dr. John Struthers, for example, remarked in 1895 that “the teeth 
of Beluga have all originally a simple conical fang and a simple 
conical crown.”? An examination of young skulls in the National 
Museum, however, having the teeth, or a part of them, entirely un- 
worn, shows that the crowns of at least four of the posterior teeth 
on either side of the lower jaw, and perhaps some in the upper jaw, 
are really trituberculate when perfect. The crowns of the teeth men- 
tioned are somewhat flattened internally and curved inward at the 
apex. Situated on either side of the main cusp (anteriorly and pos- 
teriorly) and a little internally is a small, linear accessory cusp, 
which is attached to the crown of the tooth throughout its length. 
‘These accessory cusps do not reach the level of the apex of the main 
cusp. 

The presence of these accessory cusps would at first appear to 
lend support to Professor Abel’s opinion? that the genus Delphinap- 
terus belongs in the family Iniidze (Acrodelphidz of Abel) rather 
than in the Delphinide. It seems to me probable, however, that the 
character of the teeth adds one more item to the evidence, chiefly 
paleontological, which is accumulating, that the two families cannot 
be kept separate, if the fossil forms are taken into consideration. 
Leaving out of account the genus Stenodelphis, the affinities of which 
are still in dispute, there are two other genera, at least, beside Del- 
phinapterus in the family Delphinidz in which the crowns of the 
teeth are not entirely simple cones. ‘These genera are Phocena, in 
which the teeth are appressed, and many of them multituberculate ; 
and Steno, in which the enamel of the teeth is rugose. It is reason- 
able to suppose that the teeth in the earlier representatives of the 
Delphinidz were furnished with a number of cusps, and I believe 
it will be found eventually that neither simple teeth nor conjoined 
cervical vertebree can be regarded as an essential character of the 


* Journ. Anat. and Phys., vol. 30, 1895, p. 137. 
*Mém. Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat. Belgique, vol. 3, 1905, p. 129. 


339 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


family. In spite of differences observable in living species, it seems 
to me probable that the Delphinidz and Iniidz were derived from 
common ancestors. 

In accounts of Stenodelphis which I have examined, the teeth are 
described as having simple conical crowns. Professor Abel remarks 
regarding the dentition of the genus that it presents “pas de trace 
d(hétérodontie.”* In two youngish skulls which I have examined, 
however, ten or twelve pairs of teeth at the posterior end of the 
series, in both the upper and the lower jaws, have incurved and 
somewhat spatulate crowns, with rugose enamel, which is raised 
into more or less linear denticles on the internal surface. Each tooth 
usually presents a median denticle and indications of another on 
either side of it, the general form being not unlike that occurring in 
Delphinapterus. I do not regard this character as differentiating 
the rather composite genus Stenodelphis from the Delphinide, but 
as strengthening the evidence that the Delphinide were derived from 
forms having tuberculate teeth. 





*Mém. Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat. Belgique, vol. 3, 1905, p. 42. 


(seona| snaazdeulydieq) 3IWHM ALIHM 31IVNS4 ONNOA 





IIXX ‘Id ‘%G “10A SNOILO3A1I109 SNOANVITS0SIW NVINOSHLIWS 





SOME RECENT CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE 
OF TEE SUN * 


By GHEORGHE. HALE, Sse D. LED. 


DrrEctor OF SOLAR OBSERVATORY OF CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON, 
At Mount WILSON, CALIFORNIA 


Wir THIRTEEN PLATES 


Mr. Secrerary, LADIES AND GENTLEMEN: When I was honored 
by an invitation to deliver the Hamilton Lecture, and to describe in it 
some of our recent solar investigations, I accepted with special pleas- 
ure, since it would afford me a fitting opportunity to acknowledge 
the important debt owed by the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory 
to the Smithsonian Institution. Soon after the Carnegie Institution 
of Washington was organized, Doctor Walcott, then Secretary of its 
Executive Committee, requested Secretary Langley, of the Smith- 
sonian Institution, to express an opinion as to the advisability of es- 
tablishing a solar observatory at some mountain station. Doctor 
Langley, who knew, from personal experience at Mount Whitney 
and other elevated points, the importance of conducting solar re- 
search above the denser and more disturbed portions of the atmos- 
phere, strongly recommended to the Carnegie Institution that pro- 
vision be made for the proposed observatory. In the subsequent 
consideration of this project by the Executive Committee, Doctor 
Walcott gave it his full support, and thus contributed in an important 
way toward the favorable decision finally reached. It is therefore 
easy to understand why we of the Solar Observatory owe a debt of 
gratitude to these Secretaries of the Smithsonian Institution. I beg 
to assure Doctor Walcott that his interest in our work is most 
heartily appreciated. 

When one pauses to reflect that the United States possesses more 
astronomical observatories than any other nation, and that it is un- 
surpassed in its contributions to astronomical discovery, one may 
naturally ask why it seemed advisable to establish another new ob- . 
servatory. If it were a question of duplicating existing instruments, 
or of entering fields of research already well occupied, it is probable 


*Lecture delivered at Washington, D. C., April 22, 1908, under the auspices 
of the Hamilton Fund of the Smithsonian Institution. 


331 


332 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


that a more effective use of available funds might have been found. 
But the aim of the Solar Observatory differs essentially from that 
of any other American institution. Hitherto the study of the Sun 
has been conducted at a disadvantage, partly for lack of suitable 
instrumental means and partly because of the obstacles arising from 
unfavorable atmospheric conditions; yet it would be easy to demon- 
strate that no other star in the heavens is so well worthy of our in- 
vestigation. As the central body of the solar system, controlling the 
motions of the planets, and making life possible upon the Earth, the 
Sun has always been an object of admiration, and sometimes even 
of worship, to mankind. A permanent decrease of one hundred de- 
grees (about 0.6 per cent) in the effective temperature of the Sun 
is considered by good authorities to be sufficient to produce another 
Ice Age on the Earth. So great a change could hardly occur; but 
smaller variations, due to internal causes, or to modifications in the 
absorbing power of the Sun’s atmosphere, are very probable. Since 
solar phenomena follow more or less definite cycles of change, a bet- 
ter understanding of them might conceivably permit variations in 
its radiating power, sufficient to determine seasons of good or bad 
harvest, to be in some degree anticipated. The importance of solar 
research from this standpoint is thus sufficiently obvious. 

But if the Sun commands our attention as the source and support 
of terrestrial life, it must appeal no less strongly to every intelligent 
person as the unique means of opening to us a knowledge of stellar 
development; for the student who would untangle the secrets of the 
universe recognizes in the Sun a typical star, placed conveniently 
within reach and exemplifying the physical and chemical conditions 
which are repeated in millions of other stars so far removed that 
they appear to us only as minute points of light. If we are to form 
a true estimate of the nature of these distant stars, and find the means 
of tracing out the progressive stages in their development from the 
nebule, we must base our investigations upon solar research. 

The great disk which the Sun exhibits in our telescopes would 
shrink to the size of a needle point if removed to the distance of the 
other stars. This may be made clearer through a simple comparison. 
Consider the dimensions of the solar system so reduced that the 
diameter of the Earth would be one foot and that of the Sun 109 
feet. The distance between them would then diminish from 
95,000,000 to 2.2 miles, but the proportionate distance of the nearest 
fixed star would be 600,000 miles. This illustrates the comparative 
nearness of the Sun and the great advantages thus afforded-of ob- 
serving its various phenomena. 


NO. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 333 


In this presence it is quite unnecessary to dilate upon the im- 
portance of the general question of evolution, or to discuss the re- 
lationship of the problems of the astronomer to the more complex 
ones encountered by the student of evolution in biology. It is evi- 
dent that if we are to acquire a correct understanding of evolution 
in all of its phases, we should start from a knowledge of those pro- 
cesses which result in the formation of stars and the development 
of planetary systems. ‘The generalizations of thinkers like Kant, 
Laplace, and more recent writers who have furnished hypotheses 
to explain the origin of suns and planets must be put to the test of 
observation. But these hypotheses leave untouched scores of ques- 
tions relating to the physical state of stars in various stages of 
growth; their relation to one another and to their environment; their 
connection in systems, and the part they play in the universe as a 
whole. All of these questions lie within the province of the student 
of stellar evolution and call for the exertion of his best efforts to 
contribute toward their solution. 

We thus see that solar research may be divided into two classes: 
(1) measurement of the intensity of the Sun’s radiation, to deter- 
mine whether the heat received by the Earth is constant or under- 
goes fluctuations; and (2) observation of the various phenomena of 
the Sun’s disk, to determine the laws by which they are governed. 
The first of these subjects has been investigated with great success 
by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, established by the 
late Secretary Langley and directed by Mr. Abbot. The work of 
the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory lies in the second field. The 
two departments are closely related, and I am glad to say that 
through a plan arranged with Doctor Langley and extended by 
Doctor Walcott, the work inaugurated here in Washington is being 
continued by Mr. Abbot on the summit of Mount Wilson, in close 
cooperation with our own investigations. 

It has been conclusively shown by Koppen, and confirmed by New- 
comb, that the average temperature of the Earth, as determined by 
the combination of a great number of thermometer observations 
made at several stations, indicates a fluctuation of from 0°.3 to 0°.7 
C. during the eleven-year Sun-spot period. ‘The mean temperature is 
greatest at the time of minimum Sun-spots, and least at the time of 
maximum Sun-spots. This relationship having been proved to exist, 
it remains to inquire whether there is any direct connection between 
the mean temperature of the Earth at a given time and the total 
heat radiation of the Sun as measured at a point outside of the 
Earth’s atmosphere. Since all observations must be made within 


334 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52: 


the atmosphere, the determination of the correction to be applied to 
eliminate the loss by absorption becomes the most important and, at 
the same time, the most difficult part of this investigation. It is in 
this connection that the transparency and the uniformity of the at- 
mosphere on Mount Wilson have proved to be so great an advantage 
in the work of the Smithsonian expeditions. The results already 
obtained by Mr. Abbot show that the heat radiation of the Sun 
ranges in value from 1.93 to 2.14 calories per square centimeter per 
minute, and seem to indicate a real variability outside of the Earth’s 
atmosphere. 

Newcomb. in his recent paper on “A Search for Fluctuations in the 
Sun’s Thermal Radiation through their Influence on Terrestrial 
Temperature,” is inclined to believe that such apparent variability 
must be due to changes in the absorption of our atmosphere, rather 
than in the heat radiation of the Sun. He was led to this conclusion 
by the fact that short-period temperature changes, such as would 
result from a change in the Sun’s heat, are not shown to exist in an 
extensive examination of the Farth’s mean temperature as recorded 
during a period of 34 years at 13 stations. Langley and Abbot, on 
the contrary, maintain that the method employed in their observa- 
tions eliminates the effect of atmospheric absorption so completely 
that the observed variations must be due to changes within the Sun. 
The fact that the thermometer records employed by Newcomb were 
all made at seacoast stations, where the steadying effect of the ocean 
might tend to eliminate short period fluctuations, leads Abbot to 
doubt the validity of Newcomb’s conclusions. His method having 
proved capable of showing the small progressive differences in the 
solar heat due to the change in the Earth’s distance from the Sun 
during the period of observation, he sees no reason to dispute the 
solar origin of the larger differences. Since variations in the Sun’s 
heat radiation could not fail to be accompanied by changes in other 
solar phenomena, investigations on the nature of these phenomena, 
and on their relationship to the so-called “solar constant,’ may yield 
reliable information as to the origin of such differences as Abbot 
has observed. ‘The possibility of predicting variations in the mean 
temperature of the Earth caused by the influence of the Sun must 
depend upon the acquirement of much more complete knowledge 
than we now possess of the solar constitution. We thus perceive the 
intimate connection which unites the work of the Smithsonian As- 
trophysical Observatory with that of the Mount Wilson Solar Ob- 
servatory, and recognize the importance, from this standpoint, of 
continuing and greatly extending solar research in all its phases. 


No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 335 


COOPERATION IN SOLAR RESEARCH 


The widespread appreciation of the importance of solar investiga- 
tions is illustrated by the formation of the International Union for 
Cooperation in Solar Research, which counts among its members 
astronomers and physicists in many parts of the world. In the es- 
tablishment of the Union the initiative was taken by our National 
Academy of Sciences, which invited various academies, as well as 
astronomical and physical societies in Europe and America, to send 
delegates to a preliminary meeting at Saint Louis in September, 
1904. ‘The favorable responses and the presence of delegates from 
the academies of Paris, Stockholm, Saint Petersburg, and Vienna, 
the Royal Society and the Royal Astronomical Society of London, 
the physical societies of Paris and Berlin, and other leading scientific 
bodies on both sides of the Atlantic promised well for the future 
of the Union. The preliminary organization effected at Saint Louis 
was given more definite form at Oxford a year later, where codpera- 
tive work was set on foot in the study of the spectra of Sun-spots, 
solar photography with the spectroheliograph, and the measurement 
of the solar radiation. It was also decided to adopt a new system 
of standard wave-lengths, based upon Michelson’s determination of 
the length of the international meter in terms of the wave-length of 
the cadmium lines. The high degree of precision attained by Row- 
land in his Table of Solar Spectrum Wave-lengths no longer suffices 
for the needs of spectroscopists. The new system, based upon stan- 
dards measured with extraordinary accuracy by the interferometer 
method, should provide a firm foundation for all spectroscopic in- 
vestigations, whether of an astronomical or physical nature, for 
many years to come. As the primary standards are being measured 
by French, German, and American physicists, it will soon be possible 
to prepare new tables of the wave-lengths of the lines in solar, me- 
tallic, and gaseous spectra. A grant to assist in this work has been 
made by the Bache Fund, and it is hoped that the publication of the 
tables may be undertaken by the National Academy. 

The spectra of Sun-spots, as will be shown later, contain a great 
number of lines, which require the most careful study. Hitherto 
our knowledge of spot spectra has been derived almost exclusively 
from the results of visual observations, made by individual observers 
without the aid of a general plan. As a natural consequence cer- 
tain regions of the spectrum have been altogether neglected, and the 
time required for the identification of the lines has seriously limited 
the amount of work accomplished. A committee of the Solar Union, 


336 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


numbering among its members most of the active observers in this 
field, has now divided the spectrum into limited regions, one of which 
is selected by each observer. With the aid of the photographic map 
mentioned below, an observer may easily make an exhaustive study 
of the lines he has chosen. Although it will be shown that pho- 
tographic observations are far superior to visual ones in most work 
on spot spectra, there are various phenomena in which the eye still 
has the advantage of the sensitive plate. The Solar Union has al- 
ready secured valuable results through this cooperation, and many 
more may be expected in the future. 

In accordance with a plan prepared by another committee of the 
Solar Union, the Sun is photographed almost every hour of the 
twenty-four with spectroheliographs in India, Sicily, Germany, 
France, Spain, England, Wisconsin, and California. This nearly 
continuous record of the calcium flocculi will soon be supplemented 
by similar work in Mexico, and there is some reason to hope that 
the Japanese and Australian governments will assist in overcoming 
the breaks in the record due to the absence of spectroheliographs 
between California and India. 

Other committees are formulating plans for a codperative attack 
on the problem of the solar rotation, securing greater uniformity 
in the methods of recording observations of the solar prominences 
and inquiring as to the advisability of coordinating the plans of 
eclipse expeditions. In every phase of the work the results to be 
derived from personal initiative and individual effort are recognized 
as likely to transcend in importance any that may follow from 
routine codperation. From this standpoint the best accomplishment 
of the Solar Union is the creation of a renewed interest in solar re- 
search and in related problems of physics and astronomy. Every 
member is strongly encouraged to develop and extend his own ideas 
and methods, an aim by no means incompatible with the prosecution 
of cooperative work in fields where routine observations are essential. 
It is hoped that the large attendance and hearty interest which char- 
acterized the recent meeting of the Solar Union in Paris may not be 
lacking when the members again come together on Mount Wilson 
in 1910. 

Tue Mount Wirson So_aArR OBSERVATORY 


The Carnegie Institution was not slow to recognize the exceptional 
opportunities which, through a fortunate combination of circum- 
stances, lay open to its proposed solar observatory. These included: 

1. The application to the study of the Sun and stars of powerful 








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No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 237 


spectroscopes and other instruments developed during the preceding 
quarter of a century in the physical laboratory, but still unused in 
the observatory. 

2. The development of the spectroheliograph and of other research 
methods involving new principles. 

3. The development of the reflecting telescope, in forms adapted 
for solar research and for physical investigations of the stars and 
nebule. 

4. The more adequate recognition of the close union which should 
unite laboratory researches with solar and stellar investigations. 

The opportunities enumerated above relate to the possibility of 
improving and extending the methods of astrophysical research. An- 
other special opportunity had its origin in the basic principles which 
underlie the Carnegie Institution. A large proportion of the world’s 
observatories are connected with universities or with  institu- 
tions affected by local interests. The Carnegie Institution es- 
tablishes its laboratories and observatories on the islands of the 
Carribbean Sea, the deserts of Arizona, the mountains of Cali- 
fornia, and at other points where their work can be done 
most effectively. On Mount Wilson, the long periods of cloud- 
less weather, the purity of the atmosphere, and the absence, 
during a large part of the year, of winds and atmospheric 
fluctuations which seriously hamper astronomical work in most 
parts of the world afford great advantages. To illustrate the purity 
of the night sky, two photographs of the Pleiades, one made with an 
exposure of g' 47™ at Williams Bay, Wisconsin (1,200 feet), the 
other made at Mount Wilson (5,886 feet), with an exposure of only 
3 48™, are reproduced in Plate xxiv. These were both taken by 
Professor Barnard with the 10-inch Bruce photographic telescope, on 
plates of equal sensitiveness and on nights of normal clearness at 
each station. Though the exposure time was two and one-half 
times longer at Williams Bay, yet the number of stars recorded at 
Mount Wilson is fully as great and the details of the nebula much 
sharper. Other proofs of the fine quality of the Mount Wilson at- 
mosphere are afforded by many visual and photographic observa- 
tions, made by night and by day, during the past three or four 
years. 

Plate xxv shows the summit of Mount Wilson, where a large tract 
of land has been set apart for the purposes of the observatory. This 
site commands a magnificent view of southern California, extending 
on the east to the snowy peaks of the San Bernardino Range, on 
the west to islands lying far out in the Pacific, on the north to an 


338 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


endless succession of mountains tributary to the high Sierras, and 
on the south to the Mexican frontier. In the San Gabriel Valley, 
lying at the base of Mount Wilson, and about eight miles distant 
in an air line, is the city of Pasadena. Here a large part of the ob- 
servatory work, such as various laboratory investigations, the design 
and construction of instruments, and the measurement and discus- 
sion of astronomical photographs taken on the mountain, is con- 
ducted. By confining the work on Mount Wilson almost entirely to 
observations, the expense of maintaining the rest of the establish- 
ment there is avoided and many other advantages are secured. 

In enumerating the various opportunities which: lay open to the 
Solar Observatory at the time of its inception, the possibility of 
bringing into use large and powerful spectroscopes, which had been 
developed in physical laboratories, was first mentioned. In 1859 
Kirchhoff discovered with the spectroscope the chemical composi- 
tion of the Sun, and proved that this instrument is capable of 
analyzing the light which reaches us from any luminous source. 
When applied later to a study of the phenomena of the Sun and 
stars, the spectroscope, then of small dimensions, was simply at- 
tached to the end of a telescope tube. The invention of the concave 
grating by Rowland in 1882, and the widespread use of this powerful 
instrument in physical laboratories, introduced a new era, through 
the great increase in precision of measurement rendered possible by 
its high dispersion. In astronomy, however, the equatorial refractor 
continued to be the popular form of telescope, and the spectroscope, 
though improved in many particulars, did not increase greatly in size. 
It was obviously impossible to attach a concave grating spectro- 
scope over 21 feet in length to the end of a moving telescope tube. 
Consequently the precision of measurement in astronomical spectro- 
scopy has been far inferior to that attained in the laboratory. 


THe Snow TELESCOPE 


At the period when the plans for the Solar Observatory were 
taking form, the principles which should govern the construction of 
a fixed telescope were partly understood, and had been frequently 
applied in eclipse observations. Almost simultaneously with our 
experiments with fixed telescopes at the Yerkes Observatory, a large 
instrument of this type, giving a solar image well suited for bolo- 
metric work, was constructed for the Smithsonian Astrophysical 
Observatory. Such telescopes, however, had not been used for re- 
searches demanding a large and sharply defined solar image. ‘The 
Snow telescope, constructed in the instrument shop of the Yerkes 


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No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 339 


‘Observatory, with the aid of funds given by Miss Snow, of Chicago, 
had its first trial shortly before our work on Mount Wilson was 
undertaken. It was afterwards brought to California in connection 
with an expedition sent out by the Yerkes Observatory, with the 
aid of a grant from the Carnegie Institution, and was ultimately pur- 
chased by the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory as a part of its 
permanent equipment. 

This instrument is designed to give a sharply defined image of 
the Sun, nearly 7 inches in diameter, at a fixed position within a 
laboratory, where its various details can be investigated with spectro- 
scopes or spectroheliographs of any desired dimensions. The ccelostat 
shown in Plate xxVI carries a mirror 30 inches in diameter, mounted 
so that the plane of its front (silvered) surface is exactly parallel 
to the Earth’s axis. When this mirror is rotated by a driving-clock 
at such a rate that it would complete a revolution in forty-eight hours, 
a beam of sunlight reflected from it is maintained in a fixed position, 
in spite of the apparent motion of the Sun through the heavens. 
This beam falls upon a second silvered mirror, 24 inches in diameter, 
which sends the rays toward the north. Both of these mirrors have 
optically plane surfaces, and their function is merely to bring the 
Sun’s rays into the telescope house and to direct them upon a con- 
‘cave mirror 24 inches in diameter, mounted 95 feet north of the 
ccelostat. This mirror, which may be regarded as the telescope 
proper, returns the rays 60 feet toward the south to a point just 
outside of the entering beam, where it forms an image of the Sun 
nearly 7 inches in diameter. By setting the concave mirror at the 
proper angle, the solar image can be made to fall upon the slit of 
a spectrograph of 18 feet focal length, or upon the slit of a large 
spectroheliograph. Both of these instruments are mounted on mas- 
sive stone piers. ‘Thus all restrictions as to the dimensions and 
weight of such auxiliary apparatus are removed. 

The house in which the Snow telescope is mounted (Plate xxvir) 
was designed with the object of keeping the temperature of the air 
within it as nearly as possible the same as that of the outer air. It is 
‘constructed of a light steel framework covered with canvas louvers 
and provided with a ventilated roof. Without such precautions the 
air within the house would become heated during the day, and the 
difference in temperature between the inner and outer air would 
cause distortion of the solar image and consequent blurring of its 
details. In practice, on day after day in the summer months, the 
image of the Sun given by the telescope during the early morning 
hours is nearly as clear and distinct as a steel engraving. 


340 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


If this solar image (obtained with reduced aperture of the concave 
mirror) is permitted to fall for less than the thousandth part of a 
second upon a photographic plate, a picture of the Sun will result. 
Such pictures are made every clear day, in the early morning or 
late afternoon, when the atmospheric conditions are at their best. 
They show the Sun as it appears to the eye in visual observations. 
The principal solar phenomena visible on such photographs are the 
Sun-spots, several of which appear in Plate xxviit. These spots, 
when observed under the best conditions, are found to have an ex- 
tremely intricate structure, which changes from hour to hour, and 
sometimes from minute to minute, under the observer’s eye. Indi- 
vidual spots sometimes exceed 90,000 miles in length, but their area 
is very small as compared with that of the entire solar disk. Thus 
the great group of February, 1892, had a length of 166,000 miles and 
a breadth of 65,000 miles. Its area was eighteen times as great as 
that of the Earth, but only 0.15 of one per cent of the solar surface.’ 


PHOTOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATIONS OF SUN-SPOT SPECTRA 


In spite of the fact that Sun-spots have been under observation 
for nearly three hundred years, little is known as to their true na- 
ture. Various theories to account for them have been brought for- 
ward, but the complexity of the phenomena and the lack of suff- 
cient observational data have stood in the way of accurate knowledge. 
It is not certainly known, for example, whether Sun-spots are to be 
regarded as elevated regions or as depressions below the general 
level of the solar surface. Even the cause of their darkness has re- 
mained uncertain, and astronomers have differed as to their tempera- 
ture, some contending that they are much hotter than other parts of 
the Sun, and others believing them to be comparatively cool. In 
support of his theory that the chemical elements are broken up 
into simpler constituents at very high temperatures, Lockyer adduced 
observational evidence of a periodic change in the Sun-spot spec- 
trum. At times of maximum solar activity, when spots are numer- 
ous on the Sun, Lockyer found the most conspicuous lines in their 
spectrum to be of unknown origin. Five or six years later, when 
the solar activity had declined to a minimum, these lines seemed to 
be replaced by the well-known lines of iron and other familiar sub- 
stances. Lockyer accordingly concluded that at the maximum the 
temperature of Sun-spots was sufficiently high to break up iron and 


*Maunder, Journal British Astronomical Association, vol. Xv, p. 126. 


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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XXVIII 





DIRECT PHOTOGRAPH OF THE SUN 


August 25, 1906, 64 o0gm A. M. 





No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 341 


other elements into simpler substances, whose spectra, being un- 
known on the Earth, could not be identified. 

If we analyze the light of a Sun-spot with a spectroscope, we find 
that the Fraunhofer lines of the solar spectrum are almost all pres- 
ent, though their relative intensities are greatly changed. Many 
solar lines, for example, are much strengthened or widened where 
they cross the spot, while others are weakened or, in some cases, 
completely obliterated. Lockyer’s method of observation is to 
record, day after day, the most conspicuous lines in the spot spec- 
trum—those of the solar lines which are most widened or strength- 
ened. Under the ordinary conditions of visual observation, the study 
of the spot spectrum is a difficult operation, on account of the im- 
mense number of lines affected. Recognizing this, Lockyer confined 
his attention to only twelve lines, in the expectation that their varia- 
tions would sufficiently indicate the nature of any changes going on 
within the spot. The inadequacy of this method has been shown by 
recent results, which give no indication that the spot spectrum 
undergoes a radical change in passing from maximum to minimum 
solar activity, and demonstrate that an interpretation of the true 
meaning of the strengthened and weakened lines must involve the 
systematic study not merely of twelve lines, but of a far larger 
number. 

When the Snow telescope was first employed for this work, only a 
few hundreds of lines had been catalogued in the entire Sun-spot 
spectrum. Previous experiments at the Kenwood and Yerkes ob- 
servatories had indicated that the application of photography would 
probably make possible an important advance, provided a spectro- 
graph of sufficiently high dispersion were employed. A Littrow 
spectrograph of 18 feet focal length, having a plane Rowland grating 
ruled with 14,438 lines to the inch, was accordingly constructed for 
use with the Snow telescope. Good photographs of spot spectra 
were soon obtained with this instrument. After some minor tech- 
nical difficulties had been overcome, it appeared that the photographs 
could be counted upon to show nearly all that can be seen visually, 
while at the same time they would permit the positions of the lines 
to be accurately measured and their relative intensities to be deter- 
mined. From negatives taken with the Snow telescope, Ellerman 
prepared a preliminary map of the Sun-spot spectrum, extending 
from the violet to the extreme red. Casual inspection of this map, 
which comprises twenty-six sections of one hundred Angstréms 
each, is sufficient to show that the number of lines whose intensities 
are affected in Sun-spots is several thousands. In the hands of ob- 


5 


342 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


servers cooperating in the work of the International Solar Union, 
this map has greatly facilitated visual observations, and has con- 
siderably strengthened the view, now almost universally held, that 
the Sun-spot spectrum undergoes few striking variations from spot 
to spot or at different periods in the eleven-year cycle of solar ac- 
tivity. 

The negatives having been secured and a preliminary map of the 
spectrum prepared, it became necessary to draw up a catalogue of 
all the lines affected, showing their intensities in the spot and in the 
ordinary solar spectrum. The first section of this catalogue, extend- 
ing from 4000 (the extremity of the visible spectrum) to A 4500 in 
the violet, has been published by Adams.? In this limited region of the 
spectrum, where the Sun-spot and solar spectrum were previously re- 
garded as identical, about eight hundred lines of altered intensity 
are recorded. The publication of the second section of the catalogue 
has been somewhat delayed by the fact that negatives of the spot 
spectrum made with the 30-foot spectrograph of the new “tower” 
telescope (p. 356) are so much superior to the earlier plates that the 
results obtained from them must also be added. As the complexity 
of the spot spectrum increases from this region toward the green 
and yellow, it is evident that the complete catalogue will comprise 
many thousands of lines. 

Having thus acquired suitable data, the next step was to attempt 
to interpret the true meaning of the Sun-spot spectrum. At this point 
the need of laboratory experiments presents itself. Take, for ex- 
ample, the spectrum of iron in a Sun-spot. The photographs show 
that many of the iron lines are relatively much stronger than the cor- 
responding ones in the solar spectrum, others are reduced in in- 
tensity, and others are essentially unchanged. From experiments 
on the spectrum of iron as observed in the laboratory, it is known 
that the relative intensities of its lines depend upon the physical con- 
ditions under which the vapor is observed—1. e., that variations in 
the pressure, temperature, density, or electrical state of the vapor 
are competent to affect their relative intensities. Adequate informa- 
tion on this subject, however, is lacking. It was therefore necessary 
to observe the effect of varying these physical conditions, in the 
hope that the results might be applied to the interpretation of spot 
phenomena. 

The apparatus provided on Mount Wilson for work of this char- 
acter is illustrated in Plate xxrx. Around the annular pier are ar- 


* Contributions from the Solar Observatory, No. 22, Astrophysical Journal, 
vol. 22, pp. 45-65, January, 1908. 


NOSTIM LNNOW NO AYOLVYHOEV1] ODldOOSOYLOAdS SHL 





XIXX “Id ‘%G “10A SNOILOI1100 SNOANW1T3S90SIW NVINOSHLIWS 





No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 343 


ranged various light sources, in each of which the physical conditions 
can be controlled by the observer. One of the simplest ways of vapor- 
izing iron is to place fragments of the metal between the carbon poles 
of an ordinary arc light. By varying the amount of metal present in 
the arc, the effect-of change of density of the vapor can be observed. 
To study the influence of change of pressure. the arc must be in- 
closed within a chamber, so constructed that air or some other gas 
can be admitted and raised to the desired pressure. ‘The effect is to 
shift the lines of the spectrum toward the red, and by measuring 
the displacement produced by an increase in pressure of one atmos- 
phere, the pressure within a Sun-spot or in a star, corresponding to 
any observed shift of the lines, can be determined. To ascertain 
the effect of change of temperature upon the spectrum, the iron 
vapor at the very hot center of the arc may be compared with the 
cooler vapor in the outer part of the flame. If the highest tempera- 
ture of the arc is not sufficiently great, a powerful electric spark, 
taken between two poles of iron, will afford a still hotter light- 
source. Apparatus suitable for all of these purposes and for other 
similar ones is arranged upon the annular pier. When the light from 
any particular source is to be investigated, it is reflected from a 
plane mirror at the center of the circle to a concave mirror (shown 
near the middle of Plate xx1x), which forms an image of the source 
on the slit of a powerful spectrograph. 

For various reasons it seemed probable that reduced temperature 
might be the cause of the strengthening and weakening of lines in 
spot spectra. Accordingly, special attention was directed to a study 
of the effect of temperature change on the relative intensities of the 
lines. After an extensive investigation it was found that the iron 
lines whose relative intensities increase at reduced temperatures are 
invariably among the lines which are strengthened in Sun-spots. 
Moreover it was also found that the iron lines which are weakened 
at reduced temperatures are weakened in Sun-spots. After these 
experiments had been extended from iron to titanium, vanadium, 
chromium, manganese, cobalt, nickel, and other substances con- 
spicuously represented in Sun-spots, the conclusion was reached that 
a reduction in temperature of the spot vapors is competent to ex- 
plain a large part of the characteristic spectral phenomena. Assum- 
ing this hypothesis to be correct, one would naturally be led to ask 
whether the temperature of the spot vapors is sufficiently reduced to 
permit elements existing uncombined at the higher temperature of 
the solar surface to enter into combination within the spot. Titanium 
and oxygen, for example, both occur among the vapors which lie 


344 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


above the photosphere. Is the temperature within the spot low 
enough to permit these substances to combine? 

For many years the spot spectrum had been known to contain a 
number of bands and of faint lines, but none of these had been 
identified. Fortunately, the photographs obtained with the Snow 
telescope show these bands far better than they can be seen visually, 
and bring to light many new bands and thousands of faint lines of 
unknown origin. Fig. 1, Plate xxx, illustrates a comparison of one 
of the red titanium oxide bands, made up of a great number of fine 
lines terminating in three distinct heads, with the corresponding 
region in a photograph of the spot spectrum. It will be seen that 
practically all of the lines of the band photographed in the flame 
of the electric arc are present in the spot. As many other titanium 
bands have been found on the photographs, we now know not only 
that many hundreds of the spot lines can be accounted for in this 
way, but also that the hypothesis of reduced temperature is partially 
confirmed. ‘This identification of the titanium oxide flutings is due 
to Adams. Soon after its publication, Fowler, of London, found 
some of the bands in the green portion of our photographic map to 
be due to magnesium hydride, another compound capable of with- 
standing high temperatures. Still later, Olmsted discovered in our 
Mount Wilson laboratory that certain spot bands in the red are due 
to calcium hydride. He is continuing the search for other com- 
pounds with improved apparatus in our new Pasadena laboratory. 
The investigation may be an extensive one, because the spectra of 
only a few of these compounds, which are formed at the high tem- 
perature of the electric furnace, have hitherto been observed. Even 
in these cases no large scale photographs, or sufficiently accurate 
measurements of the lines, have been published. 

The presence of compounds in spots appears favorable to the 
hypothesis of reduced temperature, though it does not settle the 
question beyond doubt. It next became interesting to inquire 
whether analogous conditions could be found among the stars. As 
already remarked, the stars are so distant that their images in the 
most powerful telescopes are mere needle points, so that objects like 
Sun-spots, if they exist on the stars, cannot be observed. Accord- 
ing to current ideas of stellar evolution, the stars pass through a 
long process of development, during which their temperature, per- 
haps comparatively low in the embryonic stage represented by the 
condensing nebulz, reaches a maximum in the white stars, and then 
declines during the period of old age exemplified in the red stars. 
If, then, a Sun-spot is a mass of solar vapors reduced somewhat in 


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No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 345 


temperature, a red star, assumed to have the same composition as 
the Sun, might be expected to give a spectrum resembling that of a 
Sun-spot, if its temperature were the same. 

In order to test this question with sufficient precision, the spectra 
of Arcturus, an incipient red star, and of a Orionis, a conspicuous 
red star in the constellation of Orion, were photographed with a 
very powerful spectrograph. Here, again, the principle of using a 
high dispersion spectrograph, mounted on a massive stone pier in 
a constant temperature chamber, was substituted for the ordinary 
method of attaching a small spectrograph to the tube of a moving 
telescope. The Snow telescope provided a fixed image of the star, 
and it was only necessary to maintain this upon the slit of the spec- 
trograph during an exposure long enough to permit the greatly dis- 
persed light to impress itself upon the photographic plate. With 
the comparatively small aperture of the Snow telescope, exposures 
of from fifteen to twenty hours, carried on through several suc- 
cessive nights, were required. ‘The great amount of light which 
will be collected by our 60-inch reflector will reduce these exposures 
and will also permit fainter stars to be photographed with high dis- 
persion. 

A study of the plates thus obtained showed an interesting parallel- 
ism between the relative intensities of the lines in the spectra of 
these stars and those of Sun-spots. Many of the lines that are 
strengthened in spots are strengthened in these stars, and many of 
the lines that are weakened in spots are weakened in these stars. 
There are some important points of difference, probably due to the 
fact that the relative intensities of the lines in spots and stars are 
not determined solely by temperature condition. In general, how- 
ever, the agreement is sufficiently close to indicate the probability 
that a common cause—reduced temperature—is at work in both 
cases. If any doubts remained as to the resemblance between the 
spectra of red stars and Sun-spots, they were removed when the 
titanium oxide bands were discovered in our photographs of spot 
spectra. ‘These bands are the characteristic feature of one of the 
two great classes of red stars, their spectra showing them in all de- 
grees of intensity, from the comparative faintness which delayed 
their discovery in Sun-spots to the blackness observed in such deep 
red stars as a Herculis and Antares. The absence of these bands in 
the other great class of red stars, in whose spectra the bands of 
carbon (not found in Sun-spots) predominate, suggests interesting 
possibilities in future work on the Sun’s stellar relationships. 

These results leave unanswered scores of questions involved in 


346 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


the complete interpretation of Sun-spot spectra, and do not even af- 
ford conclusive evidence that reduced temperature is the principal 
agent in determining the relative intensities of the lines. They 
nevertheless carry us a step forward in our study of solar physics 
and are of special service in illustrating the interdependence of solar, 
laboratory, and stellar investigations. They render evident the im- 
portance of increasing our knowledge of the Sun, of imitating solar 
phenomena and interpreting solar observations by means of labora- 
tory experiments, and of using these investigations as a guide to the 
study of the stars and nebulz. 


SPECTRA OF THE LIMB AND CENTER OF THE SUN 


Many years ago, when a student at Yale, Hastings made a com- 
parative study of the spectra of different parts of the Sun’s disk, 
devoting special attention to any differences that might distinguish 
the light of the center from that derived from points very near the 
limb. Although his instruments were inadequate for the task and 
his observations necessarily visual, he nevertheless noticed slight 
differences in the appearance of a few lines. Strangely enough, the 
importance of this work was overlooked by later investigators, though 
Halm, two years ago, without perceiving the differences noted by 
Hastings, detected a slight displacement of certain lines at the limb 
as compared with their positions at the center of the Sun. Halm’s 
work was also visual and accomplished with a comparatively small 
spectroscope. Had he used a more powerful instrument and bene- 
fited by the aid of photography, he would doubtless have discovered 
the interesting series of phenomena which the Snow telescope and 
18-foot spectrograph have brought to light. 

Some of these are illustrated in Fig. 2, Plate xxx, which represents 
only one region of the spectrum. The broad diffuse wings which 
accompany many lines are greatly reduced in intensity near the limb, 
and in a number of cases disappear entirely. The relative intensities 
of the lines themselves undergo marked changes, resembling in most 
instances the changes observed in Sun-spots; that is to say, the lines 
that are strengthened in Sun-spots are usually strengthened near 
the Sun’s limb, while the lines that are weakened in Sun-spots are 
weakened near the limb. However, the phenomena are by no means 
strictly parallel, and much work will be required to arrive at their 
true meaning. Perhaps the most interesting effects observed at the 
limb are the displacements of the solar lines with respect to their 
positions at the center of the Sun. In general, the relative displace- 


No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 347 


ments for different lines agree fairly well in magnitude with those ob- 
served for the same lines in the laboratory when a source of light 
containing the vapor in question is observed under pressure. ‘That 
increased effective pressure near the limb is probably the cause of 
the line-shifts is further illustrated by the fact that the lines in bands 
or flutings, such as those of cyanogen (shown in Fig. 1, Plate xxx), 
which are not displaced by pressure in the laboratory, retain the 
same relative positions at the center and limb. 

These changes, and many others which it would be tedious to 
enumerate, have been observed on photographs taken by Adams 
and myself for the purpose of extending and perfecting our interpre- 
tation of Sun-spot spectra. Almost the entire extent of the spec- 
trum has been photographed and a large scale-map showing the 
differences between the spectra of the limb and center is now in 
preparation. The work of measurement is necessarily long and 
trying, since the positions of hundreds of lines must be determined 
on many photographs with the extreme precision required to reveal 
the minute displacements concerned. For the interpretation of the 
results extensive laboratory investigations on the effect of pressure 
must be carried out, and special apparatus for this purpose is now 
being prepared. Moreover, the possibility that anomalous dispersion 
and other physical phenomena are involved must not be overlooked ; 
and here, again, much laboratory work must be done. 


THE SoLAR ROTATION 


In mentioning the cyanogen band, I remarked that it occupies the 
same position at the center of the Sun and at the limb. This is true, 
of course, only after the effect of the solar rotation has been cor- 
rected. All the lines of the spectrum, when observed at the east 
limb of the Sun, are displaced toward the violet, while at the west 
limb they are displaced toward the red, with respect to their normal 
place as given by the light of the center of the Sun. The displace- 
ments here involved are due to the Sun’s axial rotation, and afford 
the most accurate means we possess of determining its velocity. The 
east limb of the Sun, in the region of the equator, is moving toward 
us at the rate of 2.08 km. per second. Such a motion of a luminous 
source shifts the lines of its spectrum a small distance toward the 
violet. At the west limb, the motion being away from the observer, 
the displacement is toward the red. In practice, the spectrum of the 
east limb is photographed side by side with that of the west limb, 
so that the double displacements may be measured. 


348 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


These displacements have been studied by Adams, who has utilized 
the facilities offered by the Snow telescope and the 18-foot spectro- 
graph to carry out what is probably the most accurate spectroscopic 
investigation of the solar rotation hitherto accomplished. In the 
earlier investigations of Dunér and Halm, both of which exhibit a 
high degree of precision, visual observations were employed, and as 
all of the measures had to be made at the telescope, the observers re- 
stricted themselves to the use of only two lines. The advantages of 
. photography are obvious when it is remembered that in a single short 
exposure a portion of the spectrum from 15 to 20 inches long, show- 
ing opposite limbs of the Sun and containing thousands of lines 
suitable for measurement, can be recorded upon a sensitive plate. 
The work on Mount Wilson is limited to making the photographs, 
which are afterwards measured in the Computing Division at Pas- 
adena, with measuring machines which give the positions of the 
lines within about one-thousandth of a millimeter. Since iron, cal- 
cium, carbon, sodium, hydrogen, and other elements are represented 
on the plates, it is possible, by measuring the displacements of the 
corresponding lines, to determine the velocity of rotation of the 
vapor due to any one of these elements. 

The lines measured by Adams (assisted by Miss Lasby) include 
some for each of the following elements: iron, manganese, nickel, 
titanium, lanthanum, carbon, chromium, and zirconium. ‘The fol- 
lowing table gives the values obtained for different latitudes :? 


| Velocity, Daily Rotation | 





| | 
| 
| Latitudes. | km. per | angular | period, 
| | second. motion. | days. 
area = BRS 
° | ° } 
0.2 27S) hl) | AS75 Ol) eedes9 
HO 2.023) |e T4.50 24.83 
15.0 i Oboe Til LAS3Q) ees OL 
2G (ee 8O8) (Ul as -O2 aie F255 3b 
29.7 | 2-673 | 13.68 26.32 
QTE TAGE "jst = 27eAG 
44.7 Ley Vi 277 28.19 
B27 TOS 5h a Lens 5 29.15 
59 OLSO7 a eens 29.68 
657 O1606) te enc. OO 30.02 
74-9 0.434 11.85 20.38 


80.4 eor7 7 11.84 30.40 


It will be seen that, as in the case of Sun-spots, the period of the 
Sun’s rotation increases from the equator toward the poles. The- 
oretical investigations suggest that this remarkable law of rota- 


1 Adams: Contributions from the Solar Observatory, No. 20, Astrophysicat 
Journal, vol. XxXvi, pp. 203-224, November, 1907. 


No. 1805 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 349 


tion dates from a former epoch in the Sun’s history, and that 
it perhaps arose from the motion of the gases concerned in the for- 
mation of the Sun from a nebula. After the lapse of some millions 
of years, the effect of internal friction will tend to bring the veloci- 
ties corresponding to different latitudes more and more closely into 
harmony, and finally the Sun will rotate as a solid sphere. 

One of the most important results obtained by Adams is the dis- 
covery that the lines of carbon and lanthanum, elements which lie 
at a low level in the Sun’s atmosphere, give values for the daily 
rate about 0°.1 less than the mean values for all of the lines meas- 
ured. Two lines of manganese, on the contrary, give systematically 
high results. It seems probable that these differences are due to 
differences in the level of the vapors of these elements in the solar 
atmosphere, and that those substances which lie at high altitudes 
complete a rotation in a shorter period than the vapors beneath them. 
‘This supposition is confirmed by the fact that Adams’s recent meas- 
ures of the velocity of hydrogen, which rises higher above the solar 
surface than any of the vapors included in the above investigation, 
give very high values. Moreover, as the following table shows, the 
rotational velocities of hydrogen in low and high latitudes are in 
close agreement, and the equatorial acceleration characteristic of 
lower levels does not exist. 





| ; 
Linear : | : | 
| 5 : Daily | Rotation | 
Latitudes. | ROSIN angular | period, | 
RENE motion. days. | 
ee eee aE ee 
° | ° | 
—o.I | 222% ye tS/ 22.9 | 
9.3 2.15 | 15.5 22e2 | 
14.8 2ATOw et TI5 34 220A | 
2207, 2.03 15.6 | 22e1 | 
29.7 187) ey eL5e3 DE | 
44.5 155m mea aA 23.4 | 
59.3 Te 2 lf ar526 23.1 | 
2iKOl a | 


73-5 0.67 ON, 


| 
| 


This important discovery leads us to inquire whether hydrogen 
clouds in the solar atmosphere, if observed in projection against the 
Sun’s disk, would show daily motions corresponding to these results 
obtained with the spectroscope. Fortunately, the spectroheliograph 
permits these clouds to be photographed, as will be explained in the 
next section of this lecture. 


350 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


WorRK WITH THE SPECTROHELIOGRAPH 


The spectroheliograph is an instrument for photographing the 
Sun with the monochromatic light of any of the vapors present in 
its atmosphere. ‘The instrument consists essentially of a spectro- 
scope, on the slit of which an image of the Sun is formed. The 
spectroscope analyzes the light of that portion of the Sun’s image 
which enters the slit, and spreads it out into a spectrum, crossed by 
lines characteristic of the various elements. If a luminous cloud of 
calcium vapor in the Sun’s atmosphere happens to be intersected by 
the slit, the dark calcium line of the solar spectrum will show a 
‘bright line corresponding to a section of this cloud. Suppose the 
eye-piece of a spectroscope to be replaced by a slit, and assume this 
slit to be adjusted so that only the line of calcium passes through it. 
If a photographic plate is placed almost in contact -with the slit, and 
the spectroscope is moved at a uniform rate across the fixed solar 
image, the second slit moving with it across the fixed photographic 
plate, it is evident that an image of the Sun will be built up on the 
plate from the successive images of the slit. The only light that 
enters into the formation of this image is that of calcium vapor, and 
the resulting picture therefore represents the distribution of this 
vapor in the solar atmosphere. 

The advantages of using a fixed telescope are as great in the case 
of the spectroheliograph as in that of the spectrographs already de- 
scribed. ‘The limitations in size imposed by the necessity of carry- 
ing a spectroheliograph at the end of a moving equatorial telescope 
do not obtain here, so that the instrument can be built of the dimen- 
sions required to accomplish its purpose to the best advantage. Plate 
XXXI represents the spectroheliograph constructed in the instrument 
shop of the Solar Observatory for use with the Snow telescope. The 
image of the Sun, 6.7 inches in diameter, falls on the first slit of the 
instrument in about the position of the metallic disk shown on the 
right of the plate (this disk is removed when the solar surface is 
photographed). The light, after passing through the slit, falls upon 
an 8-inch photographic objective, which renders the rays parallel. 
They then meet the surface of a plane mirror, from which they are 
reflected to two large prisms. The prisms disperse the light into 
a spectrum, an image of which is formed on the second slit by a 
second 8-inch objective. ‘The prisms are so adjusted that the curved 
second slit, which may be seen near the middle of Plate xxx1, coin- 
cides accurately with the calcium line H,. The photographic plate is 
placed in the supporting frame in front of the slit and the door 


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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XXXII 





THE SUN, PHOTOGRAPHED WITH THE 5-FOOT SPECTROHELIOGRAPH 


August 25, 1906, 6b 18m A. M. Camera slit set on He line of calciuin 


No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 351 


closed, excluding from the plate all light except that which comes 
through the slit. An electric motor is then started, causing the iron 
bed-plate, which is mounted on steel balls and carries the two slits, 
the lenses and the prism-train, to move at a uniform rate across the 
solar image. 

Plate xxxi1 reproduces a photograph made in this way, for com- 
parison with a direct photograph (Plate xxviir) showing the Sun as 
it appears to the eye in the telescope. “The luminous clouds of calcium 
vapor, or “flocculi,” are well shown on the monochromatic image, but 
do not appear in the direct photograph. It will therefore be recog- 
nized that this method opens up an extensive field, by permitting the 
invisible phenomena of the solar atmosphere to be investigated. ‘The 
wide range of the new information thus to be derived will be ap- 
preciated when it is remembered that by photographing the Sun 
with the lines of hydrogen, iron, sodium, magnesium, or any other 
element represented among the thousands of lines of the solar spec- 
trum, the distribution of the corresponding vapor can be recorded. 
For example, Plate xxx11I is a picture of the hydrogen flocculi, made 
six minutes after the calcium image in Plate Xxx1I was obtained. It 
will be seen that most of the hydrogen clouds, instead of giving bright 
images like those obtained with calcium, are comparatively dark, 
though certain eruptive phenomena and regions in the neighborhood 
of Sun-spots appear bright on the hydrogen plates. This spectro- 
heliograph is also used to photograph the iron vapors in the Sun, 
but, as will be explained later, a larger instrument is required to yield 
satisfactory solar photographs with the narrower lines of other ele- 
ments. 

The 5-foot spectroheliograph has been in regular use with the 
Snow telescope since October, 1905. Photographs of the Sun are 
made with the calcium, hydrogen and iron lines every clear day, 
both in the morning and in the afternoon. About 3,700 negatives 
thus obtained give a connected history of the Sun during the period 
in question, and provide the material for such investigations as will 
now be described. 

The first use of these plates that suggests itself is a study of the 
solar rotation as determined by the rate of motion of the flocculi. 
The flocculi change more or less in form from hour to hour, but some 
of them may be identified on plates taken on several consecutive 
days. Two plates, taken about twenty-four hours apart, are closely 
compared and only those flocculi which undergo small change of 
form are marked for measurement. The process of measurement in- 
volves the determination of the latitude and longitude of each of 


352 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


these points, referred to the center of the Sun. As the flocculi are 
seen in projection on the surface of a sphere, it is evident that a 
considerable amount of calculation would be required to deduce the 
latitudes and longitudes if the ordinary methods of measurement, 
giving their distance along a radius from the center of the disk, and 
the angle between this radius and the north pole of the Sun, were 
employed. ‘Io obviate this computing, the heliomicrometer was de- 
vised for the measurement of these photographs, and constructed in 
the instrument shop of the Solar Observatory. This instrument 
consists essentially of two 4-inch telescopes, one of them pointed 
at the solar photograph, the other at a silvered bronze globe, placed 
near it. By a suitable device the images given by the two telescopes 
are brought together in a single eye-piece, so that the observer sees 
the photographs projected upon the surface of the globe. If, then, 
the globe is ruled with meridians and parallels one degree apart, 
and the axis of the globe is inclined at such an angle as to correspond 
with that of the Sun on the date of the photograph, it is evident 
that the latitude and longitude of any point on the photograph can 
be read off to a tenth of a degree, with reference to the nearest 
meridian and parallel. In practice, many refinements are introduced 
to increase the precision of measurement. For convenience, the two 
telescopes are mounted immediately above the globe and photo- 
graphic plate and pointed at two plane mirrors 30 feet away, in 
which the globe and plate are seen. It has been found that the 
rapidity and precision of measurement with this instrument are as 
great as with the ordinary method, while all of the extensive compu- 
tations are eliminated. 

During the summer season of 1907 the Sun was photographed 
with the Snow telescope on 113 consecutive days. Such an un- 
broken series of negatives provides the best of material for the study 
of changing solar phenomena, since the successive phases can be 
observed without the interruptions encountered under less favorable 
atmospheric conditions. In the determination of the solar rotation, 
for example, a cloudy period of two or three days may prevent the 
measurement of a large proportion of the calcium flocculi, because 
their changes of form are so rapid. 2,585 positions of calcium 
flocculi have been measured on 76 plates, by Miss Ware, with the 
heliomicrometer, and the combined results furnish the following 
values for the rotation periods of the calcium flocculi at different 
latitudes. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL 52, PL. XXxXIill 





THE SUN, PHOTOGRAPHED WITH THE 5-FOOT SPECTROHEL!IOGRAPH 


August 25, 1906, 6b 36m A. M. Camera slit set on //6 line of hydrogen 








PL. XXXIV 


VOL. 52, 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 


Iv 


HH 


stheepesiaia once eesiompauiee alaeraoemreret 


1 oy IER BOLO ALLELE ESOS 


Bohn oso Ra eI 








BRIGHT H AND K LINES ON THE DISK (@), (4), AND (c), IN THE CHROMOSPHERE (4), 


AND IN A PROMINENCE (@) 


NO. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 353 


Daily | Rotation 

Latitude. angular UP SL oF | period, 
motion. a a3 days. | 

| Goeeen5e 14°.43 364 24.95 

lie 20 be LO 14 .33 391 25.12 

| = 100), Sami 14 .29 518 25.19 

| +15 + 20 14 .26 530 25.25 
2 Ome =o Ale 277 423 2522) | 

Ey O 14 .07 215 25.59 

SOME 13 .86 144 25.97 





The measurement of the hydrogen flocculi is complicated by their 
changes in form, which are much more rapid than in the case of 
calcium. It is not surprising that this should be true, if the hypoth- 
esis provisionally adopted to account for the nature of the flocculi 
is correct. According to this hypothesis, the calcium flocculi shown 
by the spectroheliograph correspond to three different levels, defined 
in any case by the position of the second slit with reference to the 
H or K line. These lines are of complex structure, as Plate xxxiv 
illustrates. H consists of a broad hazy band, designated as H,; 
superposed on this is a narrow bright line, called H,; and near the 
center of this bright line is a very narrow dark line, called H,. K is 
similar to H (though somewhat stronger) and contains the con- 
stituents K,, K,, and K,. If the second slit of the spectroheliograph 
is set at some point on the broad H, or K, band, only the low-lying 
calcium vapor which is dense enough to produce a band of this width 
is capable of showing its presence on the photograph (Fig. 1, Plate 
xxxv). When the second slit is set so as to include H, or K.,, the less 
dense vapor, lying at a higher level (a few thousands of miles above 
the photosphere), produces the calcium flocculi measured in the 
above mentioned determination of the solar rotation (Fig. 2, Plate 
Xxxv). The H, photographs frequently show evidences of the ab- 
sorbing effect of vapors lying at the H, level, which give rise to dark 
calcium flocculi. When the spectra of these flocculi are photo- 
graphed, the H, and K, lines are found to be greatly widened and 
strengthened in them. ‘There can therefore be but little doubt that 
they correspond to absorption effects produced at a comparatively 
high level. Independent evidence in favor of this view is afforded 
by the fact that spectroheliograph pictures of the Sun’s limb fre- 
quently show prominences, many thousands of miles in height, to be 
present at points where dark flocculi extend on to the disk. This 
question has been specially investigated by Michie Smith and Ever- 
shed, at Kodaikanal, India, and their conclusion that these dark 
flocculi are prominences, absorbing the light of the disk, is in perfect 
harmony with the Mount Wilson results. In some cases, however, 


354 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


it is probable that calcium vapor lying in the upper chromosphere, 
below the level of prominences, may produce dark flocculi. 

Our discovery at the Yerkes Observatory of the dark calcium 
flocculi was made soon after we had first photographed the hydrogen 
flocculi and found them (in most cases) to be dark. On the hydro- 
gen plates there occasionally appeared exceptionally dark flocculi, 
and when one of these plates was compared with a calcium plate 
taken at about the same time, a dark object, similar in form to that 
shown by the hydrogen plate, was found to be present. We thus 
have strong presumptive evidence, since the hydrogen and calcium 
plates show these effects in the same way, that these particular 
hydrogen flocculi are comparatively high-level phenomena. 

While it of course does not follow that the ordinary hydrogen 
flocculi, which are not so dark as these exceptional ones, lie at the 
same level, the very fact that they are dark suggests the view that 
they are due to the absorptive effect of the cooler hydrogen in the 
upper chromosphere. ‘The bright hydrogen flocculi, so frequently 
recorded in the neighborhood of Sun-spots, are supposed to be due 
to radiation from hydrogen at a higher temperature. 

Assuming for the present the validity of this hypothesis, it ap- 
pears that the ordinary dark hydrogen flocculi recorded in our daily 
photographs of the Sun represent a higher level than the bright cal- 
cium flocculi obtained in the daily series made with the H, line. 
Thus we might reasonably expect that the rotation period derived 
from a study of the motion of these flocculi would differ from that 
of the bright calcium floccull. 

The measures of the daily change in longitude of the hydrogen 
flocculi at present available are too few in number to give a reliable 
determination of the solar rotation. Indeed, the marked proper 
motions of these objects in all directions on the solar surface, and 
their rapid change of form, will make it necessary to obtain a great 
number of these measures before final conclusions can be drawn; 
547 flocculi measured on 20 different plates give the results obtained 
in the following table. 


Daily Rotation 





Latitude. No. points. angular period, 
motion. days. 
° 

Oo ae gI 14.3 25.2 
5 oO 77 14.4 25.0 
Noy Tee 95 14.6 24.7 
LS) == 20 aS 14.5 24.8 
2ON=I25 71 14.7 24.5 
25 = 30 65 14.7 24.5 

| 3° +35 35 i eae 24.2 
| 935) ==4o0 23 14.6 24.7 
[400 EEA 19 14.4 25.0 





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No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 355 


The following table brings together the results of various deter- 
minations of the solar rotation: 














| Spots. | Facule. 
at: 
Latitude. F | Z | Reversing 
z Carring- |Unweighted | .,_, ; 5 
toa. Spoerer. | Mauna eT! lie a aaie: Stratonoff, ee 
{ 
==) Ogee) 5° 14.42 14.34 14.44 14.40 14.68 14 70 
ee Se == 0 14.35 14.30 | 14.4r | 14.35 14.61 14.58 
a= 00) as ath 14.21 14.21 14.34 14.25 14.31 14.43 
Sta 5a 20) 14.06 14.08 14.25 14.13 14.18 14.23 
ae 20) ae 25 13.90 1290 14.13 | 13.98 14.19 14.00 
25) a0 13573 13.69 13.99 13.80 14.08 13.72 
+ 30 + 35 13.54 13-44 | 13.83 | 13.60 13.60 | 13-43 
Calcium flocculi (Hs). 
wea ai wl =e) Eloceull |) /(Spectro- 
| ea tt K ares Fox, | Mount — Unweighted | (H6). graphic. 
eae Oot lH ngozso4s5 |lWalson: means. 
| —— 
ie (i ate Fi ay 
| ° ° 
SE Ot ine ays 14.66 | 14.49 14.43 14.53 14.6 15.05 
S55) sa uy |p sliahge 14.42 14.33 14.42 
SOM sal See Asal L424) is LATZG 14.30 
a= U5) s= 20 | 14.22 13.94 | 14°26 14.14 
Wee 20) 25 14.12 EO ee AC 7 14.02 
25a 30 13.90 13.96 | 14.07 13.98 
=t=y OU ta 


35 132.70) I) 213.70) ||) 13-86 Loe 


The long series of observations by Carrington, Spoerer, and 
Maunder furnish ample material for the study of Sun-spot motions, 
but it is doubtful whether such results should be combined, since 
they cover long time intervals, during which (as some evidence sug- 
gests) the rotation period may undergo variation. ‘The same may 
be said of the flocculi. ‘The unweighted means of determinations of 
the motions of the calcium flocculi, made at the Kenwood, Yerkes 
and Mount Wilson Observatories, differ so little from the mean 
motions of the spots that no safe conclusions can be drawn. Strato- 
noff’s results for the faculz are of rather low weight, since they com- 
prise a comparatively small number of measures, necessarily made 
near the Sun’s limb (since the faculze are not visible near the center 
of the disk), and therefore subject to greater errors of setting. 

But if we are not warranted in concluding that the calcium flocculi 
move more rapidly than the spots, we may at least recognize the 
striking differences which distinguish their rotational motions from 
those of the hydrogen flocculi. The lower calcium clouds follow the 
motions of the spots, and show the same marked acceleration of 
angular velocity toward the equator. The hydrogen flocculi, floating 


356 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


at higher levels, and thus escaping the effects of friction experienced 
by the calcium vapor, move at greater velocities in the higher lati- 
tudes, and show little increase in the equatorial zones. 

It will be observed that the spectrographic velocities, both in the 
low-lying vapors of the reversing layer and even more markedly in 
the case of hydrogen, are decidedly greater than the results ob- 
tained by measuring the daily motions of spots, faculz or flocculi. 
Is it possible that the flocculi, rising from lower levels, retain, in 
part, the lower velocities characteristic of these levels? It will be 
a matter of great interest to study this question, as more measures. 
become available. 


RED AND VioLEtT HyprocEn FroccuLt 


Adams’s spectrographic measures of hydrogen make it probable 
(though hardly certain, as yet) that the rotational displacements of 
the red hydrogen line (Ha) are greater, on the average, than those 
of the blue and violet lines (HB and Hy; H8 was too diffuse for 
accurate measurement). ‘The Ha line is also greatly strengthened 
and widened near the Sun’s limb, while the other lines retain about 
the same intensity they exhibit at the center of the disk. Hence it 
might be suspected that photographs of the hydrogen flocculi, made 
with Ha, would exhibit corresponding peculiarities. 

Fortunately the new “Pan-iso” plates, for which we are indebted 
to Wallace, are remarkably sensitive to red light. They enabled 
us to try the experiment of photographing the Sun with the Ha 
line, using the high dispersion of a spectroheliograph of 30 feet focal 
length, employed with the new tower telescope. The first plate 
showed large bright hydrogen flocculi, in a region (near a group of 
small Sun-spots) where an H8 photograph, taken simultaneously 
with the 5-foot spectroheliograph and Snow telescope, showed only 
dark flocculi. This first plate, however, was under-exposed, and 
full timing also revealed dark Ha flocculi. Later it was found pos- 
sible to make excellent Ha photographs of the entire Sun with the 
5-foot spectroheliograph. Curiously enough, both the bright and 
dark flocculi shown by these plates differ in many particulars from 
the H8 flocculi, though there is a general resemblance of various de- 
tails (Plate xxxvt). 

These results have been obtained very recently and no complete 
explanation of the differences between the Ha and the H8 flocculi 
has yet been worked out. We found at the Yerkes Observatory that 
the HB, Hy and H6 flocculi closely resemble one another, and this. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 


Fig. 1.~HYDROGEN FLOCCULI, PHOTOGRAPHED WITH THE a LINE 


1901, May 1, 44 48m P.M. Scale: Sun's diameter — 0.2 meter 


Fig. 2. HYDROGEN FLOCCULI, PHOTOGRAPHED WITH THE #6 LINE 


1908, May 1, 507m P.M. Scale: Sun’s diameter = 0.2 meter 




















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No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN 





HALE 357 


has recently been confirmed on Mount Wilson. WHa, therefore, is 
the exceptional line, as its spectroscopic peculiarities also indicate. 
We are at once reminded of the remarkable behavior of the hydro- 
gen lines in the Wolf-Rayet stars, where Ha is sometimes bright 
and the other hydrogen lines invisible or dark. Kayser has ex- 
plained this condition of things by a simple application of the law 
of radiation and absorption. But in the well-known variable star 
o Ceti, and others of its type, Ha and H® are invisible, while Hy 
and H8, and the more refrangible hydrogen lines, are bright. In 
R Andromede HB is the chief bright line, while Ha is absent. More- 
over, the bright line spectra of the nebule contain HB and Hy, but 
Ha, when visible at alls very faint. Finally, such stars as y Cas- 
siopeie show Ha and the other hydrogen lines with the same rela- 
tive brightness they exhibit in a hydrogen tube. 

As the relative temperatures of the radiating and absorbing gases 
may play a dominant part in determining the character of the spec- 
tral lines, and therefore the appearance of the flocculi, the question 
of their level in the solar atmosphere assumes greater importance 
than ever. An attempt to photograph prominences at the Sun’s 
limb with the Ha line met with instant success, and brought out a 
most interesting fact: a large prominence appeared at exactly the 
point where a dark Ha flocculus was being carried over the limb by 
the Sun’s rotation. As the structure of the prominence closely re- 
sembles that of the flocculus, it is very probable that the latter was 
simply the prominence seen in projection on the disk, its darkness 
being due to the fact that the temperature of the gas was low 
enough to produce perceptible absorption. Most of the Hé image 
of the prominence was very weak on the photograph, and thus the 
absence of a corresponding dark H6 flocculus is readily accounted 
for. Furthermore, a portion of the H8 prominence, which was as 
bright as the corresponding portion of the Ha prominence, is clearly 
shown as a dark flocculus on the H8 image of the disk. Hereafter 
the Ha prominences, as well as the Ha flocculi, will be photographed 
daily for comparison.* 


*For an account of the discovery of vortices and magnetic fields associated 
with Sun-spots, which resulted from work with the Ha line soon after this 
lecture was delivered, see Hale, “Solar Vortices,’ Contributions from the 
Mount Wilson Solar Observatory, No. 26, Astrophysical Journal, September, 
1908, and Hale, “On the Probable Existence of a Magnetic Field in Sun-spots,” 
Contributions from the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory, No. 30, Astro- 
physical Journal, November, 1908. 


358 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Soar ACTIVITY AND TERRESTRIAL PHENOMENA 


In the introductory part of this lecture reference was made to the 
relationship between solar phenomena and terrestrial temperatures. 
The fact that the temperature of our atmosphere’ undergoes small 
fluctuations which correspond with the Sun-spot period indicates 
that the solar heat radiation varies with the number of Sun-spots. 
Unfortunately, however, since the total area of Sun-spots is only 
a very small fraction of that of the Sun’s disk, and since intervals 
of several weeks sometimes elapse during which no Sun-spots are 
seen, the spot area may not prove to be the most reliable index of 
the solar activity. ‘The total area of the flocculi is always much 
greater than that of the spots, and even at Sun-spot minimum these 
objects are never entirely absent from the Sun. For this reason it 
seems probable that measurements of their area will serve as the 
best index to the state of the Sun and the surest means of detect- 
ing rapid fluctuations in activity, which may be associated with 
changes in the solar heat radiation or in terrestrial temperatures. 

The selection of the flocculi whose areas are to be measured is 
necessarily a more or less arbitrary matter, depending upon the 
judgment of the person engaged in the work. As will be seen 
from Plate xxxu1, the calcium flocculi range in size from extensive 
regions covering a considerable area of the solar surface to minute 
points barely discernible by the unaided eye on the original negatives. 
Moreover, the range in brightness of the flocculi is almost as great 
as the range in area. Evidently many of the fainter and smaller 
flocculi must be excluded from consideration, especially as their 
visibility depends upon the quality of the photographs, which dif- 
fers from day to day with the conditions of the atmosphere. After 
all has been said, however, the difficulties of selection appear to be 
no greater than in the case of the faculz measured on direct photo- 
graphs at Greenwich. The faculz are clearly visible only in the 
immediate neighborhood of the Sun’s limb and gradually disappear 
as they approach the center. Their total area, as measured on any 
given photograph, is far less than the area of the calcium (H,) 
flocculi of the same date, and the effect of atmospheric conditions 
on their visibility is more marked than in the case of the flocculi. 

After experimenting with several methods of measuring the areas 
of the flocculi, a simple photometric device was adopted. A piece 
of clear glass is placed over the solar negative and the image of 
each flocculus selected for measurement is painted over with opaque 


No. 1865 OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUN—HALE 359 


black paint. The corresponding area is inversely proportional to 
the measured amount of light, from a source of known intensity, 
which is transmitted by the blackened plate. 

In practice, the investigation has been planned so as to permit 
the determination, not only of the total area of the calcium flocculi, 
but also their distribution in latitude and longitude. For this pur- 
pose the points on the solar negative corresponding to the intersec- 
tions of meridians and parallels 10° apart are marked on the glass 
side with the heliomicrometer, which is provided with an electrical 
marking pen for this work. The area of the flocculi lying within 
each square, 10° ona side, is then measured. The sum of these 
areas gives the total area of the calcium flocculi for the date in 
question, while the values obtained for the individual squares per- 
mit the variations in solar latitude and longitude to be studied. In 
order to avoid errors incident to the measurement of areas at points 
near the Sun’s limb, the region investigated is confined to the middle 
of the Sun’s disk and extends 40° east and west, and 40° north and 
south, from the central point. 

A large number of photographs have been measured in this way at 
the Solar Observatory, and in the course of time it will be possible 
to learn whether these results indicate any significant relationship 
between solar and terrestrial phenomena. 


CoNCLUSION 


I trust this account of recent investigations will make clear some 
of the means at present employed to extend our knowledge of the 
Sun. Every advance in this department must contribute toward 
the solution of the great problem of stellar evolution, as well as the 
lesser problem of the solar constitution. The latter is of special 
interest to the inhabitants of the Earth, since our very lives depend 
upon the constancy of the solar radiation, and thus upon the mechan- 
ism which maintains it. But the problem of stellar evolution is 
of even greater philosophical interest. As the biologist withdraws, 
one by one, the veils which enshrouded the mysteries of organic 
development, and as the paleontologist reconstructs for us the life 
of former times, the desire to learn of the earliest steps along the 
great highway of evolution must grow in every intelligent mind. 
Fortunately the problems of the astronomer, difficult though they 
be, are more open to attack than those which confront his biological 
colleague. With the powerful telescopes and spectroscopes of the 
present day, and the climatic advantages which well-placed mountain 


360 SMITHSONIAN MISCELILAANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


observatories enjoy, unlimited opportunities lie at his command. 
But if he is to give effective aid in solving the innumerable questions 
raised by the distant stars, he must first of all profit by the advantages 
which the proximity of one star affords. From this standpoint I 
commend to you the far-reaching possibilities of solar research. 


SOME NEW SOUTH AMERICAN LAND SHELLS 


By WILLIAM H. DALL 


Curator, Division oF Moriusks, U. S. Nationa, Musrtum 
With ONE PLATE 


Among some shells collected near the Atrato River, in the Sierra 
Darien, by Mr. A. E.. Heighway, and generously presented to the 
Museum were Pleurodonte (Labyrinthus) plicata Born, P. (L.) 
sipunculata Forbes, and the following species which appears to be 
very distinct from any other heretofore described. 


PLEURODONTE (LABYRINTHUS) TENACULUM, new species 
Pirate XXXVII, FicurEs 5, 6, 10, 11 


Shell dark purplish or chocolate brown, with a broad yellowish- 
white band near the periphery of the whorls above and below; whole 
surface finely granulate, and covered with a thin brownish dehiscent 
periostracum ; shell five-whorled, depressed, sharply carinate; upper 
surface of the whorls (except the nucleus) flattened; the base mod- 
erately convex, compressed near the periphery, rounding gently into 
a deep funicular umbilicus; nucleus pale, with obscurely vermiculate 





Fic. 64.—Diagram of aperture of Pleurodonte tenaculum showing armature. 


surface and a deep suture, which is subsequently closely appressed ; 
incremental lines rather distinct and close set; peristome white, the 
whorl beneath the internal plications impressed externally ; the aper- 
ture nearly parallel to the basal plane, thick, reflected, with no sulcus 
at the umbilicus or carina, obscurely subquadrate; parietal lamella 
low, oblique, thin, strongly reflected outwardly, about five or six 
millimeters long; basal lamelle two, the inner not longer than the 
width of the reflection of the peristome, low, rounded, simple, nearly 
361 


362 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


vertical; the outer similar but longer, beginning externally near the 
carinal angle and extending backwarde obliquely about six milli- 
meters; all these projections are, like the peristome, white; between 
the two basal lamella, slightly nearer the outer one and near its 
inner end, is a thorn-like projection of a chocolate color, not con- 
nected with either lamella, rapidly attenuated and bent forward 
toward the aperture, the extreme end sharply recurved, white and 
acute, like a cat’s claw; maximum diameter of shell, 30.0; of peri- 
stome, 16.0; of umbilicus, 5.0; minimum diameter of shell, 24.0; of 
aperture, 9.0; altitude of shell, 6.0 mm. 

U. S. Nat. Museum no. 111,073. 

Two specimens were obtained. The remarkable armature seems 


to be unique in the group. 
HELICINA HEIGHWAYANA, new species 
PiatE XXXVII, Ficurss 7, 8, 9 


Shell large, depressed, biconic, very sharply carinated, the carina 
prominently rostrate at the peristome; color pale lemon yellow fading 
into creamy white, whorls about five; surface finely radially closely 
striate, the stria somewhat wavy near the carina; nucleus small, 
smooth; suture closely appressed; periphery impressed just within 
the carina, the remainder of the whorl moderately convex, above and 
below; base imperforate with a very small inconspicuous callus ; 
aperture subtriangular, wider than high, the upper and basal mar- 
gins thick, strongly reflected, but the callus not carried across the 
body; at the angle the thickened lip is strongly produced, rostrate, 
and bent slightly forward with a faint channel internally ; operculum 
lost. Maximum diameter of shell, 25.0; of aperture, 13.0; minimum 
diameter of shell, 19.0; of aperture (vertical), 7.0; altitude of the 
shell, 13.0 mm. 

One specimen was obtained with the preceding species. U. 5. 
Nat. Museum no. 111,074. 

This is the largest and most strongly rostrate species of the group 
yet described. Its nearest relative seems to be H. rhynchostoma, of 
the same region, which is much smaller, differently colored, and 
with a polished surface. 

With these shells were found Aperostoma gigantea Gray, in some 
numbers, but a poor state of preservation. 

While traveling in the interior of the province of Bahia, Brazil, in 
1908, Dr. J. C. Branner, vice-president of Stanford University, ob- 
served that landshells, mostly dead, were remarkably abundant, 


NO. 1866 NEW SOUTH AMERICAN LAND SHELLS—DALL 263 


especially Bulimulus (Anctus) angiostomus Wagner, and _ allied 
forms. The surface soil, beside silica, contained nearly fifty per cent 
of lime, over four per cent of carbonate of magnesia, and nearly nine 
per cent of sodium chloride and sulphate. There is so much salt in 
the soil that it is leached for the manufacture of common salt. Cer- 
tain of the landshells, especially the Anctus, seemed to thrive best on 
this salty ground; after the pools of the rainy season had dried up, 
they were noted upon the stems of weeds which grow abundantly 
over this low ground. There were found a number of the shells of 
Strophocheilus oblongus, variety crassus Albers, which had become 
remarkably thickened internally ; some of the shell was about half an 
inch thick, and the unbroken specimen felt as if it had been filled with 
lead. Besides this species, Bulimulus pachys Pilsbry and Odonto- 
stomus sectilabris Pfeiffer were identified, together with the follow- 
ing new species. 


ODONTOSTOMUS (CYCLODONTINA) BRANNERI, new species 
PLATE XXXVII, FicureEs 2, 3, 4 


- Shell slender, elongate, subacute, with nine and a half whorls sepa- 
rated by a narrow, deep, but not channeled suture; nucleus small, 
minutely punctate, with an apical dimple; the subsequent sculpture 
_of fine, even, close-set retractive wrinkles, or riblets, extending from 
suture to suture and over the base; color white, with irregularly dis- 
posed brown lines, usually distant and in harmony with the sculp- 
ture; whorls very slightly rounded, the last finally attenuated and 
externally impressed over the internal denticles; under the reflected 
lip and behind the large lamina on the pillar is a minute umbilical 
chink ; aperture with a strongly reflected white peristome, with a thin 
layer of parietal callus, separated from the lip at either end by a 
channel, shallow at the pillar-lip but deep at the external angle, 
where it is bounded in front by a small lamina; this sulcus, however, 
is not indicated externally (as in O. sectilabris) by a marginating 
band in front of the suture; the armature of the aperture externally 
visible resembles that of O. sectilabris Pfeiffer, but, in harmony with 
the whole aperture, is narrower, and the left hand basal tooth of 
sectilabris is represented by two small but quite separate teeth; an 
examination of the internal armature shows that half a whorl behind 
the large pillar-tooth the margin of the pillar is gyrate and swollen, 
forming a lumpy callosity in the first half of the last whorl; in O. sec- 
tilabris, however, the same part of the axis is slender, not gyrate or 
swollen, but merely twisted like the axis in the whorls above. Length 


364 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


of shell, 30.0; of last whorl, 16.0; of aperture, 10.5; maximum diam- 
eter of shell, 9.0; of aperture, 7.0 mm. 

Two specimens and a fragment were obtained near Rio San Fran- 
cisco, Serra do Mulato, province of Bahia, Brazil, by Dr. Branner, 
one of which was donated by him to the National Museum, no. 
205,950. 

This species differs from the numerous varieties of sectilabris by 
its more slender and elongated form, the internal callus on the axis, 
and, in the specimen described, by the duplication of the left-hand 
basal denticle ; this last character is, however, probably merely indi- 
vidual. In a large series of O. sectilabris from various localities 
none approached the slender form of O. brannert. On plate xxxvit, 
figure I, is a figure of O. sectilabris for comparison with O. branneri, 
both being in the same scale. The fragment has been utilized to 
show the callosity on the axis of O. branneri, two views being given. 


Pirate XXXVII 
Figures all about natural size and on the same scale 


Fic. 1. Odontostomus sectilabris Pfeiffer, U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 205957. 

Fics. 2,3. Views of the axis of Odontostoma branneri Dall, from slightly 
different angles, the last half of the outer wall of the last whorl 
broken away, allowing the callosity to be observed; p. 363. 

Fic. 4. Odontostomus branneri Dall, n. sp., front view, U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 
205956; p. 363. 

Fic. 5. Pleurodonte (Labyrinthus) tenaculum Dall, n. sp., oblique view ot 
shell showing the hook in the aperture, U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 
III073; p. 361. 

Fic. 6. The same specimen in profile. 

Fics. 7,8,9. Helicina heighwayana Dall, n. sp., profile, upper and basal views; 
U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 111074; p. 362. 

Fics. 10,11. Pleurodonte (Labyrinthus) tenaculum Dall, views of base and 
upper surface of the specimen represented by figure 5. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XXXViI 





SOME NEW SOUTH AMERICAN LAND SHELLS 





THE AMERICAN FERNS OF THE GROUP OF 
DRYORTERIS OPPOSITA CONTAINED IN 
Tae Us: NATIONAL MUSEUM 


By CARL CHRISTENSEN, CopENHAGEN 


In a paper entitled “Revision of the American species of Dryop- 
teris of the group of D. opposita,’1 1 presented recently a review 
of the American species of Dryopteris having free, simple veins and 
the bipinnate lamina narrowed downwards. There were mentioned 
in some detail 82 species, of which I had seen original specimens, 
or, in some few cases, specimens which could be regarded as typical. 
Those species of which I had seen no specimens were omitted, as I 
found it impossible to form an exact idea of these from descriptions 
alone. Mr. William R. Maxon, Assistant Curator in the U. S. 
National Museum, offered, however, to send me typical material of 
some of the species described by Jenman, and at the same time 
suggested that I examine critically the whole collection of this group 
in the U. S. National Herbarium, consisting largely of specimens 
gathered in Central America and the West Indies in recent years 
by several collectors. Inasmuch as many of the species included in 
my “Revision” had been treated on the basis of a few specimens, or 
even of a single specimen, I was anxious to study this material, but 
for different reasons, partly on account of Mr. Maxon’s absence in 
the field, it did not reach me before my paper was in press. Upon 
his request I then undertook to work out a separate paper, dealing 
only with these specimens. Later on, Mr. Maxon sent me a large 
number of specimens from the John Donnell Smith Herbarium, a 
collection extraordinarily rich in Central American forms, presented 
by Captain Smith to the Smithsonian Institution, and now a part 
of the U. S. National Herbarium. I have thus had in these two lots 
about 425 specimens, representing practically all the material of this 
group in the National Herbarium, and in the following paper all 
of these which I could determine with accuracy are enumerated by 
locality, collector, and collector’s number, with the exception only 
of the identical numbers enumerated from other herbaria previously, 
in my “Revision,” these being omitted. 


*Kel. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Skrifter, 7 Raekke, Naturvidensk. og Math. 
Afd. 4: 247-336 1907. 
365 


VOL. 52 


MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 





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368 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


For the courtesy of the authorities of the U. S. National Museum 
and the kindness of Captain Smith in lending me these rich collec- 
tions I wish here to express my most sincere thanks. I have studied 
these specimens with unusual satisfaction and pleasure, owing to 
their careful preparation and the detailed data of locality, altitude, 
and conditions of habitat, in which respect they very far surpass 
most of the material with which I had previously worked. I have on 
this account been able to gain a more exact idea of several species 
and of their distribution. 

In the following paper 9 species are described as new, and 3 older 
species not mentioned in my “Revision” are included; thus, alto- 
gether, 94 American species of this narrow group are now dealt 
with by me. About a dozen more have been described by Jenman 
and Sodiro, but of these I have seen no specimens. Recently Dr. E. 
Rosenstock has described a new species of this group from Bolivia, 
and he sends me another apparently new species from Ecuador. The 
whole number of valid described species thus exceeds 100, but I have 
no doubt that the number will eventually prove to be considerably 
greater. In the vast amount of material examined by me are to be 
found not a few fragments which, I believe, belong to undescribed 
species. It is interesting to note that among the few species known 
from Bolivia at least 2 are new to science. From the Peruvian and 
other parts of the Andes very few specimens are seen, but it is prob- 
able that these regions possess a similar number of species to the 
Andes of Ecuador, Colombia, and Costa Rica, and that not a few 
will appear to be new. 

I have in my “Revision” pointed out a remarkable difference be- 
tween the species of southern Brazil and those of the Andes and the 
West Indies, the fern floras of the last two regions showing an 
intimate alliance. The rich collections of the U. S. National Herba- 
rium show this alliance to be still closer than supposed. The occur- 
rence of the Jamaican D. Thomsoni in Colombia (D. Stuebelit), of 
the West Indian D. sancta in Guatemala, and of the continental D. 
rudis in Jamaica are new examples of this relationship. 

In the preceding table is shown the distribution of the species 
occurring north of Panama, as known to me. A “--” indicates that 
the species is found in the country or island indicated; “(+)” that 
it is recorded, but not surely in the true form; and an “*” that it is 
endemic or hitherto not found beyond. 

In this table Costa Rica, Jamaica, and Guatemala figure as having 
the largest number of species; the other Central American republics 
are not so thoroughly explored as the two named, but will probably 


No. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 369 


be found to have a similar number of species. In Central America 
and Mexico together 26 species are found, of which number 16 are 
found south of Panama, 8 in the West Indies, and 7 thus far not 
found elsewhere. Only 3 Central American species, viz., D. sancta, 
D. diplazioides, and D. Sprengel, are with certainty found east of 
Jamaica and Haiti. In the West Indies the continental element is 
strongest in Jamaica, with such species as D. concinna, D. oligo- 
carpa, D. panamensis, D. rudis, D. cheilanthoides, and D. Thomsoni, 
which do not occur at all in the smaller islands. It is probable that 
most of these species are very old, as well in Jamaica as on the con- 
tinent, but the possibility is not excluded that an exchange of species 
may have taken place by means of wind-blown spores, or may be 
taking place today. It will, therefore, always be impossible to decide 
definitely in what region a species has had its origin, but certainly 
Jamaica, like the Andine valleys, is an endemic center of a high 
order. 

D. sancta and D. delicatula seem to be species of insular origin. 
The occurrence of the former in Guatemala gives us an example of 
a West Indian element in Central America. Another instance is 
found in the Central American D. pseudosancta, which has its 
nearest allies in the West Indies. On the other hand, such species as 
D. opposita (vera) and D. Sprengelu, both generally dispersed over 
all the smaller islands, are to me reduced insular, but specifically 
fixed, forms of species which have had their origin on the continent. 
More is said as to this in the treatment of these two species below. 


GROUP OF DD. OLICOCARPA 


Smaller species; pinnze seldom more than Io cm. long by 1.5 cm. 
broad; tertiary veins 3-10 to a side. Lamina gradually narrowed 
downwards, with 1-4 pairs of abbreviated pinne, rarely abruptly at- 
tenuate. Basal pair of segments not prolonged. 


DRYOPTERIS CONCINNA (Willd.) Kuntze 
(REvIsION 271, No. 1, Fic. 2.) 


I can not find out under what name Jenman may have described 
this species, which in its typical forms has been frequently collected 
in Jamaica in recent years. ‘The species is very distinct in habit and 
pubescence, and especially in its uniformly setose sporangia. 

Jamaica: Hart 304. ‘Tweedside, rocky bank in the open, 2,000 ft. 


Mazon 984. Second Breakfast Spring, grassy bank in the open, 2,000 
ft., Maxon o89a. Shaded edge of Green River, Maxon 1501 (=Under- 


370 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


wood 2566). Near Silver Hill Gap, on dryish bank, 3,500 ft., Maxon 
1135 (=Underwood 2271).* 

CuBA: Josephina, north of Jaguey, Yateras, Oriente, about 575 meters, 
border of forest, Maxon 4100. Farallones of La Perla, north of 
Jaguey, 540-585 meters, moist bank at edge of rocky woods, Maxon 
4409. 

Mexico: Cordoba, Vera Cruz, Fink 62. 


GUATEMALA: Cengaguilla, Depart. Santa Rosa, 1,300 meters, Heyde and 
[ux (Donnell Smith 4681). Duefias, Salvin. Coban, Depart. Alta 
Verapaz, 4,300 ft., von Tuerckheim (Donnell Smith 168 in part). 


Costa Rica: Juan Vifias, Reventazon Valley, 1,000 meters, on bank near 
road, Cook and Doyle 386. Vicinity of the River Tirivi, near San 
José, 1,100 meters, on shaded bank of river, Maron 131. 


D. concinna is known from the West Indies and the Andes from 
Mexico to Ecuador; it varies but little, mainly in texture. The fol- 
lowing variety, connected with the type by intermediate forms, may 
be distinguished by its longer and broader pinnz with subfalcate 
segments and often by its firmer texture; it is the most common 
form of the species in southern Mexico. 


DRYOPTERIS CONCINNA ELONGATA (Fourn.) C. Chr. 
(REVISION 272.) 


Mexico: Orizaba, 4,000 ft., Seaton 68. Cordoba, Vera Cruz, Fink 58. 


DRYOPTERIS ARGENTINA (Hieron.) C. Chr. 


- 


(REVISION 273, No. 4.) 
Only the following additional specimen has been seen: 


Borivia: Near La Paz, 10,000 ft., Rusby 421. 


DRYOPTERIS OLIGOCARPA (H. B. Willd.) Kuntze 
(Revis1on 274, No. 5, Fic. 5.) 


Under this name I unite provisionally a number of forms, which 
in size and habit differ considerably from each other, but in essential 


*T collected most of my 1903 Jamaican plants in company with Prof. L. M. 
Underwood. Frequently material was divided between us at the time of col- 
lection and dried separately, Dr. Underwood giving his numbers to the series 
intended for the New York Botanical Garden and I my numbers to the plants 
for the U. §. National Museum. For convenience of reference I kept a 
record of such of Dr. Underwood’s numbers as were thus exactly equivalent 
to my own. Except for a few scattering specimens Mr. Christensen has seen 
only my series; but as an aid to those who may have received Dr. Underwood’s 
duplicates, his equivalent numbers are here cited in parentheses by Mr. Chris- 
tensen, these being copied from my labels —Wut11AM R. Maxon. 


NO. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 371 


characters agree very well. Still, it is very probable that this D. 
oligocarpa is a collective species which includes several ‘“‘elementary 
species,” the limitations of which I am unable to define at present. 


St. Kirrs: Summit of Mt. Misery, Britton and Cowell 520. 

Hartt: Without locality, Jaeger. (As the preceding rather doubtful.) 

JAMAICA: Cuna Cuna Pass, on banks, Fredholm 3234. Swift River near 
Hope Bay, Alex. Moore. In the vicinity of Castleton, edge of Ginger 
River, Maxon 835. 

CuBa: Upper slopes and summit of Gran Piedra, Oriente, 900 to 1,200 
meters, moist shaded bank, Mazon 4o4ta. 

Mexico: Pedro Paulo, Territorio de Tepic, Rose 3330. 

Costa Rica: Juan Vifias, Reventazon Valley, 1,000 meters, on bank by 
road-side, Cook and Doyle 193. 


DRYOPTERIS NAVARRENSIS Christ 


Aspidium navarrense Christ, Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 6: 160. 1906. 
Dryopteris navarrensis Christ, Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 7: 262. 1907, 


Costa Rica: Navarro, Werckle. 


This species, which in my “Revision” I regarded as a variety of 
D. pilosula, may stand preferably as a distinct species, differing from 
D. pilosula by its exindusiate sori. The rachis, coste, and veins are, 
especially beneath, clothed with long whitish patent hairs. Some 
specimens from Jamaica (Hart 304), distributed as Nephrodium 
conterminum var. pubescens Baker, agree almost exactly with the 
Costa Rican plants. Probably this is the species described as 
“Polypodium pubescens Raddi” by Jenman (Bull. Bot. Dept. Jamaica 
iA: 1265. 1807). 


DRYOPTERIS NOCKIANA (Jenman) C. Chr. 
(REvISION 279, No. 8, Fic. 7 (small).) 


In my “Revision” I have compared this species, endemic in Ja- 
maica, to D. panamensis and D. oligocarpa. Having now seen 
numerous specimens, I find that the species very much resembles D. 
concinna in habit and pubescence, but that it can be distinguished 
at the first glance by its glandular under surface and by its densely 
setose, persistent indusia. As a rule the hairs of the rachis and 
midribs below are longer than those of D. concinna, but in some 
specimens one finds the characteristic minute pubescence of that 
species. 

D. Nockiana, besides a type specimen from Jenman’s herbarium, 
is represented in the U. S. National Herbarium by the following 
specimens from different localities in Jamaica, ranging vertically 


372 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOI,. 52 


from 600 to 1,500 meters: Maxon 998 (=—Underwood 2132), 999 
(=Und. 2134), 1407 (=Und. 2533), 1593 (=Und. 2643), 1879, 
1146 (Und. 2277), 2297, 2285; Underwood 110, 449, 1826; Clute 
IOl. 


DRYOPTERIS PIEDRENSIS C. Chr., sp. nov. 


Cugsa: Upper slopes and summit of Gran Piedra, Oriente 900 to 1,200 
meters, Maxon 4041, type; U. S. National Herbarium, No. 522690. 


Eudryopteris rhizomate erecto-obliquo, radicibus numerosis. 
Stipitibus fasciculatis, gracilibus, angulatis, stramineis, 15 cm. longis, 
minute hirtis, ad basin squamis paucis brunneis instructis. Lamina 
lanceolata, 50-60 cm. longa, 15 cm. lata, utrinque attenuata, firmo- 
membranacea vel papyracea, graminea, rachi tenui brevissime 
puberula, bipinnatifida. Pinnis 2.5-3 cm. inter se remotis, alternis, 
horizontalibus, sessilibus, inferioribus 3-5 jugis gradatim abbreviatis, 
infimis auriculiformibus hastatis, inframedialibus maximis, oblongo- 
lanceolatis, 7.5 cm. longis, 1.5 cm. latis, ad apicem serratum acumi- 
natum sensim attenuatis, supra pilis microscopicis rigidis rudis, 
subtus ad costas costulasque brevissime puberulis et glandulis rubris 
sparse obtectis, ad alam vix 0.5 mm. latam pinnatifidis vel ad basin 
perfecte pinnatis. Laciniis ca. 20 jugis, basalibus aequalibus vel 
parum reductis, posteriori auricula interna instructa, superioribus 
obliquis vel subfalcatis, ca. 2 mm. latis, subacutis vel obtusis, margin- 
ibus integris vel leviter crenatis revolutis. Venis indivisis, 8-9 jugis, 
utrinque prominulis. Soris margini approximatis, parvis; indusiis 
minimis, mox deciduis, glandulosis, ciliatis. Sporangiis glabris. 

This species is in size, shape of the lamina, and pubescence, almost 
identical with D. concinna, but it differs from that species by (1) its 
glabrous sporangia, (2) its firm lamina with prominent veins and 
reflexed margins, which partly cover the sori. In these respects it 
may be compared to D. scalpturoides, which, however, is much ‘more 
hairy and has many pairs of reduced pinne. The basal pair of 
segments is in the larger pinnz quite free. 


DRYOPTERIS COLUMBIANA C. Chr. 
(Revision 279, No. 9, Fic. 8.) 
CoromsBia: Cauca, Lehmann 2068. 


I now prefer to refer here this number, determined previously by 
Hieronymus and myself as D. oligocarpa, from which it differs by 
its longer leaf and by the shorter pubescence of the rachis. Never- 


NO. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 373 


theless, I have some doubt if my proposed species can be held dis- 
tinct from D. oligocarpa. 


DRYOPTERIS MUZENSIS Hieron. 
(REvisIoN 280, No. Io.) 


Corompia: Hills of Miraflores above Palmira, Central Cordillera, 1,600 
to 1,200 meters, Pittier 892. 


This specimen is larger than the type (leaf 1 m. long by 22 cm. 
broad), but is otherwise typical. The main difference from D. 
columbiana is in the absence of long setz on the veins above. 


DRYOPTERIS VELATA (Kunze) Kuntze 
(Revision 286, No. 22.) 


This, the most beautiful species of the group, was rediscovered in 
Cuba by Mr. Maxon in April, 1907. His specimens are from the 
shaded talus of limestone cliffs at the Caverns of Thermopyle, 
Monte Libano, province of Oriente, altitude about 600 meters (No. 


4238). 
DRYOPTERIS ASPIDIOIDES SUBHASTATA C. Chr. 
(REVISION 287, No. 23.) 


Costa Rica: Cafias Gordas, 1,100 meters, Pittier 10990. 


[Note.—Nephrodium brachypodum Baker, mentioned in my 
“Revision” as unknown to me, is represented in the U. S. National 
Herbarium by a specimen of the type collection (im Thurn 275, not 
225 as quoted in my “Revision”). It probably does not belong to 
the group of D. opposita, but is rather an ally of the West Indian 
D. sagittata (Sw.) C. Chr. It is not unlike D. ptarmica but is 
smaller, with the pinnz sessile, entire or shallowly lobed, often 
auricled on both sides at the base, the short stipe and rachis clothed 
with small dark brown scales, the rachis and veins hairy. ] 


* Nephrodium brachypodum Baker, Timehri 5: 213. 1886; Trans. Linn. Soc. 
II. Bot. 2: 290. 1887. 
Dryopteris brachypoda (Baker) C. Chr. Index Fil. 255. 1905. 


374 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


GROUP OF D, OPPOSEEA 


The old collective species Aspidium conterminum Willd. included 
the species D. opposita, D. coarctata, D. consanguinea, and D. pana- 
mensis, as delimited in my “Revision.” While the typical forms of 
D. consanguinea and D. coarctata are well marked from the allied 
species by their whole habit, the line of separation between D. oppo- 
sita and D. panamensis is more difficult to define. The collection of 
these species in the U. S. National Herbarium is very rich in speci- 
mens from Central America, Jamaica, and Cuba. Sorting these 
specimens one can quickly take out the typical forms of the two 
species. It then appears that the specimens of true D. opposita are 
all from the Lesser Antilles, and those of D. panamensis from 
Jamaica, Cuba, and mainly Central America. Besides these remains 
a number of specimens, mostly from Mexico and Jamaica, which 
may as well be referred to D. opposita as to D. panamensis. The 
question, then, is whether these intermediate forms are to be con- 
sidered as real, phylogenetic intermediates, connecting the two pro- 
posed species, which in this case ought to be united into one very 
variable species, or if they represent one or more additional species 
intermediate between the two. To solve this question a still larger 
number of specimens from more localities is necessary. I am in- 
clined to believe that the whole series of forms includes at least 
three or four species, each of which varies considerably in different 
directions, especially in size; thus, the large forms of D. opposita 
very much resemble D. panamensis, and small forms of D. pana- 
mensis similarly resemble D. opposita. Such doubtful forms show 
some features easily seen by the experienced eye but described only 
with difficulty. It is evident that all forms are of the same phylo- 
genetic origin; the richest development is reached in Central Amer- 
ica, where D. panamensis rivals in size species of the group of D. 
Sprengelu, while D. opposita of the Lesser Antilles is an insular 
reduced form derived from the same ancestors. Using the modern 
terminology, it may be said that the series of forms includes a num- 
ber of elementary species in the sense of de Vries, some of which 
seem to be fixed species, while others are at the present period in 
a state of quick evolution. A more remote derivative from the same 
ancestors is the common Brazilian form called D. oppostta var. 
rivulorum (Raddi), which I now consider a distinct, fixed species. 
I shall here confine myself to pointing out some additional different 
forms, which I describe as varieties of the species adopted in my 
“Revision,” to which species I refer the whole number of specimens. 


NO. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 375 


DRYOPTERIS OPPOSITA (Vahl) Urban. 
(REviIsIon 288, No. 25, Fic. 15.) 


Typica, Form: Rather small, the leaf narrowed downwards 
through a long row of gradually reduced pinne. Segments a little 
oblique, obtuse or with rounded apex, short, with 4 to 6 pairs of 
veins, the basal ones not much prolonged. 


Dominica: Laudat, F. E. Lloyd 26. 

St. Kirrs: Wingfield Estate, forest ravine, Britton and Cowell 446. 

St. Vincent: Ad Calvary, in locis umbrosis, Eggers 6732. 

GRENADA: Sherring. 

Tosaco: Ad Cremorin River, in sylvestribus humidis, Eggers 5850. 

TRINIDAD: Without locality, Fendler 65; Jenman. 

Porto Rico: Clay bank, road from Guayama to Cayey, Underwood and 
Griggs 432. Cayey, ad rupes in flumine Morillos, Sintenis 2281. 


I have seen no specimens exactly agreeing with this typical form 
either from the larger islands or from the continent. In Central 
America it apparently does not occur. The specimens in my “Re- 
vision” referred to D. opposita I now believe to belong to D. pana- 
mensis. 


FORMS INTERMEDIATE BETWEEN D. OPPOSITA AND D. 
PANAMENSIS 


JAmMAIcA: Maxon 802, 821, 996 (= Underwood 2130), 1000 (= Und. 2135), 
1528 (=Und. 2601) ; Hart 128. 

Mexico: Without locality, Kerber 437. 

Frorma: Miry hammock near Fort Meade, Polk Co., J. Donnell Smith, 
March, 1880, 


These intermediate forms resemble in size and fewer reduced 
pinne D. panamensis, in their opposite pinnze and short segments 
D. opposita; in general habit most of them agree very well with D. 
panamensis, to which species I am inclined to refer them. The 
specimen from Mexico belongs to the form named by Fournier? 
Aspidium exsudans var. myriocarpum; it is a form with linear 
pinne and short segments. The Florida plant is Aspidium conter- 
minum var. strigosum of North American authors, believed to be 
identical with A. strigosum Fée from Guadeloupe, which, however, 
is true opposita. Jenman (as shown in letters to Capt. Donnell 
Smith) considered it to be D. Sprengelii, which indicates that Jen- 
man quite misunderstood D. Sprengel, as also his descriptions 
under that name show. The Florida fern is to me not essentially 


+ Mex, Pl. x: 08, 1872. 


376 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


different from the common D. panamensis, although some of the 
smaller leaves very much resemble D. opposita. 


DRYOPTERIS PANAMENSIS (Presl) C. Chr. 
(REvISION 292, No. 28, Fic. 19.) 


Under this name I unite a wide range of forms. Presl’s type of 
the species, collected in Panama by Hzenke is, according to the orig- 
inal specimens in herb. Presl proper, a long and narrow form (leaf 
7 to 8 dm. long by 5 to 8 cm. broad) ; the pinne are scarcely 4 cm. 
long by 0.5 cm. broad, from a hastate base gradually tapering toward 
the acuminate apex; segments oblong, oblique, acute, with revolute 
edges. In my “Revision” I have referred this form to D. opposita, 
which it resembles in habit; still the segments are longer and nar- 
rower and the reduced pinna not auriculiform, as in true D. oppo- 
sita. To this form belong the following specimens: 


Costa Rica: Rio Turrialba, Prov. Cartago, 1,600 ft., J. Donnell Smith 
5087. Dans la forét 4 Terraba, 260 meters, Pittier 3538. El General, 
Pittier 10488. 


The form illustrated by fig. 19 in my “Revision” is the most de- 
veloped of the species, and is very common in Central America. I 
have examined the following additional specimens: 


Costa Rica: Vicinity of Cartago, rocky border of stream, Maxon 32. 
Vicinity of the River Tirivi, near San José, 1,100 meters, on banks of 
shaded river, Maxon 132. San José, 1,160 meters, P. Biolley. Pied- 
ades prés San Ramon, 1,000 to 1,100 meters, Brenes 14236. San Jose, 
Pittier 1067. Surubres prés San Mateo, 200 meters, Pittier 4063. 
Cartago, J. J. Cooper (Donnell Smith 6027). Rio Reventazon, Prov. 
Cartago, 2,000 ft., Donnell Smith 5088. 

Satvapor: Prope San Salvador, L. V. Velasco (Donnell Smith 8890). 
Vicinity of Izalco, 400 to 600 meters, Pittier 1943. 

GuateMALA: Moran, Depart. Amatitlan, 1,205 meters, Kellerman 4874. 
Escuintla, 1,100 ft., Donnell Smith 2453, 2738. Pantaleon, Depart. 
Escuintla, 1,370 ft, W.C. Shannon (Donnell Smith 174). Without 
locality, Heyde 703, 720. 

Mexico: Without locality, E. Kerber 440. 

CusBa: Valley of the Rio Bayamita, south slope of Sierra Maestra, among 
rocks in bed of river, Maxon 3964. El Guama, Prov. Pinar del Rio, 
in the bed of a mountain stream, among rocks, Palmer and Riley 158. 

Jamaica: Maxon 828, 832, 855, 1001 (= Underwood 2136), 1002 (= Und. 
2137), 1107 (= Und. 2227), 1737 (=Und. 2695), 1743 (= Und. 2703), 
1744 (=Und. 2704), 1745 (= Und. 2705), 1746 (= Und. 2706), 1757 
(= Und. 2721), 2789; Harris 7377. 


In Mexico the species is represented by two forms, of which the 
first differs from the common large form only in its rather small 


No. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 377 


size and less falcate segments. It is Polypodium litigiosum Lieb- 
mann and Lastrea leiboldiana Presl, according to the original speci- 
mens of these. ‘The second form I name: 


DRYOPTERIS PANAMENSIS PROXIMA C. Chr., var. nov. 


Leaf with a very short stipe, reduced downwards as in typical 
panamensis, glandular beneath, almost wholly glabrous. Pinnz 
about 10 cm. long, short-acuminate, the upper ones alternate; seg- 
ments approximate, oblique, not falcate, oblong-triangular, acute, 
the basal ones equal sized or a little prolonged. 

The type specimen of this was collected by H. Ross (no. 326) in 
Mexico: Cuernavaca ad riv. umbr. c. 150 m. (Herb. Munich) and 
was by me considered a distinct species. Another specimen, in the 
U. S. National Herbarium, also from Mexico, Rose and Painter 7320, 
from the vicinity of Guadalajara, State of Jalisco, is, however, evi- 
dently the same, but connects the type with D. panamensis ; therefore 
I now prefer to give to these specimens the varietal name proxima, 
originally used as a specific name. Further specimens are: Pringle 
1844, from wet places near Guadalajara, State of Jalisco, and prob- 
ably Pringle 11794 from the same locality, Sept., 1903, which is a 
slender and more hairy form, in habit more resembling D. opposita. 

By its almost completely glabrous leaf, short-pointed pinnz, and 
closely placed oblong-triangular acute segments, this variety seems 
very different from true D. panameitsis. 


DRYOPTERIS LEUCOTHRIX C. Chr., sp. nov. 


Borivia: Near Yungas, 4,000 ft., H. H. Rusby 432, type; U. S. National 
Herbarium, No. 828993. 


Eudryopteris rhizomate (?). Stipitibus 2-3 dm. longis, rigidis, 
angulatis, breviter crispato-pilosis, fusco-stramineis. Lamina lineari- 
lanceolata, 6-7 dm. longa, medio 16-18 cm. lata, versus basin longe 
et gradatim attenuata, submembranacea, crassiuscula, siccitate 
brunnea, rachi profunde sulcata molliter crispato-pilosa, bipinnatifida. , 
Pinnis numerosis, oppositis vel sursum alternis, sessilibus, inferiori- 
bus 6-7 jugis gradatim reductis, infimis minimis, medialibus maximis, 
inter se 2 cm. remotis, linearibus, 8-9 cm. longis, 8-9 mm. latis, 
acuminatis, ubique (maxime ad costas) pilis albidis brevibus hirtis, 
ad alam vix 1 mm. latam pinnatifidis. Laciniis numerosis, recte 
patentibus, sinubus latis rotundis separatis, obtusis vel rotundatis, 
marginibus integris paulum revolutis, basalibus aequalibus. Venis 
simplicibus ca. 5 jugis indistinctis. Soris medialibus vel paulum 
inframedialibus; indusiis persistentibus, pilis albis valde pilosis. 


378 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


This most distinct new species resembles in habit some forms of 
D. opposita, especially the variety rivulorum (Raddi) ; but it differs 
from that species as well as from all other species known to me by 
its rather peculiar indusia, which appear as a cluster of white hairs 
like white dots on the under side of the leaf. It is also remarkable 
for its long stem, its long and narrow leaf, and its linear pinnz with 
patent round-pointed segments. Although the leaf has a long stem 
and equal-sized basal segments the species must be placed in my 
system between D. opposita and D. riopardensis. 


DRYOPTERIS PSEUDOSANCTA C. Chr., sp. nov. 


Costa Rica: Rio Toro Amarillo, Llanuras de Santa Clara, 300 meters, 
J. Donnell Smith 6902, Apr., 1896, type; U. S. National Herbarium, 
No. 828901. 

GUATEMALA: Rio Pinula, Depart. Santa Rosa, 4,000 ft., Heyde and Lux 
(Donnell Smith 4004). 


Eudryopteris rhizomate erecto, breve. Stipitibus dense fascicula- 
tis, tenuibus, brevissimis (2-3 cm.), basi fuscescentibus. Lamina 
lineari, usque ad 4.5 dm. longa, 5 cm. lata, ad basin longe et gradatim 
attenuata, tenuiter herbacea, obscure viridi, rachi tenui pilis patenti- 
bus mollibus sparse hirta, bipinnatifida. Pinnis subpatentibus, 
oppositis vel superioribus alternis, sessilibus, inferioribus (e medio 
laminae) sensim abbreviatis, infimis minimis trilobis, medialibus, 
inter se I-I.5 cm. remotis, a basi lata versus apicem acutum sensim 
attenuatis, equilateralibus, 2 cm. longis, supra basin ca. 5 mm. latis, 
ad costas venasque utrinque sparse pilosis denique glabris, subtus 
sparse glandulosis, profunde serrato-lobatis vel pinnatifidis. Laciniis 
obliquis, acutis, basali anteriore producta. Venis 2-3 jugis, sim- 
plicibus. Soris medialibus, parvis; indusiis reniformibus, subper- 
sistentibus, sparse ciliatis. 

This species is a very near ally of D. delicatula (Fée) C. Chr., 
from Guadeloupe, but it has a longer and narrower leaf, a shorter 
stem and medial sori. From D. sancta it is more different by its 
equilateral pinnze and long, narrow leaf. 


DRYOPTERIS SANCTA (L.) Kuntze 
(REvIsION 295, No. 32, Fic. 20.) 


This species includes a number of forms, some of them probably 
of local origin. It varies in size from the small Jamaican plants to 
the large var. Balbisii (Spreng.) C. Chr., and in pubescence from 
almost entirely glabrous (the typical form) to a condition in which 
the rachis and costa are often rather densely hairy above. It may 


NO. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 379 


be mentioned here that while most of the Jamaican forms are nearly 
glabrous, the specimens from other islands, especially from Porto 
Rico and partly from Cuba are rather hairy, and that this pubescence 
is found both in the small, more typical forms and in the var. Bal- 
bisii. ‘The specimen from Guatemala appears to be identical with 
the Jamaican type. In the numerous specimens seen the sori are 
apparently exindusiate. 

The different forms may be arranged as follows: 

A. SMALL Forms, often only a few cm. high; pinne unequal- 
sided; stem very short. 

1. var. typica. Leaf quite glabrous or rachis only finely pubescent. 


Jamaica: Various localities, Maxon 1468 (=Underwood 2481), 1496, 
1559, 1829 (= Und. 2794), 1959, 2415, 2550, 2584 (large) ; Underwood 
1430, 1908, 2492; Clute 252. 

Cusa: Wright 814. Slopes and summit of El Yunque near Baracoa, 
Pollard and Palmer 125. Monte Verde, Yateras, Oriente, 575 meters, 
rocky bank of small stream in forest, Maxon 4313. 

Santo Dominco: In umbrosis ad Rio Mameges, 250 meters, Eggers 2780. 

Porto Rico: Road from Utuado to Arecibo, wet limestone rocks, Under- 


wood and Griggs 822, 828. 
GuatrEMALA: Cubilquitz, Depart. Alta Verapaz, 350 meters, von Tuerck- 
heim (Donnell Smith 8353). 


2. var. hirta (Jenman) C. Chr. 
Nephrodium sanctum var, hirtum Jenman, Bull. Bot. Dept. Jam. II. 3:20. 
1806. 
Upper surface finely pubescent. 
Jamaica: Doll Wood, near Silver Hill Gap, 3,000 ft., wet shaded cliff, 
Maxon 1175. Blue Hole, Fredholm 31091. 


3. var. strigosa C. Chr., var. nov. 
Rachis and costa rather densely furnished with patent hairs; 
surfaces glabrous. 
Cuza: Mountain slope, directly north of Jaguey, 420 to 500 meters, rocky 
bank by stream, Maxon 4142, type; U. S. National Herbarium, No. 
522848. Josephina, north of Jaguey, Yateras, Oriente, 575 meters, 
bank by small stream at border of forest, Maxon 4096 (large form). 
Porto Rico: Eastern slope of the Luquillo Mts., 1,500 ft. Heller 4614. 
Sierra de Luquillo, in monte Jimenis, Sintenis 1753. 


B. LARGE Forms; largest pinne equal-sided, pinnate below; seg- 


ments or pinnules long, linear; stem up to IO cm. or more long. 


I. var. magna (Jenman) C. Chr. 


Nephrodium sanctum var. magnum Jenman, Bull. Bot. Dept. Jamaica II. 3: 20 


1806. 


380 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Segments entire, narrow, distant, as are the pinne; leaf quite 
glabrous. 


JAMAICA: Vicinity of Hollymount, Mount Diabolo, 750 meters, rocky 
border of forest, Maxon 2239, 2269; Underwood 1781. 


2. Segments or pinnules broader, crenate; pinnze closer (habit of 
the leaf more compact). (var. Balbisii sensu lat.) 


I. var. portoricensis (Kuhn) C. Chr. 
Aspidium sanctum var. portoricense Kuhn, Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 24: 115. 1897. 


Rachis and costa more or less hairy, as is also the upper surface 
in some specimens. 
Porto Rico: Maricao ad vias in monte Montoso, Sintenis 403. Utuado, 


in praeruptis ad Los Angeles, Sintenis 5956. In wet places beside 
stream, road from Utuado to Lares, Underwood and Griggs 60. 


Il. var. Balbisu (Spreng.) C. Chr. Revision 296, fig. 20. 
Leaf quite glabrous. 
Cusa: Los Cafios ad Rio Seco, 200 meters, Eggers 4721. 
Jamaica: Road between Port Antonio and St. Margaret’s Bay, Under- 
wood 1712. 


Hartt: Marmelade, 2,450 ft., Nash and Taylor 1229. 
Porto Rico: Prope Pepino ad Eneas, Sintenis 5828. 


This last variety is the most developed form, and is very different, 
both in habit and size, from the small forms mentioned above. 

I have tried above to arrange in a key the forms represented in 
the U. S. National Herbarium. The arrangement is, however, not 
a natural one. The order of evolution is, I believe, rather the 
following : 

Series I: var. typica; var. magna; var. Balbisit. 

Series II: var. strigosa; var. portoricensis. 

The var. hirta is probably only a slight variety of the typical 
form. 


DRYOPTERIS CONSANGUINEA (Fee) €2Chr: 
(REvISION 297, No. 33, Fic. 21.) 


The true form of this distinct species is not represented in the 
U.S. National Herbarium, but I find some specimens, which in most 
characters agree with it very well. I refer them to a new variety: 


DRYOPTERIS CONSANGUINEA AQUALIS C. Chr., var. nov. 


Jamaica: Second Breakfast Spring, near Tweedside, 2,000 ft., open 
grassy bank, Maxon 997 (= Underwood 2131), type; U. S. National 


No. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 381 


Herbarium, No. 427229. Banks at the left of Moody’s Gap, 4,000 ft., 
Jenman. 
GrENADA: In sylvestribus umbrosis ad Mt. Filix, 1,500 ft., Eggers 6036. 

Differs from the type by its equal-sided pinnze with patent or a 
little oblique, oblong segments, which generally bear 3 or 4 obtuse 
teeth at the apex; veins not prominent. 

This variety thus recedes from the type towards D. opposita and 
D. panamensis; it differs from these species like the typical form, 
by its distant pinnz, by its only a little elongated basal scgmeuts, 
which at their inner side bear an auricle overlying the rachis, by 
its almost completely glabrous frond and by its caudate-acuminate 
pinne. The natural position of this species in my system must be 
next to D. opposita. 


DRYOPTERIS SCALPTUROIDES (Fee) CoGhr: 
(Revision 298, No. 34, Fic. 22.) 


Jamaica: Moody’s Gap, 3,000 ft., Clute 173. Vicinity of New Haven 
Gap, 1,650 meters, border of forest, Maxon 2659. Without special 
locality, 1,500 meters, Hart 128. 


These three specimens belong to my variety jamaicensis (Revi- 
sion 299), which differs from the Cuban type by the glandular under 
surface and less pubescent upper side of the lamina. While the 
specimens from Cuba have their upper side throughout coated with 
short, hamate hairs, such are rarely found in the Jamaican form, in 
which the veins above are furnished with more stiff sete. These 
constant differences between the specimens from the two islands 
make it probable that the plants from Jamaica represent a distinct 
species. This variety can be mistaken for D. Nockiana; still, it is 
much more hairy and more firm, even coriaceous in texture. 


DRYOPTERIS FIRMA (Baker) C. Chr. 
(REvision 299, No. 36, Fic. 24.) 


JAMAICA: Slopes of Monkey Hill, 1,800 meters, forest ravine, Maron 
2730. At the summit of Blue Mountain Peak, at about 7,400 ft., dry 
path-edges, Maxon 1438 (=Underwood 2553). 


These beautiful specimens show more fertile leaves, which are on 
longer stems than the sterile ones and richly soriferous. The young 
sori are furnished with a densely setose indusium, which sometimes 
bears one or two glistening yellow or red glands. The basal pair of 
segments in the larger pinnz is prolonged as in D. opposita, or in 
the sterile leaves the upper basal segment is somewhat reduced. The 


382 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


= 


rhizome is horizontally creeping, ligneous, with numerous bases of 
old stipes, and densely clothed at the apex with finely pubescent, 
brown scales. By its slightly reduced, coriaceous lamina and its 
creeping rhizome D. firma is a most distinct species. 

[Note.—D. Pavoniana (K1.) C. Chr. must be placed next to D. 
firma. It has, as shown by a specimen from Ecuador, Rimbach 118, 
sent me by Dr. Rosenstock, a long,. creeping rhizome. | 


GROUP OF D: PACHYRACHIS 


DRYOPTERIS PACHYRACHIS (Kunze) Kuntze 
(REVISION 305, No. 44, Fic. 31.) 


In my “Revision” I referred the Jamaican Nephrodium Jenmani 
Baker to D. pachyrachis, having seen only one specimen, which ap- 
peared to be almost exactly D. pachyrachis, but without the charac- 
teristic sessile red glands of the under side of the lamina. Having 
now seen additional specimens of N. Jenmant, the question of its 
identity with D. pachyrachis becomes more difficult. The specimens 
seen belong to two somewhat different forms: 

(1) A more firm, nearly glabrous and eglandulose form, which 
in habit and pubescence agrees very well with true D. pachyrachis 
but differs from it, as mentioned, in the lack of glands. In its most 
developed state this form is considerably larger than the Brazilian 
forms of D. pachyrachis (Aspidium platyrachis Fée), much more 
resembling D. tenerrima (Fée) C. Chr. It is the typical Jenmani, 
as shown by type specimens in U. S. National Herbarium. . 

(2) A very thin-leaved form with the under side densely glandu- 
lose and with the midribs of the segments, like the costa, setose 
above. This form I referred (p. 311) to D. Germaniana as a new 
variety, var. glandulosa. I now think it best to consider it a form 
of Jenmani, resembling D. Germamiana in size but differing from 
that species in being glabrous between the veins above and in its 
fewer reduced pinnz. 

I dare not consider these two forms specifically different, nor 
separate them as a species distinct from D. pachyrachis. In general 
habit, texture, pubescence, number of veins, position of sori, shape 
of indusium they agree very well with the continental forms of D. 
pachyrachis. Still, I see clearly a difference between these West 
Indian forms and true D. pachyrachis, but it is impossible for me 
to point out even one character by which they may be distinguished 
from the continental form. However, should some other pteridolo- 


No. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 383 


gist prefer to let D. Jenmani stand as a distinct species I shall ap- 
prove it. 
1. Form without glands [D. Jenmani (Baker) C. Chr.]. 
St. Vincent: H. H. and G. W. Smith 855. 
JaMAIcA: Without, special locality, Jenman; Hart 281a, 215. Latimer 
River, 4,000 ft., Clute 142. Vicinity of Morce’s Gap, 1,500 meters, 
moist wooded slope, Maxon 2670. 


2. Glandulose form [D. Germaniana var. glandulosa C. Chr., Re- 
vision 311]. 
Jamaica: Near the summit of Blue Mountain Peak, 7,000 ft., steep 


moist wooded slope, Maron 1404 (= Underwood 2529) ; moist woods, 
Maxon 1422 (=Und. 2540), 1422a; Underwood 1496. 


DRYOPTERIS RORAIMENSIS (Baker) C. Chr. 


Polypodium roraimense Baker, Timehri 5: 214. 1886; Trans. Linn. Soc. II. 
Bot. 2: 2091. 1887. 
Dryopteris roraimensis C. Chr. Index Fil. 289. 1905. 


BritisH GuiANA: Mount Roraima, upper slope, im Thurn 168 (type num- 
ber). 


A weakly characterized species, not unlike D. pachyrachis in essen- 
tial characters, but having the under side of the lamina without 
glands, the segments oblique or subfalcate, obtuse, sori exindusiate, 
and the 3 or 4 pairs of lower pinnz reflexed. 

Leaf gradually and shortly attenuate downwards, with 2 or 3 
pairs of reduced pinnz, the lowermost about 1 cm. long. The whole 
leaf glabrous, except as to rachis and coste, these setose above. 
Veins distant, 6 or 7 to a side, simple. Sori about medial or slightly 
supramedial, globose, superficial, exindusiate. Sporangia glabrous. 

In the key to species given in my “Revision” (p. 267) this species 
must be placed between no. 44, D. pachyrachis, and no. 45, D. Hiero- 
nymusit. It differs from this latter mainly in its lower reflexed 
pinne and its more oblique or even subfalcate segments. 


DRYOPTERIS RUSTICA (Fee) C. Chr. 
(REVISION 310, No. 53.) 
St. VincENt: H. H. and G. W. Smith 1130. 


Agreeing very well with the type from Guadeloupe. Known also 
from Jamaica (Nephrodium nimbatum Jenm.). 


384 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


DRYOPTERIS MELANOCHLENA C. Chr., sp. nov. 


GUATEMALA: Coban, Depart. Alta Verapaz, 4,300 ft., J. Donnell Smith 
168 in part, July, 1885, type; U. S. National Herbarium, no. 828982. 
(Besides the single leaf, which is the type specimen of our new 
species, this number contains a mixture of other species.) 


Eudryopteris rhizomate (?). Stipitibus gracilibus, griseis, basi 
squamis nonnullis brunneis instructis, minute puberulis, 12 cm. 
longis. Lamina ad 6 dm. longa, 15 cm. lata, lanceolata, ad basin 
gradatim attenuata, firmo-herbacea, viridi, ubique pilis albescentibus 
minute puberula, rachibus costisque stramineis, bipinnatifida. Pinnis 
inferioribus fere e medio laminae gradatim abbreviatis, infimis 
auriculiformibus, medialibus maximis, patentibus, sessilibus, sub- 
oppositis, inter se 2.5 cm. remotis, oblongis, 8 cm. longis, 1.5-1.75 
cm. latis, breviter acuminatis, ad alam 1 mm. latam pinnatifidis. 
Laciniis patentibus vel parum obliquis, 3 mm. latis, sinubus sub- 
obtusis angustis separatis, obtusis vel subacutis, integris, basalibus 
aequalibus. Venis ca. 7 jugis, remotis, simplicibus. Soris margini 
approximatis, parvis; indusiis ebeneis, squamiformibus, persistenti- 
bus, pilis albidis nonnullis ciliatis. Sporangiis glabris. 

A very remarkable new species, resembling D. rustica in size, 
habit, and its uniform minute pubescence throughout, but differing 
from that species, as from all other species of the group, by its coal- 
black, scale-like indusia, ciliate with whitish hairs. 


DRYOPTERIS GERMANIANA (Fee) C. Chr. 
(REviIsION 311, No. 55 (excl. var.).) 


Cugsa: Upper slopes and summit of Gran Piedra, Oriente, altitude 900 to 
1,200 ‘meters, moist shaded slope under tree-ferns, Maxon 4059. 


An interesting discovery, as the species was previously known 
only from Guadeloupe. The specimen agrees exactly with the type. 
It resembles some forms of D. pachyrachis included under Jenmani, 
but it has a scaly stem, many pairs of reduced pinnz, and the upper 
surface pubescent. 


DRYOPTERIS DOMINICENSIS C. Chr., sp. nov. 


Dominica: Mt. Diablotin, F. E. Lloyd 876, type; U. S. National Herbar- 
ium, No. 429322. 


Eudryopteris rhizomate (?). Stipitibus 3 mm. crassis, 8-10 cm. 
longis, superne late sulcatis, ubique squamis brunneis crispatis dense 
vestitis. Lamina ovato-lanceolata, 4-5 dm. longis, ca. 18 cm. latis, 


No. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CURISTENSEN 385 


versus basin gradatim attenuata, versus apicem breviter acuminatum 
brevius attenuata, firmo-herbacea, obscure viridi, rachi grisea, pilis 
patentibus hirta et squamis brunneis crispatis (maxime in parte 
inferiore) squamosa, bipinnatifida. Pinnis ca. 20 utroque latere, 
inferioribus oppositis, 4-5 jugis sensim reductis, infimis 1 cm. longis 
et latis, superioribus alternis, sessilibus, maximis 8-10 cm. longis, 
2 cm. latis, lineari-oblongis, versus apicem integrum breviter acumi- 
natis, ad basin aerophoro magno acuto nigro instructis, supra ad 
costas late sulcatas ac inter venas pilis adpressis setosis, subtus ad 
costas costulasque pilis. patentibus hirtis, ad alam 2 mm. vel ultra 
latam pinnatifidis. lLaciniis approximatis, sinubus angustis acutis 
separatis, ca. 15 jugis, 4-5 cm. latis, patentibus vel paulum obliquis, 
obtusissimis, integris. Venis simplicibus, 6-7 jugis, distantibus. 
Soris parvis, medialibus; indusiis parvis, ciliatis, mox evanidis. 

This new species stands next to D. Germaniana, but is consider- 
ably different in its scaly rachis, its differentiated pubescence, and 
its distinct, setose indusia. In the system adopted in my “Revision” 
the species must be placed between D. Germaniana and D. Morits- 
tana. 

DRYOPTERIS DEMERARANA (Baker) C. Chr. 


Polypodium demeraranum Baker, Timehri 5: 214. 1886; Trans. Linn. Soc. II. 
Bot. 2: 290. 1887. 
Dryopteris demerarana C. Chr. Index Fil. 261. 1905. 


BritisH Guiana: Mount Roraima, old Cath, im Thurn 356; (type num- 
ber). 


A species of the group of D. pachyrachis, but having the leaf more 
abruptly reduced below, about as in a species of the group of D. 
Sprengel. 

Reduced pinnz about 4-jugate, at distances of 4-5 cm., auriculi- 
form. Stem at base with brown scales more than 1 cm. long, up- 
wards like the rachis with a dense and coarse gray pubescence, 
intermixed with a few linear brown scales, especially along the 
rachis. Lower pinnz subopposite, upper ones alternate, sessile, 
10-12 cm. long by 2.5 cm. broad, thin, the upper side along the costz 
densely setose, between the veins with fine, scattered, hamate hairs, 
the under side setose along the coste and veins, almost glabrous 
between the veins. Segments slightly oblique, subacute or roundish 
at the apex, entire, 3.5-4 mm. broad, rather close, with subacute 
sinuses between; basal segments equal in size, or the upper one 
slightly reduced. Veins all simple. Sori exindusiate, near the edge. 
Sporangia glabrous. 


386 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


In habit this species resembles D. Leprieurti (Hook.) Kuntze, but 
it can be distinguished by its reduced lower pinnz, scaly rachis, and 
non-patent hairs. In the key to the species (“Revision,” p. 268) it 
must be placed between no. 56, D. Moritziana, and no. 57, D. cora- 
zonensis ; it is abundantly different from both. 


DRYOPTERIS DIPLAZIOIDES (Desv.) Urban. 
(REVISION 312, No. 58.) 


To this species I refer with some doubt a specimen from 
GUATEMALA: Near the Finca Sepacuité, Alta Verapaz, Cook and Griggs 
177. 
DRYOPTERIS CONSIMILIS (Fee) C. Chr. 


Jamaica: Without locality, Jenman. Mt. Moses, Harris 1555. Mansfield, 
near Bath, 300 to 500 meters, moist shaded bank, Maxon 2370; at edge 
of woods, Maxon 1796 (=Underwood 2770); Maxon 1788 (=Und. 
2765). Trail from Bath to Cuna Cuna Pass, 1,000 to 2,000 ft., on a 
wayside bank, Maxon 1723 (=Und. 2687). Near Tweedside, 2,000 ft., 
grassy bank in the open, Maxon 989. Vicinity of Hollymount, Mount 
Diabolo, about 750 meters, rocky ravine in humid forest, Maxon 2321. 


DRYOPTERIS HETEROCLITA (Desv.) C. Chr. 


Gymnogramme gracilis Hew. Mag. Nat. Hist. II. 2: 457. 1838. 


Jamaica: Without locality, Jenman. Vicinity of Cinchona, 1,500 meters, 
shaded bank by trail, Maxon 1196 (=Underwood 2336). At the 
base of Blue Mountain Peak, 6,000 to 7,000 ft., Maxon 1453 (= Und. 
2469). Cinchona Plantation, 5,000 ft., Underwood 167. New Haven 
Gap, 5,600 ft., Clute 205. 


My treatment in the “Revision” of these two closely allied species 
is unsatisfactory. The specimens enumerated above show more 
clearly the differences between the two species, which I point out 
in the following table. Figures 37 and 38 of my “Revision” both 
illustrate D. consimilis, although the latter in the position of the 
sori resembles D. heteroclita. 


D. consimilis 


Leaf 5-6 dm. long. 

Pinne 8-10 cm. long by I.5-2 cm. 
broad. 

Whole plant clothed with a dense 
and coarse gray pubescence, the under 
side sometimes with a few yellow 
glands, 

Veins immersed, not very distinct, 
10-12 to a side. 

Sori distinctly oblong or linear 
about medial. 


D. heteroclita 


Leaf 8-10 dm. long. 

Pinne 12-15 cm. long by 2.5 cm. 
broad. 

Whole plant furnished with fewer 
but longer and stiffer hairs, some- 
times subglabrous on the under side 
and always without glands. 

Veins raised above stramineous 
like the coste, 10-15 to a side. 

Sori short, sometimes nearly round, 
distinctly supramedial. 


No. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 387 


DRYOPTERIS ATROVIRENS C. Chr. 
(REVISION 316, No. 61, Fic. 39.) 


GUATEMALA: Trail between Sepacuité and Secanquim, Alta Verapaz, 1,000 
meters, rocky bank in humid forest, Maxon and Hay 3281 (type 
number). 


GROUP OF D. SPRENGELII 


Tertiary veins close, 10-12 to a side, lamina in most species 
abruptly attenuate downwards, with several pairs of greatly reduced 
pinne, which appear as mere warts upon the stem. A distinct aéro- 
phore is oiten present at the base of the larger pinnze. Most of the 
species belonging to this group are large, having leaves often more 
than 1 meter long. 


DRYOPTERIS SPRENGELII (Kaulf.) Kuntze 
(REvISsION 318, No. 65, Fic. 42.) 


St. THomas: Signal Hill, 1,400 ft., Eggers 32. 

St. Kirts: Molyneaux Estate, Britton and Cowell 312. Lambert Estate, 
Britton and Cowell 637. 

Dominica: Soufriere, Lloyd 543. 

St. Vincent: Mt. St. Andrews, 2,000 ft., in locis umbrosis inter herba, 
Eggers 6807. Chateau Belair, 1,000 ft., in sylvestribus umbrosis, 
Eggers 6843. 

GRENADA: Without locality, Murray and Elliott 9; Sherring. 

Topaco: In sylvestribus ad flumen Great Dog River, Eggers 5757. 

Trinwwap: Fendler 22. 

Porto Rico: Luquillo Mts., Percy Wilson 62; 255. Guayama Road, Goll 
601. Quebrada Arriba, on rocky hillside, Goll 488. Road from Ponce 
to Adjuntas, Underwood and Griggs 764. Road from Utuado to 
Lares, Underwood and Griggs 108. San Juan, Mr. and Mrs. A. A. 
Heller 676. On the Adjuntas road, eight miles from Ponce, Heller 
6137; 6346. 

JAMAICA: Near Priestman’s River, 75 to 300 meters, partially shaded 
moist bank, Maxon 2529; 2532. Swift River near Hope Bay, Alex. 
Moore. 


The specimens enumerated above belong to typical D. Sprengelii, 
characterized by its almost hairless surfaces and rachis and its gland- 
ular under side. In the specimens from Jamaica, especially Maron 
2529, the upper side is, however, somewhat more hairy than in the 
plants from the smaller islands; thus, it is intermediate between the 
type and the Central American form. This has the upper side finely 
pubescent and the rachis somewhat hairy, as is the case in D. Mer- 
curt; but it agrees very well with the type in habit. This form, 


388 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


perhaps worth a name of its own, is represented by the following 
specimens : 


GUATEMALA: Cuyuta, Depart. Escuintla, 200 ft., Donnell Smith 2457 
(the locality in my “Revision” erroneously referred to Mexico). 

NicarAGuA: Volcan Mombacho, C. F. Baker 2449. 

Costa Rica: Plains of San Carlos, 100 meters, on bank by road, Cook and 
Doyle 99. Cuesta de la Vieja, 300 meters, on bank by road, Cook and 
Doyle to1. Juan Vifias, Reventazon Valley, 1,000 meters, on bank by 
roadside, Cook and Doyle 195. Rio Reventazon, Prov. Cartago, Don- 
nell Smith 5088. 


I now refer to this more hairy form J. R. Johnston’s no. 190 
from the island of Margarita, Venezuela, listed in my “Revision” 
under D. Mercurii. 


DRYOPTERIS STRUTHIOPTEROIDES C. Chr., sp. nov. 


(GUATEMALA: Concepcion, Depart. Escuintla, 1,200 ft., J. Donnell Smith 
2459, March, 1890, type; U. S. National Herbarium, No. 829,013. 
Mazatenango, Depart. Suchitepéquez, W. A. Kellermann 4701. 


Eudryopteris rhizomate (?). Stipitibus rigidis, stramineis, basi 
squamis brunneis deciduis sparse instructis, vix Io cm. longis. 
Lamina ovato-lanceolata, ad 6-7 dm. longa, medio ad 2.5 dm. lata, 
versus basin sensim attenuata, ad apicem serratum breviter acumi- 
nata, gramineo-viridi, firmo herbacea, rachi straminea glaberrima, 
bipinnatifida. Pinnis numerosis, valde approximatis, I cm. remotis, 
inferioribus 3-4 jugis sensim abbreviatis, imis auriculiformibus, 
lobatis, ca. 1 cm. longis, medialibus maximis, linearibus, 10-13 cm. 
longis, 1.5 cm. latis, sessilibus (aerophoro nullo), subhorizontalibus, 
oppositis, apicibus serratis longe acuminatis, supra ad costas strami- 
neas sparse setosis, utrinque inter venas sparse et minute puberulis 
denique glabris, ad alam vix I mm. latam pinnatifidis. Laciniis 
numerosis, valde approximatis, sinubus angustissimis acutis sepa- 
ratis, parum obliquis, integris, acutis, marginibus planis, basalibus 
aequalibus. Venis 10-11 jugis, indivisis. Soris parvis, luteis, sub- 
marginalibus ; indusiis minimis, hyalinis, glabris, mox deciduis. 

This new species can only be compared to D. panamensis and D. 
Sprengelii, from both of which it differs in its remarkably closely- 
placed overlapping pinne and segments, the leaf resembling the 
sterile frond of Matteuccia struthiopteris—hence the specific name. 
It resembles large forms of D. panamensis in general habit, especially 
in the base of the lamina, but it is considerably different in its almost 
glabrious and eglandulose lamina, in its not very oblique segments, 


No. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 389 


in its more numerous veins, and in having the sori placed very near 
to the margin. From D. Sprengelii, which it resembles in pubes- 
cence, size, and texture, it recedes by the absence of glanduliform 
abortive pinnze and aerophore, by the position of the sori, by its 
fewer veins, etc. Still, I think it best to place the species next to 
D. Sprengel in the “system,” mainly because its veins are closer 
than in any species of the groups of D. opposita and D. pachyrachis. 


DRYOPTERIS MERCURII (A. Br.) Hieron. 
(Revision No. 66, Fic. 43.) 


This is most probably a large, more hairy continental form of D. 
Sprengel, in its typical form very characteristic, the pinnz 2-2.5 
dm. long, thin, with numerous segments separated by open roundish 
sinuses, the rachis and coste beneath furnished with long patent 
hairs and the upper side more densely pubescent. But it will be, I 
believe, impossible to draw a sharp line between the smaller forms 
and the continental form of D. Sprengelii mentioned above. ‘Thus, 
we have here a series of forms which grow larger from the Lesser 
Antilles to Central America, the increase in size being associated 
with an increase of pubescence, exactly as was the case in D. oppo- 
sita-D. panamensis. Also, we find here the intermediate forms in 
Jamaica. Provisionally, I find it best to let D. Mercuri, like D. 
panamensis, stand as a species. 

Costa Rica: Santo Domingo de Golfo Dulce, Tondus 10023 (=—Donnell 
Smith 7215 B); Tonduz 6885 (=D. S. 7218). Haie a Turrialba, Pit- 
tier 4087bis. Foréts de Tsaki, Talamanca, 200 meters, Tonduz 9461. 

A critical form is W. A. Kellerman’s no. 4864 from Puerto Bar- 
rios, Guatemala; in pubescence exactly D. Sprengeli, in habit D. 
Mercurit. 

DRYOPTERIS THOMSONII (Jenman) C. Chr. 
(REviston 320, No. 67, as D. Stuebelii) 


Polypodium Thomsonti Jenman, Bull. Bot. Dept. Jamaica II. 4: 130. 1897. 
Dryopteris Thomsonit C. Chr. Ind. Fil. 208. 1905. 
Dryopteris Stuebelii Hieron. Hedwigia 46: 340. pl. 6. f. 13. 1997. 

This species is given as unknown in my “Revision.” In the U. S. 
National Herbarium there are, besides a type specimen from Jen- 
man, several specimens from Jamaica, and it is rather surprising 
to find that the species is exactly identical with D. Stuwebeli Hieron. 
from Colombia. Thus we here come upon a new illustration of the 


8 


390 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


close relationship existing between the fern-floras of Jamaica and 
the Andes. 

I have only to add to the descriptions of Jenman and Hieronymus 
that the lamina narrows downwards very abruptly, as in D. rudis, 
with a few pairs of glanduliform warts, and that the stem is clothed 
throughout with thin, light brown scales. The species resembles in 
habit not a little D. pterifolia, but it is inter alia very distinct by 
its densely glandular under side and thin texture, and by its midribs 
and costules of the pinnz being clothed beneath with short, crisped, 
stellate hairs. ; 

Jamaica: Near Vinegar Hill, 4,000 ft., Harris 7446; moist shaded bank, 
Maxon 1520. Vicinity of New Haven Gap, 1,650 meters, humid forest 
slope, Maxon 2693. At the base of Blue Mountain Peak, 6,000 it., 
shaded edge of trail, Maron 1442 (=Underwood 2465); Maxon 
14424. 

DRYOPTERIS LIMBATA (Sw.) Kuntze 
(REVISION 323, No. 71.) 


St. Kirrs: Belmont Estate, forest ravine, Britton and Cowell 397. Slopes 
of Mt. Misery, Britton and Cowell 560. 


By its toothed segments, with the sori in the teeth, different from 
all allied species. 


DRYOPTERIS SCALARIS (Christ) C. Chr. 
(REVISION 323, No. 72, Fic. 47.) 


GUATEMALA: Vicinity of Secanquim, Alta Verapaz, 500 meters, partially 
shaded bank, Maron and Hay 3193. 

Costa Rica: Vicinity of Santiago, on partially cleared slope, Maxon 122. 
Foréts de Tuis, 650 meters, Tonduz 11332. Waldeck, prés Madre de 
Dios, 50 meters, Pittier 10260 (in my “Revision” referred to D. 
Mercurti, but probably belonging here). 


DRYOPTERIS RUSBYI C. Chr., sp. nov. 


Borivia: Near Yungas, 4,000 ft., H. H. Rusby 429, type; U. S. National 
Herbarium, No. 828081. 


Eudryopteris rhizomate lignoso, obliquo vel breviter repente. 
Stipitibus 0.5-1 cm. inter se remotis, ad pinnas infimas abortivas 
10-15 cm. longis, rigidis, sulcatis, basi squamis paucis praeditis, 
griseo-stramineis, ubique brevissime puberulis. Lamina 6 dm. vel 
ultra longa, 12-20 cm. lata, lanceolata, versus basin abrupte attenuata, 
membranacea, bipinnatifida. Rachi grisea, dense et minute puberula. 
Pinnis oppositis, horizontalibus, sessilibus, majoribus aérophoro 
praeditis, infimis 5-6 jugis valde reductis, glanduliformibus, pinnis 


No. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 391 


paris superioris 4 cm. longis reflexis, inframedialibus maximis, 7-9 
cm. longis, ad 2 cm. latis, obtusis vel breviter acuminatis, apice 
integro vel serrato excepto ad alam 1.25 mm. latam pinnatifidis, 
utrinque ad costas costulasque dense setosis, supra inter venas 
minute pubescentibus, subtus glabriusculis. Lacintis 13-15 jugis, 
paulum obliquis, subobtusis vel subrotundatis, integris, 3 mm. latis, 
approximatis, sinubus angustis acutis separatis, basalibus reductis. 
Venis in laciniis majoribus 10-12 jugis, simplicibus, satis approxi- 
matis. Soris mediocribus fere medialibus, exindusiatis. Sporangiis 
glabris. 

This new species I refer to the group of D. Sprengelii, as it most 
resembles species of this group in its very abruptly reduced lamina 
below and in its rather close veins. It will stand in this group be- 
tween D. lasiopteris and D. Christensenti, being intermediate be- 
tween these species in pubescence, but distinguished by its opposite, 
horizontal pinnz with rather broad, subpatent and subobtuse seg- 
ments. Its rachis is not so tomentose as in D. lasiopteris and D. 
rudis,; still not with the microscopical pubescence of D. Christensenii. 
The species could also be considered a member of the group of D. 
pachyrachis. It will then stand near D. atrorubens, from which it 
differs by its closer veins and gray puberulous rachis. 

Allied to this species is another specimen from Bolivia, Miguel 
Bang 2320, which probably belongs to an undescribed species, but 
the specimen is too incomplete for a description. It resembles D. 
Rusbyi in pubescence of the rachis, but while the upper side is almost 
glabrous, except along the cost, the under side is rather densely 
hairy throughout. The acute segments have up to I5 pairs of veins. 
The sori, which are small and covered by a setose indusium, are 
placed within the margin. The collector’s number 2320 is cited in 
my “Revision” under D. oligocarpa, but this specimen does not be- 
long to that species. 


DRYOPTERIS RUDIS (Kunze) C. Chr. 
(REVISION 324, No. 73, Fic. 48.) 


Mexico: Sierra de Clavellines, State of Oaxaca, 9,000 ft., Charles L. 
Smith 2056. Cerro de San Felipe, 3,000 meters, Gonzatti and Gonsdlez 
331. Wet mountain canyon above Cuernavaca, State of Morelos, 
6,500 ft., Pringle 13773. Sierra Madre near Santa Teresa, Territorio 
de Tepic, J. N. Rose 2213. 

GUATEMALA: San Rafael, Zacatepequez, 6,500 ft., Donnell Smith 2732; 
2461. 

Costa Rica: Sabanilla de los Granados, 1,200 meters, Alfaro 16302. 
Vicinity of Coliblanco, about 1,950 meters, Maxon 267. 


392 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Polypodium ctenoides (Fée) Jenman from Jamaica I have sup- 
posed in my “Revision” to be this species, and the three specimens 
at hand (Jenman; Hart 343) confirm that opinion; I see no essen- 
tial difference. Maxon 267 from Costa Rica is identical with the 
narrow-leaved form collected by Biolley (no. 67 in part) which in 
my “Revision” I referred to D. lasiopteris (Sod.) C. Chr. Also, I 
now consider this form to belong to the species of Sodiro, although 
this author describes D. lasiopteris as being indusiate, while our 
Costa Rican specimens are without indusia; but I cannot see any 
important difference between this form and ordinary D. rudis. It 
is almost glabrous above and has shorter pinne, while the most 
common form of D. rudis is setose throughout; probably D. lasiop- 
teris (Sod.) C. Chr. must be reduced as a synonym of D. rudis. 

Another synonym of D. rudis is Aspidium subdecussatum Christ,* 
as shown by the type specimen from Costa Rica, Alfaro 16556. It 
is glabrous between the veins upon both sides, and identical with 
the form which I have called D. lasiopteris. 

D. rudis varies considerably in size and in density of pubescence. 
From D. pterifolia it can be distinguished by its acute segments and 
by its coste being clothed beneath with antrorse (not patent) hairs. 

A large variety, eventually a new species, is Pringle 8920, Mexico 
(State of Puebla, by brooks in pine forests, near Honey Station, 
5,000 ft.). It has pinnz 25 cm. long by 3.5 cm. broad. 

Nephrodium tetragonum Presl? has been much misunderstood. 
It is, according to the type specimen in herb. Presl, not at all the 
same as Nephrodium tetragonum Hook (which is Dryopteris pseudo- 
tetragona Urban), but either D. rudis or a closely related species. 
The whole type specimen consists only of the upper half of a single 
leaf, and is therefore rather indeterminable. 


DRYOPTERIS HEIMERI C. Chr. 


I have recently described* this Brazilian representative of D. rudis. 
The diagnosis and comments are here reprinted without change. 


“Eudryopteris e turma D. rudis (Kze) C. Chr. rhizomate (erecto?) dense 
radicante. Stipitibus ad pinnas infimas abortivas c. 15 cm longis, fusco- 
stramineis, quadrangularibus, ubique brevissime hirtis, ad basin squamis nigro- 
brunneis ovato-acuminatis marginibus sparsim ciliatis subdense vestitis. 
Lamina lanceolata, ad 8 dm longa, medio 17—18 cm lata, ad apicem pinnati- 


* Aspidium subdecussatum Christ, Bull. Herb. Boiss. IT. 4: 960. 1904; Dryop- 
teris subdecussata C. Chr. Ind. Fil. 295. 1905. 

*Rel. Haenk. 1:35. 1825. 

*Fedd., Repertarium 6: 380, 381. 1900. 


NO. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 393 


fidum sensim attenuata, versus basin. abrupte reducta, supra obscure viridi, 
nitida, subtus pallidiore, submembranacea vel firmo-herbacea, bipinnatifida; 
rachi trisulcata breviter hispido-pilosa. Pinnis infimis 2—3-jugis tuberculi- 
formibus, c. 8 cm inter se remotis, sequentibus 2—3-jugis auriculiformibus 4—5 
cm inter se remotis, medialibus maximis, 10 cm longis, 2 cm latis, sessilibus 
aérophoro tuberculiformi instructis, a basi versus apicem breviter acuminatum 
sensim attenuatis, supra ad costa venasque sparsim et brevisime puberulis, 
subtus ad costas costulasque pilis fuscis brevibus dense setulosis ac ad costas 
paleis nonnullis nigro-brunneis minutis instructis, inter venas utrinque sub- 
glabra, ad alam I mm latam pinnatifidis. Laciniis approximatis, marginibus 
planis fere parallelis recte patentibus, obtusis, basalibus pinnarum inferiorum 
reductis. Venis simplicibus, 12—14-jugis, pellucidis, supra parum prominulis. 
Soris minimis, exindusiatis, paulo ultra mediam venulae partem sitis. Spor- 
angiis paucis, 2—3 setis robustis instructis. 

“Hab. Brasilia, Sao Paulo, Campinas oppidum, leg. A. Heiner no. 540, 9. 9. 
1905 (typus in Herbario Regnelliano, Stockholm). 

“Species nova distincta, a speciebus brasiliensibus adhuc detectis abunde 
diversa sed speciebus andinis nonnullis (D. rudi, D. Engelii) magis affinis. 
Magnitudine, pubescentia, textura, reductione laminae D. rudi C. Chr. similis, 
a qua specie valde recedit: sporangiis setosis, laciniis patentibus obtusis (nec 
falcatis nec acutis), stipitibus ad basin subdense paleaceis, costis subtus 
Sparsim squamosis, pilis rachis brevioribus, pagina utraque inter venas sub- 
glabra, aliisque notis.” 


DRY OPTERIS PITTIERI C: Che. sp. nov. 


CoLtomBia: Paramo de Buena Vista, Huila Group, Central Cordillera, 
upper forest zone, 3,100 meters, H. Pittier 1200, January, 1906, type; 
U. S$. National Herbarium, No. 531395. 


Eudryopteris rhizomate (?). Stipitibus (?). Lamina 1 m. vel 
ultra longa, 2-2.5 dm. lata, dure coriacea, rachi rigida griseo- 
straminea pilis brunneis crispis laxe dispositis dense hirta, bipinnati- 
fida. Pinnis sessilibus, horizontalibus, oppositis, basi aérophoro 
instructis, 3 cm. inter se remotis, 12-14 cm. longis infra medium 
2.25-2.5 cm. latis, utrinque attenuatis, supra costis sparse strigosis 
exceptis glaberrimis, infra ad costas costulasque pilis crispis brunneis 
subdense pilosis et ad partem inferiorem costarum squamis nonnullis 
angustis brunneis ciliatis vestitis, apice breviter caudato-acuminato 
excepto ad alam vix 1 mm. latam pinnatifidis. Laciniis numerosis, 
subpatentibus vel saepe subfalcatis, remotis (sinubus rotundis latis), 
integris, obtusis, marginibus ubique revolutis, basalibus perparvis. 
Venis simplicibus, ad 20 jugis, supra distinctis. Soris submedialibus, 
brunneis, exindusiatis. Sporangiis glabris. 

The species here described as new is founded upon an imperfect 
specimen without rhizome and stipe. Probably the leaf is narrowed 
downwards as in D. rudis and other allied species. Although the 
leaf very much resembles that of D. Engelii Hieron. in size, general 


394 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


habit, and very coriaceous texture, it is, however, that of a new and 
very distinct species of high andine habit, distinguished by the 
glabrous upper surface, the scales along the lower part of the cost 
beneath, and by the crisped, lax pubescence of the rachis and of the 
costz and costules beneath. 


DRYOPTERIS LANIPES C. Chr., sp. nov. 


GUATEMALA: Pinula, Depart. Guatemala, 4,300 ft., J. Donnell Smith 2462, 
April, 1889, type; U. S. National Herbarium, No. 828979. 


Eudryopteris rhizomate obliquo-erecto, I cm. crasso. Stipitibus 
fasciculatis, ad auriculas infimas ad 12 cm. longis, stramineis, pilis 
mollibus luteo-albidis patentibus ad 5 mm. longis densissime vestitis. 
Lamina lanceolata, 5-6 dm. longa, medio 15 cm. lata, ad basin sub- 
abrupte valde reducta, ad apicem serratum vel integrum breviter 
acuminata, subcorlacea vel papyracea, luteo-viridi, rachi straminea 
maxime ad basin pilis mollibus patentibus luteo-albidis dense vestita, 
bipinnatifida. Pinnis oppositis vel subalternis, sessilibus, inferioribus 
3-4 jugis gradatim abbreviatis, infra has 3-4 jugis subito valde 
reductis auriculiformibus ca. I mm. longis et latis, medialibus maxi- 
mis 8 cm. longis, 1.5 cm. latis, subfalcatis, utrinque glaberrimis vel 
subtus ad costas pilis longis nonnullis deciduis instructis, apice 
integro breviter acuminata excepto pinnatifidis, superioribus serratis 
vel integris. Laciniis approximatis, sinubus rotundis angustis sepa- 
ratis, integris, parum obliquis, acutis, 2.5 mm. latis, basalibus 
aequalibus vel posteriore paulo longiore. Venis distinctis, approxi- 
matis, ca. 10 jugis, simplicibus. Soris margini approximatis, parvis ; 
indusiis deciduis, glabris. Sporangiis glabris. 

This new species is different from all known species by the pecu- 
liar lanose pubescence of the stem and lower part of the rachis. It 
is evidently a member of the Sprengelii group, although it is rather 
small and has few veins, which, however, are closely placed. In 
color it is not unlike typical D. cheilanthoides from Brazil. Remark- 
able also is the reduction of the lamina. Below the 3 or 4 pairs of 
gradually reduced pinne is a similar number of suddenly reduced 
very small auricles, not glanduliform warts, as in certain species of 
the Sprengelii group. Further must be mentioned the nearly entire 
upper pinne. ‘The position of the species in my “system” must be 
before no. 76, D. strigifera. 

To this species belongs, I have no doubt, as a forma minor, Don- 
nell Smith’s no. 2463, also from Guatemala (Department of Guate- 
mala, 4800 ft.). It is quite identical in pubescence, but smaller (20 


NO. 1867 AMERICAN FERNS—CHRISTENSEN 395 


cm. by 6 cm.), with a very short stem and only 3 or 4 indistinct 


veins. 
DRYOPTERIS PTERIFOLIA (Mett.) Kuntze 


(REVISION 327, No. 78, Fic. 49.) 


GUATEMALA: Pansamala, Depart. Alta Verapaz, 3,8co ft., von Tuerck- 
heim (J. Donnell Smith 971); Donnell Smith 1551. Trail from 
Senaht to Actala, Alta Verapaz, rocky bank at border of forest, 
Maxon and Hay 3311. Coban, 1350 meters, von Tuerckheim II. 2181. 

Bouivia: Yungas, 6,000 ft., Rusby 1885, sine num. 


A large species with pinnz up to 25 cm. long by 4 cm. broad, the 
cost and costules clothed sparsely beneath with stiff, patent hairs. 
In my “Revision” I considered Nephrodium retrorsum Sodiro the 
most developed form of this species. It is, however, rather a variety 
with pendent pinnz; none of the specimens listed above, although 
very large, show this peculiarity. The species is apparently exin- 
dusiate, and the sori show a tendency to elongation; the receptacles 
are setose. 

In my “Revision” I have supposed that Alsophila pilosa Mart. and 
Gal. belongs to D. rudis, and not to D. pterifolia. The Guatemalan 
specimens listed above seem, however, to agree completely with the 
plate of Martens and Galeotti, and most probably Professor Hier- 
onymus was right in regarding A. pilosa as a synonym of D. ptert- 
folia. 

This Central American form is a very large plant, and it may he 
doubted whether it is conspecific with true D. pterifolia, which was 
described from scanty material from Bolivia. Still, the Bolivian 
specimen listed above is to me not specifically distinct from the Cen- 
tral American form, although considerably smaller and more soft- 
hairy. 

A further synonym of D. pterifolia is Aspidium gleichenioides 
Christ.1 I omitted this form in my “Revision” because Dr. Christ 
described the lamina as “basi vir attenuata.’ However, an exam- 
ination of the type specimen from Costa Rica, Tonduz 1935, shows 
at once that it belongs to the group of D. opposita and not to the 
group of D. patens, as Christ supposed, and, further, that it can 
scarcely be separated from D. pterifolia. The hairs of the cost and 
costule beneath are somewhat more autrorse than in common D. 
pterifolia, but it agrees otherwise. 


*Aspidium gleichenioides Christ, Bull. Herb. Boiss. II. 4: 960. 1904; Dryop- 
teris gleichenioides C. Chr. Ind. Fil. 268. 1905. 


396 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


DRYOPTERIS CHEILANTHOIDES (Kunze) C. Chr. 
(REVISION 329, No. 82, Fic. 51.) 


Jamaica: Without locality, Jenman; Hart. Near Hardware Gap, 4,000 
ft., moist bank, Maxon 1104 (= Underwood 2220). 
GUATEMALA: San Rafael, Zacatepequez, 6,500 ft., Donnell Smith 2560. 


I have now no doubt that the Jamaican specimens belong here; 
they agree in habit and other characters exactly with the type from 
Brazil, but recede a little by their small, fugacious indusia. The 
Guatemalan specimen has, on the contrary, very large indusia, but 
its pinnz are more hairy along the coste beneath than in the type. 
It seems to be without glands, thus belonging to my variety eglandu- 
losa. An excellent mark for this species is the lower basal segment, 
which in the well-developed pinnz is considerably longer than the 
other ones. Synonyms of this species are: Nephrodium Sprengelu 
var. persicinum Jenman (Journ. Bot. 17: 261. 1879) and Lastrca 
grossa Presl (Epim. Bot. 41. 1851). 


NOTES 
THE CypR@A NOTATA REVIVED 


The first “new species” described by Dr. Theodore Gill was a 
cowry named by him Cyprea notata. It was described in 1858 in 
the Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York (vol. v, 
p. 255-257, pl. 9, figs. 1-3); it had been found among other cowries 
said to have come from Singapore. Although rather a striking and 
handsome species, it was overlooked or regarded as a mere variety 
of some other species till 1g07._ Then it was revived and recognized 
as a perfectly distinct species by J. G. Hidalgo in his monograph of 
the genus Cyprza (“Monografia de las especies vivientes del género 
Cypreea”’), published in Madrid. Hidalgo refers to the same species 
the Cyprea macula of Adams, described in 1867, and the C. inter- 
punctata of Brazier, indicated in 1895. He takes the same view of 
its relationship as Gill did. Specimens have been found in a number 
of places ranging from Arabia (Aden) to New South Wales (Port 
Jackson) and Polynesia (Funafuti). It is, however, a rare species, 
and there are only two specimens in the United States National 
Museum, one of which has long been labeled Cyprea notata and the 
other C. macula; neither is a typical representative of the species.— 
THEODORE GILL. 


ESTABLISH MENT OF THE LANGLEY MEDAL 


At the annual meeting of the Board of Regents in December, 
1908, there was established a medal to be known as the Langley 
Medal, in recognition of Mr. Langley’s contributions to aerial navi- 
gation, and to be awarded by the Institution from time to time for 
specially meritorious investigations in connection with the science of 
aerodromics and its application to aviation. Following precedent, 
the Secretary later appointed a Committee of Award, composed of 
the following-named gentlemen of recognized attainments in the 
science of aerodromics: Mr. Octave Chanute, of Chicago, Chairman ; 
Dr. Alexander Graham Bell; Major George O. Squier, U. S. A.; 
Mr. John A. Brashear, of Allegheny, Pennsylvania, and Mr. James 
Means, formerly editor of the “Aeronautical Annual,’ Boston, 
Massachusetts. 


397 


398 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


AWARD OF THE LANGLEY MEDAL 


At a meeting of the Board of Regents on February 10, 1909, the 
Langley Medal was awarded to Wilbur and Orville Wright by the 
adopton of the following resolution: 

“Resolved, That the Langley Medal be awarded to Wilbur and 
Orville Wright for advancing the science of aerodromics in its ap- 


plication to aviation by their successful investigations and demon- 
strations of the practicability of mechanical flight by man.” 


This was not only the first. award of the Langley Medal, but was 
the first official recognition in America of the achievements of the 
Wright brothers. 


CONGRESSES AND CELEBRATIONS 


DARWIN CELEBRATION.—At the commemoration by the University 
of Cambridge, England, on June 22 to June 24, of the centenary of 
Charles Darwin’s birth (February 12, 1809) and the fiftieth anni- 
versary of the publication of the “Origin of Species” (November 24, 
1859), Secretary Walcott represented the Institution. While in 
Cambridge, Doctor Walcott was honored by the conferring upon 
him of the degree of Doctor of Science, in recognition of his investi- 
gations of the early geological formations. 


PAN-AMERICAN SCIENTIFIC Concress.—At the first Pan-Ameri- 
can Scientific Congress, held in Santiago, Chile, December 25, 1908, 
to January 5, 1909,-Mr. William H. Holmes, Chief of the Bureau 
of American Ethnology, who represented the Institution, read a paper 
on “The Peopling of America.” The Congress decided to hold the 
second Pan-American Scientific Congress in Washington, D. C., in 
IgI2. 

ARCHEOLOGICAL CONGRESS.—At the Second International Arche- 
ological Congress, held in Cairo, Egypt, at the Latin Easter, 1909, 
upon suggestion of the Institution, Mr. Albert M. Lythgoe, of the 
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, and Prof.:Paul V. C. 
Baur, of Yale University, were designated by the Department of 
State as representatives of the United States. 


UNIVERSITY OF GENEVA CELEBRATION.—Dr. James Mark Baldwin, 
Professor of Philosophy and Psychology in Johns Hopkins Univer- 
sity, Baltimore, was designated to represent the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion at the three hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the foundation 
of the University of Geneva, held in Geneva, Switzerland, July 7 to 
10, 1909. 


NO. 1868 NOTES 399 


ANNIVERSARY OF UNIVERSITY OF Leipzic.—Dr. William H. Welch, 
of Johns Hopkins University, has been appointed delegate on the 
part of the Institution to the celebration in Leipzig, from July 28 to 
30, 1909, of the five hundredth anniversary of the founding of the 
University of Leipzig. 


GRANTS 


A grant of a considerable sum was recently made from the Hodg- 
kins Fund for the erection during this summer, on the summit of 
Mount Whitney, California (14,500 feet), of a stone and steel struc- 
ture to be used by investigators in the study of astrophysics or in the 
prosecution of any other researches for which high altitudes and 
clear atmosphere are desired. 

An allotment was approved for the erection on Mount Wilson, 
California, of a shelter for the Smithsonian observers of the Astro- 
physical Observatory during the summer months, when conditions 
for solar radiation measurements are peculiarly favorable. 

An appropriation from the Hodgkins Fund is being devoted to the 
construction of several copper-disk pyrheliometers, these instruments 
to be lent to observers in different parts of the world for the purpose 
of establishing an international scale of pyrheliometry. 

A considerable grant has also been made by the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution on behalf of Professor J. P. Iddings, of the United States 
Geological Survey, for the collection in Manchuria of Cambrian fos- 
sils and rocks, and in Japan, Java, and neighboring countries of 
volcanic rocks. 


hy we tiers 


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PUBLICATIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 


CoNTINUED FROM List IN QUARTERLY IssuE, Vou. V, Part 2 


No. Title. Series. Price. 
1858 Git, THropore. Contributions to the Life Histories of 

Fishes. Vol. I, 1904-1907. (Reprints from Smiths. Misc. 

Coll., Ann. Rep. Smiths. Inst. and Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.) 


LG) OS RMN set 2a) hasten Vaan eeile = teikceas go) arinhe Petar’ ya /alevere es Sp. 
1859 Classified List of Smithsonian Publications Available for 

DistuibuionsmVlanchenQOOs | 1GOOk 1. - sev-c seis cles cere er Sp. 
1860 Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Quarterly Issue, 

Vol. 5, Part 3 (containing Nos. 1861-1868). 1909...... M.C. 52 .50 
1861 Git, TuHEoporr. The Archer-fish and Its Feats. (Quar- 

LET NAURS SILC?) oem WOOO sage rate ayers oa aha ta soce whch veh Savehenc fol eats) alae a M.C. 52 
1862 ARNOLD, JULEAN H. The Peoples of Formosa. (Quarterly 

TAS SAU CD MARLO OD) erst ce Oar reset See aR Mees occa fo sifotapeasNe oes ore aes See M.C. 52 
1863 FuLcHER, Gorpon Scorr. Our Present Knowledge of Canal 

Rays: A Detailed Bibliography. (Quarterly Issue). 

TOO OMI PR Ree re ct Tne esa ed stoke kearer> ereveaieherere M.C. 52 
1864 TRUE, FREDERICK W. Observations on Living White 

Whales (Delphinapterus Leucas); with a note on the 

dentition of Delphinapterus and Stenodelphis. (Quar- 

EOP MMPS CD) MPT OOM ee pees ee Oe. area iach. i ov otnse tatian ards M.C. 52 
1865 Hate, Grorce EF. Hamilton Lecture: Some Recent Con- 

tributions to Our Knowledge of the Sun. (Quarterly 

ESS ICN) Em LOO Os ete epithe ane Te eats ee, Savane ane eha Ne chal nates shoe MiGs 52 
1866 DatLt, WitttaAM H. Some New South American Land 

Sell ss ( Owarterly lssweie sOOOk. :.01.1.)ccsleee aa ain « so o> = Mac 52 
1867 CHRISTENSEN, Cart. American Ferns of the Group of 

Dryopteris Opposita contained in the U. S. National 

Miursetmss (Ouantenlyn iisste). WQ00%. ..2140-52 e109. =: M.C. 52 
1868 Notes to Quarterly Issue, Vol. 5, Part 3. I909............ IMNGS 52 
1869 (In preparation). 
1870 (In preparation). 
1871 BECKER, GEorcE F., and VAN OrstrRAND, C. E. Smithsonian 

Mathematical Tables—Hyperbolic Functions. 1909..... Sp: 4.00 


4or 





VOL. 52 1909 


SMITHSONIAN 
MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 


VOL. » QUARTERLY | Issue PART 4 


BREEISLORIC-RUINS OF THE GILA, VALLEY 


By J. WALTER FEWKES 


Wire Five Plates 


At the close of the author’s field work at Casa Grande, Arizona, 
in the spring of 1908, he received a grant from the Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution for comparative studies of the same type in 
the Gila Valley and its tributaries. The following pages contain a 
report of this work, including some additional data collected in 
former years. The present investigation is limited especially to that 
type of mounds supposed to indicate Great Houses like Casa Grande, 
the type of buildings characteristic of southern Arizona. As the 
particular object of the study is to determine the geographical exten- 
sion of ruins of this kind, many buildings, like cliff dwellings and 
cavate rooms, common on the northern tributaries of the Salt, as 
the Verde and Tonto rivers, are not considered.? 

The Casa Grande type of buildings is practically found only in 
the plains bordering the Gila, Salt, and Santa Cruz rivers, where we 
have every reason to suppose this specialized form of structure first 
arose and later reached its highest development. Although it is 
probable that this type, somewhat modified, occurs in the Tonto and 
San Pedro valleys, it has not yet been recognized along the Verde 
and does not occur, so far as exploration has thus far gone, in the 
highlands in which the Salt and Gila rivers originate. It was of 
course impossible, considering the vast extent of desert in which 
these ruins are situated and the short time at the disposal of the 
author, to visit all of the ruins in these regions. Although the 
present report cannot be regarded as exhaustive, yet it is believed 


1The forms and general archeological features of the Casas Grandes of 
Chihuahua appear to be identical with those of Casa Grande in Arizona, but 
as the pottery objects are wholly different in the two regions, it would appear 
that there were important cultural differences. 


403 


404 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


to embrace the more important clusters of the Casa Grande type in 
the valleys under consideration. Small mounds? with fragments of 
pottery or broken metates indicative of habitations are scattered over 
the plain in every place in the desert where irrigation was possible. 
Their number and distribution indicate a considerable population, 
often settled at some distance from the great dwellings, but gener- 
ally near remnants of the prehistoric irrigation ditches that one con- 
stantly encounters in these regions. 

The level plains bordering the Gila River and its tributaries were 
inhabited in prehistoric times by an agricultural people having a 
homogeneous culture. The prehistoric inhabitants built houses of 
two types: the one large, often several stories high, with massive 
walls, and the other, of more fragile character, serving for their 
dwellings. The material with which the latter were built and the 
manner in which they were constructed were not sufficiently durable 
to resist the elements, and the walls have fallen, augmenting the 
height of the debris accumulated at their foundations. Sand blown 
by winds has drifted over the ruins, covering the rooms and forming 
mounds over them, from which, in a few cases, there still project, 
a few feet high, irregular fragments of the original walls. 

When the Gila Valley was first visited by the Spanish explorers 
the projecting walls of these buildings were more plainly visible than 
at present and their true character and architecture were more ap- 
parent. It was at that time easier to recognize the characteristic 
type of structure of the buildings to which they belonged, for the 
walls are now almost completely buried. The massive walled build- 
ings in these plains were early called Casas Grandes, or Great 
Houses,? one of the best of which, the historic Casa Grande, still 
preserves the ancient type. A knowledge of these houses, derived 
from laying bare the walls by excavations, shows that in their form 
and construction they are characteristic. They differ radically from 
cliff dwellings, pueblos, or those other prehistoric constructions in 
our Southwest,? with which, however, they have certain affinities. 


*Many artificial mounds in the Gila Valley show no indication of walls. 
Among these may be mentioned those formed of refuse or trash heaps and 
accumulations of earth incidentally thrown up in digging reservoirs or irriga- 
tion ditches. The sites of “mescal pits” or depressions in the earth where 
mescal was formerly roasted are indicated by earth much darker than that of 
the surrounding plain. 

*’The words “Casas Grandes” and Great Houses are used as synonyms of 
compounds, : 

* The four types of prehistoric dwellings in the Southwest may be known as: 
(1) cavate habitations; (2) cliff dwellings; (3) pueblos; (4) compounds. 
The essential difference between (1) and (2) is that the former are dug out 


NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 405 


The architectural features of these prehistoric buildings of the 
Gila plains is well shown in the historic Casa Grande, which may be 
designated, for purposes of study, a “type ruin.” Its walls have now 
been excavated and are well preserved, showing the best example 
of other Casas Grandes scattered over the valley of the Gila and its 
largest tributary, the Salt River. The predominating feature of this 
Gila type of ruin is a rectangular inclosure bounded by a massive 
wall oriented about north and south and inclosing buildings, large 
and small, courts, and plazas. From the universal existence of a 
protective surrounding wall, the author has designated this type of 
prehistoric ruin a “compound” to distinguish it from other prehis- 
toric ruins of the Southwest above mentioned, with which it has 
little in common. 

Although the more striking mounds of this valley are formed of 
the debris of these great houses, or Casas Grandes, there is good 
evidence that the prehistoric inhabitants built synchronously with 
these other less conspicuous dwellings, which are not unlike the 
ancestral dwellings of the Pima, Sobypuri,t and Papago. These 
dwellings were rectangular in form. Their walls were supported 
by upright logs, between which were woven matting or possibly 
branches of the cactus called ocatilla, the whole frame being covered 
with adobe. The floors of such houses were made of mud firmly 
trodden down, while the fireplace was a simple depression near the 
middle of the floor, generally in front of a doorway opening in the 
longest side. We may suppose that the roof was also constructed 
of mud laid on boughs or split logs, the interstices being filled 
with mud. 

A typical prehistoric settlement of the Gila may be supposed to 
have been composed of buildings constructed of massive walls one 
or more stories high and smaller huts or jacales (Aztec, xa, earth; 
calli, houses), the upright walls of which were supported by logs. 
Both types of houses occur in the rectangular area that has been 


of the cliff, while the latter have taken advantage of natural caverns. The 
two types grade into each other, and no strict line of demarkation separates 
one from the other. The essential feature of the compound is the surround- 
ing wall, which is sometimes morphologically represented in aboriginal build- 
ings known as pueblos. 

*The walls of houses of rancherias of the Sobypuri in the San Pedro are 
spoken of by Father Kino as made of “palos” (sticks) and “petates” (mat- 
ting), the chinks being filled in with clay or mud. No reference is made in 
his account of buildings in this valley with massive walls, although the 
“capilla” at Victoria may have been a special house made of stone and set 
aside for ceremonial purposes. 


406 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


called a compound inclosed by a massive wall over breast high for 
protection.* 

In some instances nothing remains of the larger buildings, in 
others there is no indication of those with more fragile walls, but in 
both cases the surrounding wall is present and constructed of clay 
or stone, whichever material was most convenient for the builder. 
The two kinds of rooms would seem to indicate a dual use,” or that 
the rooms with massive walls were constructed for a purpose dif- 
ferent from those with fragile walls supported by logs. ‘The former 
may be supposed to have been used for ceremonials, councils, protec- 
tion from foes, or for granaries, while the latter served simply as 
habitations. 

If the number of walled compounds in the Gila Valley is any 
indication of its former population, it is apparent, from their number, 
that many people inhabited this part of southern Arizona in prehis- 
toric times. As bearing on this point, attention may also be called 
to the fact that the ancient aboriginal population was more or less 
scattered and not confined to these great compounds, or even to their 
immediate vicinity, for there is abundant reason to suppose that they 
had many dwellings on farms situated between them and dotting 
what is now a desert. ‘The prehistoric population of the Gila Valley 
may have risen into the thousands, and it is not too much to say that 
the number of Indians in the valley at the advent of the Spaniards 
could not have been more than a tithe of what it was in prehistoric 
times. 

For convenience in the presentation of the subject, the prehistoric 
compounds of the Gila Valley have been grouped geographically as 
follows: 1, Compounds on the Gila; 2, Compounds in the Santa Cruz 
Valley ; 3, Compounds in the Salt River Valley. 

The first of the above groups includes those mounds of Great 
Houses scattered all the way from the upper Gila,* or the vallev 


* Refuse heaps and other artificial mounds without walls are almost always 
found just outside the surrounding walls of the compounds. 

* Cushing, who apparently found the same “thin-walled” buildings, ascribed 
them to an “ultra urban” population, and Bandelier (Final Report) suggests 
that they were late Pima constructions. ‘There seems no good reason to doubt 
that they were dwellings as old as the massive-walled structures and con- 
structed by the same race. 

* Mr. F. H. Cushing writes, “Preliminary Notes,” p, 184: “Contemplating the 
numerous structures in no fewer than thirteen cities, scattered throughout a 
single valley not exceeding seven hundred and fifty square miles, * * * we 
are impressed not only by the prodigious industrial energy qf their builders 
and makers, but also by the unavoidable conclusion that they harbored popula- 
tions far denser and more numerous than heretofore had been deemed (by 
scientists at large) possible, in reference to any group of ancient North 
American remains.” 


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NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 407 


called Pueblo Viejo, to the so-called Gila Crossing; the compounds 
of the Salt River are strung along this river from near Mesa to the 
junction of the Salt and Gila, while the Great Houses of the Santa 
Cruz extend from the old missions at Tubac and Tumacacori, in 
southern Arizona, past the mission, San Xavier del Bac, to the 
isolated peak Picacho and the point where this river is lost in the 
sands of the desert. Mounds marking the former sites of these 
Great Houses occur on both sides of the rivers mentioned near to or 
remote from their banks. 

There are evidences that these Casas Grandes were most numerous 
in regions of the Gila Valley, where at the present day the white 
population is the densest. In other words, large settlements of 
Americans now occupy some of the same sites that the aborigines 
chose for the construction of their compounds. This occupation by 
a later race has led in some instances, as at Tucson, the oldest white 
settlement in Arizona, to the almost complete destruction of all evi- 
dences of these Great Houses of the aborigines. The same is true 
of the settlements near Phcenix and Mesa, where we note the same 
reduction in size and rapid disappearance of the ancient mounds. 
On the other hand, the desert south of the Gila, at Casa Grande, or 
the plains of the Santa Cruz between Red Rock and the “mouth”? 
of the river, show mounds indicative of former Casas Grandes more 
scattered, smaller in size, and fewer in number. 

It appears that the valley of the Salt River in the neighborhood of 
Phcenix, Tempe, and Mesa was the most densely populated region of 
this whole drainage area and apparently contained the oldest settle- 
ments. These facts may be ascribed to the ease with which the 
plains in this region could be irrigated as compared with other parts 
of the valley, or may have been due to the presence of more fertile 
land in those localities. 

The mounds in the valley above mentioned are known to the 
Pima Indians as the old houses (vaaki) and are associated with 
certain chiefs, called civans, whose names vary with localities. The 
following ruins and corresponding chiefs, recorded by Dr. Frank 
Russell in his monograph® on the Pima Indians, may be mentioned: 


‘In the upper Salt we find several other types of ruins, the most striking of 
which are the two large cliff dwellings (pl. xxxviul, figs. I, 2) a few miles 
from Roosevelt Dam. 

? Atcin, Pima word for mouth of the river. 

*26th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology. 

According to the legends published by Dr. Russell the Great Houses were 
formerly inhabited by the Vulture or Red people, the A’kol, A’pap, and A’puki. 


408 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOI,. 52 


Casa Grande, Sia’-al Teu-vtaki, Morning Blue. 
Santan, Kia/-atak, Handle. 
Ruin four miles northwest of Tcuf/haowo-o, Dipper. 
Santan, 
Sweetwater, Ta’-a, Flying. 
Casa Blanca, Tco’-otcuk Ta’tai, Black Sinew. 
Gila Crossing Ruin, Teu/narsat, Lizard. 
Mesa (name ?), A’-an Hi’ttipaki, Feather Breathing. 
Tempe (name?), Vi/ik V’alt Ma’kai, Soft Feathers Rolling. 


The author has found that different Indians apply other names to 
the above ruins, but although their nomenclature of individual 
mounds varies, all refer a name of a chief to each of the larger 
clusters. 

The geographical center of the culture area, characterized by 
Great Houses inclosed in compounds, as indicated by the largest 
number and purest architectural forms, lies near Phcenix, Tempe, 
and Mesa.t. The San Pedro, Santa Cruz, upper Gila, and Salt and 
the northern tributaries of the Salt are frontiers of this area, the 
culture being considerably modified by local environment. 

For convenience in treatment, the mounds or ruins in the region 
under consideration will be classified as follows: I, Middle Gila 
Valley Compounds; II, Santa Cruz Valley Compounds; III, Salt 
Valley Compounds; and, IV, Ruins on the San Pedro. 


I. MippLE Gita VALLEY COMPOUNDS 


The more prominent of the Great House mounds of the Gila are 
the following: 1, Ruin 15 miles east of Florence; 2, Ruin 3 miles 
east of Florence; 3, Ruin near Florence; 4, Escalante ruin; 5, 
Tcurikvaaki (Ruin near Adamsville) ; 6, Ruin 5 miles east of Casa 
Grande; 7, Casa Grande; 8, Ruin on right bank of Gila opposite 
Blackwater; 9, Santan; 10, Ruin 4 miles west of Santan; II, Snake 
ruin; 12, Sweet Water; 13, Casa Blanca; 14, Ruins at Gila Cross- 
ing. ‘The following ruins have been associated with names of chiefs 
(civans) who inhabited them: 7, Casa Grande; Sialim tcutuk 
(Green or Blue); 11, Taa (Flying) ; 13, Tcuk tatai (Black Sinew) ; 


14, Tcunarsat (Lizard). 


These people were conquered by Elder Brother in the following order: (1) 
Casa Grande; (2) an extensive “pueblo” at Santan, the pueblo of chief Tcuf’- 
haowo-o; (3) Sweetwater, ruled by Ta’-a; (4) Casa Blanca, pueblo of 
Teo’-otcaik Ta’tai; (5) Vultures pueblo; (6) Tcu’narsat’s pueblo at Gila 
Crossing; (7) that of A’an Hi’tipaki at Mesa; and (8) Vi'ik T’alt Ma’kai, 
at Tempe. 

‘The Septenary arrangement of these Great Houses and compounds to 
which Mr. F. H. Cushing, op. cit., ascribed considerable importance is not 


evident. 


NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 409 


The architectural features characteristic of the Great Houses in 
the middle Gila appear also in the ruins in the upper Gila, or the 
so-called Pueblo Viejo, Old Pueblo, in which are situated the towns 
San José, Solomonsville, Safford, and Pima, considered in a previous 
report’ on the ruins of that region. 

There are many localities in this region of the Gila Valley where 
there are fine examples of ancient pictographs, among which may be 
mentioned those cut on cliffs near Sacaton and on the lava hills 
north of the river. About six miles east of Florence there are 
pictured rocks that are particularly interesting. 


1.—Ruvuin 15 Mines East or FLORENCE” 


This ruin (fig. 65) has the rectangular shape characteristic of 
a compound, and its surrounding wall measures approximately 
222 by 12oitcet. It is sit- 
uated a few miles north 
of the old road from 
Florence to Old Fort 
Grant. Not far’ from 
this ruin there can still 
be seen two old reser- 
voirs,, called by the P1- 
mas “vashki’ and by 
the Americans “Indian 
tanks.” One of these Fic. 65.—Ccmpound 15 miles east of Florence 
contained water at the 
time of the author’s visit; the bank*® of the other tank was washed 


out and cut in two, so that it resembled two mounds and is so desig- 
nated by the cow-men who have stock in this region. One of these 
“vashki” or “Indian tanks,” (fig. 66) is identical in shape with the 
problematically ‘oval mound” at Casa Grande, suggesting a sim1- 


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larity in use. 


150d Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology. The compound 
as a distinct type of Southwestern ruin was not recognized in this report. It 
is recognizable at the Epley Mound, which is the central citadel of a compound 
near Solomonsville. 

? Florence, the capital of Pinal County, is the most conveniently placed city 
from which to visit most of the Gila compounds in the eastern region, and 
Sacaton, the Pima agency, is the best point of departure for those visiting 
ruins on the Pima reservation. 

*There are no walls built around the depressions, but they are surrounded 
by a bank of earth thrown out of the depression. ‘This fact was determined 
by digging a cross-section of the bank of the “oval mound” at Casa Grande. 


410 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VO!,. 52 


Another so-called “Indian tank,” situated in a valley six miles 
from the two reservoirs mentioned above, was used by Sr. Paisano 
for watering his stock when the author visited the place. It con- 
tained considerable water at that time (March), and from its geo- 
graphical position is supposed to be the reservoir in the valley west 
of the Tortilla Mountains, which is designated as a “tank” on the 
United States engineers’ map of 1879. Everything indicates that 
this is undoubtedly an old Indian reservoir. 


2.—RuIN 3 Mites East or FLORENCE 


This ruin, having the form of a low mound, is situated not far 
from the main irrigation ditch of Florence and about three miles 





Fic. 66.—Ancient Reservoir 


east of that town. Although the compound form is not easily 
detected in this mound, there is no doubt that it belongs to the 
characteristic ruins of the Gila-Salt Valley. The absence of smaller 
mounds in its neighborhood indicates that this settlement was never 
of great size or importance. In the immediate neighborhood of 
the modern irrigation ditch that now furnishes Florence with water 
were found several sections of a much older, perhaps prehistoric, 
ditch that once irrigated the fields cultivated by the aborigines 
near the settlement. 


NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEW KES 4II 


3-—RuIn NEAR FLORENCE 


This mound is of considerable size and is situated a short walk 
from the town, on the south side, near a settlement of Papagos. It 
is referred to in the author’s account! of excavations made at Casa 
Grande in 1906-07, where a plan of the compound is published. 

The author visited the large modern reservoir south of Florence 
and searched carefully for a “ruin” which is designated on several 
maps, but failed to find it. A small mound was discovered near 
the bank of the reservoir, but larger “buildings” which were re- 
ported by several Americans did not materialize.2 There are 
mounds in the broad stretch of desert between the reservoir and 
the prehistoric buildings at Picacho which several reliable men 
whose stock “run” in this region have described in detail, but the 
author was unable to locate them with any certainty. 


4.—ESCALANTE RUIN 


It is recorded that when Father Kino’s party, in 1694, followed 
down the left bank of the Gila, Sargent Escalante and some com- 
rades swam this river to visit a ruin the walls of which they had 
observed on the opposite bank. All that now remains of this 
“tower” is supposed to be the mound situated about a mile west of 
Posten’s Butte, which is nearly opposite Florence and about the 
same distance from the right bank of the river. 

Mr. H. C. Hodge thus refers to a ruin not far from Florence: 


“Four miles to the west of Florence, on the line of the canal, are the ruins 
of another old town, the outlines of some of the buildings being easily traced. 
One of them is 120 feet long, and 80 feet wide. It was surrounded by a wall 
of concrete and stone, portions of which now remain; and this wall was 130 
feet long on two sides of the building and 225 feet long on the other two sides, 
forming a kind of court-yard enclosing the buildings. This court-yard was 
filled in on the south and east sides with earth to the depth of four feet.” * 


Possibly the ruin here referred to is that which the author has 
called the Escalante ruin, or it may be Tcurikvaaki. 

Although the standing wall that once attracted Escalante’s atten- 
tion as a tower has now fallen, a high mound marking the position 
of a massive walled building or “citadel” and the low ridge, indi- 


‘Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Quarterly Issue, Vol. IW Soy <P 
1907. 

? One or more were possibly destroyed when the reservoir was constructed. 

* Arizona as it is, or the Coming Country, 1877, p. 182. 


412 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


cating the surrounding wall of a compound (fig. 67), can still be 
traced. Rough measurements of the last-mentioned wall show that 
its dimensions were about 210 feet by 120 feet. ‘The ruin is situated 
not far from the railroad from Mesa City to Florence. In the 
springtime it can be readily seen from a distance as a mound of 
earth looming above the cacti and mesquites. The walls of this ruin 
were partially constructed of stones, none of which now project to 
any considerable height above the surface of the ground. 

Apparently the Escalante compound had, in addition to a cen- 
trally placed building, a cluster of rooms in its northwest corne;x. 
There are also other mounds near it, indicating rooms in the neigh- 
borhood, although some of these show no signs of walls and were 
evidently piles of debris or rubbish heaps. 

This settlement was supplied with water by one of the best- 
preserved ancient irrigating ditches the writer has seen in the 
Gila-Salt Valley. This 
ditch follows the Gila 
from a point several 
miles higher up the 
river and extends to 
the neighborhood of 
the Escalante ruin, 
where it is lost in 
“laterals” or minor 
subdivisions. At a 
point near Posten’s 
Butte, the southern 
side of which it skirts, 
the banks of this prehistoric ditch are head high and can be traced 
for many hundred feet without difficulty. The writer has been 
informed by an old Mexican, who lives in Florence, that when a 
boy he saw old stumps of logs in this ditch at the point where the 
banks are highest and he believed that these stumps were remnants 
of a prehistoric gate. 

In the following quotation Mr. H. C. Hodge’ refers to a pre- 
historic irrigation ditch on the north side of the Gila near Posten’s 
Butte : 


“About two miles west of Florence, on the north side of the river, between 
the homes of Mr. Stiles and Mr. Long, is a stretch of hard, stony land, 
through which another of the large irrigating canals was cut, and where for 
several hundred yards one can ride on horseback in the canal, which is yet so 
deep one cannot look over its banks on either side when sitting on his horse.” 





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‘ Arizona as it is, or the Coming Country, 1877, p. 182. 


NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 413 


5.—TCURIK VAAKI 


There is a large ruin a short distance south of the abandoned 
American village, Adamsville, called also Sanford’s Mill, which is 
one of the largest and most instructive in the valley. The Pima 
name for Adamsville is tciirik, the Turk’s head cactus, which would 
seem an appropriate name for 
the neighboring ruin. It con- | 
sists of a cluster of mounds 
(fig. 68), among which rises 2 
large central elevation that 
may be identified as the citadel 
of a compound. In addition, 
there is a clan house with four 
well-preserved walls above 
ground and an oval depres- 
sion surrounded by a bank of 
earth which may have been a 
vashki or ancient reservoir. Te 
The most conspicuous of these “t= —<—}S!} 
mounds is the citadel, which Prenioee Meurie vas 
looms high above the plain 
and is visible for a considerable distance, but the walls' that are best 
preserved are those of the clan house a few hundred feet away. 


CLAN HOUSE 





== = — ==> 


WELL 





= = 





6.—RvuIN 5 MILES East oF Casa GRANDE 


This ruin is conspicuous for a considerable distance, its largest 
mound or citadel being clearly visible from the last-mentioned 
mound. It lies about half way between Tcurik vaaki and Casa 
Grande and was apparently once a settlement of considerable size. 
It is still pointed out by the Pimas, who retain the name Uturituk? 
for this place. 

_ Two sections of the surrounding wall of this compound still project 
several feet above ground on the east side, indicating that it was 
similar to the surrounding wall of the Casa Grande compound. 

There are prehistoric mounds on the north bank of the Gila about 
opposite Blackwater, not far from a modern Pima settlement con- 


‘These are figured in the author’s account of the excavations of Casa 
Grande in 1907-1908. 

*The author has heard the ruin Casa Grande called Uturituk, probably a 
confusion of names of the ancient and more modern settlement. 


414 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


taining several houses. The largest of those, which may be called 
conspicuous, is situated a few feet from a house belonging to the 
mother of Juan Enos, a Pima workman employed by the author in 
his work at Casa Grande. No walls of buildings stand out of the 
ground, but the general character of the mounds show that in form 
the ruins were compounds like those on the south bank of the river. 
There are many pictographs on the lava hills north of this mound, 
which resemble those shown in the accompanying illustrations (pl. 
SEXIER), 
7,—Casa GRANDE 


The general character and architectural features of the Casa 
Grande cluster of mounds will be described elsewhere* and will 
therefore not be here considered. 

A lagoon mentioned in early writings as Cumani or Laguna was 
probably situated not far from where the Santa Cruz in times of 
flood empties into the Gila. ‘The mouth of the river is near Sacaton 
Flats, known to the Pimas as Huring, “place of the standing 
cactus,” and is mentioned by Fathers Font, Garces, and other early 
visitors. The name Cumani is adopted from their writings. 


8—RuIN Opposite BLACKWATER 


The Pima village called Blackwater, near Casa Grande, is com- 
paratively modern, its inhabitants being descendants of certain 
families which moved there from Casa Blanca a few years ago. 
Previously, however, or at the time Casa Grande was first visited 
by the Spaniards, there was a Pima settlement near its site, called 
Uturituk or the place at the angle or corner.* Although the exact 
site of Uturituk is now washed away, the banks of the river at that 
point having been much modified by the changes in its current 
from the approximate position. 


9.—SANTAN RUIN 


There are mounds at Santan, on the north side of the Gila, oppo- 
site Sacaton.2 These mounds resemble those of Casa Grande and 


1A view of the largest compound is shown in the author’s preliminary re- 
port on Casa Grande for 1907-1908. 

* Referring to the island in the Gila near this place. Dr, Russell calls Casa 
Grande, Tcdolttik, Pima word for “corner,” which is believed to be a part of 
the sivan or chief's name, Sialtcutuk, Morning Blue, or Green. 

® Good views of the Santan Ruin, the ruin west of Santan, and that at Sweet- 
water are given by Dr. Russell in 26th Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Eth., pl. 1, 
a, b, and c. 


XXXIX 


S27 ,PE. 


VOL. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 





SALT VALLEY 


PICTOGRAPHS FROM GILA 





NO. 1873. PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 415 


preserve traces of the same compound architecture or buildings with 
a surrounding wall. They show signs of sporadic digging by ama- 
teurs, but have never been systematically excavated. 


Io.—RvuIN 4 MiLEs WEsT oF SANTAN 


This ruin, like that at Santan, is situated on the north side of the 
Gila and is a large mound surrounded by a rectangular wall. It 
apparently belongs to the compound type. 


II.— SNAKE RUIN 


Snake Ruin, north of the Gila, was not visited by the author. 
From reports it is believed to be a compound. 


I2— SWEET WATER RUIN 


There is a low mound surrounded by a wall to the left of the road 
from Sacaton to Casa Blanca which shows the compound type. A 
plan of this compound has been published in a preliminary report on 
Casa Grande. 

13.—CasA BLANCA RUIN 


The mounds at Casa Blanca are among the largest in the Gila 
Valley and the compound wall of one of them is most extensive. 
In the middle of the last century, according to a contemporary 
writer, the walls of this building projected above the ground, but 
today they are level with the surface of the mound, though they 
can be readily traced. The mounds in the neighborhood indicate 
that this was formerly a settlement of importance and large size.? 
A considerable number of Pima Indians, possibly descendants of the 
ancients, now inhabit a cluster of houses west of the main mounds. 


14.—RUIN AT GILA CROSSING * 


The mounds situated a short distance from Gila Crossing are 
extensive, but have not been studied by the author. From descrip- 
tions by those who have visited them, it appears that one or more 


* Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Quarterly Issue, Vol. IV, 1907. This 
was a vaaki of considerable size, having one or more compounds, clan houses, - 
burial mounds, and a large circular or oval well or reservoir with low banks. 
The indications are that its size was greater than that of the Casa Grande 
group of buildings. 

* This compound is called by some of the Pimas Tcunarsat vaaki, or Lizard 
Old House. Many folk tales are current among Pimas and Papagos concern- 
Ing it. 


410 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


has the true compound form or type identical with the Casa Grande 
and Florence region. 

It is desirable to explore the mounds reported from Gila Bend, 
which are supposed to be old habitations of the ancestors of the 
Maricopas. 

II. Santa Cruz River COMPOUNDS 


The mounds indicating Casas Grandes along the Santa Cruz 
have the same general characters as those of the Gila and Salt 
rivers. ‘The typical compound architecture characteristic of the 
plains along the Gila almost universally prevails in this region. 

The Santa Cruz is not a constant stream, but in portions of its 
course may be called a subterranean river, the water literally flow- 
ing as a subway sometimes at a considerable depth. Near the Gila 
it is generally just below the surface, but its presence above ground 
is indicated by alkali lagoons, as at “Cumani,” not far from Sacaton 
Flats. There are several mounds of large size along the valley of 
this river marking the sites of former Casas Grandes. Among 
these may be mentioned the Picacho settlement and those in the 
vicinity of Tucson, the most ancient Spanish settlement in Arizona. 
Numerous large ruins south of Casa Grande railroad station, near 
the road to the Vekol and other mines, belong to this same drainage 
area. 

The Casas Grandes of the Santa Cruz will be considered under the 
following headings: 1, Ruins near Tucson; 2, Chakayuma; 3, 
Aquituno ; 4, Quitoac; 5, Ruins near Kwahadt Indian Villages. 


1.—Rvuins NEAR Tucson 


The valley of the Santa Cruz from the city of Tucson south 
appears to have been the most densely populated in prehistoric times. 
In this part of the valley the stream rose to the surface, and the 
supply of water was probably more constant here than farther down 
the river, where it was less available for agricultural purposes. 

The author failed to find in the immediate neighborhood of 
Tucson any large mounds, such as occur in the deserts near Casa 
Grande or in the midst of the cultivated fields at Mesa and Pheenix, 
but near the city there are mounds bearing evidences of several old 
Indian rancherias or vaaki.1 These, however, have been consider- 
ably reduced in size and so worn down that in most instances they 


‘The term bac in San Xavier del Bac, Tubac, and other names of settle- 
ments or sites may be a contraction of vaaki, old house or old ruined house. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XL 





b 


RUIN AT EL RANCHO DEL TUCSON 





NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 417 


are inconspicuous. The land in this neighborhood has been culti- 
vated for several generations, the valley at this point being one of 
the earliest settled portions of Arizona. 

About a mile south of the site of the former presidio of Tucson 
there are remains of old mounds (pl xt, figs. a, b), out of which, 
according to Hon. Samuel Hughes, who settled in Tucson in 1853, 
there formerly rose cajon or caliche walls. One of these mounds 
was of considerable size, suggesting the central building of a com- 
pound. The author has been informed by several persons that 
formerly low massive walls projected out of this mound, which 
statement, if true, would indicate that this was actually a compound. 
It is about the center of a group. In the immediate neighborhood 
there is a cluster of Papago huts, the place being known to old resi- 
dents as El Rancho del Tucson.? 

The first mission at Tucson was called by the oldest inhabitants 
Casa de los Padres, and was established at another Indian settlement 
on what is now the Grosetta Ranch, about three miles down the 
Santa Cruz from Tucson. The rancheria Santa Catalina was not 
far from this neighborhood. Here and at various other points on 
the Rillito, up the Santa Cruz north and northwest of the old Rancho 
del Tucson, there are low mounds on which are still found scattered 
fragments of Indian pottery indicating ancient aboriginal rancherias. 
It is, however, extremely difficult to distinguish historic from pre- 
historic sites of dwellings, both of which are found in numbers near 
‘Tucson, in the valleys of the Rillito and Santa Cruz. 

The elevated land west of the city of Tucson called ‘Tumanoac 
or Lizard Hill, has on its sides and near its summit walls, trin- 
cheras, or lines? of fortifications constructed of blocks of lava, near 
which are many boulders bearing pictographs, thus indicating the 
former presence of the aborigines. 

Some of the best pictographs in this region, the general character 
of which appears in the accompanying plate® (pl.xi1), are clustered 
on the cliffs about 5 miles west of Tucson. 





‘Several writers assert that the Pima word Tucson means black water, but 
other informants declare that it means black foothills; took, black; son, foot- 
hills, referring to the laval flows of the ‘Tucson Mountains, 

“Similar lines of stones set upright are also found in the valley. These 
could hardly be called trincheras. Their interpretation is doubtful. 

“From a photograph by Dr. MacDougal, Director of the Carnegie Desert 
Laboratory, to whom the author is indebted for an opportunity of visiting this 
locality. 


418 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


On the north side of the Santa Cruz Valley, in the Tortilla Moun- 
tains opposite Tucson, there are several ruins, some of which have 
walls standing high out of the ground.* 


2.—CHAKAYUMA 


This ruin lies at the foot of the northwest point of the Tucson 
Mountains, about 18 miles from Tucson, opposite the station Rillito, 
on the Southern Pacific Railroad. "The face of the mountain, called 
by Garces “Frenta Negra,” bears many pictographs, and lines of 
trincheras, fortifications, are still visible on the summit. The settle- 
ment spreads over several acres, the houses consisting of low mounds, 
with indistinct evidences of walls and many fragments of pottery. 
The sites of these houses are generally marked by rows of stones 
set on edge. ‘These stones in some cases formerly supported and 
protected the bases of the walls, which were held upright by logs 
now much decayed. Shallow excavations at this place revealed 
the face of the wall in which these upright stones had been set and 
a hard clay floor, upon which was generally found a layer of char- 
coal. Evidently the stones served the same purpose as the logs 
found at Casa Grande, the remainder of the walls and the roof 
being constructed of perishable material, possibly brush or ocatilla 
cactus. 

Several good vases, one of them in the collection of the University 
of Arizona, at Tucson, have been excavated at this ruin, which seems 
rich in specimens and offers unusual advantages for further study. 


3.—AguituNo Ruin (AxkurTciny, RUSSELL) 


There are several mounds, indicating ancient Casas Grandes, not 
far from the desert butte, Picacho, that were not visited by the 
author. 

The site of Cutcia vaaki (Kistcoit, Russell), frequently mentioned 
by the early Spanish priests, has not yet been definitely made out, 
but was possibly east of Picacho, and maybe the mounds at Aqui- 
tuno are remains of this settlement. 


1 . . . < 5 . 33 . 
A site near Tucson mentioned in “Garces’ Diary” as Laguna still bears the 
saine name. Professor Blake, of the University of Arizona, has shown the 


author ground plans of ruins in the Tortillas and Mr. Brown reports stone 
ruins with high walls. 


NOSONL YVAN 44170 NO SHdVYDOLO!d 





1X “Td ‘ZS “10A 


SNOIL037109 SNO3NVI7390SIW NVINOSHLIWS 





NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 419 
4.—QuitToac RuIN* 


Another cluster of mounds in the neighborhood of Picacho,” 
also not visited by the author, appears from reports to be the remains 
of a considerable prehistoric settlement. In the time of the Spanish 
fathers there were apparently several Pima rancherias in this local- 
ity, which was a constant halting place in early visitations. 


5.—Ruins NEarR Kwauant INDIAN VILLAGES 


South of the railroad station called Casa Grande, on the Southern 
Pacific Railroad, there are Indian villages inhabited by Kwahadts, 
Papagos, and Pimas.? Near one of these settlements there is a 
cluster of mounds, one or two of which are large, indicating build- 
ings of compounds like those at Casa Grande and elsewhere along 
the Gila and Salt rivers. 

The largest cluster of these mounds has been described to me as 
situated on the road from the “Jack Rabbit Mine” to the “Reward 
Mine,” near an Indian village about 6 miles south of the former. 
The informant said that while the general appearance of the mounds 
resembled those of Casa Grande, there were no extensive walls 
above ground. 


IlJ].—Sarit RivErR CoMPoUNDS 


The majority of ancient mounds of the Salt River Valley lie in 
the neighborhood of Phoenix, Tempe, and Mesa City. Although 
house walls are now generally hidden, their exposed tops, when 
traced, show the same compound structure as those of the Gila 
between Florence and Casa Blanca. Seven such compounds exist 
in the neighborhood of Phcenix, as shown in Mr. Patrick's map,* 


* Kihu, carrying basket; toac, mountain. 

* Called by the Pimas Taatukam (Russell) Tacom, which appears in Spanish 
writers as Ttacca, Taceo, or Quitcak. Dr. Russell mentions the following 
ruins near Picacho: 1, “Small pueblo ruin” northeast of the mountain, 15 
miles from the river; 2, East of the mountain “Kistcoit Vatcik,” Table Tank; 
north, Mo’ok‘ Vatcik, Sharp Tank; west, A’alt Vap‘tck, Small Tanks; north- 
west of Akttciny, small pueblo ruins. 

*The region extending south from the Southern Pacific Railroad to the 
Mexican boundary is ethnologically a most interesting one, pleading for visits 
of both ethnologists and archeologists. 

*’'The best published map we have of the distribution of aboriginal ruins and 
irrigation ditches in this region is by Mr. Patrick, of Phcenix, Arizona, to 
whom the author is indebted for many kindnesses. 


2 


420 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


and it is probable that there were formerly others unrecorded, which 
have in the course of time been leveled to the surface of the culti- 
vated fields. ‘There are also other signs of former settlements of 
smaller size, many smaller mounds, and banks of irrigation ditches 
and canals lined with rows of stones, indicating lateral branches. 

In general appearance the prehistoric mounds of the Salt River 
Valley resemble those of the Gila, but the ground plans of a few 
of them are larger than any of the Gila Casas Grandes. None of 
them show walls standing above ground, a fact indicating great age. 

The Salt River Valley ruins are commonly regarded by the Pimas 
as older than those along the Gila and Santa Cruz. The legends of 
these Indians declare that the culture of their builders was somewhat 
more advanced and older than that of the Gila, but that the com- 
pounds of these two regions were inhabited simultaneously. It is 
said that there was a constant communication between them, and 
that the relations were not always friendly. An examination of 
the ruins of the two regions indicates that those of the Salt are more 
ancient than those of the Gila and the Santa Cruz. 

The Salt River Valley compounds may be divided into three 
groups: A, Phcenix Ruins; B, Tempe Ruins; C, Mesa City Ruins. 


A.—PHCNIX RUINS 


The ruins and prehistoric irrigation ditches in the neighborhood 
of Phoenix have been studied by Mr. Patrick, who as surveyor has 
for many years professionally visited almost every part of this 
valley. ‘The city itself is built on the site of one or more prehistoric 
settlements, which have long ago disappeared, its very name being 
derived from its relation to other more ancient settlements of the 
region. 

The ruins near Phoenix here considered may be grouped as fol- 
lows: 1, Patrick Compound; 2, Kalfus Mounds; 3, Heard Mounds. 


I.—PAatTRICK COMPOUND 


This cluster of mounds lies on the left of the road from Phoenix 
to Tempe, about half the distance of the Great Tempe Mound from 
the former city. In its neighborhood there are now many houses, 
the leveling of the ground for which has greatly changed the aspect 
of the place since the author’s visit in 1892, but outlines of walls 
and ditches can even now be traced. 


NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 421 


2.—KatFrus Mounps 


West of Phcenix there are two large mounds that may be called 
the Kalfus Mounds, both of which, especially the smaller, are being 
rapidly destroyed. A road has been cut through one of these and 
the material is being rapidly carted away for use elsewhere. 

The larger of the two ruins west of Phoenix has the compound 
shape, its surrounding wall measuring 500 by 260 feet, the orienta- 
tion being about north and south. This surrounding wall incloses 
two large mounds (fig. 69) in addition to one or two smaller eleva- 
tions, which are evidently remains of rooms. ‘The material of one 
of the Kalfus mounds is almost pure adobe, but there are no stones 
in the walls. The larger Kalfus mound was constructed on a slight 


SS 


wa 
stn hs Sa 
ZAMAN ROSES 
HENS 
Hues 


ait 
Tati 
Gan 
"trigy 


$e 
CRAG Cre ns 





Fic. 69.—Kalfus Mound 


natural elevation ; the smaller of the compounds measures 275 by 210 


feet. 
3.—HeEarp Mounpns? 


One of the ruins south of the Salt River, opposite Phcenix, called 
Ruin E, by Mr. Patrick, has been considerably leveled by plowing. 
It consists of a cluster of mounds, including one with an oval form 
which is much mutilated.? 

It is very difficult to trace the surrounding wall of this ruin or to 
determine whether it was a compound, but another large mound on 
the same side of the river is surrounded by a rectangular wall, the 
west side of which is about 200 feet and the south 150 feet long. 


"This “caleche” is much sought for by Americans, as it makes a very firm 
road-bed. 

* The author was guided to these ruins by Mr. Heard, owner of the property 
on which they stand. 


422 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


B.—TEMPE RUINS. 


The several ruins near Tempe have the same general compound 
structure as those in the Gila Valley, namely, mounds inclosed in 
surrounding walls.1. It would appear that the largest compounds 
exist in this region, where there are some of the best preserved 
prehistoric irrigation ditches in Arizona. 

There are several descriptions of the Tempe ruins that might be 
quoted. Mr. J. H. Bartlett's account is as follows :? 


“On reaching the great pile, I found it to be the remains of an adobe edifice 
from two hundred to two hundred and twenty-five feet in length, by from 
sixty to eighty feet wide, its two sides facing the cardinal points. Portions of 
the wall were visible only in two places, one near the summit, at the south end, 
where, from the height of the pile it must have originally been three or four 
stories high; and the other at the northern extremity, on the western side. 
These remains just projected above the mass of rubbish and crumbled walls. 
The rest formed rounded heaps of various heights and dimensions, worn into 
deep gullies by the rain, the whole presenting a striking resemblance to the 
mound which marks the site of ancient Babylon. 

“The higher walls seen in the sketch probably belonged to an inner portion 
of the building. Near this is a conical hill, formed, doubtless, by the crum- 
bling away of the higher portion or tower. Near the wall, which projects from 
the lower portion, at the northern end, are two large masses of this wall 
which have fallen. The adobe is still very hard, so much so that I could not 
break it with the heel of my boot. Several broken metates, or corn-grinders, 
lie about the pile. I picked up a stone pestle and some small sea shells. 
Along the eastern side are the remains of a long wall, extending beyond the 
building, now but a rounded heap, which seemed to have formed an enclosure. 
On the western side is an excavation about four feet deep, and extending from 
sixty to eighty feet from the main heap, and along its entire length, from 
which I suppose the mud and gravel to have been taken to make the adobe. 
To the northeast, about a distance of two or three hundred feet, are the ruins 
of a circular enclosure. This was not large enough for a canal; nor could it 
have been a well, as it is too near the margin of the plateau where the canal 
ran, which would always furnish a supply of water. At the south, two hun- 
dred yards distant, are the remains of a small building with a portion of the 
wall still standing. 

“From the summit of the principal heap, which is elevated from twenty to 
twenty-five feet above the plain, there may be seen in all directions similar 
heaps; and about a mile to the east, I noticed a long range of these ruins 
north and south, which the Indians said were of a similar character to that on 


*From this region and Mesa City have been obtained some of the finest col- 
lections of prehistoric objects found in this valley. Among these may be men- 
tioned the complete series collected by the Hemenway Expedition at Los 
Muertos and that of Dr. J. S, Miller, obtained from various points in the 
valley. 

* Personal Narrative of Explorations and Incidents, 1854, p. 245. 


NO. 1873. PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 423 


which we stood. In every direction the plain was strewn with broken pottery, 
of which I gathered up some specimens to show the quality, as well as the 
style of ornamentation.” 


Mr. H. C. Hodge’ thus speaks of the Tempe ruins: 


“Six miles east from Phcenix, and two miles from the Hellings mill, now 
owned by Major C. H. Vail, are the ruins of a large town, near the center of 
which is one very large building, 275 feet long and 130 feet wide. The debris 
of this building forms a mound which rises thirty feet above the surrounding 
plain. The walls are standing about ten feet in height and are fully six feet 
thick. There seem to have been several cross-walls, and the whole was sur- 
rounded by an outer wall, which on the south side was thirty feet from the 
main wall; on the east, sixty feet; on the north, one hundred feet; and on the 
west side sixty feet. 

“On the north and at the northwest corner were two wings, perhaps guard 
or watch houses. On the south of the outer wall was a moat, that could be 
flooded with water from a large reservoir fifty yards to the south. Several 
other large reservoirs are at different points in and around the main town, 
which was over two miles in extent. 

“A large irrigating canal runs to the south of the large building, which was 
from twenty-five to fifty feet wide. This canal took the water from the 
Salt River eight miles above, and can be easily traced for twenty miles or 
more below. * * * The largest of the old irrigating canals visited and 
examined by the author is some twenty-five miles above Phcenix, on the south 
side of the Salt River, near the point where the river emerges from the 
mountains. This one, for eight miles after leaving the river, is fully fifty feet 
wide. For this distance it runs in a southwest course through hard, stony 
ground, and enters on a vast stretch of mesa or table-land, which extends 
south and southwest from thirty to sixty miles, having an elevation above the 
river of nearly one hundred feet. 

“At about eight miles from where this great canal leaves the river, it is 
divided into three branches, each twenty-five feet wide, one of which runs in 
an east of a south course, one nearly south, and the third southwest, the three 
probably carrying water sufficient to irrigate the whole of the immense plateau 
before mentioned. Two miles west of where the main canal branches are 
the ruins of a large town, which extends along the mesa for many miles. 

“Near the center of this town are the ruins of the largest building yet dis- 
covered. Its ground measurement is 350 feet by 150 feet, with outer walls, 
moats, embankments, and reservoirs outside the main walls, and ruins of 
smaller buildings in all directions. 

“On the line of the branch canals, distant many miles from this one, are 
other ruins of towns similar to the others described. Below the great canal 
and the large ruin described, extending through what is called the Tempe 
settlement, are other irrigating canals of nearly equal size to the others, and 
which were taken out of the river many miles below the large one mentioned, 
and along there are also the ruins of great houses and towns.” 


Father Sedelmair, according to the last authority, described a ruin 
36 miles below the Casa Grande, on the same side of the Gila. 


* Arizona as it is, or the Coming Country, 1877. 


424 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


The following quotation! evidently refers to the Tempe mound: 
sq y Pp 


“Several mounds were found on the Salt River measuring from 80 feet 
wide to 120 feet long. One of these is plainly discernible, as our illustration 
shows, from the stage road at La Tempe. On the other side of the river two 
mounds larger in size are to be seen, one near Hayden’s mill and the other 
close to East Phcenix. Mr. Bartlett, as well as other explorers, calls attention 
to the fact that the pieces of pottery so widely scattered show that the vessels 
were all painted or glazed white inside, an art which the Pima and other 
Indians do not possess. The La Tempe mound was measured by him, and 
found to be from 200 to 225 feet long by from 60 to 80 wide. This would 
give a much larger edifice than the Casa Grande. It is true to the cardinal 
points of the compass—a peculiarity common to all these ruins and mounds. 
Father Sedelmair also describes the La Tempe mound, and gave an account, 
too, of the three-storied building or ruin there which he found at the junction 
of the Gila and Salt rivers.” 


1.—Great ‘TEMPE MouNnp 


The largest of all the mounds is the Great Tempe mound,? on 
the left of the main Phcenix-Tempe road, about 4 miles from the 


peeled OV eV RD y 
we CMd cane 
Rn everett PES TO EN LOS 


w 
=A 
Qa 
= 
w 
FE 


AMIS 
4 PBN \ 

TTIW 
ae fires 





Fic. 70.—Great Tempe Mound 


former city. This is probably seen by more white people in the 
course of a year than any other ruin in Arizona. It is conspicuous 
from the railroad and is a marked object in all the surrounding 
country. The main mounds with their walls form one of several 
clusters, covering more than 40 acres, evidently formerly one of the 
largest settlements in the Gila-Salt Valley. 





* Hinton’s Handbook to Arizona, pp. 411-412. 
* This is possibly the ruin called by Dr. Russell by the name of the chief, 
S‘o’am Nyu‘i vaaki. 


NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 425 


The largest compound (fig. 70) is oriented north and south, the 
wall surrounding it being approximately 353 by 246 feet in dimen- 
sions. The north wall and the northeast and northwest angles of 
the compound are entire, and were the earth removed would show 
unbroken corners: ‘The whole west wall from the northwest to the 
southwest corner is likewise in fair condition, but the southwest 
angle, the southwest wall, and the southeast angle are more or less 
broken, the latter having been washed away by the “Cross-cut” 
canal. ‘The road following this canal cuts across the southeast side 
and the Phcenix-Tempe road has more or less obscured or destroyed 
the south wall. 

The large central mound of this compound has been somewhat 
mutilated.t It is from 15 to 18 feet high and shows walls of many 
rooms, some of them constructed of stone laid in adobe with smooth 
surfaces. ‘This mound was evidently once covered with fragile 
walled buildings like those on Compound B of the Casa Grande 
group, but at present the supports have decayed and the walls are 
covered by fallen debris. 

There are several other smaller mounds in this group, among 
which may be mentioned a circular depression or reservoir, vask1, 
1,400 feet north of this compound. About 2,230 feet north of it 
there is a cluster of mounds, one of them in part excavated many 
years ago by Mr. F. H. Cushing.? 

Of the several other mounds in this vicinity the largest has the 
form of a compound and is situated about 600 feet west of the 
first. This compound has the general form of the type, but it has 
no central mounds indicating large buildings. Apparently its rooms 
were fragile walled habitations and it closely resembles Compound C 
of the Casa Grande group. 


2.—CARROLL, COMPOUND 


This compound, situated about a mile and a half west of Tempe, 
was not visited in 1907, but was examined by the author in 1892. 
The massive walled building is considerably worn down and reduced 
almost to the level of the surrounding plain. 


* Excavations into the east side of this mound were made several years ago 
by the Arizona Antiquarian Society. The idea that the rooms of this mound 
were subterranean is erroneous, and the indications are that there were floors 
one above another as at Compound B, in the Casa Grande group, one room 
being built on the debris that had accumulated after the lower had been 
deserted. 

*From the many small mounds in this vicinity this cluster of rooms was 
called Los Pueblitos by Mr. F. H. Cushing, who first opened them. 


420 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLFCTIONS VOL. 52 


C2=VMESAV GLE RUINS 
I.—STEWART COMPOUND 


The largest ruin near Mesa, situated about two miles and a half 
north of the post-office, is one of the largest ruins in the Salt River 
Valley. It is now occupied by Mr. S. O. Stewart and called the 
“Aztec Poultry Farm.” His house and outbuildings stand in the 
northeast corner of the compound. 

This compound is one of the largest and the best-defined in the 
Salt River Valley, measuring 430 by 250 feet. Its orientation is 
practically north and south, the majority of the mounds being on the 
left side. The surrounding wall can still be traced by the slight 


RVECE CCE EEE E RECTOR ROCCE T eee COE TRO CECE HHO COEEUCEe ange Nicisi ROU UEUCRMUL SES SECIS UUSE MELON en Cer, 


Waianae 


Tay ee eettreane 
1 uw ' 
Hn why 


4 


== 

Ws! 

ISS 1 
SW 

ws AN S 





verte ts 
SMU Ls 
Om) 
AYA 


4, 
O14 


AAV 


SANS 
= 


D 
¥ ’ Vee wt ' ' Vey -- Tren my my . 
Mi OAM Vin u Nat Wels LEP UT UUUT CED eTT Cea iy { yyy aan WE teaya VEC VOUP VE UD pa te Ane 


Fic. 71—Stewart Compound : 


swell in the surface of the earth. Several rooms that have been 
excavated exhibit smooth, well-polished walls. 

There is a circular mound with depressed interior and raised 
bank, reminding one of a similar “well”? (vaskki) at Casa Grande, 
situated a short distance from the compound. 


2.—Los MUuERTOS 


The mounds called by Mr. F. H. Cushing “Los Muertos,” are 
those in the Salt River Valley where much work was done by the 


‘Mr. Cushing gives an account of oval structures or “sun temples” having a 
distinct resemblance to the hollow mound at Casa Grande. According to him, 
these “sun temples” had smooth floors with fireplaces, banquettes, and evidences 
of ceremonial use. Remnants of the upright logs that formerly supported a 
roof and method of construction of the roof are described by Cushing. 


NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 427 


Hemenway Southwestern Expedition.t The remains are now in the 
midst of cultivated fields; many formerly conspicuous are invisible, 
having been reduced to the surrounding level. These mounds are 
of great interest as the site of the first archzological field work in 
this valley. 


3.—DRAINES’S COMPOUND 


Although the compound situated on Mr. Draines’s farm is now 
almost wholly destroyed, its great mound rises as a white or ash- 
colored elevation in the midst of the cultivated fields, and is con- 
spicuous for some distance, being easily seen from the railroad train. 
A ditch divides the mound into two parts. 

There are many instructive pictographs (pl. XxxIx, figs. a, b, and 
c) not far from the Salt River. 


TV.—RUINS ON THE SAN PEDRO. 


The San Pedro River, the largest tributary of the Gila on the 
south, is in fact the only one of size which rises in Mexico and 
flows approximately north with highlands on both sides. It is sup- 
posed that the trail taken by Coronado in 1540 on his trip to Cibola 
(Zuni) followed the San Pedro Valley, through which we know 
Father Kino passed in 1694. Although this was the only known 
route from Mexico to the unknown north in the 17th century, it 
was abandoned by the Spaniards in favor of the valley of the Santa 
Cruz in the following century. 

A study of the ruins on the San Pedro leads one to believe that 
the ancient structures in this region had certain features of the Gila 
compounds. It is evident that they had stone walls built for protec- 
tion, inclosing areas in which were erected the fragile walled domi- 
ciles of the people. Within this inclosure were also other buildings 
with massive walls corresponding to the houses in the compounds of 
Casa Grande. 

The San Pedro Valley was inhabited in 1694 by the Sobypuri, 
agricultural Indians of Pima stock, and from the scanty records 





‘Preliminary Notes on the Origin, Working Hypothesis and Primary Re- 
searches of the Hemenway Southwestern Archeological Expedition. Congrés 
International des Americanistes, 7th session, Berlin, 1888. 

It will be seen by a comparison of the author’s interpretation of the Casa 
Grande ruins with those given in this pioneer work that they differ in some 
particulars. The oval structures at Los Muertos called sun temples were not 
recognized at Casa Grande or the other ruins here considered. The author in- 
terprets the fragile walled buildings as the same as the thin-walled rooms 
described by Mr. Cushing. 


428 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


that have come down to us it appears that they lived in rancherias 
and cultivated farms, the whole valley being artificially irrigated. 
Their chief, named Coro, accompanied Kino down the river past 
these rancherias, the names of which he mentions. In 1694 the 
contest between Sobypuri and Apaches had begun, but the former 
still held possession of the valley. Later, however, the Sobypuri 
having been forced from their homes, the tribes along the San Pedro 
Valley became hostile to Europeans, and the valley ceased to be a 
line of communication between Mexico and the Gila. For over 150 
years following this expedition the trail to the north from Mexico 
passed along the Santa Cruz River by way of Tucson and through 
the gap at Picacho into the deserts of the Gila. 

An examination of the configuration of the San Pedro Valley 
from a point 15 miles south of Monmouth to the junction of the river 
with the Gila has led me to believe that Padre Kino, after following 
the San Pedro many miles, left it opposite where old Fort Grant now 
stands, and marched west until he came to the Gila, not far from the 
present site of Florence. The place where he turned away from the 
river was probably the rancheria called Victoria del Ojio, not far 
from the ruin at the mouth of the Arivaipa, which empties into the 
San Pedro, but in his diary he says that on the 16th of November, 
“after mass,” he followed down the river 6 leagues until he came to 
the junction with the Gila. We cannot definitely say whether the 
rancherias mentioned by Kino stood on the same site as the ruins 
now found in the valley, but it is believed they did. He speaks of 
the houses as being made of “palos” or “petates,” or a kind of jacal 
structure, which we have reason to suppose housed the common 
people at the Casa Grande ruins. Probably the buildings with stone 
walls found in the San Pedro were structurally the same as those 
the author has called massive walled rooms at Casa Grande and 
served for citadels, granaries, or ceremonial buildings’ rather than 
habitations for the people. ; 

The existence of ruins along the San Pedro has been known for 
several years, but their character and the kinship of their former 
inhabitants have been a matter of speculation. A more exact knowl- 
edge of these ruins being desirable, the writer included them in his 
comparative studies and made a brief visit to the lower course of 
the river in April, 1908, when he examined several of the more 


“Kino speaks of one building as a “capilla,” chapel, as if it were different 
from others, but whether it was a massive walled house or not does not appear 
evident from his brief mention. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XLII 





RUIN OPPOSITE OLD FORT GRANT 


te re ae ri » 


Wee ae 


J 





NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 429 


important ruins in this part of this valley, entering it from the 
junction with the Gila. 

Prehistoric mounds of considerable size were first encountered 
in the immediate neighborhood of Dudleyville, at the mouth of the 
San Pedro. One of the most striking evidences. of the former 
presence of Indians at that point are the pictographs, possibly of 
Apache origin, in a cave not far from the road on the left bank of 
the river. Ruins are found at intervals as far up the river as the 
exploration was continued. 


I.—RUIN OPPosITE OLp Fort GRANT 


Old Fort Grant is situated a short distance north of the mouth 
of the Arivaipa Canyon, on the east side of the San Pedro. Di- 
rectly opposite the fort to the south, on -the low hills, there are 
remains of walls, rows 
of foundation walls, and 
piles of stones, indicat- 
ing the site of a con- 
siderable settlement (pl. 
MET hess 11. 2) Al 
though here and there a 
rock formation of red 
color “occirs1 in ~ this 
neighborhood, neither 
the walls nor the soil are 
red, so that environment 
adds little to support the 
theory that here was situated the red house (Chachilticalli)* of Cas- 
taneda. The rectangular arrangement of rows of stones character- 
istic of compounds is indicated in this ruin. ‘The east wall (fig. 72) 
of this rectangle measures not far from 250 feet. In the inclosure 
there is a large central mound composed of stones, .the altitude of 
which is from Io to 15 feet. 

On a neighboring mesa, situated a few hundred feet south of that 
on which the compound lies, there are many piles of small stones 
suggesting a cemetery. 

The author believes that the ruin near the mouth of the Arivaipa 


] 
wv. 
°, 
' 
| 
| 
| 
! 





Fic. 72.—Ruin opposite Old Fort Grant 


“It has been suggested that the building called by Castaneda Chachilticalli, 
or Red House, was situated near Old Fort Grant, but neither the rock in 
place, earth, nor stones that compose the walls examined by the author in 
that neighborhood have a red color. 


430 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


may have been the last rancheria on the San Pedro mentioned by 
Kino in 1694 and called by him Victoria del Ojio. The chief of 
this settlement was named Humari. It consisted of 70 houses, the 
walls of which were made of sticks and matting and contained 380 
persons. One of these houses was capacious enough to hold all the 
soldiers in the expedition. 


2.—RuIn Opposite MonMoutH 


Just across the San Pedro, opposite Monmouth, there is an inter- 
esting ruin, the stone walls of which are situated on an elevation 
overlooking the river. 
sates 


Ay 














is 2 tt 
sete 
Ayes 
' 


NUH 


= “Yh, , 


Sar . * 
ZL ipyare arts 
‘jf ern ree cere Nase ce alyssa 86 
Tee etn a 
"yee tt 


. 
= 


Fic. 73.—Ruin opposite Monmouth 


This ruin consists of a central building, the subterranean rooms 
of which, excavated by Mr. Childs, have a surrounding wall (fig. 73) 
inclosing a rectangular area measuring about 275 feet on the north 
and 178 on the west sides. The wall of this inclosure cannot be 
followed throughout, as there is a continuation of the wall beyond 
the rectangle on the south side. On the east side there are several 
rooms, the form and dimensions of which were not traced with any 
accuracy. ‘This settlement may have been Kino’s Tutoida,! said to 
have been situated 18 miles south of the mouth of the Arivaipa. 


*The rancheria at this point was composed of 20 houses and 100 souls, ac- 
cording to Kino’s diary. 


NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 431 


3.— SEVEN Mite RuIN 


This ruin is situated 7 miles from Monmouth, on the left bank of 
the river. One takes the road on the east side of the river to 
Clark’s ranch, then crosses it to the bluffs on the side. These bluffs 
have been very much eroded since the site was inhabited and many 
‘of the walls have been washed out, revealing many specimens of 
minor antiquities. 

The surface of the ground is covered in places with fragments of 
pottery. There are no high mounds, but the rooms are indicated 
by the tops of their walls projecting out of the sand. These rooms 
seem to have been arranged in blocks. 


\Utl AA wt 
RAN wit OCU et 
\ R i EN ity jANiN ISMN Leah Wee 







SEP yak 










Ly 
SS utettny 
St \} wy itt 


HUANG A bi, 


Peace eE] 





ETG 7a 
4.—RUIN NEAR CLARK’S RANCH 


This ruin is remarkable in having indications of circular rooms 
that remind one of kivas or subterranean “pit dwellings.” These 
resemble reservoirs or wells, their true nature being as yet unknown. 


5.—FIFTEEN MILE RuIN 


This ruin (fig. 74) is situated 15 miles up the river from Mon- 
mouth, on the opposite side of the road from a small ranch house. 
Not far from it there is a natural rock formation of red color that 
might be mistaken for a house perched on topof a much-eroded mesa. 
It is suggested that this building may have been at or near the site of 
Kino’s rancheria Arivaipa, which was not more than 27 miles from 
the mouth of the Arivaipa Canyon. 


432 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Specimens from San Pedro Ruins 


The only collection of small antiquities from the ruins along the 
San Pedro examined by the author are those owned by Mr. E. O. 
Childs, at Monmouth, who has kindly allowed the author to exam- 
ine and publish an account of them. ‘The prehistoric inhabitants of 
this valley cremated?* their dead, a vessel with calcined human bones’ 
having been found by the author near one of the houses at the ruin 
15 miles above Monmouth, where the majority of objects were 
obtained. 

The most remarkable specimen in the collection (fig. 75, a, b) is 
the figure made of black stone resembling lava and representing a 
quadruped with curved horns like those of a mountain sheep. The 
most unusual feature of the specimen is a circular depression in the 
back, notched on the rim, as shown in the figure.? 

Several clay effigy figures (fig. 75, c, f, 4), among which are the 
two-figured, have been found in the San Pedro ruins. An arrow 
polisher and a circular stone disk recalls similar objects found in the 
ruins on the Gila. Perhaps the most exceptional piece of pottery 
consisted of a double neck of a vase, d, of which the bowl is missing. 
The pottery is a dark brown ware, smooth on the surface and deco- 
rated. The people of the San Pedro had flat shovels made of slate, 
not unlike those from Casa Grande, and made use of perforated 
stones, g, and ornaments, e, recalling those commonly excavated in 
the Salt River Valley ruins. The culture of the people, as shown by 
the small collections of known objects, did not greatly differ from 
that of the rest of the Gila, but environmental conditions did not lead 
to the erection of Casas Grandes like those near Phcenix and Tempe. 


CoNCLUSIONS 


From the points where the Gila River and its two tributaries, the 
Salt and Santa Cruz, emerge from the mountains, their broad val- 
leys become level or rolling and slightly elevated, forming low mesas. 
These valleys are practically deserts, on which the rainfall is not 


“Two methods of disposal of the dead—one, house burial; the other, crema- 
tion—existed among the inhabitants of the Great Houses of the Gila-Salt 
region. ‘This might mean that two distinct peoples occupied this valley or that 
the builders of the Casas Grandes were composite in stock. Possibly it might 
be interpreted as an indication that one of the components was akin to tribes 
near the mouth of the Gila, where cremation is still practised. 

“There is a similar stone idol in the museum of the University of Arizona, 
at Tucson. 


NO. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—TEW KES 433 


ae ee ee 
Aah oT 
cee a 








fe 


Fic. 75.—Prehistoric objects from San Pedro Valley 


A434 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


regular enough for successful agriculture without irrigation. They 
present a good field for the evolution of a sedentary, agricultural 
stage of human culture dependent on artificial irrigation. The ex- 
tent of the aboriginal ditches that can be traced for miles show that 
the prehistoric inhabitants had discovered and applied a more exten- 
sive system of irrigation than any of their contemporaries who dwelt 
in other sections of what is now the United States. Here was 
developed a highly organized autochthonous stage of social life 
which we have good evidence to believe was of great antiquity.’ 
The indications are that it was from this center that there radiated 
a form of culture which influenced the whole area now embraced in 
the territories of New Mexico and Arizona and the southern parts 
of Utah and Colorado. 

In order successfully to bring an area of the size of the Gila and 
Salt River valleys under cultivation, the construction of large irriga- 
tion ditches was necessary, but these great canals could not be dug 
by individuals, and were possible only through cooperation of many 
workers. There must have been an intelligent leader to carry this 
work to completion. This cooperation of many under one head 
meant a high social organization. The natural result would be a 
sociological condition higher than any that existed among bands of 
hunters, fishermen, or even agriculturists depending on natural rain- 
falls. 

A people accustomed to building irrigation canals naturally be- 
came accustomed to cooperation and combined to construct other 
public works, as houses for defense, for ceremony, or for storage 
purposes. Hence there occur with these extensive irrigation ditches 
great houses, and wherever the population was the densest, there are 
great buildings and canals, the most numerous and largest.2 Such 
Casas Grandes as the Gila compounds are to be expected among 
people in this high social condition resulting from cooperation. 

There seems no valid objection to the theory that these settlements 
were built by ancestors of the present house-building Indians of the 
Southwest. It can hardly be supposed that the builders of these 
Casas Grandes disappeared from their native land without descend- 
ants, even if they lost the habit of constructing massive houses and 


“A somewhat similar culture arose independently in the valley of the Casas 
Grandes in Chihuahua, which in certain arts, as ceramics, reached a higher 
stage of development, perhaps being unmolested for a longer period. 

* The existence of artificial reservoirs, or vashki, in the deserts, miles from 
any compound, implies an aboriginal population in their neighborhood living in 
huts, or jacales, the walls of which can no longer be traced. 


No. 1873 PREHISTORIC RUINS IN GILA VALLEY—FEWKES 435 


compounds. ‘The ancient mode of life and difference in their style 
of building from that of Pueblos and Pimas are adduced to support 
the theory that the latter are not descendants of the inhabitants of 
the Casas Grandes. It is held that when the ancients left their 
houses they migrated into other lands, where we should now look 
for their descendants. This supposed disappearance of the ancients 
was a favorite theory with some early writers, like Clavijero, who 
identified the ancients of the Gila Valley as Aztecs and regarded 
these buildings as marking one of the halting places of the Mexicans 
in their southern migrations. Some authors have gone so far as to 
regard the Gila Valley as a cradle of Aztec culture.* 

Other writers have held that the descendants of the original peo- 
ples migrated into the northern mountains and later built the cliff 
houses and pueblos of northern Arizona and New Mexico. It is 
probable that certain clans were driven away from their homes and 
forced into other regions by the changed conditions as inroads of 
hostiles. This theory is in fact supported by legends still told by 
the Hopi and other pueblo people. It is logical to suppose that other 
clans of prehistoric builders remained in the valley and continued to 
live in houses similar to those their ancestors inhabited, even after 
they had lost the custom of building the massive walled structures 
that distinguish the ancient phase of their culture. The survivors 
of those who remained are the modern Pimas Kwahadts and Papa- 
gos, whose legends distinctly state that the ancients (hohokam) 
built Casa Grande. 

The abandonment of the custom of building Casas Grandes dates 
back to prehistoric times, and none of the great buildings in the Gila 
were constructed subsequent to the arrival of the Spaniards. Casa 
Grande was a ruin when Kino discovered it, and the great buildings 
along the Salt River appeared to have been abandoned before Casa 
Grande was deserted, for old Pima legends state that the Great 
Houses of the Salt River were the oldest in the valley. The war 
between nomads and the house-builders of the Gila, who overthrew 
the Casas Grandes, had practically ceased before the advent of the 
Spaniards, although in 1694 the Sobypuri along the San Pedro were 
holding back the Apaches,? a hostile encroachment from the east. 


*No doubt some of the people did migrate southward, but the acceptance of 
this conclusion does not mean that they later became Aztecs. There is little 
in common between objects found in the valley of Mexico and that of the Gila. 

* There is nothing to show that these people overthrew the inhabitants of the 
Casas Grandes, and it is much more likely that the earliest foes of the people 
of the Great Houses came from the west, from the Gulf of California. 


3 


430 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


A few years later the Sobypuri were forced westward and the 
Pimas, who were probably the offspring of an earlier union of hos- 
tiles and the house-builders they conquered, retreated to Casa Blanca 
and Sacaton, leaving the Apaches to raid the whole of the eastern 
part of the Gila Valley, including the San Pedro. 

The author would state in conclusion that he believes the abandon- 
ment of the Casas Grandes was brought about by an invasion of 
nomads from farther down the river, in prehistoric times. The 
aborigines who inhabited the valley of the Gila when the Spaniards 
first entered it were a mixed race, with blood of conquered and con- 
queror. These people—Pimas, Papagos, and others—practically 
inhabited fragile walled houses built in two forms—some rectangu- 
lar, others circular—the former of which were practically the same 
as those of their ancestors who built the Casas Grandes. The cir- 
cular dwellings may have been introduced by the alien prehistoric 
hostiles from the west. As the Great Houses on the Salt and Santa 
Cruz seem to have been destroyed before those on the Gila, the con- 
clusion would be that the prehistoric enemies came from the west and 
south. The advent of the Apaches and their struggles with the 
mixed race that replaced the builders of the Casas Grandes is a sub- 
sequent practically historical event. 


DESCRIPTION OF A NEW FROG FROM, THE PHILIPPINE 
ISLANDS 


By LEONHARD STEJNEGER 


Curator, DIvIsION oF REPTILES AND BatracuiAns, U. S. Nationa, MuszEuM 


Having received through the courtesy of Mr. Thomas Barbour a 
topotype of Duméril and Bibron’s Rana macrodon from Java, a sus- 
picion entertained by me for several years has received confirma- 
tion, namely, that the species occurring in the Philippine Islands, 
and commonly recorded as Rana macrodon, in reality is a well- 
differentiated form. I therefore propose to separate it under a dis- 
tinctive name. 

RANA MAGNA, new species 


Diagnosis—First finger longer than second; a distinct dermal 
flap along outer edge of fifth toe and metatarsal; no outer metatarsal 
tubercle; tympanum one-half diameter of eye, or less, its distance 
from eye larger than or equaling its own diameter; vomerine teeth 
in two oblique series between and behind the choane, their distance 
from the choanz nearly equaling the diameter of the latter; upper 
surface smooth, with numerous small pointed tubercles on sacrum 
and upper surface of tibia. 

Habitat.—Philippine Islands. 

T ype-specimen.—Cat. No. 35231, U. S. N. M.; Mount Apo, Min- 
danao, between Todaya and camp, 4,000 to 6,000 feet altitude; 
Dr. E. A. Mearns, collector. 

Description of type-specimen.—Vomerine teeth in two oblique 
series between and behind the choane, their distance from the 
choane nearly equaling the diameter of the latter; two bony “teeth,” 
6 mm. long, near the anterior end of lower jaw fitting into deep 
holes in the upper; head large, broad, its width at tympanum greater 
than distance from tip of snout to posterior rim of tympanum; snout 
short, rounded; canthus rostralis well-defined, angular; nostril just 
below canthus; distance between nostrils but slightly less than their 
distance from eye, greater than their distance from lip and greater 
than width of upper eyelid; interorbital space somewhat wider than 
upper eyelid; lores concave; tympanum very distinct, its diameter 
slightly less than one-half the diameter of the eye, and distant from 
the latter by nearly twice its own diameter; first finger longer than 


437 


438 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


second; toes fully webbed; fifth metatarsal and toe externally mar- 
gined with a dermal flap 2 mm. wide; digits terminated by well- 
developed knobs; subarticular tubercles well developed; inner meta- 
tarsal tubercle long and narrow, rather weak; no outer metatarsal 
tubercle; a distinct tarsal fold; heel of extended hind leg reaches 
between eye and nostril; heels not overlapping; skin loose, smooth, 
with numerous minute, pointed tubercles on sacrum and on the upper 
aspect of tibia, particularly towards the heel; a few blunt tubercles 
on the posterior part of upper eyelid; on the sides indications of 
blunt tubercles; a strong cutaneous fold from posterior corner of 
eye to above and behind tympanum; a distinct fold across the poste- 
rior part of the interorbital space. Color (in alcohol) above very 
dark chocolate brown, with faint indications of darker blotches 
which form obscure cross-bars on the hind legs; hind aspect of 
femur blackish with whitish marblings; underside pale, with dense 
brownish vermiculations on the legs and coarser and paler ones on 
abdomen, becoming very faint and indistinct on chest and throat; 
underside of hind feet and tarsus dark chocolate brown, with pale 
subarticular tubercles, tarsal fold and terminal digital knobs; a 
blackish band from nostril to eye and blackish blotches on upper 
and lower lips. 


Dimensions. 

mm 
Total length’ from snout to’ vents s.c2. feck che eke 113) 
SHOUCTIO “Eye. ck aa patcnes nce Oe eee eee 21. 
Snout to posterior border of tympanum............... 44. 
INDSttil SRG KEV C piece cal ectvetec/ad ale aod eee aie 
Distances hetween nostrils: jacs.c. ooh ca cee eee 10.5 
Interocbital swidthy sec. tact akec ck sass Rae eee 10.5 
Width ot wpper eyelid: 2.7.c.s0ces ce eeenenn te tee 8.5 
Diameter: OL eye isilsees calcos wen eak actrne eee oo eta TD, 
Diameter of tympani is.:fsonee homesick Cae ee ae a5 
Wadthéor head iat tympanumecs .. ssencete ie eee 45. 
POLE eS sale Te catia neces vane eet Eee 56. 
PUADIA gee ore ene axe are CaN eI oer che SEE 56. 


Remarks.—A large series of old, adolescent, and young specimens 
from Mindanao, Basilan, Mindoro, and Luzon bear out the charac- 
ters assigned to this new form. The younger specimens have a 
narrower head, longer and more pointed snout, and narrower inter- 
orbital space. It is therefore necessary, when comparing them with 
related species, always to select specimens of exactly the correspond- 
ing age. It is well to remember that the same size does not neces- 
sarily indicate the same age. 


No. 1874 NEW FROG FROM THE PHILIPPINES—STEJ NEGER 439 


Rana magna is most nearly related to Rana macrodon, which was 
originally described from Java, and has since been found in many 
of the other Malayan islands as well as on the mainland. It is a 
smaller species, however, and if we compare Philippine adult speci- 
mens with specimens of the same size from Java and Sumatra, the 
difference is indeed striking, because the latter, being so much 
younger, have a correspondingly longer snout and narrower inter- 
orbital space; but the differences are less striking if we compare the 
very largest western specimens with the oldest Philippine specimens— 
for instance, the type—though they are numerous enough and obvi- 
ous enough to demonstrate the distinctness of the latter. ‘The most 
important difference and the one which can be traced through all 
stages is that in the size and location of the vomerine teeth series. 
In Fk. macrodon these originate close to the inner anterior border 
of the choane and extend very obliquely backwards, while in R. 
magna they are separated from the choanz by a space almost as wide 
as the latter; their position is less oblique, sometimes almost trans- 
verse, and the series are also appreciably shorter. In addition, the 
tympanum is considerably smaller, apparently never exceeding one- 
half the diameter of the eye. The nostrils are also located more 
apart than in R. macrodon, besides many minor and less easily 
appreciated differences. 





A NEW GENUS OF FOSSIL CETACEANS FROM SANTA 
CRUZ TERRITORY, PATAGONIA; AND DESCRIP- 
TION OF A MANDIBLE AND VERTEBRE 
OF PROSQUALODON 


By FREDERICK W. TRUE 


Heap Curator oF Biotocy, U. S$. Nationa, MusrEuM 


Wit THREE PLATES 


Some months ago Prof. W. B. Scott, of Princeton University, 
placed in my hands for study two specimens of fossil cetaceans 
from Patagonia, one of which proves to belong to an undescribed 
genus; the other represents the genus Prosqualodon, and affords 
new information regarding the mandible, teeth, and vertebre. 

The first of these specimens (No. 15459) comprises two large and 
two small fragments of a skull of a fossil toothed whale, collected 
by the late J. B. Hatcher, April 24, 1899, in the Patagonian Beds at 
Darwin Station, Santa Cruz Territory, Patagonia. Upon examina- 
tion it proves to be an undescribed form, allied to Jia, but much 
larger. In order to bring it to the attention of cetologists I propose 
to describe it under the name of 


PROINIA PATAGONICA, new genus and species 


The specimen consists only of the cranium, from which the ros- 
trum has been broken off immediately in front of the blowholes. It 
has been strongly compressed vertically, so that the basioccipital and 
supraoccipital are nearly in the same plane. The blowholes have 
also been forced backward and upward. All the under parts of the 
skull anterior to the basioccipital, together with the earbones, jugals, 
and the right zygomatic process are lacking. “The remaining parts 
are in a good state of preservation, but the surface and contours 
have been considerably modified by excessive chiseling. 

The skull resembles Jnia more closely than it does any other 
recent or fossil form with which I am acquainted, but is much larger. 
The most salient points of resemblance are the strongly elevated 
vertex, consisting of the large, rectangular anterior median pro- 
cesses of the frontal; the relatively narrow orbital plates of the 
frontal; the anterior position of the orbit; the quite large temporal 


441 


442 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


fossee, bounded above by strong ridges, and internally by the convex 
surfaces of the parietals and squamosals. 

The similarity to /nia in the foregoing characters is close enough 
to make it quite certain that the form is really allied to that genus, 
but the skull presents differences of sufficient importance, in my 
opinion, to justify its separation under a distinct generic name. 
These differences are as follows: The free margins of the orbital 
plates of the frontal, instead of being nearly parallel, as in Jmia, 
diverge strongly anteriorly. The greater part of the surface of the 
plates is, furthermore, nearly horizontal, but is strongly curved down- 
ward anteriorly, and the external free margin is not bent upward. 
The temporal fossze appear not to have extended to or beyond the 
line of the occipital condyles, as they do in Inia, and the region of 
the exoccipitals is broad and flat, rather than narrow and concave, 
as in Inia. ‘The zygomatic process is oval and convex externally, 
as in many of the Delphinide, rather than rectangular and concave 
externally, as in Jia. 

The most anterior portion of the skull which has been preserved 
consists of the orbital plates of the frontal. These are smooth 
superiorly, and might be considered to consist of the maxillary and 
frontal plates consolidated, but the smoothness is, I think, due in part 
to excessive chiseling, and the structure, as shown in section at the 
broken edges, seems to support this view. The greater part of the 
surface is flat, but posteriorly it becomes concave, and anteriorly 
convex and curved downward. The plates diverge strongly, and 
the right one is broken off a little in front of the postorbital process. 
This process is short and rather blunt, and is directed downward. 
Its form is, therefore, quite unlike that of Inia. The orbit, which is 
situated well forward, appears to have been relatively quite large. 
The free margin of the orbit is thin. 

The median processes of the frontal at the vertex are very large 
and strongly elevated, and are squared and smooth superiorly. 
They resemble the nasals of the Right whales. The external sur- 
faces are vertical. The nasals and premaxille are lacking. 

The shape of the maxillary plates can not be determined, but was 
probably the same as in Jiia, the postero-internal angle being bent up 
so as to rest against the vertical sides of the median frontal processes. 

The position of the blowholes has been altered by vertical com- 
pression, so that they stand above the level of the orbital plates of the 
frontal. ‘They are small, relatively, and are separated from each 
other by a wide interval, which appears to indicate that the superior 
portion of the septum has been broken off. Anteriorly, the end of 
the large elliptical mass of the mesethmoid is seen. 


NO. 1875 NEW FOSSIL CETACEAN—TRUE 443 


On the under surface of the frontal plates the most conspicuous 
feature is the optic canal, which is deep proximally, and runs at an 
angle of 45° with the longitudinal axis of the skull. It dies away 
distally, before reaching the free margin of the orbit. 

The larger fragment of the skull consists of the occipital, squa- 
mosal, and parietal bones. The basioccipital? is somewhat fractured, 
and the inferior surface has been abraded and more or less altered 
by chiseling. It is broad and nearly flat medially, and appears not 
to have had the transverse ridge which is so noticeable in Inia. The 
lateral free margins are thick. 

Nearly all of the median portion of the supraoccipital is lacking, 
but the general surface appears to have been nearly plane, with the 
lateral margins nearly parallel and the anterior margin forming an 
obtuse angle. The occipital crest is low and broad, with sloping 
sides, rather than thin and erect, as in Jnia. It appears not to have 
been greatly thickened anteriorly, as it is in Inia. Posteriorly it dies 
away altogether, so that there is no barrier between the squamosal 
and occipital. This conformation is due to the small extension of 
the temporal fossz posteriorly, as compared with /nia and many 
of the Delphinide. The exoccipitals are oblong, broad, nearly flat, 
and but little inclined backward. They resemble the same parts in 
Balenoptera and other whalebone whales, rather than in Jnia. The 
occipital condyles are rather narrow, and do not project much from 
the surface of the occipital bone. 

The squamous portion of the temporal is oblong and slightly con- 
cave below, and is separated from the zygomatic process by a very 
shallow groove. The latter process is short and convex externally, 
and appears to have been moderately acute anteriorly, but the apex is 
broken off on the left side, while on the right the whole process is 
lacking. The free margin of the zygomatic process is thin, and the 
postgenoid is well developed, thin, and directed downward. The 
interval between it and the exoccipital is small relatively. The tem- 
poral fossa gets its great breadth chiefly from the breadth and in- 
clined position of the parietal bone, and very little from the lateral 
extension of the zygomatic process, the root of which is very short. 

The glenoid surface is broad and only moderately concave, and is 
rendered uneven by several low, rounded, transverse ridges. The 
inferior mastoid surface is broad and concave. The periotic region, 
unlike that of Inia, is quite smooth, but the position of the various 
vacuities and foramina cannot be determined. 


*I am not sure that a portion of the basisphenoid is not attached to this. 


444 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Dimensions of the type-skull of Proinia patagonica 


mm. 
Breadth between'sthexorbits) (Gest) ean acres tact atte re eine creer teers 292 
Length from posterior margin of the frontal in the median line to anterior 
end. of *the timesefhmoid...5. Wass ake ee ob ioe oc tec nee ee eee 121 
Lerigth of the tnasal. process.of ‘the’ tromtalin,. - ww «. Gace iach cee = eee 52 
Breadthvofuthestwo nasal processes cr aericis. creche ote etcetera reraree 86 
Greatest breadth of the orbital process of the frontal.................08- 57 
east ibreadthy between the ablowlrolessepeeeme eo teen cee ce nice ener 30 
Greatest breadth across zygomatic processes (eSt.)..........+2-ceeceee- 350: 
Length from surface of occipital condyles to anterior end of basi- 
OCCIDICA] Beene Sisleacc ate ee ee Selo ce note aie Bie nie SORE Ra OER eee gl 
Breadth vacross occipital icondyles.7 2-5 -ccteo cok icin ce eiontenioe eee aioe ete 112 
Least distance between condyles:./.) soe aces cee sco nee ince ie ieee > 
Greatéstybreadth ot right icondyle 27.0.1, oe oae coe: os cee Ries eee an 
Fleightyor the, Sattie..¢a3:.s.iececwone weevoeeh Gi raeisiee Oe CEE ee 67 
Greatest) breadth ‘of Sbasioccipitalis ee on eee eee ce ee cee 159 
Distance from occipital condyle to post-glenoid process of zygomatic...... 122 
Breadth sbetween-exoccipitals a@est poe enm sateen ner cee e acn ee oenenoe 250 
engthvor zygomatichprocess «(apexplackine) @seseeaeEeene ee eine ene 80 
Breadth otwelenoidmsurtace: sc eiee eee nek Cee er ce Bee 277 
Breadth of temporal ossac. css stoners 6 oe attia sac oe ere ee ae go: 
ength of temporal fossa MCest.)4ocore os ohio ise ee oe late eee 218 
Distance from superior margin of occipital condyles to vertex........... 140 
Least distance sbetween, temporal fossa (est.) .. o« cans cicn eo cie te ees 113: 


CERVICAL VERTEBRA 


This skull is accompanied by a cervical vertebra (fig. 76), col- 
lected at San Julian by Mr. Hatcher two days before the former. 
There seems little room for doubt that this vertebra belongs to the 
same species as the skull. The neural canal has almost the same 
width as that of the foramen magnum. 

The vertebra resembles the third cervical of Inia in general ap- 
pearance, but differs from it in size and thickness, and in various 
details. ‘The centrum is somewhat more than one-half as long as 
broad ; the neural canal is as broad as the centrum and is about one- 
half as high as it is broad, while in Jia it is much higher than broad’ 
and much less broad than the centrum. ‘The neural spine is some- 
what broken, but was evidently very small when complete. On ac- 
count of the length of the centrum and of the top of the neural arch, 
the anterior and posterior zygapophyses are widely separated, instead. 
of overlapping, as they do in Inia. The zygapophyses themselves 
are oval, or nearly circular, and quite flat. The anterior pair are 
directed upward and inward, and the posterior downward and out- 
ward. ‘The transverse process is very broad, and is pierced by the 


NO. 1875 NEW FOSSIL CETACEAN—TRUE 445 


vertebrarterial foramen, which is elliptical and very large, and was 
complete originally. The base of the portion of the process below 
the foramen is thick and nearly horizontal, while the terminal portion 
is expanded and rather thin, and is nearly vertical, but a little in- 
clined forward below. The portion above the foramen is slender and 
nearly cylindrical. The process as a whole resembles that of Inia, 
but in that genus the vertebrarterial foramen is incomplete. 

The centrum of the vertebra of Proinia has a median ridge supe- 
riorly and inferiorly, while the sides opposite the vertebraterial 
foramina are deeply concave. The anterior epiphysis is slightly con- 
vex and the posterior one a little 
concave. Both are anchylosed to 
the centrum and are thin, 

The dimensions of the vertebra 
are as follows: Length of centrum, 
31 mm.; breadth of centrum, 51; 
depth of centrum, 46; greatest 
breadth of vertebra across trans- 
verse processes, 108 (?) ; greatest 
height from inferior margin of 
centrum to tip of neural spine, 
85; height of neural canal, 30; Fic. 76.—Third cervical vertebra of 
breadth of the same, 51; length Proinia patagonica, new species. 
of neural arch in the median line Anterior surface. One-half nat. size. 
above, 18; distance between tips of anterior and posterior zyga- 
pophyses on either side, 50; length of anterior zygapophysis, 15; 
breadth of the same, 14; length of posterior zygapophysis, 19; 
breadth of the same, 15; height of vertebrarterial foramen, 24; 
breadth of the same, 17. 

Without more complete material, it appears to me unwise to 
attempt many generalizations as to the origin and relationships of the 
form here described. It is much larger than Jnia, and that it is 
quite distinct will, I think, be conceded; as also that it is rather closely 
related to the latter genus, warranting its assignment to the family 
Iniidz. Iam unable to see that it throws any considerable light on 
the origin of this family, although it is in some respects less special- 
ized than Juia. As compared with the latter, generalized characters 
are observable in the thin walls, large size, and only moderately an- 
terior position of the orbit; the larger extension of the frontals at the 
vertex; short postorbital process; moderately large temporal fosse, 
and perhaps the flat basioccipital and the meniscoid zygomatic pro- 
cesses ; also in the length of the cervical vertebre. 





446 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


If Professor Abel’s views' regarding the origin of the Iniidz be 
correct, Proima should show a much closer approximation to Squalo- 
don than does Inia. I do not see that such is the case. The only 
characters which might be construed as showing a leaning toward 
Squalodon are, perhaps, the shape of the zygomatic processes and 
of the median processes of the frontals, and the rather flat basiocci- 
pital region. Squalodon is in many respects a specialized form, and, 
in my opinion, hardly to be considered as belonging on the main 
stem of development. Of known forms, I should prefer to take the 
point of departure from Agorophius, but Proinia appears to show no 
closer resemblance to that genus than it does to Squalodon. 

It has to be considered also, as is indicated below, that Proinia 
occurs with Prosqualodon, a near relative of Squalodon, in the Pata- 
gonian beds. It can hardly be supposed that Proinia has been de- 
rived from this form, which appears to be contemporary. The 
squalodont type and the inioid type appear to have been thoroughly 
differentiated and well established in the early Miocene, and we must 
look back further for the progenitors of the latter, as we certainly 
must for those of the former. 


OTHER ACCOMPANYING VERTEBRA 


A series of five thoracic vertebra and a caudal vertebra, No. 15439, 
collected at Darwin Station by Mr. Hatcher, April 22, 1899, might 
from a superficial examination be considered as possibly belonging 
with the skull and cervical vertebra of Proinia. It is my opinion, 
however, that they are rather too small, and they do not exhibit any 
tangible inioid characters. Most of the epiphyses are detached, 
showing that the individual was comparatively young; two of them, 
which are very thin, have been preserved separately. The anterior 
metapophyses are much elevated above the centra, horizontal, flat- 
tened, and continued backward on the sides of the neural arch as a 
sharp ridge. The neural spines were broad antero-posteriorly, and, 
except in the caudal, appear to have been strongly inclined backward. 
The transverse processes are preserved on one or both sides of two 
of the thoracics. In one case they are flat, broad antero-posteriorly, 
linear, and not expanded at the extremity. In another thoracic they 
appear to have been somewhat expanded at the extremity, at least 
anteriorly. 

All the vertebree have sharp, thin median inferior carinz on the 
centra. The latter are shorter than broad, and somewhat pentagonal 


*Mém. Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat. Belgique, 3, 1905, pp. 41 and 123. 


NO. 1875 NEW FOSSIL CETACEAN—TRUE 447 


in outline anteriorly and posteriorly, but the upper margin is more 
or less rounded. The two sides of the centra below the transverse 
processes are quite concave, but without distinct channels. 

The foregoing combination of characters appears to me to indicate 
a relation to some of the North American forms which have been 
assigned to the nominal genus Priscodelphinus, such as P. hawkinsi, 
harlani, etc. 

The dimensions of the vertebre are as follows: 


Dimensions of five thoracic vertebrae, No. 15439 

















| | 
(eres wesc eS, + 5 
: | 
| mM, mM, | Mmm, MM. mM. 
enethvor Cenmtriitt a: 4). 2 wea ates ccc. her 4 39 40° | 40: | 40 | 45 
Height of anterior face of centrum......... | 45 Aste lan Aran ita een | 49 
Breadth of anterior face of centrum........ 52 52. |) 54 54 55 
Height of posterior face of centrum........| 42.5) 46 |...... Asim eA 
Breadth of posterior face of centrum....... eSOnS 52h 54 54. 57 
Height to anterior extremity of metapoph- | | 
ysis TE Eo eek Shs ae eax 7 i es ke ges) 74(?) 
Projection of metapophyses anteriorly be- | | | 
youd margin of neural arch.............. Nestea tei 2oteyas een ey. Drees aes: 
Breadth of neural arch at base, antero-pos- | 
HERIOT ive ree Mince cxeies cr iheletanl a oleiste eke eles 29 29 30 21 2 
Breadth of neural canal anteriorly......... 25 |e ee 2On | aot. 16 
Breadth of neural canal posteriorly......... 26 2d 20 23.5| 18 
Antero-posterior breadth of neural spine | 
in a horizontal line immediately above | | | 
ZN LFA O DLV SE Sty Wen cueyaie a sien ea hay store Casret icin ks | ASS 1 MA lye kena sees 34 
Breadth of transverse process at base........ | 34 33 35 32 35 
Breadth of transverse process at extremity...| 28(?)| 26 | .....|...... |eim eae 
| 





PROSQUALODON AUSTRALIS Lydekker 


Prosqualodon australis LypEKKER, Anal. Mus. de la Plata, Pal. Argentina, 
vol. 2, art. 2, p. 8, pl. 4, Apr., 18904; Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1899, p. 919, 
ieSacle2: 

The material turned over to me for study by Professor Scott in- 
cludes portions of the skeleton of this species, comprising (1) a por- 
tion of the right half of a mandible with two teeth in position; (2) 
a portion of a left ramus; (3) eight separate teeth; (4) a nearly per- 
fect atlas and two thoracic vertebre; (5) two pieces of ribs; (6) a 
tympanic bone; (7) a periotic bone. ‘These were collected from the 
Patagonian beds at San Julian, April 22, 1899, by J. B. Hatcher. 

A detailed comparison of these remains with Doctor Lydekker’s 
figures and description leaves no doubt in my mind that they repre- 
sent Prosqualodon australis. ‘The right ramus of the mandible is 
nearly complete posteriorly, the coronoid process being perfect and 


448 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


the condyle nearly so, while only a small portion of the angle is lack- 
ing. ‘The jaw contains five alveoli, in two of which—the penultimate 
one and the next but one anterior to it—the teeth are still in posi- 
tion. ‘The fragment of the left ramus is very imperfect, only a small 
portion of the inferior border being complete and no alveoli present. 
Of the separate teeth, one appears to be a right lower molar, and 
probably belongs between the two which are in place in the mandi- 
ble; three others are single-rooted teeth from the anterior end of the 
mandible on the right side, and the remaining four appear to belong 
to the upper jaw. Of the latter, two are single-rooted, one has indi- 
cations of three roots, and is probably a premolar, and the last is a 
short tooth with two fused roots—possibly a last molar. 


MANDIBLE 


The dimensions of the jaw, compared with those of the same part 
in the type specimen, as indicated by Doctor Lydekker’s figures, are 
as follows: 


Dimensions of two mandibles of Prosqualodon australis 

















ery Type of 
en Pe eine 
Total length of the fragment containing 5 posterior mm. mm. 

BILVEOLUS cae rican aslo eater nica he eet a eietmer teens 445 420 (?) 
Distance from condyle to posterior alveolus......... 290 297 
Height of jaw at ‘coromoid process...) tiny. visi si QUT hl 20 chee eee 
Distance from highest part of coronoid process to 

inferior marcinof condyle. ).2,.5.m. -eaeisseei alee 204 225 (?) 
Depth of jaw at postertor alveolus: .. 2.0.2. sce soo 95 78 
Length of last four alveoli taken together.......... 124 | 120 
Length of penultimate tooth at alveolus............ 30 30 
Breadth of penultimate tooth at alveolus........... LBL fo Uraiseeieteree sence 
Least distance externally between crown and alve- 

OLS LOL spent timatestooLhenweeeerie reesei 17 9 
Meneth ofierownirat base arrose iciclawcks oiseieyeicietereierarer 21 21 
Whicknessofacrown) at basesejacie sani cee lectern: TA Me terete 

| 
1Angle defective. 2 Border defective below (?). 


The correspondence in size and proportions between the two speci- 
mens is evidently very close, the chief difference, apparently, being 
that the teeth protrude more from the alveoli in the San Julian jaw. 

In the latter specimen the apex of the coronoid process is obtuse 
and is directed backward. The superior margin of the jaw near the 
apex of this process is 15 mm. broad and is inclined outward. An- 
teriorly it becomes more everted, narrower, and more rounded, but 
broadens out again as it approaches the posterior alveolus, and is 


NO. 1875 NEW FOSSIL CETACEAN—TRUE 449 


nearly horizontal. The internal surface below the apex of the coro- 
noid process is concave. 

The condyle is oval, small, and projects outward strongly. Orig- 
inally it was about 50 mm. deep and 35 mm. broad. The orifice of 
the inferior dental canal is situated about 180 mm. anterior to the 
condyle and appears to have been relatively small. Opposite the 
penultimate tooth the jaw is 33 mm. broad. 

The alveoli are shallow, the penultimate one being about 19 mm. 
deep. The septa between the molars are not more than one or two 
millimeters thick, but appear to have reached the level of the superior 
margin of the jaw when complete. The teeth themselves were very 
close to each other, if not actually in contact. 


TEETH 


All the teeth are closed at the roots, and, with one exception, have 
a large part of the crown worn away, indicating (as do the vertebre) 
that the individual was adult or old. The dimensions of the several 
teeth preserved are given below. ‘The separate teeth are referred 
to by the numbers of the figures on plate XLIV. 


Dimensions of teeth of Prosqualodon australis 


















































Upper Upper 
. Lower single- | molari- single- 
Lower molariform teeth. | Jooted teeth. form rooted 
teeth. teeth. 
ima, | 
ce iE ee ee | 
a Sie se o |u | 
6a /2£5)/ 82) 2 | 2. | rig. | Fig.| Fig.| Fig.| Fis. | Fig. | Fi 
25 5S As P= ag B.| Fal g- g.- aaa 1g. g- 
0y|3590)] & y aoa 5- 5 7- 3. 4. I. 2: 
~s aw | Uuo;] & x | 
n 5 jw 3 | 
o uv aoa ° ot 
By Iss) 8) | eee ea 
| | | 
y | | © " 4] | » 
shotal@lenigithvrrs case. Pee Son |eiie =|) O27) OMA FAC 7243) 8271-97 2 
Length of root....... we AS sollaco a) se | GC! OR Ih Gre || ey ih td I ey 
Greatest antero-pos- 
terior diameter of | 
TOOL cectasipersccs cits Bon 29). \230)| 200) 25 teT Sc e20) |a225 e26) | 27 7 | a7 
Greatest transverse | 
diameter of-root,.. 3) r14) 18) || 191), 15 | 10") 15 | 18) 18" | 20) 15 || 16.) 17 
Antero-posterior di- | | 
ameter of crown at ; 
DASE ree cas adc Saco) 22 Wecbell 2ailloooalidocl| 1S) |} atid Aa I] ads) 
Transverse diameter 
of crown at base...|....| TAS Weep oral WL oy heres <tetl ele LS ie [Tp TEE T Nr Seana a5 
1 Alveolus. 3 Three-rooted, crown somewhat worn. 


2 Crown worn. 4 Crown lacking. 


450 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


The two lower molars which are in position, and the separate one, 
are all very similar in form and size. The crowns are worn on top, 
and also posteriorly, except the penultimate molar, which is much 
abraded anteriorly. All three teeth present a form similar to that 
of the tooth figured by Doctor Lydekker in 1899, but the two 
branches of the root are not so widely divergent. They are nearly 
parallel and curve backward inferiorly. In the separate molar 
(pl. xiv, fig. 8) the anterior branch of the root is bent upward 
like a fish-hook at the lower end and the tip lies on the outer side of 
the posterior branch. ‘The two branches are united nearly to the tip 
by a portion which is thinner than themselves. On the outer side, 
between the two branches, is a low, rounded eminente, like a rudi- 
mentary third root. 

The molars present a distinct neck, above which is an equally dis- 
tinct cingulum, having the appearance of an appressed band, with 
the upper free margin developed in the form of small denticles. The 
cingulum is most prominent and highest internally and posteriorly. 
The crown is deeply wrinkled, the ridges being numerous, vertical, 
and covered with rounded tubercles. The inferior molars which are 
in position have one or two prominent denticles each on the posterior 
edge of the crown, near its base, and others were probably present 
higher up. The separate molar has a similar denticle on the anterior 
edge. 

The three single-rooted teeth, which appear to me to belong to the 
lower jaw, resemble one another in form, the roots being fusiform 
and more or less curved backward. ‘The crowns of two of them 
(pl. xiiv, figs. 6 and 7) are worn away obliquely, but that of the 
third (pl. xiv, fig. 5) has the upper surface horizontal. In all three 
teeth the crowns are rugose, but rather less so than in the molars. In 
one (pl. xiv, fig. 7) the root shows a deep longitudinal groove 
internally, indicating an incipient division into two branches. The 
crowns are lowest posteriorly. 

Of the upper single-rooted teeth, one (pl. xtiv, fig. 1) consists 
only of the root, which is conical and nearly straight. The second 
(pl. xuiv, fig. 2) is strongly curved and resembles the lower single- 
rooted teeth. The crown is entirely worn away anteriorly. 

Of the two upper molariform teeth in this series, the larger (pl. 
XLIV, fig. 3), probably a right premolar, resembles the lower molars 
in general form. ‘The two branches of the root are nearly parallel 
and but slightly curved. The lower closed ends overlap each other. 
On the inner side, between the two branches of the root, is a third 
branch, directed inward nearly at right angles with the two others, 


NO. 1875 NEW FOSSIL CETACEAN—TRUE 451 


and extending about 7 mm. beyond their inner surface. This third 
branch is shorter than the two principal ones. The crown is com- 
pressed and conical, but worn away at the apex, and also anteriorly. 
It is rugose, like the lower molars, and presents bases of two large 
denticles on the posterior edge. 

The smaller upper molariform tooth (pl. xuiv, fig. 4) is different 
from any of the others in form. It is probably the last left upper 
molar, or possibly a premolar. The root is triangular, broadest at 
the base, very uneven, somewhat curved inward, convex externally, 
and marked internally by a narrow longitudinal groove, representing 
an incipient division into two branches. The neck is strongly marked 
and very smooth. The crown, which is nearly complete, is thick, 
conical, and very rugose. Beside the ordinary rugosities, there are 
on the posterior edge the remains of five denticles, arranged in two 
rows, and marking the boundaries of an elliptical area, which ter- 
minated near the apex of the crown. This peculiarity is of much 
interest, as a similar arrangement of denticles is found in various 
genera belonging to families allied to the Squalodontide. On the 
anterior edge of the tooth are the bases of two similar denticles in a 
single row. 


TyMPANIC BULLA 


The right tympanic bulla and periotic bone, which accompany the 
jaw, appear at first sight too small to have belonged to the same indi- 
vidual as the latter, but on 
comparing them with Lortet’s 
figure of Squalodon bariensis, 
a species of about the same size 
as Prosqualodon australis, I 
find that the bulla of the Pata- 
gonian specimen is quite as 
large, or even larger. It bears 
a superficial resemblance in 
form to that of Schizodelphis, 
but this is chiefly because the 
anterior portion is broken off, 
leaving a sharp point. Orig- 
inally the bulla was probably nearly as broad anteriorly as pos- 
teriorly, and presented, therefore, much the same shape as that of 
Squalodon. 

The bulla (fig. 77) is everywhere quite rugose. Viewed from the 
inner side, the inferior outline is nearly straight, and the posterior 

4 





Fic. 77—Tympanic bone of Prosqualo- 
don australis Lydekk. 
Inferior surface. Nat. size. 


452 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


outline almost at right angles with it. The outer lip is very high pos- 
teriorly. The inner lip is also high, and is peculiar in that it is 
divided longitudinally below the middle by a distinct groove, resem- 
bling the median inferior groove. Viewed from above, the great 
breadth of the bulla, its rectangular outline, and the breadth of the 
Eustachian canal are especially noticeable. The upper border of the 
inner lip is only slightly emarginate. A principal feature of the 
under surface of the bulla is the great breadth of the groove between 
the two lips, or lobes. It is quite deep as well as broad, and extends 
to the anterior end of the bulla (as far as preserved), dividing it into 
two nearly equal portions. The two lobes are nearly equal in size 
and downward extension, differing greatly in the latter respect from 
such forms as Mesoplodon, Berardius, etc. ‘The posterior end of the 
outer lobe, or lip, is well rounded, but that of the inner lobe is 
strongly compressed, presenting a prominent thin ridge, directed 
obliquely upward and outward. The interior of the bulla, as in 
Schizodelphis, presents two pits separated by a rounded, transverse 
ridge. The posterior pit, or concavity, is much the deeper. 

The dimensions of the bulla are as follows: Greatest length (as 
preserved), 50 mm.; greatest breadth, 36; greatest height, 30; trans- 
verse breadth of the involuted portion of the inner lip, 20. 


PERIOTIC BONE 


The right periotic bone (fig. 78), which is the one preserved, is 
small and of a peculiar form, unlike that of any living toothed whale 
with which I am acquainted, but 
somewhat resembling that of 
Berardius and other ziphioid 
genera. The bone is a little 
abraded, but not so much as to 
materially alter its original form. 
Viewed from within, the anterior 
petrous body is separated from 
the remainder of the bone by a 
deep emargination below, and is 
oval in outline, and moderately bent downward. The convex portion 
of the periotic containing the cochlea is small, and the internal porus 
acusticus oval and oblique. ‘The superior outline of the main mass 
of the bone when viewed from the inner side is nearly straight, but 
that of the anterior petrous body is inclined downward at an angle of 
45°. The process for the articulation of the tympanic, which is seen 
on the under side of the bone, is small, and its inner margin over- 
hangs the short, curved canal for the facial nerve. 





Fic. 78.—Periotic bone of Prosqua- 
lodon australis Lydekk. 
Inferior surface. Nat. size. 


NO. 1875 NEW FOSSIL CETACEAN—TRUE 453 


The dimensions of the periotic are as follows: Greatest length, 
42 mm.; greatest breadth at posterior end, 27; length of anterior 
petrous portion, 18; depth of the same, IT. 


VERTEBRE 


As already stated, an atlas and two thoracic vertebree accompany 
the mandible, and, from their size, complete ossification, and color, 
appear to have belonged to the same individual. (Pl. xiv.) 

The atlas resembles that of Eurhinodelphis. ‘The articular facets 
for the occipital condyles are large, broad, deep, and but little in- 
clined outward. They are separated below by a space of about 17 
mm. ‘The foramen above these facets on either side is complete, 
and of large diameter, and is situated nearly in the middle of the 
length (antero-posteriorly) of the neural arch. The arch is com- 
paratively narrow, thin anteriorly, but with a broad, concave surface 
posteriorly in the median line above. The spine is rudimentary. 
The posterior articular facets are large, nearly circular, flat, and 
project strongly from the body of the vertebra. Below in the me- 
dian line there is a broad, shallow concavity, indicating that the 
odontoid process of the axis was large and prominent. There is 
also a large median rugosity on the postero-inferior surface of the 
vertebra, which represents the remains of a strong process which 
extended below the body of the axis. On either side of the verte- 
bra are two short, thick transverse processes superimposed, as in 
Eurhinodelphis. 

The two thoracic vertebre are from near the posterior end of the 
series, and probably belong near one another. The body of the 
more nearly complete one, seen from the front, is broadly cordate in 
outline. The inferior outline, seen from the side, is deeply concave. 
The epiphyses appear to be thin. The transverse processes are 
short, thick, directed outward, and somewhat expanded at the ex- 
tremity. Their upper surface is nearly in line with that of the body 
of the vertebra. The metapophyses are prominent, rather thin, and 
rectangular. The anterior zygapophyses are large and only slightly 
concave, and are placed obliquely. The posterior zygapophyses are 
oval in form, and directed obliquely downward and outward. The 
neural spine is somewhat incomplete, but was originally inclined 
backward more or less. It is broad antero-posteriorly, with a thin 
anterior edge, and quite thick posterior edge. 

The second thoracic vertebra (pl. xLv, figs. 5 and 6) is quite im- 
perfect, lacking the whole of the neural arch and spine and one of 
the transverse processes. ‘The remaining process is similar in form 


454 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


to those of the vertebra just described, but longer, both transversely 
and antero-posteriorly, with a long and deeply concave articular 
facet at the extremity. There is no facet on the body of the vertebra 
for the articulation of the head of a rib. ‘The body itself resembles 
that of the vertebra previously described in form and size, but the 
epiphyses are elliptical, rather than cordate. 

The dimensions of the vertebre are as follows: 


Dimensions of three vertebre of Prosqualodon australis. 

















Thoracic | Thoracic 
Atlas. vertebra | vertebra 
a. b. 

mm. mm, mm. 
Greatest length of icentrum:. 7.4.20 4.02sc oe - 67 75 77 
Greatest dent oricentriiiniy | conic’. cieusisot dea sien aoe eeton 68 69 
Greatest breadth or ‘Centrumi:. 22% see amie cates 129! go 87 
Breadth, including transverse processes......... 155 155 184(?). 
Leneth.of transverse Process./.00.0 2 .e. ea eae 20? 29 39 
Least breadth of transverse process antero-pos- 

Lemony eee ea eee ec aee as ak elas eee 18 36 52 
Greatest diameter of transverse process at ex- 

ROL UY At etter eer cect ee cea nes 17 45 51 
Breadthyor neunalicanals.h seis roc esse oe 51 42 Ble 
Height of neural canal anteriorly.............. 67 BOS taille ceelene Peary: 
Breadth of neural spine antero-posteriorly at 

BASSAS hare on ceed ee igre ht Amin ints tN A RR foam Sn Uilleven ee otehere 








l Across posterior articular facets. The breadth across the anterior facets is the same. 
* The superior one, from anterior base. 

The jaw and teeth above described confirm many of Doctor Lydek- 
ker’s statements regarding Prosqualodon australis, and especially its 
size, the small number of teeth as compared with Squalodon, and 
the peculiar form of these organs. The size of the skull figured by 
Doctor Lydekker in 18991 is not given, but assuming that it was 
about as large as the type skull, it seems likely that the number of 
two-rooted molariform teeth did not exceed ten in the lower jaw. 
The Patagonian material here described affords us the information 


that the anterior teeth were single-rooted, as might, of course, have 
been expected. 

The vertebrz are especially interesting on account of their resem- 
blance to those of Eurhinodelphis, a genus which Professor Abel 
derives from the Squalodontide. It is to be observed, however, 
that the atlas of Squalodon figured by Van Beneden? is quite differ- 
ent in form from that of Prosqualodon. ‘The former is much more 


* Proc, Zool. Soc. London, 1899, p. 910, figs. I, 2. 
* Recherches jur les Squalodons, 186s, pp. 45, 46, pl. 3, fig. 2. 


No. 1875 NEW FOSSIL CETACEAN—TRUE 455 


like that of Physeter, or of a whalebone whale, especially as regards 
the transverse processes, of which there is but a single broad and 
thick one situated very high up on either side. According to Van 
Beneden, it was found in the shell-marl of Salles, while the type- 
beak of Squalodon, with which it was associated, was found at 
Liognan. Johann Miiller also mentioned this atlas in 1849, remark- 
ing that Grateloup had written to him that it probably belonged to 
Squalodon.: If this association be correct, which seems somewhat 
doubtful, the atlas and (by inference) the axis of Squalodon are 
very different from those of Prosqualodon. Additional information 
regarding the vertebrz of the different species of Squalodon is very 
much to be desired. 


* Die Zeuglodonten von Nord Amerika, 1849, p. 20. 


456 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES 
PLateE XLIII 


Fic. 1.—Proinia patagonica, new species. No. 15459, Princeton Univ. Coll. 
Type skull. Patagonian beds, Darwin Station, Santa Cruz Terr., 
Patagonia. Collected by J. B. Hatcher, April 24, 1899. 

Superior surface. About 3 natural size. 

Fic. 2.—Prosqualodon australis Lydekker. No. 15441, Princeton Univ. Coll. 
Portion of right ramus of mandible. Patagonian beds, San Julian, 
Santa Cruz Terr., Patagonia. Collected by J. B. Hatcher, April 
22, 1899. 

External surface. About %4 natural size. 


Pyate XLIV 


Teeth of Prosqualodon australis Lydekker. No. 15441. 
Fic. 1—Root of an upper incisor. 
Fic. 2.—A right upper incisor. Inner surface. 
Fic. 3.—A right upper premolar. Inner surface, showing three roots. 
Fic. 4.—Left posterior upper molar? Outer surface. 
Fics. 5 and 6.—Right lower incisors. Inner surface. 
Fic. 7.—Right lower canine or premolar? Inner surface. 
Fic. 8—A right lower molar. Outer surface. 

Natural size. 


PLATE XLV 


Vertebre of Prosqualodon australis Lydekker. No. 15441. 

Fic. 1—Atlas. Anterior surface. 
Fic. 2—The same. Right side. 
Fic. 3.—Thoracic vertebra. Anterior surface. 
’ Fic. 4.—The same. Right side. 
Fic. 5.—Another thoracic vertebra. Anterior surface. 
Fic. 6.—The same. Right side. 

One-half natural size. 


VOL. 52, PL. XLIII 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 





MANDIBLE OF PROSQUALODON AUSTRALIS LYDEKK 





SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS ° VOL. 52, PL. XLIV 





TEETH OF PROSQUALODON AUSTRALIS LYDEKK 





SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 


VOL. 52, PL. XLV 





VERTEBRA OF PROSQUALODON AUSTRALIS LYDEKK 





NOTES ON CERTAIN FEATURES OF THE LIFE HIS- 
TORY OF THE ALASKAN FRESHWATER SCULPIN 


By BARTON A. BEAN anp ALFRED C. WEED, 


Or THE Division oF FIsHEs, U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 


Shortly after the publication of Doctor Gill’s paper? on the habits 
of the freshwater Cottids of North America, there was received at 
the U. S. National Museum a small lot of Blobs collected at Loring, 
Alaska, by Mr. Fred Patching, superintendent of the Fortmann 
hatchery. ‘These fish were interesting by reason of their stomach 
contents, a table of which is given on the last page of this article, 
and for the observations on their habits, an account of which is 
given in Mr. Patching’s letter to Mr. E. L. Goldsborough, here 
copied in part: 

“The Blob or Bullhead I consider very destructive to the Salmon 
eggs and in all probability to the fry in the earlier stages. I don’t 
suppose they catch very many fuller grown Salmon, although the 
chances are that they manage to capture a few all the time, when- 
ever they find them in schools or cornered up. 

“T am sending you by express some specimens which may prove 
interesting ; one showing the number of eggs a small Blob can eat 
and also the size of fry he can catch; the other showing that this 
fish is not particular when it is hungry, as it will eat even another of 
its kind. The two were washed ashore dead in just the position 
they are now. The eggs in the first mentioned specimen were prob- 
ably some of the bait used in the trap (Silver ? Salmon eggs) and 
simply show the number a fish of that size can hold. 

“Until we made traps I had no idea there were so many Bullheads 
in this stream [Helm Bay Stream]. One morning we caught 2,700 
in three small traps, and in twenty-five days the total catch of Blobs 
was 31,000. If they only make way with one egg each a day the 
loss would soon be great. 

“T have never kept any accurate account of the number of Blobs 
caught here nor made any careful examination of their stomachs, 
but have only observed enough to satisfy myself that they were ene- 
mies of the Salmon and should be destroyed whenever caught. I 


*“The Millers-thumb and its habits.” Theodore Gill. Smithsonian Mis- 
cellaneous Coliections, Volume 52, (Quarterly Issue, Volume 5, Part 1), pages 
IOI-I16. 


457 


458 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


supposed others knew this, and also the fact that the Trout is de- 
structive to the Salmon, but last winter I found in the ‘Pacific Fish- 
erman’ statements from authorities on the question that Trout are 
not destructive to Salmon fry, though I had been supposing all the 
time that everybody knew the greatest enemy the Salmon had was 
the Trout. 

“Last season we captured fourteen marked Salmon and the year 
before two, sixteen in all, exactly one per cent of the number you 
marked. I have in consequence to lay aside my theory that Salmon 
take anywhere from twelve to twenty years to mature. On account 
of the marked fish caught at Yes Bay, my other theory that hatchery 
fish would return to the stream in which they were liberated, is like- 
wise not substantiated. No one seems to know how many marked 
Salmon were caught, but one man told me they certainly took as 
many as twenty-five in one day; so, according to that, by far the 
larger portion of our hatch went to Yes Bay. One peculiar thing I 
notice about the return of marked fish is that at Yes Bay in 1906 
they caught more than in 1907, whereas here in 1906 we captured 
only two, as against fourteen in 1907.” 

The two specimens of Blobs mentioned by Mr. Patching were a 
Cottus asper about 16 cm. (63% inches) long and one about I1-12 
cm. (4% inches) long, which it had tried to swallow. The other 
specimen, also Cottus asper, had in its stomach thirty to forty eggs 
and a young Salmon about 8.5 cm. (3% inches) long. The Blob 
was the same size as the larger one mentioned above. 

Late in 1908 Mr. Patching sent to the U. S. National Museum 
another small collection from the same locality. This included a 
small Salamander, a Stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus), a Blenny 
(Pholis ornatus), and fourteen specimens of Cottus asper. ‘The 
Blobs appeared so plump and well fed that an examination of their 
stomach contents was made. All of them showed evidence of hav- 
ing taken food a short time before being caught and in most cases 
this food, which consisted of young Salmon (Oncorhynchus) and 
Salmon eggs, was hardly digested. In one case two or three young 
Salmon in the stomach of a Blob were almost entirely digested, only 
the head and vertebrz remaining, and in two other cases there were 
a few scraps remaining from a previous meal. It is evident either 
that these Blobs must have gone a long time without eating or that 
their digestive processes must be very rapid; otherwise there would 
have been a greater diversity of conditions in regard to the amount 
of digestive action which had taken place. The latter supposition 
is the more probable one, for these fish came from a river filled with 


NO.1876 ALASKAN FRESHWATER SCULPIN—BEAN AND WEED 459 


young Salmon of the size of those they had eaten, and there is no 
reason to suppose that they would voluntarily wait until their stom- 
achs were entirely empty unless from some special cause. 

Blobs in general are bottom fish and prefer to remain hidden 
under stones, etc. It is just in similar places that young Salmon 
and Trout hide at certain hours of the day, usually when the sun is 
hottest; the Blobs can then get them with least difficulty. It is 
probable, therefore, that the stomach contents of each of these Blobs 
represents one day’s feeding and that under proper conditions 
(when Salmon eggs or young Salmon are available) about the same 
amount would be eaten each day. 

These fourteen Blobs had eaten thirty-nine Salmon and forty-six 
eggs, or an average of almost three Salmon and a little over three 
eges for each fish. This is probably a good daily average for at 
least two months of each year, and if the Blobs are present in the 
tiver in such numbers as are indicated in Mr. Patching’s letter, the 
consequent loss would be many thousand Salmon a year. 

The greediness of some of the Blobs was certainly remarkable. 
One had eaten seven Salmon, five of which were about 5 cm. (2 
inches) long and the other two about 7 cm. (nearly 3 inches) long. 
The last fish eaten was about 7 cm. long and had been swallowed 
tail first. As there was no room in the Blob’s stomach for this one, 
only its tail was found there, while its head stretched up into the 
mouth of the Blob. The young Salmon eaten by the Blobs varied 
from about 5 centimeters (2 inches) to more than twice that length. 
One or two that were smaller seemed to be Trout (Salmo sp.). 
Nearly all the fish were in such condition that the genus to which 
they belong could be determined. 

In all but one of the Blobs the presence of large numbers of Nema- 
tode parasites was noted. ‘They were in the body cavity, either free 
or in cysts. Most of them were just leaving the cysts, but a few 
were entirely free. Two or three were found in the stomach or in- 
testine and several more had penetrated the wall of the stomach. 
Others had started to burrow in the dorsal and ventral muscles and 
some were visible from the outside just under the skin of the belly. 
In their attempts to burrow to the outside they had penetrated all 
the visceral organs; one had even entered the head and seemed to 
be seeking an exit through the cranium. The cysts were found in 
the peritoneum, in the wall of the stomach, in the dorsal and ventral 
muscles and in the liver and kidney. None was found in the ovary 
or the testis. The males seemed to be less susceptible to the attacks 
of these worms than the females, but this may be due to the small 


460 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


number (three) of males available for study. One of the females 
had eighty-two worms in the body cavity. The parasites were 
turned over to Dr. C. W. Stiles for identification, but were too im- 
mature for even generic diagnosis. A few of the larger cysts were 
heavily pigmented, but the most lacked pigment. 


Table of food and parasites of Cottus asper from Loring, Alaska. 











No. Length.| Sex. |Worms.|Salmon.| Eggs. | Other food. 
cm. 
Lorestan ae whens 19.5 |Female.| 82 3 I | Sticks (dried 
| seaweed). 
Die eter e kan tape tee PS Mallee O ney 14 2 13 
Bia niats age eters ecko one 7 RON aed One 22 pom! 8 | nea 
A Sat cto heiote « sevater 16.5 | Male... 9 2 I | Fish scraps. 
iad SATANIC CEES 14.0 | Female. 6 TW ia oerene 
Gaius Spoke tae TOMO yates 53 Bee as ce eer 
Oe ES EO oe ee 17 e Org | PV Uelletaere 9 AP ana an sees 
SiR See ares RUNG 17.0 | Female. 28 ee scenes 6 | 
Out coe Ponce TOSS te aed One 15 Dieha leone | Fish scraps. 
ROP eect ene TO? ON al Viale |e idee Dy, Polit ceo eee 
TU Gea ete OPS eee 18.5 | Female. AI 2 8 Fish scraps 
TD ets Ree ras Tee TONG Maoh 21 | Gah lee este 
LZ Sisal shsvensso'esere tel sve ROMS eal eel Onret Tia MEH enceie ess 23 
TA Coy Ae, Uk TOO. 0) Padosdcphaiceny © Shit ieee 
MO tale Aarne teeter e | ereec ery: 322 39 46 




















There were eleven females and three males in the collection. 


THE GEOLOGIC WORK OF MANGROVES IN SOUTHERN 
FLORIDA 


By T. WAYLAND VAUGHAN 


CusTopriAN oF MApREPORARIAN Corats, UNITED States NatTIonAL MusEuM; 
SupERVIsING GEOLOCIST, IN CHARGE OF CoASTAL PLAIN INVESTIGA- 
TIONS, UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 


With SEVEN PLATES 


The importance of mangroves in building shallow submarine banks 
into land and increasing the area of land of very low relief has been 
observed and described in more or less detail by several geologists 
who have studied the Florida coast and keys and the West Indian 
islands. Professor Louis Agassiz, in his report on the “Florida 
Reefs,” has given a charming account of the origin of the mangrove 
islands: Mr. Alexander Agassiz has also written about them in 
his “Three Cruises of the Blake’; and Mr. Robert T. Hill has de- 
scribed them in his “Geology and Physical Geography of Jamaica.” 
Although the activity of mangroves as geologic agents is well known, 
no series of illustrations showing the development of the plants and 
the successive stages in their formation of islands has, to my knowl- 
edge, been published. While studying the geology of the Florida 
keys and the corals of the reefs and flats of the region, under the 
auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, I have had an 
opportunity to take a number of photographs, and they, with the 
information obtained in connection with those investigations, form 
the basis of these illustrations and notes. My thanks are due Dr. 
Alfred G. Mayer, Director of the Marine Biological Laboratory of 
the Carnegie Institution, for the privilege of visiting nearly all of 
the Florida keys. 

Mangroves (Rhizophora mangle Linn.) are small trees or large 
shrubs, from 10 to 20 feet tall, limited in their distribution to tropical 
or semi-tropical regions and confined to low lands, growing either in 
the water or so near the water that the soil in which their roots are 
imbedded is perpetually saturated. These conditions—a tropical or 
semi-tropical climate and low land margining the sea or extensive 
flats only slightly below the level of the ocean—are realized, in south- 
ern Florida, and mangroves are there abundant. They border the 
rivers near the ocean, margin most of the higher keys, and form 

461 


VOL. 52 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 


462 


‘OZIS [BINJEU YXIS-9UO JnOqYy 


‘SOAOISURI SUNOA—'OQ “OLY 


‘OZIS [VIN}JeU Y}XIS-ouUO0 JnOoqYy —‘pWhIyZ Ie 
}J9] UO susttOads Ja][eUIs INOJ ayy, “s}ooys 
sunoxk puv jimaf asdoisuvpy—OZ ‘o1yy 





NO. 1877 GEOLOGIC WORK OF MANGROVES—VAUGHAN 463 


islands or keys on which mangroves are practically the only vegeta- 
tion. It is estimated that perhaps between one-half and one-third of 
the total key area is occupied by these plants. 

The mangroves, where they are fully developed, form dense mats 
of vegetation, with interlocking branches above and interlocking 
roots below. The roots constitute an interesting and geologically 
important feature of the plant. Besides the single root or tuft of 
rootlets given off from the basal end of the young plants, there are 
other roots originating above ground, at higher levels from the plant 
stem. These grow downward and imbed their lower ends in the soil, 
thus adding to the support of the plants. The roots arising in the 
manner just indicated multiply and form a root tangle above the 
ground. The various stages of root development are illustrated by 
text figures 79 and 80, and by plates XLvu1, XLvimI, figure 2, and XLIx, 
figure 1 (the illustrations are cited in an order to indicate a develop- 
mental series). The tangles of roots are geologically important in 
catching and holding débris washed among them by currents and 
waves. 

The three modes of occurrence of mangroves—along the river 
banks, around the margins of keys having their land surface above 
water level, and the purely mangrove keys—are illustrated by the 
plates. Plates x1vr and xiv represent the banks of the Miami 
River and illustrate the river mangroves. Plate xiviir illustrates the 
shore of the western side of the cape east of Bay Biscayne; plate 
XLIX, figure 1, depicts Pigeon Key; plate xLrx, figure 2, the Mar- 
quesas, and plate 111, figure 1, the southern end of Old Rhodes Key— 
all keys margined by mangroves. Plate Lit, figure 2, represents a 
mangrove-covered key between Key Largo and Old Rhodes Key. 

It has already been stated that these plants may initiate the forma- 
tion of islands or they may be active in increasing land areas. The 
process may now be sketched as follows: 

The fruit of the mangrove is an elongate body, from six inches to 
a foot long, about half an inch thick, with a pointed distal, and an 
enlarged and heavy proximal end,the calyx still adhering to the latter. 
These cigar-shaped bodies drop into the water and are carried hither 
and thither by the waves and currents, to settle on any soft bottom 
where the water at low tide does not exceed about one foot in depth. 
They sprout and quickly take root. Text figures 79 and 80 represent 
a series of young mangroves, ranging from pods plucked from the 
trees to specimens with a considerable development of roots and 
several young branches. 


* A small key north of the western end of Key Largo. 


464 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


The manner in which they do their work in extending areas of 
land above water will be described first. Plate L, figure 1, shows a 
young mangrove growing in the water some feet away from shore, 
at Northwest Point, Virginia Key, Bay Biscayne. In many localities 
along the keys young mangroves may be seen with their terminal 
leaves protruding above the water at distances of only a few feet up 
to several hundred feet from the shore. An especially good example 
of this may be seen along the southern shore of the Marquesas. 
Plates Xvi, figure 2, and xLvil, figure 1, representing the Miami 
River, illustrate how the young mangroves extend into the water 
area. When they have grown sufficiently for the development of a 
tangle of roots, they catch and hold sediment and any floating débris, 
by the successive accumulation of such material ultimately bringing 
the level of the land above that of the water. 

The process by which they build new land is as follows: Behind 
the keys, in the regions of slack water, deposition of sediment is 
taking place, forming banks of soft calcareous ooze. After these 
shoals have been built to within about a foot of the water-level (at 
low tide), young mangroves begin to catch and grow. Plate 1, 
figure 2, represents a single young mangrove growing on a shoal 
north of Pigeon Key in water about one foot deep. Plate L, figure 
3, represents two young plants from the same locality, held up by the 
boatman. Plate Lt shows a further stage in the development of a 
mangrove key, the young plants being more numerous and larger in 
size. The plants become still more numerous, further increase in 
size, and ultimately form a mat of interlocking roots and branches 
resulting in keys such as those represented on plate L11. When the 
plants become thick they catch and retain sediment and ocean drift, 
and are a constructive agent in the formation of land. 

After a time, whether it be a newly formed key or the margin 
of a land area, the mangroves, by the accumulation of sediment and 
drift, form land, and thus cut off their roots from the necessary sup- 
ply of sea water, causing their own death. The land surface then 
acquires another vegetation. But the marginal fringe of mangroves 
persists to protect the young island from the erosive action of the 
ocean waves, and young mangroves spread seaward to add new land 
to that already formed. 

Thus these plants are among the most important constructional 
geologic agents of southern Florida. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XLVI 


by 
1 
x4 








Fig. 1.--MIAMI RIVER BETWEEN MIAMI AND THE EDGE OF THE EVERGLADES 





Fig. 2.--YOUNG MANGROVES ALONG NORTH BANK OF MIAMI RIVER MIAMI 





SMITHSCNIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XLVII 





Fig. 1.--MANGROVES ALONG SOUTH BANK OF MIAMI RIVER, MIAMI 





Fig. 2.--ADULT MANGROVES ALONG NORTH BANK OF MIAMI RIVER MIAMI 





SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 PL. XLVIII 





Fig. 2.--MANGROVE ROOTS SAME LOCALITY 





SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. XLIX 














Ps MVR TN j ee 


Fig. 1.--MANGROVE ROOTS AT PIGEON KEY 








Fig. 2.--MANGROVES ALONG THE SOUTH SHORE OF THE MARQUESAS 





VOL. 52, PL. L 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 











Fig. 1.--YOUNG MANGROVE ON SOUTHWEST SIDE Fig. 2.--YOUNG MANGROVE ON SHOAL TWO MILES 
OF BEAR CUT, NORTHWEST POINT, NORTHEAST OF PIGEON KEY, WATER 
BAY BISCAYNE ABOUT ONE FOOT DEEP 





Fig. 3.--TWO YOUNG MANGROVES FROM SHOAL ABOUT TWO MILES NORTH OF PIGEON KEY 
WATER ABOUT ONE FOOT DEEP 


‘Age é 
¥ an ¢ rw 





SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. LI 





Fig. 1.--YOUNG MANGROVES ON SHOAL, UPPER END OF LONG ISLAND, WATER ABOUT ONE FOOT DEEP 





Fig. 2.--YOUNG MANGROVES, OAR BY THEIR SIDE. NEAR VIEW SAME LOCALITY 





SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. Lil 





Fig. 1.--ELEVATED CORAL REEF ROCK AND VEGETATION AT SOUTHERN END OF OLD RHODES KEY, 
DETACHED KEY 





Fig. 2.--MANGROVE KEY, BETWEEN LARGO AND OLD RHODES KEYS 


¥ 
are Ve: 


oe 





CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC NOTES ON CALCITE 


By je 2. POGUE 


Assistant Curator, Division oF MinrERALocY, U. S. Nationa, MusEUM 
Wiru Two PLates 


(1) Caucrre FRoM JopLin, Missourt 


Although the Joplin calcites have been very completely described 
by Farrington,! two specimens in the U. $. National Museum present 
features of sufficient difference and interest to warrant a brief note. 

The first of these, bearing the National Museum number 84435, 
and represented in its true proportions in plate Liu, figure I, is com- 


posed of the scalenohedron v (2131), modified by the positive rhom- 
bohedron yr (1011), and the rarer scalenohedrons o (5164) and C 
(6178). This crystal is similar in appearance to one figured by Far- 
rington,? but in the latter the modifying scalenohedrons are w (3145) 


and 1 (4153). The measurements upon which the identification of 
the forms are based, made by the contact goniometer, are as follows: 


Measured (contact). Theoretical. 
Vir = 2131: 1011 = 29° Zoe oh 
yi¢/ = I101l: Tol = AS Tie no G 
ra a 2131 : 2311 ad FS Sao 2 
O36: = 2131 : 5164 = 17°-18° it Boy 
GieiG/ et ON SOTA — TiS Teese 
g:0% = 5164: 6154= 15° 14° 27/ 
v: CY = 2131 : 7168 = 379-369 37° 47/ 
C:C/ = 6178 : 6718 = 60° BOG ATL 
C: CY = 6178 : 7168 — 10° 9° 32/ 


This type, represented by two specimens in the collection, is of a 
honey-yellow color and about 8 cm. in length. Numerous cleavage 
cracks intersect within the crystal and reflect the light as the crystal 
is revolved. The faces 7, o, and C are dull; v, bright. Three faces 
of the scalenohedron v, as shown in the drawing, are stippled with 





* Publ. Field Columb. Mus., Geol. Ser., vol. 1 (1900), pp. 232-41. 
*Tbid., plate xxx, fig. I. 
465 


466 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


marcasite in a most interesting manner. This forms a sandpaper- 
like surface, which extends to within 4 mm. of the edges vo, where 
an even line of demarkation separates the stippled part from the re- 
maining bright portion of the faces. This line runs parallel to vo 
to within a few millimeters of the sharp edges, v vu’ and viv’, and 
then bends down in a direction roughly parallel to the cleavage, inter- 
secting the edges at a sharp angle. Also, from the same sharp edges. 
occasional narrow bands, lacking the stippling, extend toward the 
blunt edges in a direction parallel to the cleavage. The three back 
faces, vii, vill) and viv, are entirely wanting in marcasite. ‘This. 
mineral is confined to the surface of the crystal and must have been 
deposited after the growth of the calcite was completed or nearly 
completed; yet it is entirely controlled in its distribution by the 
crystallographic relations of the host crystal. 

The second crystal described bears the Museum number 84435, and 
_ is shown in its natural development in plate Liu, figure 2. This is 
made up of the scalenohedron v (2131) and negative rhombohedron 
e (0112), modified by the rhombohedron | (0445) and the scaleno- 
hedron ¢ (2134), and is a combination of Farrington’s! type 1, 
composed of v and ¢, and type 2, composed of yande. By a parallel 
shifting of vvY and corresponding edges, the alternate ¢ faces are 
distorted into long, narrow planes, which, on account of their small 
inclination to e and the striations of the latter, are not prominent. 
The crystal is of a honey-yellow color and in numerous positions is 
brilliantly illuminated from within by light reflected from a network 
of cleavage cracks. ‘The w faces are all peculiarly marked, as shown 
in the drawing. 

The measurements, made by contact, are as follows: 


Measured (contact), Theoretical. 
Cao OAM == ome Aa?) 36? 
e:J =o1tl2 0445 = ues T223 woe 
@:U == 0112: 2131 = 450-529 BO 367 
the aia sated pel ° Agvet 


(2) Caxcrre with Movinc Bupsslk, FROM GUANAJUATO, MExICco 


A calcite twin from Guanajuato, Mexico, bearing the National 
Museum number 75672, is shown in its true size and development in 
plate Liv, figure 1. The form shows the scalenohedron v (2131), 
terminated above by the negative rhombohedron e (0112), which, 


* Publ. Field Columb. Mus., Geol. Ser., vol. 1 (1900), pp. 233-34. 


NO. 1878 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC NOTES ON CALCITE—POGUE 467 


imperfectly developed at the lower end of the crystal, appears here by 
a mere rounding. ‘The crystal is twinned parallel to the basal plane 
c (0001), following a common law for calcite. ‘The feature of inter- 
est is a moving bubble, which has a free course over the area outlined 
by dots in the drawing. ‘This space is roughly rectilinear in shape, 
about 16x 6.5 mm. in size, and is situated 1 to 3 mm. beneath and 
parallel to the surface; its edge of greatest length is also approxi- 
mately parallel to edge vv’ of the crystal. The space is apparently 
located in a definite manner in regard to the orientation of the calcite. 

Complex twins from the same locality have been described by 
Pirsson.? 


CALCITE FROM VIRGILINA, VIRGINIA 
’ 


A small suite of calcite crystais have been found in the- Virgilina 
copper district of Virginia by Dr. F. B. Laney, who kindly placed 
the material at the disposal of the writer. As no descriptions of 
calcite from this locality, so far as the writer knows, appear in the 
literature, a brief note is deemed desirable. 

Crystallized calcite occurs at the High Hill Copper Mine, Halifax 
County, Virginia, about nine miles north of Virgilina. It is found 
in small cavities or vuggs, distributed at irregular intervals in a 
quartz vein 4 to 8 feet in width, which traverses a greenstone schist 
(probably a mashed andesitic tuff). The crystals are rare and are 
associated with crystalline quartz, cuprite, malachite, and one or more 
other copper minerals. “he mine is 300 feet deep, but the depth 
from which the present specimens were obtained is not known. 
Massive calcite as a gangue is not common at this mine, though very 
prominent at the Blue Wing Mine in the same district.2_ The crystals 
range in size from I to 7 mm. in greatest length and occur in two 
distinct types. 

Type I, shown enlarged in plate Liv, figure 2, is rarer and smaller 
than type 2 (figs. 3 and 4). The former is very simple, being a com- 


bination of the positive rhombohedron r (1011) and the rare scaleno- 


hedron G: (7295).2. This form was noted by Farrington and Tillot- 
son‘ on calcite from Joplin, and by Palache® on calcite from the cop- 
per mines of Lake Superior, but has not otherwise been described on 


* Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. 41 (1891), pp. 61-64. 

? For these details of occurrence the writer is indebted to Dr. Laney. 

* Goldschmidt’s symbol. This form is not given in Dana’s Mineralogy. 

* Publ. Field Columb. Mus., Geol. Ser., vol. 3 (1908), p. 141. 

5Zeitschr. fiir Kryst., vol. 24 (1895), p. 589; Mich. Geol. Survey, vol. 6, pt. 
2 (1808), p. 168. 


~ 


2 


408 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


American calcite. yr is dull and G: is fairly brilliant, though its 
signal is not well defined. The measurements upon which the iden- 
tification is based are as follows: 


Measured. Theoretical. 
GivG! = (7295): (7925) 78" 16" 78° 23? 
G:: Gi" = (7205) : (9275) = 21° o/ 20° 44/ 
v:G: = (toil) : (7295) =17° & 17° 36/ 


Type 2, an average crystal of which, enlarged, is shown in ortho- 
graphic projection in plate Liv, figure 3, and in clinographic projec- 
tion in figure 4, is the common type. It occurs very symmetrically 
developed and is composed of the scalenohedron y (3251) and the 
negative rhombohedron e (0112), modified by the positive rhombo- 
hedrons r (1011) and k (5052), and the rare scalenohedron G: 


(7295). e is deeply striated parallel to rv’; r, k, and G: are dull, 
and y only slightly lustrous. The crystals were measured by the 
reflection goniometer, but as direct reflections could not be obtained, 
the measurements were made by bringing the faces into parallel 
alignment with the vertical cross-hair. This method gave readings 
only slightly more accurate than those obtained by contact on larger 
crystals, but such were sufficient to identify the forms. The identifi- 
cation of G: was strengthened by its more accurate determination on 
type 1. The faces of the scalenohedron y have a tendency toward 
rounding, so that the edges between the upper and lower faces are not 
always well developed; hence the crystals have a barrel-shaped ap- 
pearance. 

‘The specimens described have been placed in the National Museum 
collections under the number 86574. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES 


Pruate LIT], Fig. 1—Joplin calcite, showing peculiar stippling of marcasite. 
Natural size. Nat. Mus. No. 84435. 
Fig. 2—Joplin calcite, combination of v, e, and ft. Natural size. 
Nat. Mus. No. 84435. 


Pirate LIV, Fig. r—Calcite twin, Guanajuato, Mexico. Path of moving bubble 
outlined by dots. Natural size. Nat. Mus. No. 75672. 
Fig. 2.—Crystal of type 1, Virgilina calcite. Enlarged. Nat. Mus. 
No. 86574. 

Fig. 3.—Crystal of type 2, Virgilina calcite. Orthographic pro- 

jection. Enlarged. Nat. Mus. No. 86574. 
g.4.—Crystal of type 2, Virgilina calcite. Clinographic pro- 

jection. Enlarged. Nat. Mus. No. 86574. 


Ki 


_ 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. 


LIN 




















SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. 


GEORYCHUS KAPITI, NEW SPECIES 


Natural size 





A NEW RODENT OF THE GENUS GEORYCHUS 


By EDMUND HELLER 


Fieyp NATURALIST, SMITHSONIAN AFRICAN EXPEDITION 
WitH ONE PLATE 


It has seemed desirable that the more conspicuous new mammals 
discovered by the Smithsonian African Expedition should be de- 
scribed at once, without waiting for the general account of the col- 
lections. This paper contains the first of these descriptions. 


GEORYCHUS KAPITI, new species 


Types from Potha, Kapiti Plains, British East Africa; adult 
female, No. 161708, U. S. Nat. Museum; collected by J. A. Loring, 
May 3, 1909; original No. 6027. 

General characters——Size small, about that of G. nimrodi, but 
skull relatively much larger, the nasals extending posteriorly con- 
siderably beyond the premaxillaries; coloration uniform drab-gray 
with a strong cinnamon-brown wash and without any white occipital 
patch. 

Coloration—Uniform drab-gray everywhere, the back with a 
strong cinnamon-brown wash; ears, a spot on each side of snout at 
base of whiskers, and the long hairs covering the tail, whitish, but not 
forming any noticeable contrast with adjacent parts ; hair everywhere 
plumbeous gray (about Ridgway’s No. 6) at base. 

Skull.—Relatively large and wide zygomatically. Nasals extend- 
ing well beyond premaxillaries. Functional cheekteeth four, the 
crowns, when worn, subcircular in outline except the last, which has 
a large posterior prism ; fourth cheektooth (m’) largest, the first func- 
tional tooth (pm?) considerably smaller than the last (m*). Incisors 
long and slender, uniformly chalky-white in coloration. 

Measurements.—Type: Head and body, 165; tail, 19; hind foot, 
33 (29.6) ; skull, condylobasal length, 42.8; zygomatic breadth, 32.8; 
interorbital constriction, 8.8; postorbital constriction, 9.0; mastoid 
breadth, 20.2; nasal, 16.8; diastema, 14.6; depth at middle palate, 
15.6; mandible, 33.6; maxillary toothrow (functional teeth, alveol1), 
8.0; mandibular toothrow (functional teeth, alveoli), 7.0. 

This species is apparently most closely related to nimrodi of Mata- 
bele Land, with which form it agrees in size, in the absence of a 

469 


- 


470 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


white occipital patch, and in the comparative length of the nasal 
bones. It differs from this form in the relatively larger skull and 
hind foot, larger molars, and in the presence of a cinnamon wash on 
back. It is at once distinguishable from argenteo-cinereus of German 
East Africa and Mozambique by its much smaller size and absence 
of the white occipital patch. 

The series of eight specimens from the Kapiti Plains is remarkably 
uniform, showing practically no variation in coloration and only such 
variations in size as are due to age. 





a 
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. LVI 


a b 
THAMNOMYS LORINGI Heller MUS PEROMYSCUS Heller 


Type. Natural size Type. Natural size 





TWO NEW RODENTS FROM BRITISH EAST AFRICA 


By EDMUND HELLER 


FIELD NATURALIST, SMITHSONIAN AFRICAN EXPEDITION 
WirH One PLATE 


Two Murine rodents collected by members of the Smithsonian 
African Expedition in British East Africa during June and July, 
1909, appear to be new to science. This paper, in which they are 
described, is the second dealing with the results of the expedition. 


THAMNOMYS LORINGI, sp. nov. 


(Plate LVI, a, skull, natural size) 


Type No. 161904, U. S. Nat. Mus., adult female (skin and skull), 
Lake Naivasha, British East Africa, July 17, 1909; collected by 
J. Alden Loring; original No. 6684. 

General characters—A large Thamnomys agreeing with T. dryas 
Thomas in dental characters and number of mammz (p o — 0, 
i 2 — 2 = 4); coloration distinctive, the face marked on each side 
with a broad black band from tip of snout through eye to base of ear. 

Color—Upperparts wood-brown, washed with black medially, 
tinged with light tawny on rump and lumbar region; sides paler and 
grayer, but brown color continuing well down to the creamy white 
of the underparts, the line of demarcation sharply defined; sides of 
head marked by a broad band of black from the snout through the 
eye to base of the ear; interorbital region and crown dusky, with a 
slight grizzle; ears scantily covered by ferruginous hairs; whole 
underparts, including cheeks and the fore and hind feet, creamy 
white, the hair basally slate-gray; tail black, clothed scantily with 
short black hairs which become more numerous posteriorly and 
form a slight pencil at the tip. 

Measurements—Head and body, 160; tail, 174; hind foot, 30; 
ear, 21 (dry). Skull: condylobasal length, 36.0; zygomatic breadth, 
20.2; interorbital constriction, 4.8; mastoid breadth, 15.6; depth of 
braincase at middle, 19.6; nasal, 14.0; diastema, 10.8; mandible, 
22.4; maxillary toothrow (alveoli), 5.8; mandibular toothrow 


(alveoli), 5.6. 
471 


472 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


MUS PEROMYSCUS, sp. nov. 
(Plate LVI, 0b, skull, natural size) 


Type No. 161905, U. S. Nat. Mus., adult male (skin and skull) ; 
Njoro O Nyiro, Sotik, British East Africa; June 9, 1909; collected 
by E. Heller; original No. tort. 

General characters —Skull long and narrow with slender ap- 
pressed zygomatic arches and produced rostrum; molar series short 
and narrow with the internal cusps illy defined; ears large, rounded, 
scantily clothed by minute hairs; tail essentially naked. 

Color.—Upperparts sepia changing gradually to walnut-brown 
posteriorly ;sides mixed grayish and fulvous, the transition to the gray 
of the underparts rather abrupt ;sidesof head and base of ears lighter 
brown, similar to the coloration of the rump; underparts and feet 
light grayish, with faint median fulvous wash; tail dusky. 

Measurements—Head and body, 135; tail, 146; hind foot, 26; 
ear, 22. Skull: condylobasal length, 30.4; zygomatic breadth, 16.0; 
interorbital constriction, 5.0; mastoid breadth, 12.8; depth of brain- 
case at middle, 9.0; nasal, 12.8; diastema, 8.6; mandible, 19.0; max- 
illary toothrow (crowns), 5.0; mandibular toothrow (alveoli), 5.0. 





PL. LVIb 


52, 


VOL. 


COLLECTIONS 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS 





Fg. 


Fig. 


NATURAL SIZE 


THE THOMSON, GEORGIA, METEORITE. 


A HERETOFORE UNDESCRIBED STONY METEORITE 
FROM THOMSON, McDUFFIE COUNTY, GEORGIA 


By GEORGE P. MERRILL 


Heap Curator, DEPARTMENT OF GEoLocy, U. S. Nationa, MusEuM 
With Two PLaAtEs 


Through the courtesy of Mr. George H. Plant, of Macon, Georgia, 
the National Museum has recently come into possession of a here- 
tofore undescribed and, except locally, evidently unknown stony 
meteorite. The history of the stone, owing to the length of time 
it has laid in private collections, is unfortunately somewhat obscure. 
In a letter from B. F. Wilson to Mr. I. C. Plant, dated November 
26, 1888, it is stated, ““The stone sent you was picked up by the 
undersigned on October 15th. It was on the place of Mrs. M. A. 
Wilson, in McDuffie county, four miles south of Thomson. It fell 
within thirty yards of where the writer was at work.” Nothing is 
said in the letter regarding the time of day, and only the natural 
inference can be made that it was some time between sunrise and 
sunset. As Mr. Wilson is now dead, letters were written to the 
office of the local newspaper and to the postmaster at Thomson. 
Only the latter replied, stating that Mr. Wilson was picking cotton 
at the time, and his first impression was that some one had “thrown 
a huge stone at his head.” He then noticed “where the meteorite 
fell, some thirty steps away. It was buried some six or eight inches 
in the earth and he dug it up with a spade. Only one stone fell.” 

The meteorite as it reached the Museum was in a good state of 
preservation when all is considered. The two views, natural size, 
on plate Lv, show its appearance better than can any detailed de- 
scription. The black crust had been knocked off some of the more 
exposed edges, but the fractured surface shown at the bottom, in 
figure 2, was very thinly and indistinctly coated with a black glass, 
showing that the breaking took place not long before the stone 
reached the ground. The crust over the main portion is thin, slightly 
rough, dull and lustreless, .iidicating at once a nearly feldspar-free 
stone of the olivine-pyroxene type, and such it proves to be. No- 
where on its surface are there flutings and pittings such as to indi- 
cate its orientation during flight, but the crust is apparently a trifle 


473 


474 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


thicker near the center on the upper half as shown in figure 2, 
suggesting that this was the rear, on which the molten material 
would naturally gather to a greater extent than on the nose or 
brustseite. The total weight of the stone as received was 234 grams. 
Allowing for all abraded portions, even that from the rough sur- 
face now thinly glazed, it could not have weighed more than 250 
grams. As now preserved, after cutting slices for thin sections and 
chemical tests, and as shown in the plate, it weighs 218 grams; 
specific gravity determinations made on the entire mass gave 3.51; 
Museum catalogue number 395. 

The polished surface of the stone (fig. 2) shows a light gray 
ground which the pocket lens resolves into a compact mass of gray 
chondrules closely compressed, sometimes spherical or oval and 
sometimes angular, abundantly interspersed with small particles of 
metallic iron and iron sulphide. The surface is traversed by one 
short and wide black vein and one bifurcating and threadlike, both 
evidently emanating from the same point. The wider black vein, 
it will be noted, breaks up at its extremities into several threadlike 
forms. It would perhaps be more accurate to state that at this point 
on the surface several parallel-lying, threadlike veins have coalesced 
for a short distance, then again separated. The filling material of 
these veins (with the exception of the dark coloring matter which, 
being unacted upon by acids, is assumed to be carbon) is essentially 
of the same mineral nature as the body of the stone. Iron and iron 
sulphide are, however, relatively more abundant, especially in the 
smaller veins where the sulphide forms in places a spongelike and, 
at times, a solid filling of the fissure, or may again occur in thin 
plates lying near the walls, with numerous small particles scattered 
promiscuously throughout the interior. It naturally follows that 
this constituent is of more recent origin than the fissures themselves. 
Occasional evidences of a like secondary nature of the metallic iron 
are met with, but these are not satisfactorily conclusive. Where 
the metal fills the vein cavity for a short distance only, it is possible 
that it antedates the crack which merely passes around it. In other 
cases, however, there are what appear as mere elongated films of 
the metal lying parallel with the walls and in shape radically dif- 
ferent from that in the body of the stone. Such, it is felt, must 
also be secondary as compared with that of the ground and, together 
with the sulphide, offer some interesting suggestions relative to life 
history. 

The veins in general appearance are similar to those in the Fayette 


VOL. 52 PL. LVIII 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 





METEORITE. SHOWING MICROSTRUCTURE 


, GEORGIA, 


THE THOMSON 


NO. I88I STONY METEORITE FROM GEORGIA—MERRILL 475 


County (Bluff), Texas stone, as described by the writer,’ but differ 
in that the latter show no proportional increase in metallic constitu- 
ents. They seem more nearly comparable with those of the Mocs 
stone as figured and described by T'schermak.? 

Concerning the origin of the vein-filling matter of meteorites in 
general, the writer agrees with Tschermak*® and Farrington,‘ in that 
it cannot have been derived from inward flowing fused material from 
the surface, nor can it be due to a fusion of pre-existing particles 
scattered throughout the mass of the stone. Even were there reason 
for supposing that the interior of any stony meteorite becomes highly 
heated during its passage through the atmosphere, the presence of 
the sulphide filling is indisputable evidence that such did not in this 
instance occur; otherwise the sulphide would itself have been con- 
sumed. The metallic portion cannot be accounted for on the suppo- 
sition that pre-existing particles were drawn out into filaments 
through the dragging action of the walls, since it is plain that there 
has been no such differential movement, nor are there elsewhere in 
the section any corresponding filamentous forms. The suggestion 
of Farrington regarding the filling matter of the veins in the Farm- 
ington, Kansas, stone seems therefore inapplicable here, and one is 
apparently forced to the conclusion that the sulphide filling at least 
(ignoring for the time the doubtful metallic constituent) owes its 
origin to some reducing constituent acting at fairly low temperature 
at a period since the fracturing took place. 

In respect to structure and texture, the stone is also comparable 
with that of Mocs, but differs in that the chondrules are compressed 
and firmly imbedded and break with the groundmass. In the thin 
section under the microscope the chondritic structure becomes very 
obscure, indeed, almost unrecognizable, so constant and gradual is 
the transition into the ground of granular silicates (pl. Lvrt). 
Porphyritic and polysomatic forms are not abundant, the prevailing 
types being radiating columnar or finely granular. Of the two chief 
constituents, enstatite prevails over olivine in both chondritic and 
granular forms. Occasional chondrules are composed wholly of 
small, fairly well developed but closely compacted monoclinic forms, 
with small angle of extinction, and evidently referable to Dr. W. 


*Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 36, 1888, p. 113. 

* Sitz. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss. Math. Naturw. Classe, vol. 85, 1882, p. 195. 

* Beitr. zur Classification der Meteoriten, Sitz. k. Akad. der Wiss., vol. 88, 
1883, p, I5. 

*On the Nature of the Metallic Veins in the Farmington Meteorite, Am. 
Jour. Sci., x1, 1901, p. 60. 


476 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


Wahl’s klino-enstatite.° Other monoclinic forms show the polysyn- 
thetic twinning so characteristic of the Renazzo stone. In addition 
to the above-named silicates are numerous small and irregular inter- 
stitial areas of a completely colorless, transparent, isotropic, or 
sometimes weakly doubly refracting mineral without cleavage lines 
or twin striz, which would ordinarily pass for a glass. These, as in 
previous cases,*® I have considered, for lack of evidence to the con- 
trary, to be maskelynite, basing my determination on ‘I'schermak’s 
figures and descriptions in plates 16 and 17 of his Die Mikroskopische 
Beschaffenheit der Meteoriten. 

The stone will be known, in accordance with the usual custom of 
naming, as the Thomson meteorite. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES 
Tur THomson, Grorcia, METEORITE 


Pu. LVII, Fics. 1 anp 2. Two views. Natural size. Fig. 2 shows a polished 
surface, on which, at the right and near the end, is a broad, illy defined 
black vein. A small threadlike vein evidently starting from the same 
source extends upward and to the left, with frequent branching, to the 
highest point on the polished surface. In photographing this view the 
specimen was tilted a trifle more than in Fig. 1 in order that the light 
might so fall as to bring out the fractured surface on the lower margin. 


Tue THomson, GrorciA, METEORITE 


Py. LVIII, showing microstructure. ‘The black areas are of metallic iron and 
iron sulphide; the small, white interstitial areas the supposed maskelynite. 
The large chondrule at the middle of the left margin is enstatite. Else- 
where in the plate the silicates are not well differentiated. 

* Die Enstatitaugite, etc., Helsingfors, 1906. 

* See description of Stony Meteorite from Coon Butte, Ariz., Am. Jour. Sci., 

May, 1906, p. 351, and On the Meteorite of Rich Mountain, N. C., Proc. U. S. 


N. M., vol. 32, 1907, p 243. 





ON A REMARKABLE CUBE OF PYRITE, CARRYING CRYS- 
TALLIZED GOLD AND GALENA OF UNUSUAL HABIT 


By JOSEPH E. POGUE 


ASSISTANT CuRATOR, Division oF MINERALOGY, U. S. Nationa, MusEuM 
WitH ONE PLATE 


The intergrowth or interpenetration of two or more minerals, 
especially if these be well crystallized, often shows a certain mutual 
crystallographic control in the arrangement of the individuals, sug- 
gestive of interacting molecular forces. Occasionally a crystal upon 
nearly completing its growth exerts what may be termed “surface 
affinity,’ in that it seems to attract molecules of composition differ- 
ent from its own and causes these to crystallize in positions bearing 
definite crystallographic relations to the host crystal, as evidenced, 
for example, by the regular arrangement of marcasite on calcite, 
chalcopyrite on galena, quartz on fluorite, and so on. Of special 
interest, not only because exhibiting the features mentioned above, 
but also on account of the unusual development of the individuals 
and the great beauty of the specimen, is a large cube of pyrite, 
studded with crystals of native gold and partly covered by plates of 
galena, acquired some years ago by the U. S. National Museum. 

This cube measures about 2 inches (51 mm.) along its edge, and 
is prominently striated, as is often the case with pyrite. It contains 
something more than 130 crystals of gold attached to its surface, 
has about one-fourth of its area covered with galena, and upon one 
face shows an imperfect crystal of chalcopyrite. The specimen came 
into the possession of the National Museum in 1906 and was ob- 
tained from the Snettisham District, near Juneau, Southeast Alaska. 
It is now on exhibition in the Mineral Department under number 
86045. Three similar specimens were exhibited at the Seattle Expo- 
sition during 1909, one of which is stated by the owner, Mr. L. V. 
Winter, of Juneau, Alaska, to be 4 inches square and to show 170 
crystals of gold upon its surface. So far as can be learned the four 
specimens are the sole representatives of a very unique association. 

Crystallography of the pyrite-—The pyrite has four of its faces 
well developed; each of the two remaining ones is marred by an 
irregular pit, about one-half inch deep and the same in diameter, 
and the edge joining these two faces is imperfect. The crystal is 
striated parallel to the pyritohedron e (210), due to oscillatory com- 


477 


478 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


bination of this form and the cube a (100), which gives rise to 
overlapping strips or lamine parallel to (100) and bounded by (210), 
each lower. strip being usually a bit broader than the one above. 
The ordinary arrangement across the laminations is: A smooth sur- 
face parallel to the cube face, I to 2 mm. in width; a series of steps 
down across alternations of cube and pyritohedron for about 1 mm.; 





Fic. 81.—Pyrite cube with crystallized gold and galena. Natural size. 


a flat-bottom valley I to 2mm. wide; a course of steps up for I mm. 
to a second plane surface, and so on. Frequently a narrow strip 
extends only partly across the cube face when, cut off by two octahe- 
dral planes, it ends in a dull point, and the strip beneath continues 
until it perhaps is terminated by similar bounding planes. Scharff? 


"Scharff, F. Ueber die Bau-weise der Wiirfel-formigen Krystalle. Neues 
Jahr. f. Min., etc., 1860, pp. 385-425. See especially p. 412 and Figs. 41, 43, 47, 
Plate vr. 


NO. 1882 PYRITE CARRYING GOLD AND GALENA—POGUE 479 


has figured and described natural etchings on pyrite from Traver- 
sella, Italy, which are somewhat similar to the ones here depicted. 
At times the gold crystals or small rounded knobs of galena are 
situated upon small six-sided pedestals composed of laminz of pyrite 
bounded by two pyritohedron and four octahedral planes. The above 
features may be seen by referring to plate LIN, figure I. 
Crystallography of the gold—The gold crystals are most abundant 
on the face shown in plate LIx, figure 1, though some are present 
on each of the other faces. They are usually from one-third to one- 
half buried in the pyrite, nevet more, and seem to have no definite 
orientation in regard to their host. Most of them show crystal 
outline and many are rather symmetrically developed; their average 
diameter is about 1 mm. ‘The faces are slightly convex, without 
bright luster, and the edges are not sharp. No measurements were 
attempted on the goniometer, as the crystals were not fitted for giv- 
ing reflection, nor, indeed, could they be easily plucked from their 
settings. The following forms, however, by aid of a hand lens, were 


LESS 


Fic. 82,—The most common shapes of the gold crystals. Enlarged octahe- 
dron; combination of cube and octahedron; combination of octahedron and 
dodecahedron; combination of octahedron and trapezohedron, 


positively determined: cube, a (100) ; octahedron, o (111) ; dodeca- 
hedron, d (110), and trapezohedron, m (211) or m (311). To these 
should be added a hexoctahedron as probably present, this form pos- 
sibly corresponding to 1+ (18.10.1) described by Dana? on gold from 
California. The most common combinations, as shown in figure 82, 
are: Octahedron, cube and octahedron, dodecahedron.and octahedron, 
and trapezohedron and octahedron. 

Crystallography of the galena——The galena possesses three dis- 
tinct habits, two of which have two or more appearances, due to 
peculiarities of orientation : 

(1) Normal galena. A very small part of the galena has the 
ordinary step-like appearance characteristic of this mineral and re- 
quires no special description. This phase is arranged with one cubic 
cleavage parallel to the cube faces of the pyrite, with the striations 
on the latter intersecting diagonally its other cleavages. 


?Dana, FE. S. On the crystallization of gold. Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 32, 1886, 
Pp. 132-138. 


480 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


(2) Galena laminated parallel to the octahedron (111). About 
‘one-fourth of the mineral is developed in this way and is arranged 
with its octahedral surface usually parallel, though at times slightly 
inclined, to the cube faces of the pyrite. Natural etching has given 
a triangular and hexagonal outline to the plates, as is shown in the 
lower right-hand corner of figure 2, plate Lrx. This contour is ex- 
plained by the fact that an octahedral plane alone is an equilateral 
triangle, and, when truncated by cube faces, forms a surface of six- 
sided outline. The strongly laminated nature of the galena may be 
due to polysynthetic twinning parallel to (111). 

(3) Galena laminated parallel to the cube (100). This habit, 
which comprises about two-thirds of the galena, shows a varied 
orientation in respect to the pyrite. (a) The most common appear- 
ance is shown in the central portion of figure 2, plate Lx, where the 
lamine are parallel to the surface of the pyrite. This is explained 





Fic. 83.—Greatly enlarged cleavage 


fragment of galena, showing eminent Tic. 84.—Fragment of galena, made 
cubic cleavage modified by octahedral up of laminz, parallel to a cube face, 
cleavage. bounded by octahedral slopes. 


by the accompanying drawing (figure 84), which figures a fragment 
made up of plates parallel to the cube a (100), bounded by octa- 
hedral (111) slopes, this combination giving a square outline to the 
plates. (b) Occasionally there occur long, narrow strips, likewise 
made up of laminz parallel to a (100) and bounded by elongated 
o (111) faces. These may have their a (100) faces parallel to 
a (100) of pyrite; or less often the long o (111) faces may have 
this relation. Crystals of like distortion, but without such platy 
structure or appearance, from Yellowstone, Wisconsin, have been 
described by Hobbs. (c) Finally, the laminz and the two cube 


* Hobbs, W. H. Die krystallisirten Mineralien aus dem “Galena Limestone” 
des stidlichen Wisconsin und des noérdlichen Illinois. Zeitsch. fiir Kryst., vol. 
25, 1895-06, pp. 257-275. Especially plate 4, figure 10, and p. 263. 


NO. 1882 PYRITE CARRYING GOLD AND GALENA—POGUE 481 


faces at right angles to these may all be equally inclined to the sur- 
face of the pyrite. The mineral with this arrangement has a rhom- 
bohedral appearance (imperfectly shown in the upper central por- 
tion of figure 2, plate L1x), but its true nature is revealed by expos- 
ing the cleavages, which are parallel to the external planes. At 
times, as is shown in plate LIX, figure 1, irregular branching forms, 
suggestive of fantastic figures, result from this orientation. 

The preceding conclusions were arrived at by a study of dozens 
of cleavage fragments under the microscope and an examination 
with hand lens of the galena in place, the prominent cubic cleavage 
in all cases serving as a means of orientation. Measurements of the 
cleavage by the microscope gave 9014°, 8914°, 90°, 80°. Several 
fragments showed secondary octahedral cleavage, which is rare for 
galena. One example is pictured in figure 83, in which a corner of 





Fic. 85.—Greatly enlarged cleavage surfaces of galena, showing groovings 
visible by incident sunlight under the microscope. 


a cleavage cube is broken across by a series of smaller cubes, with 
their corners, in turn, truncated by minute triangular octahedral 
faces. 

An examination of cleavage surfaces under a high magnifying 
power, illuminated by incident sunlight, reveals a complicated series 
of striations and groovings. ‘The striations are exceedingly minute, 
visible as fine hair-lines only under the most favorable conditions 
of reflection. There are two sets at right angles to each other and 
parallel to the edges of the square cleavage fragments, which may 
represent incipient cleavages; a third set, less distinct, is sometimes 
present, cutting the cubic cleavage and striations diagonally. The 
last holds positions identical with the trace of octahedral planes. 
More prominent than the striations, and much broader compara- 
tively, are the members of a complicated series of sinuous grooves. 
Figure 85 is a free-hand sketch of the pattern made by these. It 
is seen that the groovings are predominantly parallel and diagonal 


482 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


to the cleavage, though many of the lines have apparently no definite 
orientation. 

Qualitative chemical tests of the galena disclose, in addition to the 
lead and sulphur, the presence of silver and antimony. A careful 
examination for bismuth gave negative results. This becomes of 
interest in view of the fact that in much of the galena from other 
localities, known to possess octahedral cleavage, amounts of Bi,S,, 
ranging around I per cent, have been found, and it has been sug- 
gested that the peculiarity of cleavage might be due to the presence 
of this impurity.‘ 

So far as the writer has been able to learn from a survey of the 
most important literature on the subject, the peculiar development 
of galena herein described has not been previously met with. 
Scharff,’ Sadebeck,® vom Rath,’ Hobbs,® Franke,® Miers,?° Rogers,” 
Mugge,’* Wada,'* and others have described galena bearing some 
analogies to that here depicted, but in no case is the resemblance 
more than partial. 

The chalcopyrite-—This mineral occurs in an irregular mass 7 
mm. in diameter, shown in plate Lrx, figure I, and in two or three 
other smaller aggregates. It presents no peculiarities, either of crys- 
tal form or orientation. 

Genesis—The following features may have some bearing on the 
manner in which the specimen was formed: a few gold crystals are 
imbedded in the galena and one is partly enclosed by chalcopyrite ; 
one small mass of the chalcopyrite is set in the galena; part of the 


*Dana’s System of Mineralogy, 6th ed., p. 40. 

* Previously cited. 

°Sadebeck, A. Ueber die Krystallisation des Bleiglanzes. Zeitsch. fiir. 
Deutsch. geol. Gesel., vol. 26, 1874, pp. 617-670. 

*vom Rath, A. Mineralogische Notizen. See Zeitsch. fiir. Kryst., vol. 4, 1880. 
p. 425. 

* Previously cited. 

* Franke, H. Galenite und Dolomite von Oradna in Siebenbiirgen. Abhand. 
d. naturw. Ges. Isis., 1896, p. 25. Abstract: Zeitsch. fiir Kryst., vol. 30, 1808, 
p. 663. 

” Miers, H. A. Mineralogische Notizen. Zeitsch. fiir Kryst., vol. 31, 1890, p. 
584. 

* Rogers, A. F. Minerals from the Joplin Zinc and Lead District. Kan. 
Univ. Quart., vol. 9, 1900, pp. 161-165. 

* Miigge, O. Ueber regelmassige verwachsungen von Bleiglanz mit Eisenkies 
und Kupferkies mit Kobaltglanz. Tschermak’s min. u. petrog. Mitth., vol. 20, 
I9OI, pp. 349-354. 

* Wada. T. Mineralien Japans, 1904. Abstract, Zeitsch. fiir. Kryst., vol. 43, 
1907, p. TOO. 


NO. 1882 PYRITE CARRYING GOLD AND GALENA—POGUE 483 


gold and galena is surrounded by low ramparts of pyrite; the gold 
is never more than half buried; so far as the interior of the 
crystal can be examined by means of the two pits, none of the 
three associated minerals can be discovered within the pyrite. The 
most probable paragenesis is therefore regarded as this: The pyrite, 
when its present size was nearly attained, sustained a deposition of 
crystallized gold upon its surface followed by the precipitation of a 
small amount of chalcopyrite which, in turn, was succeeded by the 
formation of the galena. A further slight accretion of pyrite com- 
pleted the development of the specimen. 


6 


484 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. VOL. 52 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE LIX 


Fic. 1. Cube face of pyrite, showing crystals of gold, fantastic branching 
forms of galena, and aggregate of chalcopyrite. The striations on 
the pyrite, with their octahedral terminations, may also be seen. 
Magnified about one and one-half times. 


Fic. 2. Cube face of pyrite, showing galena of various appearances. Magnified 
about one and one-half times. 


VOL. 52, PL. LIx 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANECUS COLLECTIONS 





CUBE FACE OF PYRITE 


age 484 


Pp 


» 


See explanation 





A NEW CARNIVORE FROM BRITISH EAST AFRICA 


By GERRIT S. MILLER, Jr. 


Curator, Division oF MAmmnats, U. S. NATIONAL MtsEuM 
Wits THREE PLATES 


A series of seven specimens of Ofocyon collected by Dr. Edgar A. 
Mearns and Mr. J. Alden Loring, of the Smithsonian African Expe- 
dition, at Naivasha Station, British East Africa, represents a species 
readily distinguishable from O. megalotis of the Cape region. It 
may be named and described as follows :* 


OTOCYON VIRGATUS, sp. nov. 


Type: Cat. No. 162125, U.S.N.M. Adult male (skin and skull), 
collected at Naivasha Station, British East Africa, August 8, 1909, 
by J. Alden Loring. Original number 6962. 

Diagnosis: Size and general appearance as in Otocyon megalotis, 
but underparts rich buff instead of whitish, and tail with conspicuous 
black dorsal stripe. Skull differing from that of O. megalotis in the 
flatter less inflated audital bullae and absence of notch between angu- 
lar and subangular processes of mandible. Fourth lower molar nor- 
mally with two small but evident posterior cusps, its elements as in 
the preceding tooth. 

Color: Entire dorsal surface from between ears to base of tail a 
nearly uniform coarse grizzle of black and light cream-buff, the 
cream-buff in excess everywhere except along median line, where the 
two colors are about evenly balanced ; long hairs blackish throughout 
except for a cream-buff annulation about 5 mm. wide situated 5 to 10 
mm. below tips; hairs of underfur drab-gray through basal half, 
then a rather light ochraceous-buff to tips, this color nearly overlaid 
by the grizzle of the longer hairs, but appearing irregularly at sur- 
face where hairs are disarranged; sides of body like back, but be- 
coming suffused with ochraceous-buff below ; underparts ochraceous- 
buff, brighter and more nearly a clear buff on throat, duller and 


1This paper is the third dealing with the results of the expedition. The 
other papers are Nos. 1879 and 1880 in the same series as the present publica- 
tion. 


485 


486 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


more brownish between fore legs; axillary region pale cream-buff in 
rather noticeable contrast; crown from between ears to between eyes 
a light indefinite grizzled gray, contrasting slightly with region be- 
hind it and conspicuously with the dark hair-brown of muzzle, fore- 
head, upper eyelid (about 3 mm.) and upper half of cheek; lower 
half of cheek nearly like crown, but with a slight buffy tinge; chin 
dark hair-brown at extreme front, then blackish to a little behind 
angle of mouth; outer surface of ear between ochraceous-buff and 
wood-brown at base, darkening abruptly to a dark sepia on terminal 
third, the extreme tip blackish; margin of ear (except at blackish 
tip) pale cream-buff, a sprinkling of hairs of the same color on inner 
surface; fore legs ochraceous-buff, heavily clouded with sepia on 
‘outer surface, and darkening to blackish on feet; hind legs ochrace- 
ous-buff on inner surface, grizzled like sides externally, but more 
clouded with black, especially along anterior region of juncture be- 
tween grizzled and ochraceous-buff areas; hind feet blackish, the 
soles tinged with ochraceous-buff ; tail ochraceous-buff, grizzled like 
back at extreme base above, elsewhere essentially clear except for 
the black tip (about 80 mm.) and the sharply defined black dorsal 
stripe about 25 mm. wide extending from black terminal area to 
about base of middle third of tail, where it abruptly ends. 

Skull: As compared with that of Otocyon megalotis as figured by 
Huxley? the skull of O. virgatus (plates LX-Lx11) shows no special 
peculiarities in general form. ‘The audital bulla is, however, less 
globular in outline, and its lower border does not descend so far 
below level of paroccipital process and glenoid surface. The mandi- 
ble on the other hand differs strikingly from that of O. megalotis in 
the complete absence of a re-entrant notch between angular and sub- 
angular processes, the subangular region thus much resembling that 
of Urocyon except for its greater development backward so that its 
posterior edge lies below articular surface instead of below middle 
of coronoid process. Angular process apparently less curved upward 
than in O. megalotis. Coronoid process broad and relatively low, 
its posterior border sloping distinctly forward instead of nearly 
perpendicular. 

Teeth: Though in general agreeing with those of the southern 
animal the teeth of Otocyon virgatus show certain peculiarities ; pm, 
without trace of the “sharp cusp at the anterior end of its base” 
mentioned by Huxley (p. 260) ; my much less reduced than that of 
O. megalotis, its elements exactly as in m,. It is also worthy of 


? Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1880, pp. 257-258 and 263. 


No. 1883 NEW CARNIVORE FROM AFRICA—MILLER 457 


note that a fourth upper molar is not present in any of the eight 
skulls seen. 

Measurements: Type: head and body, 550; tail, 281; hind foot, 
137; ear from crown (dry), 105. Skull: condylobasal length, 113.6; 
basilar length, 106.8 ; zygomatic breadth, 64.8; mastoid breadth, 47.6; 
breadth of braincase, 43.4; postorbital constriction, 29.0; interorbital 
constriction, 23.0; breadth of rostrum over canines, 18.6; depth of 
braincase (median), 30.8; mandible, 86.2; maxillary toothrow exclu- 
sive of incisors, 44.4; mandibular toothrow exclusive of incisors, 
51.6. 

Specimens examined: Eight, the seven already referred to, and an 
adult taken at Taveta, British East Africa, in 1889, by Dr. W. L. 
Abbott. 

Remarks: The specimens do not vary noticeably among them- 
selves. In color the back is sometimes more buffy than in the tvpe, 
owing to a more free appearance at surface of the ochraceous-buff 
underfur. Equally slight differences in the exact shade of buff of 
underparts are also to be found. The pattern of marking of the 
tail is strictly uniform in all the skins. In cranial and dental char- 
acters there are no variations worthy of note. 





SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. LX 





OTOCYON VIRGATUS, TYPE. NATURAL SIZE 





52, PL. tx! 


VOL. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 


we 


cm sect ER i: iene 3 


* 


aoe 





NATURAL SIZE 


OTOCYON VIRGATUS, TYPE. 





SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52, PL. LXII 





OTOCYON VIRGATUS, TYPE. NATURAL SIZE 





DESCRIPTIONS OF FOSSIL PLANTS FROM THE MESO- 
--ZOIC AND CENOZOIC OF NORTH AMERICA. I. 


By F. H. KNOWLTON 
WirH Two PratEs 


1. Two New Fossit, CHAIN-FERNS (WoODWARDIA) FROM OREGON 
AND WYOMING 


WOODWARDIA MAXONI, sp. nov. 
PiatE LXIII, Ficure 3; Prats LXIV, Ficurss 1, 2 


Outline of whole frond unknown; pinnz lanceolate, broadest at 
base, narrowly acuminate at apex, cut 34 or more of distance to the 
rachis into numerous, approximate, oblong, obtuse, often slightly 
falcate lobes which are finely serrate-toothed at apex, the basal lobes 
with small oblong or triangular auricles on the lower side; rachis 
very strong; midvein relatively strong, with a single series of elon- 
gate, or elliptic—oblong, slightly oblique, areoles on each side, the 
veins thence free to the margin; sori, as in the living species, linear 
or oblong, one to each areole, becoming confluent with age; indusium 
attached by its outer margin to the fruit-bearing veinlet. 

_ Type: U.S. N. M., 33992 [pl. Lx1v, fig. 1]; co-types 33993 [pl. 
Exivsne 2)5:33004 [pl 1x1, fig. 3) 

Locality: Southeast of Rock Springs, Wyoming. 

Geological horizon: Fort Union (Eocene). 

This splendid species is represented by a large number of well- 
preserved specimens, but as all are in the form of detached pinne 
we are still in ignorance of the outline of the whole frond, though it 
must have been of imposing size and appearance. ‘The pinne, as 
stated in the diagnosis, are lanceolate in shape, and, so far as ob- 
served, are always broadest at the base and narrowly acuminate at 
the apex. The largest, evidently nearly perfect, pinna observed is 
10.5 cm. in length and its width 2.75 cm. Other pinne, especially 
the fruiting ones, are slightly smaller, though the difference is not 
great. In only one specimen is the extreme base of a pinna pre- 
served, namely, that shown in figure 2. In this the basal lobes are 
provided on the lower side with small oblong or triangular auricles, 
and the pinna was apparently closely sessile. 

e 489 


490 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


The living species to which this fossil form appears to be most 
closely related is Woodwardia virginica (L.) Smith, the common 
chain-fern so widely distributed over eastern North America, from 
Nova Scotia to Ontario and Michigan, and south to Florida, Louisi- 
ana, and Arkansas. ‘There are, however, a number of slight, though 
apparently constant, differences. In nervation and in the size and 
disposition of the sori, both young and mature, the two forms are 
practically identical. ‘The differences are as follows: In Woodwardia 
virginica the pinne are almost always broadest in the middle and 
narrowed at base, usually very markedly so; in Woodwardia Mavoni 
they are always broadest at the base. In the living species the seg- 
ments of the pinnz are rather open or spreading and have the mar- 
gins entire, while in the fossil species the segments are very close 
and have the ends finely serrate. In no case have auricles been 
observed on the basal segments of the pinnze in the living Species as 
above stated, they are present in the fossil species. 

Among the several fossil species previously described from this 
country, the one under discussion appears to approach closest to 
Woodwardia latiloba Lesquereux? of the Denver beds of Colorado, 
but from this it differs essentially in size, shape, and nervation. The 
other American fossil species, as set forth in the discussion under 
the succeeding species, all belong to other sections of the genus as 
gauged by the living species. 

The material upon which Woodwardia Maxoni is based was ob- 
tained from two localities, though practically at the same horizon. 
The first locality is on the Brown’s Park stage road about 35 miles 
southeast of Rock Springs, Wyoming (4 miles east of Mud Springs), 
in section 35, township 15 N., range 102 W. Collectors, C. A. Fisher 
and T. W. Stanton, July 25, 1908. This material is mostly sterile, 
there being only a single fragment in fruit. (See figure 3, plate LXImI. ) 
The other locality is also on the Brown’s Park stage road on the 
head of Vermilion Creek, about 47 miles southeast of Rock Springs, 
Wyoming, in section 31, township 15 N., range tor W. Collectors, 
A. C. Veatch and A. R. Schultz, July 27, 1908. Nearly all these 
specimens are in fruit. (See figure 1, plate Lx1v.) Both localities 
are very near the base of the Fort Union formation, here resting 
unconformably on the Lewis shale. 

I take pleasure in naming this species in honor of Mr. William R. 
Maxon, of the U. S. National Museum, who has rendered valued 
assistance in the study of this and other fossil ferns. 


* Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., vol. 7 (Tert. FL), 1878, p. 54, pl. iii, figs. 1, ta. 


4 


NO. 1884 FOSSIL PLANTS—KNOWLTON 491 


WOODWARDIA COLUMBIANA, sp. nov. 
PLATE L XIII, Ficurks 1, 2 


Outline of whole frond unknown, though presumably the frond 
was pinnate; pinnz lanceolate, apparently broadest at base, cut 
nearly to the rachis into numerous, linear or lanceolate, acute- 
pointed segments which are entire or rarely undulate-margined, and 
separated by deep rounded sinuses; rachis strong; midvein or mid- 
rib of segments relatively slender; veinlets forming a single row of 
large, oblong, sorus-bearing areolz on either side of,and parallel to the 
midrib, outside of which is a single series of smaller areolz oblique 
to the midrib, the veinlets thence free to the margin; sori linear or 
oblong, in a chain-like row on either side of the midrib and attached 
to the outer margin of the fruit-bearing areole. 

ype. WN. M7526 | pl. ixitt,, fig, 11+ co-type, 7528 [pk 
LXIM, fig. 2]. 

Locality: Cascades of Columbia River, Oregon. 

Geological horizon: Pleistocene. 

This species is represented by a large number of specimens, two 
of the best of which are here figured. Unfortunately all are in the 
form of detached pinnz, so we are left in ignorance of the form 
of the whole frond, though, following its analogy to what are obvi- 
ously its nearest relations among the living species, it was without 
much doubt pinnate, and must have presented an imposing appear- 
ance when living. The most perfect pinna observed in the collection 
is 14 cm. in length, but as this lacks both base and apex, considerable 
being apparently missing at both points, it seems probable that the 
length when perfect could hardly have been less than 18 or 20 cm. 
The width of the pinnz is from 5 to 8 cm. As may be seen from 
the figures, especially figure 1, the pinne are cut nearly to the 
rachis into numerous linear or lanceolate, rather remote segments 
which are separated by deep, broad, rounded sinuses. The margin 
of the segments are entire or exceptionally undulate. The nervation, 
which is fully described above and well shown in the figures, is 
characteristically that of the section Euwoodwardia of the living 
species, which, to quote from Underwood,’ has the “fronds uniform, 
the veins forming at least one series of areole between the sori and 
margins.” The sori, as beautifully shown in figure 1, are oblong or 
linear, and in a chain-like row on either side of the midrib, the 


* Our Native Ferns and their Allies, 6th Ed., 1900, p. 102. 


492 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


indusia being attached to the outer margin of the fruit-bearing 
veinlets. 

The only living North American species belonging to the section 
Euwoodwardia is Woodwardia spinulosa Martens and Galeotti, de- 
scribed originally from Mexico, which is found also in Guatemala, 
Arizona, California, and Washington. This species was formerly 
included under the Old World W. radicans (L.) Smith, but recently 
pteridologists have quite generally separated it, principally on the 
ground that the segments are shorter and less pointed, the row of 
sterile areoles outside the fruiting row is usually confined to the 
basal portion instead of being distinctly double throughout, and 
finally that the segments are separated by rather broad and, round, 
instead of by deep, sharp sinuses; the margins of the segments in 
both species are usually spinulose. 

The fossil species under consideration appears to combine to some 
extent the characters of both of the above mentioned living species. 
Thus it has a complete row of areolz outside of the large fruiting 
row, as in W. radicans, but it agrees with W. spinulosa in having 
relatively short segments separated by rounded sinuses; it differs 
from both in having the margins of the segments entire, or at most 
slightly undulate. 

The material upon which this species is based was collected by 
Mr. G. K. Gilbert, of the U. S. Geological Survey, at the Cascades 
of the Columbia River, Oregon. 


2. A New NAME For DAVALLIA TENUIFOLIA SWARTZ, AS IDENTIFIED 
BY DAwsoN, AND ASPLENIUM TENERUM LESQUEREUX 


DENNSTADTIA AMERICANA, nom. nov. 
Prats LXITI, Ficurk 4; Pirate L XIV, Ficurks 3-5 


Davallia (Stenoloma) tenuifolia Swartz. Dawson, Brit. N. A. Boundary 
Commission (Rept. Geol. and Resource. Vicinity 49th Parallel) 1875, 
Appen. A, p. 329, pl. xvi, figs. 1, Ia, 2, 2a; Roy. Soc. Canada, Trans., 
vol. 4, 1886 [1787], p. 21, pl. i, figs. 1, 1a, 1b; Penhallow, Rept. Tert. 
Pl. Brit. Columbia, 1908, p. 52. 

Asplenium tenerum Lesquereux. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., vol. 8 
(Cret. and Tert. Fl.), 1883, p. 221, pl. xlvia, figs. 1, 2. [Not Asplenium 
tenerum Forster, Florule Insularum australicum Prodromus, 1786, 


p. 80.] 


Frond apparently lanceolate in outline, bipinnate, the rachis rela- 
tively strong, grooved; pinnz alternate, oblique, lanceolate or some- 
times linear, pointed; pinnules deltoid or oblong, oblique, unequal- 


No. 1884 FOSSIL PLANTS—KNOWLTON 493 


sided, closely sessile or slightly decurrent, cut more or less deeply 
into oblong, obtuse lobes—usually five on each side—which are 
entire or occasionally with a few low teeth; nervation delicate, con- 
sisting of a slender, slightly flexuose pinnately dichotomous midvein, 
with lateral nerves at an acute angle of divergence and once or twice 
forked ; sori small, globular, on the apex of a free vein, and marginal 
on the tips of the lobes of the pinnules, mostly on the upper side. 

This species is represented by a large number of specimens from 
a number of widely separated localities, though so far as known 
all are from the same geological horizon. ‘They are mostly in the 
form of portions of detached pinne, of greater or less size, although 
occasionally a pinna is found nearly perfect, and in a few instances 
a considerable portion of the whole frond has been found, such, for 
instance, as that shown in plate Lx1v, figure 5. From this it appears 
that it was a delicate fern of rather strict habit and apparently 
lanceolate in general outline. It is impossible to give the exact size, 
but it was at least 15 or 20 cm. in length and 8 cm. or more in width. 
It is not rare to find pinnz that are 8-10 cm. in length, though the 
majority are apparently somewhat less than this. They are alter- 
nately and very obliquely placed on the rachis, and have a relatively 
rather strong secondary rachis. ‘The pinnules are also obliquely 
attached, and are either sessile or sometimes slightly decurrent. In 
shape they are deltoid or oblong, largest on the upper side, and cut 
often rather deeply into oblong, obtuse usually entire lobes, on the 
apices of which, usually on the upper side, the sori are borne. The 
largest pinnules observed are about 18 mm. in length and Io mm. in 
width, but the average size is much less. 

This fern is referred without hesitation to the genus Dennstzedtia, 
since it is closely congeneric in habit, nervation, and fructification 
with the numerous species now segregated under this designation. 
It is not particularly close to Dennstedtia punctilobula, the only liv- 
ing North American species, but appears to find its closest relation- 
ship in D. scabra (Wall.) Moore, a species widely spread over China 
and tropical Asia. From this it differs in being bipinnate instead 
of tripinnate, as well as in its narrower fronds, more slender pinne, 
and much smaller pinnules ; its general appearance, however, is much 
the same. 

The fern here renamed Dennstedtia americana has had a rather 
complicated nomenclatorial history. It appears to have been first 
found in 1875 near Porcupine Creek, Saskatchewan, by the British 
North American Boundary Commission, and was referred by Daw- 


494 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


son to Davallia (Stenoloma) tenuifolia Swartz (now called Odonto- 
soria chinensis (1,.) J. Smith), a living species widely spread over 
Japan, China, tropical Asia, Polynesia, and Madagascar. A careful 
comparison of the sori, which are often in an admirable state of 
preservation, shows, however, that it is not congeneric with the 
forms now placed in Odontosoria, but is distinctly so with the species 
of Dennstzedtia. 

In 1883 Lesquereux® described and figured sterile portions of this 
fern from Fort Union beds at Gilmore Station, supposed to be in 
North Dakota,* under the name of Asplenium tencrum, apparently 
not connecting it with the fragments previously referred by Dawson, 
as set forth above, to Davailia tenuifolia Swartz. In transferring 
this material to the genus Dennstzedtia, which the fruit characters 
now enable.us to do, Lesquereux’s specific name if valid should be 
the one available for the species, but unfortunately it has never had 
nomenclatorial standing, being antedated nearly a hundred years by 
Asplenium tenerum Forster,? a living species, and moreover this 
combination has been twice employed for different living forms be- 
tween its use by Forster and Lesquereux, namely, Raddi, 1819, and 
Gaudichaud-Beaupré, 1827. It becomes necessary, therefore, to re- 
name it, and I have called it Dennstedtia americana. 

Although Lesquereux did not possess fruiting material of this 
fern, he evidently had a pretty clear idea as to its relationship, for 
he says: “Its nearest affinity is with living species of Asplenium of 
the section of the Dicksonie, like Dicksonia tenera, etc.” Modern 
study of the ferns has resulted in drawing sharper generic lines, and 
not only has Asplenium, but what was long accepted as Dicksonia, 
been segregated into a number of smaller genera, such as Denn- 
steedtia, Odontosoria, etc. 

So far as I know there are no fossil ferns described in this coun- 
try that are likely to be confused with the one under consideration, 
though, as both Dawson and Lesquereux pointed out, it is probable 


"Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., vol. 8 (Cret. & Tert. FJ.), 1883, p. 221, pl. 
xlvia, figs. I, 2. 

“The full locality is given as “Bad Lands near Gilmore Station of the U. P. 
R. R. Collected by Professor Wm. Denton.” I have not been able to identify 
exactly this locality, but it is reasonably certain that “U. P. R. R.” is an error 
for N. P. R. R., since Professor Denton is known to have collected in the 
Bad Lands of North Dakota, and possibly adjacent Montana, through which 
runs the Northern Pacific railroad. Moreover, this species has since been col- 
lected at a number of places in North Dakota. 

* Flor. Ins. austral. Prod., 1786, p. 80. 


No. 1884 FOSSIL PLANTS—KNOWLTON 495 


that Sphenopteris Blomstrandi Heer,® from the Miocene or. upper 
Eocene of Greenland, is at least con-generic with it. 

Dennstedtia americana is characteristic of the Fort Union forma- 
tion, never having been, so far as I know, found outside of it. 
Following is a list of localities and collectors : 


Porcupine Creek, Saskatchewan; British North American Boundary Com- 
mission, 1875. 

Gilmore Station, North Dakota (?) ; Wm. Denton, about 1882. 

Black Butte, 45-50 miles south of Medora, North Dakota; Earl Douglass, 
1905. 

Custer Trail Ranch, 5 miles south of Medora, North Dakota; F. H. 
Knowlton, 1907. 

Sentinel Butte, North Dakota; F. H. Knowlton and A. C. Peale, 1907. 

Thirty-five miles southeast of Rock Springs, Wyoming, about 100 feet 
above base of formation; C. A. Fisher, IT. W. Stanton, and F. H. 
Knowlton, July, 1908. 


Sis BosseAnrct...vole l, 1868, p. 155, pl. xxix, figs. 1,5) 9 


400 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES 


Pirate LXIII 


Pics, 1,2. wioodwardiaicolampbiana sp enovect pan en ee cie e 


Frc. 3. Woodwardia Maxoni, sp. nov 
Fic. 4. Dennsteedtia americana, nom. nov 


PLATE LXIV 


Fics. 1,2. Woodwardia Maxoni, sp. nov 
Fic. 3. Dennstedtia americana, nom. nov 
Fics. 3a, 3b. Enlarged pinnules of Fig. 3x2 
Fics. 4,5. Dennstedtia americana, nom. nov 


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WOODWARDIA AND DENNSTAEDTIA 


See explanation, page 496 





TWO NEW GENERA OF MURINE RODENTS 


By GERRIT S. MILLER, Jr. 


Curator, DivisIoN oF Mammats, U. S. Nationa, MusEuM 


The murine rodents known as Lemmus schisticolor and Cricetulus 
bedfordie differ so markedly from the types of their respective 
groups as to require generic separation. In each instance the prin- 
cipal distinguishing characteristics are to be found in the feet. 


MYOPUS, gen. nov. (Microtinz) 


Type: Myodes schisticolor Lilljeborg. 
Characters: Skull and teeth as in Lemmus; general form vole- 
like, with distinct though short neck, the head not appearing to rest 





me 


Fic. 86.—Skeleton of forefoot of Lemmus (a) and Myopus (b). Xa. 


between the shoulders ; ear well developed though small, with distinct 
meatal valve; feet slender, normal, the palm and sole with fully 
developed functional tubercles and no unusual growth of hair; meta- 
carpals of third and fourth fingers slightly longer than phalanges ; 
ungual phalanges of manus normal, much shorter than first and 
second combined, the claws not enlarged (see fig. 86). ) 

Remarks: The genus Myopus is characterized by the combination 
of the skull and teeth of Lemmus with the general body form and 
non-specialized foot structure of the true voles. It therefore repre- 
sents in the Old World a stage of development equivalent to that of 
the American Synaptomys. Only the type species is known. 


497 


498 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


PHODOPUS, gen. nov. (Cricetinz) 


Type: Cricetulus bedfordie Thomas. 

Characters: Externally like Cricetulus, but feet unusually short 
and broad, densely hairy throughout, the tubercles of both palm and 
sole confluent into a single blister-like mass (fig. 87); skeleton of 
feet shortened, but proportionate lengths of bones not specially modi- 
fied; skull essentially as in Cricetulus, but brain-case less murine in 
form, unusually broad and deep in front, narrow and low behind; 
outer wall of infraorbital canal very short, invisible when skull is 





Fic. 87.—Sole of hind foot of Cricetulus (a) and Phodopus (b). X 3. 


viewed from above, its form much as in Mesocricetus; pattern of 
enamel folding more simple than in any of the other Old World 
Cricetine, the salient angles opposite, the reentrant angles of outer 
side of maxillary teeth not curving backward, those of inner side of 
mandibular teeth not curving forward. 

Remarks: In its highly modified foot and simple teeth Phodopus 
shows a peculiar combination of primitiveness and specialization. 
While the type species is the only one that I have examined, it is not 
improbable that Cricetulus roborowskti Satunin should be referred 
to the same group. 


A SHELTER FOR OBSERVERS ON MOUNT WHITNEY 


By CC. G ABBOT 


DIRECTOR OF SMITHSONIAN ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY 
Wirs Two PiatEs 


There have been few American scientific expeditions which have 
excited more interest here and abroad than Mr. Langley’s expedition 
to Mount Whitney in 1881. It was undertaken to determine the 
relative transparency of the air at high and low altitudes, and thereby 
to fix the value of the “solar constant of radiation.” If we measure 
the intensity of sun rays at the earth’s surface by wholly absorbing 
them during a noted time interval over a measured area and ex- 
pressing the results in heat units, we do not get a true measure of 
the intensity of the sun’s output of radiation, owing to the losses in 
the air ; neither can these losses be allowed for by merely measuring 
the total radiation at different hours of the day, when different 
thicknesses of air are traversed, for the losses affect the intensity 
of rays of different colors differently, and some rays are almost 
wholly cut off in the upper air, so that they cannot be estimated in 
any easy manner. Langley recognized the necessity of measuring 
the intensities of rays of all wave-lengths separately, and acted upon 
his discovery by employing the bolometer (a highly sensitive electri- 
cal thermometer) to measure in all parts of the solar spectrum. 
Observations at Allegheny, Pennsylvania, were disappointing, owing 
to the dusty state of the lower air; hence he formed the plan of 
going to a high altitude in the then little known West with the com- 
plete complex outfit which he called the spectro-bolometer. His 
plans called for observations at a low station and, as nearly as possi- 
ble simultaneously, at a very high station near by. On the advice of 
those who knew the region, he chose Mount Whitney, in the Sierra 
Nevada range, since shown to be the highest peak in the United 
States (proper), for his high station, and Lone Pine, in the Owens 
Valley, only about 15 miles distant, as the lower one. Mount Whit- 
ney has an elevation of 14,502 feet; Lone Pine, only 3,850 feet. 

Mr. Langley’s expedition was not lacking in features of interest 
and picturesqueness, apart from its highly valuable scientific aims. 
It was financed by the late William Thaw, of Pittsburg, a man who 
supported Langley’s work on many occasions, but always stipulated 

7 499 


500 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


that his name should not appear in the published acknowledgments. 
The expedition was carried on and its results published under the 
auspices of the Signal Service of the United States Army, and a 
detail of Signal Service officers assisted in the observations. ‘The 
Pennsylvania Railroad provided a private car, which was furnished 
free transportation to San Francisco by the Pennsylvania, Union 
Pacific, and Central Pacific railroads. A military escort was pro- 
vided from San Francisco to Mount Whitney. The expedition 
traversed the Mojave desert in August on the way to Lone Pine, 
certainly a novel experience for Easterners. It is unquestionable 
that the success achieved was due in no small measure to the pres- 
ence of the late Mr. Keeler, afterwards the discoverer of the nature 
' of the rings of Saturn, and always distinguished for his wonderful 
skill and resourcefulness in observation, as well as for his charming 
personality. The traditions of the expedition, including the story of 
the Dutch oven, the swim in the icy lake, the attendance at the dance, 
were ever interesting when heard from Keeler’s lips. 

Langley found it impracticable to carry his spectro-bolometer to 
the summit of Mount Whitney, and contented himself with observing 
at “Mountain Camp,” now known as “‘Langley’s Camp,” on the west 
side of Mount Whitney, at an elevation of 11,700 feet. The results 
obtained on the expedition were of great value, but, unfortunately, 
for 25 years they retarded rather than aided the progress of science, 
because Langley erred in his theoretical construction of them, and 
set the value of the solar constant at 3.0 calories per square centi- 
meter per minute rather than 2.1, which his observations give when 
rightly reduced. On his return to the East he recommended that 
Mount Whitney be reserved by the Government as a favorable site 
‘for a high-altitude observatory, and his recommendations were 
favorably acted upon. Mount Whitney is now included in the 
Sequoia National Forest. 

We now pass to the steps which led to the actual occupation of 
the summit of Mount Whitney for observing purposes. The expe- 
dition of Langley ascended by a circuitous route from Lone Pine, 
which occupied several days’ time and led by a discouraging series 
of ups and downs to Mountain Camp. Farther advance by that 
route with animals was then impossible and is so still. In 1904 the 
citizens of Lone Pine and vicinity, under the leadership of Mr. G. F. 
Marsh, built a trail to the summit of Mount Whitney, directly up 
Lone Pine Cafion, over a pass at 13,400 feet, and thence as high as 
possible on the west side of the range, over a waste of granite rocks 
of all sizes, to the very summit of the mountain. Funds were scanty, 


No. 1886 SHELTER ON MOUNT WHITNEY—ABBOT 501 


and it was only by the greatest economy, pluck, and perseverance 
that Mr. Marsh succeeded in getting his trail to the top. To an 
Easterner it is hardly a trail even now, and even Mr. Marsh said 
to the writer on our last descent that he hardly saw how the mules 
could go over it, unless they had hooks on their hind feet to hang 
on by till they fourid a place for their fore feet. There are places 
where, with almost precipitous descent staring them in the face, the 
mules must step down as far as from a high desk to the floor, land- 
ing on jagged rocks, not on dirt or sand. However, they do go over 
the trail, and in the transportation this year of upwards of 20,000 
pounds of material and apparatus for the Smithsonian Institution 
not a mule was lost or seriously hurt and no material was even 
injured, thanks to the skill of the packers, especially Mr. Horace 
Elder. ‘The west slope of the ridge leading to Mount Whitney is 
extremely rough and broken throughout. Pinnacles of naked rock 
rise often nearly vertically, and are crossed both vertically and hori- 
zontally by seams and cracks in such a manner as to give the im- 
pression of being a very crazy, crumbling, insecure structure, likely 
to be shaken down if a great earthquake should come. Indeed the 
whole slope is covered, clear to “Langley’s Meadow,” with rocks of 
all sizes which have broken off and rolled down. It was through 
this difficult country that the Lone Pine citizens built their trail. 
In some places, where they could only proceed by blasting, the rock 
was too crumbling to be drilled, so that the powder charge had to 
be tamped into a crack between rocks, and when exploded would 
bring down a slide from above sufficient to fill all the space cleared 
by the blast, and all would have to be done over again and again. 
It reflects very high credit on Mr. Marsh and his supporters that the 
trail was ever completed. — 

To Director W. W. Campbell, of the Lick Observatory, is due the 
credit of initiating plans for a shelter on Mount Whitney. The 
following account is from a recent note by him “On the spectrum 
of Mars” in Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 
(vol. xx1, No. 128, October, 1909, pages 201-2). 

“When the spectrum of Mars was under observation extensively 
at Mount Hamilton in 1894, for the purpose of detecting the pres- 
ence of water vapor in that planet’s atmosphere, I realized that the 
water vapor in the earth’s atmosphere was and is the great obstacle 
in the way of success, and I then resolved to observe the spectrum 
of Mars from the summit of Mount Whitney, the highest point of 
land in the United States, when the planet should again come into a 
position favorable for the purpose. This would occur in August- 


502 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


September, 1909, when Mars would be near the earth and high 
above the horizon, at the time of year when Mount Whitney could 
be ascended with instruments. 

“Late in August, 1908, I ascended Mount Whitney, in order to 
determine the limiting sizes of instruments which could be trans- 
ported over the rocky trail on the backs of pack animals, and to 
plan the living arrangements for the proposed expedition of 1909. 
I was accompanied by Director C. G. Abbot, of the Smithsonian 
Institution Observatory, who was interested in the summit of Mount 
Whitney in connection with high-altitude studies of solar radiation, 
as Professor Langley’s pioneer expedition had been interested in 
1881. We remained on the summit through the night of August 24, 
1908. ‘The readings of the dry- and wet-bulb thermometers obtained 
by Director Abbot indicated that the conditions were extremely 
favorable for the solution of the proposed problem. Before leaving 
the summit I decided definitely that observations in 1909, requiring 
a residence of a week or more, should not be undertaken unless a 
building of some kind could be erected as a shelter in case of storm, 
and the question of ways and means was discussed. Director Abbot 
suggested that the purposes of such a building might perhaps come - 
within the scope of the Hodgkins Fund of the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution. A few weeks later, after receiving my description of a 
building which would meet the needs of the proposed expedition, 
he was pleased to present the subject to Dr. C. D. Walcott, Secretary 
of the Smithsonian Institution, for consideration. ‘Through the 
Secretary’s lively interest an appropriation to provide the building 
for the shelter of the 1909 and any worthy future expeditions was 
made.” 

The sketch and specifications proposed by Director Campbell con- 
templated a three-room hut with stone walls and steel roof and 
doors, to be used not primarily as an observatory, although it might 
be convenient to use a part of it occasionally as a dark-room for 
photography, but rather as a shelter and living quarters for observers 
in any branch of science who might apply to the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution for permission to use the building during the progress of 
observations. Not only astronomers, but meteorologists, physicists, 
chemists, geologists, and perhaps botanists, zoologists, and medical 
men, might desire to make experiments on the top of Mount Whit- 
ney. The writer transmitted Director Campbell’s plans with a letter 
of explanation and recommendation to Secretary Walcott, who, on 
October 30, 1908, approved a grant from the Hodgkins Fund for 
erecting the proposed shelter on Mount Whitney. 


YSLISHS AANLIHM LNNOW 4O NOILVASA1S SAILOAdSH3d 


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SLHIe¢e WAIGFAS BP NIT/AAS 


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No. 1886 SHELTER ON MOUNT WHITNEY—ABBOT 503 


Messrs. Speiden and Speiden, architects, under the writer’s in- 
struction, worked up the plans for the structure nearly as contem- 
plated by Director Campbell. Figure 88 and plate Lxv give the 
ground plan and perspective elevation as constructed. ‘Iwo of the 
rooms communicate, and are kept locked by the Institution except 
when in use by authorized observing parties. The third room is 
accessible to the general public, and will doubtless be very welcome 
to persons who may be caught by storms or cold blasts on the top 
of Mount Whitney. 

In carrying out the construction Director Campbell offered to act 
as the Institution’s agent in San Francisco to award contracts for 
steel and cement, and to supervise the construction and actual trial 
erection in San Francisco of all steel parts. He performed this work 























lron shutler_7— Za ae 





a 
Iron door we 


Fic. 88.—Ground plan of Mount Whitney shelter. 


with the most conscientious and painstaking care. The charge of 
the transportation from Mount Whitney Station to the summit and 
of the construction of the building were intrusted to Mr. G. F. 
Marsh, of Lone Pine. It was an article of agreement with Mr. 
Marsh that the Institution should be at no expense for the repair 
of the trail, and so as early as April Mr. Marsh and his friends held 
a ball at Lone Pine which proved to be a highly enjoyable and 
successful affair and netted a considerable fund. As soon as work 
could begin he started repairs on the trail, but was hindered by the 
deep snows until later than had been expected. The first mule train 
reached the top July 28, 1909, and Mr. Marsh completed the house 
just a month later. Some of the difficulties he overcame are men- 
tioned in a report the writer made of his trip to Mount Whitney 
in August, 1909, from which quotations follow. During a part of 
this stay of 21%4 weeks Director Campbell’s party was there for the 


————_ 


504 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


study of the spectrum of Mars, and the writer is under obligations 
to them for their kindness and good fellowship. 


_“Mount Witson, Cat., Sept. 14, 1909. 

“Dear Sir: I left Pasadena about 9.30 p. m., August 19, and took 
the 11.30 p. m. train at Los Angeles for Mojave. I slept occasion- 
ally but with great fear lest I should be carried by Mojave, and at 
length reached there, a little late, at 4.30 a.m. The train for Little 
Lake, mostly a freight train, left at 7 a. m., and, after stopping all 
along the way to shift and unload freight cars, reached Little Lake, 
3¥% hours late, at 6 p.m. I got supper there and started by auto- 
stage at 6.15. Having 3 boxes of delicate apparatus, one of which 
I felt it necessary to carry in.my arms, the ride of 50 miles from 
Mojave to Little Lake was not altogether pleasant. Two automo- 
biles started together, but the one I was in stopped near Olancha 
and nearly two hours of work failed to start it, so that all the passen- 
gers crowded into the other. We reached Lone Pine at 11.30 p. m. 
At 8.30 a. m., August 21, with Mr. Wm. Skinner, of Lone Pine, 
as guide, and with a driver and animals to carry my baggage, I 
started for Mount Whitney. We camped about 4 p. m. with Mr. 
Robinson and his packers at Big Meadow; elevation about 10,500 
feet.. I found that nearly all the material for the house had gone 
up to the top, and my boxes were at Robinson’s camp. Mr. Skinner 
and I left camp at 6 a. m. and arrived on the summit of Mount 
Whitney about 11 a. m., August 22. We found Mr. Marsh with 
four workmen. The walls of the building were done except gables 
and partitions, and the frame of the roof was up. The masons were 
laying the walls of the little stone hut for my work, and they finished 
it, including the roof, that day. Several 6 x 6 tents had been loaned 
by Professor Campbell, and in these we cooked, ate, and slept. Ham, 
bacon, Mulligan stew, and flap-jacks were the staple foods. I rather 
ran down during the week before Mr. Campbell came, and got into 
bed by Friday afternoon. Fortunately Mr. Campbell brought a doc- 
tor, who cured me in a couple of days. I found that a few days 
before my coming there had been a thunder-storm on the mountain 
one night. One of the men had gone out of the tent and had been 
nearly killed by lightning or fright. There is a monument close by 
where a man was killed by lightning in 1904. All the mountain was 
glowing with St. Elmo’s fire, and they all had been pretty uneasy. 
On the following night all the workmen left Mr. Marsh and ran 
down the trail when another storm began. However, they returned 
to him in a couple of days, thanks to his grit in staying on top all 
alone. I found also that a number of people in Lone Pine had been 
working against the project, and that Mr. Marsh had had great 
difficulty to repair the trail. There was much snow and ice, and 
he and others were completely snow-blinded for a day or so. The 
packers had been slow in beginning, and had deserted the job once 
or twice, so that he had to leave the top once and go down to Lone 
Pine and stir up Mr. Robinson. Mr. Marsh told me that once he 


AANLIHM LNNOW NO SY3AYNSSEO HOS YSLISHS 

















No. 1886 SHELTER ON MOUNT WHITNEY—ABBOT 505 


was so discouraged that he sat down on the trail and cried, but got 
up and went at it again. In the face of the opposition and the natu- 
ral difficulties, I think very few men could have carried the job to 
completion. Marsh worked at all kinds of jobs himself—cooking, 
breaking stone, carrying stone, carrying snow for water, riveting and 
cementing, as well as general bossing. He will never get paid in 
_ this world for the work he did on that house. I hope the Secretary 
will write him an appreciative letter of thanks. 

“T had set my apparatus up mainly by Thursday night, August 26. 
Friday it snowed a little, but the house was finished Friday after- 
noon, August 27. Two of the workmen went down that day, and 
the masons on Saturday morning. On Friday about noon, three of 
us being seated about the stove, one of the workmen tried to show 
us how convenient a Smith & Wesson hammerless revolver is for 
shooting from the pocket. He forgot it was loaded, and it went off 
bang! and struck the stove pipe in the corner of the room. Fortu- 
nately nobody was hurt and the stove pipe was too thick to pene- 
trate, so that the bullet fell at his feet. This celebrated the comple- 
tion of the house. 

“Mr. Campbell, with Messrs. Albrecht, McAdie, Dr. Miller, 
Hoover, and Skinner, came about noon on Saturday, August 28. 
They arrived in a thunder-storm of sleet. Lightning struck near by 
just as they reached the door. It became partially clear on the fol- 
lowing Wednesday, and Campbell secured good observations on 
Wednesday and Thursday nights. My own preparations were set 
back by the storm, so that I only got ready Thursday afternoon, 
September 2. Friday morning was beautiful, and I think my obser- 
vations of that forenoon were satisfactory. I took two bolographs 
also about 2 and 5 p. m. of Friday afternoon between clouds. On 
Saturday it snowed 4 inches. Mr. Campbell and party went down. 
They almost lost one mule among the rocks (had to leave the mule 
behind after two hours’ work, but it went down the trail the follow- 
ing Wednesday), and three others slid off of the ice on the east side 
of the range and rolled a hundred feet or so. The Smithsonian has 
been so fortunate as not to have had any of the animals in its employ 
injured during the whole operations. This no doubt is largely due 
to the skill of the head packer, Horace Elder, of Lone Pine. He 
is said to be perhaps the most skilled packer in California, and his 
good nature and eagerness to do his best for us in the work were 
very refreshing. After waiting several days without much improve- 
ment in the weather, Mr. Marsh and I left on Wednesday, Septem- 
ber 8. I hope it will be possible for me to complete my work up 
there next July or early August, when the weather will probably 
be better. We were very unfortunate this year in being up there 
while storms prevailed in Mexico and all over the Rocky Mountain 
States. 

“A little later I hope to send pictures taken on Mount Whitney. 
One of the pictures which I did not get would have represented me 
on the back seat of the auto riding the 50 miles to Little Lake. 
holding my pyrheliometer box in my arms in a desperate effort to 


506 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


keep it from jolts, while I leaned over the back seasick, and all at 
3.30 a. m., September 9. 
“Yours truly, C. G. ABBOT. 


Wire) WAL Conn 
“Secretary Smithsonian Institution.” 


The observations of Director Campbell on the spectrum of Mars — 
were entirely conclusive in showing that water-vapor, if present at 
all in the atmosphere of Mars, is in less quantity than is contained in 
the extremely rare and dry part of the earth’s atmosphere which is 
above Mount Whitney. In fact, no evidence at all of water-vapor 
on Mars was detected by Campbell. 

The writer’s experiments involved the use of a complete spectro- 
bolometric outfit in the determination of the solar constant of radia- 
tion, and it was the first occasion in which this complex apparatus 
had ever been used at so great an elevation. Fortunately it worked 
well, the observations were highly satisfactory, and they yielded 
results which confirm almost exactly the accuracy of the work done 
by Smithsonian observers at Mounts Wilson and Washington in 
recent years. Unfortunately both Director Campbell and myself 
were on Mount Whitney during unusually unfavorable weather, for 
the whole Southwest, including northern Mexico, was just at that 
time visited by floods of rain and cloudy weather. Such a condition 
would not probably be met with at that season one year in ten. 

It is the hope of the Smithsonian Institution that many observing 
expeditions in many branches of science will apply in the years to 
come for the use of its shelter on Mount Whitney. There are few 
mountain peaks in the world of like elevation which are so readily 
accessible, or which present more nearly the conditions of dryness 
and marvelous transparency of air which would be expected in high 
flights with balloons. Persons who desire to work upon Mount 
Whitney should apply to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion for information or permission to use the house there. 


PUBLICATIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 


CONTINUED FROM List IN QUARTERLY IssuF, VoL. V, Part 3 


No. Title. Series. 


1869 Aspe, CLEVELAND. Mechanics of the Earth’s Atmosphere. 

A collection of translations. Third Collection. Hodgkins 

nad ten bieatiaue : Cl: PreSS) a! need ss ob slojele aeeletelcas « M.C 
1870 GREENE, Epwarp LEE. Landmarks of Botanical History. 

Raytek iertior tO" rSO2A. I). TOO... 6. sens os ses cles ces M.C. 
1871 BECKER, GEORGE F., and VAN OrstRAND, C. E. Smithsonian 

Mathematical Tables—Hyperbolic Functions. 1909..... Sp. 
1872 Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections (Quarterly Issue), 

Vol. V, Part 4 (containing Nos. 1873-1887). 1910. (The 

Quarterly Issue ends with this volume)................. M.C. 
1873 FEwKEs, J. WALTER. Prehistoric Ruins of the Gila Valley. 

COAT LerIVel SSE aie TOOOR cRiece, scien seer ste ae <enetereiasoiehe’ os M.C. 
1874 STEJNEGER, LEoNHARD. Description of a New Frog from 

the Philippine Islands. (Quarterly Issue). 1909........ M.C. 
1875 TRUE, FREDERICK W. A New Genus of Fossil Cetaceans 

from Santa Cruz Territory, Patagonia; and description 

of a Mandible and Vertebre of Prosqualodon. (Quar- 

CaM] NENUCN) PRLTIOOOR ale cnae stes casla'cr ye Jo see 8. 0,a;e"ey ae oceals ese M.C. 
1876 BEAN, Barton A. and Weep, ALFRED C. Notes on Certain 

features of the Life History of the Alaskan Freshwater 


Scmlpim:.. ~COQuartenky eisste 1 lOO em 1c aes ieee vaidieta iets M.C. 
1877 VAUGHAN, T. WayLAND. The Geologic Work of Man- 
groves in Southern Florida. (Quarterly Issue). 1909... M.C. 
1878 Pocus, J. E. Crystallographic Notes on Calcite. (Quar- 
FETT VIAN SSE) sen LOOO paieeeyatsi ste were he ols.e t cidioke'e) oie, aielelotelaiate) slehctn M.C. 
1879 HELLER, EpmMunp. A New Rodent of the Genus Geory- 
Chiis COmarlerly Teste ver, LOO ss =i evel vic siebats oo eaieyeyeye oe M.C. 
1880 Heiter, Epmunp. ‘Two New Rodents from British East 
Arica. (Quarterly, Ussie)= 4100. oo coc cs © Gacienin eee M.C. 
1881 Merritt, Grorck P. A Heretofore Undescribed Stony 
Meteorite from Thomson, McDuffie County, Georgia. 
COrarterly Issue) TOO. 2s etlaPalntaree soe sieis emo see tienen M.C. 
1882 Pocus, JosePpH E. On a Remarkable Cube of Pyrite Car- 
rying Crystallized Gold and Galena of Unusual Habit. 
(Quarterly Issue): IQO9. 2... e-. sence cern ere ese eees M.C. 
1883 Mitier, Gerrit S., Jk. A New Carnivore from British 
PastAtrica.. COuarterly Essue)). GO00.. (6 os eines cesses M.C. 
1884 Know ron, F. H. Descriptions of Fossil Plants from the 
Mesozoic and Cenozoic of North America. I. (Quar- 
FORM USSIIC) fo TOMO: a »'c sihioyeieie os a siaiataie ona eoteieeea cmon M.C. 
188s Mitrer, Gerrit S., Jr, Two New Genera of Murine 
Rodents. (Quarterly Issue). IQIO.......+.+ +02 see eeee M.C. 


e 51 


54 


52 


52 


52 


52 


52 


52 


52 


Price. 


4.00 


.50 


508). SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 


No. Title. Series. Price. 
1886 Axzzot, C. G. Shelter for Observers on Mount Whitney. 

(Quapienly Issue) TOTO. o8. en ee I ee M.C. 52 
1887 List of Publications. (Quarterly Issue)............0.005. IMECS-se 
1888 Squier, May. Georcr O., U. S. Army. The Present Status 

of Miltary: “Aeronantics:,. 52): ses een eee R. 1908 
1889 JOURDAIN, PIERRE-RocERr. Aviation in France in 1908...... R. 1908 
1890 FesseNDEN, R. A. Wireless Telephony...............0.-. R. 1908 
1891 ARMAGNAT, HENRI. Phototelegraphy....................- R. 1908 
1892 Reppiz, Loven, N. The Gramophone and the Mechanical 

Recording and Reproduction of Musical Sounds........ R. 1908 


1893 THomson, J. J. On the Light Thrown by Recent Investi- 

gation on Electricity on the Relation between Matter 

At PR EMET soc ethe Sectors as can hd tod era me ARON Se ee ae R. 1908 
1894 Nernst, W. Development of General and Physical Chem- 

istry, tiie the: Last: Wor ty! Mearse ts. eee Fees R. 1908 
1895 Witt, O. N. Development of Technological Chemistry 

Dating the ast. Forty Years: Oss G eee. ee ee R. 1908 
1896 GUTTMANN, Oscar. ‘Twenty Years’ Progress in Explosives. R. 1908 
1897 Kapreyn, J. C. Recent Research in the Structure of the 

A TVET SE I Rs RN te rh Oe Ae R. 1908 
1898 Axpsot, C. G. Solar Vortices and Magnetism in Sun Spots. R. 1908 
1899 Grecory, J. W. Climatic Variations, Their Extent and 


CaaS eS er etes ioe 4B oe. 0 x ocak Ses COHEN eran d tt ap ene We ee aaa R. 1908 
1900;,JOLY,. JOHN Uranium dnd ‘Geology 7:50 eee eee R. 1908 
1901 ADAMS, GrEorcE I. An Outline Review of the Geology of 

OTA AN PASS tose icyeae cil eae a Ree Re NST PE TUE Secret Pea R. 1908 
1902 WIECHERT, E. Our Present eee eieies of the Earth..... R. 1908 
1903) MAcHA’T,. J.~ “The Antarctic-Qttestion vse en seis eee els R. 1908 
1904 Lyons, Capt. H. G. Some Geographical Aspects of the 

INAS Gs sees 0k a eee ie iors ae RL ENT CNT ok UA RD R. 1908 
1905 MacDoucat, Danie, TrREMBLY. Heredity and the Origin 

OF (SPECIES) culos 2). Hee Mot 4a be Sloe COE tee oe eee ee R. 1908 


1906 SAFForD, WititAM EpwIn. Cactacee of Northeastern and 
Central Mexico, together with a Synopsis of the Prin- 


cipal/- Mexican Genera\ a. Weenie: oak eee dar tee ee ete ae R. 1908 
1907 Gi, T'HxKoporK. Angler Fishes, their Kinds and Ways.... R. 1908 
1008 DEWAR) Doucias.. The Birds of Undiai 2 giise o.cuto.crwenne R. 1908 
1909 Lut, Ricwarp S. The Evolution of the Elephant........ R. 1908 
I91I0 WINCKLER, Huco, and Pucustrermn, O. Excavations at 

Boghaz-Keui in the Summer of 1907................... R. 1908 
TOM ROSS), RONALD, Malaria im sGreece ase. oa art hreanenrer wn rcr R. 1908 
1912 Natuorst, A. G. Carl von Linné as a Geologist.......... R. 1908 
1913 T'HoMpson, SytvANus P. Life and Work of Lord Kelvin. R. 1908 
1914 Broca, Anpr&, The Work of Henri Becquerel........... R. 1908 
1915 Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for 

thelyear-endine une! 30) OOO. sen niceemen pret et art R. 1909 


1916 Report of the Executive Committee and Proceedings of the 
Board of Regents for the year ending June 30, 1900..... R. 1900 


PUBLICATIONS 509 


No. Title. Series. Price. 
1917 Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 

ending June 30, 1908 (containing Nos. 1855, 1856, and 

TESS = LO UA) Mam OOO MR. Meer ieterais < «si sicveicrs wicterhincreicerne tele herein R. 1908 
1918 Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for year 

ending June 30, 1908, Part 2, National Museum. 1909.. M.R. 1908 
1919 Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for year 

ending June 30, 1909, Part 2, National Museum. 1909.. M.R. I909 
1920 Brockett, Paut. Bibliography of Aeronautics. Hodgkins 

Fiskaral Wiidojhioamermy (Chin! jase) commas ee ceaneassanecasor VE CASS 
1921 Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections (Quarterly Issue, 

10 TERVA) PANIC le UE RT OUO sss one roi ee ls <lelad a Wen Lem M.C. 52 





Page 

Nibbotrs GiGi sf aaac seerctoeran ales 31, 499 
Abronia bigelovii, new species... 197 
covillei, new species.... 197 

Adler, Cyrus, on Richard Rush.. m235 


Aedes pagetonotum, new species. 253 
pazosi, new species...... 253 
Aerodromics, medal for advance 
Lae SEN ere e tee, Sas 5 
Africa. See British East Africa. 
ee expedition, Smithson- 
Se AGO! ATs 485 
Ieee freshwater oe 
Americanists, congress of.. 
PNATCREWSsee ii Vitereice oe sleee es laie es 
Archer-fish and its feats (Gill).. 277 
Arizona, ruins in Gila Valley. 403-436 


- 457 | 


PSTst1O Gea ttleatiy, Flas rs) scksieicis site 287 
Archeological congress...... 273, 398 
Asplenium tenerum, new name 

dC) mPa sports Sear Nctaits eye tsieisestcl aero era's 404 
Baldwin james Mark:2.9.-...4..- 308 
Bancroftia persephassa, new spe- 

ClCSies sha sae ee Sinaloa 254 
Basler, IR Syoasccepoee 121, 267-269 
IBattiepelatile Via Cee a2 738308 
Beare BantonyAtsnsc 2 ace. so ees 457 
Bigs meienmann eine csaaeqece sss 272 
IB@aseme Lancni zante ee epee crore 17a 272 
Bolometric study of solar corona. 31 
Branneta jon Caspers. ssc... sec. I 
Brazil, cretaceous fishes of...... I 
British East Africa, new rodents | 

Taj O LMP Se cre ees res ees 469, 471 | 
British East Africa, new carni- 

VOLE LLOMM\ya.cseas cutee tee ee 485 
HS UIGCKame NUS UIS ta Wah ciaistacte science 49 | 
Cactisenew species of: /...2...5. 153 | 

Oinaimentalumersc. «(aan 195 


Calcite, crystallographic notes on. 465 
Calamopleurus vestitus, new spe- 


CLESMROP REE oan cee eee 19 
Calometra acanthaster, new spe- 
GES eispe.s. Seascale 224 
carduum, new species. 222 
Cambrian fossils from Manchu- 
GIDE eRe cnc eipieeta as 300 
Campbell WerWeas cecscee occ SOI 
Cannibalismeimy Perttee....1+. 192 


Canal rays, present pen ede of. 205 


Canyon Diablo, Arizona. . eels 

Carnivore from British East 
ENE Cag NET eos iorikcsécccch evita 485 

GacalGrandes ruins. . Msiclasia< bcs. 403 





EX 


Page 

Catoptometra magnifica, new spe- 
CLES dears Selanne terme acon: oletenore ete ete 
Ceara, Brazil, 
OL Gao sreth alge teal etn ie sarees 


roche, new species..... 27 
Cenozoic of North America, fos- 

Sileplantsiirombaseie ceerceeteieet 4890 

Cetaceans, new genus of fossil.. 441 


Charitometra smithi, new species. 227 
Chiistensens. Carlianaaeeeree ane 365 
Clarkes Austin) Elobattesasesice cee 199 
Comatella, new genus of crinoids. 207 


Congresses, international........ ni 
_ 271, 272, 273, 398 
Coregonus angusticeps .......... 95 


Corona, solar, bolometric study of 31 
Cox, Edward Travers, biography 


OLnCGe eee Merrill rserrtcie 83 
Cretaceous fishes of Ceara, Bra- 
Zils «Cjordan®s sand 
Bratinier) ies cetera I 
protoblattids (E. G 
Matchell) 233... 85 
Crinoids wtossile sees seer rer 267 
recent, from Philippine 
Islands: (€lark) .. 23: 199 
Crystallographic notes on calcite 
GROG) fos Bia ae ein eee 465 
Culex abominator, new species.. 257 
deceptor, new species..... 257 
dictator, new species...... 255 
duplicator, new Spe ae 50 
elocutilis, new species..... 255 
falsificator, new species. . e257, 
incriminator, new species. 257 
invocator, new species.... 258 
lachrimans, new species. . 250) 
lactator loquaculus, new 
Vane tyswit cess nincin earls 254 
peccator, new species..... 256 - 
reductor, new name...... 257 
reflector, new species..... 256 
revocator, new species.... 256 
vindicator, new species... 255 
Cyllometra sulavis, new species.. 221 
Cyprea notata revived (Gill).... 307 
Dail eV ell voniebleeeprmreeestec hier 361 
Darwin celebratiom (23.-....-..- 308 
Dany Sav Milllicinntee erat oe crater: 272 


Deinocerites pseudes, new species 260 


tetraspathus, new 
SPECIES sav oe «sacks 260 

troglodytus, new spe- 
CLOSE iste San cee 260 





512 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 52 
‘ Page Page 
Pe lpbinapterds leucas, observa- Fulcher, Gordon Scott........... 295 
HONS) OR GERM Ee = on. aa.aee vanes gen, hi Bubkeon: (Olin o.. sae. soon eee Gil 
Dennstedtia americana, new E ; 
TUEIIE oe ety crete, cee nic cper cc ane Galena and gold crystallized in 
Devil-fish, story of the (Gill).... 155 pyrite ........ tet eee ees betes 477 
Dinanamesus, new genus........ 259 | Geneva University celebration... 398 
spanius, new spe- ae Bi of mangroves : 
Rie Re NTT Es 2 Ate amy sets eee nee 461 
Dock; ‘Georees’. (0 ee = Georychus, kapiti, new species... 469 
Dryopteris, consanguinea eequalis, ne ek prehistoric ruins of 6 
new variety ae A oo Sie 380 EN SWIKCS Hie ade toc reneveisie in dehet ene 403-43 
dominicensis, new Gill, Theodore, 101, 155, 272, 277, 397 
species sey cee 384 | Gold ane galena crystallized in 
lanipes, new species. . 304 pyri S a O18 648 (e849 07 SCS OL O50 10s 00, 618 2 2ane Le 477 
leucothrix, new  spe- Guyer, .Machael Ui. e nes oscil 118 
CICS tera ersne-tleinvetatetolele SAL. Hale. Geor E 
; ; re TA os ite See 331 
Ae Geter apie eT 305, ‘Haupt Pal joo ne 117, 272, 273 
P new ee xe, ISKStoidipwavoitorenpions panne ceco 197 
: aTIELY sp crrs-- 3/7 1 eticina heighwayana, new spe- 
piedrensis, new spe- ae 362 
Bee Vit SON 4G 4. be) ayo | qq deS ust 
Pie eine Rede ee on ae Heller, Edmund ..... ars ey OO, 471 
Himerometra bartschi, new spe- 
pseudosancta, new Ria a 
SPECIES, 3.5454 cts eine 378 SR ae aes ioget ei ee u 
rusbyi, new species.. 390 Se ene roe 215 
struthiopteroides, new echinus, new  spe- 
SS RIES igh a Neycheiaciee 388 cles ron anes 218 
; ilipes new 
Bastwoods Alice: vouch anus 118 See 
Eberhardt, Charles C........ 181, 269 atest ces nae aan 
Eclipse, solar, January 3, 1908... 31 ee 2 . ae 
Egypt, anthropological researches Chace ee. ‘ 
TD a eyes Peete Ah ce AO ee ealy Te 271 : 4 
Enneles, new genus: .:......0... 23 eae Heer epee ae 
k _audax, new SPECIES 4.0.04". 23 ine ae P ae 
aoe SS RnR SDE Spee Be Hodgkins Fund SKANLS Mae _- 399 
Fumetra, new genus............. 230 ocean Daze Soe ee 271 
CIT MAW ERE 57) Holmes) Woe ae 272, 308 
SI seal elfafta te 's\-s ce usitaiallal at nial ie = v v 
Findlicka ALES! ese cies BIT 
Ferns, American, of group Dry- ‘ 
opteris (Christensen) ......... a6" | Lddinosy J.P: ie ccee aeee epee 309 
Fewhkes: J. Walter. 6 ..ccpune se 403 | Indians of Peru (Eberhardt).... 181 
Pisher: Waltet Wao. 2 sone nici 87 Invertebrate fossils, Nettelroth 
Fishery congress, Smithsonian collection 22... eee 121 
Bear Ze Gilg peace rT aes eR eS 272 | Iridometra scita, new species.... 232 
lexnet Simon cert eter cre 272 || 
Formosa, the peoples of......... 297. |shackson, “A. Ve Wiser eee epee 272 
Fossils, cambrian, from Manchu- le Nastrow, Worms witch ee eee 
Pie ee A oe eee ae 390: |. Jordan, David ‘Starr-.)..-c-% LOTT 
cetaceans, new genus of. 441 puede 
CrinO1dsi ee aero 267 | Kendall, William Converse...... 905 
fishes of Brazil......... 1-29: |) Krab; Frederick. ira. ws. wanes 253 
Nettelroth’s collection of {icra Oil ori seles able. rces hart chebepareeaee 4890 
invertebrate ......:... Tote oto @harleswAu ne sc. einen 118 
plants from mesozoic and 
cenozoic of North Wansleye medalya-1see cere 397, 308 
Per icaten pate terete ae 489 observations on Mount 
protoblattids) ona. 85 | Wihithey: 2a caecaeuee 501 
stickleback fish ......... Le | arma KC. Ose citar aan ie eatonate 272 


INDEX 513 


Page 
Leipzig University anniversary... 399 
Pewisg lik ..2s. a eae tel key 118 
Limatus cacophrades, new spe- 
CIES nae e eal shes 266 
methysticus, new spe- 
CLESMRS a ne Peni hacaies 266 
orine ns. Alden soa generdates.c sor 271 
lygobide;, new. familyiec.......- 85 
Byfobiis, Mew. Pensa cl. -- 85 
knowltoni, new _ spe- 
CIESM pret ale eines. oe 85 
Lythgoe, Albert M.......... 273, 398 
MacCurdy, George Grant... 117, 272 
Mangroves, geologic work of.... 461 
Marshes specentim Olt). acme 30-6 501 
Mearns, Lieut.-Col. Edgar A......271 
Medals Wancleva cms sisce ccs « 3907, 398 
Merrill, George P..... 70, 83, 117, 473 
Mesozoic, fossil plants from..... 489 
Metacrinus zonatus, new species. 200 | 
Meteorite, stony, ‘thomson...... 473 
Mister! Gernikeo: Ute. sess on 485, 407 
Millers-thumb and its habits 
RG on ee oe he ok ee ieee IOI 
Mitchell, Evelyn Groesbeeck..... 85 
Mosquito fauna of Panama 
EB Usck mares see ak aioe ea 49 
Mosquitoes, new genus and spe- 
ESO Lee Sr cece eke eke as 253 


Mount Whitney, shelter on...399, 490 
Murine rodents, two new genera 


Naples Zoological Station... 118, 273 
Nettelroth collection of inverte- 





brate fossils (Bassler)........ 12m 
Nomenclature of starfishes, 
Shan OClitio Aur sats ge, aie troitee 87 
Nuttall collection of plants...... 118 
Odontostomus (Cychodontina) 
branneri, new species.......... 3603 
Oligometra gracilicirra, new spe- 
COCR he eater Aig aoe ae 221 
Opuntia santa-rita, ornamental 
CACHUS aren .gaishetetsrcyeteteists 195 
vivipara, new species.. 153 
Orientalists, congress of......... 272 


Otocyon virgatus, new species... 485 


Panama, mosquito fauna of (Au- 


SUIS es ESO) nce Rant ee a 49 
Pan-American scientific con- 

ORESSE A ara Mine os ns 272, 308 
iPeabodyanChatlestue +424. +. 117, 272 
Pentametrocrinus diomedez, new 

SHeticss ye eye eres bee aes 234 


Peoples of Formosa (Arnold)... 287 
Perometra elongata, new species. 220 


Ogre ea sho ah ele eee 497 
Mus peromyscus, new species.... 472 
Myopus, new genus............. 497 | 





Page 
Peru, Indians of (C. C. Eber- 
Hard b)y cee o ute ee laa eas 181 
Philippine Islands, crinoids from. 199 
new frog from 437 
Phodopus, new genus........... 498 
Plants, fossil, description of..... 489 
Platygobio gracilis, identity of... 95 
Pleurodonte (Labyrinthus)  te- 
naculum, new species.......... 301 
Rogtie;sJosephe Hasse mea 4605, 477 
Prehistoric ruins in Gila Valley.. 403 
Prize, Hodgkins, at tuberculosis 


CONE TESS ee eae 271 
Smithsonian, at fishery 
CONGTESS 55 eee 272 
Proinia patagonica, new genus 
ANGuSPEClES SR ax ny aorta teeeette 441 
Prosqualodon, mandible and 
ViETHED CS OL «Su asevecdechere sce ties 441 


Protoblattids, new family of..... 85 

Ptilometra trichopoda, new spe- 
GIES CAE Se eee io eet ae eke 224 

Pyrite carrying gold and galena.. 477 


Rana magna, new. species....... 437 
averele aude eran sme e ie 272 
Rays, canal, present knowledge 

OL ire hss Ce Roe Ee ei 205 
Religions, congress for history of. 273 
Rocha collection of fossil fishes.. 1 


Rodents, murine, two new genera. 497 
new genus and new spe- 
cies from British East 


VAGIGICEY Bains aro e Hie 469, 471 

Rominger, Carl Ludwig, biogra- 
phy ofa(G: Py Merrill). aa.8 79 
Rose; Io Nea. ecu tenrt 153, 195- 


Roosevelt, Theodore, African ex- 


pedition ......... 271, 469, 471, 485 
RiinsKop Gila Valleyeeceen re ere 403 
Rush} Benjaiines se eeaeeeerte ce: 235 

Richard, relation to Smith- 
sonian Institution.... 235-251 
Savilles Warshall Els yee se Liz 272 
Sculpin, Alaskan freshwater..... 457 
Senior De saiee ee coer 273 
Shells, South American land.... 361 
Slavety an Pertisac soccer. 193 


Smithson bequest, history of. 235-251 

Smithsonian African expedition. 271, 

_ 469, 471, 485 

Solar corona, bolometric study of. 31 
eclipse of January 3, 1908 


(CEERADDOE) eet eeticets.< 31 
MENGHENMLONAl S53 GRioc's cota SO ODE 499 
LESCanGl Aetaomiens erie ee ate > 331 

Sound signaling by Indians...... 269 

South American land shells..... 361 

Star-fishes, change in nomencla- 
HERG CUES MAA Pole aici Sic GS OA 87 


514 


Page 
Stegomyia calopus at Panama... 65 
Stenodelphis, notes on, etc....... 325 


Stejneger, Leonhard ........ 272, 437 
Sternberg, George M............ 272 
Stevenson, Charles H............ 272 
Stony meteorite, Thomson....... 473 
Story of the devil-fish (Gill).... 155 
Sun, bolometric study of........ oT 
contributions to knowledge 
GUase ape cle es ene 331 
EClIPSEvOR ai Naw eee 31 
Radiation sOL-Ne. wens oe eee 499 


Thamnomys loringi, new species. 471 


Tharrhias, new genus........... Te 


araripis, new species.. 14 
Thomson meteorite from Geor- 


Bae acti deg este e pelea Plata tcts 473 
Trichometra explicata, new spe- 


RAL ol 4G SPA A Ree 232 
- 325, 441 


Uintacrinus socialis, unique cri- 
MUO (roi seelaeee i es Leo ete ako arg ec 267 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 





VOL. 52 


Page 
Walcott, Charles D., honor con- 


PELIOULOU th. oak ah cinaeie ce ee 308 
Weed, iifedC > BGS Sires wee 457 
Welch, William H........... 271, 3990 
Whitefish, identity: of: 223032 2. 905 
White whales, living............ 325 
Woodwardia columbiana, new 

Species sat eee 491 
maxoni, new spe- 
Leste Ue Mere ae 489 


c 

Wright, Wilbur 

medal vanvarded toma aeicie Soir 308 

Wyeomyia abrachys, new species. 262 

agyrtes, new species.. 265 
antoinetta, new  spe- 

Clesi aie ok ae 263 

cacodela, new species. 265 

cara, new species..... 264 

chresta, new species.. 263 

conchita, new species. 264 

drapetes, new species. 264 

euethes, new species.. 263 

hapla, new species.... 265 

onidus, new species... 261 

pandora, new species. 261 

pantoia, new species.. 262 
symmachus, new spe- 

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