550
Biology and Management of the
American Shad and Status of the
Fisheries, Atlantic Coast of the
United States, 1960
flarine Biclogical Laboratory
LIBRARY
NOV 1 3 1957
WOODS HOLE, MASS.
SPECIAL SCIENTIFIC REPORT-FISHERIES Na 550
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Stewart L. Udall, Secretary
Charles F. Luce, Under Secretary
Stanley A. Cain, Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks
FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE, Clarence F. Pautzke, Commissioner
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Harold E. Crowther, Director
Biology and Management of the American
Shad and Status of the Fisheries,
Atlantic Coast of the United States, 1960
By
CHARLES H. WALBURG and PAUL R. NICHOLS
United States Fish and Wildlife Service
Special Scientific Report- -Fisheries No. 550
Washington, D.C.
August 1967
CONTENTS
Page
Abstract 1
Introduction 1
Description of Alosa sapidissima 2
Distribution of shad 3
Life history of shad 3
Migrations 3
Spawning runs 5
Spawning and early development 6
Food and feeding habits 8
Age and growth 9
Mortality 10
Fishing mortality 10
Natural mortality 10
Predators 10
Parasites 11
History and description of fishery 11
Historical notes 11
Development of the fisheries 12
Present fisheries 15
Shad fisheries of Florida 17
Fisheries by water area 18
St. Johns River 18
St. Marys River 20
Trends in production 22
Shad fisheries of Georgia 22
Fisheries by water area 23
Satilla River 23
Altamaha River 23
Ogeechee River 25
Savannah River 25
Trends in production 26
Shad fisheries of South Carolina 27
Fisheries by water area 27
Combahee and Ashepoo Rivers 27
Edisto River 30
Charleston Harbor and tributaries 31
Samtee River 31
Winyah Bay and tributaries 31
Trends in production 34
i
Page
Shad fisheries of North Carolina 35
Fisheries by water area 35
Cape Fear River and tributaries 35
Pamlico Sound 39
Neuse River and tributaries 39
Pamlico-Tar River 41
Croatan and Roanoke Sounds 43
Albemarle Sound 43
Roanoke River 43
Chowan River 44
Trends in production 44
Shad fisheries of Virginia 45
Fisheries by water area 46
Chesapeake Bay in Virginia 48
James River 48
York River 49
Rappahannock River 50
Potomac River 51
Trends in production 52
Shad fisheries of Maryland 52
Fisheries by water area 54
Chesapeake Bay in Maryland 54
Potomac River 56
Patuxent River 58
Susquehanna River 59
Pocomoke River 59
Wicomico River 59
Nanticoke River 60
Fishing Bay 60
Choptank River 60
Chester River 61
Trends in production 6l
Shad fisheries of Delaware 63
Fisheries by water area 63
Nanticoke River 63
Delaware Bay 63
Delaware River 64
Trends in production 66
Shad fisheries of Pennsylvania 67
Fisheries by water area 67
Susquehanna River 67
Delaware River 68
Trends in production 69
Page
Shad fisheries of New Jersey 69
Fisheries by water area 69
Ocean shore and bays 69
Lower New York Bay 71
Hudson River 72
Trends in production 72
Shad fisheries of New York 72
Fisheries by water area 73
New York Bay 74
Hudson River 75
Great South Bay and Gardiners Bay 76
Long Island Sound 76
Trends in production 76
Shad fisheries of Connecticut 77
Fisheries by water area 77
Long Island Sound 77
Thames River 79
Connecticut River 79
Housatonic River 80
Bridgeport Harbor and Pine Creek 82
Trends in production °2
Shad fisheries of Rhode Island 82
Fisheries by water area 82
Atlantic Ocean 82
Narragansett Bay 83
Warren River 83
Pawcatuck River 83
Providence-Blackstone River 83
Trends in production 83
Shad fisheries of Massachusetts °^
Fisheries by water area °^
Taunton River 84
Buzzards Bay 84
Cape Cod and Massachusetts Bay 84
Merrimack River "^
Connecticut River 85
Trends in production 85
Shad fisheries of New Hampshire 85
Shad fisheries of Vermont 86
Page
Shad fisheries of Maine 86
Fisheries by water area 86
Saco River 86
Nonesuch River 86
Casco Bay 88
Kennebec River 88
Merrymeeting Bay tributaries 88
Sheepscot River 88
Penobscot River and Bay 89
Pleasant and Harrington Rivers 89
Saint Croix River 89
Trends in production 89
Trends in shad production of the Atlantic coast of the United States 89
Factors affecting decline in abundance 90
Physical changes 91
Dams 91
Pollution 92
Overfishing 92
Natural cycles of abundance 92
Rehabilitation and management 93
Hatcheries 93
Fishways 94
Regulations 97
Economics and marketing 97
Recommendations 99
Summary 100
Acknowledgment 100
Literature cited 101
Biology and Management of the American Shad and
Status of the Fisheries, Atlantic Coast of the United States, 1960
By
CHARLES H. WALBURG ^ and PAUL R. NICHOLS^
Fishery Biologists
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory
Beaufort, N.C. 28516
ABSTRACT
This paper summarizes current information on the American shad, Alosa
sapidissima, and describes the species and its fishery. Ennphasis is placed on
(1) life history of the fish, (2) condition of the fishery by State and water area in
1960 compared to 1896 when the last comprehensive description was made, (3) fac-
tors responsible for decline in abundance, and (4) management measures.
The shad fishery has changed little over the past three-quarters of a century,
except in magnitude of yield. Types of shad-fishing gear have remained relatively
unchanged, but many improvements have been made in fishing techniques, mostly
to achieve economy.
In 1896 the estimated catch was more than 50 million pounds. New Jersey
ranked first in production with about 14 million pounds, and Virginia second with 11
million pounds. In I960 the estimated catch was slightly more than 8 million
pounds. Maryland ranked first in production with slightly more than 1.5 million
pounds, Virginia second with slightly less than 1.4 million pounds, and North
Carolina third with about 1.3 million pounds.
Biological and econonnic factors blamed for the decline in shad abundance,
such as physical changes in the environment, construction of dams, pollution, over-
fishing, and natural cycles of abundance, are discussed. Also discussed are methods
used for the rehabilitation and management of the fishery, such as artificial propa-
gation, installation of fish-passage facilities at impoundments, and fishing regu-
lations.
With our present knowledge, we can manage individual shad populations; but,
we probably cannot restore the shad to its former peak of abundance.
INTRODUCTION
The annual commercial yield of American
shad, Alosa sapidissima (Wilson), on the At-
lantic coast of the United States declined from
more than 50 million pounds in 1896 to about
10 million pounds during the 1930's. Produc-
tion increased slightly during World War II,
but by 1949 had decreased to less than 10
million pounds. Alarmed by the continued de-
cline, the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries
Commission requested the Federal Govern-
ment to investigate this resource. In 1949
Congress, in Public Law 249, authorized the
Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department
of the Interior, to study the shad.
Since 1950 the Fish and Wildlife Service
(including the Bureau of Commercial Fish-
eries) has been investigating the fishery to
(1) discover causes for the decline, (2) deter-
mine conditions favoring recovery, and (3)
provide information for scientific management
of the species to obtain nnaximum continuing
yields.
With available funds and personnel, it was
not possible to investigate all Atlantic coast
•"•Present address: North Central Reservoir Investigations, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Box 139, Yankton,
S.D. 57078.
^ Present address: Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Washington, D.C. 20240.
1
shad fisheries simultaneously; studies gen-
erally were confined to only one stream or
area each year. Investigations began on the
Hudson and Connecticut Rivers in 1950 and
during the following 10 yr. (years) included
the major producing areas along the coast.
Because of the extensive coastwide nature of
this program, field work in any one area
necessarily was limited to 1 or 2 yr.
The purpose of this paper is to summarize
current information on the shad with emphasis
on (1) life history of the fish, (2) condition of
the fishery by State and water area in I960
compared with 1896 when the last comprehen-
sive description was made, (3) factors re-
sponsible for decline in- abundance, and (4)
management measures to increase fish stocks
and to produce optimum sustained yields.
Previous extensive investigations of this
species included an exhaustive report on the
shad fisheries of the Atlantic coast of the
United States with emphasis on the year 1896
(Stevenson, 1899), a comprehensive study on
the life history of shad (Leim, 1 924), a general
review on artificial propagation of shad (Leach,
1925), a detailed study on the marketing of
shad (Johnson, 1938), and a historical review
which sunnmarized all available information on
the fishery and presented the most compre-
hensive bibliography on the shad (Mansueti
and Kolb, 1953). The works of the above au-
thors were used extensively to complete this
report. Throughout this report, all references
to the fisheries of 1896, including tables, are
from Stevenson (1899), and all 1960 data were
collected during the present study.
In some respects, this report is similar to
Mansueti and Kolb (1953). That paper, how-
ever, was a compilation of available literature,
newspaper articles, interviews, and letters
and contained unsubstantiated statements and
opinions subsequently not clarified. In this
paper we have sought to give only documented
infornnation and to describe the shad and its
fishery in the light of recent scientific in-
formation.
DESCRIPTION OF ALOSA SAPIDISSIMA
The shad is the largest nnember of the her-
ring family, Clupeidae, in the United States.
The species has compressed fusiform shape,
single soft-rayed dorsal and anal fins, deeply
forked tail fin, strongly serrated ventral edge
of abdomen, and large scales which are easily
loosened; a dark spot close behind the rear
edge of the operculum well up on either side
of the body usually is followed by one or two
longitudinal rows of dusky spots (fig. 1). When
Figure l.~American shad, Alosa sapldlsslma. Upper: male - 18.8 in., 3.2 lb., and 5yr. old. Lower: female •
19 In., 4 lb., and 5 yr. old.
shad enter rivers, their sides and bellies are
white and silvery, and the backs have a green
to dark-blue metallic luster. The color on the
back fades to brown as the fish continue in
fresh water. Fins are pale green, the dorsal
and caudal fins somewhat dusky in the larger
fish and darker at the tips. Adults have the
following meristic characters (predominant
numbers in parentheses): dorsal fin, 16 to 21
rays (18 or 19); anal fin, 19 to 24 rays (21 or
22); left pectoral fin, 14 to 18 rays (16 or 17);
ventral scutes, 34 to 40 (35 to 37 with 21 or
22 anterior to the ventral fins and 14 or 15
posterior to the ventral fins); gill rakers on
the lower limb of the first arch, 62 to 76 (68
to 72); lateral line scales, 52 to 64 (56 to 60);
vertebrae, 53 to 59 (56 to 57); and no teeth.
Hildebrand and Schroeder (1 928), Leach (1925),
and Leim (1924) gave characters to distinguish
shad from other members of the same family.
DISTRIBUTION OF SHAD
The range of shad on the Atlantic coast
is from the Gulf of St. Lawrence in Canada
to the St. Johns River, Fla. They are
most abundant from North Carolina to Con-
necticut.
The U.S. Fish Commission made many at-
tempts to introduce shad in waters where they
were not native (Hildebrand and Schroeder,
1928; Leach, 1925). They were introduced in
streams of the Mississippi River drainage.
rivers of peninsular Florida, Colorado
streams, sind tributaries to lakes, including the
Great Lakes and Great Salt Lake, but these
introductions were unsuccessful. Shad were
successfully introduced in the Sacramento
River, Calif., and in the Columbia River be-
tween Washington and Oregon. From these
rivers they spread to other streams, and now
they occur from the Mexican border to Cook
Inlet, Alaska (Neave, 1954).
LIFE HISTORY OF SHAD
The American shad is anadromous, spending
most of its life in the ocean but ascending
coastal rivers to spawn. Fish attain sexual
maturity at the age of 2 to 6 yrs. The young
remain in the natal stream until autumn and
then enter the ocean.
MIGRATIONS
Stevenson (1899) reported ". . . it was for-
nnerly considered that the entire body of shad
wintered in the south and started northward in
a vast school at the beginning of the year, . . .,
sending a detachment up each successive
stream, this division, by a singular method of
selection, being the individuals that were bred
in those respective streams, the last portion
of the great school entering the Gulf of St.
Lawrence.
"But zoologists now recognize . . . the young
shad hatched out in any particular river re-
main within a moderate distance off the miouth
of that stream until the period occurs for their
inland migration . . . entering the rivers as
soon as the temperature of the water is
suitable."
Talbot and Sykes (1958) and Sykes and Talbot
(1958) analyzed information from tagging stud-
ies carried out over a period of 19 yr. by the
Fish amd Wildlife Service and described the
Atlantic coast migration of shad. Talbot and
Sykes (1958) said ". . . tag recoveries have
revealed a consistent migration pattern, . . .
After spawning, adult shad in streams from
Chesapeake Bay to the Connecticut River
migrate northward and spend the summer and
fall in the Gulf of Maine. Canadian shad mi-
grate southward to the Gulf of Maine and also
spend the summer and fall there. There is
little evidence as to where shad spend the
winter months; but it appears that they are
scattered along the Middle Atlantic area, for
beginning in January or February as the
spawning season approaches, they move in-
shore. . . They then migrate either north or
south to their native streams and spawn, . . .
The young shad leave their native streams in
the fall, probably spend the winters in the
Middle Atlantic area, migrate to the Gulf of
Maine each summer along with the adults, and
when mature return to their native streams
to spawn . . ,
"From these studies it appears that shad,
like salmon, migrate long distances in the
sea . . . How or by what mechamism they are
guided has not yet been satisfactorily deter-
mined."
Recent captures of shad in offshore waters
have indicated further that they spend the win-
ter along the Middle Atlantic area. Warren F.
Rathjen, Exploratory Fishing and Gear Re-
search Base, Gloucester, Mass., (writtencom-
munication dated February 24, 1961) reported
". . . 49 shad ranging from 315 mm. to 473
mm. long were captured at 87 to 126 fathoms
during Cruise 61-1 of the My, Delaware op-
erating along the 'edge' of the Continental
Shelf between Nantucket Lightship amd the
Hudson Canyon (Lat. N. 40° 01' - Long.
70° 41') from January 23 to February 2,
1961."
Shad occasionally are captured in areas out
of their general migration. A few adults are
caught each year on eel racks in the Delaware
River in late summer or fall (Sykes and
Lehman, 1957). Others were reported in the
lower Hudson River during fall and winter, and
in Chesapeake Bay throughout the year. The
vast majority offish, however, followed a regu-
lar migratory pattern.
Considerable evidence is available to show
that most shad return to their native streanns
to spawn. Significant differences in morpho-
logical characters indicate discrete spawning
populations in rivers along the Atlantic coast
(Hildebrand and Schroeder, 1 928; Vladykov and
Wallace, 1938; Warfel and Olsen, 1947; Hill,
1959; Fischler, 1 959; Nichols, 1 966). The Hud-
son River run reached peaks of abundance twice
in the past 50 yr., while runs in neighboring
streams such as the Connecticut River fluctu-
ated independently and in the Delaware River
remained low during the same period. Such
variations indicated that most of the fish re-
turned to their home streams to spawn (Fredin,
1954; Talbot, 1954). Significant differences in
juvenile body lengths attained at the end of the
young shads' stay in fresh water and differ-
ences in scale characteristics indicated popu-
lations peculiar to each Chesapeake Bay trib-
utary (Hammer, 1942"').
Tagging and recovery studies revealed even
more positive evidence of the return to their
native streams. Hollis (1948) released about a
thousand tagged juvenile shad at Edenton, N.C.,
in October 1941. During the spawning migra-
tion, 3 to 5 yr. later, three tagged fish were
recaptured within a radius of 10 miles from
the tagging site, and none was recaptured from
any other area. Tagging carried out in Chesa-
peake Bay showed that adult shad returned to
the sanne spawning areas during successive
years (Truitt, 1940). During the spring follow-
ing tagging in the Hudson and Connecticut
Rivers, no recaptures were made from a
spawning ground other than the one where the
fish was tagged (Talbot and Sykes, 1958).
Similar results were obtained from tagging
on the spawning grounds in the York River
(Nichols, 1961).
In 1896 no river on the Atlantic coast ap-
peared to be too long for shad to ascend to
the headwaters, provided the fish met with
nothing to bar their upstream movement. In
that year they ascended the St. Johns River
about 375 miles, the Altamaha River 300 miles,
the Santee River 272 miles, the Neuse River
300 miles, and the Susquehanna River 279
miles. These distances, however, didnot equal
the extreme range of the original limit of the
runs (table 1).
The homing instinct of the Chesapeake Bay shad,
Alosa sapidissima (Wilson), as revealed by a study of
their scales by Ralph C. Hammer. M.S. degree thesis
(typewritten), 1942, University of Maryland, 45 p.
The difference in the range of shad in rivers
between 1896 and I960 is the result of several
factors. Construction of insurmountable dams
decreased the upstream range in certain
rivers, e.g., in the Santee by more than 200
miles, in the Cape Fear and Neuse by more
than 100 miles each, and in the Susquehanna
by more than 50 miles. Runs were completely
destroyed in the Housatonic, Kennebec, and
Penobscot Rivers. Pollution of the Hudson
probably was responsible for decreased up-
stream movement. Removal of dams and
construction of successful fishways increased
the range in certain rivers, e.g., the destruc-
tion of Burrows Dam in the Delaware River
opened an additional 64 miles, and installation
of a fish ramp at Windsor Locks and construc-
tion of a fish-lift at South Hadley Dam on the
Connecticut River increased the upstream
nnigration more than 40 miles (table 1).
Shad ascend the rivers when the water tem-
perature is from 5° to 23° C, the peak move-
ment is at 130 to 16° C. (Leach, 1925; Mass-
mann and Pacheco, 1957; Talbot, 1961). This
upstream migration is for the sole purpose
of spawning, but the time of entry into fresh
water varies along the coast. Shad appear in
the St. Johns River about mid-November, are
in greatest abundance from mid-January to
mid-February, and the run is completed by
the last of March. In Georgia and South Caro-
lina rivers, the run begins early in January
and ends the last of April. Shad enter the
sounds and tributaries of North Carolina and
Chesapeake Bay as early as mid-February,
and the run usually continues until mid-May.
In the Delaware River, the fish are most
abundant in early May. They enter the Hudson
and Connecticut Rivers by the last of March,
and the run usually continues until Jiine.
The sex ratio is not constant throughout the
period of upstream migration. In the early
part of the run, males usually dominate. Later,
the sexes are about equal or females are
more numerous.
Young shad spend their first summer in
rivers and migrate to sea in the autumn.
During their river residence, the young fish
tend to disperse throughout the area, and
juveniles nearest the spawning area are
smaller on the average than those below the
tidal stretches of the river (Leim, 1924). The
findings from our studies were similar to those
of Leim on the distribution of young by size
gradient. Young collected in the St. Johns
River in mid-August averaged 2 in. (inches)
fork length (150 specimens) in the upstream
spawning areas, and 2.3 in. fork length (100
specimens) in the lower river. In the Hudson
River, the average fork length of young col-
lected in mid-August was 2.5 in. (250 speci-
mens) in the upstream spawning area, 2.7 in.
(200 specimens) in the central section, and
2.8 in. (250 specimens) in the lower river.
Young were distributed from the spawning
Table 1.
-The original, 1896, and 1960 limits of shad range in 23 major rivers of the Atlantic coast of
United States. All data other than for 1960 from Stevenson ( 1899)
the
Distance
of source
above
coastline
Original limit of shad run
1896 limit o
E shad run
1960 limit of
shad run
River
Locality
Distance
from
coastline
Locality
Distance
from
coastline
Locality
Distance
from
coastline
Miles
Miles
Miles
Miles
375
450
350
. . 375
Sources. . . .
Hawkinsville .
Millen ....
375
300
100
Lake Washington. .
Hawkinsville . . .
Midville
250
. . 370
300
Ogeechee . .
Ogeechee Shoa
Is. . 200
125
Savannah . .
. 425
Tallulah Fall
3 . . 384
Augusta Dam. .
209
Savannah Lock
and Dam
180
Edlsto . . .
300
350
Sources. , ,
. . 300
Jones Bridge ,
Great Falls. .
281
272
Norway
Santee Dam ....
120
Santee:
Wateree. .
Great Falls
. . 272
65
Congaree .
410
Green River
. . 374
Columbia . . .
233
Santee Dam ....
65
Pee Dee. . .
497
Wilkesboro
. . 451
Grassy Island.
242
Blewett Falls Dam.
242
Cape Fear. .
Neuse. . . .
290
Haywood. .
. . 210
Smiley Falls .
Fish Dam . . .
181
Lock No. 1 . . . .
65
340
Sources. .
. . 340
300
^alburnie
165
Pamllco-Tar.
252
Rocky Mount
. . 157
Rocky Mount. .
157
Rocky Mount. . . .
157
457
420
248
400
Weldon . .
. . 249
Weldon ....
Boshers Dam. .
Falmouth Falls
Great Falls. .
249
140
155
190
Spring Hill. . . .
Boshers Dam. . . .
Falmouth Falls .
Little Falls Dam
215
James. . . .
. . 370
140
Rappahannock
Potomac. . ,
. . 155
155
Great Falls
. . 190
180
Susquehanna.
617
Binghamton
. . 513
C larks Ferry .
279
Conowingo Dam. .
205
457
314
. . 256
Burrows Dam. .
Troy
196
164
Deposit, N. Y. .
Coxsackie. . . .
260
Hudson . . .
Glens Falls
. . 209
130
202
409
Falls Village
Bellows Falls
. . 150
. . 204
Birmingham . .
Windsor Locks.
92
89
Connecticut.
Turners Falls. .
130
Merrimac . .
140
Winnepesaukee
. . 125
Lawrence . . ,
20
Lawrence ....
20
155
255
Carrltunk Fal
Is. . 108
qn
Augusta. . . .
Verona ....
44
35
No shad
No shad
grounds to the lower river but were most
abundant over sand and gravel. Movement from
the river usually begins after the water tem-
perature has decreased to less than 15.5° C.
It is not until near the end of November or the
beginning of December that all the young have
left the tributaries of Chesapeake Bay (Hilde-
brand and Schroeder, 1928). The downstream
movement of young in the upper Delaware
River occurs during September and October
and appears to be expedited by a rapid lower-
ing of the water temperature, or an increase
in flow, or both (Sykes and Lehman, 1957).
SPAWNING RUNS
Most shad spawn for the first time when 4
or 5 yr. old; males mature and spawn at an
earlier average age tham females. Afew males
spawn for the first time at an age of 2 or 3
yr., and a few females spawn for the first
time at 3 or 4 yr. Age distribution at capture
and number of previous spawnings for shad
from certain rivers of the Atlantic coast are
given in table 2. No fish had spawned previously
in the South Atlantic (St. Johns, Ogeechee,
Edisto, and Neuse Rivers) except in the Neuse
Table 2. — Age distribution at capture, and number of previous spawnings,
for shad from certain rivers, Atlantic coast of the United States-'-
[In percent]
River
Age and
spawning
St.
group
Johns
Ogeechee
Edisto
Neuse
James
York
Potomac
Delaware
Hudson
Connecticut
Total age
(years) at
capture;
2
(2)
..-..
--.
-.-
...
(2)
---
---
— «.
— ■>»
3
4
2
5
9
12
7
5
1
2
1
4
72
41
16
43
61
55
62
16
23
17
5
22
48
56
34
20
30
28
41
29
42
6
2
9
23
12
7
6
5
30
22
30
7
(2)
2
(2)
1
(2)
10
14
7
8
>8
___
(2)
2
6
4
2
1
Number of
times
spawned
previously-';
0
100
100
100
97
73
76
83
98
49
51
1
3
22
15
15
2
19
31
2
_=_
5
7
1
18
13
3
4
---
---
---
»..
(2)
1
1
(2)
"""
10
2
4
1
(1)
5
>5
—
—
___
—
—
—
—
2
(2)
Data for: St. Johns, 1958— Walburg (1960a); Ogeechee, 1954~Syk.es (1956); Edisto, 1955~Walburg
(1956); Neuse, 1953~Walburg (1957a); James, 1952— Walburg and Sykes (1957); York, 1959— Nichols and
Massmann (1963); Potomac, 1952— Walburg and Sykes (1957) ; Delaware, 1944-45-47-52 — Sykes and Lehman
(1957); Hudson, 1950-51— Talbot (1954); Connecticut, 1956-59— Walburg (1961).
2
Less than 0. 5 percent,
3
Determined by counting the number of spawning marks on scales.
River; in Chesapeake Bay tributaries (James,
York, Potomac, and Delaware Rivers) from
17 to 27 percent had spa-wned previously; and
in the Hudson and Connecticut Rivers, about
50 percent had spawned previously. In all
streams north of North Carolina, many shad
spawn more than once. Fish that have spa-wned
for 5 yr. or more have been found in some
more northerly streams.
Spawning in all streams south of Long Island,
N.Y., usually is completed by June, and
spawning in the Hudson and Connecticut Rivers
usually has ended by July. Spa-wning occurs in
June and as late as July in Maine and Canada.
Usually fish enter the rivers and spawn a
few days earlier during warm periods and a
few days later when the weather is cold during
the spawning migration. After spawning, the
fish that survive leave the river (at which
time they are called "back runners") and most
migrate to the Gulf of Maine.
SPAWNING AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT
Spawning grounds of shad were located by
the relative numbers of eggs collected in
plankton nets (fig. 2) and the occurrence of
ripe and running females in sport and com-
mercial catches. Net samples of eggs indi-
cated that spawning areas in rivers are large,
extending sometimes 25 to 100 miles inland
from the limit of brackish water. In the Con-
necticut River, eggs were collected from
Haddam Island to Hadley Falls Dam, a dis-
tance of more than 100 miles; in the St. Johns
Figure 2. — Setting 1-m. plankton net to collect shad eggs,
St. Johns River, Fla.
River, from Crows Bluff upstream to midway
between Lake Harney and Lake Poinsett, a
distance of 70 miles; and in the James River,
from Newport News to Hopewell, a distance of
40 miles. Ripe females were taken throughout
the spawning areas, but usually eggs were not
collected in some stretches of river within
these areas. Most spawning grounds were on
flats or in adjacent river channels and, some-
times, below barriers. (These findings are
similar to those reported by Gill, 1926; Mass-
mann, 1952; Smith, 1907; and Worth, 1893.)
Dissolved oxygen was 5 p. p.m. (parts per
million) or more throughout spawning areas.
Water conditions varied from clear to very
turbid. The bottom generally was sand, gravel,
or a combination of both. The water depth
usually was from 3 to 30 ft. (feet), but ranged
up to 40 ft. in the Hudson River. In the Con-
necticut River, 49 percent of the eggs were
collected in water less than 10 ft. deep, 30
percent in water between 11 emd 20 ft. deep,
and the remainder in water from 21 to 30 ft.
deep. The current ranged from less than 1 to
more than 3 f.p.s. (feet per second) during
normal flow. In some streams, river flow in
spawning areas was always downstream, but
in others it was affected by tide and current
moving both upstream and downstream during
the tidal cycle.
Shad spawn at water temperatures from 8°
to 26° C, but usually between 14° and 21° C.
In the Pamunkey River, Va., eggs were not
taken in abundance until the water tempera-
ture reached 12° C. (Massmann, 1952), In the
Shubenacadie River, Nova Scotia, Canada,
Leim (1924) collected eggs at various tem-
peratures but noted that spawning stopped
when water temperature dropped suddenly
from 16° to 10° C.
Gill (1926) observed that when shad reached
suitable spawning grounds and were ready to
deposit their eggs, they moved up the flats,
seemingly in pairs. When spawning, they
swam close together near the surface, their
back fins projecting above the water. The
rapid, vigorous, spasmodic movements that
accompanied this activity produced a splash-
ing in the water whichfishermen characterized
as "washing". Similar spawning actions were
observed by Leim (1924), usually in places
where the current was neither sluggish nor
swift. Leim collected newly fertilized eggs
with a plankton net placed downstream from
the disturbance.
On two occasions in mid-May 1958, shortly
after sundown, we observed a school of about
one hundred shad in vigorous, intermittent
moven-ient below the Enfield Dam on the Con-
necticut River. The schooling fish swam in a
close circle near the surface, amd a wake was
plainly visible. Then the speed of movement
rapidly quickened, the circle narrowed, and
fish broke the surface, producing a splashing
or churning in the water. This frantic activity
lasted only a few seconds, but minutes later
the same, or a different school surfaced at
another location and repeated the routine. The
entire activity lasted about 15 min. (minutes).
Undoubtedly this was some phase of the
spawning cycle. Also in the afternoon and
evening, schools of shad on several occasions
moved in a "foUow-the-leader" pattern, making
energetic runs with a flashing of sides which
was probably prespawning activity. Evidently
heaviest spawning normally occurs in late
afternoon and evening.
Shad eggs develop over a wide temperature
range. Canfield* reported that the eggs de-
veloped gradually in the .ovaries as the tem-
perature of the water increased and that
spawning occurred intermittently as the eggs
ripened. At 13° to 17° C, the ovaries ap-
parently developed a portion of the eggs at a
time, and that portion was spawned. As the
temperature increased from 17° to 20° C,
the ripening of the ovaries was rapid; and as
the water temperature increased fronn 20° to
24 C. the development was more rapid and
soon was complete.
Shad deposit their eggs in the open waters,
where they are fertilized by the males. When
deposited, the eggs are transparent spheres,
pale amber or pink, and about 0.05 in. in
diameter. Immediately after fertilization, they
absorb water and increase to a diameter of
about 0.1 to 0.15 in. The eggs are carried by
the currents and, being slightly heavier than
water, gradually sink. Eggs which have been
preserved in 5 percent Formalin ^ sink at a
rate of 2.4 f.p.m. (feet per minute) in water
of about 25° C, (Massmann, 1952).
Unpublished manuscript. Report on shad production in
North Carolina by H. L. Canfleld, 1937, U.S. Fisheries
Agent, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Lab-
oratory, Beaufort, N.C. 9 p.
^ Trade names referred to in this publication do not
imply endorsement of commercial products.
The average number of eggs produced per
female each season often has been given as
about 25,000 or 30,000 (Worth, 1898). This
figure referred to the number of eggs that
could be taken by spawn-takers for hatchery
purposes at any time amd not the total number
of eggs a shad could produce in a season
(Lehman, 1953). Because only a part of the
eggs are ripe and ready for spawning at one
time, these earlier records represented but
a fraction of the number of ova a female could
produce naturally during a spawning season.
The number per female depends upon the size
and age of the fish as well as the stream in
which spawning occurs. The fecundity in the
St. Johns River was greater than in the Hudson
River, for example, although females from
the latter river were older and larger than
those from Florida. The estimated egg pro-
duction of shad collected in seven rivers along
the Atlantic coast of the United States is given
in table 3.
In general, shad eggs hatch in 4 to 6 days at
about 15° to 18° C. The stages of early de-
velopment of shad eggs were illustrated by
Leach (1925). Time required for hatching
was measured by various workers who reared
eggs under artificial conditions. The hatching
time ramged from 3 to 5 days at water tem-
peratures from 20° to 23.4° C, to 17 days at
12.2° C. Eggs kept for 3 days at 9° C. died,
but a few hatched into vigorous larvae when
put in 24° C. water (Ryder, 1885). A tempera-
ture of 7° C. practically stopped development
of the eggs and caused abnormalities to appear,
22° C. caused considerable abnormality, and
27° C. was definitely unsuitable (Leim, 1924).
Table 3. --Estimated egg production of shad collected in
seven rivers, Atlantic coast of the United States^
River
Fork
length
Total
weight
Age
Estimated
number of
eggs
Inches
Ounces
Years
Thousands
Hudson
13.9 - 21.9
28 - 107
3-9
116 - 468
Potomac
18.1 - 19.9
51 - 83
5-6
267 - 525
York
15.7 - 18.5
39 - 73
4-6
169 - 436
Neuse
17.6 - 19.6
64 - 96
4-6
423 - 547
Edisto
18.3 - 19.6
57 - 76
4-5
360 - 480
Ogeechee
18.0 - 18. 7
60 - 76
4-6
359 - 501
St. Johns
14. 5 - 18. 1
21 - 65
.4-6
277 - 659
Data for: Hudson, 1951-- Lehman (1953); Potomac,
1952--Davis (1957); York, 1959--Nichols and Massmann
(1963); Neuse, I95>-Davis (1957); Edisto, 1955--Davls
(1957); Ogeechee, 1954— Davis (1957); St. Johns, 195>-
Walburg (1960a).
The usual period of incubation was 6 to 1 2 days
at 12° to 19° C., and these temperatures were
near the minimum and maximum for success-
ful incubation of the eggs (Leach, I 925). Water
temperature appears to be the governing fac-
tor during incubation, but other circumstances
not well understood may also have an influence.
Continuous dark, cloudy weather appears to
retard development and strong light to ac-
celerate it.
The appearance of the newly hatched larvae
and the stages of development were described
by Leach (1925), Leim (1924), and Worth ( 1 898).
The larvae are about 0.3 to 0.4 in. long at
hatching. The body is slender, surrounded by
a wide primitive fin-fold. In 4 to 7 days, the
yolk sac is absorbed. Growth is rapid and
transformation to the final form, at a length
of about 1 in., occurs about 4 to 5 wk. (weeks)
after hatching. The young swim vigorously by
rapid and continuous vibrations of the tail from
the moment they leave the eggs. Minute coni-
cal teeth appear in the lower jaw and in the
pharynx about the second or third day after
hatching. At 3 mo. (months), the jaws are
armed with small, slightly curved teeth. Long,
slender gill rakers develop and increase in
number with age; shad 1.5 to 3.5 in. long have
21 to 31 on the lower limb of the first arch,
and fish 4 to 5 in. long have 34 to 41.
FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS
Adult shad are primarily plankton feeders,
characteristically they swim with their mouths
open and their gill covers extended, straining
the water for food. In the sea, they eat mysids
and copepods (Leim, 1924; Willey, 1923). The
mysids suggest that part of their life, perhaps
much of it, is spent near the bottom of the sea.
In the rivers, the young feed on ostracods,
isopods, decapod larvae, insects, mollusks,
algae, and fish eggs (Hildebrand and Schroeder,
1928).
Little food, if any, has been found in the
stomachs of adults taken infresh water (Leidy,
1868; Clift, 1874; McDonald, 1884; Smith,
1896; Moss, 1946; Nichols, 1959a), probably
because the available food is too small to be
collected. In salt water, adults feed to a large
extent on plamkters 0.3 to 1 in. long. In fresh
water, the largest plankton in abundance are
copepods, which rarely exceed 0.1 in. Adirect
relation exists between the fineness of the
sieve formed by the gill rakers aind the mini-
mum size of the organisms that could be re-
tained.
In some rivers, shad are taken on spawning
grounds by artificial lures, but the absence of
food in their stomachs suggests that they attack
baits in defense of the grounds rather than as
food. Stomachs of several adults that were
examined had only green algae and fine de-
tritus.
The food habits of young shad have been ob-
served by many workers. Food was never
found in the alimentary canal of young fish
less than 10 to 12 days old (Leach, 1925). In
about 1 1 days food was present, but the in-
testines were seldom densely packed withfood.
At 3 wk., an abundance of food was found. Gill
(1926), however, found that in about 7 days
after hatching, some fish were observed to
pursue and feed upon copepods. Leim (1924)
noted that in the Shubenacadie River, Canada,
larval shad ate planktonic Crustacea and chir-
ononnid larvae; the latter predominated until
the young fish reached tidal water where
copepods became most important. Juveniles
took mostly insects and crustaceans (Mitchell,
Philip H., and Staff: N. Borodin, R. L.Barney,
and Edwin Linton, 1925; Walburg, 1957b). We
observed that young shad fed actively from
dusk to an hour after sunset and from first
daylight to sunrise.
AGE AND GROWTH
Various works have described techniques
for aging shad. Leim (1924) andGreeley (1937)
counted winter rings or annuli on the scales
and used the relation of scale size to body
length; Borodin (1925) counted transverse
grooves; and Barney (1925) read otolith mark-
ings. Gating (1953) reported that previous
investigators had not established criteria for
separating true from false annuli on scales
and that these methods therefore gave errone-
ous results. Gating proposed a method for
reading scales for total age and age at first
spawning by counting the transverse grooves
to identify true annuli and adding 1 yr. for
the scale edge. Age of fish spawning for the
second time or more was obtained by counting
the number of annuli plus the number of spawn-
ing marks (year marks but different in form
from the prespawning annuli) and adding 1 yr.
for the scale edge. LaPointe (1958) validated
the annulus as a true year mark on scales of
fish spawning for the first time.
In 1952, 100,000 juvenile shad were marked
by pectoral fin-clip in the Connecticut River
to validate Cating's method or to establish a
correct method for determining age of this
species from their scales. Recapture of these
marked fish 4, 5, and 6 yr. later validated the
use of both annuli and spawning marks for age
determination (Judy, 1961).
In South Atlantic rivers and Chesapeake Bay
tributaries, 4- and 5-yr.-old fish make up the
bulk of the catch; in the Middle Atlantic rivers,
the catch is primarily 4- to 7-yr.-old fish.
Growth differs between northern and south-
ern rivers as well as between sexes. The in-
creases of length with age of shad was greater
in northern rivers than in southern streams
(table 4). Females grow slightly faster than
males; hence females are consistently longer
than males at all ages (table 5).
Average weight and length depend on
river of origin. Weight of individuals of
similar length varies according to condition
of fish.
Shad as heavy as 12 to 14 lb. (pounds) have
been reported (McDonald, 1884; Stevenson,
1899; and Worth, 1898). Pacific coast fish
average a pound or more heavier than those
on the Atlamtic coast; many weigh 9 to 12 lb.,
and occasionally one attains a weight of 14 lb.
Fish from less thain 2 to more than 9 lb. have
been observed in the commercial catch on the
Atlantic coast. Males average between 2 and
3 lb. and females between 3 and 4 lb.
Table 4, — Average fork length of shad, by age and sex, from certain rivers,
Atlantic coast of the United States^
[Age in years, length in inches and tenths]
Age
River
1
2
3
4
5
6
Male
Fe-
male
Male
Fe-
male
Male
Fe-
male
Male
Fe-
male
Male
Fe-
male
Male
Fe-
male
St. Johns
Neuse
Susquehanna
Connecticut
6.8
7.0
6.5
7.1
7.0
7.2
6.9
7.4
11.4
11.3
10.5
11.4
11.8
11.6
11.2
11.8
13.7
14.5
13.0
14.2
14.1
14.8
14.2
15.0
15.3
16.6
14.8
16.5
16.1
16.9
15.9
17.3
16.7
15.9
18.1
17.5
18,6
17.5
19.5
17.2
18.0
20.2
20.8
^ Data for: St. Johns, 1957--Walburg (1960a); Neuse, 1953, and Susquehanna, 1952
•LaPointe (1958); Connecticut, 1957-58--Unpublished (Beaufort, N. C.)
Table 5. --Fork length and weight of shad,
by age, from the St. Johns, York, and
Connecticut Rivers, 1960
Age
Sex
Fork
length
range
Weight
range
Years
Inches
Ounces
3
Male
13.5 - 14.5
17 - 33
Female
14.3 - 15.0
22 - 38
4
Male
15.9 - 16.9
30 - 46
Female
16.4 - 17.5
44 - 60
5
Male
16.5 - 17.5
44 - 50
Female
17.3 - 18.3
58 - 64
6
Male
17.3 - 18.3
49 - 65
Female
18.5 - 21.0
62 - 68
7
Male
19.0 - 22.5
56 - 68
Female
21.5 - 23.0
68 - 83
Juvenile shad grow rapidly in fresh water,
although the rate of growth and size at amy
given time may vary between areas. Young
shad collected in early October in the Con-
necticut River below Hadley Falls Dam at
Holyoke, Mass., ranged in fork length from
3.1 to 4.2 in. (250 specimens) whereas those
collected above the dam ranged from 3.7 to 5
in. (255 specimens). Young caught in the
Hudson River in late September ranged from
2.5 to 3.1 in. fork length (400 specimens); in
Chesapeake Bay tributaries in mid-September,
2.7 to 3,5 in. (550 specimens); in southern
streams in mid-August, 2 to 2.5 in. (400
specimens). Average lengths of juveniles from
the Hudson River at the end of each month
were: June, 0.6 in.; July, 1.9 in.; August, 2.4
in.; September, 3 in,; and October, 3.5 in.
MORTALITY
Mortality of adult shad is caused mainly by
(1) fishing, (2) natural causes, or (3) predators
and parasites.
Fishing Mortality
The annual fishing mortality rate within
rivers is known for a number of shad popula-
tions. In the South Atlantic streams, the esti-
mated rate varied from a low of 15 percent
in the St. Johns River in 1957 (Walburg, 1960a)
to a high of 57 percent in the Ogeechee River
in 1954 (Sykes, 1956). In Chesapeake Bay
tributaries, it varied from 45 percent in the
York River in 1959 (Nichols and Massmann,
1963) to 73 percent in the James River in 1952
(Walburg and Sykes, 1957). In the Hudson
River, the rate varied from 20 percent in
1916 to 79 percent in 1947 (Talbot, 1954).
In the Connecticut River, the rate varied
from 24 percent in 1956 to 85 percent in
1946.
Natural Mortality
Few studies have been made to determine
natural mortality of adult shad. Fredin (1954)
compared the abundance of 6- to 7-yr.-old
fish taken from the Connecticut River in 1946
and 1947 and estimated that the extraneous
mortality rate (deaths occurring between fish-
ing seasons) was 36 percent. Walburg (1961),
who studied age- and spawning-group fre-
quencies for fish taken in the Connecticut
River from 1956-59, estimated that the total
annual mortality was 73 percent. The average
annual natural mortality for these years was
estimated to be 58 percent. Whitney (1961)
estimated that the rate of survival of adult
shad after spawning in the Susquehanna River,
based on tag returns, was about 12 percent
for males and 26 percent for females between
1958 and 1959, whereas the survival between
1959 and I960 was estimated as 2 percent for
males and 16 percent for females. A high
mortality of adult shad in all Atlantic coast
populations south of Cape Hatteras, N.C., is
verified by the scarcity of older fish in the
catch and the fact that all fish examined were
spawning for the first time.
Predators
Shad are prolific spawners, but many eggs
are not fertilized, and others are eaten by
fish and other water animals. The Americaui
eel, Anguilla rostrata, and catfishes, Ictalurus
spp, feed on the eggs. Eels often attack fe-
males caught in gill nets amd devour the eggs.
The development of fungus is one of the
greatest dangers to eggs in the natural
state. Mud brought down by heavy rains
may bury and suffocate many eggs (Leach,
1925).
Young shad are caught by predators, and
many do not survive their few months' stay
in the rivers. During rearing at the Linlithgo
station on the Hudson River, great care was
needed to protect young shad from eels that
entered the ponds through water-supply pipes
(The New York Conservation Commission of
Fisheries, 1911-12). Striped bass, Roccus
saxatilis. prey heavily on the young (Shapo-
valov, 1936; Hollis, 1952).
10
After the young shad leave the rivers in the
fall, and during their stay of 2 to 6 yr. in the
ocean, many are victims of predaceous fishes --
sharks, bluefin tuna, kingfish, and many others
(Leach, 1925). North Carolina fishermen have
observed porpoise feeding on adults in coastal
waters. Although white pelican, Pelecanus
e rythrorhynchos, feed extensively on dead
and dying spawned-out adults in the St.
Johns River (Nichols, 1959a), in general,
adult shad are comparatively free from
predators other than main once they are in
the river.
Parasites
Whether parasites cause or contribute to
mortality of shad is unknown, but available
evidence indicates that they have no signifi-
cant effect. Although parasites have been ob-
served in shad, the fish are generally free
from severe infestations. Nematodes and dis-
tomes were found in the alimentary tract of
young collected in the Shubenacadie River,
Nova Scotia (Leim, 1924). Roundworms, Aga-
monema capsularia, frequently were encap-
sulated upon the ovary, intestine, or liver of
adults caught near New York (Leidy, 1857;
1879). Fish taken in the Carolinas usually
were free of parasites with the occasional
exception of sea lice (Yarrow, 1874). Internal
parasites (the roundworm, Ascaris adunca,
and the acanthocephalan, Echinorhynchus acus),
and an external copepod parasite (Caligus
rapax) were found in shad in the Woods Hole
region (Sumner, Osburn, and Cole, 1913).
Spawning shad taken in Scotsman Bay and
Annapolis and St. Johns Rivers were infested
with distomes, nematodes, aind Acanthocephali
(Leim, 1924). HoUis and Coker (1948) found
that 25 percent of 519 fingerlings had cysts
of a tren-iatode parasite, Clinostomum mar-
ginatum. Ectoparasitic copepods, Argulus
canadensis, were found on adults passed over
the Hadley Falls Dam in the Connecticut River
at Holyoke, Mass. (Davis, 1956). Both sea
lamprey, Petromyzon marinus, and fresh,
water lamprey, Ichthyomzyon sp., were at-
tached to adults taken in the Connecticut River.
HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF FISHERY
HISTORICAL NOTES
When New England was first colonized, shad
and other fishes abounded in season in the
rivers and tributaries, and the Indians had
long used them for food. The headwater por-
tions of rivers were, for the most part, ac-
cessible to anadromous fishes, amd prior to
the erection of obstructions on the streams,
shad provided profitable fisheries from Maine
to Chesapeake Bay.
When the English settled along the Connecti-
cut River, shad were plentiful; they rejected
this species, however, for nearly 100 yr.
(McDonald, 1887e). Fishermen took the salmon
from their nets and usually returned the shad
to the streams. Reports indicated that shad
were taken in large numbers in many places
in Connecticut before 1760, but did not appear
on the market until the early 1770's. At that
time they sold for a penny each. From 1778 to
1781, thousands of barrels of shad were salted.
The falls at South Hadley was one of the fa-
vorable places on the Connecticut River for
taking fish, and many shad were caught in
seines below the falls and in scoop nets on
the falls. An account of 3,000 shad taken in
one seine haul at East Haddam was reported
in 1766 (Stevenson, 1899). In the early fishery
on the Connecticut, mainly haul seines were
used. Gill nets and pound nets gradually sup-
plainted haul seines and were in general use
by 1850.
In early Massachusetts, a great variety of
fish abounded in the bays and rivers and their
tributaries (True and Wilcox, 1887). As early
as 1753, however, the people living along the
banks of the river, particularly the Wareham
River, observed that several fish, including
shad, were not as plentiful as before.
The original range of shad in Maine included
almost every large river, but in the smaller
rivers they never had been plentiful (Atkins,
1887). From the first settlement of the country
until 1825, there were big annual runs of shad,
salmon, and alewives. The limits of the up-
stream migration of these fish were unknown
because the entire upper portions ofthe rivers
were wilderness until long after the occupation
of the lower rivers and the construction of
dams that blocked the upstream nnovement of
anadromous fish. Shad were caught in great
numbers in the Saint Croix River and its
branches. Vessels of 100 to 150 tons from
Rhode Island fished on this river and were
never known to leave without full cargoes of
fish. The Penobscot and Kennebec Rivers also
were productive of shad.
As the demand for shad was limited, the
early Maine settlers along the streams caught
shad only in small weirs and salmon nets (gill
nets, either drifted in midstream or set out
from shore on stakes); later, however, the
demand for shad rose, and special nets were
set for them. Shortly after 1800, weirs with
three pounds (enclosures) were introduced.
11
These weirs were constructed of stakes and
brush or woven cedar mats. They had no floor
except the river bottom and therefore were
not extended beyond low-water nnark because
the fisherman had to take his catch out with a
dip net. When a commercial demand for shad
arose a few years later, floors were made for
the fish pounds and netting for the walls.
From about 1820 to 1830, probably the
greatest years for shad, drift gill net fisheries
flourished in Maine rivers. By about 1835,
however, enough dams had been built to ob-
struct the ascent of fish, and a rapid decline
in the fisheries began. Since the mid- 19th
century, impassable dams have excluded shad
from nearly the whole extent of the larger
rivers.
For years before white people settled in the
area, the Indians caught shad in the Chesapeake
Bay tributaries in large quantities by a seine
made of bushes (called a bush net--McDonald,
1887c). The early settlers used haul seines,
and the shad supply was a great item of sub-
sistence. One of the most bitter complaints
made by the settlers against the Pennomites
in 1784 during the 30 Years' War was that the
Indian had destroyed the shad seines. The
early fisheries used haul seines almost en-
tirely. About 1835 gill nets were introduced
from the north. They steadily grew in favor
and have since been an important gear for
capturing shad in the Chesapeake Bay area.
In the early 19th century, when the extension
of railroads and water routes south fronn
Norfolk, Va., provided easy and rapid com-
nnunication with northern markets, the shad
fisheries of the South Atlantic became im-
portant as far south as Florida. McDonald
(1887a) reported that settlers caught shad
in the St. Johns River, Fla., as early as 1840.
Shad were first caught at Mayport, Fla., by
Charles Waterhouse of Connecticut in 1858.
He had fished previously in the Savannah River,
Ga. In the 1860's shad were reported in the
St. Marys River, but no one fished for them.
At Jacksonville, Fla., gill nets were first used
in the shad fisheries in 1868. C. B. Smith of
Connecticut was the first to establish a shad
fishery at Palatka, Fla., in 1872. In 1873,
94,000 shad were caught at New Berlin, Fla.,
and in 1874 the shad fisheries on the St. Johns
River took 250,000 fish. The fishermen from
Cape Ann, Conn., and Delaware Bay came
south expressly for shad fishing.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FISHERIES
During the 19th century, the shad fisheries
developed to great importance along the entire
Atlantic coast of the United States and sup-
ported commercial fishing in every coastal
state. Spawning runs were known in every
suitable river from the St. Johns River, Fla.,
to the St. Lawrence River, Canada. Since the
species is anadromous, it was taken both
inside and outside the rivers by all forms of
gear, from seines, weirs, fyke nets, eind pound
nets near the coast to gill nets, bow nets, smd
traps in the headwaters of the streams.
The different kinds of gear introduced and
developed in the shad fisheries were adapted
to their native localities. Fronn Cape Lookout,
N.C., to Cape Cod, Mass., the rivers generally
empty into large bays or sounds, such as
Narragansett, New York, Delaware, and Chesa-
peake Bays and Long Island, Albemarle, and
Pamlico Sounds. The river mouths usually
are broad estuaries, resembling arms of
sounds and bays rather than rivers, and ex-
tensive shoals around the shoreline grade
into marshes or sandy beaches. The Delaware
River and Bay and the Susquehanna, the James,
the Potomac, and the Rappahannock Rivers of
Chesapeake Bay and the Neuse River, N.C.,
are examples of this type. In these areas,
mostly pound nets and long rows of stationary
gill nets were used. Below Cape Lookout,
N.C., the rivers, except for tributaries of
Winyah Bay, S.C., ennpty directly into the
ocean and generally maintain their fluvial
characteristics to the nnouth. In these areas,
extensive gill net fisheries developed. In most
rivers, because the headwaters were narrow
and the fish concentrated on the spawning
grounds, the fishermen used seines, traps,
and bow cind gill nets.
Haul seines, weirs, and drift gill nets and
dip nets were used in the early shad fisheries,
but the usual and most efficient method of
capturing fish was with seines. Fishermen
usually "paid out" the net in a semicircular
course to surround the fish and then captured
them by drawing both seine and fish ashore.
Formerly seines were drawn in by manual
labor alone with net crews of 15 to 25 men.
Later, however, capstans and horses were
used. It was necessary to have a smooth bot-
tom and to fish near the chcinnel where the
fish swam. Seines never were used extensively
in some areas, such as Maine and Rhode Is-
land, where these conditions were lacking.
Weirs were used principally in Maine. This
gear entrapped the fish in an enclosure from
which they were removed by n-ieans of a small
seine operated from a boat, which is pushed
into the enclosure.
Drift gill nets were fished in all rivers and
took shad by enmeshing them. These nets
were straight and extended across the stream
channel where they drifted with the tide or
current.
Dip nets, which were used in rivers where
natural or artificial obstructions existed, were
hung on wooden frames with a long handle.
When in use, the frames were held on the
bottom of the stream in a narrow channel, and
the nets were lifted when fiih itruck them.
In some areas where seine fishing was un-
productive, stake and drift gill nets came into
12
general use. Stake nets, or set nets as they
are sometinnes called, were gill nets that
stretched on poles anchored to the river
bottom and set at a right angle with the
current.
Gill nets were supplanted in some areas
by pound nets. The principle of pound net
fishing was to trap the fish by directing them
into an impounding structure. The basic com-
ponents consisted of a rectangular bowl or
"head" which was the actual impounding struc-
ture, heart-shaped "bays" which concentrated
and directed the fish toward the head, and
finally a leader (or "hedging") which turned
the fish toward the bays and head. The pound
net differs from a weir, in that the river
bottom serves as the floor for weirs, whereas
pound nets have bottoms and are of the same
material and of the same depth as the leader.
Pound nets were first fished at Westbrook,
Conn., in 1849 and from that area spread
rapidly to other locations (True, 1887). They
were introduced into New Jersey in 1855 but
did not come into general use until 1873. In
1875 pound nets were scattered along both
shores of Long Island, N.Y.; the fish most
sought were shad and striped bass. By 1880
this gear occupied the west shore of New York
Harbor to Sandy Hook and was fished in Dela-
ware Bay between Cape May and Dyers Creek.
Some nets also were set near Barnegat Inlet,
N.J. Pound nets were introduced into Chesa-
peake Bay from New Jersey in 1858. They
were first used in Albemarle Sound, N.C.,
in 1870 and took considerable numbers of
shad. In 1880 this gear was introduced into
the Ogeechee River, Ga., and two or three
nets also were fished in the Neuse River,
N.C.
Atkins (1887), McDonald ( 1887a-e), and True
and Wilcox (1887) reported on the status of the
shad fisheries in 1880. By that time, impass-
able dams in Maine had reduced shad to very
small numbers. Although the shad fishery was
important in the Kennebec River, fishing was
attempted in only three other streams and a
few bays. Shad was one of the most important
fish taken in weirs. Seines were never used
extensively, and drift gill nets amd dip nets
had lost nearly all their importance.
No regular shad fisheries existed in New
Hampshire amd Massachusetts in 1880, and the
shad were incidental to the catches of other
species.
In 1880 the fisheries of Connecticut, New
York, and New Jersey were important. The
Connecticut River yield was 1,105,340 lb., of
which pound nets caught about 64 percent, gill
nets 20 percent, and haul seines the remainder.
Haul seines in the Housatonic River caught
28,600 lb. On the Hudson River, the fish were
taken by stake gill nets from Jersey City to
Fort Lee, N.J., and by drift gill nets and
seines from Fort Lee to Troy, N.Y.; the catch
was estimated at 2,556,000 lb.
The shad fisheries of Delaware and Chesa-
peake Bays and Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds
became important about 1869, and their great-
est development came in the following 25 years.
Haul seines, pound nets, and stake gill nets
were used extensively. The catch in 1880 was
not given for Delaware and Chesapeake Bays;
but the Delaware River produced more than
1 million pounds, and tributaries of Chesa-
peake Bay produced more than 5 million
pounds. Seines and gill nets in the James
River yielded 357,000 lb., gill nets in the York
River 469,073 lb., and haul seines, poundnets,
and gill nets in the Potomac and Susquehanna
Rivers more than 4 million pounds. The shad
catch in Albemarle Sound was 2,255,823 lb.
Gill nets, pound nets, bow nets, and seines
were used to catch shad in North Carolina
rivers. The Cape Fear River produced 182,000
lb., the Neuse River about 250,000 lb., and the
Pamlico -Tar River an equal quantity.
In 1880 the fisheries in the rivers of South
Carolina and Georgia primarily used gill nets,
but no estimate was given of the catch. Bow
nets were fished in the rivers, but the catch
was small and used for local consumption.
In 1880 the only organized fishery in Florida
was on the St. Johns River, where gill nets
and seines caught an estimated 251,700 lb.
In 1896 the total estimated shad catch of
the Atlantic coast of the United States was
50,498,860 lb., of which about 46 percent was
taken by drift gill nets, 14 percent by stake
gill nets, 16 percent by seines, 23 percent by
pound nets and weirs, and the remainder by
fyke nets, bow nets, spears, fall traps, and
miscellaneous gears. New Jersey ranked first
in production with 13,909,826 lb., and Virginia
second with 11,170,519 lb. Virginia usually
ranked first and North Carolina second, but
the catch in Virginia in 1896 was less than
average, whereas that of New Jersey was con-
siderably above average. Statistics on the
fishing gear used and the catch by State are
given in tables 6 and 7.
The estimated catch along the ocean shore
was more than 400,000 lb., or slightly less
than 1 percent of the total Atlantic coastyield.
With the exception of a few shad taken in-
cidentally in the catches of other species
along the Virginia coast, no shad were re-
ported taken along the ocean shore south of
Barnegat, N.J., in 1896. Between Barnegat
Inlet and Sandy Hook, N.J., pound nets caught
60,000 lb. Between the eastern end of Long
Island, N.Y., and Cape Cod, Mass., 15,000 lb.
were taken. Between Cape Cod and easterp
Maine, mackerel boats caught about 325,000 lb.
of shad.
In 1896 catches of shad in Florida, Georgia,
South Carolina, and North Carolina were made
principally by gill nets, seines, and pound
nets; small catches were made with bow nets
and other miscellaneous gear. Of the 11,349,453
lb. caught in this area, 56 percent was taken
13
Table 6. — Gear employeci in shad fisheries, by state, Atlantic coast of the Unitecl States, 1896
Cast nets (3) and wheels and fall traps (80).
Wheels.
^ Hedges (3) and fall traps (19).
Fall traps or fish pots.
Spears.
Purse seine (1) 960 yards long.
State
Drift
gill net
Stake
gill net
Seine
Pound net
and weir
Fyke
net
Bow
net
Miscel-
laneous
Yards
Yards
Yards
Number
Number
Number
Number
Florida
91,550
850
7,150
—
...
—
Georgia
36,994
3,288
...
26
...
113
...
South Carolina. . . .
85,947
8,390
1,815
—
...
447
^83
North Carolina. . . .
34,682
1,103,872
76,667
1,575
...
1,278
^75
Virginia
298,043
90,214
24,361
1,156
72
...
322
Maryland
472,138
84,588
33,349
901
335
128
^15
Delaware
107,361
2,700
8,307
4
...
10
...
Pennsylvania
70,770
_„
19,305
._.
...
51
^30
New Jersey
546,807
56,826
19,190
—
245
...
—
New York
212,088
10,854
9,607
12
54
—
^20
Connecticut
20,193
—
3,048
—
...
—
Rhode Island
—
_..
— -
3
...
—
—
Maine
56,298
—
^1,230
133
...
—
...
Total
2,032,871
1,361,582
204,029
3,810
706
2,027
245
in gill nets, 23 percent in seines, 18 percent
in pound nets, anci the remainder in bow nets,
traps, and cast nets. The principal production
areas were St. Johns River, Fla.; Altamaha,
Ogeechee, and Savannah Rivers, Ga.; Edisto
and Pee Dee River, S.C.; and Albemarle and
Pamlico Sounds, N.C.
The shad fisheries of Chesapeake Bay and
tributaries were the most extensive on the
Atlantic coast in 1896; the catch was about 33
percent of the total yield, or 16,712,018 lb.
Of this catch, 49 percent was made by pound
nets, 33 percent by drift gill nets, 9 percent
by stake gill nets, 8 percent by seines, and
the remainder by fyke nets, bow nets, and
traps.
In Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, amd
New York, shad were caught principally in gill
nets and seines; smaller catches came fronn
pound and fyke nets and miscellaneous gear.
Of the 20,604,809 lb. caught in this area in
1896, about 79 percent was taken in gill nets,
18 percent in seines, 1 percent each in pound
and fyke nets, and the remainder by bow nets
and spears. The principal production areas
were Delaware Bay and tributaries (nearly
17 million pounds) and the Hudson River (more
than 2 million pounds).
In Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts,
and Maine, shad were caught principally by
pound nets, weirs, drift gill nets, and seines.
Of the 1,832,580 lb. caught in this area in
14
Table 7. — Shad catch by state and gear, Atlantic coast of the United States, 1896
[In pounds]
State
Drift
gill net
Stake
gill net
Seine
Pound net
and weir
Fyke
net
Bow
net
Miscel-
laneous
Total
Florida . .
Georgia . .
South Carolii
North Carolii
Virginia. .
Maryland. .
Delaware. ,
Pennsylvania
New Jersey.
New York. .
Connecticut
Rhode Island
Massachusett
Maine . . .
la
la
3
940,421
487,990
381,182
350,093
3,043,508
2,501,509
1,734,498
1,195,746
10,776,192
1,467,780
207,066
44,160
262,051
4,766
37,773
153,886
3,983,520
1,062,856
463,996
17,885
796,950
339,616
353,418
19,519
2,247,641
527,701
803,152
229,504
1,241,094
1,943,424
277,080
27,766
49,085
175,494
2,018,077
6,524,379
1,616,612
1,618
168,235
91,414
26,358
48,628
20,907
966,932
49,739
225,025
22,703
10,678
113,650
234,943
99,289
9,789
42,558
186
3,276
8,434
12,075
7,202
21,745
1,953
4,133
1,298,605
536,627
671,513
8,842,708
11,170,519
5,541,499
1,993,294
2,501,143
13,909,826
2,200,546
261,190
52,761
114,152
1,404,477
Total
23,392,196
6,861,248
7,894,878
11,483,160
297,467
510,907
59,004
50,498,860
1896, about 58 percent was taken in pound
nets and weirs, 28 percent in drift gill nets,
and 14 percent in seines. The principal pro-
duction areas were the Connecticut River,
Conn., and the Kennebec River, Maine.
PRESENT FISHERIES
The shad fishery in I960 had changed little
from former years except in size of catch.
The gear remained relatively iinchanged, but
innprovements had been made in fishing meth-
ods with economy as Eui imiportant factor. These
improvements included the conversion from
cotton and linen to nylon nets, except netting
used in the construction of pound nets, seines,
and fyke nets; adaptions of nets to the bottom
contours, currents, and local conditions of the
area in which used; replacement of tar as a
preservative and antifouling compound by
copper paint in the Chesapeake Bay pound net
fishery (Reid, 1955); widened spacing of stakes
which support stationary nets (to decrease
costs); and use of continuous lengths of netting
to replace single panels hung from stakes in
some localities. Sundstrom's (1957) illustra-
tions and descriptions of gear in commercial
fisheries apply in general to shad gear in
1960.
The extent of the fisheries on the Atlantic
coast of the United States during the 1960
season is given in tables 8 and 9. The estimated
catch was 8,133,931 lb., of which about 35
percent was taken by stake and anchor gill
nets, 28 percent by drift gill nets, 16 percent
by pound nets, 4 percent by seines, 4 percent
by bow nets, 4 percent by rod and reel, and
the remainder by otter trawls, fyke nets,
traps, fish wheels, and other miscellaneous
gears.
The ocean shad catch in 1960 was about
865,300 lb., compared with 7,268,631 lb. taken
within the coastline. With the exception of
159,700 lb. caught by anchor gill nets off the
mouth of the St. Johns River, none was taken
in the ocean south of New Jersey. Pound nets,
anchor gill nets, and otter trawls took 42,700
lb. between Point Pleasant and Sandy Hook,
N.J.; and about 662,900 lb. were taken inci-
dentally by otter trawls, gill nets, and pound
nets operated for other species, from Long
Island to Maine.
The South Atlantic fisheries ranked first in
yield with 3,026,233 lb., Chesapeake Bay fish-
eries second with 2,795,091 lb.. New England
fisheries third with 1,159,185 lb., and the
Middle Atlantic fisheries fourth with 1 ,153,422
lb. Of the South Atlantic catch, gill nets caught
67 percent, seines 11 percent, bow nets 10
percent, rod and reel 7 percent, pound nets
4 percent, and fyke nets and miscellaneous
gear the remainder. In Chesapeake Bay, gill
nets took 64 percent of the catch, pound nets
33 percent, and seines, fyke nets, and rod and
reel the remainder. In New Englamd, mis-
cellaneous gear produced 55 percent of the
catch, rod and reel 7 percent, auid gill nets
and pound nets yielded only 36 and 2 percent,
respectively. In the Middle Atlamtic, gill nets
caught 77 percent of the catch, pound nets 22
percent, and seines and otter trawls the
remainder.
The rank in shad catch by states in 1960
was: first, Maryland, 1,408,953 lb.; second,
Virginia, 1,386,138 1b.; and third, NorthCaro-
lina, 1,266,328 lb.
15
Table 8. —Gear employed in shad fisheries, by state, Atlantic coast of the United States,
1960
State
Drift
gill net
Stake and
anchor
gill net
Seine
Found
net
Fyke
net
Bow
net
Miscel-
laneous
Yards
Yards
Yards
Number
Number
Number
Number
Florida
1,376
6,190
3,800
-.-
-««
Georgia . . .
26,130
17,460
IIL
hi
South Carolina
12,920
27,585
50
318
North Carolina
70,885
273,155
2,850
868
19
1,760
2 8
Virginia. . .
90,761
104,828
300
372
102
Maryland. .
64,908
181,896
38,398
226
Delaware. .
1,700
8,120
New Jersey,
3,650
32,719
710
38
New York. .
20,800
30,467
500
25
Connecticut
19,497
392
Rhode Island
Massachusetts
Maine ....
---
"~~
---
"■■
■""
---
-_-
Total . . . .
312,627
682,420
47,000
1,529
121
2,189
26
Traps.
Fish wheels.
Table 9. — Shad catch by state and gear, Atlantic coast of the United States, 1960
[In pounds]
State
Drift
gill net
Stake and
anchor
gill net
Seine
Pound
net
Fyke
net
Bow
net
Rod and
reel
Miscel-
laneous
Total
Florida
50,065
162,721
298,700
198,000
709,486
Georgia . . .
512,949
222,779
23,650
8,206
767,584
South Carolina
99,402
145,937
550
25,876
4,670
6,400
282,835
North Carolina
410,430
430,340
36,442
126,737
600
254,594
505
6,680
1,266,328
Virginia. . .
307,913
467,099
192
598,195
12,739
^60,000
1,386,138
Maryland. .
322,927
bn.TtS
10,051
325,230
13,000
1,408,953
Delaware. .
2,000
40,000
300
42,300
New Jersey.
8,170
566,866
1,000
116,500
1,100
693,636
New York. .
143,495
127,160
3,281
143,550
417,486
Connecticut
415,905
3,906
77,200
800
497,811
Rhode Island
3,163
3,163
Massachusetts
?
7,500
19,600
630,800
657,900
Maine ....
^311
311
Total ....
2,273,567
2,848,147
354,122
1,329,812
13,339
304,120
301,581
709,243
8,133,931
Legal unlicensed gill-net catch.
Incidental catches.
16
The annual shad catch of every coastal State
has fluctuate(i over the years, accorcding to
changing conditions within the rivers. The
fisheries of each State are discussed by water
area in the following sections and are com-
pared with those of 1896. Throughout the dis-
cussion, distances are approximate and all
mesh nneasurements are stretched.
SHAD FISHERIES OF FLORIDA
According to historical accounts of the shad
fisheries of the Atlamtic coast of the United
States, the Florida fishery, which began in the
1850's, was the last to be developed (Stevenson,
1899). The commercial gears used in 1896,
in order of importance, were drift gill net,
seine, and set gill net (table 10). The total
catch was 1,298,605 lb., of which drift gill
nets took 72 percent, seines 27 percent, and
set gill nets 1 percent (table 11).
The commercial gears for shad in Florida
in 1960 were seine, set gill net, and drift gill
net (table 10). The commercial catch was
511 ,486 lb., of which haul seines took 58 per-
cent, set gill nets 32 percent, and drift gill
nets 10 percent. In adtdition, sport fishermen
in the St. Johns River took 198,000 lb. with
rod and reel (table 11).
The amount of gear fished and the catch
decreased markedly between 1896 and I960.
Table 10. — Gear employed in shad fisheries, by water area,
Florida, 1896 and 1960
1896
1960
Water area
Drift
gill
net
Set
gill
net
Seine
Drift
gill
net
Set
gill
net
Seine
Sport
fisherman
days
St. Johns River:
Mayport to Jacksonville.
Palatka.
Upper St. Johns
St. Marys River.
Yards
83,500
5,250
1,400
1,400
Yards
850
Yards
7,150
Yards
300
580
496
Yards
5,700
490
Yards
3,800
Number
19,200
Total
91,550
850
7,150
1,376
6,190
3,800
19,200
Table 11. --Shad catch, by water area and gear, Florida, 1896 and 1960
[In pounds]
1896
1960
Water area
Drift
gill
net
Set
gill
net
Seine
Drift
gill
net
Set
gill
net
Seine
Sport
catch
St. Johns River:
Mayport to Jacksonville,
Palatka. .
821,450
105,255
7,384
6,332
4,766
353,418
22,000
24,600
3,465
159,700
3,021
298,700
-_—
Upper St. Johns
St. Marys River
198.000
Total
940,421
4,766
353,418
50,065
162,721
298,700
198,000
17
Drift gill nets decreased from a total of
91,550 yd. (yards) of net to 1,376 yd., seines
decreased from 7,150 to 3,800 yd., and set gill
nets increased from 850 to 6,190 yd. The
catches decreased from 940,421 to 50,065 lb.
in drift gill nets and from 353,418 to 298,700
lb. in seines and increased from 4,766 to
162,721 lb. in set gill nets. The total catch de-
creased 45 percent, from 1,298,605 to 709,486
lb.
FISHERIES BY WATER AREA
Two rivers in Florida, the St. Johns and the
St. Marys, support large shad fisheries (fig. 3).
In addition, a few fish are taken each year in
the Nassau River. The St. Marys River, for
much of its length, is the boundary between
Florida and Georgia, and fishermen fronn both
States fish the river. For convenience the
fishery of the St. Marys is discussed in this
section, but the catch and amount of gear fished
by Georgia fishermen are included in the dis-
cussion of the fishery in that State.
St. Johns River
This river originates in a grassy-plain
section of Florida, 50 miles north of Lake
Okeechobee and 15 miles inland from the
east coast. It flows north through a chain of
lakes for 260 miles to Jacksonville, Fla., and
then east for 26 miles before emptying into
the Atlantic Ocean at Mayport, Fla. The
St. Johns differs from other large rivers along
the Atlantic coast of the United States in that
it originates close to the coast and flows
northward, whereas the other rivers originate
farther inland and flow south before entering
the ocean.
The St. Johns is not a clearly defined river
in its headwaters since it is shallow, winding,
and diffuse. In its northward meandering
through shallow lakes, it creates many diverse
channels until it reaches Lake Harney. From
here to its mouth, the river is deeper and has
a distinct channel suitable for navigation. Lake
George, the only sizeable lake between the
river mouth and Lake Monroe, lies 25 miles
south of Palatka, Fla., and is the head of tidal
influence.
In 1896 the legal fishing season in the St.
Johns was from December 1 to the end of the
following March; fishing was closed each week
from sundown on Saturday to sunrise on Mon.
day. Fishing usually began at the opening of
the legal season, fully a month before shad
were caught in any other coastal water, and
ended the second or third week of March. It
was unlawful to fish for shad with gill nets
having a mesh size less thain 5 in., or any
seine having a mesh size less than 3 in.
In 1896 only drift gill nets were fished for
shad between Jacksonville, Fla., amd the ocean;
146 nets with 5-in. mesh, 40 to 50 meshes
deep, and with a total length of 83,500 yd. took
821,450 lb.
Nearly all of the catch was shipped to New
York City and other distant markets.
In 1896 no fisheries were operated fronn
Jacksonville to Bridgeport, Fla., a distance
of 46 miles. The river in this area is 2 to 5
miles wide and sufficiently sluggish to pre-
clude the use of drift nets.
Drift nets were used exclusively between
Bridgeport and Welaka, Fla., a distamce of 35
miles, and the fishery was centered in Palatka.
In 1896, 22 nets with 5-in. mesh were fished;
total length was 5,250 yd. The catch was
105,255 lb. Water hyacinth was so common
in this section of the river that drift gill net
fishing frequently became difficult or im-
possible.
The upper St. Johns River consists of a
series of connected lakes; the more important
are Lakes George, Dexter, Monroe, and Har-
ney. Sanford, Fla., on the shore of Lake Monroe,
was the center of the shad fishery. Seines were
the principal gear in 1896, although most fish-
ing was confined to the channels, since it was
unlawful to fish seines in the lakes forming the
St, Johns. Twenty-four seines, 200 to 700 yd,
long (total length, 7,150 yd.) and 50 to 100
meshes deep, with 3- to 4-in. mesh, caught
353,418 lb. of shad. In addition, three opera-
tors caught a total of 7,384 lb. in 1,400 yd.
of drift gill net.
In 1960 there were no obstructions to fish
passage in this river, and shad ascended nearly
to the headwaters. The major shad spawning
area was between Crows Bluff, Fla., to 10
miles south of Lake Harney (Walburg, 1960a).
Spawning occurred from late February until
mid-April.
The fishery in 1960 was considerably dif-
ferent from that of 1896. The legal commer-
cial shad fishing season on the St. Johns River
was from November 15 to March 15. There
was no closed season on sport fishing for shad;
the daily creel limit was 15. The total com-
mercial and sport catch of shad was 709,486
lb., of which the commercial fishery caught
70 percent. On the basis of catch-effort sta-
tistics, the estimated weight of the population
was 2,199,000 lb., and the total fishing rate
was 32 percent. Commercial fishing was pro-
hibited south of Lake George (Walburg, 1960b).
The 1960 commercial fishery operated on
widely separated and relatively short stretches
of river. At the mouth anchor gill nets were
fished both north and south of jetties which
extend into the ocean 1 mile. During the 1960
season 5,700 yd. of anchor and set gill nets
caught 159,700 lb. of shad in this area. Each
net was 100 yd. long and 30 to 35 meshes deep
and had 5- to 5 1/4-in. mesh. Three drift gill
nets fished near Jacksonville caught 22,000 1b.
18
Figure 3. — Map showing St. Johns, St. Marys, and Nassau Rivers,
northeastern Florida.
Key:
1 St. Marys
10 Jacksonville
19 DeLand
2 Kingsland
11 St. Johns River
20 Lake Monroe
3 Folkston
12 Bridgeport
21 Sanford
4 Traders HiU
13 Palatka
22 Lemon Bluff
5 Toledo
14 Welaka
23 Lake Harney
6 Kings Ferry
15 Crescent Lake
24 Lake Okeechobee
7 St. Marys River
16 Lake George
25 St. Petersburg
8 Nassau River
17 Lake Dexter
26 Tampa
9 Mayport
18 Crows Bluff
27 Gulf of Mexico
19
Each of these nets was 100 yd. long and 35
meshes deep; nneshes ranged from 4 to 5 1 /Z
in. Between Palatka and Welaka, a distance of
20 miles, drift gill nets and haul seines {locally-
termed "shad nets"--see fig. 4) were used.
Three gill net operators near Palatka caught
a total of 24,600 lb. of shad. The nets were 80
to 100 yd. long and 25 to 50 meshes deep and
had 5 l/4-in. nnesh. Eleven haul seines fished
between the Palatka gill net area and Welaka
caught 298,700 lb. The seines were 300 to 380
yd. long and 2 0 to 30 ft. deep and had 2- to
4-in. mesh. There was no shad fishing in the
55-mile section of the St. Johns from Jackson-
ville to Palatka.
Sport fishing for shad by hook and line has
become popular on the St. Johns River in re-
cent years (Nichols, 1959b). The first fish
taken in this nnanner reportedly was caught in
1942, west of DeLand. In 1960 the fishery was
concentrated near Sanford, between Lakes
fined to the Palatka -Welaka area. In I960
sport fishermen caught shad in the area be-
tween Lake George and Lake Harney. In 1896
most fish were taken by drift gill nets, but in
I960 most were caught by haul seines. The
catch was 1,287,507 lb. in 1896 and 703,0001b.
in 1960.
In 1896 Stevenson predicted that the spread
and growth of water hyacinth would lead to
abandonment of shad fishing near Palatka.
This plant is still very much a nuisance on
the St. Johns, where it has spread to areas
south of Lake Harney despite a control pro-
gram with 2, 4-D spray conducted by State and
Federal agencies. Also, there is a large popu-
lation of gizzard shad, Dorosonna cepedianum,
in the Palatka area, and at tinnes drift gill nets
sink from the weight of these fish. Because of
the abundance of water hyacinth and gizzard
shad, drift gill net fishing upstream from
Palatka has been reduced.
5^.p::?,-'
Ifc-^*^'
Figure 4.~Beachlng a shad net on the St. Johns River, Ha.
Monroe and Harney, which was also the nnajor
spawning area. Fishing was done almost ex-
clusively by trolling from boats with various
types of small spoons and weighted jigs (fig. 5).
The first shad were taken early in December,
and the fishery continued into April. The best
catches were made between mid-January and
mid-March.
A comparison of gear and location fished for
shad in 1896 and I960 indicates a definite
change in the fishery. Channel in-iprovements
at the mouth of the St. Johns required a change
from drift gill nets fished in the river to
anchor gill nets fished outside the river mouth.
In 1896 haul seines were fished between Lake
George and Lake Harney but in 1960 were con-
st. Marys River
The St. Marys River is formed by the union
of numerous streanns that have their source in
the Okefenokee Swamp. It forms a boundary
between Florida and Georgia for 175 nniles to
its entrance into the Atlantic Ocean 3 miles
below St. Marys, Ga. The river channel is
narrow, and tidal currents are strong for
much of its length. Pulp mills are located on
both sides of the river near St. Marys.
In 1896, because of the greater abundance
of shad in the St. Johns River, as well as
nneager shipping facilities on the St. Marys,
little attention was given to the fish in the
20
Figure 5.— Trolling for shad at Lemon Bluff on the St. Johns River, Fla.
St. Marys River. In that year the river had
110 shad fishermen--40 from Florida and
70 fronn Georgia. Eighty fishermen used drift
nets, and 30 fished set gill nets. Aggregate
length of drift nets was 5,600 yd.; lengths of
the nets in this narrow river ranged from 40
to 90 yd.; mesh size was 5 in., and depth was
14 ft. Catch by this gear was 21,470 lb.
Aggregate length of set gill nets was 1,275
yd., and the catch was 7,291 lb. Total catch
on the St. Marys River was 28,761 lb.
In I960 the legal commercial shad fishing
season was from December 15 to April 15.
The river was free of obstructions to the pas-
sage of fish, and shad ascended 80 miles to
the vicinity of Toledo, Ga. Ripe females in
the catch indicated that shad spawn near
Traders Hill and Folkston, Ga.
In I960, 60 fishermen fished for shad in the
St. Marys River-- 13 from Florida and 47 from
Georgia. Most of the fishermen in the upper
river fished occasionally, whereas most in
the lower river fished full-time. Fishing began
in mid-January and continued until the first
week in April. The fishery extended from the
mouth of the river to 10 miles upstream from
Folkston, Ga., or 65 miles. In Georgia, by
State regulation, the coastal commercial fish-
ing area extends from the river mouth to the
Camden-Charlton County line, and the inland
commercial fishing area comprises the re-
mainder of the river. Both drift and set gill
nets were fished in the coastal area, and set
gill nets in the inland area. Drift gill nets
(55 to 65 yd. long, 35 to 45 meshes deep, and
4 1/2- to 5 l/2-in. mesh) were used from
St. Marys to 5 miles west of Kingsland, Ga.
Aggregate length of the nets was 1,302 yd.,
and the shad catch was 7,866 lb. Set gill nets
(20 to 80 yd. long, 35 to 55 meshes deep, and
4 1/2- to 5 l/4-in. mesh) were fished fronn 3
miles upstream from Kingsland to the upper
limit of the inland fishery. Aggregate length
of the nets was 2,510 yd., and the catch was
16,150 lb.
Most of the coastal catch in 1960 was landed
at Kings Ferry, Fla., and Kingsland, Ga.
Florida landings were marketed locally, and
Georgia landings were trucked to dealers in
Brunswick and Darien, Ga. Most shad landed
in the area between Folkston and Traders
Hill were taken by occasional fishermen for
home use; some were marketed locally in
Folkston.
We estimated from sannples of the catch that
average weights of males and females were
2 and 3 lb., respectively. All dealers reported
that fish from the St. Marys River were
smaller than those from other Georgia and
Florida waters.
21
A comparison of the St. Marys River fishery
in 1896 and I960 indicates that the amount of
each type of gear fished has changed consid-
erably. The amount of drift gill net fished has
decreased from 5,600 to 1,302 yd., and set
gill net has increased from 1,Z75 to 2,540 yd.
Catch has decreased from Z8,76l lb. in 1896
to 24,016 lb. in I960.
TRENDS IN PRODUCTION
The shad fisheries of Florida were not as
productive in I960 as in earlier years. On the
basis of incomplete statistics, the commercial
catch during the early period of fishing in-
creased from about 1,299,000 lb. in 1896 to
over 2,800,000 lb. in 1908. After that time the
catch decreased rapidly, and since 1918 it has
fluctuated between 964,000 and 124,000 lb.
(table 12). The average catch for the 14 yr. for
which data were available between 1880 and
1930 was 1,247,000 lb. The average catch for
the next 14-yr. period (1931-46) was 506,000
lb., and for the final 14 yr. (1947-60), 396,000
lb. It is evident that the average annual pro-
duction of the fishery has continued to decline.
In 1953, 124,000 lb. of fish were landed, the
lowest connmercial catch on record. Since that
time the catch generally has increased. In
I960, 511,000 lb. were caught, which was less
than 40 percent of the 1896 take.
Table 12. --Shad catch for certain years,
Florida, 1896-19601
[In thousands of pounds]
Year
Catch
1896 1,299
1897 1,011
1902 1,819
1908 2,833
1918 964
1923 503
1927 348
1928 691
1929 701
1930 880
1931 621
1932 546
1934 782
1936 282
1937 288
1938 229
1939 254
1940 344
1941 256
Year
Catch
1942 323
1943 666
1944 811
1945 842
1946 837
1947 625
1948 515
1949 284
1950 298
1951 336
1952 203
1953 124
1954 281
1955 508
1956 376
1957 361
1958 589
1959 540
1960 511
^ Statistics for 1896-1940, 1945, and 1950-60
from U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1958-61),
and for 1941-44 and 1946-49 from Florida State
Board of Conservation.
^ Does not include catch by sport fishery.
SHAD FISHERIES OF GEORGIA
In 1896 the shad fisheries of Georgia were
not as extensive as those of Florida in terms
of quantity and value of the catch. The species
was abundant in rivers of Georgia, butinsonne
areas shipping facilities were so unsatisfactory
that fish were taken only for local use. The
catch was 536,627 lb., of which drift gill nets
took about 91 percent, set gill nets 7 percent,
and bow nets and fall traps the remainder.
In I960 the estimated catch was 759,378 lb.,
of which drift gill nets took about 68 percent,
set gill nets 29 percent, and bow nets the re-
mainder. Of this catch, an estimated 534,000
lb. were shipped to markets and 225,378 lb.
were consumed locally. In addition, sport fish-
ermen caught an estimated 8,206 lb. with rod
and reel and set lines.
Shad were taken in the same river systems
in 1896 and I960, but changes have occurred
in the amount of gear fished and size of catch.
The extent of the fisheries is given for these
years in tables 13 and 14. Almost all fish were
caught by drift gill nets in 1896 but, in I960
substantial numbers were taken in set gill
nets and bow nets. Linear yardage of drift
gill nets decreased about 29 percent from
1896 to 1960, whereas linear yardage of set
gill nets increased more than fivefold. The
number of bow nets fished remained nearly
Table
13.-Ge
ar employed in shad fisheri
es, by vfl
ter area.
Georgia, 1896
and 1960
1896
1960
River
Drift
Sec
Fall
trap
Drift
Set
gill
gill
Bow net
gill
gill
Bow net
net
net
net
net
Yards
Yards
Number
Mutaber
Yards
Yards
Number
St. Marys. .
4,200
425
„.
--
806
2,050
SatiUa. . .
450
-_-
--
6,072
1,920
AUanaha . .
4,000
2,580
113
—
13,442
5,340
111
Ogeechee . .
10,667
—
2.510
3,4 50
Savannah . .
17,677
283
26
3,300
4,700
—
Total .
36,994
3,288
113
26
26,130
17,460
Ill
Table 14. — Shad catch, by water area and gear, Georgij
[In pounds]
1896 and 1960
1896
1960
River
Drift
Bin
Set
gill
Bow
Fall
Crap
Drift
gill
Set
gill
Bow
Rod
and
net
net
net
net
reel
St. Marys. ,
15,138
2,525
4.401
13.129
_..
__.
Satillfl. . .
5,591
---
-_-
--._
17,600
4,594
Altamaha . .
65,153
35,110
10,678
376,530
108,240
2 3,650
Ogeechee . .
208,753
33,883
13,780
7,156
Savannah , .
193,355
138
—
186
80,535
83,036
—
1,050
Total .
487,990
37,773
10,678
186
512,949
222,779
23,650
8,206
22
constant, but the catch per bow net in I960
was more than twice that of 1896. Since 1896
sport fishing for shad has been introduced in
certain Georgia rivers.
FISHERIES BY WATER AREA
State regulations divide Georgia fishing
waters into coastal areas (which are under
the jurisdiction of the Coastal Fisheries Divi-
sion of the Georgia State Game and Fish
Commission) and inland areas (under the
jurisdiction of the Inland Division of the Com-
mission). In this report, the fishery in each
river in Georgia is divided into coastal and
inland areas.
In 1960 the legal connmercial season for
shad fishing was January 1 to April 1, except
in the St. Marys River where it was December
15 to April 15. Fishing was not pernnitted
during weekends, fronn sundown Friday to
sunrise Monday. There was no closed season
for taking shad with sport tackle, and the daily
creel limit was eight shad.
Shad were taken by commercial gear in
seven rivers: St. Marys, Satilla, Altamaha,
Ocmulgee, Oconee, Ogeechee, and Savannah
(fig. 6). In the latter two streams, shad were
taken also by sport fishermen. The fishery
in the St. Marys River was described in the
fisheries of Florida.
Satilla River
The Satilla is the southernmost shad river
completely within Georgia. It rises in Irwin
County, flows 200 miles southeast, and enters
the ocean 30 miles below Woodbine. In addi-
tion to other tributaries, the Satilla re-
ceives the White Oak River 18 miles below
Woodbine.
The shad fishery on the Satilla River origi-
nated in 1894, although before then many were
taken earlier for home use (Stevenson, 1899).
In 1896, 5,591 lb. were caught by three drift
gill nets, each 150 yd. long with 5-in. mesh,
operated between Woodbine and Bailey Mills,
a distance of 30 nniles. The catch in excess of
local use was sold in Brunswick, Ga.
In i960 the river was free of obstructions
to the passage of fish, and shad ascended 95
miles to Waycross. According to observations
of ripe females in the catch, the major spawn-
ing grounds were near Owens Ferry in the
Satilla River and near U.S. Highway 17 bridge
in the White Oak River.
The coastal fishing area in 1960 extended
from the river nnouth to Owens Ferry, a dis-
tance of 40 miles, and the inland area com-
prised the rennainder of the river. In both
areas fishing began the first week in Feb-
ruary and ended about mid- March when most
females had spawned. In the latter part of the
season, some netters shifted to the White
Oak River.
Drift gill nets were fished in the coastal
area, and set gill nets were fished in the in-
land area. The drift nets were 60 to 130 yd.
long and 35 to 40 meshes deep and had 4 3/4-
to 5 l/2-in. stretched mesh. Aggregate length
of these nets was 6,072 yd., and the catch was
17,600 lb. of shad. Set gill nets were fished in
the inland area; they ranged from 10 to 20 yd.
long and 35 to 70 meshes deep and had 4 3/4-
to 5 l/2-in. stretched mesh. Total length of
these nets was 1,920 yd., and the catch was
4,594 lb. of shad. Drift gill net fishermen and
Sonne set gill net fishermen depended on shad
for part of their livelihood. The catch was
sold to dealers at Woodbine and shipped to
northern markets. Fish taken in the inland
area generally were for home consumption.
Altamaha River
The Altamaha River, with its many tribu-
taries, is located entirely within Georgia. It
is formed by the junction of the Ocmulgee and
Oconee Rivers and flows 150 miles before
entering the oceanbelow Darien. The Ocmulgee
is formed by the union of the South and Yellow
Rivers and flows 300 miles to its union with
the Oconee. The Oconee is formed by the union
of the North and Middle Forks and flows 280
miles before uniting with the Ocmulgee.
Shad were abundant in the Altamaha River
in 1896, but shipping facilities were so un-
satisfactory that the fishery was undeveloped
except for local use. Drift gill nets were fished
principally in the lower river below Doctor-
town, and set gill nets and bow nets were op-
erated above this location. Drift gill nets were
45 to 55 yd. long and had 5- to 5 l/2-in. mesh;
set gill nets ranged from 30 to 35 yd. long
and had 5 l/2-in. mesh. The amount of gear
fished and the catch by gear in 1896 are given
in tables 13 and 14.
In i960 the river and tributaries were free
of obstructions to fish passage, and shad as-
cended the Oconee 100 miles to the vicinity
of Dublin and the Ocmulgee 150 nniles to the
vicinity of Hawkinsville. Ripe fish in the catch
indicated the major spawning grounds to be
from State Highway 144 bridge in the Altamaha
upstreann into both tributaries.
The coastal fishing area in 1960 extended
from the river mouth to the Seaboard Air Line
Railroad Bridge between Everett City and Cox,
a distance of 40 miles, and the inland area
comprised the remainder of the river including
tributaries. Drift gill nets in the coastal area
were 35 to 200 yd. long and 35 to 50 meshes
deep and had 4 1/2- to 5 l/2-in. mesh. The
number of drift gill nets was 99, the aggregate
length was 7,722 yd., and the catch was 237,898
lb. of shad. In addition six set gill nets, each
75 yd. long, 70 meshes deep, and with 5 l/2-in.
23
4K-J 4 2
N
19V
) X \
\
>t
VH
/ 40
M ^
; 32\
\.H
39
24\
\ 2^'
37\
v34
^^ v33
\^38
i,
16V (^
114
ll3 ^
A J^^
SCALE (MILES)
0 10 20
GA.
1l\
X 10"
\-. 9
>.26 m
\27^»
8^ ^
FLA.
■0
Figure 6. — Map of coastal Georgia.
Key:
1 Woodbine
2 Owens Ferry
3 Hwy. 17
Bridge
4 White Oak
River
5 Hoboken
6 Waycross
7 SatlUa River
8 Everett City
9 Jesup
10 Doctortown
11 Altamaha
River
12 Hwy. 144
Bridge
13 Ohoopee River
14 Mt. Vernon
15 Oconee River
16 Dublin
17 Milledgeville
18 Middle Fork
19 North Fork
20 Yellow River
21 South River
22 Hawkinsville
23 Jacksonville
24 Ocmulgee
River
25 Little Ohoopee
River
26 Cox
27 Darien
28 Kings Ferry
29 ACL R.R.
Bridge
30 Savannah
31 Canoochee
River
32 Ogeechee
River
33 Millen
34 Midville
35 Hardeeville
36 Savannah River
37 Brier Creek
38 Hwy. 501
Bridge
39 Savannah Lock
and Dam
40 City Lock
41 Augusta
42 Anderson
43 Seneca River
44 Tugalloo River
45 Chattooga
River
46 Tallulah Falls
mesh, were fished immediately below the rail-
road bridge. The catch by these nets was in-
cluded with the inland set gill net fishery.
In the inland area, 114 drift gill nets (35 to
90 yd. long, 35 to 45 meshes deep, and 5- to
5 1/2-in. mesh) with a total length of 5,720 yd.
and 159 set gill nets (10 to 100 yd. long, 35 to
70 meshes deep, and 5- to 5 l/2-in. mesh)
with a length of 3,247 yd. were fished from
the Seaboard Air Line Railroad Bridge to the
vicinity of Doctortown. The shad catch by
drift gill net was 138,632 lb. and by set gill
was 75,608 lb. From Doctortown to the vi-
cinity of Jacksonville on the Ocmulgee River
and to the vicinity of Mt. Vernon on the
Oconee River, there were 194 set gill nets
(5 to 30 yd. long, 35 to 45 meshes deep, and
5- to 5 l/2-in. nnesh) with aggregate length
of 2,093 yd.. Ill bow nets, and an occasional
small drift net. The bow nets were cone-
shaped, 10 to 20 ft. long, with oval openings
from 8 to 15 ft. in diameter (fig. 7). The shad
catch by set gill nets in this area was 32,632
lb, and by bow nets 23,650 lb. A few shad
were also taken by rod and reel on the Ohoopee
River, a small tributary which enters the
Altamaha 20 miles below the union of the
Ocmulgee and Oconee.
In i960 commercial gear operated about 36
days during the season. About 60 percent of
the drift gill net fisherman and 50 percent of
the set gill net fishermen who operated below
Doctortown fished full time. The remaining
fishermen fished about 2 days per week, and
their catch was sold locally. The bow net
fishermen fished an average of 20 days per
season, and most of their catch was marketed
locally. During the season, fish dealers from
24
^^p,'.
J
t'".^^-??r
ti^ <4b
,^^^
J'\
Figure 7. — Bow nee used tor catching shad in southern
rivers. (Photograph counesy of North Carolina Wildlife
Resources Commission)
Darien traveled by boat throughout the coastal
area and bought shad directly from the fisher-
men. Catches inthe inland area were purchased
by dealers from Jesup, Ga. Some fish were
marketed locally, but most of the catch was
shipped to northern markets.
Fulton Lovell, Georgia State Game and Fish
Commission, stated (Press release, March 15,
1956. "Altamaha River: More Pollution"), "...
the shad catch in the Altamaha and tributaries
was approximately 150,000 lb. in 1951 and
1952, and this river usually accounts for about
65 percent of the State's catch." The Altamaha
River and its tributaries accounted for 67 per-
cent of the State's catch in I960 and 20 percent
in 1896.
Ogeechee River
The Ogeechee River rises in Greene County,
Ga., and flows southeast 350 miles to Ossabaw
Sound, south of Savannah, Ga. It is a meander-
ing stream, relatively free from silt and in-
dustrial effluents. The Canoochee River, its
only important tributary, enters the river 25
nniles above its mouth, but does not support
a shad run.
In 1896 the Ogeechee ranked first among the
shad streams of Georgia. Practically all
commercial fishing was with drift gill nets in
the lower 22 miles of river. The nets were
67 to 200 yd. long and had 5 to 5 l/2-in.
stretched mesh. The catch was 208,753 lb.
Most fishermen were nonresidents of the river
basin, and many came from Savannah and
New England. Savannah was the principal
market for the catch. In the middle section
of the river, several small set gill nets and
bow nets took fish for local consumption, but
no information was available on the catch.
The uppermost limit of shad in 1896 was the
Shoals of the Ogeechee, 200 miles from the
river mouth,' but few fish passed above Millen,
Ga., 100 miles from the sea. The Ogeechee
River was free of obstruction to fish passage,
and shad ascended the river 12 5 miles toMid-
ville, Ga. The major spawning area was between
MidvUle and Kings Ferry, Ga. (Sykes, 1956).
In i960 drift gill nets were fished in the
coastal area and were interspersed with set
gill nets in the inland area. In the coastal
area, drift gill nets were operated from the
river mouth to the Atlantic Coast Line Rail-
road Bridge 1 mile below Kings Ferry. These
nets were 75 to 150 yd. long and 35 to 50
meshes deep and had 5- to 5 l/2-in. mesh.
The number of nets fished was 27, the total
length was 1,994 yd., and the shad catch was
31,860 lb. In the inland area, 200 set gill nets
were used from the junction of the Canoochee
and Ogeechee Rivers upstream to the vicinity
of Midville. The set nets in the inland area
were 25 to 100 yd. long and 35 to 65 meshes
deep and had 5- to 5 l/2-in. mesh. Aggregate
length of these nets was 3,450 yd., and the
shad catch was 13,780 lb. The drift nets were
20 to 50 yd. long and 35 to 45 meshes deep
and had 5- to 5 l/4-in. mesh. Total length was
516 yd., and the shad catch was 2,023 lb.
During the I960 season gill net fishing be-
gan in mid- January, but fish did not appear
in substantial numbers until the first week of
February. Catches were good until the second
week in March, when temperatures increased
and gars, Lepisosteus spp., appeared in large
numbers. Damage to nets by these fish forced
most netters to discontinue fishing. The nunn-
ber of days fished by coastal drift gill nets
ranged fron-i 4 to 33; by inland drift gill nets,
from 6 to 18; and by the inland set gill nets,
from 9 to 48.
Sport fishermen took shad between Kings
Ferry and Midville from mid- March until the
end of May with artificial lures trolled from
boats and attached to setlines. During this
period, an estimated 1,666 rod-and-reel fish-
ermen and 12 setline operators caught 7, 156 lb.
of shad.
The commercial catch in I960 decreased
about 77 percent from that in 1896.
Savannah River
The Savannah River, one of Georgia' s largest
streams, is formed by the union of the Tugaloo
and Seneca Rivers at Anderson, S.C. It forms
the boundary between Georgia and South Caro-
lina for 325 miles and empties into the ocean
a short distance below Savannah.
In 1896 the limit of the shad run in the Sa-
vannah River was Augusta Dam, 207 miles
from the coast. A few fish passed through the
sluices of the dam and were occasionally taken
25
in apparatus fished for other species 80 miles
or more above Augusta.
The commercial catch of shad in 1896 was
made almost wholly by drift gill nets. These
nets were fished in the lower portion of the
river along the Georgia shore and in tributaries
below Savannah, Nets averaged 350 yd. long
and 30 ft. deep and had 5 l/4-in. mesh. The
catch by Georgia residents was 193,679 lb., of
which about 5,650 lb. were taken with small
drift and set gill nets and fall traps below the
Augusta Dam. South Carolina residents caught
13,620 lb. with small drift gill nets and 98 lb.
with bow nets below Augusta Dam.
In i960 the Savannah Lock and Dam, located
35 miles below Augusta, Ga., obstructed the
upstream movement of fish. Occasionally a
few shad gain access to the river above this
obstruction during a lockage or through sluices
in the dam; however, none was reported above
the City Lock, 10 miles upstream from the
Savannah Lock. Shad spawned from U.S. High-
way 301 bridge upstream to the Savannah Lock.
Some fish spawned in Brier Creek, a tributary
which enters the Savannah about midway be-
tween the mouth and the lower lock.
In i960 drift gill nets were fished in the
coastal area and set gill nets in the inland
area. Fishing began in mid-January and was
discontinued by mid- March. There were 33
drift gill nets in the coastal area, and fishing
was concentrated in the lower 20 niiles of
river in the vicinity of Hardeeville, S.C.
Aggregate length of these nets was 3,300 yd.,
and the shad catch was 80,535 lb. Nets were
90 to 200 yd. long and 35 to 40 meshes deep
and had 5- to 5 3/4-in. mesh. Twenty-one
nets were fished by full-time fishermen for
21 to 45 days; the remaining nets were fished
for 2 to 12 days by occasional fishermen
residing in Savannah. Most full-time fisher-
men resided in South Carolina, but nnost
of their catch was sold to dealers in
Savannah.
In the inland area, including Brier Creek,
200 set gill nets were fished. Total length of
the nets was 4,700 yd., and the shad catch was
83,036 lb. The nets were 10 to 40 yd. long and
35 to 55 nneshes deep and had 5- to 5 l/2-in,
mesh in the lower section of this area; nets
were 5 to 12 yd. long and 25 to 35 meshes
deep and had 4 1/2- to 5 l/2-in. mesh in the
upper section. Nets in the lower section were
fished 10 to 48 days, and most of the catch
was marketed; those in the upper section were
fished 4 to 12 days, and the catch was used
locally.
In addition to the commercial fishery, shad
were taken by rod and reel immediately below
the Savannah Lock and Dam where the fish
congregated. Between mid- April and mid- May
i960, an estimated 1,050 lb. were caught. The
Savannah River contributed 21 percent of the
total Georgia shad catch in I960 and 36 percent
in 1896.
TRENDS IN PRODUCTION
The shad fisheries of Georgia were not as
productive in 1880 as in earlier years
(McDonald, 1887a). The decline was attributed
to an increased number of drift gill nets in the
lower sections of the rivers. In the Ogeechee
and Savannah, the nets were sufficient in num-
ber to almost completely obstruct shad from
the spawning grounds. In the Savannah, the
dam above Augusta prevented use of spawning
areas above this point. Attempts were made to
pass shad above this obstruction, but they were
not successful (Stevenson, 1899). Shadproduc-
tion in the Ogeechee River also decreased in
1880, but the reasons for this were not clearly
understood.
From I896 to 1908, commercial production
increased progressively from 537,000 to
1,333,000 1b. (table 15). By 1902, with improved
shipping facilities and expansionof towns along
the rivers, shad became the most important
commercial species in the State, and its
capture constituted one of the leading in-
dustries of coastal rivers (Alexander, 1905).
The bulk of the catch was taken within a few
miles of the mouth of the rivers (Townsend,
1900); however, the quantity taken throughout
the interior, not large at any one place, was
important in the aggregate.
From 1908 to 1918, production declined
more than 92 percent. The U.S. Bureau of
Fisheries, in an effort to rehabilitate the fish-
ery, liberated millions of shad fry in Georgia
Table 15. — Shad catch for certain years,
Georgia, 1880-1960^
[In thousands of pounds]
Year
Catch
Year
Catch
1880. . .
. . 252
1936. . .
. . 236
1887. . .
. . 255
1937. . .
. . 193
1888. . .
. . 263
1938. . .
. . 98
1889. . .
. . 356
1939. . .
. . 75
1890. . .
. . 400
1940. . .
. . 150
1896. . .
. , 537
1945. . .
. . 222
1897. . .
. . 788
1950. . .
. . 180
1902. . .
/. 1,029
1951. . .
. . 206
1908. . .
. . 1,333
1952. . .
. . 243
1918. . .
. . 101
1953. . .
. . 214
1923. . .
. . 134
1954. . .
. . 180
1927. . .
. . 187
1955. . .
. . 158
1928. . .
. . 317
1956. . .
. . 168
1929. . .
. . 472
1957. . .
. . 247
1930. . .
. . 275
1958. . .
. . 319
1931. . .
. . 132
1959. . .
. . 391
1932. . .
. . 288
1960. . .
. . 534
1934. . .
. . 232
^ statistics 1830-1959, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service (1958-61).
26
streams. The stocking program began in 1875
and reached a peak between 1900 and 1904,
when more than 10 million fry were released.
The program was discontinued in 1916, after
stocking was found ineffective to rehabilitate
the fishery.
From 1918 and I960, there were wide fluc-
tuations in production. Between 1918 and 1940,
production fluctuated from a high of 472,000
lb. in 1929 to a low of75, 0001b. in 1939. From
1940 to 1954, production was fairly uniform,
averaging about 200,000 lb, per year. Since
that time, the commercial yield has increased
from 158,000 lb. in 1955 to 491,0001b. in I960.
The commercial catch in I960 was slightly
less than in 1896, when it was 537,000 lb.
The low production in Georgia during the
past half century has been blamed on a variety
of conditions. Siltation has altered the char-
acter of certain streams, and expansion of
towns and increased industrialization have
created pollution problems. Effluents from
pulp and paper mills established on the Alta-
maha River have changed the water quality
and affected the taste and odor of shad.
Dealers have reported that oil pollutants in
the Savannah River cause oily flavor in the
fish. Oil and diesel fuel wastes from railroad
shops at Waycross were evident in the Satilla
River. The biological effects of pollutants on
shad runs in Georgia streams have not been
determined.
SHAD FISHERIES OF SOUTH CAROLINA
The shad catch in South Carolina in 1896
was 671,513 lb. Fish were taken primarily in
drift gill nets; smaller catches were made in
stake gill nets, seines, bow nets, cast nets,
fish wheels, and traps. Gill nets took about
80 percent of the catch, bow nets 17 percent,
and other gears the remainder.
The gears in the shad fisheries of South
Carolina in I960 were stake and set gill net,
drift gill net, bow net, submerged trap, rod
and reel, and seine. The estimated catch was
282,835 lb., of which gill nets took about 87
percent.
Shad were taken in the same areas in 1896
and I960, except that in I960 the Sampit River
did not support a fishery (fig. 8). The extent
of the fisheries by water area is given in
tables 16 and 17. The only changes in gear were
the introduction of rod-and-reel fishing on the
Edisto and Santee Rivers and the discontinuance
of fish wheels in the Pee Dee River and cast
nets on the Savannah River. In both years, the
most productive gear was the gill net. In I960
the yardage of gill nets fished was about 57
percent less than in 1896; the major change
was in drift nets. The catch by gill nets in
i960 was about 54 percent less than in 1896,
In 1896, 447 bow nets caught 113,650 lb., but
in I960, 318 bow nets caught only 25,876 lb.
Seines usually were operated in the Edisto
and Pee Dee Rivers, but in I960 high water
and a late season discouraged operation of
this gear.
FISHERIES BY WATER AREA
The legal season for taking shad and gear
restrictions in I960 varied between water
areas. It was originally set from February 1
to March 25 for all coastal areas (waters up
to a 40-nnile linnit in each river as established
by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the
State) and February 1 to April 20 for all in-
land waters (above the 40-mile limit), except
in Horry County where it was February 1 to
May 4. The season subsequently was extended
for 2 wk. in each area. The legal fishing period
was from Tuesday noon to Saturday noon for
all waters except the Edisto River, where it
was from Wednesday noon to Saturday noon.
Mesh size of nets was restricted to 6-in.
mesh, except in the Savannah River (minimum
legal mesh, 4 in.) and the Santee and Cooper
Rivers (minimum mesh, 5 1/2 in.). Mesh size
of bow nets was not restricted. Legal season
for fishing with hook and line, rod and reel,
and bow nets was February 1 to May 1, and the
daily creel limit for sport fishing was eight
shad. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers re-
quired fishermen to obtain a permit to set
nets in Bull Creek, Black River, Pee Dee
River, Winyah Bay, Edisto River, Waccamaw
River, and Santee River because of naviga-
tional difficulties.
During the I960 shad season the coastal
area produced 162,000 lb. and the inland area
120,835 lb. The catch by gear and annount of
gear by water area are discussed in the follow-
ing sections. The Savannah River fishery is
described in the Shad Fisheries of Georgia,
Combahee and Ashepoo Rivers
The Combahee and Ashepoo Rivers are both
within South Carolina. The Combahee rises in
Aiken County and flows 110 miles to the sea.
Above the entrance of Jackson Branch, 40 miles
from the mouth, the Combahee is called the
Salkehatchie River. The Ashepoo is entirely
within Colleton County and is 60 miles long.
In 1896 shad ascended the Connbahee River
to Walker and the Ashepoo River to Waterboro,
a distance of 85 and 50 miles, respectively.
The fisheries were centered at the Charleston
and Savannah Railroad bridge crossing. The
shad season in these two rivers was January 15
to March 31. The catch in the Combahee was
14,151 lb. by 907 yd. of stake gill net. The
27
SCALE (MIIESI
0 10 20
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Figure 8. — Map of coastal South Carolina.
Key: 1 Coosawhatchie River
2 St. Helena Sound
3 Hwy. 17A Bridge
4 Salkehatchie River
5 Miley
6 Combahee River
7 Ashepoo River
8 Walterboro
9 Fishbum Landing
10 Canadys
11 Edlsto River
12 South Edisto River
13 Norway
14 North Edisto River
15 Orangeburg
16 Givhans Ferry State Park
17 Ashley River
18 Cooper River
19 Charleston
20 Hwy. 52 Bridge
21 Cooper Dam
22 Lake Moultrie
23 Lake Marion
24 Congaree River
25 Columbia
26 Wateree River
27 St. Stephen
28 Jamestown
29 Santee River
30 Georgetown
31 Winyah Bay
32 Hwy. 17 Bridge
33 Sampit River
34 Andrews
35 Black River
36 Kingstree
37 Mouzon
38 Murrells Inlet
39 Bull Creek
40 Hwy. 701 Bridge
41 Johnsonville
42 Hwy. 378 Bridge
43 Pamplico
44 Effingham
45 Lynches River
46 Waccamaw River
47 Conway
48 Little Pee Dee River
49 Pee Dee River
50 Che raw
51 Rockingham
52 Clewett Falls Dam
53 Freeland
54 Lake Waccamaw
28
Table 16. --Gear employed in shad fisheries, by water area, South Carolina, 1896 and 1960
1896
1960
Water area
Drift
Stake
Bow
Miscel-
Drift
Stake
Bow
Miscel-
gill
gill
Seine
net
laneous
gill
and set
Seine
net
laneous
net
net
net
gill net
Yards
475
Yards
Yards
Number
Number
Yards
Yards
Yards
Number
Number
Savannah River
...
Combahee River
907
1,860
Ashepoo River
1,297
6
195
450
^1,442
EdisCo River
4,253
973
83
1,080
5,555
75
Cooper River
200
42
24
920
Santee River
1,733
55
520
3,420
15
Winyah Bay and tributaries :
Waccamaw River
85,344
^80
5,125
6,900
Pee Dee River
128
800
168
6,000
1,350
50
35
"ll
Lynches River
25
5,850
175
Black River
65
1.280
18
Sampit
21
_,_
-.-
""*
~"~
Total
85,947
8,390
1,815
447
83
12,920
27,585
50
318
Cast nets.
Fisherman days.
Fish wheels and traps.
Submerged traps.
Table 17. --Shad catch, by water area and gear. South Carolina, 1896 and 1960
[In pounds]
1896
1960
Mater area
Drift
gill
net
Stake
gill
net
Seine
Bow net
Miscel-
laneous
Drift
gill
net
Stake and
set
gill net
Seine
Bow net
Miscel-
laneous
Savannah River
Combahee River
Ashepoo River
Edlsto River
Cooper River
Santee River
Winyah Bay and tributaries:
Waccamaw River
Pee Dee River
Lynches River ....
Black River
Sampit River
13,620
366,692
870
14,151
29,310
100,602
366
9,457
12,063
92
7,364
2,198
16,817
1,356
24,016
35,534
3,755
26,677
3,297
^98
^ 3,178
200
5,820
12,044
48,008
33,330
1,935
300
16,170
6,303
31,471
58,396
3,581
17,378
9,863
550
6,730
10,740
1.051
5,825
1,530
2 4,670
^ 6,400
Total
381,182
153,886
19,519
113,650
3,276
99,402
145,937
550
25,876
11,070
Cast nets.
^ Sport fishing tackle,
, Fish wheels and traps.
Submerged traps .
29
Ashepoo catch was 31,508 lb., of which 29,310
were taken in 1,297 yd, of stake gill nets,
and 2,198 lb. in 6 bow nets.
A few shad were taken on the New Colleton
and Coosawhatchie Rivers in 1896 by bow net
and small stake gill nets for local use. The
total catch was probably less than 3,000 lb.
Except for an occasional fish taken in the
Coosawhatchie River, the Combahee and Ashe-
poo were the only streams between the Savan-
nah and Edisto Rivers that produced shad in
I960, The fish ascended the Combahee River
at least 60 miles to the vicinity of Miley and
the Ashepoo River 50 miles to the vicinity of
Walterboro. (No obstructions to upstream
movement of fish existed in either river.)
The localities of capture of ripe female fish
indicated that the spawning grounds in each
river were in the upper 20 miles of the range.
On the Combahee in I960, fishing began the
first week of February and was discontinued in
mid- April. The 60 nets fished for shad were
from 8 to 40 yd. long and 25 to 35 meshes
deep and were concentrated near Highway 17A
bridge. The catch was 1,935 lb. and was con-
sumed locally.
Set and drift gill nets were used on the
Ashepoo River. Drift nets were fished pri-
marily below the Highway 17 bridge, and Bet
nets above the bridge. Set nets were 10 to 60
yd, long and 20 to 25 meshes deep, and the
drift nets were 40 to 75 yd. long and 25 to 35
meshes deep. The estimated catch was 500 lb.,
all of which was taken by local residents for
home consumption.
The catches by gear and amount of gear
fished in the Combahee and Ashepoo Rivers in
1896 and I960 are given in tables 16 and 17.
In I960, compared with 1896, the amount of
fishing gear was larger and the catch smaller.
Edisto River
The Edisto River is formed by the junction
of the North and South Edisto Rivers near
Branchville, S.C., and flows southeasterly 90
miles where it enters the ocean at St. Helena
Sound. Each tributary is 70 miles long. The
river is narrow and has numerous shoals and
a generally sandy bottom. The water is brown-
ish and relatively free from industrial effluents
and pollution except for minor discharge of
domestic sawage. The limit of tidal influence
is 40 miles upstream n«ar Fishburn Landing.
The fisheries on the Edisto in 1896 extended
from the river mouth to Orangeburg on the North
Edisto and were most extensive near Jackson-
boro. Set gill nets were the principal gear; a
few bow nets and seines were operated in the
upper reaches of the river. The season opened
about January 10 and closed the end of March;
best catches were in February. Fishing with
gill nets was restricted to 4 days each week,
from Mond*y sunrise to Thursday sunset. The
estimated catch was 129,482 lb,, of which gill
nets caught about 78 percent, bow nets 13 per-
cent, and seines the remainder.
The river was unobstructed in 1896 and
I960, and shad ascended the river at least
100 miles to the vicinity of Orangeburg in the
North Edisto and at least 120 miles to the
vicinity of Norway in the South Edisto. Shad
spawned from Fishburn Landing to the upper
limit of the run in each tributary; major
spawning grounds were near Givhans Ferry
State Park (Walburg, 1956).
In I960 drift and set gill nets were used for
taking shad in the coastal (river mouth to
Fishburn Landing) and inland (river and trib-
utaries above Fishburn Landing) fishing areas.
In the coastal area 38 set gill nets were
the only gear used except for a few drift gill
nets fished near Fishburn Landing. The catch
by the latter nets was included with the drift
net catch in the inland area. Set nets were 45
to 90 yd. long and 35 to 45 meshes deep. Aggre-
gate length of the nets was 2,611 yd., and the
shad catch was 6,807 lb. In the inland area 80
set and 18 drift gill nets were fished to the
vicinity of Canadys, a distance of 40 miles.
Set nets were 10 to 60 yd. long and 35 to 45
meshes deep; drift nets were 35 to 100 yd.
long and 35 to 65 meshes deep. Total length
of the set gill nets was 2,944 yd,, and the shad
catch was 9,903 lb. Aggregate length of the
drift gill nets was 1,080 yd,, and the shad catch
was 5,820 lb. Seventy-five bow nets fished
from Canadys to the upper limit of the run in
each tributary took 6,730 lb, of shad. Haul
seines normally are operated near Cottage-
ville, but they were not fished during the I960
season because of high water in the early
season and low market price for shad there-
after.
In addition to commercial fishing, the river
supported sport fishing for shad with rod and
reel from West Bank to Canadys, a distance
of 60 miles. The estimated catch by sport
fishermen in I960 was 4,670 lb. Most fish
were taken between Fishburn Landing and
Harts Bluff.
The total shad catch in I960 was 33,930 lb.;
17 percent was taken by drift gill nets, 49
percent by set gill nets, 20 percent by bow
nets, and 14 percent by rod and reel. Most
fish were sold locally, but some were marketed
in Charleston.
The shad fishery on the Edisto River changed
little between 1896 and I960 except in the
amount of gear used and catch. In 1896 the
Edisto ranked second among the shad streams
of South Carolina and accounted for about 19
percent of the total catch; it ranked fourth
and yielded about 12 percent of the total catch
in I960. The amount of gill net fished in-
creased about 36 percent from 1896 to I960,
but the catch by this gear decreased 78 per-
cent. The catch by bow nets and the number
of nets fished also decreased. Cable (1944)
30
reported overfishing to be the primary cause
for decline in production. This statement may
be correct; but from the limited information
available, this conclusion does not appear
warranted.
Charleston Harbor and Tributaries
Streams between the Edisto and Santee
Rivers have a common outlet into Charleston
Harbor. The most innportant are the Ashley
and Cooper.
Few shad ascended these streams in 1896,
and fisheries were limited. The total catch
was less than one thousand pounds by bow nets
and stake gill nets for local use.
In I960 these streams had shad runs; how-
ever, the fisheries were small. Shad ascended
the Ashley River 25 nniles to Summerville,
S.C. Local residents caught about 50 shad with
small set gill nets in the Live Oak Brook area,
4 miles south of Summerville. In the Cooper
River shad ascended about 40 miles to the
Cooper Dam at the outlet from Lake Moultrie.
Observations of the catch indicated that spawn-
ing took place near Stony Landing, just below
the canal tailrace of the dam. Fish were taken
by 40 set gill nets, 15 to 30 yd. long and 25 to
35 meshes deep. Nets were operated from
the canal tailrace to Cypress Gardens, S.C,
a distance of 20 miles; 6,303 lb. of fish were
caught, all of which were marked in Moncks
Corner, S.C. Rod-and-reel fishernnen took a
few shad below the canal tailrace, but no
estimate was made of the catch.
Santee River
The Santee River extends 130 miles, from
the confluence of the Congaree and Wateree
Rivers through Lake Marion to the ocean. Shad
formerly ascended the Wateree to Great Falls,
N.C., 272 miles from the ocean, and the Con-
garee to a point 28 miles above the boundary
between North Carolina and South Carolina,
or 374 nriiles from the ocean (Stevenson,
1899).
In 1896 a dam at Columbia, S.C, 233 miles
from the ocean, prevented shad fronn ascend-
ing beyond that point. The fishery resources
of the Santee River and tributaries were rela-
tively undeveloped at that time, however,
though shad were taken with stake gill and
bow nets for local use. The catch was 33,473
lb.
A dam at the outlet of Lake Marion, 65
miles above the mouth of the Santee, prevented
further ascent of fish in I960. The presence of
ripe fennales in the catch indicated that the
major shad spawning ground was between
Highway 52 bridge and the dam.
The commercial shad fishery in I960 ex-
tended from Highway 17 bridge to one-quarter
of a n-iile below the dam. Gill nets were the
principal gear. Drift nets, 35 to 100 yd. long
and 35 to 45 meshes deep, were fished from
Highway 17 bridge to the vicinity of St. Stephens,
S.C. Set gill nets, 10 to 60 yd. long and 25 to
45 meshes deep, were fished from Jamestown,
S.C, to the upper limit of the fishery. A few
bow nets were fished below Lake Marion Dam,
and only female shad were kept. The esti-
mated catch was 54,255 lb., of which 90 set
gill nets caught 58 percent, 13 drift gill nets
22 percent, and 15 bow nets the remainder.
Aggregate length of the set gill nets was
3,420 yd. and of drift gill nets 520 yd. Most
of the catch was marketed locally in Moncks
Corner and Andrews.
The amount of gear fished and the catch
were greater in I960 than in 1896. The number
of bow nets was lower in I960 than in 1896,
but the catch per net was greater. The dam
probably has limited the area for bow net
fishing and caused a concentration of fish
accessible to this type of gear. Rod-and-reel
fishing was employed around the Santee tail-
race, but no estimate was made of the shad
catch. Shad taken by rod and reel were in-
cidental to the catch of striped bass, Roccus
saxatilis.
Winyah Bay and Tributaries
The fisheries of Winyah Bay and tributaries
yielded 447,367 lb. of shad, in 1896, of which
drift gill nets caught about 82 percent, bow
nets 15 percent, seines 2 percent, and miscel-
laneous gear the remainder.
In i960 Winyah Bay and its tributaries, the
Waccamaw, Pee Dee, and Black Rivers, were
the principal shad producing regions of South
Carolina. The estimated combined catch from
these areas was 185,912 lb., of which drift
gill nets caught 44 percent, stake, set, and
anchor gill nets 48 percent, bow nets 14 per-
cent, and seines and miscellaneous gear the
remainder (table 18). The I960 catch was less
than 42 percent of the 1896 catch.
Waccamaw River.-- Winyah Bay is about 14
miles long and from 3/4 to 4 miles wide. Its
largest tributary, the Waccamaw River, origi-
nates in Lake Waccamaw, Columbus County,
N.C, and flows 149 miles into Winyah Bay
near Georgetown. Forty miles above its mouth,
the Waccamaw joins the Pee Dee River through
Bull Creek. The lower 26 miles has numerous
connections between these rivers.
The shad fisheries on Winyah Bay and lower
portions of the Waccamaw River were im-
portant in 1896. The seasonbegann-iid- January
and continued to the end of March. The shad
catch for both areas was 366,692 lb. by 85,344
yd. of drift gill net. The nets were 200 to 300
yd. long and 16 to 20 ft. deep and had 5 l/4-
to 5 l/2-in. mesh. The amount of gear fished
31
Table 18. — Shad catch, by area and gear, Winyah Bay, S. C. , and
tributaries, 1960
Area and gear
Quantity
Length
fished
Catch
Number
Winyah Bay:
Stake gill net
Waccamaw River:
Anchor and set gill net . . .
Drift gill net
Pee Dee River:
Anchor gill net
Great and Little Pee Dee Rivers
Anchor and set gill net . . ,
Drift gill net
Bow net
Haul seine
Lynches River:
Set gill net
Bow net
Submerged trap ,
Black River:
Set gill net
Bow net
Total . .
120
35
25
125
35
1
450
150
18
32
15
Yards
2,000
4,900
5,125
350
1,000
6,000
50
5,850
1.280
Pounds
29,836
28,560
48,008
881
2,700
33,330
1,051
550
17,378
5,825
6,400
9,863
1,530
185,912
has decreased greatly since 1896 and has
changed fronn drift gill nets to stake gill nets.
The Bay channels used by drift net fishermen
during earlier years have been dredged to an
average depth of about 27 ft. and wind through-
out the Bay in a manner that prevents drift
net fishing.
In i960 the coastal fishing area extended
from the river nnouth through Bull Creek, and
the inland fishing area extended to the North
Carolina-South Carolina boundary. No ob-
structions to the passage of fish existed, and
shad ascended the river at least to Freeland,
N.C., 130 nniles from Winyah Bay. The ripe
females in the catch indicated that the major
shad spawning ground was near Conway, S.C,
The section fished in I960 was from the
entrance of the Bay to the Highway 17 bridge
at the mouth of the Waccamaw River. The U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers designated the fish-
ing area so that shipping lanes were unob-
structed. Stake gill nets, the only gear used,
were 100 to 400 yd. long and 25 to 70 nneshes
deep. Two thousand yards of net caught 29,836
lb. of shad. The catch was sold to dealers in
Georgetown who retailed some fish locally,
but shipped most to northern markets.
The catch in the Waccamaw River in I960
was 76,568 lb., of which drift gill nets took
63 percent and anchor and set gill nets 37
percent. Drift gill nets, 60 to 300 yd. long and
40 to 65 meshes deep, were the principal com-
mercial gear, and fishing was concentrated
near Sandy Island. Anchor gill nets, 40 to 100
yd. long and 25 to 45 meshes deep, were used
from Sandy Island to the mouth of Bull Creek.
A few anchor nets fished at the junction of
Bull Creek and the Pee Dee River are included
with the Pee Dee fishery. Most of the catch
was sold to dealers in Georgetown and Murrells
Inlet, S.C.
Set and anchor gill nets, 25 to 50 yd. long
and 25 to 35 meshes deep, were the principal
gear used in the inland area in I960. A few
smaller set gill nets and bow nets were fished
between the North Carolina-South Carolina
State line and the upper limit of the run,
but the catch was negligible. Most of the
catch in the inland area was marketed in
Conway,
32
Pee Dee River and Tributaries.-- The main
tributary of the Pee Dee River system, Great
Pee Dee, rises on the eastern slopes of the
Blue Ridge, in Watauga County, N.C. It flows
496 miles--272 miles in North Carolina and
224 n-iiles in South Carolina- -before it enters
Winyah Bay. In both 1896 and 1960, fish as-
cended the river to Blewett Falls Dam, 230
miles from the river mouth at Georgetown.
Fron-i Blewett Falls Dam downstream to
Cheraw, S.C., 26 miles, the river bed is rocky,
and shad ascended this section of the river
only during high flow. For this report, the
fishery was divided into three sections: Pee
Dee River, Great and Little Pee Dee Rivers,
and Lynches River.
Pee Dee River.-- This river is formed by
the confluence of the Great and Little Pee
Dee Rivers, 42 miles above the mouth. It is
150 to 300 ft. wide, the banks are low and
swampy, and the lower 25 miles, from the
junction of Bull Creek to Winyah Bay, are
composed of a series of small creeks and
ponds. Four anchor gill nets, 65 to 85 yd. long
and 25 to 40 nneshes deep, fished in this sec-
tion during I960 caught 881 pounds of shad.
No shad were reported taken in this river in
1896.
Great and Little Pee Dee Rivers. --In 1896
shad were taken throughout the Great Pee Dee
to Cheraw with drift gill nets, seines, bow
nets, and fish wheels, but in no great abun-
dance at any one point. The catch by all gears
was 49,946 lb., of which bow nets took 75
percent. In the river between Cheraw and the
Narrows, 71 miles, 16 fish wheel and fall-trap
fisheries originally were constructed for
catching shad; in 1896, however, the total yield
was only 2,500 lb.
The Great Pee Dee, from the mouth to
Cheraw, has a more definite channel and is
better suited for net fishing than the lower
25 miles of the Pee Dee River. During the
i960 season shad were taken by anchor and
set gill nets, drift gill nets, bow nets, and
haul seines. Frona the mouth to Gresham,
S.C., 13 anchor gill nets, 75 drift gill nets,
25 bow nets, and 1 haul seine were fished.
From Gresham to Pan-iplico, S.C., 2 anchor
gill nets, 30 drift gill nets, and 10 bow nets
were fished. Between Pamlico and Cheraw,
there was limited fishing by 20 drift gill nets.
From Cheraw to Blewett Falls Dam, 200 set
gill nets were fished (concentrated near Rock-
ingham, N.C). Anchor and set nets ranged
from 10 to 40 yd. long and 25 to 45 meshes
deep, and drift nets ranged from 25 to 100 yd.
long and 35 to 45 meshes deep. The haul seine
was 50 yd. long and was fished near Smith
Mill at the mouth of the Lynches River. The
estimated catch by all gears was 37,191 lb.,
of which gill nets took 96 percent. Most of the
catch was sold to local markets in towns along
the river.
The Little Pee Dee River rises in southern
North Carolina and flows 75 miles before
joining the Great Pee Dee, 56 miles above the
mouth of the Pee Dee River. During the I960
season 10 set gill nets fished in the lower 2
nniles of river caught 440 lb. of shad. No shad
were caught in this stream in 1896.
Lynches River.-- The Lynches River rises
in Union County, N.C, and flows 200 miles
before entering the Great Pee Dee 86 miles
above Georgetown.
In 1896 the Lynches River was well adapted
to shad, which ascended as far as Tillery
Ferry, 125 miles above the mouth. Only bow
nets were fished, and since there were no
large settlements on the river, the local fish-
eries were small. The total catch was 3,755 lb.
The river was free of obstructions in I960,
and shad ascended to at least 5 nailes above
Effingham, S.C., 45 miles fronn the mouth of
the tributary. Ripe females in the catch in-
dicated that the major spawning ground was
near the Highway 378 bridge between Lake
City and Hannah, S.C
The total catch in I960 was 29,603 lb., of
which set gill nets caught 59 percent, bow
nets (fig. 9) 20 percent, and subnnerged traps
the remainder (table 18).
Set gill nets, 8 to 25 yd. long and 25 to 35
meshes deep, were fished 10 miles fronn the
stream mouth to the vicinity of Johnsonville,
S.C. Bow nets were fished throughout the
shad range.
Black River.-- The Black River has its
source in Kershaw and Sumter Counties, S.C,
and flows 150 miles before entering Winyah
Bay near Georgetown.
Figure 9. — Landing a shad by bow net. When the fisherman
feels a fish hit the net, he raises the net with a twisting
motion, trapping the fish. (Photograph courtesy of North
Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission)
33
In 1896 shad were taken in the Black River
as far upstream as Mouzon, S.C., 130 miles
from Georgetown, Sixty-five bow nets, the
only gear fished, caught an estimated 26,677
lb.
In I960 the river contained no obstruction
and shad ascended to the vicinity of Kingstree,
S.C., 100 miles from Winyah Bay. Ripe females
in the catch indicated that shad spawned from
near Andrews to Kingstree, S.C.
Set gill nets and bow nets caught an esti-
mated 11,393 lb. of shad in I960. The set gill
nets were used from Highway 701 bridge up-
stream to Kingstree, and bow nets from
Andrews to the upper limit of the run. They
ranged from 20 to 60 yd. long and 25 to 55
meshes deep; the catch was 9,863 lb. The 18
bow nets caught 1,530 lb. Most fishermen were
residents along the river, and the catch was
consumed locally.
TRENDS IN PRODUCTION
The early shad fisheries in South Carolina
were localized because of the small human
population and the lack of transportation fa-
cilities (McDonald, 1887a). Productive fish-
eries could have been undertaken at the mouths
of some rivers had markets not been so in-
accessible.
In 1896 the fishery of Winyah Bay and trib-
utaries was of comparatively recent origin,
and its development was that characteristic
of most South Atlantic streams. In the upper
reaches of the rivers, increased dann con-
struction reduced spawning areas, and fish
populations decreased. Because fishing was
concentrated near the river mouths, 85 per-
cent of the fish caught, practically none of
which had spawned, were taken within 30 miles
of the ocean. Stevenson (1899) reported that
natural reproduction was no longer sufficient
to replenish the supply of fish and that arti-
ficial propagation was essential to the pros-
perity of the fishery. The seasonal catch per
drift gill net near Georgetown was 1,417 lb.
Cable (1944) reported that in 1869 it was
generally recognized that too nnuch gear was
being fished and that the shad run in some
areas of South Carolina was in danger of
depletion even though production continued to
rise. From 1875 to 1938 millions of shad eggs
and fry, obtained from Federal hatcheries,
were liberated in South Carolina streams.
This attempt to rehabilitate the run was aug-
mented when a State hatchery was erected in
1880 at Orangeburg, S.C., and operated until
the early 1900's.
Annual shad production increased from 1880
through the 1890' s and remained at more than
400,000 lb, until 1908 (table 19), Some believed
that the increased yield was the result of
stocking, but a decline in production after
1908 indicated that high catches could not be
maintained by this means. Shad ranked second
in value and third in pounds of fish landed in
South Carolina in 1908 (Bureau of the Census,
1911), After that year production declined
steadily, although irregularly.
Table 19. — Shad catch for certain years, South
Carolina, 1880-1960^
[in thousands of pounds]
Year
Catch
Year
Catch
1880
208
1936
177
1887
366
1937
138
1888
«3
1938
59
1889
577
1939
42
1890
563
1940
50
1896
672
1945
89
1897
506
1950
73
1902
434
1951
96
1908
464
1952
136
1918
167
1953
110
1923
184
1954
196
1927
182
1955
88
1928
320
1956
116
1929
260
1957
80
1930
214
1958
71
1931
152
1959
80
1932
123
1960
162
193'i
209
1 statistics 1880-1959, U.S,
life Service (1958-61),
Fish and Wild-
34
In past years, pollution in some areas from
domestic and industrial wastes killed spawn
and fry and was thus a major factor in re-
ducing shad abundance in South Carolina (Cable,
1944); obstructions that prevented adult fish
from reaching spawning grounds also received
much blame. Pollution and dams undoubtedly
played a part in the decline, but their effects
were obscured by overfishing. Lunz, Penney,
and Lesesne (1944) pointed out that overfishing
was the chief cause of depletion; in some areas
pollution played a part. Pollutants were do-
mestic sewage and waste materials from pulp
nnills, fertilizer factories, and other industrial
plants. Young shad killed by pollution while
enroute to salt water often littered the slips
and the water under the docks in the Sampit
River.
Rehabilitation programs by the South Caro-
lina State Board of Fisheries have failed to
increase production to former levels. Restric-
tive measures were introduced governing the
amount and kind of gear and time of fishing,
and a 5-cent tax was levied on each shad
caught to finance the cost of annual pro-
duction estimates. In the last 3 decades,
commercial production has remained at a
low level and in only 5 yr. has it exceeded
100,000 lb. The commercial catch in 1960
increased over that of any of the previous
5 yr., but was less than 24 percent of the
catch in 1896.
SHAD FISHERIES OF NORTH CAROLINA
There are few early records on the shad
fisheries of North Carolina besides McDonald's
() 887b) report on the fishery in certain areas
in 1880 and Stevenson's (1899) description by
water area in 1896. The catch in 1896 was
8,842,708 lb.; gill nets took 49 percent, seines
25 percent, pound nets 23 percent, and bow
nets and fish wheels 3 percent.
In I960 the total shad catch was 1,266,328
lb., of which gill nets took 66 percent, pound
nets 10 percent, bow nets 20 percent, haul
seines 3 percent, and miscellaneous appa-
ratus (fish wheels, fyke nets, rod and reel)
1 percent.
The catch and amount of gear fished by
water area in 1896 and 1960 are listed in
tables 20 and 21. The yardage of drift gill
nets fished in I960 was more than twice that
in 1896 (The increase was primarily in the
Pamlico- Tar River and Cape Fear River
tributaries.), but the catch by drift gill nets
in each major river was smaller than in 1896.
The yardage of stake gill nets and anchor gill
nets and the catches in these gears also were
lower in I960 than in 1896. The use of pound
nets has de^, ined in North Carolina since 1896
because of increased gear cost, operating ex-
pense, and decrease in catch of other species.
Changes in the amounts of gill net and haul
seine fished have also been influenced by the
catch of other species since shad usually are
taken incidental to other fish. The bow net
fishery has remained nearly constant in num-
ber of nets fished and in catch.
FISHERIES BY WATER AREA
The fisheries of North Carolina are divided
into coastal and inland areas. The coastal
fishery is under the jurisdiction of the Division
of Commercial Fisheries, North Carolina
Department of Conservation and Development,
and the inland fishery is under the jurisdiction
of the North Carolina Wildlife Resources Com-
mission. A map of coastal North Carolina is
shown in figure 10.
In I960 the legal fishing season for shad
was from January 1 to May 1 in the coastal
area and from January 1 to June 1 in the in-
land area. Few shad were taken in January
and February, and they did not appear in sub-
stantial numbers until mid-March. The coastal
area catch in I960 was 701,544 lb.; the inland
area catch, 564,784 lb. Most of the catch was
handled by dealers who shipped the fish to
northern markets. The remainder was taken
home or sold locally by fish markets and
peddlers.
Cape Fear River and Tributaries
The Cape Fear River is formed by the con-
fluence of the Haw and Deep Rivers in Chatham
County, N.C. It flows southeast for 200 miles
and empties into the ocean 25 miles below
Wilmington, N.C. The principal tributaries are
the Black and North East Cape Fear Rivers,
both important shad streams. The Brunswick
River leaves the Cape Fear 4 miles above
Wilmington and re-enters 5 miles below the
city. A 3-mile long thorough-fare connects
the Black with the Cape Fear 5 miles above
their confluence.
In 1896 shad ascended the Cape Fear River
181 miles to Smiley Falls, N.C. During that
year 113 drift gill nets, 150 to 425 yd. long,
were used from the mouth of the Cape Fear to
the junction of the Black; above this junction
124 bow nets, 99 drift nets, and 5 seines were
operated. In the Black 21 seines and 60 bow
nets were fished; most fish were taken be-
tween Point Caswell and Clinton, N.C, and on
a tributary stream, the Six Runs Creek, below
the Clinton and Warsaw Railroad Bridge. The
principal fishery on the North East Cape Fear
River was a seine fishery between Sandy Hill,
N.C, 30 miles above the tributary mouth, and
Kornegay, N.C, a distance of 83 miles. The
35
Tabu
20. — Gear employed in shad fisher
es, by water aree
, North
Carolina,
1896 and 1960
1896
1960
Water area
Drift
gill
net
Stake
gill
net
Haul
seine
Pound
net
Bow
net
Miscel-
laneous
Drift
gill
net
Anchor
and
stake
gill net
Haul
seine
Pound
net
Bow
net
Mlacel-
laneoua
Cape Fear River and
tributaries:
Belov Black River. .
Above Black River. .
Black River
North East Cape Fear
River
Yards
21,010
2,692
1,520
4,280
2,300
1,440
1,440
Yards
458,524
66,745
16,800
108,420
4,500
448,583
300
Ya.rds
346
630
902
20,459
19,281
2,300
16,950
6,059
9,740
Number
171
87
27
140
3
700
447
Number
124
60
529
120
10
435
Number
375
Yards
19,625
1,500
5,340
6,800
7,500
30,000
120
Yards
240
625
4,400
47,840
59,260
53,580
14 , 500
2,700
88,350
420
1,240
Yards
1,800
450
300
300
Number
153
15
56
44
20
24
556
Number
40
37
991
692
Number
Pamlico Sound. ,
Keuse River. . .
^20
Pamlico-Tar River
Croatan Sound. .
Roanoke Sound. .
Albemarle Sound^
34,682
1,103,872
76,667
1,575
1,278
75
70,885
273,155
2,850
868
1,760
177
Seven fish wheels and 150 sport fisherman days.
Inclades Pasquotank and Perquimans Rivers.
^ Fish wheels.
Nineteen fyke nets and 1 fish wheel.
-Shad catch, by water area and gear, North Carolina, 1896 and 1960
[In ^unda]
1896
1960
Hater Area
Drift
gill
net
Stake
gill
net
Haul
aeine
Pound
net
Bow net
Kiscel-
laneoua
Drift
gill
uet
Anchor and
stake gill
net
Haul
seine
Pound
net
Bow net
Klacel-
laneoua
Cape Fear River and tributaries;
Below Black River
Above Black River
Black River
191,344
22,668
17,130
77,955
22,018
16,869
2,109
1,633,063
111,685
34,219
289,412
21,086
1,868,330
25,725
2,187
15,794
29,474
481,089
163,177
84,345
609,537
606,476
254,932
256,631
94,765
32,721
311,375
8,776
796,795
517,014
28,336
10,058
107,691
30,765
1,160
56,933
^8,434
96,139
8,160
30,026
21,598
63,037
190,600
690
1,734
1,188
29,106
130,021
105,690
50,168
12,750
4,224
88,145
698
6,616
8,432
24,960
2,300
750
51,566
3,900
17,473
27,016
11,280
4,392
11,110
12,160
4,220
183,614
54,600
North East Cape Fear River . . ,
Pamlico Sound
—
"""
Roanoke Sound
...
Albemarle Sound
'tT^n
Total
350,093
3,983,520
2,247,641
2,016,077
234,943
8,434
410,430
430,340
36,442
126,737
254,594
7,785
Fleh wheela, 6,560 pounda and rod and reel fishermen, 505 pounda.
Includes Pasquotank and Perquijnana Rivera.
^ Fish wheels.
Fyke nets, 600 pounda and fish wheels 120 pounda.
total catch in the Cape Fear River and
tributaries in 1896 was 317,621 lb., of
which drift nets caught about 73 percent,
seines 15 percent, and bow nets the re-
mainder.
The Cape Fear was free of obstructions
in 1960 from the mouth to a 12-ft. dam
and lock 65 miles above its nnouth and 30
miles above Wilmington. Except during
periods of extended high flow, this struc-
ture blocked fish from the river above.
About 1925 a fishway was constructed in
the dam, but it was ineffectual for shad.
Occasional fish caught above the lock and dam
probably passed the obstruction during high
water or during shiplockage. Neither tributary
had obstructions to fishpassage. Shad ascended
the North East Cape Fear to Kornegay, 175
miles from the ocean, and the Black to Clinton,
100 miles from the nnouth of the tributary.
The nnajor spawning areas were immediately
below the lock and dam in the Cape Fear; from
Highway 53 bridge to Tomahawk, N.C., in the
Black; and from Highway 53 bridge to Tin City,
N.C., in the North East Cape Fear.
The coastal fishing area in I960 extended
from the mouth of the river to the lock and
dam in the Cape Fear River, to the thorough-
fare in the Black, and to Highway 53 bridge in
the North East Cape Fear. Three types of
gear were fished: drift gill nets in the Cape
Fear from 9 miles below Wilnnington to the
lock and dam, in the Brunswick River and
thoroughfare, and throughout the entire coastal
36
VA.
,r::i
sM A
s
N. C.
76L.
'soxir"" "^
\
^3
^
7^77 64NKA\\\ I
V42 J.
75^
> C69,^^m 1
vai-A^
VJ5
74
\ y-vjp 66^^
>^
A
"la
ss^*/' 53/Yi
\ ■">
v\
XV
v\
X \
\. ^
\ \
? ^
^3 749^^^48.5^^ „/ 1
X)
X^
-^20
3 5 47^'5^^'^C^ J
)
39
\34 ^ 28 ^
. 3l\ 'in/on «^ 81
6 V
14
) \vf^^^''\V^^^^^..''84 -- 1
7 ^
V /12
( 3 3
-^2 Vv^' 26^
Jl9
.iV^:^^
I 1
Vl
18^17 s
t
k\i°
•>S16 c
h^
\
xK? ^
4^cr
• 3
¥
.H^N^'^°"''*
scN
1
SCALE (MILES)
jj
0 5 10
^
^
^
Figure 10. — Map of coastal North Carolina.
Key:
1 Brunswick River
21
White Oak River
43
Flat River
65
Alligator River
2 Wilmington
22
Maysville
44
Wilson
66
Albemarle Sound
3 Hwy. 53 Bridge
23
Cherry Point
45
Little River
67
Mackeys Ferry
4 Lock and Dam
24
Beaufort
46
Hobucken
68
R.R. Bridge
No. 1
25
Core Sound
47
Pamlico-Tar River
69
Edenton
5 Cape . Fear River
26
Atlantic
48
Washington
70
Plymouth
6 Fayetteville
27
Cedar Island
49
Greenville
71
Jamesville
7 Deep River
28
Pamlico Sound
50
Tarboro
72
Williamston
8 Haw River
29
Neuse River
51
Rocky Mount
73
Roanoke River
9 Point Caswell
30
Oriental
52
Engelhard
74
Palmyra
10 Hwy. 53 Bridge
31
New Bern
53
Stumpy Point
75
Spring Hill
11 Tomahawk
32
Trent River
54
Hatteras
76
Roanoke Rapids
12 Six Runs Creek
33
Comfort
55
Croatan Sound
77
Holiday Island
13 Black River
34
Streets Ferry
56
Roanoke Sound
78
Harrellsville
14 Clinton
35
Pitch Kettle
57
Manns Harbor
79
Tunis
15 Castle Hayne
36
Kinston
58
Oregon Inlet
80
Murfreesboro
16 Sandy Hill
37
Contentnea Creek
59
Point Harbor
81
Black River
17 Hwy. 53 Bridge
38
Goldsboro
60
Currituck Sound
82
Nottoway River
18 Tin City
39
Goldsboro Dam
61
North River
83
Hatteras Inlet
19 North East Cape
40
Raleigh
62
Pasquotank River
84
Ocracoke Inlet
Fear River
41
Millbumie Dam
63
Little River
85
Inland Water-
20 Komegay
42
Eno River
64
Perquimans River
way
37
area in the Black and North East Cape Fear;
anchor gill nets were intermingled with the
drift gill nets from the junction of the Black
to the lock and dam in the Cape Fear and the
upper portion of the coastal area in the Black;
and haul seines were used in the coastal area
of the North East Cape Fear.
Four types of gear were used in the inland
fishing area in I960. Drift gill nets and stake
gill nets were intermingled throughout the
Black and North East Cape Fear; haul seines
were fished from Highway 53 bridge to the
vicinity of Tin City in the North East Cape
Fear; and bow nets were used in the upper
inland area of the Black and North East Cape
Fear. Drift gill nets in the lower Cape Fear
were 100 to 200 yd. long and 45 to 65 meshes
deep and had 5- to 5 1/2-in. stretched mesh.
Those in the upper Cape Fear were 25 to 90
yd. long and 25 to 35 meshes deep and had 5-
to 5 l/2-in. mesh. In the Black, drift gill nets
were 40 to 125 yd. long and 35 to 55 meshes
deep and had 5- to 5 l/2-in. mesh. Anchor
and stake gill nets in the Cape Fear and
tributaries ranged from 10 to 40 yd. long and
25 and 35 meshes deep and had meshes of
4 1/2 to 5 1/2 in. Each seine in the North East
Cape Fear was 120 yd. long and 45 meshes
deep and had 2 l/2-in. mesh.
The catch in the coastal area was 126,353 1b.,
of which drift gill nets caught about 97 percent.
The catch in the inland area was 86,410 lb., of
which drift gill nets caught about 38 percent;
stake gill nets 34 percent, bownets 19 percent,
and haul seines the remainder. The catch in
the coastal area from the Cape Fear and Black
Rivers was marketed in Wilmington; that from
the North East Cape Fear, in Castle Hayne.
Most of the catch of the inland area was con-
sumed locally. The production by gear and
amounts of gear in the Cape Fear River and
its tributaries during the I960 season are
given in table 22.
The amount of drift gill nets fished in I960
increased about 32 percent over 1896, whereas
the catch decreased about 32 percent. The
Table 22. — Shad catch, by area and gear. Cape Fear River, N. C.
tributaries, 1960
and
Area and gear
Quantity
Length
fished
Catch
Coastal:
Cape Fear River:
Drift gill net
Anchor gill net
Black River:
Drift gill net
Anchor gill net
North East Cape Fear River:
Drift gill net
Seine
Number
217
12
18
7
50
2
33
220
13
37
62
10
40
Yards
21,125
240
1,620
525
5,500
240
1,300
4,400
1,560
3,720
100
Pounds
104,299
1,734
6,957
528
11,625
1 210
Inland:
North East Cape Fear River:
Drift gill net
Stake gill net
Seine
9,973
29,106
7 222
Bow net
4 220
Black River:
Drift gill net
Stake gill net
Bow net
23,069
660
12,160
Total
721
40,330
212,763
38
amount of gear increased primarily in the
tributaries and the catch decreased in the
main river. The number of seines fished in
i960 decreased slightly and shifted from the
Black to the North East Cape Fear. The num-
ber of bow nets and their catch also decreased
in i960. The Cape Fear River and its tribu-
taries accounted for less than 4 percent of the
total North Carolina shad catch in 1896, as
compared with almost 17 percent in I960.
Pamlico Sound
Pamlico Sound is an irregular body of water
which lies in a northeast- southwest direction.
It is 70 miles long and 10 to 30 miles wide.
To the south it joins Core Sound, which extends
southwest 36 miles to the vicinity of Beaufort,
N.C., and to the north it connects with
Albemarle Sound through Roanoke and Croatan
Sounds. Two large rivers, the Neuse and the
Pamlico- Tar, enter the Sound from the west,
and the Inland Waterway connects Pamlico and
Albemarle Sounds in the northeast portion.
The waters of Pamlico Sound and its tributary
streams enter the ocean through Ocracoke,
Hatteras, and Oregon Inlets. Salinity varies
with the location; it is highest near the inlets.
Fish migrate to tributaries of Pamlico and
Albemarle Sounds through these inlets. Water
is as deep as 70 ft. in Pamlico Sound.
Several hundred shad were taken in 1896 in
the mullet fisheries of the New River, Stone
Bay, and other estuaries between the Cape
Fear River and Pamlico Sound. None was
landed in these areas in I960, although a few
were taken by dip nets and small stake gill
nets in the White Oak River near Maysville,
N.C.
Stake gill nets and pound nets were used in
the northeast third of Pamlico Sound in 1896.
Gill nets greatly outnumbered the pound nets.
The catch by both gears was 1,889,694 lb.
In i960 pound nets and stake gill nets were
fished in shoal areas near inlets and between
the mouths of tributaries. Seventeen pound
nets wrere fished in Core Sound near Atlantic,
N.C, 31 in the Bay west of Cedar Island, N.C.,
4 outside the mouth of the Neuse River, 6 be-
tween the mouths of the Neuse and Pannlico-
Tar Rivers, 21 fronn the mouth of the Pamlico-
Tar to Croatan Sound, 18 in the northern
portion of the Sound near Roanoke Island, and
56 near Oregon and Hatteras Inlets. The nets
had leads from 100 to 150 yd. long and 2- to
3-in. mesh. Stake gill nets were fished through-
out shallow water of the Pamlico Sound: 3,880
yd. in West Bay; 10,960 yd. on the west shore
from the Neuse River to CroatanSound; 11,400
yd. near Oregon and Hatteras Inlets; and 21,600
yd. from the mouth of the Pamlico- Tar to
Croatan Sound. These nets were 12 to 30 yd.
long and 30 to 40 meshes deep and had 5 1/4-
to 5 3/4-in. nnesh.
The total catch in I960 was 181,587 lb., of
which pound nets caught 28 percent and stake
gill nets 72 percent. Fish taken in Core Sound
were sold to dealers in Atlantic; those caught
on the west shore were sold to dealers in
Oriental, Hobucken, Engelhard, and Stumpy
Point, N.C; and those produced in the north-
ern part of the Sound near Roanoke Island and
near the inlets were sold to dealers in Wan-
chese and Hatteras, N.C. Ninety-five percent
of the catch was shipped to northern markets;
the remainder was consunned locally.
Neuse River and Tributaries
The Neuse River is formedby the confluence
of the Eno and Flat Rivers in Durham County,
N.C. It flows southeast 180 miles before en-
tering the southern part of Pamlico Sound
near Turnagain Bay. The principal tributary
streanis are the Little River, Contentnea
Creek, and the Trent River. The Inland Water-
way connects the south shore of the Neuse with
the Beaufort Inlet by way of Adams Creek. In
1896 the Neuse was the most important shad
stream between the St. Johns River, Fla., and
the James River, Va. Shad formerly ascended
the Neuse in great numbers, and profitable
fisheries were operated upstream as far as
Raleigh, N.C, 300 nniles from the coast
(McDonald, 1887b). Most of the catch, however,
was made within 22 miles below and above
New Bern,
Several types of commercial gear were
used throughout the river and tributaries for
taking shad in 1896. The gear used from the
mouth to Contentnea Creek consisted of seines,
drift gill nets, bow nets, stake gill nets, and
pound nets; seines were the most important.
From Contentnea Creek to the headwaters,
bow nets, seines, and stake gill nets were
fished. The gear in Contentnea Creek included
seines, stake gill nets, and bow nets. Shad
did not run far upstream in the Trent River;
seines and drift nets operated only in the
lower river.
The catch by all gear in 1896 was 873,185
lb., of which seines caught about 55 percent,
stake gill nets 13 percent, bownets 12 percent,
pound nets 1 1 percent, and drift gill nets the
remainder.
In i960 the river was free of obstructions
to Goldsboro, N.C, 110 miles, where a low-
head dam equipped with a pool-type fishway
was built in 1952 (fig. 11). During periods of
high flow, fish moving upstream can swim
over the dam, but in low flow, fish must use
the fishway to gain access to the river above.
Fish that passed above the dam could ascend
the river to Millburnie Dann near Raleigh,
N.C, 55 miles away. The Trent River also
was free of obstructions, and shad ascended
to Comfort, N.C, 25 miles from the mouth
of the tributary. In Contentnea Creek, Wiggins
39
Figure 11.— Low-head dam, equipped with a pool-type fishway (left center), Neuse River near Goldsboro, N.C.
Mill Dam near Wilson, N.C., 30 miles from
the mouth, prevented upstream movement of
fish. The spawning grounds in the Neuse ex-
tended from New Bern, N.C., to the dam near
Goldsboro and included the entire range in
both tributaries.
The coastal fishing area of the Neuse River
in I960 extended from the mouth to Pitch
Kettle Landing, about 20 miles east of Kinston,
N.C. This stretch included Turnagain Bay, all
creeks flowing into the river below New Bern,
and the lower 5 miles of the Trent River. Three
fishing gears were used in this area: pound
nets, stake gill nets, and drift gill nets. Pound
nets with 2- to 4-in. mesh leads lOOto 200 yd.
long and 1 1/2- to 2-in.-mesh pockets were
fished in the lower section from Turnagain
Bay to Cherry Point, N.C. Stake gill nets were
fished in the Neuse from the mouth to Streets
Ferry, above New Bern, and in the Trent from
Wilson Creek, 10 miles upstream from New
Bern, to the vicinity of Comfort, N.C. The
nets ranged from 8 to 50 yd. long, 25 to 35
meshes deep, and 4- to 5 l/2-in. mesh. Drift
gill nets were fished in the upper section of
the Neuse between New Bern and Pitch Kettle
(figs. 12 and 13). These nets ranged from 35
to 100 yd. long, 35 to 45 meshes deep, and
5 1/4- to 5 1/2-in. mesh.
The inland fishing area extended from Pitch
Kettle to the upper limit of shad range in the
river and tributaries. Six fishing gears were
used in this area: stake gill nets, haul seines,
drift gill nets, bow nets, fish wheels, and rod
and reel. Stake gill nets and bow nets were
fished throughout the entire inland area. Bow
nets had an oval opening 4 to 10 ft. wide and
6 to 8 ft. long. Haul seines and drift gill nets
were used near Pitch Kettle. Seines averaged
90 yd. long with 1 1/4- to 2-in. mesh; the gill
nets were similar to those in the coastal
fishery.
40
Figure 12. — Drift gill net fishing, Neuse River, N.C.
Total catch by gear and amount of gear
fished for shad in the Neuse River and tribu-
taries during I960 are given in table 23. The
coastal catch was 145,272 lb., of which the
Trent River contributed about 20 percent. The
catch was sold to dealers in New Bern. The
inland catch was 242,994 lb., of which bow
nets accounted for about 76 percent. Shad from
fish wheels were incidental to catches of other
species. The catch was taken primarily for
local consumption.
The amount of drift gill nets fished in I960
was larger than in 1896, but the catch was
smaller. The stake gill net fishery has re-
mained relatively stable; and the catch and
annount of gear have decreased only slightly.
Catch and nunnber of pound nets and haul
seines have decreased since 1896. Both catch
and number of bow nets have increased. The
Neuse River catch accounted for less than
10 percent of the total North Carolina
yield in 1896, but more than 30 percent in
I960,
Pamlico-Tar River
The Pamlico-Tar River is composed of the
Pamlico River, which extends from a point
immediately above Washington, N.C., to the
mouth, and the Tar River, which is upstreann
from Washington. The Pamlico section is 37
miles long, and the Tar section is 180 nniles
long.
The shad fishery on the Pamlico-Tar in
1896 extended from the river mouth to a short
distance below Rocky Mount, where a natural
falls blocked further upstream movement. The
gears were seines, stake gill nets, drift gill
nets, pound nets, and bow nets. Seines were
operated from Core Point, 16 miles below
Washington, to Pillsboro Landing, 33 nniles
above the town. The length of the seines was
450 to 1,000 yd. in the Pamlico River and 50
to 200 yd. in the Tar River. The estimated
catch was 282,900 lb. Seines caught about
135,437 lb, in the Pamlico and 27,740 lb, in
the Tar. Stake gill nets in the Pamlico River
caught an estimated 34,219 lb. These nets
averaged 20 yd, long and 10 to 12 ft. deep and
had 5-3/8- to 5 l/2-in. mesh. Drift gill nets
fished near Washington averaged 100 yd. long
and caught about 30,765 lb. Pound nets near
the mouth of the river caught an estimated
32,721 lb.
The coastal fishing area extended from the
nnouth of the Pamlico River to the Highway 17
bridge at Washington. Gears fished were 56
pound nets and 53,580 yd. of stake gill nets
(greatest concentration near Pamlico and Core
Beaches). Pound net leads averaged 120 yd,
long; the gill nets averaged 30 yd. long and 35
nneshes deep and had 5 l/2-in, mesh. The catch
in the coastal area was 67,641 lb., of which
stake gill nets took 74 percent and pound nets 26
percent; the catch was marketed in Washing-
ton, N.C.
The inland fishing area was confined to the
Tar River and extended from Washington to
the dam at Rocky Mount. The dam, about 122
miles from the river mouth blocked further
upstream movement of the fish. The fishing
41
Figure 13. — Drift gill net being lifted at end of a drift, Neuse River, N.C.
gear included 30,000 yd. of drift gill nets (30
to 80 yd. long, 35 to 45 meshes deep, and 5-
to 5 1/2-in. mesh) and 692 bow nets. The
greatest concentration of gill nets was near
Greenville and that of bow nets was near
Tarboro. The catch in the inland area was
245,000 lb., of which gill nets caught about
78 percent and bow nets 22 percent. About 50
percent of the inland area catch was marketed
in Washington, and the remainder was con-
sumed locally.
The gears and locations fished for shad
in i960 were the same as in 1896 except
that no seines were operated in the Pam-
lico River in I960. Twice as many pound
nets were fished in I960 as in 1896, but the
catch was only half as large. The catch by
gill nets and bow nets was larger in I960
than in 1896.
Table 23, --Shad catch, by area and gear, Neuse River, N. C. , and
tributaries, 1960
Area and gear
Quantity
Length
fished
Catch
Coastal:
Number
15
2,460
135
160
15
5
991
7
150
Yards
57,900
6,750
1,360
750
450
Pounds
3 900
Stake gill net
Drift gill net
Inland:
Stake gill net
Drift gill net
Raul seine
84,638
56.734
21,052
6,303
24,960
183,614
Fish wheel
Rod and reel
6,560
505
Total
3,788
67,210
388,266
42
Croatan and Roanoke Sounds
Separated by Roanoke Island, these sounds
parallel each other and extend south from
eastern Albemarle Sound into northeastern
Pamlico Sound. Roanoke Sound, west of the
island, is 8 miles long, 1/2 to 2 miles wide,
and 1 to 3 ft. deep over most of its area.
Croatan Sound, east of the island, is 8 miles
long, 2 to 4 miles wide, and generally 7 to
10 ft. deep. Most shad migrating from Pamlico
to Albennarle Sound use the east channel; the
fishery in Croatan Sound is more important,
therefore, than in Roanoke Sound.
Stake gill nets and pound nets were the only
gears fished in these waters in 1896 except
for one seine in the extreme upper end of
Croatan Sound. The estimated catch was
714,994 lb., of which Croatan Sound produced
96 percent.
Pound nets, stake gill nets, and anchor gill
nets were used in both sounds in I960. Twenty
pound nets and 2,700 yd. of stake gill net and
anchor gill net were fished in Roanoke Sound
in 1960. Forty-four pound nets and 14,500 yd.
of stake gill net and anchor gill net were
fished in Croatan Sound. In both sounds, the
gill nets ranged fronn 15 to 100 yd. long and
25 to 40 meshes deep and had 5 1/4- to
5-3/8-in. mesh. The nets were set primarily
for striped bass, and shad catches were in-
cidental. The shad catch was 39,766 lb. (72
percent) in Croatan Sound and 15,504 lb. (28
percent) in Roanoke Sound. Pound nets took
69 percent of the combined catch. The catch
from both sounds was sold to dealers in
Wanchese and Manns Harbor, N.C.
Although the areas fished and distribution
of the catch in Croatan and Roanoke Sounds
have changed little over the years, the amount
of gear fished and the catch were much smaller
in I960 than in 1896.
Albemarle Sound
Albemarle Sound joins Pannlico Sound
through Croatan and Roanoke Sounds and is
joined with Currituck Sound to the northeast.
Albemarle Sound has an east-west dimension
of 55 miles and averages 7 miles wide and 16
to 20 ft, deep. Eight rivers empty into the
Sound; since it receives such large river
drainage and has only indirect exchange with
the sea, it is essentially fresh water.
The shad fisheries of Albemarle Sound in
1896 were among the most important on the
Atlantic coast. The season began about Feb-
ruary 1 and lasted until mid-April. Of the
3,100,474 lb. caught, 58 percent was taken by
stake gill nets, 24 percent by pound nets, and
18 percent by seines. Gill nets averaged 20 yd.
long and 10 to 14 ft. deep, and had 5 1/4- to
5 l/2-in. mesh: they were set in strings of 50
to 500 nets. Pound nets were set along the
shores, 1 to 25 nets on each string. Seines
averaged about 2,500 yd. long and 12 to 16 ft.
deep and had 2-in. mesh in the bunt and 3-in.
mesh in the wings. Principal fishing centers
in the Sound were Edenton, Peter Mashew's
Creek, Mackeys Ferry and vicinity, and Pear
Tree Point.
In addition to the fishery in the Sound proper
in 1896, 175,348 lb. of shad were taken in the
Pasquotank and Perquimans Rivers. The Pas-
quotank extends 15 miles inland and has an
average width of 2 miles and a depth of 10 or
12 ft. This river yielded about 36,930 lb., of
which seines caught 53 percent, pound nets
32 percent, stake gill nets 11 percent, and
bow nets the remainder. The Perquimans is
12 miles long, and averages more than 1 mile
wide and 10 to 1 2 ft. deep. It yielded about
138,418 lb., of which pound nets caught 39
percent, stake gill nets 38 percent, and seines
23 percent.
In i960 stake and anchor gill nets, pound
nets, and haul seines were used in the shad
fisheries of Albemarle Sound. A total of 70,350
yd. of gill net was fished along the south shore;
4,050 yd. in the Alligator River and 18,000 yd.
along the north shore (Currituck Sound and
Pasquotank and Perquimans Rivers are in-
cluded in totals for the north shore.). The fish-
ing of gill nets was illegal in the Sound west of
Highway 32 bridge. Twelve pound nets were
fished along the south shore near Mackeys, 9
in lower Albemarle Sound, and 6 along the
north shore off the mouth of the Pasquotank
River. One haul seine was operated in western
Albemarle Sound near the railroad bridge and
one in the eastern part near Point Harbor,
N.C.
Gill nets were 10 to 150 yd. long and 30 to
45 meshes deep, and had 4- to 5 l/2-in. mesh.
Pound net leads were 100 to 200 yd. long, and
each seine was 150 yd. long. The catch by all
gears was 94,837 lb., of which gill nets caught
93 percent, pound nets 4 percent, and haul
seines 3 percent. Most of the catch was mar-
keted in Elizabeth City, Edenton, and Colum-
bia, N.C.
Since 1896 the areas fished and the gear
used in the fishery have remained essentially
unchanged. The extent of the fisheries, how-
ever, both in amount of gear fished and catch,
has decreased greatly, and the fishery could
not continue if it were wholly dependent on
shad.
Roanoke River
The Roanoke River, a narrow, rapid stream
formed by the confluence of the Dan and Staun-
ton Rivers in Mecklenburg County, Va., follows
a winding course of 198 miles before entering
Albemarle Sound below Plymouth, N.C.
The commercial fishery of the Roanoke in
1896 was confined to the lower river, from the
mouth to Williamston. The gears were seines,
43
bow nets, stake and drift gill nets, and fish
wheels. The estinnated catch was 714,437 lb.,
of which seines caught about 85 percent, bow
nets 8 percent, stake gill nets 4 percent, drift
gill nets 2 percent, and wheels the rennainder.
The fisheries were centered principally at
Plymouth, Jamesville, and Williamston, N.C.
In I960 a dam at Roanoke Rapids, N.C, 137
miles from the river mouth, obstructed the
stream. Shad ascended only to the vicinity of
Spring Hill, N.C, however, about 60 miles
above the river mouth. The location of spawn-
ing grounds is not known, although spawned-
out fish were seen in catches between Palmyra
and Williamston, N.C.
Shad were taken in I960 from the mouth of
the river upstream to a short distance above
Palmyra. The gears were stake gill nets, fyke
nets, and fish wheels (fig. 14). Shad catch from
all gears was incidental to the catches of
striped bass, Roccus saxatilis, and herrings,
Alosa spp. Seines normally were operated
from the mouth of the river to Willianaston,
but none were fished during I960 because of
high water. A few bow nets were fished near
Palmyra, but the shad catch was negligible.
Each stake gill net was 15 yd. long and 25
meshes deep and had 5 l/4-in. mesh. The
shad catch was 1,418 lb., of which stake gill
nets caught 49 percent, fyke nets 40 percent,
and fishwheels 1 1 percent. The catch was con-
sunned locally.
The fishery on the Roanoke River in I960
had changed much since 1896. The 1896 yield
of 714,437 lb. of shad represented about 8
percent of the total North Carolina production,
but the i960 catch was only about 0,1 percent.
Since 1896 the annount of gear and the size of
catch both have decreased enormously. Pulp
mill wastes probably were the cause of low
survival of anadromous fishes, particularly
shad, in the lower Roanoke River (Taylor,
C.C 1951).
Figure 14. — Flshwheel operated on the Roanoke River, N.C.
(The wire scoop revolves with the axle and captures fish
in the water between the boats as It emerges from the
water and dumps them into chutes leading to the boats.)
Chowan River
The Chowan River, formed by the junction
of the Blackwater and Nottoway Rivers near
the North Carolina- Virginia boundary, flows
55 miles to northwestern Albemarle Sound.
From the mouth of the river to Holiday Island,
20 miles away, the river averages 1 1/2 miles
wide and 15 to 20 ft. deep. In the upper 35
miles, the river narrows to about half the
width of the lower section and is shallower.
In 1896, the difference was remarkable be-
tween the fishing gear used for taking shad in
the Chowan and the gear in similar areas in
North Carolina. Bow nets, stake gill nets, and
fish wheels were not used. Ninety-eight percent
of the catch was by pound nets and seines. The
only other gear was drift gill nets. Most of the
total catch of 774,055 lb. was made between
the mouth of the river and Harrellsville, N.C.
In I960 the river was free of obstructions,
and shad ascended to the vicinity of Murfrees-
boro, N.C, 45 miles above the river mouth.
The nnajor spawning grounds were from the
vicinity of Highway 13 bridge upstreann to 10
miles below Murfreesboro.
The coastal fishery in I960 extended from
the nnouth of the river to the Virginia line;
various gears were used. Pound nets and
seines were fished from the mouth of the river
to Holiday Island; gill nets were illegal in this
area. Above Holiday Island stake gill nets and
pound nets were fished to Highway 13 bridge.
Above the bridge drift gill nets, seines, and
anchor gill nets were fished. The stake gill
nets and anchor gill nets ranged from 30 to 60
yd, long and 40 to 60 meshes deep and had 4-
to 5 l/4-in. mesh. Each drift gill net was 30
yd. long and 45 meshes deep and had 5 l/4-in.
mesh. The seines averaged 150 yd. long and
148 meshes deep and had 2 1/4-in. mesh. Pound
nets and seines were operated primarily for
alewife, Alosa pseudoharengus, and blueback
herring, A. aestivalis, whereas gill nets were
fished almost exclusively for shad.
The total shad catch in I960 was 19,166 lb.,
of which pound nets caught about 58 percent;
stake and anchor gill nets 34 percent, and
seines and drift gill nets the remainder. The
pound net catch was marketed in Colerain,
N.C; the rest of the catch was consumed
locally.
The shad in the Chowan River decreased
drastically from 774,055 lb, in 1896 to 19,146
lb. in i960. The largest decrease in catch was
by pound nets and haul seines. The catch per
pound net was about 1,156 lb. in 1896 and 20 lb.
in i960. The catch by haul seines decreased
from 254,932 lb. in 1896 to 750 lb. in I960.
TRENDS IN PRODUCTION
Few records are available on the shad pro-
duction for North Carolina prior to 1880.
Stevenson (1899), however, illustrated the
44
comparative abundance by the catch for a
series of years at the Greenfield seine fishery
on Albemarle Sound. The catch increased from
1852 to 1870; the average annual yield was
1 17,218 lb. for the first 5 yr. and 146,11 1 lb.
for the last 5 yr. The catch decreased rapidly
from 1876 to 1880 to an average annual yield
of 60,148 lb.
The catch varied widely from 1880 to I960.
In 1880 to 1897, the shad fisheries of North
Carolina had their greatest development, and
production increased from about 3 million
pounds to nearly 9 million pounds (table 24),
From 1902 to 1918, however, production de-
creased, and the decline was more rapid than
the increase had been. The catch in 1918 was
only 18 percent of that in 1897. Between 1923
and 1928 production increased slightly, but by
1931 decreased to less than 10 percent of the
1897 take. From 1931 to 1945 production re-
mained low, and the annual yield was about
12 percent of the 1897 yield. From 1950 to
Table 24. — Shad catch for certain years.
North Carolina, 1880-1960^
[In thousands of pounds]
Year
Catch
1880 3,221
1887 4,783
1888 5,725
1889 5,403
1890 5,815
1896 8,843
1897 8,963
1902 6,567
1904 3,230
1908 3,942
1918 1,657
1923 2,370
1927 2,387
1928 3,118
1929. . - . . 1,913
1930 1,172
1931 883
1932 925
Year
Catch
1934 1.274
1936 1,095
1937 698
1938 1,032
1939 859
1940 801
1945 912
1950 1,100
1951 1,244
1952 1,479
1953 1,188
1954 1,445
1955 649
1956 773
1957 837
1958 493
1959 419
1960 702
^Statistics 1880-1959, U.S. Fish and Wild-
life Service (1958-61); 1904 (Cobb, 1906).
1 960 the annual production fluctuated from a
high of 1,479,000 lb. in 1952 to alow of 419,000
lb. in 1959. The I960 yield was greater than
that of the 2 previous yr., but was less than
10 percent of the yield of 1897.
(Dverfishing was thought to be chiefly re-
sponsible for the decline in catch, and various
remedies were sought. In 1873 the State began
artificial propagation of shad, and in 1878 the
U.S. Fish Commission assisted in the attempt
to restore the fishery (Snnith, 1907). Early
results indicated that stocking of shad fry
accomplished its purpose since catch increased
from 1880 to 1897. After that time the catch
decreased in spite of continued plantings, and
in 1943 it was decided that artificial propaga-
tion as practiced was of little value in main-
taining the supply of shad; consequently, stock-
ing was discontinued.
Cobb (1906) reported on the conditions of
the fisheries which resulted in the early de-
cline and recommended regulations to curtail
fishing intensity. He stated that seines pro-
duced nearly 2 million pounds in 1897, but
less than 1/2 million pounds by 1904. Gill nets
produced nearly 5 million pounds in 1897, but
only about 1 million pounds in 1904, even though
the number of nets fished increased during this
period. In 1887 the pound net catch was less
than 1/2 million pounds, but by 1897 it had
increased to nnore than 2 million pounds.
From 1897 to 1904 the catch decreased each
season, while the number of pound nets in-
creased from 1,575 to 2,837.
A number of factors have been cited as con-
tributors to fluctuations and general decline
in North Carolina shad production. Roelofs
(1951) reported that the history of the decline
paralleled that of the entire Atlantic coast and
that dams, overfishing, and pollution were the
three pivotal factors, Mansueti and Kolb (1953)
cited increased fishing intensity in North
Carolina waters, andlisted the probable causes
as improved fishing methods, more fishermen,
and better market and transportation facilities,
Pulpwood, petroleum products, andfertilizer
materials have been important items of com-
merce on most North Carolina rivers for many
years. The effect on shad abundance of oil from
ships and waste effluents from industrial plants
and pulpmills cannot be evaluated, however,
because no measure of pollution is available
to correlate with fish production.
SHAD FISHERIES OF VIRGINIA
In 1896 the principal shad fisheries of the
United States were in Chesapeake Bay and its
tributaries. The catch in Virginia waters was
11,170,519 lb., of which 4,507,184 were taken
in the Bay and 6,663,335 in the rivers (includ-
ing Potomac River landings by Virginia fisher-
men): drift gill nets produced about 42 percent,
pound nets 37 percent, stake gill nets 13 per-
cent, seines 7 percent, and nniscellaneous gears
the remainder.
Shad entered Chesapeake Bay in I960 as
early as January, and the run continued through
May. The estimated catch in Virginia was
1,386,138 lb.; Chesapeake and Mobjack Bays
yielded 488,200 lb., the Bay tributaries 892,938
lb., and the Atlantic shore 5,000 lb. Of the
45
total catch, pound nets produced about 43 per-
cent, stake gill nets 34 percent, drift gill nets
22 percent, and seines and fyke nets the re-
mainder.
The catch by gear and amount of gear fished
in 1896 and I960 are given by water area in
tables 25 and 26. A map of the area is shown
in figure 15.
FISHERIES BY WATER AREA
The fisheries of Virginia are regulated by
the Virginia Commissioners of Fisheries.
During the 1961 season the Commissioners
licensed stake gill nets by 600-ft. rows, lim-
ited the length of drift gill nets to 600 ft., and
permitted taking shad from inlets and rivers
Table 25. — Gear employed in shad fisheries, by water area, Virginia, 1896 and 1960
1896
1960
Mater area
Drift
gill
net
Stake
giu
net
Seine
Pound
net
Miscel-
laneous
Drift
gill
net
Stake
gill
net
Seine
Pound
net
Fyke
net
Chesapeake Bay :
Eastern Shore
Western Shore. ,
Mob jack Bay
James River and tributaries ;
Below Chickahominy River . .
Above Chickahominy River , .
Chickahominy River
Appomattox River
York River and tributaries :
Yards
80,747
28,842
6,720
51,341
46,601
16,792
67,000
Yards
12,470
34,898
2,440
6,461
378
27,164
6,133
Yards
1,400
1,450
2,425
1,225
475
780
986
2,020
13,600
Number
50
404
76
6
90
231
299
Number
Yards
15,500
8,400
2,200
28,800
22,700
4,700
8,461
Yards
29,400
24,858
44,400
6,170
Yards
300
Number
2
132
24
2
12
40
160
Number
52
Pamunkey River
Mattaponi River
Rappahannock River
15
35
Total
298,043
90,214
24,361
1,156
94
90,761
104,828
300
372
102
^ Hedges (see text).
Fyke nets.
^ Eight fyke nets and 19 fall traps.
Table 26,— Shad catch by water area and ^ear, Virginia,, 1896 and I960
[In pounds]
1896
1960
Water area
Drift
gill
net
Stake
gill
net
Seine
Pound
net
i-ii^icel-
ianeous
Drift
gill
net
Stake
gill
net
Seine
Pound
net
Fyke
net
Chesapeake Bay :
Eastern Shore
Western Shore
Mobjack Bay
James River ajid tributaries :
Below Chickahominy River , ,
Above Chickahominy River , .
Chickahominy River
Appomattox River
York River and tributaries :
York River
683,586
459,035
U,652
629,893
592,084
140, 7U
496,544
151,868
320,027
34,619
148,684
4,467
363,056
40,135
19,116
63,491
61,057
28,973
872
8,138
35,278
33,963
276,813
126,954
3,737,477
490,885
10,875
484,333
915,343
758,512
6,276
2,057
3,742
61,835
39,965
3,938
103,162
65,957
14,100
18,956
195,559
173,462
54,884
43,194
192
■^7,500
407,122
78,578
740
12,545
18,880
72,830
9,5U
Pamunkey River
Mattaponi River
Rappahannock River
Potomac River
1,500
1,728
Total. . .
3,043,508
1,062,856
527,701
6,524,379
12,075
307,913
467,099
192
598,195
12,739
Includes 5,000 pounds taken by pound and stationary gill nets in bays and inlets along the Atlantic shore.
46
Figure 15. — Map of eastern Virginia and Maryland,
and Delaware.
Key: 1 Cape Henry
44
Leon
2 Norfolk
45
Upper Marl-
3 James River
boro
4 Hopewell
46
Drury
5 Appomattox
47
Laurel
River
48
Kent Island
6 Richmond
49
Swan Point
7 Lanexa
50
Rock Hall
8 Walker
51
Romney Creek
9 Chickahominy
52
Havre de
River
Grace
10 Gloucester
53
Conowingo
Point
Dam
1 1 York River
54
Susquehanna
12 West Point
River
13 Pamunkey
55
Port Deposit
River
56
Elk River
14 South Anna
57
Northeast
River
River
15 North Anna
58
Sassafrass
River
River
16 Mobjack Bay
59
Millington
17 Mattaponi
60
Chester River
River
61
Tuckahoe
18 Walkerton
Creek
19 Matta River
62
Hillsboro
20 Po River
63
Greensboro
21 Ni River
64
Choptank
22 Fredericks-
River
burg
65
Federalsburg
23 Port Royal
66
Marshyhope
24 Portobago Bay
Creek
25 Chesapeake
67
Secretary
Bay
68
Vienna
26 Monaskan
69
Seaford
27 Rappahannock
70
Woodland
River
71
Broad Creek
28 Potomac River
72
Nanticoke
29 Cape Charles
River
30 Pocomoke
73
Salisbury
Sound
74
Wicomico
31 Tangier Sound
River
32 Sandy Point
75
Snow Hill
33 U.S. 301 Bridge
76
Pocomoke
34 Occoquan Bay
River
35 Alexandria
77
Pocomoke
36 Washington,
City
D.C.
78
Lewes
37 Little Falls
79
Bowers Beach
38 Great Falls
80
Bombay Hook
39 Cove Point
81
Delaware
40 Patuxent
River
River
82
Stow Creek
41 Benedict
83
Cohansey
42 Lower Marl-
Creek
boro
84
Maurice River
43 Dunkirk
85
Delaware Bay
47
from October 16 to May 25. Fishing was legal
7 days a week during the season. Because of
possible navigational difficulties, locations
fished by stationary nets in Chesapeake Bay
and its tributaries were designated by the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers so that shipping
channels were unobstructed.
During I960 several types of commercial
gear were used in the shad fishery. Pound
nets were used principally on the western
shore of Chesapeake Bay and in the mouths of
tributaries. Stake gill nets were set in the
lower sections of the tributaries, which are
essentially arms of the Bay. A few fyke nets
and haul seines were fished in the stake gill
net areas, but caught few shad. Drift gill nets
were the only gear in the upper section of the
rivers, with the exception of a few stake gill
nets and an occasional fyke net.
Chesapeake Bay in Virginia
Chesapeake Bay, located in Virginia and
Maryland, is 190 miles long. The mouth of
the Bay, between Capes Charles and Henry,
Va., is 13.8 miles wide. The width of the Bay
proper varies from 12 to 24 miles in Virginia
and from 3 to 16 miles in Maryland. Tribu-
taries supporting shad fisheries in Virginia
in 1896 were the James, York, and Rappa-
hannock Rivers, plus the Potomac River (see
section on Potomac River.). Mobjack Bay, a
lateral extension of the Chesapeake, was also
an innportant production area. This Bay, lo-
cated immediately north of the York River,
is 12 miles long, 3 to 4 miles wide, and 18 to
25 ft. deep.
Shad migrate along the western shore of
Chesapeake Bay, apparently attracted by the
fresh water from the large tributaries that
enter from the west (Stevenson, 1899). The
shad season of 1896 began about March 20, and
fish were taken until the end of June. During
this period, more than 4 1/2 million pounds
were caught in Virginia waters of the Bay- -97
percent on the western shore. From the Bay
entrance to the mouth of the Potomac River,
excluding Mobjack Bay, 404 pound nets caught
3,737,477 lb., and 12,470 yd. of stake gill net
took 151,868 lb. In Mobjack Bay, 70 pound nets
produced 490,885 lb. On the Eastern Shore,
50 pound nets caught 126,954 lb.
In 1960, 158 pound nets were fished in Virginia
waters of Chesapeake Bay. On the western
shore, 132 nets were used--7 from Cape Henry
to the mouth of the James River, 30 from the
James to the mouth of the York River, 52
from the York to the nnouth of the Rappa-
hannock River, and 43 from the Rappahannock
to the Maryland line at Smith Point, Va.
Twenty-four pound nets were fished in Mobjack
Bay. On the Eastern Shore, two pound nets were
fished near Tangier Island, Md. The estimated
catch in Virginia waters of the Bay in I960
was 488,200 lb. In addition, pound nets and
gill nets fished in bays and inlets along the
Atlantic shore, exclusive of Chesapeake Bay,
caught an estimated 5,000 lb.
The shad catch in the Virginia part of
Chesapeake Bay, as in many other areas, de-
clined over the past century. In 1896, 76 pound
nets in Mobjack Bay produced an estimated
490,885 lb., whereas 24 nets in the same area
in I960 yielded 78,578 lb. The catch in the
entire Bay declined from 4,507,184 lb. in 1896
to a low of 488,200 lb. in I960.
James River
The James River, the southernnnost tribu-
tary of Chesapeake Bay, lies entirely in Vir-
ginia. The river has its source in the Allegheny
Mountains, where it is formed by the union of
the Jackson and Cowpasture Rivers in Bote-
tourt County. It is 350 miles long and flows
through Richmond and into the Bay at Norfolk.
The lower 42 miles of river form an arm of
the Bay, which is fron-i 2 to 6 miles wide. The
main tributaries are the North, Buffalo, Slate,
Rivanna, Willis, Appomattox, and Chicka-
hominy Rivers; only the latter two support
shad fisheries.
The Chickahominy River originates in
Henrico County 12 miles northwest of Rich-
mond and flows 60 miles before entering the
James 42 miles from Chesapeake Bay. In 1943
a low-head dam, which obstructs theupstreani
movement of fish, was constructed at Walker,
20 miles above the mouth of the tributary.
The Appomattox River, the longest tributary
of the James, rises in Appomattox County and
flows 140 miles before entering the James at
Hopewell, 72 miles from Chesapeake Bay. A
dam built on the Appomattox at Petersburg
during the nnid-1800's did not seriously affect
the shad runs because natural falls and rapids
are located imnnediately upstream from the
dam.
The shad catch of the James River and trib-
utaries in 1896 was 1,728,707 lb., of which the
river proper produced approximately 65 per-
cent, the Chickahominy 30 percent, and the
Appomattox 5 percent. The principal fishing
gear below the Chickahominy was the stake
gill net, with an occasional pound net or seine.
From the Chickahominy to the Appomattox,
drift gill nets were the principal gear, but
some seines and stake gill nets were fished
locally. Above the Appomattox, drift gill nets
were fished except in the falls below Richmond
where traps were used.
The Chickahominy River was one of the
most productive shad streams for its size in
the United States in 1896. Fish ascended this
tributary to the vicinity of Providence Forge,
30 miles above the mouth. The estimated catch
was 526,368 lb., of which 459,035 lb. were
caught by 28,842 yd. of drift gill nets, fished
48
from Lanexa to the upper limit of the shad
range. Eight haul seines, operated from the
river mouth to Lanexa, caught 61,057 lb., and
hedge used above Providence Forge caught
6,726 lb.
Shad were taken in the Appomattox River in
1896 by drift gill nets and seines. The esti-
mated catch was 70,625 lb., of which drift nets
caught 59 percent and seines 41 percent.
In I960 a dam in the James River near
Richmond limited the upstream movement of
shad to 105 miles; few fish were taken how-
ever, above Hopewell, 30 nniles below the dam.
Ripe females in the catch indicated that the
shad spawning area extended 27 miles, fronn
Sandy Point (43 miles from the river mouth)
to Hopewell. In the Chickahominy River the
major spawning area was near Lanexa, 5 miles
below the Walker Dam (Massmann, 1952). In
the Appomattox River the section between
Hopewell and Petersburg was heavily polluted
with industrial and domestic wastes and there-
fore was probably of little in-iportance for shad
spawning (Massmann, 1952),
The shad fisheries extended from the river
mouth to Hopewell in the James River, up to
the dam at Walker in the Chickahominy as far
as 4 miles above the river mouth in the Ap-
pomattox. The fisheries were divided into two
areas: the lower section, downstream from
the mouth of the Chickahominy River; and the
upper section, which included the James River
from the mouth of the Chickahorrjiny to Hope-
well, and the Chickahominy and Appomattox
Rivers.
In the lower section, two pound nets, fished
near the James River Bridge, caught 740 lb.
of shad. A total of 29,400 yd. of stake gill nets
(fig. 16), 10 to 25 yd, long, 25 to 45 meshes
deep, and with 5- to 5 l/2-in. mesh, caught
195,559 lb. In the upper section, 15,500 yd. of
drift gill nets, fished from the Chickahominy
to Hopewell, caught 61 ,835 lb. of shad; 8,400 yd.
from the Chickahominy to the dam at Walker
caught 39,965 lb.; and 2,200 yd. in the Ap-
pomattox caught 3,938 lb. The drift gill nets
ranged from 75 to 150 yd. long and 45 to 65
meshes deep and had 5- to 5 l/2-in. mesh.
Ten haul seines and 43 fyke nets, fished pri-
marily for other species, took few shad. A rod-
and-reel fishery for hickory shad, Alosa
mediocris, at Walkers Dam on the Chicka-
hominy took some shad, but no estimate was
made of the catch.
In I960 shad fishing began in the James
River and tributaries the last week in February
and continued to mid- May. The estimated catch
was 302,037 lb., of which the lower section of
the river produced 65 percent and the upper
section 35 percent. Of the catch in the upper
section, the Jan-ies yielded 58 percent, the
Chickahominy 38 percent, and the Appomattox
4 percent. Most of the catch was sold to
dealers in Richmond.
Fishing methods on the James River andtrib-
utaries have changed little over the past half
century; however, the catch and amount of
gear fished have declined. In I960, 29,400 yd.
of stake nets were used as compared to 87,000
yd. in 1896. Two pound nets were fished in
1960, compared with three in 1896. The amount
of drift gill nets fished was 116,309 yd, in 1896
and 23,700 yd. in I960. The peak catch of shad
in the James River and tributaries was in
1896, when more than 1.7 million pounds were
reported; production remained high through
1931. In 1932, however, the yield decreased to
323,736 lb. and continued low until 1943. The
catch increased to 904,300 lb. in 1944 and re-
mained moderate until 1956. During 1956 to
I960, the annual yield averaged slightly more
than 400,000 lb.
York River
Figure 16. — "Riding-down" polesfor stake gill nets, James
River, Va. (Photograph courtesy of Virginia Institute of
Marine Science, Gloucester Point, Va.)
^ Hedge or pocket consisting of a crude dam, 2 or 3 feet
high, permitting the passage of fish only through an open-
ing. Fishermen took shad by dip net as the fish attempted
passage.
The York River is formed by the union of
the Pamunkey and Mattaponi Rivers at West
Point and flows southeast 28 miles before
entering Chesapeake Bay at Tue Point. The
Pamunkey is formed by the junction of the
North Anna and South Anna Rivers in central
Virginia and flows 100 miles to its union with
the Mattaponi, The Mattaponi is formed by
the Matta, Po, and Ni Rivers and flows 120
miles to unite with the Pamunkey, Tidal in-
fluence extends 45 miles up the Pamunkey and
30 miles up the Mattaponi. The change from
brackish to fresh water occurs 10 miles above
West Point in each tributary.
Shad ascended the York and tributaries in
large numbers in 1896, and most were caught
in the main river and in the lower 30 miles of
each tributary. The estimated catch was
1,905,806 lb., of which the York produced
635,946 lb., the Pamunkey 642,498 lb., and the
Mattaponi 627,362 lb. Pound nets and gill nets
49
were the principal gears, but some fish also
were taken in fyke nets and seines. Pound nets
were fished from the mouth of the York to
Gloucester Point, and stake gill nets from
Copahasic to West Point and in the mouth of
the Pamunkey; fyke nets were intermingled
with the stake gill nets. Drift gill nets were
fished in both tributaries, and seines were
scattered throughout the entire river system.
Many seines were operated formerly in the
Mattaponi, but by 1896 they had been replaced
by the cheaper and more effective drift gill
nets. The stake gill nets were from 6 to 9 yd.
long and 35 meshes deep and had 5-in. mesh;
they were set in strings of 10 to 20 nets in 11
to 14 ft. of water. The fishing season began
the first week in March and closed about the
end of May; the greater part of the catch was
made in April, No fish were taken in the South
Anna and North Anna Rivers.
The York River was free of obstructions to
the passage of fish in 1960, and shad ascended
each tributary at least 30 miles. The major
spawning grounds in the Pamunkey were near
White House Landing, 15 to 25 miles above
West Point, and in the Mattaponi between the
Mattaponi Indian Reservation and Walkerton,
20 miles above West Point (Massmann,
1952).
The fisheries of the York River and tribu-
taries extended 60 miles from the mouth of
the York to Tunstall in the Pamunkey and 50
miles to Walkerton in the Mattaponi. Four
gears were used: pound nets from the mouth
of the river to Gloucester Point, 6 miles; fyke
nets and stake gill nets from Gloucester Point
to West Point, 20 miles; and drift gill nets in
each tributary from West Point to the upper
limits of the fishery. In both the Mattaponi and
Pamunkey, most fishing with drift nets was by
Indians living on reservations (fig. 17). Pound
and fyke nets were fished from early spring
until fall; after the shad season, they were
used for other species. Stake gill nets, 20 ft.
long and 11 ft. deep, with 4-3/4- to 5 l/2-in.
mesh, were fished in rows 60 to 150 yd. long.
Drift gill nets were 50 to 235 yd. long and 35
Figure 17. — Lifting drift gill net, Mattaponi River, Va.
(Photograph courtesy of Virginia Institute of Marine
Science, Gloucester Point, Va.)
to 65 meshes deep and had 5- to 5 l/2-in.
mesh. Drift nets were fished during high- and
low-slack waters, which permitted about 3 hr.
of fishing on each tide.
Shad fishing started in the York about Feb-
ruary 15, 1960, and was discontinued May 6.
In the tributaries it started March 8 and ended
May 14. The bulk of the catch was made in a
4-wk. period from mid-March to mid-April.
The amount of gear fished and the catch by
gear and area in 1960 are given in table 27.
On the basis of catch -effort statistics, the total
population was estimated to weigh 777,000 lb.,
and the fishing rate was 46.9 percent (Nichols
and Massmann, 1963). The total catch was
364,637 lb.; stake gill nets caught about 48
percent, drift gill nets 46 percent, pound nets
3 percent, and fyke nets the remainder. The
catch in the lower York River was marketed
to dealers in Perrin; from the upper York and
tributaries, it went to dealers in West Point
and Richmond.
The 1960 catch decreased about 81 per-
cent from 1896. The size of the catch was
similar in the different areas in 1896, but in
1960 the York produced 54 percent of the
catch, the Pamunkey 28 percent, and the
Mattaponi 18 percent. The amount of all types
of fishing gear, except stake gill nets decreased
from 1896 to 1960.
Rappahannock River
The Rappahannock River rises on the eastern
slope of the Blue Ridge Mountains in Fauquier
and Rappahannock Counties and crosses the
fall line at Fredericksburg, 106 miles fromits
mouth. Fluvial characteristics extend to 40
miles below Fredericksburg. The river is
navigable to that point. The lower 50 miles of
river are 2 1/2 to 4 miles wide and form an
arm of Chesapeake Bay.
The shad catch from the Rappahannock River
in 1896 was 1,456,818 lb., of which pound nets
caught 63 percent, stake gill nets 25 percent,
drift gill nets 10 percent, and seines and mis-
cellaneous gear the remainder. Pound nets,
introduced in 1872, were operated mostly in
the lower section of the river. The stake gill
nets were 24 to 27 ft. long and 10 to 20 ft.
deep and had 4 l/2- to 5-in. mesh; they were
set in strings of 10 and 20 nets on the sides
of the channel, at intervals of a few hundred
feet. The drift gill nets were 75 to 200 yd. long
and 60 meshes deep and had 5-in. mesh. Seines
were 200 and 400 yd. long and had 2- and
2 l/2-in. mesh. Most of the catch was mar-
keted in Baltimore, Md.
Shad ascended the Rappahannock River in
1960 to a dam at Falmouth, 2 miles above
Fredericksburg. Shad eggs were collected in
the river in 1951 from below Fredericksburg
to Portobago Bay, 30 miles downstream from
50
Figure 18. — Fyke net fished for shad and other species. North Carolina and Virginia
Fredericksburg (Massmann, Ladd, and
McCutcheon, 1952b).
The estimated shad catch in 1960 was 89,364
lb., of which approximately 61 percent was
taken by stake gill nets, 21 percent by pound
nets, 16 percent by drift gill nets, and the re-
mainder by fyke nets. Pound nets were fished
from the river mouth upstream 85 miles to
Port Royal. The lower 10 miles had 25 stand-
ard-size pound nets; upstream the pound nets
were smaller. Stake gill nets were fished from
Monaskon to the outlet of Portobago Bay, a
distance of 55 miles. Net strings were 30 to
200 yd. long. The nets were 35 to 55 meshes
deep, had 5 l/4- to 5-7/8-in. mesh, and were
concentrated mostly between Monaskon and
Tappahannock. Drift gill nets were operated
from Leedstown to Port Royal, a distance of
10 miles. Between Port Royal and Portobago
Bay, the river was closed to all fishing except
with drift nets; the nets were 75 to 125 yd.
long, and 35 to 60 meshes deep and had 5- to
5-3/8-in. mesh. Fyke nets (fig. 18) were used
from Weems to Tappahannock, but the shad
catch was incidental to the catches of other
species.
Table 27. — Shad catch, by area and gear,
York lUver, Va., and tributaries, 1960
Area and gear
Quantity
Length
fished
Catch
York River:
Pound net
Fyke net
Stake gill net..
Pamunkey River:
Drift gill net..
Mattaponi River:
Drift gill net..
Number
12
52
4,U3
288
227
Yards
24,858
28,800
22,700
Pounds
12,545
9,511
173,462
103,162
65,957
Total
4,722
76,358
364,637
Potomac River
Although the Potomac River forms the
boundary between Virginia and Maryland, the
Maryland line follows the low-water mark on
the Virginia side of the river. By an 1875
51
compact, fishermen from both States were
given unrestricted fishing privileges in the
river. The Maryland Management Plan, es-
tablished in 1941, restricted commercial nets
in Maryland waters, including the Potomac,
to the number operating in 1941. In 1945
Maryland commercial fishermen who fished
in the Potonnac were granted unrestricted
license so that they could compete on an
equitable basis with the shad fishermen fronn
Virginia (Walburg and Sykes, 1957).
The shad fishery in the Potomac River in
1896 is described in the section on shad fish-
eries of Maryland.
In 1960 Virginia fishermen caught 136,9001b.
of shad in the Potomac; 53 percent was taken
by pound nets from the river mouth to the
Potomac River bridge, 45 percent by gill nets
fished above the bridge, and the remainder by
seines and fyke nets.
TRENDS IN PRODUCTION
Shad production in Virginia decreased from
11.2 million pounds in 1896 to 1.4 million
pounds in 1960 (table 28). The general trend
has been downward since 1897 despite slight
increases in certain years. In 1908 shad were
the most important fish caught in Virginia and
comprised about one-fourth of all shad taken
in the United States (Bureau of the Census,
1911). As late as 1928, shad ranked third in
quantity of fish landed in Virginia, and the
catch was more than 7 million pounds (Hilde-
brand and Schroeder, 1928). After a production
of 7,291,000 lb. in 1931, the yield drastically
declined and was less than 2 million pounds in
1936. Production increased from 1937 to 1945
but declined after 1945; in 1960 only 1,386,000
lb. were landed. The I960 catch was less than
13 percent of that of 1896.
The Comnnission of Fisheries of Virginia
advised in 1949 against fish hatcheries as a
method of improving shad production (Marshall,
1949). A limited operation was continued, how-
ever, on the Pamunkey, Mattaponi, and Chicka-
hominy Rivers, but how these hatcheries affect
production has not been evaluated (Meyer,
1959).
The State Water Control Board began a
cleanup campaign in the 1950's on polluted
rivers. Except for the James River from
Hopewell to Richmond, however, pollution is
probably not a major factor in decline of shad
in Virginia.
Table 28. — Shad catch for certain years,
Virginia, 1880-1960^
[In thousands of pounds]
Year
Catch
1880 3,172
1887 3,815
1888 7,057
1890 7,266
1891 6,498
1896 11,171
1897 11,529
1901 6,972
1904 7,420
1908 7,314
1909 6,030
1915 4,714
1920 7,294
1921 6,909
1925 6,104
1929 7,977
1930 6,183
1931 7,291
1932 4,848
1933 4,817
1934 4,105
1935 2,883
1936 1,615
Year
Catch
1937 3,086
1938 3,607
1939 3,559
1940 2,811
1941 2,126
1942 2,430
1944 4,665
1945 5,299
1946 3,599
1947 4,086
1948 3,206-
1949 2,801
1950 3,031
1951 3,295
1952 4,007
1953 3,054
1954 3,169
1955 3,500
1956 3',191
1957 2,918
1958 2,254
1959 1,774
1960 1,386
^Statistics 1880-1959, U.S. Fish and Wild-
life Service (1958-61).
It is difficult to evaluate the factors that
may have caused fluctuations in shad produc-
tion in Virginia waters since fish destined for
Maryland waters make up a part of the catch.
Before studies can be made to determine the
cause of the long-term decline, it will be
necessary to have accurate catch and effort
statistics on the Chesapeake Bay fishery for
a series of years.
The Virginia Institute of Marine Science
(formerly the Virginia Fisheries Laboratory),
although not specifically concerned with in-
creasing fish production, has contributed much
information on the shad fisheries of the State.
It has identified the major spawning and nur-
sery areas in all the rivers, tagged shad in
certain rivers to ascertain fish movement and
fishing rate, and initiated catch record pro-
grams in some areas.
SHAD FISHERIES OF MARYLAND
The estimated 1896 catch of shad in Mary-
land waters was 5,541,499 lb., of which Chesa-
peake Bay yielded 32 percent and its tribu-
taries 68 percent, excluding Potomac River
landings by Virginia fishermen. Gill nets pro-
duced about 54 percent of the catch, pound
nets 29 percent, seines 14 percent, and fyke
and bow nets the remainder.
Commercial fishermen caught an estinnated
1,335,953 lb. of shad in Maryland waters in
1960; Chesapeake Bay yielded about 76 percent
and its tributaries the remainder. Gill nets
52
produced approximately 75 percent of the
catch, pound nets 24 percent, and seines the
remainder. In addition to the commercial fish-
eries, an estimated 13,000 lb. were taken by-
sport fishermen with rod and reel on the
Susquehanna River, and noncommercial (un-
licensed) gear took more than 60,125 lb. in
the Bay tributaries. The gear and catch by
water area for 1896 and 1960 are given in
tables 29 and 30. A map of Maryland waters
is included in figure 15.
In 1941 the Maryland State Legislature
passed a fishery management law entitled
"The Maryland Management Plan." In general,
the plan attempted to stabilize the fishing gear
and effort at the pre-World War II level and
at the same time to liberalize fishing when
availability of shad increased. In the First
Annual Report of the Maryland Board of
Natural Resources, published in 1944, the
Maryland Department of Tidewater Fisheries
presented the history of the management plan.
Table 29.-
-Gear employed in
shad fi
sheries.
by water area.
Maryland
, 1896 and 1960
1896
1960
Water area
Drift
Stake
Haul
Pound
Fyke
Bow
Drift
Stake
Haul
Pound
gill
gill
seine
net
net
net
gill
gill
seine
net
net
net
net
net
Yards
Yards
Yards
Number
Nximber
Number
Yards
Yards
Yards
Number
Chesapeake Bay:
Lower
5,580
108
I239
600
8,142
17,540
72
Upper
249,030
32,900
12,200
23,710
130,931
10,660
34
Potomac River. . .
94,500
3,640
131
3
4,700
18,795
3,198
9
Patuxent River . .
1,205
1,700
33
200
1,700
Pocomoke River . .
2,180
462
16
97
600
2
Wicomico River . .
20,040
1,400
630
5
36
500
1,028
14
Nanticoke River. .
29,589
3,788
545
238
143
10,040
7,040
15
Fishing Bay. . . .
1,840
6,930
20
7,040
3,632
44
Choptank River . .
44,792
26,970
4,537
194
57
8,735
9,328
7,000
36
Chester River. . .
290
7,020
3,835
l81
83
620
700
Susquehanna River.
28,672
5,800
3l5
8
8,763
Total
472,138
84,588
33,349
901
350
138
64,908
181,896
38,398
226
Not set especially for shad and some catch very few of that species.
Includes 12 "stick weirs".
^ Fall traps or pots.
Table 30. --Shad catch, by water area and gear, Maryland, 1896 and 1960
[In pounds ]
1896
1960
Water area
Drift
Stake
Haul
Pound
Fyke
Bow
Drift
Stake
Haul
Pound
gill
gill
seine
net
net
net
gill
gill
seine
net
net
net
net
net
Chesapeake Bay:
Lower
16,613
572,755
411
17,335
4,800
127,818
Upper ....
873,316
132,254
120,778
58,876
161,286
571,718
4,066
130,875
Potomac River .
492,210
158,435
185,902
2,157
1,090
27,783
50
3,353
Patuxent River.
70,840
87,651
29,771
325
482
Pocomoke River.
11,500
9,123
737
85,626
574
1,100
Wicomico River.
163,248
16,991
14,578
45,078
4,682
153
6,437
1,660
Nanticoke River
315,708
63,522
25,819
150,536
33,575
65,321
19,448
10,023
Fishing Bay . .
13,305
29,361
83,353
5.753
6,567
30,099
47,346
Choptank River.
432,449
134,811
241,808
413,679
2,150
3,296
3,644
1.135
3,055
Chester River .
989
70,444
35,718
76,662
8,594
^ 7,203
220
225
Susquehanna River
127,944
109,242
5,753
84,258
Total .
•
2,501,509
463,996
803,152
1,616,612
56,941
99,289
322,927
677,745
10,051
325,230
Fall traps or pots.
53
Most of this information is given in the his-
torical review of the shad fisheries of North
Annerica by Mansueti and Kolb (1953).
FISHERIES BY WATER AREA
It was unlawful in 1960 for the Commission
of Tidewater Fisheries to license the use of
any net or other devices for catching finfish for
commercial purposes in the tidal waters of
Maryland, except by pound nets, haul seines,
and fyke nets more than 40 yd. long and gill
nets more than 100 yd. long. The Commission
has the power to determine each year whether
additional licenses should be issued, basing
its judgment on the condition of the fisheries
as determined by statistical and biological
studies. The legal shad season was from
January 1 to June 5 in the tidal waters of
Maryland, and from March 1 to May 26 in
the Potomac River.
In the present study, the amount of gear
fished includes only that fished for shad and
not the total amount licensed. The shad catch
by fyke nets, haul seines, and pound nets was,
in some instances, incidental to the catch of
other species; this fishing gear has not been
counted.
Chesapeake Bay in Maryland
Chesapeake Bay extends northward into
Maryland 120 miles and is 3 to 16 miles wide.
It covers an area of 976 square miles, but if
its numerous tributaries up to the limit of
tidewater are included, it covers 2,359 square
miles. Much of the water is less than 20 ft.
deep, but depths may exceed 150 ft. The
salinity of the water decreases from south to
north, and the water is fresh at the head of
the Bay. The Bay divides the State into the
eastern and western shores, each with a num-
ber of important shad streams.
In describing the fishery of 1896, Stevenson
divided the Bay into two geographical sections.
The lower extended from the Virginia line to
Swan Point, near Rock Hall, Md., and the upper
included the remainder of the Bay. In the lower
section, the fishery outside the rivers was
comparatively small, and the gear was ex-
clusively pound nets and a few stake gill nets.
The catch by these nets was 589,368 lb., of
which 108,090 lb. were taken by fishernnen
living on the Eastern Shore and 481,278 lb. by
fishermen on the western side. The upper
section was the principal shad-producing
region of the Bay. The yield in 1896 was
1,185,224 lb., of which about 74 percent was
caught by drift gill nets, 11 percent by stake
gill nets, 10 percent by seines, and 5 percent
by pound nets.
In 1896 pound nets in the lower Bay were
concentrated in Pocomoke Sound and below
the Little Annemessex River on the Eastern
Shore; on the western side most were near the
mouth of the Patuxent River, between Holland
Point and Gibson Island. Most of these nets
were of the "single heart" type with 4-in.
mesh.
Stake gill nets fished along the shore in 1896
from Tilghman Island to Kent Island took shad
almost entirely for local use. A few fish were
caught between the Chester and Choptank
Rivers in Eastern Bay. This Bay receives the
waters of the St. Michael, Wye, and smaller
rivers, but in 1896 only the St. Michael pro-
duced shad.
The 1896 drift net fishery in the upper Bay
was the nnost productive on the Atlantic coast
south of Delaware Bay. The nets operated
fronn the mouth of the Susquehanna River to
Pooles Island in the Northeast River and in
the extreme lower portion of the Elk and
Sassafras Rivers. Nets were 150 to 400 yd.
long and had 5 1/4- to 5 l/2-in. mesh. Twenty-
five years before Stevenson's investigation,
stake gill nets were fished extensively in the
upper Bay, but they gradually gave way to the
more effective and less costly drift nets. The
stake gill net fishery was limited to the shore
of Kent County. These nets were about 25 yd.
long and 40 meshes deep and had 5 l/2-in.
mesh. Seines and pound nets were in the ex-
treme northern end of the Bay.
In 1960 shad entered Maryland waters in
March, and the run continued into June. The
estimated catch in Chesapeake Bay was
1,018,309 lb., most of which was taken in the
upper central and northern portions. Because
of the different gears and the quantity of shad
taken, each section of the Bay is discussed
separately. The catch by water area is given
in Table 31.
Chesapeake Bay. South.- -In 1960 the lower
portion of the Bay from the Virginia- Maryland
line to Cove Point, including Pocomoke Sound,
Honga River, and Tangier Sound, yielded 37,773
Table 31. --Shad catch, by water area and gear. In Maryland watera
of Chesapeake Bay, 1960
[In
pounda]
Gear
Water area
Drift
gill
Stake and
anchor
gill net
Haul
aelne
Pound
net
Total
Chesapeake Bay south:
Bay proper
Tanglet Sound
Pocomoke Sound
Honga Rivet
Chesapeake Bay lower central:
Bay proper
Eastern Bay
Chesapeake Bay upper central:
Bay proper
Chesapeake Bay north:
Bay proper
161
250
102,8^3
58,443
783
613
14,789
800
350
432,607
139,111
2,000
2,800
1,125
2,941
5.200
7.805
4,908
1,675
108,230
130.875
7,983
8,418
19,697
1,675
111,991
600
536,575
331,370
Total
161.697
589,053
8.666
258,693
1,018,309
54
lb. of shad. Pound nets (figs. 19 and ZO) caught
19,588 lb., anchor and stake gill nets 16,185
lb., and haul seines 2,000 lb.
The locations of pound nets and the catches
in this area were: Chesapeake Bay proper, 14
nets, 5,200 lb.; Pocomoke Sound, 17 nets,
4,908 lb.; Honga River, 6 nets, 1,675 lb.; and
Tangier Sound, 8 nets, 7,805 lb. The pound nets
were of the "single heart" type, with 2 l/2- to
3 l/2-in. mesh and leads 100 to 300 yd. long.
Stake gill nets were fished in Pocomoke
Sound and Tangier Sound, and anchor gill nets
were operated along the Eastern Shore in the
Bay proper. The length of net and catch by
area were as follows: Pocomoke Sound, 3,602
yd., 14,789 1b.; Tangier Sound, 600 yd., 613 lb.;
and the Bay proper, 2,100 yd., 783 lb. Nets
ranged from 100 to 300 yd. long and 35 to 45
meshes deep and had 4- to 5 l/2-in. mesh.
Fourteen haul seines took 2,000 lb. of shad in
the Bay proper incidental to the catch of other
species.
Chesapeake Bay, Lower Central. --Lower
Central Chesapeake Bay from Cove Point to
Sandy Point, including Eastern Bay, produced
112,591 lb. of shad in 1960. Twenty-seven
pound nets, distributed throughout the Bay
proper on both shores, yielded 108,230 lb.;
1,540 yd. of anchor gill net in the Bay proper
took 800 lb.; 300 yd. of stake gill net fished
in Eastern Bay took 350 lb.; 600 yd. of drift
gill net in Eastern Bay and the Bay proper
caught 411 lb. incidental to the catch of other
species; and 18 haul seines used in the Bay
proper for other species took 2,800 lb. Gears
were practically the same as those in the ex-
treme southern end of the Bay.
Chesapeake Bay, Upper Central. - - The Uppe r
Central Chesapeake Bay from Sandy Point to
the entrance of Romney Creek on the western
side produced 536,575 lb. of shad in 1960. This
was the principal production area in the Bay.
Stake gill nets (70,608 yd.) took 72 percent of
the catch, drift gill nets (12,462 yd.) 19 per-
cent, anchor gill nets (7,633 yd.) 8 percent,
and 5 haul seines 1 percent, incidental to the
catch of other species.
This stake and anchor gill net fishery was
among the most productive on the Atlantic
coast south of the Hudson River. Nets were
set on both sides of the Bay but were concen-
trated on the western side. They ranged from
100 to 400 yd. long and 30 to 45 meshes deep
and had 5- to 5 l/2-in. mesh.
Chesapeake Bay, North. --The extreme
northern end of Chesapeake Bay receives the
Susquehanna and Northeast Rivers from the
Figure 19. — Pound nets fished in Chesapeake Bay, Md. (Photograph courtesy of Virginia Institute of Marine Science,
Gloucester Point, Va.)
55
Figure 20. --Pursing pound net In Chesapeake Bay, Md. (Photograph courtesy of Virginia Institute of Marine Science,
Gloucester Point, Va.)
north and the Elk and Sassafras Rivers from
the east. This area produced 331,370 lb. in
I960 of which stake and anchor gill nets took
42 percent, pound nets 39 percent, drift gill
nets 18 percent, and haul seines 1 percent.
Drift gill nets (11,248 yd.) were from 100 to
300 yd. long and 35 to 65 nneshes deep and
had 5- to 5 l/2-in. mesh. They were fished
over the Susquehanna Flats at the head of the
Bay and in the lower portions of the tribu-
taries. Stake gill nets (10,267 yd.) and anchor
gill nets (42,423 yd.) were 100 to 300 yd. long
and 25 to 35 meshes deep and had 3 1/2- to
5 l/4-in. mesh; they were fished in the same
general area as drift nets. Thirty-four pound
nets were operated in the tributaries and Bay
proper and 15 haul seines inthe extreme upper
end of the Bay.
Potomac River
The Potomac River is the largest tributary
of Chesapeake Bay. It is formed by the union
of its north and south branches on the Mary-
land-West Virginia line and flows 290 miles
southeast to its entrance into Chesapeake Bay
on the western shore, 75 miles from the Vir-
ginia Capes. Below Washington, D.C., the river
is broad and sluggish, forming one of the
largest estuaries on the Atlantic coast. This
estuary is 100 nniles long and 2 to 7 miles
wide. Tidal influence extends upstream to
Chain Bridge near Washington. From there
to Great Falls, 11 miles upstream, are nu-
merous shoals with several rapids, including
Little Falls 0.8 mile above Chain Bridge.
The Great Falls had always prevented the
upstream movement of fish. In 1882 an appro-
priation was made by Congress to erect suita-
ble fishways at this obstruction, but after
considerable damage by freshets the partially
completed structure was abandoned in 1885
(Stevenson, 1899).
In 1896 the catch of shad in the Potomac
River reached a peak of 2,462,627 lb., of which
838,704 lb. were taken by Maryland fishermen
and 1,623,923 lb. by Virginia fishermen. Vir-
ginia residents employed 67,000 yd. of drift
gill nets^ which accounted for 32 percent of the
Virginia catch; 13,600 yd. of haul seines, which
took 18 percent; 6,133 yd. of stake gill nets,
which produced 3 percent; and 299 pound nets,
which took the remainder. Maryland fishermen
fished 94,500 yd. of drift gill nets, which ac-
counted for 59 percent of the Maryland catch;
3,650 yd. of seines, which took 19 percent; and
131 pound nets and 3 bow nets, which took the
56
remainder. The drift net fishery extended from
Mathias Point to Alexandria, Va., a distance of
60 miles. Drift nets ranged from 300 to 1,000
yd. long and 30 to 90 meshes deep, depending
on the width and depth of the reach in which
they were operated. The stake gill net fishery
was of little importance since it consisted only
of a few nets operated in the lower half of the
river. Each spring a few bow nets were fished
at Great Falls from the last week in April to
the first or second week of June.
Shad were believed to have ascended the
Potomac to Great Falls before 1948, but since
then a 9-ft. dam erected on Little Falls, 10
miles below Great Falls, has been a barrier
to further upstream nnigration. A vertical,
baffle-type fishway was completed in the dam
in 1959 (fig. 21). Resident fishes use the fish-
way, but shad do not ascend the river beyond
a point about three quarters of a mile below
the structure.
The major spawning ground in 1960 was
from Fort Washington downstream to Occoquan
Bay, a distance of 20 miles.
Fishing began in the Potomac in 1960 in
mid- March and continued through the end of
May. The estimated catch was 169,176 lb., of
which 81 percent was taken by Virginia fish-
ernnen and 19 percent by Maryland fishermen.
The catch was marketed in Washington, D.C.,
and Baltimore, Md. The amount of gear used
and catch by each State are given in table 32.
In 1960 pound nets, stake gill nets, and drift
gill nets were the major gear used for taking
shad. The pound net fishery extended 56 miles,
from the river mouth to Highway 301 bridge
(Potomac River Bridge). The nets produced
76,183 lb. of shad, of which Virginia landings,
in turn, accounted for 96 percent. Stake gill
nets were fished in about 26 miles of river,
from Potomac bridge to Occoquan Bay. The
nets were 100 to 200 yd. long and 35 to 45
meshes deep and had 3 l/2- to 5 l/2-in. mesh.
This gear caught 83,718 lb. of shad, of which
Virginia landings accounted for 67 percent.
Drift gill nets were used, from Occoquin Bay
to Alexandria, about 20 miles. They ranged
from 150 to 300 yd. long and 45 to 75 meshes
deep and had 5- to 5 l/2-in. mesh. Drift nets
took 7,305 lb. of shad, of which Virginia fisher-
men accounted for 85 percent. Haul seines and
fyke nets were used throughout the fishery,
but the shad catch was small and incidental to
the catches of other species.
Figure 21.— Little Falls Dam, Potomac River, Md. Fishway between dams was completed In 1959.
57
Table 32. --Shad catch, by gear, Potomac River, Md., 1960
Virginia
Maryland
Total
Gear
Quantity
Length
fished
Catch
Quantity
Length
fished
Catch
Quantity
Length
fished
Catch
Stake gill net. .
Drift gill net. .
Pound net ....
Haul seine. . . .
Fyke net
Number
173
22
Yards
59,438
2,466
5,100
Pounds
55,935
6,215
72,830
1.728
192
Number
9
Yards
18,795
4,700
3,198
Pounds
27,783
1,090
3,353
50
Number
182
22
Yards
78,233
7,166
8,298
Pounds
83,718
7,305
76,183
1,778
192
Total
195
67,004
136,900
9
26,693
32,276
204
93,697
169,176
In addition to the commercial catch, shad
were taken near the Chain Bridge with dip
nets and rod and reel from the first of May-
through the first week of June. Six dip nets
on the Virginia shore above the bridge took
an estimated 750 lb., 90 percent of which were
males. Rod-and-reel fishermen took an esti-
mated 300 lb. below the Chain Bridge.
The total 1960 yield was the smallest ever
recorded for the Potomac, except for 1958,
and was less than 7 percent of the 1896 catch.
In 1919 the Bureau of Fisheries recognized
the need for investigating the Potomac shad
fishery to 'determine the relative importance
of factors contributing to the decline in abun-
dance. An annual statistical canvass was
undertaken to provide information for deter-
mining changes in the fishery and to find means
for possible restorationof favorable conditions
for reproduction and growth of anadronnous
species (Bureau of Fisheries, 1919-40). Fac-
tors reported as contributing to depletion were:
intensive fishing; changed conditions in the
river resulting from the advance of civiliza-
tion; and changed weather conditions affecting
the migration of shad into and up the river.
Because the annual canvasses did not provide
information on fishing effort, these data could
not be used in our studies of factors affecting
size of run and their relation to fluctuations
in abundance.
Patuxent River
The Patuxent River is located entirely in
Maryland. It rises in Howard and Montgomery
Counties and flows 110 miles to the western
shore of Chesapeake Bay, 20 miles north of
the Potomac River.
In 1896 shad ascended the Patuxent River to
Laurel (95 miles from the mouth), where two
danns prevented further upstream migration.
but most were caught below Drury. The esti-
mated catch was 188,262 lb., of which 87,651
lb. were caught by seines, 70,840 lb. by drift
gill nets, and 29,771 lb. by pound nets. Pound
nets, fished in the lower river, mostly between
Point Patience and Drum Point, caught more
ale-wives, Alosa pseudoharengus, than shad.
Seines were operated in the upper reaches of
the Patuxent in Prince Georges and Anne
Arundel Counties where the river was 500 to
600 ft. wide. The nets ranged from 100 to 200
yd. long and had 2 1/2- or 2 3/4-in. mesh.
Drift nets were operated near Dunkirk and
Leon; each was about 200 ft. long and had 5-
to 5 3/8-in. mesh.
The Patuxent was free of obstructions to
passage of fish in I960, and shad ascended
the river at least 50 miles to Hills Bridge.
The spawning grounds were from Drury to
Lower Marlboro.
The estimated catch in I960 was 807 lb., of
which gill nets took 482 lb. and drift gill nets
325 lb. In addition, unlicensed gill nets caught
slightly less than 2,000 lb. Stake gill nets that
were 100 to 200 yd. long and 25 to 35 meshes
deep and had 4 l/2- to 5 l/2-in. mesh were
fished the first 32 miles from the mouth of
the river to Lower Marlboro. The greater
concentration was from the mouth to Benedict.
Drift nets, 100 yd. long, 35 to 45 meshes deep,
and with 5- to 5 l/2-in. mesh, were operated
from Lower Marlboro halfway to Upper Marl-
boro. Unlicensed gill nets, ranging from 20 to
30 yd. long, were fished above the drift net
area. Seines, pound nets, and fyke nets be-
tween Benedict and Lower Marlboro occa-
sionally took shad, but none was reported
during the I960 season. It was illegal to fish
drift nets from the mouth of the river to High-
way 231 bridge near Benedict. In previous
seasons, shad were taken by rod and reel in
the Patuxent below Hardesty (Mansueti and
Kolb, 1953), but none was reported in I960.
58
The Patuxent has always been a minor
contributor to Maryland shad production. The
catches were 29,851 lb. in 1920 and 13,180 lb.
in 1921, compared with 849 lb. in 1945 and
807 lb. in 1960. The decrease of production in
this river may have been caused indirectly by
the heavy gravel washings and buildup of
alluvial deposits over the spawning grounds
near Bristol, Md. (Mansueti and Kolb, 1953).
Susquehanna River
The Susquehanna is one of the largest rivers
on the Atlantic coast, but only 12 miles of its
length are within the limits of Maryland. It
ranges from 1/2 to 1 mile wide and has an
average fall of more than 5 ft. per mile. Since
most of the river is in Pennsylvania, its phys-
ical characteristics and the shad fishery are
described in the section on the fisheries of
that State.
The gears used in the Maryland section of
the Susquehanna in 1896 were drift nets and
seines near the mouth and fall traps and bow
nets in the rapids above Port Deposit, Md.
Gill nets averaged 125 to 130 yd. long and had
5 l/2-in. mesh; a total of 28,672 yd. was
fished. The seines, seven large and five small,
were 100 to 800 yd. long and had 2 1/4- to
4 l/2-in. mesh. The estimated catch was
250,142 lb., of which drift nets took 51 percent,
seines 44 percent, and fall traps and bow nets
5 percent.
In 1960 shad ascended 10 miles above the
nnouth, to Conowingo Dam, which completely
obstructed the upstream movement of fish.
Shad spawned throughout the lower river
section and over the Susquehanna Flats at the
head of the Bay. Spawning began in April and
extended into June. The peak of the run was
in the river about mid-May.
Drift gill nets were the only commercial
gear used in 1960 for shad on the Susquehanna.
Most nets were fished bet-^een the Baltimore
and Ohio Railroad Bridge near Havre de Grace,
Md., and Port Deposit, a stretch of 3 miles.
Nets ranged from 100 to 150 yd. long and 45
to 65 meshes deep and had 5- to 5 l/2-in.
mesh; the total yardage was 8,763. The esti-
mated catch was 84,258 lb. Rod-and-reel
fishermen caught 13,000 lb. --1,936 lb. in the
Conowingo Dam tailrace and the remainder
near the mouth of the river (Whitney, 1961).
Pocomoke River
The Pocomoke River is one of the numerous
tributaries entering Chesapeake Bay on the
Eastern Shore. These tributaries arise in
western Delaware and flow in a general south-
westerly direction, expanding in the lower
reaches into broad estuaries. Their descentis
so gradual that they are tidal nearly to the
upper limits.
The Pocomoke rises on the Maryland- Dela-
ware line and flows 45 miles to Pocomoke
Sound. The shad fishery of 1896 extended from
the mouth to above Snow Hill, Md. The yield
was 106,986 lb.; bow nets took 80 percent,
drift nets 11 percent, seines 8 percent, and
fyke nets 1 percent. Bow nets were 14to 16 ft.
in diameter, and the average catch per net
(833 lb.) far exceeded that in any shad fishery
in the United States; the nearest approach to
this catch per net was in the Santee River,
S.C. (about 400 lb.).
The fishery extended to Snow Hill in I960,
and the estimated catch by licensed fishermen
was 1,674 lb. Of the total catch, two pound nets
between the mouth of the river and Pocomoke
City, Md.--a stretch of 20 miles- -caught 1,100
lb., and 600 yd. of stake gill net fished above
Pocomoke City caught 574 lb. Unlicensed gill
nets near Snow Hill took an estimated 300 lb.
From 1957 to I960, the average annual yield
of the Pocomoke River was less than 2 percent
of the yield in 1896.
Wicomico River
The Wicomico originates near the elevated
shore of Great Cypress Swamp, flows 35 miles,
and enters the northeast portion of Tangier
Sound.
Stevenson (1899) reported that, considering
the Wicomico's small size, the average annual
yield of 250,000 lb. of shad was remarkable.
The catch in 1896 was 244,577 lb., of which
drift gill nets took about 67 percent, pound nets
18 percent, stake gill nets 7 percent, seines
6 percent, and fyke nets the remainder. Drift
nets were 40 to 100 yd. long and 31 to 53
meshes deep and had 4 7/8- to 5 l/8-in. mesh.
They were fished from White Haven, Md., to
1 mile below Salisbury, a distance of 12 miles.
Stake nets, 20 yd. long and 40 meshes deep
with 5- to 5 l/2-in. mesh, were fished near
the mouth of the river and pound nets near
White Haven. Seines, operated near the head-
waters of the river to within 4 miles of Salis-
bury, were 145 to 340 yd. long and had
2 l/4-in. mesh in the bunt. Fyke nets were not
set especially for shad, and the catch was in-
cidental to that of other species.
Shad ascended to the headwaters of the
Wicomico River in 1960. The catch was 8,250
lb., of which stake gill nets took 78 percent,
pound nets 20 percent, and drift gill nets 2
percent. Pound nets were operated near the
mouth of the river and in Monie Bay near
Mt. Vernon and Salisbury. Drift nets were
100 to 150 yd. lone and 45 to 55 meshes deep
and had 5- to 5 1/2-in. mesh, and stake nets
ranged from 100 to 125 yd. long and 25 to 35
meshes deep and had 4- to 5 l/4-in. mesh. In
addition to the catch by licensed gear, un-
licensed gill nets between Salisbury and the
head of the river took an estimated 7,0001b.
59
Nanticoke River
The headwaters of the Nanticoke River are
in Kent and Sussex Counties, Del., and unite at
Seaford, Del., 11 miles upstream from the
Maryland- Delaware line. The total river length
is 70 miles--30 miles in Delaware and 40 miles
in Maryland. In the lower 10 miles, the river
expands into a broad estuary. Above this ex-
pansion, the river width gradually diminishes
and is less than 200 yd. at the Delaware
boundary. About 25 miles from its mouth, the
river receives Marshyhope Creek, which rises
in Kent County and flows about 34 miles to its
entrance into the Nanticoke.
In 1896 the Nanticoke ranked third among
Maryland rivers in the shad catch and was
surpassed only by the Choptank and Potomac.
The fishery extended from the mouth of the
river to several miles above Seaford; the
estimated catch was 812,417 lb., of which
223,257 lb. were taken inDelaware, 140,0001b.
in Marshyhope Creek, and 448,760 lb. in the
Maryland portion of the main river.
Drift gill nets, stake gill nets, pound nets,
and fyke nets were the only gears used to take
shad in the Maryland section of the Nanticoke
in 1896. Drift nets, 115 yd. to 175 yd. long,
51 to 65 meshes deep, with4 7/8- to 5 l/4-in.
mesh, were fished from Quantico Creek to
the Delaware line and took 225,852 lb. Stake
nets in the extreme lower portion of the
river from Roaring Point to Sandy Hill caught
an estimated 63,522 lb. Pound nets, concen-
trated above Quantico Creek, were not set
especially for shad, but 125,811 lb. were taken
by 26 nets. The catch of 33,575 lb. in fyke nets
in the lower river below Quantico Creek was
incidental to the catch of other fish. Consider-
ing the size of Marshyhope Creek, its shad
fishery was highly productive in 1896. The
catch was about 140,400 lb., of which drift
gill nets took about 64 percent, seines 18 per-
cent, and pound nets 18 percent. Drift nets,
100 yd. long, from 49 to 53 meshes deep, and
with 5- to 5 l/4-in. mesh, were fished from
the mouth of the tributary to Federalsburg.
Seines, 40 to 150 yd. long and with 2 l/2-in.
mesh, were fished between Brookview, Md.,
and Federalsburg. Pound nets were set above
Brookview.
Shad ascended the Nanticoke in 1960 atleast
51 miles to Seaford and the Marshyhope to
Federalsburg, Md., 55 miles from Tangier
Sound. The river ranked first in shad pro-
duction among Maryland rivers. The fishery
extended from the river mouth to Seaford; the
yield was 96,792 lb., of which 2,000 lb. were
produced in Delaware, 23,698 lb. in Marshy-
hope Creek, and 71,094 lb. in the Maryland
section of the river.
In I960 gill and pound nets were the only
gears in the fishery, and more than 90 percent
of the catch was made by gill nets. In addition,
unlicensed gill net fishermen took anestimated
43,000 lb. Drift gill nets were operated from
Vienna to the Delaware boundary in the main
river and throughout Marshyhope Creek; they
averaged 145 yd. long, 45 meshes deep, and
5 l/4-in. mesh. The estimated catch was
65,321 lb., of which drift nets produced 15,024
lb. in Marshyhope Creek and 50,297 lb. in the
main river. Stake gill nets from the mouth of
the river to a few miles above Vienna and in
the lower portion of Marshyhope Creek aver-
aged 125 yd. long, 35 meshes deep, and 5-in.
mesh. The estimated catch was 19,448 lb., of
which the main river produced 10,774 lb, and
Marshyhope Creek 8,674 lb. Fifteen pounds
nets, fished in the lower portion of the Nanti-
coke River from the mouth to the vicinity of
Vienna--a distance of 20 miles--caught 10,023
lb.
The production of the Nanticoke fishery has
declined, but not as much as in other Maryland
rivers. The 1960 catch was less than 13 per-
cent of the 1896 take.
Fishing Bay
Fishing Bay is a broad estuary 1 1 miles long
and from 2 to 3 miles wide. It connects the
Transquaking and Blackwater Rivers with the
northern portion of Tangier Sound.
The estimated catch of shad in 1896 was
131,772 lb., of which the Bay proper yielded
27 percent, the Transquaking River 37 percent,
and the Blackwater River 36 percent. Of the
Bay catch, stake gill nets caught 84 percent
and pound nets the remainder. In the Trans-
quaking, pound nets caught 75 percent of the
catch, weirs 14 percent, and bow nets the re-
mainder. Pound nets produced 62 percent of
the catch in the Blackwater, drift gill nets 28
percent, and weirs 10 percent. Stake gill nets
measured 16 to 18 yd. long, averaged 16
meshes deep, and had 5- to 5 l/2-in. mesh;
they were set on the flats. Drift gill nets av-
eraged 40 yd. long and 7 ft. deep, had 5-in.
mesh, and were fished in the channels.
The 1960 catch in Fishing Bay was 84,0121b.
Pound nets produced 56 percent, stake gill nets
36 percent, and drift gill nets 8 percent. Pound
nets were fished in the channel and near the
mouths of both tributaries. Stake gill nets were
100 to 150 yd. long and 20 to 35 meshes deep
and had 5- to 5 l/2-in. mesh; theywere set on
the flats. Drift gill nets were 100 to 125 yd.
long and 35 to 45 meshes deep, had 5- to
5 l/2-in. mesh, and were fished near the
mouths of the tributaries. Unlicensed gill nets
were fished in the tributaries, but no informa-
tion was obtained on the catch.
Choptank River
The Choptank River is the largest river on
the Eastern Shore of Chesapeake Bay. From
its mouth to Secretary, Md., a stretch of 25
60
miles, the river is a tidal estuary, 500 yd. to
5 miles wide. Twenty-five miles above tidal
water, the river receives Tuckahoe Creek, a
tributary nearly as long as the main stream
above this point.
The 1896 catch in the Choptank was
1,224,897 lb., or nearly one-half of the total
production of all Eastern Shore streams:
999,513 lb. were taken in the main stream and
225,382 lb. in Tuckahoe Creek. The gears were
pound nets, drift gill nets, seines, stake gill
nets, and fyke nets. The location and descrip-
tion of gears fished in the Choptank were as
follows: pound nets, from the river mouth to 2
or 3 miles above the entrance of Tuckahoe
Creek, but concentrated between Oxford and
Windyhill, Md., a distance of 25 miles; drift
gill nets, 60 to 200 yd. long and 40 to 60 meshes
deep, from Windyhill to the head of the river;
stake gill nets, 12 to 25 yd. long and 25 to 45
meshes deep (5-in.-mesh), from the lower
limit of the drift net fishery to Castle Haven, a
distance of 18 miles; seines, 120 to 325 yd.
long, from Williston to Greensboro; and fyke
nets from Dover Bridge to the entrance of
Tuckahoe Creek.
The 1896 fishery in Tuckahoe Creek extended
from the Choptank to Hillsboro. The gears
were drift nets and seines, plus a few pound
nets and weirs. The catch by gear and amount
of gear fished are given in tables 29 and 30.
The main river was free of obstruction in
I960, and shad ascended at least 81 miles to
a point 10 miles above Greensboro, Md., and
18 miles to Hillsboro, Md., in Tuckahoe Creek.
Ripe female shad were takenfrom the entrance
of Tuckahoe Creek to the upper limits of the
run in the main river and tributary.
The Choptank ranked second in production
in 1960 among rivers on the Eastern Shore,
surpassed only by the Nanticoke. The fishery
extended about 71 miles fronn the river nnouth
to Greensboro in the main river and to Hills-
boro in Tuckahoe Creek. The estimated catch
was 11,130 lb., of which drift gill nets caught
about 30 percent, stake gill nets 33 percent,
pound nets 28 percent, and seines the re-
mainder. In addition, unlicensed gill nets took
an estimated 7,380 lb. in the headwaters.
Drift gill and stake gill nets were fished in
the main river and Tuckahoe Creek, and seines
and fyke nets were used inthe main river only.
Drift gill nets were fished from Choptank, Md.,
to Greensboro, and were most numerous near
the entrance to Tuckahoe Creek. They were
100 to 175 yd. long and 45 to 65 meshes deep,
and had 4 1/2- to 5 l/4-in. mesh. Stake gill
nets were fished from the mouth of the river
to Choptank and in Tuckahoe CreekfromHills-
boro to the main river; they ranged from 100
to 220 yd. long and 25 to 45 meshes deep, and
had 4 3/4- to 5 l/4-in. mesh. Seines and fyke
nets ■were operated near Denton, Md., and
pound nets from the mouth of the river to
Secretary.
The average annual production for the Chop-
tank River and Tuckahoe Creek has steadily
declined. The average catch in 1920 and 1921
was less than 10 percent of the 1896 yield of
1 1/4 million pounds. From 1944 to 1960, the
annual yield was less than 50,000 lb. and
reached a near record low of 11,130 lb. in
1960.
Chester River
The Chester River is the second largest
stream entering Chesapeake Bay from the
Eastern Shore; it is surpassed only by the
Choptank. The Chester River rises in Kent
and Newcastle Counties, Del., and flows 55
miles to the Bay. The width ranges from 2 to 3
miles near the mouth to 150 ft. near Millington,
Md., 36 miles upstream.
The 1896 shad fishery of the Chester ex-
tended from the river mouth to the headwaters ;
most fish were taken in pound nets near the
mouth and in stake gill nets set between
Chestertown and Millington. Stake gill nets
were 20 to 50 yd. long and 30 to 45 meshes
deep and had 5- to 5 l/2-in. mesh. The aggre-
gate length of 178 nets in 1896 was 7,020 yd.,
and the yield was 70,444 lb. A number of drift
gill nets formerly were operated in the river,
but they were gradually superseded by stake
nets. The catch by drift nets was 989 lb. The
pound net fishery was near the mouth of the
river, and the catch was 76,662 lb. Seines be-
tween Island Creek and Crumpton, Md., took
35,718 lb. The catch of 8,594 lb. in numerous
fyke nets fished below Chestertown was inci-
dental to the catch of other species.
Shad ascended the Chester River 36 miles
in I960 to the vicinity of Millington. The esti-
mated catch was 445 lb., of which 46 percent
was taken by drift gill nets between Chester-
town and Highway 17 bridge and 54 percent by
stake gill nets between the mouth of the river
and Highway 290 bridge near Crumpton. In
addition, unlicensed gill nets caught an esti-
mated equal quantity of shad.
The fishing effort and the availability of
shad have declined in the Chester River. In
1920 and 1921 the catches were only 540 and
2,700 lb., respectively. From 1944 to 1960
the annual yield remained low, fluctuating
from a peak of 45,755 lb. in 1947 to a record
low of 445 lb. in 1960.
TRENDS IN PRODUCTION
Shad entered almost all Maryland waters of
Chesapeake Bay in 1960, but in much smaller
numbers than in 1896. Inthe intervening years,
the catch in most of the Bayandits tributaries
fluctuated widely, but production generally de-
clined (table 33).
61
Table 33. --Shad catch for certain years,
Maryland, 1880-1960^
[in thoxisands of pounds]
Year
Catch
1880 3,774
1887 4,041
1888 4,868
1890 7,128
1891 6,225
1896 5,541
189^^ .... 5,800
1901 3,111
1904 2,912
1908 3,937
1909 3,253
1915 1,455
1920 1,867
1921 1,807
1925 1,260
1929 1,549
1930 998
1931 1,196
1932 1,667
1933 1,374
1934 885
1935 800
1936 570
Year
Catch
1937 405
1938 600
1939 624
1940 446
1941 534
1942 725
1944 711
1945 617
1946 719
1947 868
1948 1,004
1949 1,083
1950 1,^*43
1951 1,554
1952 1,636
1953 1,448
1954 1,501
1955 1,464
1956 2,092
1957 2,356
1958 1,900
1959 1,481
1960 1,336
^Statistics 1880-1959, U.S. Fish and Wild-
life Service (1958-61).
Prior to 1880 the Commission of Fisheries
of Maryland noted a decrease in abundance of
shad and other valuable food fishes (Ferguson
and Downes, 1876; Ferguson and Hughlett,
1880). The decline inavailability was attributed
to overfishing, blocking of fish from their
spawning grounds, and destruction of young
by innproper means and modes of capture. The
primary ren-iedies offered to arrest the de-
crease in abundance were artificial propaga-
tion and restrictions on fishing season and
commercial gear.
From 1880 to 1890 shad production in-
creased from less than 4 nnillion pounds to
more than 7 million pounds. Factors which
contributed to this increase were principally
an expansion in numbers of fishermen and
amount of fishing gear, and in nnethods and
effectiveness. Gill nets and pound nets were
introduced by New England fishermen; haul
seines had been the principal gear up to the
mid- 1880's.
Shad production decreased after 1890, and by
1915 was less than 1.5 million pounds (records
for 9 yr.). For the next 20 yr., average annual
production was less than 1.5 million pounds;
the high was more than 1.8 million pounds in
1920 and the low was 0.8 million in 1935. From
these figures it may be supposed that the fluc-
tuations in production may have been due to
changes in fishing pressure, reduction of
spawning areas by construction of dams in
some rivers, and other complex factors.
Production remained relatively low from
1936 to 1947 after which it again increased.
The average annual production from 1948 to
1960 was slightly more than 1.5 million pounds;
production in 1960 was less than average and
less than 25 percent of the 1896 catch.
From a study of statistics on shad pro-
duction in Chesapeake Bay, Hildebrand and
Schroeder (1928) noted that larger and more
effective fishing gear had been used from
year to year, and they suggested that the
decline in abundance prior to 1925 was at-
tributable to overfishing and to pollution in
the streams. No physical data were offered
ho'wever, to support their views.
Quittmeyer (1957) made a comprehensive
analysis on the econonnic conditions affecting
the fisheries of Maryland and Virginia. He
reported that the period 1935-51 offers a
picture of supply during economic depression,
war, and a postwar period. These conditions
appeared to have little effect on the shad fish-
ery, except that during World War II the shad
were fished heavily because of the shortage
of meat and catches were large.
The Maryland Management Plan was de-
signed primarily to rehabilitate the fisheries
for shad and other "herrings" in Maryland
waters. Catch statistics do not indicate that
the plan has been successful. One of the
problems in administering it has been that
increases in gear should take place only when
the stock of fish increases, not necessarily
when the catch increases. Also, the unit of
effort has been difficult to assess. Further-
more, none of the catch and fishing effort is
reported for legal unlicensed fishing. The
catch by legal unlicensed gear m 1952 was
about 68 percent as great as the total catch
reported by all licensed Maryland shad fisher-
men (Walburg, 1955).
It is exceedingly difficult to evaluate the
factors that might have caused changes in the
size of the Maryland shad population because
of the unknown effect of the Virginia shad
fishery on the Maryland population (Walburg,
1955). Shad must pass through the Virginia
fishery to enter Maryland waters of Chesa-
peake Bay. The number available to Maryland
fishermen fronn a run of given size is in part
a function of the fishing effort in Virginia
waters of the Bay. The effect of the Virginia
fishery n^ay not be as serious, however, as
some of the other complex factors affecting
the availability of shad in Maryland waters,
since Whitney (1961) estimated that only 3
percent of the catch of runs bound for the Sus-
quehanna area in 1959 was nnade in Virginia
waters. Successful management probably re-
quires consideration of Chesapeake Bay stocks
as units without regard topoliticalboundaries.
62
SHAD FISHERIES OF DELAWARE
The shad fisheries of Delaware are confined
to the Delaware River, Delaware Bay, and the
Nanticoke River (fig. 15). At the turn of the
century, the fisheries of the Delaware River,
Delaware Bay, and their tributaries were the
most productive in the United States. Their
annual yield was 12 to 18 million pounds, sev-
eral times greater than on any other river or
coast (Stevenson, 1899).
The total 1896 catch of shad in the Delaware
River and Delaware Bay and their tributaries
was 16,699,741 lb.; 1,770,037 lb. were taken
by residents of Delaware, 2,217,900 lb. by
residents of Pennsylvania, and 12,711,804 1b.
by residents of New Jersey. In addition, Dela-
ware fishermen caught 223,257 lb. in the
Delaware section of the Nanticoke River to
make the Delaware production 1,993,294 lb.
(table 34). Principal gears in the fisheries
were drift gill nets and haul seines; stake
gill nets, pound nets, and bow nets also con-
tributed to the catch.
In 1960 only residents of Delaware and New
Jersey fished for shad in the Delaware River
and Bay. The estimated catch was 148,200 lb.,
of which Delaware fishermen caught 40,2001b.
or 27 percent (table 35). In addition, Delaware
fishermen caught an estimated 2,000 lb. in the
Nanticoke River. Gill nets took more than 99
percent of the total of 42,200 lb., and mis-
cellaneous gears the remainder.
FISHERIES BY WATER AREA
Discussion of the shad fisheries of the Dela-
ware River and Bay includes that portion of
the fishery prosecuted by residents of Dela-
ware, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.
Nanticoke River
The Nanticoke River is the only tributary of
Chesapeake Bay which originates in Delaware
and supports a shad fishery (fig. 15). The por-
tion located in Delaware is small; the distance
from Maryland to the headwaters in Sussex
County is 30 miles. A more detailed descrip-
tion of the river and its shad fishery is given
in the discussion of the shad fisheries of
Maryland.
The 1896 catch of shad in the Delaware sec-
tion of the Nanticoke was 182,250 lb., of which
drift gill nets caught about 53 percent, seines
46 percent, and pound nets 1 percent (table 34).
Drift nets were 70 to 90 yd. long and 49 to 55
meshes deep and had 5 1/8- to 5 3/4-in. mesh.
These nets were fished fronn the Delaware line
to Seaford, Del., a distance of 8 miles. Seines
near Seaford and Woodland, Del., were 125 to
200 yd. long and 20 to 30 ft. deep and had
2 1/4- or 2 l/2-in. mesh. In addition to the
river catch, drift nets and seines in Broad
Creek, a tributary which enters the Nanticoke
a short distance above the Maryland line,
caught 41,007 lb.
The Delaware section of the Nanticoke River
yielded an estimated 2,000 lb. in I960, of
which 900 yd. of drift gill nets took 65 percent
and 300 yd. of stake gill nets the remainder.
Drift nets fished near Seaford were 50 to 90
yd. long and 45 to 55 meshes deep and had
5- to 5 l/2-in. mesh. Stake nets in the lower
area of the Delaware section of the river and
in the mouth of Broad Creek averaged 30 yd.
long and 45 nneshes deep and had 5-in. nnesh.
Delaware Bay
Near Bombay Hook, the Delaware River in-
creases in width and merges into Delaware
Bay, forming an estuary 45 nniles long and 4
to 30 miles wide. A line from BombayHook on
the Delaware shore to the mouth of Stow Creek
on the New Jersey shore forms the head of
the Bay.
The 1896 shad fishery in Delaware Bay and
tributaries was prosecuted by fishermen of
Delaware, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. The
estimated yield was 4,600,736 lb., of which
residents of Delaware took 202,255 lb., resi-
dents of New Jersey 4,323,595 lb., and resi-
dents of Pennsylvania 74,886 lb. Gill nets were
the principal gear of Delaware fishermen.
Drift nets were fished in the channel and along
the edges of the channel, and stake nets on the
flats innmediately above the mouth of the Mis-
pillion River, in 6 to 10 ft. ofwater. The prin-
cipal fishing centers were at Bombay Hook
and Bowers Beach, Del. Fishing began about
the second week of March and continued until
May 1. During this period, 13,540 yd. of drift
gill net caught 183,944 lb., and 2,700 yd. of
stake net caught 17,885 lb. (table 34). Two
pound nets took 426 lb. incidental to the catch
of other species.
Seines and drift gill nets were the only gears
used for shad in 1896 onthe New Jersey shore.
The total catch was more than 4 million
pounds, of which drift nets caught 99 percent.
These nets averaged more than 1, 100 yd. each;
the aggregate length of the 230 nets of New
Jersey fishermen was 271,200 yd.; the usual
mesh size was 5 l/8 in. Two seines used on
the New Jersey side of the Bay in 1896 were
each 425 yd. long; they caught 2,916 lb. of
shad incidental to the catch of other species.
Pennsylvania fishermenoperated 6,000 yd. of
drift gill nets in 1896, principally in the head
of the Bay, and caught an estimated 74,886 lb.
of shad.
In 1896 shad were caught in a number of
short Delaware Bay tributaries (The longest
barely exceeded 25 miles.) situated entirely
63
Table 34. — Shad catch, by water area and gear, Delaware, 1896
Water area
Drift gill net
Stake gill net
Seine
Pound net
- :.«o« aat
Length
Catch
Length
Catch
Length
Catch
Nets
Catch
Nets
Catch
Naaticoke River . . .
Broad Creek ....
Yards
7,184
1,540
13,540
600
2,500
500
250
80,767
480
Pounds
96,866
28,558
183,944
11,470
202,160
14,896
7,235
1,186,815
2,554
Yards
2,700
Pounds
17,885
III
Yards
1,674
296
1,580
320
480
500
320
427
2,250
160
300
Pounds
84,192
12,449
58,754
13,589
12,342
17,279
4,673
6,384
8,563
1,490
9,789
Number
2
2
Pounds
1,192
426
Number
10
Pounds
Broadklln Creek . .
Mispillion Creek .
Murderkill Creek .
St. Jones Creek . .
Leipsic Creek . . .
Duck Creek .....
Delaware River. ....
Appoquinimink Creek
Christiana Creek....
9,789
Total ....
107,361
1,734,498
2,700
17,885
8,307
229,504
4
1,618
10
9,789
Table 35. --Shad catch, by gear and state, Delaware River and Bay, 1960
Gear
Delaware
New Jersey
Total
Length
fished
Catch
Length
fished
Catch
Length
fished
Catch
Drift gill net. . . .
Stake gill net. . . .
Haul seine
Miscellaneous ....
Yards
800
7,820
Pounds
2,000
38,000
200
Yards
3,200
20,410
710
Pounds
8,000
99,000
1,000
Yards
4,000
28,230
710
Po^nds
10,000
137,000
1,000
200
Total
8,620
40,200
24,320
108,000
32,940
148,200
within Delaware (table 34); none of these
supported a fishery in 1960.
Williann F. Moore of the Delaware Game
and Fish Commission (written communication
dated June 13, 1961) reported that in I960 shad
entered Delaware Bay on March 28 and the run
continued until early June. The estimated shad
catch was 140,000 lb.; 32,000 lb. were taken
by Delaware fishermen and 108,000 lb. by New
Jersey fishermen. On the Delaware shore,
stake gill nets (aggregate length 6,670 yd.)
were fished from Lewes to Bombay and caught
32,000 lb. of shad. On the New Jersey shore,
stake gill nets fished from the mouth of the
Maurice River to the head of the Bay caught
99,000 lb., drift gill nets 8,000 lb., and haul
seines 1,000 lb. The drift gill net and haul
seine shad catches were taken incidental to
the catch of other species. Stake gill nets
fished near Bowers Beach on the Delaware
shore were the most productive, and those
fished near Cahonsey Creek on the New
Jersey shore were the most productive.
Delaware River
The Delaware River originates on the west-
ern slope of the Catskill Mountains in New
York at an elevation over 1,800 ft. above sea
level (fig. 15). It is formed by the union of
the East and West Branches 80 miles below
the headwaters, where it becomes the eastern
boundary of Pennsylvania. From this union
the river flows southeast to Port Jervis,N,Y.,
south to Trenton, N.J., and then southeast
again into the upper end of Delaware Bay near
Bombay Hook--a distance of 368 miles. The
64
river crosses the fall line near Trenton, where
a low natural falls limits upstream tidal in-
fluence. The gradient of the river bed de-
creases as the river approaches the tidal
estuary.
Prior to construction of a dam at Lacka-
waxen in the early 1800's, shad migrated
regularly to Shavertown, N.Y., on the East
Branch and to a short distance above Deposit,
N.Y., on the West Branch- -each more than
350 miles from the coast (Bishop, 1935).
Areas above the Delaware Water Gap served
as spawning and nursery grounds. Most im-
portant was the stretch of river above Barry-
ville, N.Y., including both branches. For 25
yr. prior to 1872, no shad was seen farther
upstream than Milford, Pa., 30 miles below
Lackawaxen (Smiley, 1884). In 1875 the catch
at Milford increased. The species reappeared
as far upstream as the dam at Lackawaxen
in 1876. The dana blocked upstream movement
of fish until about 1890 when a fishway was
erected in the obstruction and shad again
ascended to the headwaters of the river. About
1905 the dam was destroyed by ice, and shad
had free passage to the entire river.
The fishery on the Delaware River and
tributaries dates back to colonial times, but
statistics on production were not available
until 1880. The usual and nnost efficient method
of taking shad was with seines (fig. 22) and
gill nets. The estimated catch in 1880 was
1,500,000 lb. (McDonald, 1887d). The catch
was 11,740,434 lb. in 1896 of which Delaware
fishermen took 1,209,211 lb., Pennsylvania
fishermen 2,143,014 lb., and New Jersey
fishermen 8,388,209 lb. Drift gill nets produced
about 75 percent of the catch, seines about
25 percent, and spears less than 1 percent.
The tidewater section fronn the head of the
Delaware Bay to the fall line at Scudder Falls
produced 10,983,027 lb. The upriver section
from the fall line to the head of the river
yielded 743,575 lb., and the tributaries 13,833
lb.
The shad fisheries of the Delaware River
and tributaries in 1896 are reviewed by area.
Appoquinimink Creek. --This streann is 20
miles long and empties into the Delaware
River 5 miles below Port Penn, Del., and 46
miles below Philadelphia. Two seines, each
Figure 22.— Binghamton Shad Club haul seine fishery in May 1905 on upper Delaware River. (Photograph courtesy of
Frank Bowen, Hancock, N.Y.)
65
80 yd. long, caught an estinnated 1,490 lb. of
shad in 1896 (table 34),
Christiana Creek. --This strean-i forms the
harbor of Wilmington, Del., and is navigable
for 8 miles. Above Wilmington were several
dams. Six seines averaging 50 yd. long took
an estimated 9,789 lb. of shad; four drift nets,
each 120 yd. long, caught an estimated 2,554
lb. in 1896 (table 34).
Delaware River belowScudder Falls. - - In the
tidal portion of the river, 414,044 yd. of drift
net and 45 seines were used in 1896. Of the
total yardage of drift gill net fished, 80,767 yd.
were fished by 164 Delaware fishernnen, 64,670
yd. by 340 Pennsylvania fishermen, and 268,607
yd. by New Jersey fishermen. Drift gill nets
in the lower portion of this section averaged
800 yd. long, and those in the upper portion
200 to 300 yd. long. The drift net catch was
8,759,188 lb. (table 34). The seines were
used fronn the head of Delaware Bay to the
falls above Trenton, of which 4 were in Dela-
ware, 15 in Pennsylvania, and 26 in New
Jersey. The seine fishery in the lower part of
the river below Fort Delaware took few shad
because their catch was incidental to that of
other species; the yield of eight nets in this
area was about 16,000 lb. Seines above Fort
Delaware were more productive; their total
catch was about 2,207,839 lb.
Scudder Falls to the Headwaters.- - The 1896
shad fishery above tidewater was more ex-
tensive than in any similar area of any river
of the United States. It extended 140 miles
from Scudder Falls to Lackawaxen, but was
most extensive in the 40-mile section of river
just above Scudder Falls Dam. With the ex-
ception of one drift net, which took 4,000 lb.
a short distance above the falls, seines and
spears were the only gears. Most of the
available locations on the upper Delaware
were occupied by seine fisheries which took
717,829 lb. (table 34), Spears, used mostly at
Lackawaxen dam, took 21,745 lb.
Shad entered the Delaware River in 1960 in
the latter part of March and remained until
early June. A few shad ascended the river at
least to Lackawaxen, 296 miles from the coast,
and probably spawned in that vicinity. In May
1944, biologists of the Fish and Wildlife Serv-
ice found the greatest concentration of eggs
above Lackawaxen, Pa.; none was located
below Lumbertville, Pa. Live shad eggs and
newly hatched fry were found in 1945 only at
the mouth of the Lackawaxen River (Ellis,
Westfall, Meyer, and Platner, 1947).
Gill nets (5-in. or longer mesh) were the
only commercial gear in the Delaware River
in I960. Five stake nets and 10 drift nets were
fished from the mouth of the river to Delaware
City, Del. The catch was 8,000 lb., of which
2,000 lb. were taken in 800 yd. of drift gill net
and 6,000 lb. in 1,150 yd. of stake gill net. In
addition to the commercial yield, about 2001b.
were taken incidentally in crab nets and by
hook and line near Wilmington.
TRENDS IN PRODUCTION
Statistics on the shad catch in Delaware are
available for certain of the years, 1880-1960
(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1958-61).
Annual yield for 9 yr. in 1880-1901 was more
than 1 million pounds; peak production of
nearly 2 million pounds was in 1896. Produc-
tion declined to 87,000 lb. by 1921. The annual
production remained low in 1921-60; the record
low of 3,000 pounds was in 1957 (table 36). The
I960 catch was slightly more than 2 percent
of the 1896 take.
The Delaware River and Bay produced about
70 percent of the total Delaware catch in 1896,
the Nanticoke River about 11 percent, and
tributaries to the Bay and river about 19
percent.
In 1960 the Delaware River and Bay produced
more than 98 percent of the total catch, the
Nanticoke River less than 2 percent, and trib-
utaries to the Bay and river less than 1 per-
cent.
The principal shad fisheries of Delaware
have changed little from the operations prior
to 1900, except a decline in size of catch. With
minor exceptions, the same gear and locations
are fished. The causes for the decline in
Table 36. --Shad catch for certain years,
ftelaware, 1880-196ol
[In thousands of pounds]
Year
Catch
Year
Catch
1880. . .
,050
1939. . .
. . 44
1887. . .
,270
1940. . .
. . 31
1888. . .
,389
1942. . .
. . 14
1889. . .
,498
1943. . .
. . 24
1890. . .
,797
1944. . .
. . 41
1891. . .
,500
1945. . .
. . 133
1896. . .
,993
1947. . .
. . 68
1897. . .
,62)
1948. . .
. . 53
1901. . .
,368
1949. . .
. . 57
1904. . .
951
1950. . .
. . 102
1908. . .
870
1951. . .
. . 110
1921. . .
87
1952. . .
. . 65
1926. . .
147
1953. . .
. . 60
1929. . .
94
1954. . .
. . 55
1930. . .
54
1955. . .
. . 32
1931. . .
39
1956. . .
. . 12
1932. . .
16
1957. . .
. . 3
1933. . .
22
1958. . .
. . 59
1935. . .
25
1959. . .
. . 28
1937. . .
20
1960. . .
. . 42
1938. . .
14
^ Statistics 1880-1959, U. S. Fish and Wildlife
Service (1958-61).
66
abundance of shad in the Delaware River and
Bay were not determined with certainty, but
Sykes and Lehman (1957) stated that: (1) the
decline was brought about, at least in part, by
overfishing; (2) increased pollution of the Dela-
ware estuary had beconne an important and
apparently dominant cause of the diminution
of the stock (Adults migrating upstream through
the industrial sections of the river during
April and May sometimes were killed by pollu-
tion blocks as was witnessed in May 1951.);
(3) heavy mortality occurred annong young
downstream migrants in and near the indus-
trial sections where the water was most
heavily polluted; and (4) legally operated eel
racks in the river destroyed young fish.
The Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Com-
mission and the Interstate Commission on the
Delaware River Basin recommended in 1949
to Delaware authorities certain measures
designed to nnanage a restored fishery to
produce maximum continued yields. These
measures, similar to the Maryland Manage-
ment Plan, would be implemented by New
Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania. Pres-
ervation of the rennnant shad population that
spawns in the upper reaches of the Delaware
River depended upon freedom from dams that
would prevent access to spawning and nursery
grounds (Sykes and Lehman, 1957). The suc-
cess of shad rehabilitation programs on the
Delaware also depends on the reduction and
continued control of pollution. If these ob-
jectives are accomplished, there appears to
be no reason why the shad runs in Delaware
could not be rehabilitated.
SHAD FISHERIES OF PENNSYLVANIA
The shad fisheries of Pennsylvania formerly
were limited to the Susquehanna River, the
Delaware River and Delaware Bay, and their
tributaries. The estimated catch in 1896 was
2,501,143 lb., of which gill nets caught about
48 percent, seines 50 percent, and bow nets
and spears the remainder. The catch by gear
and amount of gear are given by water area
in table 37.
There was no commercial shad production
in Pennsylvania waters in 1960.
FISHERIES BY WATER AREA
Susquehanna River
The Susquehanna River is situated partly in
Maryland and New York, but principally in
Pennsylvania; it traverses that State from
north to south. The Susquehanna flows south
for 422 miles into the head of Chesapeake Bay.
Eighty-three miles upstreann from its mouth,
the Susquehanna receives the Juniata River,
and 126 miles above its mouth (at Sunbury,
Pa.), it receives its principal tributary, the
West Branch, 175 miles long. Above Sunbury,
the Susquehanna is called the North Branch.
The Susquehanna drains an area of 27,500
square miles--the largest drainage of any
United States Atlantic coast river.
The original limit of the shad run in the
Susquehanna was 318 miles from the mouth
of the river and 513 miles fronn the coast
(Stevenson, 1899). Fish spawned in the upper
reaches of the river and its tributaries. In
the early part of the 19th century, at least 2
million pounds of shad were caught each year
in Pennsylvania waters of the Susquehanna.
This abundance continued until a canal with
dams was constructed during the 1830's.
Table 37. --Shad catch, by water area and gear, Pennsylvania, 1896
Drift gill net
Seine
Bow net
Spear
Total
Water area
Length
Catch
Length
Catch
Number
Catch
Number
Catch
Catch
Susquehanna River:
Below Columbia Dam. . .
Above Columbia Dam. . .
Juniata River
Delaware Bay
Delaware Rivert
Below Scudder Falls . .
Above Scudder Falls . .
Yards
6,000
64,670
100
Pounds
74,886
1,116,027
4,833
Yards
6,360
2,260
170
5,300
5,215
Pounds
214,226
23,639
2,820
613,742
386,667
51
Pounds
42,558
30
Pound s
21,745
Pounds
256,784
23,639
2,820
74,886
1,729,769
413,245
Total
70,770
1,195,746
19,305
1,241,094
51
42,558
30
21,745
2,501,143
67
The period of canal-dam construction on the
Susquehanna was 1830-1909. In 1896fourdams
were on the 174 miles of river between the
mouth and Wilkes-Barre, Pa. The first, 7 or
8 ft. high and 6,800 ft. long, at Columbia, Pa.,
was the principal cause for the decline of the
upriver fisheries. Breaks that frequently oc-
curred in the dam, permitted shad to pass up-
stream to the second canal dam at Clarks
Ferry, Pa., just above the entrance of the
Juniata River and 40 miles above Columbia.
The second dam was 7 ft. high and nearly
2,000 ft. long. At Sunbury, 38 miles above
Clarks Ferry, was a third canal dam, 7 1/2 ft.
high and 2,600 ft. long. The fourth was the
Nanticoke canal dam, 6 ft. high and 900 ft.
long, 7 miles below Wilkes-Barre. Attempts
were made to provide fish passage over the
canal dams, but none was successful.
There were a dozen or more old dams be-
tween the Nanticoke Dam and the New York
line. At Binghamton was a crib dam 5 1/2 ft.
high and 450 ft. long extending entirely across
the stream. Above this structure were several
primitive crib dams that had falls of 3 to
10 ft.
During the canal-dam period the number of
shad reaching the river above Columbia less-
ened and then became irregular, depending
upon breaks in the obstructions. In 1896, 14
seines fished betweeru the dam at Columbia
and Clarks Ferry caught an estimated 23,639
lb., and 2 seines fished on the Juniata caught
an estimated 2,820 lb. (table 37). The seines
ranged from 80 to 250 yd. long and had 4 1/2-
to 5 l/2-in. mesh. Below the Columbia dam
the estimated catch was 256,784 lb., of which
6,360 yd. of seine took 83 percent and 51 bow
nets the remainder.
The catch of shad in 1908 represented 79
percent of the total landings and 73 percent
of the total value of fish caught in the Susque-
hanna River. About 67 percent of the catch
was made by dip and bow nets and the re-
mainder by seines and gill nets (Bureau of
the Census, 191 1).
After 1900 four hydroelectric power dams
were built on the Susquehanna River between
its mouth and Harrisburg, Pa., 65 miles up-
stream (Whitney, 1961). The first was built in
1904 at York Haven, Pa., but the power plant
section was not completed until 19 16. Its height
varied from 6 ft. at the western shore to 22 ft.
at the eastern shore; at river stages above
6 ft., fish could pass upstream. In 1910 a
second hydroelectric power dam was con-
structed--Holtwood Dam. A fishladder was
included in this structure, and another was
installed in 1913, but both failed to pass fish.
In 1909 the estimated shad catch in the Sus-
quehanna was 217,000 lb.; in 1915 it was
33,000 lb. A third dam was constructed in
1928 at Conowingo. It is the farthest down-
stream and is also the highest- -about 95 ft.
at normal head. This structure is 8 miles
below the Pennsylvania- Maryland line and
completely obstructs the upstream movement
of fish. A fourth hydroelectric power dam,
the Safe Habor Dam, was constructed in 1931
between the Holtwood and York Haven Dams.
The Joint State Government Commission
of Pennsylvania in 1949 investigated fish-
way problems on the Susquehanna River
(Whitney, 1961). The Commission reported that
the shad fisheries in the Pennsylvania part of
the river had been economically important
before 1900. Dam construction, overfishing,
and pollution were suggested as causes for
decline in catch. The Commission recom-
mended that a resolution be introduced into the
General Assembly of the Commonwealth of
Pennsylvania asking that the Congress of the
United States direct a general study of the
biological and hydraulic factors that need to
be understood if effective fishways are to be
built for shad.
In 1952 a total of 1,176 adult shad were
planted- -209 above Conowingo Dam and 967
above Safe Harbor Dam. No evidence of suc-
cessful spawning above these structures was
found (Walburg, 1954).
From 1957 to 1960 the Maryland Department
of Research and Education authorized a study
on the desirability and feasibility of passing
fish at Conowingo Dam (Whitney, 1961). Con-
clusions reached in this study were: 'Although
small spawning runs of shad reach Conowingo
Dam, provision of passage for them over the
dam is unlikely to result in successful spawn-
ing in the reservoir with consequent increase
in total shad stocks; and is also unlikely to
provide significant catches of shad in the
reservoir. "
The Pennsylvania Fish Commission has
completed engineering and biological studies
on fish passage at dams on the Susquehanna
River (Bell and Holmes, 1962). At the time
of this report, steps are being taken to develop
further studies to determine the feasibility of
passing shad above the dams.
Delaware River
Residents of Pennsylvania caught more than
2 million pounds of shad in the Delaware River
and Bay in 1896 (table 37). In the Bay 6,000
yd. of drift gill net took 74,886 lb. Of the
2,143,014 lb. taken in the river, drift gill net
fishermen took about 52 percent, seme fisher-
men 47 percent, and spear fishermen the
remainder.
In recent years the abundance of shad in
the Pennsylvania portion of the Delaware River
has been so low that commercial fishing has
practically stopped. In 1946 the fisheries on
the Delaware River were limited mainly to the
lower reaches of the river and Bay below
Pennsylvania (Ellis et al., 1947). The Milford
(Pa.) Shad Club reported that their annual
68
catches formerly had ranged up to 5,000 shad,
but with the general decrease of this species,
they caught less than a dozen in 1948 and con-
sequently stopped fishing (Sykes and Lehman,
1957). Seining was tried again in May 1950,
but only eight fish were taken. Other seining
clubs, located in Hancock, Pa., also ceased
fishing because of the lack of fish.
A detailed discussion of the fisheries in the
Delaware River and Bay is given in the de-
scription of the shad fisheries of Delaware.
TRENDS IN PRODUCTION
Information is available on the shad catch
by water area in Pennsylvania for certain
years in 1880-1960 (table 38). Production was
high from 1887 through 1901, when the aver-
age annual yield was 2,289,000 lb. The year
of peak production was 1901, when about 3
million pounds were taken. After 1901 produc-
tion decreased until 1921, when the catch was
only 19,000 lb. By 1921 no shad were taken in
Pennsylvania waters of the Susquehanna River,
and the yield was from the Delaware River and
Bay only. From 1921 to 1942 production
ranged from 22,000 lb. in 1929 to 2,000 lb. in
1932 and 1933. By 1943 the run in the Delaware
River was so depleted that commercial fishing
was abandoned in the Pennsylvania portion.
There has been no commercial production of
shad in Pennsylvania waters since 1943.
Table 38. — Shad catch for certain years, Pennsylvania, 1880-1960^
[In thousands of pounds]
Year
Susquehanna
River
Delaware
River
and Bay
Total
Year
Susquehanna
River
De laware
River
and Bay
Total
IS30
...
559
1929
22
22
1887
1,424
1930
5
5
1888
...
1,387
1931
7
7
1889
2,753
1932
--.
2
2
1890
205
2,693
2,898
1933
2
2
1891
201
2,492
2,693
1935
10
10
1896
283
2,218
2,501
1937
13
13
1897
203
1,804
2,007
1938
14
14
1901
2,983
1939
U
1904
257
579
836
1940
10
10
1908
312
281
593
1942
7
7
1921
19
19
1943
0
1926
...
21
21
1960
...
0
"■ Total catch, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1958-61); catch by
water area, Mansueti and Kolb (1953).
Pollution and overfishing were cited as re-
sponsible for the decline of the Delaware
River shad population, but construction of
dams that prevent fish from reaching original
spawning and nursery areas was the dominant
factor in eliminating shad from Pennsylvania
waters of the Susquehanna River. Factors af-
fecting abundance of shad in the Pennsylvania
portion of the Delaware River are discussed
in the section on the shad fisheries of
Delaware.
SHAD FISHERIES OF NEW JERSEY
The shad fisheries of New Jersey are sup-
ported by Delaware Bay, Atlantic Ocean shore.
Lower New York Bay, and the Hudson River
(fig. 23). In 1896 New Jersey ranked first
among the States in pounds of shad caught.
It ranked fifth in 1960.
The fisheries produced 13,909,826 lb. in
1896, of which Delaware Bay yielded about 31
percent, Delaware River 60 percent, Hudson
River 5 percent. Lower New York Bay 3 per-
cent, and the ocean shore the remainder. Drift
gill nets took about 77 percent of the catch,
seines 14 percent, stake gill nets 6 percent,
and fyke and pound nets the remainder.
The 1960 yield was 693,636 lb. The Hudson
River produced about 65 percent, Delaware
Bay 16 percent. Lower New York Bay 13 per-
cent, and the ocean shore 6 percent. Stake gill
nets took slightly less than 82 percent of the
catch, pound nets less than 17 percent, drift
gill nets 1 percent, and otter trawls and seines
the remainder. The gear fished and the catch
by gear and water area in New Jersey in 1896
and 1960 are given in tables 39 and 40.
FISHERIES BY WATER AREA
New Jersey fishermen formerly caught shad
in both Delaware Bay and Delaware River, but
in 1960 only Delaware Bay produced fish.
(A description of the fisheries in both areas
is given in the section on the fisheries of
Delaware.) New Jersey fishermen caught
109,000 lb. on the Jersey side of the Bay in
1960, of which 99,000 lb. were taken by stake
gill nets, 8,000 lb. by drift gill nets, and 1,000
lb. by seines operated for other species.
In 1896 several New Jersey streams tribu-
tary to Delaware Bay and Delaware River,
such as the Maurice, Oldmans, Rancocas,
Woodbury, and Cooper Rivers, produced a
few shad for local use. In I960, however, only
the Maurice yielded shad, but the catch was
small, and no estimate was made of the quan-
tity taken.
Ocean Shore an(3 Bays
A few shad were caught in 1896 in several
of the small sounds and bays along the ocean
shore of New Jersey. These fish were taken
by seines, stake gill nets, and fyke nets used
for other fishes. The estimated catch was
10,687 lb. (table 40). In addition, numerous
pound nets along the coast from Barnegat Bay
to Sandy Hook took about 56,977 lb. incidental
to the catch of other species. This point was
the southernmost on the Atlantic coast where
shad were taken in considerable numbers
beyond the coastline.
69
Figure 23. — Map of coastal New Jersey.
Key:
1 Delaware Bay
2 Delaware River
3 Appoqulnimink Creek
4 Christiana Creek
5 Maurice River
10 Philadelphia
11 Rancocas Creek
12 Trenton
13 Lambertville
14 Great Egg Harbor
18 Manasquan River
19 Shark River
20 Shrewsbury
21 Sandy Hook
22 Sandy Hook
6 Cohansey Creek
7 Stow Creek
8 Oldmans River
9 Woodbury Creek
River
15 MuUlca River
16 Bamegat Bay
17 Point Pleasant
Bay
23 Raritan Bay
24 Staten Island
25 Raritan River
70
Table 39. --Gear employed in shad fisheries, by water area, New Jersey, 1896 and 1960
1896
1950
Water area
Drift
gill
net
Stake
gill
net
Seine
Fyke
net
Drift
gill
net
Stake
gill
net
Seine
Pound
net
Delaware Bay. . . .
Delaware River. . .
Ocean Shore ....
Lower New York Bay,
Hudson River. . . .
Yards
271,200
275,607
Yards
400
41,144
15,282
Yards
850
16,718
1,622
Number
20
225
Yards
3,200
450
Yards
20,410
4,509
7,800
Yards
710
Number
8
30
Total
546,807
56,826
19,190
245
3,550
32,719
710
38
Table 40, --Shad catch, by water area and gear, New Jersey, 1896 and 1960
[In pounds]
1896
1950
Water area
Drift
gill
net
Stake
gill
net
Seine
Fyke
net
Pound
net
Drift
gill
net
Stake
gill
net
Seine
Pound
net
Otter
trawl
Delaware Bay
Delaware River
Ocean Shore
Lower New York Bay, , ,
Hudson River
4,320,679
5,455,513
833
90,809
703,308
2,915
1,932,695
3,604
■4,208
6,250
218,775
/ 56,977
'■ 111,258
8,000
170
99,000
18,400
449,466
1,000
23,200
93,300
^ 1,100
Total
10,776,192
796,950
1,943,424
225,025
168,235
8,170
556,855
1,000
115,500
1,100
Caught incidentally in gears employed for other species.
Shad were taken in 1960 in anchor gill and
pound nets along the ocean shore from the last
of March until mid- May, Anchor nets were
used principally in the small bays and sounds
near the mouths of the Manasquan, Shark, and
Shrewsbury Rivers, They averaged about 100
yd. long and 45 meshes deep and had 5-in.
mesh. The catch by 4,509 yd. ofnetwas 18,400
lb. Eight pound nets, near Point Pleasant,
N.J,, took 23,200 lb. In addition 1,100 lb. were
taken incidental to the catch of other species
by otter trawls fishing in the ocean. From a
previous study it was concluded that of the
pound net catches, 76 percent were Hudson
River fish, 13 percent Connecticut River fish,
and 11 percent fish from other Atlantic coast
streams (Nichols, 1958).
Lower New York Bay
Stevenson (1899) divided the Lower New York
Bay area into Sandy Hook Bay and RaritanBay.
Sandy Hook Bay forms part of the waterway
tributary to the harbor of New York City and
is separated from the ocean on the east by a
narrow sand beach known as Sandy Hook. The
fishery in Sandy Hook Bay in 1896 was con-
fined to stake gill nets which averaged between
150 and l60 yd. long and had 5 l/4- to 6-in,
mesh. The 107 rows of net had an aggregate
length of 16,840 yd,; they yielded an estimated
27,499 lb, of shad. In Raritan Bay, which occu-
pies the triangular area between Statenlsland,
N.Y,, and the coast of Middlesex and Monmouth
Counties, N.J., including Raritan River estu-
ary, 427,050 lb, were taken by pound nets,
stake gill nets, seines, and fyke nets (table 40).
Gill nets were fished especially for shad, but
the other gears were used principally for other
species. The take in Raritan Bay proper was
181,815 lb., of which 61 percent was obtained
in pound nets, 36 percent in gill nets, 2 per-
cent in seines, and the remainder in fyke
nets. Fyke nets took an estimated 207,316 lb,
in the section bordering New York Bay and
10,420 lb, in the lower section of the Raritan
River,
71
Thirty pound nets concentrated in the Raritan
Bay section of Lower New York Bay caught
93,300 lb. of shad in 1960. These nets were
not set especially for shad and depended prin-
cipally on the catch of other fishes. The annual
shad yield by this fishery depends on the size
of run to the Hudson River (Nichols, 1958).
Hudson River
Many shad are caught each year in the New
Jersey section of the Hudson River. The I960
yield was 449,636 lb., most by stake gill nets.
This fishery is prosecuted by residents of
New Jersey and New York; a description of
the fishery is given in the section on the fish-
eries of New York.
TRENDS IN PRODUCTION
The shad fisheries of New Jersey have un-
dergone extreme fluctuations in production
(table 41), The catch increased from 750,000
lb. in 1880 to more than 14 million pounds in
1901. The catch declined to 4 million pounds
by 1904 and to 168,000 lb. by 1921. The pro-
duction continued low until 1935, when 818,000
lb. were landed. From 1937 to 1945, production
was relatively high; the annual average yield
was about 3.5 million pounds. Production again
decreased, and in 1947-60 the annual average
yield was slightly more than 1 million pounds.
The I960 production was less than 5 percent
of the 1896 catch.
To protect the fishery. New Jersey initiated
management measures and enacted laws re-
stricting the fishing season and certain types
of gear. Artificial propagation and stocking
of shad, practiced as early as 1875, continued
until 1941. Stocking did not, however, increase
the commercial yield.
Table 41. --Shad catch for certain years.
New Jersey, 1880-1960^
[In thousands of pounds]
Year
Catch
1880 750
1887 6,495
1888 6,523
1889 10,424
1890 10,623
1891 10,225
1896 13,910
1897 13,001
1901 14,031
1904.
1908.
1921.
1926.
1929.
1930.
1931.
1932.
1933.
1935.
1937.
1938.
4,338
3,004
168
553
342
224
257
224
458
818
3,340
2,492
Year
Catch
1939 2,699
1940 3,365
1942 4,826
1943 3,348
1944 4,314
1945 2,917
1947 1,574
1948 1,853
1949 1.407
1950 1,072
1951 682
1952 1,402
1953 679
1954 826
1955 1,326
1956 1,316
1957 1,384
1958 964
1959 1,026
1960 694
Statistics 1880-1959, U.
Wildlife Service (1958-61).
S. Fish and
The success of shad rehabilitation in the
Delaware River must depend on the reduction
and continued control of pollution and the
prevention of dam construction on the main
stem of the river or provision of main- stem
dams with fishways (Sykes and Lehman, 1957).
In the Hudson, the most important single fac-
tor of fluctuations in stocks is the number of
shad escaping the fishery to spawn (Talbot,
1954). Factors of fluctuations in abundance of
shad in these rivers are discussed in the sec-
tions on fisheries of Delaware and New York.
SHAD FISHERIES OF NEW YORK
The 1896 shad fisheries of New Yorkyielded
2, ZOO, 546 lb.; Hudson River and New York Bay
produced more than 98 percent. The river
produced 1,703,066 lb., of which drift gill nets
caught 71 percent, stake gill nets 13 percent,
seines 16 percent, and miscellaneous gear
less than 1 percent. The Bay produced 461,865
lb., of which drift gill nets caught 56 percent,
stake gill nets 26 percent, pound nets 14 per-
cent, and miscellaneous gear 4 percent. Great
South Bay, Long Island Sound, and Gardiner
Bay and tributaries produced 35,615 lb., but
most was incidental to the catch of other
species.
The shad fisheries of New York in 1960
yielded 472,261 lb., of which the Hudson River
and New York Bay produced 95 percent. The
river produced 328,711 lb., of which drift gill
nets caught about 41 percent, stake gill nets
58 percent, and seines 1 percent. The Bay
produced 118,200 lb., all caught by pound nets.
Great South Bay, Long Island Sound, and Gar-
diner Bay yielded 25,350 lb. incidental to the
catch of other species. A map of the Hudson
River from Castleton, N.Y., to the Atlantic
Ocean is shown in figure 24.
The extent of the fisheries by water area in
1896 and 1960 is given in tables 42 and 43.
Formerly, most shad were taken by drift gill
net, but in recent years pound nets have be-
come relatively more important. The amounts
of drift gill net and seines decreased, and
yards of stake gill nets and numbers of pound
nets increased.
72
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Figure 24. — Hudson River from Castleton, N.Y., to the
Atlantic Ocean.
Key:
1
Lower Bay
2
The Narrows
3
New York City
4
Upper Bay
5
Jersey City
6
Weehawken
7
Long Island
8
Fort Lee
9
Long Island Sound
10
Alpine
11
Piermont
12
Nyack
13
Haverstraw
14
Stoney Point
15
Croton Point
16
Verplanck Point
17
Hudson River
18
Poughkeepsie
19
Port Ewen
20
Kingston
21
Germantown
22
Catskill
23
Hudson
24
Coxsackie
25
Castleton
FISHERIES BY WATER AREA
Since 1915 New York has instituted, as a
conservation measure, closed weekends or
"lift periods", during which shad fishing is
not permitted. From 1915 through 1917 the
weekly closure was 2 1/2 days, but this applied
only to fishing in the Hudson River from the
headwaters to Verplanck Point 18 miles up-
river from the New Jersey line. After 1917
the closure applied to the entire Hudson under
the supervision of New York. In 1951 a 72-hr.
"lift period" was set for the river and New
York side of New York Bay. From 1952 to
1958, the "lift periods" were 60 hr., and
in the following 2 yr., 48 hr. The State of
New Jersey did not establish closed days
in its section of the Hudson River until 1940.
Since that time the two States have coop-
erated, and the "lift period" each year has
been uniform in the Hudson River and in
New York Bay.
73
Table 42. --Gear employed in shad fisheries, by water area. New York, 1896 and 1960
1896
1960
Water area
Drift
gill
net
Stake
gill
net
Seine
Pound
net
Miscel-
laneous
Drift
gill
net
Stake
gill
net
Seine
Pound
net
Yards
Yards
Yards
Number
Number
Yards
Yards
Yards
Number
New York Bay. . .
46,900
2,416
...
6
}3^
20
...
...
25
Hudson River. . .
164,020
8,438
9,607
--
37,333
40,467
500
--
Great South Bay .
--
--
Gardiner Bay. . .
--
^20
—
Long Island Sound
1,168
"""
..—
6
...
...
...
-"
Total ....
212,088
10,854
9,607
12
74
37,333
40,467
500
25
Fyke nets.
Spears.
Table 43. — Shad catch, by water area and gear, New York, 1896 and 1960
[In pounds]
1896
1960
Water area
Drift
gill
net
Stake
gill
net
Seine
Pound
net
Miscel-
laneous
Drift
gill
net
Stake
gill
net
Seine
Pound
net
New York Bay. . . .
Hudson River. . . .
Great South Bay . .
Gardiner Bay. . . .
Long Island Sound .
257,425
1,204,745
5,610
121,618
217,998
277,080
63,363
/l,475
^17,800
^8,776
19,459
3,243
1,954
134,436
190,994
3,281
118,200
^18,900
^6,400
^50
Total
1,467,780
339,616
227,080
91,414
24,656
134,436
190,994
3,281
143,550
Incidental catch.
New York Bay
New York Bay includes the numerous bodies
of water between the ocean and the mouth of
the Hudson River, from Sandy Hook to the
Battery, New York City. The narrows between
Staten Island and the western tip of Long Is-
land divide the Bay into Lower New York Bay
and Upper New York Bay. This area resembles
an equilateral triangle with 15-mile sides. In
1896 shad were taken in the Lower Bay, in the
Narrows between Long Island and Staten Island,
in the Upper Bay, and in Gravesend Bay at the
extreme upper end of the Lower Bay. The shad
season usually began in March or April and
continued until mid- May or the first of June.
The 1896 and 1960 fisheries are described in
the following subsections.
Lower Bay.- -The 1896 fishery was limited
to four pound nets operated on the shore of
Staten Island between Elmtree Beacon and
Fort Tompkins Light. These nets were set
separately in 12 to 15 ft, of water. The esti-
mated catch was 56,735 lb.
Gravesend Bay.-- This fishery was repre-
sented in 1896 by two large pound nets and two
rows of fyke nets. Each of the fykes had five
14-ft. hoops with two funnels to the net. Pound
nets caught 6,628 lb. and fyke nets 19,459 lb.
74
The Narrows. --The 1896 fishery included
many drift nets, which averaged 400 yd. long
and had 5 1/8- to 5 l/2-in. mesh. About
46,900 yd. of net caught 257,425 lb.
Upper Bay. --Fish were taken in this area
in 1896 by stake gill nets along the western
side of the Bay on the New Jersey Flats. These
nets, each 24 ft. long by 28 ft. deep with
5 l/4-in. mesh, were set with the tops from
10 to 12 ft. below the water surface in 4
strings containing 151 "stations." The poles
were 60 to 70 ft. long. The estimated yield was
121,618 lb.
Shad were taken in I960 only in Lower New
York Bay, by pound nets fished off Staten Is-
land. The seasort began about April 10 and
ended the last of May. Twenty-five pound nets
produced 118,200 lb. No shad fishing was
permitted during a 48-hr. closed weekend.
Hudson River
The Hudson River rises in the Adirondack
Mountains in Essex County, N.Y., flows south
300 miles, and empties into New York Bay at
the Battery, New York City. The river is tidal
fronn its mouth upstream 160 miles to Troy,
N.Y. From New York Bay to Piermont, N.Y.,
it is 1 to 2 miles wide; between Piermont and
Haverstraw, N.Y., it expands into a bay 12
miles long and 4 to 5 miles wide; and from
Haverstraw 34 miles upstream from the mouth
of the river to Troy, it is 300 to 900 yd. wide.
Above Troy are numerous falls and rapids.
A fnasonry dam at Troy, originally a wooden
structure completed in 1826, is the upper limit
of fish migration. The fresh-water section of
the river extends downstream to a few miles
below Poughkeepsie, N.Y. The major spawning
area in the Hudson is between Port Ewen and
Coxsackie, N.Y.; the greatest concentration of
eggs in 1940 was just below the town of Cat-
skill, N.Y. (New York Conservation Depart-
ment, 1943). Collection of eggs in 1950 and
1951 from Kingston to Coxsackie was most
productive between Germantown and Hudson,
N.Y. (Talbot, 1954).
Fishing was limited in 1896 above Castleton,
N.Y., a short distance below Albany, N.Y.,and
few fish were taken above the town of Hudson.
The legal season extended from March 14 to
June 15; fishing was prohibited from sunset on
Saturday until sunrise on Monday of each
week. The estimated catch by New Jersey fish-
ermen was 703,307 lb.; residents of New York
caught 1,703,066 lb. Total production was
2,406,373 lb.
Of the total 1896 yield, about 50 percentwas
taken in drift gill nets, 37 percent in stake
gill nets, 12 percent in seines, and the re-
mainder in miscellaneous gears. Drift nets
were fished from the New Jersey line almost
to Troy Dam and were most numerous near
Verplanck Point. The nets were 450 to 1,000
yd. long, and the aggregate length was 206,590
yd. The length and depth of each net depended
on the size of the channel in which it was
fished. The upper limit of the stake net fishery
on the east side of the river was Croton Point,
near Ossining, N.Y.; on the west side theupper-
most limit was Nyack, N.Y. The stake gillnets
north of the New Jersey line were small and
were set on the flats in shallow water. None of
these nets was more than 15 ft. deep. Nets
between Alpine, N.J., and the mouth of the river
were much larger and were set on the edge of
the channel in water 20 to 50 ft. deep. These
nets usually were 90 meshes long and 100
meshes deep; mesh size was 5-in. The
total number of stake nets in 1896 was 2,631,
and the aggregate length was 21,615 yd. The
catch was 921,305 lb. New Jersey fishermen
fished 1,530 nets and took about Td percent of
the catch; New York fishermen fished 1,101
nets and took 24 percent. Seines ranged from
120 to 500 yd. long and had 2- to 2 l/2-in.
mesh in the bunt and 4- to 5-in. mesh in the
wings. The most extensive seine fishery was
near Kingston Point. The total yield of the 41
seines fished in 1896 was 277,080 lb.
In 1960 the commercial shad fishery of the
Hudson River extended 120 miles from Wee-
hauken, N.J., to Hudson, N.Y. The total yield
was 778,349 lb., of which stake gill nets took
about 82 percent, drift gill nets 17 percent,
and haul seines 1 percent. The catch by New
Jersey fishermen was 449,636 lb. New York
fishermen caught 328,711 lb. Most of the catch
by New Jersey and New York fishermen was
marketed in New York City. The catch by gear
and State are listed in table 44.
In the New York section of the HudsonRiver
drift gill nets were fished from Haverstraw
Bay to the city of Hudson. Nets ranged from
150 to 600 yd. long, had 5 l/4- to 5 3/4-in.
mesh, and were 10 to 15 ft. deep. The drift net
area was entirely within the State of New York,
and the fishermen were licensed by that State,
except for one net, fished in New Jersey
waters, which caught 170 lb. of shad incidental
to other species.
In the lower section of the Hudson River,
bounded by both New York and New Jersey,
nearly all of the stake gill nets were fished
in New Jersey waters, but some were across
the river in New York waters. The upper limit
of the stake gill net fishery was Stony Point,
N.Y. These nets averaged 1,600 ft. and had
6-in. mesh. They were set on the edge of the
channel in waters 20 to 50 ft. deep and were
suspended from long poles spaced about 30 ft.
apart. They were usually fished only during
floodtide. The fish were removed just before
high- slack water, and the net was fastened
above water or removed until the next low-
slack water. These nets are installed and
operated during the shad season only. In
Haverstraw Bay the stake nets are smaller
75
Table 44. — Shad catch, by gear and area, Hudson River, 1960
Gear
New York
New Jersey
Total
Haul seine
Drift gill net
Stake gill net
Number
2
52
55
Yards
500
37,333
40,467
Pounds
3,281
134,436
190,994
Number
1
13
Yards
450
7,800
Pounds
170
449,466
Number
2
53
68
Yards
500
37,783
48,267
Pounds
3,281
134,608
640,460
Total
109
78,300
328,711
14
8,250
449,636
123
86,550
778,349
than those fished in the lower river and are
set on the flats in water not more than 15 ft,
deep. Because of navigational difficulties in
the river from the mouth to Haverstraw Bay,
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers since 1940
has designated areas and lengths of nets that
can be used.
The seine fishery of the Hudson is of little
innportance. Two seines in the upper areas
caught 3,281 lb. of shad in 1960.
On the basis of catch- effort statistics, the
weight of the total population in 1960 was esti-
mated at 1,987,000 lb. and the fishing rate was
39 percent.
Great South Bay and Gardiner s Bay
Shad were caught incidentally in 1896 in
pound nets in Great South and Gardiner s Bays.
The estimated catch was 19,275 lb., of which
31 pound nets in Great South Bay caught 1,475
lb. and 105 pound nets in Gardiners Bay took
17,800 lb.
The 1960 catch of 25,300 lb. of shad also was
incidental in pound nets in these areas; 18,900
lb. were taken in the ocean from Jones Inlet to
Moriches Inlet, and 6,400 lb. in Gardiners,
Peconic, and adjacent bays.
Long Island Sound
Most of the shad entering Long Island Sound
pass along its northern shore and enter the
large tributaries flowing into it from Connecti-
cut; very few are taken on the New York shore
(Stevenson, 1899). More than 300,000 lb. of
shad were caught in the Sound and tributaries
in 1896. About 95 percent was taken along the
northern shore and the rivers flowing therein,
and only 5 percent was taken along the southern
shore. In the Nissoquogue River, which enters
Smithtown Bay, drift nets and spears took an
estimated 7,564 lb. Pound nets in Little Neck
Bay and tributaries caught about 6,801 lb., and
an estimated 1,975 lb. were taken by this gear
in the eastern end of the Sound. Only 50 lb. of
shad were reported from Long Island Sound in
1960.
TRENDS IN PRODUCTION
Since the major shad fisheries of New York
are located in the Hudson River, fluctuations
in annual yield in the State are a reflection of
the conditions in this river. The New York
shad catch for certain years from 1880to I960
is given in table 45. The fishery had its maxi-
mum yield from 1880 to 1901, averaging more
than 3 million pounds per year. Production
then decreased, and from 1904 to 1935 the
annual yield was only 11 percent of that in
1880-1901. Production increased alter 1935,
and from 1937 to 1948 the annual yield fluctu-
ated between 1 million pounds in 1937 and 3
million pounds in 1945. Production again de-
clined, and from 1949 to I960 the annual yield
Table 45. --Shad catch for certain years.
New York, 1880-1960^
[In thousands of pounds]
Year
Catch
Year
Catch
1880 2,734
1887 3,586
1889 4,332
1890 3,777
1891 3,045
1896 2,201
1897 1,884
1901 3,432
1904 498
1908 360
1921 116
1926 231
1929 164
1930 167
1931 357
1932 401
1933 352
1935 476
1937 1,021
1938 1,072
1939 1,378
1940 1,382
1943 2,245
1944 2,130
1945 2,850
1946 1,744
1947 1,267
1948 1,393
1949 900
1950 628
1951 462
1952 773
1953 491
1954 707
1955 615
1956 704
1957 627
1958 644
1959 672
1960 472
^ Statistics 1880-1959, U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service (1958-61).
76
fluctuated between 900,000 lb. in 1949 and
472,000 in 1960. The 1960 production was about
21 percent of the 1896 catch.
Many factors have been suggested as causes
for the decline in production at the turn of the
century, for its subsequent sudden recovery
beginning in 1936, and for the decline in the
last decade. Talbot (1954, 1956) examined a
number of factors that might affect fluctuations
in Hudson River shad runs. Nocorrelation was
found between the size of the shad population
and stream flows, water temperatures, chan-
nel improvements, ship traffic, or hatchery
operations. Available information gave no evi-
dence that runs fluctuated in natural cycles of
abundance. Pollution was a serious problem,
but there are no records to show changes in
pollution on the spawning and rearing grounds.
Limited tagging experiments indicated that
Hudson River shad were caught outside the
river from Maine to North Carolina but were
taken in large numbers only along the New
Jersey coast and off Staten and Long Islands. ?
Although pollution and catches outside the
river may have had some effect on the fishery,
the largest single factor affecting abundance
of shad in the river was the number of fish
escaping the fishery to spawn (Talbot, 1954).
By control of fishing effort, the desired num-
ber of shad could be allowed to escape the
fishery and spawn, and the fishery managed
to produce optimum yields.
SHAD FISHERIES OF CONNECTICUT
The 1896 shad fisheries of Connecticut were
in Long Island Sound, Connecticut River, Hou-
satonic River, Bridgeport Harbor, and Pine
Creek. Major production was from the Con-
necticut and Housatonic Rivers and Long Island
Sound, though the catch in the Sound was in-
cidental to that of other species. The total
catch was 261,190 lb. About 79 percent by
20,193 yd. of drift gill net, 11 percent by
2,048 yd. of seine, and the remainder by pound
net (tables 46 and 47).
The Connecticut River was the only major
shad producing area in Connecticut waters in
Table i.6.— Gear employed In shad Uflherles, by water area,
1896 and 1960
Zonnecticut,
1696
1960
Water area
Drift
gin
net
Seine
Drift
Bill
Seine
Spore
fishenDMD
daya
Connecticut River. .
Housatonic River . .
Bridgeport Harbor. .
Fine Creek .....
Yacds
13,858
5,640
540
155
Yards
1.883
1,165
Yards
19,497
Yards
392
Number
^22,000
Total
20,193
3,048
19,497
392
22.000
Includes both Connecticut and Kasaachui
Table 47, --Shad catch, by water area and gear, Connecticut, 1896 and 1960
1896
1960
Water area
Drift
gill
net
Seine
Pound
Drift
glU
Seine
Miscel-
laneous
Sport
catch
Long Island Sound . .
Connecticut River . .
Housatonic River. . .
Bridgeport Harbor . .
Pine Creek
170,382
30,791
3,779
2,114
152
21,698
5,916
26,358
415,905
3,906
800
^ 77,200
Total
207.066
27,766
26.358
415.905
3,906
800
77,200
1960 (fig. 25). Small catches were taken in
Long Island Sound, but other formerly pro-
ductive waters had ceased to yield more than
an occasional fish. The commercial yield was
420,611 lb., of which about 99 percent was
taken by 19,497 yd. of drift gill net and the
remainder by 392 yd. of seine and by mis-
cellaneous gear (tables 46 and 47). In addition
to the commercial yield, 77,200 lb. were taken
by sport fishermen.
FISHERIES BY WATER AREA
Regulations on shad fishing in Connecticut
are established by the State Board of Fisheries
and Game. During 1960 the legal commercial
fishing season was from April 1 to June 15;
fishing was prohibited from sunset Friday
until sunset Sunday. The legal sport fishing
season was from April 16 to June 2 6, and the
daily creel limit was six. Sport fishing was
permitted 7 days per week.
Long Island Sound
Long Island Sound, occupying the coastal
depression between Long Island and the shore
of Connecticut, is 115 miles long and 15 to 2 5
miles wide. At its eastern end a chain of is-
lands extends northeasterly from Long Island
to Rhode Island, through which the waters of
the Sound mix with the ocean. At its western
end the Sound connects with New York Bay
through the East River. Throughout its length,
except near the mouths of large rivers, the
salinity approaches that of the ocean. The
principal tributaries of the Sound are the
Thames, Connecticut, and Housatonic Rivers.
Includes both ConnecClcut uid tUsaachusetts waters.
Nichols (1958) reported that the New Jersey-New York
pound net catch in 1956 was composed of 76 percent Hudson
River shad.
77
N.Y. /
56/5A4
^^^Sr><^
■^^
41
SCALE (MILES!
0 5 10
AV^»*^
^cO^
Figure 25. — Map of Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts.
Key:
1 Long Island
19
Turners Falls
35
Norwich
53
New Bedford
2 Stamford
20
Enfield
36
Yantlc River
54
Apponagasett Bay
3 Bridgeport
21
Windsor Locks
37
Shetucket River
55
Buzzards Bay
4 MUford
22
Wethersfield
38
Quinnebaug River
56
Vineyard Sound
5 Long Island Sound
23
Salmon River
39
Watch Hill
57
Martha's Vineyard
6 Derby
24
Higganum
40
Powgatuck River
58
Nantucket
7 Housatonic River
25
Haddam
41
Block Island
59
Cape Cod Bay
8 Lanesville
26
Leesville
42
Point Judith
60
Provincetown
9 Naugatuc River
27
Hammonasett River
43
Narragansett Bay
61
Massachusetts
10 Farm River
28
Memunketesuck
44
Providence River
Bay
1 1 New Haven
River
45
Palmer River
62
Boston
12 Farmington River
29
Hadlyme
46
Warren River
63
Gloucester
13 Falls Village
30
Essex
47
Taunton River
64
Newburyport
14 Hartford
31
Hammonassett
48
Tiverton
65
Lawrence
15 Poquonock
Point
49
Newport Island
66
Merrimac River
16 Suffleld
32
Horton Point
50
Sakonnet River
67
Lowell
17 Holyoke
33
Orient Point
51
Pamansett River
68
Branford River
18 South Hadley
34
Thames River
52
Sakonnet
69
Connecticut River
78
Stevenson (1899) stated: "While some shad
doubtless enter Long Island Sound through
East River, the great bulk passes through the
Race at the eastern end. They appear usually
about the second week of April and are taken
first in the pound nets set immediately west of
the mouth of Connecticut River. Most of them
pass up the Connecticut, but a large number
proceed westward, a few being caught in the
pound nets set along the shore, while others
enter the Housatonic and some of the smaller
streams of Connecticut and Long Island. The
run into these waters during recent years ap-
pears to be much smaller than formerly "
[p. 251].
No fishery in the Sound operated exclusively
for shad in 1896; catches were incidental to
other species. Shad were caught in pound nets
at: the southeastern end of the Sound along the
Long Island shore, from Orient Point to Horton
Point, along the Connecticut shore of Long
Island Sound east of the Connecticut River, and
between the Connecticut River and New Haven
Harbor. Three pound nets fished near the
mouth of the Connecticut River caught more
shad than all the others. Formerly the fishery
from the mouth of the Connecticut west to
Kelsey Point, a distance of 8 miles, was one
of the most profitable on the coast. Stevenson
reported that a single pound net fished between
1856 and 1885 at Money Point, 6 miles west of
the nnouth of the Connecticut River, caught
from 11,100 to 74,400 lb. of shad annually. By
1896, however, this fishery had declined be-
cause of the scarcity of fish, and less than
20,000 lb. were landed. Only a few were taken
in pound nets and seines between Hammon-
asset Point and New Haven Harbor. West of
New Haven, Conn., small fisheries were lo-
cated at Welch Point near Milford, Conn. Total
catch in the Sound was 26,150 lb.
In recent years only an occasional shad has
been taken in the Sound by commercial nets
fished for other species. William J. Murphy,
Fishery Marketing Specialist, Bureau of Com-
mercial Fisheries, Warren, R.I. (personal
interview), estimated that about 800 lb. were
caught in I960.
Thames River
This river is an estuary of Long Island Sound
extending 15 miles northward to Norwich,
Conn., where it receives the waters of the
Shetucket, Quinebaug, and Yantic Rivers. Prior
to 1880 considerable numbers of shad were
caught in the Thames, but by 1896 numerous
dams on these rivers blocked the ascent of
fish and none was taken.
According to the Connecticut State Board of
Fisheries and Game, an occasional shad is
caught in the Thames, and in 1960 about a
dozen were caught below Greenville Dam above
Norwich in a fishery for other species.
Connecticut River
The Connecticut River originates in northern
New Hampshire near the Canadian border and
flows south 400 miles, forming the boundary
between New Hampshire and Vermont and
traversing Massachusetts and Connecticut be-
fore entering Long Island Sound. Above Hart-
ford, Conn., are numerous falls. Those which
concern shad are at Enfield, Conn., Holyoke,
Mass., Turners Falls, Mass., and Bellows
Falls, Vt.; dams have been constructed at all
of them.
Shad formerly ascended the Connecticut as
far as Bellows Falls, 170 miles above its
mouth (Stevenson, 1899). In 1798, however,
a dam was built at Turners Falls, 35 miles
above Holyoke and 115 miles from the river
mouth. This dam prevented shad from passing
above this point but apparently had no injurious
effect on the fishery, since adequate spawning
area remained between Holyoke and Turners
Falls.
About 1880 a 5-ft.-high dam was built at
Enfield, 66 miles above the river mouth
(Stevenson, 1899). Shad were unable to ascend
this barrier at low water; the dam irritated
the fishermen greatly above that point. The
State of Massachusetts adopted a resolution
in 1886 suggesting mutualmeasures by Massa-
chusetts and Connecticut toward overcoming
the obstruction, but no satisfactory result was
accomplished.
In 1849 the Hadley Falls Dam at Holyoke,
18 miles upstream from Enfield, was com-
pleted. This 30-ft. obstruction cut off 36 miles
from the upper limit of the shad run, including
important spawning grounds. Although it was
provided with a fishway in 1873, fish were
unable to ascend the barrier.
The 1896 fishery in the Connecticut River
extended 40 miles from Long Island Sound to
Wethersfield, Conn. Most fishing was from
Essex to Haddam, Conn. The yield was 192,080
lb., of which 170,382 lb. were taken by 13,858
yd. of drift gill net, and 21,698 lb. by 1,883 yd.
of seine. Gill nets averaged 150 yd. long, and
several were used only for catching river
herring (Alosa sp.). The fishing season in the
Connecticut depended on movement of ice in
the river, but it usually began by the second
week in April and continued to the third week
of June. The legal season in 1896 was from
March 1 to June 20; fishing was prohibited
from sunset Saturday until sunset Sunday.
The Farmington River is one of several
tributaries to the Connecticut River. It rises
in Berkshire County, Mass., and flows 75
miles before entering the Connecticut 3 miles
above Hartford. At Poquonock, Conn., 5 miles
above the mouth, a 55-ft. dam crosses the
river, blocking ascent of fish. The fishery in
the Farmington formerly was locally impor-
tant, and in 1896, 1,800 lb. of shad were taken
for use in hatcheries.
79
After 1896, several changes took place in
the Connecticut River which affected the shad
fisheries. In 1900 the original Hadley Falls
Dann at Holyoke was replaced with a 55-ft.
dam. A fishway was built on the dam in 1940,
but this failed to pass anadromous fish. In
1951 a hydroelectric plant was constructed at
this location, and an experimental pressure-
lock fishway was included in the structure.
This method of fish passage proved feasible,
but in 1955 the pressure lock was replaced by
a trap and mechanical lift. This device has
been nnoderately successful; 15,076 adult shad
were passed above the dam in I960. In 1933 the
dam at Enfield was modified and a rannp in-
stalled in the center of the dam so that migrat-
ing fish had access to the river above. Obser-
vations at the ramp showed that fish could pass
freely, except at extreme low water levels.
Shad entered the Connecticut River in mid-
March 1960 and remained until early June. The
species spawned throughout the river from
Windsor Locks to Turners Falls. The spawning
season extended from May through June and
reached its peak from mid-May to early June.
Shad were taken commercially in I960 from
Long Island Sound to and including the Farm-
ington River, a distance of 48 miles. The ma-
jor fishing area was from the river mouth to
Higganum, Conn. After the middle of the
season, however, lower river fishermen moved
upstream, and fishing was concentrated be-
tween Hadlyme and Higganum. The catch was
415,905 lb. by 19,497 yd. of drift gill nets, and
3,906 lb. by 392 yd. of seine. Drift gill nets
were 200 to 300 yd. long and 35 to 50 meshes
deep and had 5 l/2- to 5 3/4-in. mesh. Total
commercial yield in I960 was 419,811 lb.;
3,906 lb. were taken in the Farmington River
by one seine fished 2 miles downstream from
Poquonock. Some shad also were taken in this
river by sportfishermen.
Seines formerly were the only gear used for
taking shad in the Connecticut, but they grad-
ually have been superseded by gill nets. In
I960 only one seine was fished in the Farm-
ington River. In recent years, up to six seines
were used during the shad season, but they
were fished primarily for river herring. The
small demand for herring has almost elimi-
nated seines from the river.
Sport fishing for shad has been popular on
the Connecticut River for years (Nichols and
Tagatz, 1960). It was first developed in the
spawning grounds of the Salmon River at Lees-
ville. Conn., located south of Hartford, and
continued there until the flood of 1938 washed
out the dam at Leesville. Since then the center
of sport fishing has shifted to the Enfield Dam
Unpublished report. Report of the Investigation for
and tentative design of the fishway at Holyoke, Mass-
chusetts by A. D. Mugnier and A, H,Swartz, 1951, Bureau
of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Beaufort,
N.C., 64 p.
area on the Connecticut River at Suffield,
Conn. (fig. 26). The sport fishing area in
I960 extended from the Farmington River to
Holyoke, a distance of 30 miles. The major
sport-fishing areas were in Farmington River
and at Windsor Locks, Enfield Dam, William-
ansett Bridge, and South Hadley Bridge. Lures
and angling methods used were varied. Lead-
bodied feathertailed jigs usually were fished
from boats, small metal spoons from bridges,
and plain hooks garnished with colored beads
from river banks. Estimated sport catch in
1960 was 24,800 fish (77,200 lb.), of which
17,900 were taken in Connecticut and 6,900
in Massachusetts.
The Connecticut River commercial shad
catch has fluctuated widely over the years.
In 1950 the Fish and Wildlife Service began
an investigation of the fishery to learn causes
for decline in yield, to determine conditions
favoring recovery, and to provide information
for management of the fishery to obtain maxi-
mum sustained yields (Fredin, 1954). Results
indicated that over 80 percent of the fluctua-
tions in size of the Connecticut River shad
population was attributable to variations in
the number of fish allowed to escape the
fishery and spawn. On the basis of catch-
effort statistics, the number of shad entering
the river in I960 was estimated at 340,000
fish, fishing rate was 34 percent, and spawn-
ing escapement was 224,000 shad. Studies by
Walburg (1963) indicate that the optimum
escapement is between 125,000 and 175,000
spawners annually. Escapements in this range
suggest a theoretical maximum sustainable
yield of about 150,000 fish.
Housatonic River
This river originates near Pittsfield in
western Massachusetts and flows 123 miles
before entering Long Island Sound 4 miles
east of Bridgeport, Conn. In the early 1880's,
before dam construction on this river, shad
ascended to Falls Village, Conn., 73 miles
from Long Island Sound, where a natural falls
barred further ascent. A 22-ft.-high dam was
built on the Housatonic in 1870 at Birmingham,
1 mile above Derby, Conn., and 15 miles above
the river mouth (Stevenson, 1899). By 1896, the
river had several dams above Birminghann, The
most important was at Lanesville, Conn,, where
the fall was 12 ft. Very few fish passed above
the Birmingham Dam, and none went beyond
Lanesville, 40 miles above the mouth. Steven-
son reported that the largest catch in the Hou-
satonic was made in 1884, when about 187,000
lb. were landed. After that time the catch de-
clined and in 1896 was only 36,700 lb. No shad
were taken in the Housatonic in I960. Dams
and pollution probably eliminated this run.
' Unpublished manuscript. Shad fishery of the Connec-
ticut River, 1944 by Douglas D. Moss, Connecticut State
Board of Fisheries and Game, Hartford, Conn. 46 p.
80
Figure 26." Sport fishing for shad below Enfield Dam on the Connecticut River, Conn.
81
The Housatonic's main tributary, the Nauga-
tuck River, enters the river below the Derby
Dam. James P. Galligan, Connecticut State
Board of Fisheries and Game, Hartford, Conn,
(personal communication dated June 28, 1960),
reported that because of raw sewage and in-
dustrial wastes, the Naugatuck is one of the
most polluted streams in Connecticut. No shad
were taken in this river in 1896 or 1960.
Bridgeport Harbor and Pine Creek
In 1896, 3,779 lb. of shad were taken in the
harbor of Bridgeport, Conn., 3 miles west of
the Housatonic River, and 2,114 lb. weretaken
in Pine Creek and other areas between Bridge-
port and Stamford, Conn.
No shad were reported in 1960 inany stream
in this area. There were, however, reports
that shad taken in several streams between
New Haven, Conn., and the mouth of the Con-
necticut River. Two were collected in the
Farm River at the outlet of Lake Saltonstall
by personnel of the Connecticut State Board
of Fisheries and Game. An occasional fish
was caught by sport fishermen in theBranford
River near Branford, Conn., in the Hammon-
asset River, and in the Menumketesuck River,
TRENDS IN PRODUCTION
Statistics are available on the commercial
shad catch in Connecticut waters for certain
years from 1887 to 1960 (table 48). During
this period, catch fluctuated from 46,000 lb.
in 1923 to 1,146,000 lb. in 1946. Average an-
nual catches during different periods were
279,000 lb. in 1887-1911, 193,000 in 1912-36,
and 463,000 in 1937-60. In 1937-60, except
for 1944-48 when the highest catches on rec-
ord were made, the catch remained between
Table 48. --Shad catch for certain years, Connecticut, I887-1960l
[In thousands of pounds]
Year
Catch2
Year Cacch^
Year
Catch^
1887. . .
337
19123 ... 210
1937. .
383
1888. . .
282
1913?
184
1938. .
427
1889 . .
196
19143
203
1939. .
409
18903 . .
120
19153
148
1940. .
360
18913 . .
78
19163
184
1941. .
438
18923 . .
63
19173
226
1942. .
373
18933 . .
143
19183
241
1943. .
553
18943 . .
252
1919
463
1944. .
747
18953 . .
218
19203
176
1945. .
772
1896. . .
261
19213
72
1946. .
. 1,146
18973 . .
256
1922.
47
1947. .
793
1898 . .
499
19233
46
1948. .
622
18993 . .
331
1924.
89
1949. .
471
19003 . .
490
1925.
146
1950. .
264
19013 . .
434
1926
111
1951. .
338
1902 . .
480
192 73
120
1952. .
474
19033 . .
616
1928.
199
1953. .
360
19043 . .
603
1929.
318
1954. .
295
1905 . .
485
1930.
54
1955. .
210
19063 . .
253
1931.
75
1956. .
197
19073 . .
136
1932.
70
1957. .
329
1908 . .
122
1933
133
1958. .
456
19093 . .
122
19343
525
1959. .
401
19103 . .
98
1935
403
1960. .
421
19U3 . .
96
19363
385
1 Statistics 1887-1959, U. S. Fish Commission, U. S. Bureau of
Fisheries, and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
2 Does not Include catch by sport fishery.
Catch converted from numbers to pounds by factor of 3.5 from
table prepared by Douglas D. Moss, Connecticut State Board of
Fisheries and Game.
200,000 and 550,000 lb. The commercial yield
was 62 percent greater in 1960 than in 1896.
Except for a few fish taken in Long Island
Sound, only the Connecticut River has pro-
duced shad in recent years. Destruction of
the fishery in other areas has been attributed
to the construction of dams near river mouths
and to pollution (Stevenson, 1899). Fredin ( 1954)
found that overfishing was the major cause for
fluctuations in the Connecticut River catch.
SHAD FISHERIES OF RHODE ISLAND
Except in the Warren River, the 1896 catch
of shad in Rhode Island was taken by gears
used for other species. The catch in 1896 was
52,761 lb. of which about 8 percent came from
pound nets fished along the ocean shore, 16
percent from pound nets fished in Narragan-
sett Bay, and 76 percent from pound nets and
miscellaneous gear in tributaries of the Bay
(table 49).
Table 49. — Shad catch, by water area and gear, Rhode Island, 1896
[In pounds]
Water area
Pound net
Miscellaneous
Total
4,098
8,433
36,097
1,560
1,950
623
4,098
8,433
36,097
1,560
Provldence-Blackstone River. , .
1,930
623
Total
48,628
4,133
52,761
Shad were taken in 1960 incidental to the
catch of other species. The total catch
was 3,163 lb., all caught in floating traps
fished in the ocean near Narragansett Bay
(fig. 25).
FISHERIES BY WATER AREA
The shad taken off the coast in Rhode Island
in 1960 probably were not native. The following
discussion, therefore, concerns primarily the
1896 fisheries.
Atlantic Ocean
Fourteen pound nets between Watch Hill and
Point Judith, R.I., and four pound nets fished
near Block Island, R.I., caught shad during the
spring of 1896. The combined catch in these
82
areas was 4,098 lb. In 1960 a floating trap
fished near Point Judith caught 400 lb.
Narragansett Bay
A few shad were taken by pound nets formerly
on the southern shore of Rhode Island, in
Western Channel, and between Sakonnet and
Tiverton, R.I., in the Sakonnet River, but
rarely in sufficient numbers to receive special
attention from fishermen. The largest catch
in a single net, 577 lb., was taken in 1896 off
Runnstick Neck at the northern end of Nar-
ragansett Bay near the mouth of the Providence
River. Total poundage of shad caught in the
Bay in 1896 was 8,433. In 1960 two floating
traps off Sakonnet Point and one off Newport
Island, together caught 2,763 lb.
Warren River
This stream, a tidal arm of Narragansett
Bay near its northern limit, was the only river
in Rhode Island with a substantial shad run in
1896. It is a few hundred feet wide, about 10
miles long, and in 1896 contained no obstruc-
tions to fish passage. In that year, several
pound nets fished in the river near the Massa-
chusetts State line caught 36,097 lb.
No commercial landings have been reported
in the Warren River in recent years. This
river has a snnall shad run, however. Accord-
ing to Frederick C. Wilbour, Jr., Director, Di-
vision of Marine Fisheries, Department of
Natural Resources (personal communication
dated June 20, 1960), fish are taken by hook
and line in Massachusetts, where this stream
is known as the Palmer River; no estimate of
the catch was made.
Pawcatuck River
The Pawcatuck formerly yielded many shad,
but by 1896 it was obstructed by nunnerous
dams which completely blocked passage of
fish. A few, however, were taken each year
in the lower portion of the river as well as in
Old Warwick Cove and Patowomut River. The
1896 catch in this area was 1,560 lb. taken by
seines, dip nets, and other gears. According
to Warren J. Murphy, Fishery Marketing Spe-
cialist, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries,
Warren, R.I., (personal interview), no shad
were caught in this area in 1960.
Providence-Blackstone River
Numerous dams, and sewage fronn the city
of Providence, had almost exterminated the
shad in this river by 1896, but a few fish were
taken by seines, dip nets, and other gears. The
estimated catch was 1,950 lb. Two seines
caught 623 lb. in 1896 in Greenwich Bay. No
shad were reported from these areas in 1960
nor have any been reported in recent years.
TRENDS IN PRODUCTION
The industrial development of tidewater
Rhode Island in the late 1800's resulted in the
location of textile and metal-product industries
on the fresh-water streams flowing into Nar-
ragansett Bay. Increased pollution and dam
construction since that time have eliminated
shad populations. The exception was the War-
ren (Palmer) River, which continued to main-
tain a small run.
Shad landed in this State are caught during
their coastal migration. Fluctuations in pro-
duction in recent years probably resulted from
changes in the size of runs migrating past
Rhode Island, amount and type of fishing gears
used, and weather which affected inshore-
offshore movement of shad during their north-
ward migration.
Statistics available on the Rhode Island
catches from 1887 to 1960 show that annual
production fluctuated between 1,000 and 54,000
lb. The average annual catch for the 20 yr,
between 1887 to 1940 for which landing figures
are available was 18,000 lb. (table 50). Since
1940, the annual catch has ranged from 1,000
Table 50. --Shad catch for certain years,
Rhode Island, 1887-1960l
[In thouaands of pounds]
Year Catch
Year
Catch
1887. . .
. . 17
1942. . .
. . 1
1888. . .
. . 17
1943. . .
. . 2
1889. . .
. . 17
1944. . .
. . 4
1896. . .
. . 53
1945. . .
. . 2
1898. . .
. . 25
1946. . .
. . 3
1902. . .
. . 31
1947. . .
. . 2
1905. . .
. . 17
1948. . .
. . 2
1908. . .
. . 4
1949. . .
. . 3
1924. . .
. . 11
1950. . .
. . 2
1928. . .
. . 6
1951. . .
. . 6
1929. . .
. . 15
1952. . .
. . 5
1930. . .
. . 4
1953. . .
. . 4
1931. . .
. . 18
1954. . .
. . 2
1932. . .
. . 8
1955. . .
. . 5
1933. . .
. . 11
1956. . .
. . 1
1935. . .
. . 6
1957. . .
. . 5
1937. . .
. . 5
1958. . .
. . 2
1938.
1939.
1940.
10
28
54
1959.
1960.
^ Statl«tlcB 1887-1959, U. S. Fish Conimlssion,
U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, and U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service.
83
to 6,000 lb. and averaged 3,000 lb. Most shad
were taken by pound nets and floating traps
fished near the coast. In 1929, 139 of these
gears were fished, but by 1958 only 19 were
in use; this decline may partially explain the
decreased production in Rhode Island during
recent years. The catch in I960 was less than
6 percent of the 1896 take.
SHAD FISHERIES OF MASSACHUSETTS
The shad fisheries of Massachusetts have
changed little over the years except in rnag-
nitude. No shad fishery existed in the State in
1896, but an estimated 114,152 lb. were taken
incidental to the catch of other species. The
estimated 1960 catch was 657,000 lb., of which
96 percent was caught by purse seines, 3 per-
cent by pound nets, and 1 percent by stake gill
nets and trawls.
FISHERIES BY WATER AREA
Many areas that produced shad in 1896 re-
ported none in 1960.
Taunton River
The Taunton River is formed by the union
of the Satucket and Matfield Rivers in Bridge-
water, Mass., from whence it flows into
Narragansett Bay (Fig. 25). It is navigable
18 miles to East Taunton, {Bristol County)
Mass., where a 9-ft. dam blocks upstream
passage of fish. Shad entered the river in
1896 about the latter part of March and re-
mained until some time in June although few
were taken after the end of May. It does not
appear that shad were ever commercially
important in this river. In the 1890's they
were taken incidental to catches of alewife.
From 1878 to 1896, the catch ranged from
5,900 to 32,000 lb. In 1896 haul seines took
13,225 lb. Only occasional fish have been re-
ported in recent years.
Buzzards Bay
This Bay is a coastal indentation of 225
square miles on the southern shore of Massa-
chusetts (fig. 25). In 1896 pound nets set along
the shore west of Apponagansett Bay, at the
nnouth of Pamansett River, between that river
and the Goose Neck, and near Elizabeth Is-
lands, caught 2,845 lb. of shad incidental to
the catch of other species. Pound nets in Vine-
yard Sound (Dukes County) adjacent to Buz-
zards Bay caught 10,150 lb. Only 400 lb. were
landed in I960 in Bristol County, all by otter
trawl. This figure includes fish caught in
Buzzards Bay and offshore and landed in New
Bedford, Mass. Most fish were captured in
late April and May before spawning occurs in
most northern rivers.
Cape Cod and Massachusetts Bay
The shad catch in Cape Cod and Massa-
chusetts Bay in 1896 was taken principally by
fishermen operating from Provincetown (Barn-
stable County) in drift nets fished for mackerel.
Scomber scombrus . During June, 44,160 lb. of
shad were landed. Because of the small mesh
of the nets used, fish were small, averaging
only about 2 lb. each. Shad were taken also
by mackerel seine fishermen; in 1896 the
catch was 35,820 lb. A few fish (6,882 lb.)
were taken in pound nets in Cape Cod Bay.
Total catch in Barnstable County was 86,862
lb. In addition, 670 pounds were caught in
Massachusetts Bay (Suffolk County).
The 1960 catch in Barnstable County, which
includes Cape Cod Bay and Nantucket Sound,
was 19,600 lb. The decline of the nnackerel
fishery between 1896 and 1960 undoubtedly
caused the decrease in shad catch in this
area.
Merrimack River
The sources of the Merrimack are in east-
central New Hampshire; the main stream is
formed by the junction of the Pemigewasset
and Winnipesaukee Rivers (fig. 25). It flows
110 miles to the sea near Newburyport, Mass.
At Lawrence, Mass., 27 miles above its mouth,
the stream was crossed obliquely by a dam
32 ft. high and 900 ft. long with a wooden fish-
way at the south end. The dam and fishway
were built in 1848. At Lowell, Mass., 12 miles
above Lawrence, there was a second dam about
30 ft. high, built in 1830 and enlarged in 1876.
A third dam was constructed in 1871 at Man-
chester, N.H. Its length was 420 ft. and its
height about 12 ft. Three other dams were
located above Manchester at Hooksett, Garvin
Falls, and Sewell Falls. Before the construc-
tion of these dams, the annual shad catch was
about 500,000 lb. It was apparent, however,
that after the completion of the dam at Law-
rence in 1848, the catch declined drastically,
and by 1882 it was insignificant. Only 30 lb.
were landed in 1896.
The present shad run in the Merrimack is
small, since the only area available for spawn-
ing, the lower section of the river, is heavily
polluted with industrial waste and domestic
sewage. The fishway in the Essex Company
Dam at Lawrence was rebuilt in 1919 after the
previous fishway had been destroyed by ice.
Shad were able to ascend this fishway and
84
proceed to the dam at Lowell, which was im-
passable (Collins, 1951). The number of shad
annually ascending the fishway was from 1,500
to 3,000 fish. In 1946 a catch of 75,000 lb. was
made in Newburyport Harbor, though these
may have been migrating fish from another
area which had moved inshore. Connmercial
shad fishing at the mouth of the river is
sporadic, and in some years there is none
at all. In 1960 no fish were reported taken.
Most of the catch in Essex County, Mass.,
which includes the Merrimack River, was
landed in Gloucester. In recent years, large
numbers of shad have been landed during the
summer by purse seiners fishing for Atlantic
menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, and river
herring, Alosa aestivalis, and sold to reduction
plants. The 1960 landings of shad were a little
above 0.5 million pounds (Dwight L. Hoy, Bu-
reau of Commiercial Fisheries, Gloucester,
Mass., personal communication dated Sep-
tember 26, 1960). Mature and immature fish
from all Atlantic coast streams, Florida to
Canada, spend their summers in the Gulf of
Maine, but their schooling habits in this area
are unknown. If the purse seine fishery con-
tinues to take large quantities of shad, it could
have a disastrous effect on coastal stocks,
especially if the catch is composed of fish
from only two or three rivers. The impact of
this take perhaps can be realized from the
fact that the estimated annual sizes of shad
populations during the past 5 yr. have aver-
aged 3.5 million pounds in the Hudson River
and 1.0 million pounds in the Connecticut
River.
Connecticut River
The Connecticut River crosses Massachu-
setts in its southward flow from northern New
Hampshire to Long Island Sound (fig. 2 5). The
Massachusetts section of the river had an in-
tensive sport fishery for shad in 1960, which
extended 16 miles from the Connecticut border
northward to the Hadley Falls Dam inHolyoke,
Mass. Fish were landed near the Willimansett
and South Hadley Bridges by fishermen fishing
from bank, boat, and bridge. Although most
fishermen fished from bridges, mostfishwere
taken by boat fishermen. In 1960, 6,800 fish
were taken in this area. Additional infor-
mation on the Connecticut River is included
in the discussion of the fisheries of Con-
necticut.
TRENDS IN PRODUCTION
Industrial development of Massachusetts
during the 1800's resulted in the construction
of many dams that essentially eliminated shad
runs by barring fish from their spawning
grounds. Fish caught subsequently in Massa-
chusetts waters were largely native to other
areas and were taken incidental to the catch
of other species.
Massachusetts landings have fluctuated
widely over the years (table 51). From 1887to
1955 the catch ranged from 9,000 to 389,000 lb.
After 1955 the catch increased severalfold,
reaching a maximum of 2,214,000 lb. in 1957.
As pointed out in a previous section, this catch
was made by purse seines fishing for Atlantic
menhaden. The catch was alnnost six times
greater in 1960 than in 1896.
Table 51. --Shad catch for certain years,
Massachusetts, 1887-1960^
[In thousands of pounds]
Year
Catch
Year
Catch
1887. . .
. . 133
1940 . . .
. . 95
1888. . .
. . 260
1942 . . .
. . 33
1889. . .
. . 234
1943 . . .
. . 114
1896. . .
. . 114
1944 . . .
. . 20
1898. . .
. . 29
1945 . . .
. . 29
1902. . .
. . 21
1946 . . .
. . 10
1905. . .
. . 91
1947 . . .
. . 52
1908. . .
. . 389
1948 . . .
. . 34
1919. . .
. . 62
1949 . . .
. . 11
1924. . .
. . 172
1950 . . .
. . 28
1928. . .
. . 31
1951 . . .
. . 72
1929. . .
. . 92
1952 . . .
. . 48
1930. . .
. . 54
1953 . . .
. . 40
1931. . .
. . 150
1954 . . .
. . . 9
1932. . .
. . 46
1955 . . .
. . 37
1933. . .
. . 63
1956 . . .
. . 724
1935. . .
. . 306
1957 . . .
. . 2,214
1937. . .
. . 48
1958 . . .
. . 425
1938. . .
. . 54
1959 . .
. . 1,383
1939. . .
. . 85
1960^. . .
. . 658
Statistics 1887-1960, U. S. Fish Commission,
U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, and U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service.
^ Data for 1960 from Dwight L. Hoy, U. S.
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Gloucester, Mass.
(personal conununication dated September 26,
1960).
SHAD FISHERIES OF NEW HAMPSHIRE
The Connecticut and Merrimack Rivers in
New Hampshire formerly supported shad fish-
eries. No fish have been reported in these
waters, however, for more than 100 yr. Shad
formerly ascended the Connecticut to Bellows
Falls near Walpole, N.H., but a dam built in
1798 at Turners Falls, Mass., completely
blocked their upstream passage (Stevenson,
1899). They ascended the Merrimack to Frank-
lin, N.H., and the junction of the Pemigewasset
85
and Winnipesaukee Rivers, where they re-
portedly entered the latter river and continued
on to Lake Winnipesaukee. Since 1847, dams
in the Massachusetts waters of the Merrimack
River have prevented shad from reaching New
Hampshire (Bailey, 1938).
SHAD FISHERIES OF VERMONT
Shad formerly ascended the Connecticut
River to Bellows Falls, Vt., 170 miles above
the river mouth {Evermann and Kendall, 1896;
Stevenson, 1899). Before 1798 shad reportedly
were taken in great numbers below Bellows
Falls, said to be a favorite spawning area
for the species (McDonald, 1887e). In 1798
a dam built at Turners Falls, Mass., 50
miles downstream from Bellows Falls, com-
pletely blocked passage of fish to Vermont
waters. From historical accounts it appears
that the Vermont shad fisheries were among
the earliest destroyed by construction of
dams.
SHAD FISHERIES OF MAINE
Shad were taken in the following waters in
1896: Kennebec River and its two tributaries,
Androscoggin and Eastern Rivers; Casco Bay;
Penobscot River; Harrington River; Pleasant
River; and St. Croix River (table 52). The
catch in 1896 was about 1,404,477 lb. of which
traps and weirs took 69 percent, drift nets 19
percent, and seines the remainder. Most fish
were taken in the Kennebec River.
No commercial fishery has existed for shad
in Maine streams for many years (Taylor,
C.C., 1951). Because shad from Atlantic coast
streams spend their summers in the Gulf of
Maine, they are liable to capture by other
fisheries operated in this area (fig. 27).
The commercial catch of shad in 1960 in
Maine was about 311 lb.
FISHERIES BY WATER AREA
Since shad have all but disappeared from
Maine streams, the following discussion con-
cerns primarily those areas that were for-
merly productive.
Table 52. — Shad catch, by water area and gear, Maine, 1896
[ In pounds ]
Water area
Drift
glU
net
Seine
Trap
and
weir
Total
Casco Bay
Kennebec Rtver
Androscoggin River ....
Eastern River
Penobscot River
Harrington River
Pleasant River
St. Croix River
23,399
175,349
5,859
11,489
11,489
34,466
154,429
21,065
69,143
787,156
24,433
85,718
436
46
246,971
962,505
51,357
97,207
436
11,489
34,466
46
Total
262,051
175,494
966,932
1,404,477
Saco River
This river's source is in the White Moun-
tains, 100 miles from its entrance into the
ocean near Biddeford Pool, From Biddeford,
Maine, 6 miles from the sea, to Hiram Falls,
45 miles from the sea, there are eight dams.
Shad formerly abounded in the lower river,
but apparently could not pass above Biddeford
Falls (Stevenson, 1899). By 1896 the species
was absent, and its disappearance was at-
tributed to textile mill wastes drained into the
river (Taylor, C.C. 1951).
Nonesuch River
No mention is made of the Nonesuch in the
various accounts of the history of the shad
fishery in Maine, and therefore it is assumed
that this river never supported a fishery of
any consequence. It is of interest, however,
because the river has a small but well-
established shad run that does not appear to
have fluctuated notably during recent years
(Taylor, C.C. 1951).
The Nonesuch rises in southwestern Saco
Township and flows through sandy, rolling
country to enter the sea between Pine Point
and Prouts Neck on Saco Bay. Habitation is
limited along the river and the stream is
practically free of pollution. Because of the
steep gradient of the Nonesuch, it is doubtful
that shad ever ascended above Thurston Mills,
18 miles above the river mouth.
Shad enter the Nonesuch in early May and
are caught until mid-June. Capture is re-
stricted by law to dip or bag nets not exceed-
ing 19 ft. in circumference, or artificial fly.
Fishing is permitted only in the tidal portion
of the river south of U.S. Route 1. The daily
catch limit is five fish per person. It is esti-
mated that between 200 and 400 fish are taken
each season (Taylor, C.C. 1951),
86
CANADA
CANADA
Figure 27. — Map of Maine.
Key:
1 Blddeford
2 Pine Point
3 Saco Bay
4 Prouts Neck
5 Nonesuch River
9 Brunswick
10 Androscoggin
River
11 Bowdoinham
12 Swan Island
15 Augusta
16 Skowhegan
17 Norridgewock
18 Sandy River
19 Kennebec River
23 Sheepscot River
24 Bangor
25 Oldtown
26 Penobscot River
27 Columbia Falls
6 Hiram
7 Casco Bay
8 Georgetown
13 Merry meeting
Bay
14 Iceboro
20 Moosehead Lake
21 Eastern River
22 Alna
28 Pleasant River
29 Calais
30 St. Croix River
87
Casco Bay
Merrymeeting Bay Tributaries
Shad were taken in Casco Bay from 1855 to
1895, but the yield decreased considerably
during the 1890's (Stevenson, 1899). They ap-
peared in these waters from about May 1 until
the end of September. The fish were smaller
and presumably younger than those in the
rivers, and were commonly known as "sea
shad," In 1896, 246,971 lb. were taken in the
Bay, of which 154,429 lb. were caught by
seines, 69,143 lb. by traps and weirs, and
23,399 lb. by drift gill nets.
The only commercial shad landings reported
for Maine in 1960 were from Casco Bay. Gill
nets caught 311 lb., and an occasional fish
was captured by otter trawl.
Kennebec River
The Kennebec River has its source in
Moosehead Lake, the largest body of fresh
water in Maine. It flows south 155 miles to the
sea, entering immediately east of Casco Bay.
Shad formerly ascended the Kennebec River
as far as Norridgewock Falls, 84 miles from
the sea, where they turned aside into a small
tributary known as Sandy River (Stevenson,
1899). Dip net fisheries were productive at
Ticonic Falls and at Skowhegan, Maine, and
weirs were operated at Abagodasset Point and
in Merrymeeting Bay.
The fishery of the Kennebec in 1896 was the
most important on the Atlantic coast north of
the Hudson River. The yield was greater than
all the remaining waters of the New England
States. The fishery extended from the mouth
of the river to near Augusta. The total catch
was 962,505 lb., of which weirs took 787,156 lb.
and drift nets 175,349 lb. Weir fishing was
carried out in the Kennebec chiefly between
Iceboro, Maine, 3 miles above Swan Island,
and the Chopps, a narrow part of the river
below Swan Island. Numerous drift gill nets
were fished in Merrymeeting Bay, but most
extensively near Bowdoinham, North Bath, and
Georgetown, Maine. These nets averaged
slightly more than 300 ft. long, and the mesh
size was from 4 5/8 to 5 1/4 in. Shad were
taken from May 1 to June 25.
The decline of the fishery in the Kennebec
was gradual and did not become serious until
the early 1900's. The eventual disappearance
was believed to have been caused by industrial
pollution fronn Augusta to Merrymeeting Bay.
Vast quantities of sawdust were run into the
river from numerous sawmills; the river
bottom was covered in many places. Industrial
pollution from the Androscoggin River, a tribu-
tary of Merrymeeting Bay, also was carried
through the Bay and probably up the Kennebec
by tidal action. By 1918 the catch was so small
that the species was no longer mentioned in
the Reports of the Maine Commissioner of Sea
and Shore Fisheries (Taylor, C.C. 1951).
Merrymeeting Bay is a broad expanse of
water in the lower Kennebec River. It is
formed by the confluence of the Androscoggin,
Cathance, Abagadasset, and Eastern Rivers.
All but the Abagadasset formerly contained
shad.
Androscoggin River. --This river, the prin-
cipal tributary of the Kennebec has its sources
partly in Maine and partly in New Hampshire
and flows 160 miles to Merrymeeting Bay.
Although it was never considered a shad river
because of impassable falls at Brunswick,
Maine, the 5-mile section between Brunswick
and the Bay was fished regularly. In 1896,
51,357 lb, of shad were taken, of which ,24,433
lb. were caught in weirs, 21,065 lb, in seines,
and 5,859 lb, in drift nets. Industrial pollution,
a serious problem in the Androscoggin for
many years, made it unsuitable for fish. The
Androscoggin was believed to be the chief
source of pollution in the Merrymeeting Bay
area (Taylor, C.C. 1951).
Cathance River. --The Cathance River enters
the western side of Merrymeeting Bay. Tnis
river in early 1900's was an important sha^d
fishing area, both below and above Bowdoinham
(Taylor, C.C. 1951). The most productive fish-
ing was from 1 l/2 miles above the town to
the Bay. In the early 1940's, the river was
fished with gill nets, and as many as 13 shad
were taken nightly. Nets have not been fished
here in recent years, but it is believed that
small numbers of shad enter the river each
year.
Eastern River.-- The Eastern River, although
it does not flow directly into Merrymeeting
Bay, usually is considered a part of the Bay
district. This river, with a 10-mile tidal por-
tion, enters the Kennebec on the eastern side
of Swan Island. It was formerly one of the
most productive shad areas in the district.
In 1896 this river yielded 97,207 lb. of shad--
85,718 lb. in weirs and 11,489 lb. indrift nets.
A few shad were taken in this river in the
early 1940's, but it has not been fished since
(Taylor, C.C. 1951). This stream probably
supports a remnant run.
Sheepscot River
The Sheepscot River enters the ocean through
a long tidal estuary east of the entrance of the
Kennebec River. The two rivers are connected
between Bath, Maine, and Hockomock Bay bya
navigable channel, the Sasanoa River. The
Sheepscot originally contained more shad than
any other stream between the Kennebec and
the Penobscot (Atkins, 1887); however, no in-
formation was given on the number of shad
88
taken. Impassable dams at Alna, Maine, the
head of tidal waters, blocked movement offish
for many years. The Sheepscot River, below
Alna, has maintained a small run through the
years, and a few shad were taken by gill nets
in 1950 (Taylor, C.C. 1951).
the head of tide. A few fish were caught each
year in herring weirs of the lower river. In
1896, 46 pounds were taken in the Saint Croix.
None has been reported in recent years.
TRENDS IN PRODUCTION
Penobscot River and Bay
This stream is the largest on the Atlantic
coast of the United States north of Connecticut.
Its sources are in extrenne western Maine near
the Canadian boundary, from whence it flows
over 200 miles to its entrance into Penobscot
Bay, 30 miles below Bangor, Maine,
Originally, shad was the most abundant fish
in the Penobscot. In the early 1800's more
fish were taken than could be locally con-
sumed. Abundance declined rapidly after the
construction of the dam at Bangor in 1830 be-
cause of the decrease in the extent of spawning
grounds. Only 114 fish (436 lb.) were taken in
1896.
Pleasant and Harrington Rivers
Neither of these rivers maintained shad
populations. A dam at Colunnbia Falls on the
Pleasant River is only a few feet from salt
water. The Harrington River is small and has
a steep gradient (Taylor, C.C. 1951). Shad
fisheries in these areas depended on annual
runs entering bays and estuaries during their
coastal migrations. The 1896 catch in the
Pleasant River was 34,466 lb.; in the Harring-
ton River it was 11,489 lb.
Some shad were taken in the Pleasant and
Harrington River estuaries each year by drift
nets that were fished in late May and early
June (Taylor, C.C. 1951). Fish caught were
consumed locally, and no estimate of the catch
was available in 1960.
Saint Croix River
The Saint Croix River, for a portion of its
length the boundary between Maine and New
Brunswick, Canada, formerly abounded in shad
and other anadromous fishes (Atkins, 1887).
Beginning in 1825, the fishery declined when
the river was closed off by dam construction.
The first dam was at Calais, Maine, just above
The catch records for shad in Maine are
available for most years 1887 to 1960
(table 53). The highest recorded catch was in
1912, 3,296,000 lb.; the lowest was in I960,
311 lb. The catch was high between 1887 and
1919, from 414,000 to 3,296,000 lb. Later,
except for 1,107,000 lb. in 1946, the annual
catch has been small, ranging from 311 to
441,000 lb. Since 1948 the annual catch has
averaged 15,000 lb.
The disappearance of shad in Maine was
due almost entirely to their exclusion from
spawning areas by dam construction (Taylor,
C.C. 1951). The major exceptions were the
Kennebec River and Merrymeeting Bay sys-
tems, where pollution was believed to be the
major cause. Very few shad have been taken
in Maine rivers since 1918. The catch has
been composed largely of fish from Atlantic
coast streams that spend the summer in the
Gulf of Maine.
Table 53. — Shad catch for certain years, Maine, 1887-1960^
[in thousands of pounds]
Year
Catch
Year Catch
Year Catch
1887. . .
1,096
1914 J . . . 2,086
1944. ... 441
1888. . .
839
19162
667
1945.
15
1896. . .
1,404
1919.
414
1946.
1,107
1898. . .
1900^ . .
862
1924.
244
1947.
304
820
1928.
110
1948.
3
1901^ . .
731
1929.
36
1949.
5
1902 . .
1903; . .
849
1930.
89
1950.
2
1,144
1931.
158
1951.
76
1,259
1932.
108
1952.
50
1905 . .
1906^ . .
657
1933.
179
1953.
27
470
1935.
13
1954.
2
1907 2 . .
873
1937.
9
1955.
7
1908. . .
770
1938.
12
1956.
2
1909 2 . .
980
1939.
8
1957.
8
19102 . .
847
1940.
65
1958.
10
19112 . .
1,385
1941.
48
1959.
2
19122 . .
3,296
1942.
161
1960.
(h
19132 . .
2,088
1943.
272
^ statistics 1887-1959, U. S. Fish Commission, U. S. Bureau of
Fisheries, and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, except 1914, 1916,
and 1960.
2 Taylor (1951).
2 Catch 311 pounds (U. S, Fish and Ulldlife Service, 1961b).
TRENDS IN SHAD PRODUCTION OF THE ATLANTIC
COAST OF THE UNITED STATES
The shad catch in each river or State fluc-
tuates independently with local conditions, and
only by comparing the yield from the entire
coast or a large area of the coast can changes
in total production be demonstrated. Complete
catch statistics for the Atlantic coast of the
United States are available only for certain
years. The long-range trends are neverthe-
less evident (table 54 and fig. 28).
According to Stevenson (1899), 1880 was the
earliest year for which reliable data were
available on shad production for the entire
89
Atlantic coast. The total catch in that year,
18,068,102 lb., was reported to be a decline
in yield. After 1880, however, improved
methods of capture and more vigorous prose-
cution of the fisheries resulted in a consid-
erable increase in production. In 1888 the yield
was 35,636,618 lb. (97-percent increase over
Table 54. --Shad catch for certain years, Atlantic coast of
the United States, 1880-1960l
[In thousands of pounds]
New
Middle
Chesapeake
South
Total
Year
England
Atlantic
Bay
Atlantic
Atlantic
states
states
states
states
coast
1880
2,096
5,093
6,946
3,933
18,068
1887
1,622
12,775
7,856
7,377
29,630
1888
1,398
12,745
11,925
7,869
33,397
1896
1,833
20,605
16,712
11,349
50,499
1908
1,285
4,827
11,251
8,572
25,935
1929
461
622
9,526
3,346
13,955
1930
201
450
7,181
2,541
10,373
1931
401
660
8,487
1,788
11,336
1932
232
643
6,515
1,882
9,272
1937
445
4,394
3,491
1,317
9,647
1938
503
3,592
4,207
1,418
9,720
1939
530
4,132
4,183
1,230
10,075
1940
574
4,788
3,257
1,345
9,964
1945
818
5,900
5,916
2,065
14,699
1950
296
1,802
4,474
1,651
8,223
1951
492
1,254
4,849
1,882
8,477
1952
577
2,240
5,643
2,061
10,521
1953
431
1,230
4,502
1,636
7,799
1954
308
1,588
4,670
2,102
8,668
1955
259
1,973
4,964
1,403
8,599
1956
924
2,032
5,283
1,433
9,672
1957
2,556
2,014
5,274
1,525
11,369
1958
893
1,667
4,154
1,472
8,186
1959
1,789
1,726
3,255
1,430
8,200
1960
1,159
1,154
2,795
3,026
8,134
1880). In 1896 the fishery reached its peak
production of 50,498,860 lb. Productivity was
still high in 1908 when more than 25 million
pounds were taken. After 1908 production de-
clined, and by 1932 was less than 10 million
pounds. Since 1932 the catch has remained
low--between 14,699,000 lb. in 1945 and
7,799,000 lb. in 1953. The 1960 yield showed
an increase of 5 percent from 1953, but was
only 16 percent of that in 1896.
In the first half of this report, we gave an
account of the comparative abundance of shad
in each river or area, and conditions in each
locality were described. In the final portion,
the factors responsible for the decline in
production are discussed, as well as the
methods that are or might be used to re-
habilitate and manage the fishery.
YEARS
^ Data 1880-1959, statistical publications of the U. S.
Bureau of Fisheries, and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Figure 28. — Shad catch, Atlantic coast of the United States,
for certain years, 1880-1960.
FACTORS AFFECTING DECLINE IN ABUNDANCE
Stevenson (1899) stated that the fishery had
undergone great changes during the 19th cen-
tury and that there were few fishes other than
the shad whose geographical range and local
abundance were more easily affected by nnan.
In some areas a decline in abundance had be-
gun previous to 1880, though this change was
not well documented. Construction ofdannshad
excluded shad fronn many of the historical
spawning grounds. Sawdust, chemicals, as-
sorted refuse, and agricultural operations had
greatly impaired the utility of available spawn-
ing grounds. In his comparison of the yield
of the entire coast in 1880 and 1896, Stevenson
pointed out, however, that the catch had in-
creased more than 57 percent. He further
stated that increased yield followed an in-
crease in the quantity of gear used. In 1896,
45 percent of the catch was from areas which
half a century before had yielded no shad.
Thus, it appears that one of the principal
changes in the fisheries prior to Stevenson's
study was location of exploitation rather than
the change of total yield.
The commercial production of shad on the
Atlantic coast has decreased about 84 percent
since 1896. Many factors have been blamed
for the decline. Among these were: physical
changes of the environment which rendered
it unsuitable for spawning or which influenced
survival of eggs and larvae; construction of
dams which barred fish from fresh-water
spawning areas; pollution which rendered
rivers unsuitable for reproduction and sur-
vival of this species; overfishing which did
not allow enough fish to spawn and replace
those taken by the fishery; and natural cycles
of abundance.
One of the purposes of the shad investiga-
tion begun by the Fish and Wildlife Service
in 1950 was to determine causes for decline
in abundance of the species and to suggest
90
management measures whereby the populations
might yield sustained high catches. In general,
before factors affecting abundance of this fish
could be determined, information on size of
runs or populations for a period of years was
necessary. Scientific evaluation of population
changes and of factors that could affect abun-
dance were used to determine if any signifi-
cant cause-and- effect relation existed.
The following discussion of factors of shad
abundance includes the most recent informa-
tion available.
PHYSICAL CHANGES
Decrease in shad abundance on the Atlantic
coast has paralleled many physical changes
in the river environnnent (natural and man-
made) such as channel improvements, changes
in stream flow, siltation, and changes in water
temperature. Few data existed on which to
base a valid evaluation of the effects of these
physical changes on the entire coastal pro-
duction. One exception was data on the Hudson
River, for which catch and effort data for
37 yr., plus information on physical changes
in the environment, were available (Talbot,
1954).
The Hudson River fishery declined at the
turn of the century, recovered beginning in
1936, and again declined beginning in 1945.
Many factors have been suggested for these
changes in the fishery.
Dredging in the spawning grounds would
change the physical condition of the area and
possibly render it unsuitable for spawning.
Also, careless placing of spoil from disposal
of dredged material could affect abundance
by reducing the spawning grounds and limiting
nursery areas. In the Hudson, one of the most
extensively dredged rivers on the Atlantic
coast, Talbot ^1954) concluded that these op-
erations had no measurable adverse effect
on shad abundance from 1915 to 1951. Any
changes prior to 1915 could not bedocumented
however.
Variation in stream flow could affect shad
abundance directly by influencing survival of
eggs and larvae, or indirectly by diluting or
flushing pollutants into the river. From studies
on the Hudson River, Talbot (1954) concluded
that any effect this variable had on fish abun-
dance was obscured by other conditions.
Variation in water temperature during tinne
of spawning conceivably could affect survival
of eggs and larvae, hence population size in
subsequent years. Talbot's ( 1954) investigation
of the influence of this factor on abundance of
Hudson River shad stocks, 1929-51, indicated no
relation. Neither trends in water temperature
nor variations in average temperature could
be found which might account for the deviations
between predicted and calculated population
sizes.
In the Connecticut River water temperature
and stream flow exhibited no changes or trends
that would account for the changes in the total
shad population or the deviations from the
predicted populations (Fredin, 1954).
DAMS
The construction of dams is recognized as
an important factor in the decline of shad on
the Atlantic coast. Obstructions built on rivers
ascended by shad have been discussed in the
geographical section of this report.
How dam construction affects shad depends
on the location of dams in relation to spawning
areas. Runs were eliminated in rivers where
dams were built immediately above salt water.
Dams built within spawning areas probably
reduced populations in proportion to the amount
of natural spawning area destroyed. Dams built
above natural spawning areas probably had
little or no effect on fish abundance, provided
normal river flows were maintained.
Most dams were constructed during the 19th
century, and they were most common in the
New England States, where development of
water resources played an important role in
industrial growth. The terrain allowed de-
velopment of a large amount of waterpower
with relatively small structures. Southern
rivers were not so suitable because of the
flat coastal areas. In recent years, however,
dams were built in the south for power, flood
control, navigation, and more recently for
cooling, particularly for steam- electric plants.
The disappearance of shad from such rivers
in Maine as the Mousam, Kennebec, Penobscot,
and Saint Croix was almost entirely the result
of their exclusion from spawning areas by dams
(Atkins, 1887; Taylor, C.C, 1951). In 1896
dams had closed about 3,700 miles of rivers
along the Atlantic coast which shad had for-
merly used, and these obstructions were one
factor that had helped reduce natural repro-
duction almost to insignificance.
Mansueti and Kolb (1953) stated that dams
apparently were not the major factor in the
decline of shad production along the Atlantic
coast for the past 50 yr. Some areas, however,
offered exceptions. The Holtwood and Cono-
wingo Dams on the Susquehanna River com-
pletely eliminated shad from Pennsylvania
waters. Lock and Dam No. 1 on the Cape Fear
River in North Carolina closed off more than
100 miles of spawning and nursery area.
Santee-Cooper Dam on the Santee River in
South Carolina blocked more than 200 miles
of spawning and nursery area.
Fish-passage facilities have alleviated in
Sonne measure the loss of spawning and nurs-
ery areas by dann construction. These facil-
ities are discussed in another section of this
report.
91
POLLUTION
OVERFISHING
Industrial and domestic pollution has been
cited by many workers as a major factor in
the decline of shad abundance (fig. 29). The
decline in the shad fishery in the Saco River
in Maine was attributed to the pouring of dyes
from cotton and woolen mills into the river
(Atkins, 1887). Industrial pollution from tex-
tile and paper mills destroyed the fishery in
the lower Androscoggin River in Maine as
early as 1884 (Taylor, C.C. 1951). Stevenson
(1889) cited many examples of individual river
populations destroyed or severely reduced by
pollution prior to 1896. In the lower Delaware
River, the dissolved oxygen in autumn was too
low for safe passage of downstream migrant
juveniles (Ellis, Westfall, Meyer, and Platner,
1947). Later information of Sykes and Lehman
(1957) proved that oxygen content of the lower
Delaware River during both summer and fall
remained low because of continued pollution;
safe passage of juvenile fish to the sea de-
pended on river flow sufficient to dilute pol-
lution. Heavy pollution in the lower Delaware
during the migration of adults into the river
for spawning resulted in high mortality.
Pollution of the Hudson River has offered
a serious problem and perhaps has been an
important factor of shad abundance (Talbot,
1954). Unfortunately, lack of records to show
changes in pollution in the spawning and nurs-
ery grounds prevents any possible demon-
stration of a cause-and- effect relation.
It is certain that pollution has increased
over the years in most streams. No exact
measure of it exists that might be studied
along with population statistics; hence no
definite conclusions can be drawn for most
streams.
Figure 29. — Thousands of dead young American shad,
spawned in the spring of 1954, in the Anacostia River
near Sousa Bridge, Washington, D.C. (Photograph cour-
tesy of Charles Del Vecchio, Washington Post-Times
Herald)
For many years, decline in shad stocks has
been attributed to overfishing. Numerous ex-
amples have been cited where overfishing was
blamed for decreased catch even before 1850
(Stevenson, 1899). Stevenson theorized that in
1896 heavy fishing in river mouths which pre-
vented fish from reaching their spawning
grounds was a major cause of depletion.
Although overfishing has been nanned as a
major cause for decline, proof of this allega-
tion in specific areas was not forthcoming
until recent years.
Shad must migrate up rivers enroute to
spawning grounds and are particularly vul-
nerable to fishing. Rivers can be so heavily
fished that much of the migrating population
is captured. A certain minimum number of
fish must escape capture and spawn to re-
place those taken by the fishery, or depletion
follows.
Most shad mature and spawn at an age of
4 or 5 yr., and fish native to streams from
Virginia northward may spawn more than
once. The run in any year, therefor e, generally
is composed of fish hatched 4 or 5yr. earlier,
plus those surviving from the previous spawn-
ing or spawnings. If appropriate population
statistics are available on a fishery for a
period of years, statistical methods usually
can be used to evaluate the effect of fishing
on the population.
Recent studies on the Connecticut and Hudson
Rivers, both of which formerly produced at a
high level but have fluctuated greatly, revealed
that over 80 percent of the annual variation in
population size was caused by changes in the
size of the spawning escapement (Fredin,
1954; Talbot, 1954). These studies clearly in-
dicated that overfishing caused the decline of
these shad populations, at least during recent
years. A decrease in fishing effort led to an
increase in abundance in both rivers. Since
catch and effort statistics were available for
only these two rivers, the effect of fishing on
the entire Atlantic coast population could not
be evaluated. It can be suspected strongly,
however, that abundance of shad populations
in the other rivers could be influenced by
changes in fishing effort.
NATURAL CYCLES IN ABUNDANCE
Populations of marine animals fluctuate
widely in abundance; but causes for these
changes are poorly understood. They may be
due to the effects of man, changing environ-
ment, or natural factors that operate in-
dependently of others. It has been suggested
that cyclical fluctuations in abundance of shad
stocks have occurred which may not be re-
lated to man's activity and that the period is
92
not entirely irregular. Talbot (1954) showed
that no cycles of abundance were indicated by
available Hudson River data. In the present
study, available statistics on the shad catch
for the entire Atlantic coast, and for individ-
ual States, were examined to see whether a
regular pattern of natural fluctuation had
occurred; none was found.
REHABILITATION AND MANAGEMENT
To obtain sustained yields in the shad fish-
ery, factors affecting abundance must be de-
termined and in turn manipulated so that the
population may increase to the optimum size.
Studies on management of fishery resources
have indicated that the economics of the fish-
ery also must be considered in any plan to
obtain maximum yields. It appears that the
maxinnum sustained yield may not offer the
maximum economic yield and that the best
management of the resource probably can be
accomplished by a compromise between these
interests (Graham, 1956; Crutchfield, I960).
Methods used to rehabilitate and manage
shad are artificial propagation, improving
passage of fish over barriers, and regulations
of the fishery. In addition, a program of pol-
lution control has been adopted by most States,
and this control may influence abundance.
HATCHERIES
The systematic development and extension
of the technique of shad culture were under-
taken to test the value of artificial propagation
in maintaining an important fishery that was
being rapidly depleted (Brice, 1898; Leach,
1925). As early as 1848, eggs were artificially
taken and fertilized. Rearing experiments
were undertaken in the Connecticut River area
in 1867 and later in the Potomac with encour-
aging results. The attention of many States
was attracted to the work, and in 1872 it was
taken up by the Federal Government. Experi-
ments were conducted with various kinds of
floating boxes and jars for hatching, and in
1882 the McDonald universal hatching jar was
adopted as standard equipment. Prior to 1872
deposits of a few thousand fry were made in
as many different streams as possible, but by
1880 shad culture was established on a large
scale, and it was possible to ship and plant
several hundred thousand. From 1872 to 1880,
97,471,700 shad fry were planted in streanns,
beginning with 850,000 in 1872; in 1880,
26,626,000, were distributed. Federal shad-
culture was centered in the Chesapeake and
Delaware Bays, and State commissions from
Massachusetts to South Carolina operated
hatcheries. Every river on the Atlantic coast
from Massachusetts southward was examined
by agents of State commissions, the Federal
Government, or both to determine the natural
spawning grounds of shad. Hatcheries were
located on nearly every stream at one time or
another, and the Bureau of Commercial Fish-
eries and its predecessors followed a policy
of stocking shad fry regularly in important
streams of the Atlantic seaboard.
The hatchery methods were very simple. In
advance of the spawning season, fishermen
operating within a reasonable distance of the
hatchery were provided with pans and other
necessary equipment to take and care for the
eggs. When females in spawning condition
were caught, ripe eggs were stripped into
pans. After milt was stripped from ripe nnales,
water was added, and the pan was given a slow
rotary motion for thorough mixing of the sex
products. After this mixing, the eggs were
washed and held in water until the end of the
day's fishing, and then delivered to the hatch-
ery. After the eggs had been in the hatchery for
48 hours (at the expiration of which time mor-
tality has practically ceased), all good eggs
remaining were placed in hatching jars. After
hatching, the young passed from the jars by
an overflow spout to collection tanks, from
which they were distributed to the streams.
The time from egg collection to fry distribu-
tion was usually 5 to 10 days.
Leach (1925) reported on the difficulties of
large-scale hatchery operations. Ripe fish
seldom could be found except from 4 to 10
p.m. Fish taken earlier were not sufficiently
ripe for stripping, and those taken later us-
ually were spent. As a rule, the best eggs
were secured from fish caught by gill nets.
This gear, most effective at night, customarily
was lifted during the last stages of the ebb
tide and the beginning of the flood. Hence,
even though other conditions may have been
favorable, eggs were obtained only when the
proper stage of tide coincided with the spawn-
ing hours of the fish. The scarcity of male fish
toward the end of the season often terminated
operations when eggs were plentiful. Fry in
transit had to be kept in containers with
smooth surfaces. About 2,000 to 3,000 were
allowed to a gallon of water, and the water in
the vessels had to be well aerated and kept at
58° to 65°F.
Over a period of about 60 yr., the Federal
Government planted shad in most of the Atlan-
tic coast rivers, but the results did not justify
continuing the work. Despite hatchery opera-
tions, the runs declined. Consequently, all
shipments of eggs and fry to areas outside the
location of hatcheries were ended, and all fry
were returned to local spawning grounds.
Federal operation of shad hatcheries generally
was curtailed in 1935 and ceased entirely in
1950 when the Fort Belvoir hatchery was
93
released to the Maryland Department of Re-
search and Education. The scarcity of shad in
the early thirties and the difficulty of obtaining
enough fish in spawning condition to fill hatch-
eries caused many States to abandon or greatly
deemphasize their programs by 1940. In I960
only Virginia was hatching shad, and these
operations were limited to a small scale in
the Pamunkey, Mattaponi, and Chickahominy
Rivers.
Hatcheries, as operated, did not maintain
shad runs- -as shown by the steady decline in
populations. To evaluate the effect of shad
propagation on subsequent runs, Talbot (1954)
studied factual information on hatchery op-
erations and estin-iated the size of the total
populations entering the Hudson River in
1915-50; he found no correlation between the
two variables. Talbot also reported that the
number of eggs obtainable for hatchery op-
erations is only a nninute fraction of the amount
spawned naturally; the increased survival rate,
if one exists from current shad hatchery
practices, has not produced and cannot be
expected to produce an increase in the shad
population. Studies on the Connecticut River
revealed findings similar to those on the
Hudson.
Progress might be made in hatchery tech-
niques that would justify their re- establish-
ment for propagation of shad. As practiced
in past years, however, propagation cannot
now be justified as a means of sustaining or
increasing the catch.
FISHWAYS
It was recognized early that where dams ob-
struct upstream passage of anadromous fish,
fishways should be provided to enable adults
to reach upstream spawning areas. Fishways
constructed during the late 1800's and the
early 1900's failed to pass fish (fig. 30). One
exception was a fishway constructed in the
Lackawaxen Dam on the Delaware River in
1890, which reportedly passed large numbers
of shad for a period of about 10 yr. before
the dam was destroyed by ice (New York Con-
servation Commission of Fisheries, 1891).
Unfortunately, no records were available to
indicate the design of this structure. In the
early 1900's because of the failure of fish-
ways, it was generally thought that shad would
not use fish-passage devices. For this reason,
no fishway was included in Conowingo Dam,
which was completed in 1928 on the Susque-
hanna River in Maryland. With the continued
decline in production during the I930's, con-
servationists explored means of restoring this
fish to greater abundance. Successful passage
of shad through fishways at Bonneville Dam,
completed in 1937 on the Columbia River on
the West Coast, brought renewed efforts for
workable fishways in Atlantic coast dams.
TX:^
\
Figure 30. — Ineffective fishway on a lock and dam. Cape
Fear River, N. C. The structure is on the far river
shore, and little if any water passes through the trans-
portation chamber during the months adult shad would
be present.
One of the aims of the shad investigation
begun in 1950 was to determine suitable meth-
ods for passing this fish over obstructions.
The only fishway in operation on the East
Coast which successfully passed shad was in
the Essex Company Dam, completed in 1919
on the Merrimack River, at Lawrence, Mass.
Collins (1951) outlined the distinctive features
of this ladder-type fishway, built to pass fish
over a 30-ft. rise, and estimated that the
number of shad ascending the fishway annually
ranged from 1,500 to 3,000. Talbot (1953)
presented a summary of observations on the
use of the Bonneville fishways by shad and
the physical factors associated with passage.
The total head of Bonneville Dam, that is, the
height to which fish must climb in the fish-
ways, ranges from 40 to 60 ft. but most conn-
monly is about 50 ft. During the 22-yr. period,
1938-59, the average annual passage of shad
at this structure was 15,475. In I960, 93,368
shad passed the dam (U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, 1959, 1961).
A system for passing shad was completed
at Hadley Falls Dam on the Connecticut River
at Holyoke, Mass. in 1952 (fig. 31). The av-
erage distance between headwater and tail-
water elevation at this structure is 50 ft. This
system consisted of an attraction chamber, a
pressure lock device which enabled fish to
reach the forebay level, and an exit flume.
After 3 yr., the pressure lock device was
abandoned because it failed to pass migrating
fish in sufficient numbers to justify its opera-
tion; it was replaced with a trap and a bucket
lift. Fish were dip netted manually from the
trap to buckets (fig. 32), hoisted to the forebay
level, and dumped into the exit flume (fig. 33),
94
.«l»ifi'"^y^.rfy
Figure 31.~Hadley Falls Dam, Connecticut River, Holyoke, Mass. Entrance and fish attraction channel on right of
power plant tailrace.
Figure 32. — Dip netting shad from trap to buckets for
hoisting fish to fish-lift flume, Hadley Falls Dam,
Connecticut River, Holyoke, Mass.
s^ m
Figure 33. — Dumping shad into exit flume, Hadley
Falls Dam fish-lift, Connecticut River, Holyoke,
Mass.
95
Although a crude operation, it has passed
considerable nunabers of fish. The nunnber of
shad passed has increased progressively from
35 in 1952 to 15,076 in I960. To increase
efficiency, the present system could be con-
verted to an automatic operation, whereby the
complete trap is raised to forebay level and
the fish automatically released directly into
the exit flume.
A pool-type fishway was installed in a 7-ft.
high dann on the Neuse River at Goldsboro,
N.C., in 1952; the estimated shad passage in
1953 was 440 fish (Walburg, 1957).
A vertical, baffle-type fishway was conn-
pleted in I960 in the Little Falls Dam, Potomac
River, immediately north of Washington, D.C.
This fishway was designed to pass fish over a
maximum headwater-tailwater elevation of 9
ft. In the spring of I960, the fishway passed
resident species of fish^ but shad did not
migrate upstream to this structure.
Most modern fishways have a collection
system or channel which collects fish from
one to several entrances and attracts them
to a single fish-passing facility. Collection
systems for shad should have a minimum
width of 8 ft. and a minimum water depth of
4 ft. Velocities in the system should not ex-
ceed 2 to 3 f.p.s. (feet per second). The en-
trance to the collection system should be at
least 4 ft. wide, preferably 6 ft., and have a
depth of at least 1 ft., preferably 3 ft. The
velocity through the entrance of the collection
system should be about 6 f.p.s. but should not
exceed 7 f.p.s. nor be less than 5 f.p.s. These
flows, which are usually more than required
in the fishway, can be maintained through dif-
fusion grates in the floor of the collection
system.
Attraction of fish from a large river into a
comparatively small collection system is the
most difficult problem to overcome. Once it
has been accomplished, several nnethods can
be used to pass fish over a dam. The pool-type
fishway, consisting of a series of pools, each
higher than the next pool downstream, is prob-
ably one of the oldest. Fish ascend by swim-
ming against the water flow from one pool to
the next. For shad, the difference in pool ele-
vation should be 0.75 ft. Minimum size pools
should be 8 ft. long and 8 ft. wide, and mini-
mum water depth should be 4 ft. Size of pools
depends on the number of fish expected to use
the facility. The weir over which water flows
from one pool to the next can be full width or
half width or can have almost any arrangement
that allows adequate space for fish passage.
Each pool must be hydraulically balanced so
that there is no energy carryover by the
cascading water from one pool to the next.
Velocity in resting areas of pools should not
exceed 1 f.p.s. This type fishway usually re-
quires some adjustment with changes in tail-
water and forebay elevations. The adjustment
is made by having a level flume at the upper
end into which stoplog baffles can be placed
to add additional weirs as forebay elevations
increase.
Fish locks also are used in some areas for
passage of migrating fish over obstructions.
These structures are similar to boat locks.
At tailwater, attraction water is supplied
through the floor of the lock and flows out
through a gate into the tailrace. Fish are
attracted into the lock chamber by this flow,
and a trap device prevents them from leaving.
At regular intervals, or when sufficient fish
are trapped, the lower gate is closed and the
lock filled until forebay elevation is reached.
An upper gate is then opened, and the fish are
free to leave. To speed operation, a brail may
be used to force the fish from the lock chamber
into the river above. When the fish are out,
the upper gate is closed, the lock is dewatered,
the lower gate is opened, and the cycle re-
peated. Minimum size for fish locks and traps
for shad passage is 8 ft. by 8 ft. with a nnini-
mum water depth of 4 ft. Actual size of the
lock depends on the number of fish to be
passed.
On the Pacific coast, several different types
of devices are used to enable shad to migrate
upstream past dams. Shad ascend pool-type
fishways at Bonneville, The Dalles, and McNary
Dams on the Columbia River to elevations of
40 to 90 ft. {U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
1959). They probably would ascend higher danns
if fishways were installed. Fish locks in
McNary Dam also have passed shad, and locks
in Bonneville Dam were almost as effective
as the pools in assisting shad over the dam
(Talbot, 1953). Shad in the Sacramento-San
Joaquin Delta water developments in Cali-
fornia used in experimental vertical-baffle-
type fishway, the type first developed at Hells
Gate on the Fraser River in British Columbia,
Canada (Fisk, 1959).
At the present stage of engineering and bio-
logical knowledge, the problenn of passing shad
over obstructions to upstream spawning areas
is not too difficult. The problem of safe pas-
sage of young and adults back downstream has
not yet been adequately solved, however.
Usually they must pass through turbines or
over spillways of the dam. Both means of
descent can cause considerable mortality.
Limited studies on migrant juvenile shad
through a system of canals by way of low-
head turbines at the Hadley Falls Dam on the
Connecticut River indicated that the fish de-
scended with little mortality -'■°.
Progress in devising methods for safe pas-
sage of downstream migrant fish at dams
has not been very successful. Many guiding
""•^ Unpublished report. Mortality of downstream migrant
juvenile shad, Holyoke Water Power Company canal sys-
tem, Connecticut River, 1957-59 by C. H. Walburg and
P. R. Nichols, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biologi-
cal Laboratory, Beaufort, N.C. 24 p.
96
mechanisms have been tried, and sonne have
shown great promise in pilot studies, but none
has proved successful at full-scale instal-
lations. These guides included electrical
screens, sound, air bubbles, and skimmer nets.
Considerable work currently is in progress
by both Federal and State agencies to find a
safe method of passing young salmon down-
stream over dams (Andrew and Geen, I960).
These methods, if perfected, will probably be
applicable to shad and other species.
REGULATIONS
Fishery management has been defined as the
institution of various measures or regulations
to establish or permit a fishery to produce the
optimum yield from a given stock of fish
(Herrington, 1943).
Restrictions on shad fishing were among the
earliest fishery management measures estab-
lished in the United States. By 1896 almost
every Atlantic Coast State had laws setting
seasons, regulating size and meshes of nets,
and sometinnes restricting catch (Stevenson,
1899). The purpose of these laws was to pre-
vent the decline in shad, which began as early
as 1830 in New England (Atkins, 1887; True
and Wilcox, 1887). Laws varied from State to
State, but adjacent States usually had similar
regulations.
Management of shad resources to obtainhigh
yields has been attempted through regulations
and licensing schemes which seek to reduce
size of catch by limiting the number of fisher-
men and kind, amount, and mesh size of gear
fished; establishing location of fishing areas,
fishing seasons and rest days; and establish-
ing size limits on fish landed. Regulations in
effect in 1960 are given in the discussion of
the fisheries of each State. Establishment of
rest days to reduce fishing effort, and thereby
allow more fish to spawn, has been used ef-
fectively by New Jersey, New York, and Con-
necticut. The Maryland Fishery Management
Plan, begun in 1941, was established to stabilize
fishing effort by limiting the number of fisher-
nnen and the amount of gear and to maintain
the fish population at a high level. When the
plan was established, no biological studies
were made to determine the size of the Mary-
land shad population and the spawning escape-
ment necessary to maintain abundant fish
stocks. The Maryland Plan has merit, but it
apparently was not put into effect successfully,
however, because fishing effort was not stab-
ilized (Walburg, 1955).
In recent years, many Atlantic Coast States
have established regulations to reduce or pro-
hibit deposition of industrial and domestic
pollution into rivers and streams. These regu-
lations indirectly benefit shad populations by
improving the water quality in spawning and
nursery areas.
The Interstate Commission on the Delaware
River Basin (INCODEL) was established in
1936 by the States of New York, New Jersey,
Delaware, and Pennsylvania to formulate and
administer a program for utilizing the waters
of the Delaware River Basin. This organization
has sponsored many conservation develop-
ments including a stream-pollution control
program. For nnany years the Philadelphia-
Cannden area of the Delaware River has been
heavily polluted with industrial waste and
domestic sewage. This condition caused the
extinction of the Delaware River shad popu-
lation (Sykes and Lehman, 1957). Since Sykes
and Lehman's study, water quality has inn-
proved in the Philadelphia- Camden area ofthe
Delaware; yet, the dissolved oxygen ranged
fronn 1.5 to 3.5 p. p.m. from May to September
in 1959 (written connnnuni cation from Water
Department of the City of Philadelphia, dated
May 4, 1961). These values are below those
tolerable to shad (Tagatz, 1961). Through the
efforts of INCODEL, more than 300 municipal
and industrial waste-treatment plants were
constructed along the river and tributaries
between 1946 and 1957. Further pollution
abatement is expected, and stocks of anadro-
mous fish may eventually increase in the
Delaware River.
ECONOMICS AND MARKETING
Shad were abundant in colonial times and
were a staple food for many years. As the
fishery developed^ so many fish were taken
each season that they could not all be marketed
as food and some were sold for fertilizer. As
the human population increased and shipping
facilities improved, the demand for shad also
increased.
No fish was more important than the shad to
residents ofthe Atlantic seaboard in 1896. The
yield was more than 5 0 million pounds, valued
in excess of $1.6 million. In 1908 the shad
ranked third in value among the fisheries of
the United States and was surpassed only by
salmon and cod (Bureau ofthe Census, 1911).
Shad ranked second in volume, surpassed only
by cod. The catch in 1908 was slightly less
than 25 million pounds, valued at more than
$2 million. Most of the catch was marketed
fresh, although a considerable quantity was
salted. Since 1908 the production has de-
creased, and consequently the value of the
fishery has also decreased (table 55). By 1935
the species ranked 42nd in volume and 20th in
value annong fishery products of the United
States; in I960 the fishery ranked 48th in
volume and 34th in value (U.S. Fish and Wild-
life Service, 1962).
97
Table 55. --Commercial shad catch and value for certain
years, Atlantic coast of the United States, 1880-1960'-
[In thousands of pounds and thousands of dollars]
Year
Quantity
Value
1880
18,068
$ 995
1888
33,937
1,665
1896
50,499
1,651
1908
25,941
2,092
1935
8,236
860
1940
9,964
905
1945
14,699
2,500
1950
8,223
1,596
1955
8,599
1,422
1959
8,200
1,086
1960
5,965
1,107
1 Statistics: 1880, 1888, 1896, Stevenson (1899);
1908, Bureau of the Census (1911); 1935, Johnson
(1938); remainder, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(1943, 1949, 1953, 1957, 1961, 1962).
In an extensive market survey of shad, which
included the status of the wholesale and retail
trade, methods of preparing the fish for table
use, and factors affecting consumption, Johnson
(1938) found that the major economic problems
primarily were those concerned with de-
creased supply. A problem existed also in the
declining popularity among consumers for the
more commonly marketed forms of the fish.
This lowered demand resulted in lower av-
erage price to the producer than could have
been realized if the popularity had been main-
tained. Of the shad marketed, practically all
reaching Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Wash-
ington were consumed locally, whereas re-
shipment was considerable from New York
to the other named cities since excessive
supplies frequently were available on the New
York market. This oversupply was especially
obvious in years when the catch was low in
southern rivers and high in northern rivers.
Johnson's findings generally are applicable to
the present-day economics and marketing of
the product.
The principal commercial shad production
on the Atlantic coast in I960 was in Maryland,
Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Florida,
New Jersey, Connecticut, and New York.
Generally, fish were marketed shortly after
capture, and those not sold locally were
shipped to New York City, Philadelphia, Balti-
more, and Washington.
Formerly, large quantities of fresh and
frozen shad were shipped to New York from
the Pacific coast. In recent years, however,
receipts of frozen shad and shad roe from
this area have dropped sharply (written com-
munication, dated June 5, 1961, from T. J.
Risoli, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Mar-
ket News Reporter, Fulton Market, New York
City). Shipments of frozen shad decreasedfrom
35,400 lb. in 1945 to 500 lb. in I960, and
shipments of frozen shad roe dropped from
6,000 lb. in 1945 to none in I960. It is not
known whether the decrease resulted from
economic factors or decrease in demand for
the products.
Shad usually are marketed fresh, although
quantities of both shad and shad roe are
marketed frozen and canned. Some smoked
and kippered fish also are produced. During
the early part of the season, prices usually
are high and wholesale dealers ship whole
fish, but as the season progresses it frequently
is more profitable to remove the roe and sell
it separately. Thus in midseason, quantities of
dressed female shad reach distributing mar-
kets. A few fish are filleted by wholesale
dealers before shipment, but generally fresh
shad reach retail markets in the round. Some
retail stores sell half shad or fillets if the
whole fish is larger than the customer re-
quires. A few also sell boned shad.
Shad dealers at the Fulton Market, New
York City, report that the roe is removed
from most females, and from 75 to 80 percent
of the roe is consumed within the New York
metropolitan area. Only about 10 percent of
the males and drawn (eviscerated) females
is consumed in New York City; the balance
is shipped to other market areas.
The price of shad on the eastern markets is
affected not only by variation in shad abund-
ance but also by the variation in price and
abundance of other fishes. When fish from
Florida reach the market in February and
March, prices normally are high. In April and
May when fish are caught in quantity from
North Carolina to New Jersey, the supply
reaches a maximum and prices are moderately
low. Prices reach their lowest point toward
the end of the fishing season in late May and
early June. According to the Fishery Products
Report, issued daily by the Bureau of Com-
mercial Fisheries for the Fulton Market, the
highest price for shad in I960 was paid in
March during Lent.
Females always bring higher prices because
they contain the roe, which is much in demand
as a delicacy. In I960 Georgia fishermen re-
ceived from as much as 65 cents per pound
for female shad and 25 cents per pound for
male shad. Average price paid the fishermen
for shad from Virginia, Maryland, and New
Jersey during April was 35 cents per pound
for females and 7 cents per pound for males.
Lowest prices were paid to Connecticut fisher-
men in June, when females sold for 15 cents
per pound and males for 4 cents per pound.
At times the price paid for males was so low
that fishermen marketed only females.
In recent years restaurant sales have in-
creased and retail store sales have decreased
The reasons for this change are: demand for
prepared fishery products free from bones
and other inedible portions--a condition which
98
shad as now handled in retail stores does not
meet, and requirement of most present-day
families for portions of shad smaller than
usually featured in retail stores.
Sales have improved in some areas by the
marketing of fish from which all bones have
been removed. Boning shad is considered
commercially impractical by some whole-
salers and retailers, though in recent years
the practice has been adopted in sonne areas.
especially as more persons have become pro-
ficient at the task. When boned fish were fea-
tured by several producers on the Connecticut
and Hudson Rivers and in Chesapeake Bay,
the demand for the product was much greater
than the supply. The demand could not be met
in i960 because good shad boners were rela-
tively scarce. The seasonal nature of the fish-
ery tends to discourage fish cutters from
learning the method.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Shad probably cannot be restored to the
abundance that existed at the beginning of the
20th century. Changes in spawning and nursery
areas by encroachment of civilization have
reduced, and in some localities destoryed, the
ability of rivers to produce fish as abundantly
as in former years. Physical and chemical
changes in river environments from defor-
estation of watershed, siltation, pollution, and
dann construction have combined to reduce
the capacity of rivers to produce anadromous
fish.
Annual production of shad on the Atlantic
coast of the United States over the past 50 yr.
has not exceeded 20 million pounds and gen-
erally has averaged less than 12 million
pounds. Production can be increased by proper
managennent, as was indicated by investiga-
tions of the Hudson and Connecticut Rivers
populations (Talbot, 1954; Fredin, 1954).
Analysis of catch and effort statistics on these
fisheries for a series of years, plus compre-
hensive biological studies, showed that more
than 80 percent of the fluctuations in abundance
of these populations was caused by the number
of fish allowed to escape the fishery and
spawn. In other words, fishing was the single
most important factor affecting abundance.
As a result of these studies, it was possible
to predict abundance of fish a year in advance
within desired confidence limits. By controlling
fishing effort, the desired number of shad can
be allowed to escape the fishery, and the size
of future runs can be regulated to produce
maximum sustained yields.
Causes of fluctuations in abundance of other
shad fisheries on the Atlantic coast of the
United States could not be determined from
recent studies because the size of the popu-
lation for an extended period was not known.
Population size can be determined from catch
and effort statistics collected over a period
of years and by well-planned tagging and re-
covery experiments. When these data become
available, possible factors that affect popula-
tion size can be studied to determine their
relation to population fluctuations. If factors
affecting these changes can be deternnined and
controlled, the population can be managed on
an optimum-sustained-yield basis. If the fac-
tors cannot be controlled, however, their effect
probably could be predicted and the fishery
managed accordingly.
Our recomnnendations are as follows:
1. States interested in managing their
shad fisheries should collect catch and ef-
fort statistics on the fishery. This collection
could be acconnplished by requiring fisher-
men to report their fishing activities as
prerequisite to obtaining a future fishing
license. Infornnation required on each river,
in addition to catch, is amount of each type
of gear and number of days fished. After
catch and effort statistics have been obtained
for a series of years, studies can proceed
to determine population sizes and factors
responsible for fluctuations in abundance,
and management measures can be formu-
lated. Fisheries involving two or more States
should be studied and managed as a unit
without regard to political boundary. An
example of cooperative interestate manage-
ment of shad is the Hudson River where New
Jersey and New York work together to regu-
late the fishery.
2. Ineffective fishways should be replaced
by effective fish-passage facilities where
practicable, and new dams constructed on
shad-producing streams should be provided
with workable fishways to ensure that the
river above the dam will not be completely
lost to fish production.
3. States should take action to reduce or
eliminate pollution of rivers. Toxic indus-
trial wastes and low dissolved oxygen de-
crease the productive capacity of streams
by reducing survival of eggs and larvae; in
some rivers populations have been severely
reduced or eliminated.
4. Industry should improve methods of
handling and packaging shad to increase
public demand for this product.
99
The projected growth of the human popu-
lation both in this country and the world
during the coming years makes it desirable
that conservation authorities take the nec-
essary steps to maintain and increase this
natural, renewable resource.
SUAAAAARY
1. The range of shad on the Atlantic coast
is from the St. Johns River in Florida to the
Gulf of St. Lawrence in Canada. The species
is anadromous, spending most of its life in
the ocean and ascending coastal rivers to
spawn. After spawning it returns to the ocean,
provided it escapes fishing gear or does not
die in the stream. The following years it re-
turns to the rivers to spawn again. The young
remain in the natal stream until fall and then
enter the ocean. They probably spend the
winters in the Middle Atlantic area, migrate
to the Gulf of Maine each summer along with
the adults, and when mature, return to the
native streann to spawn. Fish attain sexual
maturity at 2 to 6 yr. Those spawning in
streams south of Chesapeake Bay, and par-
ticularly south of North Carolina, die after
spawning.
2. During the 19th century, important shad
fisheries were developed along the entire
Atlantic coast of the United States. Every
suitable river had a spawning run and fish
ascended far upstream. The different kinds
of gear introduced and developed by shad
fisheries were adapted to their native local-
ities. The species was taken both inside and
outside the rivers by gill nets, seines, weirs,
fyke nets, and bow nets and in the headwaters
by traps. The estinnated catch in 1896 was
more than 5 0 million pounds; production in
New Jersey ranked first with about 14 million
pounds and that in Virginia ranked second
with 11 million pounds. Seines were the
usual and most efficient method of capturing
fish.
3. The shad fishery had changed in I960
little except in size of the catch. The gear has
remained relatively unchanged, but nnany im-
provements have been made in techniques of
fishing, largely in the interest of econonny.
The estimated catch by both commercial and
sport fisheries in I960 was slightly more than
8 million pounds; Maryland ranked first with
1.5 million pounds, Virginia second with 1.4
million pounds, and North Carolina third with
1.3 million pounds. Gill nets were the most
extensively used gear and the most efficient
method of capturing fish.
4. Many factors have been blamed for the
decline in shad. Among them were: Physical
changes of the environment which rendered it
unsuitable for spawning or which influenced
survival of eggs and larvae; dams which pre-
vented shad from reaching spawning grounds;
pollution which rendered rivers unsuitable for
the species; overfishing which did not allow
enough fish to spawn and replace those which
died or were taken by the fishery; and natural
cycles which could cause long-term fluctua-
tions in abundance. Recent studies of factual
data, where available, have indicated that de-
clines in shad abundance have been caused by
dams, pollution, and overfishing; if other fac-
tors have had an effect on fish abundance their
effect could not be demonstrated.
5. Methods used to rehabilitate and manage
shad fisheries have been: Artificial propaga-
tion, provisions for fish passage, and fishing
regulations. In addition, pollution control can
benefit shad abundance. Hatcheries, as op-
erated in former years, failed as a conserva-
tion measure. Present engineering and biolog-
ical knowledge is solving and in some areas
has solved the problem of passing shad over
artificial obstructions to upstreann spawning
areas. Measures to manage the shad fisheries
through regulations and licensing measures
have included week-end closure on fishing,
limiting of seasons, establishment of location
of fishing area, creel limits on the sport fish-
ery, and limiting of amount and mesh size of
fishing gear.
6. Shad probably cannot be restored to the
abundance of the late 19th century, but our
present knowledge should permit individual
shad runs to be managed scientifically on a
sustained-yield basis.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Personnel of the fishery departments of
Atlantic Coast States furnished information
on the shad fisheries and reviewed the sections
of this report pertinent to their State. Fishery
Marketing Specialists of the Bureau of Com-
mercial Fisheries and Statistical Agents of
State agencies helped us obtain catch and effort
statistics on the fishery. Many fish dealers
and fishermen helped in many ways to ensure
the success of this study.
100
LITERATURE CITED
ALEXANDER, A. B.
1905. Statistics of the fisheries of the
South Atlantic States, 1902. U.S. Comm.
Fish Fish., pt. 29, Rep. Comm. 1903:
343-410.
ANDREW, F. J., and G. H. GEEN.
I960. Sockeye and pink salmon production in
relation to proposed dams intheFraser
River system. Int. Pac. Salmon Fish.
Comm., Bull. 11, 259 p.
ATKINS, C. G.
1887. The river fisheries of Maine. In
George Brown Goode, The fisheries
and fishery industries of the United
States, sect. 5, 1: 673-728. U.S. Gov-
ernment Printing Office, Washington,
D.C.
BARNEY, R. L.
1925. A confirmation of Borodin's scale
method of age determination of Con-
necticut River shad. ]n Philip H.
Mitchell and staff, A report of inves-
tigations concerning shad in the rivers
of Connecticut, pt. 3, p. 52-60. Conn.
State Board Fish. Game.
BELL, M. C, and H. B. HOLMES.
1962. Engineering and biological study of
proposed fish-passage at dams on
Susquehanna River, Pennsylvania.
Perm. Fish Connm., 126 p.
BISHOP, S. G.
1935. The shad fisheries of the Delaware.
In A biological survey of the Delaware
and Susquehanna watersheds, p. 128-
131. N. Y. State Conserv. Dep., suppl.
25th annu. rep.
BORODIN, N.
1925. Age of shad (Alosa sapidissima Wil-
son) as determined by the scales. In
Philip H. Mitcnell and staff, A re-
port of investigations concerning shad
in the rivers of Connecticut, pt. 3.
p. 46-51. Conn. State Board Fish.
Game.
BRICE, J. J.
1898. A manual of fish culture, based on
the methods of the United States Conn-
mission of Fish and Fisheries. U.S.
Comm. Fish, pt. 23. 1897: 133-158.
CABLE, LOUELLA E.
1944. Shad In G. Robert Lunz, Jr., Spe-
cial study of the marine fishery re-
sources of South Carolina, Bull. 14:
14-20. S.C. State Planning Board, Col-
umbia, S.C.
GATING, JAMES P.
1953. Determining age of Atlantic shad
from their scales. Fish Wildl. Serv.,
Fish. Bull. 54: 187-199.
CLIFT, M.
1874. Report on shad-hatching operations
(1872). U.S. Comm. Fish Fish., pt. 2,
Rep. Comm., 1872-73: 403-405.
COBB, JOHN N.
1906. Investigations relative to the shad
fisheries of North Carolina. N.C. Geol.
Surv., Econ. Paper 12: 1-39.
COLLINS, GERALD B.
1951. A fishway that shad ascend. Fish
Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish.
65, ii + 17 p.
CRUTCHFIELD, JAMES A.
i960. Biological and economic aspects of
fisheries management; proceedings of
a conference held under the auspices
of the College of Fisheries and the
Department of Economics of the Uni-
versity of Washington at Seattle,
February 17-19, 1959. I6O p.
DAVIS, WILLIAM S.
1956. American shad, Alosa sapidissima,
parasitized by Argulus canadensis in
the Cormecticut River. J. Parasitol.
42(3): 315.
1957. Ova production of American shad in
Atlantic coast rivers. U.S. Fish Wildl.
Serv., Res. Rep. 49, ii + 5 p.
ELLIS, M. M., B. A. WESTFALL, D. K.
MEYER, and W. S. PLATNER.
1947. Water quality studies of the Delaware
River with reference to shad migra-
tion. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep.
38, i + 19 p.
EVERMANN, BARTON W., and WILLIAM C.
KENDALL.
1896. An annotated catalogue of the fishes
known from the State of Vermont. U.S.
Comm. Fish Fish., pt. 20, Rep. Comm.
1894: 579-604.
FERGUSON, T. B., and PHILIP W. DOWNES.
1876. Report of the Commissioners of Fish-
eries of Maryland, January 1876, p. 50-
52. John F. Wiley, Annapolis.
FERGUSON, T. B., and THOS. HUGHLETT.
1880. Report of the Commissioners of Fish-
eries of Maryland, January 1880, 78 p.
W. T. Iglehart & Co., Annapolis.
FISCHLER, KENNETH J.
1959. Contributions of Hudson and Connect-
icut Rivers to New York- New Jersey
shad catch of 1956. U.S. Fish Wildl.
Serv., Fish. Bull. 60: 161-174.
FISK, LEONARD O.
1959. Experiments with a vertical baffle
fishway. Calif. Fish Game 45(2): 111-122.
FREDIN, REYNOLD A.
1954. Causes of fluctuations in abundance
of Connecticut River shad. Fish Wildl.
Serv., Fish. Bull. 54: 247-259.
GILL, THEODORE (reviser),
1926. American fishes. L. C. Page & Co.,
Boston, 562 p.
GRAHAM, MICHAEL.
1956. Sea fisheries: their investigation in
the United Kingdom. Edward Arnold
Ltd., London, 487 p.
101
GREELEY, JOHN R.
1937. Fishes of the area with annotated
list. In A biological survey of the lower
Hudson watershed, sect. 2, p. 45-103.
N. Y. Conserv. Dep., suppl. 26th annu.
rep.
HERRINGTON, WILLIAM C.
1943. Some methods of fishery manage-
ment and their usefulness in a man-
agement program. In William C.
Herrington and Robert A. Nesbit, Fish-
ery management, p. 3-22. Fish Wildl.
Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. 18.
HILDEBRAND, SAMUEL F., and WILLIAM C.
SCHROEDER.
1928. Fishes of Chesapeake Bay. U.S. Bur.
Fish., Bull. 43, pt. 1: 1-366. (Doc. 1024.)
HILL, DONALD R.
1959. Some uses of statistical analysis in
.classifying races of American shad
(Alosa sapidissima). U.S. Fish Wildl.
Serv., Fish. Bull. 59: 269-286.
HOLLIS, EDGAR HARRISON
1948. The homing tendency of shad. Science
108(2804): 332-333.
1952. Variations in the feeding habits of
the striped bass, Roccus saxatilis
(Walbaum), in Chesapeake Bay. Bull.
Bingham Oceanogr. Collect. 14(1): 111-
131.
HOLLIS, EDGAR H., and COIT M. COKER.
1948. A trematode parasite of the genus
Clinostomum new to the shad, Alosa
sapidissima. J. Parasitol. 34(6): 493-
495^
JOHNSON, FRED F.
1938. Marketing of shad on the Atlantic
coast. [U.S.] Bur. Fish., Invest. Rep.
38, ii + 44 D.
JUDY, MAYO H.
1961. Validity of age determination fronn
scales of marked American shad. U.S.
Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull. 61:
161-170.
LaPOINTE, DONALD F.
1958. Age and growth of the American
shad from three Atlantic coast rivers.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 87: 139-150.
LEACH, GLEN C.
1925. Artificial propagation of shad. Rep.
U.S. Comm. Fish., 1924, append. 8:
459-486. (Doc. 981.)
LEHMAN, BURTON A.
1953. Fecundity of Hudson River shad.
Fish Wildl. Serv., Res. Rep. 33, ii + 8 p.
LEIDY, J.
1857. A synopsis of entozoa and some of
their ectocongenera observed by the
author. Proc. Acad. Natur. Sci., Phila.,
1856, 8: 42-58.
1868. Rennarks on shad brought to our
markets during the late autumnal months
which were caught in salt water, and
their food. Proc. Acad. Natur. Sci.,
Phila., 1868, p. 228.
LEIDY, J.
1879. On parasitic worms in shad. Proc.
Acad. Natur. Sci., Phila., 1878, p. 171,
LEIM, A. H.
1924. The life history of the shad, Alosa
sapidissima (Wilson) with special refer-
ence to factors limiting its abundance.
Biol. Bd. Can. Contrib. Canad. Biol.
2(11): 163-284.
LUNZ, G. ROBERT, JR., J. T. PENNEY,
and T. P. LESESNE.
1944. Special study of the marine fishery
resources of South Carolina. S.C. State
Planning Board, Columbia, S.C, Bull.
14: 13-22.
MANSUETI, ROMEO, and HAVEN KOLB.
1953. A historical review of the shad fish-
eries of North America. Md. Board
Natur. Resources, Dep. Res. Educ,
Publ. 97, 293 p. Chesapeake Biol. Lab.,
Solomons, Md.
MARSHALL, NELSON.
1949. Report from the Virginia Fisheries
Laboratory to the Commission of Fish-
eries of Virginia. Fiftieth and Fifty-
first Annu. Rep. Comm. Fish. Va.
Exhib. B: 28-35.
MASSMANN, WILLIAM H.
1952. Characteristics of spawning areas of
shad, Alosa sapidissima (Wilson), in
some Virginia streams. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc. 81: 78-93.
MASSMANN, W. H., E. C. LADD, and H. N.
McCUTCHEON.
1952b. A biological survey of the Rappa-
hannock River, Virginia. Va. Fish.
Lab., Gloucester Point, Va., Spec. Sci.
Rep. 6: 36-47.
MASSMANN, WILLIAM H. and ANTHONY L.
PACHECO.
1957. Shad catches and water temperature
in Virginia. J. Wildl. Manage. 21(3):
351-352.
MCDONALD, MARSHALL.
1884. The shad--Clupea sapidissima. In
George Brown Goode, The fisheries
and fishery industries of the United
States, sect. 1: 594-607. U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
1887a. The rivers of eastern Florida,
Georgia, and South Carolina. In George
Brown Goode, The fisheries and fishery
industries of the United States, sect. 5,
1: 613-625. U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C.
1887b. The rivers and sounds of North Caro-
lina. In George Brown Goode, The fish-
eries and fishery industries of the United
States, sect. 5, 1:625-637. U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
1887c. Fisheries of the Delaware River. In
George Brown Goode, The fisheries and
fishery industries of the United States,
sect. 5, 1: 654-657. U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
102
McDonald, Marshall
1887d. The fisheries of the Hudson River.
hi George Brown Goode, The fisheries
and fishery industries of the United
States, sect. 5, 1: 658-659. U.S. Gov-
ernnnent Printing Office, Washington,
D.C.
1887e. The Connecticut and Housatonic
Rivers and minor tributaries of Long
Island Sound. In George Brown Goode,
The fisheries and fishery industries
of the United States, sect. 5, 1: 659-
667. U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C.
MEYER, J. T.
1959. Report of Superintendent of Hatch-
eries. Sixtieth and Sixty-first Annu.
Rep. Comm. Fish. Va., Exhib. A, p. 25-
27.
MITCHELL, P. H., and staff.
1925. A report of investigations concerning
shad in the rivers of Connecticut. Conn.
State Board Fish. Game, pt. 1, p. 7-45.
MOSS, DOUGLAS D.
1946. Preliminary studies of the shad
(Alosa sapidissima) catch in lower
Connecticut River, 1944. Trans. 11th
N. Amer. Wildl. Conf.: 230-239.
NEAVE, FERRIS.
1954. Introduction of anadromous fishes
on the Pacific Coast. Canad. Fish Cult.
16: 25-27.
NEW YORK CONSERVATION COMMISSION
OF FISHERIES.
1891. Report. 19th rep. Comm. Fish., fis-
cal year 1890: 1-85.
1911-12. Shad. Its Annu. Rep. Fish Cult.,
p. 32.
NEW YORK CONSERVATION DEPARTMENT,
1943. Bureau of Inland Fisheries. Its
Thirty- second Annu. Rep., Doc. 27:
175-176.
NICHOLS, PAUL R.
1958. Effect of New Jersey-New York
pound-net catches on shad runs of Hud-
son and Connecticut Rivers. U.S. Fish
Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull. 58: 491-500.
1959a. Extreme loss in body weight of an
American shad (Alosa sapidissima).
Copeia 1959(4): 343-344.
1959b. St. Johns Shad fever. Fla. Wildl.
12(9): 22-23, 39.
1961. Homing tendency of American shad,
Alosa sapidissima, in the York River,
Virginia. Chesapeake Sci. 1(3-4):
200-201.
1966. Comparative study of juvenile Amer-
ican shad populations by fin ray and
scute counts. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv.
Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. 525, iv + 10 p.
NICHOLS, PAUL R., and WILLIAM H. MASS-
MANN.
1963. Abundance of shad, York River, Vir-
ginia, 1953-59. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv.,
Fish. Bull. 63: 179-187.
NICHOLS, PAUL R., and MARLINE. TAGATZ.
i960. Creel census Connecticut River shad
sport fishery, 1957-58, and estimate of
catch, 1941-56. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv.,
Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. 351, iii + 12 p.
QUITTMEYER, CHARLES L.
1957. The seafood industry of the Chesa-
peake Bay States of Maryland and Vir-
ginia (A study in private managen-ient
and public policy). Prepared for the
Advisory Council on the Virginia Econ-
omy (March). 295 p.
REID, GEORGE K., JR.
1955. The pound-net fishery in Virginia.
Comm. Fish. Rev. 17(5): 1-15.
ROELOFS, EUGENE W.
1951. The edible finfishes of North Caro-
lina. In Harden F. Taylor and associ-
ates, Survey of marine fisheries of
North Carolina, p. 109-140. Univ. N.C.
Press, Chapel Hill.
RYDER, JOHN A.
1884. On the retardation of the development
of the ova of the shad (Alosa sapidis-
sima), with observations on the egg-
fungus and bacteria. U.S. Conrim. Fish
Fish., pt. 9, Rep. Comm. 1881 : 795-81 1.
1885. On the development of osseous fishes,
including marine and fresh water forms.
Misc. doc. Senate U.S. 2nd sess. 48th
Congress. Spec. sess. Senate (1885)
Append. 2. Rep. Comm. Fish Fish.
6: 489-604.
SHAPOVALOV, L.
1936. Food of
Game 22(4);
SMILEY, CHAS. W.
1884. Notes on the shad season of 1884,
with references to other species. U.S.
Fish Comm. Bull. 4(22): 337-341.
SMITH, HUGH M.
1896. A review of the history and results
of the attempts to acclimatize fish and
other water animals in the Pacific
States. U.S. Fish Comm., Bull. 15:
379-472.
1907. The fishes of North Carolina. N.C.
Geolog. Econ. Surv. 2: 1-449.
STEVENSON, C. H.
1899. The shad fisheries of the Atlantic
coast of the United States. U.S. Comm.
Fish Fish., pt. 24., Rep. Comm. 1898:
101-269.
SUMNER, F. B., R. C. OSBURN, and L. J.
COLE.
1913. A biological survey of the waters
of Woods Hole and vicinity. U.S. Bur.
Fish., pt. 2, Bull. 31: 545-794.
SUNDSTROM, GUSTAF T.
1957. Commercial fishing vessels and gear.
U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Cir. 48, 48 p.
SYKES, JAMES E.
1956. Shad fishery of the Ogeechee River,
Georgia, 1954. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec.
Sci. Rep Fish. 191, v + lip.
striped bass.
261-271.
Calif. Fish
[03
SYKES, JAMES E., and BURTON A.
LEHMAN.
1957. Past and present Delaware River shad
fishery and considerations for its future.
U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Res. Rep. 46,
iii + 25 p.
SYKES, JAMES E., and GERALD B. TALBOT.
1958. Progress in Atlantic coast shad in-
vestigations--migration. Proc. Gulf
Carib. Fish. Inst., 11th Annu. Sess.:
82-90.
TAGATZ, MARLIN E.
1961. Reduced oxygen tolerance and toxic-
ity of petroleum products to juvenile
American shad. Chesapeake Sci. 2(1-2):
65-71.
TALBOT, GERALD B.
1953. Passage of shad at the Bonneville
fishways. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci.
Rep. Fish. 94, ii + 30 p.
1954. Factors associated with fluctuations
in abundance of Hudson River shad.
Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull. 56: 373-
413.
1956. Conservation of an east coast shad
fishery. Proc. Gulf Carib. Fish. Inst.,
8th Annu. Sess.: 92-99.
1961. The American shad. U.S. Fish Wildl.
Serv., Fish. Leafl. 504, 7 p.
TALBOT, GERALD B., and JAMES E.
SYKES.
1958. Atlantic coast migrations of American
shad. Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull.
58: 473-490.
TAYLOR, CLYDE C.
1951. A survey of fornner shad streams in
Maine. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci.
Rep. Fish. 66, v + 29 p.
TAYLOR, HARDEN F.
1951. Survey of marine fisheries of North
Carolina. Univ. N.C. Press, Chapel
Hill, 555 p.
TOWNSEND, C. H.
1900. Statistics of the fisheries of the
South Atlantic states. U.S. Comm.
Fish Fish., pt. 25, Rep. Comm. 1899:
171-227.
TRUE, FREDERICK W.
1887. The pound-net fisheries of the At-
lantic states. In George Brown Goode,
The fisheries and fishery industries
of the United States, sect. 5, 1: 595-
609. U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C.
TRUE, FREDERICK W. and W. A. WILCOX.
1887. The rivers of Massachusetts and
New Hampshire. to George Brown
Goode, The fisheries and fishery in-
dustries of the United States, sect. 5,
1: 667-728. U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, D.C.
TRUITT, R. V.
1940. Report of the Chesapeake Biological
Laboratory. Conserv. Dep., Md., 18th
Annu. Rep.: 38-45.
U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS.
1959. Annual fish passage report. North
Pacific division, Bonneville, The Dalles,
and McNary Dams. Columbia River
Oregon and Washington. Prepared by
Engineer Districts, Portland and Walla
Walla. 44 p.
1961. Annual fish passage report. North
Pacific division, Bonneville, The Dalles,
and McNary Dams. Columbia River
Oregon and Washington. Prepared by
Engineer Districts, Portland and Walla
Walla. 32 p.
[U.S.] BUREAU OF THE CENSUS.
1911. Fisheries of the United States. Dep.
Com. Lab., Spec. Rep., 1908, p. 71.
[U.S.] BUREAU OF FISHERIES.
1911. The fishing industry. Its Rep. U.S.
Comm. Fish., 1909: 17-24. (Document
727.)
1913. Comnnercial fisheries. Its Rep. U.S.
Comm. Fish., 1911: 35. (Document 753.)
1919-40. Fishery industries of the United
States. Department of Commerce, Re-
port of the Division of Statistics and
Methods of the Fisheries for 1918-22,
append.. Rep. Fish., 1918-1938.
U.S. COMMISSION OF FISH AND FISHERIES.
1898. The shad. In A manual of fish- culture,
based on the nnethods of the United States
Commission of Fish and Fisheries,
p. 133-158. Its pt. 23, Rep. Comm., 1897.
U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE.
1942-62. Fishery statistics of the United
States, 1939-60 by R. H. Fiedler (1939-
41), A. W. Anderson and E. A. Power
(1942-48), A. W. Anderson and C. E.
Peterson (1949-51), A. W. Anderson
and E. A. Power (1952-55), and E. A.
Power (1956-60). Its Statist. Dig. 1,
4, 7, 11, 14, 16, 18, 19. 21, 22, 25, 27,
30, 34, 36, 39, 41, 43, 44, 49, 51, and 53.
1961a. Rhode Island landings, I960. Annual
summary. Its Curr. Fish. Statist. 2554,
8 p.
1961b. Maine landings, 1961. Annual sum-
mary by months. Its Curr. Fish. Statist.
2856, 6 p.
VIADYKOV, V. D., and D. H. WALLACE.
1938. Remarks on populations of the shad
(Alosa sapidissima) along the Atlantic
coast region. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
67: 52-66.
WALBURG, C[HARLES] H.
1954. Experimental transportation of live
shad past Susquehanna River dams.
Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish.
114, ii + 13 p.
1955. Relative abundance of Maryland shad
1944-52. Fish Wildl. Serv., Res. Rep.
38. ii + 17 p.
1956. Comnnercial and sport shad fisheries
of the Edisto River, South Carolina,
1955. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci.
Rep. Fish. 187, iii + 9 p.
104
WALBURG, C[HARLES] H. --Continued
1957a. Neuse River shad investigations,
1953. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec.Sci.
Rep. Fish. 206, iii + 13 p.
1957b. Observations on the food and growth
of juvenile American shad, Alosa
sapidissima. Trans. An-ier. Fish. Soc.
86: 302-306.
1960a. Abundance and life history of
shad, St. Johns River, Florida. U.S.
Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull. 60: 487-
501.
1960b. Abundance of St. Johns River shad.
Trans. 25th N. Amer. Wildl. Conf.:
327-333.
1961. Natural nnortality of American shad.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 90(2): 228-230.
1963. Parent-progeny relation and estima-
tion of optimum yield for American
shad in the Connecticut River. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc. 92(4): 436-439.
WALBURG, CHARLES H., and JAMES E.
SYKES.
1957. Shad fishery of Chesapeake Bay with
special ennphasis on the fishery of
Virginia. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Res.
Rep. 48, iii + 26 p.
WARFEL, HERBERT E., and YNGUE H.
OLSEN.
1947. Vertebral counts and the problem of
races in the Atlantic shad. Copeia 1947
(3): 177-183.
WHITNEY, RICHARD R.
1961. The Susquehanna fishery study 1957-
1960. Md. Dep. Res. Educ, Solomons
(Contrib. 169) and Susquehanna Elec.
Co., Conowingo, Md. 81 p.
WILLEY, A.
1923. Notes on the distribution of free-
living Copepoda in Canadian waters.
Contrib. Can. Biol. 1: 303-334.
WORTH, S. G.
1893. Observations on the spawning habits
of the shad. U.S. Fish Comm., Bull.
11: 201-206.
1898. The shad. U.S. Comm. Fish Fish.,
pt. 23, Rep. Comm., 1897: 133-158.
YARROW, H. C.
1874. Report of a reconnaissance of the
shad- rivers south of the Potomac. U.S.
Comm. Fish Fish., pt. 2, Rep. Connm.
1872-1873: 396-402.
MS. #1574
105
5 WH
SE 01740
Created In 1849, the Department of the Interior — a depart-
ment of conservation — Is concerned with the management,
conservation, and development of the Nation's water, fish,
wildlife, mineral, forest, and park and recreational re-
sources. It also has major responsibilities for Indian and
Territorial affairs.
As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the De-
partment works to assure that nonrenewable resources are
developed and used wisely, that park and recreational re-
sources are conserved for the future, and that renewable
resources make their full contribution to the progress, pros-
perity, and security of the United States — now and in the
future.
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE
BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20240
POSTAGE AND FEES PAID
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
OFFICIAL BUSINESS
Return this sheet to above address, if you do
NOT wish to receive this material Q, or if
change of address is needed Q^ (indicate
change).
'j.y-'.tt^Mim.-i
Librarian
Marine Biological
Woods Hole, Mass.
Lab. ,
02543
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11